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tracks are flipped horizontally . In Grand Prix mode , the player competes against seven computer @-@ controlled racers in a series of predetermined courses . Unlike previous Mario Kart games , which featured four playable cups , Mario Kart DS features a total of eight cups : Mushroom , Flower , Star , Special , Shell , Banana , Leaf , and Lightning , with the latter four cups consisting entirely of tracks drawn from previous entries in the Mario Kart series . Each cup has four tracks for a grand total of 32 . When a cup is completed , a rating will be given based on the times and positions , ranging from E to A , then to 1 , 2 , or 3 stars . Just like in Double Dash ! ! , players received points for each finishing position . In Time Trial mode , the player must finish a course as quickly as possible by using one , two or three mushrooms ( depending on which kart is used ) . The fastest time is then saved as a ghost , a copy of the player 's performance , which the player can race against later . In Vs mode , the player races on a track of their choosing either against computer @-@ controlled opponents or in local multiplayer . The mode can be played either individually or in teams , which separates racers into a blue team and a red team ; in multiplayer , players can control which team they are placed on . In addition , the number of races played and scoring system can also be modified . Battle mode features two game modes , Balloon Battle and Shine Runners , both which also allow the player to play either individually or in teams . In Balloon Battle , the player must pop the balloons of the opposing players by attacking them , or they can steal balloons by boosting into other karts . Each participant starts the battle with one balloon . These can be re @-@ inflated up to four times . In multiplayer , if a human player loses all of his / her balloons , he / she is out of the game and turns into a ghost . As a ghost , a player can only place item boxes . If the battle is played in single player , then the match ends and the results are announced when all of the human player 's balloons are popped . In the second scenario , Shine Runners , the player must collect Shine Sprites ( an object from Super Mario Sunshine ) . The player can attack other racers to take away a Shine Sprite from them , and racers with the fewest Shine Sprites are eliminated from the game over time . In single player , if the human player is eliminated from the round , the game ends and the results are randomized .
In Mission Mode , the player must complete missions , each with objectives that range from collecting coins to attacking enemies . In each mission , the player controls a prespecified character . There are seven levels with eight missions in each . After completing each mission , the player 's performance is given a grade of stars ( three , two , or one ) or letters ( A , B , C , D , or E ) . After all eight missions in a level are complete , the player must complete a boss mission to advance to the next level . Once the first six levels are complete , and the rank of at least one star has been obtained on every mission , the seventh level is unlocked .
The game also features a multiplayer mode , in which eight players race each other using the DS Download Play feature or a multi @-@ card wireless LAN connection . Until its discontinuation on May 20 , 2014 , Mario Kart DS supported online play via the Nintendo Wi @-@ Fi Connection , in which up to four players could play together . When playing online , participants could only race against each other ; Battle mode is not available when playing via an online connection . These features are not available in the Wii U VC version because the multiplayer features have not been emulated .
= = Development = =
Nintendo first announced on May 11 , 2005 that they planned to release a Mario Kart game for the Nintendo DS , releasing some gameplay video footage at the same time . The company offered the game for the public to play for the first time at the 2005 Game Developers Conference , where the game 's wireless feature was also showcased . Mario Kart DS was produced by Hideki Konno , who also worked on 2005 's Nintendogs . The game runs at a consistent 60 frames per second and uses full 3D characters and environments .
Mario Kart DS is the first Mario Kart iteration to support online play . Konno remarked that although both Mario Kart DS and the Halo series of games feature online play , he noted that most of the people who use the feature in Halo games were " hardcore gamers " . With Mario Kart DS , Konno wants " everyone to go online , and the technology and time is right for that to happen " . Continuing with the tradition of introducing a new gameplay mechanic in each Mario Kart game , Mario Kart DS is the first in the series to support up to eight players at the same time with game cartridges . New to the series , the game also includes a single @-@ player Battle Mode , which does not require that there be at least two human participants . As the first Mario Kart game for the Nintendo DS , the developers tested several features that took advantage of the device 's bottom touchscreen . They considered letting players place items anywhere on the track instead of just behind their kart . However , the developers found it too confusing because the game already had too many distractions , making it difficult to control where to place items while racing .
In Mario Kart DS , a kart is able to draft behind another kart to gain a speed boost momentarily , a feature that was also previously used in the 1996 video game Mario Kart 64 . Mario Kart DS places a stronger focus on the feature and once again provides a visual cue when a kart is drafting . In an interview , Konno notes that they included tracks from previous Mario Kart games into Mario Kart DS so that players who played the original Super Mario Kart on the Super Nintendo Entertainment System would feel more familiar with the DS iteration of the series .
The game 's soundtrack is composed by Double Dash ‼ composer Shinobu Tanaka with voices by Kazumi Totaka , Charles Martinet , Deanna Mustard and more .
= = Reception = =
Mario Kart DS was released by Nintendo for the Nintendo DS in North America on November 14 , 2005 , in Australia on November 17 , 2005 , in Europe on November 25 , 2005 , in Japan on December 8 , 2005 , and in Korea on April 5 , 2007 . Nintendo later revealed that Mario Kart DS would also be sold bundled with a new red @-@ colored Nintendo DS starting on November 28 , 2005 , along with " a checkered @-@ flag wrist strap , and racing @-@ inspired decals to customize new red handheld " . The game was released to critical acclaim ; it hold aggregated score of 91 % on Metacritic . Praise focused on the game 's graphics and gameplay , while criticism targeted its repetitive single @-@ player mode . Mario Kart DS received Editors ' Choice awards from GameSpot and IGN . The game was nominated by GameSpot for several Best of 2005 awards , including Best Multiplayer Game , Best Driving Game , and Best DS Game , winning the last one . The game received G @-@ Phoria 's Best Handheld Game award . IGN gave the game the awards for Best Racing / Driving Game .
Several reviews praised the game for living up to the standards set by its predecessors . Finding the game 's online shortcomings annoying , GameSpy still believed that the single @-@ player mode and local wireless gameplay more than made up for them . Nintendo World Report noticed that " the best features of past Mario Kart games are back " and work well with the new features in Mario Kart DS , calling the end result " the most impressive game to ever hit the Nintendo DS and also the best game in the Mario Kart series " . X @-@ Play shared this sentiment , and remarked that the game shattered all of its expectations , making it the " best kart racing game ever released — handheld or otherwise " . GameZone also believed that Mario Kart DS " lives up to its legacy " with its inventive courses , " stellar " multiplayer , and " more replay value than any other racer in its class " . Alejandro K. Brown of CBS News appreciated the game 's unique use of Nintendo DS features , such as its microphone and wireless connectivity . GamesRadar named Mario Kart DS the best DS game of all time , beating out Pokémon Black and White ( 2nd ) and Grand Theft Auto : Chinatown Wars ( 3rd ) .
Finding it hard to imagine how Nintendo could make a Mario Kart game better than Mario Kart DS , IGN lauded Mario Kart DS 's gameplay and depth in its design . GameSpot called the game a " significant step forward " for the Mario Kart series , partly because it is the first in the series to feature online play . Game Revolution remarked that the game " goes the distance " with its single @-@ player and multiplayer modes . 1UP.com complimented the " surprisingly compelling package " , describing it as a " portable racing game on par with anything ever to appear on a console " . Video game magazine GamePro was pleased with the variety of racers , courses , modes , and multiplayer options offered , toting the game as a " must play " for any Nintendo fan and a requisite for any Nintendo DS owner to purchase . Computer and Video Games described Mario Kart DS as the " most complete " Mario Kart game , despite a few graphical shortcomings . Eurogamer enjoyed the game 's multiplayer mode , calling it " genuinely practical to play with other people " . British publication GamesTM criticized the game for being simply a " polishing of the Mario Kart concept and little else " , and video game website Nintendophiles was disappointed with the " fairly repetitive " single @-@ player mode and the " cheap computer players " .
The game was the first for the Nintendo DS to take advantage of the console 's Nintendo Wi @-@ Fi Connection feature . By the end of its debut week in the United States , 112 @,@ 000 people purchased the game , of which 52 @,@ 000 of them had logged onto Nintendo Wi @-@ Fi Connection to play against other people over the Internet . Mario Kart DS was the best @-@ selling handheld game in its debut month of November 2005 in the United States . It was the 10th best @-@ selling game of 2008 , and the best @-@ selling Nintendo DS game of that year . In Japan , the game sold 224 @,@ 411 copies in its first week . Mario Kart DS sold 3 @,@ 112 @,@ 363 units as of July 2008 , and 3 @,@ 224 @,@ 996 copies as of January 2009 , making it the sixth best @-@ selling game for the Nintendo DS since the console 's release . As of March 2016 , Mario Kart DS has sold 23 @.@ 60 million units worldwide .
= St Briavels Castle =
St Briavels Castle is a moated Norman castle at St Briavels in the English county of Gloucestershire . The castle is noted for its huge Edwardian gatehouse that guards the entrance .
St Briavels Castle was originally built between 1075 and 1129 as a royal administrative centre for the Forest of Dean . During the 13th century the castle became first a favourite hunting lodge of King John , and then the primary centre in England for the manufacture of quarrels , large numbers of which were required for crossbows in medieval warfare . The castle was transferred many times between royal favourites in the 14th and 15th centuries and slowly declined in appearance and importance . St Briavels Castle became used primarily as a court and as a notorious debtors ' prison , conditions being documented by the prison reformer John Howard in 1775 . Following local riots and a parliamentary investigation in the 1830s , reforms in the 19th century brought an end to the castle 's use as a prison .
Extensive renovation at the turn of the 20th century allowed St Briavels Castle to be taken over as a Youth Hostel in 1948 . It remains in this role today , owned by English Heritage and open to the public . The castle is classed as a Grade I listed building and as a Scheduled Monument .
= = Architecture = =
St Briavels Castle is located on a spur dominating a position above the River Wye , on the western edge of the Forest of Dean . The castle is predominantly built of local old red sandstone and limestone . The castle site is surrounded by an in @-@ filled moat ; now a garden , the moat was originally wet and fed by a spring underneath the moat itself .
The castle keep , which collapsed and was demolished in the 18th century , was originally a square Norman design , 15 @.@ 6 m by 13 @.@ 9 m ( 51 ft by 45 ft ) in size , built on a motte of clay and stone . Intact , it would have been approximately 20 m ( 66 ft ) tall , and would have resembled the keeps at Goodrich Castle and White Castle , both of a similar period and design in the region .
The keep was protected by the stone curtain wall that still survives today , forming the castle bailey . Its irregular polygonal plan suggests that it was built on the site of an earlier earthwork . It originally had a small round tower protecting the south @-@ east corner and probably a gateway in the south wall alongside the keep . Other demolished buildings included a forge and assorted buildings along the north @-@ east of the bailey . A set of medieval domestic buildings still stand along the north @-@ west side of the bailey , however , including a hall , solar and chapel , originally providing accommodation for the castle constable and the King . These buildings were restored in the 19th century to their current condition . Some features , including the hall range , fireplace and capitals appear to date from the 13th century . The hall and solar form a two @-@ storey building 23 m by 10 m ( 75 ft by 33 ft ) wide , alongside the 14th century chapel , which still incorporates later 17th century adjustments and windows . At one end of the domestic range is the famous " Forester 's Horn " chimney , crested with the forest warden 's horn , a symbol of Forest Law and the castle 's authority . The buildings include a sunken pit prison ; graffiti dated 1671 show that it was still in use for that purpose at that time .
The gatehouse of St Briavels Castle is described in Pevsner 's Buildings of England as " magnificent ... a very fine example of the royal masons ' work of the period . " It is a massive structure of two large D @-@ shaped towers flanking a wide gate passage 14 @.@ 8 m ( 48 ft ) long , and linked above by a large room . This sort of gatehouse is sometimes termed a keep @-@ gatehouse or gatehouse @-@ keep because of the massive size and defences on both the inner and outer sides of the building . The first gatehouse of this sort was built at Caerphilly Castle ; other examples exist in North Wales and at Tonbridge Castle . Uniquely , St Briavels ' gatehouse is protected with three sets of portcullises – although some gatehouses , such as Harlech and Beaumaris Castle were built for slots for three , they were only installed with two . A notable feature is the existence of smaller portcullises to defend the doorways from the passage to the porters ' lodges . The gatehouse was originally taller than it is today and the entrance would also have included a drawbridge , removed during the 20th century .
The base of the gatehouse is defended from undermining by large " spurs " . This design feature is characteristic of castles in the Welsh Marches , including Goodrich and Tonbridge Castle , but unlike these castles depends on a solid octagonal , rather than square , based interacting with the form of the circular towers . The gatehouse is well defended , except for the upper windows at the rear ; the upper floors were designed for high status guests and these windows would have provided adequate light for the chambers . The south @-@ east of the gatehouse is relatively modern , however , having been rebuilt after a past collapse .
= = History = =
= = = 11th and 12th centuries = = =
St Briavels Castle appears to date from Norman times , although the village itself predates the Norman period . The area was acquired by William FitzOsbern , the first Earl of Hereford in 1067 , who built a number of castles across the region , including Chepstow , Monmouth , Clifford and Wigmore . It does not appear that FitzOsbern built a castle on the St Briavels site , however , and the revolt of FitzOsbern 's son , Roger de Breteuil resulted in the village being taken into the possession of the royal bailiffs of the Forest of Dean .
St Briavels Castle was constructed sometime between 1075 and 1129 by royal mandate , although the precise date is uncertain . Walter de Gloucester , the Sheriff of Gloucester and his son Miles de Gloucester made St Briavels Castle the administrative centre of the Forest of Dean . The location of the castle placed it well behind the English border , in an area with little Welsh presence before the invasion , and it therefore appears to have been established for the purposes of royal governance , rather than to protect the Welsh Marches to its west . Equivalents elsewhere in the south @-@ west include Restormel Castle and Lydford Castle in Devon and Cornwall , both regional royal administrative centres . One alternative view , however , sees St Briavels as intended to protect the Severn estuary to the south , along with the royal castles of Bristol and Gloucester . This early castle was of motte and bailey design , the keep probably of wood .
Miles and his partner Pain fitzJohn strengthened their hold on the Welsh border during the last years of Henry I , but after the king 's death in 1135 England descended into the civil war of the Anarchy , as factions loyal to King Stephen and the Empress Matilda fought for control of the country . Fitz John was killed early in the fighting , but Miles declared in favour of Matilda and took control of the castle in his own right . In 1141 the Empress confirmed Miles as the Earl of Hereford and formally granted him St Briavels Castle . Under Miles , the castle escaped the worst of the fighting of the Anarchy . Miles ' son , Roger Fitzmiles continued to hold the castle into the reign of Henry II , the empress ' son , but a confrontation with the king resulted in it being removed from the earldom and taken back into royal ownership , once again as part of the Forest of Dean . Henry II rebuilt the castle keep in the 1160s , replacing the older wooden structure with stone .
Royal forests in the early medieval period were subject to special royal jurisdiction ; forest law was " harsh and arbitrary , a matter purely for the King 's will " . Forests were expected to supply the king with hunting grounds , raw materials , goods and money . The Forest of Dean could be used for hunting , but was more important to the king as a major metalworking centre , thanks to the plentiful supply of trees for making charcoal and the iron deposits in the limestone stone of the region . The iron goods constructed locally were stored at the castle before being shipped to other royal locations . The quantities being produced were substantial – in 1172 , for example , Henry II received 100 axes , 1 @,@ 000 picks , 2 @,@ 000 shovels and 60 @,@ 000 nails from St Briavel Castle . Richard I took 50 @,@ 000 horseshoes on crusade with him from St Briavel . The constable of St Briavel Castle had wide ranging responsibilities within the Forest , including managing the rights and privileges of the iron @-@ workers , exercised through the Miners ' and the Hundreds Court of the castle .
= = = 13th century = = =
King John enjoyed regular hunting in the Forest each November , and used St Briavels Castle as his base for such trips . The king entertained the Welsh lord Gruffyd ap Cadwallon at the castle in 1207 . This royal interest resulted in further building works and substantial expenditure , with £ 291 being spent in the next four years . A stone curtain wall replaced an earlier wooden one between 1209 – 11 , complete with a tower and gateway . Inside the bailey a number of buildings suitable for use by the king as a lodge were constructed . A wooden chapel was built within the castle in 1236 – 7 . The castle expansion may have been funded by the increased taxes from iron @-@ working across the areas , and by the end of John 's reign , the castle was almost in its mature form .
In 1217 the Charter of the Forest was passed , in part to mitigate the worst excesses of royal jurisdiction . The forest laws , however , did allow for a very wide range of fines to be imposed on local peasants who broke the numerous edicts in place to protect both wildlife and the trees in the forest . The courts held at St Briavels Castle imposed a relatively large number of fines , or amercements , for both illegal wood @-@ cutting and the poaching of venison during the period . The castle also began to be used a prison shortly afterwards , partially for forest trespassers and for those who could not pay the required fines .
After King John 's death , however , St Briavels Castle became the primary centre for English quarrel manufacture . The crossbow was an important military advance on the older short bow and was the favoured weapon by the time of Richard I – many crossbows and even more quarrels were needed to supply royal forces . Crossbows were primarily built at the Tower of London , but St Briavels Castle , with the local forest to provide raw materials , became the national centre for quarrel manufacture .
In 1228 John Malemort , William the Smith and William the Fletcher arrived at the castle and began production operations at a forge built within the bailey . A production level of 120 @,@ 000 quarrels in a 120 @-@ day period was achieved by 1233 , with men like Malemort being able to produce up to 100 quarrels a day . Quarrels were then put into barrels and shipped across the kingdom in large quantities . Other iron from the castle was sent to build siege engines in Hereford . The manufacturing capability of St Briavels Castle gave the king a distinct advantage over potential baronial enemies , with the supply of arms from the castle to Marcher Lords threatened by the Welsh being one of the levers of royal power during the period .
Now a centre for arms manufacture , the castle was made more secure , with a new defensive ditch , freshly repaired walls and a new chapel . The castle was garrisoned with royal troops during the uprising of Richard Marshal against Henry III in 1233 – 4 , suggesting it had considerable military value at this time . Another indicator of the military importance of the castle and the surrounding forest was the £ 20 fee each year being paid to the constable of the castle by 1287 , on a par with the much larger castles of Rhuddlan or Nottingham .
Under Edward I , the massive gatehouse was built to protect the castle entrance , including special protection against undermining . There has been speculation that the royal architect James of Saint George may have been responsible for the building work , which occurred between 1292 – 3 at a cost of £ 477 . The reason for the king extending the castle at this time is unclear , as the castle was relatively far from the Welsh border and in no particular risk of attack . One popular explanation is that given the quantities of weapons and money being stored at the property by this time , the gatehouse was designed to improve the internal security of the castle ; the presence of the additional portcullises would also support this explanation . In 1300 , the old wooden chapel was rebuilt in stone and in 1310 , an extension to the castle wall was constructed at a cost of £ 40 ; called ' the Peel ' , this followed the line of the old motte and gave additional protection to the keep .
= = = 14th – 17th centuries = = =
St Briavels Castle remained an important location in the reign of Edward II , as the Welsh Marches were a key region in the wars between the king , his favourites and various noble factions during the period . Roger d 'Amory was the constable of the castle during the early years of Edward 's reign . D 'Amory was a royal favourite and Edward II visited the Castle several times , with an extensive renovation of the rooms and quarters occurring during this time . Around £ 500 was spent on the work , a substantial sum .
D 'Amory was supplanted in the king 's favour by Hugh Despenser the Younger , and d 'Amory fought against the king in the Despenser War of 1321 @-@ 22 . After the war , Edward placed the Marches under the control of the Despensers , with Hugh Despenser the Elder taking particular responsibility for St Briavels . The Despensers appointed Robert Sapy as the keeper of St Briavels and the other confiscated castles across the Marches . Violence began to break out across the region in response to the Despenser 's harsh rule , and Sapy 's deputy was attacked in July 1325 on his way back from St Briavels Castle to London ; his eyes were torn out , his arms and legs broken and all his records and money stolen . Edward and the Despensers were deposed shortly afterwards by Edward 's wife , Isabella of France . Isabella set about expanding her own lands after her victory , and took St Briavels Castle and various other royal castles into her own possession . When Isabella herself was overthrown by her son , Edward III , in 1330 the castle then reverted to the crown .
Towards the end of the 14th century , England saw increasing conflict between the rival Yorkist and Lancastrian factions . St Briavels Castle passed back and forth between the senior nobility on either side , but without playing a major part in the conflict itself . The castle was initially given to King Edward 's son Thomas , Duke of Gloucester ; with the fall of Thomas from favour after his uprising against Richard II , Thomas le Despenser received a life grant of the castle in 1397 , as part of his reward for serving Richard . With Thomas ' own fall from power under Henry IV , the castle was then given to Henry 's son , the Duke of Bedford . Henry Beauchamp , the Duke of Warwick and a close friend of Henry IV , then acquired St Briavels Castle and the Forest of Dean around 1445 . William Herbert was rewarded with the castle in 1467 for his support for Edward IV and the Yorkist faction during the Wars of the Roses ; he was then executed by the Lancastrian Richard Neville , Earl of Warwick , who took the castle for his own . Warwick died himself at the Battle of Barnet in 1471 , but after being briefly held by Robert Hyet , Henry VII restored St Briavels Castle to Neville 's widow , Anne Neville , 16th Countess of Warwick . With Anne 's death in 1492 , the castle passed into the control of Thomas Baynham .
By this time , however , St Briavels Castle had been in a slow period of decline for many years , similar to that of several other royal castles in the region , including Bristol and Gloucester . Minor improvements were made , including various light windows added to the internal buildings in the 15th century , and extensive restyling of the chapel in the 17th century , but not to the extent of those castles successfully converted to more luxurious dwellings .
Under James I and Charles the castle was traditionally granted to the Earls of Pembroke . By the time of the English Civil War , St Briavels Castle was held by Philip Herbert , the 4th earl and a friend of the king 's . Philip Herbert sided with Parliament , however , and St Briavels ' played little part in the conflict . With the Restoration and the return of Charles II to power in 1660 , the castle was removed from the Earls of Pembroke and given instead to Henry , Lord Herbert of Raglan for life . After Henry 's death , Duke of Beaufort was granted the property ; after the disgrace of the Duke of Beaufort a few years later , the castle changed hands again , with the subsequent owners being more modest figures in English public life than had been the case in previous years .
= = = 18th and 19th centuries = = =
In the 18th century many of the buildings inside the bailey were knocked down and the more valuable materials , including the lead from the roof , recycled . The keep partially collapsed in 1752 , with the remainder falling down in 1777 . Victorian writers blamed both the progress of time and the theft of stones by local peasants for the collapse . The famous " forester 's horn " chimney was moved from its original location to the west side of the building between 1783 and 1824 . Whilst not achieving the picturesque status of other ruined castes in the area , Georgian visitors noted the " beautiful and romantic scenery that surrounds these ruins " .
The castle was now principally a prison and a court , still operating under the authority of the constable and the Forest Law originally established in 1217 . The remaining buildings inside the bailey were converted into a courtroom and jury room , with the west side of the gatehouse being used as a jail for detaining prisoners . St Briavels Castle was primarily a debtors ' prison – in England up until the Debtors ' Act of 1869 , individuals unable to pay their debts or fines could be detained in prison indefinitely to encourage payment . The conditions in the castle prison became increasingly notorious after a visit from the prison reformer John Howard in 1775 as part of his research for the first edition of his book The State of the Prisons , published two years later . Howard found the prison " greatly out of repair " , with the two inmates locked in a single room without exercise for the best of a year , with no fresh water , financial support or firewood . Graffiti on the stone walls of the castle jail includes the mournful inscription by a prisoner of the period " For I have been here a great space ; And I am weary of the place . "
In 1831 there were extensive riots in the Forest of Dean , led by Warren James . After the intervention of the military , the rioters were dispersed and order restored , but a range of complaints were levied about the enforcement of the local laws on miners and metal @-@ workers . There had been attacks against St Briavels Castle by discontented locals before during the 1780s , but the degree of violence in this case was much greater . An act of Parliament followed , establishing a number of commissioners who investigated local practices and recent events at the Castle .
The debtors ' prison at the castle came in for particular scrutiny . It emerged that out of the 402 cases brought before the court at St Briavels ' Castle , 397 of them were for extremely small sums of debt of £ 5 or less ( £ 373 in 2009 prices ) , increasingly unacceptable in Victorian eyes . A penalty of up to £ 7 ( £ 522 in 2009 prices ) was also being charged for each case , making the process extremely onerous for the local poor being prosecuted in this way . The investigation found that the keeper of the debtors ' prison , which could hold up to six inmates at a time , was appointed by the constable , and made part of his income by charging each prisoner one shilling a week for the use of the beds in the prison ; with no other public funding , prisoners depended on friends or relatives for food and other essentials , or from donations from their original parishes .
The castle prison was found to still be in a very bad condition . The commissioners noted how the prison had " only one window , which is one foot wide and in a recess . It does not open .... There is a door at the outer end of the passage , and in it a hole which is considered necessary for air ... The privy is a dark winding recess ... It leads to a hole going down to the bottom of the building , which is always inaccessible for cleaning , but which until six years ago had a drain from it to the moat ; the air draws up from it into the passage and the room . There is no water within for the prisoners ' liberty , and they are obliged to get some person to fetch it . "
Prison reforms followed , including improving the conditions of the castle facilities , although visitors continued to note how the castle was " patched and cobbled like a worn @-@ out shoe " . In 1838 the role of constable was transformed into the Chief Commissioner of Woods and Forests . The court and jury rooms were turned into a local school , although occasional Courts of Attachment were held in the chapel and the castle retained its function as a prison until 1842 , when the remaining inmates were transferred to the prison at Littledean .
= = Today = =
The gatehouse and the buildings inside the bailey were made habitable again in 1906 and became a Youth Hostel in 1948 . In 1961 the moat was partly infilled and turned into a garden . The castle is classed as a Grade I listed building and as a Scheduled Monument . The site as a whole remains open to the public , managed by English Heritage .
= Lake Untersee =
Lake Untersee ( German : Untersee , " Lower Lake " ) is the largest surface freshwater lake in the interior of the Gruber Mountains of central Queen Maud Land in East Antarctica . It is situated 90 kilometres ( 56 mi ) to the southwest of the Schirmacher Oasis . The lake is approximately 6 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 0 mi ) long and 2 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 6 mi ) wide , with a surface area of 11 @.@ 4 square kilometres ( 4 @.@ 4 sq mi ) , and a maximum depth of 169 metres ( 554 ft ) . The lake is permanently covered with ice and is partly bounded by glacier ice .
Lake Untersee is an unusual lake , with pH between 9 @.@ 8 and 12 @.@ 1 , dissolved oxygen at 150 percent supersaturation , and very low primary production in the water column . Despite the high oxygen supersaturation in most of the lake , there is a small sub @-@ basin at the southern end that is anoxic and its sediments may have a higher methane concentration than those of any other known lake on Earth . Much of the primary production is in microbial communities that grow on the floor of the lake as stromatolites . The water temperature varies between 0 @.@ 5 ° C ( 32 @.@ 9 ° F ) and 5 ° C ( 41 ° F ) and the ice cover on the lake is 2 – 6 metres ( 6 @.@ 6 – 19 @.@ 7 ft ) thick . The ice cover may have persisted for over 100 @,@ 000 years , and some scientists studying climate change fear significant environmental changes associated with global warming in the coming decades . In the past , the water chemistry of the lake has been compared to Clorox . However , the chemical activity of bleach is due to Cl − in addition to a pH that is higher than that measures in Lake Untersee , and Lake Untersee does not have high chlorine or chlorite concentrations .
= = Geography = =
Lake Untersee lies in the interior of the Gruber Mountains of central Queen Maud Land in East Antarctica , which is roughly on the same longitude as Huab , in the Skeleton Coast National Park on the northern coast of Namibia . It is situated 90 kilometres ( 56 mi ) to the southwest of the Schirmacher Oasis .
The lake is approximately 6 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 0 mi ) long and 2 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 6 mi ) wide and has a surface area of 11 @.@ 4 square kilometres ( 4 @.@ 4 sq mi ) ( 10 square kilometres ( 3 @.@ 9 sq mi ) is also reported ) . Its maximum depth is 169 metres ( 554 ft ) . It is permanently covered with ice , which has an average thickness of 3 metres ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) in summer . The lake is dammed by the Anuchin Glacier , and meltwater from the Anuchin Glacier is the main source of water . The lake has no outlet . Water is lost through sublimation and ablation of the ice cover . The lake is categorized as an ultra @-@ oligotrophic lake .
= = History = =
Isotope studies have established that the lake has long had a permanent ice cover . Further , studies carried out during the austral summer confirm the lake 's homogeneous characteristics , with thermal convection as the reason given for its hydro @-@ geochemical and isotropical nature . It is replenished perennially by a process of underwater melting of the adjacent glacier ice . It is also stated that the lake existed during the Holocene period when it emerged from a melt @-@ water pond .
Studies of Lake Untersee have revealed that there are a number of large boulders which dam the lake . Geodetic studies carried out during two summer seasons indicated that the boulders move at an annual rate of 1 @.@ 1 – 3 @.@ 9 metres ( 3 @.@ 6 – 12 @.@ 8 ft ) . Residence time of the boulders has been estimated as 500 years . The floating boulders , which are several metres in diameter , have evolved as result of debris deposits from pro @-@ glacial interaction , mass wasting from hills surrounding the lake and the displacement of glacial ice by lake ice .
The lake was first discovered by the German Antarctic Expedition of 1938 – 39 . After that , several expeditions have studied the lake 's characteristics . The first reconnaissance study of the lake was carried out by N. G. Kosenko and D. D. Kolobov in early 1969 , followed by more studies by Russian and German scientists , namely by W. D. Hermichen et al . ( 1985 ) , E. Kaup et al . ( 1988 ) and A. Loopmann et al . ( 1988 ) .
= = = Research = = =
In studies carried out prior to 1991 – 92 on physical and chemical parameters of the lake water , Lake Untersee was stated to be well @-@ mixed and unstratified . However , studies performed in the summer of 1991 – 92 found significant stratification in a 500 @-@ metre ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) wide trough in the southeastern part of the lake , where it is up to 105 metres ( 344 ft ) deep . There were sharp vertical gradients of temperature , pH , dissolved oxygen and electrical conductivity . While a thermocline was recorded at a depth between 40 metres ( 130 ft ) and 50 metres ( 160 ft ) , an oxycline followed at 70 – 80 metres ( 230 – 260 ft ) , with a chemocline extending from 80 metres ( 260 ft ) to bottom of the lake . Below 80 metres ( 260 ft ) , the water column was anoxic and smelled of hydrogen sulfide . The presence of hydrogen sulfide was associated with decreased sulfate concentrations , indicating that it probably arose from bacterial reduction of sulfate .
The salt content of the upper levels of the lake is about 50 times that of glacial melt water . Salinity increased below 80 metres ( 260 ft ) , with sodium ion concentration and electrolytic conductivity more than doubling . The lake is highly alkaline ( pH 10 @.@ 4 ) down to a depth of 70 metres ( 230 ft ) ; below this depth , pH drops , reaching the slightly acidic value of 6 @.@ 1 at maximum depth . The proportion of methane in the sediment at the lake bottom is the highest recorded for any lake in the world , according to NASA scientists .
In 2008 , as part of the Tawani Foundation 2008 Antarctic International Expedition ( see below ) , Dale Andersen and Ian Hawes discovered conical stromatolites growing in Lake Untersee , the largest living ones known to date . Small microbial pinnacles are also present , and it appears that the large conical stromatolites and the small pinnacles are made by different microbial communities . These communities provide an important analog to some of the oldest fossil stromatolites found to date .
= = = Expeditions = = =
In November and December 2008 , the " Tawani Foundation 2008 Antarctic International Expedition " headed by Richard Hoover of NASA 's Marshall Space Flight Center used the lake as a test bed in its hunt for extreme life . Conditions in the lake are similar in some respects to those thought to exist on other moons and planets that contain water ice and methane ; thus , this lake might provide an analog to environments that exist elsewhere in space . The expedition did find several new strains of extremophile microorganisms in the lake 's waters , including a chemolithotroph that metabolises hydrogen .
This expedition involved an interdisciplinary international team of ten scientists and two teachers who explored not only Lake Untersee but also the Schirmacher Oasis . The geomicrobiological aspects of this expedition had three objectives : " to test laser induced fluorescence emission ( L.I.F.E. ) to be used for the exploration of the Mars regolith and poles ; monitor global climate change ; and to evaluate methods for detecting hydrocarbon contamination and subsequent bio @-@ remediation in a fragile , endangered ecosystem . " The results indicate that Lake Untersee , as a permanently ice @-@ covered region , has very little usable soil and could be likened to the polar regions of Mars .
Experiments conducted have examined the metagenomes of eukaryotes ; identified Prokaryotes and viruses inhabiting the lake ; provided evidence of virus @-@ mediated horizontal gene transfer and adaptive metabolic or cold protective phenotype alterations , identified microbial nanowire connections between multiple species at the ice @-@ water interface , in the water column , and in the sediment ; and established biomass estimates of life in the lake ice during the early spring growing season using laser @-@ induced fluorescence emission ( L.I.F.E. ) imaging techniques .
Two scientific divers were also part of this team . Dale Andersen , with the SETI Institute 's Carl Sagan Center for the Study of Life in the Universe , and Ian Hawes of Aquatic Research Solutions dove in Lake Untersee to study its unique microbial communities .
= History of Baltimore City College =
The history of The Baltimore City College began in March 1839 , when the City Council of Baltimore , Maryland , United States , passed a resolution mandating the creation of a male high school with a focus on the study of English and classical literature . The Baltimore City College was opened later in the same year on October 20 , with 46 pupils under the direction of Professor Nathan C. Brooks , ( 1809 @-@ 1898 ) , a local noted classical educator and poet , who became the first principal . It is now considered to be the third oldest public high school in the nation . In 1850 , the Baltimore City Council granted the school the authority to present its graduates with certificates of completion . An effort to expand that academic power and allow the then named " Central High School of Baltimore " to confer Bachelor of Arts degrees began in 1865 , and continued the following year with the renaming of the institution as " The Baltimore City College " , which it still holds to this day , with also the retitling of its chief academic officer from " principal " to " president " , along with an increase in the number of years of its course of study and the expansion of its courses . However , despite this early elevation effort , it ended at that time unsuccessfully in 1869 , although the B.C.C. continued for a number of years as a hybrid public high school and early form of junior college ( later known as community college ) which did not fully appear in America until the beginning of the 20th Century . Very often the graduation diploma in the late 19th and early 20th Centuries was accepted by many other colleges and universities entitling City graduates to enter upper @-@ division schools at the sophomore year , ( which was also coincidentally a privilege also accorded to its later local academic and athletic rival , the Baltimore Polytechnic Institute , founded 1883 ) .
As the importance of higher education increased in the early 20th Century , the High School 's priorities shifted to preparing students for college . In 1927 , the academic program was further changed , when the City College divided its curriculum into two tracks : the standard college preparatory program , or " ' B ' Course " , and a more rigorous " Advanced College Prep " curriculum , the famed " ' A ' Course " of study ( also available in the mathematics / science / technology fields at Poly ) .
The school underwent demographic changes following the U.S. Supreme Court 's unanimous ruling in the May 1954 decision " Brown vs. Board of Education of Topeka , Kansas " case that called for an end to racial segregation . African Americans joined City College for the first time at the end of that summer , in September 1954 and became a significant proportion of the student population by the 1960s . Mr. Pierre H. Davis , also later became the first " Negro " / " Colored " teacher to join the B.C.C. faculty the following year , who coincidentally became the first Afro @-@ American principal in 1970 . The school saw further changes in the student population with the admission of women in 1978 .
Academic standards and enrollment at the Baltimore City College ( B.C.C. ) went through a period of decline first in the mid 1960s to mid 1970s . The ' A ' and ' B ' courses were slowly dying out and unfortunately discontinued by 1973 , and a single academic track was offered .
After another period of neglect in the late 1980s and early 1990s , by the mid @-@ 1990s , with an increase in funding from the school system , the B.C.C. began to experience a turnaround . Administrators re @-@ strengthened academic standards and , in 1998 , the school began offering the International Baccalaureate ( IB ) Diploma Program . By the beginning of the decade of the 2000s , City College was experiencing an academic resurgence . During this period the school was recognized by the U.S. Department of Education as a National Blue Ribbon School , was listed as one of the top high schools in the United States by Newsweek .
= = Early years = =
The creation of a male high school " in which the higher branches of English and classical literature should be taught exclusively " was authorized unanimously by the Baltimore City Council on March 7 , 1839 . A townhouse of probably two stories with a sloped roof and dormer window structure on what was then known as Courtland Street ( now east side of " Preston Gardens " , built in the late 1910s with terraced and bermed flower beds with shrubs and monumental staircases along St. Paul Street and St. Paul Place , of five square blocks between East Centre Street in the north and East Lexington Street to the south , as Baltimore 's first downtown " urban renewal " project , which unfortunately resulted in the razing of hundreds of beautiful , but run @-@ down , then neglected Federal , Georgian , and Greek Revival architecture @-@ styled townhomes and classical business structures that would be considered to be saved under the " historic preservation " standards today ) was acquired to serve as the home of the new high school . The school opened its doors that Fall on October 20 , 1839 with 46 students . Enrollment was restricted to white , male students of Baltimore City who had completed grammar school and passed an entrance exam . Additional student applicants from the surrounding rural ( and later suburban ) Baltimore County and Anne Arundel County were considered upon payment of tuition to the Baltimore City Public Schools system Those enrolled were offered two academic tracks , a classical literature track and an English literature track . The sole instructor for both tracks was the educator and poet , Nathan C. Brooks , who also served as principal . To accommodate the two tracks , Brooks split the school day into two sections : one in the morning from 9 am to 12 am , and another in the afternoon from 2 pm to 5 pm . During the morning session , students studied either classics or English ; however , the afternoon was devoted to English .
In its first three years , the school was housed in many locations before returning to the original townhouse building on Courtland Street . In 1843 , the City Council allocated $ 23 @,@ 000 to acquire a building for the school at the northeastern corner of East Fayette and Holliday Streets , ( across the street from the later Baltimore City Hall , constructed 1867 @-@ 1875 ) , and the site of the present War Memorial Plaza , constructed 1917 @-@ 1925 ) . The renovated new school building was the former old " Assembly Rooms " , a Greek Revival architecture civic landmark , built in 1797 by architects Robert Cary Long , Sr. and Col. Nicholas Rogers ( ancestor owner of the estate which became Druid Hill Park ) to accommodate social events for Baltimore 's social elite at the Baltimore Dancing Assembly , which had begun in the 1780s. and the site of the first private library company of Baltimore . The school was next door to the famous Holliday Street Theatre , where the poem " The Defence of Fort McHenry " , now known as the " Star Spangled Banner " written by Frederick and Georgetown lawyer and amateur poet , Francis Scott Key , ( 1779 @-@ 1843 ) , was first performed on its stage in October and November 1814 , following the Battle of Baltimore , with the British Royal Navy and Army attack on Baltimore during the War of 1812 , ( now known as " Defenders ' Day " ) on September 12 @-@ 13 @-@ 14 , 1814 . Although it was not designed to house an academic institution , the school would occupy this building for 30 years .
The male high school for Baltimore went through the first of a series of name changes in 1844 . First known and founded in 1839 as " The High School " , it was renamed the " Male High School " because of the establishment of two schools for females — Eastern and Western High Schools , which opened in November of that year .
In 1849 , after a decade of service , Prof. Brooks resigned as principal of the school , which had now grown to include 232 students and 7 teachers , excluding Brooks . Rev. Dr. Francis G. Waters , who had been the president of the Washington College , on the Eastern Shore of Maryland in Chestertown , succeeded Brooks . The following year the city council renamed the school " The Central High School of Baltimore " and granted the commissioners of the public schools the right to confer certificates to the high school 's graduates . Exercising that new authority , the new C.H.S. of B. held its first commencement ceremony in 1851 with noted local philosopher , author and civic leader Severn Teackle Wallis , ( 1816 @-@ 1894 ) , as the guest speaker , ( Wallis has a bronze statue to his memory and many city accomplishments at the eastern end from the Washington Monument of Mount Vernon Place / East Monument Street facing the intersection with St. Paul Street . This bolstered enrollment in the school , as students were drawn by the prospect of receiving a certificate attesting to their level of education . That year 156 students applied to the school — an increase of 50 students .
The growing enrollment necessitated a reorganization of the school . Under the direction of Waters , the school day was divided into eight periods lasting forty @-@ five minutes : four sessions were held in the morning and four in the afternoon . In addition to reorganizing the schedule , he divided the courses into seven different departments : Belles @-@ letters and history , mathematics , natural sciences , moral , mental , and political science , ancient languages , modern languages and music . Each of the seven instructors was assigned to a distinct department and received the title of " professor " .
= = Baltimore City College = =
In 1865 , in accordance with a recommendation from the board of commissioners of the Baltimore City public schools , City College began offering a five @-@ year track , beginning a process aimed at elevating the school to a college and allowing it to grant its graduates degrees . To further these aims , the school was renamed " The Baltimore City College " ( BCC ) by an act of the city council on October 9 , 1866 . That same year , the board of commissioners recommended that the city council make a formal proposal to the Maryland General Assembly to grant City College the authority to confer Bachelor of Arts degrees to its graduates . According to the 38th Annual Report of the Board of Commissioners of the Public Schools to the Mayor and City Council , the elevation of the school was designed to " afford advantages to students ... who may adopt the profession of teacher as a pursuit of life . " Thus , the elevation was intended to provide qualified teachers for the Baltimore school system . However , the city council never acted on this recommendation and though the school changed nominally , it was never truly granted the power of a college . Not only did the city council fail to make the recommendation to the general assembly , but it also failed to adequately maintain the facilities of the school . In the 43rd Annual Report of the Board of Commissioners of the Public Schools to the Mayor and City Council , the president of the board wrote :
In addition , the president of the board again requested that the city council attempt to elevate the status of City College , " so that it shall be placed on equal footing in all respects to that of a first class collegiate institution , " but no action was taken . Since there was no incentive to pursue the five @-@ year track , no student remained at the school for the extra year of study and the course was abandoned in 1869 .
= = Relocation = =
It was not until 1873 , when a fire spread from the Holliday Street Theatre to the " Assembly Rooms , " that the city council finally decided to expend the resources to erect a new building for the school . The city council acquired a lot on Howard Street opposite Centre Street and allocated $ 150 @,@ 000 for the construction of the new building . During the construction , City College was housed in a building of the Baltimore Female College , where it remained until its new English Gothic revival @-@ style building was dedicated on February 1 , 1875 . While at the Baltimore Female College , the five @-@ year course was reintroduced and the four @-@ year track was eliminated . That allowed students to pursue advanced courses , which included calculus , political economy , logic and higher @-@ level language courses , which were emphasized in the curriculum . Students were expected to learn Latin , French , and German ; and Greek was offered as an optional course .
In 1876 , ceremonies were held in the adjacent Academy of Music for the new Johns Hopkins University , which had established several buildings alongside City College under its first president , Daniel Coit Gilman . Four graduates of City College entered Hopkins as a part of the first undergraduate class . That same year BCC 's academic program underwent further changes with the introduction of a one @-@ year track , which provided an opportunity for students who could not complete the entire course of study because they needed to enter the labor market . Courses in the one @-@ year track focused on providing students with pragmatic skills , such as " book @-@ keeping " , " commercial arithmetic " , and " business correspondence " .
City College 's first extracurricular activity , the Bancroft Literary Association , was established the same year to provide a forum for student debate . A second debating society , the Carrollton Society , was established in 1878 . One of the first athletic teams appeared the following year , when a group of students organized a lacrosse team — the first at a public high school . The establishment of Baltimore Polytechnic Institute ( Poly ) in 1883 was an important development for City College 's athletics program . With the founding of Poly , City College acquired an arch rival in academics and sports — particularly football . The schools have met annually in a football clash since 1889 . The formal organization of an athletic program at BCC did not begin until 1895 . During the early years of the athletic program , City College played chiefly against college teams because few other secondary schools existed in Maryland . City College 's 1895 football schedule included St. John 's College , Swarthmore College , the United States Naval Academy , University of Maryland , and Washington College .
= = Reconstruction = =
City College 's Tudor and Gothic @-@ style building , designed by Baltimore City Hall architect George A Frederick , lasted until 1892 , when it was undermined by the construction of the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad tunnel from Camden Station to Mount Royal Station , and collapsed . Several years of political in @-@ fighting and the change to a reformist city administration delayed construction of a new structure . Designed by the architects Baldwin and Pennington , the new structure was not completed until 1899 .
The succeeding year , the only time since 1851 , the school did not hold a commencement . Members of the senior class had decided to make fun of the professors in the Green Bag — City College 's year book since 1896 . When the school board was alerted of the matter , it attempted to censor the edition , passing a resolution requiring the Green Bag to be reviewed by Principal Francis A. Soper . However , the year book had already been printed , and the editors refused to have the edition censored and reprinted . The school board responded by withholding the diplomas of six of the editors of the Green Bag and the business manager , and by preventing the school from holding a commencement ceremony . One of the boys expelled , Clarence Keating Bowie , became a member of the school board in 1926 .
In 1901 , the course of study at City College went through a series of further changes . The most significant was the reduction of the five @-@ year course of study to four years ; though students who entered prior to 1900 were allowed to complete the five @-@ year course . The new course , like the course it replaced , allowed graduates to be admitted to Johns Hopkins University without examination , and provided students with greater flexibility . Instead of requiring students to complete the same set of courses , it allowed students to choose their courses , as long as they completed 150 credits .
The program 's explicit purpose was to provide special preparation for those wishing to attend college because of the increasing significance of college education . Though specific classes were not required , to meet the goal , students were required to complete courses in English literature and composition , four foreign languages , mathematics , science , history , commerce , drawing , music , and physical culture .
= = " Castle on the Hill " = =
By World War I , attendance in the school was rapidly increasing . An annex was added on 26th Street to alleviate overcrowding in the Howard Street building , but it was insufficient . Therefore , during the 1920s , alumni began campaigning to provide a proper building for the school , and in 1926 , ground was broken for a massive Collegiate Gothic stone castle with a 38 @-@ acre ( 153 @,@ 781 m ² ) campus , on a hill in the newly annexed northeastern suburbs at 33rd Street and The Alameda . The four @-@ level " Castle on the Hill " , which was surmounted by a 150 ft ( 46 m ) tower and designed by architects Buckler and Fenhagen , cost almost $ 3 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 and accommodated 2 @,@ 500 students . The " castle " featured arched windows and cornices , cloisters , gargoyles , stained glass , mahogany paneling , plaster arches , chandeliers and terra cotta tiles and terrazzo floors with two courtyards and plans for additional wings and buildings .
The following year , in 1927 , the " Advanced Academic Course " ( " A " Course ) was introduced . Students in the " A " Course were able to enter their second year of college following their graduation . This program of study and its counterpart , the college preparatory course ( " B " Course ) , became the backbone of City College 's academic program for over 60 years . On April 10 , 1928 , after nearly two years of construction , " The Castle on the Hill " opened its doors to the students and faculty . The next year , the students published the first edition of The Collegian , City College 's newspaper . The publication quickly became an indispensable part of student life and gained national attention , when it won second place in a contest sponsored by the Columbia Scholastic Press Association of Columbia University . The Collegian held the first place title between 1935 – 1939 .
When Japan 's attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7 , 1941 led to U.S. entry into World War II , blood donor projects , stamp and bond drives , and the dedication of service flags gave the City College a wartime atmosphere . More than three @-@ quarters of the students participated in the Victory Corps , which sponsored courses in communications , map reading , judo and the study of the poisonous and non @-@ poisonous plants on Pacific islands . By the time the war ended in 1945 , 4 @,@ 667 City College students had served in the armed forces , 204 of whom lost their lives . The names of all of the fallen , including two Medal of Honor recipients , are inscribed on a bronze memorial , which sits today in the center of the school .
= = Integration = =
Following the landmark Supreme Court ruling in Brown v. Board of Education , the Baltimore City board of school commissioners was forced to desegregate the school system , which had been racially divided since the 1860s . As a result , 10 African @-@ American students entered City College in September 1954 , comprising 0 @.@ 5 % of the student population . A decade later , in the 1964 – 65 academic year , African @-@ American students represented 30 % of the student population .
In 1956 the school system also sent two African @-@ American men to teach at the school : Eugene Parker , who coached for thirty years , and Pierre Davis , who left after one year but returned in 1971 as City College 's first African @-@ American principal .
Although African @-@ American enrollment increased , the transition from the segregated system was not seamless . In 1964 , enrollment in the selective " A " Course still skewed disproportionately to white students . Only six African Americans were enrolled that year compared with 110 Whites , and they were similarly underrepresented in extracurricular activities .
Such de facto segregation was a systemic problem in Baltimore throughout the 1960s . To address the problem , Superintendent Laurence G. Paquin proposed a reorganization of Baltimore 's high schools . He called for the creation of 13 comprehensive high schools that would offer both vocational training and college preparatory classes , and the elimination of multiple academic tracks in high school . However , Paquin 's proposal met stiff opposition from City College parents and alumni , who feared that his plan threatened the foundations of City College 's academic program . Councilman William Donald Schaefer , an alumnus of City College , convened a City Council hearing on the proposal , which stymied Paquin 's effort .
By the late 1970s , the school 's population , academic program , and building were all in decline , in part reflecting the economic problems of the city as a whole . In 1977 , the city school system allocated money to refurbish the school and bolster the college preparatory program . That same year the school system announced its intent to make City College coeducational ; however , the all @-@ male tradition did not end easily . Alumni argued for the uniqueness of a single @-@ sex education system , and a task force studying the issue voted 11 – 6 in favor of keeping the all @-@ male tradition . In a stunning reversal , the board of school commissioners voted to admit women citing constitutional concerns over equal rights . The following year City College enrolled women for the first time .
= = Recent history = =
By 1990 , the school 's academic program was once again deteriorating and enrollment was declining . The Middle States Association of Colleges and Schools raised questions about the ability of City College to offer students an academically rigorous course of study . During this period of decline , the " A " Course was discontinued by Principal Joseph Antenson , who contended that the program was racially discriminatory — an argument Paquin had made nearly three decades earlier — and opted for a standardized curriculum . However , the change did little to improve the school ; therefore , in 1992 , the school system hired a private contractor to run City College . That action was a part of the unsuccessful " Educational Alternatives program " , which lasted for about 14 months . Then , in 1994 , Joseph M. Wilson was appointed principal of City College . Wilson , with the aid of alumni and parents , was able to secure more funding and autonomy from the school system , which were used to redesign the curriculum and to introduce the IB Diploma Program in 1998 .
The new academic program attracted increased attention to the school . In 2000 , City College was recognized as a National Blue Ribbon School by the U.S. Department of Education , which placed it among the best schools in the country . The following year , the Toronto National Post reported on the two @-@ month @-@ long task of searching for the perfect high school in Great Britain , the United States , and Canada . It " never found the perfect school ... [ however ] we found a few outstanding ones , " the paper concluded . And one of these — the subject of a prominent feature article — was City College , led by Wilson . The school 's rankings in Newsweek 's report of the nation 's top high schools improved during this period . In 2003 , it was ranked 593 . Three years later , in 2006 , City College was ranked 206 , and in 2007 it was ranked 258 . Given an estimated 27 @,@ 500 public high schools across the nation , in 2007 ranking placed City College in the top one percent of all high schools . In its criteria , Newsweek divided the number of Advanced Placement and International Baccalaureate tests taken by the number of graduating seniors . The magazine stated that the measure showed schools which were committed to helping students take college @-@ level courses .
In addition to the academic resurgence of the school , the building was recognized for its historical and architectural interest . The Castle on the Hill was honored in 2003 by being placed on the National Register of Historic Places . This designation coincided with the 75th anniversary of the structure and campus as well as City College 's 165th year of existence . On April 24 , 2007 it earned the additional distinction of being listed as a Baltimore City Landmark . Mayor Sheila Dixon stated that : " The castle on the hill , as City College is known , is truly a historic landmark . It is worthy of preservation and acknowledgment . "
The landmark status bill was passed by the city council in accordance with a recommendation made by the council 's staff , which found that the building dates from a historic and architecturally significant period . This new status prevents the building 's exterior from being altered without the approval of the city 's Commission for Historical and Architectural Preservation . However , the previous year City College was a victim of vandalism at the hands of a group of children ranging in age from 8 to 15 , as a renovation of the school neared completion . In the summer of 2007 , scenes from the 2008 sequel Step Up 2 were filmed at City College . Interior and campus shots were used to form the fictional Maryland School for the Arts .
In 2007 controversy about the academic program arose , when members of the Baltimore City College Alumni Association argued that the IB Program was diverting a significant amount of the school 's resources to benefit a fraction of the student population . Approximately 30 students out of 1300 were enrolled in the full IB Diploma Program at City College . Some members also argued that the rigidity of the program did not give students enough flexibility . Citing these concerns , the alumni association encouraged the school to replace the IB Program with the " A course " and expand the number of Advanced Placement courses offered . In December 2008 City announced the donation of $ 50 @,@ 000 by alumnus H. Corbin Gwaltney ' 39 . The founder and longtime editor of Johns Hopkins Magazine , Gwaltney 's donation will benefit the modernization of City 's library . This is the second largest donation by a single alumnus to the school , David Rubenstein , founder of the Carlyle Group donated the largest amount — $ 100 @,@ 000 in 2006 .
= = Principals = =
† indicates principals who attended Baltimore City College
= Indoor @-@ outdoor thermometer =
An indoor @-@ outdoor thermometer is a thermometer that simultaneously provides a measurement of the indoor and outdoor temperatures . The outdoor part of the thermometer requires some kind of remote temperature sensing device . Conventionally , this was done by extending the bulb of the thermometer to the remote site . Modern instruments are more likely to use some form of electronic transducer .
= = Glass thermometer = =
In an indoor @-@ outdoor thermometer based on a conventional liquid @-@ in @-@ glass thermometer , the stem of the outdoor thermometer is connected to the bulb by a long , flexible or semi @-@ rigid capillary . The temperature scale is marked on the stem as usual . However , the temperature that is actually measured is the temperature at the bulb .
Ambient corrections are difficult to achieve with this system and are not usually done . Consequently , it is not as accurate as a conventional precision thermometer . Rather , it is typically used for low @-@ cost applications such as private houses . The main issue with accuracy is that if the bulb and the stem are at different levels , there is a change in reading due to the change in pressure head . A further problem is that changes in the ambient temperature of the indoor part of the device can cause a change in reading as well as the temperature of the outdoor part of the device . This effect can be minimised by making the bulb large and the capillary a small diameter . This ensures that changes in the outside temperature produce large changes in the column of liquid in the stem and will tend to swamp the smaller changes caused by the changes in the indoor temperature .
Common working liquids used are toluene and alcohol . Both of these have large temperature coefficients of expansion and do not freeze or boil in the temperature range of interest .
= = Electronic types = =
The sensors can be any of the types used in electronic thermometers . Thermistors are common and semiconductor junctions can also be used . Indoor @-@ outdoor electronic thermometers are a frequent hobbyist project and are sometimes sold as kits . Many indoor @-@ outdoor thermometers on sale are wireless devices requiring no physical connection to the sensor placed outside . In these cases the sensor needs to be battery @-@ powered .
= = Applications = =
The primary purpose of the indoor @-@ outdoor thermometer is to allow the outside temperature to be indicated inside a building , thus removing the need to go outside to take a temperature reading . They are also used in vehicles , and are particularly useful for municipal vehicles involved in snow and ice clearance . Building maintenance engineers can use an indoor @-@ outdoor thermometer that has not been installed to get a quick reading of air temperature in a location inside a building . This is done by swinging the bulb of the outdoor sensor in the air while still attached to the instrument . This will get a faster reading because the bulb will come up to temperature much more quickly than the indoor sensor built into the instrument .
= The Sue Sylvester Shuffle =
" The Sue Sylvester Shuffle " is the eleventh episode of the second season of the American musical television series Glee , and the thirty @-@ third episode overall . It was written by Ian Brennan , directed by Brad Falchuk , and was broadcast immediately following Super Bowl XLV on February 6 , 2011 . In the episode , an effort to dispel student rivalry forces the McKinley High football team and glee club to unite . When cheerleading coach Sue Sylvester ( Jane Lynch ) withdraws her squad from the halftime show of a championship football game , the disparate groups must come together to perform a routine and win the game .
Reportedly the most expensive post @-@ Super Bowl episode ever produced , " The Sue Sylvester Shuffle " cost $ 3 – 5 million . It featured over 500 extras , including an array of stunt artists . News anchor Katie Couric guest @-@ starred as herself , provoking controversy by making a jibe about television personality Dina Lohan . The episode featured cover versions of five songs , including a dance performance of " California Gurls " by Katy Perry and a mash @-@ up of Michael Jackson 's " Thriller " with " Heads Will Roll " by the Yeah Yeah Yeahs . Series creator Ryan Murphy had considered using the episode as a musical tribute to Jackson . The performances were met with mixed reception from critics . With the exception of " California Gurls " , each of the numbers were released as singles , available for download . The " Thriller / Heads Will Roll " mash @-@ up was the highest charting in all regions , peaking at number seventeen in Australia .
In the US , the episode was watched by 26 @.@ 8 million viewers , and was the highest @-@ rated scripted TV broadcast in three years . It received a mixed response from critics , who differed over its accessibility to the Super Bowl audience . Several criticized the repetitive theme of football versus glee club rivalry , finding " The Sue Sylvester Shuffle " below typical Glee standards .
= = Plot = =
Sue Sylvester ( Jane Lynch ) , the coach of the McKinley High School cheerleading squad , grows disillusioned with the sport , and in an effort to recapture her love for it , plans to fire Brittany from a cannon during the team 's next competitive routine . Meanwhile , football coach Shannon Beiste ( Dot @-@ Marie Jones ) has the school football players join the glee club , New Directions , in order to dispel rivalry between the students . In revenge for opposition to her cannon plan , Sue has the cheerleading Regionals competition moved to the same night as a football championship game , so her cheerleaders will be unavailable for the halftime show , and forces the affected squad members to resign from the glee club . New Directions ' director Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) announces that the club members , including the football players , will perform the halftime routine , planning a mash @-@ up of Michael Jackson 's " Thriller " with " Heads Will Roll " by the Yeah Yeah Yeahs . He notices and encourages the talent of Dave Karofsky ( Max Adler ) , a bully who has previously acted violently towards the glee club members . When the football players are attacked by members of the school hockey team , Karofsky encourages them to quit the glee club , resulting in Beiste barring them from the championship game .
To ensure that the game goes ahead , glee club members Rachel ( Lea Michele ) , Mercedes ( Amber Riley ) , Tina ( Jenna Ushkowitz ) and Lauren ( Ashley Fink ) join the football team . The game begins badly for the McKinley side , and when Tina is injured during a play , captain Finn Hudson ( Cory Monteith ) takes control of the situation . He has club member Puck ( Mark Salling ) convince the former football players to return , and convinces cheerleaders Santana ( Naya Rivera ) , Brittany ( Heather Morris ) and his ex @-@ girlfriend Quinn ( Dianna Agron ) to quit the cheer squad and perform at the halftime show . Only Karofsky refuses to participate , but when he sees the positive reaction the crowd has to the routine , he joins in himself . Beiste welcomes the football players back , and they go on to win the game by intimidating the opposing side , dressed as zombies from the halftime routine .
Sue 's cheer squad loses at Regionals for the first time in seven years , and she is named Loser of the Year in a televised interview with Katie Couric . Furthering her ire , the cheerleading budget is slashed due to the cannon being seen as endangering the lives of children . The money is then handed over to the glee club so they can pay to go to regionals . Karofsky dismisses Finn 's suggestion that he join the glee club permanently . Finally , Quinn kisses Finn , telling him that his actions have reminded her of why she loved him .
= = Production = =
" The Sue Sylvester Shuffle " is reported to be the most expensive post @-@ Super Bowl episode in television history , as well as the most expensive episode of Glee , costing $ 3 – $ 5 million . Filming was halted on December 10 , 2010 as a result of several cast members contracting tonsillitis . An outbreak of the flu soon followed , and filming of the " Thriller " performance was delayed by four weeks . The episode was co @-@ sponsored by General Motors , allowing for limited commercial breaks . The Glee cast featured in a two @-@ minute Chevrolet commercial during the episode . Based on the season one episode " Mattress " , they gave an in @-@ character performance of " See the USA in Your Chevrolet " .
Series creator Ryan Murphy intended " The Sue Sylvester Shuffle " to feel thematically similar to the pilot episode , with the central idea being " music bringing disparate people together . " Co @-@ creator Brad Falchuk explained that one of the series ' core conflicts had always been the idea of " two worlds " within McKinley High : the glee club and the popular students . He stated that this discord would be brought to a head in the episode .
News anchor Couric made a guest appearance in the episode as herself . She was a fan of the series prior to her casting , having praised its handling of subject matters such as homosexuality , disabilities and teenage pregnancy . Brian Stelter of The New York Times noted that her appearance was unusual , as anchors from rival networks — in Couric 's case , CBS — do not typically make cameos on their competitors ' programs . Series regular Chris Colfer and recurring guest star Darren Criss were not included in the original draft of the script , but were added by series creator Murphy in a late revision . Other recurring characters who appear are football coach Shannon Beiste , glee club members Mike Chang ( Harry Shum , Jr . ) , Sam Evans ( Chord Overstreet ) and Lauren Zizes , cheerleader Becky Jackson ( Lauren Potter ) and school bullies Dave Karofsky and Azimio ( James Earl ) . Two new football @-@ playing characters were introduced : Scott Cooper and Strando , who E ! columnist Kristin dos Santos reported might have an increased role in the series as it continued . However , they did not make any additional appearances on the show in its second season . Additionally , producers hired fire breathers , jugglers , and bicycle motocross stunt performers for the episode . 500 extras were used , as well as the University of Southern California Trojan Marching Band . In January 2011 , entertainment website Zap2it reported that Filipina singer Charice would appear as exchange student Sunshine Corazon , performing The Black Eyed Peas ' " Meet Me Halfway " with rival glee club Vocal Adrenaline . However , Murphy later stated that Charice would not return to Glee until the end of the year , though she ultimately also made an appearance before then in " A Night of Neglect " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
In the US , " The Sue Sylvester Shuffle " was watched by 26 @.@ 8 million viewers , and received a rating / share of 11 @.@ 1 / 29 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic , marking the highest rating for a Glee episode . This also made the episode the highest @-@ rated scripted broadcast of a TV series in three years . The episode continued a trend of declining Super Bowl lead @-@ out show retention . It attained a higher rating than the last scripted lead @-@ out show , The Office episode " Stress Relief " , which followed Super Bowl XLIII , but was down 31 percent on the premiere episode of the reality television series Undercover Boss , broadcast after Super Bowl XLIV . Both ratings and viewership significantly increased from the previous Glee episode , " A Very Glee Christmas " , which was viewed by 11 @.@ 07 million US viewers and received a 4 @.@ 4 / 13 rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic upon its initial airing .
In Canada , where the episode was also broadcast on February 6 , 2011 , it attained 2 @.@ 16 million viewers and was the ninth most @-@ watched show of the week . Viewership declined from the previous episode , which was watched by 2 @.@ 37 million viewers and ranked fifth for the week . The episode 's Australian broadcast , on February 14 , 2011 , drew 1 @.@ 13 million viewers , making Glee the fourth most @-@ watched program of the night and the most @-@ watched in the 18 – 49 demographic . It placed tenth in the weekly viewership rankings . Here , viewership registered an increase of approximately 47 % over the previous episode , " A Very Glee Christmas " , which aired on February 7 , 2011 , attracted 769 @,@ 000 viewers , and failed to reach the top fifty for the week . In the UK , the episode was watched by 2 @.@ 64 million viewers ( 2 @.@ 21 million on E4 , and 433 @,@ 000 on E4 + 1 ) , becoming the most @-@ watched show on cable for the week .
= = = Critical response = = =
The episode was met with mixed response from critics . Robert Bianco of USA Today found it lacking in plot and a driving moral , however felt that it was acceptable as a standalone episode – one which could be enjoyed by fans and new viewers alike . In contrast , Vicki Hyman of The Star @-@ Ledger commented that despite the football @-@ centric plot , the episode would be hard to follow for new viewers brought in by the Super Bowl , requiring too much knowledge of previous storylines . New York 's Willa Paskin felt that Murphy demonstrated " utter contempt " for the potential new audience . She suggested that the McKinley High football team were used as a metaphor for new viewers — who could come to love Glee if they embraced its musical numbers — but found this insulting as the team are portrayed as being ignorant and intolerant . Kevin Fallon of The Atlantic found the episode lacking in Glee 's " usual acerbic wit and emotional heft " , and criticized the under @-@ use of Colfer and Criss .
Highlighting a general malaise with the show , Lisa de Moraes of The Washington Post deemed Sue 's boredom with cheerleading a meta @-@ reference to the series itself . Both she and Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club noted negatively the repetition of familiar storylines , such as the football team vs. glee club rivalry and Sue 's attempts to destroy the club . VanDerWerff observed that Glee " keeps tossing the same elements into the hat and coming out with similar results , as though the only thing anybody ’ s putting any effort into are the musical numbers . " He graded the episode a " C " , calling it " boring " . Time 's James Poniewozik also commented on the repetitive premise , suggesting that the jocks versus geeks plot was the one most likely to be accessible to the new audience . He found the episode " easily forgettable " overall , criticizing the flat characterization , but noted that even when the series frustrates him , he continues to love Glee for , not in spite of , its inconsistency .
IGN 's Robert Canning also found the long @-@ running football vs. glee storyline repetitive , but wrote that the football players joining glee club was " a welcome twist " , however convoluted and unrealistic . He rated the episode 8 / 10 , finding it " preposterously fun " . Entertainment Weekly 's Ken Tucker considered the episode " at once in @-@ your @-@ face and under @-@ handed , very clever about its very cynicism . " He noted that while he had become jaded with Glee , he enjoyed " The Sue Sylvester Shuffle " , summarizing that , " Everything in this episode was chaotic and topsy @-@ turvy , but you never had the feeling the silliness was getting away from the producers . It all came together . "
Rick Porter of Zap2it criticized Katie Couric 's cameo for an attack made against Dina Lohan . During her interview with Sue , Couric lists Lohan and her dog Sparky as failed Loser of the Year contenders . In a previous episode , Glee also mocked Lohan 's daughter , Lindsay . Porter felt that the jibe diminished Couric 's journalistic credibility , deeming the Lohans easy targets . However , Canning called Couric 's cameo " perhaps the funniest part of the episode " , and de Moraes stated that the best line of the episode comes when Sue " looks Katie Couric right in the eye and says , ' I hate you , Diane Sawyer . ' "
The Daily News 's Soraya Roberts expressed relief that the writers were not gullible enough to have Karofsky end the episode by joining the glee club . Amy Reiter of the Los Angeles Times opined that Karofsky 's character development was the best element of the episode , but found his conflicted emotions convoluted , and was pleased that he was victimized by the hockey team .
= = Music = =
= = = Performances = = =
Murphy initially intended the episode to be the second of the season paying tribute to a single band or artist , following the Britney Spears tribute episode " Britney / Brittany " , and considered covering songs by Elton John , Prince , The Beatles , Bruce Springsteen or Michael Jackson . Although several artists agreed to a tribute , ultimately it was decided that songs by multiple acts would be covered . Katy Perry 's " California Gurls " was used as the opening number , performed as a dance routine by the school cheerleading squad , the Cheerios . Paying homage to Perry 's original music video , one element features the cheerleaders appearing to shoot fire from their breasts . Falchuk , the episode 's director , stated that the sequence was included to attract male Super Bowl viewers who would not ordinarily watch Glee . Rachel and Puck perform a duet of Lady Antebellum 's " Need You Now " , intended to showcase the merits of glee club . Finn leads a performance of The Zombies ' " She 's Not There " as the halftime show warm @-@ up number , and rival a cappella choir the Dalton Academy Warblers perform Destiny 's Child 's " Bills , Bills , Bills " , led by Blaine . A mash @-@ up of Jackson 's song " Thriller " with " Heads Will Roll " by the Yeah Yeah Yeahs was used as the final number . In early reports relating to the episode , Lynch claimed that Couric and Morrison would perform a dance number to " Tea for Two " , Vincent Youmans and Irving Caesar 's song from the 1925 musical No , No , Nanette . This rumor was later dispelled by Murphy .
= = = Commentary = = =
Musical performances also attracted mixed commentary . Though Perry was reportedly excited by the performance of her " California Gurls " , it was poorly received by critics . VanDerWerff found it surprisingly " weak and lifeless " , and Fallon called it " slow , unfunny , and , quite frankly , boring . " Reiter also deemed it boring , describing it as " an elaborate smorgasbord without flavor " , and Rolling Stone 's Erica Futterman criticized the uninspired , over @-@ the @-@ top choreography .
The performance of " Need You Now " was praised by Raymund Flandez of The Wall Street Journal , though he branded it a " disastrously tactless " song choice . Both he and Jenna Mullins of E ! Online questioned the likelihood of a country ballad enthusing the football players toward glee club . Entertainment Weekly 's Breia Brissey graded the performance " B + " , enjoying the union of Puck and Rachel , but finding it lacking in originality . She gave the same grade to " She 's Not There " , appreciating the way the song choice complemented the episode 's Finn / Quinn storyline . VanDerWerff also received the performance positively , calling it one of the season 's better numbers , and Futterman felt that Monteith 's vocals were a " perfect fit " for the song , appreciating the initially odd choreography for making the performance more interesting . Reiter was frustrated by the costuming , writing that the zombie makeup made the choreography difficult to follow .
Brissey 's lowest grade , a " B − " , went to " Bills , Bills , Bills " . Though she enjoyed the a cappella cover , Brissey found it incongruous in context , opining that Glee 's best performances are those linked to the storylines , allowing viewers to invest in their message . Several critics voiced similar complaints while enjoying the song itself , including Mullins , Futterman and the Houston Chronicle 's Bobby Hankinson . Tucker felt that it had " more snap and vigour " than the final number , but also disapproved of its awkward inclusion , writing that it impacted negatively on the episode 's momentum . Fallon gave the track an entirely positive review , suggesting that it should have been the episode 's opening number and lauding it as " surprising , oozing with charm , and actually kind of joyous . " CNN 's Lisa Respers France embraced the " completely random and bizarre " song choice , writing that it reminded her of the first season , " when [ she ] never knew what to expect and [ ... ] was often happily surprised . " Reiter too reviewed it favorably , calling it the best performance of the show . She appreciated the focus on facial expressions during the performance , in contrast to the elaborate costuming which she felt distracted from other numbers .
Bianco preferred the intimacy of " Bills , Bills , Bills " to " Thriller / Heads Will Roll " , which both he and Hyman criticized for its overproduction and editing . While Bianco found the final number anonymous , Hyman and Futterman approved of the performance overall , particularly for the makeup and costuming . Flandez and Brissey compared it favorably to the Super Bowl XLV halftime performances , with Brissey stating that the mashup did Jackson justice and giving it her highest grade of the episode , an " A − " . Roberts wrote that the performance " lived up to the pre @-@ show hype " , but felt that the rest of the episode " paled in comparison " . VanDerWerff commented favorably , " For the few minutes that number was on the screen , Glee was nearly everything it could be , blending fun music with insane production values and characters coming to certain emotional realizations in the moment , heightened as it is by the music . "
= = = Chart history = = =
" Bills , Bills , Bills , " " Need You Now , " " She 's Not There " and " Thriller / Heads Will Roll , " were released as singles , available for digital download . The last three tracks are also included on the series ' sixth soundtrack album , Glee : The Music , Volume 5 , and the first is also included on the seventh soundtrack album , Glee : The Music Presents the Warblers . Each song charted on the Billboard Hot 100 , and all but " She 's Not There " placed on the Canadian Hot 100 and Australian ARIA Charts . In the US , three of the four tracks debuted on the February 10 , 2011 issue : " Bills , Bills , Bills " entered at number 79 , " Need You Now " at number 72 , and " Thriller / Heads Will Roll " at number 75 . The February 17 , 2011 chart saw " She 's Not There " debut at number 87 , while " Bills , Bills , Bills " climbed to 44 , " Need You Now " to 62 and " Thriller / Heads Will Roll " to 38 .
In Canada , the three charting singles debuted on the February 11 , 2011 chart . " Need You Now " entered at its peak position of number 51 . " Bills , Bills , Bills " entered at number 86 and peaked the following week at 58 . " Thriller / Heads Will Roll " entered at 76 and peaked at 30 . The singles ' Australian release saw them enter the charts on February 21 , 2011 : " Bills , Bills , Bills " at number 71 , " Need You Now " at 46 and " Thriller / Heads Will Roll " at 17 . Having previously dropped out of the chart , the original Lady Antebellum version of " Need You Now " re @-@ entered at number 31 in the same week as the Glee cover . " Thriller / Heads Will Roll " also managed to chart in Ireland at number 37 and in New Zealand at number 38 .
= Mega Man 2 =
Mega Man 2 , known in Japan as Rockman 2 : Dr. Wily no Nazo ( ロックマン2 Dr.ワイリーの謎 , Rokkuman 2 Dr. Wairī no Nazo , lit . " Rockman 2 : The Mystery of Dr. Wily " ) , is a action @-@ platform game developed and published by Capcom for the Nintendo Entertainment System . It is the second installment in the original Mega Man series . The game was released in Japan in 1988 , and in North America and PAL regions the following years . Mega Man 2 continues the titular protagonist 's battle against the evil Dr. Wily and his rogue robots . The game features graphical and gameplay changes from the first Mega Man game , many of which have remained throughout the series .
Although sales for Mega Man were unimpressive , Capcom allowed the Rockman team to create a sequel . They worked concurrently on other Capcom projects , using their free time to develop the game . Unused content from the previous title was integrated into Mega Man 2 . Takashi Tateishi composed the soundtrack , with Yoshihiro Sakaguchi serving as a sound programmer .
With more than 1 @.@ 5 million copies sold , the game is the best @-@ selling Mega Man title . Critics praised its audio , visuals and gameplay as an improvement over the first game . Many publications rank Mega Man 2 as the best title in the series , and as one of the greatest video games of all time . The game has been re @-@ released on several consoles and mobile phones .
= = Plot = =
Mega Man 2 takes place after the original Mega Man , which is set in an unspecified year during the 21st century ( the year 2004 , as seen in the opening shot on the PlayStation 2 15th Anniversary Collection version ) . Dr. Wily , the series ' main antagonist , builds a new fortress and army of robotic henchmen , led by eight new Robot Masters of his design : Metal Man , Air Man , Bubble Man , Quick Man , Crash Man , Flash Man , Heat Man , and Wood Man . Mega Man is sent by his creator , Dr. Light , to defeat Dr. Wily and his Robot Masters . Mega Man crushes the eight new Robot Masters and then challenges Wily himself . In the final fight , Mega Man defeats Dr. Wily 's holographic projection device . After the scientist begs for mercy , Mega Man spares Wily and returns home .
= = Gameplay = =
Mega Man 2 is a platform and action game like its predecessor , Mega Man . The player controls Mega Man as he traverses eight stages to defeat the bosses , Dr. Wily 's Robot Masters : Metal Man , Air Man , Bubble Man , Quick Man , Crash Man , Flash Man , Heat Man , and Wood Man . Each Robot Master features a unique weapon and a stage related to their weapon 's power . For example , Air Man shoots small tornadoes and is fought in a sky @-@ themed level , while Wood Man can use a shield of leaves and is found in a forest @-@ themed stage . After defeating a boss , their signature weapon becomes available to the player . The Robot Masters have weaknesses to the weapons of certain other Robot Masters ; therefore , choosing the order in which the levels are played is a vital component of the gameplay . After completing certain stages , Mega Man receives a special item . These items create platforms that allow Mega Man to access areas that he otherwise could not .
After defeating the eight Robot Masters , the player proceeds to Dr. Wily 's fortress , which consists of six levels that are played linearly . As in the first title , the player is required to fight each Robot Master a second time in Dr. Wily 's fortress . However , these battles take place in a single room rather than a series of linearly connected rooms . The room contains teleportation devices that lead to each Robot Master . The devices can be entered in any order , but are not labeled . Once the bosses are defeated again , the player must fight Dr. Wily .
Mega Man 2 features a few gameplay changes from the original Mega Man . A new item , the Energy Tank , allows a player to refill Mega Man ’ s health at any time . Also introduced is a password system . After defeating each Robot Master a password is displayed , allowing the player to return to that particular point in the game after restarting the system . The password stores the particular list of completed Robot Masters , as well as the number of accumulated Energy Tanks . Unlike the first game , Mega Man 2 does not feature a score counter , and the player is unable to return to Robot Master levels once completed .
= = Development = =
Mega Man 2 was developed and published by Capcom . In retrospect , series producer Keiji Inafune , who was credited as Inafking , described the game 's development as a " rogue effort " . The first Mega Man game — released in 1987 — was not successful enough to justify the immediate development of a sequel . Capcom allowed the development team to create a sequel on the condition that they work concurrently on other projects as well . The staff spent their own time on the project to improve upon the original by adding more levels and weapons , as well as improving the graphics . The project supervisor of the first Mega Man invited Inafune to the sequel 's development crew ; Inafune was working on a separate game at the time . In the previous title , Inafune worked as an artist and character designer , but became more involved in the production process of the sequel . " Working on [ Mega Man 2 ] marked my second year at this , and I even got to mentor a ' new kid ' , which opened up a whole new world of stress for me , " Inafune recounted . The development time for the game was only three to four months .
Due to the limited amount of cartridge space available for the first game , content was omitted from the final product . The unused elements were later transferred to Mega Man 2 . The team was limited by the graphical capabilities of the console , and designed characters as pixel art to maintain consistency between the designs and final product ; some design elements , however , were lost in the transition . The gameplay system from the original game was kept for Mega Man 2 , but the team included more traps for the player to navigate . The game 's three support items were added to aid the player because of complaints from consumers and Capcom 's marketing department regarding the original game 's high difficulty . Inafune 's supervisor was " especially unsure " about the usefulness of the Energy Tanks . The developers allowed input from the public by including boss designs created by fans . Capcom received 8 @,@ 370 boss submissions for the game , although even the designs for the final eight Robot Masters were " tweaked " . Inafune intended his artwork for Mega Man 2 to be more " anime @-@ ish " than in the first game . A second difficulty setting was added for the North American release . The original version was labeled " difficult " , and a " normal " setting was created that made the " arm cannon " and boss weapons more powerful .
The soundtrack for Mega Man 2 was composed by Takashi Tateishi ( credited as Ogeretsu Kun ) , with Mega Man composer Manami Matsumae ( credited as Manami Ietel ) co @-@ composing a minor part of the melody for Air Man 's stage . As with the previous game , the sound programming was handled by Yoshihiro Sakaguchi , credited as Yuukichan 's Papa .
Veteran video game cover illustrator Marc Ericksen painted the North American box art , which included Mega Man firing a pistol instead of his trademark Mega Buster . Ericksen explained , " I didn 't know anything about Mega Man , and [ after looking at the character in action ] I said to the art director , ' What is he shooting with ? ' ... He said , ' Well , he must have a pistol , because I don 't see a rifle . ' ... I said , ' So , a pistol ? Do you want me to do a pistol ? ' And he said , ' Yeah , let 's put a pistol in there . ' So I did what I was told and I put the pistol in there . Add to the fact that they only had , like , a day and a half for me to do the painting and what you wound up with was not the greatest result . But certainly a result that was not my fault . I mean , they told me to put the pistol in his hand ! "
= = Reception = =
Though the first Mega Man game had relatively low sales , Mega Man 2 was a huge success . Since its 1988 release , Mega Man 2 has sold over 1 @.@ 5 million copies worldwide . The game is the highest selling in the Mega Man series and is Capcom 's 30th highest selling title . Mega Man 2 was well received by critics . Electronic Gaming Monthly 's four reviewers — Steve Harris , Ed Semrad , Donn Nauert , and Jim Allee — rated the game favorably . They stated that it was better than the first Mega Man , citing the improved audio @-@ visuals , new power @-@ ups , and password system . Nauert and Allee , however , expressed disappointment that the game was less difficult than the first game . Nadia Oxford of 1UP.com complimented its aesthetics and gameplay . She further stated that Mega Man 2 improved the gameplay of its predecessor by removing excessively difficult elements . Mean Machines ' two reviewers , Julian Rignall and Matt Regan , praised several aspects of the game . Rignall lauded the gameplay , citing its addictiveness and the puzzles . Regan praised the difficulty and called the gameplay balanced . Both reviewers complimented the graphics , calling them detailed and stunning , and described it as a great platform game . Retro Gamer editor Richard Burton described it as a " must @-@ have " title for the system , comments echoed by two of Electronic Gaming Monthly 's reviewers . Zach Miller writing for Game Informer attributed the success of the game to the players ' option to defeat the stages in the order of their choosing . He praised the simple control scheme and variety of weapons and items . GamesRadar ranked it the second @-@ best NES game ever made , calling it " the pinnacle " of the 8 @-@ bit Mega Man games .
The game 's soundtrack has been well received by critics . Joey Becht of IGN listed three stage themes from Mega Man 2 along with the main title song among the best in the series . In 2008 , Game Informer listed Mega Man 2 's introduction sequence as the fifth @-@ best video game opening , citing the build up of excitement that the music and appearance of the character instills . The " Doctor Wily Stage Theme " was ranked second in ScrewAttack 's " Top 10 Video Game Themes Ever " video . Nintendo Power ' editorial staff praised the music in 2008 , stating it is among the best on the platform . In 2009 , Gamasutra 's Brandon Sheffield describe the music as easily recognizable , and lamented that contemporary video game music lacked that trait .
Mega Man 2 is a favorite among Mega Man fans , with many calling it the best in the series . Critics have also referred to the game as the series ' best title . Oxford considered it one of the most memorable titles in the series , and Burton called the game the best in the series . IGN 's Levi Buchanan listed three of the game 's bosses among the " Top 10 Mega Man Robot Masters " . Several publications consider the game a critical success and have listed it high on " top game " lists . At the end of 1989 , it was the top ranked game on Nintendo Power 's Top 30 list . In August 2008 , Nintendo Power listed Mega Man 2 as the third best Nintendo Entertainment System video game . The editorial staff praised the polished improvements over the previous game . GameSpot named Mega Man 2 as one of " The Greatest Games of All Time " . It ranked number 33 in Nintendo Power 's " Top 200 Nintendo Games Ever " list and number 60 in Official Nintendo Magazine 's " 100 Best Nintendo Games " list . Miller considered it one of the greatest games of all time . In 2007 , IGN 's three editorial offices — United States , United Kingdom , and Australia — compiled a list of top 100 games . They listed Mega Man 2 as number 67 , citing the action and strategic elements along with the impact it had on the series . Mega Man 2 was placed 4th on IGN 's list of the Top 100 NES Games . " Mega Man 2 " was the first game on the cover of Electronic Gaming Monthly . .
= = Legacy = =
Keiji Inafune claims the success of Mega Man 2 is what made the Mega Man series a hit that continues to spawn sequels . 1UP.com commented that the game helped establish the series as a prominent and commercially successful video game franchise . IGN cited Mega Man 2 as a title that helped define the action @-@ platforming genre . Retro Gamer credited it with helping the series obtain the global presence that allowed spin @-@ offs and more sequels to be created . Many of the conventions of the original Mega Man series were defined by the first title , but Mega Man 2 added conventions that were retained . The traditional number of Robot Masters for the series is eight as used in Mega Man 2 , rather than the six used in the original . It was the first in the series to include an opening cinematic . Mega Man 2 also introduced the Energy Tank item , special movement items , teleporter room , and password system , which became staples in future titles . The Energy Tank became the series ' iconic health refill item and later served as inspiration for a promotional " Rockman E @-@ Can " drink . In developing Mega Man 9 , producer Inafune and Hironobu Takeshita looked to the first two games in the series for inspiration , with Mega Man 2 serving as a standard to surpass in order to meet fans ' expectations . Mega Man Universe was to feature a remake of Mega Man 2 's story campaign , as well as feature customizable characters and levels . However , Capcom has officially announced the game 's cancellation due to " various circumstances . " In Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U , Wily Castle , as depicted in Mega Man 2 , appears as a selectable stage in both versions of the game .
= = = Rereleases and adaptations = = =
In 1990 , Tiger Electronics produced a handheld electronic version with abridged gameplay . Mega Man 2 was remade in 1994 for the Sega Genesis game Mega Man : The Wily Wars , featuring updated graphics and sound . In 1999 , Mega Man 2 was rereleased for the PlayStation as the second of six Rockman Complete Works discs , though only in Japan and under the original title Rockman 2 . It is largely identical to the original NES release , but had a number of bonuses , such as a " navi mode " for beginners that presents the player with a slightly re @-@ made version of the game , detailed encyclopedic content , image galleries , and remixed music . Mega Man 2 was included with nine other games in the series in Mega Man Anniversary Collection for the PlayStation 2 , GameCube , and Xbox , released between 2004 and 2005 . The game 's emulation is identical to the rerelease contained in Rockman Complete Works . Also in 2005 , Mega Man 2 was released alongside other Capcom games as part of a " Plug It In & Play TV Games " peripheral by Jakks Pacific . Mega Man 2 made its way to mobile phones in 2007 . The game was added as a part of the Wii Virtual Console service in PAL regions on December 14 , 2007 . In celebration of the ninth title 's release in September 2008 , Capcom Japan released the game in Japan on August 26 , 2008 and a North American release on September 15 , 2008 . In March 2009 , Capcom released the game for iOS , while in September of the same year the Complete Works version of Mega Man 2 was released on the Japanese PlayStation Store , making it available for download on the PlayStation 3 and PlayStation Portable . Inafune expressed a desire to remake Mega Man 2 , similar to Mega Man Powered Up , but stated that such a project was dependent on the commercial success of the latter . A tech demo for the Nintendo 3DS called Classic Games was shown at E3 2010 , displaying more than a dozen classic games , including Mega Man 2 , using 3D effects . Reggie Fils @-@ Aime announced that the titles were slated for release on the 3DS and would possibly use the 3DS ' features , such as 3D effects , analog control , or camera support . The game was released on the 3DS via the Virtual Console in Japan on August 8 , 2012 and was released in Europe and North America on February 7 , 2013 .
Mega Man 2 was novelized in the Worlds of Power series published by Scholastic in 1990 . The novel mostly follows the game , even offering game hints at the end of some chapters . Besides the added dialogue , the one major variation in the novel is that Dr. Light fears Mega Man 's chances against Dr. Wily 's more powerful new robots and while attempting to duplicate him , accidentally turns him into a human being , a difficulty Mega Man must endure throughout the story . The book 's cover also lacks the gun depicted on the North American boxart of the game , due to a " no weapons " policy that Worlds of Power writers had to abide by .
The game was also adapted into the third story arc for the Archie Comics Mega Man comic , " The Return of Dr. Wily . " In the arc , the Robot Masters are intended to either defeat Mega Man or infect him with a virus bit by bit as he absorbs their Special Weapons . All the Robot Masters are defeated but Mega Man ends up under Dr. Wily 's control , until the Mega Man Powered Up Robot Masters come to his rescue . Dr. Wily manages to escape and sets his course for the Lanfront Ruins in South America , foreshadowing an adaptation of Super Adventure Rockman .
= Leek Town F.C. =
Leek Town Football Club is an English football club based in Leek , Staffordshire , currently playing in the Northern Premier League Division One South . The team , nicknamed " The Blues " , play their home games at Harrison Park .
The club was founded in 1946 and played in a variety of local leagues , including the Staffordshire County League , Manchester League , Mid @-@ Cheshire League and Cheshire County League , before becoming founder members of the North West Counties League in 1982 and from there progressing to the Northern Premier League in 1987 . In 1997 they were Northern Premier League champions and gained promotion to the Football Conference , the highest level of English non @-@ league football , spending two seasons at that level before being relegated .
Leek Town reached the final of the FA Trophy in 1990 , having progressed all the way from the first qualifying round , but lost in the final at Wembley Stadium .
= = History = =
Football was played in Leek from at least 1876 , with an earlier side called simply Leek F.C. having been part of The Combination in the 1890s , but the current Leek Town club traces its lineage to the formation of a team called Leek Lowe Hamil in 1946 ( although the club 's official history does not mention it , some sources state that the club was initially known as Abbey Green Rovers before adopting the Lowe Hamil name ) .
The club began life playing in the local Leek and Moorlands League , playing on a field adjoining a pub , before joining the Staffordshire County League in 1947 . In 1949 – 50 Lowe Hamil were champions of this league , becoming the first ( and to date only ) team to win the title without losing a single match ( some sources state this title win occurred in 1950 – 51 ) . In 1951 the team switched to the Manchester League , adopting the name Leek Town at the same time , and won the championship at the first attempt , after which the team relocated once more to the Mid @-@ Cheshire League , where again they played for just one season . In 1954 the team joined the Birmingham & District League but resigned in the middle of the 1956 – 57 season due to financial difficulties , after which they had another brief spell in the Manchester League , which was also curtailed due to monetary problems , before eventually returning to the Staffordshire County League .
In 1968 a new committee was formed , under which the club emerged from the doldrums . Manager Paul Ogden took over in 1969 and led the club to two Staffordshire County League championships , followed in quick succession by two Manchester League titles . After the second Manchester League win , Leek joined the Cheshire County League , where they were league champions at the second attempt in the 1974 – 75 season , but after Ogden left in 1975 to take over as manager of Northwich Victoria a series of managers came and went in quick succession without being able to maintain this level of success .
In 1982 the Cheshire County League merged with the Lancashire Combination to form the new North West Counties League , where Leek spent five relatively unsuccessful seasons . During their spell in this league former England player Mike Pejic took over as manager , Leek 's most high @-@ profile appointment to date , but he had only a short reign before moving to Northwich Victoria . Following Kevin Lewis ' brief reign Neil Baker took over in 1986 and was to lead the club to some of its greatest successes to date .
Leek were chosen to be among the founder members of the new Northern Premier League Division One in 1987 and in 1989 – 90 won the Division One title to gain promotion to the Premier Division , the highest level at which they had ever played . In the same season they progressed through eight rounds of the FA Trophy , including a quarter @-@ final win over Darlington , that season 's Conference champions , to reach the final at Wembley Stadium but were defeated 3 – 0 by Barrow .
In 1993 – 94 Leek finished second in the Northern Premier League Premier Division , which should have been sufficient for promotion to the Football Conference . However , they were refused promotion due to financial irregularities . To compound their problems , they were shifted from the Northern Premier League to the Southern League ; the resulting travel costs nearly crippled the club . After one season the club was allowed to return to the Northern Premier League .
In 1996 – 97 Leek claimed the Northern Premier League title by ten points and were this time granted promotion to the Conference . In their first season at this level they narrowly managed to avoid relegation but could not repeat the feat the following year and were relegated back to the Northern Premier League Premier Division . In 2000 – 01 the Blues were relegated to Division One , but regained their place in the Premier Division when the league was restructured due to the formation of Conference North in 2004 . The club achieved several mid @-@ table finishes in the league but struggled off the pitch . On 21 June 2006 it was announced that the club was in such severe financial peril that it was facing a winding @-@ up order , but on 11 June the following year it was confirmed that a new consortium had taken over the club and secured its future . In the 2007 – 08 season Leek finished in the bottom four , resulting in relegation to Division One South . Four seasons later the club qualified for the play @-@ offs for promotion back to the Premier Division , but lost in the final to Ilkeston .
= = Colours and crest = =
Leek 's home colours have traditionally been all blue , and their away colours all yellow , both colours which reflect the town 's coat of arms , which is predominantly blue and gold . The club has also used a blue and white kit similar to that of Blackburn Rovers , and a red and black away kit . Since 1997 , the team 's shirts have been sponsored by butter manufacturer Kerrygold , whose headquarters are in the town .
The club 's crest features a garb and a Staffordshire knot , both of which are elements of the town 's arms , as well as a caduceus , a symbol which appears on token coins issued in Leek in the 18th century .
= = Stadium = =
Harrison Park lies on the outskirts of Leek and has been the team 's home since 1948 , when the club purchased what was then called Hamil Park for the sum of £ 1 @,@ 250 . Changing rooms were constructed in the 1950s ( previously the players had been obliged to change in a nearby pub ) , along with the first covered accommodation for spectators , and floodlights ( which had previously belonged to the defunct Rugby Town ) were erected in 1972 , soon after which the stadium was renamed Harrison Park after former club chairman Geoff Harrison .
The ground currently has a seated stand along one side of the pitch , which was constructed in 1992 , three covered terraces and a small amount of uncovered terracing . In 1998 the ground was flooded when a nearby reservoir overflowed and the river which runs alongside the ground burst its banks .
Leek County School Old Boys , when they were in the North West Counties Football League , shared the ground between the early 1990s and 2014 .
= = Supporters = =
In the 2008 – 09 season Leek 's average attendance was 241 , placing them fourth out of twenty teams in the Northern Premier League Division One South , down 20 % compared to the previous season , when the team played in the Premier Division . In Leek 's final season in the Conference National , 1998 – 99 , the club 's average home attendance was 607 .
= = Statistics and records = =
Leek 's best ever league finish was a 19th @-@ place finish in Conference National ( level 5 of the overall English football league system ) in 1997 – 98 , the first of two seasons the team played at that level . The Blues have only twice progressed as far as the rounds proper of the FA Cup , reaching the first round in 1993 – 94 and the second round in 1990 – 91 , when they held Chester City to a draw at home but lost 4 – 0 in the replay .
Leek reached the final of the FA Trophy in 1989 – 90 but lost 3 – 0 to Barrow at Wembley Stadium .
The highest attendance figure recorded at Harrison Park came when the club played near @-@ neighbours Macclesfield Town in an FA Cup 2nd qualifying round match in the 1973 – 74 season in front of a crowd of 3 @,@ 512 .
= = Players = =
= = = Current squad = = =
As of 4 February 2015
Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
N.B. The Northern Premier League does not use a squad numbering system
For a list of all Leek Town players , past and present , see Category : Leek Town F.C. players
= = Managers = =
Despite their relatively short history , over 30 men have managed The Blues . Paul Ogden has had six separate spells in charge .
= = Current staff = =
As of May 2016 .
= = Honours = =
= = Rivalries = =
Leek 's main local rivals are Buxton , the two sides having been historic Northern Premier League rivals throughout the 1990s . Matlock Town and Kidsgrove Athletic are also considered local rivals to the Blues .
= East Midwood Jewish Center =
East Midwood Jewish Center is a Conservative synagogue located at 1625 Ocean Avenue , Midwood , Brooklyn , New York City .
Organized in 1924 , the congregation 's Renaissance revival building ( completed in 1929 ) typified the large multi @-@ purpose synagogue centers being built at the time , and was from the 1990s until 2010 the only synagogue with a working swimming pool in Brooklyn . The building has been unmodified architecturally since its construction , and in 2006 was added to the National Register of Historic Places ( NRHP ) .
Membership dropped during the Great Depression , and the synagogue suffered financial hardship , but it recovered , and by 1941 had 1 @,@ 100 member families . In 1950 the congregation built an adjoining school ; at its peak its enrollment was almost 1 @,@ 000 . As neighborhood demographics changed in the late 20th century , and Brooklyn 's Jewish population became more Orthodox , the East Midwood Jewish Center absorbed three other Conservative Brooklyn congregations .
The East Midwood Jewish Center has had only four rabbis since it was founded . Reuben Kaufman served from 1924 to 1929 , Harry Halpern from 1929 to 1977 and Alvin Kass from 1976 to 2014 . In 2014 , Matt Carl became the rabbi .
= = History = =
= = = Founding = = =
East Midwood was organized in 1924 by Jacob R. Schwartz , a dentist who was concerned that his two sons had no nearby Hebrew school which they could attend . From the start his intention had been to create a Conservative synagogue : Conservative Judaism was seen as a compromise between Orthodox and Reform , providing the familiar ( and lengthy ) Hebrew services of Orthodox Judaism , but , like Reform , adding some English prayers . East Midwood differed from earlier Ashkenazi synagogues in New York , as services were to be conducted in Hebrew and English only ( not Hebrew and Yiddish ) , and the members were to come from immigrants from all over Europe , not just one city or region .
East Midwood held its first annual meeting on November 18 , 1924 at the Jewish Communal Center of Flatbush ( also known as the Flatbush Jewish Center ) , and there elected its first president , Pincus Weinberg . Weinberg , who was also chair of the Real Estate Committee , was the father of Sidney Weinberg , who rose from the job of assistant porter to head Goldman Sachs from 1930 to 1969 . Prior to moving to Flatbush , Pincus Weinberg had been president of Congregation Baith Israel Anshei Emes .
East Midwood 's first rabbi was Reuben Kaufman , and its first cantor was Jacob Schraeter . Kaufman , a Brooklyn native , had celebrated his Bar Mitzvah at Baith Israel Anshei Emes .
= = = Building construction = = =
The Real Estate Committee almost immediately purchased land located on Avenue L between East 26th and 27th Streets . Most members , however , felt a location on Ocean Avenue would be more desirable . Issues arose with developing the land on Avenue L , and in 1925 the Committee purchased the current location at 1625 Ocean Avenue in Midwood , Brooklyn . The cornerstone was laid in 1926 , and , although not complete , the building was fully enclosed by the autumn , and High Holiday services were held there that year . The Center 's Talmud Torah , which had been created in 1925 and held in a temporary structure , also moved into the new building .
Designed in the Renaissance revival style , the building was finally completed in 1929 at the cost of $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 ( today $ 13 @.@ 8 million ) . It typified the new " synagogue @-@ centers " being built at that time , combining the functions of both a synagogue and community center , and included " a synagogue , auditorium , kitchens , restaurant , classrooms , gymnasium , and swimming pool " . That year Kaufman left the Center to become the rabbi of Temple Emanu @-@ El in Paterson , New Jersey , and Harry Halpern became East Midwood 's rabbi . Halpern , who also became an adjunct professor of pastoral psychiatry at the Jewish Theological Seminary of America ( JTSA ) , would go on to serve as rabbi for 49 years , until his retirement in 1977 , four years before his death in 1981 .
= = = Great Depression and school building = = =
The Great Depression took its toll on the
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ouf 's part in this action , the Battle of Hondschoote , earned him his promotion to Major General on 23 frimaire an II ( 13 December 1793 ) . When Jourdan did not order an aggressive pursuit , both he and Ernouf were recalled by the Committee of Public Safety in disgrace . He was suspended on suspicion of being a counter @-@ revolutionary , but reinstated upon the end of the Reign of Terror in 1795 . Upon his reinstatement , he was appointed Chief of Staff of the Army of the Moselle and the Army of Sambre @-@ et @-@ Meuse . He held several administrative posts , including a stint in which he helped to develop the topographical and geographical military maps .
= = = Action in Swabia and Switzerland = = =
In 1798 , Jourdan appointed him as chief of staff for the Army of Observation . Ernouf was with the Army of Observation when it crossed the Rhine river , in what British historians have called a violation of the Treaty of Campo Formio , resulting in the War of the Second Coalition . On 2 March , the Army was renamed Army of the Danube , and it marched to Upper Swabia , where it engaged Archduke Charles ' Habsburg force at Ostrach on 21 March , and again on 25 March at Stockach . In both battles , the Habsburg manpower , superior to the French numbers by three to one and two to one respectively , overwhelmed the French lines ; Jourdan , the commander of the Army , was unable to concentrate his forces sufficiently to counteract the Habsburg numbers , and withdrew to the Black Forest in late March . Ernouf took command of the Army of the Danube while Jourdan returned to Paris to request more troops . He was replaced as commander of the Army of the Danube by André Masséna , and served as Massena 's chief of staff in the Swiss campaign of 1799 , during which he saw action in Zurich and central Switzerland ; he was again at Zurich for the French victory over Alexander Rimsky @-@ Korsakov .
= = = Caribbean appointment = = =
In 1804 , Ernouf became a Grand Officer of the Legion of Honor . Shortly afterward , he was sent to Guadeloupe and Saint @-@ Domingue as Captain General of the colony , to restore order in the wake of the slave and mulatto rebellion and the Saint @-@ Domingue campaign of Charles Victor Emmanuel Leclerc .
Within a year , Ernouf had restored order and agricultural production . From his base on Guadeloupe , he dealt largely with many of the refugee planters who escaped the previous years ' carnage . He also mastered the Swedish island of St. Barts , where the rebels of St. Domingo had taken refuge , and from which they coordinated privateering against British and American shipping . In all , he confiscated 134 vessels , and proceeds from their sale amounted to 80 million francs . There is some evidence to suggest that he either actively encouraged , or at least permitted , the earlier practice of privateering against British and American shipping ; British officers later found open commissions , signed by Ernouf , which suggested he was granting commissions to pirates for " services " rendered . Four privateer ships sailing from Guadeloupe between 1805 and 1810 bore the name Général Ernouf , one of which was the captured sloop @-@ of @-@ war HMS Lilly ) , which underscores his encouragement of privateering . His task was further complicated by the failure of the Treaty of Amiens and the outbreak of war with Britain . To protect Guadeloupe , he raised coastal batteries .
The British capture of Martinique in 1809 marked a critical point for the French on Guadeloupe ; blockaded on all sides by the naval forces of the British , the French civilians and soldiers were reduced to near starvation . In January 1810 , the British initiated an invasion of Guadeloupe ; Sir Alexander Cochrane 's naval force landed 11 @,@ 000 British troops under the command of Lieutenant General George Beckwith at the so @-@ called Capesterre , or the eastern side of the islands . Attacked on three sides at the end of January , Ernouff 's force mounted a spirited , although short , defense and capitulated on 6 February 1810 , after which he was transported to Britain . He was repatriated to France in a prisoner exchange in 1811 . Irritated at the loss of Guadeloupe to the British , Napoleon accused him of abuse of power , embezzlement , and treason . Ernouf spent 23 months in captivity in France while the courts debated how to proceed .
= = = Restoration = = =
At the Bourbon Restoration , Louis XVIII suspended the proceedings against him for lack of evidence and Ernouf entered into Bourbon service . He was created Chevalier of Saint @-@ Louis , on 20 August of that year , and he was appointed Inspector General of Infantry . On 3 January 1815 , he went in that capacity in Marseille . In March 1815 , he received a command in the 1st Corps , under the general command of Charles , Duke of Angoulême .
= = = Napoleon 's return = = =
Ernouf was on an inspection away from this command when Napoleon landed at Cannes . Upon his landing , many of the soldiers of Angoulême 's army flocked to Bonaparte 's banner , beginning the Hundred Days . The mere news of Napoleon 's escape from Elba and the defection of some of the troops caused Charles , Duke of Angoulême , to panic and capitulate . Ernouf returned to Marseille , where he learned that André Masséna also had chosen the imperial cause , after which he left for Paris . Napoleon rescinded Ernouf 's honors and titles , and dismissed him from his post in the military on 15 April 1815 . After Napoleon 's final defeat at the Battle of Waterloo , the second restoration of the Bourbons that summer also restored Ernouf 's rights and property .
= = Later years = =
On 3 May 1816 , Louis XVIII granted him the title of Baron with the Commander 's Cross of the Order of Saint Louis , which entitled him to wear a red sash ( right shoulder to left hip ) ; he automatically received a pension , and hereditary nobility was granted to the son and grandson of knights . On 11 November 1816 , Enrouf received command of the III Division , located at Metz , which was occupied by Allied troops as a condition of the Second Treaty of Paris ; his role was to maintain harmony between residents and the foreign soldiers .
Elected by the Moselle , in 1816 , he obtained in 1818 permission to sit in the Chamber of Deputies , and left the command of the III Division when he became eligible for retirement on 22 July 1822 . He died in Paris on 12 September 1827 .
= = = Family = = =
Ernouf was married to Geneviève Miloent ( d . 22 November 1822 ) . Ernouf 's son , Gaspard Augustin ( 8 December 1777 – 25 October 1848 ) , was also a military commander during the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars . Gaspard and his wife , Adelaïde Guesdon , were the parents of the 19th century historian , Alfred Auguste Ernouf ( 1816 – 1889 ) .
= Slamet Rijadi =
Brigadier General Ignatius Slamet Rijadi ( Perfected Spelling : Ignatius Slamet Riyadi ; 26 July 1927 – 4 November 1950 ) was an Indonesian soldier .
Rijadi was born in Surakarta , Central Java , to a soldier and a fruit seller . " Sold " to his uncle and renamed as a toddler to cure his illnesses , Rijadi was raised at his parents ' home and studied at Dutch @-@ run schools . After the Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies , Rijadi studied at a Japanese @-@ run sailor 's academy and worked for them upon graduation ; he abandoned the Japanese army towards the end of World War II and assisted resistance operations for the rest of the occupation .
After Indonesia 's independence on 17 August 1945 , Rijadi led Indonesian forces in the Surakarta area during the revolution against the returning Dutch . Starting with a guerrilla campaign , by 1947 , when he fought against Dutch offensives in Ambarawa and Semarang , he was in charge of the 26th Regiment . During a second Dutch offensive , Rijadi lost control of the city but soon retook it , later leading counter @-@ offensives in West Java . In 1950 , after the end of the revolution , Rijadi was sent to the Moluccas to put down a rebellion . After several months of planning and a month crossing Ambon Island , Rijadi was killed near the end of the operation by a rebounding bullet .
Since his death , Rijadi has received much recognition . The main street in Surakarta is named after him , as is a frigate in the Indonesian Navy , the KRI Slamet Riyadi . Awarded several medals in 1961 posthumously , Rijadi was given the title of National Hero of Indonesia on 9 November 2007 .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Rijadi was born with the name Soekamto in Surakarta , Central Java , Dutch East Indies , on 26 July 1927 ; he was the second son born to Underlieutenant Raden Ngabehi Prawiropralebdo , an officer in the sultan 's army , and Soetati , a fruit seller . When Soekamto was one year old , his mother dropped him ; he afterwards became frequently ill . To help cure his illness , his family " sold " him in a traditional Javanese ritual to his uncle , Warnenhardjo ; after the ceremony , Soekamto 's name was changed to Slamet . Although formally Warnenhardjo 's son after the ceremony , Slamet was raised at his parents ' house . The family was Roman Catholic , but Rijadi studied mysticism from a young age .
Rijadi 's primary education was done at Dutch @-@ run schools . His elementary school was taken at the Hollandsch @-@ Inlandsche School Ardjoeno , a private school owned and run by a Dutch religious group . While at Mangkoenegaran Middle School , where numerous students were named Slamet , he received an additional name , Rijadi ; it is also during middle school that his father bought him back . After middle school and the Japanese occupation in 1942 , he attended a sailor 's academy in Jakarta . After graduation , he worked as navigator on a wooden ship .
Rijadi , who when not at sea lived in a dormitory near Gambir Station in Central Jakarta , occasionally met with underground resistance . On 14 February 1945 , with Japan facing defeat in World War II , Rijadi and other sailors abandoned their dormitory and took up arms ; Rijadi moved back to Surakarta and supported resistance movements there . He was not captured by the Japanese military police or other units for the remainder of the occupation , which ended with Indonesia 's independence on 17 August 1945 .
= = = National revolution = = =
After the Japanese surrender , the Dutch attempted to re @-@ occupy the newly declared Republic of Indonesia ; unwilling to be colonised , the Indonesians fought back . Rijadi began a guerrilla campaign against Dutch posts and quickly rose through the ranks . He was in charge of the 26th Regiment in Surakarta . During Operation Product , a general offensive by Dutch forces in mid @-@ 1947 , Rijadi led Indonesian forces in several parts of Central Java , including Ambarawa and Semarang ; he also led a cleansing force between mounts Merapi and Merbabu .
In September 1948 Rijadi was promoted and given control of four battalions of soldiers and one of student soldiers . Two months later , the Dutch launched a second attack , this time on the nearby city of Yogyakarta ( then serving as the nation 's capital ) . Although Rijadi and his troops launched attacks on Dutch forces approaching Solo through Klaten , ultimately the Dutch soldiers entered the city . Applying a divide and conquer policy , Rijadi was able to drive the forces out in four days .
During the remainder of the war , Rijadi was sent to West Java to fight against Raymond Westerling 's Legion of Ratu Adil .
= = = Later life and death = = =
Not long after the end of the war , the Republic of South Maluku ( RMS ) declared its independence from the nascent Indonesia . Rijadi was sent to the frontline on 10 July 1950 as part of Operation Senopati . To retake the island of Ambon , Rijadi took half his forces and invaded the eastern shores , while the other half was tasked with invading from the northern coast . Although the second group experienced heavy resistance , Rijadi 's group was able to take to the beach in native canoes unopposed ; they later landed more infantry and armour .
On 3 October , the troops , along with Colonel Alexander Evert Kawilarang , were tasked with capturing the rebel capital at New Victoria . Rijadi and Kawilarang led a three pronged assault , with forces approaching by land from the north and east , and naval forces pulling directly into Ambon harbour . Rijadi 's forces approached the city through mangrove swamps , a journey which took a month . During the trip , RMS snipers armed with Jungle Carbines and Owen Guns shot constantly at the troops , often pinning them down .
Upon arriving in New Victoria , Rijadi 's forces made short work of the RMS troops . However , he did not see the end of the battle . As Rijadi was riding atop a tank towards the final rebel stronghold on 4 November , a volley of machine gun fire erupted in his direction . A single bullet rebounded off the tank 's armour and into Rijadi 's abdomen . After being rushed to a hospital ship , Rijadi insisted on returning to the front ; instead , the doctors gave him much morphine and attempted unsuccessfully to treat the gun wound . Rijadi died that night ; the battle ended the same day . Rijadi was buried in Ambon .
= = Legacy = =
Numerous things have been named after Rijadi . The 5 @.@ 8 @-@ kilometre ( 3 @.@ 6 mi ) long main road of Surakarta is named after the brigadier general . The KRI Slamet Riyadi , a frigate described as one of the most sophisticated in the Indonesian Navy , is named after him .
Rijadi has received numerous awards . He received several medals posthumously , including the Bintang Sakti in May 1961 , the Bintang Gerilya in July 1961 , and the Satya Lencana Bakti in November 1961 . On 9 November 2007 , President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono gave Rijadi the title National Hero of Indonesia ; Rijadi received the title along with Adnan Kapau Gani , Ida Anak Agung Gde Agung , and Moestopo based on Presidential Decree Number 66 / TK of 2007 .
= New York State Route 28 =
New York State Route 28 ( NY 28 ) is a state highway extending for 281 @.@ 69 miles ( 453 @.@ 34 km ) in the shape of a " C " between the Hudson Valley city of Kingston and southern Warren County in the U.S. state of New York . Along the way , it intersects several major routes , including Interstate 88 ( I @-@ 88 ) , U.S. Route 20 ( US 20 ) , and the New York State Thruway twice . The southern terminus of NY 28 is at NY 32 in Kingston and the northern terminus is at US 9 in Warrensburg . In Kingston , NY 28 is co @-@ designated as Interstate 587 from its southern terminus at NY 32 to the roundabout linking it to the Thruway ( I @-@ 87 ) .
NY 28 was originally assigned in 1924 to an alignment extending from Colliersville in the south to Utica in the north via Ilion . From Colliersville to Cooperstown , the highway followed its current routing ( excluding minor realignments ) ; north of Cooperstown , NY 28 was routed along several state highways that now have other designations . The route was extended south to Kingston and north to Warrensburg as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York . At the same time , NY 28 was realigned between Cooperstown and Mohawk to follow its modern routing . Other than minor realignments in Kingston , Oneonta , and Oneida County , NY 28 has remained the same to this day .
= = Route description = =
= = = Ulster County = = =
NY 28 's southern terminus is with NY 32 ( Albany Avenue ) in the city of Kingston . The route heads north , then northwest on Colonel Chandler Drive , a four @-@ lane limited @-@ access highway . The roadway is also designated and signed as I @-@ 587 , which begins at NY 32 as well . Although Colonel Chandler Drive is built to Interstate Highway standards , it has no intermediary interchanges . After crossing over the Esopus Creek into Ulster , I @-@ 587 terminates at a roundabout linking I @-@ 587 and NY 28 to the New York State Thruway ( I @-@ 87 ) at exit 19 .
West of I @-@ 87 , the route crosses the Blue Line of Catskill Park and becomes the Onteora Trail . Although still four lanes wide , the route is no longer a limited @-@ access highway as it has an at @-@ grade intersection with Modica Lane , a local dead @-@ end street , just west of where it passes over the Thruway . Not long afterward , the highway meets US 209 by way of a cloverleaf interchange . Past US 209 , the highway enters a rural area as it heads northwest into the center of the state park .
Near the eastern tip of the Ashokan Reservoir , in the town of Kingston , NY 28 intersects the eastern terminus of NY 28A . West of NY 28A , NY 28 continues towards the north and west along the northern edge of the reservoir . In West Hurley , the route intersects the southern terminus of NY 375 . It proceeds along the reservoir to its western end in the town of Olive community of Boiceville , where NY 28A reconnects to the route . Here the mountains begin to loom over the road , with Mount Tremper dominating the view to the north as the route continues along Esopus Creek into the town of Shandaken after passing the southern terminus of NY 212 at Mount Pleasant . At Phoenicia , the largest settlement since Kingston , NY 214 reaches its southern terminus at the highway .
Past Phoenicia , the surrounding slopes become steeper as the road and creek curve around Panther Mountain , one of the Catskill High Peaks , to the south . At Allaben , the Shandaken Tunnel crosses under the road , bringing water from Schoharie Reservoir into the creek . The road and creek start bending to the south to the hamlet of Shandaken , where the town hall on the south side of the road is followed by the southern terminus of NY 42 's northern segment . As NY 28 continues trending southwest , the valley becomes less developed . Balsam Mountain , another High Peak , looms ahead .
The northern terminus of NY 42 's southern segment marks the small hamlet of Big Indian , after which Esopus Creek crosses for the last time , turning south to its source at Winnisook Lake . The road begins a sustained climb over the next two miles paralleling an Esopus tributary , Birch Creek , up to Pine Hill . At the road to Belleayre Ski Center , in Highmount , the last junction before it leaves the Catskill Park and enters Delaware County , it is for the first time signed as a north – south route .
= = = Delaware and Otsego counties = = =
Across the county line in Middletown , the highway shifts towards the west . NY 28 begins a concurrency with NY 30 in Margaretville , with the routes paralleling the East Branch of the Delaware River . After crossing the Delaware River , the route ends its concurrency with NY 30 , and NY 28 continues northwest through Andes as Main Street and Delaware Avenue . In the village of Delhi , the highway becomes known as Andes Road and has a short concurrency with NY 10 in the village center . North of Delhi , it continues north towards the hamlet of Meredith , proceeding west past the hamlet . In Franklin , NY 28 makes a 90 @-@ degree turn to the north at the intersection with the eastern end of NY 357 .
Once in Otsego County , it traverses an s @-@ curve before veering to the east to follow the southern bank of the Susquehanna River through the town of Oneonta . The route initially connects to the city of Oneonta , which is located across the river from NY 28 , via Main Street . Shortly afterward , NY 28 meets NY 23 . The route turns north , overlapping NY 23 along the four @-@ lane James F. Lettis Highway . The two routes cross the River and enter the Oneonta city limits before separating at I @-@ 88 exit 15 . NY 23 continues north on the arterial , while NY 28 joins I @-@ 88 eastward out of the city .
Back in the town of Oneonta , the overlap between NY 28 and I @-@ 88 continues along the northern bank of the Susquehanna toward the hamlet of Emmons , where the expressway meets County Route 47 ( CR 47 ) at exit 16 . The overlap ends at exit 17 in Milford ; however , NY 28 remains in close proximity to the Susquehanna River , which turns northward at the interchange . Roughly 0 @.@ 75 miles ( 1 @.@ 21 km ) north of I @-@ 88 , the highway passes over NY 7 with no access between the two . After another 0 @.@ 75 miles ( 1 @.@ 21 km ) , the route meets D.K. Lifgren Drive ( unsigned NY 992G ) , a connector providing access between Routes 7 and 28 . North of Goodyear Lake , a body of water situated 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) north of Lifgren Drive , the highway parallels the Susquehanna to the village of Milford , where it intersects the southern terminus of NY 166 .
The highway continues northward along the banks of the Susquehanna to the village of Cooperstown , home to the National Baseball Hall of Fame . Inside the village , the route is initially known as Chestnut Street . Two blocks from the business district of the village , it intersects NY 80 , which occupies Chestnut Street north of this point . Both routes turn west , overlapping each other as the routes leave the village . The portion of the highway between the southern border of the village of Cooperstown and the northern intersection with Grove Street is maintained by the village , and is the only section of the route not maintained by the New York State Department of Transportation ( NYSDOT ) . Routes 28 and 80 head towards the northwest , passing by the now @-@ abandoned Cooperstown Airport . In Otsego , the NY 28 / 80 concurrency ends . It continues northward as it passes Canadarago Lake . In Richfield Springs , the highway has a concurrency with US 20 for 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) . North of US 20 , the highway exits Otsego County .
= = = Herkimer and Oneida counties = = =
In German Flatts , NY 28 becomes Columbia Street and intersects the northern terminus of NY 168 . In Mohawk , NY 28 intersects NY 5S . After crossing the Mohawk River , NY 28 becomes Mohawk Street and meets I @-@ 90 ( New York State Thruway ) at exit 30 . In the village of Herkimer , NY 28 has a concurrency with NY 5 . North of NY 5 , NY 28 begins to parallel the West Canada Creek . In Middleville , it intersects the western terminus of NY 29 and the northern terminus of NY 169 . The highway executes a 90 @-@ degree turn at the three @-@ route junction . NY 28 continues towards the north paralleling the West Canada Creek . In Poland , NY 28 begins a concurrency with NY 8 .
In Deerfield , Oneida County , NY 28 splits from NY 8 . NY 28 crosses the West Canada Creek and leaves Oneida County for about 3 miles ( 5 km ) , then re @-@ crosses the creek and enters Oneida County again . In Trenton , NY 28 joins NY 12 northward toward Barneveld . In Barneveld , NY 12 and NY 28 intersect NY 365 . NY 28 splits from NY 12 in Remsen and heads toward the northeast , passing through numerous lakes and reservoirs . In Forestport , it enters Adirondack Park as it parallels the Adirondack Mountains .
NY 28 briefly reenters Herkimer County , but does not have any major junctions . NY 28 passes the Fulton Chain Lakes , among several other large lakes , as it winds through the Adirondack Park .
= = = Hamilton and Warren counties = = =
The Fulton Chain Lakes which NY 28 has been following extend into Hamilton County . The highway soon reaches the settlement of Long Lake as it passes south of Raquette Lake . In the hamlet of Blue Mountain Lake , the route begins a wrong @-@ way concurrency with NY 30 ; the concurrency ends in the hamlet of Indian Lake . East of NY 30 , NY 28 begins to shift towards the south .
NY 28 enters Warren County paralleling the Hudson River . In North Creek , it intersects the eastern terminus of NY 28N . The highway continues towards the south opposite to its original course . In Wevertown , it intersects NY 8 . It continues towards the southeast paralleling the Hudson River and in Warrensburg , NY 28 comes to an end at a " Y " intersection with US 9 .
= = History = =
= = = Ulster and Delaware Turnpike = = =
In 1802 , the Ulster and Delaware Turnpike was chartered by the New York State Legislature " for improving and making a road from the west line of the Town of Salisbury in the State of Connecticut to the Susquehanna River at or near the Town of Jericho ( now Bainbridge ) " . The portion of the Ulster and Delaware Turnpike east of the Hudson River was also commonly known as the Ulster and Salisbury Turnpike or the Salisbury Turnpike . West of the river , the turnpike connected Kingston to modern @-@ day Bainbridge . It then followed modern NY 28 west from Kingston up to the Delaware County hamlet of Andes . From Andes , the turnpike alignment left NY 28 to follow modern CR 2 to De Lancey , NY 10 to Walton , and NY 206 to the Village of Bainbridge . The turnpike crossed the river via the Kingston @-@ Rhinecliff Ferry and used modern Rhinecliff Road and West Market Street to the village center of Rhinecliff , then roughly followed modern @-@ day NY 308 to the hamlet of Eighmyville . It continued east from there using part of present @-@ day CR 52 to eventually connect with and follow the route of current NY 199 . The turnpike corporation operated through the late 19th century .
= = = Designation = = =
NY 28 was designated in 1924 by the New York State Department of Transportation from Colliersville ( near Oneonta ) north to Utica . At the time , NY 28 began at then @-@ NY 9 in Colliersville and headed north on its current alignment to Cooperstown . NY 28 separated from its modern routing and continued to Springfield north of Cooperstown on what is now NY 80 . Between Springfield and Richfield Springs , the highway utilized what is now US 20 . At Richfield Springs , the highway turned north onto modern NY 167 and followed the current alignments of NY 167 and NY 168 to the village of Mohawk . Here , the highway turned westward , using a small portion of its current alignment and the present @-@ day NY 5S corridor to connect to Utica by way of Ilion .
In 1924 , what is now NY 28 was part of NY 19 from Kingston to Margaretville ( where NY 19 turned north to follow modern NY 30 to Grand Gorge ) , NY 9 from Oneonta to Colliersville , NY 28 from Colliersville to Cooperstown , NY 2 from Trenton to Forestport , and NY 10 from North Creek to Wevertown . The remaining portions of modern NY 28 were unnumbered . By 1926 , the portion of current NY 28 from Margaretville to Meredith was designated as part of NY 64 . Past Meredith , NY 64 continued north to NY 23 on Palmerville Road , McDougal Road , Rathbun Road , and Prosser Hollow Road . Additionally , the segment of modern NY 28 from Middleville to Trenton was designated as part of NY 29 . Between 1926 and 1930 , what is now NY 28 between Blue Mountain Lake and North Creek became part of NY 10A , a highway extending from Long Lake to North Creek via Blue Mountain Lake .
In the 1930 renumbering , NY 28 was extended south from Colliersville to Kingston largely by way of its current alignment along the Ulster and Delaware Turnpike . North of Cooperstown , the route was realigned to follow its modern routing between Cooperstown and Mohawk , then extended into the North Country through Wevertown to Warrensburg along its present alignment . Between Colliersville and Cooperstown , the route remained unchanged . The small portion of NY 10A that did not become part of NY 28 in the renumbering was incorporated into NY 10 .
= = = Realignments = = =
In Oneida County , NY 28 originally broke from its modern alignment southeast of Barneveld to follow modern CR 56 into the village . At Mappa Avenue , then carrying NY 12 , NY 28 turned north , overlapping NY 12 north along Mappa Avenue through the village . Outside of Barneveld , NY 12 and NY 28 were routed on Plank Road and what is now CR 82 before rejoining their modern alignment near the Remsen community of East Steuben . NY 28 was rerouted slightly c . 1940 to enter Barneveld via an extension of Trenton Falls Road and Mappa Avenue . Both NY 12 and NY 28 were realigned onto a new four @-@ lane roadway from Barneveld to East Steuben in the 1950s .
Within Kingston , NY 28 initially began at the intersection of Broadway and East Chester Street , which was part of US 9W at the time . From there , NY 28 followed Broadway , Albany and Clinton avenues , North Front Street , and Washington Avenue through the city to Ulster , where it joined its modern routing at what is now the roundabout leading to New York State Thruway exit 19 . When the initial plans for the Interstate Highway System were outlined by the Bureau of Public Roads in the 1955 Yellow Book , a highway was planned for the NY 28 corridor . This highway was included as part of the 1 @,@ 500 @-@ mile ( 2 @,@ 414 km ) expansion to the system in 1957 . Construction began on the roadway , which became Colonel Chandler Drive , in December 1958 . It was designated as I @-@ 587 and became part of a rerouted NY 28 upon its completion in July 1960 . NY 28 continued to extend eastward from Colonel Chandler Drive along Broadway to US 9W until its truncation to NY 32 in the early 1980s . Washington Avenue , bypassed by the new limited @-@ access highway , is now designated as NY 981K , an unsigned reference route 0 @.@ 41 miles ( 0 @.@ 66 km ) in length , from Hurley Avenue to NY 28 .
In the vicinity of Oneonta , NY 28 originally crossed the Susquehanna River by way of Main Street . The route followed Main Street through the city to Colliersville , where it turned north onto D.K. Lifgren Drive to rejoin its modern alignment . From downtown Oneonta to Colliersville , NY 28 overlapped NY 7 . NY 28 was rerouted to follow its current alignment between Main Street south of Oneonta and D.K. Lifgren Drive near Colliersville in the early 1980s following the completion of what is now NY 28 from I @-@ 88 exit 17 to D.K. Lifgren Drive . The portion of Main Street between NY 28 and NY 7 ( 0 @.@ 67 miles or 1 @.@ 08 kilometres long ) is now designated as NY 992D while D.K. Lifgren Drive ( 0 @.@ 50 miles or 0 @.@ 80 kilometres in length ) is now NY 992G .
= = = Memorial designation = = =
On June 14 , 2004 , Governor George E. Pataki announced that a 1 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) portion of the highway in the Town of Hurley in Ulster County was to be designated as the " New York State Troopers T. Michael Kelly and Kenneth A. Poorman Memorial Highway " . During May 2000 , troopers Kelly and Poorman were killed on this stretch of NY 28 , when their police cruiser was struck by a tractor @-@ trailer .
= = Suffixed routes = =
NY 28A ( 19 @.@ 82 miles or 31 @.@ 90 kilometres ) is an alternate route of NY 28 along the southern edge of the Ashokan Reservoir in Ulster County . It was assigned c . 1933 .
NY 28B was a spur route connecting NY 28 in Remsen to Prospect in Oneida County . When the route was initially assigned c . 1936 , it began at NY 12 and NY 28 in Barneveld and overlapped with then @-@ NY 287 to Prospect , from where NY 28B continued northwest to NY 12 and NY 28 in Remsen by way of Prospect Road . NY 28B was truncated to Prospect in the early 1950s and removed in the mid @-@ 1960s .
NY 28N ( 50 @.@ 95 miles or 82 @.@ 00 kilometres ) is a northerly alternate to NY 28 between Long Lake and North Creek in Adirondack Park . It was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York .
= = Major intersections = =
= George Formby Sr =
George Formby ( born James Lawler Booth ; 4 October 1875 – 8 February 1921 ) was an English comedian and singer in musical theatre , known as one of the greatest music hall performers of the early 20th century . His comedy played upon Lancashire stereotypes , and he was popular around Britain . His nickname , " The Wigan Nightingale " , was coined because of the way he would use his bronchial cough as a comedic device in his act .
Formby was born into poverty in the industrial north west of England ; his mother was an alcoholic and part @-@ time prostitute , and during much of his youth he was maltreated . To earn money he would sing for pennies on street corners , before he joined a singing duo in his teens . He began to develop his own act during the 1890s and built up a following in Lancashire . He also developed a series of stage characters , including that of " John Willie " , which is described by the cultural historian Jeffrey Richards as " the archetypal gormless Lancashire lad ... hen @-@ pecked , accident @-@ prone , but muddling through . " Formby also had a successful recording career and made the transition from music hall to revue in 1916 .
His health had always been poor , but a stage accident in 1916 weakened Formby 's lungs , and he suffered increasingly for the next few years , reducing his ability to perform . Tuberculosis and influenza — the latter contracted in the pandemic of 1918 — weakened his constitution further , and he died of pulmonary tuberculosis in 1921 at the age of 45 . Formby 's act , and one of his costumes and canes , inspired Charlie Chaplin in the formation of his character the Tramp . Formby 's son also used parts of his father 's act when starting his stage career and , once established , also changed his name to George Formby ; Formby Jnr went on to become the top British male star in box office takings between 1937 and 1943 .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early years : 1875 – 90 = = =
George Formby was born James Lawler Booth in Ashton @-@ under @-@ Lyne , Lancashire , on 4 October 1875 . He was the illegitimate and only child of Sarah Jane Booth ( c . 1856 – 1912 ) , a poor , illiterate cotton weaver . His father , Francis Lawler , a coal miner , was not named on the birth certificate ; six months after the birth of their son , the couple married , both aged about 19 . Sarah worked as a prostitute ; she was small , around 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) tall , and sang in pubs in exchange for alcoholic drinks . She was convicted 140 times for offences that included theft , prostitution , drunkenness and brawling . The marriage was turbulent , and Formby was often neglected , mistreated and suffered malnourishment . Because Sarah was frequently absent from home , and often detained overnight at the local police station , Formby was regularly forced to sleep outside . As a result he developed asthma and became susceptible to bronchitis . In his later years he recalled that his " childhood was the most miserable as ever fell to the lot of a human creature " .
Formby left formal education at the age of eight or nine , and did not learn to read until well into his teenage years . To earn money for the household , he sang on street corners for coppers ; the family 's poverty worsened when , in October 1890 , Lawler died from pulmonary tuberculosis at the age of 33 . Formby secured a job at a cotton mill and spent two years as a loom builder . He supplemented his wages by singing in pubs , alehouses and free @-@ and @-@ easies , the last being places where informal arrangements were made for patrons to provide their own entertainment . Around this time he joined up with another boy to form an act , " the Glenray Brothers " ( also " the Glen Ray Brothers " ) , which was profitable enough to have a manager ; the act continued until Formby 's boy soprano voice broke , after which the pair separated .
= = = Burgeoning stage career : 1890 – 1902 = = =
Formby began to develop his own stage act during the 1890s , and built a large fan base in Lancashire . He devised several characters with their own costumes , and composed a series of comic songs . By 1896 his assignment book records that he was buying and collecting comic songs and securing the singing rights . He was billed as J.H. Booth until 1897 , when he changed his stage name to George Formby . Although rumoured to have picked his new surname after seeing it as a destination on a railway carriage , the main sources agree this story is likely to be apocryphal . The origin of the Formby name is more likely to have been a suggestion from Dennis Clarke , the manager of the Argyle Theatre in Birkenhead , while George was chosen in honour of the music hall star George Robey . Formby first used his new stage name in Birkenhead in 1897 .
One of the earliest characters Formby developed was " John Willie " . Baz Kershaw , the professor of theatre , described the character as Formby 's " onstage alter ego " , while the cultural historian Jeffrey Richards describes Willie as " the archetypal gormless Lancashire lad in baggy trousers , tight jacket , and bowler hat , slow @-@ talking , hen @-@ pecked , accident @-@ prone , but muddling through . " His costume included ill @-@ fitting clothes , large boots worn on the wrong feet , and a variety of hats ; he would often carry a cane . In 1908 he lent one of his costumes to a young Charlie Chaplin when the latter was touring with Fred Karno 's troupe ; Chaplin also incorporated Formby 's cane twirl and duck @-@ like walk into his act .
In 1897 Formby met Martha Maria Salter , a 20 @-@ year @-@ old music hall performer , and they married in her home town of Halifax in August . Little is known about Salter , although the 1901 census shows that she was still living with her parents . The marriage does not appear to have been successful , but according to Formby 's biographers , Sue Smart and Richard Bothway Howard , there is no evidence of a divorce between the couple and no information relating to when the couple separated .
In 1897 or 1898 Formby was signed to appear at the Lyceum Theatre , Blackburn , supporting the magician Walford Bodie ; a 40 @-@ week tour followed , with Formby earning 30 shillings a week . In 1898 , while performing at the Wigan Empire as part of the tour , Formby met Eliza Hoy , the daughter of the Empire 's cashier . The couple married in August the following year at Wigan Registry Office , although this marriage was bigamous because of his union two years previously with Salter . In the months after their marriage , Eliza persuaded Formby to join the Roman Catholic Church , which helped her parents overcome their initial distrust of him . Formby and Eliza had thirteen children , of whom seven survived : four daughters and three sons . The cultural historian David Bret states that Formby was " possessed of staggering consumptive virility " , as the comedian also had several children with other partners . Eliza became an important figure in Formby 's professional life , making his costumes and standing in the wings during his performances to help him . Eliza also continued working as a seamstress and would sell chips during lunchtimes to supplement the family 's income .
= = = London , and a growing reputation : 1902 – 16 = = =
In 1902 Formby performed for the first time in London , when he was booked by Ted Granville , the proprietor of the Royal Albert Music Hall in Canning Town , to appear for £ 3 a week ; Granville subsequently became Formby 's London agent . Eliza Formby later recounted that Belle Elmore , the wife ( and later victim ) of the murderer Dr Crippen , saw Formby perform , and was so impressed that she contacted Granville and told him to travel to Leeds to see the act . Formby soon transferred to the London Pavilion music hall , where he was immediately successful , and became " an idol of the town " , according to The Times . His popularity increased when Marie Lloyd , the influential music hall singer and actress , said that she would only watch two acts : his and Dan Leno 's . Lloyd recommended Formby to the proprietor of the Tivoli Music Hall , who gave the comedian a ten @-@ week run . Robey was also impressed , and in 1905 he recommended Formby as the lead in a pantomime in Newcastle at a salary of £ 35 a week . He was able to command £ 325 a week by 1920 .
After the Formbys had lost three daughters to early deaths , their first son , George Hoy Booth , was born in 1904 . Although the boy was born unable to see owing to an obstructive caul , he gained his sight during a violent coughing fit or sneeze when he was a few months old . Over the course of 1904 Formby purchased the singing rights to 57 songs , more than his normal annual number of between 10 and 20 ; the average cost of his songs was around a guinea . Two years later he made his first recordings , on phonograph cylinders , for the Louis Sterling Cylinder Company , and in 1907 he signed a recording contract with Zonophone . He was one of the few performers who had no difficulties recording clearly with the primitive equipment , and he performed in a relaxed fashion for an invisible audience . He would sing his song and then talk to the listener using a variant of his normal stage patter . Some of those songs , such as " Playing the Game out West " and " Since I Parted my Hair in the Middle " have been identified by Dave Russell , the social historian , as " clever depictions of a provincial innocent let lose [ sic ] in the capital " .
For much of January and February 1908 Formby appeared in various London music halls for which he received £ 20 a week . The following year , and staying in the capital , he played three halls a night in exchange for £ 45 a week . One such venue was the Tivoli with Lloyd and Little Tich as the headline acts . When not performing in London , Formby continued to tour the provincial music halls . In 1910 he again appeared at the Tivoli , and was reviewed in The Times , in which the reporter opined that Formby " becomes more of an artist the longer he sings " . Later that year Formby recorded what would become his most famous song , " Standing at the Corner of the Street " , which he also co @-@ wrote . By 1913 his record sales were strong enough for him to negotiate a new recording contract worth £ 300 a year .
Formby 's career received a further boost in July 1913 when he was one of seven acts to appear before George V and Queen Mary in a Royal Command Performance at Knowsley Hall , near Liverpool . The Times reported that Formby 's " broad humour succeeded with unexpected ease , and their Majesties praised him very highly after the performance . " Formby was embarrassed by his performance . His usual act partly consisted of a running patter with the orchestra conductor , which he again did on this occasion ; behind the conductor sat the royal party , and it looked to some that Formby was speaking disrespectfully to them . The king understood to whom Formby was talking , however , and afterwards presented him with a tiepin . In October Formby appeared in his second Royal Command Performance of the year , in a charity show organised by the French actress Sarah Bernhardt . He took part in two acts : a performance of " Ten Little Nigger Boys All in a Row " , alongside other music hall entertainers including Robey , Mark Sheridan , Cicely Courtneidge and George Graves , followed by a short solo piece .
In March 1914 Formby appeared in No Fool Like an Old Fool , a 20 @-@ minute long silent comedy film , which is thought to be lost ; it was his only film appearance , and little is known about the plot or his character . When the First World War broke out in August that year , he tried to enlist , but was turned down on medical grounds ; instead he , like many music hall stars , was active in the recruiting campaign for the army and spoke at rallies , particularly on behalf of the Derby Scheme .
Formby was always worried that his son George would watch him on stage , as he did not wish the boy to become a comic , saying " one fool in the family is enough " . Nevertheless , although he had sent George away to train as a jockey , in 1915 he allowed his son to appear on screen , taking the lead part of a stable boy in By the Shortest of Heads , a thriller directed by Bert Haldane . After the filming , Formby sent his son to Ireland , to continue his jockey training , and also sent the five horses Formby had purchased that year , which joined others he had previously bought .
= = = Worsening health , and death : 1916 – 21 = = =
Formby was injured in June 1916 during rehearsals for the revue Razzle @-@ Dazzle , after a stage collapsed onto him at the Theatre Royal , Drury Lane . He suffered lung damage and was treated for a pulmonary haemorrhage at Guy 's Hospital before recovering . Although he was the lead in the show , the premiere took place without him ; it was criticised by reviewers , and The Observer thought that " some of it seemed to have strayed in by mistake out of a second @-@ rate provincial pantomime " . Formby returned within a week and the reviews were more positive , with The Observer stating that it was " one of the successes of the season ... Razzle @-@ Dazzle is now one of the liveliest revues in London , and the most spectacular " . By August the production had transferred to the Empire Theatre , Leicester Square .
The damage to Formby 's lungs from the accident was exacerbated by tuberculosis , and he began to miss an increasing number of his appearances . In 1917 the Southport Palladium took court action against him for failing to fulfil a theatrical engagement as contracted , whereupon his lawyer said that Formby was dying of the lung disease and was working for the short time he had left for the benefit of his large family . Formby lost the case : his plea of ill @-@ health was compromised by his accepting an engagement elsewhere at the same time .
Formby 's health was further damaged in the influenza pandemic of 1918 , during which he contracted the disease while appearing at the Manchester Hippodrome and was unable to work for a month . He was taken ill during the runs of pantomimes in both 1918 and 1919 , was forced to rest for three months in 1919 , and collapsed on stage during a performance in Newcastle upon Tyne in the 1920 – 21 pantomime season . Formby was advised by doctors to emigrate to South Africa for the benefit of his health , but he preferred to stay in Britain , with his wife and children , and continued to work . During his performances his wife would wait in the wings with ice for him to suck to stop internal bleeding , and an oxygen tent was present in the stage wings ready for emergencies .
In early 1921 Formby was appearing at the Newcastle Empire in Jack and Jill when he collapsed after a show . He returned to his home near Warrington , where he died of pulmonary tuberculosis on 8 February , at the age of 45 . He was buried in a family plot in the Catholic section of Warrington Cemetery . He left over £ 25 @,@ 000 in his will , listing Eliza as executrix . As their marriage had been bigamous , he described her as " my reputed wife Eliza Ann Booth , otherwise Eliza Ann Hoy " .
The obituarist for The Manchester Guardian wrote that Formby was one of the " great drolls " of the music hall whose humour " always seemed to take its rise in a sympathetic perception of human vanities and weaknesses " . The Dundee Courier considered him a great comedian , made all the greater by his continuing to perform through his illness , while the drama critic J. T. Grein , writing in The Illustrated London News , thought that Formby , " along with [ Harry ] Lauder , Robey and [ Albert ] Chevalier , formed the leading quartette [ sic ] of the profession " .
= = Stage persona and technique = =
Formby was the first comic to use a delayed entrance as a joke to make the audience laugh before he arrived : his orchestra played his entrance music , and then he failed to appear on stage . His act included songs , described by Smart and Bothway Howard as " characteristically simple , some with tunes derived from Methodist hymns , and with catchy choruses " , and he would chat to the orchestra conductor and front rows , punctuating his stage patter — delivered in a deadpan style — with his cough . He used his health — particularly the coughing — as part of his act , and would say that he was " Coughin ' well tonight ! " He also created the phrase " It 's not the cough that carries you off – it 's the coffin they carries you off in ! " One of Formby 's nicknames , " The Wigan Nightingale " was coined because of the way he used his bronchial cough in his act .
The " John Willie " character , like much of Formby 's act , used pathos as one of the comedic drivers , " but it was not contrived and was never mawkish " , according to Alan Randall and Ray Seaton , two of Formby Jnr 's biographers . In his examination of British screen stars , Geoffrey Macnab agrees , and identifies that although Formby 's jokes were about himself , " there was grit in the routines , a resolute denial of self @-@ pity " . The Times examined the performer 's style of humour , and considered it " often crude , and always simple , but it was always true humour , and , what is more , it was invariably clean . "
Much of Formby 's humour was based in his north western roots , particularly Wigan , which he told people was where he was born , rather than Ashton . He would refer to taking his holidays at Wigan Pier , which was a small wooden platform on the Leeds and Liverpool Canal for loading coal , rather than a pleasure pier . The Manchester Guardian called him " Lancashire 's accredited representative on the London variety stage ... clown @-@ satirist of genius " .
When he performed in London , Formby would change his act , introducing himself as " Good evening , I 'm Formby fra ' Wigan ... I 've not been in England long " ; he slightly modified his stage persona , and he played " the naïve boy trying to fit in with the sophisticated south " . Smart and Boothroyd consider that " the contrast between his northern accent and metropolitan bravado was humorous , and the more urbane and sophisticated his audience the more George exaggerated his provincial gormlessness " .
= = Legacy = =
Six weeks after Formby 's death , his son George first appeared on stage in a copy of his father 's act ; he initially appeared under the name George Hoy — using his mother 's maiden name — but soon took his father 's stage name . Formby Jnr went on to become the top British male star in box office takings between 1937 and 1943 , and the highest @-@ paid entertainer in Britain .
Chaplin , who derived some of his stage persona from Formby 's , sailed in 1908 with Karno 's troupe to the United States , where he developed the character of the Tramp , the image of which became universally familiar by 1915 . George Orwell later used Formby 's humorous concept of " Wigan Pier " in the title of his 1937 study of depression and unemployment in the area , The Road to Wigan Pier .
Formby also left over 190 recordings , and after his death The Times commented , " There cannot be many people who have not heard at some time in their lives either the words or the refrain of ' John Willie – Come On ' , ' One of the Boys ' , ' I was Standing on the Corner of the Street ' , or ' Playing the Game in the West ' " , songs described by Fisher as " afizz with gaiety and champagne " .
In October 1922 a large marble memorial was unveiled at the site of Formby 's grave , in the presence of Formby Jnr , Eliza and a large crowd . The memorial later became the resting place for both Formby Jnr and Eliza . In June 2012 a blue plaque was unveiled at Hodgson Street , Ashton , Formby 's birthplace .
= Japanese aircraft carrier Hiryū =
Hiryū ( 飛龍 , " Flying Dragon " ) was an aircraft carrier built for the Imperial Japanese Navy ( IJN ) during the 1930s . The only ship of her class , she was built to a modified Sōryū design . Her aircraft supported the Japanese invasion of French Indochina in mid @-@ 1940 . During the first month of the Pacific War , she took part in the attack on Pearl Harbor and the Battle of Wake Island . The ship supported the conquest of the Dutch East Indies in January 1942 . The following month , her aircraft bombed Darwin , Australia , and continued to assist in the Dutch East Indies campaign . In April , Hiryū 's aircraft helped sink two British heavy cruisers and several merchant ships during the Indian Ocean raid .
After a brief refit , Hiryū and three other fleet carriers of the First Air Fleet ( Kido Butai ) participated in the Battle of Midway in June 1942 . After bombarding American forces on the atoll , the carriers were attacked by aircraft from Midway and the carriers USS Enterprise , Hornet , and Yorktown . Dive bombers from Yorktown and Enterprise crippled Hiryū and set her afire . She was scuttled the following day after it became clear that she could not be salvaged . The loss of Hiryū and three other IJN carriers at Midway was a crucial strategic defeat for Japan and contributed significantly to the Allies ' ultimate victory in the Pacific .
= = Design = =
Hiryū was one of two large carriers approved for construction under the 1931 – 32 Supplementary Program . Originally designed as the sister ship of Sōryū , her design was enlarged and modified in light of the Tomozuru and Fourth Fleet Incidents in 1934 – 35 that revealed many IJN ships were top @-@ heavy , unstable and structurally weak . Her forecastle was raised and her hull strengthened . Other changes involved increasing her beam , displacement , and armor protection .
The ship had a length of 227 @.@ 4 meters ( 746 ft 1 in ) overall , a beam of 22 @.@ 3 meters ( 73 ft 2 in ) and a draft of 7 @.@ 8 meters ( 25 ft 7 in ) . She displaced 17 @,@ 600 metric tons ( 17 @,@ 300 long tons ) at standard load and 20 @,@ 570 metric tons ( 20 @,@ 250 long tons ) at normal load . Her crew consisted of 1 @,@ 100 officers and enlisted men .
= = = Machinery = = =
Hiryū was fitted with four geared steam turbine sets with a total of 153 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 114 @,@ 000 kW ) , each driving one propeller shaft , using steam provided by eight Kampon water @-@ tube boilers . The turbines and boilers were the same as those used in the Mogami @-@ class cruisers . The ship 's power and slim , cruiser @-@ type hull with a length @-@ to @-@ beam ratio of 10 : 1 gave her a speed of 34 @.@ 3 knots ( 63 @.@ 5 km / h ; 39 @.@ 5 mph ) and made her the fastest carrier in the world at the time of her commissioning . Hiryū carried 4 @,@ 500 metric tons ( 4 @,@ 400 long tons ) of fuel oil which gave her a range of 10 @,@ 330 nautical miles ( 19 @,@ 130 km ; 11 @,@ 890 mi ) at 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) . The boiler uptakes were trunked to the ship 's starboard side amidships and exhausted just below flight deck level through two funnels curved downward .
= = = Flight deck and hangars = = =
The carrier 's 216 @.@ 9 @-@ meter ( 711 ft 7 in ) flight deck was 27 @.@ 0 meters ( 88 ft 6 in ) wide and overhung her superstructure at both ends , supported by pairs of pillars . Hiryū was one of only two carriers ever built whose island was on the port side of the ship ( Akagi was the other ) . It was also positioned further to the rear and encroached on the width of the flight deck , unlike Sōryū . Nine transverse arrestor wires were installed on the flight deck that could stop a 6 @,@ 000 @-@ kilogram ( 13 @,@ 000 lb ) aircraft . One group of three wires was positioned further forward to allow the ship to land aircraft over the bow , although this was never done in practice . The flight deck was only 12 @.@ 8 meters ( 42 ft ) above the waterline and the ship 's designers kept this figure low by reducing the height of the hangars . The upper hangar was 171 @.@ 3 by 18 @.@ 3 meters ( 562 by 60 ft ) and had an approximate height of 4 @.@ 6 meters ( 15 ft ) ; the lower was 142 @.@ 3 by 18 @.@ 3 meters ( 467 by 60 ft ) and had an approximate height of 4 @.@ 3 meters ( 14 ft ) . Together they had an approximate total area of 5 @,@ 736 square meters ( 61 @,@ 740 sq ft ) . This caused problems in handling aircraft because the wings of a Nakajima B5N " Kate " torpedo bomber could neither be spread nor folded in the upper hangar .
Aircraft were transported between the hangars and the flight deck by three elevators , the forward one abreast the island on the centerline and the other two offset to starboard . The forward platform measured 16 @.@ 0 by 13 @.@ 0 meters ( 52 @.@ 5 ft × 42 @.@ 75 ft ) , the middle one 13 @.@ 0 by 12 @.@ 0 meters ( 42 @.@ 75 ft × 39 @.@ 3 ft ) , and the rear 11 @.@ 8 by 13 @.@ 0 meters ( 38 @.@ 7 ft × 42 @.@ 8 ft ) . They were capable of transferring aircraft weighing up to 5 @,@ 000 kilograms ( 11 @,@ 000 lb ) . Hiryū had a designed aircraft capacity of 64 , plus nine spares .
= = = Armament = = =
Hiryū 's primary anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) armament consisted of six twin @-@ gun mounts equipped with 40 @-@ caliber 12 @.@ 7 @-@ centimeter Type 89 dual @-@ purpose guns mounted on projecting sponsons , three on either side of the carrier 's hull . When firing at surface targets , the guns had a range of 14 @,@ 700 meters ( 16 @,@ 100 yd ) ; they had a maximum ceiling of 9 @,@ 440 meters ( 30 @,@ 970 ft ) at their maximum elevation of + 90 degrees . Their maximum rate of fire was 14 rounds a minute , but their sustained rate of fire was approximately eight rounds per minute . The ship was equipped with two Type 94 fire @-@ control directors to control the 12 @.@ 7 @-@ centimeter ( 5 @.@ 0 in ) guns , one for each side of the ship ; the starboard @-@ side director was on top of the island and the other director was positioned below flight deck level on the port side .
The ship 's light AA armament consisted of seven triple and five twin @-@ gun mounts for license @-@ built Hotchkiss 25 mm Type 96 AA guns . Two of the triple mounts were sited on a platform just below the forward end of the flight deck . The gun was the standard Japanese light AA gun during World War II , but it suffered from severe design shortcomings that rendered it largely ineffective . According to historian Mark Stille , the weapon had many faults including an inability to " handle high @-@ speed targets because it could not be trained or elevated fast enough by either hand or power , its sights were inadequate for high @-@ speed targets , it possessed excessive vibration and muzzle blast , and its magazines were too small to maintain high rates of fire " . These 25 @-@ millimeter ( 1 in ) guns had an effective range of 1 @,@ 500 – 3 @,@ 000 meters ( 1 @,@ 600 – 3 @,@ 300 yd ) , and an effective ceiling of 5 @,@ 500 meters ( 18 @,@ 000 ft ) at an elevation of + 85 degrees . The maximum effective rate of fire was only between 110 and 120 rounds per minute because of the frequent need to change the fifteen @-@ round magazines . The Type 96 guns were controlled by five Type 95 directors , two on each side and one in the bow .
= = = Armor = = =
Hiryū had a waterline belt with a maximum thickness of 150 millimeters ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) over the magazines that reduced to 90 millimeters ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) over the machinery spaces and the avgas storage tanks . It was backed by an internal anti @-@ splinter bulkhead . The ship 's deck was 25 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) thick over the machinery spaces and 55 millimeters ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) thick over the magazines and avgas storage tanks .
= = Construction and service = =
Following the Japanese ship @-@ naming conventions for aircraft carriers , Hiryū was named " Flying Dragon " . The ship was laid down at the Yokosuka Naval Arsenal on 8 July 1936 , launched on 16 November 1937 and commissioned on 5 July 1939 . She was assigned to the Second Carrier Division on 15 November . In September 1940 , the ship 's air group was transferred to Hainan Island to support the Japanese invasion of French Indochina . In February 1941 , Hiryū supported the blockade of Southern China . Two months later , the 2nd Carrier Division , commanded by Rear Admiral Tamon Yamaguchi , was assigned to the First Air Fleet , or Kido Butai , on 10 April . Hiryū returned to Japan on 7 August and began a short refit that was completed on 15 September . She became flagship of the Second Division from 22 September to 26 October while Sōryū was refitting .
= = = Pearl Harbor and subsequent operations = = =
In November 1941 , the IJN 's Combined Fleet , commanded by Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto , prepared to participate in Japan 's initiation of a formal war with the United States by conducting a preemptive strike against the United States Navy 's Pacific Fleet base at Pearl Harbor , Hawaii . On 22 November , Hiryū , commanded by Captain Tomeo Kaku , and the rest of the Kido Butai , under Vice Admiral Chuichi Nagumo and including six fleet carriers from the First , Second , and Fifth Carrier Divisions , assembled in Hitokappu Bay at Etorofu Island . The fleet departed Etorofu on 26 November and followed a course across the north @-@ central Pacific to avoid commercial shipping lanes . Now the flagship of the Second Carrier Division , the ship embarked 21 Mitsubishi A6M Zero fighters , 18 Aichi D3A " Val " dive bombers , and 18 Nakajima B5N " Kate " torpedo bombers . From a position 230 nmi ( 430 km ; 260 mi ) north of Oahu , Hiryū and the other five carriers launched two waves of aircraft on the morning of 7 December 1941 Hawaiian time .
In the first wave , 8 B5N torpedo bombers were supposed to attack the aircraft carriers that normally berthed on the northwest side of Ford Island , but none were in Pearl Harbor that day ; 4 of the B5N pilots diverted to their secondary target , ships berthed alongside " 1010 Pier " where the fleet flagship was usually moored . That ship , the battleship Pennsylvania , was in drydock and its position was occupied by the light cruiser Helena and the minelayer Oglala ; all four torpedoes missed . The other four pilots attacked the battleships West Virginia and Oklahoma . The remaining 10 B5Ns were tasked to drop 800 @-@ kilogram ( 1 @,@ 800 lb ) armor @-@ piercing bombs on the battleships berthed on the southeast side of Ford Island ( " Battleship Row " ) and may have scored one or two hits on them , in addition to causing a magazine explosion aboard the battleship Arizona that sank her with heavy loss of life . The 6 A6M Zeros strafed parked aircraft at Marine Corps Air Station Ewa ( MCAS Ewa ) , claiming 22 aircraft destroyed .
The second wave consisted of 9 Zeros and 18 D3As , one of each aborting with mechanical problems . The former strafed Naval Air Station Kaneohe Bay before moving on to attack Bellows Army Airfield . They strafed the airfield , and shot down two Curtiss P @-@ 40 fighters attempting to take off when the Zeros arrived and a Boeing B @-@ 17 Flying Fortress heavy bomber that had earlier diverted from Hickam Army Airfield , and also destroyed a Stinson O @-@ 49 observation aircraft on the ground for the loss of one of their own . The fighters with remaining ammunition expended it strafing MCAS Ewa , the rendezvous point for the second @-@ wave fighters . The D3As attacked various ships in Pearl Harbor , but it is not possible to identify which aircraft attacked which ship . Two D3As from Hiryū were lost during the attack , one shot down by Second Lieutenant George Welch .
While returning to Japan after the attack , Vice Admiral Chūichi Nagumo , commander of the First Air Fleet , ordered that Sōryū and Hiryū be detached on 16 December to attack the defenders of Wake Island who had already defeated the first Japanese attack on the island . The two carriers reached the vicinity of the island on 21 December and launched 29 D3As and 2 B5Ns , escorted by 18 Zeros , to attack ground targets . They encountered no aerial opposition and launched 35 B5Ns and 6 A6M Zeros the following day . They were intercepted by the 2 surviving Grumman F4F Wildcat fighters of Marine Fighter Squadron VMF @-@ 211 . The Wildcats shot down 2 B5Ns before they were shot down by PO3c Isao Towara . The garrison surrendered the next day after Japanese troops were landed .
The carriers arrived at Kure on 29 December . They were assigned to the Southern Force on 8 January 1942 and departed four days later for the Dutch East Indies . The ships supported the invasion of the Palau Islands and the Battle of Ambon , attacking Allied positions on the island on 23 January with 54 aircraft . Four days later the carriers detached 18 Zeros and 9 D3As to operate from land bases in support of Japanese operations in the Battle of Borneo . Hiryū and Sōryū arrived at Palau on 28 January and waited for the arrival of the carriers Kaga and Akagi . All four carriers departed Palau on 15 February and launched air strikes against Darwin , Australia , four days later . Hiryū contributed 18 B5Ns , 18 D3As , and 9 Zeros to the attack . Her aircraft attacked the ships in port and its facilities , sinking or setting on fire three ships and damaging two others . The Zeros destroyed 1 P @-@ 40E as it was taking off , 2 Consolidated PBY Catalina seaplanes on the water , and a Zero was forced to crash land after being damaged by a P @-@ 40E of the United States Army Air Forces ( USAAF ) 33rd Pursuit Squadron .
Hiryū and the other carriers arrived at Staring Bay on Celebes Island on 21 February to resupply and rest before departing four days later to support the invasion of Java . On 1 March 1942 , the ship 's D3As damaged the destroyer USS Edsall badly enough for her to be caught and sunk by Japanese cruisers . Later that day the dive bombers sank the oil tanker USS Pecos . The four carriers launched an airstrike of 180 aircraft against Tjilatjep on 5 March and set the town on fire , sinking five small ships , and damaging nine others that later had to be scuttled . Two days later , they attacked Christmas Island and Hiryū 's aircraft sank the Dutch freighter Poelau Bras before returning to Staring Bay on 11 March to resupply and train for the impending Indian Ocean raid . This raid was intended to secure newly conquered Burma , Malaya , and the Dutch East Indies against any Allied attack by destroying base facilities and forces in the eastern Indian Ocean .
= = = Indian Ocean raid = = =
On 26 March , the five carriers of the First Air Fleet departed from Staring Bay ; they were spotted by a Catalina about 350 nautical miles ( 650 km ; 400 mi ) southeast of Ceylon on the morning of 4 April . Six of Hiryū 's Zeros were on Combat Air Patrol ( CAP ) and helped to shoot it down . Nagumo closed to within 120 nautical miles ( 220 km ; 140 mi ) of Colombo before launching an airstrike the next morning . Hiryū contributed 18 B3Ns and 9 Zeros to the force ; the latter encountered a flight of 6 Fairey Swordfish torpedo bombers from 788 Naval Air Squadron en route and shot them all down without loss . The Japanese aircraft encountered defending Hawker Hurricane fighters from Nos. 30 and 258 Squadrons RAF over Ratmalana airfield and Hiryū 's fighters claimed to have shot down 11 with 3 Zeros damaged , although the fighters from the other carriers also made claims . British losses were 21 Hurricanes shot down and 2 more forced to crash land . The D3As and B3Ns inflicted some damage to the port facilities , but a day 's warning had allowed much of the shipping in the harbor to be evacuated . The British were attempting to find Nagumo 's ships all morning and Hiryū 's Zeros on CAP over the fleet helped to shoot down an RAF Catalina , shot down a Fairey Albacore torpedo bomber and drove off another from the carrier Indomitable . Later that morning the British heavy cruisers Cornwall and Dorsetshire were spotted and Hiryū launched 18 D3As . They sank both ships in combination with the dive bombers from the other carriers .
On the morning of 9 April , Hiryū 's CAP shot down another Catalina attempting to locate the fleet and , later that morning , contributed 18 B5Ns , escorted by 6 Zeros , to the attack on Trincomalee . The fighters engaged 261 Squadron RAF , claiming to have shot down two with two more shared with fighters from the other carriers . British losses were only eight fighters , but the Japanese pilots claimed a total of 49 aircraft shot down when the RAF only had 16 Hurricanes in the fight . The British pilots shot down one of Hiryū 's B5Ns and forced another to crash land while they were bombing the port . Meanwhile , a floatplane from the battleship Haruna spotted the small aircraft carrier Hermes , escorted by the destroyer HMAS Vampire , and every available D3A was launched to attack the ships , escorted by nine Zeros . Hiryū contributed 18 dive bombers and 3 fighters , but they arrived too late to assist in sinking them and found two other ships further north . They sank the freighter RFA Athelstone and her escorting corvette , Hollyhock . While this was going on , Akagi narrowly escaped damage when 9 British Bristol Blenheim bombers from Ceylon penetrated the CAP and dropped their bombs from 11 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 400 m ) . Hiryū had eight Zeros aloft , along with 12 more from the other carriers , and collectively they accounted for 5 of the British bombers for the loss of 1 of Hiryū 's Zeros . The Blenheims ran into the D3As from Shōkaku , escorted by Hiryū 's Zeros , on their way back home and lost one more bomber to the Japanese aircraft . The dive bombers claimed to have shot down two Blenheims in conjunction with the Zeros , which claimed one on their own , for the loss of one Zero shot down by the bombers ' gunners and one D3A damaged . After launching the dive bombers that sank Hermes and the other ships , the First Air Fleet reversed course and headed southeast for the Malacca Strait and Japan .
On 19 April , while transiting the Bashi Straits between Taiwan and Luzon en route to Japan , Hiryū , Sōryū , and Akagi were sent in pursuit of the American carriers Hornet and Enterprise , which had launched the Doolittle Raid against Tokyo . They found only empty ocean , as the American carriers had immediately departed the area to return to Hawaii . The carriers quickly abandoned the chase and dropped anchor at Hashirajima anchorage on 22 April . Having been engaged in constant operations for four and a half months , the ship , along with the other three carriers of the First and Second Carrier Divisions , was hurriedly refitted and replenished in preparation for the Combined Fleet 's next major operation , scheduled to begin one month hence . While at Hashirajima , Hiryū 's air group was based ashore at Tomitaka Airfield , near Saiki , Ōita , and conducted flight and weapons training with the other First Air Fleet carrier units .
= = = Midway = = =
Concerned by the US carrier strikes in the Marshall Islands , Lae @-@ Salamaua , and the Doolittle raids , Yamamoto was determined to force the US Navy into a showdown to eliminate the American carrier threat . He decided to invade and occupy Midway Atoll , which he was sure would draw out the American carriers to defend it . The Japanese codenamed the Midway invasion Operation MI . Unknown to the Japanese , the US Navy had divined the Japanese plan by breaking its JN @-@ 25 code and had prepared an ambush using its three available carriers , positioned northeast of Midway .
On 25 May 1942 , Hiryū set out with the Combined Fleet 's carrier striking force in the company of Kaga , Akagi , and Sōryū , which constituted the First and Second Carrier Divisions , for the attack on Midway . Her aircraft complement consisted of 18 Zeros , 18 D3As , and 18 B5Ns . Also aboard were 3 A6Ms of the 6th Kōkūtai intended as the aerial garrison for Midway . With the fleet positioned 250 nmi ( 460 km ; 290 mi ) northwest of Midway at dawn ( 04 : 45 local time ) on 4 June 1942 , Hiryū 's portion of the 108 @-@ plane airstrike was an attack on the facilities on Sand Island with 18 torpedo bombers , 1 of which aborted with mechanical problems , escorted by nine Zeros . The air group suffered heavily during the attack : 2 B5Ns were shot down en route to the island , another was shot down by AA fire , 1 was forced to ditch on the trip back , another disappeared on the return trip and 5 were damaged beyond repair .
The carrier also contributed 3 Zeros to the total of 11 assigned to the initial CAP over the four carriers . By 07 : 05 , the carrier had 6 fighters with the CAP which helped to defend the Kido Butai from the first US attackers from Midway Island at 07 : 10 . At this time , Nagumo 's carriers were attacked by 6 US Navy Grumman TBF Avengers from Torpedo Squadron 8 ( VT @-@ 8 ) and 4 USAAC Martin B @-@ 26 Marauders , all carrying torpedoes . The Avengers went after Hiryū while the Marauders attacked Akagi . The 30 CAP Zeros in the air at this time , including the 6 from Hiryū , immediately attacked the American airplanes , shooting down 5 of the Avengers and 2 of the B @-@ 26s . The Avengers shot down 1 of Hiryū 's Zeros . The surviving aircraft dropped their torpedoes , but all missed .
At 07 : 15 , Nagumo ordered the B5Ns on Kaga and Akagi rearmed with bombs for another attack on Midway itself . This process was slowed by the number of ordnance carts used to handle the bombs and torpedoes and the limited number of ordnance elevators . This meant that the torpedoes could not be struck below until after all the bombs were moved up from their magazine , assembled and mounted on the aircraft . This process normally took about an hour and a half ; more time would be required to bring the aircraft up to the flight deck , and to warm up and launch the strike group . Around 07 : 40 , he reversed his order when he received a message from one of his scout aircraft that American warships had been spotted . Depleted of ammunition , two of Hiryū 's CAP Zeros landed aboard the carrier at 07 : 40 .
At 07 : 55 , the next American strike from Midway arrived in the form of 16 Marine Douglas SBD Dauntless dive bombers of Marine Scout Bomber Squadron ( VMSB @-@ 241 ) under Major Lofton R. Henderson . Hiryū 's 3 CAP fighters were among the 9 still aloft that attacked Henderson 's planes , shooting down 6 of them as they executed a fruitless glide bombing attack on Hiryū . In return , the gunner of one the Dauntlesses shot down one of Hiryū 's Zeros . At roughly the same time , the Japanese carriers were attacked by 12 USAAC B @-@ 17s , bombing from 20 @,@ 000 feet ( 6 @,@ 100 m ) . The high altitude of the B @-@ 17s gave the Japanese captains enough time to anticipate where the bombs would land , and they successfully maneuvered out of the impact area . Four B @-@ 17s attacked Hiryū , but missed with all their bombs .
Hiryū reinforced the CAP with launches of 3 more Zeros at 08 : 25 . These fresh Zeros helped defeat the next American air strike from Midway , 11 Vought SB2U Vindicator dive bombers from VMSB @-@ 241 , which attacked the battleship Haruna starting around 08 : 30 . Haruna escaped damage and 3 of the Vindicators were shot down . Although all the American air strikes had thus far caused negligible damage , they kept the Japanese carrier forces off @-@ balance as Nagumo endeavored to prepare a response to news , received at 08 : 20 , of the sighting of American carrier forces to his northeast .
Hiryū began recovering her Midway strike force at around 09 : 00 and finished shortly by 09 : 10 . The landed aircraft were quickly struck below , while the carriers ' crews began preparations to spot aircraft for the strike against the American carrier forces . The preparations were interrupted at 09 : 18 , when the first attacking American carrier aircraft were sighted . These consisted of 15 Douglas TBD Devastator torpedo bombers of VT @-@ 8 , led by Lieutenant Commander John C. Waldron from the Hornet . They attempted a torpedo attack on Soryū , but all of the American planes were shot down by the 18 CAP fighters , leaving one surviving aviator treading water .
Shortly afterwards , 14 Devastators from Torpedo Squadron 6 ( VT @-@ 6 ) from Enterprise , led by Lieutenant Commander Eugene E. Lindsey , attacked . Lindsey 's aircraft tried to sandwich Kaga , but the CAP , reinforced by 4 additional Zeros launched by Hiryū at 09 : 37 , shot down all but 4 of the Devastators , and Kaga dodged the torpedoes . Hiryū launched another trio of CAP Zeros at 10 : 13 after Torpedo Squadron 3 ( VT @-@ 3 ) from Yorktown was spotted . Two of her Zeros were shot down by Wildcats escorting VT @-@ 3 and another was forced to ditch .
While VT @-@ 3 was still attacking Hiryū , American dive bombers arrived over the Japanese carriers almost undetected and began their dives . It was at this time , around 10 : 20 , that in the words of Jonathan Parshall and Anthony Tully , the " Japanese air defenses would finally and catastrophically fail . " Three American dive bomber squadrons now attacked the three other carriers and set each of them on fire . Hiryū was untouched and proceeded to launch 18 D3As , escorted by 6 Zeros , at 10 : 54 and a second wave of 10 B5Ns , escorted by 6 Zeros , at 13 : 30 against the American carrier Yorktown . En route , the Zeros engaged a group of Enterprise 's Dauntlesses that they had spotted . They failed to shoot down any of the dive bombers , but two of the Zero were shot up by the bombers ' rear gunners , with one Zero forced to ditch near a destroyer . American radar detected the incoming Japanese dive bombers at 11 : 52 and vectored Yorktown 's CAP of 20 Wildcats against them . The Wildcats shot down three of the remaining Zeros for the loss of one of their own and engaged the D3As . Only seven of the dive bombers survived long enough to make their attack on Yorktown and two of those were shot down by flak during their dive , but they made three direct hits and two near misses that badly damaged the carrier and set her on fire .
The Americans had managed to extinguish her fires by 14 : 00 and Yorktown was making 19 knots ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) by 14 : 30 when the second group of Japanese aircraft launched from the Hiryū was approaching , low level torpedo bombers this time . They had been detected by the ship 's radar at 13 : 55 , but the CAP was held back until they got closer . Six Wildcats were on CAP duty and four were vectored toward the attacking aircraft while the other two were retained to cover the takeoff of the 10 Wildcats fueling on deck . The Japanese were jumped at 14 : 38 by two Wildcats which shot down one torpedo bomber before they were both shot down by the escorting Zeros . Two Zeros were shot down later for the loss of one Wildcat . Two more B5Ns were shot down before they could drop their torpedoes and three afterwards , but none of these aircraft hit the carrier . The last four torpedo bombers scored two hits ( one B5N had its torpedo @-@ release gear fail ) on Yorktown that damaged three boilers and knocked out all electrical power so that she could not pump fuel oil to starboard to counteract her six degree list to port . Seventeen minutes later , after the list increased to 23 degrees , the crew was ordered to abandon ship . Of the four Zeros and five B5Ns that returned to Hiryū , only one Zero and three dive bombers were still flight @-@ worthy .
Yamaguchi radioed his intention to Nagumo at 16 : 30 to launch a third strike against the American carriers at dusk ( approximately 18 : 00 ) , but Nagumo ordered the fleet to withdraw to the west . Unbeknownst to the Japanese , Enterprise and Hornet had already launched airstrikes well before then . Enterprise launched a total of 26 Dauntlesses at 15 : 25 using her own aircraft plus those from Yorktown that had been forced to recover aboard her after Yorktown was damaged , and Hornet launched 16 more of her own Dauntlesses at 16 : 00 . At this point in the battle , Hiryū had only 4 air @-@ worthy dive @-@ bombers and 5 torpedo @-@ planes left . She also retained 19 of her own fighters on board as well as a further 13 Zeros on CAP ( a composite force of survivors from the other carriers ) . At 16 : 45 , Enterprise 's dive bombers spotted the Japanese carrier and began to maneuver for good attacking position while reducing altitude . At 16 : 56 , just as the first Dauntlesses were beginning their dives , Nagumo ordered a change in course to 120 degrees , possibly to prepare to recover his reconnaissance floatplanes , that threw off the aim of the leading SBDs . The Japanese did not even spot the Americans until 17 : 01 . The CAP shot down two of the American aircraft in their dives and another after it was forced to abort its dive when some of Yorktown 's SBDs passed in front of it starting their own dives . Hiryū was struck by four 1 @,@ 000 @-@ pound ( 450 kg ) bombs , three on the forward flight deck and one on the forward elevator . The explosions started fires among the aircraft on the hangar deck . The forward half of the flight deck collapsed into the hangar while part of the elevator was hurled against the ship 's bridge . The fires were severe enough that the remaining American aircraft attacked the other ships escorting Hiryū , albeit without effect , deeming further attacks on the carrier as a waste of time because she was aflame from stem to stern . Beginning at 17 : 42 , two groups of B @-@ 17s attempted to attack the Japanese ships without success , although one bomber strafed Hiryū 's flight deck , killing several anti @-@ aircraft gunners .
Although Hiryū 's propulsion was not affected , the fires could not be brought under control . At 21 : 23 , her engines stopped , and at 23 : 58 a major explosion rocked the ship . The order to abandon ship was given at 03 : 15 , and the survivors were taken off by the destroyers Kazagumo and Makigumo . Yamaguchi and Kaku decided to remain on board as Hiryū was torpedoed at 05 : 10 by Makigumo as the ship could not be salvaged . One torpedo missed and the other struck near the bow without the typical plume of water , although the detonation was quite visible . Around 07 : 00 , one of Hōshō 's Yokosuka B4Y aircraft discovered Hiryū still afloat and not in any visible danger of sinking . The aviators could also see crewmen aboard the carrier , men who had not received word to abandon ship . They finally launched some of the carrier 's boats and abandoned ship themselves around 09 : 00 . Thirty @-@ nine men made it into the ship 's cutter only moments before Hiryū sank around 09 : 12 , taking the bodies of 389 men with her . The cutter drifted for 14 days before being discovered by a Catalina and rescued by the seaplane tender USS Ballard . Four men died of their wounds or exposure before being picked up and a fifth died that night .
The loss of Hiryū and the three other IJN carriers at Midway , comprising two thirds of Japan 's total number of fleet carriers and the experienced core of the First Air Fleet , was a strategic defeat for Japan and contributed significantly to Japan 's ultimate defeat in the war . In an effort to conceal the defeat , the ship was not immediately removed from the Navy 's registry of ships , instead being listed as " unmanned " before finally being struck from the registry on 25 September 1942 .
The IJN selected a modified version of the Hiryū design for mass production to replace the carriers lost at the Battle of Midway . Of a planned program of 16 ships of the Unryū class , only six were laid down and three were commissioned before the end of the war .
= Pipe Dream ( musical ) =
Pipe Dream is the seventh musical by the team of Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein II ; it premiered on Broadway on November 30 , 1955 . The work is based on John Steinbeck 's short novel Sweet Thursday — Steinbeck wrote the novel , a sequel to Cannery Row , in the hope of having it adapted into a musical . Set in Monterey , California , the musical tells the story of the romance between Doc , a marine biologist , and Suzy , who in the novel is a prostitute ; her profession is only alluded to in the stage work . Pipe Dream was a flop and a financial disaster for Rodgers and Hammerstein .
Broadway producers Cy Feuer and Ernie Martin held the rights to Sweet Thursday and wanted Frank Loesser to compose a musical based on it . When Loesser proved unavailable , Feuer and Martin succeeded in interesting Rodgers and Hammerstein in the project . As Hammerstein adapted Sweet Thursday , he and Rodgers had concerns about featuring a prostitute as female lead and setting part of the musical in a bordello . They signed operatic diva Helen Traubel to play Fauna , the house madam .
As the show progressed through tryouts , Hammerstein repeatedly revised it , obscuring Suzy 's profession and the nature of Fauna 's house . Pipe Dream met with poor reviews , and rapidly closed once it exhausted its advance sale . It had no national tour or London production , and has rarely been presented since . No movie version of the show was made ; the Rodgers & Hammerstein Organization ( which licenses their works ) once hoped for a film version featuring the Muppets with Fauna played by Miss Piggy .
= = Inception = =
Following World War II , Cy Feuer and Ernie Martin started producing musicals together . Feuer was the former head of the music department at low @-@ budget Republic Pictures ; Martin was a television executive . Having secured the rights to the farce Charley 's Aunt , they produced it as the musical comedy Where 's Charley ? , with a score by Frank Loesser . Among the backers of Where 's Charley ? were Rodgers and Hammerstein , which helped secure additional investment . The show was a hit and helped establish Feuer and Martin on Broadway — they would go on to produce Guys and Dolls .
In the aftermath of Guys and Dolls 's success , Feuer and Martin were interested in adapting John Steinbeck 's 1945 novel Cannery Row into a musical . They felt that some of the characters , such as marine biologist Doc , would work well in a musical , but that many of the other characters would not . Steinbeck suggested that he write a sequel to Cannery Row that would feature the characters attractive to Feuer and Martin . Based on suggestions for the story line by Feuer and Martin , Steinbeck began to write Sweet Thursday .
Cannery Row is set in Monterey , California , before World War II . In Sweet Thursday , Doc returns from the war to find Cannery Row almost deserted and many of his colorful friends gone . Even his close friend Dora , who ran the Bear Flag Restaurant , a whorehouse , has died , and her sister Fauna has taken her place as madam . A former social worker , Fauna teaches the girls how to set a table properly , hopeful they will marry wealthy men . Doc 's friends Mack ( Mac in Pipe Dream ) and Hazel ( both men ) are still around . They decide Doc 's discontent is due to loneliness , and try to get him together with Suzy , a prostitute who has just arrived in Monterey . The two have a brief romance ; disgusted by her life as a hooker , Suzy leaves the bawdy house and moves into an abandoned boiler . She decides she cannot stay with Doc , but tells her friends that if Doc fell ill , she would care for him . The accommodating Hazel promptly breaks Doc 's arm as he sleeps , bringing the two lovers back together . At the end , Doc and Suzy go off to La Jolla to collect marine specimens together .
Originally , Feuer , Martin and Steinbeck intended the work to be composed by Loesser , but he was busy with a project which eventually became The Most Happy Fella . With Loesser 's refusal , Feuer and Martin approached Rodgers and Hammerstein with their project , then titled The Bear Flag Café . From the beginning , the prudish Hammerstein was uncomfortable with the setting , telling Feuer " We do family shows . " However , Hammerstein found himself attracted to the characters . Doc and Suzy were culturally mismatched but drawn to each other , with Doc rather moody and Suzy somewhat intense . Similar pairings had led to success , not only in the pair 's Carousel and South Pacific , but in Hammerstein 's work before his collaboration with Rodgers , such as The Desert Song and Rose @-@ Marie . During early 1953 , Steinbeck sent Hammerstein early drafts of the novel . Rodgers was also concerned about the idea of having a prostitute be the female lead , but eventually gave in . The two agreed to write and produce the adaptation .
As they worked with Steinbeck , Rodgers and Hammerstein , though renowned for such hits as Oklahoma ! , Carousel , and South Pacific , suffered a relative failure with the 1953 musical Me and Juliet , a tale of romance among the cast and stagehands backstage at a musical . Before agreeing to do the Sweet Thursday project , the duo had considered other projects for their next work together , such as an adaptation of the film Saratoga Trunk . A proposal made by attorney David Merrick to adapt a series of works by Marcel Pagnol to which Merrick held the stage rights fell through when the duo were not willing to have Merrick be an associate producer ; Merrick took the project elsewhere , and it was developed into the hit Fanny . Afterwards , Hammerstein stated , " Why the hell did we give up Fanny ? What on earth were we trying to prove ? My God , that 's a great story and look at some of the junk we 've done ! "
= = Writing and casting = =
Steinbeck continued to write in late 1953 while Hammerstein and Rodgers went to London to produce the West End production of The King and I. As Hammerstein received new material from Steinbeck , he and Rodgers began to map out the musical , conceiving scenes and deciding where songs should be placed . On January 1 , 1954 , following the completion of Steinbeck 's novel , Hammerstein began to write dialogue and lyrics . Sweet Thursday was published in early 1954 to mixed reviews . Steinbeck later commented , " Some of the critics are so concerned for my literary position that they can 't read a book of mine without worrying where it will fit in my place in history . Who gives a damn ? " By that time , Rodgers and Hammerstein were busy producing the film version of Oklahoma !
For the part of bordello @-@ keeper Fauna , the duo fixed on the famous diva , Helen Traubel . There was precedent for such casting — former opera star Ezio Pinza had starred as suave Frenchman Emile de Becque in South Pacific , and had received rave reviews for his performance . Traubel , in addition to being well known for her Wagnerian roles , was also noted for her nightclub singing . In 1953 , the new Metropolitan Opera impresario , Rudolf Bing , feeling that she was lowering the tone of the house , declined to renew her contract . Hammerstein had seen Traubel at her first appearance at the Copacabana nightclub in New York , and afterwards had gone backstage to predict to Traubel that she would be coming straight to Broadway . He saw her show again in Las Vegas several months later , and offered her the part . When offered the role , Traubel eagerly accepted , though she later noted that she had never represented herself as much of an actress .
From the beginning of the project , Feuer and Martin wanted Henry Fonda to play Doc . The actor put in months of lessons in an attempt to bring his voice up to standard . Fonda later stated that at the end of six months of singing lessons , he " still couldn 't sing for shit " . Following his first audition for Rodgers , Fonda asked the composer for his honest view , and Rodgers stated , " I 'm sorry , it would be a mistake . "
Cy Feuer remembered :
So finally , after we go through all this , we turn [ Fonda ] over to Rodgers and Hammerstein and he 's out . Oscar didn 't want Fonda because Fonda was his son @-@ in @-@ law and besides Dick said , " I have to have singers , " and he hires Helen Traubel to play the madam and she turns out to get top billing and Doc is now the second lead !
The duo eventually settled for William Johnson , who had played the male lead in a touring company of Annie Get Your Gun , which they had produced , to play the role of Doc .
There are conflicting accounts of who was the first choice for the role of the itinerant prostitute , Suzy . By some accounts , Rodgers and Hammerstein attempted to get Julie Andrews , only to find that she had just signed a two @-@ year contract to appear in a musical by Alan Jay Lerner and Frederick Loewe , tentatively titled My Lady Liza . Andrews 's role , as Eliza Doolittle in My Fair Lady , would launch her to stardom . Another candidate was Janet Leigh , whom Rodgers admired greatly , but the actress proved to be unavailable . The producers settled on Judy Tyler , auditioned after Rodgers spotted her on television while watching The Howdy Doody Show , in which she appeared as Princess Summerfall Winterspring .
To direct the play , the duo engaged Harold Clurman , noted for his work in drama and one of the founders of the Group Theatre . Jo Mielziner , veteran of several Rodgers and Hammerstein productions , was the stage designer . In contrast to the complex staging of Me and Juliet , Mielziner 's sets were uncomplicated , a system of house @-@ frame outlines in front of backdrops representing Monterey . Boris Runanin was the choreographer , Robert Russell Bennett provided orchestrations , and Salvatore Dell 'Isola conducted . The two producers had hoped to hire the prestigious Majestic Theatre , where South Pacific had run , but the writing process took too long , and the Majestic was lost to Fanny . Instead , they booked the Shubert Theatre , in the top rank of Broadway theatres , but not as prestigious as the Majestic . Uniquely for their joint work , they solicited no backers , but underwrote the entire cost themselves . Feuer later said of the bargain he and Martin had made with Rodgers and Hammerstein , " And the deal was pretty good : 50 percent of the producers ' end . And we thought , We 're rich ! And we turned it over to them and they destroyed it . "
= = Rehearsals and tryouts = =
When rehearsals opened in September 1955 , Rodgers assembled the cast and told them that he was going into the hospital for a minor operation . In fact , Rodgers had been diagnosed with cancer of the
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jawbone . He spent the weekend before the operation writing one final song for Pipe Dream . The surgery required removal of part of the jawbone and tongue , and some of the lymph nodes . The operation took place on September 21 , 1955 ; within ten days of the operation he was back in the theatre watching rehearsals , though for some time only as a spectator .
After rehearsals began , Steinbeck wrote to Hammerstein to express his delight at the adaptation . He became more dismayed as the play was slowly revised in rehearsal and during the tryouts . According to Traubel , the play was being " cleaned up ... as scene after scene became emasculated " . The revisions made Suzy 's profession less clear , and also fudged the nature of Fauna 's house . One revision removed Suzy 's police record for " vagrancy " . These changes were sparked by the fact that audience members at the tryouts in New Haven and Boston were uncomfortable with the setting and Suzy 's role ; by the time the revisions were completed , the script could be read to say that Suzy was merely boarding at Fauna 's .
Steinbeck noted this tendency on a page of dialogue changes :
" One of the most serious criticisms is the uncertainty of Suzy 's position in the Bear Flag . It 's either a whore house , or it isn 't . Suzy either took a job there , or she didn 't . The play doesn 't give satisfaction here and it leaves an audience wondering . My position is that she took the job all right but she wasn 't any good at it . In the book , Fauna explains that Suzy 's no good as a hustler because she 's got a streak of lady in her . I wish we could keep this thought because it explains a lot in a short time . "
In another memo , Steinbeck noted that the pathos of Suzy being a prostitute had given much of the dramatic tension to the scene in which Doc rejects Suzy , and later , her rejection of him . " I think if you will finally bring the theme of this play into the open , but wide open , you will have solved its great weakness and have raised it to a high level ... If this is not done , I can neither believe nor take Pipe Dream seriously . "
In the end , Suzy 's activities at the Bear Flag were glossed over , as Hammerstein concentrated on her relationship with Doc . Alluding to Hammerstein 's emphasis on the scene in which Suzy makes Doc soup after Hazel breaks his arm , Steinbeck stated , " You 've turned my prostitute into a visiting nurse ! "
= = Plot = =
The action of the play is in the mid @-@ 1950s , and takes place on Cannery Row in Monterey , California . In the Steinbeck book which forms the basis for the musical , the Bear Flag is a bordello and Suzy a prostitute . This is alluded to in the musical , but never expressed outright .
= = = Act 1 = = =
In the early morning hours , marine biologist Doc is already at work in his one @-@ man Western Biological Laboratory , getting an order of starfish ready to be shipped to a university . His unintelligent friend Hazel ( a man ) comes in to chat with him ( " All Kinds of People " ) . Millicent , a wealthy young lady , enters from the next room , where she has been spending ( part of ) the night with Doc . Mac , another friend of Doc , brings in Suzy , who has injured her hand breaking a window to steal some donuts . Doc , whose lack of a medical degree does not stop the denizens of Cannery Row from seeking him out for treatment , bandages her hand , as the irritated Millicent leaves . Suzy , new in town , is curious about Doc 's work ( " The Tide Pool " ) and tells about her journey from San Francisco ( " Everybody 's Got a Home but Me " ) . Fauna , who runs the nearby Bear Flag Café — an establishment open even at this hour — had heard that a new girl in town had injured herself , and has come to talk to Suzy . Fauna is initially reluctant to invite Suzy into the Bear Flag , but when Jim , the local plainclothes cop gives Suzy a hard time , Fauna takes Suzy in . Suzy is fully aware of what kind of a place it is .
The Palace Flophouse , where Mac , Hazel , and other locals reside , is a storage shed behind the Chinese store now owned by Joe the Mexican , and the Flophouse residents muse on their awkward path through life ( " A Lopsided Bus " ) . Fauna comes by briefly to tell Hazel that she has run his " horror scope " and that he will one day be President . The Flophouse boys have a problem : Joe the Mexican acts unaware that he owns the shed ; he has not appeared to either demand rent or to kick them out . They would like to know whether Joe is aware of his ownership , without tipping him off . The boys come up with the idea of raffling off their shed , with the raffle rigged so that Doc , who would not kick them out , will be the winner . The prize money will allow Doc to buy the microscope he needs for his scientific work . They sound out Joe about the scheme ; he offers to sell tickets in his store and displays no awareness that he owns the shed .
Suzy and Doc are attracted to each other ; she has in fact been quietly tidying his rooms while he is down at the tide pool catching specimens ( " The Man I Used to Be " ) . Fauna tries to persuade Doc , who is very successful with the ladies , to woo Suzy . When Doc is dismissive , Fauna explains that she wants to get Suzy out of the Bear Flag when it is taken over for the night by a private party . Doc agrees to take Suzy out and treat her like a lady . Fauna goes back to the Bear Flag ( " Sweet Thursday " ) , and works to give Suzy confidence ( " Suzy is a Good Thing " ) . Doc and Suzy 's date is the source of great interest to the people of Cannery Row . Both are nervous ; Doc wears an unaccustomed necktie , while Suzy tries to act like a lady , but her polish wears thin at times . ( " All At Once You Love Her " ) . At the end of the meal , they decide to continue the evening on a secluded sand dune .
= = = Act 2 = = =
The next morning , the girls of the Bear Flag are exhausted ; the members of the private party wore them out . They wonder how Suzy 's date with Doc went . Although it is only July , Fauna is busy ordering the Bear Flag 's Christmas cards ( " The Happiest House on the Block " ) . Suzy comes in and tells Fauna of the date ; that Doc made no pass at her , and that Doc confided how lonely he is . She is convinced Doc " don 't need nobody like me " ; he needs a wife . Fauna is encouraging , but Suzy believes that Doc , knowing what he does of her history and work , will not want her . The Flophouse is to host a fancy dress party the following night , at which the raffle is to take place — Fauna proposes that at the party , Suzy sing " Will You Marry Me ? " to Doc . Suzy is still nervous ; Fauna reminds her that the previous night , Doc did not treat her like a tramp , and she did not act like one . As word spreads of the celebration , the community becomes enthusiastic about the get @-@ together ( " The Party That We 're Gonna Have Tomorrow Night " )
At the Flophouse , a wild celebration takes place . Fauna , at first in the costume of a witch , seems to transform her costume into that of a Fairy Godmother . After some sleight of hand with the tickets , Doc wins the raffle , to the surprise of some . When Suzy comes out in a white bride 's dress and sings her lines , Doc is unimpressed , and Suzy is humiliated . As both stalk off in opposite directions , the party disintegrates into a brawl .
Suzy gets a job at a burger joint , and moves into an abandoned boiler , with entry through the attached pipe . Doc is unhappy , and Hazel decides something has to be done ( " Thinkin ' " ) . He is unable to come up with an answer , and eventually forgets the question . Some weeks pass , and Joe the Mexican woos Suzy . He has no success , and his attempts irritate Doc . The next day , Doc himself approaches the pipe with flowers in hand ( " How Long ? " ) , still uncertain as to why he is seeking a girl like Suzy . Suzy lets him in the boiler , which she has fitted up in a homelike manner . She is doing well at the burger joint , but is grateful to Fauna for giving her confidence . She is confident enough , indeed , to reject Doc , who is unhappy , but philosophical ( " The Next Time It Happens " ) .
Hazel sees Doc even more dispirited than before , and asks Suzy for an explanation . Suzy says that she is not willing to go over and be with Doc , but " if he was sick or if he bust his leg or an arm or something " , she would go to him and bring him soup . The wheels in Hazel 's head begin unaccustomed turnings , and sometime later when Mac passes Hazel on the street , Mac is surprised to see his friend carrying a baseball bat . When the scene returns to Doc 's lab , he is receiving treatment from a real doctor and trying to puzzle out how he broke his arm . Suzy comes in , and makes soup for him as Hazel and Mac take turns watching at the keyhole . Doc admits that he needs and loves Suzy , and they embrace . As Fauna and the girls arrive , so do the other Flophouse boys , and Mac gives Doc what was bought with the raffle money — the largest ( tele ) scope in the catalog . ( " Finale " )
= = Musical numbers = =
= = Productions = =
Pipe Dream premiered on Broadway on November 30 , 1955 , at the Shubert Theatre , with Helen Traubel as Fauna , William Johnson as Doc , Judy Tyler as Suzy , George D. Wallace as Mac and Mike Kellin as Hazel . The show had received the largest advance ticket sale in Broadway history to that point , $ 1 @.@ 2 million . Some of Steinbeck 's ill @-@ feeling was removed on the second night , which he attended and then went backstage to greet the cast . After a celebratory dinner at Sardi 's during which the manager sent champagne to his table , he said to his wife Elaine , " Isn 't the theatre marvelous ? " The author held no grudge ; he later told Hammerstein that he accepted that Rodgers and Hammerstein were ultimately responsible for the show and had the right to make changes .
Rodgers and Hammerstein had not permitted group sales , so @-@ called " theatre parties " for their shows . They lifted the ban for Pipe Dream , and pre @-@ sold theatre party sales helped keep the show going , as there were few sales after opening night given the dismal reviews . More than 70 performances were entirely sold to groups . In March 1956 , in a final attempt to save the show , Rodgers and Hammerstein revised it somewhat , moving several musical numbers . Traubel missed a number of performances due to illness , and left when her contract expired a few weeks before the show closed in June 1956 — she was replaced by Nancy Andrews . Traubel 's understudy , Ruth Kobart , played 42 of the show 's 245 performances .
Pipe Dream was nominated for nine Tony Awards ; it lost for best musical to the only other nominee , Damn Yankees . Alvin Colt was the sole winner , for Best Costume Design . Johnson died of a heart attack within a year of Pipe Dream 's closing ; Tyler died in an automobile accident during the same timespan . These tragedies convinced Traubel that there was a curse attached to Pipe Dream , and she began carrying good @-@ luck charms when she performed .
The poor reviews of Pipe Dream made a national tour or London run impractical . Subsequent productions have been extremely rare . In 1981 , a community theatre production of Pipe Dream was presented by the Conejo Players Theatre in Thousand Oaks , California . Los Angeles Times critic Dan Sullivan admired the small @-@ scale staging , but called the show " the emptiest musical that two geniuses ever wrote " and said of it , " imagine a song [ ' The Happiest House on the Block ' ] about a bawdyhouse which describes the goings @-@ on there after midnight as ' friendly , foolish and gay ' " . In 1995 and 2002 , 42nd Street Moon presented it as a staged concert . It was presented in March – April 2012 by New York City Center Encores ! , also as a staged concert ; the cast featured Will Chase ( Doc ) , Laura Osnes ( Suzy ) , Leslie Uggams ( Fauna ) , and Tom Wopat ( Mac ) . In July and August 2013 it was presented by London 's small Union Theatre , directed by Sasha Regan . No film version was contemplated in the authors ' lifetimes . The Rodgers & Hammerstein Organization , which licenses the pair 's works , proposed a film version with the Muppets . Humans would play Doc and Suzy ; Muppets would play the other roles — with Miss Piggy as Fauna .
= = Music and recordings = =
Despite the poor reviews of the musical , Rodgers was given credit for an imaginative score . " Sweet Thursday " is a cakewalk , unusual for Rodgers who rarely wrote them . However , Rodgers biographer William Hyland suggests that " Sweet Thursday " was out of character for Traubel 's voice . Hyland also speculates that " The Next Time It Happens " , a duet for Suzy and Doc as they decide their love will not work , needed to be more melancholy , and Doc 's " The Man I Used To Be " more of a lament rather than having a lively melody . According to Broadway writer Ken Mandelbaum , " Pipe Dream contains a generally fascinating score . " He terms Suzy 's " Everybody 's Got a Home but Me " , a " gorgeous ballad of yearning " .
During rehearsals and even during the run of the show , the music was repeatedly revised by Rodgers in an attempt to gear the songs to Traubel 's voice . According to Bruce Pomahac of the Rodgers & Hammerstein Organization , " as she began to get cold feet about what her New York fans would think about her as a belter , the keys of each of her numbers edged upward . " One of Traubel 's numbers saw three different versions before being scrapped in favor of , according to Pomahac , " something that sounded like an excerpt from Traubel ’ s Vegas act . " " All At Once You Love Her " saw some popularity when recorded , during the run of the show , by Perry Como ; in what Pomahac speculates was an attempt to appease Traubel , a reprise of the song was added for her , and provided " one of the loveliest moments in all of Pipe Dream " . The Organization announced that a new vocal score would be published in 2012 , though it has not appeared — the existing score reflects revisions made when Nancy Andrews took over the part .
Pipe Dream 's songs have been reused in other works . " The Man I Used to Be " and " The Next Time It Happens " were included in the 1996 stage version of Rodgers and Hammerstein 's 1945 film musical , State Fair . " The Next Time It Happens " was inserted in David Henry Hwang 's revised version of Rodgers and Hammerstein 's later work , Flower Drum Song . Used during the show 's 2001 Los Angeles run , it was cut before the show reached Broadway in 2002 . According to David Lewis in his history of the Broadway musical , " The Rodgers and Hammerstein office has , it would appear , given up on Pipe Dream and [ Me and ] Juliet ever finding an audience ... so these songs are up for grabs . "
Thomas Hischak , in his The Rodgers and Hammerstein Encyclopedia , stated that the original cast album is well @-@ produced , but many of the songs came across better when other artists recorded them . The New York Times suggested that the music had echoes of the duo 's earlier works , giving it " a disappointing air of familiarity " . The Times praised both Tyler and Johnson for their singing on the album , and while acknowledging that Traubel had difficulty making the transition from opera singer to Broadway belter , wrote that " for the most part , she makes the transfer amiably and effectively " . The original cast recording was released on compact disc by RCA Victor Broadway in 1993 .
A live album from the Encores ! production starring Osnes and Chase was released on September 18 , 2012 . Suskin reviewed it highly favorably , calling the show " a fascinating musical on several counts , and one which displays the rich , vibrant sound of pure Rodgers & Hammerstein . The experience is carried over — perfectly so — to the cast album " .
= = Reception and aftermath = =
The musical received moderate to poor reviews . Brooks Atkinson of The New York Times termed it " a pleasant , lazy romance ... Mr. Rodgers and Mr. Hammerstein in a minor key " . John Chapman of the Daily News stated , " Perhaps Hammerstein and Rodgers are too gentlemanly to be dealing with Steinbeck 's sleazy and raffish denizens . " Walter Kerr of the Herald Tribune suggested , " Someone seems to have forgotten to bring along that gallon of good , red wine . " John McClain of the Journal @-@ American stated , " This is a far cry from the exalted talents of the team that produced South Pacific . They must be human , after all . " Steven Suskin , in his book chronicling Broadway opening night reviews , stated that Pipe Dream received one favorable review from the seven major New York critics , two mixed , and four unfavorable . Louis Kronenberger , in Time magazine , summed it up as " [ p ] roficient , professional , and disappointing . " Billy Rose said of Pipe Dream , " You know why Oscar shouldn 't have written that ? The guy has never been in a whorehouse in his life . "
Publicly , Hammerstein accepted blame for himself and Rodgers , and stated that had the musical been produced by anyone else , " we 'd say that these are producers we wouldn 't like to work with again " . According to Cy Feuer , Hammerstein privately blamed him and Martin , telling them , " We believed your pitch and we went and did something we were never cut out to do and we should never have done it .
According to author Frederick Nolan , who chronicled the works of Rodgers and Hammerstein , Pipe Dream " cost them a fortune " . Rodgers later stated it was the only one of their works he truly disliked ; that if you start with a bad idea , everything is marred by that : " We shouldn 't have been dealing with prostitutes and tramps . " Rodgers also blamed the casting of Traubel , whom he considered wrong for the part . Hammerstein 's grandson , Oscar A. Hammerstein , in his book about his family , agreed with Rodgers 's view of Traubel — " too much Brunhilde , [ sic ] not enough Miss Kitty [ the barkeeper on Gunsmoke ] " . The elder Hammerstein 's biographer , Hugh Fordin , tied the failure of the play to the lyricist 's prudery :
South Pacific , Carousel and [ Hammerstein work ] Carmen Jones have stories that rest on the power of sexual attraction . As long as the sexuality was implicit , Oscar could treat it with the same understanding that he brought to other aspects of human behavior ... His problem was with dealing openly with sexual material ; because of this reticence , Pipe Dream was not what it might have been .
= = Awards and nominations = =
= Compulsory Miseducation =
Compulsory Miseducation is a critique of American public schools written by Paul Goodman and published by Horizon Press in 1964 . Already established as a social critic of American society and the role of its youth in his previous book Growing Up Absurd ( 1960 ) , Goodman argues in Compulsory Miseducation against the necessity of schools for the socialization of youth and recommends their abolition . He suggests that formal education lasts too long , teaches the wrong social class values , and increasingly damages students over time . Goodman writes that the school reflects the misguided and insincere values of its society and thus school reformers should focus on these values before schools . He proposes a variety of alternatives to school including no school , the city or farm as school , apprenticeships , guided travel , and youth organizations . Reviewers complimented Goodman 's style and noted his deliberate contrarianism , but were split on the feasibility of his proposals . Goodman 's book was a precursor to the work of deschooling advocate Ivan Illich .
= = Background = =
Paul Goodman was an American intellectual and cultural critic who rose to prominence after publishing Growing Up Absurd ( 1960 ) . In the book , Goodman asserts that the structure of American society was not conducive to the needs of youth . Goodman 's subsequent book , The Community of Scholars ( 1962 ) , and his experience in the classroom , informed his criticism of American schooling and the development of Compulsory Miseducation . The book was initially published in 1964 by Horizon Press , and was later republished by Random House in 1966 and by Penguin Books in 1971 .
= = Summary = =
Compulsory Miseducation is a critique of the American public school system . Goodman argues against its social necessity and mandatory attendance requirements . He contends that the only " right education " is " growing up into a worthwhile world " , and that adult concern over schooling is indicative of an opposite such world . Goodman thinks education should strengthen children 's preexisting drive towards refining their own abilities for usefulness in society while developing community spirit . He claims that school , of which there is too much , instead encourages conformity for the good of private , corporate needs at a cost to the public . Goodman writes that America 's schools reflect its misguided and insincere societal values , which need to change before schools can .
Goodman criticizes the structure of academic curriculum , and connects it with " programmed instruction " and schooling that emaciates the mind proportional with time . He regards the " academic establishment " as self @-@ aggrandizing and constituting " an invested intellectual class worse than anything since the time of Henry the Eighth . " Accordingly , the scholastically inclined , knowing only lockstep , march unquestioningly into " top management and expert adviser " roles while the rest have little self @-@ worth in their societal roles , pursuing " worthless " degrees that make their schooling appear as " a cruel hoax " .
Goodman sees schools as mechanisms for adjusting youth to an automated society increasingly absent " any human values " . Goodman disagrees with those who say public schools teach middle class values , as he sees schools as more petit bourgeois than bourgeois , favoring " bureaucratic , time @-@ serving , grade @-@ grind @-@ practical , timid , and nouveau riche climbing " over " independence , initiative , scrupulous honesty , earnestness , utility , [ and ] respect for thorough scholarship " . In this way , schooling is not a good use of student time , and students are right to quit and avoid the psychological and professional damage . More important is the disintegration of social class segregation . Goodman then asserts that lower- and middle @-@ class kids would be better off without public or any schooling altogether . He proposes several alternatives to formal schooling , such as divvying up the high school 's public funds directly amongst its students , and advocates for a variety of experimental school alternatives : " no school at all , the real city as school , farm schools , practical apprenticeships , guided travel , work camps , little theaters and local newspapers , [ and ] community service " . Other proposals include making class non @-@ compulsory ( such that attendance will reflect student interest without " trapping " children ) , requiring students to wait two years before applying to the most elite colleges , eliminating grades so the burden of testing for required skills falls on companies , and letting students quit and resume freely . He proposes Danish folk school @-@ style education for those uninterested in academics . Goodman 's foremost intention was to stimulate new educational paradigms . He acknowledges that his specific proposals may be unpopular or ignored .
= = Reception = =
John Keats ( The New York Times Book Review ) described Compulsory Miseducation as " passionate " and " eloquent " . He called Goodman 's propositions in the absence of formal schooling " startling " and characterized Goodman as " a lonely humanist crying in a Philistine marketplace , where the largest single share of public wealth is devoted to the strategies of overkill , and where another enormous amount is dedicated to putting blinders on the probable victims . " Keats recommended the book for parents who put their children 's welfare before their own . Eli M. Oboler ( Library Journal ) , meanwhile , only recommended Goodman 's " polemic onslaught " for those who like " contentious [ and ] disagreeable " material . He wrote that Goodman 's approach was unreasonable and contrarian : for instance , his stances in favor of sexual expression and against the importance of literacy in schools .
Edgar Z. Friedenberg ( The New York Review of Books ) explained the book as a poem by Marianne Moore 's definition : " an imaginary garden with real toads in it " . By this metaphor , he found Goodman to be a gardener who lacked imagination and forethought but understood growth ( the most important trait ) . Friedenberg compared Goodman with prominent educationist James Conant , whom Friedenberg considered less competent in understanding the conditions of learning . Friedenberg felt that Conant 's Shaping Educational Policy complemented Goodman 's Compulsory Miseducation , as both shared a common though disparate interest in the distribution of power within schooling structures . While Friedenberg agreed with Goodman 's conclusions , he considered them sermon @-@ like in their predetermination , permitting no counter @-@ interpretation . He added that Goodman 's " empirical inductive and ... theoretical @-@ deductive " logic was complete and that the work provided little apart from a neat interpretation of the reality within schools and its affect on students ' human attributes . Friedenberg wrote that Goodman 's proposals are " pertinent , concrete , modest , and inexpensive " , practical in their aims , and already implemented on a smaller scale . Furthermore , he concluded that Goodman 's argument on how education squandered what it intended to promote was " strong [ and ] circumstantial " .
Nat Hentoff ( The Reporter ) struggled to disagree with Goodman 's claim that schools provided little room for " spontaneity " and free spiritedness . However , he felt that Goodman inadequately explained how primary schools could be improved in content and staffing . Hentoff said that the book 's key flaw was its position in a " political vacuum " , offering no means for society to acknowledge Goodman 's expressed unviability of their schooling model . Donald Barr ( New York Herald Tribune Book Week ) wrote that Goodman seemed like " an itinerant peddler of sedition " who spoke of virtuous " dissonance " . Barr considered Goodman " extraordinarily sensitive to children and adolescents " and complimented his " brilliant authenticity " when describing how children learn " defiance and embarrassment " . However , Barr found Goodman 's " purblind resentment of all authority " to obstruct his points and to leave his readers skeptical . Children , Barr wrote , are lost if they cannot find the limits they serve to test , and " partisan " Goodman was unable to parse the wickedness of continually " yielding , ... tolerating , understanding " children who must feel resistance against their transgressions to develop the respect they seek .
= = Legacy = =
Nigel Melville ( Fortnight ) placed Goodman alongside Herb Kohl , Neil Postman , Jules Henry , and Everett Reimer as part of an education anti @-@ orthodoxy , or new orthodoxy under Ivan Illich and Paulo Freire . Bill Prescott ( Instructional Science ) said the book was " among the most influential " in education circles in the early 1970s . He wrote that Goodman pioneered advocation for deschooling and the disestablishment of schools , which was later popularized by Illich and Reimer ( though Goodman 's thoughts were less articulate in comparison ) . In a 2006 retrospective of Goodman 's work for Teachers College Record , James S. Kaminsky said that Goodman 's four book @-@ length critiques of American education together made Goodman a prominent intellectual and educationist .
= Pholiota flammans =
Pholiota flammans , commonly known as the yellow pholiota , the flaming Pholiota , or the flame scalecap , is a basidiomycete agaric mushroom of the genus Pholiota . Its fruit body is golden @-@ yellow in color throughout , while its cap and stem are covered in sharp scales . As it is a saprobic fungus , the fruit bodies typically appear in clusters on the stumps of dead coniferous trees . P. flammans is distributed throughout Europe , North America , and Asia in boreal and temperate regions . Its edibility has not been clarified .
= = Taxonomy = =
This species was first recognised in 1783 by the German , August Batsch , as Agaricus flammans , and later sanctioned by Swedish mycologist Elias Magnus Fries in his Systema Mycologicum . The specific epithet flammans is a Latin adjective meaning flaming . In 1871 , with the recognition of Pholiota as an independent genus with type species Pholiota squarrosa , another German , Paul Kummer renamed the fungus Pholiota flammans . Lucien Quélet , a French mycologist , proposed another synonym , Dryophila flammans in 1886 . American mycologist William Alphonso Murrill called the species Hypodendrum flammans in his 1912 study of Pacific Coast mushrooms , although he did not explain his rationale for transferring the species to Hypodendrum .
In the organization of Rolf Singer , the species is placed in subgenus Pholiota , section Adiposae , stirps Subflammans — a grouping of closely related species that also includes P. subflammans and P. digilioi . The species in stirps Subflammans are characterised by having conspicuous erect tufts or scales on the cap surface that are easily sloughed off by rain and age in lieu of the gelatinous nature of the underlying cap cuticle . It is commonly known as the yellow Pholiota , the flaming Pholiota , or the flame scalecap .
= = Description = =
Pholiota flammans often has a striking appearance . The cap is initially round , then convex and finally flattening with age . Its surface is bright yellow to orange , and covered with triangular scales ( squamules ) arranged in concentric rings .
The cap surface is dry , matt and felt @-@ like , and in wet conditions may lose scales . The cap margin remain curved slightly inwards . The yellow gills are crowded together , attached to the stem , and have a notch where the gill attaches to the stem . A bright yellow partial veil extending from the cap edge to the edge is present in immature species . As the cap expands and flattens with age , the partial veil tears , leaving a faint ring around the stem . The cylindrical straight or curved stem is itself covered in yellow squamules below the ring . The base of the stem , typically more orange in color than the upper portion , is firmly attached to the dead wood from which the fungus arises . The section of stem above the ring bears little or no protuberances . The flesh is firm , full , yellow and does not change color when bruised or injured .
The dimensions of the fruit body are as follows : cap diameter up to 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) , stem up to 12 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) tall and between 0 @.@ 4 to 1 cm ( 0 @.@ 2 to 0 @.@ 4 in ) cm thick . As the fruit body matures , the gills darken to cinnamon brown following spore release . The spore mass is colored brown to rust .
= = = Microscopic features = = =
Under a light microscope , the spores are seen to be smooth , elliptical to oblong in shape , with dimensions of 3 – 5 by 2 – 3 µm . The basidia ( the spore @-@ bearing cells ) are 4 @-@ spored , and have a narrow club @-@ shape with dimension of 18 – 22 by 3 @.@ 5 – 4 @.@ 5 µm . The gill cystidia are seen to stain blue when cotton blue dye and lactate are applied . The cap cuticle is made of an approximately 100 µm thick layer of gelatinous hyphae that are about 2 – 4 µm thick . The gelatinous hyphae are only present on the cap surface , not the surface of the stem ; these local differences in cell structure explain the ease with which the scales are sloughed off the cap , but not the stems of the fruit bodies . The macroscopic and microscopic characteristics of the mycelia of this species grown in culture have been described in detail .
= = = Edibility = = =
Pholiota flammans fruit bodies bear no distinctive smell and taste mild to slightly bitter . Opinions are divided as to its edibility , however , as some authors regard the mushroom as inedible , while others consider it edible or of unknown edibility .
= = = Similar species = = =
Other members of the genus Pholiota may be mistaken for Pholiota flammans , especially Pholiota squarrosa which commonly forms large tufts at the base of deciduous as well as coniferous trees . P. squarrosa tends to be a less intense yellow color than P. flammans . P. adiposa is also similar , but prefers to grow on dead hardwoods ; unlike P. flammans , it has gelatinous scales on the stem as well as the cap .
The North American species once described by Alexander H. Smith , P. kauffmaniana , is closely related to P. flammans , but differs in having a more distinctly viscid cap . Smith was later to revise his opinion on the existence of P. kauffmaniana as a unique species — he believed that environmental variations in humidity were the cause of differences in the cap cuticle gelatinization observed in Pholiotas collected from different North American locales . P. kauffmaniana is now considered synonymous with P. flammans .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Being saprobic , P. flammans is found exclusively on dead and decaying stumps and trunks of coniferous trees , with fruit bodies appearing in tufts or singly , from summer to autumn . It is a fungus with a wide geographical distribution in boreal and temperate regions , and may be considered common to rare depending upon the region in which it occurs . It is found throughout Europe ( from the British Isles to Russia ) and North America ( southern Canada and the USA ) . The species has also been collected in Asia , including India and China .
= Liverpool F.C. 4 – 3 Newcastle United F.C. ( 1996 ) =
On 3 April 1996 , Liverpool faced Newcastle United in a Premier League fixture at Anfield , during the 1995 – 96 season . Liverpool won the match , scoring four goals to Newcastle 's three . The winning goal was scored by striker Stan Collymore in the second minute of stoppage time . Before the match , both clubs had lost their previous fixtures but still had a chance of winning the league and wanted to close the gap between themselves and leaders Manchester United . Newcastle United , who were 12 points ahead in January , had suffered from poor performance throughout March , winning one match out of four that month . Liverpool had won six of their last nine league games during February and March , scored the most goals and conceded the fewest until this match .
Liverpool started the match as the more promising team and striker Robbie Fowler scored the first goal . Newcastle striker Les Ferdinand scored the equaliser in the tenth minute and winger David Ginola added a second for Newcastle four minutes later . Fowler scored early in the second half to reduce Newcastle 's lead but Faustino Asprilla restored their goal advantage in the 57th minute . Stan Collymore , who set up the opening goal for Liverpool , equalised for Liverpool in the 68th minute . In stoppage time , Collymore scored his second goal of the match involving a one @-@ two with Ian Rush and John Barnes in the buildup . The winner sparked jubilant scenes for Liverpool supporters at Anfield and consigned Newcastle to their second consecutive defeat in the league , reducing their chances of winning the league .
The match is considered to be the best Premier League game in the history of the competition . Newcastle 's manager Kevin Keegan described it as a " classic " , while Liverpool manager Roy Evans said " the entertainment value was up there with the best " . In 2003 , the game was awarded the Match of the Decade award on behalf of the Premier League , which was celebrating its tenth anniversary . The result influenced the league championship ; the leaders Manchester United lost only one more match that season and retained the title .
= = Background = =
Liverpool and Newcastle United are two of the biggest clubs in English football . Despite not having won a major honour since 1969 , the Tyneside club is recognised for its passionate and loyal fanbase — over the course of 53 out of 63 seasons between 1946 – 47 and 2009 – 10 , more people attended Newcastle home matches , on average , than home games played by the league champions . During the 1970s and 1980s , Liverpool became the most successful club in England , amassing 11 league championships in a 17 @-@ year period . Both clubs had previously faced each other five times in the Premier League , following Newcastle 's promotion for the 1993 – 94 season ; Newcastle had won three times and Liverpool once , with the remaining match ending in a draw .
= = Pre @-@ match = =
Both clubs went into the match having lost their previous matches . Liverpool lost 1 – 0 to Nottingham Forest at the City Ground on 23 March 1996 , where the winning goal was scored by midfielder Steve Stone . The defeat was Liverpool 's first in 21 matches in all competitions . On the same day , Newcastle were beaten 2 – 0 by Arsenal — their third defeat in five league matches . Newcastle 's loss allowed Manchester United to move three points ahead at the top of the league the following day after striker Eric Cantona scored the winning goal against Tottenham Hotspur .
Although Newcastle had two games in hand over Manchester United going into April , their advantage was slim in comparison that at the end of January when Newcastle had a 12 @-@ point lead over Manchester United . When both teams met in March at St James ' Park , Cantona scored the winning goal for Manchester United and goalkeeper Peter Schmeichel produced a number of outstanding saves which prevented midfielder Peter Beardsley and striker Les Ferdinand from scoring . The win was Manchester United 's ninth successive victory in the league , who also beat Newcastle 2 – 0 in the corresponding fixture at Old Trafford in December 1995 .
It was considered unlikely that Liverpool would win the league . Despite scoring the most goals and conceding the fewest in the top three , they drew four matches more than second place Newcastle . However , Liverpool advanced through the semi @-@ finals of the FA Cup , beating Aston Villa 3 – 0 to set up a final against Manchester United and the possibility that they would achieve a league and cup double .
= = Match = =
Newcastle manager Kevin Keegan made one change to the team after their previous match , which they had lost to Arsenal . Keegan replaced defender Warren Barton with Steve Watson . They lined up in a 4 – 4 – 2 formation , with Faustino Asprilla and Les Ferdinand serving as the two upfront and David Ginola and Peter Beardsley as the wide men providing width and service . Liverpool replaced Michael Thomas with Jamie Redknapp and Dominic Matteo with Rob Jones . Roy Evans deployed a 3 – 4 – 1 – 2 formation , which he trialled throughout the season . Steve McManaman acted as the link between the midfield and final third . The match was originally arranged for 30 March 1996 but was rescheduled to 3 April by the Premier League and broadcaster Sky Sports .
= = = Summary = = =
Liverpool began the match brightly and scored the first goal in the second minute . Stan Collymore , who received the ball from the left wing by Jamie Redknapp , produced a cross inside the penalty box for Robbie Fowler to head in at the far post and convert his 27th goal of the league season . Newcastle began to exert pressure on Liverpool and responded with an equaliser eight minutes later . Striker Faustino Asprilla swept past Neil Ruddock inside the right channel of the Liverpool box to pull the ball back and find Ferdinand . With one touch he gave himself room to swing his right foot and take a shot past goalkeeper David James . In the 14th minute , Newcastle were ahead . Ferdinand was involved in the buildup once again , releasing David Ginola on the left , who surged forward and scored his fifth goal of the league campaign . Liverpool threatened to score a second goal ; Fowler missed close @-@ by , Redknapp went close from long range and Steve McManaman mis @-@ timed a header . Beardsley and David Batty were booked and Batty was shown a yellow card for a foul on McManaman . At the other end , Asprilla and Beardsley came close to scoring through a counterattack .
At the interval , Liverpool defender Mark Wright was replaced by Steve Harkness . Nine minutes into the second @-@ half , Liverpool scored their goal ; Jason McAteer played the ball towards McManaman , running at the Newcastle defence in their penalty box and picking out a pass to Fowler , who scored his second goal of the match . Liverpool 's advantage only lasted for two minutes ; Asprilla , put through by Robert Lee , scored with the outside of his right boot . Newcastle began to dominate territorially and missed a chance to increase their lead shortly after Asprilla 's goal : Ginola 's misplaced final ball failed to reach an incoming Ferdinand . Liverpool continued to press forward and in the 65th minute levelled the score again ; McAteer 's curling cross confused the Newcastle defence and reached Collymore , who took a shot past goalkeeper Pavel Srníček .
Both teams ' responses to Liverpool 's third goal were to make substitutions in the final quarter of the game . Liverpool defender Rob Jones was swapped for striker Ian Rush and Newcastle 's Darren Peacock was changed for Steve Howey in order to tighten up the Newcastle defence . As the match looked likely to end in a draw , in stoppage time Rush and John Barnes began to play a series of one @-@ twos towards the Newcastle end . Barnes passed the ball to Collymore in a space on the left flank ; Collymore kicked it past Srníček to score his second goal of the game , which prompted jubilant scenes in the Liverpool Kop . In contrast , Keegan slumped over the advertising hoardings in distress .
= = = Details = = =
= = Post @-@ match = =
After the game , Kevin Keegan said that there was " a long way to go " in the title race , despite the consequences of the result . He praised both teams and the nature of the match but refused to compromise Newcastle 's expansive style of football . Liverpool 's manager Roy Evans observed that no team could " win the championship playing like that " and admitted his team had got away with " playing two against two , one against one , at the back " .
Stan Collymore , who scored the fourth Liverpool goal , believed the result left the title race wide open . Steve McManaman added that it completed a " big week " for the team , which had reached the final of the FA Cup . He also commended Newcastle 's performance , labelling them a " great team " who possessed the " quality to reproduce their best again " .
= = Aftermath = =
Newcastle United 's aspirations of winning the league suffered as a result of the match . Although they beat Queens Park Rangers three days later , they lost to Blackburn Rovers , conceding two goals in the final ten minutes of the game . The defeat left Manchester United six points ahead with five matches remaining . After witnessing Newcastle beat Leeds United on 30 April 1996 , Keegan , in a televised outburst , accused Manchester United manager Alex Ferguson of trying to provoke the Leeds players , adding that he " will love it if we beat them " to the championship . Ferguson , who accused Leeds of " cheating " their manager in their performance at Old Trafford two weeks earlier , was perceived by the press as playing a mind game against his opposition . Newcastle finished second in the league that season , five points behind Manchester United , which prompted Keegan to offer his resignation , which was rejected , in the summer . In January 1997 , Keegan quit as manager , and said that he felt he had " taken the club as far as I can " .
Liverpool struggled in their next game away to Coventry City , losing 1 – 0 . Two wins and three draws in their final five matches of the season allowed Liverpool to finish the season third in the league – their highest finish since the formation of the Premier League . In the FA Cup final , Liverpool were beaten by Manchester United ; Eric Cantona scored the winning goal in the 85th minute .
The match is often cited as the best Premier League game ever to have been played . FIFA general secretary Sepp Blatter praised Kevin Keegan for his attacking football philosophy and personally sent him a faxed letter commending " the positive attitude you bring to our game " . Reflecting on the match in 2003 , midfielder David Ginola believed that if Newcastle had kept the scoreline at 3 – 2 , they " would have won the league – definitely " . As part of the Premier League 's " 10 Seasons Awards " to commemorate the first ten years of the competition , the 3 April 1996 Liverpool – Newcastle United match was voted by the public and a panel consisting of 10 football experts , as the Match of the Decade . In 2011 , Sky Sports celebrated its 20th anniversary with a rundown of the top 20 live Premier League games broadcast on the network ; the match was placed at number one , ahead of the Manchester derby played at Old Trafford on 20 September 2009 . In May 2012 , the match came second to the 2009 Manchester derby in the Premier League 20 Seasons Awards for best match .
When Liverpool and Newcastle met each other at Anfield on 11 March 1997 during the 1996 – 97 season , the scoreline was identical to that of the 3 April 1996 match . Liverpool , however , were 3 – 0 up before the half @-@ time interval , with goals scored by McManaman , Fowler and Patrick Berger . Newcastle scored three goals in 17 minutes before Fowler scored his second goal of the match in stoppage time .
In October 2011 , in order to raise funds for several charities , including the NSPCC and Sir Bobby Robson Foundation , both clubs staged an re @-@ enactment of the 3 April 1996 match . The match was staged at Kingston Park , the home of Newcastle Falcons ; many ex @-@ Liverpool and Newcastle United players , such as Jason McAteer , Alan Shearer , Philippe Albert and Bruce Grobbelaar , participated .
= Battle of Musa Qala =
The Battle of Musa Qala ( also Qaleh or Qal 'eh ) was a British led military action in Helmand Province , southern Afghanistan , launched by the Afghan National Army and the International Security Assistance Force ( ISAF ) against the Taliban on 7 December 2007 . After three days of intense fighting , the Taliban retreated into the mountains on 10 December . Musa Qala was officially reported captured on 12 December , with Afghan Army troops pushing into the town centre .
The operation was codenamed snakepit ( Pashto : Mar Kardad ) . Senior ISAF officers , including U.S. general Dan K. McNeill , the overall ISAF commander , agreed to the assault on 17 November 2007 . It followed more than nine months of Taliban occupation of the town , the largest the insurgents controlled at the time of the battle . ISAF forces had previously occupied the town , until a controversial withdrawal in late 2006 .
It was the first battle in the War in Afghanistan in which Afghan army units were the principal fighting force . Statements from the British Ministry of Defence ( MOD ) emphasised that the operation was Afghan @-@ led , although the ability of Afghan units to function without NATO control was questioned during the battle . Military engagement over Musa Qala is part of a wider conflict between coalition forces and the Taliban in Helmand . Both before and after the battle , related fighting was reported across a larger area , particularly in Sangin district to the south of Musa Qala .
= = Background = =
Musa Qala is a town of around 15 @,@ 000 to 20 @,@ 000 people , with another 25 @,@ 000 in the surrounding area . ISAF forces were first deployed in the town in mid @-@ June 2006 , as part of the " platoon house " strategy . This consisted of protecting the district centres of Northern Helmand with small detachments of British ISAF troops , at the request of the provincial governor Mohammed Daoud . This move met with an unexpectedly fierce resistance from the Taliban and local tribesmen , who used conventional , rather than asymmetric tactics , to drive the coalition from their positions . The isolated British garrison found itself under siege and constant attack for long periods , and their replacements could only be brought in after a full battle group operation , codenamed Snakebite , broke through Taliban lines in early August .
The fighting ended in October 2006 when , in a controversial move , control was ceded to local tribal elders . The deal was intended to see neither British nor Taliban forces in the town in an effort to reduce conflict and civilian casualties . At the time , a British officer commented : " There is an obvious danger that the Taliban could make the deal and then renege on it . " The Taliban did renege on the agreement , quickly over @-@ running the town with 200 to 300 troops in February 2007 . The Taliban seizure followed a US airstrike that incensed militants ; a Taliban commander 's brother and 20 followers were killed in the attack . A confluence of tribal politics , religion , and money from the opium trade helped ensure the uneasy truce would not hold . At the time , the government claimed they could retake the town within 24 hours , but that plan had been postponed to avoid causing civilian casualties .
Musa Qala was the only significant town held by the Taliban at the time of the assault , and they had imposed a strict rule on its inhabitants . Special tribunals were set up , pronouncing sentences of stoning , amputation , or death by hanging against those who were considered enemies , or who contravened a strict interpretation of the Sharia . Four men are known to have been hanged as spies during this period . The Taliban also levied heavy taxes , closed down schools , and drafted local men into their ranks by force . Other deprivations were reminiscent of previous Taliban rule : men attacked for not wearing beards ; music banned and recordings smashed ; women punished for not wearing the burqa . The town is situated in a major opium poppy growing area and a BBC correspondent has reported it to be the centre of the heroin trade in Afghanistan .
= = Battle = =
= = = Immediate prelude = = =
Coalition military manoeuvres and a build @-@ up of troops and supplies continued for weeks before the assault . On 1 November , British forces started reconnaissance patrols in preparation for the attack . In the middle of that month , the MOD reported that troops from 40 Commando Royal Marines and the Right Flank Company of the Scots Guards were patrolling outside the town to confuse the Taliban insurgents and disrupt their supply routes .
In the days before the assault , reconnaissance patrols penetrated as close as a 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) to the Musa Qala town centre . Hundreds of families were reported to have fled from the pending assault , after the coalition dropped leaflets in warning . Furthermore , the coalition secured the defection of a critical tribal leader , Mullah Abdul Salaam , who had been governor of Uruzgan province under Taliban rule . A leader of the Alizai tribe , Salaam was reported to be in negotiation with the coalition as early as October 2007 , causing a rift within the Taliban . His defection was personally sought by Afghan president Hamid Karzai and he brought as many as one third of the Taliban forces defending Musa Qala to the coalition side . However , it is unclear if they fought on the side of the ISAF or simply stayed out of the fight .
Prior to the battle , two thousand militants were reported to be holding the town . A similar claim of 2 @,@ 050 " fully armed fighters " was made in late November by Enqiadi , a taliban commander . At the time , Enqiadi seemed confident that the whole of Helmand province would fall to the Taliban in the winter of 2007 – 08 . Subsequent estimates reduced numbers of Taliban fighters , with an ISAF officer suggesting that the maximum strength was closer to two to three hundred .
= = = Main assault = = =
The main assault on Musa Qala began at 4 pm on 7 December . Several Taliban were reportedly killed in US airstrikes as the attack began . That evening some 600 American soldiers from the 82nd Airborne Division were airlifted to the north of the town in 19 helicopters . Chinook and Blackhawk troop carriers escorted by Apache attack helicopters were involved in the assault . During the night the paratroopers broke through Taliban trenches to clear the way for further ground troops and then dug defensive positions . During the attack , an Apache was hit by ground fire and had one engine knocked out but the pilot , CW2 Thomas O. Malone , managed to land safely despite being injured . More than 2 @,@ 000 British troops of the Helmand Task Force ( then under the direction of 52nd Infantry Brigade ) , including Scots Guards , Household Cavalry , and Royal Marines from 40 Commando , became involved in the operation . British troops set up a cordon around the town to aid the US attack and also began an advance with Afghan troops from the south , west , and east , exchanging gunfire with the Taliban . At least on the first day of the battle these advances may have served as a feint to divert attention from the main US air assault . Danish and Estonian troops were also involved in the initial assault .
Fighting continued on 8 December . As British and Afghan soldiers continued their ground advance , US air forces repeatedly attacked the Taliban , including numerous anti @-@ aircraft positions surrounding the town . The Taliban defended positions surrounded by minefields , a principal danger to coalition forces . The assault made progress nonetheless , with the Afghan Ministry of Defence reporting that day : " In this operation so far , 12 terrorists were killed , one captured and a number of weapons and ammunitions were seized . " A British soldier , Sergeant Lee Johnson of the 2nd Battalion ( Green Howards ) Yorkshire Regiment , was killed shortly after 10 am on the eighth , when his vehicle drove over a mine ; another soldier was seriously injured in the blast .
Taliban forces took up new positions to defend the town on 9 December . Taliban sources suggested at the time that militants from nearby areas were entering the town to reinforce its defence . Fighting was on @-@ going through the day and bombs planted by insurgents continued to take a toll on ISAF forces : an American soldier , Corporal Tanner J O 'Leary of the 508th Parachute Infantry Regiment , was killed by the detonation of an improvised explosive device .
= = = Taliban retreat = = =
By 10 December , news outlets reported that the Taliban insurgents had withdrawn north from the area and that Afghan Army and ISAF forces were in control of the town . The British MOD was more cautious at the time , advising that " steady progress " had been made but that coalition forces remained on the outskirts of Musa Qala . Nevertheless , the Afghan government suggested that the coalition had " completely captured " the town . NATO announced the town 's capture on the 11th , however at the time the MOD suggested forces were still proceeding cautiously " compound to compound " , only officially confirmed the capture of Musa Qala the next day . Afghan troops were called forward for the final push and by midday on the twelfth were reported to be in the town centre , in a gesture symbolising their ability to fight and defeat the Taliban on their own . Lieutenant Colonel Richard Eaton , spokesman for Task Force Helmand , described the retaking of the town :
The current situation in Musa Qaleh is that it is underneath the Afghan flag ... Midmorning today [ 12 December 2007 ] our operations to relieve and recapture Musa Qaleh were concluded with the final phase being an assault into Musa Qaleh by the Afghan Army .... The cooperation with the Afghan troops has been very good indeed . General Muhayadan was crucially involved in the planning . He moved his planning team to collocate with Headquarters 52 Brigade in Lashkar Gar .
Brigadier Andrew Mackay , commander of the Helmand Task Force , emphasised that the coalition 's plan encouraged the less committed local fighters — the so @-@ called " tier two " Taliban — to break away from the more ideologically driven militants . This strategy may have been successful ; Afghan president Hamid Karzai declared that he had been approached by Taliban members wanting to swap sides after a string of insurgent exactions against civilians . He said : " They hanged a boy of 15 from a ceiling and lit two gas canisters under him . " Precise Taliban casualties were not reported although the Afghan Defence Ministry suggested hundreds killed , detained , or captured . The insurgents claimed 17 Afghan army and ISAF killed , and blamed the British for at least 40 civilians deaths , but their claims may not be reliable .
Although fierce in the first days , the battle did not produce the house @-@ to @-@ house combat that had been feared ; the Taliban largely retreated without protracted resistance . Poor weather conditions , including fog , may have allowed them to retreat more easily . Taliban spokesmen suggested the retreat was designed to avoid continued airstrikes and civilian casualties within the town . By the time the town centre was reached , fighting proved " unremarkable " and according to one senior US officer : " The urban center of Musa Qala was not significantly opposed , it was not significantly barricaded " . The final advance into the town 's main bazaar by the Afghan Army was physically led by an Advanced Search Team of the Royal Engineers of the British Army followed by EOD and the main Afghan force who raised their flag for the world 's press .
= = Relevance to larger campaign = =
Musa Qala is just one flashpoint in the wider Helmand province campaign , a coalition effort to dislodge the Taliban from the volatile province , largely led by British forces . The battle to retake the town sparked conflict in adjoining areas . In November 2007 , when reconnaissance patrols began , " vicious " Taliban attacks were launched in Sangin Valley , Helmand province , to the south , including one which saw Royal Marine Commandos endure two days of rocket and mortar fire . Just three days before the main assault , on 4 December , British forces suffered a fatality to the north of the village of Sangin , when Trooper Jack Sadler was killed by a roadside bomb . The week prior to the assault saw a variety of other engagements in Helmand : the British confronted sustained attack near the Kajaki Dam , northeast of Sangin ; further west , Estonian , British and American troops were engaged near the town of Nawzad at the center of Nawzad District . Danish forces under British command were attacked in the town of Gereshk .
In the days after the main battle was launched , Lieutenant Colonel Eaton confirmed that the Taliban were attempting to create pressure in other areas but that attacks on British bases had been repulsed . One Taliban commander noted : " We have launched attacks in Sangin and in Sarwan Kala ( Sarevan Qaleh ) ... We have orders to attack the British everywhere . " When the principal Taliban retreat from Musa Qala occurred fighting continued elsewhere : on the eleventh and twelfth , retreating Taliban militants attacked a government centre in Sangin . They were repulsed with 50 killed , according to the Afghan Defence Ministry . American , British , and other NATO special forces were specifically deployed to prevent the Taliban from withdrawing north into Baghran District , and east into Orūzgān Province , their traditional refuge .
= = Aftermath = =
British officers expressed satisfaction that Musa Qala had been recaptured without any artillery shells or bombs hitting the town itself . However , they acknowledged that the Taliban had not been definitively defeated and would probably " have another go " in the area . Taliban fighters were believed to have merged back into the local rural population after the defeat , their traditional dress providing simple cover . In the days after the battle , counter @-@ attacks on the town were considered likely and coalition officials suggested sustained defence would be necessary ; British forces plan to reinforce Musa Qala but have emphasised that future defence of the village will be largely Afghan controlled . The optimistic picture of Afghan capability presented by ISAF command has been challenged . A reporter on the ground , writing for The Times , notes that the Afghan forces " could barely function without NATO 's protection and NATO had to cajole them to move forward " .
British Prime Minister Gordon Brown was in Helmand at the time of the assault , visiting troops at Camp Bastion . He suggested success at Musa Qala would provide a step toward Afghan peace and promised continued reconstruction relief . Coalition and Afghan government plans include the construction of a local mosque , the rebuilding of a district centre , police buildings , schools , and the repair of the electricity infrastructure . The governor of Helmand , Assadullah Wafa , said a delegation would visit Musa Qala to distribute 5 @,@ 000 tons of aid to returning civilians in the immediate aftermath of the battle . On 26 December , engineers from 69 Gurkha Field Squadron , 36 Engineer Regiment moved into Musa Qala and started rebuilding the district centre . Their task includes the construction of a perimeter fence made of Hesco bastions , and sangars ( watchtowers ) made of sandbags .
Various Taliban supplies were seized by coalition forces following the battle . On 13 December , British and Afghan army units located bomb factories and weapons caches as they moved further into the outskirts of Musa Qala and searched Taliban positions . At the same time , the first civilians started to return to the area , some with reports of Taliban punishments and claims of active Pakistani and Arab jihadis . A new orientation of British strategy in Helmand is to use military force to curb the influence of local drug barons , whose trade supports the insurgents . On 16 December , British troops burned an estimated £ 150 to £ 200 million worth of heroin that had been found in a drug factory and other buildings in Musa Qala .
The strategic purpose of controlling Musa Qala is both to squeeze Taliban operations in south @-@ western Afghanistan and to serve as a symbol of Afghan National Army and ISAF strength ; the town had taken on iconic proportions , according to British officials . The Taliban , however , continue to enjoy significant civilian support despite their atrocities and the broader campaign to win over the region remains difficult . Troop shortages have made it difficult for NATO to hold areas seized from the Taliban in southern Afghanistan .
Civilian return to the town was slow , with shops still shuttered on 16 December . Civilian casualty reports were conflicting : one resident claimed 15 dead bodies lay in a single street and another that his family were dead under rubble . The coalition rejected such claims , admitting only that two children had been injured , and possibly killed , when a car driving at high speeds towards ISAF troops during the battle overturned when the driver was shot dead .
Coalition and Afghan authorities continued their efforts to win over Taliban sympathizers . However a " miscommunication between authorities " created some tension . In late December , two western diplomats were expelled from Afghanistan . Governor Assadullah Wafa accused them of holding secret talks with the Taliban and proposing bribes to them ; the secret talks were denied as a misunderstanding by a UN spokesperson . In January 2008 , Mullah Abdul Salaam was appointed governor of Musa Qala district by the Afghan government , a gesture that was intended to encourage other Taliban commanders to change sides .
= = Taliban commanders = =
News reports mentioned numerous Taliban commanders having participated in the Battle of Musa Qala , many reported killed or captured :
Enqiadi , reported to be a Taliban commander prior to the battle .
Mullah Ahmadullah , Taliban commander who spoke with the Associated Press during the battle .
Mullah Abdul Salaam , key tribal leader of the Alizai who defected to the coalition side ( see above ) .
Mullah Faizullah , deputy Taliban shadow governor of Helmand province , killed in an airstrike .
Mullah Tor Jan , Musa Qala area commander , supposedly killed in an airstrike . His actual whereabouts remain unknown , as he was again reported killed in an engagement with Afghan and Coalition forces on March 13 , 2008 .
Mullah Matin Akhund ( also known as Abdul Matin ) , Taliban district chief of Musa Qala , mistakenly reported captured .
Mullah Rahim Akhund , Taliban governor of Helmand province , mistakenly reported captured .
= HMS Formidable ( 67 ) =
HMS Formidable was an Illustrious @-@ class aircraft carrier ordered for the Royal Navy before World War II . After being completed in late 1940 , she was briefly assigned to the Home Fleet before being transferred to the Mediterranean Fleet as a replacement for her crippled sister ship Illustrious . Formidable 's aircraft played a key role in the Battle of Cape Matapan in early 1941 , and they subsequently provided cover for Allied ships and attacked Axis forces until their carrier was badly damaged by German dive bombers in May .
Assigned to the Eastern Fleet in the Indian Ocean in early 1942 , Formidable covered the invasion of Diego Suarez in Vichy Madagascar in mid @-@ 1942 against the possibility of a sortie by the Japanese into the Indian Ocean . Formidable returned home for a brief refit before participating in Operation Torch , the invasion of French North Africa in November . She remained in the Mediterranean and covered the invasions of Sicily and mainland Italy in 1943 before beginning a lengthy refit .
Formidable made several attacks on the German battleship Tirpitz in Norway in mid @-@ 1944 as part of the Home Fleet . She was subsequently assigned to the British Pacific Fleet ( BPF ) in 1945 where she played a supporting role during the Battle of Okinawa and later attacked targets in the Japanese Home Islands . The ship was used to repatriate liberated Allied prisoners of war and soldiers after the Japanese surrender and then ferried British personnel across the globe through 1946 . She was placed in reserve the following year and sold for scrap in 1953 .
= = Background and description = =
The Royal Navy 's 1936 Naval Programme authorised the construction of two aircraft carriers . Admiral Sir Reginald Henderson , Third Sea Lord and Controller of the Navy , was determined not to simply modify the previous unarmoured Ark Royal design . He believed that carriers could not be successfully defended by their own aircraft without some form of early @-@ warning system . Lacking that , there was nothing to prevent land @-@ based aircraft from attacking them , especially in confined waters like the North and Mediterranean Seas . This meant that the ship had to be capable of remaining in action after sustaining damage , and that her fragile aircraft had to be protected entirely from damage . The only way to do this was to completely armour the hangar in which the aircraft would shelter , but putting that much weight so high in the ship allowed only a single @-@ storey hangar due to stability concerns . This halved the aircraft capacity of the Illustrious class compared with the older unarmoured carriers , trading offensive potential for defensive survivability .
Formidable was 740 feet ( 225 @.@ 6 m ) in length overall and 710 feet ( 216 @.@ 4 m ) at the waterline . Her beam was 95 feet 9 inches ( 29 @.@ 2 m ) at the waterline and she had a draught of 28 feet 10 inches ( 8 @.@ 8 m ) at deep load . She displaced 23 @,@ 000 long tons ( 23 @,@ 369 t ) at standard load as completed . Her complement was approximately 1 @,@ 299 officers and enlisted men upon completion in 1940 . The ship had three Parsons geared steam turbines , each driving one shaft , using steam supplied by six Admiralty 3 @-@ drum boilers . The turbines were designed to produce a total of 111 @,@ 000 shp ( 83 @,@ 000 kW ) , enough to give a maximum speed of 30 @.@ 5 knots ( 56 @.@ 5 km / h ; 35 @.@ 1 mph ) . On sea trials , Formidable reached speeds of 30 @.@ 6 knots ( 56 @.@ 7 km / h ; 35 @.@ 2 mph ) with 112 @,@ 018 shp ( 83 @,@ 532 kW ) . She carried a maximum of 4 @,@ 850 long tons ( 4 @,@ 930 t ) of fuel oil which gave her a range of 10 @,@ 700 nautical miles ( 19 @,@ 800 km ; 12 @,@ 300 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
The 753 @-@ foot ( 229 @.@ 5 m ) armoured flight deck had a usable length of 670 feet ( 204 @.@ 2 m ) , due to prominent " round @-@ downs " at bow and stern to reduce air turbulence , and a maximum width of 95 feet ( 29 @.@ 0 m ) . A single hydraulic aircraft catapult was fitted on the forward part of the flight deck . The ship was equipped with two unarmoured lifts on the centreline , each of which measured 45 by 22 feet ( 13 @.@ 7 by 6 @.@ 7 m ) . The hangar was 456 feet ( 139 @.@ 0 m ) long and had a maximum width of 62 feet ( 18 @.@ 9 m ) . It had a height of 16 feet ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) which allowed storage of Lend @-@ Lease Vought F4U Corsair fighters once their wingtips were clipped . The ship could accommodate up to 54 aircraft rather than the intended 36 after the adoption of " outriggers " on the flight deck during the war and the flattening of the " round @-@ downs " that increased the usable length of the flight deck to 740 feet ( 225 @.@ 6 m ) to facilitate the use of a permanent deck park . The additional crewmen , maintenance personnel and facilities needed to support the extra aircraft severely crowded the ship . She was provided with 50 @,@ 650 imperial gallons ( 230 @,@ 300 l ; 60 @,@ 830 US gal ) of aviation gasoline .
= = = Armament , electronics and protection = = =
The ship 's main armament consisted of sixteen quick @-@ firing ( QF ) 4 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 110 mm ) dual @-@ purpose guns in eight twin @-@ gun turrets that were mounted in sponsons on the side of the hull . The roofs of the gun turrets protruded above the level of the flight deck to allow them to fire across the deck at high elevations . The gun had a maximum range of 20 @,@ 760 yards ( 18 @,@ 980 m ) . Her light anti @-@ aircraft defences included six octuple mounts for QF two @-@ pounder ( " pom @-@ pom " ) anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) guns , two each fore and aft of the island and two in sponsons on the port side of the hull . The two @-@ pounder gun had a maximum range of 6 @,@ 800 yards ( 6 @,@ 200 m ) .
While under repair in late 1941 , Formidable 's light AA armament was augmented by the addition of 10 Oerlikon 20 mm autocannon in single mounts with a maximum range of 4 @,@ 800 yards ( 4 @,@ 400 m ) . By the time of her last recorded refit in March 1944 , she had exchanged one octuple " pom @-@ pom " mount for a quadruple mount and had a total of 20 twin and 14 single 20 @-@ millimetre ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) mounts . Before seeing combat against the Japanese some were replaced by 40 mm Bofors AA guns as the 20 mm shell was unlikely to destroy a kamikaze before it hit the ship . The Bofors gun had a maximum range of 10 @,@ 750 yards ( 9 @,@ 830 m ) . By the war 's end the ship had all six of her original octuple " pom @-@ pom " mounts , five single power @-@ operated 40 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) mounts , seven single 40 mm " Boffin " mounts and 11 twin and 12 single 20 mm mounts .
Formidable was completed with a Type 79 early @-@ warning radar . The specifics of the additional radars fitted during the war are not readily available , but she probably had , by the end of the war , a Type 277 surface @-@ search / height @-@ finding radar on top of the bridge and a Type 293 target @-@ indicator radar on the foremast . She also probably mounted Type 279 and Type 281B early @-@ warning radars , based on those fitted aboard her sister ship Victorious . In addition , Type 282 and Type 285 gunnery radars were mounted on the fire @-@ control directors .
The Illustrious @-@ class ships had a flight deck protected by 3 inches ( 76 mm ) of armour and the internal sides and ends of the hangars were 4 @.@ 5 inches ( 114 mm ) thick . The hangar deck itself was 2 @.@ 5 inches ( 64 mm ) thick and extended the full width of the ship to meet the top of the 4 @.@ 5 @-@ inch waterline armour belt . The belt was closed by 2 @.@ 5 @-@ inch transverse bulkheads fore and aft . The underwater defence system was a layered system of liquid- and air @-@ filled compartments backed by a 1 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 38 mm ) splinter bulkhead .
= = Construction and service = =
Formidable was ordered as part of the 1937 Naval Programme from Harland & Wolff . She was laid down at their Belfast shipyard on 17 June 1937 as yard number 1007 and launched on 17 August 1939 . Just before the launch ceremony was to begin , the wooden cradle supporting the ship collapsed , and the ship slid down the slipway while workmen were still underneath and around the ship . One spectator was killed by flying debris and at least 20 others were injured ; Formidable , however , was not damaged . Because of the incident , the carrier was referred to as " The Ship That Launched Herself " . She was commissioned on 24 November 1940 .
After a very brief work up , the Fairey Albacore torpedo bombers of 826 and 829 Squadrons and the Fairey Fulmar fighters of 803 Squadron flew aboard and she joined the Home Fleet at Scapa Flow on 12 December . Her stay there was brief as she , escorted by the heavy cruisers Dorsetshire and Norfolk , sailed on 18 December to protect convoys and search for the German cruiser Admiral Scheer which had recently attacked Convoy HX 84 in the North Atlantic . They failed to find the commerce raider and escorted a convoy to Cape Town , South Africa , arriving on 22 January 1941 . Four days later the ship was ordered north to replace her sister Illustrious with the Mediterranean Fleet after she had been badly damaged by German dive bombers . En route , she took the opportunity to attack Italian forces in Italian Somaliland and Eritrea . They sank the 5 @,@ 723 @-@ gross register ton ( GRT ) steamer SS Moncalieri on 12 February for the loss of two Albacores .
= = = Battle of Cape Matapan = = =
Several weeks later , she made a cautious transit of the recently mined Suez Canal and reached Alexandria on 10 March . 829 Squadron was issued Fairey Swordfish torpedo bombers to replace its losses around this time . On 20 March Formidable escorted a convoy to Malta and flew off five aircraft for Crete while returning to Alexandria . On the morning of 27 March , major elements of the Italian Fleet were spotted en route to the sea lanes between Egypt and Greece and the carrier sailed later that afternoon to intercept them . Reinforced by three Fulmars from 806 Squadron , her air group only numbered 13 Fulmars , 10 Albacores and 4 Swordfish . An Albacore spotted the leading Italian ships the next morning ; a strike force of six Albacores was loaded with torpedoes and began to attack the Italian battleship Vittorio Veneto . Two German Junkers Ju 88 bombers intervened , but they were driven off by the escorting pair of Fulmars . The attack was unsuccessful and another strike force of three Albacores and two Swordfish was prepared . Shortly after launching them at 12 : 22 , Formidable was unsuccessfully attacked by a pair of torpedo @-@ carrying Savoia @-@ Marchetti SM.79 bombers . Around 14 : 50 , one Albacore succeeded in torpedoing the Italian battleship , although the other aircraft missed . The hit briefly knocked out her engines and caused heavy flooding . Another air strike of six Albacores and two Swordfish was launched at 17 : 30 to finish off the crippled battleship , but they mistook the Italian cruiser Pola for the battleship in the fading light . The cruiser was struck by a single torpedo from one of the aircraft , possibly from one of two Swordfish from 815 Squadron from Maleme , Crete , that linked up with Formidable 's aircraft before the attack . The mistake allowed the battleship to reach port . One Albacore was shot down by Vittorio Veneto and two others were forced to ditch after running out of fuel during the day 's operations .
On 18 April the Mediterranean Fleet sortied to bombard the primary Axis supply port of Tripoli and was attacked by a pair of torpedo @-@ carrying SM.79s from Rhodes . They were intercepted by a pair of Fulmars that damaged one bomber badly enough that it crash @-@ landed back at its base , although one Fulmar was also forced to crash @-@ land aboard Formidable . The next day Fulmars from 806 Squadron shot down one CANT Z.1007 bomber flying from Cyrenica to Sicily and a pair of Junkers Ju 52 transports flying fuel to North Africa . On the morning of 21 April , the carrier 's aircraft dropped flares to illuminate the port so it could be shelled by three battleships and a light cruiser . On the way home , a pair of Fulmars shot down a Dornier Do 24 flying boat .
During the Evacuation of Greece , Formidable provided air cover for Convoy GA @-@ 15 on 29 April . A Fulmar from 803 Squadron was forced to ditch on 2 May before the carrier returned to Alexandria the next day . She put to sea on 6 May to provide air cover for the convoys involved in Operation Tiger . On the morning of 8 May , a pair of Fulmars claimed to have shot down a pair of Z.1007s searching for the fleet ; one Fulmar failed to return . Later that afternoon , the fighters shot down four German Heinkel He 111 bombers at the cost of one Fulmar forced to crash @-@ land . Two Albacores and a Fulmar crashed due to non @-@ combat causes during the day . The next day a pair of Fulmars from 806 Squadron badly damaged a Ju 88 reconnaissance bomber that crash @-@ landed at its base in Sicily . As the fleet and the Tiger convoy approached Alexandria on 11 May , a pair of Fulmars attacked a formation of Ju 88s , damaging one bomber ; one Fulmar and another Ju 88 were seen falling together towards the sea . Many of the Fulmars had been rendered unserviceable during the operation and Formidable was unable to provide air cover until they were repaired .
On 26 May the fleet sortied for a dawn raid on the base at Scarpanto the next day ; the carrier could only muster a total of 12 Fulmars and 15 Albacores and Swordfish . Six Albacores and four Fulmars attacked the airbase , destroying one Ju 88 and damaging two others . Also damaged were an Italian Savoia @-@ Marchetti SM.81 transport and six Fiat CR.42 fighters . Later that morning , as the fleet was returning to Egypt , the Fulmars shot down a He 111 and two Ju 88s for the loss of one Fulmar forced to land aboard the carrier and another forced to ditch . At 13 : 10 a formation of Junkers Ju 87 Stuka dive bombers was spotted from I. / StG 2 ; based in Cyrenica , they were searching for supply ships bound for Tobruk and not involved in the Battle of Crete . They hit Formidable with two 500 @-@ kilogram ( 1 @,@ 100 lb ) bombs and blew the bow off her escorting destroyer Nubian . The bombs killed 12 men and wounded 10 ; one bomb passed completely through the outer part of the starboard forward flight deck and detonated before it hit the water , riddling the side of the hull with holes . A near miss also blew a large hole in the ship 's starboard side underwater . The pair of Fulmars on Combat Air Patrol ( CAP ) shot down one of the Stukas after it had dropped its bomb and were able to land aboard shortly afterwards , although takeoffs could not be made until 18 : 00 .
Formidable arrived at Alexandria the following day and disembarked her air group . She received emergency repairs before departing on 24 July for permanent repairs at Norfolk Naval Shipyard in the United States , 829 Squadron flying aboard with its Albacores to provide anti @-@ submarine patrols during the voyage . She arrived on 25 August and the repairs were completed in early December . After several days of sea trials , she sailed for Britain in company with Illustrious on 12 December . During the night of 15 / 16 December , Illustrious collided with Formidable 's stern , but neither ship was seriously damaged . She was repaired at Belfast from 21 December 1941 to 3 February 1942 and embarked the Albacores of 818 and 820 Squadrons and the Grumman Martlet fighters of 888 Squadron .
= = = Indian Ocean Raid = = =
Formidable sailed on 17 February to join the Eastern Fleet in the Indian Ocean , escorting a convoy to Freetown , Sierra Leone , en route . One of her passengers on the voyage was Admiral Sir James Somerville , about to take up his appointment as Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Eastern Fleet . The ship arrived at Colombo , Ceylon , on 24 March and Somerville hoisted his flag aboard the battleship Warspite that same day . Two days after Formidable 's arrival , the Japanese First Air Fleet departed from Celebes ( Sulawesi ) in the Dutch East Indies to attack British forces in the Indian Ocean . Somerville was notified that the Japanese were planning on attacking Ceylon on 28 March and ordered his fleet to assemble southeast of the island on 30 March to intercept them . Force A , consisting of Formidable , her sister Indomitable and Warspite , was ordered to Addu Atoll to refuel on 3 April after the Japanese failed to attack as the British expected . A Royal Air Force Consolidated Catalina flying boat spotted them within range of Ceylon just three and a half hours after Force A arrived at the atoll on 4 April . Too far away to intercept them before they could attack Ceylon , Force A departed about eleven hours after arrival on a course that Somerville thought would allow him to attack by night while avoiding detection during the day . One of Indomitable 's Albacores spotted some of the Japanese carriers just before nightfall on 5 April , after the Japanese attacked Colombo , but further searches failed to locate them until 8 April when the Japanese were one day away from their intended target , Trincomalee , and still too far away to intercept . Force A refuelled at Addu Atoll on 9 April and was then ordered to Bombay to calm fears of a Japanese attack on India 's west coast .
Somerville was still uneasy about the possibility of another attack on Ceylon and ordered Force A to Kilindini Harbour , Mombasa , Kenya on 24 April . En route ( 5 – 7 May ) , she helped protect the invasion of Vichy Diego Suarez , Madagascar against a Japanese attack . Formidable arrived at Kilindini on 10 May and remained there until she departed on 29 May bound for Colombo . The ship alternated between Colombo and Kilindini for the rest of her time with the Eastern Fleet . Rear @-@ Admiral Denis Boyd hoisted his flag over the ship on 24 August and she departed six days later to return home for a refit . She arrived at Rosyth on 21 September and her refit lasted until 18 October . She sailed that day for Scapa Flow where she embarked 24 Martlets of 888 and 893 Squadrons , 12 Albacores of 820 Squadron and 6 Supermarine Seafire fighters of 885 Squadron in preparation for the invasion of French North Africa .
= = = Operation Torch = = =
Assigned to Force H for Operation Torch , Formidable sailed on 30 October and provided cover in the Western Mediterranean against any attempt to interfere with the landings by Axis forces in Italy or France . Her Martlets shot down a pair of Ju 88s on 6 November and her Albacores laid a smoke screen in support of the landings at Algiers on 8 November . Two of her Albacores torpedoed and sank the German submarine U @-@ 331 on 17 November after it had surrendered to a Supermarine Walrus amphibian once the Walrus had departed to find a ship to accept the surrender . She remained off the Algerian coast providing air support for Allied forces for the rest of the month , and one of her Seafires shot down a Ju 88 on 28 November .
Formidable was the only carrier in the Mediterranean after Torch until she was joined by Indomitable in mid @-@ June 1943 as part of the buildup for the Allied invasion of Sicily ( Operation Husky ) . The two carriers were east of the island in a position to intercept any attempt by the Italian fleet to attack the landings . After Sicily was secured , Formidable became the first carrier to enter Grand Harbour , Malta , since Illustrious in January 1941 . The latter ship joined Formidable as a replacement for the torpedoed Indomitable in Force H for the landings at Salerno ( Operation Avalanche ) on 9 September . As in Husky , their role was to protect the invasion fleet from interference by the Italian Navy . The fighters aboard the smaller carriers protecting the forces ashore suffered heavy attrition during the early days of the operation and Formidable transferred 2 Seafires and 15 Martlets to Unicorn as replacements for their losses .
= = = Norwegian operations = = =
In October , the carrier was transferred to the Home Fleet and departed Gibraltar for Greenock on 13 October together with the battleship King George V. Six days later she was in Scapa Flow to begin patrols to Iceland in company with the battleships Howe and Anson and the American carrier Ranger that lasted for the next three weeks . On 13 November she flew off her air group and sailed for Belfast to begin a lengthy refit , arriving on 19 November . The refit was completed in early June and the ship spent the rest of the month working up . The 18 Corsairs of 1841 Squadron and the 24 Fairey Barracuda torpedo bombers of 827 and 830 Squadrons flew aboard on 29 June and Formidable sailed for Scapa Flow to train with the carriers Furious and Indefatigable before launching an attack on the Tirpitz in Kaafjord on 17 July ( Operation Mascot ) . Her Corsairs escorted the strike aircraft from the other carriers to the target ; one was shot down by German flak . A smoke screen prevented most of the Barracudas from seeing their target and they failed to hit the Tirpitz . Upon the ship 's return to Scapa Flow , 827 and 830 Squadrons were replaced by 826 and 828 Squadrons , also flying Barracudas .
Formidable 's air group was reinforced by a dozen Corsairs of 1842 Squadron on 7 August in preparation for further attacks on Tirpitz ( Operation Goodwood ) . The two Corsair squadrons were assigned to No. 6 Naval Fighter Wing aboard the carrier on 14 August . The first attack was on the morning of 22 August when Formidable launched 24 Corsairs and 12 Barracudas against the German battleship and nearby targets , all of which returned . A smoke screen again protected the Tirpitz and no damage was inflicted . Another attack scheduled for the afternoon had to be cancelled because of low clouds . A further attack could not be mounted until 24 August because of bad weather . The carrier contributed 23 Corsairs and 16 Barracudas , and 3 of the fighters were shot down over the target . The Tirpitz was lightly damaged by two bomb hits during this attack . A final attack was made five days later , again without effect .
The carrier arrived at Scapa Flow on 2 September where both Barracuda squadrons disembarked . She later sailed to Gibraltar , arriving on 21 September to begin a refit that , among other things , augmented her anti @-@ aircraft outfit in preparation for operations in the Pacific . The Corsairs of No. 6 Naval Fighter Wing flew aboard on 1 January 1945 , as did 18 Grumman TBF Avengers of 848 Squadron . After several weeks of working up , Formidable departed Gibraltar on 14 January to join the British Pacific Fleet ( BPF ) . She arrived in Sydney , the BPF 's main base , on 10 March after several stops en route to refuel and embark stores and ammunition . On 20 March , Admiral Sir Bruce Fraser , commander of the BPF , inspected the ship and her crew .
= = = Pacific operations = = =
By this time Formidable 's air group had a strength of 36 Corsairs and 18 Avengers . She arrived in San Pedro Bay in the Philippines on 4 April to await the return of the BPF from their efforts to neutralise airfields on the Sakishima Islands , between Okinawa and Formosa , as part of the preparations for the landings on Okinawa . Formidable was called forward six days later to join the 1st Aircraft Carrier Squadron ( 1st ACS ) of the BPF on operations as a replacement for Illustrious which was in poor mechanical shape . She arrived on 14 April and contributed aircraft when the attacks recommenced two days later . The commander of 1842 Squadron was killed on the first day of operations while strafing buildings at Nobara airfield . After refuelling and two more days ' attacks , the BPF sailed on 20 April for San Pedro Bay to replenish its ships for further operations .
The fleet returned to waters off Okinawa on 4 May and renewed its attacks on the airfields on the Sakishima Islands . Vice @-@ Admiral Bernard Rawlings , second in command of the BPF , and his staff had determined that bombardment of Japanese gun positions by the heavy guns of battleships and cruisers might be a more effective method of destroying them than aerial attack . They detached King George V and Howe , as well as five cruisers , that morning to bombard Nobara and Hiara airfields while fighters flew a protective CAP over them and spotted the fall of their shells . The loss of the most effective anti @-@ aircraft ships was more important than anticipated and the Japanese were able to take advantage of the opportunity . The carrier had just launched two Corsairs for bombardment @-@ spotting duties and the deck park of eleven Avengers was being moved forward to allow aircraft to land when an undetected Mitsubishi A6M Zero fighter attacked at 11 : 31 . The Zero first strafed the flight deck before any of Formidable 's guns could open fire and then turned sharply to dive into the forward flight deck despite the ship 's hard turn to starboard . The fighter released a bomb shortly before it would have impacted the deck and was destroyed by the bomb 's blast , although the remnants of the Zero struck Formidable .
The detonation of the bomb blew a 2 @-@ by @-@ 2 @-@ foot ( 0 @.@ 6 by 0 @.@ 6 m ) hole in the flight deck . It killed 2 officers and 6 enlisted men , wounding 55 other crewmen . A fragment from the flight deck armour penetrated the hangar deck armour and passed through the centre boiler uptakes , the centre boiler room itself , and an oil tank before it came to rest in the inner bottom . The fragment severed the steam pipes in the centre boiler room and forced its evacuation , cutting the ship 's speed to 14 knots ( 26 km / h ; 16 mph ) . The blast on the flight deck blew the Avenger closest to it over the side and set another one on fire . Shrapnel from the blast peppered the island , causing the bulk of the casualties , and severed many electrical cables , including those for most of the ship 's radars . The fires on the flight deck and in the hangar were extinguished by 11 : 55 , and seven Avengers and a Corsair which were damaged beyond repair were dumped over the side . The bomb struck at the intersection of three armour plates and dented the plates over an area 20 by 24 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 by 7 @.@ 3 m ) . The dent was filled by wood and concrete and covered by thin steel plates tack @-@ welded to the deck so that she was able to operate aircraft by 17 : 00 and steam at a speed of 24 knots ( 44 km / h ;
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28 mph ) . Thirteen of her Corsairs had been airborne at the time of the attack and they operated from the other carriers for a time . The damage to the boiler room and its steam pipes was repaired so that the centre boilers could be reconnected to the engines at 02 : 00 the next day .
The bombardment significantly reduced Japanese aerial activity on 5 May , although several of Formidable 's Corsairs , temporarily operating from her sister Victorious , shot down a Japanese reconnaissance aircraft at an altitude of 30 @,@ 000 feet ( 9 @,@ 100 m ) . That evening the fleet withdrew to refuel and was back on station on 8 May although heavy rains forced the cancellation of the planned air strikes . Another kamikaze penetrated the CAP at low altitude and struck Formidable 's flight deck and deck park at 17 : 05 on 9 May . The impact did little damage to the ship , but caused an explosion and large fire that destroyed 18 of her aircraft . Casualties were light with only one man killed and four wounded . The carrier was able to resume operations fifty minutes later , but with only four Avengers and eleven Corsairs still serviceable . Rawlings decided to immediately withdraw to give Victorious and Formidable more time to make repairs and to replenish their depleted air groups . He also revised the deployment of the BPF to counter the new low @-@ level tactics of the Japanese by stationing the battleships and cruisers more closely to the carriers , keeping the carriers closer together and positioning radar picket cruisers in the most likely directions of attack .
The BPF returned to action on 12 May and no Japanese aircraft were seen or detected that day or the next . One of Formidable 's Avengers made a successful landing aboard Indomitable with only one landing gear leg extended and no flaps on 13 May . The BPF continued its routine of two days of operations alternating with one or two days to replenish its ships for the next several days with minimal interference by the Japanese . On the morning of 18 May , armourers were loading ammunition into aircraft when a Corsair 's guns were accidentally fired into an Avenger which caught fire . The overhead fire sprinklers were immediately turned on , but the fire could not be extinguished for nearly an hour , not least because the electric motors driving the steel fire curtains had been damaged in the first kamikaze attack and could only be repaired by a dockyard . Twenty @-@ one Corsairs and seven Avengers were either damaged or destroyed in the incident . Rawlings decided to detach Formidable early to give her extra time for repairs in Sydney and she was ordered to depart on 22 May .
= = = = Operations off the Japanese coast = = = =
The ship arrived on 31 May and was taken into the Captain Cook Dock at the Garden Island Dockyard for repairs , with the dock 's labour force being augmented with workers from the Cockatoo Island Dockyard . Two of the three armour plates damaged on 4 May were repaired , but the third had to be replaced by two 1 @.@ 5 @-@ inch high @-@ quality steel plates as there were not any armour plates of the required thickness available in Australia . Repairs were also made to the ship 's machinery , boilers and electrical systems . The island was enlarged with an admiral 's staff cabin and a radar workshop . Rear @-@ Admiral Sir Philip Vian , commander of the 1st ACS , transferred his flag to Formidable when her repairs were complete .
Together with Victorious and King George V , Formidable departed Sydney on 28 June , bound for the BPF 's advance base at Manus Island , in the Admiralty Islands . Her air group now consisted of 36 Corsairs , 12 Avengers and 6 Grumman F6F Hellcats of 1844 Squadron . Two of the latter aircraft were photoreconnaissance versions . No. 6 Naval Fighter Wing was absorbed into the 2nd Carrier Air Group that controlled all of the aircraft on the carrier . The ships arrived on 4 July , refuelled , and departed two days later to join the American Third Fleet , already operating off the Japanese Home Islands . The BPF rendezvoused with the Americans on 16 July and commenced operations the next morning . Formidable flew off 28 Corsairs bound north of Tokyo on 17 July , but some of them were unable to locate their targets because of bad weather . Twenty @-@ four Corsairs attacked targets near Tokyo the next day , before more bad weather halted flying operations until 24 – 25 July , when the BPF 's aircraft attacked targets near Osaka and the Inland Sea , crippling the escort carrier Kaiyo . After replenishing , airstrikes resumed on 28 and 30 July , sinking the escort Okinawa near Maizuru . A combination of bad weather , refuelling requirements and the atomic bombing of Hiroshima delayed the resumption of air operations until 9 August .
During the morning , Formidable flew off a fighter sweep of a dozen Corsairs followed an hour later by Avengers that attacked Matsushima Air Field . A second fighter sweep , led by Lieutenant Robert Hampton Gray , RCNVR , senior pilot of 1841 Squadron , was diverted to attack Japanese warships located in Onagawa Wan , Miyagi Prefecture , with his eight Corsairs . Gray spotted two escort ships and led his aircraft into the attack . Intense flak set his engine on fire , but Gray continued his attack , skip bombing a 500 @-@ pound ( 230 kg ) bomb into the Etorofu @-@ class escort Amakusa . The ship sank within five minutes with the loss of 157 lives . Gray 's aircraft rolled inverted shortly after releasing the bomb and crashed into the sea ; he did not survive . Gray was later posthumously awarded the Victoria Cross ( VC ) .
The attacks were repeated the next day , sinking two warships and numerous small merchantmen and destroying numerous railroad locomotives and parked aircraft . The BPF had been scheduled to withdraw after 10 August to prepare for Operation Olympic , the invasion of Kyushu scheduled for November , and the bulk of the force , including Formidable , departed for Manus on 12 August . The Japanese surrender a few days later ended the war .
= = = Post @-@ war actions = = =
Formidable arrived at Sydney on 24 August , and had her hangar refitted to accommodate Allied ex @-@ prisoners of war and soldiers for repatriation . Having left her air group behind to maximise the numbers of passengers she could carry , the ship arrived at Manila on 30 September , where she loaded over 1 @,@ 000 Australian former prisoners of war on 4 October and unloaded them at Circular Quay in Sydney on 21 October . She departed three days later , bound for Karavia Bay , New Britain where she loaded 1 @,@ 254 men of the Indian Army and continued on to Singapore where she loaded Indian ex @-@ PoWs before delivering them to Bombay . There Formidable loaded an Indian Army infantry battalion for transport to Batavia in the Dutch East Indies to maintain law and order until Dutch colonial troops could take over . The ship then loaded elements of the 7th Australian Division and their equipment at Tarakan Island , Borneo and picked up more Australians at Morotai ; she arrived at Sydney on 6 December .
Vice @-@ Admiral Vian addressed the ship 's crew on 27 December before she departed the following day with 800 naval personnel embarked for passage home . She arrived at Portsmouth on 5 February 1946 . The dockyard there fitted her with more permanent accommodations in the hangar for more trooping duties and she loaded 480 personnel before departing for Sydney on 2 March . Formidable arrived there a month later and loaded 1 @,@ 336 naval personnel as well as some Wrens and VAD nurses . She sailed on 12 April , stopping in Colombo to refuel and drop off 576 naval personnel , before arriving in Devonport on 9 May . She made her next voyage to Bombay and Colombo between 15 June and 25 July . The ship loaded 114 officers , 958 enlisted men and 11 VAD nurses in Singapore in August and another 319 enlisted men in Trincomalee before stopping in Malta to load 41 men of the Merchant Navy . Formidable made her last trooping voyage between Portsmouth and Singapore , delivering 1 @,@ 000 Royal Marine Commandos to the latter , between 3 December and 3 February 1947 .
= = = Decommissioning and disposal = = =
In early March 1947 , Formidable steamed north to Rosyth for a brief refit before being reduced to reserve . She was paid off on 12 August and a later survey revealed that her wartime damage and poor material shape meant the ship was beyond economical repair at a time when money was very tight . She was towed to Spithead in mid @-@ 1949 and then to Portsmouth Royal Dockyard in November 1952 . Formidable was sold for scrap in January 1953 and towed to Inverkeithing where she was broken up .
= = Squadrons embarked = =
= The Natural Order =
" The Natural Order " is the twentieth episode of the third season of the American television comedy show 30 Rock . It was written by series creator Tina Fey with co @-@ executive producer John Riggi and directed by Scott Ellis . The episode originally aired on the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) network in the United States on April 30 , 2009 . Guest stars in " The Natural Order " include actors Elaine Stritch and Steve Buscemi .
The plot of the episode centers around a conflict between Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) and Liz Lemon ( Fey ) over favorable treatment . Meanwhile , Jenna Maroney ( Jane Krakowski ) adopts a gibbon and treats it like her child . Finally , Jack Donaghy 's ( Alec Baldwin ) mother Colleen ( Stritch ) visits him on the 35th anniversary of the day that Jack 's father left the family .
" The Natural Order " received mixed reception from television critics . According to the Nielsen ratings system , it was watched by 6 million households during its original broadcast , and received a 2 @.@ 7 rating / 7 share among viewers in the 18 – 49 demographic .
= = Plot = =
Liz ( Tina Fey ) , Kenneth Parcell ( Jack McBrayer ) , and Pete Hornberger ( Scott Adsit ) all attempt to trick Tracy into arriving at a rehearsal on time . Tracy arrives not knowing what time it is and announces that Liz is racist and treating him like a child . Liz challenges Tracy to behave better so he can be treated as an adult , but he responds by sending a gibbon to replace himself at rehearsal . Liz tells Tracy to arrive on time with his lines memorized the next day if he wants to be treated equally . Tracy retaliates by acting professionally but convincing everyone to treat Liz equally too , by making her lift heavy water jugs , passing gas near her , and inviting her to a strip club along with the other writers . Liz in turn stops Tracy from going to the strip club , noting that because he is acting so professionally he has to write notes for the upcoming script . Liz is uncomfortable at the strip club and Tracy hates writing all night so they agree to return to the " natural order " of things with both receiving preferential treatment .
Meanwhile , Jenna adopts the gibbon Tracy sends to rehearsal and treats it as her child . She dresses it in several costumes including a mariachi outfit , a tuxedo , and a sailor suit . In addition she buys the gibbon a baby doll , referring to herself as a " grandmother . " At the end of the episode Jenna accidentally shakes the head off of the baby doll and the gibbon attacks her .
Jack is concerned for his mother , Colleen ( Elaine Stritch ) . He tells Liz that the anniversary of his father , Jimmy Donaghy , abandoning their family is coming up and he is afraid of the effect it will have on Colleen . When Jack arrives at Colleen 's hotel room to take her to dinner , however , he discovers she is staying with a man , Paul . Jack , worried she has been taken in by a con man in her time of grief , asks his private investigator Lenny Wosniak ( Steve Buscemi ) to look into Paul . Wosniak cannot find anything distasteful in Paul 's background , but tells Jack that he is married . Jack reveals this to his mother , but she says she knew and did not care . Colleen is also surprised that Jack thought the anniversary of Jimmy leaving would hurt her , noting that he had once left from the spring of 1957 until he came back and invited her to see Some Like It Hot . Jack talks this over with Liz and comes to realize that as Some Like It Hot was released in 1959 , Jimmy Donaghy cannot have been his biological father because Jack was conceived in 1958 , during the period Jimmy had been absent .
= = Production = =
" The Natural Order " was written by series ' creator , executive producer and lead actress Tina Fey , and co @-@ executive producer John Riggi . The director of this episode was Scott Ellis . This was Fey and Riggi 's second script collaboration , having co @-@ written season one episode " The Head and the Hair " that aired on January 18 , 2007 . " The Natural Order " originally aired on April 30 , 2009 , on NBC in the United States as the twentieth episode of the show 's third season .
This episode was actress Elaine Stritch 's fifth appearance on 30 Rock as Collen Donaghy , the mother of Jack Donaghy , played by Alec Baldwin . Actor Steve Buscemi reprised his role as private investigator Lenny Wosniak . Buscemi first appeared in the October 18 , 2007 , episode " The Collection " , and went on to direct the third season episode " Retreat to Move Forward " , broadcast on January 22 , 2009 .
= = Cultural references = =
" The Natural Order " is one of several 30 Rock episodes to deal with race . In this episode , when Tracy leaves the first rehearsal accusing Liz of racism he shouts " race card ! " and hands Liz a card with " race card " written on it ( " playing the race card " is an expression that means introducing the issue of race into an argument in order to gain the upper hand ) . During their disagreement Tracy also says that " we have a black president now " , referring to Barack Obama , but Liz says that he voted for Ralph Nader . According to J. Jeremy Wisnewski in " Race At The Rock : Race Cards , White Myths , And Postracial America " , this plotline is an example of people " want [ ing ] to have race and do away with it too . " Tracy wants to be treated equally but also wants to continue behaving the way he is used to . Wisnewski says that by the end of the episode , Liz and Tracy , in reverting to " the natural order " , have come to understand the concept of equality ; rather than forcing people " to be equivalent to one another ... considering the different interests of people equally . "
Jack tells Liz that by protecting his mother this time , as opposed to when his father left , he can " put right what once went wrong " which Liz notes is part of the introduction to the television series Quantum Leap . Jack had written a speech to confront Jimmy Donaghy decades ago and attempts to update it for his confrontation with Paul . He asks Liz who is " today 's Nikita Khrushchev " and she suggests Simon Cowell , which Jack agrees with . Jack is also suspicious of Paul because he met his mother in Florida , which Jack calls " America 's Australia , " referring to Australia 's history as a penal colony . Kenneth also shows an NBC tour the spot where " Gracie Allen took Jack Paar 's virginity " and Jack reveals that he once slept with Kathy Hilton .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " The Natural Order " was watched by 6 million viewers , according to the Nielsen ratings system . It also earned a 2 @.@ 7 rating / 7 share amongst 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ old demographic , meaning it was seen by 2 @.@ 7 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds and 7 % of 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . It was the tenth highest @-@ rated show on NBC that week . This was a decrease from the previous episode , " The Ones " , which was watched by 6 @.@ 3 million American viewers .
Aly Semigran for Entertainment Weekly said the episode " was nowhere near as good " as other recent episodes as it was " too dependent on obvious physical comedy . " IGN writer Robert Canning took no strong position on the episode , saying it had " jokes enough to make it funny , but nothing over the top to make it classic , " rating the episode 8 @.@ 2 out of 10 . The A.V. Club 's Nathan Rabin was more clearly positive about the episode , calling it a " glorious return to form " and grading the episode an A- . Bob Sassone of AOL 's TV Squad opined he was not thrilled with Jenna 's plot , observing that it was " kinda ridiculous ( and unfunny , which is the worse sin ) . " Sassone , however , said that Liz and Tracy feuding and Jack and his mother battling " are plots that are always good for some laughs . " Television columnist Alan Sepinwall for The Star @-@ Ledger wrote that while " The Natural Order " was not a " classic episode " it was still " solid enough , in the end . " Sepinwall enjoyed Jack and his mother 's story , but commented that the Liz and Tracy rivalry was a " hit @-@ or @-@ miss . " TV Guide 's Bruce Fretts said this episode " is easily the show 's most grounded episode ever , even if it does feature a gibbon in a mariachi suit . The script [ ... ] dares to deal with issues of race and gender from a typically irreverent perspective . " Fretts noted that Elaine Stritch and Alec Baldwin " share a surprisingly tender scene as Colleen tells her son , ' You 're my good boy [ ... ] I just love you to death . ' "
= Codex Vaticanus =
The Codex Vaticanus ( The Vatican , Bibl . Vat . , Vat. gr . 1209 ; no . B or 03 Gregory @-@ Aland , δ 1 von Soden ) , is one of the oldest extant manuscripts of the Greek Bible ( Old and New Testament ) , one of the four great uncial codices . The Codex is named after its place of conservation in the Vatican Library , where it has been kept since at least the 15th century . It is written on 759 leaves of vellum in uncial letters and has been dated palaeographically to the 4th century .
The manuscript became known to Western scholars as a result of correspondence between Erasmus and the prefects of the Vatican Library . Portions of the codex were collated by several scholars , but numerous errors were made during this process . The Codex 's relationship to the Latin Vulgate was unclear and scholars were initially unaware of the Codex 's value . This changed in the 19th century when transcriptions of the full codex were completed . It was at that point that scholars realised the text differed significantly from the Textus Receptus .
Most current scholars consider the Codex Vaticanus to be one of the best Greek texts of the New Testament , with the Codex Sinaiticus as its only competitor . Until the discovery by Tischendorf of the Sinaiticus text , the Codex was unrivaled . It was extensively used by Westcott and Hort in their edition of The New Testament in the Original Greek in 1881 . The most widely sold editions of the Greek New Testament are largely based on the text of the Codex Vaticanus .
= = Contents = =
Codex Vaticanus originally contained a virtually complete copy of the Septuagint ( " LXX " ) , lacking only 1 @-@ 4 Maccabees and the Prayer of Manasseh . The original 20 leaves containing Genesis 1 : 1 – 46 : 28a ( 31 leaves ) and Psalm 105 : 27 – 137 : 6b have been lost and were replaced by pages transcribed by a later hand in the 15th century . 2 Kings 2 : 5 – 7 , 10 @-@ 13 are also lost because of a tear to one of the pages . The order of the Old Testament books in the Codex is as follows : Genesis to 2 Chronicles as normal ; 1 Esdras ; 2 Esdras ( Ezra @-@ Nehemiah ) ; the Psalms ; Proverbs ; Ecclesiastes ; Song of Songs ; Job ; Wisdom ; Ecclesiasticus ; Esther ; Judith ; Tobit ; the minor prophets from Hosea to Malachi ; Isaiah ; Jeremiah ; Baruch ; Lamentations and the Epistle of Jeremiah ; Ezekiel and Daniel . This order differs from that followed in Codex Alexandrinus .
The extant New Testament of the Vaticanus contains the Gospels , Acts , the General Epistles , the Pauline Epistles , and the Epistle to the Hebrews ( up to Hebrews 9 : 14 , καθα [ ριει ) ; it is lacking 1 and 2 Timothy , Titus , Philemon , and Revelation . These missing leaves were supplemented by a 15th @-@ century minuscule hand ( folios 760 – 768 ) and are catalogued separately as the minuscule Codex 1957 . Possibly some apocryphal books from the New Testament were included at the end ( as in codices Sinaiticus and Alexandrinus ) , as it is also possible that Revelation was not included .
= = = Verses not in Vaticanus but in later manuscripts = = =
The text of the New Testament lacks several passages :
Matthew 12 : 47 ; 16 : 2b @-@ 3 ; 17 : 21 ; 18 : 11 ; 23 : 14 ;
Mark 7 : 16 ; 9 : 44 @.@ 46 ; 11 : 26 ; 15 : 28 ;
Mark 16 : 9 – 20 ; — The Book of Mark ends with verse 16 : 8 , consistent with the Alexandrian text @-@ type .
Luke 17 : 36 , 22 : 43 – 44 ;
John 5 : 4 , Pericope Adulterae ( John 7 : 53 – 8 : 11 ) ;
Acts 8 : 37 ; 15 : 34 , 24 : 7 ; 28 : 29 ;
Romans 16 : 24 .
1 Peter 5 : 3 .
Phrases not in Vaticanus but in later manuscripts include
Matthew 5 : 44 – εὐλογεῖτε τοὺς καταρωμένους ὑμᾶς , καλῶς ποιεῖτε τοῖς μισοῦσιν ὑμᾶς ( bless those who curse you , do good to those who hate you ) ;
Matthew 10 : 37b – καὶ ὁ φιλῶν υἱὸν ἢ θυγατέρα ὑπὲρ ἐμὲ οὐκ ἔστιν μου ἄξιος ( and he who loves son or daughter more than me is not worthy of me ) as Codex Bezae ;
Matthew 15 : 6 – ἢ τὴν μητέρα ( αὐτοῦ ) ( or ( his ) mother ) ;
Matthew 20 : 23 – καὶ τὸ βάπτισμα ὂ ἐγὼ βαπτίζομαι βαπτισθήσεσθε ( and be baptised with the baptism that I am baptised with ) , as in codices Sinaiticus , D , L , Z , Θ , 085 , f1 , f13 , it , Syriac Sinaiticus ( syrs ) , syrc , copsa .
Mark 10 : 7 – καὶ προσκολληθήσεται πρὸς τὴν γυναῖκα αὐτοῦ ( and be joined to his wife ) , as in codices Sinaiticus , Codex Athous Lavrensis , 892 , ℓ 48 , Sinaitic Palimpsest ( syrs ) , Gothic Codex Argenteus .
Mark 10 : 19 – μη αποστερησης omitted ( as in codices K , W , Ψ , f1 , f13 , 28 , 700 , 1010 , 1079 , 1242 , 1546 , 2148 , ℓ 10 , ℓ 950 , ℓ 1642 , ℓ 1761 , syrs , arm , geo ) but added by a later corrector ( B2 ) .
Luke 9 : 55 – 56 – και ειπεν , Ουκ οιδατε ποιου πνευματος εστε υμεις ; ο γαρ υιος του ανθρωπου ουκ ηλθεν ψυχας ανθρωπων απολεσαι αλλα σωσαι ( and He said : " You do not know what manner of spirit you are of ; for the Son of man came not to destroy men 's lives but to save them ) — omitted as in codices Sinaiticus , C , L , Θ , Ξ , 33 , 700 , 892 , 1241 , Old Syriac version ( syr ) , copbo ;
Luke 11 : 4 – αλλα ρυσαι ημας απο του πονηρου ( but deliver us from evil ) omitted . Omission is supported by the manuscripts : <formula> 75 , Sinaiticus , L , f1 700 vg syrs copsa , bo , arm geo .
Luke 23 : 34 – " And Jesus said : Father forgive them , they know not what they do . " This omission is supported by the manuscripts <formula> 75 , Sinaiticusa , D * , W , Θ , 0124 , 1241 , a , d , syrs , copsa , copbo .
= = = Additions = = =
In Matt . 27 : 49 the Codex contains added text : ἄλλος δὲ λαβὼν λόγχην ἒνυξεν αὐτοῦ τὴν πλευράν , καὶ ἐξῆλθεν ὖδορ καὶ αἳμα ( and another took a spear , piercing His side , and out came water and blood ) . This reading was derived from John 19 : 34 and occurs in other manuscripts of the Alexandrian text @-@ type ( א , C , L , Γ , 1010 , 1293 , pc , vgmss ) .
= = Description = =
The manuscript is in quarto volume , arranged in quires of five sheets or ten leaves each , similar to the Codex Marchalianus or Codex Rossanensis ; but unlike the Codex Sinaiticus which has an arrangement of four or three sheets . The number of the quires is often found in the margin . Originally it must have been composed of 830 parchment leaves , but it appears that 71 leaves have been lost . Currently , the Old Testament consists of 617 sheets and the New Testament of 142 sheets . The parchment is fine and thin . The actual size of the pages is 27 cm by 27 cm ; although the original was bigger . The codex is written in three columns per page , with 40 – 44 lines per page , and 16 – 18 letters per line . In the poetical books of the Old Testament ( OT ) there are only two columns to a page . In Pentateuch , Joshua , Judges , Ruth , and 1 Kings 1 : 1 – 19 : 11 there are 44 lines in a column ; in 2 Chronicles 10 : 16 – 26 : 13 there are 40 lines in a column ; and in the New Testament always 42 . The manuscript is one of the very few New Testament manuscripts to be written with three columns per page . The other two Greek codices written in that way are Uncial 048 and Uncial 053 . Codex Vaticanus comprises a single quarto volume containing 759 thin and delicate vellum leaves .
The lettering in the Codex is small and neat , without ornamentation or capitals . The Greek is written continuously in small neat writing ; all the letters are equidistant from each other ; no word is separated from the other ; each line appears to be one long word . Punctuation is rare ( accents and breathings have been added by a later hand ) except for some blank spaces , diaeresis on initial iotas and upsilons , abbreviations of the nomina sacra and markings of OT citations . The OT citations were marked by an inverted comma ( > ) , as was done in Alexandrinus . There are no enlarged initials ; no stops or accents ; no divisions into chapters or sections such as are found in later manuscripts .
The text of the Gospels is not divided according to the Ammonian Sections with a references to the Eusebian Canons , but divided into peculiar numbered sections : Matthew has 170 , Mark 61 , Luke 152 , and John 80 . This system is found only in two other manuscripts , in Codex Zacynthius and in codex 579 . There are two system divisions in the Acts and the Catholic Epistles that differ from the Euthalian Apparatus . In the Acts these sections are 36 ( the same system as Codex Sinaiticus , Codex Amiatinus , and Codex Fuldensis ) and according to the other system 69 sections . 2 Peter has no numeration , leading to the conclusion that the system of divisions dates prior to the time the Epistle came to be commonly regarded as canonical . The chapters in the Pauline epistles are numbered continuously as the Epistles were regarded as comprising one book .
= = = Text @-@ type = = =
In the Old Testament , the type of text varies , with a received text in Ezekiel and a rejected one in Book of Isaiah . In Judges , the text differs substantially from that of the majority of manuscripts , but agrees with the Old Latin and Sahidic version and Cyril of Alexandria . In Job , it has the additional 400 half @-@ verses from Theodotion , which are not in the Old Latin and Sahidic versions . The text of the Old Testament was considered by critics , such as Hort and Cornill , to be substantially that which underlies Origen 's Hexapla edition , completed by him at Caesarea and issued as an independent work ( apart from the other versions with which Origen associated it ) by Eusebius and Pamphilus .
In the New Testament , the Greek text of the codex is a representative of the Alexandrian text @-@ type . Aland placed it in Category I. In the Gospels of Luke and John , it has been found to agree very closely with the text of Bodmer <formula> 75 , which has been dated to the beginning of the 3rd century and hence is at least 100 years older than the Codex Vaticanus itself . This is purported to demonstrate ( by recourse to a postulated earlier exemplar from which both P75 and B descend ) that the Codex Vaticanus accurately reproduces an earlier text from these two biblical books reinforces the reputation the codex held amongst Biblical scholars . It also strongly suggests that it may have been copied in Egypt . In the Pauline epistles there is a distinctly Western element .
= = = Notable readings = = =
Judges 18 : 30 it reads υἱὸς Μανασση ( son of Manasse ) , Alexandrinus reads υἱοῦ Μωυσῆ ( son of Mose ) ;
Ezra 10 : 22 ( 9 : 22 LXX ) it reads Ωκαιληδος ( Alexandrinus – Ωκειδηλος ) for Jozabad ;
Matthew 5 : 22 — it lacks the word εικη ( without cause ) , a reading supported by <formula> 67 , Sinaiticus , 2174 , manuscripts of Vulgate , and Ethiopian version ;
Matthew 17 : 23 — τη τριημερα ( the third day ) for τη τριτη ημερα ( the third day ) , it is singular reading ;
Matthew 21 : 31 — ὁ ὕστερος ( the last ) for ὁ πρῶτος ( the first ) , ὁ ἔσχατος ( the last ) , or ὁ δεύτερος ( the second ) ; ὁ ὕστερος is a singular reading ;
Matthew 23 : 38 — word ερημος ( desert ) is omitted , as in manuscripts Codex Regius , Corbeiensis II , Syriac Sinaiticus , copsa , bo ;
Luke 4 : 17 — it has textual variant καὶ ἀνοίξας τὸ βιβλίον ( and opened the book ) together with the manuscripts A , L , W , Ξ , 33 , 892 , 1195 , 1241 , ℓ 547 , syrs , h , pal , copsa , bo , against variant καὶ ἀναπτύξας τὸ βιβλίον ( and unrolled the book ) supported by א , Dc , K , Δ , Θ , Π , Ψ , f1 , f13 , 28 , 565 , 700 , 1009 , 1010 and many other manuscripts .
Luke 6 : 2 — οὐκ ἔξεστιν ( not lawful ) for οὐκ ἔξεστιν ποιεῖν ( not lawful to do ) ; the reading is supported only by <formula> 4 , ( Codex Bezae ) , Codex Nitriensis , 700 , lat , copsa , copbo , arm , geo ;
Luke 10 : 42 — ολιγων δε χρεια εστιν η ενος ( few things are needfull , or only one ) for ενος δε εστιν χρεια ( one thing is needfull ) ;
John 12 : 28 — it contains the unique textual variant δοξασον μου το ονομα . This variant is not supported by any other manuscript . The majority of the manuscripts have in this place : δοξασον σου το ονομα ; some manuscripts have : δοξασον σου τον υιον ( L , X , f1 , f13 , 33 , 1241 , pc , vg , syh mg , copbo ) .
John 16 : 27 — it has πατρος ( the Father ) instead of θεου ( God ) ;
Acts 27 : 16 — καυδα ( name of island ) , this reading is supported only by <formula> 74 , 1175 , Old @-@ Latin version , Vulgate , and Peshitta .
Romans 15 : 31 — δωροφορια for διακονια ; the reading is supported by D and Ggr .
Ephesians 2 : 1 — αμαρτιαις ] επιθυμιαις .
Hebrews 1 : 3 — it has singular readings φανερων τε τα παντα τω ρηματι της δυναμεως αυτου ( revealed the universe by his word of power ) ; all of the rest manuscripts have φερων τε τα παντα τω ρηματι της δυναμεως αυτου ( upholding the universe by his word of power ) .
= = Provenance = =
The provenance and early history of the codex is uncertain ; Rome ( Hort ) , southern Italy , Alexandria ( Kenyon , Burkitt ) , and Caesarea ( T. C. Skeat ) have been suggested as the origin . Hort 's argument for Rome rests mainly on certain spellings of proper names , such as Ισακ and Ιστραηλ , which show a Western or Latin influence . A second argument is that the chapter division of Acts , similar to that of Sinaiticus and Vaticanus , is not found in any other Greek manuscript , but is present in several manuscripts of the Latin Vulgate . Robinson counters the argument by suggesting that this system of chapter divisions was introduced into the Vulgate by Jerome himself , as a result of his studies at Caesarea . According to Hort , it was copied from a manuscript whose line length was 12 – 14 letters per line , because where the Codex Vaticanus 's scribe made large omissions , they were typically 12 – 14 letters long .
Kenyon suggested that the manuscript originated in Alexandria : " It is noteworthy that the section numeration of the Pauline Epistles in B shows that it was copied from a manuscript in which the Epistle to the Hebrews was placed between Galatians and Ephesians — an arrangement which elsewhere occurs only in the Sahidic version . " A connection with Egypt is also indicated , according to Kenyon , by the order of the Pauline epistles and by the fact that , as in the Codex Alexandrinus , the titles of some of the books contain letters of a distinctively Coptic character , particularly the Coptic mu , used not only in titles but frequently at the ends of lines where space has to be economized . According to Metzger , " the similarity of its text in significant portions of both Testaments with the Coptic versions and with Greek papyri , and the style of writing ( notably the Coptic forms used in some of the titles ) point rather to Egypt and Alexandria " .
It has been postulated that at one time the manuscript was in the possession of Cardinal Bessarion , because the minuscule supplement has a text similar to one of Bessarion 's manuscripts . T. C. Skeat believes that Bessarion 's mentor , the patriarchal notary in Constantinople John Chortasmenos , had the book brought to Rome from Constantinople around the time of the fall of the Byzantine Empire . According to Paul Canart , the decorative initials added to the manuscript in the Middle Ages are reminiscent of Constantinopolitan decoration of the 10th century , but the poor execution gives the impression they were added in the 11th or 12th century , and likely not before the 12th century in light of the way they appear in connection with notes in a minuscule hand at the beginning of the book of Daniel . T. C. Skeat , a paleographer at the British Museum , first argued that Codex Vaticanus was among the 50 Bibles that the Emperor Constantine I ordered Eusebius of Caesarea to produce . The similarity of the text with the papyri and Coptic version ( including some letter formation ) , parallels with Athanasius ' canon of 367 suggest an Egyptian or Alexandrian origin .
The manuscript is dated to the first half of the 4th century and is likely slightly older than Codex Sinaiticus , which was also transcribed in the 4th century . One argument to support this , is that Sinaiticus already has the , at that time , very new Eusebian Canon tables , but Vaticanus does not . Another is the slightly more archaic style of Vaticanus , and the complete absence of ornamentation .
= = Scribes and correctors = =
According to Tischendorf the manuscript was written by three scribes ( A , B , C ) , two of whom appear to have written the Old Testament and one the entire New Testament . Tischendorf 's view was accepted by Frederic G. Kenyon , but contested by T. C. Skeat , who examined the codex more thoroughly . Skeat and other paleographers contested Tischendorf 's theory of a third ( C ) scribe , instead asserting that two scribes worked on the Old Testament ( A and B ) and one of them ( B ) wrote the New Testament . Scribe A wrote :
Genesis – 1 Kings ( pages 41 – 334 )
Psalms – Tobias ( pages 625 – 944 )
Scribe B wrote :
1 Kings – 2 Esdra ( pages 335 – 624 )
Hosea – Daniel ( pages 945 – 1234 )
New Testament .
Two correctors worked on the manuscript , one ( B2 ) contemporary with the scribes , the other ( B3 ) in about the 10th or 11th century , although the theory of a first corrector , B1 , proposed by Tischendorf was rejected by later scholars . According to Tischendorf , one of the scribes is identical to ( and may have been ) one of the scribes of the Codex Sinaiticus ( scribe D ) , but there is insufficient evidence for his assertion . Skeat agreed that the writing style is very similar to that of Sinaiticus , but there is not enough evidence to accept identity of scribes ; " the identity of the scribal tradition stands beyond dispute " .
The original writing was retraced by a later scribe ( usually dated to the 10th or 11th century ) , and the beauty of the original script was spoiled . Accents and breathing marks , as well as punctuation , have been added by a later hand . There are no enlarged initials , no divisions into chapters or sections such as are found in later manuscripts , but a different system of division peculiar to this manuscript . There are plenty of the itacistic faults , especially the exchange of ει for ι and αι for ε . The exchange of ει and ο for ω is less frequent .
The manuscript contains unusual small horizontally aligned double dots ( so called " distigmai , " formerly called " umlauts " ) in the margin of the columns and are scattered throughout the New Testament . There are 795 of these to be clearly found in the text , and perhaps another 40 that are undetermined . The date of these markings are disputed among scholars and are discussed in a link below . Two such distigmai can be seen in the left margin of the first column ( top image ) . Tischendorf reflected upon their meaning , but without any resolution . He pointed on several places where these distigmai were used : at the ending of the Gospel of Mark , 1 Thess 2 : 14 ; 5 : 28 ; Heb 4 : 16 ; 8 : 1 . The meaning of these distigmai was recognized in 1995 by Philip Payne . Payne discovered the first distigme while studying the section 1 Cor 14 @.@ 34 – 35 of the codex . He suggested that distigmai indicate lines where another textual variant was known to the person who wrote the umlauts . Therefore , the distigmai mark places of textual uncertainty . The same distigmai were observed in Codex Fuldensis , especially in the section containing 1 Cor 14 : 34 – 35 . The distigme of two codices indicate a variant of the Western manuscripts , which placed 1 Cor 14 : 34 – 35 after 1 Cor 14 : 40 ( manuscripts : Claromontanus , Augiensis , Boernerianus , 88 , itd , g , and some manuscripts of Vulgate ) .
On page 1512 , next to Hebrews 1 : 3 , the text contains an interesting marginal note , " Fool and knave , leave the old reading and do not change it ! " – " ἀμαθέστατε καὶ κακέ , ἄφες τὸν παλαιόν , μὴ μεταποίει " which may suggest that unauthorised correcting was a recognized problem in scriptoriums .
= = In the Vatican Library = =
The manuscript is believed to have been housed in Caesarea in the 6th century , together with the Codex Sinaiticus , as they have the same unique divisions of chapters in the Acts . It came to Italy – probably from Constantinople – after the Council of Florence ( 1438 – 1445 ) .
[ under discussion ]
The manuscript has been housed in the Vatican Library ( founded by Pope Nicholas V in 1448 ) for as long as it has been known , appearing in the library 's earliest catalog of 1475 ( with shelf number 1209 ) , and in the 1481 catalog . In a catalog from 1481 it was described as a " Biblia in tribus columnis ex membranis in rubeo " ( three @-@ column vellum Bible ) .
= = = Collations = = =
In the 16th century Western scholars became aware of the manuscript as a consequence of the correspondence between Erasmus and the prefects of the Vatican Library , successively Paulus Bombasius , and Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda . In 1521 , Bombasius was consulted by Erasmus as to whether the Codex Vaticanus contained the Comma Johanneum , and Bombasius supplied a transcript of 1 John 4 : 1 – 3 and 1 John 5 : 7 – 11 to show that it did not . Sepúlveda in 1533 cross @-@ checked all places where Erasmus 's New Testament ( the Textus Receptus ) differed from the Vulgate , and supplied Erasmus with 365 readings where the Codex Vaticanus supported the latter , although the list of these 365 readings has been lost . Consequently , the Codex Vaticanus acquired the reputation of being an old Greek manuscript that agreed with the Vulgate rather than with the Textus Receptus . Not until much later would scholars realise it conformed to a text that differed from both the Vulgate and the Textus Receptus – a text that could also be found in other known early Greek manuscripts , such as the Codex Regius ( L ) , housed in the French Royal Library ( now Bibliothèque nationale de France ) .
In 1669 a collation was made by Giulio Bartolocci , librarian of the Vatican , which was not published , and never used until Scholz in 1819 found a copy of it in the Royal Library at Paris . This collation was imperfect and revised in 1862 . Another collation was made in 1720 for Bentley by Mico , revised by Rulotta , although not published until 1799 . Bentley was stirred by Mill 's claim of 30 @,@ 000 variants in the New Testament and he wanted to reconstruct the text of the New Testament in its early form . He felt that among the manuscripts of the New Testament , Codex Alexandrinus was " the oldest and best in the world " . Bentley understood the necessity to use manuscripts if he were to reconstruct an older form than that apparent in Codex Alexandrinus . He assumed , that by supplementing this manuscript with readings from other Greek manuscripts , and from the Latin Vulgate , he could triangulate back to the single recension which he presumed existed at the time of the First Council of Nicaea . Therefore , he required a collation from Vaticanus . Unfortunately , the text of the collation was irreconcilable with Codex Alexandrinus and he abandoned the project .
A further collation was made by Andrew Birch , who in 1798 in Copenhagen edited some textual variants of the Acts of the Apostles and the Epistles , in 1800 for the Book of Revelation , in 1801 for the Gospels . They were incomplete and included together with the textual variants from the other manuscripts . Many of them were false . Andrew Birch reproached Mill and Wettstein , that they falso citatur Vaticanus ( cite Vaticanus incorrectly ) , and gave as an example Luke 2 : 38 – Ισραηλ [ Israel ] instead of Ιερουσαλημ [ Jerusalem ] . The reading Ισραηλ could be found in the codex 130 , housed at the Vatican Library , under shelf number Vat. gr . 359 .
Before the 19th century , no scholar was allowed to study or edit the Codex Vaticanus , and scholars did not ascribe any value to it ; in fact it was suspected to have been interpolated by the Latin textual tradition . John Mill wrote in his Prolegomena ( 1707 ) : " in Occidentalium gratiam a Latino scriba exaratum " ( written by a Latin scribe for the western world ) . He did not believe there was value to having a collation for the manuscript . Wettstein would have liked to know the readings of the codex , but not because he thought that they could have been of any help to him for difficult textual decisions . According to him , this codex had no authority whatsoever ( sed ut vel hoc constaret , Codicem nullus esse auctoris ) . In 1751 Wettstein produced the first list of the New Testament manuscripts , Codex Vaticanus received symbol B ( because of its age ) and took second position on this list ( Alexandrinus received A , Ephraemi – C , Bezae – D , etc . ) until the discovery of Codex Sinaiticus ( designated by ℵ ) .
Griesbach produced a list of nine manuscripts which were to be assigned to the Alexandrian text : C , L , K , 1 , 13 , 33 , 69 , 106 , and 118 . Codex Vaticanus was not in this list . In the second ( 1796 ) edition of his Greek NT , Griesbach added Codex Vaticanus as a witness to the Alexandrian text in Mark , Luke , and John . He still believed the first half of Matthew represented the Western text @-@ type .
= = = Editions of text of the codex = = =
In 1809 Napoleon brought the manuscript as a victory trophy to Paris , but in 1815 it was returned to the Vatican Library . During that time , in Paris , German scholar Johann Leonhard Hug ( 1765 – 1846 ) saw it . Hug examined it , together with other worthy treasures of the Vatican , but he did not perceive the need of a new and full collation .
Cardinal Angelo Mai prepared the first typographical facsimile edition between 1828 and 1838 , which did not appear until 1857 , three years after his death , and which was considered unsatisfactory . It was issued in 5 volumes ( 1 – 4 volumes for the Old Testament , 5 volume for the New Testament ) . All lacunae of the Codex were supplemented . Lacunae in the Acts and Pauline epistles were supplemented from the codex Vaticanus 1761 , the whole text of Revelation from Vaticanus 2066 , text of Mark 16 : 8 – 20 from Vaticanus Palatinus 220 . Verses not included by codex as Matthew 12 : 47 ; Mark 15 : 28 ; Luke 22 : 43 – 44 ; 23 : 17 @.@ 34 ; John 5 : 3 @.@ 4 ; 7 : 53 – 8 : 11 ; 1 Peter 5 : 3 ; 1 John 5 : 7 were supplemented from popular Greek printed editions . The number of errors was extraordinarily high , and also no attention was paid to distinguish readings of the first hand versus correctors . There was no detailed examination of the manuscript 's characteristics . As a consequence , this edition was deemed inadequate for critical purposes . An improved edition was published in 1859 , which became the source of Bultmann 's 1860 NT .
In 1843 Tischendorf was permitted to make a facsimile of a few verses , in 1844 Eduard de Muralt saw it , and in 1845 S. P. Tregelles was allowed to observe several points which Muralt had overlooked . He often saw the Codex , but " it was under such restrictions that it was impossible to do more than examine particular readings . "
" They would not let me open it without searching my pockets , and depriving me of pen , ink , and paper ; and at the same time two prelati kept me in constant conversation in Latin , and if I looked at a passage too long , they would snatch the book out of my hand " .
Tregelles left Rome after five months without accomplishing his object . During a large part of the 19th century , the authorities of the Vatican Library obstructed scholars who wished to study the codex in detail . Henry Alford in 1849 wrote : “ It has never been published in facsimile ( ! ) nor even thoroughly collated ( ! ! ) . ” Scrivener in 1861 commented :
" Codex Vaticanus 1209 is probably the oldest large vellum manuscript in existence , and is the glory of the great Vatican Library in Rome . To these legitimate sources of deep interest must be added the almost romantic curiosity which has been excited by the jealous watchfulness of its official guardians , with whom an honest zeal for its safe preservation seems to have now degenerated into a species of capricious wilfulness , and who have shewn a strange incapacity for making themselves the proper use of a treasure they scarcely permit others more than to gaze upon " . It ( ... ) " is so jealously guarded by the Papal authorities that ordinary visitors see nothing of it but the red Morocco binding " .
Thomas Law Montefiore ( 1862 ) :
" The history of the Codex Vaticanus B , No. 1209 , is the history in miniature of Romish jealousy and exclusiveness . ”
Burgon was permitted to examine the codex for an hour and a half in 1860 , consulting 16 different passages . Burgon was a defender of the Traditional Text and for him Codex Vaticanus , as well as codices Sinaiticus and Codex Bezae , were the most corrupt documents extant . He felt that each of these three codices " clearly exhibits a fabricated text – is the result of arbitrary and reckless recension . " The two most widely respected of these three codices , א and B , he likens to the " two false witnesses " of Matthew 26 : 60 .
In 1861 , Henry Alford collated and verified doubtful passages ( in several imperfect collations ) , which he published in facsimile editions complete with errors . Until he began his work he met unexpected hindrances . He received a special order from Cardinal Antonelli " per verificare " , to verify passages , but this license was interpreted by the librarian to mean that he was to see the book , but not to use it . In 1862 , secretary of Alford , Mr. Cure , continued Alford 's work . For some reason which does not clearly appear , the authorities of the Vatican Library put continual obstacles in the way of all who wished to study it in detail . In 1867 Tischendorf published the text of the New Testament of the codex on the basis of Mai 's edition . It was the " most perfect edition of the manuscript which had yet appeared " .
In 1868 – 1881 C. Vercellone , Giuseppe Cozza @-@ Luzi , and G. Sergio published an edition of the entire codex in 6 volumes ( New Testament in volume V ; Prolegomena in volume VI ) . A typographical facsimile appeared between 1868 and 1872 . In 1889 – 1890 a photographic facsimile of the entire manuscript was made and published by Cozza @-@ Luzi , in three volumes . Another facsimile of the New Testament text was published in 1904 – 1907 in Milan . As a result , the Codex became widely available .
In 1999 , the Istituto Poligrafico e Zecca -color , exact scale facsimile of Codex Vaticanus . The facsimile reproduces the very form of the pages of the original manuscript , complete with the distinctive individual shape of each page , including holes in the vellum . It has an additional Prolegomena volume with gold and silver impressions of 74 pages .
As of 2015 , a digitised copy of the codex is available online from the Vatican Library .
= = Importance = =
Codex Vaticanus is one of the most important manuscripts for the text of the Septuagint and Greek New Testament . It is a leading example of the Alexandrian text @-@ type . It was used by Westcott and Hort in their edition , The New Testament in the Original Greek ( 1881 ) , and it was the basis for their text . All critical editions of the New Testament published after Westcott and Hort were closer in the Gospels to the Codex Vaticanus text than to the Sinaiticus , with only the exception of Hermann von Soden 's editions which are closer to Sinaiticus . All editions of Nestle @-@ Aland remain close in textual character to the text of Westcott @-@ Hort , which means Vaticanus was the basis for the translation .
According to the commonly accepted opinion of the textual critics , it is the most important witness of the text of the Gospels , in the Acts and Catholic epistles , with a stature equal to Codex Sinaiticus , although in the Pauline epistles it includes Western readings and the value of the text is somewhat less than the Codex Sinaiticus . Unfortunately the manuscript is not complete . Aland notes : " B is by far the most significant of the uncials " .
= = = Facsimile editions of the codex = = =
Tischendorf , Constantin von ( 1867 ) . Novum Testamentum Vaticanum . Lipsiae : Giesecke & Devrient .
Vercellonis , Carlo & Giuseppe Cozza @-@ Luzi ( 1868 ) . Bibliorum Sacrorum Graecus Codex Vaticanus . Roma .
Bibliorum Scriptorum Graecorum Codex Vaticanus 1209 . Milan . 1904 – 1907 .
Bibliorum Sacrorum Graecorum Codex Vaticanus B. Roma : Istituto Poligrafico e Zecca dello Stato . 1999 .
= = = Textual character of the codex = = =
Hoskier , Herman C. ( 1914 ) . Codex B and Its Allies , a Study and an Indictment . London , 1 – 2 volumes .
Kubo , S. ( 1965 ) . P72 and the Codex Vaticanus . S & D XXVII . Salt Lake City .
Martini , C. M. ( 1966 ) . Il problema della recensionalità del Codice B alla luce del papiro Bodmer XIV ( P75 ) . Analecta biblica . Roma .
Voelz , James W. ( 2005 ) . The Greek of Codex Vaticanus in the Second Gospel and Marcan Greek . Novum Testamentum 47 , 3 , pp. 209 – 249 .
= = = " Umlauts " = = =
Miller , J. Edward ( 2003 ) . Some Observations on the Text @-@ Critical Function of the Umlauts in Vaticanus , with Special Attention to 1 . Corinthians 14 @.@ 34 – 35 . JSNT 26 , pp. 217 – 236 [ Miller disagrees with Payne on several points . He notes and uses this website . ]
Payne , Philip B. and Paul Canart ( 2000 ) . The Originality of Text @-@ Critical Symbols in Codex Vaticanus ( PDF ) . Novum Testamentum Vol . 42 , Fasc . 2 , pp. 105 – 113 .
Payne , Philip B. and Paul Canart ( 2004 ) . The Text @-@ Critical Function of the Umlauts in Vaticanus , with Special Attention to 1 Corinthians 14 @.@ 34 – 35 : A Response to J. Edward Miller . JSNT 27 , pp. 105 – 112 [ The combination of a bar plus umlaut has a special meaning ] .
Amphoux , Christian – B. ( 2007 ) . Codex Vaticanus B : Les points diacritiques des marges de Marc ( PDF ) . Journal of Theological Studies vol . 58 ( 2007 ) , pp. 440 – 466 .
= = = Other = = =
Streeter , Burnett Hillman ( 1924 ) . The Four Gospels . A Study of Origins the Manuscripts Tradition , Sources , Authorship & Dates . Oxford : MacMillan and Co Limited .
Metzger , Bruce M. ( 1991 ) . Manuscripts of the Greek Bible : An Introduction to Greek Palaeography . New York – Oxford : Oxford University Press .
Sagi , Janko ( 1872 ) . Problema historiae codicis B. Divius Thomas .
For more bibliographies see : J. K. Elliott , A Bibliography of Greek New Testament Manuscripts ( Cambridge University Press : 1989 ) , pp. 34 – 36 .
= Khmer language =
Khmer / kmɛər / or Cambodian ( natively ភាសាខ ្ មែរ [ pʰiːəsaː kʰmaːe ] , or more formally ខេមរភាសា [ kʰeɛmaʔraʔ pʰiːəsaː ] ) is the language of the Khmer people and the official language of Cambodia . With approximately 16 million speakers , it is the second most widely spoken Austroasiatic language ( after Vietnamese ) . Khmer has been influenced considerably by Sanskrit and Pali , especially in the royal and religious registers , through Hinduism and Buddhism . The more colloquial registers have influenced , and have been influenced by , Thai , Lao , Vietnamese , and Cham , all of which , due to geographical proximity and long @-@ term cultural contact , form a sprachbund in peninsular Southeast Asia . It is also the earliest recorded and earliest written language of the Mon – Khmer family , predating Mon and by a significant margin Vietnamese , due to Old Khmer being the language of the historical empires of Chenla , Angkor and , presumably , their earlier predecessor state , Funan .
The vast majority of Khmer speakers speak Central Khmer , the dialect of the central plain where the Khmer are most heavily concentrated . Within Cambodia , regional accents exist in remote areas but these are regarded varieties of Central Khmer . Two exceptions are the speech of the capital , Phnom Penh , and that of the Khmer Khe in Stung Treng province , both of which differ sufficiently enough from Central Khmer to be considered separate dialects of Khmer . Outside of Cambodia , three distinct dialects are spoken by ethnic Khmers native to areas that were historically part of the Khmer Empire . The Northern Khmer dialect is spoken by over a million Khmers in the southern regions of Northeast Thailand and is treated by some linguists as a separate language . Khmer Krom , or Southern Khmer , is the first language of the Khmer of Vietnam while the Khmer living in the remote Cardamom mountains speak a very conservative dialect that still displays features of the Middle Khmer language .
Khmer is primarily an analytic , isolating language . There are no inflections , conjugations or case endings . Instead , particles and auxiliary words are used to indicate grammatical relationships . General word order is subject – verb – object , and modifiers follow the word they modify . Classifiers appear after numbers when used to count nouns , though not always so consistently as in languages like Chinese . In spoken Khmer , topic @-@ comment structure is common and the perceived social relation between participants determines which sets of vocabulary , such as pronouns and honorifics , are proper .
Khmer differs from neighboring languages such as Thai , Burmese , Lao and Vietnamese in that it is not a tonal language . Words are stressed on the final syllable , hence many words conform to the typical Mon – Khmer pattern of a stressed syllable preceded by a minor syllable . The language has been written in the Khmer script , an abugida descended from the Brahmi script via the southern Indian Pallava script , since at least the seventh century . The script 's form and use has evolved over the centuries ; its modern features include subscripted versions of consonants used to write clusters and a division of consonants into two series with different inherent vowels . Approximately 79 % of Cambodians are able to read Khmer .
= = Classification = =
Khmer is a member of the Austroasiatic language family , the autochthonous family in an area that stretches from the Malay Peninsula through Southeast Asia to East India . Austroasiatic , which also includes Mon , Vietnamese and Munda , has been studied since 1856 and was first proposed as a language family in 1907 . Despite the amount of research , there is still doubt about the internal relationship of the languages of Austroasiatic . Diffloth places Khmer in an eastern branch of the Mon @-@ Khmer languages . In these classification schemes Khmer 's closest genetic relatives are the Bahnaric and Pearic languages . More recent classifications doubt the validity of the Mon @-@ Khmer sub @-@ grouping and place the Khmer language as its own branch of Austroasiatic equidistant from the other 12 branches of the family .
= = Geographic distribution and dialects = =
Khmer is spoken by some 13 million people in Cambodia , where it is the official language . It is also a second language for most of the minority groups and indigenous hill tribes there . Additionally there are a million speakers of Khmer native to southern Vietnam ( 1999 census ) and 1 @.@ 4 million in northeast Thailand ( 2006 ) .
Khmer dialects , although mutually intelligible , are sometimes quite marked . Notable variations are found in speakers from Phnom Penh ( Cambodia 's capital city ) , the rural Battambang area , the areas of Northeast Thailand adjacent to Cambodia such as Surin province , the Cardamom Mountains , and southern Vietnam . The dialects form a continuum running roughly north to south . Standard Cambodian Khmer is mutually intelligible with the others but a Khmer Krom speaker from Vietnam , for instance , may have great difficulty communicating with a Khmer native to Sisaket Province in Thailand .
The following is a classification scheme showing the development of the modern Khmer dialects .
Middle Khmer
Cardamom ( Western ) Khmer
Central Khmer
Surin ( Northern ) Khmer
Standard Khmer and related dialects ( including Khmer Krom )
Standard Khmer , or Central Khmer , the language as taught in Cambodian schools and used by the media , is based on the dialect spoken throughout the Central Plain , a region encompassed by the northwest and central provinces .
Northern Khmer ( called Khmer Surin in Khmer ) refers to the dialects spoken by many in several border provinces of present @-@ day northeast Thailand . After the fall of the Khmer Empire in the early 15th century , the Dongrek Mountains served as a natural border leaving the Khmer north of the mountains under the sphere of influence of the Kingdom of Lan Xang . The conquests of Cambodia by Naresuan the Great for Ayutthaya furthered their political and economic isolation from Cambodia proper , leading to a dialect that developed relatively independently from the midpoint of the Middle Khmer period . This has resulted in a distinct accent influenced by the surrounding tonal languages Lao and Thai , lexical differences , and phonemic differences in both vowels and distribution of consonants . Syllable @-@ final / r / , which has become silent in other dialects of Khmer , is still pronounced in Northern Khmer . Some linguists classify Northern Khmer as a separate but closely related language rather than a dialect .
Western Khmer , also called Cardamom Khmer or Chanthaburi Khmer , is spoken by a very small , isolated population in the Cardamom mountain range extending from western Cambodia into eastern Central Thailand . Although little studied , this variety is unique in that it maintains a definite system of vocal register that has all but disappeared in other dialects of modern Khmer .
Phnom Penh Khmer is spoken in the capital and surrounding areas . This dialect is characterized by merging or complete elision of syllables , considered by speakers from other regions to be a " relaxed " pronunciation . For instance , " Phnom Penh " will sometimes be shortened to " m 'Penh " . Another characteristic of Phnom Penh speech is observed in words with an " r " either as an initial consonant or as the second member of a consonant cluster ( as in the English word " bread " ) . The " r " , trilled or flapped in other dialects , is either pronounced as a uvular trill or not pronounced at all . This alters the quality of any preceding consonant , causing a harder , more emphasized pronunciation . Another unique result is that the syllable is spoken with a low @-@ rising or " dipping " tone much like the " hỏi " tone in Vietnamese . For example , some people pronounce / trəj / ( ' fish ' ) as [ təj ] : the / r / is dropped and the vowel begins by dipping much lower in tone than standard speech and then rises , effectively doubling its length . Another example is the word / riən / ( ' study ' ) , which is pronounced [ ʀiən ] , with the uvular " r " and the same intonation described above .
Khmer Krom or Southern Khmer is spoken by the indigenous Khmer population of the Mekong Delta , formerly controlled by the Khmer Empire but part of Vietnam since 1698 . Khmers are persecuted by the Vietnamese government for using their native language and , since the 1950s , have been forced to take Vietnamese names . Consequently , very little research has been published regarding this dialect . It has been generally influenced by Vietnamese for three centuries and accordingly displays a pronounced accent , tendency toward monosyllablic words and lexical differences from Standard Khmer .
Khmer Khe is spoken in the Se San , Srepok and Sekong river valleys of Sesan and Siem Pang districts in Stung Treng Province . Following the decline of Angkor , the Khmer abandoned their northern territories which were then settled by the Lao . In the 17th century , Chey Chetha XI led a Khmer force into Stung Treng to retake the area . The Khmer Khe living in this area of Stung Treng in modern times are presumed to be the descendants of this group . Their dialect is thought to resemble that of pre @-@ modern Siem Reap .
= = Historical periods = =
Linguistic study of the Khmer language divides its history into four periods one of which , the Old Khmer period , is subdivided into pre @-@ Angkorian and Angkorian . Pre @-@ Angkorian Khmer , the Old Khmer language from 600 CE through 800 , is only known from words and phrases in Sanskrit texts of the era . Old Khmer ( or Angkorian Khmer ) is the language as it was spoken in the Khmer Empire from the 9th century until the weakening of the empire sometime in the 13th century . Old Khmer is attested by many primary sources and has been studied in depth by a few scholars , most notably Saveros Pou , Phillip Jenner and Heinz @-@ Jürgen Pinnow . Following the end of the Khmer Empire the language lost the standardizing influence of being the language of government and accordingly underwent a turbulent period of change in morphology , phonology and lexicon . The language of this transition period , from about the 14th to 18th centuries , is referred to as Middle Khmer and saw borrowing from Thai , Lao and , to a lesser extent , Vietnamese . The changes during this period are so profound that the rules of Modern Khmer can not be applied to correctly understand Old Khmer . The language became recognizable as Modern Khmer , spoken from the 19th century till today .
The following table shows the conventionally accepted historical stages of Khmer .
Just as modern Khmer was emerging from the transitional period represented by Middle Khmer , Cambodia fell under the influence of French colonialism . Thailand , which had for centuries claimed suzerainty over Cambodia and controlled succession to the Cambodian throne , began losing its influence on the language . In 1887 Cambodia was fully integrated into French Indochina which brought in a French @-@ speaking aristocracy . This led to French becoming the language of higher education and the intellectual class . By 1907 , the French had wrested over half of modern @-@ day Cambodia , including the north and northwest where Thai had been the prestige language , from back Thai control and reintegrated it into the country .
Many native scholars in the early 20th century , led by a monk named Chuon Nath , resisted the French and Thai influences on their language . Forming the government sponsored Cultural Committee to define and standardize the modern language , they championed Khmerization , purging of foreign elements , reviving affixation , and the use of Old Khmer roots and historical Pali and Sanskrit to coin new words for modern ideas . Opponents , led by Keng Vannsak , who embraced " total Khmerization " by denouncing the reversion to classical languages and favoring the use of contemporary colloquial Khmer for neologisms , and Ieu Koeus , who favored borrowing from Thai , were also influential . Koeus later joined the Cultural Committee and supported Nath . Nath 's views and prolific work won out and he is credited with cultivating modern Khmer @-@ language identity and culture , overseeing the translation of the entire Pali Buddhist canon into Khmer . He also created the modern Khmer language dictionary that is still in use today , thereby ensuring that Khmer would survive , and indeed flourish , during the French colonial period .
= = Phonology = =
The phonological system described here is the inventory of sounds of the standard spoken language , represented using appropriate symbols from the International Phonetic Alphabet ( IPA ) .
= = = Consonants = = =
The voiceless plosives / p / , / t / , / c / , / k / may occur with or without aspiration ( as [ p ] vs. [ pʰ ] , etc . ) ; this difference is contrastive before a vowel . However , the aspirated sounds in that position may be analyzed as sequences of two phonemes : / ph / , / th / , / ch / , / kh / . This analysis is supported by the fact that infixes can be inserted between the stop and the aspiration ; for example [ tʰom ] ( ' big ' ) becomes [ tumhum ] ( ' size ' ) with a nominalizing infix . When one of these plosives occurs initially before another consonant , aspiration is no longer contrastive and can be regarded as mere phonetic detail : slight aspiration is expected when the following consonant is not one of / ʔ / , / b / , / d / , / r / , / s / , / h / ( or / ŋ / if the initial plosive is / k / ) .
The voiced plosives are pronounced as implosives [ ɓ , ɗ ] by most speakers , but this feature is weak in educated speech , where they become [ b , d ] .
In syllable @-@ final position , / h / and / ʋ / approach [ ç ] and [ w ] respectively . The stops / p / , / t / , / c / , / k / are unaspirated and have no audible release when occurring as syllable finals .
In addition , the consonants / ɡ / , / f / , / ʃ / and / z / occur occasionally in recent loan words in the speech of Cambodians familiar with French and other languages .
= = = Vowels = = =
Various authors have proposed slightly different analyses of the Khmer vowel system . This may be in part because of the wide degree of variation in pronunciation between individual speakers , even within a dialectal region . The description below follows Huffman ( 1970 ) . The number of vowel nuclei and their values vary between dialects ; differences exist even between the Standard Khmer system and that of the Battambang dialect on which the standard is based .
In addition , there are diphthongs and triphthongs which are analyzed as a vowel nucleus plus a semivowel ( / j / or / w / ) coda because they can not be followed by a final consonant . These include : ( with short monophthongs ) / ɨw / , / əw / , / aj / , / aw / , / uj / ; ( with long monophthongs ) / əːj / , / aːj / ; ( with long diphthongs ) / iəj / , / iəw / , / ɨəj / , / aoj / , / aəj / and / uəj / .
= = = Syllable structure = = =
A Khmer syllable begins with a single consonant , or else with a cluster of two , or rarely three , consonants . The only possible clusters of three consonants at the start of a syllable are / str / , / skr / , and ( with aspirated consonants analyzed as two @-@ consonant sequences ) / sth / , / lkh / . There are 85 possible two @-@ consonant clusters ( including [ pʰ ] etc. analyzed as / ph / etc . ) . All the clusters are shown in the following table , phonetically , i.e. superscript ʰ can mark either contrastive or non @-@ contrastive aspiration ( see above ) .
Slight vowel epenthesis occurs in the clusters consisting of a plosive followed by / ʔ / , / b / , / d / , in those beginning / ʔ / , / m / , / l / , and in the cluster / kŋ- / .
After the initial consonant or consonant cluster comes the syllabic nucleus , which is one of the vowels listed above . This vowel may end the syllable or may be followed by a coda , which is a single consonant . If the syllable is stressed and the vowel is short , there must be a final consonant . All consonant sounds except / b / , / d / , / r / , / s / and the aspirates can appear as the coda ( although final / r / is heard in some dialects , most notably in Northern Khmer ) .
A minor syllable ( unstressed syllable preceding the main syllable of a word ) has a structure of CV- , CrV- , CVN- or CrVN- ( where C is a consonant , V a vowel , and N a nasal consonant ) . The vowels in such syllables are usually short ; in conversation they may be reduced to [ ə ] , although in careful or formal speech , including on television and radio , they are clearly articulated . An example of such a word is មនុស ្ ស ( ' person ' ) , pronounced [ mɔˈnuh ] , or more casually [ məˈnuh ] .
= = = Stress = = =
Stress in Khmer falls on the final syllable of a word . Because of this predictable pattern , stress is non @-@ phonemic in Khmer ( it does not distinguish different meanings ) .
Most Khmer words consist of either one or two syllables . In most native disyllabic words , the first syllable is a minor ( fully unstressed ) syllable . Such words have been described as sesquisyllabic ( i.e. as having one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half syllables ) . There are also some disyllabic words in which the first syllable does not behave as a minor syllable , but takes secondary stress . Most such words are compounds , but some are single morphemes ( generally loanwords ) . An example is ភាសា ( ' language ' ) , pronounced [ ˌpʰiəˈsaː ] .
Words with three or more syllables , if they are not compounds , are mostly loanwords , usually derived from Pali , Sanskrit , or more recently , French . They are nonetheless adapted to Khmer stress patterns . Primary stress falls on the final syllable , with secondary stress on every second syllable from the end . Thus in a three @-@ syllable word , the first syllable has secondary stress ; in a four @-@ syllable word , the second syllable has secondary stress ; in a five @-@ syllable word , the first and third syllables have secondary stress , and so on . Long polysyllables are not often used in conversation .
Compounds , however , preserve the stress patterns of the constituent words . Thus សំបុកចាប , the name of a kind of cookie ( literally ' bird 's nest ' ) , is pronounced [ sɑmˌbok ˈcaːp ] , with secondary stress on the second rather than the first syllable , because it is composed of the words [ sɑmˈbok ] ( ' nest ' ) and [ caːp ] ( ' bird ' ) .
= = = Phonation and tone = = =
Khmer once had a phonation distinction in its vowels , but this now survives only in the most archaic dialect ( Western Khmer ) . The distinction arose historically when vowels after Old Khmer voiced consonants became breathy voiced and diphthongized ; for example * kaa , * ɡaa became * kaa , * ɡe ̤ a . When consonant voicing was lost , the distinction was maintained by the vowel ( * kaa , * ke ̤ a ) ; later the phonation disappeared as well ( [ kaː ] , [ kiə ] ) . These processes explain the origin of what are now called a @-@ series and o @-@ series consonants in the Khmer script .
Although most Cambodian dialects are not tonal , colloquial Phnom Penh dialect has developed a tonal contrast ( level versus peaking tone ) to compensate for the elision of / r / .
= = = Intonation = = =
Intonation often conveys semantic context in Khmer , as in distinguishing declarative statements , questions and exclamations . The available grammatical means of making such distinctions are not always used , or may be ambiguous ; for example , the final interrogative particle ទេ / teː / can also serve as an emphasizing ( or in some cases negating ) particle .
The intonation pattern of a typical Khmer declarative phrase is a steady rise throughout followed by an abrupt drop on the last syllable .
ខ ្ ញុំមិនចង ់ បានទេ [ ↗ kʰɲom mɨn cɒŋ baːn | ↘ teː ] ( ' I don 't want it ' )
Other intonation contours signify a different type of phrase such as the " full doubt " interrogative , similar to yes @-@ no questions in English . Full doubt interrogatives remain fairly even in tone throughout , but rise sharply towards the end .
អ ្ នកចង ់ ទៅលេងសៀមរាបទេ [ ↗ nea ? caŋ | ↗ tɨw leːŋ siəm riəp | ꜛteː ] ( ' do you want to go to Siem Reap ? ' )
Exclamatory phrases follow the typical steadily rising pattern , but rise sharply on the last syllable instead of falling .
សៀវភៅនេះថ ្ លៃណាស ់ [ ↗ siəw pʰɨw nih | ↗ tʰlaj | ꜛnah ] ( ' this book is expensive ! ' )
= = Grammar = =
Khmer is primarily an analytic language with no inflection . Syntactic relations are mainly determined by word order . Old and Middle Khmer used particles to mark grammatical categories and many of these have survived in Modern Khmer but are used sparingly , mostly in literary or formal language . Khmer makes extensive use of auxiliary verbs , " directionals " and serial verb construction . Colloquial Khmer is a zero copula language , instead preferring predicative adjectives ( and even predicative nouns ) unless using a copula for emphasis or to avoid ambiguity in more complex sentences . Basic word order is subject – verb – object ( SVO ) , although subjects are often dropped ; prepositions are used rather than postpositions . Topic @-@ Comment constructions are common and the language is generally head @-@ initial ( modifiers follow the words they modify ) . Some grammatical process are still not fully understood by western scholars . For example , it 's not clear if certain features of Khmer grammar , such as actor nominalization , should be treated as a morphological process or a purely syntactic device , and some derivational morphology seems to be " purely decorative " and performs no known syntactic work .
Lexical categories have been hard to define in Khmer . Henri Maspero , an early scholar of Khmer , claimed the language had no parts of speech , while a later scholar , Judith Jacob , posited four parts of speech and innumerable particles . John Haiman , on the other hand , identifies " a couple dozen " parts of speech in Khmer with the caveat that Khmer words have the freedom to perform a variety of syntactic functions depending on such factors as word order , relevant particles , location within a clause , intonation and context . Some of the more important lexical categories and their function are demonstrated in the following example sentence taken from a hospital brochure :
= = = Morphology = = =
Modern Khmer is an isolating language which means that it uses little productive morphology . There is some derivation by means of prefixes and infixes , but this is a remnant of Old Khmer not always productive in the modern language . Khmer morphology is evidence of a historical process through which the language was , at some point in the past , changed from being an agglutinative language to adopting an isolating typology . Affixed forms are lexicalized and cannot be used productively to form new words . Below are some of the most common affixes with examples as given by Huffman .
Compounding in Khmer is a common derivational process that takes two forms , coordinate compounds and repetitive compounds . Coordinate compounds join two unbound morphemes ( independent words ) of similar meaning to form a compound signifying a concept more general than either word alone . Coordinate compounds join either two nouns or two verbs . Repetitive compounds , one of the most productive derivational features of Khmer , use reduplication of an entire word to derive words whose meaning will depend on the class of the reduplicated word . A repetitive compound of a noun indicates plurality or generality while that of an adjectival verb could mean either an intensification or plurality .
Coordinate compounds :
Repetitive compounds :
= = = = Nouns and pronouns = = = =
Khmer nouns do not inflect for grammatical gender or singular / plural . There are no articles , but indefiniteness is often expressed by the word for " one " ( មូយ , / muəj / ) following the noun as in ឆ ្ កែមូយ ( / cʰkae muəj / " a dog " ) . Plurality can be marked by postnominal particles , numerals , or reduplication of a following adjective , which , although similar to intensification , is usually not ambiguous due to context .
Classifying particles are used after numerals , but are not always obligatory as they are in Thai or Chinese , for example , and are often dropped in colloquial speech . Khmer nouns are divided into two groups : mass nouns , those which take classifiers , and specific nouns , which do not . The overwhelming majority are mass nouns .
Possession is colloquially expressed by word order . The possessor is placed after that which is possessed . Alternatively , in more complex sentences or when emphasis is required , a possessive construction using the word របស ់ ( / rɔbɑh / ~ / ləbɑh / , " property , object " ) may be employed . In formal and literary contexts , the possessive particle នៃ ( nɨj ) is used :
Pronouns are subject to a complicated system of social register , the choice of pronoun depending on the perceived relationships between speaker , audience and referent ( see Social registers below ) . Kinship terms , nicknames and proper names are often used as pronouns ( including for the first person ) among intimates . Subject pronouns are frequently dropped in colloquial conversation .
Adjectives , verbs and verb phrases may be made into nouns by the use of nominalization particles . Three of the more common particles used to create nouns are / kaː / , / sec kdəj / , and / pʰiəp / . These particles are prefixed most often to verbs in order to form abstract nouns . The latter , derived from Sanskrit , also occurs as a suffix in fixed forms borrowed from Sanskrit and Pali such as / sokʰa.pʰiəp / ( " health " ) from / sok / ( " to be healthy " ) .
= = = = Adjectives and adverbs = = = =
Adjectives , demonstratives and numerals follow the noun they modify . Adverbs likewise follow the verb . Morphologically , adjectives and adverbs are not distinguished , with many words often serving either function . Adjectives are also employed as verbs as Khmer sentences rarely use a copula .
Degrees of comparison are constructed syntactically . Comparatives are expressed using the word ជាង / ciəŋ / : " A X / ciəŋ / [ B ] " ( A is more X [ than B ] ) . The most common way to express superlatives is with ជាងគេ / ciəŋ keː / : " A X / ciəŋ keː / " ( A is the most X ) . Intensity is also expressed syntactically , similar to other languages of the region , by reduplication or with the use of intensifiers .
= = = = Verbs = = = =
As is typical of most East Asian languages , Khmer verbs do not inflect at all ; tense , aspect and mood can be expressed using auxiliary verbs , particles ( such as កំពុង / kəmpuŋ / , placed before a verb to express continuous aspect ) and adverbs ( such as " yesterday " , " earlier " , " tomorrow " ) , or may be understood from context . Serial verb construction is quite common .
Khmer verbs are a relatively open class and can be divided into two types , main verbs and auxiliary verbs . Huffman defined a Khmer verb as " any word that can be ( negated ) " , and further divided main verbs into three classes .
Transitive verbs are verbs which may be followed by a direct object :
Intransitive verbs are verbs which can not be followed by an object :
Adjectival verbs are a word class that has no equivalent in English . When modifying a noun or verb , they function as adjectives or adverbs , respectively , but they may also be used as main verbs equivalent to English " be + adjective " .
= = = Syntax = = =
Syntax is the rules and processes that describe how sentences are formed in a particular language , how words relate to each other within clauses or phrases and how those phrases relate to each other within a sentence to convey meaning . Khmer syntax is very analytic . Relationships between words and phrases are signified primarily by word order supplemented with auxiliary verbs and , particularly in formal and literary registers , grammatical marking particles . Grammatical phenomena such as negation and aspect are marked by particles while interrogative sentences are marked either by particles or interrogative words equivalent to English " wh @-@ words " .
A complete Khmer sentence consists of four basic elements which include an optional topic , an optional subject , an obligatory predicate and various adverbials and particles . The topic and subject are noun phrases , predicates are verb phrases and another noun phrase acting as an object or verbal attribute often follows the predicate .
= = = = Basic constituent order = = = =
When combining these noun and verb phrases into a sentence the order is typically SVO :
When both a direct object and indirect object are present without any grammatical markers , the preferred order is SV ( DO ) ( IO ) . In such a case , if the direct object phrase contains multiple components , the indirect object immediately follows the noun of the direct object phrase and the direct object 's modifiers follow the indirect object :
This ordering of objects can be changed and the meaning clarified with the inclusion of particles . The word / dɑl / , which normally means " to arrive " or " towards " , can be used as a preposition meaning " to " :
Alternatively , the indirect object could precede the direct object if the object marking preposition / nəw / were used :
However , in spoken discourse OSV is possible when emphasizing the object in a topic @-@ comment @-@ like structure .
= = = = Noun phrase = = = =
The noun phrase in Khmer typically has the following structure :
Noun Phrase = ( Honorific ) Noun ( Adjectival modifiers ) ( Numeral ) ( Classifier ) ( Demonstrative )
The elements in parentheses are optional . Honorifics are a class of words that serve to index the social status of the referent . Honorifics can be kinship terms or personal names , both of which are often used as first and second person pronouns , or specialized words such as / preah / ( ' god ' ) before royal and religious objects . The most common demonstratives are / nih / ( ' this , these ' ) and / nuh / ( ' that , those ' ) . The word / ae nuh / ( ' those over there ' ) has a more distal or vague connotation . If the noun phrase contains a possessive adjective , it follows the noun and precedes the numeral . If a descriptive attribute co @-@ occurs with a possessive , the possessive construction ( / rɔbɑh / ) is expected .
Some examples of typical Khmer noun phrases are :
The Khmer particle / dɑː / marked attributes in Old Khmer noun phrases and is used in formal and literary language to signify that what precedes is the noun and what follows is the attribute . Modern usage may carry the connotation of mild intensity .
= = = = Verb phrase = = = =
Khmer verbs are completely uninflected , and once a subject or topic has been introduced or is clear from context the noun phrase may be dropped . Thus , the simplest possible sentence in Khmer consists of a single verb . For example , / tɨw / can mean " I 'm going . " , " He went . " , " They 've gone . " , " Let 's go . " , etc . This also results in long strings of verbs such as :
Khmer uses three verbs for what translates into English as the copula . The general copula is / ciə / ; it is used to convey identity with nominal predicates . For locative predicates , the copula is / nɨw / . The verb / miən / is the " existential " copula meaning " there is " or " there exists " .
Negation is achieved by putting មិន / mɨn / before the verb and the particle ទេ / teː / at the end of the sentence or clause . In colloquial speech , verbs can also be negated without the need for a final particle , by placing ឥត / ʔɑt / ~ / ʔət / before them .
Past tense can be conveyed by adverbs , such as " yesterday " or by the use of perfective particles such as / haəj /
Different senses of future action can also be expressed by the use of adverbs like " tomorrow " or by the future tense marker / nɨŋ / , which is placed immediately before the verb , or both :
Imperatives are often unmarked . For example , in addition to the meanings given above , the " sentence " / tɨw / can also mean " Go ! " . Various words and particles may be added to the verb to soften the command to varying degrees , including to the point of politeness ( jussives ) :
Prohibitives take the form " / kom / + V " and also are often softened by the addition of the particle / ʔəj / to the end of the phrase .
= = = = Questions = = = =
There are three basic types of questions in Khmer . Questions requesting specific information use question words . Polar questions are indicated with interrogative particles , most commonly / teː / a homonym of the negation particle . Tag questions are indicated with various particles and rising inflection . The SVO word order is generally not inverted for questions .
In more formal contexts and in polite speech , questions are also marked at their beginning by the particle / taə / .
= = = = Passive voice = = = =
Khmer does not have a passive voice , but there is a construction utilizing the main verb / trəw / ( " to hit " , " to be correct " , " to affect " ) as an auxiliary verb meaning " to be subject to " or " to undergo " which results in sentences that are translated to English using the passive voice .
= = = = Clause syntax = = = =
Complex sentences are formed in Khmer by the addition of one or more clauses to the main clause . The various types of clauses in Khmer include the coordinate clause , the relative clause and the subordinate clause . Word order in clauses is the same for that of the basic sentences described above . Coordinate clauses do not necessarily have to be marked ; they can simply follow one another . When explicitly marked , they are joined by words similar to English conjunctions such as / nɨŋ / ( " and " ) and / haəj / ( " and then " ) or by clause @-@ final conjunction @-@ like adverbs / dae / and / pʰɑːŋ / , both of which can mean " also " or " and also " ; disjunction is indicated by / rɨː / ( " or " ) . Relative clauses can be introduced by / deal / ( " that " ) but , similar to coordinate clauses , often simply follow the main clause . For example , both phrases below can mean " the hospital bed that has wheels " .
Relative clauses are more likely to be introduced with / deal / if they do not immediately follow the head noun . Khmer subordinate conjunctions always precede a subordinate clause . Subordinate conjunctions include words such as / prŭəh / ( " because " ) , / hak bəj / ( " seems as if " ) and / daəmbəj / ( " in order to " ) .
= = Numerals = =
Counting in Khmer is based on a biquinary system ( the numbers from 6 to 9 have the form " five one " , " five two " , etc . ) However , the words for multiples of ten from 30 to 90 are not related to the basic Khmer numbers , but are probably borrowed from Thai . The Khmer script has its own versions of the Arabic numerals .
The principal number words are listed in the following table , which gives Western and Khmer digits , Khmer spelling and IPA transcription .
Intermediate numbers are formed by compounding the above elements . Powers of ten are denoted by loan words : រយ / rɔːj / ( 100 ) , ពាន ់ / pŏən / ( 1 @,@ 000 ) , ម ៉ ឺន / məɨn / ( 10 @,@ 000 ) , សែន / saen / ( 100 @,@ 000 ) and លាន / liən / ( 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 ) from Thai and កោដិ / kaot / ( 10 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 ) from Sanskrit .
Ordinal numbers are formed by placing the particle ទី / tiː / before the corresponding cardinal number .
= = Social registers = =
Khmer employs a system of registers in which the speaker must always be conscious of the social status of the person spoken to . The different registers , which include those used for common speech , polite speech , speaking to or about royals and speaking to or about monks , employ alternate verbs , names of body parts and pronouns . This results in what appears to foreigners as separate languages and , in fact , isolated villagers often are unsure how to speak with royals and royals raised completely within the court do not feel comfortable speaking the common register . As an example , the word for " to eat " used between intimates or in reference to animals is / siː / . Used in polite reference to commoners , it is / ɲam / . When used of those of higher social status , it is / pisa / or / tɔtuəl tiən / . For monks the word is / cʰan / and for royals , / saoj / . Another result is that the pronominal system is complex and full of honorific variations , just a few of which are shown in the table below .
= = Writing system = =
Khmer is written with the Khmer script , an abugida developed from the Pallava script of India before the 7th century when the first known inscription appeared . Written left @-@ to @-@ right with vowel signs that can be placed after , before , above or below the consonant they follow , the Khmer script is similar in appearance and usage to Thai and Lao , both of which were based on the Khmer system . The Khmer script is also distantly related to the Mon script , the ancestor of the modern Burmese script . Khmer numerals , which were inherited from Indian numerals , are used more widely than Hindu @-@ Arabic numerals . Within Cambodia , literacy in the Khmer alphabet is estimated at 77 @.@ 6 % .
Consonant symbols in Khmer are divided into two groups , or series . The first series carries the inherent vowel / ɑː / while the second series carries the inherent vowel / ɔː / . The Khmer names of the series , / aʔkʰosaʔ / ( ' voiceless ' ) and / kʰosaʔ / ( ' voiced ' ) , respectively , indicate that the second series consonants were used to represent the voiced phonemes of Old Khmer . As the voicing of stops was lost , however , the contrast shifted to the phonation of the attached vowels which , in turn , evolved into a simple difference of vowel quality , often by diphthongization . This process has resulted in the Khmer alphabet having two symbols for most consonant phonemes and each vowel symbol having two possible readings , depending on the series of the initial consonant :
= Kenneth Horne =
Charles Kenneth Horne , generally known as Kenneth Horne , ( 27 February 1907 – 14 February 1969 ) was an English comedian and businessman . He is perhaps best remembered for his work on three BBC Radio series : Much @-@ Binding @-@ in @-@ the @-@ Marsh ( 1944 – 54 ) , Beyond Our Ken ( 1958 – 64 ) and Round the Horne ( 1965 – 68 ) .
The son of a clergyman who was also a politician , Horne had a burgeoning business career with Triplex Safety Glass , which was interrupted by service with the Royal Air Force during the Second World War . While serving in a barrage balloon unit he was asked to broadcast as a quizmaster on the BBC radio show Ack @-@ Ack , Beer @-@ Beer . The experience brought him into contact with the more established entertainer Richard Murdoch , and the two wrote and starred in the comedy series Much @-@ Binding @-@ in @-@ the @-@ Marsh . After demobilisation Horne returned to his business career , and kept his broadcasting as a sideline . His career in industry flourished and he later became the chairman and managing director of toy manufacturers Chad Valley .
In 1958 Horne suffered a stroke and gave up his business dealings to focus on his entertainment work . He was the anchor figure in Beyond Our Ken , which also featured Kenneth Williams , Hugh Paddick , Betty Marsden and Bill Pertwee . When the programme came to an end in 1964 , the same cast recorded four series of the comedy Round the Horne .
Before the planned fifth series of Round the Horne began recording , Horne died of a heart attack while hosting the annual Guild of Television Producers ' and Directors ' Awards ; Round the Horne could not continue without him and was withdrawn . Since his death the series has been regularly re @-@ broadcast . A 2002 BBC radio survey to find listeners ' favourite British comedian placed Horne third , behind Tony Hancock and Spike Milligan .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Kenneth Horne was born Charles Kenneth Horne on 27 February 1907 at Ampthill Square , London . He was the seventh and youngest child of Silvester Horne and his wife , Katherine Maria neé Cozens @-@ Hardy . Katherine 's father was Herbert Cozens @-@ Hardy , the Liberal MP for North Norfolk who became the Master of the Rolls in 1907 and Baron Cozens @-@ Hardy on 1 July 1914 . Silvester , a powerful orator , was a leading light in the Congregationalist movement , as minister at the Whitefield 's Tabernacle , Tottenham Court Road from 1903 and , from 1910 , chairman of the Congregational Union of England and Wales . Between 1910 – 14 he was the Liberal MP for Ipswich .
By 1913 Silvester was suffering from continual poor health . He resigned his position at the tabernacle on medical advice in January 1914 , and intended to resign his parliamentary seat . On a speaking tour of the US and Canada he lectured at Yale University , and then took the ferry to Toronto ; as it entered the harbour , he collapsed and died , aged 49 ; Horne was aged seven at the time . From September that year Horne attended St George 's School , Harpenden as a boarder — the seventh of the Horne children to attend the school . Although he was not strong academically , he developed into a good sportsman , representing the school in rugby and cricket , and during the summer holidays took part in the Public Schoolboys Lawn Tennis Championship at Queen 's Club ; in his final appearance in 1925 he was knocked out by the future Wimbledon finalist Bunny Austin .
Horne enrolled at the London School of Economics in October 1925 , where his tutors included Hugh Dalton and Stephen Leacock ; he was dissatisfied with his time at the university and called Leacock " one of the most boring lecturers I ever came across " . During the general strike in 1926 volunteers were asked to enlist at the Organisation for the Maintenance of Supplies to take over the essential services ; Horne joined and spent two days driving a London bus before the strike was called off . Through the influence and generosity of an uncle , Austin Pilkington of the Pilkington glassmaking family of St Helens , he was able to enrol at Magdalene College , Cambridge in October 1926 . He committed himself to the sporting side of life and represented the college at rugby , and in the relay team alongside the future Olympic gold medallist Lord Burghley . He also played tennis for the university , partnering Bunny Austin . Distracted by his athletic exploits , he neglected his studies and was sent down in December 1927 .
Austin Pilkington was aggrieved at Horne 's failure to make the most of the opportunity he had provided , and decided against offering the young man a post in the family firm . Despite the disappointment , through his contacts within the industry , he secured for the young Horne an interview with the Triplex Safety Glass Company at King 's Norton , a district of Birmingham . Horne 's sporting record commended him to the manager of the Triplex factory , and he was taken on as a management trainee on a modest salary . In September 1930 , despite his unimpressive finances , he married Lady Mary Pelham @-@ Clinton @-@ Hope , daughter of the 8th Duke of Newcastle . The marriage was happy at first , but had broken down by 1932 . Mary applied for an annulment in November 1932 ; she declared the reason was " the incapacity of the respondent [ Charles Kenneth Horne ] to consummate the marriage " , which was dissolved in 1933 , although the two remained on friendly terms thereafter .
When Horne 's first marriage was dissolved , he was sought out by a former girlfriend , Joan Burgess , daughter of a neighbour at King 's Norton . Unlike his first wife , she had much in common with him , including a liking for squash , tennis , golf and dancing . A month before her 21st birthday they were married , in September 1936 . Joan became pregnant soon after the wedding , and in July 1937 a baby boy was delivered ; he was stillborn .
= = = Service in the RAF = = =
In 1938 Horne enlisted in the Royal Air Force Volunteer Reserve on a part @-@ time training scheme . He was commissioned as an acting pilot officer in No. 911 ( County of Warwick ) Squadron , a barrage balloon unit in Sutton Coldfield , and was called up into the RAF full @-@ time on the outbreak of war . In the initial months of the conflict — the Phoney War — Horne 's duties were undemanding , and he formed a concert party from his friends and colleagues . In November 1940 he was promoted to flight lieutenant , and to squadron leader a year later . In early 1942 the BBC producer Bill McLurg asked whether the RAF station at which Horne was based could put on an edition of his programme Ack @-@ Ack , Beer @-@ Beer . Horne was ordered to put on the show , and he made his broadcasting debut on 16 April 1942 , as the compere . Although the standard of the talent on the show was not high , McLurg was impressed with Horne 's presentation , especially the way he hosted the programme 's quiz ; he invited Horne to be the programme 's regular quizmaster , a role the latter fulfilled on over fifty Ack @-@ Ack , Beer @-@ Beer quizzes over the next two years . In January 1943 he became one of the show 's regular comperes and presented the entire show for the first time .
In March 1943 Horne was posted to the Air Ministry in London with the rank of wing commander . Continuing to broadcast on Ack @-@ Ack , Beer @-@ Beer , he also began to write sketches for the programme , and make broadcasts on other shows , including the Overseas Recorded Broadcasting Service ( ORBS ) , to be transmitted to British forces in the Middle East . His work with ORBS brought him into contact with Flight Lieutenant Richard Murdoch , who he jokingly introduced in one broadcast as " the station commander of Much @-@ Binding @-@ in @-@ the @-@ Marsh " ; with a great deal in common in their backgrounds and a similar sense of humour , the pair quickly formed a friendship . Horne informed Murdoch of a squadron leader vacancy in his section at the Ministry , and Murdoch became his colleague . Murdoch , a professional actor and entertainer for 12 years before the war , recognised Horne 's talent as a performer , and used his contacts to secure him more broadcasting work .
Ack @-@ Ack , Beer @-@ Beer came to an end in February 1944 when the BBC decided to direct their programming at the general armed forces , rather than the barrage balloon crews . A month later Horne and Murdoch had expanded the idea of the remote and fictitious Royal Air Force station , Much @-@ Binding @-@ in @-@ the @-@ Marsh . The pair took the idea to the BBC producer Leslie Bridgemont who was responsible for the show Merry @-@ go @-@ Round , which featured , in weekly rotation , shows based on the Army , Navy and RAF . Bridgemont included a Much @-@ Binding @-@ in @-@ the @-@ Marsh section in Merry @-@ go @-@ Round on 31 March 1944 ; Horne played " an officer so dim that even the other officers noticed " , with Murdoch as his harassed second @-@ in @-@ command and Sam Costa as an " amiable chump who always got things wrong " .
During 1944 Horne met and fell in love with Marjorie Thomas , a war widow with a young daughter . He was divorced in early 1945 , and he and Thomas were married in November that year , three months after he had been demobilised .
= = = Postwar , a double career : 1945 – 58 = = =
On his return to civilian life , Horne resumed working at Triplex , and was promoted to the position of sales director . Despite his subsequent joint career in broadcasting and business , his commercial activities always took precedence . He declared that his work on radio was only a hobby , and that he would give it up before his business career . He combined his two roles by working full @-@ time , and writing scripts with Murdoch at weekends .
Much @-@ Binding @-@ in @-@ the @-@ Marsh had gained sufficient popularity over its run of 20 Merry @-@ go @-@ Round episodes to be given its own 39 @-@ week series beginning in January 1947 . With the coming of peace , the supposed RAF station became a civil airport , and the show continued much as before , written by and starring Horne and Murdoch , with Sam Costa . Maurice Denham — described by Murdoch as a vocal chameleon — joined the cast and played over 60 roles . The programme became popular , with audiences of 20 million , and ran for four series until September 1950 .
In March 1948 Horne appeared with Murdoch in six episodes of the BBC Television comedy series Kaleidoscope . In June that year he and Murdoch again appeared on television in a one @-@ off sitcom , At Home , which they wrote . The following year Horne began his connection with Twenty Questions , an association that lasted , on @-@ and @-@ off , for 20 years . By the fourth series of Much @-@ Binding in 1950 , the listener figures had declined to a level that concerned the BBC and they decided against a fifth series . Rather than wait to see what other offers of work would come in from the Corporation , Horne and Murdoch signed the comedy to a 35 @-@ programme series on Radio Luxembourg between October 1950 and June 1951 . The programme was poorly received on the commercial channel : Murdoch observed that " it wasn 't really a great success — even my mother said it was rotten , and she was my greatest fan " . After one series , the show returned to the BBC in 1951 – 52 , although renamed as Over to You . Murdoch and Horne again appeared together , in April 1952 , on Desert Island Discs .
In 1954 , after nine years in his senior position at Triplex , and 27 years at the company , Horne accepted the position of managing director of the British Industries Fair , a government @-@ backed organisation promoting British goods worldwide ; he took up his position in July 1955 . Much of the work involved liaising with foreign buyers and delegations , and he accompanied the Queen and Duke of Edinburgh on visits to the annual fair . In 1956 the government withdrew its funding and the BIF closed . Horne received several attractive job offers , and chose the post of chairman and managing director of the toy manufacturers Chad Valley , where he was a success . In September that year he and Murdoch appeared in a one @-@ off television programme Show for the Telly .
In January 1957 Horne appeared as the compere on the popular Saturday evening comedy and music radio show Variety Playhouse , initially for a run of four months , but soon extended until the end of June . He also began to write a weekly column for the women 's magazine She , and to appear in an increasing number of other programmes . After his work on Variety Playhouse had finished , he and the programme 's writers , Eric Merriman and Barry Took , prepared a script for a pilot episode of a new show , Beyond Our Ken . The show , in which Horne was joined by Kenneth Williams , Ron Moody , Hugh Paddick and Betty Marsden , was broadcast in October 1957 .
= = = A single career : 1958 – 69 = = =
The pilot episode of Beyond Our Ken was well received by the BBC , and they commissioned a series to start in April 1958 . On 27 February that year — his 51st birthday — Horne suffered a debilitating stroke and was totally paralysed down his left @-@ hand side and lost the power of speech . He underwent a course of intensive physiotherapy and was able to return home after two weeks . His voice returned when , during heavy massage on his left thigh , a sharp pain led to him shouting " You bugger ! " at the physiotherapist . His doctor told him that the stroke was caused by the stress of combining a full @-@ time business post with his broadcasting work . He also told Horne that when he had recovered he would never be fit enough to continue as before . Horne considered that it was not the physical problem of combining his two careers , but the mental strain of problems in his business life ; accordingly he decided to give up commerce and concentrate on a career in entertainment . Because of the stroke , plans for Beyond Our Ken were suspended .
In April 1958 Horne eased himself back into broadcasting as chairman of Twenty Questions . This evidence of his recovery was sufficient for the BBC to begin recording Beyond Our Ken in June , in preparation for the broadcast of the first series between July and November . Beyond Our Ken was written around the imperturbable establishment figure of Horne , while the other performers played a " spectrum of characters never before heard on the radio " , including the exaggeratedly upper class Rodney and Charles , the genteel pensioners Ambrose and Felicity , the cook Fanny Haddock — a parody of popular TV cook Fanny Cradock — and the gardener Arthur Fallowfield . The first episode was not well received by a sample audience , but the BBC decided to back Horne and his team , and the initial six @-@ week contract was extended to 21 weeks . Before the series came to an end a second had been commissioned to run the following year . After the first series Moody was succeeded by Bill Pertwee ; Took left after the second series , leaving Merriman to write the remaining programmes on his own .
The second series of Beyond Our Ken followed in 1959 ; a third in 1960 . Horne also continued his work in television , hosting his own series , Trader Horne , and appearing on a number of other programmes . In April 1961 he made his second appearance on Desert Island Discs , this time unaccompanied by Murdoch . In October that year — three weeks after the fifth series of Beyond Our Ken began recording — Horne appeared as the anchorman on a new BBC television series , Let 's Imagine , a discussion programme which ran for 20 editions over 18 months . He was the subject of This Is Your Life in February 1962 , hosted by Eamonn Andrews , in which guests included friends and colleagues from his connections in business and entertainment . In June 1963 he began Ken 's Column , a series of 15 @-@ minute one @-@ man programmes for Anglia Television .
The seventh series of Beyond Our Ken finished in February 1964 , with an average audience of ten million listeners per programme . In September that year Horne returned from holiday and was scheduled to appear in a number of programmes ; Eric Merriman objected to Horne 's activities , saying that Horne had been made into a star by the writer , and that " no other comedy series should be allowed to use him " . When the BBC refused to withdraw Horne from the second programme , Down with Women , Merriman resigned from writing Beyond Our Ken and the show came to an end . After some pressure from Horne to keep the remainder of the team together , the BBC commissioned a replacement series , Round the Horne , on similar lines . They turned to one of the original writers of Beyond Our Ken , Barry Took and his new writing partner , Marty Feldman . Horne remained the genial and unflappable focal figure , and the writers invented several new and eccentric characters to revolve round him . They included J. Peasemold Gruntfuttock , the walking slum ; the Noël Coward parodies Charles and Fiona ; the incompetent villain Dr. Chou En Ginsberg ; the folk singer Rambling Syd Rumpo and the " outrageously camp " Julian and Sandy . The resulting programme was described by radio historians Andy Foster and Steve Furst as " one of the seminal comedies to come out of the BBC " , while The Spectator described it as " one of the great radio successes " . The first series of Round the Horne , consisting of 16 episodes , ran from March to June 1965 . Horne 's role was to provide " the perfect foil to the inspired lunacy happening all around him " :
On 7 October 1966 , at the age of 59 , Horne suffered a major heart attack . He was much weakened , and was unfit to work for three months . As a result , he did not appear in the Round the Horne Christmas special . He returned to work in January 1967 to record the third series .
Round the Horne ran to four series , broadcast in successive years , and finished in June 1968 . Three weeks after the fourth series finished , the first episode of Horne A 'Plenty was broadcast on ITV . In a sketch show format , and with Barry Took as script editor ( and later producer ) , this was an attempt to translate the spirit of Round the Horne to television , although with different actors supporting Horne : Graham Stark , for example , substituted for Kenneth Williams and Sheila Steafel for Betty Marsden . The first six @-@ part series ran from 22 June to 27 July 1968 , the second ( by which time ABC had become Thames Television ) from 27 November to 1 January 1969 .
= = = Death and tributes = = =
Because of his heart condition , Horne had been prescribed an anticoagulant , but had stopped taking it on the advice of a faith healer . Horne died of a heart attack on 14 February 1969 , while hosting the annual Guild of Television Producers ' and Directors ' Awards at the Dorchester hotel in London . Presenting the awards was Earl Mountbatten of Burma ; an award had gone to Barry Took and Marty Feldman for their TV series Marty , and Horne had just urged viewers to tune into the fifth series of Round the Horne ( which was due to start on 16 March ) when he fell from the podium . The televised recording of the event omitted the incident , with announcer Michael Aspel explaining , " Mr Horne was taken ill at this point and has since died . " A memorial service was held at St Martin @-@ in @-@ the @-@ Fields in March that year .
After his death , Horne was eulogised in The Times as " a master of the scandalous double @-@ meaning delivered with shining innocence " , while The Sunday Mirror called him " one of the few personalities who bridged the generation gap " and " perhaps the last of the truly great radio comics . " In the December 1970 issue of The Listener , Barry Took recalled Round the Horne and said of its star :
" He was an unselfish performer , but it was still always his show . You just knew it . A Martian would have known it . His warmth tempered the sharpness of the writing ... To say that everyone loved him sounds like every obituary ever written – nonetheless it 's true ... Horne was one of the few great men I have met , and his generosity of spirit and gesture have , in my experience , never been surpassed . I mourn him still . "
On hearing the news Kenneth Williams wrote in his diary that " I loved that man . His unselfish nature , his kindness , tolerance and gentleness were an example to everyone " . In The Sunday Times in February 1969 , Paul Jennings wrote of him : " If I ever knew a gentleman , it was Kenneth Horne . ... He gave you his whole attention , his whole courtesy . And what a courtesy it was ! ... I knew him in the context of panel games , to which his marvellous unforced humour , spontaneous but beautifully timed , always added sparkle . "
= = Technique = =
Horne 's friend , Barry Took , considered that " Horne 's rich , fruity voice and warm patrician manner made him the ideal link man and that , coupled with a mischievous sense of humour , ensured that any programme in which he was involved was the better for his presence " . Horne attributed his voice and delivery " to ' the Grace of God ' , his grandfather Lord Cozens @-@ Hardy , the former Master of the Rolls , and the hard training of being ' a jovial chap among the golf and motoring fraternity ' . "
The obituarist for The Times highlighted Horne 's " remarkably skilful but very personal comic technique " of playing " a friendly good @-@ natured old buffer who was simply doing his best , apparently lost in wonder , at the glossier , more spectacular talents of those among whom he found himself " . The media analysts Frank Krutnik and Steve Neale see a similar role and consider that " Horne functioned , like [ Jack ] Benny , [ Fred ] Allen and [ Tommy ] Handley before him , as a ' stooge ' rather than a joke @-@ wielder , frequently switching roles between announcer and in @-@ sketch performer " .
In Round the Horne , as well as acting as link man , Horne also played other character roles in the film and melodrama spoofs , but always sounded exactly like Kenneth Horne . Referring to his ability with voices , he commented that " between them Betty , Ken W. , Hugh and Bill Pertwee can provide at least 100 voices , and if you take me into account the figure leaps to 101 . " Williams reported that Horne had a card index mind , " in which there seemed to be stored every funny voice , every dialect , every comedy trick , which he knew that each member of the cast was capable of " , and would suggest a change in approach if a line did not work during rehearsals .
Graham Ball , writing in the Sunday Express observed that Horne " didn 't tell jokes in the usual manner , didn 't have a catchphrase and never resorted to blue comedy " . Ball also identified that Horne 's " stage character , that of a slightly bufferish English gent , was adored by middle- and working @-@ class audiences alike . His humour was original , almost underplayed , but the effortless delivery and uncanny timing concealed an almost anarchic sense of mischief . "
= = Legacy = =
By 24 February 1969 it had been decided that Round the Horne could not continue without its star . As a result , the scripts for Series Five ( which Horne had jokingly suggested should be subtitled ' The First All @-@ Nude Radio Show ' ) were hastily adapted into a new series for Kenneth Williams called Stop Messing About , which ran for two series but was widely judged a failure and discontinued in 1970 . On the first day of recording the new show , Williams wrote in his diary that " I miss [ Horne ] dreadfully . I
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that time . As Johor prospered from the large revenues generated from the gambier and pepper plantations managed by the Kapitan Cina , Abu Bakar gave generous provisions to the Kapitan Cina in recognition for their contributions to the state ; among his beneficiaries was a long @-@ time family friend , Tan Hiok Nee , who was given a seat in the state council . The plantations operated relatively independently of the state government , and Abu Bakar was worried by the possible danger to the plantations in the event of an economic crisis . Shortly after a financial crisis broke out in Singapore in 1864 , Abu Bakar imposed new regulations on these plantations , as many of them were owned by Chinese businessmen from Singapore . The Kapitan Cina and the Singapore Chamber of Commerce were particularly disturbed by the new regulations , and accused Abu Bakar of attempting to impose a trade monopoly over Johor . The British government pressured Abu Bakar to retract the regulations , which he did in January 1866 . In addition , the Kapitan Cina also faced considerable difficulties in securing new agreements with Abu Bakar . The crisis was only resolved in 1866 after Abu Bakar designated five new ports for the registration of cargo , and the British softened their animosity against Abu Bakar .
Abu Bakar 's relationship with the ruler of Muar , Sultan Ali was strained . Soon after Abu Bakar succeeded his father , he sent a letter to Sultan Ali asserting Johor 's sovereignty over Segamat , which Sultan Ali had hoped to exert political influence over . In addition , Sultan Ali , who had borrowed a large sum from an Indian moneylender in 1860 , became a source of irritation for Abu Bakar . Facing difficulties in repaying his debt , Sultan Ali asked Abu Bakar to pay Ali 's monthly pension to the moneylender ; but he alternated asking for payment to himself and to the moneylender . In 1866 , when the moneylender lodged a complaint with the British government , Sultan Ali tried to borrow from Abu Bakar to repay his outstanding debts . As a result of these constant irritations , Abu Bakar persuaded the Straits Governor to sign an agreement to terminate Sultan Ali 's pension at the agreement of Abu Bakar and Governor .
Abu Bakar made revisions to Johor 's Islamic code in 1863 , after the Sultan of Terengganu revisd his state 's Islamic judicial systemm to be more closely aligned with Sharia law . In a letter to the Straits Governor , Abu Bakar expressed hope that his revisions would suit more comfortably with European ideas . He founded an English school in Tanjung Puteri in 1864 . Two years later , Abu Bakar moved the administrative headquarters to Tanjung Puteri , and officially renamed it as Johor Bahru . A new administration was set up , which was modelled after European styles and certain elements of a traditional Malay government . He recruited some of his close relatives and his classmates from the Teluk Blanga Malay school into the bureaucracy , and also set up an advisory council which included two Chinese leaders . In the early 1870s , Straits Governor Sir Harry Ord said of Abu Bakar ( who became a Maharaja in 1868 ) that he was the " only Raja in the whole peninsula or adjoining states who rules in accordance with the practice of civilized nations . "
= = = Years as Maharaja ( 1868 – 1885 ) = = =
During a state visit to England in 1866 , Abu Bakar was commonly addressed as the " Maharaja " of Johor and led him to realise that the Malay title of Temenggong was hardly known to the Western World . He contemplated a change of another title , which led him to send his cousin , Ungku Haji Muhammad and the Dato Bentara , Dato Jaafar to meet the Bugis historian , Raja Ali Haji who was residing in Riau . Raja Ali supported Abu Bakar 's cause , after they did a cross examination and concluded that the past office holders had wielded actual control over the affairs of Johor , rather than the Sultans of the Bendahara dynasty . In addition , questions pertaining to Abu Bakar 's pursuits to clamour for recognition were also sidelined as he was able to trace his ancestry to the first Sultan of the Bendahara dynasty , Sultan Abdul Jalil Shah IV by his patrilineal ancestors . The Sultan of Lingga , gave his approval for a formal recognition of Abu Bakar as the Maharaja of Johor , after Ungku Haji and Dato Jaafar travelled to Lingga and presented their claims . Abu Bakar also secured approval from the Governor of the Straits Settlements for his change in title , and was officially proclaimed as the Maharaja of Johor on 30 June 1868 .
Shortly after his proclamation as Maharaja , Abu Bakar laid plans for the construction of a wooden railway between Johor Bahru and Gunung Pulai after some Europeans had raised proposals to set up a retreat and sanatorium . Construction of the railway started in July 1869 and construction of the first phase was completed in 1874 , which ran between Skudai and Johor Bahru . The construction project was later halted after an accident which saw a locomotive falling off the tracks as a result of termite attacks on the wooden tracks within the Skudai portion and a shortage of funds .
In the mid @-@ 1870s , the Straits Governor , William Jervois contemplated on placing Maharaja Abu Bakar as the overlord of the chiefs in Negeri Sembilan after the British failed to quell the sectarian violence in Sungai Ujong . Abu Bakar 's client , Tunku Antah was placed as the Yam Tuan of the Sri Menanti confederacy ( comprising several small states within the region ) , and Abu Bakar was made the adviser of Negeri Sembilan ( except Sungai Ujong ) in 1878 . Abu Bakar was believed to have nursed expansionist ambitions , which was suggested by his involvement in the Pahang Civil War between 1857 and 1864 . A later governor , Frederick Weld , aspired for stronger British control over the Malay states and was weary of Abu Bakar 's influence . The chiefs were lukewarm to the prospect of Johor 's sphere of influence over Negeri Sembilan , and in 1881 Weld convinced the chiefs within the Sri Menanti confederacy to deal directly with Singapore rather than with Abu Bakar . British officers were also appointed to oversee the affairs in 1883 and 1887 , and were gradually given the powers similar to that of a British resident .
After Sultan Ali 's death in 1877 , the Raja Temenggong of Muar and its village chieftains voted in favour of a merger of Muar with Johor following a succession dispute between two of Sultan Ali 's sons . Sultan Ali 's oldest son , Tengku Alam , disputed the legitimacy of the chieftains ' wishes and staked his hereditary claims over Muar . Tengku Alam instigated the 1879 Jementah Civil War in a bid to reclaim Muar , but was quickly crushed by the Maharaja 's forces . During the 1880s , Abu Bakar actively encouraged the Chinese leaders to set up new gambier and pepper plantations in Muar .
Meanwhile , Weld 's continued efforts to keep Abu Bakar 's political influence in check and relations between Johor and Singapore became increasingly strained . Abu Bakar was reportedly said to be increasingly reluctant to accept advice from the British @-@ appointed state lawyers , and increasingly turned to his private lawyers which he had employed . Weld voiced his intent to place a Resident in Johor , which prompted Abu Bakar to make a trip to England in August 1884 to negotiate new terms with the British Colonial Office . The Assistant Under @-@ Secretary of the Colonial Office , Robert Meade , conceded to Abu Bakar 's request for an absence of a British Resident in Johor , although Abu Bakar gave an in @-@ principle acceptance for a British adviser in Johor ( though none was appointed until 1914 ) . An agreement was drawn up , and Abu Bakar was promised control over internal affairs in exchange for British control over foreign affairs pertaining to the state .
= = = Years as Sultan ( 1885 – 1895 ) = = =
The Bendahara of Pahang , Wan Ahmad , was proclaimed Sultan in 1881 . Abu Bakar , who was weary of the increasingly hostile political environment imposed by Weld , considered the importance of the superior moral authority that was accorded to a " Sultan " than to a " Maharaja " . In 1885 , Abu Bakar instituted the creation of a state postal and judiciary system modelled along British lines , as well as a military force , the Johor Military Forces ( Malay : Askar Timbalan Setia ) upon his return to Johor .
During his stay in London in late 1885 , Abu Bakar expressed his desire to Meade for a formal recognition as the Sultan of Johor . He also met up with Queen Victoria , who had become a personal friend of Abu Bakar , within the same course of his visit . Queen Victoria consented to his wishes , and a treaty was signed on 11 December 1885 which formalised relations between Great Britain and Johor , was concluded between Abu Bakar and the Colonial Office . Abu Bakar also founded the state advisory board in London , which was intended to oversee state interests in London . Several retired officers from the Colonial Office , including William Fielding and Cecil Smith were personally appointed by Abu Bakar to oversee the board 's administration .
The formal recognition of Abu Bakar by the British as the Sultan of Johor quickly drew criticisms among the Malays in Johor . A pantun circulated among the Malays in Johor , which poked jibes at Abu Bakar 's background , became very popular . Many Malays were coy on accepting Abu Bakar as their paramount ruler , as they were sceptical of Abu Bakar 's Temenggong political origins and Buginese heritage . Furthermore , his affinity with Western culture did not go down well with the culturally @-@ conservative Malays . A proclamation ceremony was held on 13 February 1886 , whereby Abu Bakar made an official announcement on his adoption of the title " Sultan " in place of " Maharaja " . In the same year on 31 July , Abu Bakar instituted the first state decorations , Darjah Kerabat Yang Amat Dihormati ( also translated into English as " The Most Esteemed Family Order of Johor " ) and the Seri Paduka Mahkota Johor ( Order of the Crown of Johor ) .
Abu Bakar employed the service of a Chinese contractor and long @-@ time acquaintance , Wong Ah Fook , to oversee the development of Johor Bahru . The Johor Archives showed that Wong was the largest building contractor at that time and had been involved in at least twenty public works projects between 1887 and 1895 . In addition , Wong was contracted to oversee the construction of the state mosque and several palaces under the direction of Abu Bakar . As a gratitude to Wong 's contributions to the state , Abu Bakar granted him a plot of land in the heart of Johor Bahru in 1892 . Wong then oversaw the construction of a village , Kampong Ah Fook , as well as a road , Jalan Wong Ah Fook on the land that he was granted .
Abu Bakar promuglated the Johor State Establishment Constitution ( Malay : Undang @-@ undang Tubuh Negeri Johor ) on 14 April 1895 . The state 's constitution was seen as a turning point by many as a step in laying the groundwork for the administration of Johor . It was suggested that Abu Bakar , who was fearful of his possible imminet death in light of his failing health , promogulated the state constitution with the intent of preserving the state 's independence in the light of growing British political influence in the Malay states .
= = Foreign relations = =
= = = Great Britain = = =
Abu Bakar made his inaugural state visit while he was still a Temenggong . He toured England in 1866 with Dato ' Jaafar , and met with members of the English royalty , notably Queen Victoria and the Prince of Wales , Prince Edward . The Queen conferred Abu Bakar with the Knight Commander of the Order of the Star of India ( KCSI ) , which he valued highly . The trip reportedly gave both Abu Bakar and Dato ' Jaafar lasting memories of England , and inspired Abu Bakar to develop Johor along British lines . Nine years later , Abu Bakar travelled to Calcutta to meet up with Prince Edward who was then spending his time in the city . The following year , Prince Edward conferred Abu Bakar the Prince of Wales 's Gold medal . He made another trip to London in 1878 , where he was invited to attend the State Ball at Buckingham Palace . Abu Bakar 's palaces were modelled closely along British lines ; when Prince George and Prince Albert Victor visited Johor in the 1880s , they had commented that the huge drawing room of Abu Bakar 's palace closely resembled the state @-@ rooms found at Windsor Castle . He was also an avid polo player , and had raced with the princes during their state visits to Johor . The Duke of Sutherland also praised Abu Bakar 's hospitality during his state visit after he became Sultan , and had reportedly enjoyed the Malay cuisine which the Abu Bakar had served to him .
In particular , Queen Victoria became a close friend of Abu Bakar especially during his later years . During a visit to England in February 1891 , Abu Bakar was personally received by the Queen , and was invited to dine and stay with the Queen at Windsor Castle . Queen Victoria held Abu Bakar in very high esteem , which she had signed herself off as an " affectionate friend " in a letter to Abu Bakar in March 1891 . Reportedly , Queen Victoria was quoted to have highly valued the silver model Albert Memorial which Abu Bakar sent to her during her Golden Jubilee in 1887 . Shortly before his death in May 1895 , Queen Victoria sent her personal physician to attend to Abu Bakar 's medical needs , who was by then very ill when he arrived in London .
= = = Other countries = = =
Abu Bakar visited Ottoman Turkey during his European tour in 1866 , where he met Sultan Abdülaziz . The Sultan presented Ruggyyah Hanum , a Circassian princess to Abu Bakar as a gift . Ruggyyah Hanum married Ungku Abdul Majid , a brother of Abu Bakar after she arrived to Johor , and later remarried Dato Jaafar ( whom accompanied Abu Bakar during his 1866 trip ) after Ungku Majid 's death . During his second visit to England in August 1878 , Abu Bakar wrote to Colonel Anson from South Kensington of his wishes to visit European royalties in Paris , Vienna and Italy . He visited Paris and Vienna and was given a warm reception by Prince Henry of Liechtenstein before he returned to Johor . Three years later , he visited Prussia , where he was conferred the Royal Prussian Order of the Crown . He made two separate European tours in 1891 and 1893 with a personal physician by his side , during which he met Emperor Francis Joseph , King Umberto , Pope Leo XIII and Sultan Abdul Hamid II , and was conferred the awards of Commander of the Cross of Italy , Imperial Order of the Osmans ( Turkey ) and the Commander of the Cross of Saxe @-@ Coburg and Gotha .
In 1881 , Abu Bakar also visited Java , which was under Dutch rule . In the same year , he travelled to Hawaii and met King Kalākaua , where he was conferred the Grand Cross of the Order of Kalakaua I of Hawaii. and State Secretary , Muhammad Salleh . The Emperor of China , Guangxu , bestowed upon him the First Class Order of the Double Dragon for his just treatment of the Chinese in Johor .
= = Family = =
Abu Bakar married his first wife , Engku Chik during his stay in Pahang in 1857 . Abu Bakar was related to Engku Chik by family ties ; Engku Chik was the sister of Tun Koris , who was also a brother @-@ in @-@ law to Abu Bakar . Abu Bakar had a daughter with Engku Chik , Tunku Besar Putri . He also had a son , Tunku Ibrahim , and a daughter , Tunku Mariam with his second wife Cecilia Catherina Lange , who was the daughter of a Danish trader , Mads Johansen Lange and his Chinese wife Nonna Sangnio . Lange met Abu Bakar while she was in Singapore , and adopted the Muslim name of " Zubaidah " after her marriage to Abu Bakar in 1870 . In 1885 , Abu Bakar married a Chinese woman of Cantonese heritage , Wong Ah Gew , with whom he had a daughter , Tunku Azizah . Wong took on the Muslim name of " Fatimah " at her marriage to Abu Bakar , and was crowned the Sultanah in July 1886 . Abu Bakar held Wong in very high esteem , who became Abu Bakar 's confidant pertaining to his involvement in state affairs . Wong became a close friend of Abu Bakar 's building contractor , Wong Ah Fook as they shared a common surname and dialect group . Wong died in 1891 . During his state visit to the Ottoman Empire in September 1893 , Abu Bakar married his fourth wife , Khadijah Khanum , who was of Circassian heritage . ( Khadijah 's sister , Ruggyah , became the wife of Abu Bakar 's brother and later the wife of the first Menteri Besar of Johor , Dato ' Jaafar . ) He had a daughter , Tunku Fatimah with Khadijah the following February , who was later crowned as the Sultanah of Johor .
= = Death = =
In early May 1895 , Abu Bakar travelled to London together with his son and successor , Tunku Ibrahim ( later Sultan Ibrahim ) with the hope to mustering support and recognition of his rule . He was by then already very ill and was already suffering from an inflammation of the kidneys for sometime and diagnosed with Bright 's disease ( a type of kidney disease ) . At the onstart of the voyage in early May , he became very weak , and had to be carried aboard a ship in a wheelchair . He reached London on 10 May , and checked into Bailey 's Hotel but was bedridden throughout his remaining days . He was not allowed to receive many visitors , though the Duke of Connaught and Strathearn , Prince Arthur paid two visits . Queen Victoria sent her personal physician , Douglas Powell to attend to his medical needs upon receiving news of his illness .
Abu Bakar contracted pneumonia during his stay in the hotel , which led to his demise on the evening of 4 June 1895 . His body was then brought back to Johor by an English man @-@ of @-@ war from Penang . A state funeral was given to Abu Bakar , and he was laid to rest at the royal mausoleum at Makam Mahmoodiah on 7 September 1895 . His son , Tunku Ibrahim was later installed as the Sultan of Johor in November 1895 .
= = Legacy = =
Abu Bakar was often accredited as the " Founder of Modern Johor " ( Malay : Bapa Pemodenan Johor ) . He established a Western @-@ styled bureaucratic system and civil service , and consolidated the state 's agricultural economy , which consisted of gambier and pepper plantations headed by Chinese leaders , known as " Kangchu " in the Teochew dialect . The gambier and pepper plantations were first introduced during the 1840s by Chinese immigrants . Often , Abu Bakar was called in by Malay rulers from neighbouring states to provide advise in the event when the rulers had to make important decisions . In particular , he became a close confidante of the Sultan of Pahang , Wan Ahmad in 1887 , with whom Abu Bakar had persuaded Sultan Ahmad to accept a British consultant instead of a Resident . The Colonial Government at that time was seeking for greater control over the Malay States and was making vociferous attempts to impose British Residents into the Malay states . The Colonial Government also made a failed attempt to impose a British Resident in Johor in 1885 ; the state maintained its independence in its internal affairs until 1914 .
Abu Bakar was also the first Malay ruler to visit Europe in 1866 . He was an Anglophile , and mingled comfortably with the Europeans . The British governor , Sir Harry Ord had once written to the Secretary of State of Great Britain and described Abu Bakar as an " English gentleman " in his tastes and habits . Abu Bakar had gained his share of critics , especially among the more conservative Malay scholars who were critical of his Western tastes . Abu Bakar 's penchant for an extravagant lifestyle and foreign travel resulted in a depleted state treasury at the time of his death in 1895 . At least one scholar , Nesalmar Nadarajah , had suggested that Johor 's loss of independence in the early 20th century was attributed to this depleted state treasury . In addition , Nadarajah also believed that the loss of Johor 's independence was also attributed to Abu Bakar 's failure of giving attention to his young son , Tunku Ibrahim , who lacked proper education and training in the art of state administration and diplomacy when he succeeded his father as the Sultan of Johor in his early twenties .
Many state 's buildings which were constructed during Abu Bakar 's reign were modelled after British Victorian and Moorish architectural styles . Abu Bakar placed the construction of these state buildings under close supervision , and was often called in to lay the foundation stones of these buildings personally . A few of these buildings were named after Abu Bakar himself , notably the Sultan Abu Bakar State Mosque ( Malay : Masjid Negeri Sultan Abu Bakar ) , which was built between 1892 and 1900 .
= = Honours = =
He was awarded :
= = Honours of Johor = =
Founding Grand Master ( 1886 ) of the Royal Family Order of Johor
Founding Grand Master ( 1886 ) of the Order of the Crown of Johor
= = Foreign honours = =
Austria @-@ Hungary : Grand Cross of the Order of Franz Joseph – 1893
Qing Dynasty : Imperial Order of the Double Dragon , 1st Class , 1st Grade of the Chinese Empire – 1894
Kingdom of Hawaii : Grand Cross of the Order of Kalakaua I – 1881
British Raj : Knight Commander of the Order of the Star of India ( KCSI ) – 17 September 1866
Italy : Commander of the Order of the Crown of Italy – 1891
Ottoman Empire : Imperial Order of Osminieh ( Nishan @-@ e @-@ Osmanieh ) , 1st Class – 1893
Prussia : Order of the Crown , 1st Class – 23 June 1880
Saxony Ernestine Duchies of Saxe : Grand Cross of the Ducal Saxe @-@ Ernestine House Order – 1893
United Kingdom :
Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George ( GCMG ) – 20 March 1876
Knight Commander of the Order of the Star of India ( KCSI )
Prince of Wales 's gold medal – 1876
= Urban heat island =
An urban heat island ( UHI ) is a city or metropolitan area that is significantly warmer than its surrounding rural areas due to human activities . The phenomenon was first investigated and described by Luke Howard in the 1810s , although he was not the one to name the phenomenon . The temperature difference usually is larger at night than during the day , and is most apparent when winds are weak . UHI is most noticeable during the summer and winter . The main cause of the urban heat island effect is from the modification of land surfaces . Waste heat generated by energy usage is a secondary contributor . As a population center grows , it tends to expand its area and increase its average temperature . The less @-@ used term heat island refers to any area , populated or not , which is consistently hotter than the surrounding area .
Monthly rainfall is greater downwind of cities , partially due to the UHI . Increases in heat within urban centers increases the length of growing seasons , and decreases the occurrence of weak tornadoes . The UHI decreases air quality by increasing the production of pollutants such as ozone , and decreases water quality as warmer waters flow into area streams and put stress on their ecosystems .
Not all cities have a distinct urban heat island . Mitigation of the urban heat island effect can be accomplished through the use of green roofs and the use of lighter @-@ colored surfaces in urban areas , which reflect more sunlight and absorb less heat .
There are concerns raised about possible contribution from urban heat islands to global warming . Research on China and India indicates that urban heat island effect contributes to climate warming by about 30 % . On the other hand , one 1999 comparison between urban and rural areas proposed that the urban heat island effects have little influence on global mean temperature trends . Many studies reveal increases in the severity of the effect with the progress of climate change .
= = Causes = =
There are several causes of an urban heat island ( UHI ) ; for example , dark surfaces absorb significantly more solar radiation , which causes urban concentrations of roads and buildings to heat more than suburban and rural areas during the day ; materials commonly used in urban areas for pavement and roofs , such as concrete and asphalt , have significantly different thermal bulk properties ( including heat capacity and thermal conductivity ) and surface radiative properties ( albedo and emissivity ) than the surrounding rural areas . This causes a change in the energy budget of the urban area , often leading to higher temperatures than surrounding rural areas . Another major reason is the lack of evapotranspiration ( for example , through lack of vegetation ) in urban areas . With a decreased amount of vegetation , cities also lose the shade and cooling effect of trees , and the removal of carbon dioxide .
Other causes of a UHI are due to geometric effects . The tall buildings within many urban areas provide multiple surfaces for the reflection and absorption of sunlight , increasing the efficiency with which urban areas are heated . This is called the " urban canyon effect " . Another effect of buildings is the blocking of wind , which also inhibits cooling by convection and prevents pollution from dissipating . Waste heat from automobiles , air conditioning , industry , and other sources also contributes to the UHI . High levels of pollution in urban areas can also increase the UHI , as many forms of pollution change the radiative properties of the atmosphere . As UHI raises the temperature of cities , it also increases the concentration of ozone , a greenhouse gas whose production accelerates with an increase in temperature .
Some cities exhibit a heat island effect , largest at night . Seasonally , UHI shows up both in summer and winter . The typical temperature difference is several degrees between the center of the city and surrounding fields . The difference in temperature between an inner city and its surrounding suburbs is frequently mentioned in weather reports , as in " 68 ° F ( 20 ° C ) downtown , 64 ° F ( 18 ° C ) in the suburbs " . " The annual mean air temperature of a city with 1 million people or more can be 1 @.@ 8 – 5 @.@ 4 ° F ( 1 @.@ 0 – 3 @.@ 0 ° C ) warmer than its surroundings . In the evening , the difference can be as high as 22 ° F ( 12 ° C ) . "
= = Diurnal behavior = =
The IPCC stated that " it is well @-@ known that compared to non @-@ urban areas urban heat islands raise night @-@ time temperatures more than daytime temperatures . " For example , Barcelona , Spain is 0 @.@ 2 ° C ( 0 @.@ 4 ° F ) cooler for daily maxima and 2 @.@ 9 ° C ( 5 @.@ 2 ° F ) warmer for minima than a nearby rural station . A description of the very first report of the UHI by Luke Howard in the late 1810s said that the urban center of London was warmer at night than the surrounding countryside by 3 @.@ 7 ° F ( 2 @.@ 1 ° C ) . Though the warmer air temperature within the UHI is generally most apparent at night , urban heat islands exhibit significant and somewhat paradoxical diurnal behavior . The air temperature difference between the UHI and the surrounding environment is large at night and small during the day . The opposite is true for skin temperatures of the urban landscape within the UHI .
Throughout the daytime , particularly when the skies are free of clouds , urban surfaces are warmed by the absorption of solar radiation . Surfaces in the urban areas tend to warm faster than those of the surrounding rural areas . By virtue of their high heat capacities , urban surfaces act as a giant reservoir of heat energy . For example , concrete can hold roughly 2 @,@ 000 times as much heat as an equivalent volume of air . As a result , the large daytime surface temperature within the UHI is easily seen via thermal remote sensing . As is often the case with daytime heating , this warming also has the effect of generating convective winds within the urban boundary layer . It is theorized that , due to the atmospheric mixing that results , the air temperature perturbation within the UHI is generally minimal or nonexistent during the day , though the surface temperatures can reach extremely high levels .
At night , the situation reverses . The absence of solar heating causes the atmospheric convection to decrease , and the urban boundary layer begins to stabilize . If enough stabilization occurs , an inversion layer is formed . This traps urban air near the surface , and keeping surface air warm from the still @-@ warm urban surfaces , forming the nighttime warmer air temperatures within the UHI . Other than the heat retention properties of urban areas , the nighttime maximum in urban canyons could also be due to the blocking of " sky view " during cooling : surfaces lose heat at night principally by radiation to the comparatively cool sky , and this is blocked by the buildings in an urban area . Radiative cooling is more dominant when wind speed is low and the sky is cloudless , and indeed the UHI is found to be largest at night in these conditions .
= = Prediction = =
If a city or town has a good system of taking weather observations the UHI can be measured directly . An alternative is to use a complex simulation of the location to calculate the UHI , or to use an approximate empirical method Such models than allow the UHI to be included in estimates of future temperatures rises within cities due to climate change .
Professor Leonard O. Myrup , University of California at Davis , developed and published in 1969 the first comprehensive numerical treatment to predict the effects of the urban heat island ( UHI ) . His paper published in the American Meteorological Society 's Journal of Applied Meteorology surveys UHI and criticizes then @-@ existing theories as being excessively qualitative . A general purpose , numerical energy budget model is described and applied to the urban atmosphere . Calculations for several special cases as well as a sensitivity analysis are presented . The model is found to predict the correct order of magnitude of the urban temperature excess . The heat island effect is found to be the net result of several competing physical processes . In general , reduced evaporation in the city center and the thermal properties of the city building and paving materials are the dominant parameters . It is suggested that such a model could be used in engineering calculations to improve the climate of existing and future cities .
= = Impact on animals = =
Ant colonies in urban heat islands have an increased heat tolerance at no cost to cold tolerance .
Species that are good at colonizing can utilize conditions provided by urban heat islands to thrive in regions outside of their normal range . Examples of this include grey @-@ headed flying fox ( Pteropus poliocephalus ) and the common house gecko ( Hemidactylus frenatus ) . Grey @-@ headed flying foxes , found in Melbourne Australia , colonized urban habitats following increase in temperatures there . Increased temperatures , causing warmer winter conditions , made the city more similar in climate to the more northerly wildland habitat of the species .
With attempts to mitigate and manage urban heat islands , Temperature changes and availability of food and water are reduced . With temperate climates , urban heat islands will extend the growing season , therefore altering breeding strategies of inhabiting species . This can be seen the best in the effects that urban heat islands have on water temperature . With the temperature of the nearby buildings sometimes reaching over 50 degrees different from the near @-@ surface air temperature , precipitation will warm rapidly , causing runoff into nearby streams , lakes and rivers ( or other bodies of water ) to provide excessive thermal pollution . The increase in the thermal pollution has the ability to increase water temperature by 20 to 30 degrees . This increase will cause the fish species inhabiting the body of water to undergo thermal stress and shock due to the rapid change in temperature to their climate .
Urban heat islands caused by cities have altered the natural selection process . Selective pressures like temporal variation in food , predation and water are relaxed causing for a new set of selective forces to roll out . For example , within urban habitats , insects are more abundant than in rural areas . Insects are ectotherms . This means that they depend on the temperature of the environment to control their body temperature , making for the warmer climates of the city perfect for their ability to thrive . A study done in Raleigh North Carolina conducted on Parthenolecanium quercifex ( oak scales ) , showed that this particular species preferred warmer climates and were therefore found in higher abundance in the urban habitats than on oak trees in rural habitats . Over time of living in urban habitats , they have adapted to thrive in warmer climates than in cooler .
The presence of non @-@ native species is heavily dependent on the amount of human activity . An example of this can be seen in the populations of cliff swallows seen taking nests under the eaves of homes in urban habitats . They make their homes using the shelter provided by the humans in the upper regions of homes , allowing for an influx in their populations due to added protection and reduced predator numbers .
= = Other impacts on weather and climate = =
Aside from the effect on temperature , UHIs can produce secondary effects on local meteorology , including the altering of local wind patterns , the development of clouds and fog , the humidity , and the rates of precipitation . The extra heat provided by the UHI leads to greater upward motion , which can induce additional shower and thunderstorm activity . In addition , the UHI creates during the day a local low pressure area where relatively moist air from its rural surroundings converges , possibly leading to more favorable conditions for cloud formation . Rainfall rates downwind of cities are increased between 48 % and 116 % . Partly as a result of this warming , monthly rainfall is about 28 % greater between 20 miles ( 32 km ) to 40 miles ( 64 km ) downwind of cities , compared with upwind . Some cities show a total precipitation increase of 51 % .
Research has been done in a few areas suggesting that metropolitan areas are less susceptible to weak tornadoes due to the turbulent mixing caused by the warmth of the urban heat island . Using satellite images , researchers discovered that city climates have a noticeable influence on plant growing seasons up to 10 kilometers ( 6 @.@ 2 miles ) away from a city 's edges . Growing seasons in 70 cities in eastern North America were about 15 days longer in urban areas compared to rural areas outside of a city 's influence .
= = Health effects = =
UHIs have the potential to directly influence the health and welfare of urban residents . Within the United States alone , an average of 1 @,@ 000 people die each year due to extreme heat . As UHIs are characterized by increased temperature , they can potentially increase the magnitude and duration of heat waves within cities . Research has found that the mortality rate during a heat wave increases exponentially with the maximum temperature , an effect that is exacerbated by the UHI . The nighttime effect of UHIs can be particularly harmful during a heat wave , as it deprives urban residents of the cool relief found in rural areas during the night .
Research in the United States suggests that the relationship between extreme temperature and mortality varies by location . Heat is more likely to increase the risk of mortality in cities at mid @-@ latitudes and high latitudes with significant annual temperature variation . For example , when Chicago , New York and Philadelphia experience unusually hot summertime temperatures , elevated levels of illness and death are predicted . In contrast , parts of the country that are mild to hot year @-@ round have a lower public health risk from excessive heat . Research shows that residents of southern cities , such as Los Angeles , Phoenix , and Miami , tend to be acclimated to hot weather conditions and therefore less vulnerable to heat related deaths ; however , the high humidity of large southern cities such as Atlanta , Dallas , Houston , Nashville and New Orleans lead to deadly conditions when temperatures rise above normal .
Increased temperatures have been reported to cause heat stroke , heat exhaustion , heat syncope , and heat cramps . Some studies have also looked at how severe heat stroke can lead to permanent damage to organ systems . This damage can increase the risk of early mortality because the damage can cause severe impairment in organ function . Other complications of heat stroke include respiratory distress syndrome in adults and disseminated intravascular coagulation . Some researchers have noted that any compromise to the human body 's ability to thermoregulate would in theory increase risk of mortality . This includes illnesses that may affect a person 's mobility , awareness , or behavior . Researchers have noted that individuals with cognitive health issues ( e.g. depression , dementia , Parkinson 's disease ) are more at risk when faced with high temperatures and " need to take extra care " as cognitive performance has been shown to be differentially affected by heat . People with diabetes , are overweight , have sleep deprivation , or have cardiovascular / cerebrovascular conditions should avoid too much heat exposure . Some common medications that have an effect on thermoregulation can also increase the risk of mortality . Specific examples include anticholinergics , diuretics , phenotiazines and barbiturates . Not only health , but heat can also affect behavior . A U.S. study suggests that heat can make people more irritable and aggressive , noting that violent crimes increased by 4 @.@ 58 out of 100 @,@ 000 for every one degree increase in temperature .
A researcher found that high UHI intensity correlates with increased concentrations of air pollutants that gathered at night , which can affect the next day 's air quality . These pollutants include volatile organic compounds , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , and particulate matter . The production of these pollutants combined with the higher temperatures in UHIs can quicken the production of ozone . Ozone at surface level is considered to be a harmful pollutant . Studies suggest that increased temperatures in UHIs can increase polluted days but also note that other factors ( e.g. air pressure , cloud cover , wind speed ) can also have an effect on pollution .
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention notes that it " is difficult to make valid projections of heat @-@ related illness and death under varying climate change scenarios " and that " heat – related deaths are preventable , as evidenced by the decline of all @-@ cause mortality during heat events over the past 35 years " . However , some studies suggest the possibility that health impacts from UHIs are disproportionate because the impacts can be unevenly distributed based on a variety of factors ( e.g. age , ethnicity and socioeconomic status ) . This raises the possibility of health impacts from UHIs being an environmental justice issue .
= = = Inequality of tree canopy cover = = =
Relationship between neighborhood income and tree canopy cover
In recent years , researchers have discovered a strong correlation between neighborhood income and tree canopy cover . In 2010 , researchers at Auburn University and University of Southern California found that the presence of trees are " highly responsive to changes in [ neighborhood ] income . " Low @-@ income neighborhoods tend to have significantly less trees than neighborhoods with higher incomes . They described this unequal distribution of trees as a demand for " luxury , " rather than " necessity . " According to the study , " for every 1 percent increase in per capita income , demand for forest cover increased by 1 @.@ 76 percent . But when income dropped by the same amount , demand decreased by 1 @.@ 26 percent . "
Trees are a necessary feature in combating the urban heat island effect because they reduce air temperatures by 10 ° F or 5 @.@ 5 ° C , and surface temperatures by up to 20 @-@ 45 ° F or 11 @-@ 25 ° C. Researchers hypothesized that less @-@ well @-@ off neighborhoods do not have the financial resources to plant and maintain trees . Affluent neighborhoods can afford more trees , on " both public and private property . " Part of this is also that wealthier homeowners and communities can afford more land , which can be kept open as green space , whereas poorer ones are often rentals , where landowners try to maximize their profit by putting as much density as possible on their land .
Additionally , many blogging sites overlay satellite imagery provided by Google Maps and census data to confirm or debunk the aforementioned research .
= = Impact on nearby water bodies = =
UHIs also impair water quality . Hot pavement and rooftop surfaces transfer their excess heat to stormwater , which then drains into storm sewers and raises water temperatures as it is released into streams , rivers , ponds , and lakes . Additionally , increased urban water body temperatures lead to a decrease in diversity in the water . In August 2001 , rains over Cedar Rapids , Iowa led to a 10.5C ( 18.9F ) rise in the nearby stream within one hour , which led to a fish kill . Since the temperature of the rain was comparatively cool , it could be attributed to the hot pavement of the city . Similar events have been documented across the American Midwest , as well as Oregon and California . Rapid temperature changes can be stressful to aquatic ecosystems . Permeable pavements may mitigate these effects by percolating water through the pavement into subsurface storage areas where it can be dissipate through absorption and evaporation .
= = Impact on energy usage = =
Another consequence of urban heat islands is the increased energy required for air conditioning and refrigeration in cities that are in comparatively hot climates . The Heat Island Group estimates that the heat island effect costs Los Angeles about US $ 100 million per year in energy . Conversely , those that are in cold climates such as Moscow , Russia would have less demand for heating . However , through the implementation of heat island reduction strategies , significant annual net energy savings have been calculated for northern locations such as Chicago , Salt Lake City , and Toronto .
= = Mitigation = =
The temperature difference between urban areas and the surrounding suburban or rural areas can be as much as 5 ° C ( 9 @.@ 0 ° F ) . Nearly 40 percent of that increase is due to the prevalence of dark roofs , with the remainder coming from dark @-@ colored pavement and the declining presence of vegetation . The heat island effect can be counteracted slightly by using white or reflective materials to build houses , roofs , pavements , and roads , thus increasing the overall albedo of the city . Relative to remedying the other sources of the problem , replacing dark roofing requires the least amount of investment for the most immediate return . A cool roof made from a reflective material such as vinyl reflects at least 75 percent of the sun 's rays , and emit at least 70 percent of the solar radiation absorbed by the building envelope . Asphalt built @-@ up roofs ( BUR ) , by comparison , reflect 6 percent to 26 percent of solar radiation .
Using light @-@ colored concrete has proven effective in reflecting up to 50 % more light than asphalt and reducing ambient temperature . A low albedo value , characteristic of black asphalt , absorbs a large percentage of solar heat creating warmer near @-@ surface temperatures . Paving with light @-@ colored concrete , in addition to replacing asphalt with light @-@ colored concrete , communities may be able to lower average temperatures . However , research into the interaction between reflective pavements and buildings has found that , unless the nearby buildings are fitted with reflective glass , solar radiation reflected off light @-@ colored pavements can increase building temperatures , increasing air conditioning demands .
A second option is to increase the amount of well @-@ watered vegetation . These two options can be combined with the implementation of green roofs . Green roofs are excellent insulators during the warm weather months and the plants cool the surrounding environment . Air quality is improved as the plants absorb carbon dioxide with concomitant production of oxygen . The city of New York determined that the cooling potential per area was highest for street trees , followed by living roofs , light covered surface , and open space planting . From the standpoint of cost effectiveness , light surfaces , light roofs , and curbside planting have lower costs per temperature reduction .
A hypothetical " cool communities " program in Los Angeles has projected that urban temperatures could be reduced by approximately 3 ° C ( 5 ° F ) after planting ten million trees , reroofing five million homes , and painting one @-@ quarter of the roads at an estimated cost of US $ 1 billion , giving estimated annual benefits of US $ 170 million from reduced air @-@ conditioning costs and US $ 360 million in smog related health savings .
Mitigation strategies include :
White roofs : Painting rooftops white has become a common strategy to reduce the heat island effect . In cities , there are many dark colored surfaces that absorb the heat of the sun in turn lowering the albedo of the city . White rooftops allow high solar reflectance and high solar emittance , increasing the albedo of the city or area the effect is occurring .
Green roofs : Green roofs are another method of decreasing the urban heat island effect . Green roofery is the practice of having vegetation on a roof ; such as having trees or a garden . The plants that are on the roof increase the albedo and decreases the urban heat island effect . This method has been studied and criticized for the fact that green roofs are affected by climatic conditions , green roof variables are hard to measure , and are very complex systems
Planting trees in cities : Planting trees around the city can be another way of increasing albedo and decreasing the urban heat island effect . Trees absorb carbon dioxide and provide shade . It is recommended to plant deciduous trees because they can provide many benefits such as more shade in the summer and not blocking warmth of winter
Green parking lots : Green parking lots use surfaces other than asphalt and vegetation to limit the impact urban heat island effect .
= = Mitigation policies , measures and other strategies = =
= = = AB32 scoping plan = = =
AB32 required the California Air Resources Board to create a scoping plan . This plan is California 's approach on how to carry out their goal of combatting climate change by reducing greenhouse emissions by 2020 to levels from the 1990s . The scoping plan had four primary programs , advanced clean cars , cap and trade , renewables portfolio standard and low @-@ carbon fuel standard all geared toward increased energy efficiency . The plan has main strategies to reduce green house gases such as having monetary incentives , regulations and voluntary actions . Every five years the scoping plan is updated .
The advanced clean car rules program was made to reduce tail pipe emissions . The Air Resources Board approved the program to control emissions for newer models from the year 2017 to 2025 . Some of their goals by 2025 are to have more environmentally superior cars to be available in different models and different types of cars . New automobiles will emit 34 percent fewer global warming gases and 75 percent fewer smog @-@ forming emissions . And if fully implemented consumers can save an average of $ 6 @,@ 000 over the life of the car .
The renewable portfolio standard mandates to increase renewable energy from a variety of sources such as solar power and wind . Investor @-@ owned utilities , community choice aggregators and electric service providers are required to increase procurement to 33 % by 2020 .
Low carbon fuel standards is administered by the California Air Resources Board and attempts to make wider choice of cleaner fuels to Californians . Producers of petroleum @-@ based fuels are required to reduce the carbon intensity of their products to 10 percent in 2020 .
Cap and trade is designed to reduce the effects of climate change by setting a cap on greenhouse gases released into the atmosphere . The cap will decline approximately three percent each year in 2013 . The trading will create incentives to reduce the effects of climate change in California communities by reducing greenhouse gases through investments in clean technologies .
Clean Air Act
The EPA has initiated several air quality requirements that help reduce ground @-@ level ozone that leads to urban heat islands . In the Clean Air Act , one of the EPA 's chief policies , there are certain regulations that are put in place to ensure the state 's emissions stay below a certain level . Included in the Clean Air Act , all states must set forth a State Implementation Plan ( SIP ) which is designed to guarantee all states meet a central air quality standard .
State implementation plans and policies
The Emerging and Voluntary Measures Policy allows a state to add unconventional forms of heat island mitigation . This can include removing pollution after it has already been emitted into air , water , or soil . These measures are not implemented into law , but they do make it possible for certain parties to voluntarily become more efficient . The purpose of this policy is for all polluting sources to follow by example and use the most successful forms of mitigation .
The Guidance on State Implementation Plan Credits for Emissions Reductions from Electric @-@ Sector Energy Efficiency or Renewable Energy Measures is an educational tool for states to create an up to date and well @-@ organized SIP . It allows states to include plans that meet the guidelines or plans that exceed expectations . Based on the success of their SIP , some states can have their plans incorporated into other SIPs .
The Bundled Measures Policy authorizes different factions within the state to collaborate on mitigation projects . This policy takes a more of a community @-@ based approach by adding several groups for the purpose of multiple perspectives and inventive approaches . The Bundled Measures Policy is one method that generates co @-@ benefits for both parties . In example , if a partaking business were to add cool roofs , there will be a reduction in greenhouse gases which is beneficial for the environment as well as the need for excess energy which is beneficial for the business .
= = Implementation of policies = =
The Seattle Green Factor , a multifaceted system for urban landscaping , has seen much success in the mitigation of urban heat islands . The program focuses on areas that are prone to high pollution , such as business districts . There are strict guidelines for any new construction that exceeds roughly 20 parking spaces , and this platform helps developers physically see their levels of pollution while trying different methods of construction to figure out the most effective course of action . Seattle has correspondingly produced a " score sheet " for cities to use in their city planning .
= = AB32 and urban heat islands = =
Urban heat islands increase demand for energy consumption during the summer when temperatures rise . As a result of increased energy consumption , there is an increase in air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions . This policy focuses on lowering greenhouse emissions , which contributes to lowering the heat island effect .
= = EPA Compendium of Strategies = =
This compendium focuses on a variety of issues dealing with urban heat islands . They describe how urban heat islands are created , who is affected , and how people can make a difference to reduce temperature . It also shows examples of policies and voluntary actions by state and local governments to reduce the effect of urban heat islands
= = Incentives = =
Sacramento Municipal Utility District ( SMUD ) and the Sacramento Tree Foundation have partnered to provide the city of Sacramento shade trees for free . The program allows citizens to receive trees from four to seven feet tall . They also give them fertilizer , and delivery , all at no cost . They encourage citizens to plant their trees to benefit their home by reducing air conditioning costs . Approximately more than 450 @,@ 000 shade trees have been planted in the Sacramento area .
The Eco @-@ Roof Incentive Program : In Canada , grants are distributed throughout Toronto for installing green and cool roofs on residential and commercial buildings . This will reduce usage of energy and lower green house gas emissions .
Tree vitalize : This program is a partnership with multiple entities that focuses on helping restore tree cover in the city , it also educates citizens about the positive effects of trees on climate change and the urban heat island effect . And another goal they have is to build capacity among local governments to understand , protect and restore their urban trees . Because there is a need for educating citizens about the maintenance of trees , Treevitalize provides nine hours of classroom and field training to community residents . The classes cover a variety of topics such as tree identification , pruning , tree biology , and proper species selection .
= = Weatherization = =
U.S. Department of Energy Weatherization Assistance Program helps low income recipients by covering their heating bills and helping the families to make their homes energy efficient . In addition , this program allows states to also use the funds to install cooling efficiency measures such as shading devices .
= = Outreach and education = =
Tree Utah : a statewide non @-@ profit organization is dedicated to educating communities about the environmental and social benefits provided by trees . They are also committed to planting thousands of trees throughout the state of Utah .
The Lawrence Hall of Science at UC Berkeley has a high @-@ school level course called Global Systems Science . The course focuses on a variety of topics including climate change and the greenhouse effect .
= = Tree protection ordinances = =
A variety of local governments have implemented tree and landscape ordinances , which will help communities by providing shade during summer . Tree protection is an ordinance that does not allow someone to prune or remove trees without a city permit . An example is the city of Glendale , California : Through the Indigenous Tree Ordinance , the city of Glendale protects the following species of trees , the California sycamore , the coast live oak , mesa oak , valley oak , scrub oak , California bay . Anyone who is planning on removing or trimming the trees has to obtain an indigenous tree permit . Within the permit they have to provide detailed information about the number of trees affected , trunk diameter and the health of the tree itself . They also have to submit photographs of the site , and a site plan sketch .
Another example is the city of Berkeley , California . The tree protection ordinance prohibits the removal of coast live oak trees and any excessive pruning that can cause harm to the tree is also prohibited . The only exception is if the tree is poses a danger to life or limb and danger to the property .
The city of Visalia , California has implemented a street tree ordinance intended to promote and regulate the planting , maintenance , and protection of street trees within the city . Their ordinance does not allow street trees to be altered , pruned or removed . Street trees are also protected during construction .
= = Co @-@ benefits of mitigation strategies = =
= = = Trees and gardens aid mental health = = =
A large percentage of people who live in urban areas have access to parks and gardens in their areas , which are probably the only connections they have with nature . A study shows that having contact with nature helps promote our health and well @-@ being . People who had access to gardens or parks were found to be healthier than those who did not .
Another study done investigating whether or not the viewing of natural scenery may influence the recoveries of people from undergoing surgeries , found that people who had a window with a scenic view had shorter postoperative hospital stays and fewer negative comments from nurses .
= = = Tree planting as empowerment and community building = = =
Los Angeles TreePeople , is an example of how tree planting can empower a community . Tree people provides the opportunity for people to come together , build capacity , community pride and the opportunity to collaborate and network with each other .
= = = Green roofs as food production = = =
Growing food on rooftops could be an option for fast growing communities . Popular plants grown for food include , chives , oregano and lavender these plants are suitable for green roofs because they are evolutionarily equipped for Mediterranean climate .
= = = Green roofs and wildlife biodiversity = = =
Green roofs are important for wildlife because they allow organisms to inhabit the new garden . To maximize opportunities to attract wildlife to a green roof , one must aid the garden to be as diverse as possible in the plants that are added . By planting a wide array of plants , different kinds of invertebrate species will be able to colonize , they will be provided with foraging sources and habitat opportunities .
= = = Urban forests and a cleaner atmosphere = = =
Trees provide benefits such as absorbing carbon dioxide , and other pollutants . Trees also provide shade and reduce ozone emissions from vehicles . By having many trees , we can cool the city heat by approximately 10 degrees to 20 degrees , which will help reducing ozone and helping communities that are mostly affected by the effects of climate change and urban heat islands .
= = = Green building programs = = =
Voluntary green building programs have been promoting the mitigation of the heat island effect for years . For example , one of the ways for a site to earn points under the US Green Building Council 's ( USGBC ) Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design ( LEED ) Green Building Rating System is to take action that reduces heat islands , minimizing impacts on microclimates and human and wildlife habitats . Credits associated with reflective roofing or planted roofs can help a building achieve LEED certification . Buildings also receive credits by providing shade . Similarly , The Green Building Initiative ( GBI ) ' s Green Globes program awards points to sites that take measures to decrease a building 's energy consumption and reduce the heat island effect . As many as 10 points may be awarded to sites with roof coverage from vegetation , highly reflective materials , or a combination of the two .
= = Cost analysis = =
Every year in the U.S. 15 % of energy goes towards the air conditioning of buildings in these urban heat islands . According to Rosenfeld et al . , " the air conditioning demand has risen 10 % within the last 40 years . " Home and business owners alike can benefit from building a cool community . A decrease in energy usage directly correlates to cost efficiency . Areas with substantial vegetation and reflective surface materials used for roofs of houses , pavement , and roads are proven to be more effective and cost efficient .
In a case study of the Los Angeles Basin , simulations showed that even when trees are not strategically placed in these urban heat islands , they can still aid in minimization of pollutants and energy reduction . It is estimated that with this wide @-@ scale implementation , the city of Los Angeles can annually save $ 100M with most of the savings coming from cool roofs , lighter colored pavement , and the planting of trees . With a city @-@ wide implementation , added benefits from the lowering smog @-@ level would result in at least one billion dollars of saving per year .
The cost efficiency of green roofs is quite high because of several reasons . According to Carter , " A conventional roof is estimated to be $ 83 @.@ 78 / m2 while a green roof was estimated at $ 158 @.@ 82 / m2 . " For one , green roofs have over double the lifespan of a conventional roof , effectively decelerating the amount of roof replacements every year . In addition to roof @-@ life , green roofs add stormwater management reducing fees for utilities . The cost for green roofs is more in the beginning , but over a period of time , their efficiency provides financial as well as health benefits .
In Capital E Analysis ' conclusions of the financial benefits of green buildings , it was determined that green roofs successfully lowered energy usage and raised health benefits . For every square foot of green roof used in one study the savings amounted to $ 5 @.@ 80 energy @-@ wise . There were also savings seen in the emissions , water , and maintenance categories . Overall , the savings amounted to $ 52.90- $ 71 @.@ 30 on average while the cost of going green totaled - $ 3.00- $ 5 @.@ 00 .
= = Global warming = =
Because some parts of some cities may be hotter than their surroundings , concerns have been raised that the effects of urban sprawl might be misinterpreted as an increase in global temperature . Such effects are removed by homogenization from the raw climate record by comparing urban stations with surrounding stations . While the " heat island " warming is an important local effect , there is no evidence that it biases trends in the homogenized historical temperature record . For example , urban and rural trends are very similar .
The Third Assessment Report from the IPCC says :
However , over the Northern Hemisphere land areas where urban heat islands are most apparent , both the trends of lower @-@ tropospheric temperature and surface air temperature show no significant differences . In fact , the lower @-@ tropospheric temperatures warm at a slightly greater rate over North America ( about 0 @.@ 28 ° C / decade using satellite data ) than do the surface temperatures ( 0 @.@ 27 ° C / decade ) , although again the difference is not statistically significant .
Ground temperature measurements , like most weather observations , are logged by location . Their siting predates the massive sprawl , roadbuilding programs , and high- and medium @-@ rise expansions which contribute to the UHI . More importantly , station logs allow sites in question to be filtered easily from data sets . Doing so , the presence of heat islands is visible , but overall trends change in magnitude , not direction . The effects of the urban heat island may be overstated . One study stated , " Contrary to generally accepted wisdom , no statistically significant impact of urbanization could be found in annual temperatures . " This was done by using satellite @-@ based night @-@ light detection of urban areas , and more thorough homogenisation of the time series ( with corrections , for example , for the tendency of surrounding rural stations to be slightly higher in elevation , and thus cooler , than urban areas ) . If its conclusion is accepted , then it is necessary to " unravel the mystery of how a global temperature time series created partly from urban in situ stations could show no contamination from urban warming . " The main conclusion is that microscale and local @-@ scale impacts dominate the mesoscale impact of the urban heat island . Many sections of towns may be warmer than rural sites , but surface weather observations are likely to be made in park " cool islands . "
Not all cities show a warming relative to their rural surroundings . After trends were adjusted in urban weather stations around the world to match rural stations in their regions , in an effort to homogenise the temperature record , in 42 percent of cases , cities were getting cooler relative to their surroundings rather than warmer . One reason is that urban areas are heterogeneous , and weather stations are often sited in " cool islands " – parks , for example – within urban areas .
Studies in 2004 and 2006 attempted to test the urban heat island theory , by comparing temperature readings taken on calm nights with those taken on windy nights . If the urban heat island theory is correct then instruments should have recorded a bigger temperature rise for calm nights than for windy ones , because wind blows excess heat away from cities and away from the measuring instruments . There was no difference between the calm and windy nights , and one study said that " we show that , globally , temperatures over land have risen as much on windy nights as on calm nights , indicating that the observed overall warming is not a consequence of urban development . "
A view often held by those who reject the evidence for global warming is that much of the temperature increase seen in land based thermometers could be due to an increase in urbanization and the siting of measurement stations in urban areas . For example , Ross McKitrick and Patrick J. Michaels conducted a statistical study of surface @-@ temperature data regressed against socioeconomic indicators , and concluded that about half of the observed warming trend ( for 1979 – 2002 ) could be accounted for by the residual UHI effects in the corrected temperature data set they studied — which had already been processed to remove the ( modeled ) UHI contribution . Critics of this paper , including Gavin A. Schmidt , have said the results can be explained away as an artifact of spatial autocorrelation . McKittrick and Nicolas Nierenberg stated further that " the evidence for contamination of climatic data is robust across numerous data sets . "
The preliminary results of an independent assessment carried out by the Berkeley Earth Surface Temperature group , and made available to the public in October 2011 , found that among other scientific concerns raised by skeptics , the urban heat island effect did not bias the results obtained by NOAA , the Hadley Centre and NASA 's GISS . The Berkeley Earth group also confirmed that over the past 50 years the land surface warmed by 0 @.@ 911 ° C , and their results closely matched those obtained from earlier studies .
Climate Change 2007 , the Fourth Assessment Report from the IPCC states the following .
Studies that have looked at hemispheric and global scales conclude that any urban @-@ related trend is an order of magnitude smaller than decadal and longer time @-@ scale trends evident in the series ( e.g. , Jones et al . , 1990 ; Peterson et al . , 1999 ) . This result could partly be attributed to the omission from the gridded data set of a small number of sites ( < 1 % ) with clear urban @-@ related warming trends . In a worldwide set of about 270 stations , Parker ( 2004 , 2006 ) noted that warming trends in night minimum temperatures over the period 1950 to 2000 were not enhanced on calm nights , which would be the time most likely to be affected by urban warming . Thus , the global land warming trend discussed is very unlikely to be influenced significantly by increasing urbanisation ( Parker , 2006 ) . ... Accordingly , this assessment adds the same level of urban warming uncertainty as in the TAR : 0 @.@ 006 ° C per decade since 1900 for land , and 0 @.@ 002 ° C per decade since 1900 for blended land with ocean , as ocean UHI is zero .
A 2014 study published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America looks at the potential of large @-@ scale urban adaptation to counteract the effects of long @-@ term global climate change . The researchers calculate that without any adaptive urban design , by 2100 the expansion of existing U.S. cities into regional megalopolises could raise near @-@ surface temperatures between 1 and 2 degrees Celsius over large regions , " a significant fraction of the 21st @-@ century greenhouse gas @-@ induced climate change simulated by global climate models . " Large @-@ scale adaptive design could completely offset this increase , however . For example , the temperature increase in California was calculated to be as high as 1 @.@ 31 degrees Celsius , but a 100 % deployment of " cool roofs " would result in a temperature drop of 1 @.@ 47 degrees Celsius — more than the increase .
= Passengers of the RMS Titanic =
The passengers of the RMS Titanic were among the estimated 2 @,@ 344 people who sailed on the maiden voyage of the second of the White Star Line 's Olympic class ocean liners , from Southampton , England to New York City in the US state of New York . Partway through the voyage , the ship struck an iceberg and sank in the early morning of 15 April 1912 , resulting in the deaths of over 1 @,@ 500 people , including approximately 815 of the passengers .
The Titanic 's passengers were divided into three separate classes , determined not only by the price of their ticket but by wealth and social class : those travelling in first class , most of them the wealthiest passengers on board , included prominent members of the upper class , businessmen , politicians , high @-@ ranking military personnel , industrialists , bankers , entertainers , socialites , and professional athletes . Second class passengers were middle class travellers and included professors , authors , clergymen , and tourists . Third class or steerage passengers were primarily emigrants moving to the United States and Canada .
= = Passengers = =
= = = First class = = =
The Titanic 's first class passenger list was a " who 's who " of the rich and prominent of the upper class in 1912 . A single person berth in first class cost between £ 30 ( equivalent to £ 2 @,@ 700 in 2015 ) , up to £ 870 ( equivalent to £ 78 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) for a parlour suite and small private promenade deck . First class passengers enjoyed a number of amenities including a gymnasium , a squash court , a salt water swimming pool , electric and Turkish baths , a barbershop , kennels for first class dogs , elevators , and both open and enclosed promenades . First class passengers also traveled accompanied by personal staff — valets , maids , nurses and governesses for the children , chauffeurs and cooks .
Members of the British aristocracy made the trip : The Countess of Rothes , wife of the 19th Earl of Rothes , embarked at Southampton with her parents , Thomas and Clementina Dyer @-@ Edwardes , and cousin Gladys Cherry . Sir Cosmo Duff @-@ Gordon , 5th Baronet of Halkin , and his wife , Lucy , Lady Duff @-@ Gordon were on board as well . Sir Cosmo was a wealthy Scottish landowner and Olympic fencing medalist , while Lady Duff @-@ Gordon , known professionally as Lucile , was a leading fashion designer who served a wealthy and exclusive clientele including the British Royal Family . Colonel Archibald Gracie IV , a real estate investor , member of the wealthy Scottish @-@ American Gracie family , embarked at Southampton . The Cavendishes of London were among other prominent British couples on board as well . Lord Pirrie , chairman of Harland and Wolff intended to travel aboard the Titanic , but illness prevented him from joining the ill @-@ fated voyage ; however White Star Line 's Managing Director J. Bruce Ismay and the ship 's Harland and Wolff designer , Thomas Andrews , were both on board to oversee the ship 's progress on her maiden voyage .
Some of the most prominent members of the American social elite made the trip : real estate builder , businessman , and multimillionaire Colonel John Jacob Astor IV and his 18 @-@ year @-@ old pregnant wife Madeleine were returning to the United States for their child 's birth . Astor was the wealthiest passenger aboard the ship and one of the richest men in the world ; his great @-@ grandfather John Jacob Astor was the first multimillionaire in America . Among others were industrialist magnate and millionaire Benjamin Guggenheim ; Macy 's department store owner and member of the United States House of Representatives , Isidor Straus and his wife Ida ; George Dennick Wick , founder and president of Youngstown Sheet and Tube Company ; millionaire streetcar magnate George Dunton Widener ; vice president of Pennsylvania Railroad , John Thayer and his wife Marian ; Charles Hays , president of Canada 's Grand Trunk Railway ; William Ernest Carter and his wife , American social elite Lucile Carter ; millionaire , philanthropist and women 's rights activist Margaret Brown ; tennis star and banker Karl Behr ; famous American silent film actress Dorothy Gibson ; prominent Buffalo architect Edward Austin Kent ; and President William Howard Taft 's military aide , Major Archibald Butt , who was returning to resume his duties after a six @-@ week trip to Europe . Swedish first class passenger and businessman Mauritz Håkan Björnström @-@ Steffansson , owned the most highly valued single object on board ; a masterpiece of French neoclassical painting entitled La Circassienne au Bain , for which he would later claim $ 100 @,@ 000 in compensation ( equivalent to $ 2 @.@ 4 million in 2015 ) .
White Star financier J. P. Morgan and Milton S. Hershey , founder of Hershey 's chocolate , made plans to sail aboard the ship 's maiden voyage but cancelled at the last minute .
= = = Second class = = =
Second classes passengers were leisure tourists , academics , members of the clergy and middle class English and American families . The ship 's musicians travelled in second class accommodations ; they were not counted as members of the crew but were employed by an agency under contract to the White Star Line . The average ticket price for an adult second class passenger was £ 13 , the equivalent of £ 1 @,@ 123 today. and for many of these passengers , their travel experience on the Titanic was akin to travelling first class on smaller liners . Second class passengers had their own library and the men had access to a private smoking room . Second class children could read the children 's books provided in the library or play deck quoits and shuffleboard on the second class promenade . Twelve @-@ year @-@ old Ruth Becker passed the time by pushing her two @-@ year @-@ old brother Richard around the enclosed promenade in a stroller provided by the White Star Line .
Two Roman Catholic priests on board , Father Thomas Byles and Father Joseph Peruschitz , celebrated Mass every day for second and third class passengers during the voyage . Father Byles gave his homilies in English , Irish and French and Father Peruschitz gave his in German and Hungarian .
Rev. John Harper , a well @-@ known Baptist pastor from Scotland , was travelling to America with his daughter and niece in order to preach at the Moody Church in Chicago .
Schoolteacher Lawrence Beesley , a science master at Dulwich College , spent much of his time aboard the ship in the library . Two months after the sinking , he wrote and published The Loss of the SS Titanic , the first eyewitness account of the disaster .
The Laroche family , father Joseph and daughters Simonne and Louise , were the only known passengers of black ancestry on board the ship . They , along with Joseph 's pregnant wife Juliette , were travelling to Joseph 's native island of Haiti . Joseph hoped that a move from their former home in Paris back to Haiti , where his uncle Cincinnatus Leconte was president , would take his family away from racial discrimination .
Another French family travelling in second class was the Navratils , travelling under the assumed name Hoffman . Michel Navratil , a Slovak @-@ born French tailor , had kidnapped his two young sons , Michel Jr. and Edmond from his estranged wife , assumed the name Louis M. Hoffman and boarded the ship in Southampton , intent on taking his children to the United States . Michel Sr. died in the sinking and photographs of the boys were circulated throughout the world in the hopes that their mother or another relative could identify the French toddlers , who became known as " The Titanic Orphans . " After arriving in New York , the children were cared for by Titanic survivor Margaret Hays until their mother , Marcelle Navratil travelled from Nice , France to claim them .
= = = Third class = = =
The third class passengers or steerage passengers left hoping to start new lives in the United States and Canada . Third class passengers paid £ 7 ( £ 777 today ) for their ticket , depending on their place of origin ; ticket prices often included the price of rail travel to the three departure ports . Tickets for children cost £ 3 ( £ 259 today ) .
Third class passengers were a diverse group of nationalities and ethnic groups . In addition to large numbers of British , Irish , and Scandinavian immigrants , there were passengers from Central and Eastern Europe , the Middle East ( primarily Lebanon and Syria ) and Hong Kong . Some travelled alone or in small family groups . Several groups of mothers were travelling alone with their young children — most going to join their husbands who had already gone to America to find jobs , and , having saved up enough money , could now send for their families .
Among the larger third @-@ class families were John and Annie Sage , who were immigrating to Jacksonville , Florida with their nine children , ranging in age from 4 to 20 years ; Anders and Alfrida Andersson of Sweden and their five children , who were travelling to Canada along with Alfrida 's younger sister Anna , husband Ernst and baby Gilbert ; and Frederick and Augusta Goodwin , who were moving with their six children to his new job at a power plant in New York . In 2007 , scientists using DNA analysis identified the body of a small fair @-@ haired toddler , one of the first victims to be recovered by the CS Mackay Bennett , as Frederick 's youngest child , 19 @-@ month @-@ old Sidney . The Sages , Anderssons and Goodwins all perished in the sinking .
The youngest passenger on board the ship , two @-@ month @-@ old Millvina Dean who , with her parents Bertram Sr. and Eva Dean and older brother Bertram , were emigrating from England to Kansas , died in 2009 . She was the last survivor of the Titanic disaster to die .
In order to compete with rival shipping company Cunard , the White Star Line offered their steerage passengers modest luxuries , in the hopes that emigrants would write to relatives back home and encourage them to travel on White Star Line ships . Third class passengers had their own dining facilities , with chairs instead of benches , and meals prepared by the third class kitchen staff . On other liners , the steerage passengers would have been expected to bring their own food . Rather than dormitory @-@ style sleeping areas , third class passengers had their own cabins . The single men and women were separated , women in the stern in two to six berth cabins , men in the bow in up to ten berth cabins , often shared with strangers . Each stateroom was fitted with wood panelling and beds with mattresses , blankets , pillows , electric lights , heat and a washbasin with running water , except for the bow cabins which did not have a private washbasin . Two public bathtubs were also provided , one for the men , the other for women .
Passengers gathered in the third class common room where they could play chess or cards , or walk along the poop deck . Third class children played in the common room or explored the ship — nine @-@ year @-@ old Frank Goldsmith recalled peering into the engine room and climbing up the baggage cranes on the poop deck .
Ship 's regulations were designed to keep third class passengers confined to their area of the ship . The Titanic was fitted with grilles to prevent the classes from mingling and these gates were normally kept closed , although the stewards could open them in the event of an emergency . In the rush following the collision , the stewards , occupied with waking up sleeping passengers and leading groups of women and children to the boat deck , did not have time to open all the gates , leaving many of the confused third class passengers stuck below decks .
= = = Ticket @-@ holders who did not sail = = =
Numerous notable and prominent people of the era , who held tickets for the westbound passage or were guests of those who held tickets , did not sail . Others were waiting in New York to board for the passage back to Plymouth , England , on the second leg of Titanic 's maiden voyage . Many unused tickets that survived , whether they were for the westbound passage or the return eastbound passage , have become quite valuable as Titanic @-@ related artifacts . Among those who held tickets for a passage , but did not actually sail , include : Theodore Dreiser , Henry Clay Frick , Milton S. Hershey , Guglielmo Marconi , John Pierpont Morgan , Edgar Selwyn , Hugh Sullivan , and Alfred Gwynne Vanderbilt ( who died in the sinking of the RMS Lusitania ) .
= = Passengers by ethnicity = =
= = = Arab passengers = = =
Several passengers on the Titanic had Arabic origins . At the time , many carried identification from the Ottoman Empire that stated they were from Greater Syria , which included what is today Palestine , Jordan , Lebanon , and Syria . Passengers from Lebanon , for instance , had hometown villages today located in Lebanon . Kamal Kobeissi of Al Arabiya said " Even though the list of victims who died on the Titanic denotes who among them was Arab , it is difficult to find enough information on their Arab nationalities and what circumstances drove them to board the doomed ship . This [ difficulty ] even applies to Encyclopedia Titanic , the most comprehensive source on the 1912 tragedy . " The names of Arab people on the passenger register do not necessarily correspond to the original Arabic . For instance " Badr " was rendered " Badt , " Yusuf " was rendered " Joseph , " and " Boutros " was rendered as " Peter . " Of the Arab passengers who died , all were from today 's Lebanon except for one Egyptian .
According to Bakhos Assaf , mayor of Hardin , Lebanon , 93 passengers originated from what is today Lebanon , and Hardin had 20 passengers , the highest number of any Lebanese location . Of the Hardin passengers , 11 adult men died , while eight women and children and one adult man survived . Kamal Seikaly , an individual quoted in an article from the Lebanese publication Daily Star , stated that according to a May 16 , 1912 issue of the Al @-@ Khawater magazine stored in the American University of Beirut , of the 125 Lebanese aboard , 23 survived . The magazine states that 10 people from Kfar Meshki died on the Titanic .
In 1997 , Ray Hanania , a Palestinian American journalist , watched the Titanic ( 1997 ) film and noticed some background characters saying yalla , meaning " come on " in Arabic . This prompted him to research the issue and he discovered that Arab passengers were on board . In 1998 , he wrote a column about the Arabs on the RMS Titanic , " Titanic : We Share the Pain But Not the Glory . " According to Hanania 's analysis , there were 79 Arab passengers . According to Hanania , the task to " identify precisely " which passengers were Arab is difficult . Hanania stated that many were Christians because church sponsorship made it easier for Christians to get passage as opposed to Muslims .
In the book Titanic : Women and Children First ( October 1998 ) , Judith Geller stated that " officially were 154 Syrians on board the Titanic and 29 were saved : four men , five children and 20 women " .
= = Survivors and victims = =
On the night of 14 April 1912 at around 11 : 40 pm , while the RMS Titanic was sailing about 400 miles ( 640 km ) south of the Grand Banks of Newfoundland , the ship struck an iceberg and began to sink . Shortly before midnight , Captain Edward Smith ordered the ship 's lifeboats to be readied and a distress call was sent out . The closest ship to respond was Cunard Line 's Carpathia 58 miles ( 93 km ) away , which would arrive in an estimated four hours — too late to rescue all of Titanic 's passengers . Forty @-@ five minutes after the ship hit the iceberg , Captain Smith finally ordered the lifeboats to be loaded and lowered under the orders women and children first .
The first lifeboat launched was Lifeboat 7 on the starboard side with 28 people on board out of a capacity of 65 . It was lowered at around 12 : 45 am as believed by the British Inquiry . Collapsible Boat D was the last lifeboat to be launched , at 2 : 05 . Two more lifeboats , Collapsible Boats A and B , were in the process of being removed from their location on the roof of the officer 's house but could not be properly launched . Collapsible B floated away from the ship upside down , while Collapsible A became half @-@ filled with water after the supports for its canvas sides were broken in the fall from the roof of the officers ' quarters . There were arguments in some of the lifeboats about going back to pick up people in the water , but many survivors were afraid of being swamped by people trying to climb into the lifeboat or being pulled down by the suction from the sinking Titanic , though it turned out that there had been very little suction . At 2 : 20 am , Titanic herself sank . A small number of passengers and crew were able to make their way to the two unlaunched collapsible boats , surviving for several hours ( some still clinging to the overturned Collapsible B ) until they were rescued by Fifth Officer Harold Lowe .
At 4 : 10 am , the RMS Carpathia arrived at the site of the sinking and began rescuing survivors . By 8 : 30 am , she picked up the last lifeboat with survivors and left the area at 08 : 50 bound for Pier 54 in New York City . Of the 711 passengers and crew rescued by the Carpathia , six , including first class passenger William F. Hoyt , either died in a lifeboat during the night or on board the Carpathia the next morning , and were buried at sea .
In the days following the sinking , several ships sailed to the disaster area to recover victims ' bodies . The White Star Line chartered the cable ship Mackay @-@ Bennett from Halifax , Nova Scotia to retrieve bodies . Three other ships followed in the search : the cable ship Minia , the lighthouse supply ship Montmagny and the sealing vessel Algerine . Each ship left with embalming supplies , undertakers , and clergy . Upon recovery , each body retrieved by the Mackay @-@ Bennett was numbered and given as detailed a description as possible to help aid in identification . The physical appearance of each body — height , weight , age , hair and eye colour , visible birthmarks , scars or tattoos , was catalogued and any personal effects on the bodies were gathered and placed in small canvas bags corresponding to their number .
However , the ship found so many bodies that the embalming supplies aboard were quickly exhausted . Health regulations permitted that only embalmed bodies could be returned to port . Captain Larnder of the Mackay @-@ Bennett and the undertakers aboard decided to preserve all bodies of First Class passengers because of the need to visually identify wealthy men to resolve any disputes over large estates . As a result , the majority of the burials at sea were third class passengers and crew . Larnder himself claimed that as a mariner , he would expect to be buried at sea . However complaints about the burials at sea were made by families and undertakers . Later ships such as Minia found fewer bodies , requiring fewer embalming supplies , and were able to limit burials at sea to bodies which were too damaged to preserve .
Bodies recovered were preserved and taken to Halifax , Nova Scotia , the closest city to the sinking with direct rail and steamship connections . A large temporary morgue was set up in a curling rink and undertakers were called in from all across Eastern Canada to assist . Relatives from across North America came to identify and claim the bodies of their relatives . Some bodies were shipped to be buried in their home towns across North America and Europe . About two @-@ thirds of the bodies were identified . Of the remaining 150 unclaimed bodies , 121 were taken to the non @-@ denominational Fairview Lawn Cemetery ; 19 were buried in the Roman Catholic Mount Olivet Cemetery , and 10 were taken to the Jewish Baron de Hirsch Cemetery . Unidentified victims were buried with simple numbers based on the order in which their bodies were discovered .
In mid @-@ May 1912 , over 200 miles ( 320 km ) from the site of the sinking , RMS Oceanic recovered three bodies , numbers 331 , 332 and 333 , who were among the original occupants of Collapsible A , which was swamped in the last moments of the sinking . Although several people managed to reach this lifeboat , three died during the night . When Fifth Officer Harold Lowe and six crewmen returned to the wreck site after the sinking with an empty lifeboat to pick up survivors , they rescued surviving passengers from Collapsible A , but left the three dead bodies in the boat : Thomson Beattie , a first @-@ class passenger , and two crew members , a fireman and a seaman . After their retrieval from Collapsible A by Oceanic , the bodies were buried at sea .
= = Passenger list = =
The following is a full list of known passengers who sailed on the maiden voyage of the RMS Titanic .
Included in this list are the nine @-@ member Guarantee Group and the eight members of the ship 's band , who were given passenger accommodations and treated as both passengers and crew . They are also included in the list of crew members on board RMS Titanic .
Passengers are colour @-@ coded , indicating whether they were saved or perished . The passenger did not survive The passenger survived
Survivors are listed with the lifeboat from which they were known to be rescued . Victims whose remains were recovered after the sinking are listed with a superscript next to the body number , indicating the recovery vessel :
MB – CS Mackay @-@ Bennett ( bodies 1 – 306 )
M – CS Minia ( bodies 307 – 323 )
MM – CGS Montmagny ( bodies 326 – 329 )
A – SS Algerine ( body 330 )
O – RMS Oceanic ( bodies 331 – 333 )
I – SS Ilford ( body 334 )
OT – SS Ottawa ( body 335 )
Numbers 324 and 325 were unused , and the six bodies buried at sea by the Carpathia also went unnumbered .
= = = First class = = =
= = = Second class = = =
= = = Third class = = =
= = Cross @-@ channel passengers = =
In addition to the above @-@ listed passengers , the Titanic carried 29 cross @-@ channel passengers who boarded at Southampton and disembarked at either Cherbourg , France or Queenstown , Ireland .
= = First passenger survivors to die = =
= = Last passenger survivors to die = =
= Crime Cutz =
Crime Cutz is the second extended play by American synthpop duo Holy Ghost ! , consisting of Nick Millhiser and Alex Frankel . Its title came from the name of a person of the same name who offered a drum break for the title track that was not included in the final mix . Containing a 1980s @-@ style atmosphere and noted by one reviewer to be the duo 's cleaning sounding release so far , the extended play was influenced by Russian disco records Frankel found on eBay . DFA Records released the title track as a single in February 2016 , and the EP was distributed in April 2016 to generally positive reviews .
= = Production and composition = =
Crime Cutz has been described by Lily Moayeri of Under the Radar as an EP that strongly showcases the nu @-@ disco side of the duo . The music of the EP was influenced by records by Russian jazz musicians that were released in the 1970s and 1980s but were never distributed in the duo 's home country ; these musicians attempted to copy the disco style of American and French acts such as Chic . Frankel , who was sent mp3 files of these tracks by a Russian record dealer on eBay , said that their failure to mimic the style of the popular songs they wanted to recreate due to their different synthesizer sounds is what made the songs unique : " I guess that 's kind of what Nick and I do ... We find a sound we like , try to make it and fail , but in the process we make something new . " The rhythm of each track was developed first before writing the melodies and lyrics , given that the main goal of the EP was for it to be " instantly rhythmically gratifying " , as member Nick Millhiser described . In addition to its disco element , Crime Cutz features exaggerated arrangements and childlike R & B vocals that gives it a 1980s @-@ esque atmosphere . Consequence of Sound 's David Sackllah noted Crime Cutz to be Holy Ghost ! ' s cleanest @-@ sounding release to date . As for the lyrical content , Frankel wanted the songs ' seductive lyrics to be " phonetically fun " as with most other disco records .
= = Tracks = =
The starting title track of Crime Cutz derived its title from a person of the same name who gave Holy Ghost ! a drum break to be used in the song ; it was not included in the final mix , however . It begins with " spacey " synthesizers , before the acoustic drum beat kicks in around a minute into the song . Halfway into the song , diva vocals from the East Coast Inspirational Singers group join in , which Frankel , " literally found them on the internet . We met up the next day , and it was awesome and really moving to hear them sing . In general we 've tried to be a bit more off the cuff when recording recently , [ and they were ] a last minute addition while mixing the song . " Sequenced synth arpeggios , " super @-@ dry " guitars , and falsetto lead vocals are also present in the arrangement . " Stereotype " is about the band 's self @-@ awareness and pride towards them being of a very well @-@ known musical genre , singing in a mournful tone that " I know I 'm a stereotype , don 't be so critical [ … ] Let go . " In the track 's first draft , the drum parts and chord progression were developed first . Holy Ghost ! traveled to Los Angeles to work with DJ and production duo Oliver on the song , but with little success in making the type of track Holy Ghost ! wanted it to be . It was not until Oliver created a bassline for the duo that Holy Ghost ! reworked the arrangement of the song into what would be the final mix that ended up on Crime Cutz .
The title of " Compass Point " , a song Frankel wrote in 45 minutes , is a reference to Chris Blackwell 's Compass Point Studios , where numerous popular musicians in the style mixture of funk , reggae and synthpop , that Crime Cutz pays a tribute to , recorded their music . Its working title was " Back to Earth " , and was the first song to be written for but was not included on their second studio album Dynamics . As Millhiser explains , " There was always some indescribable thing about it that irked us , so we went back to that song with the intention of being like , ' Oh , you know , it ’ s just a matter of re @-@ recording the vocals or the piano , and it ’ ll be done . ' That of course was not the case , and we ended basically just keeping the drums and one line from the song , making a totally different song out of it , essentially remixing ourselves . " Frankel called the EP 's closer , " Footsteps " , to be the least rhythmic of all the tracks . Its original title was " Your Favorite Band / Footsteps " . As Frankel described coming up with the name , " I was going the other night to see our friends in Hot Chip . When I was there , I overheard some people saying , ' I thought they were playing , but they ’ re DJing , ' and that ’ s something that happens all the time now . People go to see their favorite band , and it turns out it ’ s a DJ set . I thought it was kind of funny , and also kind of sad — but in a funny way . " While the version of Crime Cutz that was officially released only consists of four tracks , Holy Ghost ! said in their January 2016 announcement of the EP that a fifth track might be included ; " We ’ re still messing around , because we have a lot of demos from this last year and a half , and we ’ re sifting through , figuring out if there ’ s one more we want to finish . "
= = Release and promotion = =
Holy Ghost ! first announced in a January 7 , 2016 interview with The Boston Globe that an extended play titled Crime Cutz was to be released in late spring of that year . The title track of Crime Cutz first premiered worldwide on Zane Lowe 's Apple Music show Beats 1 on February 4 , 2016 . The label DFA Records released it as a digital download single a day later . As part of the PopMatters feature Singles Going Steady , multiple writers reviewed the track upon its release . The 12 " vinyl single for the song that also includes the instrumental version of the song was a 300 @-@ copy limited edition . An official Ben Fries @-@ directed video for the song depicted multicolored lights flashing to the beat , with Aubrey Cook starring as the dancer . On April 22 , 2016 , DFA released a " Crime Cutz " remix EP featuring two re @-@ cuts of the song , one by Alan Palomo 's project Neon Indian and another by producer Eli Escobar . DFA released the Crime Cutz EP on April 29 .
= = Critical reception = =
Reviews of Crime Cutz were generally positive , holding an aggregate 67 out of 100 on the website Metacritic based on four critics . Lily Moayeri wrote in her review that " Holy Ghost ! has sculpted its production for a sharply defined quadruple hit . " Austin Reed , writing for Pretty Much Amazing , praised the band for returning to a little @-@ to @-@ no effort approach that was used in making their self @-@ titled debut album : " Dynamics fell short because neither Frankel nor bandmate Nick Millhiser seemed 100 % convinced that what they were doing made any sense . But on tracks like " Crime Cutz " , and EP highlight " Compassion Points " , that confidence sounds fully restored and more galvanized than ever " .
Cameron Cook of Pitchfork Media honored Crime Cutz as " a bright , tight , tense mini @-@ epic , solidifying [ Holy Ghost ! ] as one of the pillars of the mid- ' 00s disco resurgence . " His only major criticism of the EP was its lack of stylistic variety : " you spend a lot of the record hoping for something to take them even further over the edge , but they continue to pull back until the very end . " The group 's lack of musical risk on the EP was also criticized in a more mixed review by Sackllah , spotlighting " Compass Point " as the set 's only memorable track : " At best , Crime Cutz is a decent release by a talented group that clearly has potential to make some great retro records . At its lowest points , it ’ s filled with clumsy lyrics and meandering tracks that never really go anywhere . "
= = Track listing = =
Notes
^ a The official Bandcamp page for Crime Cutz misspells the track name as " Foosteps " .
= Bat Out of Hell =
Bat Out of Hell is the second album and major @-@ label debut by American rock singer Meat Loaf , as well as being his first collaboration with composer Jim Steinman , released in October 1977 on Cleveland International / Epic Records . It is one of the best @-@ selling albums in the history of recorded music , having sold over 30 million copies worldwide . Rolling Stone magazine ranked it at number 343 on its list of the 500 greatest albums of all time in 2003 .
Its musical style is influenced by Steinman 's appreciation of Richard Wagner , Phil Spector , Bruce Springsteen and The Who . Bat Out of Hell has been certified by the Recording Industry Association of America as a platinum album , fourteen times over . As of May 2015 , it has spent 485 weeks in the UK Charts . The album went on to become one of the most influential and iconic albums of all time and its songs have remained classic rock staples .
This album 's title also became the title for two more Meat Loaf albums . Steinman produced the album Bat Out of Hell II : Back into Hell ( 1993 ) . Desmond Child produced the album Bat Out of Hell III : The Monster Is Loose ( 2006 ) .
= = Pre @-@ production = =
The album developed from a musical , Neverland , a sci @-@ fi update of Peter Pan , which Steinman wrote for a workshop in 1974 , and performed at the Kennedy Center Music Theatre Lab in 1977 . Steinman and Meat Loaf , who were touring with the National Lampoon show , felt that three songs were " exceptional " and Steinman began to develop them as part of a seven @-@ song set they wanted to record as an album . The three songs were " Bat Out of Hell " , " Heaven Can Wait " and " The Formation of the Pack " , which was later retitled " All Revved Up with No Place to Go " .
Bat Out of Hell is often compared to the music of Bruce Springsteen , particularly the album Born to Run . Steinman says that he finds that " puzzling , musically " , although they share influences ; " Springsteen was more an inspiration than an influence . " A BBC article added , " that Max Weinberg and Roy Bittan from Springsteen 's E Street Band played on the album only helped reinforce the comparison . "
Steinman and Meat Loaf had immense difficulty finding a record company willing to sign them . According to Meat Loaf 's autobiography , the band spent most of 1975 writing and recording material , and two and a half years auditioning the record and being rejected . Manager David Sonenberg jokes that they were creating record companies just so they could be rejected . They performed the album live in 1976 , with Steinman on piano , Meat Loaf singing , and sometimes Ellen Foley joining them for " Paradise " . Steinman says that it was a " medley of the most brutal rejections you could imagine . " Meat Loaf " almost cracked " when CBS executive Clive Davis rejected the project . The singer recounts the incident in his autobiography . Not only did Davis , according to Meat Loaf , say that " actors don 't make records " , the executive challenged Steinman 's writing abilities and knowledge of rock music :
Do you know how to write a song ? Do you know anything about writing ? If you 're going to write for records , it goes like this : A , B , C , B , C , C. I don 't know what you 're doing . You 're doing A , D , F , G , B , D , C. You don 't know how to write a song ... Have you ever listened to pop music ? Have you ever heard any rock @-@ and @-@ roll music ... You should go downstairs when you leave here ... and buy some rock @-@ and @-@ roll records .
Meat Loaf asserts " Jim , at the time , knew every record ever made . [ He ] is a walking rock encyclopedia . " Although Steinman laughed off the insults , the singer screamed " Fuck you , Clive ! " from the street up to his building .
However , Todd Rundgren found the album hilarious , thinking that it was a parody of Springsteen . The singer quotes him as saying : " I 've got to do this album . It 's just so out there . " They told the producer that they had previously been signed to RCA . In one 1989 interview with Classic Rock magazine , Steinman labeled him " the only genuine genius I 've ever worked with . " In a 1989 interview with Redbeard for the In the Studio with Redbeard episode on the making of the album , Meat Loaf revealed that Jimmy Iovine and Andy Johns were potential candidates for producing Bat Out of Hell before being rejected by Meat and Steinman in favor of Rundgren , who Meat initially found cocky but grew to like .
= = Production = =
Recording started in late 1975 in Bearsville Studios , Woodstock , New York . Roy Bittan and Max Weinberg , the pianist and drummer from Bruce Springsteen 's E Street Band played on the album , in addition to members of Rundgren 's group Utopia : Kasim Sulton , Roger Powell and John " Willie " Wilcox . Edgar Winter played the saxophone on " All Revved Up " . Rundgren himself played guitar , including the " motorcycle solo " on " Bat Out of Hell " . Both Steinman and Rundgren were influenced by Phil Spector and his " wall of sound " . According to Meat Loaf , Rundgren put all the arrangements together because although " Jim could hear all the instruments " in his head , Steinman hummed rather than orchestrating .
When Rundgren discovered that the deal with RCA did not actually exist , Albert Grossman , who had been Bob Dylan 's manager , offered to put it on his Bearsville label but needed more money . Rundgren had essentially paid for the album himself . Mo Ostin at Warner Bros. was impressed , but other senior people rejected them after they performed live . Steinman had offended them a few years earlier by auditioning with a song named " Who Needs the Young " , which contains the lyric " Is there anyone left who can fuck ? Screw ' em ! "
Another E Street Band member , Steve Van Zandt , and Sonenberg arranged to contact Cleveland International Records , a subsidiary of Epic Records . After listening to the spoken word intro to " You Took the Words Right Out of My Mouth " ( " Hot Summer Night " ) , founder Steve Popovich accepted the album for Cleveland .
Rundgren mixed the record in one night . However , the mixes were not suitable to the extent that Meat Loaf did not want " Paradise " on the album . Jimmy Iovine , who had mixed Springsteen 's Born to Run , remixed some of the tracks . After several attempts by several people , John Jansen mixed the version of " Paradise " that is on the album . According to Meat Loaf , he , Jansen and Steinman mixed the title track .
Phil Rizzuto 's baseball play @-@ by @-@ play call for " Paradise by the Dashboard Light " was recorded in 1976 at The Hit Factory in New York City by Rundgren , Meat Loaf and Steinman . As an Italian Catholic , Rizzuto publicly maintained he was unaware that his contribution would be equated with sex in the finished song . However , Meat Loaf asserts that Rizzuto only claimed ignorance to stifle some criticism from a priest and was fully aware of the context of what he was recording .
= = Composition = =
Todd Rundgren acknowledges that Steinman was highly influenced by the " rural suburban teenage angst " of Bruce Springsteen . According to manager David Sonenberg , " Jim would always come up with these great titles and then he would write a song that would try to justify the greatness of the title . "
The album opens with its title track , " Bat Out of Hell " , taken from Steinman 's Neverland musical . It is the result of Steinman 's desire to write the " most extreme crash song of all time . " It features a boy who is riding so fast and ecstatically that he is unable to see an obstruction until it is " way too late " . The next track , " You Took the Words Right Out of My Mouth " , opens with spoken word , performed by Steinman and Marcia McClain , that was also taken from the Neverland musical , as were the next two tracks .
" All Revved Up with No Place to Go " describes the beginning of a relationship and also the taking of the girl 's virginity :
You and me ' round about midnight
Someone 's got to draw first blood [ ... ]
Oooh I got to draw first blood .
Side two opens with " Two Out of Three Ain 't Bad " , which was written near the end of the album 's production . The song documents the break @-@ up of a relationship where despite the fact that the man wants and needs the woman , he will never love her , however he tries to be positive and supportive in emphasizing that the two emotions of want and need are very positive and " Ain 't Bad " , which gives the song a sarcastic twist . A further twist is that the reason the man will never love the woman is because he already loves another woman , who broke up with him because she already loved another man . Rundgren identifies how the song was influenced by the Eagles , who were successful at the time . The producer also highlights the " underlying humor in the lyrics " , citing the line " There ain 't no Coupe de Ville hiding at the bottom of a Cracker Jack box . " He says you could only " get away " with that lyric " in a Meat Loaf song " .
The sixth track , " Paradise by the Dashboard Light " , is an epic story about teen romance and sex . A duet between Meat Loaf and Ellen Foley , the couple reminisce about driving to a secluded spot , at which he plans to have sex . They " make out " heavily in the middle instrumental section , described in metaphor in a baseball commentary by New York Yankees announcer Phil Rizzuto . However , she stops him just before they have sex , insisting that he first proclaim that he will " love her forever " . He swears to love her until the end of time . The final part of the song displays the couple in an acrimonious relationship , in which they are " praying for the end of time " because " if I got to spend another minute with you I don 't think that I can really survive . " Whereas the title track is the " ultimate car crash song " , this , according to the writer , is the " ultimate car sex song " . It epitomizes the album 's , as Ellen Foley describes , " pre @-@ pubescent sexual mentality " .
The seventh and final track , " For Crying Out Loud " , is a more sedate love song . It recounts the positive changes that a girl has made to the singer 's life , which had " reached the bottom " . The song also incorporates some sexual innuendo with the line " And can 't you see my faded Levi 's bursting apart . "
Comparing the album to Steinman 's late @-@ 1960s musical The Dream Engine , Classic Rock magazine says that Steinman 's imagery is " revved up and testosterone @-@ fueled . Songs like " Paradise by the Dashboard Light " , " Two Out of Three Ain 't Bad " and " For Crying Out Loud " echoed the textbook teenage view of sex and life : irrepressible physical urges and unrealistic romantic longing . "
Steinman 's songs for Bat Out of Hell are personal but not autobiographical :
I never thought of them as personal songs in terms of my own life but they were personality songs . They were all about my obsessions and images . None of them takes place in a normal world . They all take play in extreme world . Very operatic ... they were all heightened . They don 't take place in normal reality .
For example , citing the narrative of " Paradise " , Rundgren jokes that he can 't imagine Steinman being at a lakeside with the most beautiful girl in school , but he can imagine Steinman imagining it .
= = Cover = =
Steinman is credited with the album cover concept , which was illustrated by Richard Corben . The cover depicts a motorcycle , ridden by a long @-@ haired man , bursting out of the ground in a graveyard . In the background , a large bat perches atop a mausoleum that towers above the rest of the tombstones . In 2001 , Q magazine listed the cover as number 71 in its list of " The Hundred Best Record Covers of All Time . "
Steinman had wanted equal billing with Meat Loaf on the album 's title . He wanted it to be called " Jim Steinman presents ... " or " Jim and Meat , " or vice versa . For marketing reasons , the record company wished to make ' Meat Loaf ' the recognizable name . As a compromise , the words " Songs by Jim Steinman " appear relatively prominently on the cover . The singer believes that this was probably the beginning of their " ambivalent relationship . "
= = Title = =
The phrase " Bat Out of Hell " can be traced back to the Greek playwright Aristophanes ' 414 B.C. work titled The Birds . In it is what is believed to be the first reference to a bat out of Hell :
Near by the land of the Sciapodes there is a marsh , from the borders whereof the unwashed Socrates evokes the souls of men . Pisander came one day to see his soul , which he had left there when still alive . He offered a little victim , a camel , slit his throat and , following the example of Odysseus , stepped one pace backwards . Then that bat of a Chaerephon came up from hell to drink the camel 's blood .
Steinman registered " Bat Out of Hell " as a trademark in 1995 , and sought to prevent Meat Loaf from using the title . In 2006 , however , the singer sought to cancel Steinman 's trademark and use the title for Bat Out of Hell III : The Monster Is Loose .
In the film The Rocky Horror Picture Show , Eddie , the character played by Meat Loaf , is killed and then served as dinner . As
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the team fell to the bottom of the NWHL standings in 1934 – 35 , winning only three games . They once again finished in last place in 1935 – 36 and were embroiled in another disputer with Edmonton over the rights to a player as the Eskimos claimed they had gained the rights to Tony Savage from the Montreal Canadiens though he had already been sent to Calgary on loan . The Tigers issued an ultimatum to the league , threatening to disband for the season if Savage did not remain in Calgary . Savage ultimately remained with Calgary for the entire season .
1936 proved to be the final year for the Tigers , as the Great Depression and declining interest in professional hockey in favour of the senior game had threatened the team 's viability . After the Eskimos announced intentions to relocate to Victoria , British Columbia as part of a realignment of the league , Tigers ' manager Clair Manning contemplated relocating the franchise to Spokane , Washington . The team instead hoped to operate for another season in Calgary , but met its final demise after the NWHL reformed into the Pacific Coast Hockey League for 1936 – 37 and denied the Tigers ' application to join the new league .
= = Season @-@ by @-@ season record = =
Note : GP
= Games played , W =
Wins , L
= Losses , T =
Ties , Pts
= Points , GF =
Goals for , GA = Goals against
† Denotes Tigers ' record when the league collapsed . Exhibition games played after are not included
= = Hall of Famers = =
The WCHL 's short and unstable existence was a result of salary escalation caused by having three leagues competing for top talent . As a result , by the mid @-@ 1920s , hockey players were among the highest paid athletes in North America , with top players able to demand even higher salaries than the top baseball stars of the time . Though the WCHL lasted only five years , the Tigers boasted five future Hockey Hall of Famers on their roster during that time .
Barney Stanley , a former PCHA star , spent two seasons with the Tigers from 1920 – 22 . Joining the Tigers in the last season of the Big Four League , he once again turned pro when the Tigers joined the WCHL . Stanley led the Tigers in scoring with 26 goals in 1921 – 22 before being traded to Regina . Red Dutton , a World War I veteran who refused doctors orders to have his leg amputated after suffering a shrapnel wound , played 123 games with the Tigers before moving to the NHL where he played 449 more with the Montreal Maroons and New York Americans . Rusty Crawford , a former standout in the National Hockey Association and National Hockey League before the war , spent three seasons in Calgary from 1922 – 25 . Crawford recorded 19 goals in 64 games as a Tiger .
Herb Gardiner began his professional career in Calgary in 1920 , remaining with the Tigers until he was sold to the Montreal Canadiens in 1926 , where he would go on to win the Hart Memorial Trophy as NHL Most Valuable Player in 1927 . Harry Oliver also began his pro career in Calgary , playing with the Tigers from 1921 – 26 where he scored 90 goals before being sold to the Boston Bruins . Oliver would go on to play eleven seasons in the NHL with the Bruins and New York Americans .
= = Legacy = =
The uniform of the Calgary Tigers served as the inspiration for the " vintage " uniform of the Calgary Flames which was worn in the Heritage Classic game in February 2011 . While the Calgary Flames do not trace their ancestry back to the Tigers ( the Atlanta Flames club was purchased by Calgary businessmen in the 1980s ) , the organization had wanted to recognize the first professional hockey club in Calgary history for this event and selected the colourful uniforms of the Tigers .
= = = General = = =
Sandor , Steven ( 2005 ) , The Battle of Alberta : A Century of Hockey 's Greatest Rivalry , ISBN 1 @-@ 894974 @-@ 01 @-@ 8
Zeman , Gary ( 1986 ) , Alberta on Ice , ISBN 0969232004
= Go , Cubs , Go =
" Go Cubs Go " , " Go , Cubs , Go " or " Go , Cubs , Go ! " is a song written by Steve Goodman in 1984 . At various times the Goodman version of the song has been the official Chicago Cubs team song and the official Cubs victory song . The Goodman version of the song is now referred to as the official Chicago Cubs victory song . The Goodman version has been included in both a 1994 Steve Goodman anthology album and a 2008 Cubs songs and sounds album . An alternate 2008 version by Manic Sewing Circle has also been released .
= = History = =
Goodman was a lifelong Cubs fan . The song was written by Goodman at the request of WGN / 720 , which was the Cubs ' radio broadcast partner . Goodman had in 1981 recorded " A Dying Cub Fan 's Last Request " , a song about the historic failures of the Cubs franchise , but had been banned from playing it at Wrigley Field . That song described the team as " doormat of the National League " and referred to Wrigley Field as an " ivy @-@ covered burial ground . "
At the time that WGN Program Director Dan Fabian requested the new song , " It ’ s a Beautiful Day for a Ball Game " by The Harry Simeone Songsters was the theme song . He had been motivated by Cubs manager Dallas Green 's effort to change the team spirit . Goodman happened to be in town for a WGN radio talk show and was receptive to the idea of writing the team a new song .
" Go , Cubs , Go " first became popular during 1984 when the Cubs won the 1984 National League East Division Championship and subsequently lost in the 1984 National League Championship Series . That season ( and for several afterwards ) it was the official team song . It was first aired on WGN on Opening Day and played every gameday for the rest of the season . During that season , Goodman lost his sixteen @-@ year battle with leukemia four days before the Cubs clinched the division title . In the next three years , 60 @,@ 000 copies of the song were sold with proceeds going to charity . Some 1984 Cubs players can be heard performing the refrain .
In 1987 , the song gave way to The Beach Boys ' " Here Come the Cubs " . Later team songs included songs such as Kool & the Gang 's " Celebration " and KC and the Sunshine Band 's " Get Down Tonight " . The song was eventually included on Goodman 's album No Big Surprise : Anthology , which was released on September 15 , 1994 .
= = Modern resurgence = =
The song has had a resurgence in tandem with the success of the 2007 and 2008 Chicago Cubs , who won consecutive National League Central Division regular season championships , and the May 2007 release of the biography of Steve Goodman , Steve Goodman : Facing the Music ( ISBN 1 @-@ 55022 @-@ 732 @-@ 7 ) . In recent years , broadcasts on WGN @-@ TV and CSN Chicago have begun delaying postgame commentary to enables viewers to hear Goodman 's song and to watch fans at Wrigley listening and singing along . Cubs management decided to incorporate the song into the stadium experience following the team 's annual winter conference ( not to be confused with baseball 's winter meetings ) in which attendees dropped everything they were doing to sing along .
More recently , in the 2012 season , Chicago band The Fold used the lyric " Go Cubs Go " in their winning track for WGN Radio 's 2012 Season , " Let 's Go Cubbies " .
In the first week of October 2007 , it was the most popular folk music digital download on iTunes . With the Cubs in playoff contention for the first time in three years , the Cubs ' victory tune , Go Cubs Go ! became more popular among the fans . Due to the song 's growing popularity , after wins at home , Cubs TV broadcasters Len Kasper and Bob Brenly would have their microphones shut off , while the camera pans around the stadium to view the jubilant fans singing Go Cubs Go ! playing in the background . During that season , it was known as the unofficial Chicago Cubs victory song and it was played at Wrigley Field after each Cubs victory . There were 44 such victories during the 2007 regular season . On October 5 , 2007 , Illinois Lieutenant Governor Pat Quinn declared the day " Steve Goodman Day " throughout the state .
On August 1 , 2008 , WGN Radio and Vibes Media released a ringtone version of the song for purchase by text message for a cost of US $ 2 @.@ 99 . At that time it was described as the official Cubs victory song . Also in 2008 , the song was included on the album Take Me Out To A Cubs Game which was subtitled " Music For The Cubs Fan " . The album is a 17 @-@ song album with a total run time of 55 minutes and 35 seconds that includes the September 21 , 1997 Harry Caray performance of " Take Me Out to the Ball Game " , which was his last . The album was produced in celebration of the 100th anniversary of the Cubs 1908 World Series victory and contains sounds and songs of the Cubs and Wrigley Field . The album is an officially licensed Major League Baseball music CD . Neither of Goodman 's other notable songs about the Cubs ( " A Dying Cub Fan 's Last Request " or " When the Cubs Go Marching In " ) was included on the album .
Also in 2008 , the song was released by Manic Sewing Circle . It was performed for the first time live on WGN @-@ TV at the Skybox on Sheffield , located directly across from Wrigley Field on opening day 2008 . Their cover version of the song was released with proceeds going to official charities of the Chicago Cubs and WGN @-@ Radio : Cubs Care and Neediest Kids Fund . The Manic Sewing Circle version of the song is also available on iTunes by digital download , and they publicized this version throughout Chicago . Although the original Goodman version of the song is 2 : 51 , the new Manic Sewing Circle version is only 2 : 23 long .
In September 2008 , prompted by the Cubs ' 2008 season and a piece by Mike Leonard on the NBC Today Show about Steve Goodman , Red Pajamas Records issued a 4 @-@ cut EP titled The Baseball Singles with Goodman 's performances of " Go Cubs Go " , " A Dying Cub Fan 's Last Request " , " When The Cubs Go Marching In " , and " Take Me Out to the Ball Game " .
Several of the Cubs ' minor league affiliates also use the song , including the Tennessee Smokies . The Daytona Cubs also used the song before changing affiliations .
= = Thematic issues = =
The song is perceived as an upbeat one that leaves listeners with a happy feeling . It is described as having catchy riffs and exuberant vocals that characterized the essence of Cubs fandom while , noting in the lyrics , " You can catch it all on WGN . " The new Manic Sewing Circle cover is a ska @-@ punk version instead of the original folk music .
= Typhoon Tip =
Typhoon Tip , known in the Philippines as Typhoon Warling , was the largest and most intense tropical cyclone ever recorded . The nineteenth storm and twelfth typhoon of the 1979 Pacific typhoon season , Tip developed out of a disturbance from the monsoon trough on October 4 near Pohnpei . Initially , a tropical storm to the northwest hindered the development and motion of Tip , though after it tracked farther north Tip was able to intensify . After passing Guam , Tip rapidly intensified and reached peak winds of 305 km / h ( 190 mph ) and a worldwide record @-@ low sea @-@ level pressure of 870 mbar ( 870 @.@ 0 hPa ; 25 @.@ 69 inHg ) on October 12 . At its peak strength , it was also the largest tropical cyclone on record with a wind diameter of 2 @,@ 220 km ( 1 @,@ 380 mi ) . Tip slowly weakened as it continued west @-@ northwestward and later turned to the northeast in response to an approaching trough . The typhoon made landfall in southern Japan on October 19 , and became an extratropical cyclone shortly thereafter .
U.S. Air Force aircraft flew 60 weather reconnaissance missions into the typhoon , making Tip one of the most closely observed tropical cyclones . Rainfall from Tip indirectly led to a fire that killed 13 Marines and injured 68 at Combined Arms Training Center , Camp Fuji in the Shizuoka Prefecture of Japan . Elsewhere in the country , the typhoon caused widespread flooding and 42 deaths ; offshore shipwrecks left 44 people killed or missing .
= = Meteorological history = =
Three circulations developed within the monsoon trough that extended from the Philippines to the Marshall Islands in October 1979 . A disturbance to the southwest of Guam developed into Tropical Storm Roger on October 3 , and later on the same day the tropical disturbance which would later become Typhoon Tip formed south of Pohnpei . Strong flow from across the equator was drawn into the Roger 's wind circulation , initially preventing significant development of the precursor disturbance to Tip . Despite the unfavorable air pattern , the disturbance gradually organized as it moved westward . Due to the large @-@ scale circulation pattern into Tropical Storm Roger , it moved erratically and slowly executed a cyclonic loop to the southeast of Chuuk . A reconnaissance aircraft flight into the system late on October 4 confirmed the existence of a closed low @-@ level circulation , and early on October 5 the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) issued its first warning on Tropical Depression Twenty @-@ Three .
While executing a loop near Chuuk , the tropical depression intensified into Tropical Storm Tip , though the storm failed to organize significantly due to the influence of Tropical Storm Roger . Reconnaissance aircraft provided the track of the surface circulation , since satellite imagery estimated the center was located about 60 km ( 37 mi ) from its true position . After drifting erratically for several days , Tip began a steady northwest motion on October 8 . By that time , Tropical Storm Roger had become an extratropical cyclone , resulting in the southerly flow to be entrained into Tip . An area of a tropical upper tropospheric trough moved to the north of Guam at the time , providing an excellent outflow channel north of Tip . Initially , the storm was predicted to continue northwestward and make landfall on Guam , though it turned to the west early on October 9 , passing about 45 km ( 28 mi ) south of the island . Later that day , Tip intensified to attain typhoon status .
Owing to very favorable conditions for development , Typhoon Tip rapidly intensified over the open waters of the western Pacific Ocean . Late on October 10 , the typhoon attained wind speeds equal to Category 4 strength on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale , and it became a super typhoon the next day . The central pressure dropped by 92 mbar ( 92 @.@ 0 hPa ; 2 @.@ 72 inHg ) from October 9 to 11 , during which the circulation pattern of Typhoon Tip expanded to a record diameter of 2 @,@ 220 km ( 1 @,@ 380 mi ) . The typhoon continued to intensify further , and early on October 12 reconnaissance aircraft recorded a worldwide record @-@ low pressure of 870 mbar ( 870 @.@ 0 hPa ; 25 @.@ 69 inHg ) with winds of 305 km / h ( 190 mph ) , when Tip was located about 840 km ( 520 mi ) west @-@ northwest of Guam . In its best track , the Japan Meteorological Agency listed Tip as peaking with 10 @-@ minute sustained winds of 160 mph ( 260 km / h ) . At the time of its peak strength , its eye was 15 km ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) wide . Tip crossed the 135th meridian east on the afternoon of October 13 , prompting the Philippine Weather Bureau to issue warnings on Typhoon Tip , assigning it the local name Warling .
After peaking intensity , Tip weakened to 230 km / h ( 140 mph ) and remained at that intensity for several days as it continued west @-@ northwestward . For five days after its peak strength , the average radius of winds stronger than 55 km / h ( 34 mph ) extended over 1 @,@ 100 km ( 684 mi ) . On October 17 , Tip began to weaken steadily and decrease in size , recurving northeastward under the influence of a mid @-@ level trough the next day . After passing about 65 km ( 40 mi ) east of Okinawa , the typhoon accelerated to 75 km / h ( 47 mph ) . Tip made landfall on the Japanese island of Honshū with winds of about 130 km / h ( 81 mph ) on October 19 . It continued rapidly northeastward through the country and became an extratropical cyclone over northern Honshū a few hours after moving ashore . The extratropical remnant of Tip proceeded northeastward and gradually weakened , crossing the International Date Line on October 22 . It was last observed near the Aleutian Islands of Alaska .
= = Impact = =
The typhoon produced heavy rainfall early in its lifetime while passing near Guam , including a total of 23 @.@ 1 cm ( 9 @.@ 09 in ) at Andersen Air Force Base . The outer rainbands of the large circulation of Tip produced moderate rainfall in the mountainous regions of the Philippine island of Luzon .
Heavy rainfall from the typhoon breached a flood @-@ retaining wall at Camp Fuji , a training facility for the United States Marine Corps near Yokosuka . Marines inside the camp weathered the storm inside huts situated at the base of a hill which housed a fuel farm . The breach led to hoses being dislodged from two rubber storage bladders , releasing large quantities of fuel . The fuel flowed down the hill and was ignited by a heater used to warm one of the huts . The resultant fire killed 13 Marines , injured 68 , and caused moderate damage to the facility . The facility 's barracks were destroyed , along with fifteen huts and several other structures . The barracks were rebuilt , and a memorial was established for those who lost their lives in the fire .
During recurvature , Typhoon Tip passed about 65 km ( 40 mi ) east of Okinawa . Sustained winds reached 72 km / h ( 44 mph ) , with gusts to 112 km / h ( 69 mph ) . Sustained wind velocities in Japan are not known , though they were estimated at minimal typhoon strength . The passage of the typhoon through the region resulted in millions of dollars in damage to the agricultural and fishing industries of the country . Eight ships were grounded or sunk by Tip , leaving 44 fishermen dead or unaccounted for . A Chinese freighter broke in half as a result of the typhoon , though its crew of 46 were rescued . The rainfall led to over 600 mudslides throughout the mountainous regions of Japan and flooded more than 22 @,@ 000 homes ; 42 people died throughout the country , with another 71 missing and 283 injured . River embankments broke in 70 places , destroying 27 bridges , while about 105 dikes were destroyed . Following the storm , at least 11 @,@ 000 people were left homeless . Tip destroyed apple , rice , peach and other crops . Five ships sank in heavy seas off the coast and 50 @-@ story buildings swayed in the capital , Tokyo . Transportation in the country was disrupted ; 200 trains and 160 domestic flights were canceled . Tip was described as the most severe storm to strike Japan in 13 years .
= = Records and meteorological statistics = =
Typhoon Tip was the largest tropical cyclone on record , with a diameter of 1 @,@ 380 mi ( 2 @,@ 220 km ) — almost double the previous record of 700 mi ( 1 @,@ 130 km ) set by Typhoon Marge in August 1951 . At its largest , Tip was nearly half the size of the contiguous United States . The temperature inside the eye of Typhoon Tip at peak intensity was 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) and described as exceptionally high . With 10 @-@ minute sustained winds of 160 mph ( 260 km / h ) , Typhoon Tip is the strongest cyclone in the complete tropical cyclone listing by the Japan Meteorological Agency .
The typhoon was also the most intense tropical cyclone on record , with a pressure of 870 mbar ( 25 @.@ 69 inHg ) , 6 mbar ( 0 @.@ 18 inHg ) lower than the previous record set by Super Typhoon June in 1975 . The records set by Tip still technically stand , though with the end of routine reconnaissance aircraft flights in the western Pacific Ocean in August 1987 , modern researchers have questioned whether Tip indeed remains the strongest . After a detailed study , three researchers determined that two typhoons , Angela in 1995 and Gay in 1992 , registered higher Dvorak numbers than Tip , and concluded that one or both of the two may have therefore been more intense . Other recent storms may have also been deeper than Tip at its peak ; for instance , satellite @-@ derived intensity estimates for Typhoon Haiyan of 2013 indicated that its core pressure may have been as low as 858 mbar ( 25 @.@ 34 inHg ) . Due to the dearth of direct observations into these cyclones , conclusive data are lacking . Also , the peak intensity of Hurricane Patricia in 2015 was estimated to be a pressure of 872 mbar ( 25 @.@ 75 inHg ) and winds of 215 mph ( 345 km / h ) , officially making it the second most intense tropical cyclone in world history , and the strongest by wind speed . However , in the NHC 's report on Patricia , it was noted that Patricia may have , in fact , reached a lower pressure than Tip for a brief period of time . If confirmed , this would make Patricia the most intense tropical cyclone on record .
Despite the typhoon 's intensity and damage , the name Tip was not retired and was reused in 1983 , 1986 , and 1989 .
= Irving Kane Pond =
Irving Kane Pond ( May 1 , 1857 – September 29 , 1939 ) was an American architect , college athlete , and author . Born in Ann Arbor , Michigan , Pond attended the University of Michigan and received a degree in civil engineering in 1879 . He was a member of the first University of Michigan football team and scored the first touchdown in the school 's history in May 1879 .
After graduating from Michigan , Pond moved to Chicago where he worked as an architect from 1879 to 1939 . He began his architectural career as a draftsman in the offices of William LeBaron Jenney and worked as the head draftsman in the office of Solon Spencer Beman during the construction of the planned Pullman community . In 1886 , Pond formed the Chicago architectural firm Pond and Pond in partnership with his brother Allen Bartlitt Pond . The Pond brothers worked together for more than 40 years , and their buildings are considered to be among the best examples of Arts and Crafts architecture in Chicago . The Ponds gained acclaim as the architects of Jane Addams ' Hull House , and three of their buildings have been declared National Historic Landmarks — the Hull House dining hall , the Lorado Taft Midway Studios , and the Frank R. Lillie House . Pond became a Fellow of the American Institute of Architects in 1900 and served as president of the American Institute of Architects from 1910 to 1911 .
Pond was also a leader in the Chicago arts community in the late 19th and early 20th century . He was one of the founders of the Eagle 's Nest Art Colony and a member of the Chicago Literary Club from 1888 to 1939 . Pond was also a published author of fiction , poetry , and essays on art and architecture . He was also a frequent contributor to architectural journals and wrote for The Dial and Gustav Stickley 's The Craftsman . In 1918 , he published the book The Meaning of Architecture summarizing his views on the role of architecture in the broader spectrum of the arts .
= = Early years and education = =
Pond was born in Ann Arbor , Michigan in 1857 . He was the son of Elihu Pond and Mary Barlow ( Allen ) Pond . His father was a member of the Michigan State Senate , warden of the Michigan state prison for two years , the first president of the Michigan Press Association and the editor and publisher of the weekly newspaper , the Argus of Ann Arbor . Growing up in Ann Arbor , Pond lived in a house on the current site of the Michigan Union , a building he later designed . His next door neighbor as a child was the noted legal scholar , Thomas M. Cooley . Cooley encouraged the young Pond , who aspired to be an artist , by presenting him with his first art book and by commissioning Pond to draw a set of cartoons of the Cooley family . Pond attended the public schools in Ann Arbor before enrolling at the University of Michigan .
Pond was an engineering student at the University of Michigan from 1875 to 1879 and took architecture classes taught by Chicago architect William LeBaron Jenney . Six years later , Jenney gained fame for designing Chicago 's metal @-@ framed Home Insurance Building . In 1934 , Pond wrote an article challenging the popular assertion that the Home Insurance Building was the first steel @-@ framed skyscraper .
While attending the University of Michigan , Pond was a member of the first Michigan Wolverines football team . On May 30 , 1879 , the team played its first intercollegiate football game against Racine College at White Stocking Park in Chicago . The Chicago Tribune called it " the first rugby @-@ football game to be played west of the Alleghenies . " Pond scored the first touchdown in University of Michigan history in the match . He scored the touchdown midway through " the first ' inning ' . " According to Will Perry 's history of Michigan football , the crowd responded to Pond 's plays with cheers of " Pond Forever . " Pond graduated from Michigan in 1879 with a degree in civil engineering .
= = Architect = =
= = = Early career = = =
In 1879 , Pond moved to Chicago to pursue a career as an architect . He worked as a draftsman in the offices of his former teacher , William LeBaron Jenney , and worked as the head draftsman in the office of Solon Spencer Beman during the construction of the planned Pullman community . While working with Beman , Pond was an ardent supporter of the Pullman planned community , he later acknowledged the resentment of Pullman residents that the town was anachronistic and represented some form of medieval barony .
Some of Pond 's earliest works as an independent architect were for clients in his home town of Ann Arbor and nearby Detroit . As early as 1882 , he designed " a modest but commodious home of stone and brick " on South State Street for Dr. Victor C. Vaughan . Pond later pointed to the designs of the old mantels in the Vaughan house which " foreshadowed his future works . " He also designed Ann Arbor 's Ladies Library Association Building ( 1885 ) and the West Physics Building for the University of Michigan , built in 1887 and destroyed by fire in 1967 . In 1887 , he renovated the Detroit Opera House , increasing the seating capacity to 2 @,@ 100 and relocating the auditorium to the main floor .
In 1886 , Pond and his brother Allen Bartlitt Pond ( 1858 – 1929 ) formed their own architectural firm in Chicago under the name Pond and Pond . The brothers continued to operate the firm for more than 40 years , and their buildings are considered to be among the best examples of Arts and Crafts architecture in Chicago .
= = = Hull House and settlement house movement = = =
The Pond brothers gained their greatest acclaim as the architects for Jane Addams 's Hull House . Their father 's work as warden of the state prison had sparked an interest in social reform and the settlement house movement . Allen Bartlitt Pond was the assistant superintendent of the Armour Mission , an educational and healthcare center , when Jane Addams came to Chicago in January 1889 looking for a building in which to open a new settlement house . The two became friends and were riding in a carriage when Addams saw an old two @-@ story brick house on Halsted Street . Addams took a lease on the house , which she named Hull House after its original owner , and hired the Ponds to put the old house into shape .
Between 1890 and 1907 , the Ponds were the architects for the Hull House as the project expanded rapidly . The first building they designed for Hull House was the Butler Art Gallery . Built in 1891 , the Butler Gallery was situated on the same lot as Hull House . It consisted of a reading room , an exhibition hall that was " the last word in design and lighting for those days , " and a studio above . Numerous other building projects followed , including the original coffee house and gymnasium in 1893 , the Children 's Building in 1895 , remodels and additions to the original building in 1895 and 1899 , the Jane Club in 1898 , a new Coffee House and Hull House Theater in 1899 , the Hull House Apartments and Men 's Club in 1901 and 1902 , the Woman 's Club ( Bowen Hall ) in 1904 , the Boys ' Club in 1906 and the Mary Crane Nursery in 1907 . The Pond brothers were affectionately known by residents of the Hull House complex as Allen the " deep Pond " and Irving the " wide pond . "
One of Addams ' biographers wrote that the " Pond brothers did it all , harmonized everything , " and described the scene when Irving Pond attended Addams ' memorial service in 1935 :
" Irving K. , at Jane Addams memorial services in the Hull House Court , when Doctor Gilkey said , ' if you seek her monument look around you , ' looked round also with tears in his eyes but pride in his heart ; the visible memorial to Jane Addams was also a visible memorial to the Ponds . "
The only surviving building from the Ponds ' Hull House complex is the 1905 dining hall , a simple Craftsman style building that was designated as a National Historic Landmark in the 1960s .
The Ponds also designed club houses and settlement houses for other social reform organizations , including the Chicago Commons settlement house building ( 1901 ) , the Northwestern University Settlement House ( 1901 ) , and the City Club of Chicago building ( 1910 ) . The City Club building , noted for its " gently curving limestone arch that ties together the windows of the second floor , " is today operated as the John Marshall Law School . When the City Club building opened in 1910 , it was considered a symbol of the reform movement :
" The new building embodied the soaring expectations of the reform movement , as well as providing the material comforts of a middle @-@ class social club . Its two @-@ story dining @-@ lecture hall , complete with balcony and private eating chambers , accommodated over two hundred for the weekly luncheon talks on social and political issues of the day . ... Architect and club member Irving K. Pond declared that ' every line of the building illustrated some phase of the uplift movement . ' "
= = = Eagle 's Nest and related activities = = =
Pond was also a leading member of the Chicago arts community in the late 19th and early 20th Century . In 1898 , Pond was one of the founders of the Eagle 's Nest Art Colony near Oregon , Illinois . Pond and eleven others , including his brother Allen Pond , Lorado Taft , Hamlin Garland , Ralph Clarkson , Horace Spencer Fiske , leased a plot of land on a steep ridge with " craggy rocks " and gnarled cedars overlooking the Rock River . The Pond brothers designed the home that was built for the colony , and the group spent their summers at the colony with other sculptors , painters , writers , architects , naturalists and kindred spirits .
The artists colony became integrated with the Oregon community , and the Pond brothers undertook several significant architectural projects in the Oregon area :
Oregon Public Library . In 1908 , the city of Oregon built a new public library based on a design by Pond and Pond and with funding from Andrew Carnegie . The Ponds ' design has been described as having a " commodious and pleasing " interior with an exterior of white brick and Elizabethan @-@ Gothic architecture . One of the unusual features of the design was a two @-@ story art room in which artists from Eagle 's Nest displayed their works and offered instruction to local residents .
The Soldier 's Monument . In 1916 , the city commissioned a monument that included sculpture by Lorado Taft and an elaborate marble exedra by Pond and Pond .
Lowden Residence . The residence of Frank Lowden , Governor of Illinois from 1917 – 1921 , was another Pond and Pond design . The house is located several miles south of Oregon on the Sinnissippi Farm .
In 1907 , Pond was also one of the founders with Hamlin Garland of the Cliff Dwellers Club ( originally known as the Attic Club and later the Little Room ) , a private club in Chicago for professionals engaged in the fine arts and performing arts . In its early years as the Little Room , the group was described as " an exclusive organization consisting of creative individuals of like temperament joined together for relaxation . " Pond served as president of the Cliff Dwellers from 1934 to 1935 .
= = = Professional organizations = = =
In recognition of his contributions to architecture , Pond became a Fellow of the American Institute of Architects in 1900 and served as president of the American Institute of Architects from 1910 to 1911 . He also represented the U.S. government and the AIA at the International Congress of Architects at Rome and Venice in 1911 , delivering addresses at both . He was also a founder of the Chicago Architectural Club and served as president of the Illinois Society of Architects .
= = = Notable commissions = = =
Unless otherwise mentioned all were designed by Pond and Pond
Pond 's best known buildings include three National Historic Landmark structures located in Chicago — the Hull House dining hall the Lorado Taft Midway Studios , Alice Sinkevitch ( 2004 ) . AIA Guide to Chicago . Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p . 452 . ISBN 0 @-@ 15 @-@ 602908 @-@ 1 @.@ and the Frank R. Lillie House ( 1904 ) . Other notable Pond designs include the Freer House ( 1898 ) in Ann Arbor , the American School of Correspondence building ( 1906 – 1907 ) in Chicago , the federal building in Kankakee , Illinois , the Michigan Union ( 1919 ) built on the site of Pond 's boyhood home in Ann Arbor , the Purdue Memorial Union ( 1924 ) at Purdue University , the MSU Union in East Lansing , Michigan , the Kansas Memorial Union at Kansas University , the Park Ridge Public Library , the Michigan League in Ann Arbor , the Omaha Apartments in Chicago , the Kent Building in Chicago ( 1902 ) , and the Toll Building in Chicago ( 1908 ) .
= = = Architectural style and philosophy = = =
As early as 1892 , Pond became known as one of the " earliest modernizers in architecture . " The Art Institute of Chicago , where Pond 's papers are housed , said of the firm : " While Pond and Pond were best known through their work for social service organizations , they designed a wide range of buildings — social , religious , educational / academic , residential , governmental , and civic — mainly in the Chicago area and the Midwest . They were known for detailed brickwork , asymmetrical massing , and distinctive decorative detail , producing fine examples of Arts and Crafts and early modern architecture . "
In 1905 a 15 @-@ page article in the Architectural Record by Pond and illustrated by his designs was published . Pond described his views in it about architecture as an art :
" Architecture is an art , and as an art , it does not consist simply in piling up forms , old or new , but is a means of expression . ... If architecture is an art and art consists in the expression of life , then that is neither architecture nor art which merely reproduces , even in new combinations , the old forms because they were once the accepted forms . That is a phase of archaeology and is unworthy of living architecture . ... However , the old ideas are not to be spurned and the old forms are not altogether to be cast aside when they contain the spark of life ... "
Pond 's article was viewed by some as a criticism of those in the Prairie School who overemphasized the horizontal over the vertical . In this regard , Pond wrote :
" In architectural composition , as in music , order is comprehended in rhythm . Rhythm is expressed in the flow of part into part , of mass into mass , in the appearance and reappearance of certain proportions which are made to exist between the subordinate masses and between these masses and the dominant mass ; between all the parts of the perfect whole . Without order there is no architecture ; without rhythmic composition no vital architecture can be . That is the highest architecture in which rhythmic action of the structural forces becomes apparent . Vertical forces in action , by the law of gravity , tend to work in right lines ; horizontal forces , acted upon by this same law tend to work in curves . ... It is not enough that the rhythmic movement be in horizontal direction only , but there must be a rhythmic flow vertically as well . The result of these combined movements should be that of unity -- simple in its effect though complex in its harmonies . "
= = = Role in the Chicago school = = =
In the AIA Guide to Chicago , the Ponds are identified as part of the " circle of young architects " , including Frank Lloyd Wright , that was responsible for " transforming the concepts of the Arts & Crafts movement into the indigenous Prairie School . " Alice Sinkevitch ( 2004 ) . AIA Guide to Chicago . Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p . 272 . ISBN 0 @-@ 15 @-@ 602908 @-@ 1 . Pond was a contemporary , and in some ways rival , of Wright in the Chicago architectural scene of the late 19th and early 20th Centuries . Both were members of the Chicago Architectural Club and served as judges and participants in the Club 's annual competitions . One biographer of Wright noted that Wright was insulted when the American Institute of Architects in 1912 commissioned a study of midwestern " progressive architecture " and instructed the investigators to examine the work of Louis Sullivan and Pond , but not including Wright . In a letter to Lewis Mumford , Wright expressed his dislike for the " truly @-@ old " Pond :
" Yesterday someone told me that truly @-@ old I.K. Pond took exception to your ' Sticks and Stones ' because you weren 't a ' practicing architect . ' What ' practicing architects ' know anything at all of architecture anyway , -- even if they could write about it ? Certainly not he . He 's a dried herring , hanging beneath the eaves or Architecture . "
While progressive in his approach to architecture , Pond was not as revolutionary as others in the Chicago school of his day . Architect Stuart Cohen , FAIA , noted that , while the Pond brothers ' architecture departs from traditional architectural styles , they " did not break radically from such stylistic forms " but sought instead " to create a modern American architecture without rejecting architectural stylistic traditions , but simplifying them through the emphasis of geometry and the inherent quality of building materials and construction . "
In 2009 , Pond 's autobiography , written in the two years before his death , was published by Hyoogen Press through the efforts of Chicago architect David Swan . At the time of the autobiography 's release , architecture historian Robert Bruegmann opined that the Pond brothers " have remained relatively obscure because they didn 't fit in with narratives that wished to see Chicago architecture of the late 19th and early 20th centuries as a prelude to European modernism of the 1920s . " Nevertheless , Bruegmann noted that " Chicago architecture was always a great deal more than that " and expressed his satisfaction that the publication of Pond 's autobiography " should go a long way toward bringing back into focus one of America 's most interesting and important architectural practices . "
= = Author = =
Pond was a noted author and member of the Chicago Literary Club from 1888 to 1939 . He was the club 's president from 1922 to 1923 . Many of his works of fiction , poems and papers on art and architecture were published by the club , including " A Strange Fellow : A Story with an Immoral " ( 1889 ) , " The Mystery of the Light " ( 1891 ) , " The Pleasures of Travel ( 1894 ) , " Can Architecture Become Again a Living Art ? " ( 1895 ) , " The Whale - A Study : The Historic School of Jonah " ( 1897 ) , " The Poetry of Motion : and Other Matters " ( 1899 ) , " A Few Meloncholy Reflections and Lively Anticipations of Misdeeds to Come " ( 1905 ) , " A Side Light on Architecture " ( 1906 ) , " Art and the Expression of Individuality " ( 1911 ) , " Architecture : Its Origins and Illusions " ( 1914 ) , " Poems " ( 1917 ) , " Here Lies the Way " ( 1918 ) , " Such Stuff as Dreams Are Made On . " " The Stones of Venice " ( 1919 ) , " A Day Under the Big Top : A Study in Life and Art " ( 1924 ) , " On Believing and Leaving " ( 1928 ) , " Toward an American Architecture " ( 1930 ) , " Hold Your Horses : The Elephants Are Coming ! " ( 1931 ) , " What Is Modern Architecture ? " ( 1933 ) , " Just One Thing After Another " ( 1934 ) , and " Do Children Think ? " ( 1938 ) .
Pond was also a frequent contributor to architectural journals and wrote for The Dial . In 1910 , he published an essay in Gustav Stickley 's The Craftsman , advocating an architectural style embodying the American spirit and idealism . In 1918 , he published the book The Meaning of Architecture .
In 1908 , Pond 's 13 @-@ page article on the architecture of telephone exchange buildings , illustrated by the designs of Pond and Louis Sullivan , also appeared in Architectural Record .
Books by Pond
The Meaning Of Architecture : An Essay In Constructive Criticism ( 1918 )
The College Union ( 1931 )
Big Top Rhythms : A Study in Art and Life , written and illustrated by Pond ( 1937 )
A Strange Fellow , and other Club Papers , written and illustrated by Pond ( 1938 )
The Autobiography of Irving K. Pond , written in the 1930s and published posthumously ( 2009 )
= = Later years = =
Pond was a bachelor until age 72 . Through most of his life , his closest friend was his brother Allen Pond . In 1918 , he wrote the following in the dedication to his book , The Meaning of Architecture :
" This book is dedicated to my brother -- my lifelong companion and partner Allen Bartlit Pond . Through his sympathy and understanding , in the light of his clear thought , and under his inspiration I have been better able to follow those paths of individual , professional and civic endeavor in which a rare ancestry bade us walk . "
After his brother died in 1929 , Pond married Katherine N. de Nancrede , who was 47 years old , at a ceremony in Ann Arbor . Pond said at the time , " It 's the first time I ever did it , and I thought I ought to be pardoned because of my youth . " Pond was also an amateur acrobat and remained a physical fitness buff all of his life . At the time of his wedding in 1929 , the Associated Press reported that he is " almost as well known for his present athletic agility as for his architectural accomplishments . A part of his daily routine is to turn handsprings and flipflops and do other strenuous exercises . " He drew applause when , on his 80th birthday , he grabbed his bare knees with both hands and performed a backflip . A photograph of Pond 's feat was published in Life magazine in June 1937 .
Though he was some 25 years older than his wife , Pond outlived her . She died in 1935 , and Pond died four years later in September 1939 while traveling in Washington , D.C .. The cause of death was reported as a stomach ulcer . He was age 82 when he died , and he asked that his remains be cremated and sent to the University of Michigan .
= = Gallery of buildings designed by Pond and Pond = =
= Margate F.C. =
Margate Football Club , originally called Margate Town , is an English football team based in the seaside resort of Margate , Kent , currently playing in the National League South . The club was known for a number of years during the 1980s as Thanet United .
The club was founded in 1896 and joined the Southern Football League in 1933 . After a spell in the Kent League after World War II the team returned to the Southern League in 1959 and remained there until 2001 when they gained promotion to the Football Conference , the highest level of English non @-@ league football . Their stay at this level saw the team forced to groundshare with other clubs due to drawn @-@ out and problematic redevelopment work at their Hartsdown Park stadium , and during the three years spent away from their own ground they were expelled from the Conference National and subsequently relegated to the Isthmian League .
The team , nicknamed " The Gate " , have to date reached the third round proper of England 's premier cup competition , the FA Cup , on two occasions . On the second of these occasions they played Tottenham Hotspur , a First Division team and the reigning UEFA Cup holders .
= = History = =
For a statistical breakdown by season , see List of Margate F.C. seasons
= = = Early years = = =
Margate Football Club was founded in 1896 as an amateur club and was originally called Margate Town , playing friendly matches on local school grounds . In the years before the First World War the club played in several different amateur leagues , with little success , and played at various grounds in the Margate area , before settling on a pitch at what would later become the Dreamland amusement park in 1912 . This ground became known as the Hall @-@ by @-@ the @-@ Sea Ground , taking its name from a local dance hall .
= = = Inter @-@ war years = = =
After the First World War , Margate joined the Kent League , but in 1923 the league suspended the team due to financial irregularities and the club promptly folded . A year later the club reformed , initially under the name Margate Town , and returned to the Kent League , still playing at Dreamland , but folded again due to heavy debts . In 1929 the club reformed again and moved to its present home at Hartsdown Park , leasing part of the park from the local council for conversion into a football stadium . Around this time Margate signed a Dutch player , a highly unusual move in an era when it was almost unknown for Continental players to move to English clubs . Goalkeeper Gerrit " Gerard " Keizer , who joined the Kent club from Ajax Amsterdam , later went on to play for Arsenal .
From 1934 until 1938 Margate , by now playing in the Southern League , served as the official nursery side for Arsenal . Under this arrangement the London club regularly loaned promising young players to Margate in order for them to gain match experience . Star players such as Eddie Hapgood also turned out for Margate whilst regaining match fitness after injuries . In the second season of this arrangement , 1935 – 36 , Margate reached the third round proper of the FA Cup for the first time , losing 3 – 1 to Blackpool after defeating Queens Park Rangers and Crystal Palace in the earlier rounds , but shortly after this the club had to step back down to the Kent League for financial reasons .
= = = Post @-@ war years = = =
After the Second World War the Gate continued to play in the Kent League under new manager Charlie Walker , who led the team to two Kent League championships but was then controversially sacked . The team slumped during a succession of rapid managerial changes which only ended in 1950 when Almer Hall was appointed manager , a post he was to hold for the next twenty years . Under Hall the team won a host of local cup honours and reached the rounds proper of the FA Cup on a number of occasions , but never managed to match this success in league competition .
In 1959 – 60 Margate returned to the Southern League after the Kent League folded , and in 1962 – 63 won the Division One championship and with it promotion to the Premier Division . Two years later the club turned full @-@ time professional but this policy proved financially untenable when the team were relegated back to Division One in 1965 – 66 . Nonetheless , they won promotion at the first attempt and returned to the Premier Division in 1967 .
During the 1970s Margate endured severe financial problems and a series of mediocre league seasons , but took part in two famous FA Cup ties . In 1971 the Gate lost 11 – 0 to Bournemouth , with Ted MacDougall scoring a cup record nine goals . Then , a year later , Margate beat Swansea City and Walton & Hersham to set up a third round tie against First Division Tottenham Hotspur , then UEFA Cup holders . A record crowd of around 14 @,@ 500 packed into Hartsdown Park for a match which Margate lost 6 – 0 .
= = = Thanet United era = = =
On several occasions in the 1970s Margate had discussed a merger with neighbours Ramsgate to form a new team representing the whole Isle of Thanet , which was seen as the solution to the financial problems being experienced by both clubs . The negotiations floundered , however , and Ramsgate ultimately had no involvement in the formation of Thanet United F.C. in 1981 , which turned out to be purely a name change for Margate . When Thanet District Council announced that it would not be prepared to put any funding into Thanet United , the two clubs finally abandoned the idea of a merger .
The Thanet United era saw a run of generally mediocre seasons in the Southern League Southern Division , with financial problems continuing unabated and a series of managers coming and going . In January 1989 the club came close to relegation to the Kent League and possible total collapse , but in March a new board took over , who reverted the club 's name to Margate Football Club for the 1989 – 90 season and appointed Trevor Ford as manager . Success still eluded the club on the pitch , however , even after the signing of former Football League players such as Mike Flanagan and Mark Weatherly , who later took over as co @-@ manager and led the club to a Kent Senior Cup win , a rare triumph in this era .
= = = Chris Kinnear era = = =
In 1996 , the club 's centenary year , the club appointed Chris Kinnear as manager . In 1997 – 98 he took the team to the first round proper of the FA Cup where they played Fulham in a home tie that drew a crowd of 5 @,@ 100 . Although the Gate took the lead , the Cottagers eventually won 2 – 1 . The following season saw the club finally win promotion to the Southern League Premier Division , albeit only after an appeal was lodged against the league 's initial refusal to allow the team promotion due to the club failing to carry out necessary ground improvements in time . The Premier Division championship followed in the 2000 – 01 season , and with it promotion to the Football Conference .
The 2001 – 02 season was Gate 's first ever season of Conference football and they finished the season in eighth place . In the 2002 – 03 season the team began groundsharing at Dover Athletic 's Crabble Athletic Ground while redevelopment work took place at Hartsdown Park , but various problems stalled the planned redevelopment . On the pitch , Margate enjoyed more success in the FA Cup when , after defeating Leyton Orient in the first round , they were drawn at home to Cardiff City in the second round , but lost 3 – 0 at Crabble . The following season , despite finishing sixteenth , the Gate were forcibly relegated one division due to the ongoing delays and problems with the redevelopment plans for Hartsdown Park .
Margate spent the 2004 – 05 season in the Conference South , now groundsharing at Ashford Town . Amid ongoing issues with the redevelopment work , which at one point made it seem very likely that the club would fold completely , Margate were again relegated to the Isthmian League Premier Division .
= = = Return to Hartsdown Park = = =
In August 2005 , Margate returned to Hartsdown Park after three years in the wilderness . During an indifferent season manager Kinnear was controversially suspended . Robin Trott was placed in temporary charge as player @-@ manager in April 2006 and , after an unbeaten five game run , was given a one @-@ year contract at the end of the season . After Margate narrowly missed out on the play @-@ offs in 2006 – 07 the club announced that Trott was to be given a new contract for the 2007 – 08 season . Shortly before the end of the season , however , Trott was sacked . His replacement , Barry Ashby , was himself sacked two months into the 2008 – 09 season . Shortly afterwards , the club narrowly avoided being subject to High Court action over unpaid debts to HM Revenue and Customs . The club finished the season in 19th position in the table and was expected to be relegated to Division One South , but was reprieved due to other clubs folding . The following season , Margate again finished in the bottom four but the club again received a reprieve from relegation .
Chris Kinnear returned for a second spell to manage the team at the start of the 2011 – 12 season . The following season Margate were sitting at top of the table in January , however , after much speculation Kinnear accepted the vacant manager 's position at Dover Athletic . Goalkeeper Craig Holloway was placed in temporary charge of the side , and brought in Simon Osborn as joint manager . The club dropped from the top of the table and finished outside the play @-@ offs . After a poor start to the 2013 – 14 season , Holloway resigned his role as joint manager , leaving Osborn in sole charge . Results failed to improve and Osborn was sacked at the beginning of December 2013 .
In the 2014 – 15 season , the first full season under manager Terry Brown , Margate finished in 3rd place in the Isthmian League Premier Division , ensuring the team 's qualification for the play @-@ offs for promotion to the National League South ( formerly Conference South ) . The play @-@ offs were delayed by a lengthy appeal against a points deduction applied to fifth @-@ placed Enfield Town , but when they eventually began , Margate defeated Dulwich Hamlet in the semi @-@ finals . In the final Margate played Hendon , who had finished one place above them in the league , but a single goal from Ryan Moss gave them victory and promotion to the National League South . Following a poor start to the 2015 – 16 season , Terry Brown was sacked. and replaced by Margate goalkeeper Nikki Bull and defender Jamie Stuart until the end of that season . In April 2016 Bull was appointed first team manager until the end of the 2017 – 18 season .
= = Colours and crest = =
Margate 's traditional colours are blue and white , but the team have worn a number of other colour combinations . The club 's earliest known colours were black and white stripes . By the 1920s the club had adopted plain white shirts ( with the team having the appropriate nickname of " The Lilywhites " ) but in 1929 changed its colours to amber and black . In 1949 the colours changed again to blue and white . During the Thanet United era , the team wore plain white shirts , but when the club 's name changed back to Margate in 1989 , the blue kit was re @-@ adopted . The 2015 @-@ 16 kit was criticised for having a " slight purple tint " and the club reverted to blue the following season .
The club 's current crest is a simplified version of the coat of arms of the town of Margate , incorporating a lion conjoined to a ship 's hull ( a reference to the arms of the Cinque Ports ) and the white horse emblem of Kent . Previous crests have included the full town arms , the letters " M.F.C. " above a lighthouse , and the letters " M.F.C. " superimposed on a football .
Margate 's shirts have borne various sponsors ' logos but the most notable was that of the pop group Bad Manners , whose name appeared on the team 's kit as part of a sponsorship deal with their record label in the late 1990s . Lead singer Buster Bloodvessel was running a hotel in Margate at the time and actually joined the football club 's board of directors .
= = Stadium = =
The stadium in Hartsdown Park has been Margate 's home since 1929 , the same year the park itself opened to the public . Little development of the stadium took place until 2002 , when the club launched an ambitious scheme to completely redevelop the site . The club moved out and the old stadium , which was constructed mainly from timber and corrugated iron , was demolished in early 2003 , but the local council disputed the plans submitted . Although planned to be completed by August 2003 , the redevelopment dragged on for three years , mired in issues regarding planning permission for the commercial facilities the club wanted to build in addition to the stadium itself . The team spent three years ground @-@ sharing with other Kent clubs , but club officials ' failure to confirm a return date to Hartsdown led to Margate 's expulsion from the Conference National in 2004 . In 2005 the club was finally able to return to the ground , albeit with pre @-@ fabricated stands and temporary buildings in place . In 2014 , the club applied to the local council for permission to erect six new temporary stands .
The club 's ultimate plan involves a stadium with a capacity of 5 @,@ 000 forming part of a complex incorporating a hotel , fitness centre , conference centre , all @-@ weather pitch and ten 5 @-@ a @-@ side pitches . Although it was announced that work on the 5 @-@ a @-@ side pitch complex was to begin in May 2007 , ground was not in fact broken for a further four months .
= = Supporters = =
In the 2008 – 09 season Margate 's average attendance was 523 , the fifth highest in the Isthmian League Premier Division . During their three seasons in the Conference National , from 2001 – 02 to 2003 – 04 , the club 's average home attendances were 1 @,@ 233 , 684 , and 562 . For the last two of these three seasons the team were playing in Dover .
The club has an active independent supporters ' association and the fans took an active part in getting the stadium ready for the club 's return in 2005 . The supporters ' association began production of a fanzine called Blues News in 2008 .
= = Statistics and records = =
Margate 's best ever league finish since the establishment of the Alliance Premier League in 1979 was an 8th place finish in Conference National ( level 5 of the overall English football league system ) in 2001 – 02 . The team have twice progressed as far as the third round proper of the FA Cup , in 1935 – 36 and 1972 – 73 , and reached the quarter @-@ finals of the FA Trophy in 2001 – 02 .
The club 's biggest ever winning margin in a single match was 12 – 1 , a score they have achieved twice , firstly against Deal Cinque Ports in an FA Cup First Qualifying Round match in 1919 – 20 and again against Erith & Belvedere in the Kent League in 1927 – 28 .
The highest recorded attendance at Hartsdown Park was 14 @,@ 169 for the visit of Tottenham Hotspur in the FA Cup in 1972 – 73 . This figure is unlikely to be broken in the foreseeable future , as even after its planned redevelopment is completed , the ground will hold less than half this number of fans .
= = Players = =
= = = Current squad = = =
As of 30 June 2016 :
Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
The club also fields a Ladies team , Under 21s and U18s teams . There is also a youth section running teams in every age range from under 8 to under 21 .
= = Notable former players = =
Margate 's all @-@ time appearance record holder is Bob Harrop , who played 564 times . The club 's all @-@ time top goalscorer is Martin Buglione , who scored 158 goals during the 1990s . Three other players have reached the 100 @-@ goal mark for the club , namely Alan Blackburn ( 121 ) , Peter Vandepeer ( 119 ) and Phil Amato ( 107 ) . The only player ever to gain full international caps whilst on Margate 's books is John Keister , who played for Sierra Leone during his original five @-@ year stint with the club .
= = Managers = =
Margate 's first known manager was Arthur Graves , who was installed as manager when Margate Town was reformed in 1929 . By far the club 's longest @-@ serving manager was Almer Hall , who was manager for twenty years from 1950 until 1970 .
= = Current staff = =
= = = Management = = =
Source :
= = = Officials = = =
Source :
= = Honours = =
= = Rivalries = =
Margate 's main rivalry is with Thanet neighbours Ramsgate , with whom Margate contest the Thanet derby . After many years playing in different leagues the two clubs were able to renew their rivalry when Ramsgate joined Margate in the Isthmian League Premier Division in the 2006 – 07 season . The attendance of 1 @,@ 676 when the two sides met at Hartsdown Park was more than double Margate 's average home crowd for the season .
Another of Margate 's rivals is Dover Athletic . Despite meeting rarely in competitive games over recent years , both teams were in the Conference in the 2001 – 02 season . In that season , the last season the two teams were in the same division , the two games between Margate and Dover were watched by a combined total of over 6 @,@ 000 spectators . The game played at Margate 's Hartsdown Park stadium drew a crowd of 3 @,@ 676 , and 2 @,@ 325 were in attendance for the game at Dover 's Crabble stadium .
= Hard Candy ( film ) =
Hard Candy is an American 2005 crime thriller film focusing on the torture of a male sexual predator by a 14 @-@ year @-@ old female vigilante . The film was directed by David Slade , written by Brian Nelson , and starred Ellen Page and Patrick Wilson . It was the first feature film for Slade , who had previously mainly directed music videos .
The film premiered at the 2005 Sundance Film Festival , and was screened at the Florida Film Festival in April 2006 . It had limited release in two theaters in the US . The film made over $ 7 million at the box office , including almost $ 6 million from outside the US , on a budget of under $ 1 million .
Hard Candy won three awards at the 2005 Sitges Film Festival , four awards at the Málaga Film Festival , and was also awarded Overlooked Film of the Year at the 2006 Phoenix Film Critics Society Awards . Page won Best Actress at the 2006 Austin Film Critics Association Awards .
= = Plot = =
The film opens with a sexually charged , flirtatious online chat between 14 @-@ year @-@ old Hayley Stark and Jeff Kohlver , a photographer in his mid @-@ 30s . Jeff and Hayley meet at a coffeehouse , and he takes her back to her apartment . Hayley makes them both screwdrivers and asks him to take photographs . Before he can , Jeff gets dizzy , his vision blurs , and he falls to the floor unconscious .
When Jeff wakes , he is bound to a chair . Hayley explains she has been tracking him and drugged him because she knows he is a pedophile , child rapist , and murderer . Jeff denies these allegations , claiming he had innocent intentions . Hayley searches Jeff 's house and finds his gun and safe . In the safe , Hayley finds " sick " pictures and a photo of Donna Mauer , a local girl who had been kidnapped and remains missing . Jeff denies involvement in Mauer 's disappearance and succeeds in reaching his gun , but when he ( still bound to the chair ) attacks Hayley , she renders him unconscious by asphyxiating him with plastic wrap .
When Jeff wakes , he finds himself bound to a steel table with a bag of ice on his genitals . Hayley explains she will castrate Jeff . TJeff threatens , bribes and sweet @-@ talks Hayley to dissuade her ; when that doesn 't work , he tries to get her sympathy by telling her he was abused as a child . Following the operation , Hayley leaves the kitchen , claiming to take a shower . Jeff struggles and frees himself . When he reluctantly checks the site of the operation , he realizes he is actually unharmed , and Hayley has elaborately faked his castration . He storms off in a rage to get Hayley in the bathroom , where the shower is running . Scalpel in hand , he attacks , only to find the shower empty . Hayley attacks him from behind , and as they struggle , Hayley incapacitates him with a stun gun .
Hayley poses as a police officer and asks Jeff 's ex @-@ girlfriend , Janelle , to come immediately to Jeff 's house . Jeff regains consciousness to find that Hayley has bound his wrists and hoisted him to stand on a chair in his kitchen with a noose around his neck . Hayley makes Jeff an offer : if he commits suicide , she promises to erase the evidence of his crimes , but if he refuses , she promises to expose his secrets . The conversation is interrupted when a neighbor knocks on the front door , selling Girl Scout cookies . Hayley tells the neighbor that she is Jeff 's niece ; the neighbor leaves shortly afterwards . When Hayley returns , Jeff breaks free from his bindings and pursues her , eventually finding her on the roof of his house , where she has lured him . Hayley has brought her rope from the kitchen and fashioned it into a noose secured to the chimney . Hayley keeps Jeff at bay with his own gun .
Jeff finally confesses that he watched while another man raped and murdered Donna Mauer . Jeff promises Hayley that , if she spares his life , he will tell her the other man 's name so she can exact her revenge . Hayley confesses that she knows his name and says , " Aaron told me you did it before he killed himself . " Janelle arrives , and Hayley once again urges Jeff to hang himself , promising that she will destroy the evidence . Defeated , Jeff lets Hayley slide the noose around his neck , and takes the last fatal step off the roof . At the moment Jeff dies , Hayley says , " Or not . " She then gathers her belongings and escapes through the woods . The film ends as Hayley walks down the road in her red hoodie .
= = Cast = =
Ellen Page as Hayley Stark
Patrick Wilson as Jeff Kohlver
Sandra Oh as Judy Tokuda , the neighbor
Odessa Rae ( credited as Jennifer Holmes ) as Janelle Rogers
Erin Kraft as Donna Mauer in photos
Gabe Kerr as Nighthawks Clerk
Cori Bright as girl in Nighthawks
= = Production = =
The idea for Hard Candy came from a news story producer David W. Higgins saw on 20 / 20 about young Japanese girls who would lure older businessmen to a location with the promise of meaningful conversation , only to assault and mug the men with a gang of other girls . This led him to wonder , " What if the person you expect to be the predator is not who you expect it to be ? What if it 's the other person ? " He then hired writer Brian Nelson to flesh out the idea . Due to the controversial nature of the work , the budget was kept under $ 1 million so that the production company would not ask to change anything .
Very little dubbing was used in the film , with only a couple of lines modified in post @-@ production . Only nine minutes of music are present in the film , with ambient sounds , such as heavy breathing , making up most of the soundtrack . The film was shot in 18 days , largely in sequence , and mostly on a soundstage . Hayley wears a red hooded sweatshirt that is often seen as an allusion to Little Red Riding Hood . However , this was a serendipitous wardrobe choice by the creative team that was not realized until later on . Foreign marketing for the film made use of this allusion . For example , a tagline on the Japanese site for the film reads : " Red Hood traps the Wolf in his own game . "
Jean @-@ Clement Sorret was the digital colorist for the film , this being one of the few instances in which a colorist received a spot in the opening credits . The film contains many coloring effects and " density shifts " of lighting to reflect the moods of the characters . For example , when Hayley gets angry , the colors would be edited to be of lower frequency . One effect used which , as far as the director is aware , had not been done in cinema before , was to brighten the lighting in filming and correct everything down in post @-@ production . This allowed for facial details to be visible even while having a darkened atmosphere . According to the DVD extras , the process required a custom @-@ built digital intermediate to be made and proved to be extremely difficult , with corrections having to be made frame @-@ by @-@ frame in some instances . This technique , known as ETTR , is a standard procedure in digital photography and cinematography to minimize the amount of noise in shadows and midtones . Early working titles of the script were Vendetta and Snip Snip . The producer wanted a title with a " sugar and spice combination and a mixture of harsh roughness , innocence , and vulnerability " , and settled on the title Hard Candy .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
The film premiered at the 2005 Sundance Film Festival with a midnight screening . The Dolby Surround System failed before the screening and the audience was kept out until it was fixed . Hard Candy was also screened at the Florida Film Festival on April 1 , 2006 .
Hard Candy opened in two theaters in Los Angeles and New York City on April 14 , 2006 in a limited release . During its opening weekend , the film grossed $ 58 @,@ 049 averaging $ 29 @,@ 704 per theater , the highest per @-@ screen average in the top 50 . It ended its run with $ 1 @,@ 024 @,@ 640 at the North American box office , and a further $ 5 @,@ 997 @,@ 569 internationally for a total of $ 7 @,@ 022 @,@ 209 .
= = = Critical response = = =
On Rotten Tomatoes , a review aggregator , the film has a score of 68 % based on 138 reviews and an average rating of 6 @.@ 4 out of 10 . The critical consensus states : " Disturbing , controversial , but entirely engrossing , Hard Candy is well written with strong lead performances , especially that of newcomer Ellen Page . A movie that stays with the viewer long after leaving the theater . " The film also has a score of 58 out of 100 on Metacritic based on 30 critics indicating " mixed or average reviews . "
Roger Ebert gave the film 3 and a half stars out of four and wrote that " There is undeniable fascination in the situation as it unfolds ... Seen as a film , seen as acting and direction , seen as just exactly how it unfolds on the screen , Hard Candy is impressive and effective . " Steve Persall wrote in the Tampa Bay Times he saw the movie in a crowded bar , yet " until the shocking end , there 's nothing less than rapt attention to this sordid thriller about an online predator ( Wilson ) and his not @-@ so @-@ innocent prey ( Ellen Page ) . On a party night in New Orleans ? That 's how creepy @-@ good this movie is . " Steve Schneider , writing in the Orlando Weekly , praised the films " grabber of a sicko setup ... It 's a memorably tense pas de deux , and if the movie doesn 't pay off on it properly , fault a script that ventures further and further into psychological @-@ thriller claptrap , leaving the two stars to rely on their hefty talents to keep it at all believable . "
Caroline Westbrook at Empire magazine called it a " cracking little thriller " . David Edwards at the Daily Mirror praised it as a " smart , challenging and timely look at the world of internet grooming " . Todd McCarthy at Variety praised the " spectacular performance by teenage thesp Ellen Page " . On the other hand , Jonathan Rosenbaum referred to it as torture and mutilation and wrote : " I 'd rather have this movie obliterated from my memory . " The New York Times film critic Manohla Dargis recognized the film 's debt to " Ariel Dorfman and Neil LaBute , among others " , but did not care for the torture theme " in the age of Abu Ghraib " .
Page 's performance was received well by critics ; Lynn Hirschberg of The New York Times Magazine said " a star was born , but almost no one noticed " , describing Hard Candy as Page 's initial artistic breakthrough performance , and her role in the 2007 film Juno as her mainstream popularity breakthrough performance . Claudia Puig from USA Today praised her for " remain [ ing ] consistently convincing " to her role which is both " powerful and chilling ... She manages to be both cruelly callous and likable , and hers is one of the most complex , disturbing and haunting performances of the year . "
= = Accolades = =
The film won three awards at the 2005 Sitges Film Festival and four awards at the 2006 Málaga Film Festival . The film also won Overlooked Film of the Year at the 2006 Phoenix Film Critics Society Awards . Page won the Best Actress award from the Austin Film Critics Association . Page was nominated for the Breakthrough Performer award at the 2006 Online Film Critics Society Awards , and Best Female Newcomer at the 12th Empire Awards . The film was nominated for Best Foreign Independent film at the 2006 British Independent Film Awards , and the film 's trailer was nominated for Best Thriller and Best Titles in a Trailer at the 7th Golden Trailer Awards .
= = Home media = =
The American DVD was released on September 19 , 2006 with two commentary tracks , a 52 @-@ minute making @-@ of featurette , six deleted and extended scenes , the script and director 's notebook , and trailers for Hard Candy and other Lionsgate films . Francis Rizzo III from DVD Talk gave a positive review , praising the DVD 's quality and extras . The Blu @-@ ray was released by Lionsgate Home Entertainment on October 5 , 2010 , and contained the same special features as the DVD . Aaron Peck from High @-@ Def Digest and Jeffrey Kauffman from Blu @-@ ray.com both awarded the Blu @-@ ray four out of five stars .
= = In popular culture = =
The German Neue Deutsche Härte band Oomph ! based the video for their song " Beim ersten Mal tut 's immer weh " ( the first time always hurts ) on the film , as did American metalcore band Beneath the Sky for their song " Terror Starts at Home " .
= Otis Blue / Otis Redding Sings Soul =
Otis Blue / Otis Redding Sings Soul , or simply Otis Blue , released September 15 , 1965 on Stax Records , is the third studio album by soul singer Otis Redding . The album mainly consists of cover songs by popular R & B and soul artists , and , bar one track , was recorded in a 24 @-@ hour period over July 9 / 10 1965 at the Stax Recording Studios in Memphis , Tennessee . Otis Blue was critically acclaimed upon release and became one of Redding 's most successful albums ; it reached number 6 on the UK Albums Chart , and was his first to reach the top spot of the Billboard R & B chart . Furthermore , it produced three popular singles , all charting at least in the top 50 on both the Billboard R & B and the Billboard Hot 100 chart . It is considered by many critics to be Redding 's first fully realized album .
Three of the eleven songs were written by Redding : " Ole Man Trouble " , " Respect " , and " I 've Been Loving You Too Long " . Three songs were written by Sam Cooke , a soul musician who had died a few months earlier . As was the case in the previous albums , Redding was backed by house band Booker T. & the M.G. ' s , a horn section of members of The Mar @-@ Keys and The Memphis Horns , and pianist Isaac Hayes .
Otis Blue is included in a number of " best album " lists , including Rolling Stone 's 500 Greatest Albums of All Time , Time magazine 's list of the All @-@ Time 100 Greatest Albums , and Robert Dimery 's " 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die " . Rhino Records released a two @-@ disc Collectors Edition of Otis Blue in 2008 .
= = Recording = =
Stax Records president Jim Stewart had released Otis Redding 's " These Arms of Mine " after hearing him sing it at an audition in 1962 ; and when it charted , he signed Redding to Stax . Following the moderately successful Pain in My Heart and The Great Otis Redding Sings Soul Ballads , both of which performed well in the newly established Billboard R & B LP chart but not in the Billboard 200 , preparations for the third studio album followed soon after . The album would be Redding 's third studio album and second on Stax 's sister label Volt .
Redding recorded the album with the Stax 's house band Booker T. & the M.G. ' s ( guitarist Steve Cropper , bassist Donald " Duck " Dunn , drummer Al Jackson Jr . ) , Isaac Hayes on piano , and a horn section consisting of members of the Mar @-@ Keys and the Memphis Horns . The album was recorded in a 24 @-@ hour session between 10am July 9 ( a Saturday ) and July 10 2pm , with a break from 8pm Saturday to 2am on Sunday to allow the house band to play local gigs . As was the case with the previous album , engineer Tom Dowd came to the studios to assist the recording , dubbing Redding as a " genius " next to Bobby Darin and Ray Charles . The album opens with " Ole Man Trouble " , which was finished on the sessions earlier than other songs , and was later released as a B @-@ side of " Respect " .
According to the drummer , Jackson , Redding wrote " Respect " , after a conversation they had during a break in the recording session , in which he told Redding : " You 're on the road all the time . All you can look for is a little respect when you come home . " An alternative story is told by Redding 's friend and road manager , Earl " Speedo " Sims , who states that the song " came from a group I was singing with " , and that even though Redding rewrote it , " a lot of the lyric was still there " ; Sims adds : " He told me I would get a credit , but I never did " . Sims also states that he sang the backing chorus of " Hey hey hey " . The song used for the fifth track , " I 've Been Loving You Too Long " , had been previously recorded in mono with Booker T. Jones on piano and released as a single in April 1965 , becoming a number @-@ two hit on Billboard 's R & B chart ; it was rerecorded in stereo for the album .
= = Composition = =
The majority of the tracks on Otis Blue are cover versions , including three by Sam Cooke who had been shot dead the previous December . The album opens with the " mournfully harried " " Ole Man Trouble " . For Claudrena N. Harold of PopMatters , the song is one of his most phantasmagoric tunes . The lyrics deal with a man , who is " unable to escape the brutal realities of the blues " , and has been compared with Paul Robeson 's " Ole Man River " . " Respect " was inspired by a quote of drummer Al Jackson , Jr . , who allegedly said to Redding after a tour , " What are you griping about ? You 're on the road all the time . All you can look for is a little respect when you come home . "
Essentially a ballad , " Respect " is an uptempo and energetic song , which took " a day to write , 20 minutes to arrange , and one take to record " , according to Redding . Aretha Franklin covered this song in 1967 and with it topped the Billboard R & B and Pop charts . Redding shouted to a woman for more respect , while Franklin ironically countered the song and transformed it into a " feminist hymn " . The next song is an energetic version of Sam Cooke 's ballad , " Change Gonna Come " ; a protest against racial segregation and disrespect for black people . " Down in the Valley " is a funky cover of Solomon Burke 's original , with whom Redding toured before the recording . Nate Patrin of Pitchfork felt that the song " ratchets up both the gospel beatitude and the secular lust " .
The love song " I 've Been Loving You Too Long " was co @-@ written by Redding and The Impressions ' lead singer Jerry Butler in a hotel near the Atlanta airport . Redding 's rendition of Cooke 's " Shake " is again more funky . The song is about the club dancing in the so @-@ called discothèques , which debuted in the early 1960s . The song was described as " a hard @-@ swinging , full @-@ throated 2 : 40 of precision ferocity with a force that would flat @-@ out explode during his live sets . " The last five songs are all covers by popular artists : The Temptations ' " My Girl " , written by Smokey Robinson and Ronald White ; Cooke 's " Wonderful World " ; B.B. King 's " Rock Me Baby " ; The Rolling Stones ' " Satisfaction " , on which Redding sings " fashion " instead of " faction " ; and William Bell 's " You Don 't Miss Your Water " , which was characterized as " sorrowful country blues " , and has " one of the most devastating pleading @-@ man lead vocals in the entire Stax catalog . " " Satisfaction " sounded so plausible that a journalist even accused the Stones of stealing the song from Redding , and that they performed it after Redding . Music writer Robert Christgau describes it as an " anarchic reading " of the Stones ' original .
= = Commercial performance = =
The album 's commercial performance helped Redding cross over into the pop market . Although it only reached number 75 on the Billboard 200 in 1966 , three of its singles charted on the Billboard Hot 100 : " I 've Been Loving You Too Long " charted for 11 weeks and peaked at number 21 , " Respect " spent 11 weeks and reached number 35 , and " Shake " spent six weeks and reached number 47 . Both stereo and mono pressing of Otis Blue charted in the United Kingdom ; the former spent 21 weeks and reached number six in 1966 , and the latter spent 54 weeks and reached number seven in 1967 . Two different pressings of the song " My Girl " also charted in the UK ; a 7 @-@ inch single peaked at number 11 and charted for 16 weeks in 1965 , and a reissued single in 1968 reached number 36 and charted for nine weeks . " Satisfaction " peaked at number 33 and " Shake " peaked at number 28 in the UK . On November 18 , 2004 , Otis Blue was certified silver by the British Phonographic Industry , for shipments of 60 @,@ 000 copies in the UK .
= = Critical reception = =
Otis Blue has been regarded by music critics as Redding 's best work . Bruce Eder from AllMusic wrote that " Redding 's powerful , remarkable singing throughout makes Otis Blue gritty , rich , and achingly alive , and an essential listening experience . " He also felt the album " presents his talent unfettered , his direction clear , and his confidence emboldened " . Angus Taylor of BBC Music commented that it stands " at the crossroads of pop , rock , gospel , blues and soul " , and asserted that the album contains " a set of short , punchy covers and originals , flawlessly ordered to ebb and flow between stirring balladry and foot stomping exuberance " . He dubbed the album Redding 's " definitive statement " . Blender music critic Robert Christgau called Otis Blue , " the first great album by one of soul 's few reliable long @-@ form artists " and gave its 2004 collector 's edition four out of five stars , which he said " comes with many useless alternate takes , but also with live tracks that preserve for history Redding 's country @-@ goes @-@ uptown style of fun " .
Nate Patrin of Pitchfork Media cited the album as the 1960s ' " greatest studio @-@ recorded soul LP " , and further stated that it is " a hell of a record , the crowning achievement of a man who could sound pained and celebratory and tender and gritty and proud all at once , with a voice that everyone from John Fogerty to Swamp Dogg to Cee @-@ lo owes a debt to " . Claudrena N. Harold of PopMatters also praised the diverse sound , which , according to her , is a mixture of " Motown pop , the blues , British rock , and Southern Soul " , although she cited Complete & Unbelievable : The Otis Redding Dictionary of Soul as Redding 's best album . Rolling Stone described the album as " Redding 's true dictionary of soul , a stunning journey through the past and future vocabulary of R & B ... documenting a masterful artist rising to ... the immense challenge of his times . " In The New Rolling Stone Album Guide ( 2004 ) , Rolling Stone journalist Paul Evans gave Otis Blue five out of five stars and cited the album as Redding 's " first masterwork " .
= = = Accolades = = =
Otis Blue is included in a number of " best album " lists . NME ranked it 35 on their list from 1993 of the " Greatest Albums of All Time " . Then , NME ranked it 405 on their 2013 edition . The album was also ranked 74 on the Rolling Stone magazine 's 500 Greatest Albums of All Time list , 92 on Time magazine 's list of the All @-@ Time 100 Greatest Albums , and included in Q magazine 's Best Soul Albums of All Time list . The album appeared in " 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die " .
= = Track listing = =
= = Collector 's Edition 2008 = =
An expanded double disc set edition of Otis Blue was released in 2008 by Rhino Records , which includes both the stereo and mono versions of the album with bonus tracks that include B @-@ sides , live tracks , and previously unreleased alternate mixes .
Disc 1 track listing
Disc 2 track listing
= = Charts = =
= = Certification = =
= = Personnel = =
Musicians
Otis Redding – vocals
Isaac Hayes – keyboards , piano
Steve Cropper – guitar
Donald Dunn – bass
Al Jackson , Jr . – drums
Wayne Jackson – trumpet
Gene Miller – trumpet
Andrew Love – tenor saxophone
Floyd Newman – baritone saxophone
William Bell – backing vocals ( track 2 )
Earl Sims – backing vocals ( track 2 )
Additional personnel
Isaac Hayes – producer
Steve Cropper – producer
Tom Dowd – engineer
Jim Stewart – supervision
Yves Beauvais – reissue producer
Bill Inglot , Dan Hersch – remastering
Pete Sahula – cover photo
Haig Adishian – cover design
Bob Rolontz – liner notes
= Society for Human Rights =
The Society for Human Rights was an American LGBT Rights organization established in Chicago in 1924 . Society founder Henry Gerber was inspired to create it by German Doctor Magnus Hirschfeld and his work with the Scientific @-@ Humanitarian Committee . It was the first recognized gay rights organization in the United States , having received a charter from the state of Illinois , and produced the first American publication for homosexuals , Friendship and Freedom . A few months after being chartered , the group ceased to exist in the wake of the arrest of several of the Society 's members . Despite its short existence and small size , the Society has been recognized as a precursor to the modern gay liberation movement .
= = Henry Gerber = =
Henry Gerber emigrated from Germany in 1913 , settling with his family in Chicago because of its large German @-@ speaking population . Within a few years of his arrival he experienced discrimination based on his sexual orientation when he was temporarily committed to a mental institution in 1917 for being homosexual .
With the United States 's entry into World War I , Gerber enlisted in the United States Army . After the war , he served as a printer and proofreader with the Allied Army of Occupation in Coblenz , Germany , from 1920 to 1923 .
During his time in Germany , Gerber learned about Magnus Hirschfeld and the work he and his Scientific @-@ Humanitarian Committee were doing to reform anti @-@ homosexual German law , especially Paragraph 175 , which criminalized sex between men . Gerber traveled to Berlin , which supported a thriving gay subculture , on several occasions and subscribed to at least one homophile magazine . Gerber marveled at the development of the gay community in Berlin and later wrote " I had always bitterly felt the injustice with which my own American society accused the homosexual of ' immoral acts . ' What could be done about it , I thought . Unlike Germany , where the homosexual was partially organized and where sex legislation was uniform for the whole country , the United States was in a condition of chaos and misunderstanding concerning its sex laws , and no one was trying to unravel the tangle and bring relief to the abused . " He was particularly impressed with the work of a group called Bund für Menschenrechte ( Association for Human Rights ) and absorbed a number of Hirschfeld 's ideas , including the notion that homosexual men were naturally effeminate . Following his military service , Gerber returned to the United States and went to work for the post office in Chicago .
= = Founding the Society = =
Inspired by Hirschfeld 's work with the Scientific @-@ Humanitarian Committee , Gerber resolved to found a similar organization in the United States . He called his group the Society for Human Rights ( the English translation of Bund für Menschenrecht ) and took on the role of secretary . Gerber filed an application for a charter as a non @-@ profit organization with the state of Illinois on December 10 , 1924 . The application outlined the goals and purposes of the Society :
[ T ] o promote and protect the interests of people who by reasons of mental and physical abnormalities are abused and hindered in the legal pursuit of happiness which is guaranteed them by the Declaration of Independence and to combat the public prejudices against them by dissemination of factors according to modern science among intellectuals of mature age . The Society stands only for law and order ; it is in harmony with any and all general laws insofar as they protect the rights of others , and does in no manner recommend any acts in violation of present laws nor advocate any manner inimical to the public welfare .
An African American clergyman named John T. Graves signed on as president of the new organization and Gerber , Graves and five others were listed as directors . The state granted the charter on December 24 , 1924 , making the Society the oldest documented homosexual organization in the nation . Despite deliberately keeping the goals of the Society vague and excluding any mention of homosexuality from its mission statement , Society members were still surprised that no one with the state investigated any further before issuing the charter .
The society 's newsletter , Friendship and Freedom , was the first gay @-@ interest publication in the United States . However , few Society members were willing to receive mailings of the newsletter , fearing that postal inspectors would deem the publication obscene under the Comstock Act . Indeed , all gay @-@ interest publications were deemed obscene until 1958 , when the Supreme Court ruled in One , Inc. v. Olesen that publishing homosexual content did not mean the content was automatically obscene . Two issues of Friendship and Freedom were written and produced , entirely by Gerber . No copies of the newsletter are known to exist .
Gerber formulated a three @-@ point strategy for winning what he referred to as " homosexual emancipation " :
" ... engage in a series of lectures pointing out the attitude of society in relation to their own behavior and especially urging against the seduction of adolescents .
" Through a publication ... we would keep the homophile world in touch with the progress of our efforts ....
" Through self @-@ discipline , homophiles would win the confidence and assistance of legal authorities and legislators in understanding the problem : that these authorities should be educated on the futility and folly of long prison terms for those committing homosexual acts . "
Gerber set out to expand the Society 's membership beyond the original seven but had difficulty interesting anyone other than poorer gays in joining ; he was also unable to gain any financial support from the more affluent members of Chicago 's gay community . Gerber sought out the support of people in the medical professions and sex education advocates and was frustrated when he was unable to secure it , because of their fear of ruining their reputations through the association with homosexuality . Contemplating this failure in 1962 , Gerber stated ,
The first difficulty was in rounding up enough members and contributors so the work could go forward . The average homosexual , I found , was ignorant concerning himself . Others were fearful . Still others were frantic or depraved . Some were blasé . Many homosexuals told me that their search for forbidden fruit was the real spice of life . With this argument , they rejected our aims . We wondered how we could accomplish anything with such resistance from our own people .
Gerber shouldered all of the labor and financial obligations for the Society and for production of Friendship and Freedom , something he was willing to do in service of the cause , believing it possible he would be remembered as the gay Abraham Lincoln for his effort . The Society sought affiliation with the British Society for the Study of Sex Psychology but the British Society declined , afraid of being linked with any organization that was specifically for homosexuals .
= = Demise = =
Gerber and Graves decided to limit Society membership to gay men and exclude bisexuals . Unknown to them , the Society 's vice @-@ president Al Weininger , a man Gerber described as " an indigent laundry queen " , was married with two children . Weininger 's wife reported the Society to a social worker in the summer of 1925 , calling them " degenerates " and making claims of " strange doings " in front of her children .
The police broke in on Gerber in the middle of the night with a reporter from the Chicago Examiner in tow , interrogated him , seized his personal papers and arrested him . The next morning , Gerber arrived in court to learn that Graves , Weininger and Weininger 's male companion had also been arrested . The Examiner reported the story under the headline " Strange Sex Cult Exposed " . The paper erroneously reported that Weininger and other members of the Society had performed sex acts in front of Weininger 's children and that Society literature encouraged men to abandon their wives and children . This latter statement was in direct contradiction to the Society 's policy of only admitting men who were exclusively homosexual . Gerber was put through three separate trials , before charges against him were finally dismissed because he was arrested without a warrant .
Gerber 's defense cost him his life savings , some of which may have been in the form of bribes paid through his lawyer . The police never returned Gerber 's personal papers , his typewriter or his remaining copies of Friendship and Freedom despite a court order compelling their return . The only concrete record of the newsletter 's existence is a photograph of one issue in a German homophile magazine and a review of the issue in a French homophile publication .
Although Gerber avoided prosecution for obscenity under the Comstock Act , he lost his post office job for " conduct unbecoming a postal worker " . Weininger paid a $ 10 fine ( $ 133 in 2013 dollars ) for " disorderly conduct " . With Gerber feeling he had hit a " solid wall of ignorance , hypocrisy , meanness and corruption " and unable to continue his financial support , the Society dismantled , and Gerber was left embittered that none of the wealthier gays of Chicago had come to his aid for a cause he believed was designed to advance the common good . He left Chicago for New York City , where he re @-@ enlisted in the Army , serving for 17 years before being honorably discharged .
= = Legacy = =
Henry Gerber and the Society for Human Rights serve as direct links between the LGBT @-@ related activism of the Weimar Republic and the American homophile movement of the 1950s . In 1929 , a young man named Harry Hay was living in Los Angeles . He soon discovered the cruising scene in Pershing Square , where he met Champ Simmons , a man who had been a lover of one of Gerber 's Society compatriots . This man told Hay about the Society 's brief history , warning Hay of the futility of trying to organize gay men . Although Hay would later deny that he had any knowledge of previous LGBT activism , he was inspired by this knowledge to conceive in 1948 a proposal for a gay men 's political and social group . In 1950 Hay 's idea reached fruition when he and several other men founded the Mattachine Society , the first enduring LGBT rights organization in the United States .
Gerber was posthumously inducted into the Chicago Gay and Lesbian Hall of Fame in 1992 . The Henry Gerber House , located at 1701 N. Crilly Court , Chicago , contains the apartment in which Gerber lived when he founded the Society . It was designated a Chicago Landmark on June 1 , 2001 . In June 2015 it was named a National Historic Landmark . The Gerber / Hart Library at 6500 N. Clark St in Chicago is named in honor of Gerber and early civil rights defender Pearl M. Hart .
= William de Braose , 2nd Baron Braose =
William de Braose , ( sometimes William de Briouze , William de Breuse , William de Brewes or William de Brewose ; c . 1260 – 1326 ) was the second Baron Braose , as well as Lord of Gower and Lord of Bramber . He was held as a hostage after being captured in 1264 during the Second Barons ' War and records of some of his childhood expenses survive from his time as a hostage . He first entered royal service in 1286 and , in 1291 , he succeeded his father as baron . He continued in royal military service , serving in Scotland as well as in Wales . Protracted disputes over his lands embroiled him throughout his life and at the end of his life helped spark a revolt against King Edward II of England 's favourites , the Despensers . He married twice , and his heirs were his daughter Aline and his grandson John de Bohun .
= = Family and early life = =
Braose was the son of William de Braose , 1st Baron Braose and his first wife , Aline , daughter of Thomas de Multon . He was likely born around 1260 , as his age was given as about 46 in 1307 . Other events prove that he was born prior to 1264 , as he was captured in that year . This came about during the Second Barons ' War ( 1264 – 1267 ) during the reign of King Henry III of England , as the elder Braose had sided with the king during Simon de Montfort 's rebellion . The younger Braose was a hostage in the custody of Montfort 's wife , Eleanor . Her household accounts include expenses related to the younger William 's care .
Sometime around 1285 , Braose confirmed grants of land by his ancestors to the religious house of Sele Priory . In 1286 Braose was in the king 's service , for unspecified duties overseas . It is possible that these included accompanying the king , Edward I , to Paris where Edward performed homage to the new French king , Philip IV , for Edward 's French lands . Braose played a significant role in King Edward 's Welsh wars . In the winter of 1287 – 8 he commanded the force blockading Emlyn castle . His men also provided the escort for the transport of a huge siege engine from Dryslwyn to Emlyn . The arrival of the engine , with 480 great stones as ammunition , persuaded the defenders of the castle to surrender peaceably .
= = Marcher Baron = =
The younger Braose succeeded his father before 1 March 1291 , when he did homage for his father 's lands . He received custody of his father 's lands on 2 March 1291 , which had been placed into the custody of Robert de Tibetot on 12 January 1291 . He was summoned a number of times to Parliament from 1291 until 1322 as Baron Braose . He was the second Baron Braose , as well as Lord of Gower and Lord of Bramber .
After his father 's death , Braose continued to serve Edward . He contributed both money and personal military service in Edward 's wars in Wales , Scotland , and France . He saw service in Gascony in 1294 . In 1297 he took part in a military campaign in Flanders . As a reward for his service in Flanders , he received the wardship of John de Mowbray , who Braose eventually married to his daughter Aline . From 1298 to 1306 he was involved in the Scottish wars , and was at the Battle of Falkirk on 22 July 1298 . Besides the military service , he served the king in 1301 by signing a letter from the leading barons of England to Pope Boniface VIII in which the barons decried papal interference in the royal rights of England .
Braose captured the Welsh rebel William Cragh in 1290 , whose miraculous resurrection after being hanged was attributed to Thomas de Cantilupe . This led in 1307 to Braose giving testimony to papal commissioners inquiring into the events surrounding Cragh 's hanging and whether or not it would support the canonisation of Cantilupe .
It was most likely Braose who commissioned a condensed copy of Domesday Book , now Public Record Office manuscript E164 / 1 . This copy has a marginal notation of " Br " next to the estates owned by Braose 's ancestor , the first William de Braose .
Braose was embroiled in a dispute over his lordship of Gower in 1299 when the Bishop of Llandaff , John de Monmouth , brought a case against Braose to the king . Although the case was adjudicated in 1302 , the resulting decision was overturned . In 1304 Braose secured King Edward 's confirmation of earlier grants and charters granting Braose special rights and liberties in Gower . He managed this because he was serving the king in Scotland at the time , and thus had easy access to the king . In 1305 , however , Braose miscalculated and insulted a royal judge , using " gross and contumelious words " to describe the royal official . This episode caused the case of Gower to be reopened in 1306 , and Braose was only able to settle the issue again by the grant of rights to his men in Swansea and Gower .
In 1320 King Edward II of England confiscated the lordship of Gower on the grounds that Braose had given it to his son @-@ in @-@ law Mowbray without royal permission . Over the preceding years Braose had promised Gower to a number of persons , including Humphrey de Bohun , the Earl of Hereford , Hugh Despenser the Younger , and Roger Mortimer of Wigmore . Mowbray then in late 1319 took custody of Gower to protect his rights . Despenser persuaded the king in 1320 to take Gower into royal hands in October , and was appointed keeper of the honour in November . The other lords in the Welsh Marches resented this seizure , feeling that the king 's excuse for it was not applicable . The seizure was one of the precipitating causes of the baronial rebellion that led to the exile of the Despensers in 1321 . In 1322 Gower was given to the younger Despenser again , who then traded it for the honours of Usk and Caerleon . Braose was then induced to sue the new holder of Gower for the return of the barony in April 1324 , which action succeeded in June 1324 . Braose then promptly gave Gower to the elder Despenser , returning the property to the Despenser family once more . The lordship of Gower eventually ended up in the hands of the Beauchamp family , but it was not until the 1350s that the issue was decided .
= = Marriage , death , and legacy = =
The name of Braose 's first wife was Agnes , but her family is not known . His second wife was Elizabeth , the daughter and heiress of Raymund de Sully . He had two daughters with his first wife , but no children with his second wife , who outlived him . It appears that there was a son named William , who was the subject of a military summons from King Edward in 1311 , but nothing further is mentioned of him after 1315 . In 1316 a settlement of William the father 's estates made no mention of this son making it likely that the son died before this date .
Braose died not long before 1 May 1326 and his heirs were his daughter Aline and his grandson John de Bohun . Aline , the elder daughter , married John de Mowbray and Richard de Peschale . The second daughter , Joan , married James de Bohun and Richard Foliot , son of Jordan Foliot . Mowbray received the lands of Gower and Bramber before Braose 's death .
Braose was known as a man often in debt and as being unable to manage his cash flow well . Thomas Walsingham stated in his chronicle that Braose was " very rich by descent but a dissipater of the property left to him " .
= Cologne Central Mosque =
The Cologne Central Mosque ( German : DITIB @-@ Zentralmoschee Köln , Turkish : Merkez @-@ Camii ) is a building commissioned by German Muslims of the Organization DITIB for a large , representative Zentralmoschee ( central mosque ) in Cologne , Germany . After some controversy , the project won the approval of Cologne 's city council .
The mosque is designed in Ottoman architectural style , with glass walls , two minarets and a dome . The mosque is proposed to have a bazaar as well as other secular areas intended for interfaith interactions . As the mosque will be one of Europe 's biggest , it has been criticized for its size , particularly the height of the minarets .
= = Design = =
The 48 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 4 @,@ 500 m2 ) mosque will cost £ 15 – 20 million to build , aiming to house 2 @,@ 000 to 4 @,@ 000 worshippers . The proposed mosque will be funded by Diyanet İşleri Türk İslam Birliği ( DITIB ) , a branch of the Turkish government 's religious affairs authority , bank loans , and donations from 884 Muslim associations . Cologne 's St. Theodore Catholic Church has also decided to fundraise for the mosque . The architect of the mosque is Paul Böhm , who specializes in building churches .
The planned mosque will be in the Ottoman architecture style . It will have a concrete and glass dome , and two 55 meter high minarets . The mosque will have the bazaar and entrance on the ground floor , lecture halls in the basement , the prayer area on the upper floor and include a Muslim library . A well is intended to be placed in the center to connect the two levels and to create a pleasant atmosphere . The mosque consists of flat @-@ like wall screens which form a dome in the center .
It will also have glass walls , which according to DITIB spokesman Alboga will give visitors a feeling of openness . According to the architect , openness is further enhanced by an inviting staircase from the street . The developers have required that the secular areas of the mosque ( e.g. the restaurant , event halls and stores ) be open to people of all religions .
A plan welcomed by then mayor of Cologne Fritz Schramma to build shorter minerets was dropped after the architects said the plan would leave the minarets out of proportion with the rest of the building and surrounding structures . Construction of the opposed higher minerets will continue .
= = Controversy = =
The project has been opposed by author Ralph Giordano , right @-@ wing groups , and neo @-@ Nazis . Jörg Uckermann , then local district 's deputy mayor , has criticized the project saying that " We don 't want to build a Turkish ghetto in Ehrenfeld . I know about Londonistan and I don 't want that here . "
Markus Wiener of local activist group Pro Cologne , expressed his fear that the Cologne mosque will empower the Muslim population too much .
On June 16 , 2007 , 200 people gathered in a protest organized by Pro Cologne against the mosque including representatives from the Austrian Freedom Party and the Belgian Vlaams Belang . Then district deputy mayor Uckermann seconded that he thinks many residents reject the mosque because they believe that Cologne is a “ Christian city ” . The prominent author Ralph Giordano stated that he opposed the project as the mosque would be “ an expression of the creeping Islamization of our land ” , a “ declaration of war ” , and that he wouldn 't want to see women wearing headscarfs on German streets , likening their appearance to “ human penguins ” . Henryk M. Broder , a journalist , disagrees with Giordano 's metaphor but said that “ A mosque is more than a church or a synagogue . It is a political statement . ” Giordano 's remarks have turned the local dispute into a national debate about the place of Islam in Germany. and other prominent Germans criticized the project as well . District mayor Uckermann stated that Giordano 's comments “ broke down the wall . Before if you criticised this monstrous mosque you were a Nazi . But we have a problem with the integration of Muslims . It 's a question of language and culture . ” Uckermann left the conservative CDU for right @-@ wing Pro Cologne in 2008 after being voted out of office as the district 's deputy mayor and reportedly facing party exclusion .
The city 's official for integration Marlis Bredehorst stated that " it is important that the Muslims here get dignified houses of prayer " and added that " two hundred years ago , the Protestants had to pray secretively in Catholic Cologne [ ... ] that is something we can 't imagine anymore today . " The city 's mayor , Fritz Schramma , who supports the project said that “ For me , it is self @-@ evident that the Muslims need to have a prestigious place of worship , but it bothers me when people have lived here for 35 years and they don ’ t speak a single word of German . ” Christian leaders have taken similarly ambivalent stances : the Catholic Church has long supported the project , though recently Cardinal Joachim Meisner , Archbishop of Cologne , has been more cautious : when asked if he was afraid of the mosque , he said , “ I don 't want to say I 'm afraid , but I have an uneasy feeling . ” He also stated that Turkey should allow its Christian minorities equivalent rights . He said the mosque would change the skyline of Cologne . Wolfgang Huber , Germany 's top Protestant bishop , criticized the “ male domination ” he saw in Islam and said Muslims should be able to convert to Christianity without fearing reprisals and the penalty of death .
Public opinion seems “ guardedly supportive , with a majority of residents saying they favor it ” . A poll taken by a local newspaper among 500 Cologne residents showed that the project is supported by 63 % , of whom 27 % want its size to be reduced .
A protest planned by Pro Cologne for September 20 , 2008 was canceled by police at the last minute in the interest of public safety , after clashes between police and protestors .
On August 28 , 2008 , the Cologne City Council voted to approve the construction of the mosque. this position was taken by all parties except the Christian democrats ( CDU ) . Outside the hall , a group of 30 protesters demonstrated against the approval , while 100 demonstrated in favor of it .
The Cologne mosque project has been contrasted with a less controversial project in Duisburg , Germany
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film 's script as a part of their film study curriculum . Narasimha Reddy considered Malliswari his best work as a filmmaker , and the film was recognised as such . Malliswari 's success led to Rama Rao 's resurgence from a career slump . A 2004 Telugu film directed by K. Vijaya Bhaskar was also titled Malliswari and marked the debut of the British @-@ Indian film actress Katrina Kaif in Telugu cinema .
In January 2007 , M. L. Narasimham of The Hindu included Malliswari on a list of films that have had an impact on society and Telugu cinema along with Mala Pilla ( 1938 ) , Raithu Bidda ( 1939 ) , Vara Vikrayam ( 1939 ) , Bhakta Potana ( 1942 ) , Shavukaru ( 1950 ) , Peddamanushulu ( 1954 ) , Mayabazar ( 1957 ) and Lava Kusa ( 1963 ) . In May 2012 , Radhika Rajamani of Rediff.com mentioned Malliswari for the letter M in her list , " The A to Z of Telugu Cinema " . Commenting on Midhunam ( 2012 ) , actor and writer Gollapudi Maruti Rao stated , " Some movies might make money but a Malleswari , a Sankarabharanam , a Pratighatana and movies like them cannot be forgotten " . On the centenary of Indian cinema in April 2013 , CNN @-@ IBN included Malliswari in its list , " The 100 greatest Indian films of all time " .
= Tropical Storm Earl ( 2004 ) =
Tropical Storm Earl caused minor damage in the Windward Islands in mid @-@ August 2004 . The sixth tropical cyclone and named storm of the annual hurricane season , Earl developed on August 13 from a tropical wave centered well east of the Lesser Antilles . The depression gradually organized as it tracked west @-@ northwestward and was upgraded to Tropical Storm Earl roughly a day after genesis . As the system approached the Windward Islands it continued to slowly strengthen , peaking as a 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) tropical storm early on August 15 . However , the system unexpectedly degenerated into a tropical wave that afternoon , likely due to its fast forward motion . The remnants of Earl continued across the Caribbean Sea and eventually re @-@ developed into Hurricane Frank in the eastern Pacific Ocean on August 23 .
Gusty winds in Grenada damaged at least 34 roofs and knocked down twelve trees and six electrical poles . Additionally , a nursing home on the island was evacuated due to significant structural damage . Two houses lost their roofs in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines , while moderate crop damage was reported on the island . Downed trees and power lines in Tobago left 90 % of the island without electricity . Overall , Earl was responsible for one fatality , nineteen missing , and an unknown amount of damage .
= = Meteorological history = =
The formation of Tropical Storm Earl is attributed to a low @-@ latitude , vigorous tropical wave that emerged off the western coast of Africa and into the eastern Atlantic Ocean on August 10 . As the disturbance moved towards the west , satellite imagery revealed a much better structure with much @-@ improved banding features and fair upper @-@ level outflow , leading to the formation of Tropical Depression Five at 1800 UTC on August 13 , situated roughly 1000 mi ( 1610 km ) east of the Lesser Antilles . The depression progressed rapidly towards the west @-@ northwest the following day , embedded and under the influence of a deep easterly flow around the southern periphery of a subtropical ridge to the cyclone 's north . A combination of improved banding features and satellite intensity estimates by the afternoon of August 14 led to the subsequent upgrade of the system to Tropical Storm Earl . At this time , the cyclone was situated about 325 mi ( 525 km / h ) east of Barbados .
Within an environment characterized by low wind shear , high atmospheric humidity , and warm sea surface temperatures , Earl intensified , reaching a peak intensity of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) by 0600 UTC on August 15 . Initial forecasts from the National Hurricane Center depicted gradual intensification into a powerful hurricane as the system entered the central Caribbean Sea , but these forecasts were lowered in later advisories . Despite an impressive satellite presentation associated with Earl as it passed through the southern Leeward Islands , a hurricane hunter flight reported that the system no longer had a low @-@ level circulation late on August 15 . As a result , the NHC discontinued advisories on the system and declared it an open tropical wave . While not entirely sure , it is suspected that the fast motion of the cyclone attributed to its dissipation . The remnant wave eventually entered the eastern Pacific Ocean , developing into Hurricane Frank by August 23 .
= = Preparations , impact , and aftermath = =
Following the development of Tropical Storm Earl , tropical storm watches were issued for Barbados , St. Vincent , and St. Lucia . This watch was modified to a tropical storm warning by August 14 at 2100 UTC , with the addition of the islands of the Grenadines , Trinidad , Tobago , and Grenada . The tropical storm warning for Barbados was changed to a tropical storm watch the following day at 1200 UTC , and all tropical cyclone watches and warnings were discontinued by 1800 UTC . In preparation of the storm , several hundred people in Grenada evacuated from low @-@ lying areas to schools set up as shelters . Shopkeepers boarded windows , while airports were temporarily shut down across the Leeward Islands . Initial forecasts predicted that Earl would strengthen considerably into a hurricane and head towards Florida once in the Caribbean Sea , a state already impacted heavily earlier in the month by Hurricane Charley . The local officials urged residents to exercise caution , but not panic due to the large errors in long @-@ range forecasts . These warnings eased upon the system 's degeneration into an open tropical wave .
In Grenada , Earl produced heavy rains and strong winds that caused moderate damage . On the main island , roofs were blown off twelve homes while three others were partially damaged ; twelve trees and six power poles were also knocked down by the winds . The heavy rain associated with the tropical storm triggered nine mudslides and three rockslides on the island . Nearby , six homes had their roofs completely blown off while thirteen others were damaged . Flooding was also reported on both islands ; however , no known damage resulted from them . During the storm , a nursing home had to be evacuated due to significant damage to the structure . On St Vincent and the Grenadines , at least two homes had their roofs blown off and banana crops sustained moderate damage . In Tobago , numerous trees and power lines were downed throughout the island , cutting power to 90 % of the island . The highest surface sustained winds in relation to Earl occurred on the morning of August 15 in Barbados and St. Lucia ; winds were reported at 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) . One person was killed by the storm and nineteen others were listed as missing .
Following the storm , Grenada requested assistance from the United States Agency of International Development . Local crews worked quickly to cover broken roofs and repair other structural damage . The National Emergency Relief organization were sought for assistance .
= Xeromphalina setulipes =
Xeromphalina setulipes is a species of fungus of the family Mycenaceae . First collected in 2005 , it was described and named in 2010 by Fernando Esteve @-@ Raventós and Gabriel Moreno , and is known only from oak forests in Ciudad Real Province , Spain . The species produces mushrooms with dark reddish @-@ brown caps up to 15 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 59 in ) across , dark purplish @-@ brown stems up to 45 millimetres ( 1 @.@ 8 in ) in height and distinctive , arched , brown gills . The mushrooms were found growing directly from the acidic soil of the forest floor , surrounded by plant waste , during November .
Morphologically , the dark colour of the gills and stem , lack of a strong taste , and characters of the cystidia ( large cells found on the mushrooms ) are the most distinguishing characteristics of X. setulipes . These features allow the species to be readily distinguished from other , similar species , including X. cauticinalis and X. brunneola . Its ecology and habitat are also distinct , but it is unclear whether they can serve as certain identifying characteristics . Within the genus Xeromphalina , X. setulipes is classified in the section Mutabiles , along with several other species . It seems most closely related to X. fraxinophila , X. cornui , X. campanelloides and X. cauticinalis , but , according to Esteve @-@ Raventós and colleagues , further analysis is required to accurately judge the relationships between the species of Xeromphalina .
= = Taxonomy = =
Xeromphalina setulipes was first described in 2010 in an article in Mycological Progress by Fernando Esteve @-@ Raventós and Gabriel Moreno , both of the University of Alcalá . The description was based on specimens collected during 2005 field work in Ciudad Real Province , Spain . The type specimen was collected on 17 November , and was found 770 metres ( 2 @,@ 530 ft ) above sea level . The specific epithet setulipes is from the Latin setula , meaning " stiff hair " , and pes , meaning " foot " , in reference to the bristly hairs that cover the stem .
Within Xeromphalina , X. setulipes is part of the section Mutabiles , which also contains X. campanelloides , X. cauticinalis , X. cirris , X. cornui , and X. fraxinophila . Phylogenetic analysis performed by Esteve @-@ Raventós and colleagues concluded that X. setulipes appears to be most closely related to X. fraxinophila , X. cornui , X. campanelloides and X. cauticinalis , the five of which are clearly separate from the group containing X. campanella , X. kauffmanii , X. brunneola , and , possibly , X. junipericola . Data from the large subunit ( 60S ) of the nuclear ribosomal RNA gene suggests that the species is most closely related to X. campanelloides , while internal transcribed spacer ( ITS ) data place it closest to a clade containing X. cauticinalis and X. aff. parvibulbosa ( an unidentified species similar , but not identical , to X. parvibulbosa ) . Further research , analysing the ITS or RPB2 loci , could serve to help clarify the precise relationships of species and positions of clades within the genus .
= = Description = =
Xeromphalina setulipes produces basidiocarps in the form of mushrooms . Each mushroom has a flattened @-@ convex cap of between 8 and 15 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 31 and 0 @.@ 59 in ) in diameter with a depressed centre . It is not particularly hygrophanous ( it does not change color as it loses or absorbs water ) , and , unlike the caps of related species , is neither grooved nor translucent at the margin . The cap is dark brown , sometimes with reddish colouration . It becomes paler , turning tobacco @-@ brown , when it dries ; this change is more noticeable at the cap margin . The caps of young mushrooms are smooth and hairless , but they wrinkle as they age ; however , fine , soft hairs are sometimes visible towards the margin ( which is rolled inwards ) when the cap is dry . The margin is typically not smooth ; instead , it undulates .
The cylindrical stem measures between 30 and 45 mm ( 1 and 2 in ) in length by 1 and 2 mm ( 0 @.@ 04 and 0 @.@ 08 in ) in width , though it is slightly thicker at the very bottom . It is stiff , but can be somewhat flexible . The colour is a dark brown , sometimes approaching black , with purplish hints . It appears smooth , but is actually covered in minute tufts . The hairs at the base of the stem are somewhat more visible , and are an amber colour . The gills are subdistant ( neither close to , nor distant from , one another ) and are of a distinctive shape ; they are decurrent , that is , they extend down the stem , and are noticeably arched . The gills can be up to 2 mm ( 0 @.@ 08 in ) thick , and sometimes split into two . The gills are a tobacco @-@ brown no matter the age of the mushroom , though the edges can be paler ( sometimes whitish ) and crenulate . The flesh is firm but flexible , and the same colour as the surface . It has an indistinct smell , and a taste that is not bitter .
= = = Microscopic characteristics = = =
Xeromphalina setulipes has smooth , ellipsoid to somewhat cylindrical spores that measure from 5 @.@ 0 to 7 @.@ 3 micrometres ( μm ) by 2 @.@ 9 to 3 @.@ 7 μm . They are amyloid , meaning that they stain a dark colour in Melzer 's reagent or Lugol 's solution , and have thin cell walls . The four @-@ spored ( occasionally two @-@ spored ) basidia are shaped like narrow clubs , sometimes approaching cylindrical , and measure between 21 and 30 μm long by 4 @.@ 5 to 5 @.@ 5 μm wide . The sterigmata , the narrow prongs that connect the spores to the basidia , can measure up to 3 μm in length . The edge of the gill is primarily made up of cheilocystidia ( cystidia on the gill edge ) but there are also some basidia . The hyaline ( translucent ) cheilocystidia have an irregular , sometimes vaguely cylindrical shape , and measure between 30 and 80 μm by 3 to 7 μm . They are packed together , extending outwards from the gill in a manner reminiscent of coral , as is sometimes seen in members of the genus Mycena . The abundant caulocystidia ( cystidia on the stem ) project prominently , and are visible to the naked eye as the minute hairs on the stem . They measure between 30 and 60 μm by 5 to 10 μm . They are swollen in the middle , tapering at each end , but are irregular in shape and are often curved . The particularly thick cell walls can be as much as 2 @.@ 5 μm wide . The caulocystidia are yellowish @-@ brown . There are a large number of circumcystidia ( cystidia found on the margin of the cap ) , which are similar to the cheilocystidia . They typically have thick cell walls , and numerous projections of various sorts grow from their sides . The circumcystidia form a mass reminiscent of coral .
The flesh in the gills is composed of cylindrical hyphae measuring between 4 and 8 μm thick that run parallel to one another . The hyphae typically have fairly thin , smooth walls , but they can have a small amount of brown pigment , which stains orange @-@ brown in potassium hydroxide . The pileipellis , the uppermost layer of hyphae in the cap , forms a cutis made up of cylindrical , slightly thicker @-@ walled hyphae of between 5 and 10 μm wide . They can be interwoven or primarily extending from the margin to the centre . The pigmentation is yellowish @-@ brown and stains reddish @-@ brown in potassium hydroxide . The hyphae below the pileipellis run parallel to one another and measure between 4 and 8 μm in width . Their yellowish @-@ brown pigment stains orange @-@ brown in potassium hydroxide . The stipitipellis , the uppermost layer of hyphae on the stem , also forms a cutis . The cylindrical hyphae run parallel to one another and have thick cell walls . They have a dark red @-@ brown pigment , which stains darker still in potassium hydroxide . Clamp connections are present .
= = = Similar species = = =
Xeromphalina setulipes shows some similarities to X. cauticinalis . They share the amber @-@ coloured hair towards the base of the stem and both grow on soil , as opposed to directly onto wood . Further , X. cauticinalis can display caulocystidia of the same distinctive shape as those of X. setulipes ( though these are mixed with the other shapes more typical of the genus ) . X. cauticinalis mushrooms are typically of a different colour ; for instance , the area at the top of the stem is paler than the rest , compared to the entirely dark stem of X. setulipes . Furthermore , X. cauticinalis has a very bitter taste . X. setulipes shares with X. brunneola its dark colouration and some microscopic traits . However , the two clearly differ in the shape of both the cheilocystidia and the pileocystidia , the width of the spores ( the spores of X. brunneola measure between 2 and 3 μm in width ) and the fact it is found specifically in softwood woodland . Furthermore , the two do not appear to be closely related .
Other species within Mutabiles include X. campanelloides , which can be differentiated by the shape of the thin @-@ walled caulocystidia and yellow flesh in the stem . X. cornui grows in softwood forests with Sphagnum moss . Both the cap and the top of stem sport yellow grains . X. fraxinophila produces larger mushrooms and has yellow gills . X. parvibulbosa , while potentially featuring similar caulocystidia to X. setulipes , has a bitter or sour taste .
= = Habitat , distribution and ecology = =
Xeromphalina setulipes is only known from the type locality in the province of Ciudad Real , Spain . Members of the Mycenaceae are saprotrophic , and X. setulipes was found in woodland made up of cork oak ( Quercus suber ) and Portuguese oak ( Quercus faginea ) , with undergrowth consisting of gum rockrose ( Cistus ladanifer ) , prickly juniper ( Juniperus oxycedrus ) , and various heathers ( Erica species ) . The mushrooms were growing in clusters on the forest floor from acid soil , surrounded by dead plant matter . The species 's ecological patterns may be useful identifying characteristics , distinct from other , similar species . The mushrooms were found in autumn , and collected in November .
= National Police Memorial =
The National Police Memorial is a memorial in central London , commemorating about 4000 police officers killed in the course of their duties in the United Kingdom . It was designed by Lord Foster of Thames Bank and Per Arnoldi and unveiled in 2005 . The Project Architect for Foster was Peter Ridley .
= = Historical background = =
In 1984 , following the shooting of Yvonne Fletcher , film director Michael Winner founded the Police Memorial Trust . Initially the Trust concentrated on erecting smaller monuments at the points where officers had died on duty . From the mid @-@ 1990s the Trust also lobbied and raised funds for a single , larger scale memorial to commemorate all police officers who had died in the course of their duties . Winner stated that " Memorials to soldiers , sailors and airmen are commonplace , but the police fight a war with no beginning and no end " .
Winner donated £ 500 @,@ 000 of his own money to the campaign for a national memorial and the remainder of the total cost of £ 2 @.@ 3 million was met by a public collection . After a ten @-@ year campaign , Westminster City Council granted planning permission in October 2002 .
= = Design and construction = =
The Memorial was built to a design by Lord Foster of Thames Bank and Danish designer Per Arnoldi , on the corner of The Mall and Horse Guards Road , directly outside the Old Admiralty Building . The site was occupied at the time by an air shaft on the Bakerloo line of the London Underground .
On 22 July 2004 a symbolic groundbreaking ceremony took place on the site , performed by Prime Minister Tony Blair , Michael Winner , and officers from the Metropolitan Police and Greater Manchester Police , representing the two forces with the highest number of officers killed in the line of duty .
The Memorial was formally unveiled on 26 April 2005 by Queen Elizabeth and Tony Blair . Michael Howard and Charles Kennedy , the leaders of the UK 's other leading political parties at the time , were also present . A guard of honour was provided by 56 officers wearing the uniforms of each of the UK 's police forces . The Queen stated that " It is surely appropriate that this should be positioned in The Mall - an area of London so often associated with our national way of life . When people pass by the memorial , I hope they will pause and reflect on the proud traditions that it represents . The courage and personal sacrifice recorded here will , I am certain , serve as an inspiration to us all . "
Despite concerns over the potential cost , construction of the Memorial eventually came in at £ 400 @,@ 000 under budget , in part because a number of the contractors concerned carried out their work free of charge .
The Memorial was a winner of the Royal Institute of British Architects award for 2006 . Michael Winner publicly voiced some surprise at the structure being included in the " Arts and Leisure " classification .
= = Architectural elements = =
The Memorial consists of two distinct architectural elements , linked by a terrace of Purbeck stone . A black rectangular creeper @-@ covered enclosure surrounds the air shaft , forming a single block . The northern face of the enclosure is kept free of creepers , and is inscribed with the police badge of office and the text " The National Police Memorial : Honouring Those Who Serve " . This face also includes a vitrine in which the Roll of Honour is displayed .
Immediately north of the block , a glass column is sited in a reflecting pool . The column is internally illuminated by fibre optic cables with a faint blue light , symbolising the blue lamp which traditionally hangs outside police stations in the United Kingdom . The column is intended to screen the vitrine from passing traffic on The Mall . The column is 7.4m high , consisting of 622 stacked sheets of glass ( a total surface area of 954m2 ) , weighing 28 @.@ 6 tonnes .
= = Roll of Honour = =
The Memorial contains an inscribed roll of honour behind a glass panel , containing the names of approximately 1600 officers killed whilst on duty , in the course of effecting an arrest or whilst carrying out hazardous duties . The earliest entry is that of an unknown constable killed in 1680 . The book is compiled from the approximately 4000 names recorded by the Police Roll of Honour Trust , listing all officers who have died in the line of duty .
= = Criticism = =
The Memorial attracted criticism from some families of officers killed in the line of duty , regarding the high cost , and that the roll of honour lists only those officers killed during arrests or as a result of criminal acts , rather than all officers killed in the line of duty ; also that , with the book being behind glass , friends and relatives of the deceased are not able to view the relevant page . Before construction , objections were also raised to the Memorial 's construction by the London Historical Parks Group and the local residents ' association . Concern was also raised by some Irish republicans that the Memorial includes the names of those RUC officers killed in The Troubles .
= HMS Griffin ( H31 ) =
HMS Griffin ( H31 ) was a G @-@ class destroyer , built for the Royal Navy in the mid @-@ 1930s . In World War II she took part in the Norwegian Campaign of April – May 1940 and the Battle of Dakar in September before being transferred to the Mediterranean Fleet in November . She generally escorted larger ships of the Mediterranean Fleet as they protected convoys against attacks from the Italian Fleet . Griffin took part in the Battle of Cape Matapan in March 1941 and the evacuations of Greece and Crete in April – May 1941 . In June she took part in the Syria @-@ Lebanon Campaign and was escorting convoys and the larger ships of the Mediterranean Fleet until she was transferred to the Eastern Fleet in March 1942 .
Griffin saw no action in the Japanese Indian Ocean raid in April , but was escorting convoys for most of her time in the Indian Ocean . In June she returned to the Mediterranean to escort another convoy to Malta in Operation Vigorous . Beginning in November 1942 , she was converted to an escort destroyer in the United Kingdom and was transferred to the Royal Canadian Navy on 1 March 1943 . The ship , now renamed HMCS Ottawa , was assigned to escort convoys in the North Atlantic until she was transferred in May 1944 to protect the forces involved with the Normandy Landings . Working with other destroyers , Ottawa sank three German submarines off the French coast before she returned to Canada for a lengthy refit . After the end of the European war in May 1945 she was used to bring Canadian troops until she was paid off in October 1945 . Ottawa was sold for scrap in August 1946 .
= = Description = =
Griffin displaced 1 @,@ 350 long tons ( 1 @,@ 370 t ) at standard load and 1 @,@ 883 long tons ( 1 @,@ 913 t ) at deep load . She had an overall length of 323 feet ( 98 @.@ 5 m ) , a beam of 33 feet ( 10 @.@ 1 m ) and a draught of 12 feet 5 inches ( 3 @.@ 8 m ) . She was powered by Parsons geared steam turbines , driving two shafts , which developed a total of 34 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 25 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 36 knots ( 67 km / h ; 41 mph ) . Steam for the turbines was provided by three Admiralty 3 @-@ drum boilers . Griffin carried a maximum of 470 long tons ( 480 t ) of fuel oil that gave her a range of 5 @,@ 530 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 240 km ; 6 @,@ 360 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . Her complement was 137 officers and men in peacetime , but in increased to 146 in wartime .
The ship mounted four 45 @-@ calibre 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 120 mm ) Mark IX guns in single mounts . For anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) defence , Griffin had two quadruple Mark I mounts for the 0 @.@ 5 inch Vickers Mark III machine gun . She was fitted with two above @-@ water quadruple torpedo tube mounts for 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedoes . One depth charge rail and two throwers were fitted ; 20 depth charges were originally carried , but this increased to 35 shortly after the war began .
Beginning in mid @-@ 1940 , her anti @-@ aircraft armament was increased although when exactly the modifications were made is not known . The rear set of torpedo tubes was replaced by a 3 @-@ inch ( 76 @.@ 2 mm ) ( 12 @-@ pounder ) AA gun and the quadruple .50 @-@ calibre Vickers mounts were replaced by 20 @-@ millimetre ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) Oerlikon autocannon . Two more Oerlikon guns were also added in the forward superstructure .
= = Service history = =
Griffin was laid down by Vickers @-@ Armstrongs Naval Construction Works at Barrow @-@ in @-@ Furness on 20 September 1934 , launched on 15 August 1935 , and completed on 6 March 1936 . Excluding government @-@ furnished equipment such as armament , she cost £ 248 @,@ 518 . Griffin joined her sisters and was assigned to the 1st Destroyer Flotilla of the Mediterranean Fleet upon commissioning . She escorted the ocean liner SS Strathnaver between Malta and Alexandria in the Munich Crisis in September 1938 . She then escorted the light cruiser Arethusa on her voyage to Aden . She collided with the target destroyer Shikari on 2 February 1939 and her repairs were completed five days later .
= = = With the Royal Navy , 1939 – 1942 = = =
On 3 September 1939 Griffin was in Alexandria and still assigned to the 1st Destroyer Flotilla . In October she was transferred to home waters . On 7 October she was escorting the 7 @,@ 289 GRT troopship Mohamed Ali El @-@ Kebir from Avonmouth bound for Gibraltar when the German submarine U @-@ 38 torpedoed the troopship in the Western Approaches about 230 nautical miles ( 430 km ) west of Bloody Foreland in Ireland . 96 people were killed but Griffin attacked and chased away the submarine with depth charges and then rescued 766 survivors , whom she landed at Greenock on the Firth of Clyde on 9 October .
She rejoined her flotilla at Harwich in November , where they patrolled the North Sea and escorted local convoys . She rescued survivors from her sister Gipsy after that ship struck a mine off Harwich on 21 November . She was damaged the same month and was under repair until 6 December . In preparation for the Norwegian Campaign , Griffin was transferred to the Home Fleet at Scapa Flow in April 1940 .
Griffin escorted the capital ships of the Home Fleet as they sortied into the North Sea on 7 April and continued that duty for the next several weeks . On 24 April , Griffin and the destroyer Acheron captured the German trawler Schiff 26 , bound for Narvik with a cargo that included mines and torpedoes . She evacuated British and French troops from Namsos , and rescued survivors from the destroyer Afridi after she was sunk by Junkers Ju 87 Stuka dive bombers on 3 May . The Stukas also attacked Griffin , without success . Griffin was then transferred to the 13th Destroyer Flotilla of the North Atlantic Command at Gibraltar . She escorted the capital ships of Force H in the Battle of Dakar on 23 September , but was not engaged . On 20 October , with her sisters Gallant and Hotspur , she sank the Italian submarine Lafolè off Melilla . Griffin escorted the battleship Barham and the cruisers Berwick and Glasgow in Operation Coat in early November as they joined the Mediterranean Fleet . Griffin herself was transferred to the 14th Destroyer Flotilla in Alexandria and took part in the inconclusive Battle of Cape Spartivento on 27 November in Operation Collar .
In Operation Excess , Gallant struck a mine off Pantellaria on 10 January 1941 and Griffin rescued most of the survivors . In February 1941 she was transferred to the Red Sea where she escorted the aircraft carrier Formidable in the latter 's operations in support of the military offensive in Italian Somaliland ( " Operation Canvas " ) . Griffin escorted the capital ships of the Mediterranean Fleet in the Battle of Cape Matapan on 28 / 29 March . With her sister Greyhound , she attacked some of the Italian destroyers , but lost them when they passed through their own smokescreen . Griffin , the Australian destroyer Stuart , and the gunboat Gnat bombarded Axis positions near Sollum in northwestern Egypt on 15 April . She took part in the evacuation of British , Australian and New Zealand troops from Greece at the end of April . On 27 April she rescued 50 survivors from the destroyers Diamond and Wryneck , which had been sunk by German aircraft in the Sea of Crete . She again escorted the capital ships of the Mediterranean Fleet as they covered a convoy from Alexandria to Malta on 8 May . In the evacuation of Crete at the end of May , Griffin evacuated 720 men from Souda Bay .
During Operation Exporter , the ship escorted the Australian light cruiser Perth as she bombarded Vichy French positions in Lebanon on 2 July . Griffin escorted convoys to and from Tobruk from July to November . On 25 November she was escorting the battleships of the Mediterranean Fleet when Barham was torpedoed by German submarine U @-@ 331 . She escorted the light cruiser Naiad when that ship bombarded Derna in early December and was transferred to the 2nd Destroyer Flotilla later that month . Griffin escorted convoys to Malta in January and February 1942 @.@ until she was transferred to the Eastern Fleet in the Indian Ocean in late February . Griffin was assigned to Force A of the fleet in the Indian Ocean raid by the Japanese in early April 1942 . She returned to the Mediterranean to take part in Operation Vigorous , another convoy from Alexandria to Malta , in June . She rejoined the Eastern Fleet afterwards and escorted convoys there until ordered home to begin conversion to an escort destroyer in September .
= = = Refit and transfer to Canada , 1942 – 1946 = = =
Work on the conversion began on 2 November in Southampton and included the removal of two 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch guns and the 12 @-@ pounder AA gun , and their replacement with a Hedgehog anti @-@ submarine mortar forward and additional depth charges aft . Type 286 and 271 radar sets were fitted , as well as additional 20 mm Oerlikon AA guns . While still refitting , on 1 March 1943 , Griffin was transferred to the Royal Canadian Navy , and commissioned on 20 March , four days before her conversion was finished . The ship was renamed Ottawa on 10 April to commemorate an earlier HMCS Ottawa which had been sunk . After working up at Tobermory , she sailed for Canada , and was gifted to the Canadians on 15 June . Ottawa became the senior ship of Escort Group C5 which worked between St. John 's , Newfoundland , and Derry , Northern Ireland until May 1944 when she became the senior ship of the 11th Escort Group . The 11th consisted of the Canadian destroyers Kootenay , Chaudière , Gatineau , and St. Laurent and were tasked to protect the invasion forces for D @-@ Day . On 6 July 1944 , Ottawa , Kootenay , and the British frigate Statice sank U @-@ 678 off Beachy Head , Sussex . Ottawa and Chaudière sank U @-@ 621 on 16 August near La Rochelle and two days later they sank U @-@ 984 west of Brest .
Ottawa was refitted in St. John 's between 12 October 1944 and 26 February 1945 . On 11 March she collided with the Canadian minesweeper Stratford off Halifax and was under repair until 30 April . After the end of the war in May she ferried Canadian troops back to Canada until she was paid off on 31 October . Ottawa was sold to the International Iron and Metal Company in August 1946 and subsequently broken up .
= Minas Geraes @-@ class battleship =
The Minas Geraes class , spelled Minas Gerais in some sources , consisted of two battleships built for the Brazilian Navy in the early twentieth century . Named Minas Geraes and São Paulo , the ships were intended to be Brazil 's first step towards becoming an international power , and they consequently initiated a South American naval arms race .
In 1904 , Brazil began a major naval building program that included three small battleships . Designing and ordering the ships took two years , but these plans were scrapped after the revolutionary " dreadnought " concept rendered the Brazilian design obsolete — two dreadnoughts were instead ordered from the United Kingdom instead , making Brazil the third country to have ships of this type under construction — before traditional powers like Germany , France , or Russia . As such , the ships created much uncertainty among the major countries in the world , many of whom incorrectly speculated the ships were actually destined for a rival nation . Similarly , they also caused much consternation in Argentina and consequently Chile .
Soon after their delivery in 1910 , both Minas Geraes and São Paulo were embroiled in the Revolt of the Lash ( Revolta da Chibata ) , in which the crews of four Brazilian ships demanded the abolition of corporal punishment in the navy . The mutineers surrendered after four days , when a bill was passed granting amnesty to all those involved . In 1922 , the two battleships were used to help put down a revolt at Fort Copacabana . Two years later , lieutenants on São Paulo mutinied but found little support from other military units , so they sailed to Montevideo , Uruguay , and obtained asylum . Minas Geraes was modernized in the 1930s , but both battleships were too old to participate actively in the Second World War , and instead were employed as harbor defense ships in Salvador and Recife . São Paulo was sold in 1951 to a British shipbreaker , but was lost in a storm north of the Azores while being towed to its final destination . Minas Geraes was sold to an Italian scrapper in 1953 and towed to Genoa the following year .
= = Background = =
Brazil 's navy fell into obsolescence after an 1889 revolution , which deposed Emperor Dom Pedro II , and an 1893 civil war . Meanwhile , an Argentine – Chilean dispute over the boundary of Patagonia and control of the Beagle Channel kindled a naval arms race between the two beginning in the late 1880s and lasting until 1902 . Restrictions were placed on the navies of both countries and major vessels under construction in both navies were sold as part of the British @-@ mediated three pacts which ended the dispute , but both countries retained the numerous vessels built in the interim . As such , by the turn of the 20th century the Brazilian Navy lagged far behind the Chilean and Argentine navies in quality and total tonnage , despite Brazil having nearly three times the population of Argentina and almost five times the population of Chile .
Soaring demand for coffee and rubber brought Brazil an influx of revenue in the early 1900s . Simultaneously , there was a drive on the part of prominent Brazilians , most notably the Baron of Rio Branco , to have the country recognized as an international power . A large naval acquisition program was drawn up and passed by the National Congress of Brazil in October 1904 in accordance with their belief that a powerful navy would be crucial to the achievement of this goal , but it was two years before any ships were ordered .
Two factions argued over the types of ships to be ordered . One favored a navy centered on a small number of large warships , while the other preferred a larger navy of smaller warships . The latter originally prevailed with a bill authorizing the construction of three small battleships , three armored cruisers , six destroyers , twelve torpedo boats , three submarines , and two river monitors . Though the Brazilian government later eliminated the armored cruisers for monetary reasons , the Minister of the Navy , Admiral Júlio César de Noronha , signed a contract with Armstrong Whitworth for three battleships on 23 July 1906 . While the first designs for these ships were derived from the Norwegian coastal defense ship Norge and the British ( originally Chilean ) Swiftsure class , the contracted ships were to follow Armstrong Whitworth 's Design 439 ( Design 188 in Vickers ' files ) . They would displace 11 @,@ 800 long tons ( 12 @,@ 000 tonnes ) , have a speed of 19 knots ( 22 mph ; 35 km / h ) , and be protected by belt armor of 9 inches ( 23 cm ) and deck armor of 1 @.@ 5 in ( 3 @.@ 8 cm ) . Each ship would be armed with twelve 10 @-@ inch ( 25 cm ) guns mounted in six twin turrets . These turrets would be mounted in a hexagonal configuration , similar to the later German Nassau @-@ class battleships .
Alarmed , the American ambassador to Brazil sent a cablegram to his Department of State in September 1906 , warning them of the destabilization that would occur if the situation devolved into a full naval arms race . At the same time , the American government under Theodore Roosevelt tried using diplomatic means to coerce the Brazilians into canceling their ships , but the attempts were dismissed , with the Baron of Rio Branco remarking that caving to the American demands would render Brazil as powerless as suzerain Cuba . The President of Brazil , Afonso Pena , supported the naval acquisitions in an address to the National Congress of Brazil in November 1906 , as in his opinion the ships were necessary to replace the antiquated and obsolete vessels of the current navy .
= = Bidding and construction = =
Design 439 was modified before these ships were laid down , increasing the displacement to 14 @,@ 334 long tons ( 14 @,@ 564 t ) and making them slightly longer and wider . Two of these ships were laid down by Armstrong at Elswick in Newcastle upon Tyne ( Minas Geraes and Rio de Janeiro ) , while the other was subcontracted out to Vickers in Barrow ( São Paulo ) . However , the new dreadnought concept , which was showcased upon the completion of the namesake ship in December 1906 , rendered the Brazilian ships obsolete . A transition to a few large warships was finalized with the selection of Rear Admiral Alexandrino Faria de Alencar for the powerful post of minister of the navy . The money authorized for naval expansion was redirected by de Alencar to building two dreadnoughts , with plans for a third dreadnought after the first was completed , two scout cruisers ( which became the Bahia class ) , ten destroyers ( the Pará class ) , and three submarines . The three battleships on which construction had just begun were demolished beginning on 7 January 1907 .
An entirely new design incorporating the latest dreadnought technology was drawn up by J.R. Perret , the head of Elswick Ordnance Company , and approved by the Brazilian government on 20 February 1907 . Argentina and Chile immediately annulled the 1902 treaty that had ended their naval arms race , and both planned to expand their own navies , though Chile was delayed by a financial depression in 1907 and a major earthquake the next year .
Minas Geraes , the lead ship , was laid down by Armstrong on 17 April 1907 , while its sister ship São Paulo followed thirteen days later at Vickers . Construction of the partial hull needed to launch Minas Geraes was delayed by a four @-@ month strike to 10 September 1908 , and São Paulo followed on 19 April 1909 . Both were christened in front of large crowds by the wife of Francisco Régis de Oliveira , the Brazilian ambassador to the United Kingdom . After multiple trials of the speed , endurance , efficiency , and weaponry of the ship , Minas Geraes was completed and handed over to Brazil on 5 January 1910 . São Paulo followed in July , after its own trials . The third dreadnought , which would have been named Rio de Janeiro and was provided for in the original contract , was laid down on 16 March , but as the ship had already been eclipsed by new naval technology ( chiefly the advent of super @-@ dreadnoughts , beginning with the British HMS Orion ) , the Brazilian government canceled its on 7 May and asked Armstrong to prepare a new design .
At this time , the dreadnought design had not been fully validated , despite the success of the British namesake ; for example , there were still concerns that the Minas Geraes class ' superfiring turret arrangement — which had not been utilized on the original Dreadnought , but was also being installed on the American South Carolina class — would cause blast to hurt the crew in the lower turret . Any immediate concerns , however , were mitigated during the firing tests when no ill effects were observed , though the Times ( London ) reported that there were still concerns registered during São Paulo 's gun trials in June 1910 .
= = International reaction = =
The start of work on Minas Geraes meant that Brazil had become the third country — behind the United Kingdom and the United States but ahead of major powers such as Germany , France , Russia and Japan — to have a dreadnought under construction .
The order for the dreadnoughts caused an immediate stir in the United States and Europe ; in the words of the British Navy League Annual , they " astonished the naval world " . The American New York Times opened an article on Minas Geraes ' launch with " What on paper at least is the most powerful warship ever built for any navy ... " , while Scientific American called Minas Geraes " the last word in heavy battleship design and the ... most powerfully armed warship afloat . " Some publications , like the American Advocate of Peace , decried the dreadnought purchase for its cost , calling it " a showy and pretentious naval policy seemingly for the sheer indulgence of national pride " and continuing with " [ sinking ] money into useless warships when , it is understood , foreign money has had to be borrowed for city improvements in Rio de Janeiro is pitiful politics . "
The British House of Commons debated purchasing the ships in March 1908 to bolster the Royal Navy while simultaneously ensuring they would not be sold to a foreign rival . The topic arose again in July and September , when Arthur Lee expressed his discomfort at the possible final dispositions of the Brazilian ships , as any sale had the potential to disrupt their " Two @-@ Power Standard " . International Marine Engineering analyzed the effect of a sale to Japan , stating that the total broadside weight of Japan 's line of battle would be increased by 31 @.@ 6 % , and the only ships capable of matching the Minas Geraes ' in the near future would be the American Delaware and German Nassau classes .
Newspapers and journals around the world speculated that Brazil was acting as a proxy for a naval power which would take possession of the two dreadnoughts soon after completion , as they did not believe that a previously insignificant geopolitical power would contract for such powerful armament . The evidence for a sale seemed strong , as Brazilian attempts to float a multi @-@ million @-@ dollar loan against the value of their coffee crop in 1908 were unsuccessful . With three dreadnoughts planned ( including the upcoming Rio de Janeiro ) , a Spanish naval journal stated " it was only natural that rumors [ would begin ] to circulate supporting the argument that Brazil acted as an intermediary for some great power which would acquire them before they terminate their construction . " Various British papers speculated that either the Germans , Japanese , or Americans were actually buying the ships , while naval experts in Germany thought the Americans , British , or Japanese were going to take them over . On the other side of the Atlantic , some American papers theorized that the ships would be sold to the United Kingdom , Germany , or Japan . The Brazilian government was forced to deny these spurious allegations several times . The New York Times remarked :
The rumor is that the three warships ... ordered [ in Britain ] two years ago will be launched from English shores only to fly the German flag . It is asserted that these ships , which are named the Sao Paulo , the Minas Geras [ sic ] and the Rio de Janeiro , and all of which will be completed by next fall , will be conveyed to the German government on the payment of $ 30 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 .
It may be recalled that when orders were placed for the ships ... there was much speculation as to the destiny of the vessels , as no naval expert could understand how a second @-@ rate power like Brazil needed such formidable engines of war which would represent absolutely the latest stages of naval construction and armament . Meanwhile , it had been reported that the ships were being built for the Japanese government , which had a secret understanding with Brazil . But this theory was soon discarded by the fact that relations between these two countries were not extremely cordial on account of the attitude of Brazil toward the immigration of Japanese laborers . Then it was semi @-@ officially stated that the ships would never leave the ways except to fly the British flag , but the money for such a purpose could only be raised by a loan or the Admiralty getting the sum from the sinking fund — contingencies which would naturally become public property long before they could be carried out . ( " Germany May Buy English Warships , " New York Times , 9 August 1908 , C8 )
Despite the speculation , the United States quickly began courting Brazil as an ally ; caught up in the spirit , US naval journals began using terms like " Pan Americanism " and " Hemispheric Cooperation " .
In South America , the ships came as a rude shock and kindled a naval arms race among Brazil , Argentina , and Chile . The 1902 treaty between the latter two was canceled upon the Brazilian dreadnought order so both could be free to build their own dreadnoughts . Argentina in particular was alarmed at the possible power of the ships . The Minister of Foreign Affairs , Manuel Augusto Montes de Oca , remarked that either Minas Geraes or São Paulo could destroy the entire Argentine and Chilean fleets . While this may have been hyperbole , either one was much more powerful than any single vessel in the Argentinian fleet . As such , the Argentines quickly responded to the dreadnoughts with an order to the United States for two of their own , the Rivadavia class , while Chile ordered two of the Almirante Latorre class from the United Kingdom .
= = Ships = =
= = Service histories = =
After completion , both Minas Geraes and São Paulo sailed to other countries before arriving in Brazil . Minas Geraes left the Tyne on 5 February 1910 and traveled to Plymouth before beginning a voyage to the United States on 8 February . The ship was assigned to escort the American armored cruiser North Carolina , carrying the body of the former Brazilian ambassador to the United States Joaquim Nabuco , to Rio de Janeiro . They arrived in the city on 17 April 1910 . São Paulo left Greenock on 16 September 1910 , and stopped in Cherbourg , France , to embark the Brazilian President Hermes da Fonseca . Departing on the 27th , São Paulo voyaged to Lisbon , Portugal , where Fonseca was a guest of Portugal 's King Manuel II . Soon after they arrived , the 5 October 1910 revolution began . Although the President offered political asylum to the King and his family , the offer was refused . There was a rumor that the King was on board and revolutionaries attempted to search the ship , but were denied permission . They also asked for Brazil to land marines " to help in the maintenance of order , " but this request was also denied . São Paulo left Lisbon on 7 October for Rio de Janeiro , and docked there on 25 October .
= = = Revolt of the Lash = = =
Soon after São Paulo 's arrival , a major rebellion known as the Revolt of the Lash , or Revolta da Chibata , broke out on four of the newest ships in the Brazilian Navy . The initial spark was provided on 16 November 1910 when Afro @-@ Brazilian sailor Marcelino Rodrigues Menezes was brutally flogged 250 times for insubordination . Many Afro @-@ Brazilian sailors were sons of former slaves , or were former slaves freed under the Lei Áurea ( abolition ) but forced to enter the navy . They had been planning a revolt for some time , and Menezes became the catalyst . Further preparations were needed , so the rebellion was delayed until 22 November . The crewmen of Minas Geraes , São Paulo , the twelve @-@ year @-@ old Deodoro , and the new Bahia quickly took their vessels with only a minimum of bloodshed : two officers on Minas Geraes and one each on São Paulo and Bahia were killed .
The ships were well @-@ supplied with foodstuffs , ammunition , and coal , and the only demand of mutineers — led by João Cândido Felisberto — was the abolition of " slavery as practiced by the Brazilian Navy " . They objected to low pay , long hours , inadequate training for incompetent sailors , and punishments including bôlo ( being struck on the hand with a ferrule ) and the use of whips or lashes ( chibata ) , which eventually became a symbol of the revolt . By the 23rd , the National Congress had begun discussing the possibility of a general amnesty for the sailors . Senator Ruy Barbosa , long an opponent of slavery , lent a large amount of support , and the measure unanimously passed the Federal Senate on 24 November . The measure was then sent to the Chamber of Deputies .
Humiliated by the revolt , naval officers and the president of Brazil were staunchly opposed to amnesty , so they quickly began planning to assault the rebel ships . The former believed such an action was necessary to restore the service 's honor . Late on the 24th , the President ordered the naval officers to attack the mutineers . Officers crewed some smaller warships and the cruiser Rio Grande do Sul , Bahia 's sister ship with ten 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch guns . They planned to attack on the morning of the 25th , when the government expected the mutineers would return to Guanabara Bay . When they did not return and the amnesty measure neared passage in the Chamber of Deputies , the order was rescinded . After the bill passed 125 – 23 and the president signed it into law , the mutineers stood down on the 26th .
During the revolt , the ships were noted by many observers to be well @-@ handled , despite a previous belief that the Brazilian Navy was incapable of effectively operating the ships even before being split by a rebellion . João Cândido Felisberto ordered all liquor thrown overboard , and discipline on the ships was recognized as exemplary . The 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch guns were often used for shots over the city , but the 12 @-@ inch were not , which led to a suspicion among the naval officers that the rebels were incapable of using the weapons . Later research and interviews indicate that Minas Geraes ' guns were fully operational , and while São Paulo 's could not be turned after salt water contaminated the hydraulic system , British engineers still on board the ship after the voyage from the United Kingdom were working on the problem . Still , historians have never ascertained how well the mutineers could handle the ships .
= = = Later career = = =
Three years after the mutiny , Minas Geraes was used to transport Brazilian Minister of Foreign Affairs Lauro Müller to the United States . The ship returned on 16 July and arrived in Rio de Janeiro on 16 August . In September both Minas Geraes and São Paulo participated in a major exercise with most of the Brazilian Navy . The need for more modern fire control system was identified as early as late 1913 , but no action was taken . When Brazil entered the First World War in 1917 , they were offered to the United Kingdom for service in the Grand Fleet , but the British declined due to the condition the ships were in . They had not been modernized since entering service , and maintenance had been neglected ; to illustrate the problem , when Brazil sent São Paulo to the United States for a modernization in June 1918 , fourteen of the eighteen boilers that powered the ship failed . The ship only finished the voyage to New York with the assistance of the American battleship Nebraska and cruiser Raleigh . Minas Geraes followed after its sister 's return , and the modernization was done between 1 September 1920 and 1 October 1921 .
São Paulo made two trips to Europe in 1920 . The first conveyed King Albert I and Queen Elisabeth of Belgium to Brazil for the centennial celebrations . After São Paulo brought them home , the ship traveled to Portugal to take the bodies of the formerly @-@ exiled Emperor Pedro II and his wife , Teresa Cristina , back to Brazil . In July 1922 , both battleships helped to quash the first of the Tenente revolts ( Revolução Tenentista ) , in which the garrison of Rio de Janeiro 's Fort Copacabana rebelled and began bombarding the city . São Paulo shelled the fort , and the rebels surrendered shortly thereafter ; Minas Geraes did not fire its guns . In 1924 , three lieutenants , including Hercolino Cascardo , took over São Paulo with other crewmen . They were unsuccessful in swaying any other ships to their cause , except for an old torpedo boat , and soon sailed out of the harbor after firing a six @-@ pounder gun at Minas Geraes . Short of food and with condensers in poor condition , the rebels sailed to Montevideo , where they received asylum . Minas Geraes followed São Paulo , arriving on 11 November and taking back possession of the ship .
Minas Geraes was modernized at the Rio de Janeiro Naval Yard from June 1931 to 1938 , while São Paulo led a naval force that broke the naval blockade of Santos during the Constitutionalist Revolution of 1932 . Though Brazil had also intended to modernize São Paulo , its poor condition — she was only able to make 10 knots ( 12 mph ; 19 km / h ) instead of its designed speed of 21 knots ( 24 mph ; 39 km / h ) — made such action uneconomical . Soon after Brazil 's entrance into the Second World War on 21 August 1942 , São Paulo was moved to Recife on 23 August to defend that port as a harbor defense ship ; Minas Geraes played a similar role at Salvador . Even with the modernization , Minas Geraes was simply too old and vulnerable to actively participate in the war .
Both ships were decommissioned after the war , São Paulo on 2 August 1947 and Minas Geraes on 31 December 1952 . The former was sold to a British shipbreaker and was towed out of Rio de Janeiro on 20 September 1951 . When north of the Azores in a strong storm , the tow line snapped . Though multiple searches were mounted by American and British aircraft , the ship was never found . Minas Geraes was sold to an Italian company in 1953 and towed to Genoa from 11 March 1954 to 22 April .
= = Specifications = =
The two ships of the Minas Geraes class were 543 feet ( 166 m ) overall , 530 feet ( 160 m ) at the waterline , and 500 feet ( 150 m ) between perpendiculars . They had a beam of 83 feet ( 25 m ) , a mean draft of 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) , a maximum draft of 28 feet ( 8 @.@ 5 m ) , a normal displacement of 18 @,@ 976 long tons ( 19 @,@ 281 t ) , and a displacement of 20 @,@ 900 long tons ( 21 @,@ 200 t ) at full load . At the beginning of their careers , the ships were crewed by about 900 men .
Minas Geraes and São Paulo were originally armed with twelve 12 @-@ inch / 45 caliber , twenty @-@ two 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch / 50 caliber , and eight 3 @-@ pounder naval guns . The main battery was arranged with four superfiring turrets , two each fore and aft , and two placed en echelon . The 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch secondary guns were placed in casemates along the side of the ship .
The propulsion of the two ships was provided by Vickers vertical triple expansion engines instead of the steam turbines being used to power most contemporary dreadnoughts . Eighteen boilers provided power to the engines , which in turn rotated the two three @-@ bladed propellers with 23 @,@ 500 shaft horsepower . Their designed top speed was 21 knots ( 24 mph ; 39 km / h ) , though this was frequently unattainable in their later careers owing to substandard maintenance and neglect . The ships could carry 2 @,@ 350 tonnes ( 2 @,@ 310 long tons ) of coal and 400 tonnes ( 390 long tons ) of oil , and their original endurance was 10 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 12 @,@ 000 mi ; 19 @,@ 000 km ) when traveling at 10 knots ( 12 mph ; 19 km / h ) . During its trials , Minas Geraes was able to steam at 22 @.@ 29 knots ( 25 @.@ 65 mph ; 41 @.@ 28 km / h ) .
The main armor belt was Krupp cemented and nine inches ( 230 mm ) thick , but narrowed to six and three inches ( 150 and 76 mm ) closer to each end of the ships . The barbettes were protected by nine @-@ inch armor , while the turret had a twelve @-@ inch ( 300 mm ) front , eight @-@ inch ( 200 mm ) sides , and a two- to three @-@ inch ( 51 to 76 mm ) top , and the conning tower had twelve @-@ inch armor . The deck armor had multiple decks of one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half to two inches ( 38 to 51 mm ) , one inch ( 25 mm ) , and one inch .
= = Endnotes = =
= Benjamin Ogle Tayloe House =
The Benjamin Ogle Tayloe House is a Federal @-@ style house located at 21 Madison Place NW in Washington , D.C. , in the United States . The house is on the northeast corner of Madison Place NW and Pennsylvania Avenue NW , directly across the street from the White House and the Treasury Building . Built in 1828 by Benjamin Ogle Tayloe , son of Colonel John Tayloe III ( who built the famous Octagon House ) , the house became a salon for politically powerful people in the federal government .
Phoebe Tayloe inherited the house upon Tayloe 's death in 1868 . After she died in 1881 , more than 200 marble statues , bronze sculptures , fine furniture , and paintings in the house were donated to the Corcoran Gallery of Art . Phoebe Warren Tayloe 's niece , Elizabeth H. Price , inherited the house in 1882 and later sold it to Senator Don Cameron of Pennsylvania for $ 60 @,@ 000 in 1887 . In around 1896 , the U.S. Senate passed legislation which would have made the building the official residence of the Vice President of the United States , but the House of Representatives failed to act on the bill . Cameron leased the house to Vice President Garret Hobart from March 1897 until the fall of 1899 and the press and public nicknamed the house the " Historic Corner " and the " Cream White House " for the large number of politically important visitors and meetings held on the premises , with esteemed guests such as the International Boundary Commission and Prince Albert of Belgium . Hobart 's failing health led the family to leave the Tayloe House in the fall of 1899 and Cameron then leased the home to Republican Senator Mark Hanna from January 1900 to 1902 . Hanna 's important political discussions of the moment with William McKinley and Theodore Roosevelt over substantial breakfasts of corned beef hash and pancakes became famous .
The Congressional Union for Woman Suffrage leased the house in the fall of 1915 , and made the building its headquarters for two years . The Cosmos Club had considered purchasing the house from the Tayloe family in 1885 and eventually bought it in December 1917 . They vacated it in 1952 to move to their new headquarters ; the building was purchased by the U.S. government and used for offices . From October 1958 until November 1961 , the house was the headquarters of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration ( NASA ) .
Nearly razed to the ground in 1960 along with other buildings on Lafayette Square , successful lobbying and support from the newly elected Kennedy administration in 1961 led to the original proposals to gut the building being dropped . First Lady Jacqueline Kennedy was instrumental in persuading architect John Carl Warnecke , a friend of her husband , to create a design that would incorporate the new buildings with the old , based on the architectural theory of contextualism . The Cutts @-@ Madison House , Cosmos Club building , and Benjamin Ogle Tayloe House were joined , and a courtyard built between them and the National Courts building . The building has remained part of the National Courts building complex ever since , and is now protected by the National Register of Historic Places .
= = Construction = =
Benjamin Ogle Tayloe married Julia Maria Dickinson on November 8 , 1824 . Although Tayloe preferred to live at Windsor , his estate in King George County , Virginia , his wife asked that they move into the city , where she was more comfortable . The house was constructed on Lots 10 and 11 in Square 221 . At the time of the building 's construction in 1828 , the expanse of the city from 15th Street NW ( one block east of the home ) to 17th Street NW from the White House north to H Street NW was a flat field bare of trees and shrubs .
As originally built , the Federal @-@ style house had three stories . The completed house had four or five parlors . It was built of unpainted , cream @-@ colored brick . The entrance was level with the ground , with an oriel window above it on the second floor and a Palladian window on the third floor above that . An oval portico protected visitors arriving at the front doors .
= = Tayloe years = =
The house was completed in 1828 , but not immediately occupied . Tayloe had a strong political disagreement with the newly elected President , Andrew Jackson , and refused to move into the home . Tayloe leased the building to Thomas Swann , Sr. , a lawyer ( and the father of Thomas Swann , Jr . , who became Governor of Maryland in 1866 ) . Swann vacated the home in November 1829 , at which time Tayloe and his wife occupied it . The house was an important social gathering place for important Washingtonians in the four decades following its construction . In 1829 , when Henry Clay left the office of Secretary of State , much of the furniture in his home was acquired by the Tayloes and used to decorate their home . Tayloe House was the last house in Washington visited by President William Henry Harrison before he death in 1841 .
Julia Tayloe died on July 4 , 1846 . Tayloe married Phoebe Warren on April 17 , 1849 .
Tayloe House was the scene of a murder in 1859 . Philip Barton Key II was the son of Francis Scott Key and the nephew of Chief Justice Roger B. Taney . In the spring of 1858 , Key began having an affair with Teresa Bagioli Sickles , the wife of his friend Daniel Sickles . On February 26 , 1859 , Sickles learned of the affair . The following day , he saw Key in Lafayette Square signalling to his wife . Sickles rushed out into the park , drew a single pistol , and shot the unarmed Key three times while the other man pleaded for his life . Key was taken into the nearby Tayloe House and died moments later . Key 's spirit , eyewitnesses and authors claim , now haunts Lafayette Square and can be seen on dark nights near the spot where he was shot .
The Tayloe house became a noted meeting place for many of the leading political figures of early 19th @-@ century American politics . Tayloe was one of the most influential and active members of the Whig Party in the District of Columbia . Among the many frequent visitors to the house were Chief Justice John Marshall , Senator and Secretary of State Henry Clay , Senator and Secretary of State Daniel Webster , Vice President and Secretary of State John C. Calhoun , Senator Henry Clay , Senator and Secretary of State Lewis Cass , Secretary of State Edward Livingston , Speaker of the House and Senator Robert Charles Winthrop , General Winfield Scott , Senator and Secretary of State Edward Everett , Senator and Secretary of State William H. Seward , Associate Justice Joseph Story , and many others . Presidents John Quincy Adams , Martin Van Buren , William Henry Harrison , Zachary Taylor , and Millard Fillmore also were frequent guests . Anthony Trollope spent much of his free time being entertained by the Tayloes at their home during his visit to Washington , D.C. , in the winter of 1862 .
Benjamin Ogle Tayloe died on February 28 , 1868 , and Phoebe Tayloe inherited the house . After she died in 1881 , more than 200 marble statues , bronze sculptures , items of fine furniture , and paintings in the house were donated to the Corcoran Gallery of Art . Phoebe Warren Tayloe 's niece , Elizabeth H. Price , inherited the house in 1882 .
In April 1885 , the Cosmos Club considered purchasing the house from the Tayloe family . The influential club already owned most of the block north of the Tayloe House , and was expanding rapidly . It valued the home at $ 60 @,@ 000 and the furnishings at an additional $ 5 @,@ 000 . The Cosmos Club declined to buy the home after an investigation found that the cost of upgrading the Tayloe property for its use would be too costly .
= = Cameron years = =
Senator Don Cameron of Pennsylvania purchased the Benjamin Ogle Tayloe House for $ 60 @,@ 000 in 1887 , and resided there for a time . Cameron expanded the home significantly , almost entirely rebuilding its interior . After the renovation , the front entrance opened onto a square entrance hall . A fireplace adorned the hall . Large rooms on either side of the entrance hall were used as office space . A broad staircase led from the entrance hall up to the second floor , where there were four large rooms . The rooms opened on to one another , permitting the second floor to be opened up into something approaching a single large ballroom . The windows on the second floor reached to the floor . An iron veranda ran around the entire second floor . The home contained a total of 30 rooms after the renovation . Cameron did not , however , renovate the exterior , which remained much the same as it always had . Henry Adams was a frequent guest of the Camerons , playing often with their daughter Martha to alleviate his bouts of depression .
About 1896 , the U.S. Senate passed legislation which would have made the building the official residence of the Vice President of the United States , but the House of Representatives failed to act on the bill .
Cameron leased the house to Vice President Garret Hobart from March 1897 until the fall of 1899 . No other Vice President had ever lived so close to the White House , and this close proximity helped boost Hobart 's access to and influence with the President so much that he was called " Assistant President " and is now considered one of the most powerful Vice Presidents in U.S. history . On several occasions Hobart entertained the entire U.S. Senate at the house , as well as President William McKinley . The International Boundary Commission ( which established much of the water and land boundary between the U.S. and Canada ) dined in the house at a formal dinner hosted by Hobart , as did Prince Albert of Belgium . The press and public nicknamed the house the " Historic Corner " and the " Cream White House " ( a reference to the color of its brickwork ) for the large number of politically important visitors and meetings held on the premises during Hobart 's tenure there . Hobart 's failing health led the family to leave the Tayloe House in the fall of 1899 and return to New Jersey ( where Hobart died on November 21 ) .
Cameron then leased the home to Senator Mark Hanna from January 1900 to 1902 . Hanna developed his plans for the re @-@ election of President McKinley while resident in the house , plans which gave rise to the first " big money " presidential election in U.S. history . The home was also host to Hanna 's famous large breakfasts of corned beef hash and pancakes , over which the most important political decisions of the moment would be made . These meals were so politically important that President Theodore Roosevelt breakfasted with Hanna every Sunday . McKinley and other politically powerful people visited the home so much that it became known as the " Little White House . " It was at just such a breakfast on March 10 , 1902 , that J. P. Morgan asked Senator Hanna whether the United States government had any intention of filing an antitrust lawsuit against the recently formed Northern Securities Company . Hanna said the government would not file suit against the trust . When the government filed suit hours later , Morgan accused Hanna of betraying him , and Hanna accused Roosevelt of betraying him . Hanna died in office on February 15 , 1904 .
The Congressional Union for Woman Suffrage leased the house in the fall of 1915 , and made the building its headquarters for two years . The group rented the house in order to emphasize their importance in the fight for women 's suffrage .
= = Cosmos Club and federal government ownership = =
The Cosmos Club finally purchased the house on December 1 , 1917 . It used the home as its women 's annex , and converted the stables into a meeting hall .
The Cosmos Club vacated the Tayloe House in 1952 to move to new headquarters in the Townsend Mansion at 2121 Massachusetts Avenue NW , at which time the building was purchased by the U.S. government and used for offices . From October 1958 until November 1961 , the headquarters of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration ( NASA ) were in the Tayloe House . T. Keith Glennan , the first Administrator of NASA , also had his office in the structure .
In 1960 , the Tayloe House was nearly razed . The impetus for tearing down nearly all the historic structures on Lafayette Square began 60 years before . In 1900 , the United States Congress passed a resolution establishing the U.S. Senate Park Commission ( also known as the " McMillan Commission " because it was chaired by Michigan 's republican Senator James McMillan ) . The Park Commission 's charge was to reconcile competing visions for the development of Washington , D.C. , and in particular the National Mall and adjacent areas . The Park Commission 's proposals , which came to be known as the " McMillan Plan , " proposed that all the buildings around Lafayette Square be razed and replaced by tall , Neoclassical buildings clad in white marble for use by executive branch agencies . For a time , it appeared that the Cutts @-@ Madison House would not survive . William Wilson Corcoran 's Corcoran House at 1615 H Street NW was torn down in 1922 and replaced with the Neoclassical United States Chamber of Commerce headquarters . The Hay @-@ Adams Houses were razed in 1927 by real estate developer Harry Wardman , and the Hay – Adams Hotel built on the site . At nearby 1616 H Street NW , the Brookings Institution purchased the rear garden from the private owners of the Decatur House and built an eight @-@ story Modernist office building there . Several million dollars were spent in the late 1950s on designs to raze all the buildings on the east side of Lafayette Square and replace them with a white , modernist office building which would house judicial offices .
Opposition to the demolition of the Tayloe House and other buildings on Lafayette Square began forming shortly after the plan to raze the structures was announced . Senators James E. Murray and Wayne Morse , several members of the House of Representatives , and citizens of the District of Columbia lobbied to defeat the legislation authorizing the demolition of the buildings . The American Institute of Architects ( AIA ) devoted the February 1961 issue of its journal to a " Lament for Lafayette Square . " The AIA established a committee to develop plans to save the buildings and adapt the new structures so that they incorporated the style and feel of the older homes .
The newly elected Kennedy administration indicated on February 16 , 1961 , that it was anxious to retain the existing historic homes on Lafayette Square . In November , the Committee of 100 on the Federal City ( an influential group of city leaders ) asked President Kennedy to save and restore all the remaining buildings on Lafayette Square . In February 1962 , First Lady Jacqueline Kennedy lobbied General Services Administration ( GSA ) director Bernard L. Boutin to stop the demolition and adopt a different design plan . " The wreckers haven 't started yet , and until they do it can be saved , " she wrote . Mrs. Kennedy enlisted architect John Carl Warnecke , a friend of her husband 's who happened to be in town that weekend , to create a design which would incorporate the new buildings with the old . Warnecke conceived the basic design over that weekend , and worked closely with Mrs. Kennedy over the next few months to formalize the design proposal . The design was presented to the public and the Commission of Fine Arts ( which had approval over any plan ) in October 1962 , and with Mrs. Kennedy 's backing the Commission adopted the revised Warnecke design proposal .
Warnecke 's design for the square was based on the architectural theory of contextualism . Not only did Warnecke 's design build the first modern buildings on Lafayette Square , but they were the first buildings in the city to utilize contextualism as a design philosophy . Warnecke 's design for the Markey National Courts Building was to create tall , flat structures in red brick which would serve as relatively unobtrusive backgrounds to the lighter @-@ colored residential homes like the Cutts @-@ Madison House . The Cutts @-@ Madison House , Cosmos Club building , and Benjamin Ogle Tayloe House were joined , and a courtyard built between them and the National Courts building .
The Tayloe House has remained part of the National Courts building complex ever since .
= A Boy and His Blob : Trouble on Blobolonia =
A Boy and His Blob : Trouble on Blobolonia is a 1989 video game developed by Imagineering for the Nintendo Entertainment System ( NES ) . The video game was published by Absolute Entertainment in North America and Europe and by Jaleco in Japan . A Boy and His Blob follows an unnamed , male protagonist and his shapeshifting blob friend on their adventure to save the planet of Blobolonia from the clutches of an evil emperor .
A Boy and His Blob is a platform @-@ puzzle game that puts the player in control of the boy ; its gameplay revolves around feeding his blob companion different flavored jelly beans to change its shape into various tools in order to overcome obstacles and traverse the game 's world . A Boy and His Blob was designed and programmed by David Crane . Licensed by Nintendo in the summer of 1989 , development began and was completed in an intense six @-@ week period . Crane has described the game 's overall concept of a boy accompanied by a morphing blob as unconventional and wanted to try his own hand at implementing useful tools for the player .
Critical reception for A Boy and His Blob has been largely mixed . Though most reviewers agreed the gameplay was original , some felt it was poorly executed . The game won the 1989 Consumer Electronics Show ( CES ) " Best of Show " and a 1990 Parents ' Choice Award . A Boy and His Blob was followed by a sequel on the Game Boy titled The Rescue of Princess Blobette . After two failed attempts to bring the series to Nintendo 's other handhelds over the years , a re @-@ imagining of Trouble on Blobolonia was developed by WayForward Technologies and released by Majesco on the Wii in 2009 . That same year , the original NES game was re @-@ released on the Wii Virtual Console service in North America and PAL regions .
= = Gameplay = =
A Boy and His Blob : Trouble on Blobolonia is a platform @-@ puzzle game . The plot involves a young boy and his alien blob friend on a quest to save the latter 's home planet of Blobolonia , which has been taken over by an evil emperor who only allows his subjects a diet of sweets . The boy and Blobert must traverse the subways and caves beneath the Earth and gain the necessary items before traveling to Blobolonia and defeating the emperor . They must evade dangerous obstacles like falling rocks , stalactites , and stalagmites , as well as deadly , snake enemies . A Boy and His Blob is not a side @-@ scrolling game , but rather presents the player with a series of single , interconnected screens . Despite being a platform game , the player @-@ controlled boy is limited to simply running left or right . The player cannot jump or swim , and if the boy falls too long of a distance , he will die on impact .
Though the player directly controls the boy , Blobert is controlled by the computer AI . The player must rely on the shapeshifting blob to cross gaps , reach higher platforms , and overcome the obstacles and enemies . Blobert can change into several different tools when the player feeds him flavored jelly beans . A licorice jelly bean , for instance , will change Blobert into a ladder , while an apple jelly bean will turn him into a jack . Whistling at Blobert causes him to change back to his original shape and continue following the boy . The player is encouraged to experiment with the jelly beans and their effects to navigate the puzzling game world . Scattered throughout Earth 's caverns are various treasures and diamonds that increase the player 's score and can be used to purchase vitamins at a drugstore located within the game world . Vitamins can be used in conjunction with a special " VitaBlaster " gun , which is in turn used on Blobolonia to complete certain tasks . Also found on the map are extra jelly beans and peppermints , which increase the player 's lives .
= = Development = =
A Boy and His Blob : Trouble on Blobolonia was developed by Imagineering , the in @-@ house developer of Absolute Entertainment . The game was chiefly designed and programmed by David Crane with help from his former Activision colleague Garry Kitchen . Kitchen was the president of the Activision spin @-@ off company Absolute , which began self @-@ publishing in 1988 ; Crane joined Kitchen at Absolute around the same time . Crane described the concept of a boy accompanied by a shapeshifting blob as " an off @-@ the @-@ wall idea " . Crane stated that Blobert 's design was heavily influenced by the characters Gloop and Gleep from the Hanna @-@ Barbera cartoon The Herculoids . In terms of gameplay , Crane 's goal was to advance the adventure genre as he had done with the Atari 2600 game Pitfall ! . Since the release of the sequel Pitfall II : Lost Caverns , adventure games on the market had grown to include useful tools for players to collect and utilize in their environments . However , Crane found displayed tool inventories " not very elegant " and decided to implement tools in a different way . After coming up with the game 's premise , a wishlist of the blob 's object transformations was written and brainstormed with artists , who then converted them to computer graphics . Transformations were chosen based on how they would appear on screen due to the NES 's graphical resolution . According to Crane , objects such as the bridge and ladder were " a must " , but many ideas were scrapped because their nature would not be immediately obvious to the player . Puzzles that could be solved using the objects were created after the various shapes were finalized .
A total of 14 jellybean flavors were implemented in the game . To ease the game 's difficulty level , the flavors were named specifically as either puns or alliteration to help the player remember them . For instance , the punch @-@ flavored jelly bean transforms Blobert into a hole , a play on the term " hole punch " . A grape @-@ flavored bean listed in the game 's manual was only present in the version submitted to Nintendo . This flavor transformed the blob into a wall ( " grape wall " , a pun of Great Wall of China ) which would repel enemies . A Boy and His Blob proved to be " one of the most played games at Nintendo " once it was submitted to the company . In this earlier version , the player character could potentially become separated from the blob , thus making it impossible to proceed . A senior management member of Nintendo viewed this as a bug , so Crane substituted the grape bean for a ketchup @-@ flavored bean that would instead summon the blob to the boy 's location .
A Boy and His Blob was officially licensed by Nintendo in the summer of 1989 . Though standard NES games took six to eight months to develop , Imagineering completed A Boy and His Blob in a mere six weeks . Crane himself rented a room in a flophouse near his office and put in several 16- to 20 @-@ hour days of the work on the project . After going without sleep for 48 hours in its last two days of earnest development , Crane flew to the CES in Chicago for trade demonstrations , then spent nights at his hotel fixing bugs . The game was released just prior to Christmas in 1989 as Absolute 's first game on the NES . Crane recalled the development process for Absolute 's early games to be enjoyable , but explained that " under the rule of Nintendo , the publishing side of the game business was really tough " , emphasizing how frequently game publishers went out of business in those years . The team was originally in talks with a writer @-@ producer of the Transformers animated features to simultaneously launch the A Boy and His Blob video game with a tie @-@ in toy and a film . However , the plans never came to fruition due to deadlines and difficulty in dividing production resources three ways between a game , toy , and movie . When A Boy and His Blob was released in Japan by Jaleco in November 1990 , it was retitled Fushigi na Blobby : Blobania no Kiki ( ふしぎなブロビー ブロバニアの危機 , lit . " Mysterious Blobby : The Crisis of Blobania " ) .
= = Reception = =
Critical reception for A Boy and His Blob : Trouble on Blobolonia has been mixed . Many reviews published during the game 's original release positively regarded the game 's premise of a boy advancing by using a blob companion as a tool @-@ set . Staff for the magazines Mean Machines and Dragon and Edward J. Simrad of the The Milwaukee Journal all remarked the game as having fun , challenging gameplay and being a creative and original idea . The two reviewers of Mean Machines gave praise to the graphical quality of A Boy and His Blob , commenting , " Some of the backdrops are digitized and superbly coloured . The boy moves smoothly [ and ] realistically and the Blob himself is a masterpiece of animation . " Simrad , who labeled the game as updated version of Crane 's previous work Pitfall ! , was not as impressed by the graphics , claiming that the programmer always preferred to use the available memory for the size of the maze .
The four reviewers of Electronic Gaming Monthly found A Boy and His Blob to be strictly average due to its few enemies and a lack of scrolling screens . Although they made similar , positive comments about its unique gameplay formula , one of the writers felt it " never fully realizes its potential " . This opinion was echoed by Lucas M. Thomas of IGN , who gave a more negative review of the game . " While the idea behind A Boy and His Blob was certainly unique , even praiseworthy , " he explained , " the execution of the concept didn 't exactly make for a very fun game . " Thomas faulted the game 's controls ; its vast , empty environments ; and a limited number of essential jelly beans to advance , leaving the player with " just the core gameplay gimmick of the blob 's different transformations " . 1UP.com contributor Jeremy Parish predicted that the game 's potentially frustrating , trial @-@ and @-@ error mechanics could subside once the player is over the learning curve and masters the limited toolset and simple interface .
As reported by Stuart Hunt of Retro Gamer , " A Boy and His Blob proved to be a phenomenal success for Absolute Entertainment , going on to become one of the company 's biggest hits and exceeding all the team 's expectations . " The game won " Best of Show " award for its debut at the 1989 CES . The advocacy group Parents ' Choice Foundation awarded A Boy and His Blob with a Parents ' Choice Award in 1990 for " portraying ' Positive human values ' , ' High quality software ' , ' Intelligent design ' , and the ' Ability to hold the player 's interest ' . " Designer David Crane was particularly proud of the latter honor , which he appreciated both before and after becoming a parent himself .
= = Legacy = =
Since the original release of the game , A Boy and His Blob : Trouble on Blobolonia has received miscellaneous recognition from the media . In 2005 , University of Houston newspaper columnist Jason Poland attributed the inspiration of game 's premise , in which a young boy befriends an outerspace being , to the central theme found in a slew of 1980s films including E.T. the Extra @-@ Terrestrial and The Last Starfighter . The writer found this especially true for the former of the two features , in which the earthling protagonist supplies his alien cohort with candy . " Although free from any Jelly Belly product placement , " Poland explained , " A Boy and His Blob encompasses plot devices from every ' 80s buddy sci @-@ fi film and acts as an end cap to the entire film genre . " The website GamesRadar noted A Boy and His Blob as a milestone in gaming for having the first recognizable instance of an AI @-@ controlled partner . Despite giving it such a low review score , IGN listed A Boy and His Blob as the 74th @-@ best game on the NES , owing its inclusion to creative gameplay mechanics and a healthy mixture of action @-@ adventure and platforming .
A sequel to A Boy and His Blob was released for the Game Boy under the name The Rescue of Princess Blobette . The game once again follows the title characters as they attempt to save a princess jailed within a castle tower . Majesco bought the rights to A Boy and His Blob after Absolute 's closure . A Game Boy Advance incarnation of the series titled A Boy and His Blob : Jelly 's Cosmic Adventure was announced by Majesco in 2001 . The game was ultimately cancelled . Majesco announced another sequel in 2005 as being in development for the Nintendo DS by Skyworks Technologies , a company formed by Crane and Kitchen in 1995 . The game 's story was to take place six years after the conclusion of the NES release . It was to feature 3D models , between 15 and 20 differently colored jelly beans , 15 levels , and a DS touchscreen feature for managing jelly bean inventory . However , Majesco 's financial troubles delayed the game 's release indefinitely .
A Wii re @-@ imagining of A Boy and His Blob : Trouble on Blobolonia simply titled A Boy and His Blob was developed by WayForward Technologies and published by Majesco in 2009 . Crane was not involved in the new game 's creation . That same year , A Boy and His Blob : Trouble on Blobolonia was re @-@ released on the Wii Virtual Console service in both North America and PAL regions . Another new title in the series was listed at the Electronic Entertainment Expo in 2010 as being in development for the Nintendo 3DS . WayForward later issued a statement that the listing was a mistake and that no new A Boy and His Blob was in production .
= Human tooth =
The human teeth function is mechanically breaking down items of food by cutting and crushing them in preparation for swallowing and digestion . There are four different types of teeth , namely incisors , canines , molars and premolars . Each type of tooth has a different job . The incisors cut the food , the canines tear the food and the molars and premolars crush the food . The roots of teeth are embedded in the maxilla ( upper jaw ) or the mandible ( lower jaw ) and are covered by gums . Teeth are made of multiple tissues of varying density and hardness .
Teeth are among the most distinctive ( and long @-@ lasting ) features of mammal species . Humans , like other mammals , are diphyodont , meaning that they develop two sets of teeth . The first set ( called the " baby " , " milk " , " primary " , or " deciduous " set ) normally starts to appear at about six months of age , although some babies are born with one or more visible teeth , known as neonatal teeth . Normal tooth eruption at about six months is known as teething and can be painful .
= = Anatomy = =
Dental anatomy is a field of anatomy dedicated to the study of tooth structure . The development , appearance , and classification of teeth fall within its field of study , though dental occlusion , or contact among teeth , does not . Dental anatomy is also a taxonomic science as it is concerned with the naming of teeth and their structures . This information serves a practical purpose for dentists , enabling them to easily identify teeth and structures during treatment .
The anatomic crown of a tooth is the area covered in enamel above the cementoenamel junction ( CEJ ) or " neck " of the tooth . Most of the crown is composed of dentin ( dentine in British English ) with the pulp chamber inside . The crown is within bone before eruption . After eruption , it is almost always visible . The anatomic root is found below the CEJ and is covered with cementum . As with the crown , dentin composes most of the root , which normally has a pulp canals . A tooth may have multiple roots or just one root ( single @-@ rooted teeth ) . Canines and most premolars , except for maxillary first premolars , usually have one root . Maxillary first premolars and mandibular molars usually have two roots . Maxillary molars usually have three roots . Additional roots are referred to as supernumerary roots .
Humans usually have 20 primary ( deciduous , " baby " or " milk " ) teeth and 32 permanent ( adult ) teeth . Teeth are classified as incisors , canines , premolars ( also called bicuspids ) , and molars . Incisors are primarily used for biting pieces from foods such as raw carrots or apples and peeled but uncut bananas , while molars are used primarily for grinding foods after they are already in bite size pieces inside the mouth .
Most teeth have identifiable features that distinguish them from others . There are several different notation systems to refer to a specific tooth . The three most common systems are the FDI World Dental Federation notation , the universal numbering system , and Palmer notation method . The FDI system is used worldwide , and the universal is used widely in the United States .
= = = Primary teeth = = =
Among deciduous ( primary ) teeth , ten are found in the maxilla ( upper jaw ) and ten in the mandible ( lower jaw ) , for a total of 20 . The dental formula for primary teeth is 2 @.@ 1 @.@ 22 @.@ 1 @.@ 2 .
In the primary set of teeth , there are two types of incisors – centrals and laterals , and two types of molars – first and second . All primary teeth are normally later replaced with their permanent counterparts .
= = = Permanent teeth = = =
Among permanent teeth , 16 are found in the maxilla and 16 in the mandible , for a total of 32 . The dental formula is 2 @.@ 1 @.@ 2 @.@ 32 @.@ 1 @.@ 2 @.@ 3 .
The maxillary teeth are the maxillary central incisor , maxillary lateral incisor , maxillary canine , maxillary first premolar , maxillary second premolar , maxillary first molar , maxillary second molar , and maxillary third molar . The mandibular teeth are the mandibular central incisor , mandibular lateral incisor , mandibular canine , mandibular first premolar , mandibular second premolar , mandibular first molar , mandibular second molar , and mandibular third molar . Third molars are commonly called " wisdom teeth " and may never erupt into the mouth or form at all . If any additional teeth form , for example , fourth and fifth molars , which are rare , they are referred to as supernumerary teeth ( hyperdontia ) . Development of fewer than the usual number of teeth is called hypodontia .
= = Parts = =
= = = Enamel = = =
Enamel is the hardest and most highly mineralized substance of the body . It is one of the four major tissues which make up the tooth , along with dentin , cementum , and dental pulp . It is normally visible and must be supported by underlying dentin . 96 % of enamel consists of mineral , with water and organic material comprising the rest . The normal color of enamel varies from light yellow to grayish white . At the edges of teeth where there is no dentin underlying the enamel , the color sometimes has a slightly blue tone . Since enamel is semitranslucent , the color of dentin and any restorative dental material underneath the enamel strongly affects the appearance of a tooth . Enamel varies in thickness over the surface of the tooth and is often thickest at the cusp , up to 2.5mm , and thinnest at its border , which is seen clinically as the CEJ . The wear rate of enamel , called attrition , is 8 micrometers a year from normal factors .
Enamel 's primary mineral is hydroxyapatite , which is a crystalline calcium phosphate . The large amount of minerals in enamel accounts not only for its strength but also for its brittleness . Dentin , which is less mineralized and less brittle , compensates for enamel and is necessary as a support . Unlike dentin and bone , enamel does not contain collagen . Instead , it has two unique classes of proteins called amelogenins and enamelins . While the role of these proteins is not fully understood , it is believed that they aid in the development of enamel by serving as framework support among other functions .
= = = Dentin = = =
Dentin is the substance between enamel or cementum and the pulp chamber . It is secreted by the odontoblasts of the dental pulp . The formation of dentin is known as dentinogenesis . The porous , yellow @-@ hued material is made up of 70 % inorganic materials , 20 % organic materials , and 10 % water by weight . Because it is softer than enamel , it decays more rapidly and is subject to severe cavities if not properly treated , but dentin still acts as a protective layer and supports the crown of the tooth .
Dentin is a mineralized connective tissue with an organic matrix of collagenous proteins . Dentin has microscopic channels , called dentinal tubules , which radiate outward through the dentin from the pulp cavity to the exterior cementum or enamel border . The diameter of these tubules range from 2 @.@ 5 μm near the pulp , to 1 @.@ 2 μm in the midportion , and 900 nm near the dentino @-@ enamel junction . Although they may have tiny side @-@ branches , the tubules do not intersect with each other . Their length is dictated by the radius of the tooth . The three dimensional configuration of the dentinal tubules is genetically determined .
= = = Cementum = = =
Cementum is a specialized bone like substance covering the root of a tooth . It is approximately 45 % inorganic material ( mainly hydroxyapatite ) , 33 % organic material ( mainly collagen ) and 22 % water . Cementum is excreted by cementoblasts within the root of the tooth and is thickest at the root apex . Its coloration is yellowish and it is softer than either dentin or enamel . The principal role of cementum is to serve as a medium by which the periodontal ligaments can attach to the tooth for stability . At the cementoenamel junction , the cementum is acellular due to its lack of cellular components , and this acellular type covers at least ⅔ of the root . The more permeable form of cementum , cellular cementum , covers about ⅓ of the root apex .
= = = Pulp = = =
The dental pulp is the central part of the tooth filled with soft connective tissue . This tissue contains blood vessels and nerves that enter the tooth from a hole at the apex of the root . Along the border between the dentin and the pulp are odontoblasts , which initiate the formation of dentin . Other cells in the pulp include fibroblasts , preodontoblasts , macrophages and T lymphocytes . The pulp is commonly called " the nerve " of the tooth .
= = Development = =
Tooth development is the complex process by which teeth form from embryonic cells , grow , and erupt into the mouth . Although many diverse species have teeth , non @-@ human tooth development is largely the same as in humans . For human teeth to have a healthy oral environment , enamel , dentin , cementum , and the periodontium must all develop during appropriate stages of fetal development . Primary teeth start to form between the sixth and eighth weeks in utero , and permanent teeth begin to form in the twentieth week in utero . If teeth do not start to develop at or near these times , they will not develop at all .
A significant amount of research has focused on determining the processes that initiate tooth development . It is widely accepted that there is a factor within the tissues of the first branchial arch that is necessary for the development of teeth .
Tooth development is commonly divided into the following stages : the bud stage , the cap , the bell , and finally maturation . The staging of tooth development is an attempt to categorize changes that take place along a continuum ; frequently it is difficult to decide what stage should be assigned to a particular developing tooth . This determination is further complicated by the varying appearance of different histologic sections of the same developing tooth , which can appear to be different stages .
The tooth bud ( sometimes called the tooth germ ) is an aggregation of cells that eventually forms a tooth . It is organized into three parts : the enamel organ , the dental papilla and the dental follicle . The enamel organ is composed of the outer enamel epithelium , inner enamel epithelium , stellate reticulum and stratum intermedium . These cells give rise to ameloblasts , which produce enamel and the reduced enamel epithelium . The growth of cervical loop cells into the deeper tissues forms Hertwig 's Epithelial Root Sheath , which determines a tooth 's root shape . The dental papilla contains cells that develop into odontoblasts , which are dentin @-@ forming cells . Additionally , the junction between the dental papilla and inner enamel epithelium determines the crown shape of a tooth . The dental follicle gives rise to three important entities : cementoblasts , osteoblasts , and fibroblasts . Cementoblasts form the cementum of a tooth . Osteoblasts give rise to the alveolar bone around the roots of teeth . Fibroblasts develop the periodontal ligaments which connect teeth to the alveolar bone through cementum .
= = Eruption = =
Tooth eruption in humans is a process in tooth development in which the teeth enter the mouth and become visible . Current research indicates that the periodontal ligaments play an important role in tooth eruption . Primary teeth erupt into the mouth from around six months until two years of age . These teeth are the only ones in the mouth until a person is about six years old . At that time , the first permanent tooth erupts . This stage , during which a person has a combination of primary and permanent teeth , is known as the mixed stage . The mixed stage lasts until the last primary tooth is lost and the remaining permanent teeth erupt into the mouth .
There have been many theories about the cause of tooth eruption . One theory proposes that the developing root of a tooth pushes it into the mouth . Another , known as the cushioned hammock theory , resulted from microscopic study of teeth , which was thought to show a ligament around the root . It was later discovered that the " ligament " was merely an artifact created in the process of preparing the slide . Currently , the most widely held belief is that the periodontal ligaments provide the main impetus for the process .
The onset of primary tooth loss has been found to correlate strongly with somatic and psychological criteria of school readiness .
= = Supporting structures = =
The periodontium is the supporting structure of a tooth , helping to attach the tooth to surrounding tissues and to allow sensations of touch and pressure . It consists of the cementum , periodontal ligaments , alveolar bone , and gingiva . Of these , cementum is the only one that is a part of a tooth . Periodontal ligaments connect the alveolar bone to the cementum . Alveolar bone surrounds the roots of teeth to provide support and creates what is commonly called an alveolus , or " socket " . Lying over the bone is the gingiva or gum , which is readily visible in the mouth .
= = = Periodontal ligaments = = =
The periodontal ligament is a specialized connective tissue that attaches the cementum of a tooth to the alveolar bone . This tissue covers the root of the tooth within the bone . Each ligament has a width of 0 @.@ 15 – 0.38mm , but this size decreases over time . The functions of the periodontal ligaments include attachment of the tooth to the bone , support for the tooth , formation and resorption of bone during tooth movement , sensation , and eruption . The cells of the periodontal ligaments include osteoblasts , osteoclasts , fibroblasts , macrophages , cementoblasts , and epithelial cell rests of Malassez . Consisting of mostly Type I and III collagen , the fibers are grouped in bundles and named according to their location . The groups of fibers are named alveolar crest , horizontal , oblique , periapical , and interradicular fibers . The nerve supply generally enters from the bone apical to the tooth and forms a network around the tooth toward the crest of the gingiva . When pressure is exerted on a tooth , such as during chewing or biting , the tooth moves slightly in its socket and puts tension on the periodontal ligaments . The nerve fibers can then send the information to the central nervous system for interpretation .
= = = Alveolar bone = = =
The alveolar bone is the bone of the jaw which forms the alveolus around teeth . Like any other bone in the human body , alveolar bone is modified throughout life . Osteoblasts create bone and osteoclasts destroy it , especially if force is placed on a tooth . As is the case when movement of teeth is attempted through orthodontics , an area of bone under compressive force from a tooth moving toward it has a high osteoclast level , resulting in bone resorption . An area of bone receiving tension from periodontal ligaments attached to a tooth moving away from it has a high number of osteoblasts , resulting in bone formation .
= = = Gingiva = = =
The gingiva ( " gums " ) is the mucosal tissue that overlays the jaws . There are three different types of epithelium associated with the gingiva : gingival , junctional , and sulcular epithelium . These three types form from a mass of epithelial cells known as the epithelial cuff between the tooth and the mouth . The gingival epithelium is not associated directly with tooth attachment and is visible in the mouth . The junctional epithelium , composed of the basal lamina and hemidesmosomes , forms an attachment to the tooth . The sulcular epithelium is nonkeratinized stratified squamous tissue on the gingiva which touches but is not attached to the tooth .
= = Tooth decay = =
= = = Plaque = = =
Plaque is a biofilm consisting of large quantities of various bacteria that form on teeth . If not removed regularly , plaque buildup can lead to periodontal problems such as gingivitis . Given time , plaque can mineralize along the gingiva , forming tartar . The microorganisms that form the biofilm are almost entirely bacteria ( mainly streptococcus and anaerobes ) , with the composition varying by location in the mouth . Streptococcus mutans is the most important bacterium associated with dental caries .
Certain bacteria in the mouth live off the remains of foods , especially sugars and starches . In the absence of oxygen they produce lactic acid , which dissolves the calcium and phosphorus in the enamel . This process , known as " demineralisation " , leads to tooth destruction . Saliva gradually neutralises the acids which cause the pH of the tooth surface to rise above the critical pH . This causes ' remineralisation ' , the return of the dissolved minerals to the enamel . If there is sufficient time between the intake of foods then the impact is limited and the teeth can repair themselves . Saliva is unable to penetrate through plaque , however , to neutralize the acid produced by the bacteria .
= = = Caries ( cavities ) = = =
Dental caries ( cavities ) , described as " tooth decay " , is an infectious disease which damages the structures of teeth . The disease can lead to pain , tooth loss , and infection . Dental caries has a long history , with evidence showing the disease was present in the Bronze , Iron , and Middle ages but also prior to the neolithic period . The largest increases in the prevalence of caries have been associated with diet changes . Today , caries remains one of the most common diseases throughout the world . In the United States , dental caries is the most common chronic childhood disease , being at least five times more common than asthma . Countries that have experienced an overall decrease in cases of tooth decay continue to have a disparity in the distribution of the disease . Among children in the United States and Europe , 60 – 80 % of cases of dental caries occur in 20 % of the population .
Tooth decay is caused by certain types of acid @-@ producing bacteria which cause the most damage in the presence of fermentable carbohydrates such as sucrose , fructose , and glucose . The resulting acidic levels in the mouth affect teeth because a tooth 's special mineral content causes it to be sensitive to low pH . Depending on the extent of tooth destruction , various treatments can be used to restore teeth to proper form , function , and aesthetics , but there is no known method to regenerate large amounts of tooth structure . Instead , dental health organizations advocate preventative and prophylactic measures , such as regular oral hygiene and dietary modifications , to avoid dental caries .
= = Tooth care = =
Oral hygiene is the practice of keeping the mouth clean and is a means of preventing dental caries , gingivitis , periodontal disease , bad breath , and other dental disorders . It consists of both professional and personal care . Regular cleanings , usually done by dentists and dental hygienists , remove tartar ( mineralized plaque ) that may develop even with careful brushing and flossing . Professional cleaning includes tooth scaling , using various instruments or devices to loosen and remove deposits from teeth .
The purpose of cleaning teeth is to remove plaque , which consists mostly of bacteria . Healthcare professionals recommend regular brushing twice a day ( in the morning and in the evening , or after meals ) in order to prevent formation of plaque and tartar . A toothbrush is able to remove most plaque , except in areas between teeth . As a result , flossing is also considered a necessity to maintain oral hygiene . When used correctly , dental floss removes plaque from between teeth and at the gum line , where periodontal disease often begins and could develop caries .
Electric toothbrushes are a popular aid to oral hygiene . A user without disabilities , with proper training in manual brushing , and with good motivation , can achieve standards of oral hygiene at least as satisfactory as the best electric brushes , but untrained users rarely achieve anything of the kind . Not all electric toothbrushes are equally effective and even a good design needs to be used properly for best effect , but : " Electric toothbrushes tend to help people who are not as good at cleaning teeth and as a result have had oral hygiene problems . " The most important advantage of electric toothbrushes is their ability to aid people with dexterity difficulties , such as those associated with rheumatoid arthritis .
Fluoride therapy is often recommended to protect against dental caries . Water fluoridation and fluoride supplements decrease the incidence of dental caries . Fluoride helps prevent dental decay by binding to the hydroxyapatite crystals in enamel . The incorporated fluoride makes enamel more resistant to demineralization and thus more resistant to decay . Topical fluoride , such as a fluoride toothpaste or mouthwash , is also recommended to protect teeth surfaces . Many dentists include application of topical fluoride solutions as part of routine cleanings .
= = Restorations = =
After a tooth has been damaged or destroyed , restoration of the missing structure can be achieved with a variety of treatments . Restorations may be created from a variety of materials , including glass ionomer , amalgam , gold , porcelain , and composite . Small restorations placed inside a tooth are referred to as " intracoronal restorations " . These restorations may be formed directly in the mouth or may be cast using the lost @-@ wax technique , such as for some inlays and onlays . When larger portions of a tooth are lost , an " extracoronal restoration " may be fabricated , such as an artificial crown or a veneer , to restore the involved tooth .
When a tooth is lost , dentures , bridges , or implants may be used as replacements . Dentures are usually the least costly whereas implants are usually the most expensive . Dentures may replace complete arches of the mouth or only a partial number of teeth . Bridges replace smaller spaces of missing teeth and use adjacent teeth to support the restoration . Dental implants may be used to replace a single tooth or a series of teeth . Though implants are the most expensive treatment option , they are often the most desirable restoration because of their aesthetics and function . To improve the function of dentures , implants may be used as support .
= = Abnormalities = =
Tooth abnormalities may be categorized according to whether they have environmental or developmental causes . While environmental abnormalities may appear to have an obvious cause , there may not appear to be any known cause for some developmental abnormalities . Environmental forces may affect teeth during development , destroy tooth structure after development , discolor teeth at any stage of development , or alter the course of tooth eruption . Developmental abnormalities most commonly affect the number , size , shape , and structure of teeth .
= = = Environmental = = =
= = = = Alteration during tooth development = = = =
Tooth abnormalities caused by environmental factors during tooth development have long @-@ lasting effects . Enamel and dentin do not regenerate after they mineralize initially . Enamel hypoplasia is a condition in which the amount of enamel formed is inadequate . This results either in pits and grooves in areas of the tooth or in widespread absence of enamel . Diffuse opacities of enamel does not affect the amount of enamel but changes its appearance . Affected enamel has a different translucency than the rest of the tooth . Demarcated opacities of enamel have sharp boundaries where the translucency decreases and manifest a white , cream , yellow , or brown color . All these may be caused by nutritional factors , an exanthematous disease ( chicken pox , congenital syphilis ) , undiagnosed and untreated celiac disease , hypocalcemia , dental fluorosis , birth injury , preterm birth , infection or trauma from a deciduous tooth . Dental fluorosis is a condition which results from ingesting excessive amounts of fluoride and leads to teeth which are spotted , yellow , brown , black or sometimes pitted . In most cases , the enamel defects caused by celiac disease , which may be the only manifestation of this disease in the absence of any other symptoms or signs , are not recognized and mistakenly attributed to other causes , such as fluorosis . Enamel hypoplasia resulting from syphilis is frequently referred to as Hutchinson 's teeth , which is considered one part of Hutchinson 's triad . Turner 's hypoplasia is a portion of missing or diminished enamel on a permanent tooth usually from a prior infection of a nearby primary tooth . Hypoplasia may also result from antineoplastic therapy .
= = = = Destruction after development = = = =
Tooth destruction from processes other than dental caries is considered a normal physiologic process but may become severe enough to become a pathologic condition . Attrition is the loss of tooth structure by mechanical forces from opposing teeth . Attrition initially affects the enamel and , if unchecked , may proceed to the underlying dentin . Abrasion is the loss of tooth structure by mechanical forces from a foreign element . If this force begins at the cementoenamel junction , then progression of tooth loss can be rapid since enamel is very thin in this region of the tooth . A common source of this type of tooth wear is excessive force when using a toothbrush . Erosion is the loss of tooth structure due to chemical dissolution by acids not of bacterial origin . Signs of tooth destruction from erosion is a common characteristic in the mouths of people with bulimia since vomiting results in exposure of the teeth to gastric acids . Another important source of erosive acids are from frequent sucking of lemon juice . Abfraction is the loss of tooth structure from flexural forces . As teeth flex under pressure , the arrangement of teeth touching each other , known as occlusion , causes tension on one side of the tooth and compression on the other side of the tooth . This is believed to cause V @-@ shaped depressions on the side under tension and C @-@ shaped depressions on the side under compression . When tooth destruction occurs at the roots of teeth , the process is referred to as internal resorption , when caused by cells within the pulp , or external resorption , when caused by cells in the periodontal ligament .
= = = = Discoloration = = = =
Discoloration of teeth may result from bacteria stains , tobacco , tea , coffee , foods with an abundance of chlorophyll , restorative materials , and medications . Stains from bacteria may cause colors varying from green to black to orange . Green stains also result from foods with chlorophyll or excessive exposure to copper or nickel . Amalgam , a common dental restorative material , may turn adjacent areas of teeth black or gray . Long term use of chlorhexidine , a mouthwash , may encourage extrinsic stain formation near the gingiva on teeth . This is usually easy for a hygienist to remove . Systemic disorders also can cause tooth discoloration . Congenital erythropoietic porphyria causes porphyrins to be deposited in teeth , causing a red @-@ brown coloration . Blue discoloration may occur with alkaptonuria and rarely with Parkinson 's disease . Erythroblastosis fetalis and biliary atresia are diseases which may cause teeth to appear green from the deposition of biliverdin . Also , trauma may change a tooth to a pink , yellow , or dark gray color . Pink and red discolorations are also associated in patients with lepromatous leprosy . Some medications , such as tetracycline antibiotics , may become incorporated into the structure of a tooth , causing intrinsic staining of the teeth .
= = = = Alteration of eruption = = = =
Tooth eruption may be altered by some environmental factors . When eruption is prematurely stopped , the tooth is said to be impacted . The most common cause of tooth impaction is lack of space in the mouth for the tooth . Other causes may be tumors , cysts , trauma , and thickened bone or soft tissue . Tooth ankylosis occurs when the tooth has already erupted into the mouth but the cementum or dentin has fused with the alveolar bone . This may cause a person to retain their primary tooth instead of having it replaced by a permanent one .
A technique for altering the natural progression of eruption is employed by orthodontists who wish to delay or speed up the eruption of certain teeth for reasons of space maintenance or otherwise preventing crowding and / or spacing . If a primary tooth is extracted before its succeeding permanent tooth 's root reaches ⅓ of its total growth , the eruption of the permanent tooth will be delayed . Conversely , if the roots of the permanent tooth are more than ⅔ complete , the eruption of the permanent tooth will be accelerated . Between ⅓ and ⅔ , it is unknown exactly what will occur to the speed of eruption .
= = = Developmental = = =
= = = = Abnormality in number = = = =
Anodontia is the total lack of tooth development .
Hyperdontia is the presence of a higher @-@ than @-@ normal number of teeth .
Hypodontia is the lack of some teeth . Usually :
Hypodontia refers to the lack of development of one or more teeth
Oligodontia may be used to describe the absence of 6 or more teeth .
Some systemic disorders which may result in hyperdontia include Apert syndrome , Cleidocranial dysostosis , Crouzon syndrome , Ehlers – Danlos syndrome , Gardner syndrome , and Sturge – Weber syndrome . Some systemic disorders which may result in hypodontia include Crouzon syndrome , Ectodermal dysplasia , Ehlers – Danlos syndrome , and Gorlin syndrome .
= = = = Abnormality in size = = = =
Microdontia is a condition where teeth are smaller than the usual size .
Macrodontia is where teeth are larger than the usual size .
Microdontia of a single tooth is more likely to occur in a maxillary lateral incisor . The second most likely tooth to have microdontia are third molars . Macrodontia of all the teeth is known to occur in pituitary gigantism and pineal hyperplasia . It may also occur on one side of the face in cases of hemifacial hyperplasia .
= = = = Abnormality in shape = = = =
Gemination occurs when a developing tooth incompletely splits into the formation of two teeth .
Fusion is the union of two adjacent teeth during development .
Concrescence is the fusion of two separate teeth only in their cementum .
Accessory cusps are additional cusps on a tooth and may manifest as a Talon cusp , Cusp of Carabelli , or Dens evaginatus .
Dens invaginatus , also called Dens in dente , is a deep invagination in a tooth causing the appearance of a tooth within a tooth .
Ectopic enamel is enamel found in an unusual location , such as the root of a tooth .
Taurodontism is a condition where the body of the tooth and pulp chamber is enlarged , and is associated with Klinefelter syndrome , Tricho @-@ dento @-@ osseous syndrome , Triple X syndrome , and XYY syndrome .
Hypercementosis is excessive formation of cementum , which may result from trauma , inflammation , acromegaly , rheumatic fever , and Paget 's disease of bone .
A dilaceration is a bend in the root which may have been caused by trauma to the tooth during formation .
Supernumerary roots is the presence of a greater number of roots on a tooth than expected .
= = = = Abnormality in structure = = = =
Amelogenesis imperfecta is a condition in which enamel does not form properly or at all .
Dentinogenesis imperfecta is a condition in which dentin does not form properly and is sometimes associated with osteogenesis imperfecta .
Dentin dysplasia is a disorder in which the roots and pulp of teeth may be affected .
Regional odontodysplasia is a disorder affecting enamel , dentin , and pulp and causes the teeth to appear " ghostly " on radiographs .
= = = Lists = = =
List of basic dentistry topics
List of oral health and dental topics
= I Never Liked You =
I Never Liked You is a graphic novel by Canadian cartoonist Chester Brown . The story first ran between 1991 and 1993 under the title Fuck , in issues # 26 – 30 of Brown 's comic book Yummy Fur ; published in book form by Drawn and Quarterly in 1994 . It deals with the teenage Brown 's introversion and difficulty talking to others , especially members of the opposite sex — including his mother , to whom he is unable to express affection even as she lies dying in the hospital . The story has minimal dialogue and is sparsely narrated . The artwork is amongst the simplest in Brown 's body of work — some pages consist only of a single small panel .
Brown established his reputation in the early alternative comics scene of the 1980s with the surreal , taboo @-@ breaking Ed the Happy Clown . He brought that story to an abrupt end in 1989 when , excited by the autobiographical comics of Joe Matt and Julie Doucet , he turned towards personal stories . The uncomplicated artwork of his friend and fellow Toronto cartoonist Seth inspired him to simplify his own . Brown intended I Never Liked You as part of a longer work with what became his previous book , The Playboy ( 1992 ) , but found the larger story too complex to handle at once . I Never Liked You was the last work of Brown 's early autobiographical period .
I Never Liked You was well received , and its influence can be found in the work of cartoonists such as Jeffrey Brown , Ariel Schrag and Anders Nilsen . The book appeared amid the early 1990s trend in autobiographical alternative comics , and Brown was one of a prominent trio of Toronto @-@ based autobiographical cartoonists , with Seth and Joe Matt . Brown originally set the panels against black page backgrounds , which he replaced with white for an annotated " New Definitive Edition " in 2002 .
= = Background = =
Brown grew up in Châteauguay , a Montreal suburb with a large English @-@ speaking minority ; he does not speak French . He described himself as a " nerdy teenager " attracted to comic books from a young age , and sought a career in superhero comics , but was unsuccessful in finding work with Marvel or DC after graduating from high school . He moved to Toronto and discovered underground comix and the small @-@ press community . From 1983 he self @-@ published a minicomic titled Yummy Fur .
From 1986 Toronto @-@ based Vortex Comics began publishing Yummy Fur . After making a name for himself in alternative comics with the surreal serial Ed the Happy Clown , Brown turned to autobiography under the influence of the work of Julie Doucet and Joe Matt . During his autobiographical period , Brown gradually simplified his style , inspired by the example of his friend and fellow Toronto cartoonist Seth . He began tentatively with a pair of short tales , and gradually became freer with his panel layouts and simpler in his artwork .
Brown had switched publishers to the Montreal @-@ based Drawn and Quarterly by the time he completed his first autobiographical graphic novel , The Playboy , in 1992 . At first , he intended The Playboy and I Never Liked You to form one story , but found it too complex to handle when he started to plan it out . The Playboy deals with Brown 's guilt over his teenage obsession with masturbating over pornography . The book gained praise from fans , critics , and other cartoonists , and won a Harvey Award . It received criticism from those who saw it as objectifying women and glorifying pornography ; Playboy publisher Hugh Hefner wrote to Brown voicing concern that Brown would feel such guilt in a post @-@ sexual revolution world .
= = Synopsis = =
The story is set during Brown 's 1970s adolescence in Châteauguay , a suburb of Montreal . Chester — " Chet " for short — is a thin , long @-@ haired teenager who is awkward , introverted , and better able to express himself through drawing than speaking . He constantly and inexplicably turns away girls , even though he is interested in them and they in him . Except in his imagination , Chet has difficulty expressing affection even for his mother . She talks to Chet and his younger brother Gord about issues that embarrass them , and the religious teaching she has instilled in them has rendered Chet unable to bring himself to swear , for which he is teased and goaded at school .
Chet plays games such as hide @-@ and @-@ seek with the neighbourhood children . One girl , Carrie , has a crush on Chet and invites him to her house each day to wash the dishes . He and Carrie 's older sister Connie , a bossy blonde a year his senior , often hide during hide @-@ and @-@ seek games in tall grass where they spend the time talking with each other , though they have little in common . Connie asks him to the movies , but he sits away from her when he spots boys from his school ; he fears he will be teased for being on a date . When the film ends , they walk home in silence .
Chet is interested in Sky , a large @-@ breasted dark @-@ haired girl two years younger who lives next door , about whom he has masturbatory fantasies . He confesses his love but immediately regrets it , unable to express his feelings . She connects with Chet and tries to develop a relationship , but he is unable to deal with his emotions and avoids spending time with her . He draws her a picture of a skeleton symbolizing himself reaching for a bird signifying Sky herself . When Carrie deciphers it correctly he denies that he uses symbolism in his drawings , and the confrontation escalates to minor violence when Carrie proclaims to him , " I never liked you ! "
Chet and his brother rarely visit their mother after she checks into hospital , and when they do Chet cannot bring himself to tell her he loves her . She suffers a fall down a flight of stairs there when confusedly wandering around and dies after being bedridden and incoherent for a short time . Chet makes excuse after excuse to turn Sky away when she tries to spend time with him . The story ends with Chet refusing to accompany Sky to the fair because he says he would rather listen to his new Kiss album .
= = Publication = =
I Never Liked You was originally serialized under the title Fuck , in issues # 26 – 30 of Yummy Fur , between October 1991 and April 1993 . Unlike his earlier works , according to Brown there was " very little improvisation in I Never Liked You . It was quite planned out , even if I didn 't write a full script . "
Drawn and Quarterly issued a collected edition in 1994 , changing the title from Fuck to I Never Liked You . Brown rearranged the page layouts , removing panels , most significantly those in the prologue where Chet explains his motivations .
A " New Definitive Edition " appeared in 2002 , with two added pages of contextual endnotes , something he had been increasingly doing from 1995 with his cartoon essay " My Mom Was a Schizophrenic " . In the 1994 collection the backgrounds were black ; he changed them to white and rearranged the panels for the " New Definitive Edition " . He explained : " I like austerity . The white background looks more austere to me . " The edition included a short appendix for readers " wondering when and where things happened " .
Brown announced in Louis Riel # 7 a recall of the first 600 copies of the edition , citing that the paper it was printed on was too transparent . The recalled copies also had a panel captioned " I decide to say nothing " ; the caption did not appear in copies that were not recalled .
= = Style and analysis = =
Academic Charles Hatfield finds " an abiding interest in the ways people are shaped by their environment " in Brown 's autobiographical work , and believes the stories demonstrate " the urgency of Justin Green and the mundane particularity of Harvey Pekar " , two influential creators known for their revealing autobiographical comics . Brown is unsparing in his depictions of social awkwardness of his teenage years . Despite the 1970s adolescent backdrop , sex and drugs are absent ; his life is shaped by his strictly religious parents and introversion .
Brown 's mother ( 1923 – 76 ) suffered from schizophrenia . This is not made explicit , but hinted at in scenes where she approaches awkward subjects with Chet and his brother Gord ; the boys ' unsupportive responses feed the discomfort . Brown addresses his mother 's mental health in his 1995 cartoon essay " My Mom Was a Schizophrenic " , in which he takes an anti @-@ psychiatric stance .
Chet 's face is near expressionless throughout . The characters are distanced from the reader , inviting neither empathy nor identification . To cartoonist and critic Pepo Pérez , this is a challenge to readers to understand the characters . In the appendix to the " New Definitive Edition " , Brown declares the dialogue is filtered through his memory and likely did not occur as recorded , and that locations and other details are also subject to lapses of memory . To academic Elisabeth El Refaie this transparency on Brown 's part is " a deeper and more sincere form of authenticity " . Reviewer C. Max Magee found the tone of awkwardness and emotional emptiness comparable to works by contemporaries such as Daniel Clowes and Chris Ware .
The story unfolds in vignettes , with little setup or context given to any scene . To Hatfield , they " [ pop ] out of nowhere as a dreamlike series of pulses ... The effect is sometimes eerie ... despite the grounding of the story in mundane everyday stuff . " Unlike in his previous graphic novel , The Playboy , Brown makes limited use of a narrator in I Never Liked You . The story is told almost entirely through its pictures and sparse dialogue . The page layouts are also sparse , sometimes limited to a single , small panel on a page , sometimes up to seven or eight . The layout and repetition of panels affects pacing , slowing or quickening scene .
Brown abandoned the grid layout he had used in earlier works for more varied , organic layouts . Backgrounds establish the mood of a scene , harmonizing or contrasting with the action — as when Chet and Connie return from the movies amongst a romantic snow @-@ covered , starry landscape , against an awkward silence accentuated by panel that grow , making the figures appear ever more insignificant .
The cartooning is far looser than in Brown 's earlier work , and concerned more with gesture and expression than literal detail . They are rendered with a brush , and amongst the simplest and sparsest in his body of work . There is nonetheless a significant amount of hatching , and the backgrounds are naturalistic , in contrast to the thin , distorted figures . Brown had been paring his artwork since the Playboy stories , as he was not happy with his style and sought " to rebuild [ his ] style in a way that [ he ] would like " . He continued this with I Never Liked You , where he has said he was " trying to get even more pared down than The Playboy " . Certain inanimate objects receive a focus imbuing them with special significance , such as Chet 's habitual after @-@ school package of soda crackers or the Brown family home — a house that , to reviewer Darcy Sullivan , " is as much a character [ in I Never Liked You ] as in The Playboy " .
Brown drew the pictures before laying down the panel borders , which conform to the shapes of the pictures they enclosed and are drawn in a wobbly free @-@ hand much like in the artwork of the Los Bros Hernandez or Robert Crumb . He drew each panel individually , assembling them into pages afterwards . In the original serialization and first collected edition , they were placed on black backgrounds . He changed to white backgrounds for the 2002 edition .
= = Reception and legacy = =
Brown 's autobiographical work developed from a scene that had been developing since the 1970s and which had reached a peak in the late 1980s and early 1990s . Brown 's open and self @-@ deprecating example left an impact on cartoonists such as Jeffrey Brown and Ariel Schrag , and his sparse layouts on the likes of Anders Nilsen . Upon the serial 's conclusion , reviewer Darcy Sullivan called it " a major step forward for the artist , a leading light in adult comics " . American cartoonist Gilbert Hernandez hailed The Playboy and I Never Liked You as " probably the best graphic novels next to Maus " ; British cartoonist Eddie Campbell called them " the most sensitive comics ever made " ; and American comics writer Heidi MacDonald called I Never Liked You " a masterpiece " that is " the equal of any ' coming of age ' movie " .
Charles Hatfield praised Brown 's honesty , keen observation , and narrative strength , and called the " hide with me " page as one of his favourites . Critic Óscar Palmer described the work as " an example of sobriety and restraint , and one of the harshest , most hopeless teenage portraits ... in any medium " . Scripter and critic Trajano Bermúdez wrote the book demonstrates Brown a master of his medium . Norwegian cartoonist Jason calls I Never Liked You a favourite autobiographical work .
Alongside Seth 's It 's a Good Life , If You Don 't Weaken and Joe Matt 's The Poor Bastard — works by Brown 's Toronto @-@ based friends and Drawn and Quarterly stablemates — I Never Liked You is seen as a prominent example of the 1990s autobiographical comics trend . As one of " The Autobiographical Stories from Yummy Fur " , it ranked 38th on The Comics Journal 's list of the top 100 English @-@ language comics of the 20th century . In 2001 Stephen Weiner included I Never Liked You in his book The 101 Best Graphic Novels , recommending it to those who enjoy J. D. Salinger 's novel The Catcher in the Rye .
I Never Liked You was the last work from his autobiographical period that started in 1990 with Helder in Yummy Fur # 19 . Yummy Fur continued for two more issues before Drawn and Quarterly publisher Chris Oliveros convinced Brown to publish his next serial , Underwater , under its own title in 1994 . In 2011 Brown returned to autobiography and his relations with women with the graphic novel Paying for It , a polemic arguing for the decriminalization of prostitution .
= = = = Books = = = =
= = = = Journals and magazines = = = =
= = = = Web = = = =
= New Jersey Route 124 =
Route 124 is a state highway in the northern part of New Jersey in the United States that is 14 @.@ 74 mi ( 23 @.@ 72 km ) long . It is the eastern section of what used to be Route 24 before that road was realigned to its current freeway alignment . The western end is at an intersection with U.S. Route 202 ( US 202 ) and County Route 510 ( CR 510 ) in Morristown , Morris County ; the eastern end continues as CR 603 on Springfield Avenue at the border between Maplewood and Irvington in Essex County . The route runs through suburban areas of Morris County , passing through Madison and Chatham . It interchanges with Route 24 on the border of Millburn , Essex County and Summit , Union County and serves as a frontage road for that route . Upon splitting from Route 24 , Route 124 continues east through Springfield Township , Union Township , and Maplewood to its eastern terminus .
The alignment of today ’ s Route 124 was first designated as a part of pre @-@ 1927 Route 5 in 1916 , a route that was to run from Delaware , Warren County to Newark . In 1927 , this portion of the route became a part of Route 24 , a route that was to run from Phillipsburg to Newark . A freeway , which is the current alignment of Route 24 , was proposed for this portion of the route in the 1950s that was approved in 1960 . Route 24 was moved to the new freeway between the John F. Kennedy Parkway on the Millburn / Summit border and Interstate 78 ( I @-@ 78 ) in 1972 , with Route 124 being designated along the former alignment of Route 24 east of this point . In 1992 , the Route 24 freeway was completed between I @-@ 287 in Hanover Township and the John F. Kennedy Parkway . As a result , Route 124 was extended west along the former Route 24 to U.S. Route 202 in Morristown .
= = Route description = =
= = = Morris County = = =
Route 124 begins at the intersection of US 202 and CR 510 at the Park Place square in the downtown of Morristown , Morris County . From here , it heads to the southeast as South Street , a two @-@ lane undivided road that passes businesses . At the intersection with CR 663 , the road widens to four lanes . A short distance later , CR 601 continues southeast on South Street and Route 124 bears left to head east on Madison Avenue , coming to an interchange with Interstate 287 . Past this interchange , the road passes Morristown Memorial Hospital and continues through mainly commercial areas with some homes . At the intersection with Normandy Parkway , the route turns to the southeast and enters Morris Township , where it narrows to two lanes again , with New Jersey Transit ’ s Morristown Line running a short distance to the northeast of the route near the Morris County Golf Club . Route 124 continues into more residential areas and crosses into Madison .
Here , the route passes near some business parks before intersecting CR 636 , where it is briefly a four @-@ lane road . Past this intersection , the road passes between residential neighborhoods to the northeast and Drew University to the southwest . Route 124 crosses over the Morristown Line near James Park and becomes Main Street , heading southeast through the commercial downtown of Madison . Here , the road intersects CR 647 and CR 608 . Past the Rosedale Avenue intersection , the route heads into a mix of residential and business areas . Route 124 enters Chatham at the intersection with Brooklake Road / Division Avenue . In the center of the town , the route intersects CR 638 and CR 607 before continuing east .
= = = Essex and Union counties = = =
Route 124 crosses the Passaic River and runs along the border of Millburn , Essex County to the north and Summit , Union County , coming to a large interchange with the Route 24 freeway and CR 649 ( John F. Kennedy Parkway ) . Here , the route becomes a frontage road for the Route 24 freeway that has two lanes in each direction . The road passes to the south of The Mall at Short Hills before running through the Canoe Brook Country Club . It heads southeast into wooded residential neighborhoods and intersects Union CR 657 , where the Route 124 frontage road has ramps to Route 24 . A short distance later , the route passes an overpass to nowhere that crosses over Route 24 at Brantwood Drive which was closed and walled off . The Route 124 frontage road has since eliminated the intersection at Brantwood Drive . In 2013 , City of Summit vacated the 50 @-@ foot public right of way of the old road section from Route 124 into the current Brantwood Drive . In a short distant , Route 124 intersects Essex CR 608 , at which point the route has an eastbound ramp to eastbound Route 24 and a westbound ramp from westbound Route 24 . Past this intersection , the Route 124 frontage road along Route 24 ends and the route becomes a two @-@ lane undivided road called South Service Road that closely parallels the north side of Route 24 , passing under the Morristown Line . The route heads past businesses and
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freeway was completed between Interstate 78 and the John F. Kennedy Parkway in 1972 . The Route 24 designation was moved to the new freeway and Route 124 was designated along the former alignment of Route 24 east of this point , which included frontage roads built where the new freeway ran along the old alignment of the road . Following the completion of the Route 24 freeway to Interstate 287 in 1992 , Route 124 was extended west along the former alignment of Route 24 between the John F. Kennedy Parkway and U.S. Route 202 in Morristown . In 2002 , maintenance of the portion of Route 124 in Maplewood was transferred to the municipality from the New Jersey Department of Transportation .
= = Major intersections = =
= Boden Professor of Sanskrit election , 1860 =
The election in 1860 for the position of Boden Professor of Sanskrit at the University of Oxford was a hotly contested affair between two rival candidates offering different approaches to Sanskrit scholarship . One was Monier Williams , an Oxford @-@ educated Englishman who had spent 14 years teaching Sanskrit to those preparing to work in British India for the East India Company . The other , Max Müller , was a German @-@ born lecturer at Oxford specialising in comparative philology , the science of language . He had spent many years working on an edition of the Rig Veda ( an ancient collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns ) , and had gained an international reputation for his scholarship . Williams , in contrast , worked on later material and had little time for the " continental " school of Sanskrit scholarship that Müller exemplified . Williams regarded the study of Sanskrit as a means to an end , namely the conversion of India to Christianity . For Müller , his work , while it would assist missionaries , was also valuable as an end in itself .
The election came at a time of public debate about Britain 's role in India in the wake of the Indian Rebellion of 1857 . Opinions were divided on whether greater efforts should be made to convert India or whether to remain sensitive to local culture and traditions . Both men battled for the votes of the electorate ( the Convocation of the university , consisting of over 3 @,@ 700 graduates ) through manifestos and newspaper correspondence . Williams laid great stress in his campaign on the intention of the original founder of the chair , that the holder should assist in converting India through dissemination of the Christian scriptures . Müller 's view was that his work on the Rig Veda was of great value for missionary work , and published testimonials accordingly . He also wanted to teach wider subjects such as Indian history and literature to assist missionaries , scholars , and civil servants – a proposal that Williams criticised as not in accordance with the original benefactor 's wishes . The rival campaigns took out newspaper advertisements and circulated manifestos , and different newspapers backed each man . Although generally regarded as the superior to Williams in scholarship , Müller had the double disadvantage ( in the eyes of some ) of being German and having liberal Christian views . Some of the newspaper pronouncements in favour of Williams were based on a claimed national interest of having an Englishman as Boden professor to assist with the work of governing and converting India .
Special trains to Oxford were provided on the day of the election , 7 December 1860 , for non @-@ residents to cast their votes . At the end of the hard @-@ fought campaign , Williams won by a majority of over 220 votes . Thereafter , he helped to establish the Indian Institute at Oxford , received a knighthood , and held the chair until his death in 1899 . Müller , although deeply disappointed by his defeat , remained in Oxford for the rest of his career , but never taught Sanskrit there . The 1860 election was the last time that Convocation chose the Boden professor , as this power was removed in 1882 as a result of reforms imposed by Parliament . As of 2016 , the professorship is still in existence , and is now the last remaining Sanskrit professorship in the United Kingdom .
= = Background = =
The position of Boden professor at the University of Oxford was established by the bequest of Lieutenant Colonel Joseph Boden of the Bombay Native Infantry , who died in 1811 . His will provided that on the death of his daughter ( which occurred in 1827 ) , his estate should pass to the university to fund a Sanskrit professorship . His purpose was to convert the people of India to Christianity " by disseminating a knowledge of the Sacred scriptures among them " . The university statutes governing the chair provided that the professor should be chosen by the members of Convocation – all those who had obtained the Oxford degree of Master of Arts , whether or not they taught in the university – rather than by the professors and college fellows . At the time of the 1860 election , there were 3 @,@ 786 members of Convocation . According to the religious historian Gwilym Beckerlegge , the professorship was regarded at the time as " prestigious and handsomely remunerated " . An editorial in the British national newspaper The Times in 1860 said that the professorship was " one of the most important , most influential , and most widely known institutions at Oxford , not to say in the whole civilised world . " It paid between £ 900 and £ 1 @,@ 000 per year for life .
The first Boden professor , Horace Hayman Wilson , was elected in 1832 and died on 8 May 1860 . The election for his successor came at a time of public debate about the nature of British missionary work in India , particularly after the Indian Rebellion of 1857 . The East India Company , which controlled the British territories until they were absorbed into the British Empire in 1858 , had had a general policy until 1813 of non @-@ interference with Indian customs , including religion . Christian missionaries required a licence to proselytize . In practice , most could operate without a licence , except for Evangelicals , who were regarded as too radical in an age when Christians from other backgrounds were more prepared to be tolerant of other faiths . As the Evangelical movement grew in strength , it pressed for greater efforts to bring Christianity to India , and so the company relaxed its approach to missionaries in 1813 . After 1858 , the British government was reluctant to provoke further unrest by interference with local traditions and religion , but many of those charged with running India were themselves Evangelicals sympathetic to efforts to convert the country . As Beckerlegge has commented , " the furtherance of Christian mission had become inextricably bound up with attempts to define Britain 's role in India and indeed to justify Britain 's presence in India . " The issue was whether Britain was there simply to govern India or to " civilise " it , and if the latter , whether to draw up or destroy India 's existing culture and religion . Many of those who supported increased missionary work in India , says Beckerlegge , regarded the events of 1857 as " nothing less than a divine judgment " on Britain 's failure to bring Christianity to the country .
There were two schools of thought on whether Sanskrit should be taught for the purpose of assisting the administration and conversion of India , or for its own merits . The East India Company had provided instruction in Sanskrit to its employees at its college at Haileybury , Hertfordshire , and the College of Fort William in Calcutta , to educate them in local culture . For some , this led to an interest in Indian religion and culture as revealed in the Sanskrit texts . This was in contrast to the situation in continental Europe , where scholars examined Sanskrit as part of the " science of language " , comparative philology , rather than for reasons of imperial administration . Fewer European scholars visited India , but many British Sanskritists had lived and worked there . Some British scholars in other fields had strong doubts in any event about Sanskrit , as a " crude linguistic forgery pieced out of Latin and Greek " , or as proving little " except a thoroughly unwelcome kinship between Briton and Brahmin " , in the words of the American academic Linda Dowling .
= = Candidates = =
Although five men indicated their intent to seek the chair in 1860 or were proposed in their absence , in the end the two who contested the election were Monier Williams and Max Müller . Williams ( known later in life as Sir Monier Monier @-@ Williams ) was the son of an army officer and was born in India . He studied briefly at Balliol College , Oxford , before training at Haileybury for the civil service in India . The death of his brother in battle in India led to him to return to Oxford to complete his degree . He also studied Sanskrit with Wilson before teaching this and other languages at Haileybury from 1844 until 1858 , when it closed following the Indian rebellion . He prepared an English – Sanskrit dictionary , at Wilson 's prompting , which the East India Company published in 1851 ; his Sanskrit – English dictionary was supported by the Secretary of State for India . As the Dutch anthropologist Peter van der Veer has written , Williams " had an Evangelical zeal " according with the views that had inspired Boden to establish the chair .
Müller was from the German duchy of Anhalt @-@ Dessau and took up Sanskrit at university as a fresh intellectual challenge after mastering Greek and Latin . At this time , Sanskrit was a comparatively new subject of study in Europe , and its connections with the traditional classical languages had attracted interest from those examining the nature and history of languages . He obtained his doctorate from Leipzig University in 1843 , aged 19 , and after a year studying in Berlin he began work in Paris on the first printed edition of the Rig Veda ( an ancient collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns ) . What was supposed to be a brief visit to England for research in 1846 turned into a lifelong stay . The Prussian diplomat Baron von Bunsen and Wilson persuaded the directors of the East India Company to provide financial support for Oxford University Press to publish the Rig Veda . Müller settled in Oxford in 1848 and continued his Sanskrit research , becoming Taylorian Professor of Modern European Languages in 1854 after three years as the deputy professor ; in this post he was paid £ 500 per year , half the stipend of the Boden chair . A British citizen from 1855 , he was elected a Fellow of All Souls College in 1858 , " an unprecedented honour for a foreigner at that time " , in the words of his biographer , the Indian writer Nirad C. Chaudhuri .
Three other scholars indicated an intention to stand for the chair , or were nominated by others , but withdrew before the ballot . The candidacy of Edward Cowell , Professor of Sanskrit at the Government College in Calcutta , was announced in The Times on 28 May 1860 , where it was said that Wilson had pronounced him " eminently qualified " to succeed him . He later wrote from India refusing to stand against Müller . Ralph Griffith , a former Boden scholar who was a professor at the Government Sanskrit College in Benares , announced his candidacy in August 1860 , but withdrew in November . James R. Ballantyne , principal of the college in Benares , was proposed in June 1860 by friends based in England , who described him as the " chief of British Sanscrit scholars " .
= = = Müller 's manifesto = = =
Müller announced his candidacy on 14 May 1860 , six days after Wilson 's death . His submission to Convocation referred to his work in editing the Rig Veda , saying that without it missionaries could not fully learn about the teachings of Hinduism , which impeded their work . As a result , he had , he considered , " spent the principal part of my life in promoting the object of the Founder of the Chair of Sanskrit . " He promised to work exclusively on Sanskrit , and said that he would provide testimonials from " the most eminent Sanskrit scholars in Europe and India " and from missionaries who had used his publications to help " overthrow the ancient systems of idolatry " in India . In due course , he was able to provide a list of missionary societies that had requested copies of the Rig Veda from the East India Company , including the Church Missionary Society and the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel .
= = = Williams 's manifesto = = =
Williams declared his intention to stand for election on 15 May 1860 , one day after Müller . In his written submission to Convocation , he emphasised his suitability for appointment in the light of Boden 's missionary wishes . After giving details of his life and career , particularly his experience in Sanskrit obtained at Haileybury , he stated that for the past 14 years " the one idea of my life has been to make myself thoroughly conversant with Sanskrit , and by every means in my power to facilitate the study of its literature . " He assured voters that , if elected , " my utmost energies shall be devoted to the one object which its Founder had in view ; — namely ' The promotion of a more general and critical knowledge of the Sanskrit language , as a means of enabling Englishmen to proceed in the conversion of the natives of India to the Christian religion . ' " Unlike Müller , he regarded the study of Sanskrit " as chiefly a means to the missionary conversion of the Hindus rather than as an end in itself " , as Dowling puts it . In this way , Dowling says , he could attempt to deflect attention from his " modest abilities in classical Sanskrit " when compared to Müller 's " internationally acknowledged achievements " . Moreover , the appeal to Boden 's original intentions came during a period when Convocation tended to pay little attention to the expressed wishes of benefactors .
= = Rival campaigns = =
In August 1860 , Müller wrote to the members of Convocation about his plans to teach a broad range of topics in addition to Sanskrit , including comparative philology , Indian history , and literature . Simply teaching the language " would be but a mean return " for Boden 's generosity , he wrote . In this way , he would help to supply " efficient " missionaries , " useful " civil servants , and " distinguished " Boden scholars .
In turn , Williams wrote that if Boden had left instructions that the man elected should be the one " most likely to secure a world @-@ wide reputation for the Sanskrit Chair , I confess that I should have hesitated to prosecute my design . " However , this was not the case and it would be " unjustifiable " in terms of the statutes governing the chair if the professor were to lecture on wider topics . In his view , the Vedic literature was " of less importance " and the philosophical literature was " very mystical and abstruse " , whereas " the classical or modern " period ( the laws , two heroic poems , and the plays ) was the " most important " . Reminding his readers that he had edited two Sanskrit plays , he stated that the literature of the third period constituted the Sanskrit scriptures , not ( " as has hitherto been believed " ) the Veda , " still less the Rig Veda " . He commented that Müller 's edition of the Rig Veda was requiring " an expenditure of time , labour , money , and erudition far greater than was ever bestowed on any edition of the Holy Bible " , adding that Boden did not intend to " aid in the missionary work by perpetuating and diffusing the obsolescent Vedic Scriptures . " He claimed that his own approach to Sanskrit scholarship , with his dictionaries and grammar books , was " suited to English minds " , unlike Müller 's " continental " and " philosophical " approach , which dealt with texts no longer relevant to modern Hindus that missionaries would not benefit from studying .
In a letter to The Times published on 29 October 1860 , Müller took issue with Williams . To the claim that it would be unjustifiable to teach history , philosophy , and other subjects as Boden professor , he quoted from one of Wilson 's public lectures in which he had said that it had always been his intention to offer " a general view of the institutions and social condition , the literature , and religion of the Hindus . " He noted that he had published in all three areas into which Williams divided Sanskrit literature , and disputed Williams 's views on the relative importance of Vedic literature with reference to a review of one of his publications by Wilson . Williams , he said , " stands as yet alone " in asserting that the heroic poems and the plays , not the Vedas , were the real scriptures . He refused to accept Williams 's estimate of the labour involved in the edition of the Rig Veda , and said that to compare his little effort with that carried out on the Bible was " almost irreverent . " He concluded by attempting to rebut the claim that Boden would not have wanted the Vedic scriptures to be supported . He noted that the Bishop of Calcutta ( George Cotton ) had written that it was of " the greatest importance " for missionaries to study Sanskrit and its scriptures " to be able to meet the Pundits on their own ground " , and that the bishop 's view was that nothing could be more valuable in this work that Müller 's edition , and Wilson 's translation , of the Rig @-@ Veda . "
After this letter , Williams complained about Müller conducting his campaign in the newspapers and misrepresenting what Williams was saying . Müller asked three professors and the Provost of Queen 's College to consider the accuracy of his letter , and they pronounced in his favour . In Beckerlegge 's view , all these replies and counter @-@ replies did was " illustrate the increasingly heated tone of the exchanges " between the two men and their supporters . It was " as if the protagonists were prospective members of Parliament " , in the words of one modern scholar . Terence Thomas , a British lecturer in religious studies , records " insults regarding the nationality of Max Müller and the proficiency of Monier Williams as a Sanskritist being bandied back and forth by their supporters . " For example , one of the Boden scholars at Oxford , Robinson Ellis , claimed that Williams had not been able to prove that he could read a Sanskrit text . When challenged , he later amended this to a claim that Williams could only read a text when he could compare it to another one , describing this as " mechanical labour which is paid for at the public libraries at Paris and Berlin at the rate of half a crown a year . "
Each had a committee of helpers ; Williams had two , one in London , the other in Oxford . He spent over £ 1 @,@ 000 on his campaign – as much as the Boden professor was paid in a year . In June 1860 , Müller complained in a letter to his mother about having to write to each one of the " 4 @,@ 000 electors , scattered all over England " ; he said that sometimes he wished he had not thought of standing for election , adding " if I don 't win , I shall be very cross ! " .
= = Supporters and newspapers = =
According to Beckerlegge , there was a view held by many of those involved in the keenly fought struggle between Williams and Müller that more depended on the result than simply one man 's career – missionary success or failure in India , " and even the future stability of British rule in this region " ( in the light of events in India a few years previously ) might depend on the abilities of the Boden professor . Victory would depend on each side 's ability to persuade non @-@ resident members of Convocation to return to Oxford to cast their votes . Each candidate had their supporters : Müller was backed by scholars of international merit , whereas Williams was able to call upon Oxford @-@ based academics and those who had served in India as administrators or missionaries . Both candidates claimed support from Wilson – " as if the principle of apostolic succession was involved in the appointment " , says Chaudhuri . The Times reported on 23 May that friends of Williams placed considerable weight upon a private letter to him from Wilson , " indicating Mr. Williams as his probable successor . " In return , Wilson was revealed to have said " two months before his death " that " Mr. Max Müller was the first Sanskrit scholar in Europe " . The source of this information was W. S. W. Vaux , of the British Museum , who described his conversation with Wilson in a letter to Müller in May 1860 . In reply to Vaux 's comment that he and others wanted Wilson 's successor to be " the finest man we could procure " , Vaux quoted Wilson as saying that " You will be quite right if your choice should fall on Max Müller . "
The Times published a list of leading supporters for each candidate on 27 June 1860 , noting that many people were not declaring support for either " since they wish to see whether any person of real eminence announces himself from India " . Müller was backed by Francis Leighton , Henry Liddell and William Thomson ( the heads of the colleges of All Souls , Christ Church , and Queen 's ) , Edward Pusey , William Jacobson and Henry Acland ( the Regius Professors of Hebrew , of Divinity , and of Medicine ) and others . Williams had the declared support of the heads of University and Balliol colleges ( Frederick Charles Plumptre and Robert Scott ) , and fellows from ten different colleges .
On 5 December 1860 , two days before the election , friends of Müller took out an advertisement in The Times to list his supporters , in response to a similar record circulated on behalf of Williams . By then , Müller 's list included the heads of 11 colleges or halls of the university , 27 professors , over 40 college fellows and tutors , and many non @-@ resident members of the university including Samuel Wilberforce ( the Bishop of Oxford ) and Sir Charles Wood ( the Secretary of State for India ) . A list published on the following day added the name of Charles Longley , Archbishop of York , to Müller 's supporters . Overall , the public supporters for each candidate were about the same in number , but while Müller was backed by " all the noted Orientalists of Europe of the age " , Williams 's supporters " were not so distinguished " , according to Chaudhuri .
Newspapers and journals joined the debate , some in strong terms . One evangelical publication , The Record , contrasted the two candidates : Müller 's writings were " familiar to all persons interested in literature , while they have destroyed confidence in his religious opinions " ; Williams was described as " a man of sincere piety , and one who is likely , by the blessing of God on his labours , to promote the ultimate object which the founder of the Professorship had in view . " Other newspapers highlighted the nationalities of the candidates ; as Beckerlegge has put it , " voting for the Boden Chair was increasingly taking on the appearance of being a test of patriotism . " The Homeward Mail ( a London @-@ based newspaper that concentrated on news from , and relating to , India ) asked its readers whether they wanted " a stranger and a foreigner " to win , or " one of your own body " . A writer in The Morning Post said that voters should " keep the great prizes of the English universities for English students " . The Morning Herald said that it was " a question of national interest " , since it would affect the education of civil servants and missionaries and therefore " the progress of Christianity in India and the maintenance of British authority in that empire " . It anticipated that Britain would be ridiculed if it had to appoint a German to its leading academic Sanskrit position .
Müller was not without support in the press . An editorial in The Times on 29 October 1860 called him " nothing more nor less than the best Sanscrit scholar in the world . " It compared the situation to the 1832 election , when there had also been a choice between the best scholar ( Wilson ) and a good scholar " who was held to have made the most Christian use of the gift " ( William Hodge Mill ) . Williams , it said , appeared as " the University man ... , the man sufficiently qualified for the post , and , above all , as the man in whose hands , it is whispered , the interests of Christianity will be perfectly safe . " His proposal not to teach history , philosophy , mythology or comparative philology " seems to strip the subject very bare " and would , it thought , leave the post as " an empty chair . " It stated that Müller " best answers to the terms of Colonel Boden 's foundation . " His field of study – the oldest period of Sanskrit literature – " must be the key of the whole position " , whereas Williams was only familiar with the later , " less authentic , and less sacred " writings . The editorial ended by saying that Oxford " will not choose the less learned candidate ; at all events , it will not accept from him that this is the true principle of a sound Christian election . "
Pusey , the influential " high church " Anglican theologian associated with the Oxford Movement , wrote a letter of support to Müller , reproduced in The Times . In his view , Boden 's intentions would be best advanced by electing Müller . Missionaries could not win converts without knowing the details of the religion of those with whom they were dealing , he wrote , and Müller 's publications were " the greatest gifts which have yet been bestowed " on those in such work . He added that Oxford would gain by electing him to a position where Müller could spend all his time on work " of such primary and lasting importance for the conversion of India . " Beckerlegge finds Pusey 's support noteworthy , since Pusey would not have agreed with Müller 's particular " broad " approach to Christianity , and was thus providing a judgment on the academic abilities of the candidate best placed to advance missionary work in India . One anonymous writer of a letter to the press in support of Müller , shortly before the election , expressed it thus : " A man 's personal character must stand very high , and his theological opinions can afford but little ground for animadversion on either hand , when he unites as his unhesitating supporters Dr. Pusey and Dr. Macbride " – a reference to John Macbride , described in the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography as " a profoundly religious layman of the ' old ' evangelical school " . However , Dowling describes Müller as " impercipient of the subtle twists of theological argument , the fine shadings and compunctions of Victorian religious feeling " – a weakness that was held against him .
= = Election = =
The election was held on 7 December 1860 in the Sheldonian Theatre . Three special trains were laid on between Didcot and Oxford that afternoon to meet passengers travelling from the west of England , and one additional train was provided between Oxford and London via Didcot in the evening . A London @-@ bound train from the north of England called additionally at Bletchley to allow onward connections to Oxford for passengers from places such as Liverpool , Manchester and Birkenhead . Evangelical clergymen turned out in force to vote . Over about five and a half hours of voting , 833 members of Congregation declared for Williams , 610 for Müller .
Historians have advanced various views as to why , even though Müller was generally regarded as the superior scholar , he lost to Williams . Beckerlegge suggests several possible factors : unlike Williams , Müller was known as a writer and translator rather than a teacher of Sanskrit , he did not have links to the East India Company or the Indian Civil Service that he could call upon for supporters , and he had not been educated at Oxford . In his obituary of Müller , Arthur Macdonell ( Boden professor 1899 – 1926 ) said that the election " came to turn on the political and religious opinions of the candidates rather than on their merits as Sanskrit scholars " , adding that " party feeling ran high and large numbers came up to vote . " Similarly , Dowling has written that " in the less cosmopolitan precincts outside Oxford ... the argument that Müller was ' not English ' told heavily against him " since " the argument was ( and was meant to be , of course ) unanswerable . " She adds that Tories opposed him for his liberal political views , traditionalist factions within Oxford rejected " Germanizing " reform , and " the Anglican clergy ... detected unbelief lurking in his umlaut " . The American historian Marjorie Wheeler @-@ Barclay takes the view that the three motives for people voting against Müller cannot be disentangled . Those who supported Indian missionary work , Dowling writes , saw it as the key to continued British rule , and there was no need to take a chance by electing Müller , who had " a reputation for unsound religious opinions " , since Williams was a scholar " of distinction known for his conservatism and piety . "
Müller attributed his defeat to his German background and suspicions that his Christianity was insufficiently orthodox , factors that had been used to influence in particular those voters who were no longer resident members of the university . He had lost , he wrote , because of " calumnious falsehood and vulgar electioneering tactics " Williams wrote in his unpublished autobiography that he had been " favoured by circumstances " and that , unlike Müller , he had been regarded as politically and religiously conservative .
= = Subsequent events = =
Williams was Boden professor until his death in 1899 , although he retired from teaching ( while retaining the title ) in 1887 because of his health . He took as the title for his inaugural lecture " The Study of Sanskrit in Relation to Missionary Work " , in keeping with his views as to the role of the chair . Thomas notes that as the East India Company had switched to using English rather than Sanskrit or Persian for its work , " a natural source of students had already dried up not long after the Boden Chair was inaugurated [ in 1832 ] " . Williams helped establish the Indian Institute at Oxford , proposing the idea in 1875 and helping to raise funds for the project on his visits to India , and persuaded the university to add a degree course in oriental studies . His publications included translations of plays and grammatical works . He received a knighthood in 1886 , and was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of the Indian Empire in 1887 , when he changed his surname to become Sir Monier Monier @-@ Williams .
Robinson Ellis was required to attend Williams 's lectures despite his low opinions of the new professor 's abilities . Williams said that Ellis 's " whole demeanour was that of a person who would have welcomed an earthquake or any convulsion of nature which would have opened a way for him to sink out of my sight " . Overall , Williams won over most of those who had opposed his election , with the exception of Müller .
For Müller , losing the election was " a decisive turning point in his scholarly and intellectual life " , according to Chaudhuri . It meant that Müller was never to teach Sanskrit at Oxford , although he remained there until his death in 1900 ; nor did he ever visit India . Greatly disappointed by not winning the chair , Müller " regularly avoided or snubbed Monier Williams and his family on the streets of Oxford " , according to Williams . He was appointed to a chair of comparative philology in 1868 , the first Oxford professorship to be established by the university itself without money from royal or private donations . He wrote a letter of resignation in 1875 when the university proposed to award an honorary doctorate to Williams , giving as his reason that he wanted to spend more time studying Sanskrit . Friends attempted to talk him out of it , and the university then appointed a deputy professor to discharge his duties , an honour he greatly appreciated .
The Indian historian Rajesh Kochhar , noting the East India Company 's support for Müller , commented that " Oxford professors may have had their own reasons for their assessment of him , but the Company and the natives both found him very relevant . " Despite his electoral defeat , he enjoyed a high reputation at Oxford and beyond : he " occupied a central role in the intellectual life of the nation " , according to Beckerlegge , and was " viewed by the world as a model of academic success " ( as Dowling puts it ) . Dowling considers that " [ w ] ithin his own lifetime , Müller was discredited as a linguistic scientist " and has " little relevance " to later models of the study of language . In Beckerlegge 's opinion , Müller 's views about the nature of Christian missionary work showed the difficulty at that time for Christian academics " actively working to promote a more tolerant and even @-@ handed study of other religious traditions " .
Of the other candidates , Cowell was elected as the first Sanskrit professor at the University of Cambridge in 1867 , supported by Müller and others . Griffith was principal of his college from 1861 until 1878 ( succeeding Ballantyne ) ; he carried out further work in India after his retirement , and died there . Ballantyne resigned as principal because of health problems and returned to England , where he served as librarian to the India Office ( a position that Wilson had held in addition to the professorship ) until his death in 1864 .
The academic Jeremy Dibble ( in his biography of the composer John Stainer , a friend of Müller ) has written that the election " amply foreshadowed the ensuing battle between contemporary sacred and secular forces in the university , the anachronism of Oxford 's systems of academic election and the burning need for reform " . The Universities of Oxford and Cambridge Act 1877 continued a process of change imposed by Parliament that had begun in the middle of the 19th century , and empowered a group of commissioners to lay down new statutes for the university and its colleges . The commissioners ' powers included the ability to rewrite trusts and directions attached to gifts that were 50 years old or more . The statutes governing the Boden chair were revised by the commissioners in 1882 ; Joseph Boden 's original proselytising purpose was no longer mentioned , nor was the professor to be chosen by Convocation . The commissioners ' new statutes for Balliol College in 1881 included a provision that the holder of the Boden professorship was to be appointed as a fellow of the college , creating a link between the chair and Balliol that is still in place . As with other professorships , the University Council now makes arrangements for convening a board of electors , upon which Balliol has two representatives , in the event of a vacancy . As of 2016 , the Sanskrit professor is Christopher Minkowski , appointed in 2005 . His predecessor Richard Gombrich has said that he had to " fight a great battle " in 2004 to ensure that another professor was appointed after he retired , and credited his victory to the university 's realisation that it was the last chair in Sanskrit left in the United Kingdom .
= NLRB v. J. Weingarten , Inc . =
NLRB v. J. Weingarten , Inc . , 420 U.S. 251 ( 1975 ) is a US labor law case decided by the Supreme Court of the United States . It held that employees in unionized workplaces have the right under the National Labor Relations Act to the presence of a union steward during any management inquiry that the employee reasonably believes may result in discipline .
= = Facts = =
In 1972 , J. Weingarten , Inc . ( Weingarten ) operated a chain of food outlets . Weingarten operated two types of food establishments : stores with lunch counters and lobby food operations . Weingarten 's purported policy was to allow employees at stores with lunch counters a free lunch , but employees at lobby food operations were not allowed a free lunch ; this distinction ( and what the actual policy was ) would figure in the controversy to follow .
Beginning in 1961 , Leura Collins was employed as a sales person at Store No. 2 , which was a store with a lunch counter . Then in 1970 , she was transferred to Store No. 98 , which was a lobby food operation , where she again worked as a sales person . As a Weingarten sales person , Collins was represented under a collective bargaining agreement by Local Union No 455 of the Retail Clerks Union , which later became part of United Food and Commercial Workers . After a report that Collins was taking money from the cash register , an internal Weingarten investigator spent two days in June 1972 observing the store without the knowledge of Store No. 98 's manager . After completing the surveillance , the investigator informed the store manager of his presence and reported that he could find nothing wrong . The store manager then told the investigator that one coworker had reported that Collins failed to pay full price for a box of chicken she had purchased .
The manager and investigator summoned Collins for an interview and questioned her . Collins asked for the presence of a union representative several times but was refused by the manager each time . Upon questioning , Collins explained that she had put four pieces of chicken ( which cost $ 1 total ) into a larger box ( one which could hold $ 2 @.@ 98 of chicken ) because the store had run out of the four @-@ piece sized boxes . To check Collins 's story , the investigator left to ask the coworker who had reported her . The coworker confirmed that the store had run out of $ 1 size boxes and admitted she did not know how much chicken Collins had placed in the larger box . The investigator returned to the interview , apologized to Collins , and prepared to let her go .
Collins then burst into tears and exclaimed that the only thing she had ever gotten from the store without paying was her free lunch . This prompted renewed questioning from the investigator and manager because of the differing policies regarding free lunches at lobby food operations ( not allowed ) versus stores with lunch counters ( allowed ) . Collins again requested and was refused the presence of a union representative . Based on the questioning , the investigator prepared a statement that Collins owed $ 160 for lunches but she refused to sign the statement . It was later found that most ( if not all ) of the employees at Store No. 98 ( including the manager ) took free lunches because they had never been informed of the policy prohibiting it . When the investigator contacted company headquarters during the interview , the company itself was uncertain whether the policy against free lunches was even in effect at that store .
As a result , the investigator terminated the questioning and the store manager asked Collins to keep the inquiry private . However , Collins reported the interview to her shop steward and other union representatives . As a result , an unfair labor practice proceeding was brought before the National Labor Relations Board ( NLRB ) .
= = Judgment = =
= = = National Labor Relations Board = = =
The NLRB applied a right it had recently announced in Quality Mfg . Co. and then clarified in Mobil Oil Corp. that employees in unionized workplaces had a right under Section 7 of the National Labor Relations Act ( NLRA ) to the presence of a union representative during any inquiry where the employee 's job might be in jeopardy . The NLRB had explained in those decisions that having a union representative present was an exercise of the right to the ' mutual aid and protection ' protected by Section 7 . Therefore , an employer 's refusal of such presence was an unfair labor practice and actionable under the NLRA . As a result , the NLRB found that Weingarten had engaged in an unfair labor practice by refusing Collins a representative and Weingarten appealed to the United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit .
= = = Fifth Circuit = = =
The Fifth Circuit held that this interpretation of Section 7 was impermissible and refused to enforce the NLRB order . The Fifth Circuit followed the lead of the Seventh and Fourth circuits which had refused to enforce the NLRB 's previous decisions in Mobil Oil Corp. and Quality Mfg . Co. respectively . The Fifth Circuit argued that no union presence was necessary in Collins ' questioning because the company was not attempting to bargain with her in any way . Additionally , the court argued that requiring a union representative any time the threat of discipline was present would extend the scope of the NLRA far too broadly . The NLRB appealed to the Supreme Court of the United States , which granted certiorari to hear the case .
= = = US Supreme Court = = =
The Supreme Court , reversing the Fifth Circuit , held that the NLRB decision was appropriate because its interpretation of the NLRA was permissible . The Court explained that the NLRB is entrusted with the responsibility to adapt the NLRA to changing times and that as a result courts reviewing its decisions only have the authority to reject its interpretations of the NLRA if those decisions are impermissible under it . This also led to the Court 's observation that the NLRB can change its interpretation of the NLRA over time and is not required to comply with its earlier decisions .
The Court held that in this case the NLRB 's interpretation of Section 7 was permissible because union representation at employer inquiries constitutes " concerted activity for mutual aid or protection " under the statute . While a particular inquiry might only have implications for one worker , each employee has an interest in the outcome as it establishes rules they will have to follow in the future . The Court further pointed out that having a representative present will help the employee who may be too " fearful or inarticulate " to accurately participate in the investigation as well as the employer by eliciting facts and helping find other sources for the investigation . The Court also pointed out that requiring a union representative at inquiries was consistent with actual labor practice as something already found in many workplaces . As a result , the Court reversed and remanded directing the Fifth Circuit to enter a judgment enforcing the NLRB order . Justice Brennan said the following .
Justice Burger dissented arguing that the NLRB had not adequately explained and justified its decision to impose the union representative presence requirement . He argued that the Court was not required to accept the NLRB decision because it was not adequately explained . Justice Burger stated that he would remand the case to the NLRB for a fuller explanation of its decision .
Justice Powell argued that the NLRB 's interpretation of Section 7 was impermissible because having a union representative present during an investigation is a matter left by the NLRA to the bargaining process . He argued that the NLRA only creates the framework in which employers and unions bargain for employment benefits and does not cover specific benefits like the right to have a union representative present . He further explained that Section 7 only " protects those rights that are essential to employee self @-@ organization " which did not include the right at issue in the case . As a result , he would have affirmed the Fifth Circuit because the right to the presence of a union representative was not covered by Section 7 .
Justice Powell also prophetically noted that the rationales relied upon by the majority and the NLRB were applicable not only to unionized workplaces , but also to situations where there is no union .
= = Significance = =
Since Weingarten was decided , the NLRB has extended and retracted its protections several times . While the right announced in the case has never been removed , the NLRB has changed its mind several times as to whether or not the right to have a representative present during investigations applies to non @-@ union workplaces . In 1982 in the case of Materials Research Corp. , the NLRB extended the right to workplaces that did not have unions . The NLRB reasoned that the right was derived from Section 7 of the NLRA rather than Section 9 . While Section 9 covers the exclusive rights of unions to act in the collective bargaining process and are thus only available in unionized workplaces , Section 7 rights are available to employees without a union and thus do not vary based on whether the workplace is unionized . The NLRB further explained that the right to have another employee present during interviews that might lead to discipline helped to reduce the inequality between employees and management as intended by the NLRA . This would also be true regardless of whether a workplace was unionized .
However , the NLRB removed this right from non @-@ unionized workplaces only three years later in the 1985 of Sears , Roebuck & Co . In that case , the NLRB explained that the right to a union representative during inquiries that could lead to discipline was appropriate because a union protects the rights of all workers by safeguarding the terms and conditions for each individual worker . However , when there is no union present the right is inappropriate because employers have the authority to deal with employees on an individual basis and the right to the presence of another employee interferes with that . The NLRB further explained that a representative protects the interests not just of the individual employee , but of the entire collective bargaining unit . As a result , giving employees in non @-@ unionized workplaces is like requiring the employer to deal with the equivalent of a union representative which is not intended by the NLRA . As a result , employees who are not represented by unions do not have the right to a representative during inquiries .
In the 2001 case of Epilepsy Found. of Ne . Ohio , the NLRB again extended the right to non @-@ unionized workplaces , and this decision was affirmed by the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit . Then , the NLRB again withdrew the right in the 2004 case of IBM Corp. The NLRB noted that either interpretation of the NLRA , extending the right to representation during investigations that may lead to discipline or not doing so , was permissible . Therefore , whether or not to extend the right is purely a policy decision for the NLRB to make . After considering the policy issues on both sides , the NLRB decided that the “ employer ’ s right to conduct prompt , efficient , thorough , and confidential workplace investigations ” outweighed the employee ’ s right to representation during those investigations and withdrew the right from workplaces without unions .
As of 2007 , workers who are not union members do not have the right to the presence of a representative during management inquiries . However , since the NLRB has changed its decision on this issue over time , it is unclear whether that will be true in the future .
= Barry Zito =
Barry William Zito ( born May 13 , 1978 ) is an American former professional baseball pitcher . He played 15 seasons in Major League Baseball ( MLB ) for the Oakland Athletics and San Francisco Giants . His pitching repertoire consisted of a curveball ( his strikeout pitch ) , a four @-@ seam fastball , a two @-@ seam fastball , a circle changeup , and a cutter – slider .
Zito attended the University of California , Santa Barbara , Los Angeles Pierce College , and the University of Southern California . Drafted three times while in college , Zito signed with the Athletics when they chose him in the first round of the 1999 MLB draft . A year later , he was in the major leagues , finishing fifth in American League ( AL ) Rookie of the Year Award . He struggled to begin the 2001 season but improved greatly down the stretch , finishing the year with an 11 – 1 win – loss record over his final two months . He won 23 games ( while only losing five ) in 2002 and won the Cy Young Award . His record was only 14 – 12 in 2003 , but he still made the All @-@ Star team for the second year in a row . In 2004 , he had his worst season at the time , going 11 – 11 with a career @-@ high 4 @.@ 48 earned run average . He became Oakland 's Opening Day starter in 2005 and finished fifth in the AL with 171 strikeouts . In 2006 , he made the All @-@ Star team and posted a 15 – 1 record when receiving two or more runs of support .
Following his seventh season with the Athletics , Zito signed a seven @-@ year deal with the Giants in December 2006 . At the time , it was the largest contract ever given to a pitcher . He posted double @-@ digit wins in his first three seasons , and in 2010 he helped San Francisco win their first championship since 1954 . However , he struggled the last month of the season and he was left off the postseason roster . After sitting out much of the 2011 season with a foot and ankle injury , he came back in 2012 and flourished , finishing with a 15 – 8 record , his best season in a Giants uniform . The same October , Zito helped lead the Giants to their second World Series title in San Francisco history by going 2 – 0 with a 1 @.@ 69 ERA in three postseason starts . In his first career World Series start , he outdueled Tigers ' ace Justin Verlander in Game 1 , setting the stage for San Francisco 's sweep to their seventh World Series title in franchise history . Zito struggled in 2013 but received a standing ovation from the fans in his final appearance as a Giant . Following the year , he became a free agent . Zito , a philanthropist , founded Strikeouts For Troops , a national non @-@ profit that provides comforts of home and lifts the spirits and morale of injured troops as well as offering support to military families .
= = Early life = =
Zito was born May 13 , 1978 , in Las Vegas , Nevada . His family moved to San Diego , California , to help him concentrate on his baseball career . His father even stopped working to coach him . He transferred from El Cajon 's Grossmont High School to University of San Diego High School , a Roman Catholic school .
Zito then attended UC Santa Barbara where he earned Freshman All @-@ America Honors with 125 strikeouts in 85 ⅓ innings . In his sophomore season , Zito transferred to Los Angeles Pierce College so that he could be eligible for the Major League Baseball draft . At Pierce , he posted a 2 @.@ 62 earned run average ( ERA ) , went 9 – 2 with 135 strikeouts in 103 innings , and was named to the all @-@ state and all @-@ conference teams . He then transferred to the University of Southern California ( USC ) , where he was a first @-@ team All @-@ America selected by USA Today Baseball Weekly , Collegiate Baseball , and Baseball America . With a 12 – 3 record , a 3 @.@ 28 ERA , and 154 strikeouts in 113 ⅔ innings , Zito was named Pac @-@ 10 Pitcher of the Year .
Zito also played in the Cape Cod Baseball League , a summer wooden bat league which showcases the nation 's top amateur prospects . He led the Wareham Gatemen to the league championship in 1997 , and a runner @-@ up finish in 1998 .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Major League Baseball Draft = = =
Zito was taken by the Seattle Mariners in the 59th round ( 1,586th overall ) of the 1996 Major League Baseball ( MLB ) draft , and in the third round ( 83rd overall ) by the Texas Rangers in 1998 , but did not sign with either team . In the 1999 draft , he was selected by the Oakland Athletics with the ninth pick of the first round , and signed for a $ 1 @.@ 59 million bonus .
= = = Minor leagues = = =
In 1999 , Zito began his professional career with the Visalia Oaks , Oakland 's A team . He went 3 – 0 with a 2 @.@ 45 ERA in eight starts . He struck out 62 in 40 ⅓ innings . Zito was promoted to the Midland RockHounds , and went 2 – 1 with a 4 @.@ 91 ERA to finish the AA schedule . He then got one start for the AAA Vancouver Canadians , allowing a lone run with six strikeouts in six innings .
Zito began the 2000 season in AAA with the Sacramento River Cats ( the Canadians franchise had moved to Sacramento ) . He pitched 101 ⅔ innings in 18 starts , going 8 – 5 with a 3 @.@ 19 ERA , 91 strikeouts , and 41 walks .
= = = Major leagues = = =
= = = = Oakland Athletics ( 2000 – 06 ) = = = =
= = = = = 2000 = = = = =
Zito made his major league debut on July 22 , 2000 , against the Anaheim Angels wearing # 53 . He allowed one run in five innings , and got the win . In his next start , Zito went seven innings while giving up three runs to the Boston Red Sox . Zito continued to have great success early in his rookie season . In his third career start , he went seven innings and gave up one run against the Toronto Blue Jays . On September 10 , Zito pitched his first complete game shutout against the Tampa Bay Devil Rays . He threw 110 pitches , struck out eight , and allowed five hits . During the month of September , he went 5 – 1 with a 1 @.@ 73 ERA . Zito finished with a 7 – 4 record and a 2 @.@ 72 earned run average in 14 starts . Despite his late start to the season , Zito still finished fifth in American League ( AL ) Rookie of the Year Award voting .
Zito made his postseason debut in Game 4 of the AL Division Series ( ALDS ) against the New York Yankees . He went 5 @.@ 2 innings , struck out 5 , walked 2 , and allowed an earned run . Zito earned the win , outpitching Roger Clemens . However , the Yankees would win the series , 3 – 2 , and would go on to win their third straight World Series .
= = = = = 2001 = = = = =
In 2001 , Zito Switched his Uniform Number to 75 ( which he would wear throughout the rest of his career ) finished third in the American League ( AL ) in strikeouts per nine innings ( 8 @.@ 61 ) , fourth in strikeouts ( 205 ) , sixth in wins ( 17 ) , eighth in ERA ( 3 @.@ 49 ) , and tenth in winning percentage ( .680 ) . Zito became the sixth lefty aged 23 or younger since 1902 to strike out at least 200 batters in a season . After a great rookie season , Zito struggled through the early part of the 2001 season , posting a 6 – 7 record with a 5 @.@ 01 ERA in his first 22 starts . However , he rebounded nicely and by August , he was putting up good pitching numbers . Zito was named Pitcher of the Month in August , going 5 – 1 with a 1 @.@ 02 ERA . Zito won Pitcher of the Month again in September , going 6 – 0 with a 1 @.@ 89 ERA . During those last two months of the season , Zito went a combined 11 – 1 with a 1 @.@ 32 ERA , best in baseball .
The Athletics made the postseason and again played the Yankees in the ALDS . Zito pitched in Game 3 against Mike Mussina . He went eight innings , striking out six , walking one , and allowing an earned run . But Zito took the loss as the Yankees won the game , 1 – 0 . The Yankees would end up taking the series , 3 – 2 .
= = = = = 2002 = = = = =
In 2002 , Zito became one of the best pitchers in baseball . On June 22 , Zito won his 10th game of the season . It was the earliest that an A 's pitcher had reached the 10 @-@ win mark since Bob Welch got there on June 15 , 1990 . Zito was named to the All @-@ Star team for the first time in his career . On July 18 , he went 7 @.@ 1 innings while giving up no runs against the Angels . That win gave Zito a team @-@ record 16th straight win at home . Zito again faced the Angels in his next start and produced similar results . He went 6 @.@ 1 innings and gave up just one run . That win gave Zito the most wins by an AL pitcher ( 14 ) . Zito would become the AL 's first 15 @-@ game winner when he beat the Rangers . On August 23 , Zito recorded his 18th win of the season , giving him one more than his previous career high of 17 , in a game against the Detroit Tigers .
On August 28 , Zito earned his 19th win of the season against the Kansas City Royals . However , he lost his bid for a perfect game in the sixth inning when Neifi Pérez singled with one out . Zito gave credit to Pérez . " I wasn 't pitching to maintain a no @-@ hitter or something " , Zito said . " I left the ball up over the middle to Pérez , and he hit it up the middle . It was a good piece of hitting . "
On September 8 , Zito became the first pitcher in the AL to win 20 games when he pitched seven innings and allowed no earned runs against the Minnesota Twins . " I 'm not pitching for the Cy Young " , Zito said . " I 'm pitching to get the Oakland A 's into the playoffs and to the World Series . " In his next start , against the Seattle Mariners , Zito took a no @-@ hitter into the eighth inning before John Olerud singled to leadoff the inning . Seattle manager Lou Piniella said if he could vote for the Cy Young Award winner , " It would go to that young man who pitched for the Oakland team . There are other deserving pitchers , but [ Zito ] has won 21 games and he competes well . "
In his last start of the season , Zito went six innings and allowed just a run against the Texas Rangers . In his last 10 starts , Zito went 8 – 0 , boosting his chances of winning the AL Cy Young Award . " Barry pitched another gem " , said Oakland manager Art Howe . " He 's certainly had a Cy Young @-@ type season . He 's just been steady all season long . "
In Game 3 of the ALDS , Zito went six innings and gave up three earned runs against the Twins , earning the win . However , the Twins defeated the Athletics in five games , making the Athletics the first team to lose the deciding game of a series three years in a row .
Zito would go on to win the AL Cy Young Award with a 23 – 5 record , narrowly defeating Pedro Martínez in the voting . He led the league with 23 wins , was second in winning percentage ( .821 ) , and third in both ERA ( 2 @.@ 75 ) and strikeouts ( 182 ) . Zito 's 23 wins were the most by an AL left @-@ hander since Frank Viola had 24 wins for Minnesota in 1988 . Zito also allowed a .185 average to opposing hitters , the lowest in the AL . Martínez , who 'd led the AL in ERA ( 2 @.@ 26 ) , strikeouts ( 239 ) , and winning percentage ( .833 ) , became the first pitcher since the introduction of the award to lead his league in each of the three categories and not win the award . Zito became the first A 's pitcher to win the Cy Young Award since Dennis Eckersley did it in 1992 . Zito was also named AL TSN Pitcher of the Year .
= = = = = 2003 = = = = =
In 2003 , Zito started off with a win against the Mariners . He went 6 innings and allowed an earned run , an RBI single by Olerud in the first inning . In his next start , Zito went 7 innings , struck out 7 , walked 4 , and allowed one run against Texas . In the process , he became only the fifth A 's pitcher to win 10 straight games , the first since Welch in 1990 . On April 18 , Zito went nine innings , allowing six hits and no runs in a start against the Rangers . Zito improved to 9 – 0 in his career against Texas . After the game , Texas manager Buck Showalter said , " I got the feeling he made it look pretty easy . When he has that kind of command , you can see what happens . " Zito struggled in his second @-@ to last start before the All @-@ Star Break on July 8 . He allowed seven earned runs and 15 hits against the Devil Rays . The 15 hits allowed were a career high . Devil Rays manager Piniella was stunned by Zito 's bad start . He said , " If you 'd have told me we 'd get 15 hits off Zito in five or six innings , I would have looked at you a little funny . " Nevertheless , Zito bounced back in his next start . He went eight innings without surrendering a run against the Baltimore Orioles . Zito was again named to the All Star team , the second time he has been named to the team .
In 2003 , Zito was seventh in the AL in ERA ( 3 @.@ 30 ) . He had a 14 – 12 record and 146 strikeouts over a career @-@ high 231 2 ⁄ 3 innings pitched .
In Game 2 of the ALDS against the Red Sox , Zito went seven innings , striking out nine , walking two , allowing one earned run , and earning the win in Oakland 's 5 – 1 triumph . In Game 5 , Zito went six innings and allowed four earned runs , taking the loss as the Red Sox won the game and the series .
= = = = = 2004 = = = = =
In 2004 , Zito struggled and posted the worst numbers of his career at the time . Zito went 2 – 3 with a 6 @.@ 83 ERA in the month of April . On May 28 , facing Cliff Lee , he threw eight shutout innings but received a no @-@ decision in a 1 – 0 loss to the Cleveland Indians . He threw eight shutout innings of four @-@ hit ball in a 5 – 0 victory over the Devil Rays on August 21 . Oakland manager Ken Macha would have let him throw a complete game , but Zito said , " I was worrying about being fresh for the next game . I didn 't want to end up [ throwing ] 115 – 120 [ pitches ] , so I took advantage of the situation and shut it down . " On September 12 , he threw seven shutout innings and had 10 strikeouts , earning the win in a 1 – 0 victory over the Indians . For the season , he went 11 – 11 with a 4 @.@ 48 ERA . That was his only year with the Athletics that his ERA was more than 4 @.@ 00 . He still finished 10th in the league in strikeouts with 163 .
= = = = = 2005 = = = = =
Following the departure of Tim Hudson and Mark Mulder , Zito was given his first Opening Day assignment in 2005 . He allowed four runs over six innings in a 4 – 0 loss to the Orioles on April 4 . In 2005 , Zito again struggled in the month of April , going 0 – 4 with a 6 @.@ 60 ERA . In his first 16 starts of the campaign , he was 3 – 8 with a 4 @.@ 41 ERA . However , Zito pitched better the rest of the season . He had a streak of 14 consecutive starts from May 17 through July 25 ( and 20 out of 21 through August 30 ) in which he gave up fewer hits than innings pitched . From June 28 through August 4 , he earned the win in eight consecutive starts . On June 6 , Zito allowed two runs in six innings in a 2 – 1 loss to the Washington Nationals . During the game , he collected his first major league hit , against Tony Armas , Jr .. Zito was named Pitcher of the Month in July , going 6 – 0 with a 2 @.@ 51 ERA . In 35 starts , Zito went 14 – 13 with a 3 @.@ 86 ERA . Zito 's 35 starts were the most in Major League Baseball that season , demonstrating his durability as a pitcher . He also had 171 strikeouts , good for fifth in the league .
= = = = = 2006 = = = = =
In 2006 , Zito went 1 @.@ 1 innings and allowed seven earned runs on Opening Day ( April 3 ) against the Yankees . It was the shortest outing of his career . However , Zito quickly rebounded from that bad start . On June 1 , he allowed four hits over seven innings in a 4 – 0 victory over the Twins . During the game , he recorded his 1,000th career strikeout by punching out Lew Ford . On July 2 , Zito and Brandon Webb both allowed one run through eight innings before Zito gave up two unearned runs while only getting two outs in the ninth ; Webb threw a complete game as the Arizona Diamondbacks beat the Athletics 3 – 1 . When the All @-@ Star Break rolled around , Zito was 8 – 6 with a 3 @.@ 29 earned run average . He was named to the 2006 All @-@ Star Game . On August 25 , Zito earned his 100th career win when he defeated the Rangers 9 – 3 . He had a no @-@ hitter going into the eighth inning , but Mark DeRosa singled to lead it off . In 35 starts ( first in the league again ) , he had a 16 – 10 record , a 3 @.@ 83 ERA , and 151 strikeouts . Zito was tied for eighth in the league in wins , he ranked tenth in ERA , and he was third in innings pitched ( 221 ) . He had the eighth @-@ lowest run support of AL pitchers ( 4 @.@ 97 ) but had a 15 – 1 record if he received at least two runs of support .
Zito helped the Athletics reach the postseason . In Game 1 of the ALDS , he allowed one run and four hits over eight innings , outdueling Johan Santana and earning the win in a 3 – 2 victory over the Twins and setting the stage for an Oakland sweep . Zito did not fare as well in Game 1 of the AL Championship Series ( ALCS ) against the Tigers , allowing five runs over 3 2 ⁄ 3 innings in a 5 – 1 defeat . The Tigers went on to sweep the Athletics in four games .
Zito replaced his agent Arn Tellem with Scott Boras in July 2006 . Zito was a focal point of the 2006 trade deadline , and was widely rumored to be headed to the Mets in a potential deal for prospect Lastings Milledge . Susan Slusser of the San Francisco Chronicle wrote that if the Mets were unwilling to trade Milledge , the Athletics might be interested in Aaron Heilman and John Maine . However , Athletics ' general manager Billy Beane decided to keep Zito for the rest of the season .
= = = = San Francisco Giants ( 2007 – 2013 ) = = = =
= = = = = 2007 = = = = =
Following his seventh season with the Athletics , Zito signed a seven @-@ year deal with the San Francisco Giants worth $ 126 million , plus $ 18 million option for 2014 with a $ 7 million buyout . Zito 's contract on December 29 , 2006 , became the highest for any pitcher in Major League history at the time .
During spring training in 2007 , he and Barry Bonds made shirts that read " Don 't ask me , ask Barry " with an arrow pointing to the other Barry . By all accounts , Zito and Bonds got along well during their short time as teammates , and Zito made a point of saying he would stand by Bonds through onslaughts from the media .
In his first start as a member of the Giants , Opening Day ( April 3 ) , Zito went five innings and allowed two earned runs against the San Diego Padres . He would take the loss . In his next start , Zito struggled . He went six innings but allowed eight earned runs against the Los Angeles Dodgers . Zito would earn his first win as a member of the Giants in his next start on April 16 when he went six innings , gave up three hits , and allowed no runs to the Colorado Rockies . " I 've been trying to have a good game " , Zito said . " You can 't try to do anything . You either do or you don 't . I tried to get too fine with my pitches . I wasn 't aggressive . " Rockies manager Clint Hurdle gave Zito credit by saying , " We faced a tough pitcher . We are not playing the way that we believe we can play . We have to continue to believe what we believe in , but you can 't let your confidence get swayed . "
On May 18 , Zito made his return to Oakland as a Giant . He lasted only four innings as he gave up seven runs while walking seven , including two bases @-@ loaded walks . The A 's beat the Giants , 15 – 3 . He faced his old team again on June 9 , this time in San Francisco . Zito pitched four innings while giving up three earned runs on nine hits in a 6 – 0 defeat .
Zito made his first Major League relief appearance on August 5 against the Padres due to an early exit by starter Noah Lowry and an overworked bullpen . He pitched a scoreless seventh inning . He recorded his first career run batted in ( RBI ) two days later against the Nationals ' Mike Bacsik , in the same game that Barry Bonds hit his record @-@ breaking 756th career home run .
After Zito 's start on August 12 , his ERA was 5 @.@ 13 . Over his final nine starts , he posted the fifth @-@ best ERA in the NL , at 3 @.@ 10 . He also had a 3 – 2 record . He admitted that he had put pressure on himself to perform because of the large contract and was learning that he just needed to be himself . Zito also said that it had been difficult for him to adjust to a new league , team , and ballpark . On the final day of the season , in Los Angeles against the Dodgers , Zito allowed two runs on five hits and had four strikeouts in an 11 – 2 win . For the first time in his career , Zito had a losing record , as he finished the season at 11 – 13 . He failed to reach 200 innings ( 196 2 ⁄ 3 ) for the first time since 2000 and posted a career @-@ high 4 @.@ 53 ERA .
= = = = = 2008 = = = = =
Zito began the 2008 season as the oldest starter and the veteran presence in the Giants ' starting rotation . In April , Zito went 0 – 6 with a 7 @.@ 53 ERA and 11 strikeouts . He was the third pitcher in the last 52 years to go 0 – 6 before May 1 . On April 28 , the Giants moved him to the bullpen . Zito did not make an appearance out of the bullpen and returned to the rotation on May 7 against the Pittsburgh Pirates . In that game , Zito allowed five hits and two earned runs over five innings and took the loss , his seventh of the season . On May 23 , Zito collected his first win of the 2008 season against the Florida Marlins . On June 13 , Zito became the first pitcher to record 10 losses in the Major Leagues following a 5 – 1 loss to Oakland . His 5 @.@ 1 walks per nine innings pitched for the season , 51 @.@ 5 % first @-@ pitch @-@ strike percentage , and 14 sacrifice flies allowed , were all the worst in the majors . Beginning June 25 , Zito saw some improvement , as he posted an 8 – 6 record for the rest of the season to go along with a 4 @.@ 33 ERA . He finished the year 10 – 17 with a career @-@ high 5 @.@ 15 ERA and 120 strikeouts . His 17 losses led the National League and were the second @-@ worst total in San Francisco history ( Ray Sadecki lost 18 games in 1968 ) .
= = = = = 2009 = = = = =
The 2009 season seemed to mark a rebound in Zito 's pitching performance . Though starting the season 0 – 2 with an ERA of 10 , Zito ended the season with an ERA of 4 @.@ 03 . His ERA would have been 3 @.@ 74 had it not been for his first two starts . Though going only 10 – 13 in the season , Zito 's record was much more the fault of his spotty run support ( the second @-@ lowest in the major leagues ) than his performance on the mound . On June 21 , Zito pitched a no @-@ hitter through six innings against Texas before giving up a home run to Andruw Jones in the seventh inning . He won the game , his fourth win of the season . On July 7 , Zito pitched what could be considered his best game of the season . He pitched 8 ⅓ innings against the Florida Marlins , allowing one run on four hits , striking out six , and walking one . He won the game , his fifth win of the season .
= = = = = 2010 = = = = =
Zito started the 2010 season by pitching six shutout innings against the Houston Astros to earn a win ; it was the first time he had won his season opening start since 2003 . On April 24 , Zito stifled the St. Louis Cardinals , throwing eight shutout innings with ten strikeouts for his third victory of the season , en route to starting the season 5 – 0 for the first time in his career . It was the best start by a Giants ' pitcher since 2004 , when Lowry started 6 – 0 . On June 12 , 2010 , Zito earned his first win against his former team , the Athletics , which gave him victories against every MLB team .
Through June 12 , Zito was 7 – 2 with a 3 @.@ 10 ERA . After a strong start to the season , Zito regressed down the stretch , going 2 – 12 with a 4 @.@ 97 ERA the rest of the way . He finished the season 9 – 14 with a 4 @.@ 15 ERA , snapping a streak of nine straight seasons in which he had 10 or more wins . In a rotation featuring Tim Lincecum , Matt Cain , Jonathan Sánchez , and Madison Bumgarner , Zito was the odd man out for the playoffs . In fact , he was left completely off the Giants ' 25 @-@ man active roster for the postseason . Zito worked out throughout the playoffs so that he would be ready to join the roster in case of an injury , but he was never needed and remained on the secondary squad . Nevertheless , he won his first World Series ring as a member of the full roster .
= = = = = 2011 = = = = =
Early in the 2011 season Zito experienced his first trip to the disabled list after an injury to his right foot during a fielding play . His replacement , Ryan Vogelsong , excelled , but Zito was able to rejoin the rotation when he returned in June because Sánchez was placed on the disabled list with left biceps tendinitis . Zito pitched well in his first few starts back , pitching well against the Tigers , Chicago Cubs , and Padres en route to three Giants wins , but later resumed his struggle , going 0 – 3 with a 10 @.@ 91 ERA over his next three starts . He returned to the disabled list after aggravating his right foot injury ; ironically , his trip to the DL made room for Sánchez to return to the rotation . On August 13 , Zito injured his right ankle on another fielding play in a Triple @-@ A rehab start , sidelining him for another month . Zito returned from the DL on September 11 but was used out of the bullpen for the rest of the year ; he posted a 9 @.@ 00 ERA over his final four games . In a career @-@ low 13 games ( nine starts ) , he had a 3 – 4 record , a career @-@ high 5 @.@ 87 ERA , 32 strikeouts , and 24 walks in a career @-@ low 53 2 ⁄ 3 innings .
= = = = = 2012 = = = = =
After struggling mightily during spring training in which he threw with a new crouched delivery , Zito began the 2012 season with a start against the Rockies on April 9 . He threw arguably one of the best games of his career , throwing a complete game shutout while giving up just 4 hits in the 7 – 0 Giants victory . It was his first shutout since 2003 when he was a member of the Oakland Athletics . In a June 3 home game matchup with the Cubs , Zito pitched four @-@ hit shutout ball into the ninth inning for a 2 – 0 Giants win and brought his season ERA below 3 @.@ 00 . In earning the win , Zito earned his 150th career win , becoming the 246th pitcher to hit the mark . Zito had a hand in the Giants ' second road shutout win of the season when he pitched seven innings , allowing three hits and recording four strikeouts , in a July 17 game versus the Atlanta Braves . The win pushed his season record to 8 – 6 . Zito would go on to finish the season with a 15 – 8 record , his most wins in a season with the Giants , while sporting a 4 @.@ 15 ERA .
Zito faced off against the Reds in Game 4 of the National League Division Series ( NLDS ) on October 10 and struggled , being pulled in the third inning after allowing two runs . However , the Giants went on to win 8 – 3 . The Giants , after losing the first two games of the series , became the first team to rally from a 2 – 0 deficit in an NLDS , winning the series in five games . On October 19 , 2012 , Zito rebounded and pitched arguably the best game of his career , tossing 72 ⁄ 3 shutout innings against the St. Louis Cardinals in Game 5 of the National League Championship Series ( NLCS ) , earning the win . It was his first postseason win since 2006 and according to Zito himself , was the biggest win of his career . That same day , Zito inspired the Twitter hashtag # rallyzito , which , behind the efforts of Giants fans , was trending worldwide on the social networking site . The Giants , after trailing 3 – 1 in the series , prevailed in seven games .
On October 24 , 2012 , Zito pitched in the first World Series of his career . As the Game 1 starter , Zito earned the win , outpitching Detroit 's Justin Verlander by tossing 5 2 / 3 innings of one @-@ run ball . Zito also added an RBI single en route to an 8 – 3 Giants win . The Giants went on to sweep the Tigers in the World Series , and Zito went 2 – 0 with a 1 @.@ 69 earned run average in the postseason . Zito did not lose a single game after August 2 against the Mets , and San Francisco won his last 14 starts .
= = = = = 2013 = = = = =
On April 5 , 2013 , during the Giants ' home opener , Zito held the Cardinals scoreless over seven shutout innings , earning the 1 – 0 win . He followed this performance with seven more shutout innings and some personal offensive contribution at the plate against the Rockies in a 10 – 0 win to complete a 3 @-@ game series sweep . It was the Giants ' 16th straight victory in a row in games started by Zito ( including the 2012 regular season and postseason ) , the longest such streak by a Giants pitcher since 1936 by Hall of Fame left @-@ handed pitcher Carl Hubbell . However , Zito struggled for the rest of the season , going 2 – 10 with a 6 @.@ 24 ERA after April 21 and losing his rotation spot a couple times late in the year .
On September 25 , manager Bruce Bochy decided to give Zito one final start with the Giants as a tribute to his tenure with the team . Zito responded by allowing two runs ( one earned ) over five innings and earning the win in a 7 – 4 victory over the Dodgers . However , because Zito was removed between innings during the Dodger game , Bochy sent him in to pitch in relief in the final game of the year so that Giants ' fans could give him a standing ovation . Zito entered with two outs in the eighth inning on September 29 and struck out Mark Kotsay ( playing his final game ) as the Giants beat the Padres 7 – 6 . He finished the 2013 season at 5 – 11 with a 5 @.@ 74 ERA in 30 games , 25 of which were starts . Following the season , Zito took out a full @-@ page ad in the San Francisco Chronicle thanking Giants fans for their support . The Giants declined Zito 's 2014 option , buying it out for $ 7 million .
= = = Second stint with the Athletics = = =
After taking a year off from baseball , Zito signed a minor league contract to return to the Athletics on February 16 , 2015 . In spring training , Zito competed for a role on the Athletics ' 25 @-@ man roster , possibly as a long reliever . On April 4 , 2015 , Zito accepted an assignment to the Triple @-@ A Nashville Sounds . Zito 's Nashville teammates lauded him for embracing the Triple @-@ A lifestyle and for his commitment to the team : charting pitches between starts , coaching first base , and even buying dinner for the entire team on his birthday . Zito spent the entire season with Nashville , including about a month on the disabled list with left shoulder tendinitis . He was activated on the next @-@ to @-@ last day of the season on which he pitched one scoreless inning of relief . In a total of 24 appearances ( 22 starts ) , he accrued an 8 – 7 record with a 3 @.@ 46 ERA and 91 strikeouts .
Zito revealed in an interview that he had learned the Athletics would not be bringing him up to the major league club in September . However , following a season @-@ ending injury to Jesse Chavez , Oakland purchased Zito 's contract from Triple @-@ A on September 16 , placing him on the major league roster . Zito made his first major league appearance on September 20 , pitching an inning in relief . On September 26 , 2015 , Zito started for the Athletics against Hudson and the Giants in a matchup that was arranged as a tribute to the A 's " Big Three " of the early 2000s . Both pitchers received lengthy standing ovations from the sold @-@ out Coliseum crowd ( which included the third Big Three member , Mulder ) upon leaving the game .
On October 19 , 2015 , Zito announced his retirement from baseball in an article for The Players ' Tribune .
= = Pitching style = =
Zito 's fastball has hovered between 84 miles per hour ( 135 km / h ) and 88 miles per hour ( 142 km / h ) . He augments it with a circle changeup and a curveball that he uses as a strikeout pitch . His curveball was voted the best in the Major Leagues in a player poll conducted by Sports Illustrated in 2005 . Alex Rodriguez once stated that he had never seen anything like Zito 's curveball , commenting : " It 's such a high one , and it drops three to four feet . You might as well not even look for it because you 're not going to hit it . "
Since mid @-@ 2004 , Zito has added a two @-@ seam fastball and a cutter – slider hybrid to his arsenal . In the 2009 season , this cutter @-@ slider became a prominent part of his repertoire , being used more frequently than his changeup . Zito 's diminished velocity at the start of the 2007 season ( his fastball velocity slowed to 83 – 85 miles per hour ( 134 – 137 km / h ) ) and loss of command were the key mechanical reasons for his struggles that year , as he more often got behind in the count and had to rely more on his fastball . During the 2009 season , Zito made changes to his delivery , lowering his arm slot from an over the top angle to a three quarters delivery . This change helped his fastball velocity go back up to the 86 – 89 miles per hour ( 138 – 143 km / h ) range as well as sharpening the break of his curveball . However , in 2011 , he was once again in the 84 – 87 miles per hour ( 135 – 140 km / h ) range with his fastball . In 2012 , Zito relied mostly on his two @-@ seam fastball and cutter , and reduced his reliance on the four @-@ seamer , which was the slowest four @-@ seamer in MLB among starting pitchers that year , at 84 @.@ 6 miles per hour ( 136 @.@ 2 km / h ) .
Addressing his finesse pitching style , Zito said , " My fastball is set up by my offspeed , that 's no secret . So if I can command my fastball to both sides of the plate and throw most of my offspeed for strikes , I 'll get them to miss the barrel . That 's what I 'm going for . "
= = Legacy = =
From 2000 through 2004 with the Athletics , Zito , Hudson , and Mulder were known as the " Big Three . " Of the three , Zito had the highest single @-@ season win total and was the only one to win the Cy Young Award . Zito 's .618 winning percentage is 10th all @-@ time in Athletics history . His 6 @.@ 896 strikeouts per 9 innings pitched ranks seventh , his 1 @,@ 096 strikeouts rank eighth , and his 222 games started rank 10th . Zito also holds a couple more dubious positions on Oakland 's list : his 148 home runs allowed rank fifth , and his 65 hit by pitches rank fourth ( although he trails Eddie Plank , Chief Bender , and Rube Waddell in that category ) . Zito 's .821 winning percentage in 2002 is tied with Bender 's in 1910 for 10th among Athletics ' single @-@ season totals . His 8 @.@ 608 strikeouts per 9 innings pitched in 2001 rank seventh , and his 205 strikeouts in 2001 are tied for 10th ( with Dave Stewart 's 1987 total and Todd Stottlemyre 's 1995 total ) .
Zito 's regular season performance with the Giants was less successful ; he went 63 – 80 with a 4 @.@ 62 ERA . However , he had significantly more playoff success with them . Aided by his contributions in 2010 , the team won its first World Series since 1954 . Zito did not pitch in the playoffs that year , but did pitch in the 2012 postseason , saving the Giants ' season by pitching them to a Game 5 victory in the NLCS against the Cardinals , and then outdueling Tigers ' ace Justin Verlander in Game 1 of the 2012 World Series . The Giants went on to win their second World Series in three years .
= = Awards = =
1999 – Pac @-@ 10 Pitcher of the Year
1999 – First @-@ Team College All @-@ American
1999 – Pac @-@ 10 Conference All @-@ Star
2000 – Triple @-@ A All @-@ Star
2002 – Baseball America First @-@ Team Major League All @-@ Star
2002 – Cy Young Award ( AL )
2002 – Sporting News AL Pitcher of the Year
2002 – All @-@ Star ( AL )
2003 – All @-@ Star ( AL )
2006 – All @-@ Star ( AL )
2012 – ML Hutch Award
2012 – ML Lou Gehrig Memorial Award
= = Personal life = =
Zito became engaged to former Miss Missouri Amber Seyer in April 2011 , and they were married on December 3 , 2011 . His father , Joe Zito , who died June 19 , 2013 , at the age of 84 , composed and arranged music for Nat King Cole in the early 1960s ( ca.1961 – 64 ) and arranged for the Buffalo Symphony Orchestra . Zito 's mother Roberta was a musician who sang in a choral group known as The Merry Young Souls and with Nat King Cole and his band . Zito is also a musician . He plays guitar , and he co @-@ wrote the song " Butterflies " that was used in the Eddie Murphy film A Thousand Words . Zito 's uncle is television actor Patrick Duffy .
Zito and wife Amber gave birth to their first child , a son , in July 2014 .
Zito is known for his idiosyncrasies and his offbeat personality . Early in his career , Zito dyed his hair blue . He earned the nicknames " Planet Zito " and " Captain Quirk " when with Oakland . Zito says he likes the way his uniform number 75 looks because the 7 and the 5 are like a " shelf " to hold the name " Zito " up . He surfs and practices yoga . He has done yoga poses in the outfield , and meditated before games . Zito practices Transcendental Meditation and supports the David Lynch Foundation . Zito has said , however , that he believes terms such as " flaky " or " hippie " have been applied to him by people who do not know him well enough to know better .
Zito was raised in a " spiritual , metaphysical type church " that was founded by his grandmother and that his mother , Roberta , who died in 2008 , formerly preached at . In 2001 , Zito espoused a universal life force that he credited with his midseason turnaround . He said that he discovered this force by reading Creative Mind by Ernest Holmes .
However , in August 2011 , Zito became a Christian , saying he " committed to Jesus Christ as his Lord and Savior . " Zito explained that God got his attention through his being left off the 2010 Giants postseason roster and a car accident and freak foot injury in early 2011 . He got a tattoo ( his only one ) of a golden calf on the inside of his right bicep as a reminder for him to " not worship false idols " and to remember that God comes first . Zito said that his wife is a Christian as well .
Zito founded the charity Strikeouts For Troops . The charity provides comforts of home and works to lift the spirits and morale of injured US troops and offers support to military families . In 2010 , Zito announced that he would donate $ 1 @,@ 500 for every strikeout in the Giants – Padres game on September 11 . There were a total of 14 strikeouts in the game .
In 2003 , Zito portrayed a United States Navy petty officer in an episode of JAG on CBS . Zito 's character , a pitcher , faced assault charges after hitting a Marine with a ball during the annual Navy @-@ Marine all @-@ star baseball game .
= Effects of Hurricane Mitch in Honduras =
The effects of Hurricane Mitch in Honduras included the worst flooding in Honduras in the 20th century . Hurricane Mitch , the strongest storm of the 1998 Atlantic hurricane season , formed on October 22 , and after becoming a Category 5 hurricane , it weakened and struck Honduras on October 29 . While near peak intensity , Mitch struck the offshore Guanaja island , where it nearly destroyed the mangrove forest . On the mainland , the hurricane dropped torrential rainfall , and many gauges were washed away in mountainous areas where unofficial rainfall totals were as high as 1900 mm ( 75 in ) . The highest official total was 928 mm ( 36 @.@ 5 in ) at Choluteca in southern Honduras , which was more than half of the annual precipitation average there . The rains caused widespread flooding and landslides , although impact from winds was not as severe .
The President of Honduras estimated that Mitch set back 50 years of economic development . The storm wrecked about 35 @,@ 000 houses and damaged another 50 @,@ 000 , leaving up to 1 @.@ 5 million people homeless , or about 20 % of the country 's population . Mitch directly caused $ 2 @.@ 005 billion in damage , with an additional $ 1 @.@ 8 billion in indirect costs . Most of the damage was ruined crops , and cash crop exports were cut by 9 @.@ 4 % in 1999 , largely due to the storm . Over 70 % of the transportation infrastructure was damaged , mostly damaged highways and bridges . Widespread areas experienced power outages , and about 70 % of the country lost water after the storm . In the capital , Tegucigalpa , a large landslide affected three neighborhoods and formed a temporary dam . Floods in the city damaged buildings that were over 350 years old . Throughout the country , there were at least 7 @,@ 000 fatalities , some reported in each department .
Following the storm , officials in Honduras requested international assistance , which totaled $ 2 @.@ 8 billion over a several year period . Despite this , the gross domestic product began decreasing at the end of 1998 , and contracted by 1 @.@ 9 % in 1999 . Officials enacted a widespread curfew following the storm , and for 15 days temporarily restricted constitutional rights to maintain order . There were outbreaks in various diseases , and many residents faced food and water shortages . Due to the heavy damage , the name Mitch was retired from the Atlantic hurricane naming list .
= = Preparations and background = =
Hurricane Mitch formed on October 22 in the southwestern Caribbean Sea , and it eventually intensified into a Category 5 on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale by October 26 . By that time , the hurricane was just north of the coast of Honduras , and was expected by the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) and various tropical cyclone forecast models to turn to the north . When the track was more westward than expected , the NHC recommended early on October 26 for a hurricane warning to be issued for the northeastern Honduran coast , although difficulties in communications prevented their immediate implementation . Within a few hours , a hurricane warning was in place between Limón to the Honduras and Nicaragua border , including the offshore Swan Island . When Mitch still failed to turn to the north , the government of Honduras issued a hurricane warning for the remainder of their coastline . The hurricane weakened while turning to the south , and made landfall in Honduras 134 km ( 83 mi ) east of La Ceiba , with estimated winds of 130 km / h ( 80 mph ) . Mitch continued to weaken while moving slowly westward across the country .
On October 26 , the Honduran Permanent Contingency Commission coordinated with neighboring countries regarding the storm . Officials initially issued a state of emergency for the offshore islands and five coastal departments , which was later extended to the rest of the country . The government increased emergency spending and created a National Emergency Commission . Officials advised residents to evacuate in flood @-@ prone areas , although many people stayed for fear of being looted . Some left to stay with relatives during the hurricane . Prisoners in Tegucigalpa Central Penitentiary were evacuated to the national stadium .
Before the storm struck , Honduras was facing decreased food supplies due to ongoing El Niño conditions . The economy had been growing at a rate similar to the previous year until Mitch struck , and was largely dependent on exports . About 73 % of the population was living in poverty when the storm struck . Hurricane Mitch set back the economies of various countries in the region , including Honduras , Nicaragua , Guatemala , and El Salvador , after they had improved throughout the 1990s .
= = Meteorological effects = =
Due to weak steering currents , Hurricane Mitch moved slowly for about a week , both offshore and while moving through Honduras . Rainbands drew moisture from the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea , producing high amounts of rainfall of over 300 mm ( 12 in ) per day , beginning on October 26 . In some areas , high mountain peaks contributed to high precipitation totals , and the highest amounts occurred in southern Honduras . The highest official total was 928 mm ( 36 @.@ 5 in ) at Choluteca , which represented more than half of the annual precipitation average ; at the same location , 466 @.@ 7 mm ( 18 @.@ 37 in ) fell in a 24 @-@ hour period on October 31 , which was more than double the previous record set in 1985 . At Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Honduras in the capital Tegucigalpa , rainfall totaled 294 mm ( 11 @.@ 58 in ) . The total of 120 @.@ 4 mm ( 4 @.@ 74 in ) on October 30 broke the record set in 1966 for the wettest day . At La Ceiba near where the storm made landfall , Mitch produced 874 mm ( 34 @.@ 4 in ) of rainfall , which is 30 % of its annual rainfall ; of the total , 284 @.@ 1 mm ( 11 @.@ 19 in ) fell on October 27 , which was the third highest amount there on record . There were unofficial rainfall totals in Central America as high as 1900 mm ( 75 in ) ; rain gauges in mountainous areas were washed away .
The high rainfall caused many rivers in the country to overflow " to an unprecedented extent this century " , as described by the United Nations . The flooding caused the Choluteca River to change its course , forming an avulsion . Widespread flooding near the northern coast left behind about 1 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) of sediment , which ruined forests and shrimp ponds . Flooding also affected the Pacific coast along the Gulf of Fonseca , leaving behind debris and sediment . In the country 's interior , particularly the southern portion , the high rainfall caused hundreds of landslides , many of them shallow and about 95 % in the form of debris flow . However , two earthflows caused significant damage near Tegucigalpa .
In mainland Honduras , the winds were not as damaging as the rainfall , although offshore islands sustained heavy damage due to high winds . Offshore northern Honduras , it was estimated that Mitch produced waves as high as 13 m ( 44 ft ) .
= = Impact = =
Overall , Hurricane Mitch caused an estimated $ 3 @.@ 8 billion in damage , of which $ 2 @.@ 005 billion was from direct damages and the remainder from indirect costs . The overall impact represented about 70 % of Honduras 's annual gross domestic product ( GDP ) .
= = = Offshore = = =
On October 27 , the Fantome , a schooner , last reported its location to the south of Guanaja , while trying to escape the brunt of the storm . The United States Coast Guard searched until November 4 , when they observed the debris from the ship . All 31 people on board were presumed killed .
On the offshore Guanaja island , waters rose about 2 m ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) during the storm . The combination of storm surge and high winds severely damaged offshore islands . High waves eroded northern coastlines and damaged lagoons . Most of the Bay Islands had damage to their water facilities . Two days of winds exceeding 200 km / h ( 120 mph ) destroyed nearly all of the plants and trees on Guanaja , uprooting or knocking down almost the entire mangrove forest . Most mangrove trees were an average of 11 @.@ 2 m ( 37 ft ) in height before they fell . Those remaining standing were damaged internally and unable to regrow . All trees lost their leaves on the island , and 70 % of conifer trees were knocked down . Montane trees likewise experienced severe damage , although they made a recovery within a year . However , no mangrove trees had regrown there by three years after the storm struck , indicating the level of destruction . Tree damage also occurred on nearby Roatán island , although to a much lesser degree , and occurring on the eastern end . Winds there were generally less than 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) , and the tree damage was more random .
= = = Mainland = = =
Hurricane Mitch wrought significant damage to Honduras , affecting nearly the entire population and causing damage in all 18 departments . High winds near the coast knocked down trees , particularly in mountainous areas . The United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean estimated that Mitch caused the worst floods of the 20th century in the country . Severe flooding occurred in the northern region , which washed away more than 25 entire villages . In San Pedro Sula in northwestern Honduras , flooding covered several neighborhoods and the international airport . Near the coast , high waves destroyed hotels and houses while swollen rivers flooded nearby areas . Damage was heaviest in Colón and Atlántida departments . In the latter department , the Cangrejal River left heavy damage along its path after it flooded . In Choluteca and Valle departments in the southern portion of the country
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Mitch killed about 7 @,@ 000 people in Honduras , with 11 @,@ 000 missing in the months after the storm . There were 8 @,@ 000 people listed as missing about ten days after Mitch struck , although problems with record @-@ keeping made it difficult to determine the exact total . Choluteca Department in the southern portion of the country had the most deaths , with 1 @,@ 200 fatalities . Francisco Morazán Department , which includes Tegucigalpa , had about 1 @,@ 000 deaths , and Yoro Department had 911 fatalities . There were deaths in every department , however . Many of the dead were buried in mass graves or were cremated . The storm injured 12 @,@ 272 people nationwide , mostly in Choluteca and Cortés departments .
= = Aftermath = =
Then @-@ president Carlos Roberto Flores estimated that Mitch reversed 50 years of progress in the country . Officials estimated it would take at least 15 years to rebuild completely . The national gross domestic product ( GDP ) only grew at a rate of 3 % due to the storm , compared with 5 @.@ 1 % in 1997 , due to damaged infrastructure and lingering effects . In 1999 , the economy of Honduras contracted by 1 @.@ 9 % , largely due to the storm . The Honduran government increased spending by 24 @.@ 7 % , . much of it emergency funds to restore communications and provide relief , which caused economic deficits . This caused inflation to increase from 13 @.@ 6 % to 15 @.@ 7 % . The Honduran government adjusted its economic plan , including privatization of various federal entities . For two years , the government temporarily halted taxes to businesses affected by the hurricane .
In the storm 's immediate aftermath , officials enacted a widespread curfew after reports of looting and vandalism . The government temporarily restricted constitutional rights for 15 days . Officials urged residents to restrict water and fuel use , and alcohol sales were halted . The widespread flooding and the crippled infrastructure forced officials to rely on a limited number of helicopters to operate search and rescue missions and deliver supplies . A helicopter carrying four people , including Tegucigalpa mayor and potential presidential candidate César Castellanos , crashed on November 1 while touring flood damage , killing everyone aboard . In some areas , residents did not receive assistance until November 12 , more than two weeks after Mitch 's landfall . About 285 @,@ 000 people remained in 1 @,@ 375 shelters , many of them schools , by three weeks after the hurricane struck . Some sports stadiums and churches were also used as makeshift shelters . Overcrowding at shelters caused various diseases .
Due to the hurricane and the widespread destruction , the hurricane caused outbreaks of malaria , dengue , cholera , and various fever and respiratory illnesses . Ongoing flooding caused an outbreak of Leptospirosis , notably in Cortés Department . There were widespread food and water shortages , leaving villagers near @-@ starvation . Damaged crops also prevented the export of cash crops , and exports decreased by 9 @.@ 4 % in 1999 . Many of the people left homeless also became unemployed , and there were reductions in exports and economic growth . Officials set up shelters that housed 285 @,@ 000 people for about a month . In Tegucigalpa , where the Choluteca River was dammed by a landslide , a temporary lagoon filled with sewage persisted for about two months , until a crew from the United States Army Corps of Engineers and United States Geological Survey dug a channel to drain the water .
Even before the storm struck , the government of Honduras issued an appeal for international assistance . In the immediate aftermath , the United States provided $ 875 @,@ 000 in aid . A portion went to purchasing and delivering food , while the majority utilized airplanes to participate in rescue missions and deliver supplies , such as plastic sheets and water . The United States ultimately gave $ 15 million in aid to Honduras through various United Nations organizations . Mexico donated food , medicine , and clothing , and Cuba sent a team of doctors and mobile hospitals . Uruguay donated a pump for the city of Choluteca to restore water there . Several European Countries sent aid to Honduras , in addition to donations from the European Union . France sent medical equipment , and the government of Japan provided a field hospital that helped 300 patients per day in the center of Tegucigalpa . Following the storm , the United Nations Development Programme sent a team to Honduras and El Salvador to determine the needs of the population . The Honduran government requested the team to assess the socio @-@ economic impact of the storm . The World Food Programme provided $ 17 million worth of food to the country . The Pan American Health Organization focused on restoring water systems by providing latrines , while UNICEF sent large water tanks .
The Inter @-@ American Development Bank approved $ 197 @.@ 4 million in loans in 1998 , most of which due to Hurricane Mitch . The loans were to assist in rebuilding damaged infrastructure , including for water systems , transportation , and houses . Various countries provided nearly $ 2 @.@ 8 billion to the country in aid , which limited the annual debt following the hurricane 's damage . The foreign aid due to the storm largely ended by 2003 .
Overall cost for reconstruction was estimated at $ 2 @.@ 5 billion , which was estimated to take four years . The cost for repairing the damaged houses was estimated at $ 484 @.@ 8 million . Following the storm , workers made emergency repairs to the destroyed bridges and roads . The cost for rebuilding roads was higher than their damage cost due to planning for future flooding . Within a month , there were repairs to the power grid to a level of 550 MW , or 91 @.@ 7 % of what it was before Mitch struck . Water companies restored water to 60 % of Tegucigalpa within a month of the storm striking .
The Honduras delegation to the World Meteorological Organization requested the name " Mitch " be retired , following the hurricane . The 25 member committee voted in support to replace the name with " Matthew " , which was first used in 2004 .
= Burns Verkaufen der Kraftwerk =
" Burns Verkaufen der Kraftwerk " ( German pronunciation : [ bœɐ ̯ ns fɛɐ ̯ ˈkaʊ ̯ fən deːɐ ̯ ˈkʁaftvɛɐ ̯ k ] ) is the eleventh episode of The Simpsons ' third season . It first aired on the Fox network in the United States on December 5 , 1991 . In the episode , Mr. Burns wishes to pursue other interests and therefore decides to sell his power plant to two German investors for $ 100 million . Safety inspector Homer is immediately fired by the Germans because of his incompetence . Later , Burns realizes that he has lost all his respectability because he can no longer control anyone .
The episode was written by Jon Vitti and directed by Mark Kirkland . Originally , the writers wanted to have Burns sell the plant to the Japanese , but they decided that it would have been too clichéd ; the plot , however , remained the same with the Germans . The title is a literal , but inaccurate German translation of " Burns sells the power plant " , the correct version being Burns verkauft das Kraftwerk .
In its original airing on the Fox network , the episode had a 12 @.@ 6 Nielsen rating , finishing the week ranked 38th . " Burns Verkaufen der Kraftwerk " received generally positive reviews from critics and was praised for several scenes , particularly the " Land of Chocolate " sequence in which Homer dances around in an imaginary land made entirely out of chocolate . The sequence was also remaking cutscenes from the episode in The Simpsons Game .
= = Plot = =
One night , Mr. Burns tells his assistant Waylon Smithers that he is considering selling the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant so he can pursue other interests . Meanwhile , unconfirmed takeover rumors boost the plant 's stock , which rises for the first time in ten years . Homer learns he owns stock in the company and sells his 100 shares for 25 cents apiece to a shady stockbroker , netting $ 25 , which he spends on beer . Soon after the sale he learns that the value of the stock has shot up to $ 52 per share . While Homer misses out on the windfall — he could have made $ 5 @,@ 200 — other employees make small fortunes . Two German businessmen , Hans and Fritz , learn that the plant might be for sale . They offer Burns $ 100 million , which he immediately accepts . Burns leaves , seeking adventure , while Smithers remains an employee at the plant .
The new owners immediately begin a thorough evaluation of the plant and its employees , their more friendly demeanor pleasing all the workers save for Homer , who worries his lax work ethic as safety inspector will cost him his job . When they interview Homer , he is unable to intelligently answer their questions and begins slipping into a fantasy about cavorting through " The Land of Chocolate " . The owners announce shortly after that Homer will be the only employee fired . A depressed Homer hangs around the Simpsons ' house , insisting he is a competent safety @-@ minded worker while the rest of the family makes budget cuts until Homer can find a new job . Meanwhile , Burns is having a good time in retirement and decides to get together with Smithers for a drink . They decide to go to Moe 's Tavern , where Homer has been drinking . Homer lashes out at Burns , calling him greedy ole reptile , asking him about his money and saying nobody loves him . The other bar patrons join in and taunt Burns , including Bart who stamps on Mr. Burns ' foot and starts singing " Na Na Hey Hey Kiss Him Goodbye " where everyone except Smithers joins in . Feeling humiliated , Burns and Smithers walk out of Moe 's . Burns realizes that his former employees no longer fear him , concludes that only his ownership of the plant gave him power over ordinary men , and decides to buy the plant back .
The German investors , meanwhile , discover that the plant is in bad need of repairs and decide to sell before they sink too much money into it . Burns , noting their desperation to sell , offers them $ 50 million for the plant , and they reluctantly accept half of what they paid him . Now back in charge , Burns orders that Homer be rehired . He tells Smithers " I keep my friends close , and my enemies closer " and vows revenge on Homer at some unspecified point in the future for humiliating him at the bar . The episode ends with Homer cheering to his family that he got his job back .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by Jon Vitti and directed by Mark Kirkland . It features several German elements , including a reference to John F. Kennedy 's " ich bin ein Berliner " speech . The title " Burns Verkaufen der Kraftwerk " is an inaccurate German translation of " Burns sells the power plant " , the correct version being Burns verkauft das Kraftwerk . Originally , the writers decided to have Burns sell the plant to the Japanese , but they decided that it would have been too clichéd ; the plot , however , remained the same with the Germans . The writers and animators based one of the two German buyers on the German character Sergeant Schultz from the American television show Hogan 's Heroes . By coincidence , frequent Simpsons guest star Phil Hartman happened to know a little German so he helped out with the conversations . Hartman also guest @-@ starred in the episode as Horst and the stockbroker .
The writers had a tough time coming up with Bart 's prank call to Moe 's Tavern and Moe 's reply , in which they could not include any foul language . The writer also wanted to include a longer portion of Burns 's sworn vengeance , but had to trim it in the end . In this episode , the producers decided to start stressing the relationship between Smithers and Burns . Originally , there was a two @-@ minute scene involving the two , but the writers cut it down considerably . The producers also noted the constant flux of the Simpsons ' economic state ; one moment Homer appears to have his wallet full of cash , and the next , they do not even have a saving account . The animators also included a character other than Lenny or Homer with a beardline , something the producers did not like . Originally , when The Simpsons shorts aired on The Tracy Ullman Show , all the male characters had beardlines similar to Homer 's ; however , after the Simpsons became their own show , they decided to drop the beardline for the majority of the characters to make Homer unique . After Homer gets fired , Bart feeds his cat a mixture of 88 % ash and 12 % carrots . The gag came from a real @-@ life experience when Vitti tried to feed his cat a mixture of carrots and ash ; however , the cat simply ate and regurgitated it . The sequence with the Frosty Chocolate Milkshakes in which Bart dreams what he would do with the money from the stocks is a reference to The Tracey Ullman Show shorts .
= = = " The Land of Chocolate " = = =
In the original script , the " Land of Chocolate " sequence was absent , though the dialog that set it up was present ( Homer complains to his new German bosses about the candy machines not working , to which one of them replies : " We understand , Homer . After all , we are from the land of chocolate ! " ) . Executive producer Sam Simon was the one who suggested that they actually do a sequence in which Homer 's mind wanders off into an imaginary land made of chocolate . The sequence was storyboarded by animator Kevin O 'Brien , who designed it to be a parody of The Sound of Music , but supervising director David Silverman suggested that it be more original . Silverman storyboarded the revised sequence , and tried to make Homer " deliriously happy " as he skipped through the town . He later recalled , " I animated that scene frame by frame , I needed to draw the skip I wanted . Homer 's skipping sets the tone for that show . "
In the sequence there was supposed to be a road sign that read " Hershey Highway " ( Hershey 's is a chocolate manufacturer , but the term " hershey highway " refers to anal sex ) . However , the censors objected and the writers replaced it with " Fudgetown " . The " Land of Chocolate " sequence was set to a song based on music from the film Tucker . Composed by Alf Clausen , the song was later included in the 1999 compilation album Go Simpsonic with The Simpsons . " The Land of Chocolate " was also featured as a level in The Simpsons Game , which was released in 2007 .
= = Reception = =
In its original airing on the Fox network , the episode acquired a 12 @.@ 6 Nielsen rating and was viewed in approximately 11 @.@ 60 million homes . It finished 38th in the ratings for the week of December 2 – 8 , 1991 , down from the season 's average rank of 37th . It finished second in its timeslot behind The Cosby Show , which came in at 11th with a 16 @.@ 8 rating . The Simpsons was the highest rated show on Fox that week .
Since airing , " Burns Verkaufen der Kraftwerk " has received generally positive reviews from critics . The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , praised the episode , most notably " Homer in the land of chocolate and Smithers counselling Mr. Burns with the aid of his sock @-@ puppet friend , Mr. Snappy the Alligator " . Writing for the Star Tribune , Neal Justin rated the episode as one of his ten favorite episodes , commenting that the scene where " Homer dreams about prancing across a literal ' land of chocolate ' [ was ] perhaps the most outrageous moment in Simpsons history . " In a list of Homer 's best gluttony moments , Herald Sun 's Mikey Cahill ranked " The Land of Chocolate " as number one . The sequence was also named one of the twenty best moments in the history of the show by Daily Record 's Brian McIver . In 2012 , Johnny Dee of The Guardian listed the episode as one of his five favorite episodes in the history of The Simpsons , noting that it was the " Land of Chocolate " segment that " makes this episode such a classic " . Jon Greenberg of ESPN said the episode is one of his favorites , calling it " hardly an average episode " . He commented that " the sarcastic heart of the story comes at the end , when Mr. Burns realizes that wealth and time do not buy him happiness because no one , not even the scourge of Sector 7G [ Homer ] , is scared of a powerless despot . "
The episode was study material for a sociology course at University of California Berkeley , where it was used to " examine issues of the production and reception of cultural objects , in this case , a satirical cartoon show " , and to figure out what it was " trying to tell audiences about aspects primarily of American society , and , to a lesser extent , about other societies . "
= Mortimer Grimshaw =
Mortimer Grimshaw ( 1824 or 1825 – 22 December 1869 ) was an English political activist , strike leader and cotton weaver . He briefly attained national fame in the 1850s due to his part in the Preston strike of 1853 – 54 . A large man whose face was marked by smallpox , he was renowned for his oratory , which earned him the nickname of the " Thunderer of Lancashire " .
The son of a radical public speaker and orator , Grimshaw 's early campaigns were centred on the improvement of working conditions for the mill @-@ workers in the village of Royton and enforcement of the Factory Acts . He was an outspoken critic of the Whig Party and an advocate of the Chartist movement , in particular of their anti @-@ Whig alliance with the Tory Party . Strikes among mill @-@ workers began to break out during the early 1850s and Grimshaw one of the leaders , along with George Cowell , of the strike in Preston in 1853 . The strikers were fruitless in their demands for a ten per cent wage increase , and Grimshaw found himself with no further role in the workers ' unions . He and his fellow conspirators were charged with conspiring to prevent people working in the mills , although the charges were later dropped .
Following the defeat in Preston , Grimshaw emigrated to the United States , where he became a supporter of the Confederacy . In 1861 , he and Cowell attempted to intervene in a strike in Clitheroe but were branded " notorious scoundrels " by the weavers there for their parts in the Preston strike . The following year he joined a small group of Lancashire men who unsuccessfully attempted to rally support for the Confederates in northern England . After a period as a freelance industrial mediator , selling his services to mill owners and working against the unions he had once aligned with , he returned to his job as a power @-@ loom weaver until his death from tuberculosis in 1869 . Grimshaw and his activities were the basis for two of the author Charles Dickens ' characters .
= = Early life and career = =
Grimshaw was born in or around Great Harwood , Lancashire , in 1824 or 1825 and was one of six children brought up in a working @-@ class family . His father , Thomas , had a reputation as a radical public speaker in the early part of the 19th century . Grimshaw initially worked as a cotton weaver before becoming a full @-@ time activist and agitator . He first came to prominence in the village of Royton , near Oldham , in 1852 as a campaigner for the improvement and enforcement of the Factory Acts , to improve the working conditions of those employed in the cotton mills . In the same year he became editor of the anti @-@ Whig broadsheet , the Royton Vindicator . He criticised the suppression of local political activists and supported the alliance of the Chartist movement with the Tories against the Whigs .
Mill workers in England became increasingly disenchanted with improper practices by factory owners , long working hours and unsatisfactory conditions . During the early 1850s workers throughout the country began to campaign for higher wages and strikes were held in several towns and cities ; brickmakers in Manchester struck in January while woollen mill operatives in the West Riding of Yorkshire went on strike two months later . Grimshaw himself was involved in a strike in Stockport , where workers were demanding a ten percent wage increase , in March 1853 .
= = The Preston strike of 1853 = =
When cotton weavers in Preston struck in September of that year , again demanding a wage increase of ten percent , he and fellow activist George Cowell became the most prominent leaders at the mass meetings of the workers . Grimshaw would often wear a white hat at meetings in the style of politicians Henry Hunt and William Cobbett . According to local journalist Charles Hardwick , he was a strong advocate of the liberation of oppressed " factory slaves " but it was noted that his judgement in arguments could often be overpowered by his enthusiasm and emotions . In the seven months that Grimshaw was involved with the Preston strike he travelled throughout Lancashire and Yorkshire , speaking at more than 60 public meetings .
At one meeting in October 1853 , he shared the platform with John B. Horsfall and Chartist leader Ernest Jones , whose Labour Parliament Grimshaw was involved in the following year as one of the two delegates from Preston , along with Wallace Beever . The Labour Parliament was partly a response to a lock @-@ out of around 20 @,@ 000 mill workers by the employers in Preston ; its aim was to organise a levy on wages to support operatives who went on strike or were locked out . Those paying the levy were to elect a committee to buy and look after land and factories and the Parliament would meet on a yearly basis . However , the plan did not gain support among all Chartists and the plans never materialised .
The Preston strike ended in defeat for Grimshaw , Cowell and the operatives and as a result there were no suitable jobs for him in the unions ; his characteristics would not have lent themselves to a secretarial role . On 10 August 1854 , the pair were indicted along with nine other men for conspiring to " prevent certain persons working in the mills in [ Preston ] " . Although the charges were dropped by the prosecution , the judge presiding implied he would otherwise have felt compelled to pass down a severe sentence and expressed his hope that none of the 11 would engage in such conspiracy again . Two years later , Grimshaw and Horsfall raised funds to enable them to emigrate and he subsequently spent some time living in the northern United States . Upon his return to England , Grimshaw , Cowell and two other weavers were involved in a dispute between mill @-@ owners and workers in Clitheroe , Lancashire , in 1861 . However , due to their lack of success in Preston the group were branded a " gang of notorious scoundrels " by strike leader John O 'Neil and were treated with hostility by the gathered crowds of weavers .
= = Later career = =
During his time in America , Grimshaw had developed pro @-@ Confederacy tendencies . In general , there was some support for the Confederacy among people who were affected by the shortage in cotton from America caused by the American Civil War , such as traders and mill @-@ owners . On a personal level , Grimshaw was opposed to the growth of capitalism in the United States and described the notions of American freedom and liberty as " farce and humbug " . In 1862 he became part of a small group of working @-@ class Lancashire men , all of whom had been involved in various strikes in the 1850s , assembled by Liverpool @-@ based tin plate merchant James Spence . The group held meetings with the intention of rallying support for the Confederates within northern England , particularly in Lancashire and Cheshire . However , when a vote regarding the support of British mediation in America was taken at one meeting in Blackburn , only 12 out of more than 4 @,@ 000 workers voted in favour of Grimshaw . The local Weavers ' Association consequently declared themselves in favour of Abraham Lincoln and his Union . Ultimately , the group 's efforts were handicapped by an inability to maintain activity throughout the duration of the Civil War ; by 1864 only two of the original company remained .
By the end of his career , Grimshaw had become a freelance political adventurer , industrial mediator and anti @-@ union agitator selling his services to mill @-@ owners and employers . In an 1864 letter to George Wilson , former president of the Anti @-@ Corn Law League during the 1840s , he described himself as " destitute and pennyless [ sic ] " and begged the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway chairman for money or employment . This was the last public record of Grimshaw ; he returned to work as a power @-@ loom weaver until his death in Rishton from the lung disease tuberculosis on 22 December 1869 .
= = Legacy = =
Two of Charles Dickens ' characters , Gruffshaw in the article On Strike and Slackbridge , the " unscrupulous demagogue " from the novel Hard Times , were based on Grimshaw .
= Infamous 2 =
Infamous 2 ( stylized as inFAMOUS 2 ) is a 2011 action @-@ adventure , open world video game developed by Sucker Punch Productions and published by Sony Computer Entertainment for the PlayStation 3 video game console . It is a sequel to the 2009 video game Infamous . Announced on June 4 , 2010 , the game was released on June 7 , 2011 .
The story follows protagonist Cole MacGrath on his quest in New Marais to grow powerful enough to be able to face his nemesis , the Beast . Cole possesses electricity @-@ based superpowers which are used in combat and navigating the city . The player is given several opportunities to use these powers for good or selfish purposes in the game 's Karma system . The Karma system affects what powers become available , the reaction of the city 's populace towards Cole , and the story .
Development on Infamous 2 began immediately after Sucker Punch finished the first Infamous , led by returning game director Nate Fox . The game 's music was composed by James Dooley , Bryan Mantia , the band Galactic , and Jonathan Mayer . Both the game 's music and fictional city were inspired by New Orleans . The original voice actor for Cole was replaced by Eric Ladin as Sucker Punch wanted somebody who could perform Cole 's physical reactions with motion capture , a new addition to the series .
The game was generally well received by gaming media upon release . Praise was particularly directed at its city @-@ design , traversal , and graphics , though it was criticized for its Karma system and camera . A stand @-@ alone expansion titled Infamous : Festival of Blood was released on October 25 , 2011 . Infamous Second Son , a sequel for the PlayStation 4 , was released worldwide on March 21 , 2014 .
= = Gameplay = =
Infamous 2 is an action @-@ adventure open world video game played from a third @-@ person view . The player controls Cole in the world of New Marais . Cole 's electricity @-@ based powers are used in movement , offense and defense in combat , and either for better or worse in dealing with the citizens of New Marais . Cole can climb buildings and other structures , grind along power cables and powered train rails , and hover for a short time . Cole can engage in melee combat with enemies using a weapon called the Amp . The game features many different powers , ranging from simple electric bolts to large electric rockets .
In order for Cole to use his powers , he must have stored electrical power , represented by an energy meter on the player 's heads @-@ up display ( HUD ) . The player can recharge Cole by draining electricity from powered sources , recharging also restores Cole 's health , though Cole 's health can regenerate over time without recharging . Many powers are acquired over the course of the game . The player can use experience points to increase powers ' effectiveness or unlock new powers . Experience points are awarded for actions including defeating enemies , healing citizens and completing missions . The player can use such powers to destroy environmental scenery such as towers and stone columns . Depending on the player 's choices , the player can gain ice or fire powers from the game 's female protagonists , Kuo and Nix . Additionally , passive abilities based on Karma level called Karmic Boosts can be unlocked .
Starting in a neutral position , Karma can reach up to Hero on the Good side or Infamous on the Evil side . Certain actions , such as stopping to help injured citizens or killing them to restore Cole 's health , will affect the Karma level in either direction . Normal story missions may also alter the Karma level . During the game the player will encounter Karma moments , the Karma moments are delivered with 3D cutscenes and character @-@ driven dialogue , the action pauses and the player has two actions that can be taken , always a Good and Evil option . There are also Good and Evil side missions in the game as well as random events which provide Karma decisions . Completion of Karma awarding missions helps gain access to unique powers based on the Karma level . The player is not locked into choosing either Karma path , and may opt to play towards one extreme and later switch to the other mid @-@ game . Karma also influences the way that citizens view Cole in addition to altering Cole 's appearance and certain aspects of the game 's story . Citizens may throw rocks at and turn on Cole if he has Evil Karma or take pictures of and compliment Cole if he has Good Karma .
New Marais is built on two islands , and the player must work through main story missions on the first island before being able to access the next one , though future missions may involve the first island . The player can undertake side missions to make the city safer . A feature called User Generated Content , or UGC , allows players to make their own missions and share them through PlayStation Network for others to play . Scattered around the city are hundreds of " Blast Shards " which Cole can collect to increase the amount of electricity he can store . There are also " Dead Drops " that help to reveal more of the back @-@ story in the game . A mini @-@ map on the player 's HUD shows their location in New Marais and what is nearby . The mini @-@ map can be used to locate Blast Shards , Dead Drops and power sources .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting = = =
In Infamous 2 , people with superhuman abilities , called Conduits , exist — created by a device called the Ray Sphere . The Ray Sphere unlocks these abilities in rare humans who possess the Conduit gene by siphoning away the energy of and killing regular humans . The first such event granted electricity @-@ based abilities to Cole MacGrath , but devastated his home of Empire City . The event is part of a scheme instigated by Kessler , revealed to be Cole from an alternate future where a creature known only as the Beast has ravaged the world . Kessler fled the Beast with his family and they died as a result , forcing Kessler to use his newest power to go back in time and better prepare the Cole of the present for the Beast .
= = = Story = = =
Following the events of Infamous , Cole ( Eric Ladin ) prepares to face the Beast , an entity of untold power whose coming was foretold by Kessler . Cole and his friend Zeke ( Caleb Moody ) meet with NSA agent Lucy Kuo ( Dawn Olivieri ) who tells them she can lead them to Dr. Sebastian Wolfe ( Michael Ensign ) , a scientist who helped develop the Ray Sphere which granted Cole his powers , and claims he can make Cole even stronger . As they are about to leave , they are confronted by the Beast . Cole fights the Beast but is no match and is severely weakened as a result . Cole , Zeke and Kuo escape to New Marais to find Wolfe while the Beast pursues them , destroying everything in its path .
In New Marais , wealthy industrialist Joseph Bertrand III ( Graham McTavish ) and his anti @-@ Conduit militia control the city . Aware of Cole 's arrival and abilities , Bertrand wages a propaganda campaign against him . Before Cole can meet Wolfe , Wolfe 's lab is destroyed by the Militia . Wolfe survives the explosion and explains to Cole that by finding and absorbing the power of Blast Cores he can gain enough power to activate the Ray Field Inhibitor ( RFI ) , a device which would defeat the Beast . Wolfe is captured by the Militia and a rescue attempt by Cole and Kuo fails , resulting in Wolfe 's death and Kuo 's capture . Cole and Zeke meet two new allies : Laroche , leader of an anti @-@ militia resistance group , and Nix ( Nika Futterman ) , a Conduit who dwells in the swamp . Together they locate Kuo trapped in a facility and discover she is a Conduit and has had her abilities activated . Cole frees her but inadvertently unleashes an army of Conduit mercenaries imbued with her ice @-@ powers .
Cole and his allies attack Bertrand 's operations before eventually learning that Bertrand is a Conduit , able to transform into a building @-@ sized monster and convert humans into monsters . In the past , he used a Ray Sphere to gain abilities . The activated Ray Sphere killed many but also granted Nix her abilities . Disgusted by the powers he received and believing Conduits to be evil , he attempts to incite a Conduit genocide using the power of the Conduit mercenaries he developed to instill fear in the populace . Meanwhile , he uses his monsters to justify the protection of his militia in New Marais . Cole and his allies are able to kill Bertrand , ending his plan .
During this time , the Beast is near New Marais and Cole encounters John White ( Phil LaMarr ) , an NSA agent who had seemingly died in a Ray Sphere explosion in Empire City . John reveals himself as the Beast and shows Cole that a plague , created when the first Ray Sphere was activated in Empire City , has been spreading across the country . The plague is killing humans but Conduits are immune once they have been activated . John acts like a Ray Sphere , using his powers to activate inactive Conduits , sparing them at the cost of countless human lives each time . Believing humanity is lost , John implores Cole to help him find and convert inactive Conduits so that some may survive . After finding all of the Blast Cores , Cole prepares to activate the RFI . However , he learns that the device will not just kill the Beast but all Conduits , though it could also nullify the Ray Sphere radiation , ending the plague . The story diverges from this point dependent on whether the player chooses to activate the RFI or work with the Beast .
= = = = Ending = = = =
If Cole chooses to save humanity , Kuo leaves to join the Beast . While Cole and Zeke attempt to fully charge the RFI , the Beast begins his attack . Laroche and many of his men die in the battle and Cole is attacked by Kuo . Kuo retreats while Nix sacrifices her life to weaken the Beast and give Cole more time . Cole gets the RFI fully charged before Kuo appears and apologizes to Cole . Cole then activates the RFI , clearing the plague and saving humanity , but killing all Conduits , including inactive ones carrying the Conduit gene . Aware of Cole 's actions , the people of New Marais revere him as " The Patron Saint of New Marais " . Zeke then sails Cole 's body offshore to bid him farewell . A lightning bolt strikes the sea in the distance as the boat sails away .
If Cole chooses to work with the Beast to save the Conduits , Nix refuses to work with them , steals the RFI and leaves . Kuo gives chase while Cole and the Beast rampage through New Marais in pursuit . Nix attempts to use the RFI to stop them and Cole is forced to kill her , Zeke then confronts Cole and is also killed . Cole then destroys the RFI . The Beast states that he can no longer continue , being weary from the killing . Cole is initially angry but the Beast transfers Cole all of his power and dies . In the aftermath , Cole begins activating Conduits at the expense of humanity . Cole realizes that he was originally granted powers to defeat the Beast , yet has become the Beast .
= = Development and release = =
Gaming journals reported the likelihood of a sequel to Infamous due to a Twitter post made by actor David Sullivan reporting on auditioning for the role of Cole in the game 's sequel . In April 2010 , Sony purchased the domain name " infamousthegame.com " , increasing speculation that a sequel was in development . The game was unveiled on June 4 , 2010 when Game Informer released the cover for their July 2010 issue which featured a preview of the game . Development of Infamous 2 started immediately after the first Infamous had finished development . Sucker Punch hired their own QA staff to test and report bugs for the game . Game director Nate Fox , director of the original , also directed Infamous 2 . The core development team consisted of 65 to 75 people , an amount considered " small " .
When designing Infamous 2 , Sucker Punch decided to look at everything that could be improved , saying " everything was on the table " . Due to negative feedback from fans , they redesigned the main character , Cole . Cole initially underwent many changes , to the extent of making him look like a different character . However , after being " taken aback by the uproar of fan support for the original Cole , " Sucker Punch combined elements of the original with the new design . Some of Cole 's clothing was changed to suit the new setting of the game . Eric Ladin was also brought in to replace Jason Cottle as the voice of Cole because Sucker Punch felt that they needed someone who could perform Cole 's physical reactions as well as his voice with the use of their new motion capture technology .
The 3D cutscenes were improved with motion capture technology to create a more cinematic experience . The stylized comic @-@ like cut scenes from the first game carried over into the sequel , though they were reserved for bigger moments in the game . The 3D cutscenes were used to tell the story going on in the moment , while the comic @-@ like cutscenes were used to tell a large piece of the story in a short amount of time . In addition to the cut scenes , the moral element of the original also transferred to the sequel . When incorporating the player 's Karma decisions from the first game into the second , it was found challenging to balance the effects of importing saves from the original Infamous and keeping the game interesting for those who did not . The melee combat in the game was redesigned from the original with finishing moves being added . A large focus on the melee combat was the presentation , which was meant to make the player feel super @-@ powered .
The game 's fictional city , New Marais , was inspired by New Orleans , though many other southern influences were mixed and matched . It was thought New Orleans was architecturally the " coolest city in America " and well suited to a superhero who climbs and also allowed Sucker Punch to have environmental variety . New Marais was designed to have distinct neighborhoods with tonal as well as architectural shifts between them . Parkour elements , such as the game 's grind rails , were integrated more into the environment to improve the flow of it , while powers such as the vertical grind , were incorporated into the parkour . The goal of the city was to have a " big old jungle gym " . Street musicians were added to the city because they were considered an integral part of the New Orleans vibe . Gabriel Knight : Sins of the Fathers was seen by game director Nate Fox as extremely inspirational and stated that the city 's role in the story was something they wanted to replicate in Infamous 2 .
The game 's music was composed by James Dooley , Bryan " Brain " Mantia , the New Orleans band Galactic , and Jonathan Mayer . All of the music was recorded live with a total of four hours of music being recorded . Starting from the first day of recording , the music was composed in a year . Many of the music 's sounds were produced unconventionally , with some of the largest percussion coming from things such as fingernails on an amplified tin plate . Collaboration was considered a major part of writing the music , with the composers " ripping each other off . " Themes were composed for the main characters , such as Cole and Nix . A dynamic music system was developed for non @-@ mission gameplay . The game would track a music tension value with thresholds set to determine what the music would be . While missions used the dynamic music system too , the music was laid out more like a movie with set music occurring for specific events . The music of the game was inspired by the city , meant to be " organic " compared to the industrial and electronic music of the first Infamous . The score was released as two soundtracks , Infamous 2 The Blue Soundtrack and Infamous 2 The Red Soundtrack .
Sucker Punch was using around 30 % of the Cell processor by the end of Infamous , and for Infamous 2 , they were " creeping up over 50 and 60 % , because [ they ] know how to put things on to the Cell processor . " With the additional power , Sucker Punch was able to " have more characters on @-@ screen , more complicated shaders , and much greater layering " . For the game , a new method of ambient occlusion ( AO ) was developed , a hybrid of precomputed AO and dynamic AO . The new method was used to render contact shadows and self @-@ occlusion for moveable objects and was meant to complement the other methods of AO already used .
On March 1 , 2011 Sucker Punch announced a mission creation feature for Infamous 2 that had been in development since 2009 . A limited beta for testing this feature was released in April 2011 . Sucker Punch wanted to give players a way to continue enjoying the game after completing it and felt there was immense pressure to incorporate multiplayer and that many games were tacking it on . They considered cooperative gameplay , though found it did not make for an experience you wanted to keep playing , saying " ultimately , the game still ends . "
On October 2011 , it was announced that PlayStation Move support would cover the whole game as part of an update which would come out sometime after Infamous : Festival of Blood was released , along with a new cutscene creation tool for the UGC creator . The update was released on November 2 , 2011 .
= = = Release = = =
The game was released in North America on June 7 , 2011 , in Europe on June 8 , 2011 , in Australia on June 9 , 2011 , in the United Kingdom , Ireland , and Germany on June 10 , 2011 , and in Japan on July 7 , 2011 . On February 18 , 2011 , before the game 's release , Special Edition and Hero Edition versions of Infamous 2 were announced for pre @-@ order . The Special Edition included an Original Cole skin , a Golden Amp skin , and the Electrocution Grenade power . The Hero Edition included everything from the Special Edition but also included : a Cole MacGrath statue , a sportable sling pack modeled after Cole ’ s , a Kessler skin , the Lightning Hook power , a Reaper skin , a Sly Cooper 's cane skin , a samurai sword skin , a caveman club skin , the Infamous # 1 comic , and Infamous 2 The Red Soundtrack . The Hero Edition came with all of the DLC except for the Stalker Grenades and the Sniper Blast powers , and the three extra Subway Missions , which are now all available via the PlayStation Store .
Infamous 2 – along with Infamous and Infamous : Festival of Blood – was released on August 28 , 2012 as part of the Infamous Collection under Sony 's new line of PlayStation Collections for the PlayStation 3 .
= = = Collaborations = = =
A six issue Infamous comic series , which bridges the stories of the first Infamous and Infamous 2 , was published by DC Comics . Cole appeared as a guest character for the PlayStation 3 and PlayStation Vita versions of Street Fighter X Tekken . Additionally , Good and Evil Cole appeared as playable characters in the PlayStation 3 and PlayStation Vita exclusive PlayStation All @-@ Stars Battle Royale . An Infamous 2 mini @-@ pack was released as downloadable content to LittleBigPlanet 2 , containing Good and Evil Cole costumes .
= = Reception = =
Infamous 2 received generally positive reviews from critics . Based on 90 reviews , Metacritic calculated an average score of 83 out of 100 , indicating " generally favorable reviews " . The game received an average score of 84 @.@ 37 % from GameRankings based on 64 reviews .
The story of Infamous 2 was divisive . Sterling McGarvey from GameSpy thought the story was a " pulpy comic book narrative " , Colin Moriarty of IGN found the story well @-@ delivered and " incredible " , and Eurogamer 's Christian Donlan found the endings of the game to be " genuinely satisfying " and an improvement on the overarching storyline of the series . Conversely , Andrew Reiner of Game Informer found the story disengaging with confusing narrative threads , Giant Bomb 's Brad Shoemaker felt the story was scattered and had too much going to find its center , and Tom Mc Shea from GameSpot described the story as bland and lacking a hook to invest the player in Cole 's affairs .
IGN 's Moriarty thought that New Marais was more living and breathing than Empire City and the overall look of the game was improved over the original . Game Informer 's Reiner saw the city as a " sightseeing marvel . " GameSpy 's McGarvery found the game was much cleaner @-@ looking than the first . GameSpot 's Mc Shea noted the city 's neighborhoods were varied and felt alive , and found the visuals " great @-@ looking " . Eurogamer 's Donlan wrote " New Marais is every bit as good at its job as Empire City was " .
GameSpot 's Mc Shea considered movement through the city a pleasure , but many fights tedious . Eurogamer 's Donlan stated Infamous 2 is " video games ' true master of parkour " and found the combat struggled to match the thrills of traversal but that the combat had improved since the original . Game Informer 's Reiner enjoyed combat , describing the situations as " amazing open @-@ world superhero fights . " Giant Bomb 's Brad Shoemaker felt enemies were overwhelming at times during combat like in the original Infamous . Mc Shea found the pacing uneven and the morality system " laughable " . Shoemaker felt the powers of Good and Evil Cole were better balanced than in the first game and saw morality as only a gateway to cutscenes and the possible powers . GameTrailers 's reviewer said the morality system did not provide tough decisions , but provided two dramatically different gameplay experiences . Both Mc Shea and Reiner thought UGC was a " great " addition to the game . 1UP reviewer Thierry Nguyen hoped Sucker Punch would mix the combat and traversal of the game with the pacing and storytelling of the first Infamous to create an " utterly fantastic " superhero game .
GameSpot 's Mc Shea found that problems would occur during precise climbing because of Cole getting " sucked " towards objects during climbing , though found it made climbing easier in other aspects . Giant Bomb 's Brad Shoemaker also appreciated the way Cole would be drawn to things while climbing but found that it led to frustrating moments where Cole would grab onto the wrong area . IGN 's Moriarty criticized the game 's camera , calling it " wonky " , while GameSpy 's McGarvey thought the game needed a better targeting system as the camera could not consistently keep up with the action . Eurogamer 's Donlan found the draw distance was low , though the frame rate improved from the first game . Shoemaker also noticed the frame rate had been mostly corrected since the first , making the game more fluid .
The game was listed on IGN 's Top 25 PlayStation 3 Games , achieving rank 14 . The game was nominated for Outstanding Achievement in Original Music Composition at the 15th D.I.C.E. Awards and nominated for Best PS3 Game at the 2011 Spike Video Game Awards .
= = = Sales = = =
According to the NPD Group , Infamous 2 sold 369 @,@ 200 copies in North America during the month of June and was the third highest selling game of the month , though the best selling SKU of the month according to Sony .
= = = Series continuation = = =
A stand @-@ alone expansion for Infamous 2 , titled Infamous : Festival of Blood , was announced at Gamescom and released on October 25 , 2011 . A vampire @-@ themed spinoff , Infamous : Festival of Blood features a non @-@ canon story set in New Marais . The story follows an infected Cole that must kill the vampire which bit him in order to save his soul . The game featured new enemies and powers . A sequel to Infamous 2 , titled Infamous Second Son was announced at PlayStation Meeting 2013 for PlayStation 4 and was released on March 31 , 2014 worldwide . The game takes place seven years after Infamous 2 and follows a new protagonist in the city of Seattle .
= Borscht =
Borscht is a tart soup popular in several East European cuisines , including Ukrainian , Russian , Polish , Belarusian , Lithuanian , Romanian and Ashkenazi Jewish . The variety most commonly associated with the name in English is of Ukrainian origin and includes beetroots as one of the main ingredients , which gives the dish a distinctive red color . It shares the name , however , with a wide selection of sour @-@ tasting soups without beetroots , such as sorrel @-@ based green borscht , rye @-@ based white borscht , cabbage borscht , etc .
Borscht derives from an ancient soup originally cooked from pickled stems , leaves and umbels of common hogweed , a herbaceous plant growing in damp meadows , which lent the dish its Slavic name . With time , it evolved into a diverse array of tart soups , among which the beet @-@ based red borscht has become the most popular . It is typically made by combining meat or bone stock with sautéed vegetables , which – as well as beetroots – usually include cabbage , carrots , onions , potatoes and tomatoes . Depending on the recipe , borscht may include meat or fish , or be purely vegetarian ; it may be served either hot or cold ; and it may range from a hearty one @-@ pot meal to a dainty clear broth or a smooth refreshing drink . It is often served with smetana or sour cream , hard @-@ boiled eggs and / or potatoes , but there exists an ample choice of more involved garnishes and side dishes , such as uszka or pampushky , that can be served with the soup .
Its popularity has spread throughout Eastern Europe and the former Russian Empire , and – by way of migration – to other continents . In North America , borscht is often linked with either Jews or Mennonites , the groups who first brought it there from Europe . Today , several ethnic groups claim borscht , in its variegated local guises , as their own national dish and consume it as part of ritual meals within Eastern Orthodox , Greek Catholic , Roman Catholic , and Jewish religious traditions .
= = Etymology = =
The English word borscht , also spelled borsch , borsht , or bortsch , comes from Yiddish באָרשט ( borsht ) . The latter derives from the word борщ ( borshch ) , which is common to East Slavic languages , such as Ukrainian or Russian . Together with cognates in other Slavic languages , it comes from Proto @-@ Slavic * bŭrščǐ ' hogweed ' and ultimately from Proto @-@ Indo @-@ European * bhr ̥ sti- < * bhares- / bhores- ' point , stubble ' . Common hogweed ( Heracleum sphondylium ) was the soup 's principal ingredient before it was replaced with other vegetables , notably beetroot . The beetroot borscht was invented in what is now Ukraine and first popularized in North America by Yiddish @-@ speaking Ashkenazi Jews from Eastern Europe .
= = Ingredients and preparation = =
Typical Ukrainian borscht is traditionally made from meat and / or bone stock , sautéed vegetables , and beet sour , that is , fermented beetroot juice . Depending on the recipe , some of these components may be omitted or substituted .
The stock is typically made by boiling meat , bones , or both . Beef , pork or a combination of both are most commonly used , with brisket , ribs , shank and chuck considered to give the most flavorful results , especially if cooked on a high flame . Marrow bones are considered best for the bone stock . Meat stock is usually cooked for about two hours , whereas bone stock takes four to six hours to prepare . Meat and bones are usually removed afterwards and the meat is only added back into the soup about 10 – 15 minutes before the borscht is done . Some recipes call for smoked meats , resulting in a distinctively smoky borscht , while others use poultry or mutton stock . Fasting varieties are typically made with fish stock to avoid the use of meat , while purely vegetarian recipes often substitute the stock with forest mushroom broth .
The vegetables most commonly added to borscht are beetroots , white cabbage , carrots , parsley root , potatoes , onions and tomatoes . Some recipes may also call for beans , tart apples , turnip , celeriac , zucchini or bell peppers . Parsnip may be used as a substitute for parsley root , and tomato paste is often used as well as or instead of fresh tomatoes . The traditional technique of preparing the soup is to precook the vegetables – by sautéing , braising , boiling or baking – separately from the meat and only then to combine them with the stock . This distinctive feature of borscht derives from the practice of slow cooking in the Russian oven ( traditional masonry stove , used for both cooking and heating ) , wherein the differences in cooking times of individual ingredients had to be taken into account in order to ensure that all components reach doneness at the same time . The importance of this method is reflected in the Russian language , where a variant in which all vegetables are added raw directly into the stock is referred to by the diminutive form borshchok rather than borshch . Vegetables are usually julienned , except for potatoes and zucchini , which are diced . The beetroots may be partially baked before being sprinkled with vinegar or lemon juice to preserve the color and braised separately from other vegetables . Onions , carrots , parsley root , turnip and other root vegetables are sautéed ( traditionally in animal fat , especially lard or butter ) and then mixed with tomatoes or tomato paste . Dry beans are boiled separately . Potatoes and cabbage are boiled in the stock for about 15 minutes before the precooked vegetables are added .
The dominant tastes in borscht are sweet and sour . This combination is traditionally obtained by adding beet sour . It is made by covering sliced beetroots with lukewarm preboiled water and allowing bacteria to ferment some of the sugars present in beetroots into dextran ( which gives the liquid a slightly viscous consistency ) , mannitol , acetic acid and lactic acid . Stale rye bread is often added to hasten the process , but usually omitted in Jewish recipes , as chametz ( leavened bread ) would make the sour unfit for Passover meals . Sugar , salt and lemon juice may be also added to balance the flavor . After about 2 – 5 days ( or 2 – 3 weeks without the bread ) , the deep red , sweet and sour liquid may be strained and is ready to use . It is added to borscht shortly before the soup is done , as prolonged boiling would cause the tart flavor to dissipate . The beet sour is known in Slavic languages as kvas ( literally ' sour , acid ' ; compare kvass ) and in Yiddish as rosl ( from a Slavic word originally referring to any brine obtained by steeping salted meat or vegetables in water ; compare Russian rassol ' pickle juice ' , Polish rosół ' broth ' ) . Apart from its employment in borscht , it may be also added to prepared horseradish or used as pot roast marinade .
As the traditional method of making borscht with beet sour often requires planning at least several days ahead , many recipes for quicker borscht replace the beet sour with fresh beetroot juice , while the sour taste is imparted by other ingredients , such as vinegar , lemon juice or citric acid , tomatoes , tart apples , dry red wine , dill pickle juice , sauerkraut juice , fermented rye flour and water mixture , etc . The soup is typically flavored with a wide selection of herbs , spices and condiments . Salt , black pepper , garlic , bay leaves and dill are among the most commonly used . Other aromatics often added to borscht include allspice , celery stalks , parsley , marjoram , hot peppers , saffron , horseradish , ginger and prunes . Some recipes require flour or roux to further thicken the borscht . A common opinion is that a good borscht should be thick enough for a spoon to stand upright in it .
= = Varieties = =
As the home country of beetroot borscht , Ukraine boasts great diversity of the soup 's regional variants , with virtually every district having its own recipe . Differences between particular varieties may regard the type of stock used ( meat , bone , or both ) , the kind of meat ( beef , pork , poultry , etc . ) , the choice of vegetables and the method of cutting and cooking them . For example , although the typical recipe calls for beef and pork , the Kiev variant uses mutton or lamb as well as beef , while in the Poltava region , the stock for borscht is cooked on poultry meat , that is , chicken , duck or goose . The use of zucchini , beans and apples is characteristic of the Chernihiv borscht ; in this variant , beetroots are sautéed in vegetable oil rather than lard , and the sour taste comes solely from tomatoes and tart apples . The Lviv borscht is based on bone stock and is served with chunks of Vienna sausages .
Many regional recipes for borscht have also developed in Russian cuisine . Examples include the Moscow borscht , served with pieces of beef , ham and Vienna sausages ; Siberian borscht with meatballs ; and Pskov borscht with dried smelt from the local lakes . Other unique Russian variants include a monastic Lenten borscht with marinated kelp instead of cabbage and the Russian Navy borscht ( flotsky borshch ) , the defining characteristic of which is that the vegetables are cut into square or diamond @-@ shaped chunks rather than julienned .
As well as the thick borschts described above , Polish cuisine offers a ruby @-@ colored beetroot bouillon known as barszcz czysty czerwony , or clear red borscht . It is made by combining strained meat @-@ and @-@ vegetable stock with wild mushroom broth and beet sour . In some versions , smoked meat may be used for the stock and the tartness may be obtained or enhanced by adding lemon juice , dill pickle brine , or dry red wine . It may be served either in a soup bowl or – especially at dinner parties – as a hot beverage in a twin @-@ handled cup , with a croquette or a filled pastry on the side . Unlike other types of borscht , it is not whitened with sour cream . Barszcz wigilijny , or Christmas Eve borscht , is a variant of the clear borscht that is traditionally served during the Polish Christmas Eve supper . In this version , meat stock is either omitted or replaced with fish broth , usually made by boiling the heads cut off from fish used in other Christmas Eve dishes . The mushrooms used for cooking the mushroom broth are reserved for uszka ( small filled dumplings ) , which are then served with the borscht .
In the summertime , cold borscht is a popular , refreshing alternative to the aforementioned variants , which are normally served hot . It consists of beet sour or beet juice blended with sour cream , buttermilk , soured milk , kefir and / or yogurt , and is refrigerated . The mixture has a distinctive pink or magenta color . It is typically served over finely chopped beetroot , cucumbers , radishes and green onion , together with halves of a hard @-@ boiled egg and sprinkled with fresh dill . Chopped veal , ham , or crawfish tails may be added as well . This soup probably originated in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania , which comprised the territories of modern @-@ day Lithuania and Belarus , and it is still part of the culinary traditions of these and neighboring nations . The Lithuanian language is the only one in the region which actually refers to it as ' cold borscht ' ( šaltibarščiai ) . In Belarusian it is known simply as khaladnik , or ' cold soup ' ; in Polish as chłodnik litewski , or ' Lithuanian cold soup ' ; and in Russian as svekolnik , or ' beetroot soup ' .
Ashkenazi Jews living in Eastern Europe adopted beetroot borscht from their Slavic neighbors and adapted it to their taste and religious requirements . As combining meat with milk is proscribed by kosher dietary laws , Jews have developed two variants of the soup : meat ( fleischik ) and dairy ( milchik ) . The meat variant is typically made from beef brisket ( pork is never used ) and cabbage , while the dairy one is vegetarian , blended with sour cream or a mixture of milk and egg yolks . Both variants typically contain beetroots and onions , and are flavored with beet sour , vinegar or citric acid for tartness and beet sugar for sweetness . Galician Jews traditionally liked their borscht particularly sweet . Jewish borscht may be served either hot or cold , typically with a hot boiled potato on the side . In prewar Eastern Europe it was traditionally put up to ferment around Purim so that it would be ready four weeks later for the Passover holiday .
= = = Without beets = = =
Although in the English language borscht refers almost invariably to a beet @-@ based soup , in some culinary cultures there exist soups with the same or similar names where beetroots are absent or merely optional . The principal common trait among them is a tart flavor obtained by adding various sour @-@ tasting ingredients .
Green borscht ( zeleny borshch ) , a light soup made from leaf vegetables , is an example common in Ukrainian and Russian cuisines . The naturally tart @-@ tasting sorrel is most commonly used , but spinach , chard , nettle , garden orache and occasionally dandelion , goutweed or ramsons , may be added as well , especially after the spring season for sorrel has passed . Like beetroot borscht , it is based on meat or vegetable broth and is typically served with boiled potatoes and hard @-@ boiled eggs , sprinkled with dill . There is also a variety of Ukrainian green borscht which includes both sorrel and beetroots .
In Polish cuisine , white borscht ( barszcz biały , also known as żur or żurek , ' sour soup ' ) is made from a fermented mixture of rye flour or oatmeal and water . It is typically flavored with garlic and marjoram , and served over eggs and boiled fresh sausage ; the water in which the sausage was boiled is often used instead of meat stock . In the Carpathian Mountains of southern Poland , variants of borscht are also made in which the tart taste comes from fermented milk products , such as whey or buttermilk . Although the deep red color of beetroot borscht may remind those unfamiliar with Polish cuisine of blood , the kind of borscht that does contain animal ( usually poultry ) blood mixed with vinegar is dark brownish @-@ gray in color and aptly called " gray borscht " ( barszcz szary ) , which is a regional name of the Polish blood soup better known as czernina .
In Romanian and Moldovan cuisines , a mixture of wheat bran or cornmeal with water that has been left to ferment , similar to that used in Polish white borscht , is called borș . It is used to impart a sour taste to a variety of tangy Romanian soups , known as either also borș or ciorbă . Variants include ciorbă de perișoare ( with meatballs ) , ciorbă de burtă ( with tripe ) , borş de peşte ( with fish ) and borş de sfeclă roşie ( with beetroots ) .
The Armenian version of borscht is a hot soup made with beef stock , green peppers and other vegetables , which may or may not include beetroots , and flavored with parsley and cilantro . In Chinese cuisine , a soup known as luó sòng tāng , or " Russian soup " , is based on red cabbage and tomatoes , and lacks beetroots altogether ; also known as " Chinese borscht " , it originated in Harbin , close to the Russian border in northeast China . In ethnic Mennonite cuisine , borscht refers to a whole range of seasonal vegetable soups based on beef or chicken stock – from spring borscht made with spinach , sorrel and chard to summer borscht with cabbage , tomatoes , corn and squash to fall and winter borscht with cabbage , beets and potatoes .
= = Garnishes and sides = =
The diversity of borscht styles is matched by the wide choice of garnishes and side dishes with which various kinds of borscht may be served .
Most often , borscht is dished up with sour cream , the East European version of which , known as smetana , is runnier than its American counterpart . The sour cream may be served in a separate pitcher for the diners to add the desired amount themselves or the borscht may come already " whitened " , that is , blended with sour cream . Sometimes the cream is thickened with flour before being added to the soup . Yogurt and a mixture of milk and yolks are possible substitutes .
Chopped herbs are often sprinkled on the surface of the soup ; dill is most common , but parsley , chives or scallion are often added as well . Individual helpings may be spiced up with minced hot peppers or garlic . Many kinds of borscht are served over halves or quarters of hard @-@ boiled chicken or quail eggs . Navy beans , broad beans or string beans are also a common addition .
Meat , removed from the stock on which the borscht was based , may be cut into smaller chunks and either added back into the soup or served on the side with horseradish or mustard . Bacon and sausages are also commonly used as borscht garnishes . Borscht based on bone stock may be served Old Polish style , with marrow from the bones .
Some kinds of the soup , such as Poltava borscht , may be served with halushky , or thick noodles of wheat or buckwheat flour . Siberian borscht is eaten with boiled meatballs ( frikadelki ) of minced beef and onion . In Poland and parts of western Ukraine , borscht is typically ladled over uszka , or bite @-@ sized ear @-@ shaped dumplings made from pasta dough wrapped around mushroom , buckwheat or meat filling . Mushroom @-@ filled uszka are particularly associated with Polish Christmas Eve borscht .
Borscht , like any other soup in East Slavic cuisines , is seldom eaten by itself , but rather accompanied by a side dish . At a minimum , spoonfuls of borscht are alternated with bites of a slice of bread . Buckwheat groats or boiled potatoes , often topped with pork cracklings , are other simple possibilities , but a range of more involved sides exists as well .
In Ukraine , borscht is often accompanied with pampushky , or savory , puffy yeast @-@ raised rolls glazed with oil and crushed garlic . In Russian cuisine , borscht may be served with any of assorted side dishes based on tvorog , or the East European variant of farmer cheese , such as vatrushki , syrniki or krupeniki . Vatrushki are baked round cheese @-@ filled tarts ; syrniki are small pancakes wherein the cheese is mixed into the batter ; and a krupenik is a casserole of buckwheat groats baked with cheese .
Pirozhki , or baked dumplings with fillings as for uszka , are another common side for both hearty and clear variants of borscht . Polish clear borscht may be also served with a croquette or paszteciki . A typical Polish croquette ( krokiet ) is made by wrapping a crêpe ( thin pancake ) around a filling and coating it in breadcrumbs before refrying ; paszteciki ( literally , ' little pâtés ' ) are variously shaped filled hand @-@ held pastries of yeast @-@ raised or flaky dough . An even more exquisite way to serve borscht is with a coulibiac , or a large loaf @-@ shaped pie . Possible fillings for croquettes , paszteciki and coulibiacs include mushrooms , sauerkraut and minced meat .
= = History = =
= = = Origin = = =
Borscht derives from a soup originally made by the Slavs from common hogweed ( Heracleum sphondylium , also known as cow parsnip ) , which lent the dish its Slavic name . Growing commonly in damp meadows throughout the north temperate zone , hogweed was used not only as fodder ( as its English names suggest ) , but also for human consumption – from Eastern Europe to Siberia , to northwestern North America .
The Slavs collected hogweed in May and used its roots for stewing with meat , while the stems , leaves and umbels were chopped , covered with water and left in a warm place to ferment . After a few days , lactic and alcoholic fermentation produced a mixture described as " something between beer and sauerkraut " . This concoction was then used for cooking a soup characterized by a mouth @-@ puckering sour taste and pungent smell . As the Polish ethnographer Łukasz Gołębiowski wrote in 1830 , " Poles have been always partial to tart dishes , which are somewhat peculiar to their homeland and vital to their health . "
The earliest written reference to the Slavic hogweed soup can be found in Domostroy ( Domestic Order ) , a 16th @-@ century Russian compendium of moral rules and homemaking advice . It recommends growing the plant " by the fence , around the whole garden , where the nettle grows " , to cook a soup of it in springtime and reminds the reader to , " for the Lord 's sake , share it with those in need " . Simon Syrenius ( Szymon Syreński ) , a 17th @-@ century Polish botanist , described " our Polish hogweed " as a vegetable that was well known throughout Poland , Rus ' , Lithuania and Samogitia ( that is , most of the northern part of Eastern Europe ) , typically used for cooking a " tasty and graceful soup " with capon stock , eggs , sour cream and millet . More interested in the plant 's medicinal properties than its culinary use , he also recommended pickled hogweed juice as a cure for fever or hangover .
Hogweed borscht was mostly a poor man 's food . The soup 's humble beginnings are still reflected in Polish fixed expressions , where " cheap like borscht " is the equivalent of " dirt cheap " ( also attested as a calque in Yiddish and Canadian English ) , whereas adding " two mushrooms into borscht " is synonymous with excess . For the professors of the University of Kraków , who led a monastic way of life in the 17th century , hogweed borscht was a fasting dish which they ate regularly ( sometimes with deviled eggs ) from Lent till Rogation days . It was uncommon on the royal table , although according to the 16th @-@ century Polish botanist Marcin of Urzędów – citing Giovanni Manardo , a court physician to the Jagiellonian kings of Hungary – the Polish @-@ born King Vladislaus II used to have a Polish hogweed @-@ based dish prepared for him at his court in Buda .
= = = Diversification = = =
With time , other ingredients were added to the soup , eventually replacing hogweed altogether , and the names borshch or barszcz became generic terms for any sour @-@ tasting soup . In 19th @-@ century rural Poland , this term included soups made from barberries , currants , gooseberries , cranberries , celery or plums .
When describing the uses of common hogweed , John Gerard , a 17th @-@ century English botanist , observed that " the people of [ Poland ] and Lithuania use to make [ a ] drink with the decoction of this herb and leaven or some other thing made of meal , which is used instead of beer and other ordinary drink . " It may suggest that hogweed soup was on some occasions combined with a fermented mixture of water and barley flour , oatmeal or rye flour . Such soured , gelatinous flour @-@ and @-@ water mixture , originally known as kissel ( from the Proto @-@ Slavic root * kyslŭ , ' sour ' ) had been already mentioned in The Tale of Bygone Years , a 12th @-@ century chronicle of Kievan Rus ' , and continued to be a staple of Ukrainian and Russian cooking until the middle of the 19th century . In Poland , a soup based on diluted kissel became known as either żur ( from Middle High German sur ' sour ' ) or barszcz and later – to distinguish it from the red beetroot borscht – as barszcz biały ' white borscht ' .
The earliest known Polish recipes for borscht , written by chefs catering to Polish magnates ( aristocrats ) , are from the late 17th century . Stanisław Czerniecki , head chef to Prince Aleksander Michał Lubomirski , included several borscht recipes in his Compendium ferculorum ( A Collection of Dishes ) , the first cookbook published originally in Polish , in 1682 . They include such sour soups as lemon borscht and " royal borscht " , the latter made from assorted dried , smoked or fresh fish and fermented rye bran . A manuscript recipe collection from the Radziwiłł family court , dating back to ca . 1686 , contains an instruction for making hogweed borscht mixed with poppy seeds or ground almonds . As this was a Lenten dish , it was garnished , in a trompe @-@ l 'œil fashion typical of Baroque cuisine , with mock eggs made from finely chopped pike that was partly dyed with saffron and formed into oval balls . An alternative recipe for the almond borscht replaced pickled hogweed with vinegar .
Borscht also evolved into a variety of sour soups to the east of Poland . Examples include onion borscht , a recipe for which was included in a 1905 Russian cookbook , and sorrel @-@ based green borscht , which is still a popular summer soup in Ukraine and Russia . A Gift to Young Housewives by Elena Molokhovets , the best @-@ selling Russian cookbook of the 19th century , first published in 1861 , contains nine recipes for borscht , some of which are based on kvass , a traditional Slavic fermented beverage made from rye bread . Kvass @-@ based variants were also known in Ukraine at that time ; some of them were types of green borscht , while others were similar to the Russian okroshka .
Before the advent of beet @-@ based borscht , cabbage borscht was of particular importance . Made from either fresh cabbage or sauerkraut , it could be indistinguishable from the Russian shchi . Indeed , the mid @-@ 19th @-@ century Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language defines borshch as " a kind of shchi " with beet sour added for tartness . The significance of cabbage as an essential ingredient of borscht is manifest in the Ukrainian proverb , " without bread , it 's no lunch ; without cabbage , it 's no borscht . "
= = = Novel ingredients = = =
Beet ( Beta vulgaris ) , a plant native to the Mediterranean Basin , was already grown in antiquity . Only the leaves were of culinary use , as the tapered , tough , whitish and bitter @-@ tasting root was considered unfit for human consumption . It is likely that beet greens were used in variants of green borscht long before the invention of the beetroot @-@ based red borscht . Beet varieties with round , red , sweet taproots , known as beetroots , were not reliably reported until the 12th century and did not spread to Eastern Europe before the 16th century . Mikołaj Rej , a Polish Renaissance poet and moralist , included the earliest known Polish recipe for pickled beetroots in his 1568 book , Life of an Honest Man . It would later evolve into ćwikła , or chrain mit burik , a beet @-@ and @-@ horseradish relish popular in Polish and Jewish cuisines . Rej also recommended the " very tasty brine " left over from beetroot pickling , which was an early version of beet sour . The sour found some applications in Polish folk medicine as a cure for hangover and – mixed with honey – as a sore throat remedy .
It may never be known who first thought of using beet sour to flavor borscht , which also gave the soup its now @-@ familiar red color . Jerzy Samuel Bandtkie 's Polish @-@ German dictionary published in 1806 was the first to define barszcz as a tart soup made from pickled beetroots . The fact that certain 19th @-@ century Russian and Polish cookbooks , such as Handbook of the Experienced Russian Housewife ( 1842 ) by Yekaterina Avdeyeva and The Lithuanian Cook ( 1854 ) by Wincenta Zawadzka , refer to beetroot @-@ based borscht as " Little Russian borscht " ( where " Little Russian " is a term used at the time for ethnic Ukrainians under imperial Russian rule ) suggests that this innovation took place in what is now Ukraine , whose soils and climate are particularly well suited to beet cultivation . Ukrainian legends , probably of 19th @-@ century origin , attribute the invention of beetroot borscht either to Zaporozhian Cossacks , serving in the Polish army , on their way to break the siege of Vienna in 1683 , or to Don Cossacks , serving in the Russian army , while laying siege to Azov in 1695 .
Spanish conquistadors brought potatoes and tomatoes from the Americas to Europe in the 16th century , but these vegetables only became commonly grown and consumed in Eastern Europe in the 19th century . Eventually , both became staples of peasant diet and essential ingredients of Ukrainian and Russian borscht . Potatoes replaced turnips in borscht recipes , and tomatoes – fresh , canned or paste – took over from beet sour as the source of tartness . The turnip is rarely found in modern recipes , and even then , together with potatoes . In Ukraine , beet sour and tomatoes were both used for some time until the latter ultimately prevailed during the last third of the 19th century .
= = = Spread = = =
Over the course of the 19th and 20th centuries , borscht 's popularity spread beyond its Slavic homeland , largely due to such factors as territorial expansion of the Russian Empire , Russia 's growing political clout and cultural stature , and waves of emigration out of the country . As Russia grew to cover most of northern and central Eurasia , borscht was introduced to the cuisines of various peoples inhabiting the territories both within and adjacent to the empire , from Finland to the Caucasus and Iran , to Central Asia and China , and to Alaska ( Russian America ) .
Borscht 's westward expansion was less successful ; Germans used to scoff at the soup along with other East European fare . What helped familiarize Western Europe with borscht was the practice of Russian emperors , as well as Russian and Polish aristocrats , to employ celebrated French chefs , who later presented their own versions of the dish as a foreign curiosity back in France . One of the first French chefs to do so was Marie @-@ Antoine Carême , who worked briefly for Emperor Alexander I in 1819 . In his take on borscht , the original Russian soup served only as inspiration for an extravagant haute cuisine dish with an air of eastern exoticism . Apart from vegetables and beet sour , his recipe calls for a roast chicken , a fried chicken , a duck , a piece of veal , an oxtail , a marrow bone , one pound of bacon , and six large sausages , and suggests serving with beef quenelles , deviled eggs , and croûtons . Auguste Escoffier , Carême 's apprentice , who was mostly fascinated by the soup 's vivid ruby @-@ red color , simplified his master 's recipe , while also securing the place of potage bortsch ( " borscht soup " ) in French cuisine . Urbain Dubois and Émile Bernard , both of whom had been employed at Polish aristocratic courts , presented borscht to the French public as a Polish soup ; their cookbook , La cuisine classique , published in 1856 , contains a borscht recipe under the descriptive name , potage au jus de betteraves à la polonaise ( " Polish @-@ style beet @-@ juice soup " ) , which had been changed to potage barsch à la polonaise by the third edition in 1868 . In 1867 , beetroot borscht was served , along with herrings , sturgeon , coulibiac , Pozharsky cutlets and vinaigrette salad , at a Russian @-@ themed dinner at the International Exposition in Paris , strengthening its international association with Russian culture .
Mass migration from the Russian Empire to North America – initially mosty by members of persecuted religious minorities – was instrumental in bringing borscht across the Atlantic . The earliest waves of migration occurred at a time when cabbage @-@ based borscht was still the dominant variant of the soup in at least parts of Russia . The Mennonites , who began arriving in Canada and the United States from Russia 's Volga region in the 1870s , still eschew beetroots in their borscht ; instead , Mennonite varieties include Komst Borscht ( with cabbage or sauerkraut ) and Somma Borscht ( sorrel @-@ based " summer borscht " ) . According to the Jewish Encyclopedia published in 1906 , cabbage @-@ based kraut borscht was also more popular than the beet @-@ based variant in American Jewish cuisine at the time . Subsequent Jewish immigration helped popularize the red borscht in America .
In the 1930s , when most American hotels refused to accept Jewish guests due to widespread anti @-@ Semitism , New York Jews began flocking to Jewish @-@ owned resorts in the Catskill Mountains for their summer vacations . The area grew into a major center of Jewish entertainment , with restaurants offering all @-@ you @-@ can @-@ eat Ashkenazi Jewish fare , including copious amounts of borscht . Grossinger 's , one of the largest resorts , served borscht throughout the day , every day of the year . The region became known , initially in derision , as the " Borscht Belt " , reinforcing the popular association between borscht and American Jewish culture . As most visitors arrived in the summertime , the borscht was typically served cold . Marc Gold was one of its largest suppliers , producing 1 @,@ 750 short tons ( 1 @,@ 590 t ) a year in his business 's heyday . Gold 's borscht consists of puréed beetroots seasoned with sugar , salt and citric acid ; it is usually blended with sour cream and served as a refreshing beverage , more aptly described as a " beet smoothie " . Such kind of " purplish , watery broth " is , according to Nikolai Burlakoff , author of The World of Russian Borsch , " associated in America with borsch , in general , and Jewish borsch in particular . "
In the Soviet Union , borscht was one of the most popular everyday dishes . It was described by James Meek , a British correspondent in Kiev and Moscow , as " the common denominator of the Soviet kitchen , the dish that tied together ... the high table of the Kremlin and the meanest canteen in the boondocks of the Urals , ... the beetroot soup that pumped like a main artery through the kitchens of the east Slav lands " . Among Soviet leaders , the Ukrainian @-@ born Leonid Brezhnev was especially partial to borscht , which his wife continued to personally cook for him even after they had moved into the Kremlin .
The soup has even played a role in the Soviet space program . In March 1961 , as part of a communications equipment test , a pre @-@ recorded recipe for borscht was broadcast from the Korabl @-@ Sputnik 4 spacecraft . The craft , carrying animals and a mannequin , had been launched into low Earth orbit in preparation for manned space flights . Actual borscht eventually made its way into outer space as space food for Soviet and , later , Russian cosmonauts . Originally , a puréed version of borscht was supplied in tubes . All ingredients for the space borscht ( which include beef , beetroots , cabbage , potatoes , carrots , onions , parsley root and tomato paste ) were cooked separately , then combined one by one in strictly controlled order , sterilized , packed into tubes , sealed airtight and autoclaved . In the 1970s , the tubes were replaced with packages of rehydratable freeze @-@ dried borscht with regular @-@ size bits of cooked vegetables .
= = In culture = =
= = = As a ritual dish = = =
Borscht is often associated with its role in religious traditions of various denominations ( Eastern Orthodox , Greek and Roman Catholic , and Jewish ) that are common in Eastern Europe . In East Slavic countries , " memorial borscht " is served as the first course at a post @-@ funeral wake . According to a traditional belief , the soul of the departed either feeds on or is carried up to heaven by puffs of steam rising from bowls of borscht and other hot dishes , such as blini , porridge , boiled potatoes or freshly baked bread . In the region of Polesye , straddling the Belarusian @-@ Ukrainian border , the same steaming @-@ hot dishes , including borscht , are given as an offering to the souls of deceased ancestors during the annual semi @-@ pagan remembrance ceremony known as Dzyady , or Forefathers ' Night .
In Poland and Ukraine , borscht is usually one of the dishes served at a Christmas Eve dinner . Celebrated after the first star has appeared in the sky on December 25 ( Roman Catholic ) or January 6 ( Greek Catholic ) , it is a meal which is at the same time festive and fasting , a multicourse affair ( traditionally , with twelve distinct dishes ) that excludes ingredients of land @-@ animal origin . Christmas Eve borscht is , therefore , either vegetarian or based on fish stock and is not typically mixed with sour cream . In Ukraine , the soup contains vegetables that are sautéed in vegetable oil rather than lard , as well as beans and mushrooms . It may be also thickened with wheat flour dry @-@ roasted in a pan instead of the usual roux . The Polish version of Christmas Eve borscht is a clear ruby @-@ red broth . Both Ukrainian and Polish variants are often served with uszka .
While Christmas in Poland is traditionally linked to red borscht , Lent – the fasting period that leads up to Easter – is associated with a meatless version of white borscht , or żur . Youths used to celebrate Holy Saturday , the last day of the fast , with a mock " funeral " of the white borscht , in which a pot of the soup was either buried in the ground or broken , sometimes – to the crowd 's amusement – while being carried by an unsuspecting boy on his head . On the next day , the white borscht would reappear on the Easter table , but this time , in its more coveted , meat @-@ based guise with sausage , bacon and eggs .
In Eastern European Ashkenazi Jewish tradition , vegetarian borscht served with sour cream and boiled potatoes on the side , known as peysakhdiker borsht , is considered an essential dish during the Passover period . As the holiday is observed in spring ( March or April ) , the preparation of Passover borscht used to provide an opportunity to use up the beet sour left over from pickled beetroots that had been consumed during winter , remaining potatoes that had been stored throughout the winter and sour cream that was readily available in the new calving season . Cold borscht blended with sour cream is also popular on Shavuot ( Feast of Weeks ) , a holiday customarily associated with dairy foods , observed in late May or early June . Seudah Shlishit , or the third meal of the Shabbat , often includes borscht as well .
= = = As an ethnic dish = = =
Borscht is associated with and claimed by several ethnic groups , especially Ukrainians , Russians , Poles , Lithuanians and Ashkenazi Jews , as their own national or ethnic dish and cultural icon . Such claims are not necessarily mutually exclusive , as the soup 's history predates the emergence of modern nation states , with their ever @-@ shifting borders , in Eastern Europe . Borscht , in the words of Burlakoff , " is perfectly suited to a global culture . " He describes it as " a global phenomenon " , in which " local variants are so numerous and diverse that it is hard sometimes for a non @-@ specialist to grasp that any single example of it is something that is part of a unified tradition . " In his view , borscht " is an almost perfect example of ... ' glocalization ' – a phenomenon that is global in distribution but reflective of local needs and ways in its variants and adaptation ; ... a highly localized product that became globalized , and in the process adapted to conditions other than the original ones . " However , according to Irina Perianova , a Russian linguist and anthropologist , " people tend to be very proprietal about their food and proud of it . " A " connection between culinary and territorial claims " may be observed , which results in the culinary area turning into " a battlefield generating and proliferating all kinds of myths . "
In its currently most popular , beet @-@ based version , borscht most likely originated in what is now Ukraine . Borscht 's role as a staple of everyday Ukrainian diet is reflected in the Ukrainian saying , " borscht and porridge are our food " ( compare the equivalent Russian saying , where borscht is replaced with shchi ) . The hearty soup in which the beetroot is just one of sundry vegetables , as opposed to the typically Polish clear beet broth , is still known in Poland as " Ukrainian borscht " .
In the Soviet Union , government @-@ sponsored cookbooks , such as The Book of Tasty and Healthy Food curated by Anastas Mikoyan , Cookery and Directory of Recipes and Culinary Production , promoted a unified Soviet cuisine with standardized and nutritionally " rational " versions of traditional dishes . The same cooking techniques and recipes were taught in culinary vocational schools throughout the country , establishing a common cooking style in Soviet cafés and restaurants . Though inspired by the cuisines of the country 's various ethnic groups , many recipes were presented as part of an overall Soviet heritage , disassociated from their individual geographic origins . By many people both inside and outside the Soviet Union , borscht was increasingly seen not as an ethnic Ukrainian soup , but as a Soviet or – metonymically – Russian dish . This approach was criticized by William Pokhlebkin , a preeminent Russian food writer , who unequivocally described beet @-@ based borscht as one of the " dishes of Ukrainian cookery " which " have entered the menu of international cuisine " . " One could understand " , he wrote , " and forgive foreigners for calling borscht or varenyky Russian national dishes , but when it turns out that they gleaned the information from Soviet cookbooks or from restaurant menus , one is embarrassed for our authors and chefs , who popularize the national cuisines of our peoples [ that is , the ethnic groups of the Soviet Union ] with such ignorance . "
According to Meek ,
Pokhlebkin and the Soviet Union are dead , yet Borshchland lives on . Recipes , like birds , ignore political boundaries ... The faint outline of the Tsarist @-@ Soviet imperium still glimmers in the collective steam off bowls of beetroot and cabbage in meat stock , and the soft sound of dollops of sour cream slipping into soup , from the Black Sea to the Sea of Japan and , in emigration , from Brooklyn to Berlin .
= = = Secondary = = =
= = = Primary = = =
= = = Reference works = = =
= The Revival =
The Revival is the second studio album by American R & B group Tony ! Toni ! Toné ! , released on May 8 , 1990 , by Wing Records . It is the follow @-@ up to their modestly successful debut album Who ? ( 1988 ) . The album was produced and arranged primarily by Tony ! Toni ! Toné ! , with additional production by Foster & McElroy , who previously produced Who ? . The group recorded The Revival at several studios in California and used a Synclavier music workstation .
A new jack swing album , The Revival features R & B music that draws on funk and older soul influences . Its songs incorporate eccentric sounds and stylistic elements from jazz and hip hop , including improvisational sounds , conversational vocals , and digital samples . The group 's lyrics exhibit contemporary hip hop attitudes and traditional soul themes , with songs about unruly women , low @-@ key ballads , and more danceable tracks .
The Revival was well received by contemporary critics , who wrote favorably of the group 's songwriting and appropriation of older sounds with contemporary R & B. It charted for 64 weeks and peaked at number 34 on the Billboard Top Pop Albums . The album was promoted with four singles , including the top 40 @-@ hit " It Never Rains ( In Southern California ) " and the gold @-@ certified " Feels Good " . The Revival was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America and , according to Nielsen SoundScan , had sold two million copies by 1992 .
= = Background = =
The Revival is the follow @-@ up to Tony ! Toni ! Toné ! ' s 1988 debut album Who ? , which was a modest success for the group and acquainted them with production and songwriting team Foster & McElroy . Originally friends from Oakland , the group moved to Sacramento after finishing Who ? with Foster & McElroy and began to record The Revival .
Recording sessions for the album took place at several studios in California — The Plant in San Francisco , Eve @-@ Jims Studio and Westlake Recording Studios in Los Angeles , Can @-@ Am Studio in Tarzana , Live Oak Studio in Berkeley , and J @-@ Jam Studio in Oakland . Tony ! Toni ! Toné ! primarily produced and arranged The Revival , with additional production by Foster & McElroy . The group also worked with engineers Toby Wright and Gerry Brown , musician Keith Crouch , and singer Vanessa Williams , who sang on the song " Oakland Stroke " . They recorded the album by using a Synclavier music workstation .
= = Music and lyrics = =
A new jack swing record , The Revival features R & B music with elements from hip hop , funk , jazz , and pop styles . Musically and lyrically , it fuses older soul influences and contemporary hip hop attitudes , along with the latter genre 's use of samples and digital rhythm tracks . Funk songs such as " The Blues " , " Oakland Stroke " , " Let 's Have a Good Time " , and " Feels Good " incorporate digital production technology . Janine McAdams of Spin finds most of the songs to be " embellished with an allusion , an imitation or an out @-@ and @-@ out sample " , and writes that the group draws on " various musical influences — Parliament , Duke Ellington , Pointer Sisters , James Brown , among others . " " Let 's Have a Good Time " samples the Pointer Sisters ' 1973 song " Yes We Can Can " , and " Oakland Stroke " , a paean to the group 's hometown , has " Jungle Boogie " -like horn riffs . The " sardonic " song veers stylistically from hip hop to swing , incorporating a 1940s jazz break .
According to McAdams , Tony ! Toni ! Toné ! ' s songwriting on The Revival eschewed " social commentary or political posturing " in favor of " the preservation of R & B 's signature , the perpetuation of the soul tradition , and — on the lighter side — the glorification of barbeque , the boogaloo and the booty on a Saturday night . " Described by the group as " Baptist shout music that makes you wanna dance " , " Feels Good " incorporates a popular sample from James Brown 's 1970 song " Funky Drummer " and gospel musical themes . " Don 't Talk About Me " is a warning to a mouthy woman , while " The Blues " features the narrator 's spiteful complaints about an ungrateful girlfriend . The latter song features aggressive bass , a funky break , doo @-@ wop verses , a blues riff that the group 's guitarist D 'wayne Wiggins learned from his father , and ideas from pianist Vince Guaraldi 's music for Peanuts television specials .
The album 's songs also feature offbeat sounds , improvisational elements , and conversational vocals derived from rap . The Revival begins with a directive from a grave voice : " Play this record as frequently as possible , Then , as it becomes easier for you , play the record once a day , or as needed . " The album also features dialogue between an old lady who asks the group whether it will be like their last album , on which she was also featured ; they respond to her question " No , ma 'am " . " All the Way " has a scrambling beat , whistle sounds , and the rhythmic call and response " What are we , what are we , what are we ? ... Just a bunch of brothers having a party " . The end of " Feels Good " features witty jazz keyboard playing behind a lively voice saying " it feels good ... in the hands , feet , bones , heart , and soul " . Ed Hogan of Allmusic writes that " the last part sounds like a Sunday morning testimonial . "
After the first five songs , The Revival features songs at a calmer tempo and more conventional style , with ballads that are more relaxed and low @-@ key . " It Never Rains ( In Southern California ) " was titled after an oft @-@ repeated phrase from one of Tony ! Toni ! Toné ! ' s attorneys , who used it in response to the group wearing heavy coats after returning from visits on the East Coast . Group drummer Timothy Christian played most of the song 's instruments , and bassist Raphael Wiggins wrote its lyrics about a man longing for a woman who was in southern California . The ballads are followed by " Those Were the Days " , which features jouncing banjo , trumpet , and wistful lyrics reminiscing about simpler times " when a dollar was worth a dollar , and you didn 't have to carry a gun when you left your house . "
= = Release and reception = =
Released on May 8 , 1990 , by Wing Records , The Revival charted for 64 weeks on the Billboard Top Pop Albums , peaking at number 34 on the chart . The album 's second single " Feels Good " was released on June 19 and certified gold on November 13 after it had shipped 500 @,@ 000 copies . The single topped the R & B chart for two weeks and reached number nine on the Billboard Hot 100 in the fall of 1990 , going on to sell over one million copies . In late 1990 , the album 's fourth single " It Never Rains ( In Southern California ) " became a number @-@ one R & B hit and also peaked at number 34 on the Hot 100 . On January 28 , 1991 , The Revival was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , for shipments of one million copies in the United States . By 1992 , it had sold two million copies , according to Nielsen SoundScan , which began tracking sales data in 1991 .
In a contemporary review for the Chicago Tribune , Greg Kot wrote that The Revival 's " lull " adult contemporary ballads were redeemed by songs with " Sly Stone , Ray Charles , doo @-@ wop and Motown influences ... Add a dash of loopy humor and you have a terrific ' 60s @-@ meets @-@ the- ' 90s recipe " . Greg Sandow from Entertainment Weekly commended the group for " building momentum by adding new elements as the songs proceed " and " setting the course for whatever future the [ R & B ] genre is likely to have " . Dennis Hunt of the Los Angeles Times said although their " offbeat R & B hybrids " are occasionally " too busy and intentionally oddball " , " the Tonys ' explorations ... are mostly successful " . Orlando Sentinel writer Parry Gettelman said the dance @-@ oriented tracks " have great grooves and a warmth , humor and vocal finesse sadly lacking in the Top 40 " . Janine McAdams from Spin said they " transformed the simplest ditties into jammin ' anthems that assault the ear and move the feet " while writing :
According to Yahoo ! Music 's Scott Wilson , The Revival was Tony ! Toni ! Toné ! ' s " breakthrough " because of how its series of hit singles and the group 's exceptional songwriting and production " assured them their place in the musical hierarchy " . AllMusic editor Alex Henderson said the group " managed to appeal to urban contemporary audiences while expressing a love of 1970s soul and funk " with artistic merit and distinction from the largely unambitious R & B records released in 1990 . In the opinion of Jason Heller from The A.V. Club , The Revival was the " masterpiece " of new jack swing , " an artistic triumph in a genre that generally coasted on impeccable craft " . Sam Chennault from Rhapsody felt in spite of its new jack swing hit " Feels Good " , most of the album embraced " Bay Area funk and hinted at the subsequent innovations of key member Raphael Saadiq " . Robert Christgau was somewhat less enthusiastic and gave it a two @-@ star honorable mention , indicating a " likable effort consumers attuned to its overriding aesthetic or individual vision may well enjoy " . He singled out " Feels Good " and " Oakland Stroke " as highlights and quipped , " who says a love band can 't play funk music ? " .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
Credits are adapted from Allmusic .
= = = Tony ! Toni ! Toné ! = = =
Timothy Christian Riley – drums
D 'Wayne Wiggins – guitar , vocals
Raphael Wiggins – bass , vocals
= = = Additional personnel = = =
= = Charts = =
= = = Album = = =
= = = Singles = = =
= M @-@ 69 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 69 is an east – west state trunkline highway in the Upper Peninsula ( UP ) of the U.S. state of Michigan . It connects with US Highway 2 ( US 2 ) on both ends in Crystal Falls and near Bark River . In between , the highway runs for 65 @.@ 260 miles ( 105 @.@ 026 km ) in rural UP forest lands .
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believing it to be too explicit for a film that worked hard to make things implicit . According to Harris , film censors demanded that Theo never be shown to touch Eleanor , in order to keep the lesbianism less obvious .
= = Reception = =
The Haunting was released on 18 September 1963 . Audiences were frightened by it . Film critic Dora Jane Hamblin related how four of her female friends , expecting a ho @-@ hum film , took out make @-@ up during the film 's first few minutes with the intention of fixing their faces . The film proved so frightening , she said , that the women were jumping out of their seats and losing their items . In Houston , Texas , a local cinema promoted the film as so chilling that it held a contest to see which of four patrons could sit all the way through a midnight screening ; the prize was $ 100 . Despite these stunts , The Haunting was only an average success at the box office .
The Haunting opened to mixed reception , the consensus generally being that it was a stylish film but had major flaws in the plot and lacked excitement . Variety called the acting effective , Davis Boulton 's cinematography extraordinarily dexterous and visually exciting , and Elliott Scott 's production design of the " monstrous " house most decidedly the star of the film . However , the unnamed reviewer felt Gidding 's screenplay had " major shortcomings " in that the plot was incomprehensible at points , and the motivation for the characters was poor . Bosley Crowther of The New York Times cited The Haunting as " one of the most highly regarded haunted house films ever produced " but surmised that " there is really no point to it " . Writing in The Atlantic magazine , critic Pauline Kael called the film " moderately elegant and literate and expensive " , but criticised Russ Tamblyn for being " feeble [ and ] cowardly @-@ comic " . She considered the film to be superior to Alfred Hitchcock 's The Birds , also released in 1963 , yet didn 't consider it to be a great film . Kael said of it , " It wasn 't a great movie but I certainly wouldn 't have thought that it could offend anyone . Yet part of the audience at The Haunting wasn 't merely bored , it was hostile- as if the movie , by assuming interests they didn 't have , made them feel resentful or inferior . I 've never felt this in an audience toward crude , bad movies ... But the few scattered people at The Haunting were restless and talkative , the couple sitting near me arguing @-@ the man threatening to leave , the woman assuring him that something would happen . In their terms , they were cheated : nothing happened . And , of course , they missed what was happening all along , perhaps because of nervous impatience or a primitive notion that the real things are physical . "
The film 's stature and following has grown steadily since its original release , and it now has cult movie status . Director Martin Scorsese placed The Haunting first on his list of the 11 scariest horror films of all time . Richard Johnson says that Steven Spielberg considers The Haunting one of the " seminal films " of his youth , and Robert Wise says that Spielberg told him The Haunting was " the scariest film ever made ! " Richard Armstrong in Rough Guide to Film ( 2007 ) called it " one of the most frightening films ever made " , and said Julie Harris ' performance is played " with an intensity that is frightening in itself " . In 2010 , The Guardian newspaper ranked it as the 13th best horror film of all time . However , not all critics think so highly of the film ; Yoram Allon and Neil Labute have stated that they believe the film is " frankly overrated " , and professional filmmaker Russell Evans has argued that few people truly find the film shocking or disturbing . As of October 2014 , review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes scores the film with an 86 % rating based on 36 reviews . The film was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Director ( Robert Wise ) .
In 2010 , Cinema Retro magazine hosted a screening of the film at Ettington Park . Richard Johnson was a special guest at the event and participated in a Q & A prior to the screening . Johnson said that he had never actually stepped foot in the hall during filming , and that this was the first occasion he had actually been inside the premises . The movie was mentioned in Dan Simmons ' 2002 novel A Winter Haunting .
= = Remakes = =
A remake of the film was attempted in the early 1990s by noted horror author Stephen King . King pitched the project under the name Rose Red to Steven Spielberg . The project went into turnaround and a complete script was written , but Spielberg demanded more thrills and action sequences while King wanted more horror . King and Spielberg mutually agreed to shelve the project after several years of work , and King bought back the rights to the script . King returned to the project in 1999 , completed a revised script , and successfully pitched the script to producer Mark Carliner . King 's revised script aired as a miniseries titled Rose Red in 2002 , but bears only superficial resemblance to The Haunting .
The Haunting was formally remade in 1999 under the same title . Legendary horror director Wes Craven initially worked on the project , but abandoned it . This adaptation , directed by Jan de Bont and starring Liam Neeson , Catherine Zeta @-@ Jones , Owen Wilson , and Lili Taylor in the roles of Markway ( now named Marrow ) , Theo , Luke , and Eleanor , was widely panned .
= = Home media = =
In 1990 , media mogul Ted Turner announced he would begin colorizing black @-@ and @-@ white motion pictures to make them more pleasing to audiences watching his cable networks . The announcement generated extensive controversy . Touring Turner 's colorization facilities as a member of the Directors Guild , Wise learned that Turner was colorizing The Haunting . Wise was able to prevent the colorization by pointing to his contract , which stated the picture could only be in black @-@ and @-@ white .
Warner Home Video released the film on VHS in pan @-@ and @-@ scan format in 1998 . It was released on DVD in its original screen format in 2003 . The DVD release included voice @-@ over commentary from Wise , Gidding , Bloom , Harris , Johnson , and Tamblyn . The film was released on Blu @-@ ray with the same commentary track on 15 October 2013 .
= Roman – Parthian War of 58 – 63 =
The Roman – Parthian War of 58 – 63 was fought between the Roman Empire and the Parthian Empire over control of Armenia , a vital buffer state between the two realms . Armenia had been a Roman client state since the days of Emperor Augustus , but in 52 / 53 , the Parthians succeeded in installing their own candidate , Tiridates , on the Armenian throne .
These events coincided with the accession of Nero to the imperial throne in Rome , and the young emperor decided to react vigorously . The war , which was the only major foreign campaign of his reign , began with rapid success for the Roman forces , led by the able general Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo . They overcame the forces loyal to Tiridates , installed their own candidate , Tigranes VI , on the Armenian throne , and left the country . The Romans were aided by the fact that the Parthian king Vologases was embroiled in the suppression of a series of revolts in his own country . As soon as these had been dealt with , however , the Parthians turned their attention to Armenia , and after a couple of years of inconclusive campaigning , inflicted a heavy defeat on the Romans in the Battle of Rhandeia .
The conflict ended soon after , in an effective stalemate and a formal compromise : a Parthian prince of the Arsacid line would henceforth sit on the Armenian throne , but his nomination had to be approved by the Roman emperor . This conflict was the first direct confrontation between Parthia and the Romans since Crassus ' disastrous expedition and Mark Antony 's campaigns a century earlier , and would be the first of a long series of wars between Rome and Iranian powers over Armenia ( see Roman – Persian Wars ) .
= = Background = =
Ever since the expanding Roman Republic and the Parthian Empire had come into contact in the mid @-@ 1st century BC , there had been friction between the two great powers over the control of the various states lying between them . The largest and most important of these was the Kingdom of Armenia . In 20 BC , Augustus succeeded in establishing a Roman protectorate over the country , when Tigranes III was enthroned as king of Armenia . Roman influence was secured through a series of Roman @-@ sponsored kings until 37 AD , when a Parthian @-@ supported candidate , Orodes , assumed the throne . The Roman @-@ supported king , Mithridates , recovered his throne with the support of Emperor Claudius in 42 AD , but was deposed in 51 AD by his nephew Rhadamistus of Iberia . His rule quickly became unpopular however , and this gave the newly crowned king Vologases I of Parthia the opportunity to intervene . His forces quickly seized the two capitals of Armenia , Artaxata and Tigranocerta , and put his younger brother Tiridates on the throne . The onset of a bitter winter and the outbreak of an epidemic forced the Parthians forces to withdraw , allowing Rhadamistus to retake control of the country . His behavior towards his subjects , however , was even worse than before , and they rose in rebellion against him . Thus in 54 AD Rhadamistus fled to his father 's court in Iberia , and Tiridates re @-@ established himself in Armenia .
In the same year , in Rome , Emperor Claudius died and was succeeded by his stepson Nero . The Parthian encroachment in an area regarded as lying within the Roman sphere of influence worried the Roman leadership , and was widely seen as a major test of the new emperor 's ability . Nero reacted vigorously , appointing Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo , a general who had distinguished himself in Germania and now served as governor of Asia , to supreme command in the East .
= = Diplomatic maneuvers and preparations = =
Corbulo was given control over two provinces , Cappadocia and Galatia ( modern @-@ day central Turkey ) , with propraetorial and later proconsular authority or imperium . Although Galatia was considered a good recruiting @-@ ground and Cappadocia had a few units of auxiliaries , the bulk of his army came from Syria , where half the garrison of four legions and several units of auxiliaries was transferred to his command .
Initially , the Romans hoped to resolve the situation by diplomatic means : Corbulo and Ummidius Quadratus , the governor of Syria , both sent embassies to Vologases , proposing that he give up hostages , as was customary during negotiations , to ensure good faith . Vologases , himself preoccupied by the revolt of his son Vardanes which forced him to withdrew his troops from Armenia , readily complied . A period of inactivity ensued , while the Armenian issue remained in limbo . Corbulo used this lull to restore his troops ' discipline and combat readiness , which had diminished in the peaceful garrisons of the East . According to Tacitus , Corbulo discharged all who were old or in ill health , kept the entire army under canvas in the harsh winters of the Anatolian plateau to acclimatize them to the snows of Armenia , and enforced a strict discipline , punishing deserters by death . At the same time however , he took care to be constantly present amongst his men , sharing their hardships .
In the meantime , Tiridates , backed by his brother , refused to go to Rome , and even engaged in operations against those Armenians whom he deemed were loyal to Rome . Tension mounted and finally , in the early spring of 58 , war broke out .
= = Outbreak of the war — The Roman offensive = =
Corbulo had placed a large number of his auxiliaries in a line of forts near the Armenian frontier under a former primus pilus , Paccius Orfitus . Disobeying Corbulo 's orders , he used some newly arrived auxiliary cavalry alae to stage a raid against the Armenians , who appeared to be unprepared . In the event , his raid failed , and the retreating troops even spread their panic amongst the garrisons of the other forts . It was an inauspicious start for a campaign , and Corbulo severely punished the survivors and their commanders .
Having drilled his army for two years Corbulo , despite this misadventure , was ready . He had three legions at his disposal ( III Gallica and VI Ferrata from Syria and IV Scythica ) , to which were added a large number of auxiliaries and allied contingents from Eastern client kings like Aristobulus of Lesser Armenia and Polemon II of Pontus . The situation was furthermore favorable to the Romans : Vologases faced a serious revolt by the Hyrcanians in the region of the Caspian Sea as well as incursions of Dahae and Sacae nomads from Central Asia , and was unable to support his brother .
The war thus far had featured mostly skirmishing along the Roman – Armenian border . Corbulo tried to protect the pro @-@ Roman Armenian settlements from attack , and simultaneously retaliated against the Parthians ' supporters . Given that Tiridates avoided confrontation in a pitched battle , Corbulo divided his force , so that they could attack several places simultaneously , and instructed his allies , Kings Antiochus IV of Commagene and Pharasmanes I of Iberia to raid Armenia from their own territories . In addition , an alliance was concluded with the Moschoi , a tribe living in northwestern Armenia .
Tiridates reacted by sending envoys to ask why he was under attack , since hostages had been given . To this , Corbulo reiterated the demand to seek the recognition of his crown from Nero . Eventually , the two sides agreed on a meeting . Tiridates announced that he would bring 1 @,@ 000 men to the meeting , implying that Corbulo should bring the same number of men " in peaceful fashion , without breastplates and helmets " . Tacitus suggests that Tiridates intended to overwhelm the Romans , as the Parthian cavalry would be superior to an equal number of Roman infantry in any case . At any rate , in a show of force Corbulo decided to take with him the larger part of his force , not only IV Ferrata , but also 3 @,@ 000 men from III Gallica plus the auxiliaries . Tiridates also appeared at the agreed site , but , seeing the Romans in full battle array , and in turn distrusting their intentions , he did not come closer and withdrew during the night . Tiridates then resorted to a tactic that had worked well a century earlier against Mark Antony : he sent forces to raid the Roman army 's supply route , which stretched over the mountains back to Trapezus in the Black Sea . They failed however , since the Romans had taken care to secure the mountain routes by a series of forts .
= = = Fall of Artaxata = = =
Corbulo now resolved to directly attack Tiridates ' fortified strongholds . Not only were they instrumental in controlling the surrounding country and sources of revenue and soldiers , but in addition , a threat to them might force Tiridates to risk a pitched battle , since , in the words of historian A. Goldsworthy , " a king who could not defend communities loyal to him [ ... ] lost prestige . " Corbulo and his subordinates successfully stormed three of these forts , including Volandum ( possibly modern Iğdır ) , " the strongest of all in that province " according to Tacitus , within a day with minimal casualties , and massacred their garrisons . Terrified by this display of Roman might , several towns and villages surrendered , and the Romans prepared to move against the northern Armenian capital , Artaxata .
This forced Tiridates to confront the Romans with his army , as they approached Artaxata . The Roman force , reinforced by a vexillatio of X Fretensis , marched in a hollow square , with the legions supported by auxiliary horsemen and foot archers . The Roman soldiers were under strict orders not to break formation , and despite repeated probing attacks and feigned retreats by the Parthian horse archers , they held together until nightfall . During the night , Tiridates withdrew his army , abandoning his capital ; its inhabitants promptly surrendered and were allowed to leave unmolested , but the city was torched , since the Romans could not spare sufficient men for garrisoning it .
= = = Fall of Tigranocerta = = =
In 59 , the Romans marched to the south , towards Tigranocerta , Armenia 's second capital city . On their way , Corbulo 's men punished those who withstood or hid from them , while leniency was shown to those who surrendered . In the harsh , dry terrain of northern Mesopotamia , the army suffered from lack of provisions , especially water , until they reached the more fertile areas near Tigranocerta . During that time , a plot to murder Corbulo was uncovered and suppressed . Several Armenian nobles who had joined the Roman camp were implicated and executed . According to a story provided by Frontinus , when the Roman army arrived at Tigranocerta , they launched the severed head of one of the conspirators into the city . By chance , it landed right where the city council was assembled ; they immediately decided to surrender the city , which was consequently spared . Shortly after , an attempt by the Parthian army under king Vologases to enter Armenia was blocked by Verulanus Severus , the commander of the auxiliaries .
The Romans were now in control of Armenia , and they promptly installed its new king , Tigranes VI , the last descendant of the Cappadocian royal house , in Tigranocerta . Some outlying western parts of Armenia were also ceded to the Roman vassals . Corbulo left 1 @,@ 000 legionaries , three auxiliary cohorts and two cavalry alae ( ca . 3 @-@ 4 @,@ 000 men ) behind to support the new monarch , and retired with the rest of his army to Syria , whose governorship he now ( in 60 AD ) assumed as a reward for his success .
= = Parthian counterattack = =
The Romans were well aware that their victory was still fragile , and that as soon as the Parthian king had dealt with the Hyrcanian rebellion , he would turn his attention to Armenia . Despite Vologases ' reluctance to risk an all @-@ out conflict with Rome , in the end , he was forced to act when Tigranes raided the Parthian province of Adiabene in 61 . The enraged protests of its governor Monobazus , and his pleas for protection , could not be ignored by Vologases , whose prestige and royal authority were at stake . Vologases therefore hastily concluded a treaty with the Hyrcanians so as to be free to campaign against Rome , and called an assembly of the grandees of his realm . There he publicly reaffirmed Tiridates ' position as king of Armenia by crowning him with a diadem . In order to reinstall his brother on the Armenian throne , the Parthian king assembled a force of picked cavalry under Monaeses , complemented by infantry from Adiabene .
In response , Corbulo sent the legions IV Scythica and XII Fulminata to Armenia , while he detailed the three other legions under his command ( III Gallica , VI Ferrata and XV Apollinaris ) to fortify the line of the river Euphrates , fearing that the Parthians might invade Syria . At the same time , he petitioned Nero to appoint a separate legate for Cappadocia , with the responsibility for conducting the war in Armenia .
= = = Parthian siege of Tigranocerta = = =
Monaeses meanwhile entered Armenia and approached Tigranocerta . Tigranes had taken care to gather supplies , and the city was well @-@ fortified and garrisoned with Romans and Armenians alike . The siege was largely undertaken by the Adiabenian contingent , since the Parthians , being cavalrymen , were unskilled and unwilling to engage in siegework . The Parthian assault failed , and was driven back with loss by a successful Roman sally . At this point , Corbulo sent an envoy to Vologases , who had encamped with his court at Nisibis , near Tigranocerta and the Roman – Parthian border . The failed siege and a shortage of fodder for his cavalry forced Vologases to agree to withdraw Monaeses from Armenia . At the same time however , the Romans too left Armenia , something that , according to Tacitus , raised suspicions of Corbulo 's motives : some whispered that he had reached an agreement of mutual withdrawal with the Parthians , and that he was unwilling to risk his reputation by renewing hostilities against them . At any rate , a truce was arranged and a Parthian embassy was dispatched to Rome . The negotiations failed to reach an agreement , and war was resumed in the spring of 62 .
In the meantime , the asked @-@ for legate for Cappadocia had arrived , in the person of Lucius Caesennius Paetus , the consul of the previous year ( 61 AD ) . The army was divided between him and Corbulo , with IV Scythica , XII Fulminata , the newly arrived V Macedonica and the auxiliaries from Pontus , Galatia and Cappadocia going to Paetus , while Corbulo retained III Gallica , VI Ferrata and X Fretensis . Because of their antagonism for glory , the relations between the two Roman commanders were strained from the beginning . It is notable that Corbulo kept the legions he had spent the past few years campaigning with , and gave his colleague , who after all was expected to conduct the main campaign , the more inexperienced units . The total Roman force arrayed against the Parthians was nevertheless considerable : the six legions alone totaled some 30 @,@ 000 men . The exact number and disposition of auxiliary units is unclear , but there were seven cavalry alae and seven infantry cohorts in Syria alone , comprising a force of 7 @-@ 9 @,@ 000 troops .
= = = Battle of Rhandeia = = =
Paetus nonetheless appeared confident of victory , and followed the Parthian declaration of war and capture of Tigranocerta with his own invasion of Armenia , while Corbulo remained at Syria , further strengthening the fortifications in the Euphrates frontier . Paetus had only two legions with him , IV Scythica and XII Fulminata , and advanced towards Tigranocerta . A few minor forts were taken , but a lack of supplies forced him to withdraw westwards for the winter .
The Parthians had originally intended to invade Syria , but Corbulo put on a convincing display of military might , building a strong flotilla of ships equipped with catapults and a bridge over the Euphrates , which allowed him to establish a foothold on the Parthian shore . Therefore , the Parthians abandoned their plans for Syria , and turned their attention towards Armenia . There , Paetus had dispersed his forces and granted extended leaves to his officers , so that he was taken unawares at the Parthian advance . Upon learning of it , he initially advanced to meet Vologases , but after a reconnaissance detachment was defeated , he panicked and withdrew hastily . Paetus sent his wife and son to safety in the fortress of Arsamosata , and tried to block the Parthian advance by occupying the passes of the Taurus mountains with detachments from his army . In so doing , however , he further dispersed his forces , which were then defeated in detail by the Parthians . Roman morale plunged and panic set in among the army , which was now besieged in a series of hastily erected camps near Rhandeia . Paetus , who appears to have fallen into desperate inactivity , sent urgent messages to Corbulo to come to his rescue .
Corbulo in the meantime had been aware of the danger faced by his colleague , and put part of his forces on readiness ; but he did not march to join Paetus , and some accused him of delaying in order to reap more glory from rescuing him . Nevertheless , when the calls for assistance arrived , he responded quickly and marched forth with half of the Syrian army , carrying many provisions laden on camels . He soon met dispersed men of Paetus ' army , and managed to rally them around his force . But before he could arrive to the rescue , Paetus had capitulated : the Parthians , aware that relief was nearing , increasingly harassed the Romans , until Paetus was forced to send a letter to Vologases to seek terms . The subsequent treaty was humiliating : not only would the Romans leave Armenia and surrender all forts they held , but they also agreed to build a bridge over the nearby Arsanias river over which Vologases could pass in triumph , sitting atop an elephant . In addition , the Roman army was liberally plundered by the Armenians , who took even the Romans ' weapons and clothes without facing any resistance . Still worse , according to rumors reported by Tacitus , the Romans were made to pass under the yoke , a gesture of ultimate humiliation in Roman eyes .
The two Roman forces met on the banks of the Euphrates near Melitene , amidst scenes of mutual grief ; while Corbulo lamented the undoing of his achievements , Paetus tried to convince him to attempt to reverse the situation by invading Armenia . Corbulo however refused , claiming that he did not have the authority to do so , and that either way the army was too worn out to be able to campaign effectively . In the end , Paetus retired to Cappadocia and Corbulo to Syria , where he received envoys from Vologases , who demanded that he evacuate his bridgehead over the Euphrates . In turn , Corbulo demanded the Parthian evacuation of Armenia . Vologases agreed to this , and both sides withdrew their forces , leaving Armenia once again masterless but de facto under Parthian control , until a Parthian delegation could travel to Rome .
= = Corbulo 's return and peace settlement = =
Rome , meanwhile , appears to have been largely unaware of the real situation in Armenia . Tacitus acidly records that " trophies for the Parthian war and arches were erected in the center of the Capitoline hill " by decree of the Senate , even while the war was not yet decided . Whatever illusions the Roman leadership had , they were shattered by the arrival of the Parthian delegation to Rome in the spring of 63 . Their demands , and the subsequent interrogation of the centurion who accompanied them , revealed to Nero and the Senate the true extent of the disaster , which Paetus had concealed in his dispatches . Nevertheless , in the words of Tacitus , the Romans decided to " accept a dangerous war over a disgraceful peace " ; Paetus was recalled , and Corbulo placed again in charge of the campaign into Armenia , with extraordinary imperium which placed him above all other governors and client rulers in the East . Corbulo 's post as governor of Syria was entrusted to Gaius Cestius Gallus .
Corbulo reordered his forces , withdrawing the defeated and demoralized IV Scythica and XII Fulminata legions to Syria , leaving X Fretensis to guard Cappadocia , and leading his veteran III Gallica and VI Ferrata to Melitene , where the invasion army was to be assembled . To these he also added V Macedonica , which had remained in Pontus throughout the previous year and not been tainted by the defeat , the newly arrived XV Apollinaris , and large numbers of auxiliaries and contingents of the client kings .
After his army crossed the Euphrates , following a route opened up by Lucullus over a hundred years before , he received envoys from Tiridates and Vologases . At the approach of such a large force , and aware of Corbulo 's ability as a general , the two Arsacids were anxious to negotiate . Indeed , Corbulo , no doubt on instructions from Nero , reiterated the old Roman position : if Tiridates would accept his crown from Rome , then renewed war could be averted . Tiridates readily agreed to negotiations , and Rhandeia , the scene of last year 's Roman defeat , was agreed upon as a meeting place . To the Armenians , this place was intended as a reminder of their strength , while Corbulo agreed to it because there he hoped to expunge the earlier disgrace , by peace or war . Once there , Corbulo put Paetus ' son , who served under him as a legate , in charge of a party that was to gather the remains of the Roman soldiers and ensure them a proper burial . On the agreed day , both Tiridates and Corbulo , each accompanied by 20 horsemen , met between the two camps . Tiridates agreed to travel to Rome and seek confirmation of his crown from Nero . In sign of this agreement , a few days later , both armies put on a display , arrayed in full parade gear . Tiridates approached the Roman camp , where a statue of the Emperor Nero had been erected upon a raised platform , and placed his royal diadem at its feet in submission .
= = Aftermath = =
In 66 , Tiridates visited Rome to receive his crown and was lavishly received by Nero , who used the occasion to boost his own popularity . He ordered the gates of the Temple of Janus to be shut , thus declaring that peace reigned throughout the Roman Empire .
Nero celebrated this peace as a major achievement : he was hailed as imperator and held a triumph , although no new territory had been won , and the peace reflected a compromise rather than a true victory . For although Rome could prevail militarily in Armenia , politically , she had no genuine alternatives to the Arsacid candidacy on offer for the Armenian throne . Armenia would henceforth be ruled by an Iranian dynasty , and despite its nominal allegiance to Rome , it would come under increasing Parthian influence . In the judgment of later generations , " Nero had lost Armenia " , and although the Peace of Rhandeia ushered in a period of relatively peaceful relations that would last for 50 years , Armenia would continue to be a constant bone of contention between the Romans , the Parthians , and their Sassanid successors . For the short term however , the peace that Nero secured was kept by both sides , even while the bulk of Rome 's eastern forces was involved in the suppression of the Jewish Revolt .
As for Corbulo , he was honoured by Nero as the man who had brought this " triumph " to be , but his popularity and influence with the army made him a potential rival . Together with the involvement of his son @-@ in @-@ law Lucius Annius Vinicianus in a foiled plot against Nero in 66 , Corbulo became suspect in the eyes of the emperor . In 67 , while journeying in Greece , Nero ordered him to be executed ; upon hearing of this , Corbulo committed suicide .
The war had also demonstrated to the Romans that the defensive system in the East , as put in place by Augustus , was no longer adequate . Thus the following years saw a major reorganization of the Roman East : the client kingdoms of Pontus and Colchis ( in 64 AD ) , Cilicia , Commagene and Lesser Armenia ( in 72 AD ) were made into Roman provinces , the number of legions in the area increased , and Roman presence in the Caucasian client states of Iberia and Albania strengthened , with the aim of strategically encircling Armenia . Direct Roman control was extended to the entire line of the Euphrates , marking the beginning of the Eastern limes that would survive until the Muslim conquests of the 7th century .
= Ikata , Ehime =
Ikata ( 伊方町 , Ikata @-@ chō ) is a small town located in Nishiuwa District , Ehime Prefecture , Japan . Following a recent merger with the neighboring towns of Misaki and Seto , the town now spans the mountainous Sadamisaki Peninsula , the narrowest peninsula in Japan and the westernmost point on the island of Shikoku .
This unique geography has greatly influenced Ikata 's growth . On the one hand , it has presented significant challenges to urban development that were not overcome until recently in the town 's long history . On the other , the peninsula is what gives the town its beautiful mountain and ocean scenery which , bolstered by significant investments in infrastructure and tourist facilities , has formed the basis for a burgeoning tourism industry .
In addition to the beauty of its rugged , natural landscape , Ikata has long been known for fishing and mikan orange farming . In recent years Ikata has also become a hotspot of modern energy production — the Ikata Nuclear Power Plant until 2012 produced much of Shikoku 's electricity , and the town 's windy mountains are dotted by dozens of windmills .
= = History = =
= = = Prehistory = = =
The Sadamisaki Peninsula area has been inhabited since at least the Jōmon Period ( 10 @,@ 000 – 300 BC ) , as evidenced by the discovery of stone tools and earthenware pots in the Misaki and Kushi neighborhoods .
In 1963 a local man discovered a stone ax dating back to the mid @-@ Yayoi Period ( 300 BC – 250 AD ) in his farm plot in the Kawachi neighborhood . Upon further investigation by the Japan Archaeological Society in 1986 , the area was recognized as containing the remains of a highland settlement ( 高地性集落 , kōchisei shūraku ) . This is a type of settlement usually located several tens of meters above the surrounding area on mountainsides , and is peculiar to the Yayoi period .
= = = Classical era = = =
After the Taika Reform of 646 , Ikata and the greater surrounding area became known as the Uwa District in 701 . The Uwa District covered the entire Nanyo region ( map ) until it was split in two in 866 . Since districts were defined by population , one can infer that the area was underdeveloped and sparsely populated at the time .
= = = Feudal era = = =
Towards the end of the Heian Period , the Yawatahama and Ikata area became known as Yano ( 矢野郷 , Yano @-@ gō , later 矢野荘 Yano @-@ shō ) . As ownership of farmlands became increasingly concentrated in the hands of local ruling families , control of the Yano area was given to Taira no Tadamitsu , a member of the Heike clan .
Some members of the Heike family secretly settled in the Seto area in 1185 after being defeated in the Genpei Wars .
Entering the Edo Period and the Tokugawa shogunate , the Uwa District came under control of the Uwajima Domain ( 宇和島藩 , Uwajima @-@ han ) . From 1610 to 1612 , the first Uwajima feudal lord , Tomita Nobutaka , gathered farmers from the local area to dig a canal through the thinnest part of the Sadamisaki Peninsula , Seto 's Mitsukue neighborhood . The project was soon canceled due to insufficient funds . By this time , the name Ikata ( 伊方浦 , Ikata @-@ ura ) can be seen in records of taxes paid to the feudal lords .
The Mitsukue neighborhood prospered as a port town during the feudal period , as it was used as a port of rest for daimyos on their way to and from the capital as part of the sankin kōtai system . This traffic was likely the source of the demand for Nobutaka 's abortive attempt to create a shortcut through the peninsula .
= = = Modern era = = =
A decade after the Meiji Restoration , in March 1878 the Uwa District was divided into the current Kitauwa , Minamiuwa , Higashiuwa , and Nishiuwa districts ( North- , South- , East- , and West @-@ Uwa , respectively ) . Ikata was designated a village ( 村 , mura ) in 1889 , and other neighborhoods along the peninsula soon followed suit , many merging to reduce the number of independent settlements from 26 to 6 .
More recently , Seto 's Mitsukue Bay was used for submarine training operations by the Japanese navy leading up to World War II , as the bay 's shape is similar to that of Pearl Harbor . A monument named The Nine War Heroes ( 九軍神 , Kyū gunshin ) stands in Suka Park in Mitsukue as a memorial dedicated to the nine young men ( ages 21 – 28 ) who were stationed in the Mitsukue area for these exercises . According to the plaque on the monument , the men were quite friendly with the locals , and stories are still told about them in the neighborhood to this day . The men died on December 8 , 1941 , during one of the initial attacks on Pearl Harbor .
In 1955 another round of mergers corresponding to the Great Shōwa Merger reduced the number of municipal entities to 3 .
In 1977 the Ikata Nuclear Power Plant began operation as the first nuclear power plant on the island of Shikoku .
On April 1 , 2005 , Ikata merged with the nearby towns of Misaki and Seto to create the new town of Ikata , which spans the Sadamisaki Peninsula .
= = = Current events = = =
March , 2014 . National attention turns to Ikata as the towns elections near . Many wonder if Ikata will approve the restart of its nuclear power generators .
The installation of many new windmills in 2006 and 2007 solicited a significant amount of noise complaints from nearby residents .
= = = Timeline = = =
March 1878 — Meiji reforms create the Nishiuwa District
1889 — Ikata is designated a village .
March 31 , 1955 — The villages of Ikata and Machimi merge , forming the old town of Ikata
September 30 , 1977 — Reactor No. 1 of the Ikata Nuclear Power Plant begins operation
April 1 , 2005 — The towns of Misaki and Seto were merged into Ikata to form the new and expanded town of Ikata
= = Geography and climate = =
Ikata is on the Sadamisaki peninsula , Japan 's narrowest peninsula and the westernmost point on the island of Shikoku . The peninsula is extremely mountainous , with steep cliffs and precious little usable flat land . To combat this , the town 's bays and ponds have seen vigorous coastal reclamation efforts dating back to the early Meiji period ( late 1800s ) . Ikata 's mountainsides are covered with terraced mikan fields , and natural forest in the undeveloped areas .
The various neighborhoods of Ikata are found nestled among the foothills of the mountains , connected only by winding coastal roads and a single highway , Route 197 . The biggest of the neighborhoods and the administrative center of Ikata is Minatoura , near the eastern edge of the town .
Ikata is surrounded on three sides by ocean — the Iyo Sea ( part of the Inland Sea ) to the north , the Uwa Sea ( Pacific Ocean ) to the south , and the Hōyo Strait ( separating Shikoku from Kyūshū ) to the west .
The climate in Ikata is warm , with an average year @-@ round temperature of 16 – 17 ° C ( 61 – 63 ° F ) and 1 @,@ 500 ml of yearly rain . The coldest parts of winter remain above freezing ( 5 ° C or 41 ° F on average ) , with snowfall seen only once or twice per year . Rain is concentrated in the rainy season in June and July , and also in September .
The length of the peninsula makes accurate weather prediction difficult for the town ; when driving down Melody Line , it is not uncommon to find it sunny between one set of tunnels , rainy between another , and foggy between yet another . Ikata 's position , stretching out into the ocean , also makes it a frequent target for typhoons .
= = = Nearby cities and towns = = =
Yawatahama to the East
Ōita , Ōita Prefecture to the West , across the Hōyo Strait
= = Demographics = =
Ikata is a small town , with a population of 10 @,@ 637 as of March 31 , 2014 . The total land area of the town is 94 @.@ 37 km2 , making the population density 113 persons per km2 . However , much of the land on the peninsula is quite mountainous and not suited for development ; the population density of the individual settlements , which are squeezed into the small bay areas in the foothills of the mountains , is much higher . Extrapolating from data based on the most recent land survey , only 3 @.@ 21 % of the town 's land is inhabited ; this puts the population density at a much higher 3 @,@ 510 persons / kilometer @-@ squared .
Like much of rural Japan , Ikata faces a rapidly declining and aging population . According to the Ikata website , roughly 40 % of the town 's population is 65 or older . Furthermore , many elementary and middle schools have closed since the 1970s . Those that remain have very small student populations . For example , Ikata Elementary School is Ikata 's largest elementary school ; there were 303 students in 1987 , 162 in 2006 , and 128 in 2014 ; Toyonoura Elementary was Old Ikata 's smallest school ; it had 51 students in 1987 , and only 14 in 2007 @.@ before it closed in 2010 . Currently , Futami Elementary is Ikata 's smallest Elementary school with 21 students . However , plans are in effect to close the school at the end of the current fiscal year ( April , 2015 ) .
This population issue was a significant part of the impetus for the recent merger of Old Ikata with Seto and Misaki . While Old Ikata is geographically more accessible , and has enjoyed the economic benefits of the Ikata Nuclear Power Plant , Seto and Misaki have experienced even more severe aging and decline of their populations . In 2000 , Seto 's working @-@ age population dipped below 50 % of its total .
Ethnically Ikata is extremely homogeneous with only a handful of non @-@ Japanese residents , most of whom are either temporary farm laborers from China , or English educators on the JET Programme .
= = Transportation and sightseeing = =
= = = History = = =
Due to Ikata 's length and mountainous terrain , regular bus service did not reach the tip of the peninsula until the 1960s . Until then , the only public transportation available was local ferries that connected the bays of each neighborhood . In 1963 , the original Route 197 was completed . It follows the coastline , and is thus extremely winding and narrow , with very little room for cars to pass . Traversing the peninsula by this route takes hours and can be quite nerve @-@ wracking ; this earned it the ire of the locals , who came up with a disparaging nickname that is a pun on the actual name : " the Don 't @-@ go @-@ there Terrible Road " ( イクナ酷道 , i @-@ ku @-@ na kokudō , where i @-@ ku @-@ na is an alternate pronunciation of " 197 " , literally meaning " don 't go " ) .
= = = Modern day = = =
The Ikata leg of the new Route 197 was completed in 1987 and is the heart of transportation in modern Ikata , affectionately nicknamed " Melody Line " . Unlike the old roads , Melody Line boasts two full lanes and runs relatively straight down the peninsula . Seated high in the mountains , drivers can enjoy views of both the Pacific Ocean and Inland Sea . The route terminates at Misaki and continues over to Kyūshū by ferries that connect Misaki Port with Saganoseki ( Ōita , Ōita ) and Beppu , Ōita .
Melody Line is such an improvement over the old roads that it has become a significant Ehime sightseeing attraction in itself , with many tourists coming to see cherry blossoms in the spring . Together with the city of Iyo 's seaside Route 378 , Melody Line makes one of the prefecture 's recommended sightseeing routes , and one of JTB 's " 100 Hidden Treasures of Japan " ( 日本の秘境100選 , nihon no hikyō hyaku @-@ sen ) .
Iyo Railway bus service runs up and down the peninsula , to and from Yawatahama , and offers express buses from Misaki to Matsuyama . However , commuter buses run infrequently and , due to the length of the peninsula and the scattered nature of the town 's neighborhoods , bus travel remains more expensive and less convenient than in denser areas . Some tour buses also come across the strait from Kyūshū by ferry .
There are no trains in Ikata . The closest station is the JR Yawatahama Station on the Yosan Line .
= = = Points of interest = = =
Sadamisaki Lighthouse
This lighthouse stands at the tip of the peninsula , overlooking the Hōyo Strait . On clear days you can see across to Kyūshū . Almost two kilometers of hiking trails and observation decks make up part of the Setonaikai National Park .
Seto Wind Hill Park
Located atop a mountain in the Gongen Mountain Park , Seto Wind Hill Park is located in the center of the peninsula and is free and open to the public . From it you can see dozens of Ikata 's 29 @.@ 5 @-@ meter , 4 @.@ 3 @-@ ton windmills , and get up close to 11 of them . An actual wing of one of the windmills is on display in the park so visitors can get a better idea of the actual size . Benches and observation decks dot the park and Haikus about the windmills , submitted for Ikata 's Windmill Festival , are on display year @-@ round .
Public restrooms are available and powered by solar energy .
Ikata Visitors House
This hands @-@ on science museum teaches all about nuclear power with beautiful interactive displays and fun activities for all ages . The building is connected to the Kirara @-@ kan ,
Kirara @-@ kan
Opened in 1994 , Kirara @-@ kan houses an aquarium and sells souvenirs and local agricultural products . There are also several exhibits on display such as an Ikata Toji ( Brew Master ) exhibit and an International Relations exhibit with items on display from Ikata 's sister city of Red Wing . Necklaces and pendants using pearls harvested from Uwa Sea to the south are also on sale .
The second floor is a folk museum with scale @-@ model fishing boat , and other tools and items of cultural significance to Ikata on display year @-@ round .
The third floor is a rest area offering a panorama view of the peninsula . Kirara @-@ kan is connected to the Ikata Visitors House .
Red Wing Park
This park was constructed to commemorate the official joining of Ikata to her Sister City of Red Wing , Minnesota , after which it is named . Of note is the 21 @-@ meter stainless @-@ steel monument located at the entrance of the park , a twin sister of the one in Bay Point Park , Red Wing . Beneath the monument lies a commemorative stone plaque bearing the signatures of each of the mayors at the time . It is home to Adventure Hill — a playground full of climbing nets , roller slides , and other children 's play equipment . The park is free and open to the public .
Tennis courts and a gravel field are available in the Community Grounds adjacent to the park . Reservations for use are made at the town office .
Kamegaike Onsen
A hot spring bathing facility and park opened to the public in August 2007 . Hot spring water is sourced from a well at a depth of 1 @,@ 500 meters . The bath is divided into two large bathing areas " Misaki " and " Toji " that are male or female only . Which area is designated as male and which is designated as female switches weekly . The Onsen is wheelchair @-@ friendly and offers bathing options to fit every need . A local @-@ goods shop and a restaurant are located in the onsen . Overnight stays are not available .
Public transportation is available daily . A bus stop is located directly in front of the entrance . Parking is free .
According to legend , a giant crab lives in the adjacent Kamegaike Pond .
= = = Roadside Stations = = =
Ikata has two Roadside Stations along Route 197 . These are highway rest stops that offer refreshments , travel information , recreation facilities , and local goods for sale .
Ikata Kirara @-@ kan
Features an aquarium , an exhibit chronicling Ikata 's relations with its American sister city , Red Wing , Minnesota , and a small museum of Old Ikata historical artifacts . Attached to the Ikata Visitors House .
Seto Agriculture Park
Gelateria DanDan offers travelers unique ice cream and sorbet flavors like sake , kintarō potato , black sesame , and more . A Christmas tree decorated with mikan orange peels , a monument to Ikata explorer Hyōichi Kōno , and the Windmill Restaurant can also be found here .
= = Culture = =
= = = Etymology of name = = =
The origin of the name Ikata is unclear and there are several competing theories .
It may have come from iekata ( 家方 ) or iokata ( 庵方 ) , meaning " a place with small houses or shacks " .
Ika can be found in the names of places surrounded by mountains or located in foothills ; ta can mean " land " . Ikata could therefore be " a place by the mountains " .
In the Ainu language , ika means " to pass through the mountains and cross the land " . However , the Ainu are thought to have had little influence as far south as Shikoku .
= = = Food = = =
Ikata is known for its mikans and mikan juice . More than 20 different varieties of mikan are grown in Ikata . Old Ikata also has a very old sake brewing tradition that dates back to the Edo Period , with several tōji brewmasters in the local area . There is even a museum dedicated to the Ikata Tōji .
The Seto area produces vegetables such as the bright @-@ purple kintarō potato , and also catches baby sardines called chirimen ( ちりめん ) . Misaki has a strong fishing tradition , producing lots of horse mackerel ( 鯵 , aji ) and mackerel ( 鯖 , saba ) . Four Misaki Fishing Co @-@ op products are part of the Ehime " With Love " ( 『 愛 』 ある , " Ai " aru ) brand : Horse mackerel , mackerel , largehead hairtail ( 太刀魚 , tachiuo ) , and abalone ( 鮑 , awabi ) .
One Ikata specialty cuisine is jakoten ( じゃこ天 ) , a tempura @-@ fried patty of pressed white fish meat and vegetables . Other variations include jakokatsu ( じゃこカツ ) , which is the same but fried and breaded like tonkatsu , and jako @-@ croquette ( じゃこコロッケ , jako @-@ korokke ) which is prepared like a croquette .
= = = Language = = =
Residents of Ikata speak the Iyo dialect of Japanese , which is similar in many respects to the Hiroshima dialect . One feature particular to the Nanyo ( southern Ehime ) region is the use of the sentence @-@ final particle ga ( が ) as a replacement for no ( の ) in some contexts . For example , Nani shiteru no ? ( 何してるの ？ " What are you doing ? " in standard Japanese ) becomes Nani shiyoru ga ? ( 何しよるが ？ ) in Iyo dialect .
Ikata 's largest town celebration in late summer , the Kinahaiya Ikata Festival , is another example of the Iyo dialect — kinahai ya ( 来なはいや ) literally means " come on over " ( kinasai yo 来なさいよ in standard Japanese ) .
= = = Festivals and events = = =
Ikata has a wide variety of festivals and attractions the year around .
February
Misaki Oise Dance ( お伊勢踊り , Oise @-@ odori )
Men and women of unlucky ages ( 厄年 , yakudoshi , 25 , 42 , and 61 for men ; 19 , 33 , and 37 for women ) receive the blessings of local Buddhist priests in the form of a set of ceremonial dances . Afterwards , lucky decorative ornaments and free sake are offered to the crowd .
April
Moo Moo Festival ( もぉ 〜 モォ 〜 フェスティバル )
Held on Seto 's Kōmo Highland atop Mt . Miharashi , the main event of this festival is an outdoor barbecue featuring locally @-@ raised beef .
May
Seto Gathering of the Sea ( 海のつどい , Umi no tsudoi )
Misaki Fishing Festival ( 豊漁祭 , Hōryōsai )
June
Kirara Festival ( きららまつり , Kirara @-@ matsuri )
July
Chirimen Festival ( ちりめん祭り , Chirimen @-@ matsuri )
August
Kinahaiya Ikata Festival ( きなはいや伊方まつり , Kinahaiya Ikata @-@ matsuri )
This is Ikata 's largest summer festival . Attractions include film and dance competitions , a taiko performance , children 's sumo , and bare @-@ handed fish catching , all concluded with a fireworks display in the evening .
Seto Bridal Festival ( 花嫁まつり , Hanayome @-@ matsuri )
Local single women put on a wedding dress fashion show , followed by fireworks in the evening . An outdoor barbecue and bare @-@ handed fish wrangling are held in the nearby Suka Park .
September
Ōku Shan Shan Dance ( しゃんしゃん踊り , Shanshan @-@ odori )
Every September a handful of local men and women gather along the Ōku beach to sing and perform this dance , with the purpose of placating the dead spirit of a woman who is said to have been washed ashore in Ōku long , long ago .
October
Autumn Festival ( 秋祭り , aki @-@ matsuri )
Each main region of Ikata holds its own separate Autumn Festival . Misaki 's is perhaps the most spectacular of the three . The main attraction is the battle between the Ox Demon ( 牛鬼 , ushioni ) and the 4 @-@ meter tall Four Drums ( 四ツ太鼓 , yotsudaiko ) , which are two ceremonial mikoshi floats carried by the young local men and women . Participants compete in repeatedly pulling the floats up along a giant 10 @-@ meter scaffold , then trying to drop theirs on top of the other .
3 important deities and demons make their appearance at most of Ikata 's autumn festivals .
1 . Ox Demon ( 牛鬼 , Ushi Oni )
The tradition of the Ox Demon and festivals in Ikata dates back to the middle of Edo Japan ( 1800s ) . It is said that that Ox Demon and the voices of the men yelling おしょにん 、 エン 、 エン 、 エーン ( Oshonin , en , en , e ~ n ) keeps away the evil spirits from the Portable Shrines ( 神輿 ｜ Mikoshi ) as they make their way through the center of town .
2.Guardian Lion ( 唐獅子 , Karashishi )
The Karashishi is most notably found in Japan at the entrance of Shinto Shrines and are used to either ward @-@ off bad spirits or welcome good spirits . The Karashishi dance in Ikata involves two persons dancing under a single guardian lion costume to the beat of the drum of a young boy . Ikata 's performers are especially well @-@ known throughout most of the prefecture for their dedication to the dance .
3.Five Deer ( 五ツ鹿 , Itsu Shika )
Although the origins of the five @-@ deer dance are unknown , it is said that its traditions were brought over from Uwajima during the [ Kanei ] ( 寛永 ) period . ( 1624 @-@ 1644 ) Especially popular at the time , many believe that it first made its appearance in Ikata at then Kawanagata @-@ ura ( 川永田浦 ) .
= = = Folklore = = =
= = = = The rats of Kuroshima = = = =
There are two small , uninhabited islands in the Uwa Sea near Yawatahama that belong to Ikata : Kuroshima and Karasushima . A legend written in the 13th century text A Collection of Things Heard , Ancient and Modern ( 古今著聞集 , Kokon chomon shū ) tells the following story :
= = = = The giant crab of Kamegaike = = = =
Local legend tells of a giant crab , eight tatami mats in size , that lives in the Kamegaike Pond in Old Ikata 's Futami neighborhood .
= = Industry = =
Ikata 's main industries are farming ( largely citrus fruits such as mikans ) , fishing , and electrical power . Ikata produces a substantial fraction of Shikoku 's electricity . There are two main power production methods currently in use .
= = = Wind power = = =
The former town of Seto erected eleven Mitsubishi MWT @-@ 1000 wind generators in January 2002 . The Old Ikata installed two Vestas V52 @-@ 850 kW generators in March 2005 . Together they have an expected yearly energy output of 34 @,@ 700 MWh .
Ikata is investing heavily in wind power infrastructure , with 45 additional towers currently under construction . The town plans to have a total of 60 generators within the next few years .
= = = Nuclear power = = =
Ikata is the site of Shikoku 's only nuclear power plant . The Ikata Nuclear Power Plant has two Mitsubishi 538 MWe Pressurized Water Reactor units with the Two Reactor Coolant Loop design ( similar to the original Westinghouse design at Prairie Island , Kewaunee , and Point Beach plants ) and one Mitsubishi Pressurized Water Reactor unit with the Three Reactor Coolant Loop design ( similar to the Westinghouse Surry , North Anna , and Robinson plants ) . Units 1 and 2 started up on September 30 , 1977 and March 19 , 1981 respectively . Unit 3 is a three loop PWR rated at 846 MWe that started up on December 15 , 1994 .
April 1 , 2007 , marked a milestone for the Ikata plant as it reached a total of 300 million kilowatt @-@ hours of energy generated since beginning operations in 1977 .
The Ikata Power Plant was referenced in the 1995 movie Godzilla vs. Destoroyah . Godzilla attempts to attack the power plant , but meets resistance from the Self Defense Force 's " Super @-@ X III " weapon .
= = International exchange and sister cities = =
Relations with Ikata 's only overseas sister city , Red Wing , Minnesota , USA , originally began as an exchange of technical knowledge and skills between engineers at the Ikata Nuclear Power Plant and Red Wing 's Prairie Island plant . The two towns became official sister cities in August 1995 .
Since then , Ikata has put much effort into expanding the horizons of its residents through English language education via the JET Programme , and an annual international student exchange with Red Wing . Beginning in 1995 , Ikata middle school students have traveled almost yearly to Red Wing for home stays of one to two weeks , and students from Red Wing likewise come to Ikata to learn about life in rural Japan .
Ikata 's high school , Misaki High School , maintains an exchange program with Australia .
Ikata has two sister cities , both of which also have nuclear power plants :
Tomari , Hokkaidō , Japan , since February 1998
Red Wing , Minnesota , United States , since August 1995
= = Politics = =
Ikata experienced significant political turbulence leading up to and immediately following the April 1 , 2005 merger with Seto and Misaki .
To begin with , multiple potential merger plans were put forth , one of which was for all of the contiguous Nishiuwa District towns ( Misaki , Seto , Old Ikata , and Honai ) to merge . However , when Honai announced that it would merge with the nearby city of Yawatahama , polls indicated that Misaki residents still preferred to merge with Honai and Yawatahama , rather than Seto and Old Ikata , despite their being discontiguous ( a Misaki @-@ Honai @-@ Yawatahama merger would make Misaki an exclave ) . Ultimately this was found to be impractical , and the Misaki @-@ Seto @-@ Ikata merger was approved with some grumbling over the naming of the new town .
Once the merger was decided upon , suggestions for the new town 's name were solicited from the residents . Despite the many other reasonable suggestions and the seeming unfairness toward Seto and Misaki , the " new " name was chosen to be " Ikata . "
Following the merger a heated mayoral race was held , with 11 members of incumbent Kiyoyoshi Nakamoto 's campaign arrested for electoral fraud . Challenger Yoshihisa Hatanaka ultimately won , only to be arrested in February 2006 for corruption relating to government construction contracts . He resigned soon thereafter .
A second race was held in April 2006 , with Kazuhiko Yamashita defeating rival Kiyohiko Takakado by only 90 votes . Voter turnout was 87 @.@ 43 % .
There has been and remains political resistance among some Ikata residents to the nuclear power plant .
The most recent mayoral election took place on April 13 , 2014 which found incumbent Yamashita in seat for his third term as mayor . 85 @.@ 33 % of the total 9 @,@ 190 eligible voters turning out to cast a ballot . Mr. Yamashita garnered a total of 3 @,@ 266 of the electorate while a certain Mr. Yoshihisa Hatanaka ( see above ) came in second place with a total of 2 @,@ 399 votes . Interestingly , a non @-@ Ikata resident of the " People Who Don 't Need Nukes " Party ( 原発いらない人々 ) managed to win slightly more than 1 % of the electorate at 104 votes .
= = Notable people = =
Shūji Nakamura , 2014 Nobel Prize in Physics winner , inventor of the blue LED , hails from the former town of Seto .
Adventurer Hyōichi Kōno successfully reached the North Pole in 1997 . He died in 2001 while attempting to walk from the North Pole back to his birthplace , the former town of Seto .
Nenten Tsubouchi is a haiku poet whose unique and quirky poems have been featured in elementary school textbooks in Japan . He was born in the Kuchō neighborhood of Ikata .
= = Gallery = =
= Eurasian blackcap =
The Eurasian blackcap ( Sylvia atricapilla ) usually known simply as the blackcap , is a common and widespread typical warbler . It has mainly olive @-@ grey upperparts and pale grey underparts , and differences between the five subspecies are small . Both sexes have a neat coloured cap to the head , black in the male and reddish @-@ brown in the female . The male 's typical song is a rich musical warbling , often ending in a loud high @-@ pitched crescendo , but a simpler song is given in some isolated areas , such as valleys in the Alps . The blackcap 's closest relative is the garden warbler , which looks quite different but has a similar song .
The blackcap breeds in much of Europe , western Asia and northwestern Africa , and its preferred habitat is mature deciduous woodland . The male holds a territory when breeding , which is defended against garden warblers as well as other blackcaps . The nest is a neat cup , built low in brambles or scrub , and the clutch is typically 4 – 6 mainly buff eggs , which hatch in about 11 days . The chicks fledge in 11 – 12 days , but are cared for by both adults for some time after leaving the nest . The blackcap is a partial migrant ; birds from the colder areas of its range winter in scrub or trees in northwestern Europe , around the Mediterranean and in tropical Africa . Some German birds have adapted to spending the winter in gardens in Great Britain and Ireland . Insects are the main food in the breeding season , but , for the rest of the year , blackcaps survive primarily on small fruit . Garden birds also eat bread , fat and peanuts in winter .
Despite extensive hunting in Mediterranean countries and the natural hazards of predation and disease , the blackcap has been extending its range for several decades , and is classified by the International Union for Conservation of Nature as Least Concern . Its rich and varied song has led to it being described as the " mock nightingale " and it has featured in literature , films and music . In Messiaen 's opera Saint François d 'Assise , the saint is represented by themes based on the blackcap 's song .
= = Taxonomy = =
The genus Sylvia , the typical warblers , forms part of a large family of Old World warblers , the Sylviidae . The blackcap and its nearest relative , the garden warbler , are an ancient species pair which diverged very early from the rest of the genus at between 12 and 16 million years ago . In the course of time , these two species have become sufficiently distinctive that they have been placed in separate subgenera , with the blackcap in subgenus Sylvia and the garden warbler in Epilais . These sister species have a breeding range which extends farther northeast than all other Sylvia species except the lesser whitethroat and common whitethroat . The nearest relatives of the garden warbler outside the sister group are believed to be the African hill babbler and Dohrn 's thrush @-@ babbler , both of which should probably be placed in Sylvia rather than their current genera , Pseudoalcippe and Horizorhinus respectively .
The blackcap was first described by Linnaeus in his Systema Naturae of 1758 as Motacilla atricapilla . The current genus name is from Modern Latin silvia , a woodland sprite , related to silva , a wood . The species name , like the English name , refers to the male 's black cap . Atricapilla is from the Latin ater , black , and capillus , hair ( of the head ) .
Fossils and subfossils of the blackcap have been found in a number of European countries ; the oldest , dated to 1 @.@ 2 – 1 @.@ 0 million years ago , are from the Early Pleistocene of Bulgaria . Fossils from France show that the Sylvia genus dates back at least 20 million years .
= = = Subspecies = = =
The differences between subspecies are small , making subspecific boundaries hard to define , and the exact distribution of S. a. heineken is unclear , since birds from northwest Africa may be of this form . About 2 % of male blackcaps on Madeira and the Azores are melanistic , with black plumage on the whole head and upper breast . Melanistic females are rarer , and are characterised by grey @-@ brown underparts . This dark morph has also been recorded from the Canary Islands , but not from Cape Verde . The melanistic birds were formerly sometimes considered to be a distinct subspecies , S. a. obscura .
= = Description = =
The blackcap is a mainly grey warbler with distinct male and female plumages . The nominate subspecies is about 13 cm ( 5 @.@ 1 in ) long with a 7 – 8 cm ( 2 @.@ 8 – 3 @.@ 1 in ) wing length . The weight is typically 16 – 25 g ( 0 @.@ 56 – 0 @.@ 88 oz ) , but can be up to 31 g ( 1 @.@ 1 oz ) for birds preparing to migrate . The adult male has olive @-@ grey upperparts , other than a paler grey nape and a neat black cap on the head . The underparts are light grey , becoming silvery white on the chin , throat and upper breast . The tail is dark grey , with an olive tint to the outer edge of each feather . The bill and long legs are grey , and the iris is reddish @-@ brown . The female resembles the male , but has a reddish @-@ brown cap and a slightly browner tone to the grey of the upperparts . Juveniles are similar to the female , but their upperparts have a slight rufous tinge , and the breast and flanks have a more olive tone ; young males have a darker brown cap than their female counterparts . This species is unmistakable ; other dark @-@ headed Sylvia species , such Sardinian and Orphean warblers have extensive black on the head instead of a small cap . They are also larger and have white edges on the tail .
Blackcaps have a complete moult in their breeding areas in August and September prior to migration . Some birds , typically those migrating the greatest distances , have a further partial moult between December and March . Juveniles replace their loosely structured body feathers with adult plumage , starting earlier , but taking longer to complete , than the adults . Blackcaps breeding in the north of the range have an earlier and shorter post @-@ juvenile moult than those further south , and cross @-@ breeding of captive birds shows that the timing is genetically controlled .
= = = Voice = = =
The male 's song is a rich musical warbling , often ending in a loud high @-@ pitched crescendo , which is given in bursts of up to 30 seconds . The song is repeated for about two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half minutes , with a short pause before each repetition . In some geographically isolated areas , such as islands , peninsulas and valleys in the Alps , a simplified fluting song occurs , named the Leiern ( drawling ) song by the German ornithologists who first described it . The song 's introduction is like that of other blackcaps , but the final warbling part is a simple alternation between two notes , as in a great tit 's call but more fluting . The main song is confusable with that of the garden warbler , but it is slightly higher pitched than in that species , more broken into discrete song segments , and less mellow . Both species have a quiet subsong , a muted version of the full song , which is even more difficult to separate . The blackcap occasionally mimics the song of other birds , the most frequently copied including the garden warbler and the common nightingale . The main call is a hard tac @-@ tac , like stones knocking together , and other vocalisations include a squeaking sweet alarm , and a low @-@ pitched trill similar to that of a garden warbler .
Male blackcaps will sometimes sing even when incubating , especially with the second brood . This appears to be intended to maintain the bond with the female . Wintering birds in Africa are quiet initially , but start singing in January or February prior to their return north .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
= = = Distribution = = =
The continental breeding range of the blackcap lies between the 14 – 30 ° July isotherms , and is occupied by the nominate subspecies , the other forms being restricted to islands or fringe areas in the Caucasus and eastern Iberia . Birds on the Mediterranean and Atlantic islands and in the milder west and south of the main Eurasian distribution often winter within the nesting range , but populations elsewhere are migratory . The blackcap is a leap @-@ frog migrant ; birds from the north of the breeding range travel furthest south , whereas Mediterranean breeders move much shorter distances . The wintering areas overlap with the breeding range , but also include extensive areas in West Africa , East Africa south to Lake Malawi , and further north in Ethiopia , South Sudan and Eritrea . The large majority of birds wintering in eastern Africa are of the southwest Asian race , S. a. dammholzi .
There is a migratory divide in Europe at longitude 10 – 11 ° E. Birds to the west of this line head southwest towards Iberia or West Africa , whereas populations to the east migrate to the eastern Mediterranean and on to East Africa . Cross @-@ breeding in captivity of birds from the resident population on the Canary Islands with migratory blackcaps from Germany showed the urge to migrate is genetically controlled , the offspring showing intermediate behaviour in terms of restlessness at migration time . Similar experiments using birds from southern Germany and eastern Austria , on opposite sides of the migratory divide , demonstrated that the direction of migration is also genetically determined . Climate change appears to be affecting the migration pattern of the garden warbler and blackcap . Both are arriving in Europe earlier than previously , and blackcaps and juvenile ( but not adult ) garden warblers are departing nearly two weeks later than in the 1980s . Birds of both species are longer @-@ winged and lighter than in the past , suggesting a longer migration as the breeding range expands northwards .
In recent decades , substantial numbers of central European birds have taken to wintering in gardens in Great Britain , and , to a lesser extent , Ireland , where the blackcap was formerly just a summer visitor . Although the British climate is sub @-@ optimal , compensatory factors include the ready availability of food , ( particularly from bird tables ) , a shorter migration distance , and the avoidance of the Alps and the Sahara Desert . These wintering birds come from Germany , and isotope analysis ( which enables the wintering location to be determined ) showed that the German birds wintering in Britain tend to mate only among themselves , and do not usually interbreed with those wintering in the Mediterranean or western Africa . This is because the British migrants arrive back on the breeding grounds earlier than blackcaps wintering around the Mediterranean , and form pairs before the southern birds arrive . Mixed pairings are also selected against because the hybrid young would migrate in an intermediate direction , which would take them into the Bay of Biscay .
= = = Habitat = = =
The blackcap 's main breeding habitat is mature deciduous woodland , with good scrub cover below the trees . Other habitats , such as parks , large gardens and overgrown hedges , are used as long as they meet the essential requirements of tall trees for songposts and an established understory . Where other Sylvia warblers also breed , blackcaps tend to use taller trees than their relatives , preferably those with a good canopy , such as pedunculate oak . In prime habitat , breeding densities reach 100 – 200 pairs per square kilometre ( 250 – 500 pairs per square mile ) in northern Europe , and 500 – 900 pairs per square kilometre ( 1 @,@ 250 – 2 @,@ 250 pairs per square mile ) in Italy . Densities are much lower in poorer habitats such as conifer forests . Breeding occurs in Europe at altitudes up to 2 @,@ 200 m ( 7 @,@ 200 ft ) .
The preferred winter habitat around the Mediterranean is scrub and olive orchards , where densities approach the levels found in the best breeding areas . The British wintering population is atypical , with 95 % found in gardens , mostly in towns at altitudes below 100 m ( 330 ft ) . In Africa , habitats include cultivated land , acacia scrub , mangroves and forest , and these warblers are found at altitudes up to 3 @,@ 600 m ( 11 @,@ 800 ft ) in the east of the continent . Wintering birds wander in search of good fruit supplies , but often stay in good feeding areas , and return in subsequent winters . Migrants may occur in a wide variety of habitats , such as reed bed and fen , but show a preference for shrubland .
= = Behaviour = =
= = = Territory = = =
When male blackcaps return to their breeding areas , they establish a territory . Adults that have previously bred return to the site they have used in previous summers , whereas inexperienced birds either wander until they find a suitable area , or establish a very large initial territory which contracts under pressure from neighbours . Territorial boundaries are established initially by loud singing , performed while the male displays with his crown raised , tail fanned and slow wingbeats . This display is followed , if necessary , by a chase , often leading to a fight . The typical territory size in a French study was 1 @.@ 12 hectares ( 2 @.@ 8 acres ) , but in insect @-@ rich tall maquis in Gibraltar , the average was only 0 @.@ 16 hectares ( 0 @.@ 40 acres ) . Females feed within a home range which may overlap other blackcap territories , and covers up to six times the area of the defended zone .
Sylvia warblers are unusual in that they vigorously defend their territories against other members of their genus as well as conspecifics . Blackcaps and garden warblers use identical habits in the same wood , yet aggressive interactions mean that their territories never overlap . Similar songs are a feature of the Sylvia warblers as a group , and it has been suggested that this promotes interspecific competition and helps to segregate territories between related species . It appears more likely from later studies that segregation of sympatric species , other than the blackcap and garden warbler , is due to subtle habitat preferences rather than interspecies aggression .
= = = Breeding = = =
Blackcaps first breed when they are one year old , and are mainly monogamous , although both sexes may sometimes deviate from this . A male attracts a female to his territory through song and a display involving raising the black crown feathers , fluffing the tail , slow wingbeats , and a short flapping flight . He also builds one or more simple nests ( cock nests ) , usually near his songpost . The final nest , which may be one of the cock nests or built from scratch , is a neat cup of roots , stems and grasses lined with fine material such as hair . The nest is typically 5 @.@ 5 cm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) deep and 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) across , and is built in the cover of bramble , scrubs or trees . It is constructed mainly by the female , and may be up to 4 @.@ 5 m ( 15 ft ) above the ground , although lower than 1 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) is more typical . The clutch is typically 4 – 6 eggs ( range 2 – 7 ) , which are usually buff with grey and brown blotches and a few dark brown spots . The average size of the egg is 19 @.@ 7 mm × 14 @.@ 7 mm ( 0 @.@ 78 in × 0 @.@ 58 in ) .
The eggs are incubated for an average of 11 days ( range 10 – 16 ) . Both adults incubate , although only the female stays on the nest at night . The chicks are altricial , hatching naked and with closed eyes , and are fed by both parents . They fledge about 11 – 12 days after hatching , leaving the nest shortly before they are able to fly . They are assisted with feeding for a further two or three weeks . If the nest is threatened , the non @-@ incubating bird gives an alarm call so that the sitting parent and chicks stay still and quiet . A male blackcap may mob a potential predator , or try to lure it away with disjointed runs and flaps on the ground . The blackcap normally raises just one brood , but second nestings are sometimes recorded , particularly in the milder climate of the Mediterranean and the Atlantic islands ; triple brooding has been observed once , the female laying a total of 23 eggs in the season .
Of eggs laid , 65 – 93 % hatch successfully , and 75 – 92 % of the chicks go on to fledge . The productivity ( young fledged per nest ) varies with location , level of predation and quality of habitat , but the national figure for the UK was 2 @.@ 5 . The adult annual survival rate is 43 % ( males 46 % , females 29 % ) , and 36 % of juveniles live through their first year . The typical life expectancy is two years , but the record is 13 years and 10 months for a bird in the Czech Republic .
= = = Feeding
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which earned it the nickname " Manchester of the East " .
The Indian independence movement developed roots in the city when Mahatma Gandhi established two ashrams – the Kochrab Ashram near Paldi in 1915 and the Satyagraha Ashram ( now Sabarmati Ashram ) on the banks of the Sabarmati in 1917 – which would become centres of nationalist activities . During the mass protests against the Rowlatt Act in 1919 , textile workers burned down 51 government buildings across the city in protest at a British attempt to extend wartime regulations after the First World War . In the 1920s , textile workers and teachers went on strike , demanding civil rights and better pay and working conditions . In 1930 , Gandhi initiated the Salt Satyagraha from Ahmedabad by embarking from his ashram on the Dandi Salt March . The city 's administration and economic institutions were rendered inoperative in the early 1930s by the large numbers of people who took to the streets in peaceful protests , and again in 1942 during the Quit India Movement . Following independence and the partition of India in 1947 , the city was scarred by the intense communal violence that broke out between Hindus and Muslims in 1947 , Ahmedabad was the focus for settlement by Hindu migrants from Pakistan , who expanded the city 's population and transformed its demographics and economy .
By 1960 , Ahmedabad had become a metropolis with a population of slightly under half a million people , with classical and colonial European @-@ style buildings lining the city 's thoroughfares . It was chosen as the capital of Gujarat state after the partition of the State of Bombay on 1 May 1960 . During this period , a large number of educational and research institutions were founded in the city , making it a centre for higher education , science and technology . Ahmedabad 's economic base became more diverse with the establishment of heavy and chemical industry during the same period . Many countries sought to emulate India 's economic planning strategy and one of them , South Korea , copied the city 's second " Five @-@ Year Plan " .
In the late 1970s , the capital shifted to the newly built , well planned city of Gandhinagar . This marked the start of a long period of decline in the city , marked by a lack of development . The 1974 Nav Nirman agitation – a protest against a 20 % hike in the hostel food fees at the L.D. College of Engineering in Ahmedabad – snowballed into a movement to remove Chimanbhai Patel , then chief minister of Gujarat . In the 1980s , a reservation policy was introduced in the country , which led to anti @-@ reservation protests in 1981 and 1985 . The protests witnessed violent clashes between people belonging to various castes . The city suffered some of the impact of the 2001 Gujarat earthquake ; up to 50 multi @-@ storey buildings collapsed , killing 752 people and causing much damage . The following year , a three @-@ day period of violence between Hindus and Muslims in the western Indian state of Gujarat , known as the 2002 Gujarat riots , spread to Ahmedabad ; refugee camps were set up around the city .
The 2008 Ahmedabad bombings , a series of seventeen bomb blasts , killed and injured several people . Militant group Harkat @-@ ul @-@ Jihad claimed responsibility for the attacks .
= = Geography = =
Ahmedabad lies at 23 @.@ 03 ° N 72 @.@ 58 ° E / 23 @.@ 03 ; 72 @.@ 58 in western India at 53 metres ( 174 ft ) above sea level on the banks of the Sabarmati river , in north @-@ central Gujarat . It covers an area of 464 km2 ( 179 sq mi ) . The Sabarmati frequently dried up in the summer , leaving only a small stream of water , and the city is in a sandy and dry area . However with the execution of the Sabarmati River Front Project and Embankment , the waters from the Narmada river have been diverted to the Sabarmati to keep the river flowing throughout the year , thereby eliminating Ahmedabad 's water problems . The steady expansion of the Rann of Kutch threatened to increase desertification around the city area and much of the state ; however , the Narmada Canal network is expected to alleviate this problem . Except for the small hills of Thaltej @-@ Jodhpur Tekra , the city is almost flat . Three lakes lie within the city 's limits — Kankaria , Vastrapur and Chandola . Kankaria , in the neighbourhood of Maninagar , is an artificial lake developed by the Sultan of Delhi , Qutb @-@ ud @-@ din Aybak , in 1451 .
According to the Bureau of Indian Standards , the town falls under seismic zone 3 , in a scale of 2 to 5 ( in order of increasing vulnerability to earthquakes ) .
Ahmedabad is divided by the Sabarmati into two physically distinct eastern and western regions . The eastern bank of the river houses the old city , which includes the central town of Bhadra . This part of Ahmedabad is characterised by packed bazaars , the pol system of closely clustered buildings , and numerous places of worship . It houses the main railway station , the main post office , and some buildings of the Muzaffarid and British eras . The colonial period saw the expansion of the city to the western side of Sabarmati , facilitated by the construction of Ellis Bridge in 1875 and later the relatively modern Nehru Bridge . The western part of the city houses educational institutions , modern buildings , residential areas , shopping malls , multiplexes and new business districts centred around roads such as Ashram Road , C. G. Road and Sarkhej @-@ Gandhinagar Highway .
Sabarmati Riverfront is a waterfront being developed along the banks of Sabarmati river in Ahmedabad , India . Proposed in 1960s , the construction began in 2005
= = Climate = =
Ahmedabad has a hot , semi @-@ arid climate ( Köppen climate classification : BSh ) , with marginally less rain than required for a tropical savanna climate . There are three main seasons : summer , monsoon and winter . Aside from the monsoon season , the climate is extremely dry . The weather is hot from March to June ; the average summer maximum is 40 ° C ( 104 ° F ) , and the average minimum is 27 ° C ( 81 ° F ) . From November to February , the average maximum temperature is 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) , the average minimum is 15 ° C ( 59 ° F ) , and the climate is extremely dry . Cold northerly winds are responsible for a mild chill in January . The southwest monsoon brings a humid climate from mid @-@ June to mid @-@ September . The average annual rainfall is about 800 millimetres ( 31 in ) , but infrequent heavy torrential rains cause local rivers to flood and it is not uncommon for droughts to occur when the monsoon does not extend as far west as usual . The highest temperature in the city was recorded on May 18 and 19 , 2016 which was 50 ° C ( 122 ° F ) .
Following a heat wave in May 2010 , reaching 46 @.@ 8 ° C ( 116 @.@ 2 ° F ) , which claimed hundreds of lives , the Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation ( AMC ) in partnership with an international coalition of health and academic groups and with support from the Climate & Development Knowledge Network developed the Ahmedabad Heat Action Plan . Aimed at increasing awareness , sharing information and co @-@ ordinating responses to reduce the health effects of heat on vulnerable populations , the action plan is the first comprehensive plan in Asia to address the threat of adverse heat on health . It also focuses on community participation , building public awareness of the risks of extreme heat , training medical and community workers to respond to and help prevent heat @-@ related illnesses , and co @-@ ordinating an interagency emergency response effort when heat waves hit .
= = Cityscape = =
Early in Ahmedabad 's history , under Ahmed Shah , builders fused Hindu craftsmanship with Persian architecture , giving rise to the Indo @-@ Saracenic style . Many mosques in the city were built in this fashion . Sidi Saiyyed Mosque was built in the last year of the Sultanate of Gujarat . It is entirely arched and has ten stone latticework windows or jali on the side and rear arches . Private mansions or haveli from this era have carvings . A Pol is a typical housing cluster of Old Ahmedabad .
After independence , modern buildings appeared in Ahmedabad . Architects given commissions in the city included Louis Kahn , who designed the IIM @-@ A ; Le Corbusier , who designed the Shodhan and Sarabhai Villas , the Sanskar Kendra and the Mill Owner 's Association Building , and Frank Lloyd Wright , who designed the administrative building of Calico Mills and the Calico Dome . B. V. Doshi came to the city from Paris to supervise Le Corbusier 's works and later set up the School of Architecture . His local works include Sangath , Amdavad ni Gufa and the School of Architecture . Charles Correa , who became a partner of Doshi 's , designed the Gandhi Ashram and Achyut Kanvinde , and the Indian Textile Industries Research Association . Christopher Charles Benninger 's first work , the Alliance Française , is located in the Ellis Bridge area . Anant Raje designed major additions to Louis Kahn 's IIM @-@ A campus , namely the Ravi Mathai Auditorium and KLMD .
Some of the most visited gardens in the city include Law Garden , Victoria Garden and Bal Vatika . Law Garden was named after the College of Law situated close to it . Victoria Garden is located at the southern edge of the Bhadra Fort and contains a statue of Queen Victoria . Bal Vatika is a children 's park situated on the grounds of Kankaria Lake and also houses an amusement park . Other gardens in the city include Parimal Garden , Usmanpura Garden , Prahlad Nagar Garden and Lal Darwaja Garden . Ahmedabad 's Kamla Nehru Zoological Park houses a number of endangered species including flamingoes , caracals , Asiatic wolves and chinkara .
The Kankaria Lake , built in 1451 AD , is one of the biggest lakes in Ahmedabad . In earlier days , it was known by the name Qutub Hoj or Hauj @-@ e @-@ Kutub . Vastrapur Lake is located in the western part of Ahmedabad . Lal Bahadur Shastri lake in Bapunagar is almost 136 @,@ 000 square metres . In 2010 , another 34 lakes were planned in and around Ahmedabad of which five lakes will be developed by AMC ; the other 29 will be developed by the Ahmedabad Urban Development Authority ( AUDA ) . Chandola Lake covers an area of 1200 hectares . It is home for cormorants , painted storks and spoonbills . During the evening time , many people visit this place and take a leisurely stroll . There is a recently developed Naroda lake and the world 's largest collection of antique cars in KathWada at IB farm ( Dastan Farm ) . AMC has also developed the Sabarmati Riverfront .
= = Civic administration = =
Ahmedabad is the administrative headquarters of Ahmedabad district , administered by the Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation ( AMC ) . The AMC was established in July 1950 under the Bombay Provincial Corporation Act of 1949 . The AMC commissioner is an Indian Administrative Service ( IAS ) officer appointed by the state government who reserves the administrative executive powers , whereas the corporation is headed by the Mayor . The city residents elect the 192 municipal councillors by popular vote , and the elected councillors select the deputy mayor and mayor of the city . The administrative responsibilities of the AMC are : water and sewerage services , primary education , health services , fire services , public transport and the city 's infrastructure . AMC was ranked 9th out of 21 cities for " the Best governance & administrative practices in India in 2014 . It scored 3 @.@ 4 out of 10 compared to the national average of 3 @.@ 3 .
The city is divided into five zones constituting 64 wards . Ahmedabad district is divided into a number of talukas ( administrative divisions ) including Ahmedabad taluka Barwala , Dholka , Dhandhuka , Detroj , Sanand , Bavla , Ranpur , Mandal , Viramgam and Daskroi . The city 's urban and suburban areas are administered by the Ahmedabad Urban Development Authority ( AUDA ) . The city is represented by two elected members of parliament in the Lok Sabha ( lower house of Indian Parliament ) and 21 members of the Legislative Assembly at the Gujarat Vidhan Sabha .
The Gujarat High Court is located in the Ahmedabad , making the city the judicial capital of Gujarat . Law enforcement and public safety is maintained by the Ahmedabad City Police , headed by the Police Commissioner , an Indian Police Service ( IPS ) officer . Health services are primarily provided at Ahmedabad civil hospital , the largest civil hospital in Asia . Ahmedabad is one of the few cities in India where the power sector is privatised . Electricity in the city is generated and distributed by Torrent Power Limited , owned and operated by the Ahmedabad Electricity Company , which was previously a state @-@ run corporation .
= = Economy = =
The gross domestic product of Ahmedabad was estimated at US $ 119 billion in 2011 . The RBI ranked Ahmedabad as the seventh largest deposit centre and seventh largest credit centre nationwide as of June 2012 . In the 19th century , the textile and garments industry received strong capital investment . On 30 May 1861 Ranchhodlal Chhotalal founded the first Indian textile mill , the Ahmedabad Spinning and Weaving Company Limited , followed by the establishment of a series of textile mills such as the Calico Mills , Bagicha Mills and Arvind Mills . By 1905 there were about 33 textile mills in the city . The textile industry further expanded rapidly during the First World War , and benefited from the influence of Mahatma Gandhi 's Swadeshi movement , which promoted the purchase of Indian @-@ made goods . Ahmedabad was known as the " Manchester of the East " for its textile industry . The city is the largest supplier of denim and one of the largest exporters of gemstones and jewellery in India . The automobile industry is also important to the city ; after Tata 's Nano project , Ford and Suzuki are planning to establish plants near Ahmedabad while the groundbreaking ceremony for Peugeot has already been performed .
The Ahmedabad Stock Exchange , located in the Ambavadi area of the city , is India 's second oldest stock exchange . Two of the biggest pharmaceutical companies of India — Zydus Cadila and Torrent Pharmaceuticals – are based in the city . The Nirma group of industries , which runs a large number of detergent and chemical industrial units , has its corporate headquarters in the city . The city also houses the corporate headquarters of the Adani Group , a multinational trading and infrastructure development company . The Sardar Sarovar Project of dams and canals has improved the supply of potable water and electricity for the city . The information technology industry has developed significantly in Ahmedabad , with companies such as Tata Consultancy Services opening offices in the city . India 's leading cyber @-@ security firm Cyberoam also has its R & D centre located in Ahmedabad . A NASSCOM survey in 2002 on the " Super Nine Indian Destinations " for IT @-@ enabled services ranked Ahmedabad fifth among the top nine most competitive cities in the country . The city 's educational and industrial institutions have attracted students and young skilled workers from the rest of India . Ahmedabad houses other major Indian corporates such as : Rasna , Wagh Bakri , Nirma , Cadila Pharmaceuticals , and Intas Biopharmaceuticals . Ahmedabad is the second largest cotton textile centre in India after Mumbai and the largest in Gujarat . Many cotton manufacturing units are currently running in and around Ahmedabad . Textiles are one of the major industries of the city . Gujarat Industrial Development Corporation has acquired land in Sanand taluka of Ahmedabad to set up three new industrial estates .
= = Demographics = =
Ahmedabad is the fifth largest city and seventh largest metropolitan area in India . According to the 2014 census the population of Ahmedabad metropolitan was 7 @,@ 250 @,@ 000 . Ahmedabad has a literacy rate of 89 @.@ 62 % ; 93 @.@ 96 % of the men and 84 @.@ 81 % of the women are literate . Ahmedabad 's sex ratio in 2011 was 897 women per 1000 men . According to the census for the Ninth Plan , there are 30 @,@ 737 rural families living in Ahmedabad . Of those , 5 @.@ 41 % ( 1663 families ) live below the poverty line . Approximately 440 @,@ 000 people live in slums within the city . Ahmedabad is home to a large population of Vanias ( i.e. , traders ) , belonging to the Vaishnava sect of Hinduism and various sects of Jainism . Most of the residents of Ahmedabad are native Gujaratis . Over 8 % of the population is Muslim , numbering over 300 @,@ 000 in the 2001 census . In addition , the city is home to some 2000 Parsis and some 125 members of the Bene Israel Jewish community . There is also one synagogue in the city . In 2008 , there were 2273 registered non @-@ resident Indians living in Ahmedabad .
In 2010 , Forbes magazine rated Ahmedabad as the fastest @-@ growing city in India , and listed it as third fastest @-@ growing in the world after the Chinese cities of Chengdu and Chongqing . In 2011 , it was rated India 's best megacity to live in by leading market research firm IMRB . According to the National Crime Records Bureau ( NCRB ) report of 2003 , Ahmedabad has the lowest crime rate of the 35 Indian cities with a population of more than one million . In December 2011 market research firm IMRB declared Ahmedabad the best megacity to live in , when compared to India 's other megacities . Slightly less than half of all real estate in Ahmedabad is owned by " community organisations " ( i.e. cooperatives ) , and according to Prof. Vrajlal Sapovadia of the B.K. School of Business Management , " the spatial growth of the city is to [ an ] extent [ a ] contribution of these organisations " . Ahmedabad Cantonment provides residential zones for Indian Army officials .
= = Culture = =
Ahmedabad observes a wide range of festivals . Popular celebrations and observances include Uttarayan , an annual kite @-@ flying day on 14 and 15 January . Nine nights of Navratri are celebrated with people performing Garba , the most popular folk dance of Gujarat , at venues across the city . The festival of lights , Deepavali , is celebrated with the lighting of lamps in every house , decorating the floors with rangoli , and the lighting of firecrackers . The annual Rath Yatra procession on the Ashadh @-@ sud @-@ bij date of the Hindu calendar at the Jagannath Temple and the procession of Tajia during the Muslim holy month of Muharram are important events .
One of the most popular forms of meal in Ahmedabad is a typical Gujarati thali which was first served commercially by Chandvilas Hotel in 1900 . It consists of roti ( Chapati ) , dal , rice and shaak ( cooked vegetables , sometimes with curry ) , with accompaniments of pickles and roasted papads . Beverages include buttermilk and tea ; sweet dishes include laddoo , mango , and vedhmi . Dhoklas , theplas and dhebras are also very popular dishes in Ahmedabad .
There are many restaurants , which serve a wide array of Indian and international cuisines . Most of the food outlets serve only vegetarian food , as a strong tradition of vegetarianism is maintained by the city 's Jain and Hindu communities . The first all @-@ vegetarian Pizza Hut in the world opened in Ahmedabad . KFC has a separate staff uniform for serving vegetarian items and prepares vegetarian food in a separate kitchen , as does McDonald 's . Ahmedabad has a quite a few restaurants serving typical Mughlai non @-@ vegetarian food in older areas like Bhatiyar Gali , Kalupur and Jamalpur .
Manek Chowk is an open square near the centre of the city that functions as a vegetable market in the morning and a jewellery market in the afternoon . However , it is better known for its food stalls in the evening , which sell local street food . It is named after the Hindu saint Baba Maneknath . Parts of Ahmedabad are known for their folk art . The artisans of Rangeela pol make tie @-@ dyed bandhinis , while the cobbler shops of Madhupura sell traditional mojdi ( also known as mojri ) footwear . Idols of Ganesha and other religious icons are made in huge numbers in the Gulbai Tekra area . The shops at the Law Garden sell mirror work handicraft .
Three main literary institutions were established in Ahmedabad for the promotion of Gujarati literature : Gujarat Vidhya Sabha , Gujarati Sahitya Parishad and Gujarat Sahitya Sabha . Saptak School of Music festival is held in the first week of the new year . This event was inaugurated by Ravi Shankar .
The Sanskar Kendra , one of the several buildings in Ahmedabad designed by Le Corbusier , is a city museum depicting its history , art , culture and architecture . The Gandhi Smarak Sangrahalaya and the Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel National Memorial have permanent displays of photographs , documents and other articles relating to Mahatma Gandhi and Sardar Patel . The Calico Museum of Textiles has a large collection of Indian and international fabrics , garments and textiles . The Hazrat Pir Mohammad Shah Library has a collection of rare original manuscripts in Arabic , Persian , Urdu , Sindhi and Turkish . There is Vechaar Utensils Museum which has of stainless steel , glass , brass , copper , bronze , zinc and German silver tools .
Shreyas Foundation has four museums on the same campus . Shreyas Folk Museum ( Lokayatan Museum ) has art forms and artefacts from communities of Gujarat . Kalpana Mangaldas Children 's Museum has a collection of toys , puppets , dance and drama costumes , coins and a repository of recorded music from traditional shows from all over the world . Kahani houses photographs of fairs and festivals of Gujarat . Sangeeta Vadyakhand is a gallery of musical instruments from India and other countries .
L D Institute of Indology houses about 76 @,@ 000 hand @-@ written Jain manuscripts with 500 illustrated versions and 45 @,@ 000 printed books , making it the largest collection of Jain scripts , Indian sculptures , terracottas , miniature paintings , cloth paintings , painted scrolls , bronzes , woodwork , Indian coins , textiles and decorative art , paintings of Rabindranath Tagore and art of Nepal and Tibet . N C Mehta Gallery of Miniature Paintings has a collection of ornate miniature paintings and manuscripts from all over India .
= = Transport = =
Ahmedabad is one of six operating divisions in the Western Railway zone . Railway lines connect the city to towns in Gujarat and major Indian cities . Ahmedabad railway station , locally known as Kalupur station is the main terminus with 11 others .
The mass @-@ transit metro system , MEGA for the cities of Ahmedabad and Gandhinagar is under construction since March 2015 . The North @-@ South and East @-@ West corridors are expected to complete by 2019 .
National Highway 8 , linking Delhi to Mumbai , passes though Ahmedabad and connects it with Gandhinagar , Delhi and Mumbai . The National Highway 8C also links Ahmedabad to Gandhinagar . It is connected to Vadodara through National Expressway 1 , a 94 km ( 58 mi ) long expressway with two exits . This expressway is part of the Golden Quadrilateral project .
In 2001 , Ahmedabad was ranked as the most polluted city in India , out of 85 cities , by the Central Pollution Control Board . The Gujarat Pollution Control Board gave auto rickshaw drivers an incentive of ₹ 10 @,@ 000 to convert all 37 @,@ 733 auto rickshaws in Ahmedabad to cleaner burning compressed natural gas to reduce pollution . As a result , in 2008 , Ahmedabad was ranked as 50th most polluted city in India .
Janmarg is a bus rapid transit system in the city . It is operated by Ahmedabad Janmarg Limited , a subsidiary of Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation and others . It was inaugurated in October 2009 . The network expanded to 89 kilometres ( 55 mi ) by December 2015 with daily ridership of 1 @,@ 32 @,@ 000 passengers . The Ahmedabad Municipal Transport Service ( AMTS ) , maintained by Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation , runs the public bus service in the city . At present , AMTS has more than 750 buses serving the city .
Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel International Airport , 15 km ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) from the city centre , provides domestic and international flights . It is the busiest airport in Gujarat and the eighth busiest in India with an average of 250 aircraft movements a day . The Dholera International Airport is proposed near Fedara . It will be the largest airport in India with a total area of 7 @,@ 500 hectares .
= = Education = =
Ahmedabad had a literacy rate of 79 @.@ 89 % in 2001 which rose to 89 @.@ 62 percent in 2011 . As of 2011 , literacy rate among male and female were 93 @.@ 96 and 84 @.@ 81 percent respectively . Schools in Ahmedabad are run either by the municipal corporation , or privately by entities , trusts and corporations . The majority of schools are affiliated with the Gujarat Secondary and Higher Secondary Education Board , although some are affiliated with the Central Board for Secondary Education , Council for the Indian School Certificate Examinations , International Baccalaureate and National Institute of Open School . A large number of colleges in the city are affiliated with Gujarat University ; Gujarat Technological University and other deemed universities in Ahmedabad include the Center for Environmental Planning and Technology University , Nirma University of Science & Technology , Centre for Heritage Management , Ganpat university and the Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Open University . The Gujarat Vidyapith was established in 1920 by Mahatma Gandhi without a charter from the British Raj and became a deemed university in 1963 .
Other educational institutions in Ahmedabad include the Indian Institute of Management Ahmedabad , the Gujarat National Law University , the Adani Institute of Infrastructure Management , the National Institute of Design , the Pandit Deendayal Petroleum University , the Mudra Institute of Communications , the Ahmedabad University , the Center for environmental planning and technology , the Entrepreneurship Development Institute of India , the B.J. Medical College , the NHL Medical College , the Ahmedabad Management Association , the L.D. College of Engineering and the Vishwakarma Government Engineering College . Many national academic and scientific institutions , such as the Physical Research Laboratory and the Indian Space Research Organisation are also based in the city .
= = Media = =
Newspapers in Ahmedabad include English dailies such as The Times of India , Indian Express , DNA , The Economic Times , The Financial Express , Ahmedabad Mirror and Metro . Newspapers in other languages include Divya Bhaskar , Gujarat Samachar , Sandesh , Rajasthan Patrika , Sambhaav , and Aankhodekhi . The city is home to the historic Navajivan Publishing House , which was founded in 1919 by Mahatma Gandhi .
The state @-@ owned All India Radio Ahmedabad is broadcast both on the medium wave and FM bands ( 96 @.@ 7 MHz ) in the city . It competes with five private local FM stations : Radio City ( 91 @.@ 1 MHz ) , Red FM ( 93 @.@ 5 MHz ) , My fm ( 94 @.@ 3 MHz ) , Radio One ( 95 @.@ 0 MHz ) , Radio Mirchi ( 98 @.@ 3 MHz ) . Gyan Vani ( 104 @.@ 5 MHz ) is an educational FM radio station run under media co @-@ operation model . In March 2012 Gujarat University started campus radio service on 90 @.@ 8 MHz which was first kind of it in state and fifth in India .
The state @-@ owned television broadcaster Doordarshan provides free terrestrial channels , while two multi system operators — InCablenet and Siti Cable and GTPL — provide a mix of Gujarati , Hindi , English , and other regional channels via cable . Telephone services are provided by landline and mobile operators such as BSNL , Reliance CDMA & Reliance GSM , Airtel , Uninor , Docomo , Videocon , Aircel , Vodafone , Idea , MTS India and Tata Indicom .
= = Sports = =
Cricket is one of the popular sports in the city . Sardar Patel Stadium ( also known as Motera Stadium ) , built in 1982 , hosts both one day internationals and test matches . It has a seating capacity of 54 @,@ 000 . It hosted the 1987 , 1996 and 2011 Cricket World Cups . Ahmedabad also has a second cricket stadium at the Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation 's Sports Club of Gujarat which is the home ground of the Gujarat cricket team that plays in the Ranji Trophy tournament .
Other popular sports are field hockey , badminton , tennis , squash and golf . Ahmedabad currently has three golf courses . Mithakhali Multi Sports Complex is being developed by the AMC to promote various indoor sports . Recently Ahmedabad hosted national level games for roller skating and table tennis . Kart racing is gaining popularity in the city , with the introduction of a 380 metre long track based on Formula One concepts .
Sabarmati Marathon is organised every year in December – January since 2011 which have different categories like full and half marathon , 7 km dream run , 5 km run for visually challenged and 5 km wheelchair run . In 2007 , Ahmedabad hosted the 51st national level shooting games .
Geet Sethi , a five @-@ time winner of the World Professional Billiards Championship and a recipient of India 's highest sporting award , the Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna , was raised in Ahmedabad .
= New York State Route 424 =
New York State Route 424 ( NY 424 ) was an east – west state highway in northern Chautauqua County , New York , in the United States . The route began at an intersection with NY 380 ( now County Route 380 or CR 380 ) in the town of Stockton and ended at a junction with NY 60 in the village of Cassadaga . NY 424 was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York and removed from the state highway system in 1980 as part of a highway maintenance swap between the state of New York and Chautauqua County . The route 's former alignment is now part of CR 58 .
= = Route description = =
NY 424 began at an intersection with NY 380 in the town of Stockton . The route headed northeast , passing by forests and homes as it ascended Stockton Hill . Here , it intersected with Nelson Hill Road , a short alternate route of NY 424 . After reaching the top of the hill , NY 424 became known as Stockton Hill Road and went through fields on its way to the village of Cassadaga . Once in the village limits , the highway intersected Putnam Road ( CR 71 ) in an area of Cassadaga known as Burnhams . NY 424 continued on into the heart of the village , passing by homes and the southern end of Lower Lake before coming to an end at an intersection with NY 60 .
= = History = =
NY 424 was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York . It went unchanged until April 1 , 1980 , when ownership and maintenance of the route was transferred from the state of New York to Chautauqua County as part of a highway maintenance swap between the two levels of government . The other routes given to the county were the portion of NY 380 between NY 424 and U.S. Route 20 ( US 20 ) , the entirety of NY 428 , and two reference routes in Dunkirk and Fredonia . In return , the state assumed control of NY 394 between NY 5 and US 20 , US 62 from NY 394 to NY 60 , and Forest Avenue south of Jamestown . The NY 424 designation was officially removed on August 7 , 1980 , and its former routing is now part of CR 58 , which was extended over the length of the state highway .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route was in Chautauqua County .
= Wipeout 64 =
Wipeout 64 is a 1998 futuristic racing game developed by Psygnosis and published by Midway Games exclusively for the Nintendo 64 . It is the third game in the Wipeout series and remains the only one published on a Nintendo console . At the time of the game 's release , developer Psygnosis had been owned for five years by Sony Computer Entertainment , for whose hardware all subsequent Wipeout games have been released exclusively .
Set in 2098 , just a year after Wipeout 2097 , Wipeout 64 introduced several new elements to the Wipeout series including analogue control which benefited from the Nintendo 64 's controller , new weapons , teams and tracks . The game received mixed opinions from critics . Comparing the game with F @-@ Zero X , which was released a month earlier , many critics praised the game for its individuality among the Wipeout series , offering more tracks and racing craft , unique atmosphere and " superior track design " . However , the game was criticised for its slow frame rate , and opinion is divided whether Wipeout 64 is a ' true sequel ' to Wipeout 2097 .
= = Gameplay = =
Most aspects of the gameplay did not differ from the previous two titles . Wipeout is based on a futuristic anti @-@ gravity setting where pilots would race against each other or computer @-@ controlled AI opponents to finish in the highest position possible . Wipeout gameplay takes inspiration from Formula One parallels ; rather than using aerodynamics to increase wheel grip by down @-@ force for faster turning speeds , Wipeout uses a fictionalised method of air braking for ever greater turning force .
Wipeout 64 provides most of the same features as Wipeout 2097 along with new weapons unique to each team . New additions to the weapons interface include the ability to fire three rockets at a time and rear @-@ locking missiles . Returning weapons include the homing missiles , machine guns and plasma bolts . Exclusive to Wipeout 64 is an unlockable weapon power @-@ up called the " Cyclone " which allows the player to strengthen the power of their weapons . There is also the inclusion of an elimination counter that gauges how many opponents were eliminated in a race by the player . This paved the way for the Eliminator mode introduced in Wipeout 3 .
Wipeout 64 also introduced split @-@ screen multiplayer for the first time , as well as a new addition named ' Challenge Mode ' . Challenge Mode is where the player has to complete sets of challenges in predefined classes and tracks through either getting the fastest time in a Time Trial , the highest placing in a race , or eliminating the most opponents through a weaponry @-@ based ' deathmatch ' .
Most of the tracks in Wipeout 64 feature mirrored layouts of circuits from select tracks in Wipeout and Wipeout 2097 , set in different locations . Some conversions are not perfectly accurate , as some corners were eased or cut entirely , elevations were changed , and there were no split track sections . The only truly original circuit is the hidden Velocitar track , obtained by completing all six Race Challenges .
= = Development = =
As with all games in the series , Wipeout 64 was developed by Liverpudlian developer Psygnosis and was published by Midway Games - marking the first and only time in the Wipeout series where one of the games were not published by Psygnosis or SCE Studio Liverpool ( as they are known after 2001 ) . The game is one of the few N64 titles to have noticeable load times , disguised by the request ' Please Wait ' . Load times between levels in Wipeout 64 are approximately a few seconds long due to the need for sound decompression , according to Psygnosis in a later interview with IGN . " Psygnosis used the Nintendo 64 's analogue stick to their benefit ; thus rendering the D @-@ Pad obsolete so that ships could respond quickly and more precisely in improvement regarding to the older games .
= = = Audio = = =
Despite the limited capacity of a game cartridge , Wipeout 64 managed to fit nine music tracks , mostly by composers Rob Lord & Mark Bandola ( credited as " PC MUSIC " in @-@ game ) , with additional tracks by Fluke and Propellerheads . Unlike both of its predecessors , Psygnosis ' in @-@ house music team , CoLD SToRAGE , did not produce music for this game , although CoLD SToRAGE 's works do make an appearance in future Wipeout games .
Race announcers bridge preceding Wipeouts and Wipeout 3 by having a male voice declare what weapons are about to be used against the player ; a female voice welcomes players to the courses and announces in @-@ race events and the result .
= = Reception = =
The game received mixed reviews among both considerable praise and criticism from critics . The game received an aggregate score of 84 / 100 from Metacritic . Reviewers were generally impressed with the innovation and complexity the game offered ; mostly stating that Wipeout 64 had " everything a futuristic racer needs , a large variety of tracks , well designed craft , weapons , numerous game modes and speed " .
The graphics were well received from critics . IGN remarked that Wipeout 64 was a superior game to F @-@ Zero X. IGN praised the game on its graphics , saying in the verdict that the visuals " are absolutely beautiful " and that the in @-@ game soundtrack and sound @-@ effects were " top @-@ notch " , and that it included clean boost audio and excellent " scrape " noises . Despite the considerable praise , a negative review came from Joe Fielder of GameSpot , saying that regarding the graphics , the visuals in Wipeout 64 did not meet the par set by Wipeout 2097 that was released for the PlayStation two years prior . Fielder noted , however , that the new multiplayer mode was the game 's main advancement over the previous titles .
Most reviews compared the game with F @-@ Zero X which was released a month earlier , with the general assumption that Nintendo 's own futuristic racer offered more tracks and racing craft , but Wipeout 64 contained superior track design and atmosphere . GameSpot gave the game a lower score of 6 @.@ 9 out of 10 , stating that " WipeOut 64 isn 't horrible , it just feels like the developer 's first effort for the system at times - which it is " . " Sayewonn " of Gaming Age gave Wipeout 64 8 out of 10 stars , praising its new innovations , especially its analogue control , saying that " adapting analogue controls was the biggest improvement racing games made and Wipeout 64 demonstrates that beautifully " . Sayewonn also noted that the game still had a " learning curve " , saying that " it ’ s not as brutal as the first game but definitely harder than the far easier XL " . However , despite being complimentary of Wipeout 64 , both GameSpot and Gaming Age recommended purchasing F @-@ Zero X instead .
Opinion is divided on whether Wipeout 64 simply merges the good points of the previous two games , or is different enough to be considered a sequel in its own right . Praised elements include " prettier " and " grittier " graphics compared to F @-@ Zero X. Pop @-@ up and a slow frame @-@ rate are repeatedly mentioned as problems , but only when the screen is split up to three or four times in multiplayer mode .
= Waiting ( 2015 film ) =
Waiting is a 2015 Indian comedy drama film co @-@ written and directed by Anu Menon . Produced by Priti Gupta and Manish Mundra under the banner of Ishka Films and Drishyam Films , the film stars Naseeruddin Shah and Kalki Koechlin in lead roles . Waiting revolves around the relationship between two people from different walks of life , who befriend each other in a hospital , while nursing their respective comatose spouses . Rajat Kapoor , Suhasini Maniratnam , Arjun Mathur , Ratnabali Bhattacharjee and Rajeev Ravindranathan play supporting roles in the film .
Development began in June 2014 , when Menon signed Koechlin and Shah for an upcoming untitled project . Principal photography began in November 2014 in the coastal town of Kochi . Neha Parti was the director of photography , and Mickey McCleary composed the film score , which was released in May 2016 , under the label of Zee Music Company . The lyrics were written by Manoj Muntashir and Ankur Tewari . Nitin Baid and Apurva Asrani edited the film , and Atika Chohan wrote the dialogues . The film had its world premiere at the Dubai International Film Festival on 11 December 2015 to positive reviews from critics .
Waiting was also screened at the closing gala of the London Asian Film Festival , where Menon won the Best Director Award , and at the Indian Film Festival of Los Angeles . The film had released theatrically on 27 May 2016 , with A @-@ certification from the censor board . Upon release in India , Waiting was well received by critics with particular praise for the performances of both Koechlin and Shah . The film , however , was an average grosser at the box office , collecting a total of ₹ 39 million ( US $ 580 @,@ 000 ) during its theatrical run .
= = Plot = =
Shiv Kumar ( Naseeruddin Shah ) , an elderly psychology professor , arrives at a hotel in Kochi to visit his comatose wife Pankaja ( Suhasini Maniratnam ) . Tara Kapoor Desphande ( Kalki Koechlin ) , a young advertising agent , arrives at the same hospital during the night after being delivered the news of a car accident , which involved her husband , Rajat Deshpande ( Arjun Mathur ) . She is consoled by Rajat 's eccentric co @-@ worker Girish ( Rajeev Ravindranathan ) , but she dismisses him abruptly . Tara is deeply disturbed to see Rajat breathing on a ventilator , and leaves immediately .
While at the waiting lounge Tara approaches Shiv believing him to be a doctor and asks for his advice . He reveals that his wife had a stroke eighth months ago while he was out watching a cricket match . The two bond over their similar situation . Girish later drops Tara and gives her Rajat 's bag . Tara finds his watch in it and puts in on . The next day Tara is angered on reading an intimate message on Rajat 's phone from a colleague Sheetal , who is later revealed to be a man . Shiv witnesses the whole misunderstanding and the two share a light moment . He later visits Tara in her hotel room where Tara lashes out about her friends and followers on social media for having abandoned . Tara commends Shiv for his composure and calm nature , which leads him explaining the five stages of grief to her .
Tara finds her resort in Shiv , her wiser more experienced counterpart . The two start spending most of their spare time together despite being completely opposite in nature , simultaneously coping up with their respective grief . Shiv takes Tara to the temple as a part of his coping mechanism and she takes him lingerie shopping as a part of hers . Dr. Nirupam Malhotra ( Rajat Kapoor ) , Rajat 's doctor tells Tara that he has a hematoma in his brain and a surgery might help him recover , but it carries the risk of partial paralysis . Tara is torn between making a decision as she believes Rajat wouldn 't want to live life being paralysed , and seeks advice from Shiv who is already angered by Dr. Malhotra 's negative approach towards Pankaja 's case . He dismisses him as a pawn of the hospital board and the insurance companies who care just about the money and not the patients . The two get into a heated argument and Shiv angrily lashes out at Tara for not giving Rajat a chance at life with Tara calling herself a realist , dismisses Shiv for being selfish and making his wife go through all the pain for his own sake .
Tara 's best friend Ishita ( Ratnabali Bhattacharjee ) arrives at Kochi and advises her to start chanting prayers , and to inform Rajat 's estranged parents . Tara despite being an atheist chants Namu Myōhō Renge Kyō , when she is alone with Rajat . Shiv desperately attempts to convince Dr. Malhotra to perform a spinal decompression on his wife but he disregards Shiv 's research and refuses to proceed with surgery . Tara discusses surgery with Ishita and decides to not go ahead with it which further angers Dr. Malhotra . Ishita leaves to aid her ailing son , and Tara realises that she is no longer her priority as was the case prior to her marriage . Shiv and Tara finally make up and later the night smoke a joint and later dance together back at Shiv 's house , much to the amusement of his neighbours . They later get upset thinking about their spouses and discuss love and what it meant to them , before falling asleep in the living room .
The next morning , Tara leaves early and later decides to inform Rajat 's mother . Girish brings Tara the required insurance papers and she thanks him saying that he was always their for her and she never acknowledged it . She then decides to go ahead with the surgery after all . Rajat is taken to surgery and Tara holds his hand up until they arrive at the OR . Shiv , on the other hand decides to take Panakja off the ventilator and let his wife make the final call , Panakja tries to breathe on her own as the viewers are treated with the flashbacks of the heydays of both the couples . Tara takes a seat at the waiting lounge , and is joined by Shiv who sits next to her as the camera pans out .
= = Cast = =
Naseeruddin Shah as Shiv Kumar
Kalki Koechlin as Tara Deshpande
Arjun Mathur as Rajat Deshpande
Rajat Kapoor as Dr. Nirupam Malhotra
Suhasini Maniratnam as Pankaja
Rajeev Ravindranathan as Girish
Ratnabali Bhattacharjee as Ishita
Marin Babu as Nurse Prema
= = Production = =
= = = Development and casting = = =
Made on a modest budget , Waiting was produced by Priti Gupta of Ishka Films and Manish Mundra of Drishyam Films . The film was directed by Anu Menon , her second directorial after romantic comedy London , Paris , New York ( 2012 ) . Menon also co @-@ wrote the script along with James Ruzicka . The director of photography for the film was the cinematographer Neha Parti Martyani , who had been previously associated with films including My Name is Khan and Yamla Pagla Deewana among others . The film 's dialogue was written by Atika Chohan , and Prajakta Ghate essayed the role of the film 's production designer .
Pre @-@ production work began in July 2014 , when the film was picked up for production . Menon , inspired by one of her own personal experience , started working in the story for the film along with Ruzicka . She termed the scripting process to be extremely difficult as they had to figure out , " what it means to be associated with a comatose patient , both emotionally and medically " . Menon later revealed that she had began working on the script years before the actual production for the film began , and that it took her several years to complete it . She wanted an entirely different setting for the film and decided to set the story in Kerala .
Entertainment website Bollywood Hungama reported that Kalki Koechlin was set to star in Menon 's upcoming film . It was reported that , Koechlin will be playing the role of Tara Deshpande , a young and brash social media @-@ savvy . Koechlin 's That Girl in Yellow Boots co @-@ star Naseeruddin Shah joined the cast after he was approached by Menon , who sent him the script of the film in an e @-@ mail . Shah sent a confirmatory e @-@ mail to Menon accepting the part in the film . It was later revealed that he would play the role of Shiv Kumar , a retired philosophy professor . To prepare for the role , Koechlin practised the dialect in which her character spoke , a mixture of Hindi and English . She also dyed her hair black for the role , as Menon wanted her to look more " earthy " . Koechlin in an interview with Gulf News said she loved the film 's vibe and compared it to the American drama Lost In Translation ”
South Indian actress Suhasini Maniratnam made her debut in Hindi cinema , where she plays the role of Shah 's character 's wife . Menon talked about her experience of working with Manirathnam saying , " With her experience , she also helped me with a few difficult scenes behind the camera . " Arjun Mathur played the role of Rajat Deshpande , Tara 's husband and Rajat Kapoor played Dr. Niruapm Malhotra , a doctor at the Kochi Hospital . Ratnabali Bhatachajee , Rajeev Ravindranathan and Marin Babu played supporting roles in the film . The rest of the supporting cast for the film consisted mainly of Malyali actors iincluding Dinesh Nair and Krishna Sankar , who were signed up with the help of the local casting agent Gautam Pisharody .
= = = Filming and post @-@ production = = =
Principal photography for Waiting began in November 2014 in the coastal town of Kochi , Kerala . The shoot for the entire film was completed in one schedule in a duration of around 30 days . On the shooting experience , Menon said , " The experience was beautiful though there were many challenges as we were predominantly an all @-@ woman crew . " In an interview with The Hindu , Koechlin said that before the actual shoot began , she probed Menon several times as she wanted to be better adept with her character . She added , " We would discuss a particular scene and then she [ Menon ] would redraft it " , and also shared her experience on working with Shah calling it " fun " .
The team of editors for Waiting was headed by Apurva Asrani and Nitin Baid , and the sound mixing was done by London @-@ based sound engineer Roland Heap , with assistance from Mandar Kamalapurkar and Udit Daseja . Shiji Pattna was the art director for the film , and the marketing department was headed by Parull Gosain . The editing process for the film took place in March 2015 .
Menon talked about the film prior to its release to The National saying that the story of the film was close to her heart as it was inspired by one of her own personal experience . On working with Koechlin and Shah she said , " He ( Shah ) was punctual and always prepared , he gave his best performance in the first take . Kalki allows herself to be vulnerable . She is more porous and chilled out . In a way , there was a nice energy between them . Both of them were organised , committed and non demanding . " She added that , " It ’ s a very gentle and poignant film with no melodrama . It would make the audiences want to reach out to the leading characters and help them find their answers . "
= = Soundtrack and reception = =
The film 's music was composed by Mikey McCleary , with Kavita Seth , Nikhil D 'Souza , Anushka Mnachanda , Vishal Dadlani and McCleary serving as vocalists for the album . The lyrics for the album were written by McCleary , Koechlin Manoj Muntashir , and Ankur Tewari . The first song of the album " Tu Hai Toh Main Hoon " was released on YouTube on 4 May 2016 . The music was launched under the label of Zee Music Company . The soundtrack of the film was well received by critics . The track " Tu Hai Toh Main Hoon " was released to positive response from critics and audiences . The second track " Zara Zara " was released on 12 May , and RadioMusic.com deemed it " worth falling in love all over again " . Manavi Kapoor of Business Standard in her review wrote , " " Zara zara " and " Tu Hai Toh Main Hun " are haunting and perfectly capture the poignant tone of the film . " A reviewer in Koimoi wrote , " Music finds its place in the situations and is quite aptly presented " . In their music review Bollywood Life gave the album 3 @.@ 5 stars out of 5 and wrote , " Waiting may lack the quintessential massy numbers , but this is one music album that has a soul . This is something most of the soundtracks lack these days . "
= = Release = =
= = = Marketing and release = = =
Waiting had its world premiere on 11 December 2015 at the 12th edition of the Dubai International Film Festival . At the release of the film executive producer Priti Gupta founder of Ishka Films said , " It is an endearing and beautiful movie for not just Indian [ s ] , but the world audience , as it is essentially about the universal human circumstances , which are deftly portrayed in a tender yet humorous way . " Manish Mundra , founder of Drishyam Films added , " Dubai is one of the biggest overseas markets for Hindi cinema [ ... ] We are honoured to have Waiting screen there . " The film was also screened at the closing gala of the London Asian Film Festival , and at the Indian Film Festival of Los Angeles .
Menon talked about the challenges of promoting an independent film and attracting viewers saying , " The distribution is first weekend collection driven [ ... ] Those depending on a buzz created by word of mouth are at a disadvantage " . The film had a special screening prior to its theatrical release which was attended by the cast and crew of the film and other Bollywood celebrities including Gulshan Devaiah , Radhika Apte , Huma Qureshi , Rajkummar Rao and Adil Hussain .
The official trailer was released on 21 April 2016 , one day after the release of a motion poster for the film , revealing the first look . The poster featured Koechlin and Shah with a smile . The trailer was well received by critics and audiences . The film had its theatrical release on 27 May 2016 in India .
= = = Box office = = =
The film had a poor opening at the box office as the morning vacancy varied between 2 @-@ 3 % in multiplexes . The film managed to collect a mere ₹ 2 @.@ 5 million ( US $ 37 @,@ 000 ) on its opening day . The film was released alongside other indie films including Veerappan and Phobia , both of which also had a relatively poor opening . However , Waiting showed good growth over the day with the best occupancy among the aforementioned films . The numbers grew as Waiting collected ₹ 4 @.@ 8 million ( US $ 71 @,@ 000 ) and ₹ 5 @.@ 5 million ( US $ 82 @,@ 000 ) on its second and third day respectively , bringing the first weekend collections to a total of ₹ 35 million ( US $ 520 @,@ 000 ) . The film carried on with steady numbers through the first and the second week collecting ₹ 35 million ( US $ 520 @,@ 000 ) . Waiting collected a total of around ₹ 40 million ( US $ 590 @,@ 000 ) in its entire theatrical run at the box office .
= = Reception = =
= = = India = = =
The film opened to largely positive reviews in India . Saibal Chatterjee of NDTV gave the film the highest praise and deemed it " a well @-@ chiselled marvel " saying : " Waiting is at once heart @-@ wrenching and uplifting [ ... ] marked by deep philosophical undertones , but it is never unduly ponderous . " . A reviewer writing for The New Indian Express too spoke highly of the film saying , " Not since Ritesh Batra ’ s The Lunchbox have I seen an indie film addressing itself to the ageless issue of human desolation and individual grief with such warmth , dignity , grace , honesty and humour . " Namrata Joshi writing for The Hindu called the script " dignified " and " without any false notes " and added , " Waiting manages to stand on its own emotional ground [ ... ] The people , situations , relationships , feelings are layered , warm and humourous , ringing true in their complexities . " Mohar Basu of The Times of India called the film " thought @-@ provoking " writing , " Menon has whipped up a warm tale about love , loss and surviving life 's catastrophic blows , with such simplicity " .
Kunal Guha of the Mumbai Mirror lauded the film 's direction and cinematography saying , " Menon has the tenacity of a Sofia Coppola to produce frames where not much happens but one is unable to look away " , and concluded by saying that , " The film deserves a watch for being one that doesn 't try too hard and for its approach to an extreme situation . " Rohit Bhatnagar of Deccan Chronicle while also praising the technical expertise saying , " Neha Parti Matiyani beautifully captures the beautiful city of Kochi . " called the film " unmissable " saying , " ' Waiting ' is a refreshing subject that is engaging enough right up till its open ended climax . " Shubhra Gupta writing for The Indian Express thought that the film was " too explanatory , too talky " , and that " the most effective moments in the film occur when the two leads are allowed to fall silent , to just be in that moment , to loosen up " . While lauding the film 's treatment of the subject matter Gupta described Waiting as , " a film about life , lasting love and impending loss which explores a zone Bollywood doesn ’ t bother with " .
The performances of the leading pair of Koechlin and Shah were chiefly praised by several critics . Guha in his review remarked " this film belongs to Kalki , who impresses by managing to wordlessly convey her character 's state of mind in every scene " , and Chatterjee offering a similar observation wrote that Koechlin , " provides the ideal foil , adding immensely to the emotional depth of the tale and heightening the conflict between two unlike poles " . The latter also remarked , " Waiting is elevated several notches by the two central performances . " In her review for Rediff.com Sukanya Verma called the film " absolutely riveting " , and also lauded Koechlin saying , " There ’ s something stunningly unhindered about Kalki and her aura . She uses this quality in the most mesmeric fashion to create a woman we sympathise with and wish well for " .
Surabhi Redkar in her review for Koimoi highlighting the " stellar performances " from the pair said , " Koechlin wins you over with her highly expressive performance . " and added , " Shah does a great job as the otherwise calm Shiv " . In his review for Firstpost Anna Vetticad said that leading pair " shine in a lovely film " noting that chemistry between them was " unmistakable " . He concluded by saying , " [ Waiting ] is both sad and amusing , believable , well acted and very well told " . Sweta Kaushal of Hindustan Times summed up his review by writing , " Packaged with Naseeruddin as the adorable old man struggling to understand a younger generation and Kalki as the charming young , energetic woman , Waiting is a delight . "
= = = Overseas = = =
The film received positive reviews from critics at the Dubai International Film Festival who praised the narrative of the story , Menon 's direction , and the performances of the lead pairing of Koechlin and Shah . Gautaman Bhaskaran of Hindustan Times called the film a " is a tragic , witty affair " and praised the humour with which the contrast between Shiv and Tara was presented . Fionnuala Halligan of Screen International praised the cinematography and praised Neha Parti Mtiyani ’ s " dignified lenswork " and in her review wrote , " Waiting simmers in its locales without being brash or boastful ; the colours of India are there , glowing at the sidelines " She also lauded Koechlin 's and Shah 's performances saying that the film " benefits greatly from Koechlin ’ s appeal [ ... ] , she has an expressive face to match her talent " and added that Shah 's presence " lends the film its grace @-@ notes " . Deborah Young of The Hollywood Reporter also gave a positive review calling the film " A tender , often humorous tale with sparkling performances " . She further praised the lead duo saying , " Koechlin does an exceptional job navigating the shoals of this as a kooky drama queen " and added that , " Shah , brings great feeling and complexity to the role of the wise , tolerant Shiv . "
= = Accolades = =
= Thelma ( 1910 film ) =
Thelma is a 1910 American silent short drama film produced by the Thanhouser Company . The story was based on Marie Corelli 's 1887 novel of the same name , it focuses on a Norwegian maiden who meets Sir Phillip and the two are wed . Lady Clara conspires to ruin the marriage and tricks Thelma with a letter purported to be from her husband . Thelma returns to Norway and to the death of her father . Thelma , alone in the world , prays at her mother 's grave for strength . Sir Phillip searches for Thelma , ultimately finding her , uncovers the tricks which have been played on them and they fall back in love . Released on June 21 , 1910 , the film was met with praise in The Moving Picture World . An incomplete print of the film survives in the Library of Congress archives .
= = Plot = =
Though the film is presumed lost , a surviving synopsis was published in the The Moving Picture World on June 25 , 1910 . It states : " Thelma is a simple Norwegian maiden living alone with her father in the land of the midnight sun . Her father is one of the few remaining Vikings , famous in history . As such he is held in great reverence by his servants , who consider him somewhat in the nature of a king , and his daughter a princess . Outside of the years spent at school , Thelma has spent nearly all her time alone , her mother having died when she was a baby . When on a visit to her mother 's grave , Thelma meets Sir Philip Errington , a distinguished young Englishman , who is touring Norway in his private yacht . Sir Philip is instantly attracted to her and , obtaining information as to where she lives , presents himself to Olaf , the Viking , and is finally admitted to his friendship and that of his daughter . Sir Phillip woos and wins the fair Thelma for his bride , and with her sails back to England . In London , Thelma at once creates a favorable impression and is cordially welcomed by all of Sir Philip 's friends , who comprise the nobility and aristocracy of the metropolis . Lady Clara , alone , of all Sir Philip 's old friends , wishes Thelma harm . She has long felt an affection for Sir Phillip , and resents the fact that he spurned her love and chose his bride in far @-@ off Norway . This wicked and designing woman determines to wreck Thelma 's happiness , and force her to leave England . This she contrives to do , in making Thelma believe that Sir Philip no longer loves her , but that in truth his heart belongs to Lady Clara . As proof of her statement she shows Thelma a letter written to her by Sir Philip in which he pleads the cause of his friend , who is in love with Lady Clara , and wishes her to become his wife . This Lady Clara claims is a love letter written by Sir Philip to her . Thelma , heartbroken , believing she has lost her husband 's love , returns to Norway , just as her father , the Viking , breathes his last . She , with his faithful followers , complies with his last wishes , which are that he shall be buried as his forefathers were before him – sent out to sea in his burning ship . This form of burial had been that accorded to all Vikings for centuries past . After straining her eyes for a final look at the departing ship , Thelma retraces her steps to her mother 's grave , and there , feeling that she is absolutely alone , prays for the strength to live . Here in a rocky dell before the tomb of her mother , where first she met the man who won her heart , Sir Philip again finds Thelma . A few words suffice to show her how she has been tricked , and a fervent protestation of his love convinces her that she still has a place in his heart . In Sir Philip 's arms she finds comfort for the loss of her father ; she starts out bravely to again face the world , now sure of his unending love . "
= = Cast = =
Anna Rosemond as Thelma
Frank H. Crane as Sir Philip Errington
Yvonne Marvin as Lady Clara Ashley
Alphonse Ethier as Viking Olaf
= = Production = =
Thelma is a film adaptation of the 1887 novel of the same name , it was written under the pen name Marie Corelli by Mary Mackay . During the era , her novels were so well @-@ known that some reviewers did not need to include a summary of the plot of the film to reader . A brief review in The Moving Picture World went so far as to say , " Practically everybody has read the novel , hence no long explanation is required . " Film historian Q. David Bowers , states , " Although present @-@ day scholars consider her works to be of no serious literary importance , she is remembered by the science @-@ fiction world for her vivacious imagination and her " scientific discoveries , " including interstellar travel via personal electricity . Her writings were known in her time for sublimated sex , fervent religiosity , and far @-@ fetched fantasy . " The writer of the scenario is unknown , but it was most likely Lloyd Lonergan . Lonergan was an experienced newspaperman employed by The New York Evening World while writing scripts for the Thanhouser productions . He was the most important script writer for Thanhouser , averaging 200 scripts a year from 1910 to 1915 . The film director is unknown , but it may have been Barry O 'Neil . The Complete Index to Literary Sources in Film assigns Theodore Marston as the director this film , but this would seem to be in error . The apparent origin of this error is from the American Film @-@ Index 1908 – 1915 . Bowers consulted one of the co @-@ authors of the book , Gunnar Lundquist , and confirmed that the credit of Marston was in error . Theodore Marston worked with Pathé , Kinemacolor , Vitagraph and other companies , but there is no record of Marston working with Thanhouser . Bowers does not attribute a cameraman for this production , but two possible candidates exist . Blair Smith was the first cameraman of the Thanhouser company , but he was soon joined by Carl Louis Gregory who had years of experience as a still and motion picture photographer . The role of the cameraman was uncredited in 1910 productions .
Cast in the role of Thelma was Anna Rosemond , one of two leading ladies , of the Thanhouser Company at the time . The more minor role of Sir Philip Errington was played by Frank H. Crane , who acted in numerous productions before becoming a director at Thanhouser . The conspiring Lady Clara Ashley was played by Yvonne Marvin , an actress that Bowers cites as her first and only known credit with Thanhouser . The role of Thelma 's father was played by Alphonse Ethier , a stage actor who had intermittent credited appearances in Thanhouser productions .
= = Release and reception = =
The single reel drama , approximately 1000 feet long , was released on June 21 , 1910 . A review in The Moving Picture World praised the film by stating , " The picture is admirably staged and acted and maintains the interest from beginning to end . Of course the picture does not contain the detail of the novel , but it is a distinct improvement upon the play . It deserves a long run . " Identifying the theaters in which the film was show is made difficult by the number of Thelma plays and later Selig Polyscope 's own version of Thelma which appeared in 1911 . The popularity of the play predates the film adaptation by Thanhouser , one of the troupes to perform the play in 1910 were the Preston & Brickett Majestic Players . Once the Selig film was released , the two productions were often not distinguished in advertisements . One of the last known advertisements , conclusively for the Thanhouser production , was in 1913 . An incomplete 35 mm print of the film survives in the Library of Congress archives . This print is missing the main title , credits , and likely the conclusion of the film . Only the funeral scene shows red film tinting .
= The Concert for Bangladesh =
The Concert for Bangladesh ( or Bangla Desh , as the country was originally spelled ) was the collective name for two benefit concerts organised by former Beatles lead guitarist George Harrison and Indian sitar master Ravi Shankar . The concerts were held at 2 : 30 and 8 : 00 pm on Sunday , 1 August 1971 , at Madison Square Garden in New York City . The shows were organised to raise international awareness and fund relief efforts for refugees from East Pakistan ( now Bangladesh ) , following the Bangladesh Liberation War @-@ related genocide . The concerts were followed by a bestselling live album , a boxed three @-@ record set , and Apple Films ' concert documentary , which opened in cinemas in the spring of 1972 .
The event was the first @-@ ever benefit concert of such a magnitude and featured a supergroup of performers that included Harrison , fellow ex @-@ Beatle Ringo Starr , Bob Dylan , Eric Clapton , Billy Preston , Leon Russell and the band Badfinger . In addition , Shankar and Ali Akbar Khan – both of whom had ancestral roots in Bangladesh – performed an opening set of Indian classical music . Decades later , Shankar would say of the overwhelming success of the event : " In one day , the whole world knew the name of Bangladesh . It was a fantastic occasion ... "
The concerts were attended by a total of 40 @,@ 000 people , and raised close to US $ 250 @,@ 000 for Bangladesh relief , which was administered by UNICEF . Although the project was subsequently marred by financial problems – a result of the pioneering nature of the venture – the Concert for Bangladesh is recognised as a highly successful and influential humanitarian aid project , generating both awareness and considerable funds as well as providing valuable lessons and inspiration for projects that followed , notably Live Aid . By 1985 , through revenue raised from the Concert for Bangladesh live album and film , an estimated $ 12 million had been sent to Bangladesh in relief .
Sales of the live album and DVD release of the film continue to benefit the George Harrison Fund for UNICEF .
= = Background = =
As East Pakistan struggled to become the separate state of Bangladesh during the 1971 Bangladesh Liberation War , the political and military turmoil and associated atrocities led to a massive refugee problem , with at least 7 million displaced people pouring into neighbouring India . East Pakistan had recently endured devastation as a result of the Bhola cyclone , and the Bengalis ' desperate plight increased in March that year when torrential rains and floods arrived in the region , threatening a humanitarian disaster . Quoting figures available at the time , a Rolling Stone feature claimed that up to half a million Bengalis had been killed by the cyclone in November 1970 and that the Pakistani army 's subsequent campaign of slaughter under Operation Searchlight accounted for at least 250 @,@ 000 civilians , " by the most conservative estimates " . Following the mass exodus to Calcutta , a new threat arrived as the refugees faced starvation and the outbreak of diseases such as cholera .
Appalled at the situation affecting his homeland and relatives , Bengali musician Ravi Shankar first brought the issue to the attention of his friend George Harrison in the early months of 1971 , over dinner at Friar Park , according to Klaus Voormann 's recollection . By April , Shankar and Harrison were in Los Angeles working on the soundtrack to the film Raga ( 1971 ) , during which Harrison wrote the song " Miss O 'Dell " , commenting on corruption among the Indian authorities as aid shipments of rice from the West kept " going astray on [ their ] way to Bombay " . After returning to England to produce Badfinger 's Straight Up album ( 1971 ) and take part in sessions for John Lennon 's Imagine ( 1971 ) – all the while , being kept abreast of developments by Shankar , via newspaper and magazine cuttings – Harrison was back in LA to finish the Raga album in late June . By then , the Sunday Times in London had just published an influential article by Pakistani journalist Anthony Mascarenhas , which exposed the full horror of the Bangladesh atrocities , and a distraught Shankar approached Harrison for help in trying to alleviate the suffering . Harrison later talked of spending " three months " on the phone organising the Concert for Bangladesh , implying that efforts were under way from late April onwards ; it is widely acknowledged that the project began in earnest during the last week of June 1971 , however , five or six weeks before the event took place on 1 August .
= = Preparation = =
Shankar 's original hope was to raise $ 25 @,@ 000 through a benefit concert of his own , compered perhaps by actor Peter Sellers . With Harrison 's commitment , and the record and film outlets available to him through the Beatles ' Apple Corps organisation , the idea soon grew to become a star @-@ studded musical event , mixing Western rock with Indian classical music , and it was to be held at the most prestigious venue in America : Madison Square Garden , in New York City . According to Chris O 'Dell , a music @-@ business administrator and former Apple employee , Harrison got off the phone with Shankar once the concept had been finalised , and started enthusing with wife Pattie Boyd and her about possible performers . Ringo Starr , Lennon , Eric Clapton , Leon Russell , Jim Keltner , Voormann , Billy Preston and Badfinger were all mentioned during this initial brainstorming .
O 'Dell set about contacting local musicians from the Harrisons ' rented house in Nichols Canyon , as Harrison took the long @-@ distance calls , hoping more than anything to secure Bob Dylan 's participation . Almost all of Harrison 's first @-@ choice names signed on immediately , while a day spent boating with Memphis musician Don Nix resulted in the latter agreeing to organise a group of backing singers . A local Indian astrologer had advised early August as a good time in which to stage the concert , and as things transpired , the 1st of that month , a Sunday , was the only day that Madison Square Garden was available at such short notice .
By the first week of July , Harrison was in a Los Angeles studio recording his purpose @-@ written song , " Bangla Desh " , with co @-@ producer Phil Spector . The song 's opening verse documents Shankar 's plea to Harrison for assistance , and the lyrics " My friend came to me with sadness in his eyes / Told me that he wanted help before his country dies " provided an enduring image for what United Nations Secretary @-@ General Kofi Annan later recognised as the basic human aspect behind the cause .
Harrison then met with Badfinger in London to explain that he would have to abandon work on Straight Up , before flying to New York on 13 July to see Lennon . During the middle of July also , once back in Los Angeles , Harrison produced Shankar 's Bangladesh benefit record , an EP titled Joi Bangla . The latter featured contributions from East Bengal @-@ born Ali Akbar Khan , on sarod , and tabla player Alla Rakha . As with Harrison 's " Bangla Desh " , all profits from this recording would go to the newly established George Harrison – Ravi Shankar Special Emergency Relief Fund , to be distributed by UNICEF . Also around the middle of July , the upcoming concert by " George Harrison and Friends " was announced " via a minuscule ad buried in the back pages of the New York Times " , author Nicholas Schaffner wrote in 1977 . Tickets sold out in no time , leading to the announcement of a second show .
Towards the end of the month , when all parties were due to meet in New York for rehearsals , Harrison had the commitment of a backing band comprising : Preston , on keyboards ; the four members of Badfinger , on acoustic rhythm guitars and tambourine ; Voormann and Keltner , on bass and drums , respectively ; and saxophonist Jim Horn 's so @-@ called " Hollywood Horns " , which included Chuck Findley , Jackie Kelso and Lou McCreary . Of the established stars , Leon Russell had committed also , but on the proviso that he be supported by members of his tour band . Eric Clapton insisted that he too would be there , even if O 'Dell and other insiders , knowing of the guitarist 's incapacity due to severe heroin addiction , were surprised that Harrison had considered him for the occasion .
Among Harrison 's former bandmates , Lennon initially agreed to take part in the concert without his wife and musical partner Yoko Ono , as Harrison had apparently stipulated . Lennon then allegedly had an argument with Ono as a result of this agreement and left New York in a rage two days before the concerts . Starr 's commitment had never been in question , and he interrupted the filming of his movie Blindman in Almeria , Spain , in order to attend . Paul McCartney declined to take part , however , citing the bad feelings caused by the Beatles ' legal problems on their break @-@ up .
= = Rehearsals = =
The Harrisons decamped to the Park Lane Hotel in New York City , and the first rehearsal took place on Monday , 26 July , at Nola Studios on West 57th Street . Harrison had written a possible setlist for the concert while sketching design ideas for Shankar 's Joi Bangla picture sleeve . As well as the songs he would go on to perform on 1 August , Harrison 's list included his own compositions " All Things Must Pass " – " with Leon [ Russell ] " , apparently – " Art of Dying " and the just @-@ recorded B @-@ side " Deep Blue " ; Clapton 's song " Let It Rain " appeared also , while the suggestions for Dylan 's set were " If Not for You " , " Watching the River Flow " ( his recent , Leon Russell @-@ produced single ) and " Blowin ' in the Wind " . Only Harrison , Voormann , the six @-@ piece horn section , and Badfinger 's Pete Ham , Joey Molland , Tom Evans and Mike Gibbins were at Nola Studios on that first day , and subsequent rehearsals were similarly carried out in " dribs and drabs " , as Harrison put it . Only the final run @-@ through , on the night before the concert , resembled a complete band rehearsal .
On Tuesday , 27 July , Harrison and Shankar , accompanied by a pipe @-@ smoking Allen Klein , held a press conference to promote the two shows ; notoriously performance @-@ shy , Harrison admitted : " Just thinking about it makes me shake . " The " Bangla Desh " charity single was issued in America on 28 July , with a UK release following two days later . Ringo Starr arrived on the Thursday , and by Friday , 30 July , Russell was in town , interrupting his US tour . Russell 's band members Claudia Linnear and Don Preston were added to Don Nix 's choir of backing singers ; Preston would switch to lead guitar for Russell 's solo spot during the shows , just as bassist Carl Radle would replace Voormann temporarily . By this point , Clapton 's participation was gravely in doubt , and Harrison had drafted in Jesse Ed Davis as a probable replacement . The ex @-@ Taj Mahal guitarist received last @-@ minute coaching from Voormann , who was more than familiar with Harrison 's songs , as well as those by Billy Preston and Starr .
The final rehearsal , or the first for some of the participants , was combined with the concert soundcheck , at Madison Square Garden , late on 31 July . Both Dylan and Clapton finally appeared at the soundcheck that night . Even then , Clapton was in the early stages of heroin withdrawal – only a cameraman supplying him with some methadone would result in the English guitarist taking the stage the following day , after his young girlfriend had been unsuccessful in purchasing uncut heroin for him on the street . To Harrison 's frustration , Dylan was having severe doubts about performing in such a big @-@ event atmosphere and still would not commit to playing . " Look , it 's not my scene , either , " Harrison countered . " At least you 've played on your own in front of a crowd before . I 've never done that . "
Through Harrison 's friendship with the Band , Jonathan Taplin served as production manager , while Chip Monck was in charge of lighting . Gary Kellgren from the nearby Record Plant was brought in to record the concerts , overseen by Spector , and " Klein 's people " , led by director Saul Swimmer , would handle the filming of the event . The official concert photographers were Tom Wilkes and Barry Feinstein , the pair responsible for the artwork on Harrison 's acclaimed 1970 triple album , All Things Must Pass .
= = Concert programme = =
= = = Afternoon show = = =
Except for brief support roles in December 1969 for both the Delaney & Bonnie and Friends band and Lennon 's Plastic Ono Band , the Concert for Bangladesh was Harrison 's first live appearance before a paying audience since the Beatles had quit touring in August 1966 . Dylan had stopped touring that same year , although he had made a moderately successful comeback in August 1969 at the Isle of Wight Festival , his most recent live performance at this point . Speaking in 2005 , Rolling Stone founder Jann Wenner described the " buzz " preceding the first Concert for Bangladesh show as being at a level unexperienced in New York since the Beatles ' 1966 visit .
In his role as " master of ceremonies " , Harrison began the afternoon show ( or matinee ) by asking the audience to " try to get into " the opening , Indian music portion of the programme . He then introduced Ravi Shankar and the latter 's fellow musicians – sarodya Ali Akbar Khan , tabla player Alla Rakha , and Kamala Chakravarty on tamboura . Shankar first explained the reason for the concerts , after which the four musicians performed a traditional dhun , in the format of a khyal rather than a standard raga , titled " Bangla Dhun " . Their set included a second piece , authors Chip Madinger and Mark Easter suggest , citing Harrison 's own description that each show 's Indian music segment lasted for three @-@ quarters of an hour , whereas only seventeen minutes of music appears on the Concert for Bangladesh live album . The recital was afforded a " fidgety respect " from fans eager to discover the identity of Harrison 's advertised " Friends " , although the audience 's goodwill was more than evident . A short intermission ensued while the stage was cleared and a Dutch TV film was shown , displaying footage of the atrocities and natural tragedies taking place in former East Pakistan .
To thunderous applause from the New York crowd , Harrison appeared on stage along with his temporary band , comprising Ringo Starr , a very sick Eric Clapton , Leon Russell , Billy Preston , Klaus Voormann , Jim Keltner and eighteen others . Backed by this " full Phil Spector / All Things Must Pass rock orchestra " , Harrison began the Western portion of the concert with " Wah @-@ Wah " , followed by his Beatles hit song ' " Something " and the gospel @-@ rocker " Awaiting on You All " . Harrison then handed the spotlight over to Preston , who performed his only sizeable hit ( thus far ) , " That 's the Way God Planned It " , followed by Starr , whose song " It Don 't Come Easy " had recently established the drummer as a solo artist . Nicholas Schaffner was in the audience for this first show and later described Starr 's turn as having received the " biggest ovation " of the afternoon .
Next up was Harrison 's " Beware of Darkness " , with guest vocals on the third verse by Russell , who covered the song on his concurrent album , Leon Russell and the Shelter People ( 1971 ) . After pausing to introduce the band , Harrison followed this with one of the best @-@ received moments in both the shows – a charging version of the White Album track " While My Guitar Gently Weeps " , featuring him and Clapton " duelling " on lead guitar during the long instrumental playout . Both the band introduction and " While My Guitar Gently Weeps " are among the few selections from the afternoon show that were included on the album and in the film . Another one was Leon Russell 's medley of the Rolling Stones ' " Jumpin ' Jack Flash " and the Coasters ' " Young Blood " , which was also a highlight of Russell 's live shows at the time . With Don Preston crossing the stage to play lead guitar with Harrison , there were now temporarily four electric guitarists in the line @-@ up . Don Preston , Harrison and Claudia Linnear supplied supporting vocals behind Russell .
In an effective change of pace , Harrison picked up his acoustic guitar , now alone on the stage save for Pete Ham on a second capo @-@ ed acoustic , and Don Nix 's gospel choir , off to stage @-@ left . The ensuing " Here Comes the Sun " – the first live performance of the song , as for Harrison 's other Beatle compositions played that day – was also warmly received . At this point , Harrison switched back to his white Fender Stratocaster electric guitar and , as recounted to Anthony DeCurtis in 1987 , he looked down at the setlist taped to the body of the guitar and saw the word " Bob " followed by a question mark . " And I looked around , " Harrison recalled of Bob Dylan 's entrance , " and he was so nervous – he had his guitar on and his shades – he was sort of coming on , coming [ pumps his arms and shoulders ] ... It was only at that moment that I knew for sure he was going to do it . " Among the audience , Schaffner wrote , there was " total astonishment " at this new arrival .
As Harrison had envisaged , Dylan 's mini @-@ set was the crowning glory of the Concert for Bangladesh for many observers . Backed by just Harrison , Russell ( now playing Voormann 's Fender Precision bass ) and Starr on tambourine , Dylan played five of his decade @-@ defining songs from the 1960s : " A Hard Rain 's A @-@ Gonna Fall " , " Blowin ' in the Wind " , " It Takes a Lot to Laugh , It Takes a Train to Cry " , " Love Minus Zero / No Limit " and " Just Like a Woman " .
Harrison and the band then returned to perform a final segment , consisting of " Hear Me Lord " and his recent international number 1 hit , " My Sweet Lord " , followed by the song of the moment – " Bangla Desh " .
= = = Evening show = = =
Harrison was reportedly delighted with the outcome of the first show , as was Dylan , who accompanied him back to the Park Lane Hotel afterwards . They discussed possible changes to the setlist for the evening performance , beginning at 8 pm .
The songs played and their sequence differed slightly between the first and second shows , most noticeably with Harrison 's opening and closing mini @-@ sets . After " Wah @-@ Wah " , he brought " My Sweet Lord " forward in the order , followed by " Awaiting on You All " , before handing over to Billy Preston . The afternoon 's " creaky " " Hear Me Lord " was dropped , so that the post @-@ Dylan band segment consisted of only two numbers : " Something " , to close the show , and a particularly passionate reading of " Bangla Desh " , as an encore . Dylan likewise made some changes , swapping " Blowin ' in the Wind " and " It Takes a Lot to Laugh " in the order , and then playing a well @-@ received " Mr. Tambourine Man " in place of " Love Minus Zero " .
The second show was widely acknowledged as superior to the afternoon performance , although Village Voice reviewer Don Heckman noted that many in the audience reacted to the Shankar – Khan opening set with a lack of respect . Not aiding the Indian musicians was the failure of a microphone on Rakha 's hand drums , Heckman observed , so denying the crowd a vital element of the musical interplay between sitar and sarod .
During the Western portion of the show , Harrison 's voice was more confident this time around , the music " perhaps slightly more lustrous " , according to Rolling Stone . Towards the end of " That 's the Way God Planned It " , Preston felt compelled to get up from behind his Hammond organ and take a show @-@ stealing boogie across the front of the stage .
Dylan 's walk @-@ on was again the show 's " real cortex @-@ snapping moment " , Heckman opined . Dylan finished his final song , " Just Like a Woman " , with a victorious salute – " holding up both fists like a strongman " , Rolling Stone 's reviewer remarked shortly afterwards . Following Dylan 's set , Harrison introduced the band , before taking the show " to yet another peak " with " Something " . Watching from the wings , Pattie Harrison described her husband 's performance throughout that evening as " magnificent " .
Following the two sellout concerts , all the participants attended a celebratory party in a basement club known as Ungano 's . Dylan was so elated , Harrison recalled sixteen years later , " he picked me up and hugged me and he said , ' God ! If only we 'd done three shows ! ' " Like Harrison , the experience of playing at Madison Square that day did not lead to Dylan immediately re @-@ embracing the concert stage ; only a brief guest appearance with the Band on New Year 's Eve 1971 – 72 and sitting in during a John Prine club gig eventuated before he returned to touring in January 1974 .
The post @-@ concert party featured live performances from Harrison and Preston , after which a " roaring drunk " Phil Spector played a " unique " version of " Da Doo Ron Ron " . The celebrations broke up in the early hours once Keith Moon of the Who began smashing up the drum kit , which actually belonged to Badfinger 's Mike Gibbins .
= = Reviews = =
Harrison 's manager , Allen Klein , immediately boasted of the entirely peaceful nature of the event : " There was no rioting . Not one policeman was allowed in there ... Zero ! " In fact , as reported in The Village Voice on 12 August , midway through the evening show , a crowd of 200 non @-@ ticket @-@ holders charged and broke through the doors of Madison Square Garden . Aside from this episode , press reports concerning the Concert for Bangladesh shows were overwhelmingly positive .
The appearance of Bob Dylan on the same stage as two former Beatles caused a sensation , and lavish praise was bestowed on George Harrison . " Beatlemania Sweeps a City ! " was a typical headline , and in Britain the NME declared the concerts " The Greatest Rock Spectacle of the Decade ! " Billboard described the artists ' performances as " their best music ever " and commented on the likelihood of a live album from the concerts : " there is no politics involved . What is involved is starving children and for once , relief through 35 musicians who should represent the feeling of anyone who loves their music . "
Dylan 's choice of songs , particularly the " apocalyptic " " A Hard Rain 's A @-@ Gonna Fall " , were found to have a new relevance in the context of the early 1970s – the words made " the more chilling for the passage of years " , opined Rolling Stone . The same publication stated of Starr 's contribution : " Seeing Ringo Starr drumming and singing on stage has a joy in it that is one of the happiest feelings on earth still . " Ravi Shankar 's role as concert instigator and the true conscience of the UNICEF shows was also noted . Musically , The Village Voice observed , the pairing of Shankar and Ali Akbar Khan was " almost as unique as the mix of Dylan and Harrison " .
In the wider countercultural context of the time , with disillusion increasingly rife with each post @-@ Woodstock rock event , commentators viewed the concerts as , in the words of Rolling Stone , " a brief incandescent revival of all that was best about the Sixties " . Writing in 1981 , NME critic Bob Woffinden likened it to a " rediscovery of faith " , adding : " Harrison had put rock music back on course . " Among Harrison 's biographers , Alan Clayson describes the 1971 – 72 period covering the concerts and their associated releases as " the George Harrison Moment " , while Gary Tillery has written : " The Concert for Bangladesh sealed Harrison 's stature as something more than just a major celebrity ... He changed the perception of recording artists , making it clear they could be good world citizens too – willing to set aside their egos and paychecks in order to help people who were suffering . "
= = Aftermath = =
Politically , as Bangladeshi historian Farida Majid would note , the " warmth , care and goodwill " of the August 1971 concerts " echoed all over the world " , inspiring volunteers to approach UNICEF and offer their assistance , as well as eliciting private donations to the Bangladesh disaster fund . Although the altruistic spirit would soon wane once more , the Concert for Bangladesh is invariably seen as the inspiration and model for subsequent rock charity benefits , from 1985 's Live Aid and Farm Aid to the Concert for New York City and Live 8 in the twenty @-@ first century . Unlike those later concerts , which benefitted from continuous media coverage of the causes they supported , the Harrison – Shankar project was responsible for identifying the problem and establishing Bangladesh 's plight in the minds of mainstream Western society . According to Gary Tillery : " Because of its positioning as a humanitarian effort , all descriptions of the show included a summary of the catastrophe in South Asia . Overnight , because of their fascination with rock stars , masses of people became educated about geopolitical events they had not even been aware of the week before . The tragedy in Bangladesh moved to the fore as an international issue . " One of these revelations was that America was supplying weaponry and financial aid to the Pakistani army , led by General Yahya Khan .
Harrison 's musical biographer , Simon Leng , identifies friendship as the key factor behind the success of the two UNICEF shows , both in bringing all the participants together on the stage and in the affection with which the audience and music critics viewed the event . Klaus Voormann , a close friend of Harrison 's since 1960 , has often cited this quality as well .
Friendship played out through the next , significantly more lucrative stages of the Bangladesh relief project , as the associated live album and concert film were prepared for release . Harrison had assured all the main performers that their appearance would be removed from these releases if the event turned out " lousy " , to save anyone having to risk possible embarrassment . Having sent out personalised letters of thanks to all the participants on 1 September , he expressed his gratitude further by guesting on Billy Preston 's first album on A & M Records that autumn and donating a new song to Jesse Ed Davis .
Around the same time , there were rumours of a possible repeat of the New York concert triumph , to be held at London 's Wembley Stadium in early October . Harrison and Klein quashed the idea , but an English version of the Concert for Bangladesh did take place , on 18 September , before 30 @,@ 000 fans at The Oval in south London , with a bill featuring the likes of the Who , the Faces , Mott the Hoople , America and Lindisfarne . On 22 September , George and Pattie Harrison arrived home in the UK , with mixing having been completed on the upcoming live album , and Harrison due to meet with Patrick Jenkin of the British Treasury , to deal with the unforeseen obstacle of a " purchase tax " being levied on the album . This was one of a number of problems that hindered Harrison 's Bangladesh project following the Madison Square Garden shows , and the British politician would allegedly tell him : " Sorry ! It is all very well for your high ideals , but Britain equally needs the money ! "
On 5 June 1972 , in recognition of their " pioneering " fundraising efforts for the refugees of Bangladesh , George Harrison , Ravi Shankar and Allen Klein were jointly honoured by UNICEF with its " Child Is the Father of the Man " award . In 2008 , moves were under way in the Bangladeshi High Court to have Harrison officially recognised and honoured as a hero for his role during the troubled birth of the nation .
= = Funds and controversy = =
The two Madison Square Garden shows raised US $ 243 @,@ 418 @.@ 50 , which was given to UNICEF to administer on 12 August 1971 . By December , Capitol Records presented a cheque to Apple Corps for around $ 3 @,@ 750 @,@ 000 for advance sales of the Concert for Bangladesh live album .
Aside from complaints regarding the high retail price for the three @-@ record set , particularly in Britain – a result of the government 's refusal to waive its tax surcharge – controversy soon surrounded the project 's fundraising . Because the event had not been registered as a UNICEF benefit beforehand , and was therefore not granted tax @-@ exempt status – the blame for which Harrison lay squarely at Klein 's feet – most of the money generated was held in an Internal Revenue Service escrow account for ten years . In interview with Derek Taylor for his autobiography in the late 1970s , Harrison put this figure at somewhere between $ 8 million and $ 10 million . Before then , in early 1972 , New York magazine reported that some of the proceeds remained unaccounted for and had found their way into Klein 's accounts . Klein responded by suing the magazine for $ 150 million in damages , and although the suit was later withdrawn , the accusations attracted unwelcome scrutiny at a time when questions were also being asked about Klein 's mismanagement of The Beatles ' finances . That year , an estimated $ 2 million had gone to the refugees via UNICEF before the IRS audit of Apple got under way ; finally , in 1981 , $ 8 @.@ 8 million was added to that total following the audit .
By June 1985 , according to an article in the Los Angeles Times , nearly $ 12 million had been sent to Bangladesh for relief . Around this time , Harrison would give Bob Geldof " meticulous advice " to help ensure that Live Aid 's estimated £ 50 million found its way , as intended , to victims of the Ethiopian famine .
Speaking in the 1990s , Harrison said of the Bangladesh relief effort : " Now it 's all settled and the UN own the rights to it themselves , and I think there 's been about 45 million dollars made . " Sales of the DVD and CD of the 1971 Concert for Bangladesh continue to benefit the cause , now known as the George Harrison Fund for UNICEF .
= = In popular culture = =
The Concert for Bangladesh was satirised in two episodes of
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The Simpsons : " Like Father , Like Clown " and " I 'm with Cupid " . In the former , Krusty plays the album while a visitor at the Simpsons household . In " I 'm with Cupid " , Apu 's record collection contains The Concert Against Bangladesh , which features a picture of a mushroom cloud on the cover , reflecting Indian − Pakistani nuclear rivalry in the region . ( In fact , India supported Bangladesh during its struggle for independence . )
The July 1974 ( " Dessert " ) issue of National Lampoon magazine satirised Tom Wilkes ' original cover design for The Concert for Bangladesh , by using a chocolate version of the starving child , the head of which has had a bite taken out of it . Two years before this , the National Lampoon team spoofed Harrison 's humanitarian role on record , in their track " The Concert in Bangla Desh " on the Radio Dinner album . In the sketch , two Bangladeshi stand @-@ up comedians ( played by Tony Hendra and Christopher Guest ) perform to starving refugees in an attempt to collect a bowlful of rice so that George Harrison can mount a hunger strike .
Crowd noises from the Concert for Bangladesh were put into Aerosmith 's cover of " Train Kept A @-@ Rollin ' " by producer Jack Douglas . Some of stills photographer Barry Feinstein 's shots from the 1971 concerts were used on the covers of subsequent albums by the participating artists , notably the compilations Bob Dylan 's Greatest Hits Vol . II and The History of Eric Clapton .
George Harrison himself sent up the benefit @-@ show concept on film , in the Dick Clement @-@ directed HandMade comedy Water , in 1985 . At the so @-@ called Concert for Cascara , he along with Ringo Starr , Eric Clapton , Jon Lord and others make a surprise appearance on stage , supposedly before the United Nations General Assembly , performing the song " Freedom " .
= 1940 Louisiana hurricane =
The 1940 Louisiana hurricane caused record flooding across much of the Southern United States in August 1940 . The second tropical cyclone and hurricane of the annual hurricane season , it formed from a frontal low off the west coast of Florida on August 3 . Initially a weak disturbance , it moved generally westward , slowly gaining in intensity . Early on August 4 , the depression attained tropical storm intensity . Ships in the vicinity of the storm reported a much stronger tropical cyclone than initially suggested . After reaching hurricane strength on August 5 south of the Mississippi River Delta , the storm strengthened further into a Category 2 hurricane with maximum sustained winds of 100 mph and a minimum barometric pressure of 972 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 71 inHg ) at 0600 UTC on August 7 . The hurricane moved ashore near Sabine Pass , Texas later that day at peak strength . Once inland , the storm executed a sharp curve to the north and quickly weakened , degenerating into a tropical storm on August 8 before dissipating over Arkansas on August 10 .
Reports of a potentially destructive hurricane near the United States Gulf Coast forced thousands of residents in low @-@ lying areas to evacuate prior to the storm moving inland . Offshore , the hurricane generated rough seas and a strong storm surge , peaking at 6 @.@ 4 ft ( 1 @.@ 95 m ) on the western edge of Lake Pontchartrain . The anomalously high tides flooded many of Louisiana 's outlying islands , inundating resorts . Strong winds caused moderate infrastructural damage , primarily in Texas , though its impact was mainly to communication networks along the US Gulf Coast which were disrupted by the winds . However , much of the property and crop damage wrought by the hurricane was due to the torrential rainfall it produced in low @-@ lying areas , setting off record floods . Rainfall peaked at 37 @.@ 5 in ( 953 mm ) in Miller Island off Louisiana , making it the wettest tropical cyclone in state history . Nineteen official weather stations in both Texas and Louisiana recorded 24 @-@ hour rainfall totals for the month of August as a result of the slow @-@ moving hurricane . Property , livestock , and crops – especially cotton , corn , and pecan crops – were heavily damaged . Entire ecosystems were also altered by the rainfall . Overall , the storm caused $ 10 @.@ 75 million in damages and seven fatalities .
= = Meteorological history = =
In early August , an extratropical trough moved off the coast of South Carolina and Georgia , with a stationary front extending from it . A weak low @-@ pressure area began to develop at the southern end of the front just offshore of Jacksonville , Florida . Initially , the storm had an open center of circulation and remained a frontal low as it moved southwestward across Florida , and thus was not considered a fully tropical system at the time . Upon entering the Gulf of Mexico , however , observations indicated that the disturbance developed a closed center of circulation . As a result , the storm was analyzed to have developed into a tropical depression off the western coast of Florida at 1200 UTC on August 3 . At the time , weather reports revealed a definite cyclonic rotation , though the depression had a shallow minimum barometric pressure of 1012 @.@ 5 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 90 inHg ) . Moving west @-@ southwest , the depression steadily intensified and attained tropical storm intensity at 0000 UTC on August 4 . Late that evening , the tropical storm executed a slight northward curve . Strengthening continued into the following day , and ships in the storm 's vicinity began to report a much stronger storm than was previously suggested . A ship reported the first gale @-@ force winds associated with the storm at 2100 UTC on August 4 . The S.S. Connecticut observed force 11 winds , the strongest wind measurement associated with the storm as recorded by vessel . A minimum pressure of 995 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 39 inHg ) was analyzed for the system at 0600 UTC on August 5 based on an observation from a nearby ship .
At 1800 UTC on August 5 , the storm strengthened to hurricane strength , the first tropical cyclone of the season to do so . At the time , the hurricane was moving very slowly westward , allowing it to strengthen despite its close proximity to land . The hurricane reached Category 2 intensity by 0600 UTC on August 7 . The storm made landfall at peak intensity at around 2100 UTC later that day near Sabine Pass , Texas . At the time , the hurricane had maximum sustained winds of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) , with the storm 's maximum winds extending out 10 mi ( 15 km ) from its center . A weather station in Sabine Pass recorded a barometric pressure of 972 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 71 inHg ) , which was analyzed to have been the lowest pressure measured in association with the storm . After moving inland , the storm immediately curved northward and began to gradually weaken . At 0600 UTC on August 8 , the cyclone weakened to tropical storm strength while situated over East Texas , and later degenerated to a tropical depression by 1200 UTC the following day . The depression persisted into Arkansas , where it transitioned into a trough of low pressure at 1800 UTC on August 10 after its center of circulation lacked the well @-@ defined closed circulation characteristic of tropical cyclones .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Upon reaching hurricane strength off the United States Gulf Coast , hurricane warnings were issued for coastal regions from Lake Charles , Louisiana to Sabine Pass , Texas on August 7 . Storm warnings were placed for areas east of Lake Charles to Grand Isle , Louisiana and areas west of Sabine Pass to Velasco , Texas . Offshore vessels were also warned of the storm in areas between Bay St. Louis , Mississippi and Galveston , Texas . At the time , the hurricane was forecast to make landfall slightly east of Port Arthur , Texas . In Texas , these warnings were delivered to residents via factory whistles . Evacuation procedures also began as a result of the approaching storm . The Spindletop near Beaumont , Texas and other nearby oil fields were evacuated . Coastal cities near Port Arthur , Texas were also evacuated by state highway police . Evacuees took shelter in refitted schools nearby . In the New Orleans , Louisiana area , several thousand residents were evacuated in advance of the storm . On Delacroix Island , Louisiana , 1 @,@ 000 residents evacuated . Rail and airline operations were halted as a precautionary measure , but were later resumed after the storm passed . All storm warnings were ceased by midnight on August 8 .
Even before making landfall , the hurricane caused extensive damage in Louisiana , due in part to the hurricane 's slow speed and close proximity to the state coast . Winds as high as 60 mph ( 100 km / h ) brushed the coastline , causing extensive damage . Storm surge pushed coastal waters to near @-@ record heights , inundating low @-@ lying areas . Near Morgan City , Louisiana , 19 people went missing after going on a fishing trip ; they were later found marooned at Atchafalaya Basin . The schooner J.W. Clise was abandoned during the storm 135 mi ( 215 km ) south of the Mississippi River Delta , though its crew was also later rescued . Storm surge peaked at 6 @.@ 4 ft ( 1 @.@ 95 m ) above @-@ average in western portions of Lake Pontchartrain . A bridge crossing Thunder Bayou , which extended west of the lake , was washed out by the waves . Similarly , a station at Calcasieu Pass reported a storm surge 4 @.@ 8 ft ( 1 @.@ 46 m ) high . Conservation officials feared the disturbance would disrupt the seafood and muskrat production . After the storm , it was estimated 75 @,@ 000 muskrats were killed by the storm 's effects . Offshore , Grand Isle was inundated by the strong waves . Around Houma , sugar cane crops were damaged . The hurricane was the strongest to impact Cameron since the tenth hurricane of the 1886 Atlantic hurricane season ; strong gusts peaked at 70 mph ( 115 km / h ) , disrupting communication lines , thus isolating the city from other locations in the state . The high tides inundated town streets under 2 ft ( 0 @.@ 6 m ) . Other areas extending from western Louisiana to Mobile , Alabama reported communication disruptions . In New Orleans , strong winds uprooted signboards and blew debris across the city streets . Several houses in Shell Beach and Delacroix Island were leveled by strong winds .
Due to the storm 's slow movement just offshore the Louisiana coast , the hurricane became the wettest tropical cyclone in state history , with numerous locations reporting record rainfall across the state . Of the state 's ten highest official rainfall measurements associated with tropical cyclones , the two highest were measurements taken during the hurricane . Precipitation peaked at 37 @.@ 5 in ( 953 mm ) on Miller Island . For any given 20 @,@ 000 mi2 ( 50 @,@ 000 km / h2 ) area of Louisiana , the maximum rainfall averaged 12 @.@ 1 in ( 307 @.@ 3 mm ) . Thirteen official weather stations in the state reported monthly 24 @-@ hour rainfall total records . The highest of these was in Crowley , where 19 @.@ 76 in ( 501 @.@ 9 mm ) of precipitation fell on August 9 ; the station would record 33 @.@ 71 in ( 856 @.@ 2 mm ) of rain over the course of the storm . The torrential rainfall submerged the city under 2 ft ( 0 @.@ 6 m ) of floodwater . In Cameron , the storm dropped 21 in ( 533 mm ) of rain was reported . In St. Landry Parish , bayous flowed over their banks , causing refugees to evacuate to Opelousas . In the Acadiana region of southern Louisiana , the resulting floods were considered worse than the floods that resulted from the Sauvé 's Crevasse in 1927 . There , whooping crane populations were severely impacted by the rainfall , and only one was known to be alive by 1947 . The floods inundated roughly 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 acres ( 800 @,@ 000 hectares ) of land in Louisiana . Much of the lowland areas remained underwater until October 1940 . As a result , cotton and corn crops experienced significant losses , as well as pecans . Livestock also saw large losses . Impassable areas caused by rising floodwaters prevented firefighters from extinguishing a fire which burned down much of the Shell Oil Company 's offices and supply warehouses in the town of Iowa . Across the state , the hurricane caused $ 9 million in damages , though only six fatalities resulted , relatively less than most storms of similar scale . The low death count was attributed to large evacuation procedures which underwent prior to the storm , as well as guidance provided from the newly opened Weather Bureau east of Lake Charles .
In East Texas , where the hurricane made landfall late on August 7 , strong winds were felt across the region . Sustained winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) were widespread , with occasional gusts peaking in excess of 90 mph ( 145 km / h ) . In Port Arthur , a barometer recorded a minimum pressure of 978 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 87 inHg ) , establishing a new record for the lowest pressure measured by the particular weather station . The same station recorded 5 @.@ 87 in ( 149 @.@ 1 mm ) of rainfall . Elsewhere in Port Arthur , strong winds caused significant damage to local oil refineries , with slight to moderate damage to other homes and businesses . Six people were injured in the city . Property damage in Jefferson County , containing Port Arthur and nearby suburbs , was estimated at $ 1 million . The city 's communication and power service was cut during the storm . A weather station near Sabine Pass recorded a similarly low pressure of 973 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 74 inHg ) . In Sabine Pass , strong winds unroofed houses , uprooted trees , and destroyed billboards . At the nearby Ged Oil Field , four wooden oil derricks were blown down . In Beaumont , three people were injured due to flying window and structural debris . Further inland , the hurricane produced considerable rainfall , though relatively less than in Louisiana . Six weather stations in the state set new 24 – hour precipitation records for August . A measurement of 6 @.@ 99 in ( 177 @.@ 4 mm ) on August 8 in Kirbyville was the highest of these records . However , maximum rainfall in the state was estimated to be in excess of 10 in ( 255 mm ) . The rice crop was particularly damaged by the rainfall . In Jefferson County , crop damage was estimated between $ 450 @,@ 000 – $ 500 @,@ 000 . In Texas , the hurricane caused $ 1 @.@ 75 million in damages and resulted in one fatality .
= 1995 India cyclone =
In November 1995 , a tropical cyclone struck southeastern India and later spawned a rare snowstorm in Nepal , triggering the deadliest mountain trekking incident in the country 's history . The storm originated from the monsoon trough on November 7 in the Bay of Bengal , east of India , becoming the penultimate storm of the 1995 North Indian Ocean cyclone season . Moving northwestward , the system gradually intensified while moving toward land , eventually developing an eye in the middle of the convection . Reaching peak winds of at least 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) , the India Meteorological Department ( IMD ) classified the system as a very severe cyclonic storm on November 8 , in line with intensity estimates from the American @-@ based Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) . On November 9 , the cyclone made landfall near the border of Andhra Pradesh and Orissa . Atypical for most November storms , the system continued to the north and dissipated over Nepal on November 11 .
In India , the cyclone 's strong winds were accompanied by heavy rainfall and a storm surge of 1 @.@ 5 m ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) that inundated the coastline several hundred feet inland . Power lines , crops , and houses were damaged , and many boats were damaged , causing several nautical fatalities . The cyclone killed at least 128 people in India , with hundreds remaining unaccounted for , and damage was estimated at RS $ 1 @.@ 1 billion ( US $ 32 @.@ 2 million ) . In neighboring Bangladesh , high waves killed 45 people after sinking or sweeping away four ships . The cyclone later spawned a rare November snowstorm across eastern Nepal , with depths reaching 2 @,@ 000 mm ( 79 in ) . The snowfall occurred without warning amid the busy mountain trekking season , and there were several avalanches and landslides across the country . One such incident killed 24 people at a lodge near Gokyo , and there were 63 deaths related to the cyclone in the country . The Nepal government launched the largest search and rescue mission in the country 's history , rescuing 450 people , some of whom trapped for days in the snow .
= = Meteorological history = =
In early November 1995 , the monsoon trough was active across the Bay of Bengal , with several associated circulations . A disturbance near the Andaman Islands became the focus of the overall system on November 6 . Located south of the subtropical ridge , the system moved to the west @-@ northwest . Based on the improved organization , the JTWC issued a tropical cyclone formation alert late on November 6 , and at 00 : 00 UTC the next day initiated advisories on Tropical Cyclone 03B just west of the Andaman Islands . Six hours later , the IMD likewise classified the system as a depression .
After development , the depression steadily intensified while moving through the Bay of Bengal ; rounding the ridge , it accelerated and turned more to the northwest . The IMD upgraded the system to a deep depression by 12 : 00 UTC on November 7 , and further to a cyclonic storm by 00 : 00 UTC on the following day . The convection , or thunderstorms , organized into a comma @-@ like structure , which further evolved into a central dense overcast . Intensification was also aided by increased upper @-@ level divergence , or the increased upward movement of air . At 09 : 00 UTC on November 8 , the IMD upgraded the system to a severe cyclonic storm , and six hours later to a very severe cyclonic storm . By that time , an eye had developed , described by the IMD as a " banding @-@ type eye " . As such , the agency estimated peak 3 minute sustained winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) . The minimum barometric pressure was estimated at 978 mbar ( 28 @.@ 9 inHg ) . The JTWC estimated slightly higher 1 minute winds of 130 km / h ( 80 mph ) .
Around 05 : 00 UTC on November 9 , the cyclone made landfall at peak intensity in eastern India , near the state borders of Andhra Pradesh and Odisha , and close to the city of Ichchapuram . Although the IMD officially estimated peak winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) , winds could have been as high as 150 km / h ( 95 mph ) , based on the damage and estimates from the Dvorak technique . After moving ashore , the storm turned more to the north and rapidly weakened over land . By 12 : 00 UTC on November 9 , the JTWC discontinued advisories . The storm weakened into a depression over the northern Bihar state early on November 10 . On the next day , the system degenerated into a remnant low , by which time the system had turned to the northeast and spread into Nepal . The circulation dissipated , although moisture and convection from the storm spread through Nepal .
= = Impact = =
Moving ashore eastern India , the cyclone brought strong winds , with a peak gust of 115 km / h ( 68 mph ) at the Visakhapatnam Airport , well southwest of the landfall location . Winds in Gopalpur , Odisha were estimated at 130 km / h ( 80 mph ) . The lowest barometric pressure in India was 982 @.@ 1 mbar ( 29 @.@ 00 inHg ) in Kalingapatnam . The storm produced a storm surge of 1 @.@ 5 m ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) , which spread several hundred feet inland . In addition to the winds and surge , the cyclone dropped heavy rainfall along its path , particularly in Andhra Pradesh and Odisha , peaking at over 200 mm ( 8 in ) .
Along the Indian coast from Andhra Pradesh to West Bengal , 2 @,@ 688 boats were damaged , accounting for 48 fishermen deaths in Visakhapatnam alone . An Indian Coast Guard ship was washed ashore near Bhubaneswar , trapping the crew inside until they were rescued . In Andhra Pradesh , the high winds damaged 21 km ( 13 mi ) of power lines , affecting 12 @,@ 733 electrical units . The storm damaged 27 @,@ 945 houses , mostly in Orissa . In the state , the storm 's high winds and rainfall wrecked stalls for a festival in Paradip , and canceled a test cricket match in Cuttack to be held between India and New Zealand . There was also widespread crop damage on 11 @,@ 043 @,@ 653 ha ( 27 @,@ 289 @,@ 460 acres ) of crop fields . In West Bengal , paddy crops , mustard trees , and potatoes were damaged . Throughout India , the cyclone killed 73 people , with 402 people missing after the storm . The International Disaster Database indicated that the storm killed 128 people and caused US $ 46 @.@ 3 million in damage .
Farther east , officials in Bangladesh evacuated residents along offshore islands , while boats were ordered to return to the coast . The storm ultimately produced 60 to 80 km / h ( 37 to 50 mph ) winds along with heavy rainfall in the country . High seas , reaching 5 @.@ 5 m ( 18 ft ) in height , capsized a boat in the Chunkuri River and left three other boats missing , killing 45 people . The waves also flooded about 3 @,@ 000 ha ( 7 @,@ 400 acres ) of crop fields .
Atypical for November , the storm continued northward and became the most intense cyclone to affect Nepal in the autumn in 50 years . The country 's Department of Meteorology did not issue warnings for the storm , as no mountain trekking teams requested a forecast . As a result , many mountain climbers and guides were caught off guard , and thousands of mountaineers from around the world were in the region when the cyclone struck . When the energy from the storm spread into the Himalayan Mountains of Nepal , a process known as orographic lift occurred , whereby the moisture coalesced in mountainous regions . At elevations generally below 3 @,@ 500 m ( 11 @,@ 500 ft ) , the precipitation resulted in 50 to 200 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 to 7 @.@ 9 in ) of rainfall , reaching 220 mm ( 8 @.@ 7 in ) in Dhankuta . In some areas , totals were 3 @,@ 000 % of the average November rainfall , which is usually a dry month . At higher elevations , the precipitation caused intense snowfall , reaching up to 2 @,@ 000 mm ( 79 in ) deep in Dingboche . Gorakshep recorded 1 @,@ 200 mm ( 47 in ) of snowfall . The Khumbu region of eastern Nepal received rare snowfall , as it is normally part of a rain shadow . The village of Thame was buried for eight days until people could travel freely again ; the rarity of the snowfall meant that residents did not have skis or snow shoes . By November 14 , or five days after the arrival of the storm , the snow had receded .
The heavy snowfall across Nepal produced landslides and avalanches , mostly on November 10 and into the following day . Near Gokyo , two avalanches combined and destroyed a lodge housing 25 mountain climbers , killing all but one ; the survivor was rescued after being trapped for 40 hours . The hikers were climbing Gokyo Ri , a mountain 18 km ( 11 mi ) southeast of Mount Everest . This marked the deadliest avalanche in Nepal to affect a hiking expedition . Another avalanche killed seven people in Kangchenjunga . With levels reaching as high as the roofs of houses , the heavy snowfall damaged the roofs of several buildings , including one school , and killed about 100 animals . Across the country , the storm killed 63 people , 33 of them related to avalanches , including 22 foreigners , although the Trekking Workers ' Association believed the death toll was higher . Several of the deaths were the result of collapsed houses , while others were the result of people freezing to death . The Mani Rimdu festival likely prevented additional deaths , as over 1 @,@ 000 residents in the hardest hit areas left for the ceremony . After the snowfall , the Nepal government coordinated the largest search and rescue mission in the country 's history , utilizing helicopters to rescue 450 stranded people , encompassing an area of 600 km2 ( 230 sq mi ) , before the mission was ended on November 15 . Several of the rescued people required medical attention . Stranded victims had to stay in the snow for a day and a half before being spotted and rescued , and inclement weather disrupted efforts .
= Harry Potter and the Forbidden Journey =
Harry Potter and the Forbidden Journey is a motion @-@ based dark ride located in The Wizarding World of Harry Potter themed areas of Islands of Adventure in Orlando , Florida , Universal Studios Hollywood in Universal City , California , and Universal Studios Japan in Osaka , Japan . The ride takes guests through scenes and environments in and around Hogwarts Castle from the Harry Potter series of books and films . Mark Woodbury , president of Universal Creative , described the ride as an in @-@ depth look at the world of Harry Potter , which utilizes never before seen technology which transforms " the theme park experience as you know it " . The ride first opened at Islands of Adventure with The Wizarding World of Harry Potter on June 18 , 2010 , at Universal Studios Japan on July 15 , 2014 and at Universal Studios Hollywood on April 7 , 2016 .
= = Summary = =
This summary describes the attraction at Islands of Adventure . The attraction at Universal Studios Hollywood may have significant differences , mainly the integration of 3D technology .
Harry Potter and the Forbidden Journey uses KUKA robocoaster technology , which allows the seats to pivot while being held above the track by a robotic arm . However , the ride is not a roller coaster but a scenic dark ride . The experience includes a flight around Hogwarts castle , an encounter with the Whomping Willow and a horde of Dementors , and a Quidditch match . The ride drops , spins around , twists and turns , but does not turn upside down , though passengers sometimes lie flat on their backs . Over @-@ the @-@ shoulder bars are used to secure guests in their seats , and a single parabolic metal bar is used as a hand grip . At the conclusion of the ride , guests exit into " Filch 's Emporium of Confiscated Goods " gift shop . As of September 2015 , Universal Express Pass is not available for this attraction , but a single rider queue is available .
= = = Queue area = = =
To enter the ride , guests walk through the gates of Hogwarts and begin their journey in the dungeons where they see items featured in the movies and books . Passengers enter through the castle doors , go to the lockers , queue outside in the green house and then enter the back castle doors . Objects recognizable from the series include the Mirror of Erised , the Hogwarts House Jewels and talking portraits . As guests proceed throughout the hallways , they encounter replicas of the rooms of Hogwarts castle , including the Headmaster 's office , the Defence Against the Dark Arts classroom and the Gryffindor common room . In the Headmaster 's office , Professor Dumbledore extends a warm welcome to all Muggles , informing them that Professor Binns is hosting a lecture on the history of the school . In the Defence Against the Dark Arts classroom , Harry , Ron , and Hermione appear from under the Invisibility Cloak , urging guests to meet them in the Room of Requirement in order to sneak everyone down to a Quidditch match . Ron tries to perform a magic trick which goes wrong , and one of several special effects , such as falling snow , is triggered . Before continuing on , visitors receive a safety reminder from the Sorting Hat and several paintings in the next two rooms .
= = = Station = = =
Next , riders board an enchanted bench inside the Room of Requirement , which lifts off the ground and through the Floo Network for a journey with Harry . The ride combines real sets and animatronics with segments that use wrap @-@ around projection screens .
= = = Ride = = =
The ride begins with a dousing of Floo Powder from Hermione Granger , who asks the guests to say , " Observatory " in order to transport them to their desired location , and the enchanted bench flies off through the Floo Network to the Astronomy Tower . The guests leave the room of requirement through its fireplace and enter the Observatory , where they look out through the open arches to the hills and lake outside Hogwarts ' boundary . As the guests fly out of one of the Observatory 's arches , the ride smoothly switches to a wrap @-@ around projection screen and they follow Harry Potter and Ron Weasley around Hogwarts ' buildings and towers to a Quidditch match . As Harry and Ron travel under a bridge , Hagrid yields the riders and asks them if they have seen a dragon . As Harry redirects the riders ' attentions back to their journey , Hagrid 's pet Hungarian Horntail dragon begins to chase the riders . The bench flies out of the projection screen and into a set of the uneven bridge that crosses the valley behind Hogwarts and , after falling out of a hole in the floor of the bridge , they encounter an animatronic dragon , which breaths pressurized water mist with red lighting pointed to it to make it resemble fire .
The riders descend into a set of the Forbidden Forest where they encounter a figure of Aragog a large , sentient spider who spits water at them . As Hermione tries to help the riders away from Aragog and towards the castle , encountering many spiders on the way , they encounter an animatronic Whomping Willow which swipes at them , knocking them into the Quidditch pitch . The ride returns to a projection screen as the riders become caught up in Harry 's and Ron 's game of Quidditch . As Slytherin scores into Gryffindor 's goal , Dementors arrive at the Quidditch pitch and Harry attempts to lead the riders away through the structure of the pitch and back to the school , but their bench falls into the long @-@ abandoned Chamber of Secrets through a cave entrance in a cliff which Harry , Ron , Ginny , Fawkes , and Gilderoy Lockhart departed through from the Chamber in the second Harry Potter installment . The riders return to a real set as the Dementors appear from the pipelines and chase them . The skeleton of the long @-@ deceased Basilisk lies on the floor of the Chamber , and expels Lord Voldemort 's Dark Mark into the air as the benches are drawn into the mouth of Salazar Slytherin 's statue .
Dozens of Dementors emerge from the darkness while one descends and attempts to suck out the rider 's souls . This effect is achieved by projecting the rider 's faces onto a cloud of fog in front of the Dementor , blasting cold air towards the riders , and using a heartbeat @-@ like sound played through the sub @-@ woofers built into the benches . After shaking the riders out of the trance , Harry causes the Dementors to flee with a protective Patronus charm . After the final Dementor , and while Harry uses his Patronus , the riders enter the final video dome segment , where the cliffs outside the Chamber of Secrets cave in . They fly over the Black Lake , back into Hogwarts and through the Main Hall and Grand Staircase , where they are cheered on by a series of on @-@ screen characters from the movies who appear three @-@ dimensional . Professor Dumbledore sends everyone back through the Floo Network to the Room of Requirement , where they exit their bench .
= = = Restrictions = = =
While everyone may walk through the queue , all riders must be at least 48 inches ( 120 cm ) tall . The ride has no maximum weight limit , and riders can test whether the attraction accommodates their size using test seats at the queue entrance and again at the end of the queue , which are equipped with red , yellow , and green lights that indicate whether the rider can be accommodated . Persons requiring modified seating on other rides may have difficulty closing the ride 's over @-@ the @-@ shoulder harness . If passengers are unable to secure the harness , they are not permitted to ride the attraction . In an attempt to alleviate this problem , Universal has modified the restraint system on some of the seats to accommodate larger guests . These modifications will not affect the size of the seat nor create a dangerous situation for smaller guests . Guests who receive a yellow light on the test seats may sit in modified seating . Modified seating is not available on the Hollywood version of the ride .
According to the Universal Orlando Resort Rider 's Guide , both legs must protrude from under the restraint and form a lap . In practice , above @-@ knee amputees will not be permitted to ride unless their residual natural limb reaches the edge of the seat ( or at least includes a knee ) , even if the lock @-@ bar appears to successfully engage the limb . Lower @-@ limb prosthetics will not offset this requirement since they must be removed prior to boarding the ride . These particular restrictions are not clearly posted at the ride or on the website , which lists the height requirement only . The lower limb prosthetic removal requirement can be found at the " Accessibility Information " page under " Guests with Prosthetic Limbs . " The residual limb length requirement is not listed there but will be enforced at the ride prior to boarding . Wheelchair users who are able to transfer directly to the ride vehicle may do so at a separate area , which does not contain the introductory theming of the Floo Network . Instead , wheelchair users pass through a series of unthemed elevators and corridors to arrive at the accessible loading area . Only one accessible ride vehicle is available , and each party must wait for the previous group to return before they may enter the loading area .
= = Production = =
= = = History = = =
In January 2007 , rumors arose about the possibility of a Harry Potter themed island at Universal 's Islands of Adventure theme park . This was followed by further rumors that part of the project was codenamed " Strong Arm " in reference to the KUKA robotic arm technology it would utilize . On May 31 , 2007 , Universal , in partnership with Warner Bros. , officially announced that The Wizarding World of Harry Potter would be coming to Islands of Adventure . Preparation of the site for The Wizarding World of Harry Potter began in late October 2007 , and the construction of Harry Potter and the Forbidden Journey began in February 2008 . Construction ended in the first half of 2010 . Harry Potter and the Forbidden Journey began operating on June 1 , 2010 , and officially opened to the public on June 18 , 2010 .
On December 6 , 2011 , Universal Parks & Resorts announced that it would open The Wizarding World of Harry Potter at Universal Studios Hollywood in 2016 , and that one of the attractions would be Harry Potter and the Forbidden Journey . On May 5 , 2012 , the Los Angeles Times reported that Universal Studios Japan would also be receiving a The Wizarding World of Harry Potter , with Harry Potter and the Forbidden Journey confirmed as one of the attractions . The Japanese ride opened on July 15 , 2014 and , unlike the Orlando version , uses 3 @-@ D projection .
On April 7 , 2016 , The Wizarding World of Harry Potter : Hogsmeade opened at Universal Studios Hollywood with rides Harry Potter and The Forbidden Journey and Flight of The Hippogriff debuting with the new section . Unlike its Florida counterpart , Harry Potter and the Forbidden Journey features 3D HD Technology , in which guests wear 3D " Quidditch " goggles .
= = = Ride mechanics = = =
Harry Potter and the Forbidden Journey features a RoboCoaster G2 ride system provided by Dynamic Structures , KUKA and RoboCoaster . The first generation RoboCoaster system featured KUKA robotic arm technology anchored to a stationary platform , while the second @-@ generation G2 system mounted the arms on a busbar track . The system was first publicly disclosed at the International Association of Amusement Parks and Attractions ( IAAPA ) Trade Show in 2003 . At around the same time , rumors began circulating about the possibility of Islands of Adventure adding a Van Helsing @-@ themed ride using this technology . These plans were later scrapped with Harry Potter and the Forbidden Journey ultimately using the same technology and opening on the same plot of land proposed for the Van Helsing ride . The ride 's seats are mounted on robotic arms which are in turn mounted on a track . This allows the arms to travel through the attraction while performing their movements in synchronization with the ride 's show elements ( animated props , projection surfaces , etc . ) . This concept first appeared in the 2004 International Association of Amusement Parks and Attractions ( IAAPA ) Trade Show . The disadvantage of this intricate machinery is that if the ride breaks down , some guests are stranded in uncomfortable positions , such as being tilted backwards in dark enclosed spaces .
For the three sections of the ride where wrap @-@ around projection is used , each robotic arm continues its steady movement on the track but is met by its own individual parabolic projection screen and projector traveling at exactly the same pace . Each projection section uses a huge turntable with six of these enormous screens mounted facing outwards - one for each robotic arm as they pass by - and each screen is large enough that when in front of each ride bench its edges cannot be seen . The screens appear and disappear behind the edges of the physical sets . The robotic arms can then freely dive , turn and pivot each ride bench within the curved area , giving the illusion of extreme movement when synchronized with the projection , whilst the base of the arm on the track simply follows the slow circular path that each screen takes as it revolves . This is why each projection section of the ride is approximately the same length , as each ride arm must follow each identically @-@ sized projection screen turntable for a set period of time .
= = = Design = = =
The attraction was designed by Universal Creative in association with Warner Bros. Recreation Group . Thierry Coup , who worked on The Amazing Adventures of Spider @-@ Man , Shrek 4 @-@ D and Revenge of the Mummy , was the Creative Director for the ride .
= = = Cast = = =
Harry Potter and the Forbidden Journey features many of the main characters of the film series , which were reprised by their respective actors :
Daniel Radcliffe as Harry Potter
Rupert Grint as Ron Weasley
Emma Watson as Hermione Granger
Michael Gambon as Albus Dumbledore
Robbie Coltrane as Rubeus Hagrid
Tom Felton as Draco Malfoy
Bonnie Wright as Ginny Weasley
James Phelps as Fred Weasley
Oliver Phelps as George Weasley
Warwick Davis as Professor Flitwick
Matthew Lewis as Neville Longbottom
= = Reception = =
Harry Potter and the Forbidden Journey has been widely praised for its innovation and theming . Arthur Levine of About.com stated that he felt he " had been taken to a truly magical place . For a few glorious moments , the Floo Network , flying benches , and willows that whomp seemed not just possible , but actual . " He gave the ride a rating of 5 stars out of 5 , and wrote that the ride was the best of its kind . Robert Niles of Theme Park Insider commended Universal Creative for its attention to detail on the ride . Niles wrote that the company had set its expectations almost impossibly high , and that the ride is " the most advanced and engaging attraction in theme park industry history " . Ricky Brigante of Inside the Magic described the ride as a " jaw @-@ dropping journey that no one should miss " , but criticized the lack of continuity with the story .
In Amusement Today 's annual Golden Ticket Awards , Harry Potter and the Forbidden Journey debuted as the best new ride of 2010 . It went on to win the Best Dark Ride category for five consecutive years from 2011 to 2015 .
= Eugenio Espejo =
Francisco Javier Eugenio de Santa Cruz y Espejo ( Royal Audiencia of Quito , 1747 – 95 ) was a medical pioneer , writer and lawyer of mestizo origin in colonial Ecuador . Although he was a notable scientist and writer , he stands out as a polemicist who inspired the separatist movement in Quito . He is regarded as one of the most important figures in colonial Ecuador . He was Quito 's first journalist and hygienist .
As a journalist he spread enlightened ideas in the Royal Audiencia , and as a hygienist he composed an important treatise about sanitary conditions in colonial Ecuador that included interesting remarks about microorganisms and the spreading of disease .
Espejo was noted in his time for being a satirist . His satirical works , inspired by the philosophy of the Age of Enlightenment , were critical of the lack of education of the Audiencia of Quito , the way the economy was being handled in the Audiencia , the corruption of its authorities , and aspects of its culture in general . Because of these works he was persecuted and finally imprisoned shortly before his death .
= = Historical background = =
The Royal Audiencia of Quito ( or Presidency of Quito ) was established as part of the Spanish State by Philip II of Spain on August 29 , 1563 . It was a court of the Spanish Crown with jurisdiction over certain territories of the Viceroyalty of Peru ( and later the Viceroyalty of New Granada ) that now constitute Ecuador and parts of Peru , Colombia and Brazil . The Royal Audiencia was created to strengthen administrative control over those territories and to rule the relations between whites and the natives . Its capital was the city of Quito .
By the 18th century , the Royal Audiencia of Quito began to have economic problems ; a lack of roads led to limited communications . Obrajes — a type of textile factory — had provided jobs , but now found themselves in decline , mainly due to a crackdown on smuggled European cloths and a series of natural disasters . Obrajes were replaced by haciendas , and the dominant groups continued to exploit the indigenous population .
In the Royal Audiencia , the education situation worsened after of the expulsion of the Jesuit priests ; too few learned people lived in Quito to be able to fill the void . The majority of the population neither read nor wrote well . On the other hand , the few who could enter the university were given an education which was heavily theoretical and used memorization as the primary learning technique . Scholasticism , which was in decline in these times , was still taught ; and the students spent their time in metaphysical discussions . As a result , the intellectual people in Quito — most of whom were clerical — had affected manners when expressing themselves , while having no new ideas . Furthermore , in 1793 only two medical doctors were available in Quito , of which one was Espejo ; the majority of people who fell ill were helped by curanderos . In Quito at the time , ethnic prejudice was common , and therefore most people considered society to be divided into estates of the realm , which differed by racial origin . Because of this , a person 's dignity and honor could be damaged by racial prejudices .
A slackening of social customs occurred on all social levels ; extramarital relationships and illegitimate children were common . Because poverty was on the rise — especially in the lower classes — many women were forced to find lodgings quickly , for example in convents , o . This explained the abundance of the clergy in a small city like Quito ; often men were ordained not because of a vocation but because it solved their economic problems and improved their community standing .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
He was baptized Francisco Javier Eugenio de Santa Cruz y Espejo in the El Sagrario parish on February 21 , 1747 . According to most historians , his father was Luis de la Cruz Chuzhig , a Quichua Indian from Cajamarca , who arrived in Quito as an assistant to the priest and physician José del Rosario , and his mother was Maria Catalina Aldás , a mulatta native to Quito . However , some historians , especially Carlos Freile Granizo , argue that contemporary documents imply that Espejo 's mother was white ; for instance , his parents ' marriage was recorded in the book for white marriages ( as they were deemed as criollos ) , and the birth certificates of Espejo and his siblings were entered in the same book .
Espejo had two younger siblings , Juan Pablo and María Manuela . Juan Pablo was born in 1752 ; he studied with the Dominicans and served as a priest in various parts of the Audiencia of Quito . María Manuela was born in 1753 , and after the death of her parents she came to be cared for by her brother Eugenio . Despite his family 's somewhat unstable economic situation , Espejo had a good education . He instructed himself in medicine by working alongside his father at the Hospital de la Misericordia . According to Espejo , he learned " by experience , which cannot be known without studying with pen in hand . "
Overcoming racial discrimination , he graduated from medical school on July 10 , 1767 , and shortly afterwards graduated in jurisprudence and canon law ( having studied law under Dr. Ramón Yépez from 1780 to 1793 ) . On August 14 , 1772 , he asked for permission to practice medicine in Quito , and it was granted on November 28 , 1772 . After that , no information exists about Espejo 's whereabouts until 1778 , when he wrote a somewhat polemical sermon .
= = = Activities in the Royal Audiencia = = =
= = = = Work as a polemicist = = = =
Between 1772 and 1779 , Espejo provoked the colonial authorities , who regarded him as responsible for several satirical and mocking posters . These posters were attached to the doors of churches and other buildings , and their anonymous author tended to attack the colonial authorities , the clergy or any other subject he deemed convenient . Although no surviving posters have been found , evidence from comments Espejo made in his writings suggests that he wrote them .
In 1779 , a reproachful and satirical manuscript was circulated , the El nuevo Luciano de Quito ( The New Lucian of Quito ) , signed by " don Javier de Cía , Apéstegui y Perochena , " a pseudonym for Espejo . This work imitated the satire of Lucian , and was especially unsympathetic to the Jesuits . It showed the culture of its author , who lived in the isolated and intellectually backward city of Quito . El Nuevo Luciano de Quito was written in dialogues , in order to present his ideas to the common people in an easy way , instead of using tedious explanations meant for scholars . It satirized the many defects of the society of Quito , especially the corruption of the colonial authorities and the people 's lack of education . The use of a pseudonym , a common practice in Europe and the Americas during the Age of Enlightenment , was important to Espejo . Not only did it provide anonymity , it attempted to remove any hint of his crossbreeding in a culture which granted any white person importance and prestige . His pseudonym implied that he had white or European relatives in his mother 's lineage .
Beginning in 1779 , Espejo continued writing satires against the government of the Audiencia , stirred by the condition of society . In June 1780 , Espejo wrote Marco Porcio Catón ( Marcus Porcius Cato ) , Once again , Espejo used a pseudonym , " Moisés Blancardo . " In this work , a parodied censor 's response to the Nuevo Luciano , he scorned the notions and ideas of its critics . In 1781 he wrote La ciencia blancardina , which he referred to as the second part of Nuevo Luciano , as an answer to the criticism of a Mercedarian priest from Quito . Because of his works , by 1783 he was labeled as " restive and subversive . " To get rid of him , the authorities named him head physician for the scientific expedition of Francisco de Requena to the Pará and Marañon rivers to set the limits of the Audiencia . Espejo tried to decline the appointment , and after that failed , he tried unsuccessfully to flee . His arrest order details one of the few remaining physical descriptions of him . Captured , he was sent back as a " criminal of serious offense , " but he was not prosecuted and suffered no significant consequences .
= = = = Short exile = = = =
In 1785 , he was asked by the cabildo ( town council ) to write about smallpox , the worst medical problem the Audiencia faced . Espejo used the opportunity to write his most complete and best @-@ written work , Reflexiones acerca de un método para preservar a los pueblos de las viruelas ( Reflections about a method to preserve the people from smallpox ) , denouncing the way the Audiencia handled sanitation . This work is a valuable historical source as a description of the hygienic and sanitary conditions of colonial America .
Reflexiones was sent to Madrid , where it was added as an appendix to the second edition of the medical treatise Disertación médica ( 1786 ) by Francisco Gil , a member of the Real Academia Médica de España . Instead of recognition , Espejo acquired enemies because his work criticized the physicians and priests in charge of public health in the Royal Audiencia for their negligence , and he was forced to leave Quito .
On his way to Lima , he stopped in Riobamba , where a group of priests asked him to write a reply to a report written by Ignacio Barreto , chief tax collector . The report accused the priests of Riobamba of various abuses against the Indians in order to take their money . Espejo gladly accepted the task because he wanted to settle accounts with Barreto and other citizens of Riobamba , among them José Miguel Vallejo , who had turned him in to the authorities when he tried to flee Requena 's expedition to the Marañón river . He wrote Defensa de los curas de Riobamba ( Defense of the clergy of Riobamba ) , a detailed study of the way of life of the Indians from Riobamba and a powerful attack on Barreto 's report .
In March 1787 , he continued his attack against his enemies from Riobamba with a series of eight satirical letters which he called Cartas riobambenses . In response , his enemies denounced Espejo before the President of the Royal Audiencia , Juan José De Villalengua . On August 24 , 1787 , Villalengua requested that Espejo either to go to Lima or return to Quito to occupy a post in the government , and subsequently arrested him . Espejo was accused of writing El Retrato de Golilla , a satire against King Charles III and the Marquis de la Sonora , colonial minister of the Indies . He was taken to Quito , and from prison he sent three petitions to the Court in Madrid , which decreed , on Charles III 's behalf , that the case was to be taken to the Viceroy of Bogotá . President Villalengua feigned ignorance of the matter and sent Espejo to Bogotá to defend his own cause .
There he met Antonio Nariño and Francisco Antonio Zea and began to develop his ideas on liberty . In 1789 , one of his followers , Juan Pio Montufar , arrived in Bogotá , and both men got the approval of important members of the government for the creation of the Escuela de la Concordia , called later the Sociedad Patriótica de Amigos del País de Quito ( Patriotic Society of Friends of the Country of Quito ) . The Sociedad Económica de los Amigos del País ( Economic Society of Friends of the Country ) was a private association established in various cities throughout Enlightenment Spain and , to a lesser degree , in some of her colonies . Espejo successfully defended himself on the charges against him , and on October 2 , 1789 , he was set free . On December 2 he was notified he could return to Quito .
= = = Final years = = =
In 1790 , Espejo returned to Quito to promote the " Sociedad Patriótica " ( Patriotic Society ) , and on November 30 , 1791 , a branch was established in the Colegio de los Jesuitas ; he was elected director and formed four commissions . In the same year , he became director of the first public library , the National Library , originally established with the forty thousand volumes left by the Jesuits after their expulsion from Ecuador .
The main duty of the Society was improving the city of Quito . Its 24 members came together weekly to discuss agricultural , educational , political and social problems and to promote the physical and natural sciences . The Society founded Quito 's first newspaper , Primicias de la Cultura de Quito , published by Espejo starting on January 5 , 1792 . Through this newspaper liberal ideas , already somewhat known in other parts of Hispanic America , were spread among the people of Quito .
On November 11 , 1793 , Charles IV dissolved the society . Soon the newspaper disappeared as well . Espejo had no choice but to work as a librarian in the National Library . Because of his liberal ideas , he was imprisoned on January 30 , 1795 , being allowed to leave his cell only to treat his patients as a doctor and , on December 23 , to die at his home from the dysentery he acquired during his imprisonment . Eugenio Espejo died on December 28 . His death certificate was registered in the book for Indians , mestizos , blacks and mulattoes .
= = Character = =
Eugenio Espejo was an autodidact , and he claimed with pride that he never left any book in his hands unread , and if he did , he would make up for it by observing nature . However , his desire to read everything indiscriminately sometimes led him to hasty judgments , which appear in his manuscripts . Through his own written work , it can be inferred that Espejo considered education as the main means for popular development . He understood that reading was basic in the formation of the self , and his conscience drove him to critiques of the establishment , based on observation and in the application of the law of his time .
By his writing , Espejo wanted to educate the people and to awaken a rebellious spirit in them . He embraced equality between Indians and criollos , an ideal that was ignored during the future processes of independence . He also favored women 's rights but did not really develop these ideas . He had an advanced understanding of science , considering the circumstances in which he lived . He never traveled abroad but nonetheless understood the relation between microorganisms and the spreading of disease .
When he was arrested , it was rumored that his detention resulted from his support of the " impieties " of the French Revolution . However , Espejo was one of the few people at the time who distinguished between the actual deeds of the French Revolution and the irreligious spirit connected to it , while his contemporaries in Spain and the colonies erroneously identified the emancipation of the Americas with loss of the Catholic faith . The accusation of impiety was calculated to incite popular hatred against him . Espejo never lost his faith in Catholicism throughout his lifetime . He condemned the decadence of the clergy , but he never criticized the Church itself . Eugenio Espejo had a restless desire for knowledge and was anxious to reform by his works a state that seemed to him , influenced as he was by the Enlightenment , to be barbarian in every way .
= = Thought = =
= = = Views on education = = =
The goal of Espejo 's first three works was the intellectual improvement of Quito . El Nuevo Luciano de Quito ridiculed the outdated educational system maintained by the clergy . Espejo argued that the people of Quito were accustomed to adulation and that they admired any preacher who could quote the Bible in a pompous and insubstantial way . Marco Porcio Catón exposed the ignorance of the pseudointellectuals of Quito . La ciencia blancardina , in which Espejo claimed to be the author of the previous two works , condemned the results of the clergy 's educational system : ignorance and affectation . All three works caused polemic .
Through these three books , Espejo advanced the ideas of European and American scholars such as Feijoo and the Jesuits Verney and Guevara , among others . As a result , many religious orders modified their educational programs . Espejo resented the pseudointellectuals who misled the thought of the city of Quito , disregarding people who were actually knowledgeable .
Espejo particularly criticized the Jesuits for , among other things , teaching ethics not as a science but as a guide to good manners and for their adoption of Probabilism as a moral guide . He complained about the lax system for educating priests in Quito and said it instilled slothful habits in students . As a result , the priests had no real idea of their duties towards society and God and had little inclination to study . In El Nuevo Luciano de Quito , he lamented the large number of quacks who pretended to be doctors . In La ciencia blancardina he continued his attack on these quacks while attacking clerics who worked as physicians without adequate medical education .
= = = Views on theology = = =
In 1780 , in his first discussion of purely religious matters , Espejo wrote a theological letter , Carta al Padre la Graña sobre indulgencias ( Letter to Father la Graña about indulgences ) . In this work , he looked at indulgences in the Catholic Church . The letter showed a profound knowledge of theology and dogma . It analyzed the historical beginnings of indulgences and their development and cited decrees and bulls written about abuses of indulgences . In this work , Espejo staunchly supported the authority of the Pope .
On July 19 , 1792 , Espejo wrote another letter , Segunda carta teológica sobre la Inmaculada Concepción de María ( Second theological letter about Mary 's Immaculate Conception ) , in response to a request by the inspector of the Holy Office . This letter dealt with the Immaculate Conception of the Blessed Virgin Mary . Once more , this work showed its author 's deep knowledge of this religious subject and his appreciation of its standing in the 18th century . ( The Immaculate Conception was not formally decreed as dogma until 1950 . )
Espejo also wrote a series of sermons , which were notable in their simplicity . Ecuadorian historian and cleric Federico González Suárez considered these sermons worthy of study , even though he mentioned that they lacked an " evangelic spirit . " Espejo can be considered a deeply religious man .
= = = Views on economics = = =
Starting in 1785 , Espejo took an interest in the welfare of his community and the prosperity of Quito . His works between that year and 1792 clearly show the influence of Enlightenment philosophers , whose ideas Espejo adapted to local conditions . As many thinkers realized the power of economics as a social force , Espejo , influenced by Feijoo and Adam Smith among others , showed his desire for commercial and agricultural reforms , especially conservation and proper use of land . To advance these ideas , he founded the Escuela de la Concordia ( School of Concord ) .
His Voto de un ministro togado de la Audiencia de Quito and Memorias sobre el corte de quinas rejected a proposed monopoly of quinine production by the Crown intended to prevent the destruction of the cinchona tree and to expand the Royal Treasury 's income . Memorias was dedicated to Fernando Cuadrado , who opposed the monopoly .
Espejo divided his cinchona study into four parts . In the first , he argued that the monopoly would leave workers without jobs and that it would mean the loss of capital invested in cinchona trees . In the second part , he made a number of suggestions , such as developing certain " natural " products of a region with the aim of exporting them . For instance , in Chile the production of wines should be prioritized , in Argentina the production of leather , and so forth . In the third part he showed that many workers benefited from the quinine industry , that without it there would be unemployment and unrest , and that the Crown should designate officials to regulate the proper cultivation of the cinchona tree , including reforestation . In the fourth part he made recommendations , such as the need to repress indigenous hostility in the cinchona tree region .
= = = Work as a lawyer = = =
His Defensa de los curas de Riobamba was written in response to a report from Ignacio Barreto that accused the clergy in Riobamba of various unethical practices . Among other things , the report said that the large number of religious celebrations in Riobamba ( frequented by Indians ) were prejudicial to Catholic faith , agriculture , industry and the interests of the Crown ; also , that priests demanded money from the Indians for entrance into churches and for certain ceremonies , that priests in Riobamba were immoral and finally that most sermons were incomprehensible to the Indians .
Espejo attacked Barreto 's report in three ways . First , he claimed that Barreto , supposed author of the report , was not capable of writing it . Then he argued that the allegations were exaggerated semi @-@ truths or outright lies . And finally he claimed that the economic problems of Quito could not be solved by exploiting its human resources ( the Indians ) but by planning and taking advantage of the natural resources of the region .
Espejo realized that the charges against the clergy were so serious that he had to focus on destroying Barreto 's credibility . Therefore , he implied that Barreto 's own conduct was outrageous because of his excesses in collecting taxes and his habit of paying public funds to licentious women . Additionally , he stated that the real author of the report was José Miguel Vallejo , whom he called an immoral man who despised the clergy . Thus , Espejo claimed the report should not be believed .
It appears that Espejo was motivated more by the opportunity to attack his personal enemies in this work than to analyze the case and defend the clergy of Riobamba . Still , his talent as a lawyer can be seen in his Representaciones ( Representations ) , which caused him to be freed after his arrest in 1787 for his supposed authorship of El Retrato de Golilla . In these documents , he defended his loyalty to the Crown , commented on the unfairness of his captivity by mentioning the indignation that many distinguished men felt about his arrest , and clarified his writing goals . This served him as a prelude to his main subject : denying being the author of El Retrato de Golilla
= = = Scientific work = = =
The Spanish Crown was deeply concerned with public health . Diseases had always troubled the colonies , and town councils spent money to bring physicians or sanitary equipment from other parts of the Americas . Reports by doctors about the sanitary and hygienic conditions of various neighborhoods of the cities were frequent . As a man of science , Eugenio Espejo demonstrated his knowledge of the latest scientific advances in Europe and the Americas . Most of the arguments and recommendations he made in his medical works can be found in contemporary sources , such as the Mémoires of the French Academy of Sciences .
The Presidency of Quito was especially concerned with prevention of smallpox . Villalengua , President of the Audiencia , gathered all of Quito 's physicians to discuss the application of methods suggested by the Spanish scientist Francisco Gil , and Espejo was asked to write his Reflexiones acerca de un método para preservar a los pueblos de las viruelas . " Reflexiones , completed on November 11 , 1785 , was divided in two parts : the first dealt with prevention of smallpox in Quito , while the second dealt with obstacles on the path to its eradication . Espejo 's knowledge of inoculations and the quarantine of smallpox victims was remarkably advanced for his day .
Reflexiones recommended using proven methods supported by Spanish and foreign doctors . It refuted the common belief that the separation and destruction of contaminated clothes was impractical , and it promoted personal hygiene among the people of Quito . Espejo tried to convince people of the dangers of smallpox . He understood the current European medical theories about contagious diseases and warned against the incorrect belief that smallpox was transmitted by polluted air . Citing the English doctor Thomas Sydenham , he suggested the construction of an isolated country house as a hospital .
Dealing with sanitation , Espejo observed that the hospital ( Hospital de la Misericordia ) of the city , the monasteries and the places of worship were filthy and that this would certainly contribute to future epidemics . He disapproved of the custom of burying the dead inside churches ; instead , he suggested burying the dead outside the city limits in a graveyard chosen by the Church and owned by the town council . Finally , he condemned the management of the hospital by the Bethlehemites . He said their methods were outdated and that they provided poor service . The staff of the hospital reacted badly to this , and Espejo lost the friendship of his mentor , José del Rosario .
= = Legacy = =
Espejo is considered the precursor of the independence movement in Quito . He died in 1795 , but his ideas had a powerful influence on three of his close friends : Juan Pío Montúfar , Juan de Dios Morales and Juan de Salinas . They , along with Manuel Rodriguez Quiroga , founded the revolutionary movement of August 10 , 1809 , in Quito , when the city declared independence from Spain .
Espejo published Quito 's first newspaper , and therefore he is regarded as the founder of Ecuadorian journalism . He is considered Ecuador 's first literary critic ; according to Spanish scholar Marcelino Menéndez y Pelayo , Espejo 's Nuevo Luciano is the oldest critical work written in South America .
His influence can as well be seen in Ecuadorian thought in general , as his work has been one of its principal influences ; Ecuadorian education , as he promoted new pedagogical ideas , such as the creation of good citizens instead of merely imparting knowledge , and finally Ecuadorian science , as he was , along with Pedro Vicente Maldonado , one of the two most important scientists of colonial Ecuador . Espejo analyzed the reality of colonial Quito , the poverty of its people and their lack of good education , and he denounced the corruption of the colonial authorities .
Since 2000 , Espejo has been depicted on the obverse of Ecuador 's 10 centavo coin .
= = Works = =
Sermones para la profesión de dos religiosas ( 1778 )
Sermón sobre los dolores de la Virgen ( 1779 )
Nuevo Luciano de Quito ( 1779 )
Marco Porcio Catón o Memorias para la impugnación del nuevo Luciano de Quito ( 1780 )
Carta al Padre la Graña sobre indulgencias ( 1780 )
Sermón de San Pedro ( 1780 )
La Ciencia Blancardina ( 1781 )
El Retrato de Golilla ( Attributed , 1781 )
Reflexiones acerca de un método para preservar a los pueblos de las viruelas ( 1785 ) Online version ( Spanish )
Defensa de los curas de Riobamba ( 1787 )
Cartas riobambenses ( 1787 )
Representaciones al presidente Villalengua ( 1787 )
Discurso sobre la necesidad de establecer una sociedad patriótica con el nombre de " Escuela de la Concordia " ( 1789 )
Segunda carta teológica sobre la Inmaculada Concepción de María ( 1792 )
Memorias sobre el corte de quinas ( 1792 )
Voto de un ministro togado de la Audiencia de Quito ( 1792 ) Online version ( Spanish )
Sermón de Santa Rosa ( 1793 )
= Grizzly Rage =
Grizzly Rage is a 2007 Canadian television horror film produced by RHI Entertainment that premiered in Canada on the video @-@ on @-@ demand channel Movie Central On Demand on June 7 , 2007 . It aired in the United States on the Syfy on September 16 , 2007 . Filmed in Winnipeg , Manitoba , the film is the 2nd title in the Maneater Series produced under an agreement with Syfy . Featuring a cast of four , the film focuses on a group of teenagers who struggle to survive in a restricted forest while an enraged grizzly bear hunts them relentlessly seeking retribution for killing its cub .
Grizzly Rage breaks the standard mold for many Syfy natural horror films in that the bear featured is a normal grizzly bear rather than a mutant or genetically altered animal . However , the bear and actors never appear together in the same frame , rather a man in a bear suit takes over the role when the actors must interact with the bear . Critics heavily panned the film , feeling its plot , script , characters , and special effects were substandard .
= = Plot = =
Sean ( Graham Kosakoski ) , Ritch ( Brody Harms ) , Wes ( Tyler Hoechlin ) , and Lauren ( Kate Todd ) celebrate their college graduation by breaking into Saranoc Grotto , a forest heavily marked with " No Trespassing " signs and surrounded by a tall fence . While speeding down a dirt road , they hit and kill a grizzly bear cub , sending their Jeep Cherokee into a tree and cracking the radiator . As they argue over whether they should bury the dead cub , they hear its mother coming and run . The vehicle overheats down the road so Wes and Ritch go into the forest to find water . The Grizzly Bear finds and attacks Ritch . Having heard Ritch 's screams to run , Wes inadvertently runs into the bear and it attacks him . The other two arrive and rescue Wes , but are unable to help Ritch . The Bear kills him while the others flee to the Jeep .
The vehicle starts again and they leave , but Wes panics and tries to force Sean to turn around and go back for Ritch , causing the car to go over a cliff . Calmer , he wants to wait for help , but no one knows where they are because they had told their families they were going somewhere else . They winch the vehicle back up to the road , but they cannot get it to start .
Sean leaves to jog the 15 kilometers ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) out of the forest to find help while Wes and Lauren wait at the Jeep . He comes across some run down buildings where he finds a hunting paraphernalia , a bear trap , and dead animals . As he leaves , the bear appears . He tries to sneak past the bear , but instead he runs into the bear and it throws him on the roof of the shack and then he falls into a chicken coop . Hours later he makes it back to the Jeep , but his leg is injured . Wes decides to climb a tall hill on the other side of the clearing to see if he can get a signal on his cell phone . It does not work and the Bear nearly catches him . He quickly climbs back down and gets back to the Jeep though it still will not start . He and Lauren hide in the Jeep with the wounded Sean in the back .
The bear follows and climbs on top of the Jeep , smashing up the car and eventually overturning it before leaving as the sun sets . Sean wakes up and tells them about the hunting paraphernalia , crying about wanting to go home before he dies . Wes and Lauren turn the Jeep right side up , load him back in the car , then push the Jeep down the hilly road as a thunderstorm hits . Using the downward momentum and occasionally pushing , they arrive near the buildings . While Lauren is exploring the building with the trap , the bear swings at her through a window sending her back against the trap , which impales her back . She returns to the vehicle where the bear rips off the tailgate and drags away Sean 's body .
Wes grabs a can of gasoline and pours a trail from the Jeep to the woods . They lure the Grizzly Bear to it and then set the gasoline on fire . The Jeep explodes , but the bear is unharmed . They decide to try another plan and split up . Wes climbs a tree , leaving his blood covered clothes on the ground to fool the Bear . While the Bear is sniffing at the clothes , Wes accidentally drops a tire iron , calling the bear 's attention up . The bear shakes him out of the tree but he escapes and goes to the shack where Lauren has built a trap . They lure the bear into the shack , and use a trigger to close the front door behind it , locking it in . They celebrate and start to leave but the bear breaks out of the shack and they both try to escape . Unfortunately , Wes stumbles and Lauren tries to get him back up , refusing to leave him behind despite his desperate insistence that she should run . As the Bear catches up to them , Wes is killed and it is unknown if Lauren survived or not .
= = Production = =
In October 2006 , RHI Entertainment made a deal with the Sci Fi Channel to produce a series of ten made @-@ for @-@ television natural horror films to air on the network the following year . Dubbed the " Maneater " series by RHI Entertainment , Grizzly Rage was the sixth film released . Although the agreement called for the films to premiere on SciFi , the first six films in the series actually premiered in Canada on the video on demand ( VOD ) channel Movie Central on Demand first due to a pre @-@ licensing agreement . It also aired on other VOD channels before its Sci Fi airing .
Grizzly Rage was filmed in Winnipeg , Manitoba , Canada . It breaks from the standard mold many natural horror films follow in that the bear attacking the main characters is not a mutant or genetically altered , rather it is a normal , but furious mother bear . The mother bear is played by Koda , a 1 @,@ 600 @-@ pound ( 730 kg ) male grizzly bear , working at the direction of a trainer . To induce the bear to appear to be roaring , the trainer gave it marshmallows to make it smile . The roaring sounds were dubbed in later . Both Tyler Hoechlin and Graham Kosakoski noted that they were a little afraid of the bear and director David DeCoteau felt that working with such a powerful live animal added element of danger for the cast and crew during filming . As such , the bear is never actually filmed together with any of the actors . For scenes where the bear is supposed to interact with the characters , a man in a bear suit takes over the role .
= = Distribution = =
Grizzly Rage premiered in Canada on the subscription @-@ based video @-@ on @-@ demand channel Movie Central on Demand on June 7 , 2007 . It aired in the United States on the Sci Fi channel on September 16 , 2007 for the channel 's Saturday Night " Movie of the Week " premiere . Genius Products released the film to Region 1 DVD on May 6 , 2008 . The DVD release features a good video transfer , but an incorrectly mixed audio track . It has no extras , subtitles , or closed captions . The film was re @-@ released on August 19 , 2008 as part of the second volume of the " Maneater Series Collection " sets . The volume also included Croc and Eye of the Beast , the fourth and fifth films in the series , respectively .
= = Reception = =
Critics heavily panned Grizzly Rage . Film historian Paul Mavis called the film " a pathetically undernourished effort " , feeling the film was plagued with a bad plot , bad acting , bad direction , and bad special effects . In comparing Grizzly , a 1976 natural horror film , and Grizzly Man , a 2005 documentary showing the life and death of amateur bear enthusiast Timothy Treadwell , he found it sorely lacking . Mavis states that it was a horror film that did not show anyone getting " sliced , diced , munched on and stomped " by the bear . He also heavily criticizes the film for not having any scenes where the bear is actually in the same frame as any of the actors , wondering if the actors and / or trainers were afraid something tragic would happen . As a whole , he recommended skipping the film . Film critic David Walker agreed . Like Mavis , Walker compared the film to the 1976 Grizzly and found it severely lacking . He also felt the plot was poorly conceived and was combined with a badly written script and uninteresting characters :
At the very least you would hope that Grizzly Rage is laughably bad , but it doesn 't even inspire a chuckle or half a grin . It is as bad as bad can get , and without some of the more common exploitation elements we should expect from a journeyman hack like director David DeCoteau — the man responsible for classics like Sorority Babes in the Slimeball Bowl @-@ O @-@ Rama and Test Tube Teens from the Year 2000 — there is no reason to watch this movie .
Jeff Swindoll of Monsters and Critics.com repeated many of the same sentiments in his review of the film . He hated the characters within the first five minutes of the film and found himself wishing that the film had shown more of the bear just walking in the woods rather than the characters talking with one another between the attacks . Matt Gamble of UGO Entertainment was excited by the film 's cover , but was also quickly disappointed by " insipid dialog " amongst the characters and their continuously calling each other " dude . " The characters actually asking what a bear was doing in the Canadian wilderness , where bears are plentiful , amused him , though he notes that it was probably not the intended reaction for the scene . His final rating of the film was an " F. " DVD Verdict 's David Johnson also questioned why the bear and actors are never seen on screen together . He derided the scenes in which the bear would make a swiping motion , and the scene would cut to show a character flying through the air : " I don 't know how the bear mastered the art of jujitsu in the wild , but it comes in handy when four teenagers snuff your cub and they need a healthy dose of comeuppance . " He also wondered at the lack of fake blood or props being used during attacks rather than " ridiculous blood splatter computer graphics tossed on the screen . " Multiple critics noted that the film introduced two potentially interesting subplots that ended up being pointless as the film never explored either , and they all agreed that the film had excellent picture quality .
Tim Anderson , reviewer for the website Bloody @-@ Disgusting.com , disagreed on some points . He found the film to be cheesy , but very watchable . He praised DeCocteau 's pacing of the film and felt the cast of four was " serviceable . " He also praised the use of a real bear . Like other reviewers , was disappointed by the bear not being in the same scenes with the actors though he notes that at least the bear suit used in such scenes was well made . As a whole , he notes that " ridiculous is the very nature of the Maneater Series . So , I don 't fault them for following suit on this production ... " and concludes with the remark that Grizzly Rage is " a pretty silly but satisfying little fright flick " and rated it a seven out of ten .
= = Soundtrack = =
Sci Fi licensed the song " Bright Light Rockin 'City " by rock band Floor Thirteen for use in the film . Though the film 's soundtrack has not been released to CD in North America , it was released on soundtrack in Australia on June 19 , 2008 by Horizon .
= Progressive Field =
Progressive Field is a baseball park located in downtown Cleveland , Ohio , United States . It is the home field of the Cleveland Indians of Major League Baseball , and together with Quicken Loans Arena , is part of the Gateway Sports and Entertainment Complex . It was ranked as Major League Baseball 's best ballpark in a 2008 Sports Illustrated fan opinion poll .
The ballpark was named Jacobs Field after team owners Richard and David Jacobs , from its inaugural season in 1994 until 2008 , when its name was changed to Progressive Field after its naming rights were purchased by locally based Progressive Insurance Company . The ballpark is still referred to as " The Jake " , based on its original name .
= = History = =
The Cleveland Indians previously played at Cleveland Stadium , which they shared with the Cleveland Browns of the National Football League . The Indians first played at the stadium , which seated nearly 80 @,@ 000 people for baseball , for the 1932 and 1933 seasons , then returned to the smaller League Park . From 1936 – 1946 , they played weekend and holiday games there , and eventually night games and other dates where larger crowds were expected , moving to the stadium full @-@ time in 1947 . Cleveland Stadium was the largest stadium in the American League during its tenure as a baseball facility and was the largest stadium in Major League Baseball for all but a few seasons .
Plans for a new stadium first began in 1984 when Cuyahoga County voters defeated a property tax for building a 100 % publicly funded domed stadium , which would have been shared by the Indians and Browns . Later that year , committee leaders met to re @-@ evaluate these plans , and a location was later agreed upon . The eventual site of the stadium , the location of the Central Market , was acquired in December 1985 . In April 1986 , designs for the new stadium were agreed upon and about a year later , demolition at the site started . In May 1990 , Cuyahoga County voters approved a 15 @-@ year sin tax on alcohol and cigarette sales to finance the new Gateway Sports and Entertainment Complex , which included the ballpark , an adjacent arena for the Cleveland Cavaliers of the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) , and two parking garages . Construction started in January 1992 , and by May of that year , the concrete construction had been poured . In June 1992 , Mel Harder , who pitched the opening game at Cleveland Stadium in 1932 , and contemporary stars Charles Nagy and Sandy Alomar , Jr . , executed the ceremonial first pitch at the site of the new ballpark before construction began . The installation of seating was completed in October 1993 . The ballpark , which was referred to as " Cleveland Indians Baseball Park " on blueprints , cost approximately $ 175 million to build , of which $ 91 million was provided by Indians owner Richard Jacobs . The remaining $ 84 million was raised by the sin tax .
The ballpark opened on April 4 , 1994 . It was the first new major sporting facility in the city of Cleveland since Cleveland Arena opened in 1937 . President Bill Clinton threw out the ceremonial first pitch , and the Indians defeated the Seattle Mariners 4 – 3 in 11 innings .
In 1995 , the Indians qualified for the World Series for the first time since 1954 ; it was the first time the World Series was played at Jacobs Field . The Indians lost to the Atlanta Braves in six games . Two years later , Jacobs Field hosted its first All @-@ Star Game and the first All Star Game in Cleveland since 1981 . Later that year , the Indians hosted the 1997 World Series , which they lost to the Florida Marlins in seven games . On July 3 , 1999 , Jim Thome hit the longest home run in Jacobs Field history , with a 511 feet ( 156 m ) hit to center field .
On October 5 , 2007 , in the eighth inning of a playoff game against the New York Yankees , a swarm of insects believed to be midges from Lake Erie , enveloped the playing field , distracting relief pitcher Joba Chamberlain . Chamberlain walked Grady Sizemore , who later scored the tying run on a wild pitch . The incident became known as the " Bug Game " . However , this was not the first time the insects plagued Jacobs Field .
An event called " Snow Days " debuted at Progressive Field in November 2010 . The first day , called " Snopening Day " , was held on November 26 and the event continued until January 2 , 2011 . An ice skating track called the " Frozen Mile " was installed around the warning track , the " Batterhorn " was a snow tubing hill on the bleachers and other events were staged around the field and home run porch . " Snow Days " returned in November 2011 , and closed on January 16 . The Batterhorn was moved to the Toyota Home Run porch and the Frozen Mile was rerouted . The park also added the " Frozen Diamond " , an ice rink covering the infield . On January 15 , 2012 , the park hosted its first ice hockey game , a match between the Ohio State Buckeyes and the Michigan Wolverines , the first outdoor college hockey game in Ohio . On June 1 , 2012 , it was announced that " Snow Days " would not run in 2012 due to low attendance in 2011 . In part , this was caused by the warmest winter on record , with temperatures of 60 ° F ( 16 ° C ) on " Snopening Day . "
= = Attendance records = =
Progressive Field set a major league record between June 12 , 1995 and April 4 , 2001 by selling out 455 straight games . Demand for tickets was so great that all 81 home games were sold out before opening day in five separate seasons . The Indians retired the number 455 in honor of the sellout record . The Boston Red Sox later surpassed this record when Fenway Park recorded 456 straight sellouts on September 9 , 2008 . The record for the largest attendance at Progressive Field was set on Game 3 of the 1997 ALDS when 45 @,@ 274 people attended the game . On Saturday , April 2 , 2011 , the Indians ' lowest attendance record was broken by a crowd of 9 @,@ 853 , and again the following day with an attendance figure of 8 @,@ 726 .
= = Naming rights = =
Naming rights were acquired in 1994 by team owner Richard Jacobs , who paid for rights until the end of 2006 . The Jacobs Field name gave rise to the nickname " The Jake " for the ballpark .
The Indians announced on January 11 , 2008 , that naming rights to the park had been purchased by Progressive Corporation , an insurance company headquartered in nearby Mayfield , Ohio . Removal of the iconic Jacobs Field sign on the front of the building began the morning of January 18 , and the replacement sign was installed on March 25 . Progressive agreed to pay $ 57 @.@ 6 million for the naming rights for 16 years . There were discussions about instead naming the ballpark " Progressive Park " , but it was later realized that this name belonged to a picnic facility in Council Bluffs , Iowa , so the name " Progressive Field " was used instead .
The Indians extended their lease agreement with Gateway Economic Development Corp. for the stadium in August 2008 from 2013 to 2023 . The agreement gives the team four five @-@ year renewal options after 2023 .
= = Design = =
The ballpark was designed by HOK Sport , now known as Populous , a division of Hellmuth , Obata and Kassabaum . HOK designed it as the second retro @-@ modern ballpark , with asymmetrical fences of varying heights , a smaller upper deck , and stepped tiers . It is similar to HOK 's Oriole Park at Camden Yards in Baltimore , which was the first retro @-@ modern ballpark . The ballpark was sited to give a favorable view of Cleveland 's downtown skyline . The structural engineering was done by a Cleveland company , Osborn Engineering , which helped design League Park , Cleveland Municipal Stadium , " Old " Yankee Stadium and Fenway Park . It was designed to blend in with the city of Cleveland with its exposed steel design and the vertical light towers .
= = Features = =
The ballpark has numerous unique structural features . The field is situated on 12 @-@ acre ( 4 @.@ 9 ha ) of Kentucky Bluegrass . It is illuminated by 19 white vertical light towers ; three behind the scoreboard , six behind first base , six behind third base and four in right field , which stand 200 feet ( 61 m ) above street level and 218 feet ( 66 m ) above the playing field and are said to resemble toothbrushes . The distinctive light towers were incorporated into a version of the original Jacobs Field logo and the 1997 MLB All @-@ Star Game logo .
The park features distinctive dimensions ; left and right field are both 325 feet ( 99 m ) from homeplate , but left field has a 19 @-@ foot ( 6 m ) high wall , known as the " Little Green Monster " . The center and right field walls are 9 feet ( 3 m ) high . The park features traditional hunter green seats angled at 8 @-@ 12 ° on three tiers around the park except for center field which has no seats and left field which uses bleachers .
The bullpens , reconfigured between the 2014 and 2015 seasons , are raised above the playing field , which allows fans to see players warming up . Both bullpens are located adjacent to section 103 behind right @-@ center field , with the Indians ' bullpen closer to the field . Unlike most ballparks , the Indians ' dugout is along the third base line and the visitors ' dugout is located along the first base line . When the ballpark was built it contained 121 luxury boxes . A remodel and renovation between the 2014 and 2015 seasons removed six of them for a total of 115 , the second most in Major League Baseball .
Prior to the start of the 1997 season , two sections with 480 seats were added onto the ends of the bleacher section . In 2004 , South Dakota @-@ based company Daktronics installed the then @-@ largest video display at a sports venue in the world , measuring 36 feet ( 11 m ) high by 149 feet ( 45 m ) wide . The out @-@ of @-@ town scoreboard along the left field wall was also replaced . A new scoreboard system was installed for the 2016 season . The main scoreboard above the bleachers measures 59 feet ( 18 m ) high by 221 feet ( 67 m ) wide with 13 @,@ 000 square feet ( 1 @,@ 200 m2 ) of screen space .
In 2007 , the Indians became the first American League team to install solar panels on their stadium . They also spent $ 1 @.@ 1 million to convert a picnic area behind the center field fence into " Heritage Park " , which features 27 plaques honoring the Cleveland Indians Hall of Fame and 38 bricks , representing the team 's most memorable moments . There is also a memorial plaque commemorating Ray Chapman that was originally installed at League Park . The area is shielded by plantings so it does not interfere with the batter 's eye . Prior to Opening Day 2
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of the Ex @-@ WRANS Association was devoted to their former teacher and patron . Amongst the memories recorded therein is a statement McKenzie made two days before she died : " ... it is finished , and I have proved to them all that women can be as good as , or better than men . "
= Brabham =
Motor Racing Developments Ltd . , commonly known as Brabham / ˈbræbəm / , was a British racing car manufacturer and Formula One racing team . Founded in 1960 by two Australians , driver Jack Brabham and designer Ron Tauranac , the team won four Drivers ' and two Constructors ' World Championships in its 30 @-@ year Formula One history . Jack Brabham 's 1966 Drivers ' Championship remains the only such achievement using a car bearing the driver 's own name .
In the 1960s , Brabham was the world 's largest manufacturer of open wheel racing cars for sale to customer teams , and had built more than 500 cars by 1970 . During this period , teams using Brabham cars won championships in Formula Two and Formula Three . Brabham cars also competed in the Indianapolis 500 and in Formula 5000 racing . In the 1970s and 1980s , Brabham introduced innovations such as the Gordon Murray designed " fan car " — which won its only race before being withdrawn — in @-@ race refuelling , carbon brakes , and hydropneumatic suspension .
The team won two more Formula One Drivers ' Championships in the 1980s with Brazilian Nelson Piquet . He won his first championship in 1981 in the Ground effects BT49 @-@ Ford , and became the first to win a Drivers ' Championship with a turbocharged car in 1983 . In 1983 the Brabham BT52 , driven by Piquet and Italian Riccardo Patrese , was powered by the BMW M12 Straight @-@ 4 engine , and powered Brabham to four of the team 's 35 Grand Prix victories .
British businessman Bernie Ecclestone owned Brabham during most of the 1970s and 1980s , and later became responsible for administering the commercial aspects of Formula One . Ecclestone sold the team in 1988 . Its last owner was the Middlebridge Group , a Japanese engineering firm . Midway through the 1992 season , the team collapsed financially as Middlebridge was unable to make repayments against loans provided by Landhurst Leasing . The case was investigated by the United Kingdom Serious Fraud Office . In 2009 , an unsuccessful attempt was made by a German organisation to enter the 2010 Formula One season using the Brabham name .
= = Origins = =
The Brabham team was founded by Jack Brabham and Ron Tauranac , who met in 1951 while both were successfully building and racing cars in their native Australia . Brabham was the more successful driver and went to the United Kingdom in 1955 to further his racing career . There he started driving for the Cooper Car Company works team and by 1958 had progressed with them to Formula One , the highest category of open wheel racing defined by the Fédération Internationale de l 'Automobile ( FIA ) , motor sport 's world governing body . In 1959 and 1960 , Brabham won the Formula One World Drivers ' Championship in Cooper 's revolutionary mid @-@ engined cars .
Despite their innovation of putting the engine behind the driver , the Coopers and their Chief Designer Owen Maddock were generally resistant to developing their cars . Brabham pushed for further advances , and played a significant role in developing Cooper 's highly successful 1960 T53 " lowline " car , with input from his friend Tauranac . Brabham was confident he could do better than Cooper , and in late 1959 he asked Tauranac to come to the UK and work with him , initially producing upgrade kits for Sunbeam Rapier and Triumph Herald road cars at his car dealership , Jack Brabham Motors , but with the long @-@ term aim of designing racing cars . Brabham describes Tauranac as " absolutely the only bloke I 'd have gone into partnership with " . Later , Brabham offered a Coventry @-@ Climax FWE @-@ engined version of the Herald , with 83 hp ( 62 kW ) and uprated suspension to match the extra power .
To meet that aim , Brabham and Tauranac set up Motor Racing Developments Ltd . ( MRD ) , deliberately avoiding the use of either man 's name . The new company would compete with Cooper in the market for customer racing cars ; as Brabham was still employed by Cooper , Tauranac produced the first MRD car , for the entry level Formula Junior class , in secrecy . Unveiled in the summer of 1961 , the " MRD " was soon renamed . Motoring journalist Jabby Crombac pointed out that " [ the ] way a Frenchman pronounces those initials — written phonetically , ' em air day ' — sounded perilously like the French word ... merde . " Gavin Youl achieved a second @-@ place finish at Goodwood and another at Mallory Park in the MRD @-@ Ford . The cars were subsequently known as Brabhams , with type numbers starting with BT for " Brabham Tauranac " .
By the 1961 Formula One season , the Lotus and Ferrari teams had developed the mid @-@ engined approach further than Cooper . Brabham had a poor season , scoring only four points , and — having run his own private Coopers in non @-@ championship events during 1961 — left the company in 1962 to drive for his own team : the Brabham Racing Organisation , using cars built by Motor Racing Developments .
= = Racing history — Formula One = =
= = = Jack Brabham and Ron Tauranac ( 1961 – 1970 ) = = =
Motor Racing Developments initially concentrated on making money by building cars for sale to customers in lower formulae , so the new car for the Formula One team was not ready until partway through the 1962 Formula One season . The Brabham Racing Organisation ( BRO ) started the year fielding a customer Lotus chassis , which was delivered at 3 am in order to keep it a secret . Brabham took two points finishes in Lotuses , before the turquoise @-@ liveried Brabham BT3 car made its debut at the 1962 German Grand Prix . It retired with a throttle problem after 9 of the 15 laps , but went on to take a pair of fourth places at the end of the season .
From the 1963 season , Brabham was partnered by American driver Dan Gurney , the pair now running in Australia 's racing colours of green and gold . Jack Brabham took the team 's first win at the non @-@ championship Solitude Grand Prix in 1963 . Gurney took the marque 's first two wins in the world championship , at the 1964 French and Mexican Grands Prix . Brabham works and customer cars took another three non @-@ championship wins during the 1964 season . The 1965 season was less successful , with no championship wins . Brabham finished third or fourth in the Constructors ' Championship for three years running , but poor reliability marred promising performances on several occasions . Motor sport authors Mike Lawrence and David Hodges have said that a lack of resources may have cost the team results , a view echoed by Ron Tauranac .
The FIA doubled the Formula One engine capacity limit to 3 litres for the 1966 season and suitable engines were scarce . Brabham used engines from Australian engineering firm Repco , which had never produced a Formula One engine before , based on aluminium V8 engine blocks from the defunct American Oldsmobile F85 road car project , and other off the shelf parts . Consulting and design engineer Phil Irving ( of Vincent Motorcycle fame ) was the project engineer responsible for producing the initial version of the engine . Few expected the Brabham @-@ Repcos to be competitive , but the light and reliable cars ran at the front from the start of the season . At the French Grand Prix at Reims @-@ Gueux , Jack Brabham became the first man to win a Formula One world championship race in a car bearing his own name . Only his former team mate , Bruce McLaren , has since matched the achievement . It was the first in a run of four straight wins for the Australian veteran . Jack Brabham won his third title in 1966 , becoming the only driver to win the Formula One World Championship in a car carrying his own name ( cf Surtees , Hill and Fittipaldi Automotive ) . In 1967 , the title went to Brabham 's team mate , New Zealander Denny Hulme . Hulme had better reliability through the year , possibly due to Jack Brabham 's desire to try new parts first . The Brabham team took the Constructors ' World Championship in both years .
For 1968 Austrian Jochen Rindt replaced Hulme , who had left to join McLaren . Repco produced a more powerful version of their V8 to maintain competitiveness against Ford 's new Cosworth DFV , but it proved very unreliable . Slow communications between the UK and Australia had always made identifying and correcting problems very difficult . The car was fast — Rindt set pole position twice during the season — but Brabham and Rindt finished only three races between them , and ended the year with only ten points .
Although Brabham bought Cosworth DFV engines for the 1969 season , Rindt left to join Lotus . His replacement , Jacky Ickx , had a strong second half to the season , winning in Germany and Canada , after Jack Brabham was sidelined by a testing accident . Ickx finished second in the Drivers ' Championship , with 37 points to Jackie Stewart 's 63 . Brabham himself took a couple of pole positions and two top three finishes , but did not finish half the races . The team were second in the Constructors ' Championship , aided by second places at Monaco and Watkins Glen scored by Piers Courage , driving a Brabham for the Frank Williams Racing Cars privateer squad .
Jack Brabham intended to retire at the end of the 1969 season and sold his share in the team to Tauranac . However , Rindt 's late decision to remain with Lotus meant that Brabham drove for another year . He took his last win in the opening race of the 1970 season and was competitive throughout the year , although mechanical failures blunted his challenge . Aided by number two driver Rolf Stommelen , the team came fourth in the Constructors ' Championship .
= = = Ron Tauranac ( 1971 ) = = =
Tauranac signed double world champion Graham Hill and young Australian Tim Schenken to drive for the 1971 season . Tauranac designed the unusual ' lobster claw ' BT34 , featuring twin radiators mounted ahead of the front wheels , a single example of which was built for Hill . Although Hill , no longer a front @-@ runner since his 1969 accident , took his final Formula One win in the non @-@ championship BRDC International Trophy at Silverstone , the team scored only seven championship points .
Tauranac , an engineer at heart , started to feel his Formula One budget of around £ 100 @,@ 000 was a gamble he could not afford to take on his own and began to look around for an experienced business partner . He sold the company for £ 100 @,@ 000 at the end of 1971 to British businessman Bernie Ecclestone , Jochen Rindt 's former manager and erstwhile owner of the Connaught team . Tauranac stayed on to design the cars and run the factory .
= = = Bernie Ecclestone ( 1972 – 1987 ) = = =
Tauranac left Brabham early in the 1972 season after Ecclestone changed the way the company was organised without consulting him . Ecclestone has since said " In retrospect , the relationship was never going to work " , noting that " [ Tauranac and I ] both take the view : ' Please be reasonable , do it my way ' " . The highlights of an aimless year , during which the team ran three different models , were pole position for Argentinian driver Carlos Reutemann at his home race at Buenos Aires and a victory in the non @-@ championship Interlagos Grand Prix . For the 1973 season , Ecclestone promoted the young South African engineer Gordon Murray to chief designer and moved Herbie Blash from the Formula Two programme to become the Formula One team manager . Both would remain with the team for the next 15 years . For 1973 , Murray produced the triangular cross @-@ section BT42 , with which Reutemann scored two podium finishes and finished seventh in the Drivers ' Championship .
In the 1974 season , Reutemann took the first three victories of his Formula One career , and Brabham 's first since 1970 . The team finished a close fifth in the Constructors ' Championship , fielding the much more competitive BT44s . After a strong finish to the 1974 season , many observers felt the team were favourites to win the 1975 title . The year started well , with a first win for Brazilian driver Carlos Pace at the Interlagos circuit in his native São Paulo . However , as the season progressed , tyre wear frequently slowed the cars in races . Pace took another two podiums and finished sixth in the championship ; while Carlos Reutemann had five podium finishes , including a dominant win in the 1975 German Grand Prix , and finished third in the Drivers ' Championship . The team likewise ranked third in the Constructors ' Championship at the end of the year .
While rival teams Lotus and McLaren relied on the Cosworth DFV engine from the late 1960s to the early 1980s , Ecclestone sought a competitive advantage by investigating other options . Despite the success of Murray 's Cosworth @-@ powered cars , Ecclestone signed a deal with Italian motor manufacturer Alfa Romeo to use their large and powerful flat @-@ 12 engine from the 1976 season . The engines were free , but they rendered the new BT45s , now in red Martini Racing livery , unreliable and overweight . The 1976 and 1977 seasons saw Brabham fall toward the back of the field again . Reutemann negotiated a release from his contract before the end of the 1976 season and signed with Ferrari . Ulsterman John Watson replaced him at Brabham for 1977 . Watson lost near certain victory in the French Grand Prix ( Dijon ) of that year when his car ran low on fuel on the last lap and was passed by Mario Andretti 's Lotus , with Watson 's second place being the team 's best result of the season . The car often showed at the head of races , but the unreliability of the Alfa Romeo engine was a major problem . The team lost Carlos Pace early in the 1977 season when he died in a light aircraft accident .
For the 1978 season , Murray 's BT46 featured several new technologies to overcome the weight and packaging difficulties caused by the Alfa engines . Ecclestone signed then two @-@ time Formula One world champion Niki Lauda from Ferrari through a deal with Italian dairy products company Parmalat which met the cost of Lauda ending his Ferrari contract and made up his salary to the £ 200 @,@ 000 Ferrari was offering . 1978 was the year of the dominant Lotus 79 " wing car " , which used aerodynamic ground effect to stick to the track when cornering , but Lauda won two races in the BT46 , one with the controversial " B " or " fan car " version .
The partnership with Alfa Romeo ended during the 1979 season , the team 's first with young Brazilian driver Nelson Piquet . Murray designed the full @-@ ground effect BT48 around a rapidly developed new Alfa Romeo V12 engine and incorporated an effective " carbon @-@ carbon braking " system — a technology Brabham pioneered in 1976 . However , unexpected movement of the car 's aerodynamic centre of pressure made its handling unpredictable and the new engine was unreliable . The team dropped to eighth in the Constructors ' Championship by the end of the season . Alfa Romeo started testing their own Formula One car during the season , prompting Ecclestone to revert to Cosworth DFV engines , a move Murray described as being " like having a holiday " . The new , lighter , Cosworth @-@ powered BT49 was introduced before the end of the year at the Canadian Grand Prix ; where after practice Lauda announced his immediate retirement from driving , later saying that he " was no longer getting any pleasure from driving round and round in circles " .
The team used the BT49 over four seasons . In the 1980 season Piquet scored three wins and the team took 3rd in the Constructors ' Championship with Piquet second in the Drivers ' Championship . This season saw the introduction of the blue and white livery that the cars would wear through several changes of sponsor , until the team 's demise in 1992 . With a better understanding of ground effect , the team further developed the BT49C for the 1981 season , incorporating a hydropneumatic suspension system to avoid ride height limitations intended to reduce downforce . Piquet , who had developed a close working relationship with Murray , took the drivers ' title with three wins , albeit amid accusations of cheating . The team finished second in the Constructors ' Championship , behind the Williams team .
Renault had introduced turbocharged engines to Formula One in 1977 . Brabham had tested a BMW 4 @-@ cylinder M12 turbocharged engine in the summer of 1981 . For the 1982 season the team designed a new car , the BT50 , around the BMW engine which , like the Repco engine 16 years before , was based on a road car engine block , the BMW M10 . Brabham continued to run the Cosworth @-@ powered BT49D in the early part of the season while reliability and driveability issues with the BMW units were resolved . The relationship came close to ending , with the German manufacturer insisting that Brabham use their engine . The turbo car took its first win at the Canadian Grand Prix . In the Constructors ' Championship , the team finished fifth , the drivers Riccardo Patrese , who scored the last win of the Brabham @-@ Ford combination in the Monaco Grand Prix , 10th and World Champion Piquet a mere 11th in the Drivers ' Championship . In the 1983 season , Piquet took the championship lead from Renault 's Alain Prost at the last race of the year , the South African Grand Prix to become the first driver to win the Formula One Drivers ' World Championship with a turbo @-@ powered car . The team did not win the Constructors ' Championship in either 1981 or 1983 , despite Piquet 's success . Riccardo Patrese was the only driver other than Piquet to win a race for Brabham in this period — the drivers in the second car contributed only a fraction of the team 's points in each of these championship seasons . Patrese finished 9th in the Drivers ' Championship with 13 points , dropping the team behind Ferrari and Renault to third in the Constructors ' Championship .
Piquet took the team 's last wins : two in 1984 by winning the 7th and 8th race of that season , the Canadian Grand Prix and the Detroit Grand Prix , and one in 1985 by winning the French Grand Prix , before reluctantly leaving for the Williams team at the end of the season . After seven years and two world championships , he felt he was worth more than Ecclestone 's salary offer for 1986 . Piquet finished 5th in 1984 and a mere 8th in 1985 in the respective Drivers ' Championships . The 1986 season was a disaster . Murray 's radical long and low BT55 , with its BMW M12 engine tilted over to improve its aerodynamics and lower its centre of gravity , scored only two points . Driver Elio de Angelis became the Formula One team 's only fatality when he died in a testing accident at the Paul Ricard circuit . Derek Warwick , who replaced de Angelis , was close to scoring two points for fifth in the British Grand Prix , but a problem on the last lap dropped him out of the points . In August , BMW after considering running their own in @-@ house team , announced their departure from Formula One at the end of the season . Murray , who had largely taken over the running of the team as Ecclestone became more involved with his role at the Formula One Constructors Association , felt that " the way the team had operated for 15 years broke down " . He left Brabham in November to join McLaren .
Ecclestone held BMW to their contract for the 1987 season , but the German company would only supply the laydown engine . The upright units , around which Brabham had designed their new car , were sold for use by the Arrows team . Senior figures at Brabham , including Murray , have admitted that by this stage Ecclestone had lost interest in running the team . The 1987 season was only slightly more successful than the previous year — Patrese and de Cesaris scoring 10 points between them , including two third places at the Belgian Grand Prix and the Mexican Grand Prix . Unable to locate a suitable engine supplier , the team missed the FIA deadline for entry into the 1988 world championship and Ecclestone finally announced the team 's withdrawal from Formula One at the Brazilian Grand Prix in April 1988 . During the season ending Australian Grand Prix , Ecclestone announced he had sold MRD to EuroBrun team owner Walter Brun for an unknown price .
= = = Joachim Luhti ( 1989 ) = = =
Brun soon sold the team on , this time to Swiss financier Joachim Luhti , who brought it back into Formula One for the 1989 season . The new Brabham BT58 , powered by a Judd V8 engine ( originally another of Jack Brabham 's companies ) , was produced for the 1989 season . Italian driver Stefano Modena , who had driven for the team in the 1987 Australian Grand Prix in a one off drive for the team , drove alongside the more experienced Martin Brundle who was returning to Formula One after spending 1988 winning the World Sportscar Championship for Jaguar . Modena took the team 's last podium : a third place at the Monaco Grand Prix ( Brundle , who had only just scraped through pre @-@ qualifying by 0 @.@ 021 seconds before qualifying a brilliant 4th , had been running third but was forced to stop to replace a flat battery , finally finishing sixth ) . The team also failed to make the grid sometimes : Brundle failed to prequalify at the Canadian Grand Prix and the French Grand Prix . The team finished 9th in the Constructors ' Championship at the end of the season .
= = = Middlebridge Racing ( 1989 – 1992 ) = = =
After Luhti 's arrest on tax fraud charges in mid @-@ 1989 , several parties disputed the ownership of the team . Middlebridge Group Limited , a Japanese engineering firm owned by billionaire Koji Nakauchi , was already involved with established Formula 3000 team Middlebridge Racing and gained control of Brabham for the 1990 season . Herbie Blash had returned to run the team in 1989 and continued to do so in 1990 . Middlebridge paid for its purchase using £ 1 million loaned to them by finance company Landhurst Leasing , but the team remained underfunded and would only score a few more points finishes in its last three seasons . Jack Brabham 's youngest son , David , raced for the Formula One team for a short time in 1990 including the season ending Australian Grand Prix ( the first time a Brabham had driven a Brabham car in an Australian Grand Prix since 1968 ) . 1990 was a disastrous year , with Modena 's fifth place in the season opening United States Grand Prix being the only top six finish . The team finished ninth in the Constructors ' Championship . Brundle and fellow Briton Mark Blundell , scored only three points during the 1991 season . Due to poor results in the first half of 1991 , they had to prequalify in the second half of the season , Blundell failed to do so in Japan , as did Brundle in Australia . The team finished 10th in the Constructors ' Championship , behind another struggling British team , Lotus . In 1992 , Damon Hill , the son of another former Brabham driver and World Champion , debuted in the team after Giovanna Amati was dropped when her sponsorship failed to materialise . Amati was the fifth woman to attempt a Formula One race , but her three attempts were unsuccessful .
Argentine Sergio Rinland designed the team 's final cars around Judd engines , except for 1991 when Yamaha powered the cars . In the 1992 season the cars ( which were updated versions of the 1991 car ) rarely qualified for races . Hill gave the team its final finish , at the Hungarian Grand Prix , where he crossed the finish line 11th and last , four laps behind the winner , Ayrton Senna . After the end of that race the team ran out of funds and collapsed . Middlebridge Group Limited had been unable to continue making repayments against the £ 6 million ultimately provided by Landhurst Leasing , which went into administration . The Serious Fraud Office investigated the case . Landhurst 's managing directors were found guilty of corruption and imprisoned , having accepted bribes for further loans to Middlebridge . It was one of four teams to leave Formula One that year . ( cf March Engineering , Fondmetal and Andrea Moda Formula ) . Although there was talk of reviving the team for the following year , its assets passed to Landhurst Leasing and were auctioned by the company 's receivers in 1993 . Among these was the team 's old factory in Chessington , which was acquired by Yamaha Motor Sports and used to house Activa Technology Limited , a company manufacturing composite components for race and road cars run by Herbie Blash . The factory was bought by the Carlin DPR GP2 motor racing team in 2006 .
= = = Potential F1 revival ( 2010 ) = = =
On 4 June 2009 , Franz Hilmer confirmed that he had used the name to lodge an entry for the 2010 Formula One season as a cost capped team under the new budget cap regulations . The Brabham family was not involved and announced that it was seeking legal advice over the use of the name . The team 's entry was not accepted , and the Brabham family later obtained legal recognition of their exclusive rights to the Brabham brand .
= = = Brabham Racing ( 2014 – ) = = =
In September 2014 , David Brabham — the son of Brabham founder Sir Jack Brabham — announced the reformation of the Brabham Racing team under the name Project Brabham , with plans to enter the 2015 FIA World Endurance Championship and 2015 24 Hours of Le Mans in the LMP2 category using a crowdsourcing business model . The team is also aiming to enter the FIA Formula E Championship and return to Formula One in the future .
= = Motor Racing Developments = =
Brabham cars were also widely used by other teams , and not just in Formula One . Jack Brabham and Ron Tauranac called the company they set up in 1961 to design and build formula racing cars to customer teams Motor Racing Developments ( MRD ) , and this company had a large portfolio of other activities . Initially , Brabham and Tauranac each held 50 percent of the shares . Tauranac was responsible for design and running the business , while Brabham was the test driver and arranged corporate deals like the Repco engine supply and the use of the MIRA wind tunnel . He also contributed ideas to the design process and often machined parts and helped build the cars .
From 1963 to 1965 , MRD was not directly involved in Formula One , and often ran works cars in other formulae . A separate company , Jack Brabham 's Brabham Racing Organisation , ran the Formula One works entry . Like other customers , BRO bought its cars from MRD , initially at £ 3 @,@ 000 per car , although it did not pay for development parts . Tauranac was unhappy with his distance from the Formula One operation and before the 1966 season suggested that he was no longer interested in producing cars for Formula One under this arrangement . Brabham investigated other chassis suppliers for BRO , however the two reached an agreement and from 1966 MRD was much more closely involved in this category . After Jack Brabham sold his shares in MRD to Ron Tauranac at the end of 1969 , the works Formula One team was MRD .
Despite only building its first car in 1961 , by the mid @-@ 1960s MRD had overtaken established constructors like Cooper to become the largest manufacturer of single @-@ seat racing cars in the world , and by 1970 had built over 500 cars . Of the other Formula One teams which used Brabhams , Frank Williams Racing Cars and the Rob Walker Racing Team were the most successful . The 1965 British Grand Prix saw seven Brabhams compete , only two of them from the works team , and there were usually four or five at championship Grands Prix throughout that season . The firm built scores of cars for the lower formulae each year , peaking with 89 cars in 1966 . Brabham had the reputation of providing customers with cars of a standard equal to those used by the works team , which worked " out of the box " . The company provided a high degree of support to its customers — including Jack Brabham helping customers set up their cars . During this period the cars were usually known as " Repco Brabhams " , not because of the Repco engines used in Formula One between 1966 and 1968 , but because of a smaller @-@ scale sponsorship deal through which the Australian company had been providing parts to Jack Brabham since his Cooper days .
At the end of 1971 Bernie Ecclestone bought MRD . He retained the Brabham brand , as did subsequent owners . Although the production of customer cars continued briefly under Ecclestone 's ownership , he believed the company needed to focus on Formula One to succeed . The last production customer Brabhams were the Formula Two BT40 and the Formula Three BT41 of 1973 , although Ecclestone sold ex @-@ works Formula One BT44Bs to RAM Racing as late as 1976 .
In 1988 Ecclestone sold Motor Racing Developments to Alfa Romeo . The Formula One team did not compete that year , but Alfa Romeo put the company to use designing and building a prototype " Procar " — a racing car with the silhouette of a large saloon ( the Alfa Romeo 164 ) covering a composite racing car chassis and mid mounted race engine . This was intended for a racing series for major manufacturers to support Formula One Grands Prix , and was designated the Brabham BT57 .
= = Racing history — other categories = =
= = = Indycar = = =
Brabham cars competed at the Indianapolis 500 from the mid @-@ 1960s to the early 1970s . After an abortive project in 1962 , MRD was commissioned in 1964 to build an Indycar chassis powered by an American Offenhauser engine . The resultant BT12 chassis was raced by Jack Brabham as the " Zink @-@ Urschel Trackburner " at the 1964 event and retired with a fuel tank problem . The car was entered again in 1966 , taking a third place for Jim McElreath . From 1968 to 1970 , Brabham returned to Indianapolis , at first with a 4 @.@ 2 litre version of the Repco V8 the team used in Formula One — with which Peter Revson finished fifth in 1969 — before reverting to the Offenhauser engine for 1970 . The Brabham @-@ Offenhauser combination was entered again in 1971 by J.C. Agajanian , finishing fifth in the hands of Bill Vukovich II . Although a Brabham car never won at Indianapolis , McElreath won four United States Automobile Club ( USAC ) races over 1965 and 1966 in the BT12 . The " Dean Van Lines Special " in which Mario Andretti won the 1965 USAC national championship was a direct copy of this car , made with permission from Brabham by Andretti 's crew chief Clint Brawner . Revson took Brabham 's final USAC race win in a BT25 in 1969 , using the Repco engine .
= = = Formula Two = = =
In the 1960s and early 1970s , drivers who had reached Formula One often continued to compete in Formula Two . In 1966 MRD produced the BT18 for the lower category , with a Honda engine acting as a stressed component . The car was extremely successful , winning 11 consecutive Formula Two races in the hands of the Formula One pairing of Brabham and Hulme . Cars were entered by MRD and not by the Brabham Racing Organisation , avoiding a direct conflict with Repco , their Formula One engine supplier .
= = = Formula Three = = =
The first Formula Three Brabham , the BT9 , won only four major races in 1964 . The BT15 which followed in 1965 was a highly successful design . 58 cars were sold , which won 42 major races . Further developments of the same concept , including wings by the end of the decade , were highly competitive up until 1971 . The BT38C of 1972 was Brabham 's first production monocoque and the first not designed by Tauranac . Although 40 were ordered , it was less successful than its predecessors . The angular BT41 was the final Formula Three Brabham .
= = = Formula 5000 = = =
Brabham made one car for Formula 5000 racing , the Brabham BT43 . Rolled out in late 1973 it was tested in early 1974 by John Watson at Silverstone before making its debut at the Rothmans F5000 Championship Round at Monza on June 30 , 1974 driven by Martin Birrane . Former Australian Drivers ' Champion Kevin Bartlett used the Chevrolet powered Brabham BT43 to finish 3rd in the 1978 Australian Drivers ' Championship including finishing 5th in the 1978 Australian Grand Prix .
= = = Sports cars = = =
Tauranac did not enjoy designing sports cars and could only spare a small amount of his time from MRD 's very successful single @-@ seater business . Only 14 sports car models were built between 1961 and 1972 , out of a total production of almost 600 chassis . The BT8A was the only one built in any numbers , and was quite successful in national level racing in the UK in 1964 and 1965 . The design was " stretched " in 1966 to become the one @-@ off BT17 , originally fitted with the 4 @.@ 3 litre version of the Repco engine for Can @-@ Am racing . It was quickly abandoned by MRD after engine reliability problems became evident .
= = Technical innovation = =
Brabham was considered a technically conservative team in the 1960s , chiefly because it persevered with traditional " spaceframe " cars long after Lotus introduced lighter , stiffer " monocoque " chassis to Formula One in 1962 . Chief designer Tauranac reasoned that monocoques of the time were not usefully stiffer than well designed spaceframe chassis , and were harder to repair and less suitable for MRD 's customers . His " old fashioned " cars won the Brabham team the 1966 and 1967 championships , and were competitive in Formula One until rule changes forced a move to monocoques in 1970 .
Despite the perceived conservatism , in 1963 Brabham was the first Formula One team to use a wind tunnel to hone their designs to reduce drag and stop the cars lifting off the ground at speed . The practice only became the norm in the early 1980s , and is possibly the most important factor in the design of modern cars . Towards the end of the 1960s , teams began to exploit aerodynamic downforce to push the cars ' tyres down harder on the track and enable them to maintain faster speeds through high @-@ speed corners . At the 1968 Belgian Grand Prix , Brabham were the first , alongside Ferrari , to introduce full width rear wings to this effect .
The team 's most fertile period of technical innovation came in the 1970s and 1980s when Gordon Murray became technical director . During 1976 , the team introduced " carbon @-@ carbon brakes " to Formula One , which promised reduced " unsprung weight " and better stopping performance due to carbon 's greater coefficient of friction . The initial versions used carbon @-@ carbon composite brake pads and a steel disc faced with carbon " pucks " . The technology was not reliable at first ; in 1976 , Carlos Pace crashed at 180 mph ( 290 km / h ) at the Österreichring circuit after heat build @-@ up in the brakes boiled the brake fluid , leaving him with no way of stopping the car . By 1979 , Brabham had developed an effective carbon @-@ carbon braking system , combining structural carbon discs with carbon brake pads . By the late 1980s , carbon brakes were used by all competitors in almost all top level motor sports .
Although Brabham experimented with airdams and underbody skirts in the mid @-@ 1970s , the team , like the rest of the field , did not immediately understand Lotus 's development of a ground effect car in 1977 . The Brabham BT46B " Fan car " of 1978 , generated enormous downforce with a fan , which sucked air from beneath the car , although its claimed use was for engine cooling . The car only raced once in the Formula One World Championship — Niki Lauda winning the 1978 Swedish Grand Prix — before a loophole in the regulations was closed by the FIA .
Although in 1979 Murray was the first to use lightweight " carbon fibre composite " panels to stiffen Brabham 's aluminium alloy monocoques , he echoed his predecessor Tauranac in being the last to switch to the new fully composite monocoques . Murray was reluctant to build the entire chassis from composite materials until he understood their behaviour in a crash , an understanding achieved in part through an instrumented crash test of a BT49 chassis . The team did not follow McLaren 's 1981 MP4 / 1 with their own fully composite chassis until the " lowline " BT55 in 1986 , the last team to do so . This technology is now used in all top level single seater racing cars .
For the 1981 season the FIA introduced a 6 cm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) minimum ride height for the cars , intended to slow them in corners by limiting the downforce created by aerodynamic ground effect . Gordon Murray devised a " hydropneumatic suspension " system for the BT49C , which allowed the car to settle to a much lower ride height at speed . Brabham were accused of cheating by other teams , although Murray believes that the system met the letter of the regulations . No action was taken against the team and others soon produced systems with similar effects .
At the 1982 British Grand Prix , Brabham reintroduced the idea of re @-@ fuelling and changing the car 's tyres during the race , unseen since the 1957 Formula One season , to allow their drivers to sprint away at the start of races on a light fuel load and soft tyres . After studying techniques used at the Indianapolis 500 and in NASCAR racing in the United States , the team were able to refuel and re @-@ tyre the car in 14 seconds in tests ahead of the race . In 1982 Murray felt the tactic did little more than " get our sponsors noticed at races we had no chance of winning " , but in 1983 the team made good use of the tactic . Refuelling was banned for 1984 , and did not reappear until the 1994 season ( until it was banned again in 2010 as a part of cost cutting measures ) , but tyre changes have remained part of Formula One .
= = Controversy = =
The fan car and hydropneumatic suspension exploited loopholes in the sporting regulations . In the early 1980s , Brabham was accused of going further and breaking the regulations . During 1981 , Piquet 's first championship year , rumours circulated of illegal underweight Brabham chassis . Driver Jacques Laffite was among those to claim that the cars were fitted with heavily ballasted bodywork before being weighed at scrutineering . The accusation was denied by Brabham 's management . No formal protest was made against the team and no action was taken against them by the sporting authorities .
From 1978 , Ecclestone was president of the Formula One Constructors Association ( FOCA ) , a body formed by the teams to represent their interests . This left his team open to accusations of having advance warning of rule changes . Ecclestone denies that the team benefited from this and Murray has noted that , contrary to this view , at the end of 1982 the team had to abandon their new BT51 car , built on the basis that ground effect would be permitted in 1983 . Brabham had to design and build a replacement , the BT52 , in only three months . At the end of the 1983 season , Renault and Ferrari , both beaten to the Drivers ' Championship by Piquet , protested that the Research Octane Number ( RON ) of the team 's fuel was above the legal limit of 102 . The FIA declared that a figure of up to 102 @.@ 9 was permitted under the rules , and that Brabham had not exceeded this limit .
= = Championship results = =
Results achieved by the " works " Brabham team . Bold results indicate a championship win .
= Hurricane Epsilon =
Hurricane Epsilon was the final of fifteen hurricanes within the record @-@ breaking 2005 Atlantic hurricane season . Originating from a cold front beneath an upper @-@ level low , Epsilon formed on November 29 about 915 mi ( 1470 km ) east of Bermuda . Initially , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) forecast the storm to transition into an extratropical cyclone within five days , due to conditions unfavorable for significant intensification . Epsilon continually defied forecasts , at first due to an unexpected loop to the southwest , and later due to retaining its strength despite cold waters and strong wind shear .
On December 1 , Epsilon began a northeast motion due to an approaching trough , and the next day it attained hurricane status . After turning to the east , it developed characteristics of an annular hurricane , meaning it had a circular eye , a ring of convection , and had few fluctuations in its intensity . On December 5 Epsilon attained peak winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) , and the next day it turned to the south and southwest . Late on December 7 , the winds dropped below hurricane status for the first time in five days , making Epsilon the longest @-@ lasting December hurricane on record . Stronger wind shear caused rapid weakening , and the storm could no longer be classified as a tropical cyclone late on December 8 . The next day the remnant circulation of Epsilon dissipated .
= = Formation and naming = =
On November 27 , a surface storm with gale @-@ force winds developed beneath an upper @-@ level low pressure area , about 1150 mi ( 1850 km ) east of Bermuda . At the time , a cold front extended eastward from the surface storm toward the eastern Atlantic Ocean , north of Tropical Storm Delta . By that time , tropical cyclone forecast models anticipated the possible development of a subtropical cyclone , and although they were inconsistent , National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) specialist Eric Blake stated , " blocking at high latitudes seems to favor another subtropical cyclone effort . " The blocking referred to a ridge stretching across the northern Atlantic . The surface storm gradually separated from the frontal zone , but initially its convection , or thunderstorm activity , was sparse and poorly organized .
The NHC introduced the system in its tropical weather outlook on November 28 , with the possibility of subtropical or tropical development noted . It moved slowly westward , becoming better organized , and by late that day resembled a subtropical cyclone ; however , as it was still connected to the cold front , it could not have been classified as such . Early on November 29 , an area of deep convection developed and organized over the surface center when it was about 915 mi ( 1470 km ) east of Bermuda . The NHC accordingly assessed the system as developing into a tropical storm , designating it with the Greek letter Epsilon .
= = Tropical storm intensity = =
Operationally , the NHC did not initiate advisories until 1500 UTC on November 29 , about nine hours after it actually developed . By that time , the convection had wrapped into a ring 45 mi ( 72 km ) in diameter . In the first advisory on Epsilon , the NHC forecast steady strengthening to near hurricane status due to marginally favorable conditions , followed by extratropical transition within five days ; an alternate possibility was Epsilon being absorbed by a larger extratropical storm . The storm moved westward after its development with a persistent ridge to its north . Initially , Epsilon was embedded beneath an upper @-@ level low that provided an area of low wind shear and instability . An eye @-@ like feature briefly developed in the center of the convection , although the thunderstorms waned late on November 28 due to restricted inflow . However , banding features and outflow improved at the same time .
By November 30 , the NHC anticipated extratropical transition to occur within two days , although some strengthening was still expected . That day , there was an increase in convection over the center and the development of a ragged eye @-@ feature . The winds briefly increased to 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) , although the intensity of the thunderstorms diminished . Initially Epsilon was predicted to continue westward and eventually turn to the north and northeast . Instead , it turned toward the southwest and executed a cyclonic loop ; the unexpected motion caused larger than normal errors in the extended track forecast . As it moved to the south , the storm crossed over an area of warmer water temperatures , and the NHC remarked that " just a modest increase in convection [ would be ] needed to make Epsilon a hurricane . " At the time , forecasters assessed the winds in Epsilon to be around 70 mph ( 115 km / h ) , although in a post @-@ season re @-@ analysis it was found to have been 10 mph ( 15 km / h ) weaker . Late on November 30 , Epsilon made its closest approach to Bermuda , passing about 645 miles ( 1045 km ) east @-@ southeast of the island .
Tropical Storm Epsilon began its motion to the east and northeast on December 1 , due to an approaching trough . Its structure became that of a " shallow hybrid @-@ type tropical cyclone " , and an eye @-@ feature again developed within the convection . At the time , the NHC and several computer models anticipated extratropical transition within 36 hours as it accelerated northeastward near the Azores . However , four computer models predicted an alternate scenario , and forecaster Stacy Stewart stated such transition would only occur " barring any southward motion over warmer water that would prolong both the lifetime of Epsilon and the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season . " As it continued northeastward , the storm separated from upper @-@ level low it was previously beneath . After a decrease in convection , the thunderstorm activity again increased over the center , and there were more banding features . Despite moving over slightly cooler water temperatures , Epsilon attained hurricane status late on December 2 , following the development of a well @-@ defined eye 29 miles ( 46 km ) in diameter .
= = Peak strength and hurricane status = =
A few hours after reaching hurricane status , the NHC thought Epsilon reached peak winds , as the storm was about to move over cooler water temperatures . Additionally , the hurricane was expected to stall near the Azores , in contrast to the original forecast of continued acceleration to the northeast . On December 3 it turned due eastward , still maintaining an eye , modest amounts of convection , and outflow . Despite moving into an area of cooler waters and generally unfavorable atmospheric conditions , Epsilon retained its hurricane status ; the only entity supporting its intensity was its warm upper @-@ level temperature . By late on December 3 , its presentation was described as " remarkably well @-@ organized for a hurricane at high latitude in December ... embedded in a strong upper @-@ level westerly wind environment and moving over [ 70 – 72 ° F ( 21 – 22 ° C ) ] water . "
As it continued eastward , Epsilon developed characteristics of an annular hurricane ; such cyclones , more often found in the deep tropics with greater intensity , have circular eyes , surrounded by a nearly uniform ring of convection and a general lack of thunderstorms outside the ring . For several days , the intensity fluctuated in a narrow range , and although Epsilon was briefly downgraded to tropical storm status on December 4 , the NHC assessed it as remaining a hurricane . After it was thought to have weakened , the eye became more symmetric as the ring of convection became stronger . The hurricane remained difficult to forecast , as NHC forecaster Lixion Avila remarked , " There are no clear reasons ... and I am not going to make one up ... to explain the recent strengthening of Epsilon . "
By late on December 4 , the NHC was no longer anticipating extratropical transition , after a front passed north of the storm and there was no interaction . At 0600 UTC on December 5 , the hurricane 's appearance generated 4 @.@ 7 on the Dvorak technique , a system used to estimate intensity from satellite imagery . This was the highest rating during Epsilon 's duration , and suggested winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) , which was its peak intensity . Around that time , the hurricane began a turn to the east @-@ southeast , as the ridge to its north built behind the passage of a cold front . Despite the cold water temperatures and unfavorable strong upper @-@ level winds , Epsilon maintained its intensity , and the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory ( GFDL ) model predicted it would remain a hurricane for nearly three days .
= = Weakening and dissipation = =
On December 6 the hurricane turned to the south and southwest . As it did so , Epsilon passed beneath a mid @-@ level trough that sheltered it from the wind shear . After weakening during the evening , the convection redeveloped around the large and distinct eye in the daytime , a process Epsilon had done repeatedly in its duration . However , late on December 7 , an approaching trough began increasing wind shear over the system , displacing the convection from the center and causing the eye to dissipate . After maintaining hurricane status for five days , Epsilon weakened to tropical storm status about 920 mi ( 1480 km ) southwest of the Azores .
Once weakened to a tropical storm , Epsilon began rapidly deteriorating . On December 8 , it was downgraded to a tropical depression as the convection had totally dissipated . The NHC issued their final advisory on Epsilon at 1500 UTC that day , after the cyclone consisted of a tight swirl of low clouds with no convection . On issuing the last advisory , Lixion Avila remarked , " I hope this is the end of the long lasting 2005 hurricane season . " There was ultimately one more tropical storm – Zeta .
Late on December 8 , Epsilon transitioned into a remnant low pressure area . The remnant circulation elongated in advance of a frontal zone , and it dissipated late on December 9 . The front absorbed the remnants the next day .
= = Naming and records = =
After completing the list of 21 tropical cyclone names for the first time ever , the NHC began naming storms with the Greek alphabet . Epsilon was the fifth name of the list , and ultimately there was one additional storm , making the 2005 season the most active on record with 27 named storms . Since Epsilon stayed well out to sea and never approached land , no warnings or watches were issued . No ships reported tropical storm force winds from Epsilon and there were no damages or fatalities .
When Tropical Storm Epsilon persisted until December 1 , it extended the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season beyond the normal boundaries of June 1 to November 30 . Although such off @-@ season Atlantic storms are unusual , a similar event occurred just one year prior with Tropical Storm Otto .
Epsilon is just one of four tropical cyclones to ever attain hurricane status in December , along with a hurricane in 1887 , Alice in 1954 , and Lili in 1984 . The cyclone maintained hurricane status for five days , longer than any other Atlantic hurricane in December .
= Oriental Film =
Oriental Film was a film production company in Batavia , Dutch East Indies ( now Jakarta , Indonesia ) . Established by ethnic Chinese businessman Tjo Seng Han in 1940 , it completed four black @-@ and @-@ white films before it was closed in 1941 . All the company 's films were screened into the 1950s but may now be lost . They were directed by two men , Njoo Cheong Seng and Sutan Usman Karim , and launched the careers of actors such as Dhalia and Soerip .
Established during the revival of the Indies film industry , Oriental released its first film , Kris Mataram , in July 1940 . It starred Njoo 's wife Fifi Young , and relied on her fame as a stage actress to draw audiences . This was followed by a further three films , which were targeted at low @-@ income audiences and extensively used kroncong music . Their final production was Panggilan Darah in 1941 , which was completed after Njoo and Young had migrated to Majestic Film . Oriental was unable to recoup its expenses of renting a Dutch @-@ owned studio , and the company was shut down .
= = Establishment = =
Following the commercial successes of Terang Boelan ( Full Moon ; 1937 ) , Fatima ( 1938 ) , and Alang @-@ Alang ( Grass ; 1939 ) , the Dutch East Indies film industry – which had been severely weakened by the Great Depression – was revived . Film production increased and , in 1940 , four new production houses were opened , including Oriental Film . Funded entirely by the ethnic Chinese businessman Tjo Seng Han , the company 's first headquarters were at 42 Matraman Street , in eastern Batavia ( now Jakarta ) ; according to the weekly Sin Po , this studio had simple facilities . Another ethnic Chinese businessman , Tjan Hock Siong , was brought on to manage the day @-@ to @-@ day activities of the studio .
Tjo and Tjan hired Njoo Cheong Seng , a dramatist who had previously worked with the Orion Opera before establishing his own troupe , and his wife Fifi Young . The two had gained wide recognition through their stage work , and it was hoped that name recognition would bring in audiences . The hiring of Njoo and Young was part of a trend of bringing theatrically trained actors and crew into the film industry . Terang Boelan had used stage starlet Roekiah and her husband Kartolo to great effect , and the actors had brought similar financial success to Tan 's Film after they were hired .
= = Productions = =
Oriental 's first production , Kris Mataram ( Kris of Mataram ) , was directed by Njoo and starred Young and Omar Rodriga . It followed a young noblewoman ( played by Young ) who marries a nobleman despite her parents ' disapproval . For this film , Njoo drew Joshua Wong from Tan 's as cinematographer , then used the Wong name as part of his advertising : " [ Kris Mataram has ] the J. Wong guarantee " . Released in July 1940 , the film was targeted at low @-@ income audiences – particularly theatre @-@ goers who would recognise Young . A review in the Soerabaijasch Handelsblad praised it , calling Kris Mataram " captivating to the last metre " .
Before its studio 's second production , Oriental began renting the studios of Algemeen Nederlandsch Indisch Filmsyndicaat ( ANIF ) in Molenvliet , Batavia , for 1 @,@ 500 gulden a month . This rent also included access to the studio 's equipment and cameraman J.J.W. Steffans , as well as facilities such as air conditioning and telephones in each office , and lighting equipment for night @-@ time shots . A large adjacent plot of land was also included . By renting the ANIF complex , Oriental became the largest and most modern studio in the Indies .
Njoo soon showed a proclivity for sensation , which was manifested in the December 1940 release Zoebaida . For the film , a love story set in Timor starring Young as the title character , Oriental used bright , extravagant costumes ; Njoo gave the characters whimsical names which would not be found in the setting . Rather than shoot on location – which would have been prohibitively expensive – Oriental constructed sets behind the ANIF Studio . Reviewers of the film noted with disdain that Zoebaida was exaggerated and clearly reflected its stage influences .
Oriental released its third production , Pantjawarna ( Five Colours ) , in March 1941 . Again starring Young , the film – in which a young woman must raise two daughters despite her husband 's imprisonment – featured two new hires , Dhalia and Soerip . Both women , teenagers at the time , had established stage careers and were known for their singing voices , which were put to use in several of Pantjawarna 's twelve kroncong songs . This film was well received by critics , and Young 's acting was praised in both the Bataviaasch Nieuwsblad and Soerabaijasch Handelsblad ; the latter characterised Pantjawarna as " a success for O.F.C. [ Oriental Film Company ] and proof of the progress made in the cinema of the Indies " .
After Pantjawarna , Fred Young drew Njoo and his wife to the newly established Majestic Film . Deprived of their director and main star , Oriental hired the journalist Sutan Usman Karim to direct their fourth production , Panggilan Darah ( Call of Blood ) . This film , written by Karim and starring Dhalia and Soerip , told of two young orphans as they tried to eke a living in Batavia . This film , which debuted in June 1941 , prominently featured the cigarette factory Nitisemito , leading the Indonesian film historian Misbach Yusa Biran to suggest that it may have paid for the advertisement . He records it as a modest success , although he notes that reviews were mixed .
= = Closure and legacy = =
Following Panggilan Darah , Oriental – which had been losing money steadily – released its contract for the ANIF studio , which was taken over by the Dutch @-@ run Multi Film . Despite hopes that they would continue producing narrative films , perhaps with less modern equipment , the company was dissolved . Oriental 's actors and crew members migrated to different studios . Suska was signed to Java Industrial Film and directed a single film for them , Ratna Moetoe Manikam . Dhalia went to Populair 's Film and acted in one production , Moestika dari Djemar ( The Jewel of Djemar ; 1942 ) , before the Japanese occupation in March 1942 closed that studio . Soerip , meanwhile , joined Njoo and Young at Majestic Film , acting in two productions before that studio was closed .
Although Oriental was short @-@ lived , several of the actors and crew it hired went on to lengthy careers . Njoo , after handling two films for Majestic in 1941 , spent much of the decade in theatre before returning to directing in the mid @-@ 1950s . Fifi Young , who continued acting for Njoo until their divorce in 1945 , appeared in more than eighty films before her death in 1975 . Dhalia and Soerip likewise had lengthy careers : both acted until the 1990s , Dhalia in 52 productions and Soerip in 25 .
= = Filmography = =
In a period of two years , Oriental released four films ; all were feature length , made in black @-@ and @-@ white , and received wide releases in the Dutch East Indies . Some , such as Panggilan Darah , enjoyed international release ; the film was screened in Singapore ( then part of the Straits Settlements ) by September 1941 . The company 's productions were targeted at low @-@ income audiences and extensively used kroncong music , for the recording of which the company established the Oriental Novelty Five . Though its films were screened at least into the 1950s , Oriental 's output may be lost .
= = Explanatory notes = =
= The Stones in the Park =
The Stones in the Park generally refers to a free outdoor festival held in Hyde Park on 5 July 1969 , headlined by The Rolling Stones and featuring Third Ear Band , King Crimson , Screw , Alexis Korner 's New Church , Family and The Battered Ornaments , in front of a crowd estimated at between 250 @,@ 000 and 500 @,@ 000 fans .
It was the Stones ' first public concert in over two years , and was planned as an introduction of new guitarist , Mick Taylor , though circumstances inevitably changed following the death of former member Brian Jones two days earlier . The band rehearsed at the Beatles ' studio in the basement of 3 Savile Row , and Jagger and Richards came up with a 14 @-@ song set ; the Hyde Park concert would be the first time many of the songs had been played before a public audience . The PA system was supplied by Watkins Electric Music , who had already handled amplification at previous Hyde Park shows .
Fans started to arrive at the park with candles on 4 July in tribute to Jones , and by the morning of 5 July , 7 @,@ 000 people had already gathered . Mick Jagger read a short eulogy on stage before the Stones ' set began , reading two stanzas of Percy Bysshe Shelley 's poem on John Keats 's death , Adonaïs , from a calf @-@ bound book . After this recital , several hundred cabbage white butterflies were released . The setlist for their performance was " I 'm Yours & I 'm Hers , " " Jumpin ' Jack Flash , " " Mercy Mercy " , " Down Home Girl " , " Stray Cat Blues " , " No Expectations " , " I 'm Free " , " Loving Cup " , " Love in Vain " , " ( I Can 't Get No ) Satisfaction " , " Honky Tonk Women " , " Midnight Rambler " , " Street Fighting Man " , and " Sympathy for the Devil " . During the 18 @-@ minute @-@ long rendition of " Sympathy for the Devil " , a number of African tribal drummers joined the band .
While the event is considered a memorable one by several critics , they also agree that it was not one of the Stones ' best performances , and the guitars played during the concert were out of tune . In a 1971 interview with Rolling Stone magazine , Keith Richards evaluated their performance , " We played pretty bad until near the end , because we hadn 't played for years ... Nobody minded , because they just wanted to hear us play again . " The Stones ' portion of concert was filmed by Granada Television and broadcast that September . It has since been released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray . In April 2013 , the band announced their intention to play two return concerts on 6 and 13 July , although the performances were not free .
= = Background = =
The festival was an important one for the Stones . They had not performed a public concert since their 1967 European Tour , and in 1968 had only performed at the NME Poll Winners Concert and at their television project The Rolling Stones Rock and Roll Circus . In interviews , Mick Jagger stated that he felt the band 's forte was performing live , rather than in the studio , and was keen to return to the stage . Blackhill Enterprises , which had already managed several successful concerts in Hyde Park , including a festival headlined by Blind Faith in June 1969 attended by 150 @,@ 000 people , were contacted to organise one at the next convenient date after the organiser @-@ compère of that concert , Sam Cutler , had met Jagger in the VIP area at the concert and later at the Royal Albert Hall . When asked why the festival would be free , Jagger noted that they had not made much money from previous concert tours anyway , and that he felt the audience would have a better time if they did not have to pay although he ensured that the cost of the concert would be covered by selling exclusive television rights to Granada Television .
However , the gradual estrangement of Brian Jones and his decreasing musical contributions – he had only appeared on two tracks on the then in @-@ progress Let It Bleed — made a return to touring problematic . They had shelved The Rolling Stones Rock and Roll Circus after having been upstaged by The Who . By June 1969 , matters had finally come to a head and it was decided that Jones should be replaced for the gig .
Mick Taylor , who had by this time obtained a reputation for himself by playing with John Mayall & the Bluesbreakers , was invited to work on Let It Bleed . The band enjoyed his contributions and decided to make him an offer to join full @-@ time . After considering this for a few days , he accepted , and his position was officially announced at a press conference in the park 's bandstand on 13 June . The single " Honky Tonk Women , " recorded on 1 June with Taylor , was rush @-@ released to tie in with the festival date . The Hyde Park concert would be Taylor 's first gig with the band , and as they had barely had any time to rehearse with him he was understandably nervous , though he later stated that he felt the others , who were far closer to Jones than him , would feel more emotionally drained . Jagger , too , was nervous , unsure whether Jones 's fans would take to Taylor and indeed whether they would boycott the concert ; he did not expect the crowd to match the 150 @,@ 000 who had come to the Blind Faith gig . In addition , the hot summer had sent the pollen levels soaring and Jagger suffered from hay @-@ fever and laryngitis in the days leading up to the concert .
Jones died on 3 July , two days before the festival . The Stones were in Olympic Studios when they were told of his death by Ian Stewart , and , although grief @-@ stricken , decided they would go ahead with the gig and dedicate their performance to him . Keith Richards later wrote :
The all @-@ important thing for us was it was our first appearance for a long time , and with a change of personnel . It was Mick Taylor 's first gig . We were going to do it anyway . Obviously a statement had to be made of one kind or another , so we turned it into a memorial for Brian . We wanted to see him off in grand style . The ups and downs with the guy are one thing , but when his time 's over , release the doves , or in this case the sackfuls of white butterflies .
The band rehearsed at the Beatles ' studio in the basement of 3 Savile Row , and Jagger and Richards came up with a 14 @-@ song set ; the Hyde Park concert would be the first time many of the songs had been played before a public audience .
= = Performance = =
The performers at the festival included Third Ear Band , Screw , King Crimson , Alexis Korner 's New Church , Roy Harper , Battered Ornaments , Family , and The Rolling Stones .
Fans started to arrive at the park with candles on 4 July in tribute to Jones , and the police allowed the park to be opened late so they could stay . By the following morning , there were already 7 @,@ 000 people . As with the Stones ' performance at the infamous Altamont Free Concert later that year , the Hells Angels were hired as stewards to protect the stage and equipment , something suggested by the Grateful Dead 's manager Rock Scully , who was used to the Angels performing this service at free festivals in California . According to Cutler , Jagger said that he was keen on doing a similar free concert in California at some time in the future . At Hyde Park , fifty Angels patrolled the vicinity of the stage , though there was little resemblance other than a superficial one to their American counterparts . They performed their duties in exchange for a cup of tea . In the event , there were only twelve arrests on the day and a subsequent police report claimed that the Angels were " totally ineffective " .
King Crimson at this point still consisted of the original line @-@ up of Robert Fripp , Greg Lake , Ian McDonald , Michael Giles and lyricist Peter Sinfield . They had not yet released an album , and were invited to play on the strength of word of mouth after their live performances in venues such as the Marquee Club . Sam Cutler introduced them on stage , stating the " new band is gonna go a long way . " The band 's setlist was " 21st Century Schizoid Man , " " The Court of the Crimson King , " " Get Thy Bearings " , " Epitaph , " " Mantra , " " Travel Weary Capricorn , " and " Mars . "
Three of the tracks appeared in studio form on the band 's debut album , In the Court of the Crimson King , albeit with different lyrics to the performance here . The band 's set has since been released on CD , with some bonus material . Recalling the event , Fripp remembers the sense of community at the event and the good weather , particularly noting a sense of goodwill backstage .
Alexis Korner 's involvement with Blues Incorporated had been a key ingredient in the Stones forming in 1962 , and he had played onstage with several group members during this time . New Church had been formed with guitarist Peter Thorup after the demise of Blues Incorporated .
Roy Harper had been regularly appearing at a number of Hyde Park festivals since 1968 and saw his popularity increase as a result of these . This eventually resulted in Blackhill 's Peter Jenner managing him , leading to a contract with Harvest Records . For the 5 July gig , he contributed a one @-@ song set between equipment changes .
The Battered Ornaments had been the backing band for Cream collaborator Pete Brown . They performed without Brown for the festival , who had been fired from the band the previous day . Guitarist Chris Spedding took over lead vocals . The band supplied the armoured personnel carrier that carried the Stones from their hotel to the park .
= = = The Rolling Stones = = =
The band met at the Londonderry Hotel on Park Lane , overlooking the park , where they had booked a tenth @-@ floor suite , and proceeded to the park in the armoured personnel carrier , together with their two official photographers , Michael Cooper and Spanish Tony Sanchez . They alighted from the carrier into a caravan @-@ trailer behind the stage . Jagger , his face heavily made up and with a studded leather collar around his neck , was clad in a white dress . He had borrowed the dress , which had been made for Sammy Davis , Jr. at the Mr Fish boutique , and wore it to Prince Rupert Lowenstein 's white ball , where he had shown it to Princess Margaret . Jagger was only to wear it for half @-@ an @-@ hour at the Hyde Park concert , after which he tore it off to reveal a violet T @-@ shirt and white loon pants .
Before the Stones kicked off their set , Jagger addressed the crowd , asking them to be quiet so he could read something as a tribute to Jones . He then read two stanzas of Percy Bysshe Shelley 's poem on John Keats 's death , Adonaïs , from a calf @-@ bound book . After this recital , several hundred cabbage white butterflies were released , despite the Royal Parks authority having stipulated before the concert that any butterflies released by the Stones should be sterilised and should certainly not be of the voracious cabbage white genus ( Pieris spp . ) . 2 @,@ 500 butterflies were due to be released , but due to the hot weather , many of them died from lack of air in storage . Watts later said that the butterflies " were a bit sad , there were casualties . It was like the Somme . "
The Stones then launched into " I 'm Yours and I 'm Hers " , which , according to Philip Norman , was an ironic choice given that Marianne Faithfull and Marsha Hunt , both of whom Jagger was alleged to be having relationships with at that time , were in the audience .
The setlist for their performance was " I 'm Yours & I 'm Hers " , " Jumpin ' Jack Flash " , " No Expectations " , " Mercy Mercy " , " Stray Cat Blues " , " I 'm Free " , " Down Home Girl " , " Love in Vain " , " Give Me A Little Drink " , " Midnight Rambler " , " ( I Can 't Get No ) Satisfaction " , " Honky Tonk Women " , " Street Fighting Man " , and " Sympathy for the Devil " .
During the 18 @-@ minute @-@ long rendition of " Sympathy for the Devil " , a number of Ginger Johnson 's African tribal drummers joined the band . After the concert ended , the volunteers who cleared up the 5 @,@ 000 tonnes of rubbish were each given a copy of " Honky Tonk Women " .
= = Equipment = =
Blackhill Enterprises provided a 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) high stage , with the speakers being housed in a thirty @-@ foot @-@ high tower so that people at the far end of the park would be able to hear the music . The stage was flanked by palm trees in pots and behind the performers there was a blowup of the cover of the Beggars Banquet album . Richards had started experimenting with open tunings by this point in the band 's career , particularly after hearing Ry Cooder , and the Hyde Park gig was the first chance audiences got to hear them . He played a Gibson ES @-@ 330 tuned to open E tuning with a capo on the fourth fret , and a Gibson Flying V. Taylor , meanwhile , played a Gibson Les Paul for the opening number , followed by an SG for the majority of the set . The PA system was supplied by Watkins Electric Music , who already handled amplification at previous Hyde Park shows . Company founder Charlie Watkins recalls it was the largest PA he had assembled to that point and , unable to provide enough gear himself , he was forced to borrow extras from other groups , later saying , " I didn 't have many columns , but I wanted to put 1500W up . I borrowed some from T @-@ Rex . They all chipped in — that 's what we used to do . "
= = Reception = =
In 1971 , in an interview with Rolling Stone magazine , Richards said , " We played pretty bad until near the end , because we hadn 't played for years ... Nobody minded , because they just wanted to hear us play again . "
The Guardian 's Richard Gott stated that the show was " a great and epoch @-@ making event in British social history " , although he added that " most of the music ... was indifferent " . According to Norman , " the band 's underpreparedness was painfully obvious . Keith and Mick Taylor 's guitars , so harmonious at first meeting , turned into a pair of pneumatic drills fighting a grudge match to the death . Charlie 's drumming and Bill 's bass each seemed to have melted into jelly . " The Daily Telegraph 's Iain Martin stated that the Stones were " under @-@ rehearsed and quite possibly nervous , not having performed live in front of an audience in more than two years . The guitars were badly out of tune and half the songs were approached at the wrong tempo " , adding that Jagger appeared to be " trying to cover up for the shortcomings of his bandmates " . Retrospectively reviewing the DVD release of the Stones ' set , Film 4 commented : " It isn 't the greatest film about the band and it isn 't their greatest performance , but for fans it captures the band at a significant moment . "
= = DVD release = =
The DVD , released on 25 September 2006 , includes the same concert footage as the TV broadcast of 25 September 1969 . The DVD includes three previously unseen songs which were filmed at the concert – " Mercy , Mercy " , " Stray Cat Blues " and " No Expectations " . The latter two are incomplete but are included here due to their uniqueness ( HD ) . Also included is news footage of their early fame from 1964 , footage of Mick Jagger discussing his arrest for drugs possession in July 1967 and his subsequent press conference on his release from prison , and a 1971 interview with Bill Wyman and Charlie Watts about their tour of France .
Eagle Rock Entertainment later issued reissued the special on DVD and Blu @-@ Ray as From The Vault - Hyde Park - Live in 1969 in 2015 .
= = = Track listing = = =
" Midnight Rambler " ( 4 : 30 )
" ( I Can 't Get No ) Satisfaction " ( 4 : 00 )
" I 'm Free " ( 2 : 50 )
Eulogy ( for Brian Jones ) ( 2 : 00 )
" I 'm Yours & I 'm Hers " ( Johnny Winter ) ( 2 : 10 )
" Jumpin ' Jack Flash " ( 3 : 20 )
" Honky Tonk Women " ( 3 : 05 )
" Love in Vain " ( Robert Johnson ) ( 4 : 30 )
" Sympathy for the Devil " ( 10 : 30 )
Bonus tracks
" Mercy Mercy "
" Stray Cat Blues "
" No Expectations "
= = 2013 concert = =
On Richard Bacon 's BBC Radio 5 Live show on 3 April 2013 it was announced that the Rolling Stones would hold a concert in Hyde Park as part of their 50th anniversary celebrations on 6 July . Mick Jagger quipped , " I 'll try and keep the poetry to a minimum " , and remarked , in respect of the white dress that he wore for the 1969 concert , " I can still just about get into the zippers . " On 9 April it was announced that they would hold a second concert , on 13 July . Several celebrities , including David Walliams , Gemma Arterton , Chris O 'Dowd , Noel Fielding , Simon Fuller and Bobby Gillespie attended the 6 July gig .
= USS Congress ( 1799 ) =
USS Congress was a nominally rated 38 @-@ gun wooden @-@ hulled , three @-@ masted heavy frigate of the United States Navy . She was named by George Washington to reflect a principal of the United States Constitution . James Hackett built her in Portsmouth New Hampshire and she was launched on 15 August 1799 . She was one of the original six frigates whose construction the Naval Act of 1794 had authorized . Joshua Humphreys designed these frigates to be the young Navy 's capital ships , and so Congress and her sisters were larger and more heavily armed and built than the standard frigates of the period .
Her first duties with the newly formed United States Navy were to provide protection for American merchant shipping during the Quasi War with France and to defeat the Barbary pirates in the First Barbary War . During the War of 1812 she made several extended length cruises in company with her sister ship President and captured , or assisted in the capture of twenty British merchant ships . At the end of 1813 , due to a lack of materials to repair her , she was placed in ordinary for the remainder of the war . In 1815 she returned to service for the Second Barbary War and made patrols through 1816 . In the 1820s she helped suppress piracy in the West Indies , made several voyages to South America , and was the first U.S. warship to visit China . Congress spent her last ten years of service as a receiving ship until ordered broken up in 1834 .
= = Construction = =
In 1785 Barbary pirates , most notably from Algiers , began to seize American merchant vessels in the Mediterranean . In 1793 alone , eleven American ships were captured and their crews and stores held for ransom . To combat this problem , proposals were made for warships to protect American shipping , resulting in the Naval Act of 1794 . The act provided funds to construct six frigates , but included a clause that if peace terms were agreed to with Algiers , the construction of the ships would be halted .
Joshua Humphreys ' design was unusual for the time , being long on keel and narrow of beam ( width ) and mounting very heavy guns . The design called for a diagonal scantling ( rib ) scheme intended to restrict hogging while giving the ships extremely heavy planking . This design gave the hull a greater strength than a more lightly built frigate . Humphreys ' design was based on his realization that the fledgling United States of the period could not match the European states in the size of their navies . This being so , the frigates were designed to overpower other frigates with the ability to escape from a ship of the line .
Congress was given her name by President George Washington after a principle of the United States Constitution . Her keel was reportedly laid down late in 1795 at a shipyard in Portsmouth , New Hampshire . James Hackett was charged with her construction and Captain James Sever served as a superintendent . Her construction proceeded slowly and was completely suspended when in March 1796 , a peace treaty was signed with Algiers . Congress remained at the shipyard , incomplete , until relations with France deteriorated in 1798 with the start of the Quasi @-@ War . At the request of then President John Adams , funds were approved on 16 July to complete her construction .
= = = Armament = = =
The Naval Act of 1794 had specified 36 @-@ gun frigates . However , Congress and her sister @-@ ship Constellation were re @-@ rated to 38s because of their large dimensions , being 164 ft ( 50 m ) in length and 41 ft ( 12 m ) in width .
The " ratings " by number of guns were meant only as an approximation , and Congress often carried up to 48 guns . Ships of this era had no permanent battery of guns such as modern Navy ships carry . The guns and cannons were designed to be completely portable and often were exchanged between ships as situations warranted . Each commanding officer outfitted armaments to their liking , taking into consideration factors such as the overall tonnage of cargo , complement of personnel aboard , and planned routes to be sailed . Consequently , the armaments on ships would change often during their careers , and records of the changes were not generally kept .
During her first cruise in the Quasi @-@ War against France , Congress was noted to be armed with a battery of forty guns consisting of twenty @-@ eight 18 pounders ( 8 kg ) and twelve 9 pounders ( 4 kg ) . For her patrols during the War of 1812 , she was armed with a battery of forty @-@ four guns consisting of twenty @-@ four 18 pounders and twenty 32 pounders ( 15 kg ) .
= = Quasi @-@ War = =
Congress launched on 15 August 1799 under the command of Captain Sever . After fitting @-@ out in Rhode Island , she set off on her maiden voyage 6 January 1800 sailing in company with Essex to escort merchant ships to the East Indies . Six days later she lost all of her masts during a gale . Because her rigging had been set and tightened in a cold climate , it had slackened once she reached warmer temperatures . Without the full support of the rigging , all the masts fell during a four @-@ hour period , killing one crew member trying to repair the main mast .
The crew rigged an emergency sail and limped back to the Gosport Navy Yard for repairs . While there , some of Sever 's junior officers announced that they had no confidence in his ability as a commanding officer . A hearing was held , and Captain Sever was cleared of any wrongdoing and remained in command of Congress , though many of his crew soon transferred out to Chesapeake .
Remaining in port for six months while her masts and rigging were repaired , she finally sailed again on 26 July for the West Indies . Congress made routine patrols escorting American merchant ships and seeking out French ships to capture . On two occasions she almost ran aground ; first while pursuing a French privateer , she ran into shallow water where large rocks were seen near the surface . Although their exact depth was not determined , Sever immediately abandoned pursuit of the privateer and changed course towards deeper waters . Her second close call occurred off the coast of the Caicos Islands , when during the night she drifted close to the reefs . At daybreak her predicament was discovered by the lookouts .
A peace treaty with France was ratified on 3 February 1801 and Congress returned to Boston in April . In accordance with an act of Congress passed on 3 March and signed by President John Adams , thirteen frigates then currently in service were to be retained . Seven of those frigates , including Congress , were to be placed in ordinary . En route to the Washington Navy Yard , she passed Mount Vernon on her way up the Potomac and Captain Sever ordered her sails lowered , flag at half mast , and a 13 @-@ gun salute fired to honor the recently deceased George Washington . Congress decommissioned at Washington along with United States and New York .
= = First Barbary War = =
During the United States ' preoccupation with France during the Quasi @-@ War , troubles with the Barbary States were suppressed by the payment of tribute to ensure that American merchant ships were not harassed and seized . In 1801 Yusuf Karamanli of Tripoli , dissatisfied with the amount of tribute he was receiving in comparison to Algiers , demanded an immediate payment of $ 250 @,@ 000 . In response , Thomas Jefferson sent a squadron of frigates to protect American merchant ships in the Mediterranean and pursue peace with the Barbary States .
The first squadron , under the command of Richard Dale in President , was instructed to escort merchant ships through the Mediterranean and negotiate with leaders of the Barbary States . A second squadron was assembled under the command of Richard Valentine Morris in Chesapeake however , the performance of Morris 's squadron was so poor that he was recalled and subsequently dismissed from the Navy in 1803 . A third squadron was assembled under the command of Edward Preble in Constitution and by mid @-@ 1804 they had successfully fought the Battle of Tripoli Harbor .
President Jefferson reinforced Preble 's squadron in April and ordered four frigates to sail as soon as possible . President , Congress , Constellation and Essex were placed under the direction of Commodore Samuel Barron . Congress was captained by John Rodgers and two months were spent preparing the squadron for the voyage . They departed in late June and arrived at Gibraltar on 12 August . Congress and Essex were immediately sent to patrol off the coast of Tangier and when they returned to Gibraltar two weeks later , Congress continued on to Tripoli .
Congress , accompanied by Constellation , assumed blockade duties of Tripoli and captured one xebec before sailing for Malta on 25 October for repairs . On 6 November Rodgers assumed command of Constitution and in his place , Stephen Decatur assumed command of Congress . The next recorded activity of Congress is in early July 1805 when she was sent in company with Vixen to blockade Tunisia . They were joined on the 23rd by additional U.S. Navy vessels . In early September , Congress carried the Tunisian ambassador back to Washington DC . Afterward , placed in ordinary at the Washington Navy Yard , she served as a classroom for midshipmen training through 1807 .
= = War of 1812 = =
In 1811 Congress required extensive repairs before recommissioning with Captain John Rogers in command . She performed routine patrols early in 1812 before war was declared on 18 June . Upon the declaration she was assigned to the squadron of Commodore Rodgers sailing in company with Argus , Hornet , President and United States .
Almost immediately Rogers was informed by a passing American merchant ship of a fleet of British merchantmen en route to Britain from Jamaica . Congress sailed along in pursuit , but was interrupted when President began pursuing HMS Belvidera on 23 June . Congress trailed behind President during the chase and fired her bowchasers at the escaping Belvidera . Unable to capture Belvidera , the squadron returned to the pursuit of the Jamaican fleet . On 1 July they began to follow a trail of coconut shells and orange peels the Jamaican fleet had left behind them . Sailing to within one day 's journey of the English Channel , the squadron never sighted the convoy and Rodgers called off the pursuit on the 13th . During their return trip to Boston , Congress assisted in the capture of seven merchant ships , including the recapture of an American vessel .
Making her second cruise against the British with President , Congress sailed from Boston on 8 October . On the 31st of that month , both ships began to pursue HMS Galatea , which was escorting two merchant ships . Galatea and her charges were chased for about three hours , during which Congress captured the merchant ship Argo . In the meantime , President kept after Galatea but lost sight of her as darkness fell . Congress and President remained together during November but they did not find a single ship to capture . On their return to the United States they passed north of Bermuda , proceeded towards the Virginia capes , and arrived back in Boston on 31 December . During their entire time at sea , the two frigates captured nine prizes .
Congress and President were blockaded in Boston by the Royal Navy until they slipped through the blockade on 30 April 1813 and put to sea for their third cruise of the war . On 2 May they pursued HMS Curlew but she outran them both and escaped . Congress parted company with President on the 8th and patrolled off the Cape Verde Islands and the coast of Brazil . She only captured four small British merchant ships during this period and returned to the Portsmouth Navy Yard for repairs in late 1813 . By this time of the war , materials and personnel were being diverted to the Great Lakes , which created a shortage of resources necessary to repair her . Due to the amount of repairs she needed , it was decided instead to place her in ordinary , where she stayed for the remainder of the war .
= = Second Barbary War = =
Soon after the United States declared war against Britain in 1812 , Algiers took advantage of the United States ' preoccupation with Britain and began intercepting American merchant ships in the Mediterranean . On 2 March 1815 , at the request of President James Madison , Congress declared war on Algiers . Work preparing two American squadrons promptly began — one at Boston under Commodore William Bainbridge , and one at New York under Commodore Steven Decatur .
Captain Charles Morris assumed command of Congress and assigned to the squadron under Bainbridge . After repairs and refitting , she transported the Minister to Holland William Eustis to his new post . Congress departed in June and after a few weeks at Holland , sailed for the Mediterranean and arrived at Cartagena , Spain in early August joining Bainbridge 's squadron . By the time of Congress 's arrival , however , Commodore Decatur had already secured a peace treaty with Algiers .
Congress , Erie , Chippewa and Spark sailed in company with Bainbridge 's flagship Independence — the first commissioned ship of the line of the U.S. Navy — as a show of force off Algiers . The squadron subsequently made appearances off Tripoli and Tunis and arrived at Gibraltar in early October . From there , Congress and many other ships were ordered back to the United States . She arrived at Newport , Rhode Island , remained there shortly , and proceeded to Boston where she decommissioned in December and assigned to ordinary .
= = Later career = =
In June 1816 Charles Morris again commanded Congress and began preparations for a cruise to the Pacific Coast of the United States . His objective was taking possession of Fort Astoria from the British and conducting inquiries at various ports along the coast to further improve commercial trade . These plans were canceled , however , when a U.S. Navy ship collided with a Spanish Navy vessel in the Gulf of Mexico . Consequently , Morris commanded a squadron of ships in the Gulf to ensure that American merchant commerce in the area would continue unmolested .
Congress arrived in the Gulf of Mexico in December 1816 and made patrols through July 1817 performing duties that Morris described as " tedious and uninteresting " . From there she sailed for Haiti where Morris and an agent of the United States negotiated a settlement with Henri Christophe over the case of a captured vessel . Afterward , Congress sailed for Venezuela to observe and gather information regarding the ongoing Venezuelan War of Independence . She arrived about 21 August and visited the Venezuelan city of Barcelona soon after .
Upon return to the Norfolk Navy Yard later the same year , Morris requested relief as commander due to failing health and Arthur Sinclair assumed command . Sinclair began preparing for a return voyage to South America carrying a diplomatic contingent to assure various South American countries of the United States ' intention to remain neutral in their conflicts with Spain for independence . The diplomats included Caesar A. Rodney , John Graham , Theodorick Bland , Henry Brackenridge , William Reed , and Thomas Rodney . Congress departed on 4 December and returned to Norfolk in July 1818 .
Early in 1819 Congress made a voyage under the command of Captain John D. Henley to China , becoming the first U.S. warship to visit that country . She returned to the United States in May 1821 . Shortly afterward , pirates in the West Indies began seizing American merchant ships and in early 1822 , she served as the flagship of Commodore James Biddle . She is recorded as collecting prisoners from the captured pirate ship Bandara D 'Sangare on 24 July of that year . Her next recorded activity is returning to Norfolk in April 1823 where Biddle immediately prepared for a voyage to Spain and Argentina to deliver the newly appointed Ministers , Hugh Nelson and Caesar A. Rodney respectively .
Extensive modifications were required to the berth deck of Congress in order to accommodate Rodney 's wife and eleven children . Additionally , Rodney 's household goods and furniture , described by Biddle as " enough to fill a large merchant ship , " were loaded into her hold that required much of the ships stores to be relocated . She departed from Wilmington , Delaware on 8 June and arrived at Gibraltar where Hugh Nelson disembarked for Spain . On 18 September Congress arrived at Rio de Janeiro , Brazil , where Rodney hired his own merchant ship to carry his family the rest of the distance to Buenos Aires . Congress subsequently returned to Norfolk on 17 December .
After her return , Congress served as a receiving ship ; being moved between the Norfolk and Washington Navy Yards under tow as needed . She remained on this duty for the next ten years until a survey of her condition was performed in 1834 , and found unfit for repair , she was broken up the same year .
= Century 21 Exposition =
The Century 21 Exposition ( also known as the Seattle World 's Fair ) was a world 's fair held April 21 , 1962 , to October 21 , 1962 , in Seattle , Washington . Nearly 10 million people attended the fair . Unlike some other world 's fairs of its era , Century 21 made a profit .
As planned , the exposition left behind a fairground and numerous public buildings and public works ; some credit it with revitalizing Seattle 's economic and cultural life ( see History of Seattle since 1940 ) . The fair saw the construction of the Space Needle and Alweg monorail , as well as several sports venues ( Washington State Coliseum , now KeyArena ) and performing arts buildings ( the Playhouse , now the Cornish Playhouse ) , most of which have since been replaced or heavily remodeled .
The site , slightly expanded since the fair , is now called Seattle Center ; the United States Science Pavilion is now the Pacific Science Center . Another notable Seattle Center building , the Experience Music Project , was built nearly 40 years later and designed to fit in with the fairground atmosphere .
= = Cold War and Space Race context = =
The fair was originally conceived in 1955 to mark the 50th anniversary of the 1909 Alaska – Yukon – Pacific Exposition , but it soon became clear that that date was too ambitious . With the Space Race underway and Boeing having " put Seattle on the map " as " an aerospace city " , a major theme of the fair was to show that " the United States was not really ' behind ' the Soviet Union in the realms of science and space " . As a result , the themes of space , science , and the future completely trumped the earlier conception of a " Festival of the [ American ] West " .
In June 1960 , the International Bureau of Expositions certified Century 21 as a world 's fair . Project manager Ewen Dingwall went to Moscow to request Soviet participation , but was turned down . The Baltic states ( then occupied by the Soviet Union ) were not invited , nor was the mainland People 's Republic of China , Vietnam , nor North Korea .
As it happened , the Cold War had an additional effect on the fair . President John F. Kennedy was supposed to attend the closing ceremony of the fair on October 21 , 1962 . He bowed out , pleading a " heavy cold " ; it later became public that he was dealing with the Cuban Missile Crisis .
The fair 's vision of the future displayed a technologically based optimism that did not anticipate any dramatic social change , one rooted in the 1950s rather than in the cultural tides that would emerge in the 1960s . Affluence , automation , consumerism , and American power would grow ; social equity would simply take care of itself on a rising tide of abundance ; the human race would master nature through technology rather than view it in terms of ecology . In contrast , 12 years later — even in far more conservative Spokane , Washington — Expo ' 74 took environmentalism as its central theme .
= = Buildings and grounds = =
Once the fair idea was conceived , several sites were considered . Among the sites considered within Seattle were Duwamish Head in West Seattle ; Fort Lawton ( now Discovery Park ) in the Magnolia neighborhood ; and First Hill — even closer to Downtown than the site finally selected , but far more densely developed . Two sites south of the city proper were considered — Midway , near Des Moines , and the Army Depot in Auburn — as was a site east of the city on the south shore of Lake Sammamish .
The site finally selected for the Century 21 Exposition had originally been contemplated for a civic center . The idea of using it for the world 's fair came later and brought in federal money for the United States Science Pavilion ( now Pacific Science Center ) and state money for the Washington State Coliseum ( later Seattle Center Coliseum , rebuilt 1993 as KeyArena ) . Some of the land had been donated to the city by James Osborne in 1881 and by David and Louisa Denny in 1889 . Two lots at Third Avenue N. and John Street were purchased from St. Demetrios Greek Orthodox Church , who had been planning to build a new church building there ; the church used the proceeds to purchase land in the Montlake neighborhood . The Warren Avenue School , a public elementary school with several programs for physically handicapped students , was torn down , its programs dispersed , and provided most of the site of the Coliseum ( now KeyArena ) . Near the school , some of the city 's oldest houses , apartments , and commercial buildings were torn down ; they had been run down to the point of being known as the " Warren Avenue slum " . The old Fire Station No. 4 was also sacrificed .
As early as the 1909 Bogue plan , this part of Lower Queen Anne had been considered for a civic center . The Civic Auditorium ( later the Opera House , now McCaw Hall ) , the ice arena ( later Mercer Arena ) , and the Civic Field ( rebuilt in 1946 as the High School Memorial Stadium ) , all built in 1927 had been placed there based on that plan , as was an armory ( the Food Circus during the fair , later Center House ) .
The fair planners also sought two other properties near the southwest corner of the grounds . They failed completely to make any inroads with the Seattle Archdiocese of the Roman Catholic Church , who had recently built Sacred Heart Church there ; they did a bit better with the Freemasons ' Nile Temple , which they were able to use for the duration of the fair and which then returned to its previous use . It served as the site of the Century 21 Club . This membership organization , formed especially for the fair , charged $ 250 for membership and offered lounge , dining room , and other club facilities , as well as a gate pass for the duration of the fair . The city ended up leasing the property after the fair and in 1977 bought it from the Masons . The building was eventually incorporated into a theater complex including the Seattle Children 's Theatre .
Paul Thiry was the fair 's chief architect ; he also designed the Coliseum building . Among the other architects of the fair , Seattle @-@ born Minoru Yamasaki received one of his first major commissions to build the United States Science Pavilion . Yamasaki would later design New York 's World Trade Center . Victor Steinbrueck and John Graham , Jr. designed the Space Needle . Hideki Shimizu and Kazuyuki Matsushita designed the original International Fountain . Despite the plan to build a permanent civic center , more than half the structures built for the fair were torn down more or less immediately after it ended .
The grounds of the fair were divided into :
World of Science
World of Century 21 ( also known as World of Tomorrow )
World of Commerce and Industry
World of Art
World of Entertainment
Show Street
Gayway
Boulevards of the World
Exhibit Fair
Food and Favors
Food Circus
Source :
Besides the monorail , which survives as of 2016 , the fair also featured a Skyride that ran 1 @,@ 400 feet ( 430 m ) across the grounds from the Gayway to the International Mall . The bucket @-@ like three @-@ person cars were suspended from cables that rose as high as 60 feet ( 18 m ) off the ground . The Skyride was moved to the Puyallup Fairgrounds in 1980 .
= = = World of Science = = =
The World of Science centered on the United States Science Exhibit . It also included a NASA Exhibit that included models and mockups of various satellites , as well as the Project Mercury capsule that had carried Alan Shepard into space . These exhibits were the federal government 's major contribution to the fair .
The United States Science Exhibit began with Charles Eames ' 10 @-@ minute short film The House of Science , followed by an exhibit on the development of science , ranging from mathematics and astronomy to atomic science and genetics . The Spacearium held up to 750 people at a time for a simulated voyage first through the Solar System and then through the Milky Way Galaxy and beyond . Further exhibits presented the scientific method and the " horizons of science " . This last looked at " Science and the individual " , " Control of man 's physical surroundings " , " Science and the problem of world population " , and " Man 's concept of his place in an increasingly technological world " .
= = = World of Century 21 = = =
The Washington State Coliseum , financed by the state of Washington , was one of Thiry 's own architectural contributions to the fairgrounds . His original conception had been staging the entire fair under a single giant air @-@ conditioned tent @-@ like structure , " a city of its own " , but there were neither the budgets nor the tight agreements on concept to realize that vision . In the end , he got exactly enough of a budget to design and build a 160 @,@ 000 sq. ft. building suitable to hold a variety of exhibition spaces and equally suitable for later conversion to a sports arena and convention facility .
During the festival , the building hosted several exhibits . Nearly half of its surface area was occupied by the state 's own circular exhibit " Century 21 — The Threshold and the Threat " , also known as the " World of Tomorrow " exhibit , billed as a " 21 @-@ minute tour of the future " . The building also housed exhibits by France , Pan American World Airways ( Pan Am ) , General Motors ( GM ) , the American Library Association ( ALA ) , and RCA , as well as a Washington state tourist center .
In " The Threshold and the Threat " , visitors rode a " Bubbleator " into the " world of tomorrow " . Music " from another world " and a shifting pattern of lights accompanied them on a 40 @-@ second upward journey to a starry space bathed in golden light . Then they were faced briefly with an image of a desperate family in a fallout shelter , which vanished and was replaced by a series of images reflecting the sweep of history , starting with the Acropolis and ending with an image of Marilyn Monroe .
Next , visitors were beckoned into a cluster of cubes containing a model of a " city of the future " ( which a few landmarks clearly indicated as Seattle ) and its suburban and rural surroundings , seen first by day and later by night . The next cluster of cubes zoomed in on a vision of a high @-@ tech , future home in a sylvan setting ( and a commuter gyrocopter ) ; a series of projections contrasted this " best of the future " to " the worst of the present " ( over @-@ uniform suburbs , a dreary urban housing project ) .
The exhibit continued with a vision of future transportation ( centered on a monorail and high @-@ speed " air cars " on an electrically controlled highway ) . There was also an " office of the future " , a climate @-@ controlled " farm factory " , an automated offshore kelp and plankton harvesting farm , a vision of the schools of the future with " electronic storehouses of knowledge " , and a vision of the many recreations that technology would free humans to pursue .
Finally , the tour ended with a symbolic sculptural tree and the reappearance of the family in the fallout shelter and the sound of a ticking clock , a brief silence , an extract from President Kennedy 's Inaugural Address , followed by a further " symphony of music and color " .
Under the same roof , the ALA exhibited a " library of the future " ( centered on a Univac computer ) . GM exhibited its vision for highways and vehicles of the future ( the latter including the Firebird III . Pan Am exhibited a giant globe that emphasized the notion that we had come to be able to think of distances between major world cities in hours and minutes rather than in terms of chancy voyages over great distances . RCA ( which produced " The Threshold and the Threat " ) exhibited television , radio , and stereo technology , as well as its involvement in space . The French government had an exhibit with its own take on technological progress . Finally , a Washington state tourist center provided information for fair @-@ goers wishing to tour the state .
= = = World of Commerce and Industry = = =
The World of Commerce and Industry was divided into domestic and foreign areas . The former was sited mainly south of American Way ( the continuation of Thomas Street through the grounds ) , an area it shared with the World of Science . It included the Space Needle and what is now the Broad Street Green and Mural Amphitheater . The Hall of Industry and some smaller buildings were immediately north of American Way . The latter included 15 governmental exhibitors and surrounded the World of Tomorrow and extended to the north edge of the fair .
Among the features of Domestic Commerce and Industry , the massive Interiors , Fashion , and Commerce Building spread for 500 feet ( 150 m ) — nearly the entire Broad Street side of the grounds — with exhibits ranging from 32 separate furniture companies to the Encyclopædia Britannica . Vogue produced four fashion shows daily alongside a perfumed pool . The Ford Motor Company , in its pavilion , presented a simulated space flight and its vision for the car of the future , the Ford Seattle @-@ ite XXI . The Electric Power Pavilion included a 40 feet ( 12 m ) -high fountain made to look like a hydroelectric dam , with the entrance to the pavilion through a tunnel in said " dam " . The Forest Products Pavilion was surrounded by a grove of trees of various species , and included an all @-@ wood theater . Standard Oil of California celebrated , among other things , the fact that the world 's first service station opened in Seattle in 1907 . The fair 's Bell Telephone ( now AT & T Inc . ) exhibit was featured in a short film called " Century 21 Calling ... " , which was later shown on Mystery Science Theater 3000 . There were also several religious pavilions . Near the center of all this was Seattle artist Paul Horiuchi 's massive mosaic mural , the region 's largest work of art at the time , which now forms the backdrop of Seattle Center 's Mural Amphitheater .
Foreign exhibits included a science and technology exhibit by Great Britain , while Mexico and Peru focused on handicrafts , and Japan and India attempted to show both of these sides of their national cultures . The Taiwan and South Korea pavilions showed their rapid industrialization to the world and the benefits of capitalism over communism during the time of cold war era . Other pavilions included one featuring Brazilian tea and coffee ; a European Communities Pavilion from the then six countries of the European Economic Community ; and a joint pavilion by those countries of Africa that had by then achieved independence . Sweden 's exhibit included the story of the salvaging of a 17th @-@ century man @-@ of @-@ war from Stockholm harbor , and San Marino 's exhibit featured its postage stamps and pottery . Near the center of this was the DuPen Fountain featuring three sculptures by Seattle artist Everett DuPen .
= = = World of Art = = =
The Fine Arts Pavilion ( later the Exhibition Hall ) brought together an art exhibition unprecedented for the West Coast of the United States . Among the 50 contemporary American painters whose works shown were Josef Albers , Willem de Kooning , Helen Frankenthaler , Philip Guston , Jasper Johns , Joan Mitchell , Robert Motherwell , Georgia O 'Keeffe , Jackson Pollock , Robert Rauschenberg , Ad Reinhardt , Ben Shahn , and Frank Stella , as well as Northwest painters Kenneth Callahan , Morris Graves , Paul Horiuchi , and Mark Tobey . American sculptors included Leonard Baskin , Alexander Calder , Joseph Cornell , Louise Nevelson , Isamu Noguchi , and 19 others . The 50 international contemporary artists represented included the likes of painters Fritz Hundertwasser , Joan Miró , Antoni Tàpies , and Francis Bacon , and sculptors Henry Moore and Jean Arp . In addition , there were exhibitions of Mark Tobey 's paintings and of Asian art , drawn from the collections of the Seattle Art Museum ; and an additional exhibition of 72 " masterpieces " ranging from Titian , El Greco , Caravaggio , Rembrandt , and Rubens through Toulouse @-@ Lautrec , Monet , and Turner to Klee , Braque , and Picasso , with no shortage of other comparably famous artists represented .
A separate gallery presented Northwest Coast Indian art , and featured a series of large paintings by Bill Holm introducing Northwest Native motifs .
= = = World of Entertainment = = =
A US $ 15 million performing @-@ arts program at the fair ranged from a boxing championship to an international twirling competition but with no shortage of nationally and internationally famous performers , especially at the new Opera House and Playhouse . After the fair , the Playhouse became the Seattle Repertory Theatre ; in the mid @-@ 1980s it became the Intiman Playhouse . When the Intiman Theatre closed , Cornish College of the Arts took over the lease from the city of Seattle , and now operates it as the Cornish Playhouse at Seattle Center .
= = = = Opera House performances = = = =
Scheduled groups performing at the Opera House included : Source :
= = = = Other performances = = = =
Events and performances at the Playhouse included Sweden 's Royal Dramatic Theatre ; a chamber music performance by Isaac Stern , Milton Katims , Leonard Rose , Eugene Istomin , and the Juilliard String Quartet ; two appearances by newsman Edward R. Murrow ; Bunraku theater ; Richard Dyer @-@ Bennet ; Hal Holbrook 's solo show as Mark Twain ; the Count Basie and Benny Goodman jazz orchestras ; Lawrence Welk ; Nat King Cole ; and Ella Fitzgerald . Also during the fair , Memorial Stadium hosted the Ringling Brothers Circus , Tommy Bartlett 's Water Ski Sky and Stage Show , Roy Rogers and Dale Evans ' Western Show , and an appearance by evangelist Billy Graham .
The fair and the city were the setting of the Elvis Presley movie It Happened at the World 's Fair ( 1963 ) , with a young Kurt Russell making his first screen appearance . Location shooting began on September 4 and concluded nearly two weeks later . The film would be released the following spring , long after the fair had ended .
= = = Show Street = = =
At the northeast corner of the grounds ( now the KCTS @-@ TV studios ) , Show Street was the " adult entertainment " portion of the fair . Attractions included Gracie Hansen 's Paradise International ( a Vegas @-@ style floor show ( rivalled next door by LeRoy Prinz 's " Backstage USA " ) , Sid and Marty Krofft 's adults @-@ only puppet show , Les Poupées de Paris , and ( briefly , until it was shut down , ) a show featuring naked " Girls of the Galaxy " . Tamer entertainment came in forms such as the Paris Spectacular wax museum , an elaborate Japanese Village , and the Hawaiian Pavilion .
= = = Other sections of the fair = = =
Gayway
The Gayway was a small amusement park ; after the fair it became the Fun Forest . In 2011 , the Fun Forest was shut down and the Chihuly Garden and Glass opened in its place .
Boulevards of the World
Boulevards of the World was " the shopping center of the fair " . It also included the Plaza of the States and the original version of the International Fountain .
Exhibit Fair
The Exhibit Fair provided another shopping district under the north stands of Memorial Stadium .
Food and Favors
" Food and Favors " , officially one of the " areas " of the fair , simply encompassed the various restaurants , food stands , etc . , scattered throughout the grounds . These ranged from vending machines and food stands to the Eye of the Needle ( atop the Space Needle ) and the private Century 21 Club .
Food Circus
The Food Circus was a food court in the former armory , later named the Center House , and recently renamed The Armory ( 2012 ) as a remodel of the building continues . Unlike the current arrangement with a stage and a large open space for dancing , events , and temporary booths , many food booths were in the middle of the room as well as at the edges . There were 52 concessionaires in all , nine of them with exhibits in addition to their food for sale . Beginning in 1963 , the Food Circus also housed a variety of museums , including Jones ' Fantastic Show , the Jules Charbneau World of Miniatures , and the Pullen Klondike Museum .
= = Promotional video = =
= Walter Loving =
Walter Howard Loving ( December 17 , 1872 – 1945 ) was an African American soldier and musician most noted for his leadership of the Philippine Constabulary Band . The son of a former slave , Loving led the band during the 1909 U.S. presidential inaugural parade , where it formed the official musical escort to the President of the United States , the first time a band other than the U.S. Marine Band had been assigned that duty .
Loving is believed to have been the first African American to conduct a musical performance in the White House .
In addition to his long career in military music , Loving also worked with the U.S. Army 's intelligence division during World War I , and , in private life , as a real estate investor in the San Francisco Bay area . Toward the end of his life he returned to the Philippines . Loving was killed in 1945 during the Battle of Manila in dramatic , though unclear , circumstances . He posthumously received the Philippines ' Presidential Merit Award .
= = Early life and education = =
Born outside Lovingston , Virginia in 1872 , Loving was the son of a former slave . He spent his early childhood living with his parents and an extended family of fourteen relatives . At age ten , Loving moved to Minnesota and into the home of Charles Eugene Flandrau , who employed Loving 's sister Julia as a maid . He and Julia later relocated with the Flandrau family to South Dakota . Family legend claims Loving was tutored in mathematics by Theodore Roosevelt when the future president stayed at the Flandrau home in 1886 . According to Loving 's biographer Robert Yoder , Loving may have viewed Flandrau as a sort @-@ of father figure . It is known the he attended elementary school with Flandrau 's son , Charles Macomb Flandrau , and believed that Flandrau financed Loving 's later education at the Preparatory High School for Negro Youth in Washington , DC and , subsequently , the New England Conservatory of Music .
Loving 's early adulthood involved several stints in the U.S. Army as a musician , and later regimental bandleader . A later period of study at the New England Conservatory of Music ended when Loving decided to rejoin the Army over the protests of his professors , who believed his talent as a cornetist would be wasted . After withdrawing from the conservatory , Loving was given command of the band of the 45th United States Volunteer Infantry Regiment .
= = Career = =
= = = Philippine Constabulary Band = = =
In 1902 Loving was tapped to organize the Philippine Constabulary Band on the recommendation of Governor @-@ General of the Philippines William Howard Taft , who had earlier heard Loving 's 45th regimental band perform . Loving , who had learned both Spanish and Tagalog during his brief time in the Philippines , developed an instant rapport with his bandsmen . During the period in which Loving led the Philippine Constabulary Band it established a reputation for excellence both in the Philippines and the United States . The U.S. military periodical Army and Navy Life described the band as " one of the finest of all military bands in the world , " while the Pacific Coast Musical Review , opined that " the Philippine Constabulary Band is in a class by itself . " During a 1915 performance in San Francisco , California , John Philip Sousa was invited to guest conduct the group , afterwards commenting that , " when I closed my eyes , I thought it was the United States Marine Band . "
The Philippine Constabulary Band was the lead unit in the United States presidential inaugural parade of 1909 , which saw its former patron William Howard Taft inaugurated as President of the United States . It was the first time a band
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other than the United States Marine Band served as the musical escort to the President of the United States .
The day after the inauguration the band was invited to perform for the president and Mrs. Taft at the White House , becoming the first band in history from outside the continental United States to perform at a White House reception . It is also believed this may have been the first time an African American conducted a musical performance at the White House .
Loving continued as the band 's director until being forced to take a medical leave in 1915 due to tuberculosis .
= = = Military Intelligence Division = = =
During World War I Loving served stateside in the U.S. Army as an officer in the Military Intelligence Division . Holding the rank of major throughout the war , Loving was initially charged with investigating subversive activities by African American leaders , attending meetings and rallies in plainclothes and developing a network of informants . In one of his reports he would assert that African American socialists were " the most radical of all radicals " as well as allege " vicious and well @-@ financed propaganda " campaigns run in black newspapers as being the impetus for the Chicago race riot of 1919 . David Levering Lewis has called Loving " one of the Army 's most effective wartime undercover Negro agents . "
Later , Loving would be tasked with touring the United States to inspect the conditions of race relations at U.S. Army camps . His final report observed that African American soldiers were best treated and most effectively integrated into military units when white officers from the western United States and northeastern United States held command and he recommended to the Army that white officers from the southern United States not be permitted to lead units with black soldiers . Loving also attacked the Army 's racial policies pertaining to non @-@ commissioned officers , noting that ,
" The assignment of white noncommissioned officers to colored units is a new departure in the history of the American army . Even in Civil War days colored units carried colored noncommissioned officers ... that most of these white noncommissioned officers view themselves in the light of the overseer of antebellum days is shown by their practice of carrying revolvers when they take details of men out to work . "
= = = Return to Manila and second retirement = = =
Following the end of hostilities , Loving returned to the Philippines and resumed command of the Philippine Constabulary Band for three years before retiring a second time , moving with his wife , Edith , to Oakland , California . In Oakland , Loving found success in real estate speculation . Because attitudes in Oakland at the time made African American ownership of property in some portions of the city problematic , Loving would dress in a chauffeur 's uniform and drive Edith , who had a light complexion and could be mistaken for Caucasian , to view property .
= = = Later career and third retirement = = =
From 1937 through 1940 , Loving again took command of the Philippine Constabulary Band , by then renamed the Philippine Army Orchestra . Returning to the Philippines at the personal invitation of Manuel Quezon , he was commissioned at the rank of lieutenant @-@ colonel in the Philippine Commonwealth Army and also made " Special Advisor to the President of the Philippines . " He retired in 1940 but continued to live in Manila . According to an obituary in the Chicago Tribune penned by Loving 's longtime friend Roscoe Simmons , " Col. Loving and Gen. MacArthur had an affectionate relationship known in all military circles " and MacArthur would later recall Loving 's death as " a sacrifice he would never forget . "
= = Death = =
Walter and Edith Loving were detained in 1941 by Japanese forces following the surrender of Manila . During his captivity , Loving composed a resistance song Beloved Philippines . He was released due to his declining health and advancing age in 1943 . In 1945 , during the Battle of Manila , Loving was again arrested and detained , along with other Americans and Filipinos , at the Manila Hotel .
The exact circumstances surrounding Loving 's death are unclear . According to Yoder , with Manila 's defenses on the verge of collapse to the advancing American and Filipino armies , the hotel prisoners were ordered to run to the beach while Japanese soldiers shot at them . The then 73 @-@ year @-@ old Loving refused to run , declaring " I am an American . If I must die , I 'll die like an American , " whereupon he was beheaded . In a 2010 article , a Philippine newspaper columnist contends , however , the Manila Hotel prisoners attempted escape and Loving used his body to barricade a staircase to prevent Japanese troops from pursuit ; he was bayoneted to death in the process . A third account relayed in a 1945 Associated Negro Press story says that Loving was shot in the back by retreating Japanese troops . Mortally wounded , he crawled from the Manila Hotel to the battered bandstand at Luneta Park , the site of many of the Philippine Constabulary Band 's performances , and died .
In 1952 , Loving was posthumously awarded the Presidential Merit Medal by the Government of the Philippines during a ceremony at Luneta during which his final composition , Beloved Philippines , was performed . Loving was also the recipient of the Distinguished Conduct Star , the second @-@ highest military honor of the Philippines , and the United States ' Philippine Campaign Medal , the latter given for his service during the Philippine @-@ American War .
= = Personal life = =
Loving married his wife , Edith , in 1916 and had one son , Walter . Walter Loving , Jr . ' s , godfather was Roscoe Simmons .
During the course of his life , Loving took an interest in politics , supporting both Republican and Democratic candidates . During the United States presidential election , 1916 , Loving requested his former patron , Taft , introduce him to Republican presidential candidate Charles Evans Hughes , with whose campaign he sought to volunteer . Taft , however , declined in a letter , explaining he did not feel it was appropriate for him to offer such an introduction to a political candidate ( in that letter , Taft also expressed to Loving his regret that " you are no longer at the head of the Constabulary Band which was largely your creation . " ) Loving also campaigned for Isabella Selmes Greenway , the granddaughter of Charles Flandrau , during her 1932 congressional race in Arizona .
= Maryland Route 24 =
Maryland Route 24 ( MD 24 ) is a state highway in the U.S. state of Maryland . The state highway runs 25 @.@ 17 miles ( 40 @.@ 51 km ) from an entrance to Aberdeen Proving Ground in Edgewood north to the Pennsylvania state line near Fawn Grove , Pennsylvania . MD 24 is the main north – south highway of Harford County . The southern half of the state highway connects U.S. Route 1 ( US 1 ) and the county seat of Bel Air with Aberdeen Proving Ground , US 40 , and Interstate 95 ( I @-@ 95 ) through a suburban corridor . The northern half of MD 24 is a rural highway that passes through Rocks State Park .
The original section of MD 24 , which began at MD 23 in Forest Hill and included MD 165 through Pylesville , was constructed in the late 1910s and early 1920s . MD 24 was moved to the highway to Fawn Grove after that road was built in the late 1920s and early 1930s . The highway between US 1 in Bel Air and US 40 in Edgewood was also constructed in the late 1920s and early 1930s . The state highway from US 40 south to Aberdeen Proving Ground was constructed as MD 408 around 1930 . After the road from Bel Air to Forest Hill was completed in the mid @-@ 1930s , MD 24 was extended south to Edgewood .
MD 24 received its first relocation in Edgewood in the mid @-@ 1950s after assuming all of MD 408 . After another relocation due to the construction of I @-@ 95 in the early 1960s , the state highway was placed on a new alignment through Edgewood in the late 1960s and early 1970s ; the old alignment became MD 755 . MD 24 was relocated to a divided highway from I @-@ 95 to US 1 in the late 1980s ; the old highway through Bel Air became MD 924 . Much of the highway through Edgewood was expanded to a divided highway in the mid @-@ 1990s . MD 24 's interchange with MD 924 was constructed between 2008 and 2011 .
= = Route description = =
MD 24 carries five names throughout its length . The highway is named Emmorton Road between Aberdeen Proving Ground and US 40 and Vietnam Veterans Memorial Highway from US 40 to US 1 . After its short concurrency with US 1 on the Bel Air Bypass , MD 24 is known as Rock Springs Avenue from US 1 to Forest Hill , where the highway becomes Rocks Road for the remainder of its length to the Pennsylvania state line . The state highway is a part of the main National Highway System between I @-@ 95 and the northern end of its concurrency with US 1 in Bel Air . MD 24 is also classified as an intermodal connector from MD 755 to I @-@ 95 and as a National Highway System principal arterial from Aberdeen Proving Ground to MD 755 and from its northern junction with US 1 to MD 23 .
= = = Edgewood to Bel Air = = =
MD 24 begins at an entrance to the Edgewood Area of Aberdeen Proving Ground ; the highway continues south into the military installation as Hoadley Road . The state highway crosses over the Amtrak Northeast Corridor and MARC 's Penn Line and heads north as Emmorton Road , a two @-@ lane controlled access highway that passes between residential subdivisions in Edgewood , where the highway intersects Trimble Road . MD 24 expands to a four @-@ lane divided highway just south of MD 755 ( Edgewood Road ) . The state highway heads northeast , crossing in quick succession Otter Point Creek , US 40 ( Pulaski Highway ) , and Winters Run . Access to and from US 40 is provided via a two @-@ way ramp between the two highways . MD 24 continues north as the Vietnam Veterans Memorial Highway , which curves back to the north and crosses over CSX 's Philadelphia Subdivision before intersecting MD 7 ( Philadelphia Road ) in the hamlet of Van Bibber .
After an intersection with Edgewood Road , which is MD 24 's old alignment , the state highway meets I @-@ 95 ( John F. Kennedy Memorial Highway ) at a partial cloverleaf interchange . Immediately to the north of that interchange is a diamond interchange with the southern ends of MD 924 ( Emmorton Road ) and Tollgate Road . MD 924 , which is the old alignment of MD 24 , and Tollgate Road parallel MD 24 to the east and west , respectively . The two highways serve residential subdivisions bypassed by MD 24 between Edgewood and Bel Air ; MD 924 serves the village of Emmorton . MD 24 also passes close to the historic home Woodside , accessed via Singer Road ; Woodview , found at the west end of Plumtree Road ; and Whitaker 's Mill Historic District on Ring Factory Road . The state highway parallels Plumtree Run as it approaches Bel Air . MD 24 passes by Upper Chesapeake Medical Center before meeting US 1 Business ( Belair Road ) at an intersection surrounded by shopping centers , including the Harford Mall . The state highway crosses over the Ma and Pa Trail , a rail trail that follows the abandoned right @-@ of @-@ way of the Maryland and Pennsylvania Railroad , and Heavenly Waters , a tributary of Winters Run , before reaching its junction with US 1 ( Bel Air Bypass ) . The three @-@ way junction features long , sweeping ramps to and from the northbound direction of US 1 and an intersection with the U.S. highway to access the southbound direction .
= = = Bel Air to Fawn Grove = = =
MD 24 and US 1 head northeast together as a four @-@ lane undivided highway . The two highways pass under Vale Road before reaching the northern end of the concurrency , which is a partial cloverleaf interchange with Rock Spring Road . This road heads south toward downtown Bel Air as MD 924 ; MD 24 leaves US 1 and heads north on this road . The state highway heads north through a commercial area as a five @-@ lane road with center turn lane . The highway reduces to two lanes and passes through another commercial area before its intersection with MD 23 ( East – West Highway ) in Forest Hill . At Jarrettsville Road , which is the old alignment of MD 23 , MD 24 's name changes to Rocks Road and enters a mix of farmland and forest . The state highway crosses Stirrup Run before beginning to closely parallel Deer Creek . MD 24 passes through several sharp curves as the highway enters Rocks State Park , where the state highway passes through the gorge that Deer Creek has cut through Rock Ridge . The state highway crosses Deer Creek and passes the access road to the Gladden Farm before leaving the state park .
MD 24 continues north through farmland , crossing several branches of Deer Creek and intersecting Holy Cross Road , which leads west to the Col. John Streett House and east to the village of Street . At Bush 's Corner , the highway meets MD 165 ( Federal Hill Road / Pylesville Road ) at a roundabout . MD 24 passes close to Kilgore Falls , the second highest waterfall in Maryland ; the falls on the Falling Branch of Deer Creek are accessed via St. Marys Road . Just to the north at Five Forks , the state highway intersects Clermont Mill Road and MD 136 , which heads west as Harkins Road and east as Whiteford Road . MD 24 continues northwest to its terminus at the Pennsylvania state line . Rocks Road continues north as SR 2055 to PA 851 , the Main Street of Fawn Grove .
= = History = =
MD 24 was originally constructed between 1917 and 1938 . While the portion of the state highway north of Bel Air has seen limited improvements since the 1930s , the highway south of Bel Air has been fully relocated , in some places multiple times , and expanded to a divided highway for much of its length .
= = = Original construction and early improvements = = =
MD 24 was one of the original state @-@ numbered highways designated in 1927 . The state highway originally began at MD 23 in Forest Hill and followed its current course along Rocks Road north to Bush 's Corner , then followed Pylesville Road ( which later became MD 165 ) through Pylesville to the Pennsylvania state line at Cardiff . The portion of Pylesville Road between Graceton Road ( now MD 624 ) and the village of Pylesville was paved with macadam by 1910 . MD 24 from just north of Forest Hill to Graceton Road was built with a 15 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) wide concrete surface in four sections , with construction underway by 1917 and completed by 1921 . The state highway just north of Forest Hill and the highway from Pylesville northeast to the state line were completed with a macadam surface by 1923 .
MD 24 from Bush 's Corner toward Fawn Grove began construction in 1926 . The concrete highway was completed to St. Marys Road by 1927 and to Five Forks in 1928 . The third section , from Five Forks to about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) south of the state line , was started in 1929 and completed in 1930 . The final section to the state line at Fawn Grove was started in 1930 and completed by 1933 . Around the time the highway was completed , MD 24 was switched from Pylesville Road to Rocks Road north of Bush 's Corner ; MD 165 was extended from Bush 's Corner to Cardiff in MD 24 's stead . MD 24 received a new bridge over Deer Creek within Rocks State Park in 1934 . Since the 1930s , the only notable improvement to the original length of MD 24 was the construction of the roundabout at the MD 24 – MD 165 intersection in 2000 .
Construction on what became MD 24 between Van Bibber and Bel Air got underway with the construction of a 1 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) section of macadam road from Ring Factory Road south to Plumtree Road near Emmorton between 1925 and 1927 . Another macadam segment was completed from Emmorton south to Singer Road at Norris Corner in 1928 . A concrete highway from Norris Corner toward US 40 at Van Bibber was started in 1929 . The first section was completed to approximately the location of I @-@ 95 in 1930 and to Van Bibber by 1933 . Two county highway gaps in the state highway from Van Bibber to Bel Air were resurfaced with macadam and brought into the state system in 1933 .
The two remaining portions of the MD 24 corridor to be built were completed through Edgewood and north of Bel Air in the 1930s . In 1930 , Edgewood Road was built as a concrete road from US 40 just west of Van Bibber south to its entrance to Aberdeen Proving Ground at its Pennsylvania Railroad crossing ( now Amtrak ) . Edgewood Road , which was originally designated MD 408 , was constructed with a width of 16 feet ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) but was proposed for widening to 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) as early as 1934 since it was the main entrance to the Edgewood Arsenal . MD 408 received an underpass of the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad ( now CSX ) and approaches to the grade separation in 1939 .
Rock Spring Avenue north of Bel Air was improved as a macadam road starting in 1929 . The improved road extended from the county seat north to the location of the Bel Air Bypass in the community of Frogtown in 1930 and was extended to about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) south of Forest Hill by 1933 . The gap south of Forest Hill remained under county control until the highway was resurfaced with macadam around 1938 . MD 24 was extended south from Forest Hill through Bel Air to MD 7 at Van Bibber in 1938 . Through Bel Air , MD 24 followed Main Street , which was widened to 40 feet ( 12 m ) in width around 1940 .
= = = Relocations and expansions = = =
The first post @-@ war project on MD 24 was the reconstruction of the highway from Norris Corner to Van Bibber starting in 1950 . By the time the project to resurface the highway in bituminous concrete ended in 1952 , MD 24 was extended south through Edgewood , replacing MD 408 from MD 7 to Aberdeen Proving Ground . MD 24 was widened and resurfaced with bituminous concrete from Norris Corner to Bel Air starting in 1954 and from Bel Air to Forest Hill beginning in 1956 . The Norris Corner – Bel Air project included the highway 's first relocation at Emmorton , leaving behind Old Emmorton Road .
Another relocation occurred in 1956 to remove MD 24 's staggered intersections at MD 7 in Van Bibber . Edgewood Road was extended north to tie into Emmorton Road just south of the interchange with I @-@ 95 ; this project bypassed Van Bibber Road . MD 24 was relocated again near Van Bibber when the highway 's interchange with I @-@ 95 was constructed in 1963 . This relocation left behind the roadways now marked as Walton Road and Woodside Road in the southeast and northeast quadrants , respectively , of the original diamond interchange .
The next relocation in the Edgewood area occurred in two sections starting in 1967 . MD 24 was moved to its present alignment from just south of the I @-@ 95 interchange to Edgewood Road south of US 40 in 1970 . The bypass included a bridge over US 40 ; access between the two highways was provided by Edgewood Road , which was designated MD 755 . The new alignment of MD 24 was extended south to a new entrance to Aberdeen Proving Ground in 1974 ; MD 755 was extended south along MD 24 's old alignment to the pre @-@ existing entrance next to the Edgewood MARC station . MD 24 from I @-@ 95 to MD 755 was expanded to a divided highway around 1997 ; this project included the construction of a two @-@ way ramp between MD 24 and US 40 to add the direct access that had not been provided in 1970 .
MD 24 's interchange with US 1 north of Bel Air was constructed in 1964 along with the rest of the Bel Air Bypass . The interchange was originally a diamond interchange ; a loop ramp was added from northbound US 1 to northbound MD 24 in 1983 . Construction of the Vietnam Veterans Memorial Highway from I @-@ 95 to US 1 in Bel Air began in 1986 . The four @-@ lane divided highway was completed in 1987 . MD 24 was also expanded to a divided highway through the I @-@ 95 interchange , which was transformed into its modern partial cloverleaf . The original alignment of MD 24 between I @-@ 95 and Bel Air was planned to become another section of MD 755 in 1986 but was designated MD 924 in 1987 .
In December 2008 , the Maryland Transportation Authority began a project to replace MD 24 's intersection with MD 924 and Tollgate Road just north of the MD 24 – I @-@ 95 interchange . The intersection was replaced with a diamond interchange in October 2011 . As part of the project , the MD 24 – I @-@ 95 interchange had several ramps altered to separate I @-@ 95 traffic heading for MD 24 and MD 924 . The Maryland State Highway Administration has long @-@ term plans to expand the Bel Air Bypass to a divided highway from Winters Run to US 1 Business south of Hickory . The Bel Air Bypass is already a four @-@ lane divided highway between MD 147 and Winters Run and around Hickory , but is a three- to four @-@ lane undivided highway from Winters Run to US 1 Business south of Hickory . The Bel Air Bypass would be expanded to a four @-@ lane divided highway from Winters Run to MD 24 and a six @-@ lane divided highway along the US 1 – MD 24 concurrency . The US 1 – MD 24 intersection would be reconstructed as a trumpet interchange . The planning phase of the project was completed in 2001 , but engineering , right @-@ of @-@ way acquisition , and actual construction are on hold until funding becomes available .
The Maryland State Highway Administration plans to rebuild the portion of MD 24 that passes through Rocks State Park , which has been undermined by the adjacent Deer Creek . The project was originally proposed in late 2009 and initially called for the route to be relocated further from the creek . The project was put on hold due to opposition from area residents and environmentalists . The Maryland State Highway Administration later proposed reconstructing the road along its current alignment while stabilizing the creek . Work on this project , which is projected to cost $ 13 @.@ 3 million , is expected to start as soon as May 2014 and will require closing the road .
= = Junction list = =
The entire route is in Harford County .
= = Auxiliary routes = =
MD 24 has three existing auxiliary routes .
MD 24D is the designation for the Otter Creek Ramp , a 0 @.@ 23 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 37 km ) long four @-@ lane divided ramp that connects MD 24 with US 40 . MD 24D was built in 1997 .
MD 24E is the designation for the unnamed 0 @.@ 85 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 37 km ) ramp from northbound MD 24 to northbound US 1 . This ramp was built in 1987 as part of the construction of the Vietnam Veterans Memorial Highway and designated MD 24E in 2001 .
MD 24F is the designation for the unnamed 0 @.@ 52 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 84 km ) ramp from northbound US 1 to southbound MD 24 . Like MD 24E , MD 24F was built in 1987 and received its designation in 2001 .
= The Wiggles Pty Ltd =
The Wiggles Pty Ltd is the business created by the founders of the Australian children 's music group The Wiggles . The group was protective of their brand , and adopted many of the same business practices as The Cockroaches , the former band of Anthony Field and Jeff Fatt , two of their founding members . They remained as independent as possible , and retained full creative control and ownership of every aspect of their business . As Field stated , The Wiggles Pty Ltd was " not your regular ' corporate culture ' . " The group made decisions by consensus and made business decisions based upon their experience as performers and their knowledge of early childhood education . They did not tour with a large troupe of dancers , cast , and crew until the late 1990s , and had high expectations regarding the behaviour and attitude of everyone associated with the group . They made careful decisions regarding their endorsements of toys and other products , and avoided over @-@ extending their brand by only licensing products that correlated with their image .
The Wiggles formally consolidated their business in 2005 , and consistently appeared in Business Review Weekly 's yearly list of Australia 's richest entertainers . They faced difficulty in producing a television show with the Australian Broadcasting Corporation , so they created thirteen episodes of a self @-@ produced television series . By 2002 , they began airing their TV programs exclusively with the ABC and became " the most successful property that the ABC has represented in the pre @-@ school genre " . In 2009 , they partnered with the digital cable channel Sprout to broadcast their TV shows . In 2012 , due to the effects of the worldwide recession , they cut back on much of their international expansions .
Other ventures of The Wiggles Pty Ltd included franchising their concept to South America , Taiwan , and other countries , opening " Wiggles World " sections in theme parks , and online offerings .
= = Business philosophy = =
Despite Anthony Field 's expressed dislike of the term " branding " , preferring to refer to it as " preserving the good name of The Wiggles " , the group has stressed the importance of , and were protective of , their brand . Field , along with bandmate Jeff Fatt and Field 's brothers Paul and John , were in the pop band The Cockroaches in the 1980s ; as Field reported , The Wiggles adopted many of The Cockroaches ' business practices . They chose to remain as independent and self @-@ contained as possible . The four original members retained ownership and creative control over every aspect of their business , and used outside companies to assist them as their business and popularity grew . As Field reported , " ... Our venture developed organically . We weren 't put together in some sort of Hollywood studio executive 's office " . They used Field 's family members and friends in the early years : former Cockroaches such as Field 's brothers and Cockroach drummer Tony Henry ( Wiggles character Henry the Octopus was named after him ) for musical support ; Field 's nieces and nephews to perform in their inexpensive videos ; their girlfriends to perform as their costumed characters . The wife of founding member Murray Cook made their first costumes . As Fatt reported , " it was very much a cottage industry " . They served as their own roadies and travelled in Fatt 's van , which he drove , towing a trailer with borrowed equipment . Fatt did their bookkeeping on an old computer the first five to six years of the group 's existence . They did their own merchandising , which consisted of selling albums , toys , and t @-@ shirts out of a suitcase set up on the back of a trailer .
Trust your creative and business instincts and maintain control of your destiny " .
Anthony Field 's stated business philosophy , 2012
As Field reported , The Wiggles Pty Ltd was " not your regular ' corporate culture ' . " The four original members made decisions by consensus and would spend more time on creative decisions than on business ones . Field reported that many of their key products were launched " during a brief pause in an Xbox game on our tour bus " . They answered to no one but themselves , with no executive board or shareholders . As Field stated , they made business decisions based upon their experience as performers and their knowledge of early childhood education , " rather than elaborate , long @-@ term business and strategic plans " . When they ventured into international markets , first to the U.S. and the UK in 1998 , they chose to follow the same practices that were successful in Australia by keeping their stage show simple : inexpensive props and effects , and the four original members , along with their characters , singing and dancing for their audiences . Financing every business venture themselves , they had to bear the consequences when their ventures did not succeed .
The Wiggles became formally consolidated in 2005 . The group 's board of directors consisted of the original three members , Paul Field , who has been general manager of operations since the group was formed and their manager since the mid @-@ 1990s , and Mike Conway , who had worked for Ernst & Young in England and was their general manager responsible for their expansion into international markets from 2001 to 2012 .
In 2012 , The Wiggles cut back much of their international expansion after , like many businesses , experiencing a decrease in their profits after the worldwide recession a few years earlier . Paul Field reported that they would " refocus on what we do best " , which included their live shows , CDs , DVDs , and television productions .
The group has always had a strict code of conduct based on zero tolerance of drug use , drinking , smoking , or bad language by any employee of their organisation . They did not tour with a large troupe of dancers and cast members until the late 1990s , but as Field reported , " We 've been lucky with our cast , our turnover is pretty minimal — we 've always had great loyalty from , and talent among , the professionals " . By 2005 , they travelled using two 16 @-@ metre ( 52 ft ) trucks , three tour buses , a cast of 13 dancers ( called " the Wiggly dancers " ) , and 10 permanent crew members . According to Field , they required that the cast and crew of all their productions have a positive and respectful relationship with their audience , both on stage and off .
= = Merchandising = =
The Wiggles recognised that toys were a necessary part of a child 's normal development , especially his or her motor and language skills , so they trod the " fine line between maintaining and promoting early childhood values and operating in the commercial arena " , and as Field put it , " proceeded cautiously " . At first , Cook reviewed every merchandising proposal they received , but turned it over to other companies such as the Toronto @-@ based toy company Spin Master in later years , although Field reported that they continued to " sign off on things " . The group avoided over @-@ extending their brand by only licensing products that correlated with their image , like endorsing healthy foods , and by remaining within the preschool and family markets .
The group was named Australia 's richest entertainers by Business Review Weekly ( BRW ) for four years in a row ( 2004 – 2008 ) They earned A $ 45 million in 2009 , when they were third on BRW 's annual list . In 2011 , the worldwide recession hit The Wiggles , as it had many Australian entertainers ; they earned $ 28 million and had a 28 % decrease in profits , but they still appeared second on the BRW 's list that year . According to BRW , the group restructured The Wiggles Pty Ltd in 2011 when they downsized staff and re @-@ focused on the more profitable aspects of the business , including their music , TV , and DVD ventures . Conway reported that 2011 was " the toughest year I have experienced economically , at [ The ] Wiggles or anywhere " . They showed negative equity by the end of the year , and in their first loss of profits in over ten years , resulted in a 28 percent decrease in income from the previous year . Conway blamed the poor economy , the group 's decrease in their U.S. tour from twelve weeks to five , difficulties in stocking DVDs at Walmart , and the cost of changing to a new digital format .
By 2012 , founding members Anthony Field , Cook , and Fatt retained 30 % ownership of their brand , and Paul Field and Conway each owned 5 % . Page received a payout of about $ 20 million when he left the group and the business in 2006 . Also in 2012 , The Wiggles appeared second on BRW 's list , earning $ 17 @.@ 167 million , despite negative press they received after Page returned and replaced Moran . In early 2013 , Fatt , Cook , and Page retired from the group for medical and personal reasons . They were replaced by former back @-@ up singers Lachlan Gillespie , Simon Pryce , and Emma Watkins , so that the group could continue to develop and preserve their brand . Although they insisted that they chose Watkins , the group 's first female member , because she was the most qualified for the job , they admitted that it was " a strategy for marketing the Wiggles into the next generation " .
= = Television and DVD production = =
In the early years of the group 's existence , it seemed " logical " to develop a television program that both entertained and conveyed sound and developmentally appropriate values . At the time , according to Field , Australian children 's TV " was an extremely staid and cautious genre " , so it was difficult for them to break into it . They filmed a television pilot for the Australian Broadcasting Corporation ( ABC ) because they felt a program on the network would receive the most exposure to the pre @-@ school market , but as The Sydney Morning Herald ( SMH ) reported in 2002 , " the project never got off the ground due to irreconcilable artistic differences " . Also according to the SMH , the ABC told them that they could not communicate with children , and that the members of the group should " not speak , just sing " . The ABC insisted that instead of what the SMH called their " trademark colourful skivvies and black trousers " , they wear shorts and caps . The Wiggles responded to this criticism by creating thirteen episodes of a self @-@ produced television series , The Wiggles , which they funded from their tours and video sales . In this series , and in most of their early series , they cut costs by using two cameras and visually checked the performance of each song ; that way , according to Paul Field , it took them less time to complete a forty @-@ minute video than it took other production companies to complete a three @-@ minute music video .
They sold the program to Australia 's Channel Seven , and then moved it to the ABC in 1998 and to the Disney Channel in 1999 . Paul Field reported that in the early 2000s , a meeting at a New York licensing fair with Grahame Grassby , the ABC 's acting director of enterprises , led to the ABC 's " enthusiastic " agreement to produce The Wiggles ' TV shows . Beginning in 2002 , The Wiggles filmed four seasons worth of shows exclusively with the ABC : Lights , Camera , Action , Wiggles aired on the ABC in 2003 , The Wiggles Show in 2004 and 2005 , and Wiggle and Learn in 2008 . The network called them " the most successful property that the ABC has represented in the pre @-@ school genre " . In 2007 , The Wiggles opened their own recording and film studios in Sydney , called " Hot Potato Studios " . They were the first pre @-@ school production company in Australia to shoot their videos and TV programs in high @-@ definition .
In 2009 , as Cook put it , " to try somewhere else , and to freshen up our brand a bit " , The Wiggles ended their long relationship with the Disney Channel in the U.S. when they entered into a five @-@ year @-@ long partnership with the digital cable channel Sprout . They also aired previous episodes of their show on the channel , created and hosted a three @-@ hour block of programming that aired in the mornings , and created online and on @-@ demand content . Sprout called the partnership " Our biggest acquisition ... that Sprout has ever done " . Cook stated that the move was not " acrimonious " , and although the group owed much of their early success to Disney , that it " was just business " . The first decade of the 21st century ended with The Wiggles expanding their brand by creating new shows , including The Dorothy the Dinosaur Show and Baby Antonio 's Circus in 2009 , a three @-@ minute show that featured Field 's oldest son and acrobatics .
= = Other ventures = =
In 2005 , as a " relatively short @-@ lived " experiment , the group franchised its concept to other countries . They started in Taiwan , because as Cook stated , they thought the country " was a small enough place , in case it didn 't work out " . The Taiwanese group was successful , so they branched out to Latin America , casting Spanish @-@ speaking Australians . The Wiggles ceased to pursue additional franchising when they learned that viewers in other countries preferred the original versions of their songs and programs because they helped children learn English , and according to Cook , when it became too hard for them to control , and when it " did not prove lucrative " . By 2012 , they found that it was easier to simply dub their programs into other languages .
Also in 2005 , Australia 's largest theme park , Dreamworld in Queensland , opened a " Wiggles World " section , which included a Big Red Car ride and a full set for production purposes . The band received licensing rights and sign @-@ off rights for every aspect of the section 's operation . Staff at Dreamworld had to take a " Wiggles boot camp " , to ensure they followed The Wiggles ' code of conduct when dealing with children and their families . Driven by the Dreamworld success , Six Flags opened its first " Wiggles World " section at their largest theme park at Jackson , New Jersey in April 2007 , and planned to open 20 more at its parks across the U.S. in the next decade . The sections emphasised family involvement ; they offered joint rides on which parents and children could equally participate . In 2008 , Six Flags announced their intentions to open parks with Wiggles World sections in Dubai and across the Arab world . In 2010 , after emerging from bankruptcy protection , Six Flags ended their licensing agreements with The Wiggles and other organizations , and changed the themes of their rides and park areas .
In 2005 , The Wiggles opened their first play centre in Sydney , and by 2006 had built other play centres throughout Sydney and in the U.S. For a small price , parents were able to take their children to the centres for unlimited educational and play time , as well as themed party rooms for private birthday parties . The play centres also held a gift shop with Wiggles merchandise and a cafe that served food featured in many of their songs . Three centres in Texas and Sydney were closed as part of their financial restructuring in 2012 .
In 2008 , the group began to sell downloads of Wiggles ringtones and songs , and streaming video on an on @-@ demand website . On 24 April 2009 , the group launched WiggleTime.com , a virtual world website for toddlers and their parents with online games and content , much of which required a pay subscription for premium content . As part of the launch , the company moved the previously free fan club and message board into the subscribed content , but after fan complaints , the free board was reinstated . In 2012 , as part of their cost @-@ cutting measures , The Wiggles closed the subscription portion of their site .
= Garry Williams ( gridiron football ) =
Garry Williams ( born August 20 , 1986 ) is a gridiron football offensive tackle who is currently a free agent . He previously played for the Carolina Panthers of the National Football League ( NFL ) , who signed him as an undrafted free agent in 2009 . He attended the University of Kentucky , where he played college football for the Wildcats while studying community communications and leadership development .
Williams dealt with repeated injuries while playing for the Carolina Panthers . His injuries prevented him from being a consistent starter despite multiple opportunities . In 2012 , Williams played a complete season and contributed to a team record 29 first downs in a single game .
= = High school career = =
Williams played high school football at Seneca High School MCA for the Red Hawks , where he started at the defensive tackle position as a freshman before switching to offensive tackle . The Red Hawks competed in the playoffs each year that Williams played . In his senior year , he was named a 2003 first @-@ team all @-@ state player by the Associated Press and the Courier @-@ Journal after leading his team to a 10 – 2 record and the second round of state playoffs . The Red Hawks were also ranked first in the state for the first time in school history that season . Williams also played track and field at Seneca , and he was ranked second in the state at shot put in 2003 .
= = College career = =
In early 2004 , Williams committed to play football at the University of Kentucky , but he did not join the team that season . He later recommitted to Kentucky in 2005 and enrolled that year . In the 2005 season , Williams played in five games before starting in the final three matches of the season at left tackle . He started 12 games in his sophomore year and was named the Most Outstanding Offensive Lineman by the team . In early 2007 , Williams was indefinitely suspended from the Wildcats for academic reasons , but his suspension was later lifted prior to the start of the season .
In 2007 , Williams started in all 13 games and was named a second @-@ team All @-@ SEC player . The Wildcat 's offense also broke the team record for most points scored in a season with 475 points in Williams ' junior year . Williams was named the SEC 's offensive lineman of the week for his play against the Florida Atlantic Owls on September 29 . As a senior , Williams was again named to the All @-@ SEC second @-@ team after starting in 11 games . He was also named the team 's most outstanding offensive lineman after allowing only a single sack the entire season . A knee injury caused Williams to miss two games as a senior . He finished his career at Kentucky with 45 games played and 39 starts .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Carolina Panthers = = =
Williams was eligible for the 2009 NFL Draft but went undrafted . He was later signed by the Carolina Panthers as a free agent , and was the only undrafted rookie to make the active roster of the Panthers following training camp . Williams made his NFL debut in Week 11 of his rookie season against the Miami Dolphins . He went on to play in seven games in 2009 , where he was utilized mostly on special teams . In 2010 , Williams played in all 16 regular season games , while starting in 11 . He started for the first time against the San Francisco 49ers in Week 7 , and remained a starter for the rest of the season . In Carolina 's final preseason game of 2011 , Williams suffered a broken ankle , causing him to miss the entire season . Head coach Ron Rivera later said the Panthers had planned on Williams taking on the role of a starter prior to his injury .
In 2012 , Williams played in all 16 games and started in nine . In Week 15 against the San Diego Chargers , Williams started and contributed to the Panthers breaking a team record with 29 first downs . Williams also started on the offensive line that helped reach 273 rushing yards and 530 total offensive yards in Week 17 against the New Orleans Saints , both the second highest values in team history . Prior to the 2013 season , the Panthers released right guard Geoff Hangartner and announced Williams as the likely starter . He started against the Seattle Seahawks in the regular season opener , but was injured and left the game . He was later diagnosed with a torn ACL and MCL in his left knee , ending his season . Williams played in the 2014 season opener against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers , but left practice later that week with coaches citing a sore hip . He was later placed on injured reserve with a back injury , ending his season . Williams became a free agent in 2015 and the Panthers did not resign him .
= = = Calgary Stampeders = = =
The Calgary Stampeders signed Williams as an international free agent on May 28 , 2015 . Williams made the Stampeders ' active roster following preseason and made his CFL debut on July 18 against the Winnipeg Blue Bombers . He started three games at left tackle before being forced to leave the August 1st game against the Montreal Alouettes with an arm injury . After Williams reportedly had X @-@ rays of his elbow taken , he was diagnosed with a hyperextended right elbow . He suffered multiple injuries during the rest of the regular season , causing him to sit out several games . He returned in time to play in both playoff games for Calgary .
= = Personal life = =
Williams was born in Atlanta , Georgia to Garry Williams Sr. and Angela Williams . While playing college football and studying public service and leadership at the University of Kentucky , he was involved in community service . He helped with a " Breakfast with Santa " event at the University of Kentucky Children 's Hospital and rang bells to collect donations for the Salvation Army .
= Clinton Street Theater =
The Clinton Street Theater is a theater located in southeast Portland , Oregon . It is believed to be the second oldest operating movie house in the city and one of the oldest continually operating cinemas in the United States . The theater was designed by Charles A. Duke in 1913 , built in 1914 , and opened as The Clinton in 1915 . It became known as the 26th Avenue Theatre in 1945 and the Encore in 1969 , before reverting to a resemblance of its original name in 1976 . The Clinton often screens grindhouse , cult and experimental films , and has become known for hosting regular screenings of The Rocky Horror Picture Show ( since 1978 , marking one of the film 's longest @-@ running showings ) and Repo ! The Genetic Opera . The venue also hosts the annual Filmed by Bike festival , the Faux Film Festival and the Portland Queer Documentary Film Festival .
= = History = =
A photograph of the building that was to house the theater appeared in The Morning Oregonian newspaper in 1913 . Known as the Kleist Building after its owner , Edward Kleist , it had a pressed brick front and walls with hollow tiles . The second floor was intended for residential rooms and apartments , and the ground floor was designed for business storerooms and a movie theater . According to a February 1915 newspaper advertisement , The Exploits of Elaine , the first in a continuing series of Craig Kennedy detective stories , was to show at The Clinton on March 1 .
The 300 @-@ seat theater was designed by Charles A. Duke in 1913 and opened in 1915 as The Clinton . Its main entrance faced 26th Avenue until 1922 . The venue became known as the 26th Avenue Theatre in 1945 and the Encore in 1969 , before reverting to a variation of its original name on May 30 , 1975 . At that time , a five @-@ person collective bought the theater . The movie house had been showing X @-@ rated films , which the collective replaced with a wide variety of movies including foreign films , The Rocky Horror Picture Show , and older films like The African Queen .
In September 1999 , Anne Rozier and Dennis Nyback took over operation of the theater . Nyback had previously shown films at the Clinton beginning in 1997 . He was told about the availability of the theater when he was showing films in June 1999 . During his time operating the theater with Rozier , Clinton showed a mix of new films , revival films , and creations by Nyback using his archive . His shows included : " Defining the 1970 's Through Classic Commercials " , " Bad Bugs Bunny " , " Strange and Surreal Industrial Films " , " F & # k Mickey Mouse " , " Scopitone A Go Go " , " Jazz on Film " , " The Dark Side of Dr. Seuss " , " Forty Years of Classic Commercials " , and " The Genius of Bob Clampett " .
Seth and Nicola Sonstein purchased the business from Anne Rozier in September 2003 . The couple " fell in love with both the city and the theater " after visiting in July 2002 as coordinators of San Francisco 's Sick Puppy short film festival . The Sonsteins added heating and air conditioning , both firsts for the theater , and refurbished the bathrooms , lobby and walls , among other upgrades . Screening independent films and supporting local filmmakers remain the couple 's primary goals .
In March 2012 the business , including fixtures and projection and concession equipment , but not the building itself , were listed for sale . In April 2012 ownership of the business transferred from the Sonsteins to Roger and Lani Jo Leigh . After the sale , Seth Sonstein said in a press release : " For the last eight @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years I have had the opportunity to run the coolest movie theater , in the coolest neighborhood , in the coolest city in America . My eternal gratitude goes out to the citizens of Portland . I can never say thank you enough times for all of the support you have given to the Clinton . " Events to mark the change included an open house " meet @-@ and @-@ greet " , which included screenings of two documentary films by Lani Jo , and an evening of rare trailers and video clips from the Prelinger Archives . Lani Jo confirmed the theater will continue to offer screenings of The Rocky Horror Picture Show and focus on documentary and independent films .
= = Events = =
Clinton Street Theater offers : " a mixture of grindhouse , music films , political documentaries and experimental films " . The theater has become known for its weekly screenings of Rocky Horror and Repo ! The Genetic Opera , and for its annual Filmed by Bike festival , which began in 2003 and features : " bike @-@ themed independent short movies from around the world . " Rocky Horror screenings began in 1978 , marking one of the longest @-@ running showings of the film . The theater also hosts the Faux Film Festival , offering cult and independent film showings , and the Portland Queer Documentary Film Festival .
To celebrate the 40th anniversary of the Portland Trail Blazers , in 2009 the theater screened the 1978 rare and out of circulation documentary Fast Break about the team 's 1976 – 77 championship season . In 2010 the Clinton hosted the Three @-@ Minute Picture Show , which featured screenings of three @-@ minute films by first @-@ time filmmakers . The venue has also hosted benefit events , such as " Can 't Stop the Serenity " ( presented by PDX Browncoats ) , which included showings of the film Serenity among other features to benefit Equality Now and the Oregon Food Bank . Other hosted events have included the Portland Underground Film Festival , comedy shows , commemorations for holidays such as Martin Luther King , Jr . Day , and lectures on film making .
Many celebrities have appeared at the theater to promote films , including Crispin Glover in 2008 , and Bill Plympton and Tom Shadyac in 2011 . Chuck Palahniuk , Tom Potter and Gus Van Sant have also appeared at the theater .
= Jordanhill railway station =
Jordanhill railway station is a side platformed suburban railway station in the Jordanhill area in the West End of Glasgow , Scotland . The station , which is governed by Transport Scotland and managed by Abellio ScotRail , lies on the Argyle Line and the North Clyde Line .
It is located near the Jordanhill Campus of the University of Strathclyde and sits atop Crow Road , an important western thoroughfare in Glasgow and the main route to the Clyde Tunnel . The station is five stops and eleven minutes ' journey time from Glasgow Central on the Argyle Line . Trains on the North Clyde Line pass through without stopping at the station .
In operation since 1887 , the station stemmed losses for an area that was in decline .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
The station opened on 1 August 1887 as part of the Glasgow , Yoker and Clydebank Railway . Construction of the station structure was not completed until 1895 , with modular @-@ design wooden buildings , commonly seen on the new suburban railway lines , being built on both platforms . The station is located on part of the former site of brick and tile works , Jordanhill being an area of artisans and miners until the close of the nineteenth century . The railway station arrived just as much of the local industry was declining , giving residents , who previously had to walk to Hillhead or Partick to find transport into Glasgow , proper access to the city centre .
The station 's opening effectively filled a gap in provision , as lines in the area had already been constructed ; the Whiteinch and Stobcross Railways both opened in 1874 , but no station was constructed on these lines at Jordanhill . A new link allowed services to Whiteinch Victoria Park to begin in 1897 , but they ceased in 1951 and the link was closed to freight in 1967 . The route of the link has been converted into a nature walk from Victoria Park to Jordanhill station , running alongside the existing line for approximately half its length .
On 15 January 1898 , J. Johnstone , a member of the Whiteinch Harriers running club , was killed while attempting to run across the line west of the station . A small lead memorial stood on the spot for many years . The freight line saw near @-@ disaster on 28 December 1932 , when seventeen wagons laden with coal ran away on a slight incline on the sidings operated by the Great Western Steam Laundry ; they ran into other wagons , derailing nine and spilling coal over the line , seriously disrupting passenger traffic .
A serious accident occurred on 28 April 1980 , when a three @-@ coach train carrying 80 passengers from Dalmuir to Motherwell derailed at Hyndland West Junction , just after leaving Jordanhill . All the bogies on the leading coach left the rails , causing fifteen people ( nine women and six men ) to be injured seriously enough for them to be taken to the Western Infirmary .
= = = Plans for rebuilding = = =
In 1998 , Strathclyde Passenger Transport ( SPT ) undertook a study into the possible relocation of the station west to Westbrae Drive . A December 2002 report from the Scottish Executive included this station as part of their High Resource Scenario , estimating the project cost at approximately £ 2 million ( US $ 4 million ) . By 2004 , SPT had identified this station as one of their top three priorities , and Glasgow City Council had identified it as a " main priority " .
An alternative proposal would keep the existing station open but with many services calling only at a new Westbrae Drive station . This proposal was backed in August 2001 by Charlie Gordon , then leader of Glasgow City Council , who said that having a second station in Jordanhill would assist students at the nearby Jordanhill campus of the University of Strathclyde . The proposed new station would have been only roughly 500 yd ( 460 m ) away .
The station at Jordanhill is to be rebuilt , one of six new stations in the west of Scotland , according to an announcement made on 19 May 2006 by SPT chief executive Ron Culley .
Jordanhill Station will be rebuilt for the 2014 Commonwealth Games , one of a number of stations that will be rebuilt for the Commonwealth Games through a £ 300 million transport legacy plan .
= = Services = =
As part of the Argyle Line , the station is used — along with Glasgow Central and Anderston — by those commuting to and from Central Glasgow , near the heart of its business and financial district . The typical hourly service from the station is four trains per hour to Dalmuir via Yoker ( two extended to Dumbarton Central ) , two trains to Whifflet via Glasgow Central and two trains to Cumbernauld via Glasgow Queen Street .
In SRA 's 2002 / 3 financial year , 85 @,@ 861 people boarded trains at Jordanhill station , and 94 @,@ 613 disembarked , making it the 1,029th busiest station in the United Kingdom , and twenty @-@ fifth busiest on the Argyle Line in 2003 .
In 2016 the Queen Street High Level tunnel closure will see restricted services for part of the year , with frequencies dropping to half @-@ hourly from here .
= = Facilities = =
The station has a very small car park ( eleven spaces ) and is not permanently staffed , but it contains a ticket machine , one of an initial batch of ten installed by SPT in late 2003 and early 2004 as part of a drive to curb fare dodging , which was estimated to be costing the company £ 2 million a year . Both platforms are elevated and each has a wheelchair ramp . There is a connecting footbridge between the two platforms .
= = In the area = =
The Jordanhill Campus of the University of Strathclyde , which hosts the Faculty of Education , is located nearby . Several schools are also in the area , including Jordanhill School , Broomhill Primary , St Thomas Aquinas ; as well as a Territorial Army centre . For the later part of the 1980s and the early part of the 1990s , a huge Jolly Giant toy centre lay just across Crow Road , and was a major local attraction . It closed in the 1990s and after housing a discount clothing store for a few years it is now an Arnold Clark Volkswagen car dealership .
Backing onto platform 2 is a Scout hall , home to the 72nd Scout Troop .
There are two sports facilities accessible from the station :
New Anniesland , a rugby union and cricket playing field is home to the Glasgow Academicals Sports Club , and The Glasgow Academy .
Old Anniesland , home to The High School of Glasgow and the GHK Sports club .
Rugby union team Glasgow Hawks RFC predominantly play at Old Anniesland , but occasionally play at New Anniesland .
= SMS Württemberg ( 1878 ) =
SMS Württemberg was one of four Sachsen @-@ class armored frigates of the German Imperial Navy . Her sister ships were Sachsen , Bayern , and Baden . Württemberg was built in the AG Vulcan shipyard in Stettin from 1876 to 1881 . The ship was commissioned into the Imperial Navy in August 1881 . She was armed with a main battery of six 26 cm ( 10 in ) guns in two open barbettes .
After her commissioning , Württemberg served with the fleet on numerous training exercises and cruises . She participated in several cruises escorting Kaiser Wilhelm II on state visits to Great Britain and to various cities in the Baltic Sea in the late 1880s and early 1890s . During 1898 – 1899 , the ship was modernized at the Imperial Dockyard in Kiel ; she served for another seven years with the fleet before being withdrawn from active service in 1906 . She was subsequently used in a variety of secondary roles , until she was sold in 1920 and broken up for scrap .
= = Construction = =
Württemberg was ordered by the Imperial Navy under the contract name " D , " which denoted that the vessel was a new addition to the fleet . She was built at the AG Vulcan shipyard in Stettin ; her keel was laid in 1876 under construction number 78 . The ship was launched on 9 November 1878 and commissioned into the German fleet on 9 May 1881 . Along with her three sisters , Württemberg was the first large , armored warship built for the German navy that relied entirely on engines for propulsion .
The ship was 98 @.@ 20 meters ( 322 @.@ 2 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 18 @.@ 40 m ( 60 @.@ 4 ft ) and a draft of 6 @.@ 32 m ( 20 @.@ 7 ft ) forward . Württemberg was powered by two 3 @-@ cylinder triple expansion engines , which were supplied with steam by eight coal @-@ fired Dürr boilers . The ship 's top speed was 13 knots ( 24 km / h ; 15 mph ) , at 5 @,@ 600 indicated horsepower ( 4 @,@ 200 kW ) Her standard complement consisted of 32 officers and 285 enlisted men , though while serving as a squadron flagship this was augmented by another 7 officers and 34 men .
She was armed with six 26 cm ( 10 in ) guns , two of which were single @-@ mounted in an open barbette forward of the conning tower and the remaining four mounted amidships , also on single mounts in an open barbette . As built , the ship was also equipped with six 8 @.@ 7 cm ( 3 @.@ 4 in ) L / 24 guns and eight 3 @.@ 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) Hotchkiss revolver cannons . Württemberg 's armor was made of wrought iron , and was concentrated in an armored citadel amidships . The armor ranged from 203 to 254 mm ( 8 @.@ 0 to 10 @.@ 0 in ) on the armored citadel , and between 50 – 75 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 – 3 @.@ 0 in ) on the deck . The barbette armor was 254 mm of wrought iron backed by 250 mm of teak .
= = Service history = =
After her commissioning in May 1881 , Württemberg was placed in reserve . She was not activated for service with the fleet until 1884 ; this in part had to do with the poor performance of her sister Sachsen in the fleet maneuvers of 1880 . Among the problems associated with the Sachsen @-@ class ships was a tendency to roll dangerously due to their flat bottoms , which greatly reduced the accuracy of their guns . The ships were also poorly armored , compared to their contemporaries . In addition , they were slow and suffered from poor maneuverability . Nevertheless , Württemberg and her three sisters served as the I Division in the 1884 fleet maneuvers , under the command of Rear Admiral Alexander von Monts . The ship was again placed in reserve in 1885 , but returned to fleet service in 1886 alongside Sachsen , Baden , and the new ironclad Oldenburg . During the annual fleet maneuvers , Württemberg 's engines proved troublesome .
Following the 1886 maneuvers , Württemberg and her three sisters were removed from active duty to serve as the Baltic reserve division . In June 1887 , Germany dedicated the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal ; Württemberg was among the ships present during the celebrations . The ship returned to active service with the fleet in 1890 when she joined the I Division during the annual maneuvers . Württemberg was commanded by Captain Alfred von Tirpitz during the exercises . The eight ships of the I and II Divisions simulated a Russian fleet blockading Kiel , which was defended by torpedo boat flotillas . Württemberg was in reserve during the 1891 maneuvers , but returned to the I Division in 1892 , 1893 , and 1894 . By the winter of 1894 – 1895 , the last of the four Brandenburg @-@ class battleships had been commissioned ; these ships were assigned to the I Division , which displaced Württemberg and her three sisters to the II Division . The eight ships conducted training cruises over the winter and spring before conducting the annual autumn fleet exercises .
On 21 June 1895 , the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal was opened for traffic , eight years after work had begun . Württemberg and her three sisters , along with dozens of other warships , attended the ceremonies . The major naval powers sent fleets to join the fleet review . The Autumn 1895 maneuvers simulated a high @-@ seas battle between the I and II Divisions in the North Sea , followed by combined maneuvers with the rest of the fleet in the Baltic . Württemberg again served during the 1896 and 1897 maneuvers , though Sachsen was her only sister to join the exercises . Baden and Bayern were out of service for extensive modernization .
After the conclusion of the 1897 maneuvers , Württemberg was taken into drydock at the Imperial Dockyard in Kiel for reconstruction . The ship 's old wrought iron and teak armor was replaced with new Krupp nickel @-@ steel armor . The four funnels were trunked into a single large funnel and new engines were also installed , which increased the ship 's speed to 15 @.@ 4 knots ( 28 @.@ 5 km / h ; 17 @.@ 7 mph ) . The ship 's 8 @.@ 7 cm guns were replaced with quick @-@ firing 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) SK L / 30 guns and four 3 @.@ 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) autocannons . Work was completed in 1898 . Württemberg remained with the fleet until 1906 ; her replacement in the fleet organization plan , the new dreadnought battleship Rheinland , was ordered that year . Württemberg was then used as a torpedo training and test ship until February 1919 , when she was reduced to an escort for F @-@ type minesweepers . The ship was stricken from the naval register on 20 October 1920 and sold to Hattinger Co . Württemberg was ultimately broken up for scrap in Wilhelmshaven .
= Paradox ( horse ) =
Paradox ( 1882 – 1890 ) was a British Thoroughbred racehorse and sire . In a career that lasted from October 1884 until October 1885 he ran eight times and won six races . Despite running only twice in 1884 , he proved himself to be one of the best two @-@ year @-@ olds of his generation by winning the Dewhurst Plate . In the following year he won five of his six races including the 2 @,@ 000 Guineas , the Grand Prix de Paris , the Sussex Stakes and the Champion Stakes . His only defeat came when he was narrowly beaten by Melton in the Epsom Derby .
The final phase of the colt 's racing career was marked by controversy and recrimination following his withdrawal from the Cambridgeshire Handicap in the autumn of 1885 and he was retired from racing in 1886 . Paradox had little opportunity to establish himself at stud , dying in 1890 at the age of eight .
= = Background = =
Paradox was a strongly @-@ built bay horse bred by the Graham brothers at the Yardley Stud near Birmingham . He was sired by the 2 @,@ 000 Guineas runner @-@ up Sterling out of Casuistry , an undistinguished racehorse who had been sold cheaply at the end of her racing career by Lord Rosebery . Casuistry became an important broodmare , being the direct female ancestor of notable thoroughbreds such as Humorist , Royal Palace and Spend a Buck . As a yearling Paradox was bought for 700 guineas by the trainer John Porter on behalf of his associate , Captain Bowling . Porter trained the colt at his stable at Kingsclere .
= = Racing career = =
= = = 1884 : two @-@ year @-@ old season = = =
Until 1946 there was no requirement for British racehorses to be named and , in 1884 , the horse who would become known as Paradox raced as " bay colt by Sterling- Casuistry " or , simply , " the Casuistry colt " . He was slow to mature but , by late 1884 , he had begun to show signs of promise . After watching him run in a trial gallop , the Duke of Westminster paid £ 6 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to £ 564 @,@ 049 today ) for the colt . By way of comparison , the 1884 Epsom Derby carried prize money of £ 4 @,@ 600 . By the time he appeared on a racecourse his performances in training and purchase price meant that he had acquired a considerable reputation and , despite making his debut in the Middle Park Plate , the season 's most important races for two @-@ year @-@ olds , he was made joint @-@ favourite at odds of 9 / 4 . The inexperienced Casuistry colt showed " a little temper " at the start and , after racing with the leaders in the early stages , he became unbalanced and lost his position on the downhill section of the course . He finished strongly to dead @-@ heat for third place behind Melton and the French colt Xaintrailes , but the Duke was highly displeased by the performance and offered the colt for sale . He was bought by William Broderick Cloete , a South African @-@ born businessman who had made his fortune in Mexican coal @-@ mining . At the next Newmarket meeting , on his first start for his new owner , the Casuistry colt ran in the Dewhurst Plate and started the 2 / 1 second favourite behind Xaintrailles . He took an early lead and pulled away in " grand style " to record a three length win from the filly Cora . The Dewhurst was regarded as the year 's most important two @-@ year @-@ old race after the Middle Park Plate , and the colt 's win established him as one of the best horses of his generation , with bookmakers making him one of the favourites for the following year 's Derby . Shortly afterwards it was reported that an offer of £ 10 @,@ 000 for the colt had been turned down .
= = = 1885 : three @-@ year @-@ old season = = =
= = = = Spring = = = =
Over the winter the Casuistry colt was given the name " Paradox " ( misreported as " Paragon " in some sources ) and , by early 1885 , was clear favourite for both the 2 @,@ 000 Guineas and the Epsom Derby . When he reappeared in the 2 @,@ 000 Guineas over one mile at Newmarket on 6 May he was considered virtually unbeatable and , with only six other colts turning out to oppose him , he started at odds of 1 / 3 . Ridden by Fred Archer , Paradox started well and moved into the lead with three furlongs to travel . Most of his opponents were soon struggling , but an unnamed " bay colt by Kisber out of Chopette " ( later named Crafton ) emerged as a serious challenger . Archer had to use his spurs on Paradox and the favourite drifted across the course under pressure before prevailing by a head after a " brilliant and exciting " race . It was only after some animated discussion that Crafton 's connections decided not to lodge an objection against the winner for causing interference in the closing stages .
= = = = Summer = = = =
Despite his win in the Guineas , Paradox was passed over by Archer , who chose to ride Melton in the Derby . At Epsom on 3 June Paradox , ridden by Fred Webb , was made the 4 / 1 second favourite in a field of twelve runners , with Melton starting the 15 / 8 favourite . Webb was given the ride despite " scurrilous " rumours concerning his honesty . The race took place in fine weather before a reportedly " enormous " crowd that included the Prince and Princess of Wales . Paradox took the lead two furlongs from the finish and was immediately challenged by Archer on Melton ; from that point on the two had the race between them . Melton made gradual but relentless progress to catch Paradox " in the last stride " and win by a head in a " desperate finish " , with Archer riding one of his strongest races . After the race Cloete expressed his satisfaction with Webb 's performance and rewarded the jockey with a gift of £ 100 . Irish writer Oscar Wilde was reported to have observed " I understand that Milton 's Paradise Lost is being revived and will appear in Derby Week and will be published under the title Paradox Lost by Melton . "
Paradox was never beaten again . Eleven days after his defeat at Epsom he was sent to Longchamp to contest the Grand Prix de Paris , the most important and valuable race in France . The start of the race was delayed for half an hour as the authorities struggled to clear spectators from the course . Ridden once again by Archer , Paradox was restrained in the early stages before making steady progress and turning into the straight in second place . Paradox overtook the leader Reluisant halfway down the straight and won " [ w ] ith the greatest ease " at odds of 1 / 3 . His success was greeted enthusiastically by the travelling British supporters but there were hisses and hoots from the French contingent and the raising of the Union Jack after the race led to what was described as an " unfavourable demonstration " . Paradox returned to England and ran the one mile Sussex Stakes at Goodwood on 29 July . The winners of major races were assigned additional weight in the race and Paradox carried twelve pounds extra as a result of his success in France . Archer sent him to the front two furlongs from the finish and he won comfortably by three quarters of a length from Royal Hampton .
= = = = Autumn = = = =
Later in the year Paradox was campaigned at Newmarket and entered in three races ; his main target was expected to be the Cambridgeshire Handicap at the end of October . He was assigned a weight of 124 pounds and was strongly supported in the betting . Some time before the race , however , Cloete arrived in England from Mexico and had a disagreement with Porter that resulted in the withdrawal of Paradox from the Cambridgeshire , causing a " terrible rumpus " among the betting public . It was rumoured that Cloete was furious that he had not been kept informed of the trainer 's plans and had missed the chance to bet on Paradox at long odds . It was also suggested that he was upset by accusations that Paradox had never been an intended runner and had been left in the race in an attempt to manipulate the betting market . An exacerbating factor in the affair was that there had been a delay between Cloete privately announcing that the horse would not run and the official withdrawal , during which period heavy gambling continued , with some individuals apparently profiting from inside knowledge . Cloete removed Paradox , and all of his other horses , from Porter 's stable and sent them to be trained by Richard Marsh at Lordship Farm .
At the first October meeting Paradox ran the Champion Stakes over ten furlongs , with Archer riding at his lowest weight of 120 pounds . Running in wet , difficult conditions , Paradox took the lead in the closing stages and won from Duke of Richmond and the filly Aveline . His victory was received in silence by the spectators , although there were none of the open displays of hostility towards Cloete that been feared following the controversy arising from the colt 's withdrawal from the Cambridgeshire . At the next Newmarket meeting , when the Cambridgeshire was run , Cloete rerouted his colt to the Free Handicap . Paradox won , despite conceding thirty @-@ four pounds to Aveline , but his " brilliant " success was again met with silence from the crowd and Cloete was greeted " without a word of congratulation or the semblance of a note of enthusiasm " . Paradox remained in training as a four @-@ year @-@ old with his entries including the Ascot Gold Cup , but he did not run again and was retired to stud .
= = Stud career = =
Paradox began his stud career , during which he became increasingly bad @-@ tempered and difficult to manage , at a fee of 30 guineas . He showed some promise as a stallion , siring several winners including Red Ensign ( Prince of Wales 's Stakes ) , Unicorne ( Stewards ' Cup ) and Alconbury ( Hansa Preis ) , and his stud fee had risen to 100 guineas by 1890 when he died of a twisted intestine at the age of eight . His daughter Thankful Blossom was the ancestor of Bull Lea , an American stallion referred to as " one of the great sires in American Thoroughbred history " , .
= = Pedigree = =
Paradox was inbred 3x4 to Birdcatcher , meaning that this stallion appears in both the third and the fourth generations of his pedigree . He was also inbred 4x4 to Touchstone .
= The Light of the Sun =
The Light of the Sun is the fourth studio album by American R & B singer Jill Scott . It was recorded after Scott 's four @-@ year break from her music career and departure from her former label , Hidden Beach Recordings . The Light of the Sun was recorded at several studios and produced primarily by Scott and JR Hutson , a songwriter and producer who had previously worked on her 2007 record The Real Thing : Words and Sounds Vol . 3 . Music journalists noted The Light of the Sun for its neo soul sound , element of improvisation , and Scott 's feminine themes .
The Light of the Sun was released on June 21 , 2011 , by Scott 's imprint label , Blue Babe Records . It received positive reviews from most critics and debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 in the United States , where it sold 135 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . The album became Scott 's first American number @-@ one record , and as of March 2015 , it had sold 478 @,@ 000 copies in the US . It was promoted with three singles , including the Billboard R & B hits " So in Love " and " Blessed " . Scott also promoted the album with her Summer Block Party concert tour .
= = Background = =
Following her 2007 album , The Real Thing : Words and Sounds Vol . 3 , Scott took a break from recording music . She undertook acting roles in the movies Tyler Perry 's Why Did I Get Married ? and Hounddog , and she had a starring role in the television series The No. 1 Ladies ' Detective Agency . During her break , she divorced her husband of six years Lyzel Williams in 2007 , became engaged to the former drummer Lil ' John Roberts in 2008 , gave birth to their son Jett Hamilton in 2009 , and broke up with Roberts . Scott subsequently began sessions for The Light of the Sun .
In 2009 , Scott left her former record label Hidden Beach Recordings . During the album 's recording , she was sued by Hidden Beach , which claimed she had left without fulfilling a six @-@ album contract . The lawsuit was settled in 2011 , with Hidden Beach planning to release in August a compilation album The Original Jill Scott from the Vault , Vol . 1 , the first in a planned album series of Scott 's previously unreleased recordings . In 2010 , Warner Bros. Records signed Scott to a deal that gave her direct control over her marketing and promotion . In a strategy to re @-@ establish Scott 's presence with fans , she signed a multi @-@ tour deal with Live Nation / Haymon Ventures to expand her concert touring . Scott co @-@ headlined a national , 20 @-@ date arena tour with the recording artist Maxwell , called Maxwell & Jill Scott : The Tour , in 2010 .
= = Recording = =
The album was recorded at several recording studios , including Fever Recording Studios in North Hollywood , 9th Street Studios and Threshold Sound & Vision in Santa Monica , Studio 609 and The Studio in Philadelphia , The Boom Boom Room in Burbank and The Village Studios in West Los Angeles . Scott worked with the producers Terry Lewis , JR Hutson and Justice League for the album . Scott had first worked with Hutson on her previous album The Real Thing .
In an interview for HitQuarters , Hutson said of Scott 's approach to The Light of the Sun , " She ’ s now in charge of a lot of different things and with it comes a lot of trials and tribulations , and I think her goal is to just give people a very realistic glimpse of where she is in her life right now . " Scott has noted songs such as " Hear My Call " and " Quick " as reflective of the " darkest moments " in her life and has said that much of the album 's music developed from studio jams and freestyle sessions . In an interview for Metro , she said of the " largely improvised " recording process :
I went into a studio with no lyrics , nothing written out . I got together a great group – featuring Adam Blackstone on bass and Randy Bowland on guitar – and just put them in a studio and got them to play while I improvised lyrics . From the first note , you could hear little tunes emerging , and that would inspire me to freestyle lyrics . We call it ' going in ' . You go inside yourself , inside your spirit , and you explore . It ’ s exhausting . When we were done , there was a lot of whooping and hugging and high @-@ fiving . It ’ s that kind of record .
= = Release and promotion = =
The album was released in the United States on June 21 , 2011 , on Scott 's own imprint label , Blues Babe Records , distributed by Warner Bros. Records , her first release by the label . It is the first release under the distribution deal between Blues Babe and Warner Bros. It was released on June 27 in the United Kingdom . On July 28 , Scott embarked on her Summer Block Party concert tour , which concluded on August 28 . The tour had Anthony Hamilton and Mint Condition as opening acts , Doug E. Fresh as host , and DJ Jazzy Jeff on turntables . Scott also promoted the album with performances on the television shows The Tonight Show with Jay Leno , Jimmy Kimmel Live ! and Live with Regis and Kelly . She headlined the Essence Music Festival on July 1 .
On April 11 , Scott released the promotional single " Shame " on her Soundcloud account . It features the rapper Eve and the vocal group The A Group . Its music video was filmed at the Cecil B. Moore Recreational Center in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , where Eve and the rapper Black Thought were in attendance . Scott said in an interview for CNN that she spent several summers at the recreation center and that it was at risk of being demolished . The video was premiered on April 13 on Essence.com. It was later released as the album 's second single in the United Kingdom . The album 's first single , " So in Love " featuring Anthony Hamilton , was released on June 26 . It spent nine weeks on the US Billboard Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs , peaking at number 10 on the chart , one week on the Billboard Hot 100 , peaking at number 97 , and three weeks on Billboard 's Radio Songs , peaking at number 71 on the chart .
= = Commercial performance = =
The album debuted at number one on the US Billboard 200 chart , with first @-@ week sales of 135 @,@ 000 copies in the United States . It was her first number @-@ one album in the US . It sold 55 @,@ 000 copies in its second week on the Billboard 200 . As of May 2015 , The Light of the Sun had sold 479 @,@ 000 copies in the US .
The album debuted at number 83 on the Canadian Albums Chart . In the Netherlands , the album peaked at number 51 and spent two weeks on the Mega Album Top 100 chart . In France , it reached number 103 and spent one week on the Syndicat National de l 'Édition Phonographique 's albums chart . In Belgian Wallonia , the album reached number 99 and spent one week on the Ultratop 50 Albums chart . In the United Kingdom , it debuted at number 69 on the UK Albums Chart and at number 14 on the R & B Albums Chart .
= = Critical reception = =
The Light of the Sun received generally positive reviews from music critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 73 , based on 15 reviews . Mikael Wood from Entertainment Weekly complimented its " earnest introspection and earthy textures " , and observed " a distinctly early @-@ aughties vibe " . In The New York Times , Jon Pareles praised Scott 's " proudly and forthrightly feminine " themes and said the songs are " springy with a sense of improvisation , both in the rhythms and in their elaborate vocal overlays " . The Washington Post 's Bill Friskics @-@ Warren noted its " sumptuous orchestration , jazzy flourishes and neo @-@ soul beats " , and wrote , " The full range of human emotion , from defiance to hurt and hope , is expressed over the course of the album . " AllMusic 's Thom Jurek said that " Scott sounds more in control than ever ; her spoken and sung phrasing ( now a trademark ) , songwriting , and production instincts are all solid " . In the Chicago Tribune , Greg Kot wrote , " She ’ s perfected a style that toggles between singing and conversing , and balances more conventional pop structure with spontaneity . " Caroline Sullivan in The Guardian noted its " uplifting sung @-@ spoken pieces " and wrote , " It 's Scott 's warm womanliness over the whole album that makes it a must @-@ hear . "
In a mixed review , Andy Gill from The Independent criticized Scott 's lyrics as " a sticky puddle of self @-@ regard " and found its songs " [ un ] developed much beyond a languid soul @-@ jazz vamp " . Rolling Stone writer Jon Dolan gave the album three out of five stars and called her " trademark " musical style " warm and inviting , if rarely thrilling , neo @-@ soul " . Daryl Easlea of BBC Online wrote that it " at times [ ... ] veers towards self @-@ indulgence , and some of its ideas are not fully followed through " , but complimented its " freewheeling vibe " and called it " a lovely , bittersweet album that celebrates the joy of life " .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
Credits are adapted from the album 's liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = = Weekly charts = = =
= = = Year @-@ end charts = = =
= Cytosol =
The cytosol or cytoplasmic matrix is the liquid found inside cells . It constitutes most of the intracellular fluid ( ICF ) . It is separated into compartments by membranes . For example , the mitochondrial matrix separates the mitochondrion into many compartments .
In the eukaryotic cell , the cytosol is within the cell membrane and is part of the cytoplasm , which also comprises the mitochondria , plastids , and other organelles ( but not their internal fluids and structures ) ; the cell nucleus is separate . The cytosol is thus a liquid matrix around the organelles . In prokaryotes , most of the chemical reactions of metabolism take place in the cytosol , while a few take place in membranes or in the periplasmic space . In eukaryotes , while many metabolic pathways still occur in the cytosol , others are contained within organelles .
The cytosol is a complex mixture of substances dissolved
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under the minimum salaries as designated by the Writer 's Guild of America . After Fontana continued to oppose the rates offered that were lower than dictated by WGA rates , Roddenberry brought his personal lawyer , Leonard Maizlish to argue his case . Gerrold found that Maizlish 's influence changed Roddenberry , and Gerrold started to be called disloyal by Roddenberry when he disagreed with him . Fontana drafted the script for the pilot episode , " Encounter at Farpoint " , while at the same time Gerrold and another The Original Series staffer , John D.F. Black also worked up scripts of their own .
Based on the pilot script at that point , and Gerrold and Roddenberry 's bible , the design team began to work up plans for the sets and props that would feature in the series . After viewing the movie series sets , they decided that they needed to build a new bridge for the new Enterprise , to meet Roddenberry 's proclaimed " technology unchained " ideal . Probert , who had worked on the design for Phase II and The Motion Picture based the exterior design for the Enterprise on an abandoned design he had created at the time . Some of the film sets were used , as the film bridge was re @-@ dressed to appear as the battle bridge , and would be further redressed countless times over the course of The Next Generation to represent various bridges .
The first staffing change occurred early in 1987 , with Milkis leaving the production . He had signed a one @-@ year contract , but decided to prioritise other commitments . Berman was drafted in to replace him , accepting the new position instead of being the studio liaison . Milkis later said that it was a seamless transition because of the level of knowledge Berman had gained on the production . Fontana and Roddenberry had a falling out over the associate producer position , which she eventually gained . The relationship between the two became so strained that she recorded all meetings with him , and later left after the first couple of episodes . Her work on " The Naked Now " was credited to the pseudonym J Michael Bingham , she put in a claim with the Writers Guild that she had also worked as a story editor on the series but was never paid for it , which was settled amicably with Paramount . Meanwhile , Maizlish started working effectively as a story editor , while production meetings would often result in Roddenberry ranting about various issues . Other writers and producers , including Herbert Wright and Maurice Hurley joined the team .
Justman left after half of season one , later explaining that " I 'd accomplished what I wanted to accomplish . Star Trek wasn 't a fluke " . They were not the only departures , as the number of employees departing the increasingly chaotic production started to become legendary in the WGA . By mid @-@ season , the show was having difficulty recruiting writers as there were rumours about how difficult working with Roddenberry had become . He would often re @-@ write scripts , inserting sexual overtones , while blaming the original writers for the problems with the parts that he had inserted . His fellow producers blamed the issues and inconsistencies on his drinking , although his writing had all but stopped by around two thirds of the way through the first season . Gerrold left after the completion of the first season , choosing not to renew his contract due to the issues with his script for an unfilmed episode called " Blood and Fire " and his relationship with Roddenberry and Maizlish . Head writer Lewin also left the team at the end of the season . Out of all the writing staff who worked on the show during the first season , only Rick Berman remained following season two .
= = = Casting = = =
An initial casting call was released to talent agencies on December 10 , 1986 , for eight main cast members . These featured several minor differences in the eventual names , such as Captain Julien Picard , William Ryker and Leslie Crusher ( a 15 @-@ year @-@ old girl ) . It also featured the security chief , Macha Hernandez . The Captain was given the nickname of " Luke " , and both his and Ryker 's name would take on their more familiar forms at some point between the two versions of the writer 's guide in February and March 1987 . Leslie Crusher was considered as a boy named Wesley prior to the casting call ; the gender change was later made permanent . Geordi La Forge was named for a quadriplegic fan named George La Forge who had died in 1975 , while Macha would evolve over time to eventually become Tasha Yar .
Preliminary casting began in March 1987 , with Justman and Berman in charge of the process . In May , the actors who were to receive star billing were announced . In the initial press release , only three actors were discussed ; primarily LeVar Burton as La Forge , due to the actor 's appearances in the mini @-@ series Roots . Also included in that release were the announcements of Patrick Stewart , a member of the Royal Shakespeare Company as Captain Picard , and Jonathan Frakes formerly of the North and South miniseries . Marina Sirtis and Denise Crosby were cast as Masha Hernandez and Deanna Troi respectively , but Roddenberry decided to switch the roles , at which point Hernandez became Yar .
The rest of the cast included Brent Spiner as the android Data , Gates McFadden as Doctor Beverly Crusher , Wil Wheaton as Beverly 's son , Wesley Crusher . Outside of the main cast , Michael Dorn successfully auditioned to portray Lieutenant ( j.g ) Worf . It had originally been planned for Dorn to appear in seven out of the first thirteen episodes , but after appearing in the pilot it was decided to expand the role and add him to the main cast . Other guest actors who made their first appearances during season one included John de Lancie as Q and Eric Menyuk as the Traveler . Majel Barrett , who had previously appeared as Nurse Christine Chapel in The Original Series , made her first appearance as Lwaxana Troi during season one and voiced the Enterprise computer throughout .
Several future Star Trek : Deep Space Nine alumni also appeared in the first season of The Next Generation , although not in roles they would later feature regularly in . These included Armin Shimerman as a wedding box in " Haven " and as Letek in " The Last Outpost " ( he would later appear as other Ferengi before gaining the main cast role of Quark in Deep Space Nine ) . Marc Alaimo appeared as an Antican in " Lonely Among Us " , before appearing in different makeup as the Romulan Captain Tebok in the first season finale " The Neutral Zone " ; he would later appear as the Cardassian Gul Macet in The Next Generation fourth season episode " The Wounded " and was later cast as the recurring character of Gul Dukat in Deep Space Nine . Colm Meaney appeared as a conn ensign in two episodes during the season , later established as Chief Miles O 'Brien in season two , and became a main cast member of Deep Space Nine .
Crosby decided to leave the series part way through the first season , due to the underdevelopment of her character , Tasha Yar . She later said about the situation in an interview with the official Star Trek website , " I was miserable . I couldn 't wait to get off that show . I was dying " . Roddenberry agreed to her request to leave , which she would return to next in the third season episode " Yesterday 's Enterprise " . Another change to the cast , this time after the end of the first season , was the firing of McFadden , who played Dr. Crusher , from the show . This was later attributed to the actions of Hurley and once he left the crew , she returned to the role at the start of the third season .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
Star Trek : The Next Generation was released into broadcast syndication , meaning that it was hosted on multiple television stations without going through a broadcast network . At the time this was relatively unheard of , although The Original Series had become successful following release on syndication after an initial run on NBC . In advance of the first airing of the pilot , " Encounter at Farpoint " , the show had been sold in 171 markets . There were concerns at the time that such a method of broadcasting would negatively impact the ratings received by the series , with Justman suggesting that the payoff would be worth it due to the lack of interference from a potential network .
" Encounter at Farpoint " received Nielsen ratings of 15 @.@ 7 percent , and it was granted a commitment for a further 24 one hour episodes following the broadcast . The pilot was the highest rated episode of the first season ; the lowest rated episode of the first season was " The Last Outpost " , the fourth episode broadcast , which received ratings of 8 @.@ 9 percent . Three episodes later , " Justice " was broadcast , which received a rating of 12 @.@ 7 percent , the highest for the season other than the pilot . As of the period between September 6 and January 3 , the show was only outranked in the Nielsen Ratings by Wheel of Fortune and Jeopardy ! for shows released directly into syndication , and it became the highest rated syndicated series by the end of the first season , which prompted several other series to be released directly into syndication .
= = = Reviews = = =
Although it was highly anticipated , when the series was initially broadcast , the response was lukewarm from fans and reviewers . John J. O 'Connor reviewed the first episode for the New York Times , and simply hoped that the action and pace would increase in the episodes aired after the pilot . Other critics of " Encounter at Farpoint " were more positive ; Don Merrill , writing for TV Guide said that the show was a " worthy successor to the original " . Jill L. Lanford for The Herald Journal said that it was a resurrection of a " legend " and was reminiscent of The Original Series episodes " Arena " and " The Squire of Gothos " . She added that it was the " perfect vehicle to introduce the crew " , and a " perfect start " . There was also some initial criticism of the casting , with Tom Shales of The Washington Post calling Patrick Stewart was a " grim bald crank who would make a better villain " , and Jonathan Frakes " verges on namby @-@ pamby " . Mark Jones and Lance Parkin , in their book Beyond the Final Frontier : An Unauthorised Review of Star Trek , said the first season " often felt like an uneasy politically correct attempt to recreate one of the sixties ' least politically correct shows . "
While critics approved of certain elements of the show such as the design of the new Enterprise , the early episodes after the pilot were received negatively . " The Naked Now " , the second episode of the season , was based on the original series episode " The Naked Time " . This resulted in some fans , and former Star Trek writers , becoming concerned that the series would continue to " re @-@ hash " old plots . " Code of Honor " has been seen in hindsight as being racist , with Stewart later saying that the cast and crew were embarrassed by it . Mark A. Altman felt that The Next Generation during the first season was a missed opportunity to address issues relevant to modern life , which he said that The Original Series had done successfully in the sixties . He called some episodes " trite " , and suggested that elements were straight rehashes of previous plots with only some names and scenarios changed . Marina Sirtis remarked while promoting Star Trek : Nemesis that in the beginning " they bloody hated us " .
Reviewing the series as part of the DVD release in 2002 , Marc Bernardin for Entertainment Weekly said of season one , that it was " almost hard to believe ... just how bad much of it was " . He thought that the first season was too similar to the end of the " cheesy " original series but said that it " succeeded where it needed to : It introduced viewers to the characters who would carry the torch through six more seasons " , and gave it a score of B + . Tor.com reviewer Keith DeCandido was less positive , feeling that it " earned " its reputation as the poorest of The Next Generation 's seven seasons because " the episodes were uneven , poorly plotted , ineptly scripted , and acted by actors who were still trying to figure their characters out " . He gave it a score of 5 out of 10 . The season has been given an 80 % " fresh " rating by review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes .
= = = Accolades = = =
Star Trek : The Next Generation received seven nominations at the 40th Primetime Emmy Awards . Chris Haire , Doug Davey , Jerry Clemans and Alan Bernard were nominated for " Outstanding Sound Mixing for a Drama Series " for work on the episode " Where No One Has Gone Before " . Edward R. Brown was nominated for " Outstanding Cinematography for a Series " for " The Big Goodbye " .
The makeup teams on the show were nominated for two episodes for " Outstanding Achievement Makeup for a Series " , for the episodes " Coming of Age " and " Conspiracy " , winning the award for the latter episode . William Ware Theiss won the award " Outstanding Costume Design for a Series " for " The Big Goodbye " , while the team working on " 11001001 " won the Emmy for " Outstanding Sound Editing for a Series " .
" The Big Goodbye " also won a Peabody Award . The series ' premier episode , " Encounter at Farpoint " was nominated for " Best Dramatic Presentation " at the 1988 Hugo Awards . Wil Wheaton was nominated for " Best Young Actor Starring in a Television Drama Series " at the 9th Youth in Film Awards for his portrayal of Wesley Crusher .
= = Cast = =
= = = Main cast = = =
= = = Recurring cast = = =
= = Episodes = =
In the following table , episodes are listed by the order in which they aired , and may not necessarily correspond to their production codes .
= = Home media release = =
The episodes of the first season of The Next Generation had each been released individually and in pairs before being released as a season long box set . This first release came on DVD , but following further work to update the releases into high @-@ definition video and onto Blu @-@ ray disc , " Encounter at Farpoint " was among those episodes included on a preview disc released in January 2012 . A full season release on region @-@ free Blu @-@ ray followed at the end of July .
= Typhoon Lupit ( 2003 ) =
Typhoon Lupit , known in the Philippines as Typhoon Yoyoy , destroyed the food supply in several small islands in Yap State in the Federated States of Micronesia ( FSM ) . It formed on November 18 , 2003 , from the monsoon trough to the west of the Marshall Islands . Early in its duration , it moved generally to the west or west @-@ southwest . On November 21 , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Lupit , the 21st storm named by the Japan Meteorological Agency of the 2003 Pacific typhoon season . Two days later , it strengthened into a typhoon and developed an eye . Lupit later began a prolonged movement to the northwest , during which it passed near several islands in Yap State . The typhoon reached peak intensity on November 26 , with peak 10 ‑ minute sustained winds of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) . It later weakened due to increasing wind shear and drier air , and after recurving to the northeast , Lupit became extratropical south of Japan on December 2 .
Typhoon Lupit first affected Pohnpei with tropical storm @-@ force winds , and later it damaged or destroyed about 200 homes in Chuuk State . There , high waves flooded roads and homes , while high winds damaged crops . Damage was heaviest in Yap State , mostly in the small Ulithi atoll and Fais Island . On both islands , the typhoon contaminated the water supply and wrecked crops . Rainfall reached 263 mm ( 10 @.@ 35 in ) on Ulithi , and gusts reached 158 km / h ( 98 mph ) . Throughout the FSM , damage totaled about $ 1 @.@ 7 million , although there were no deaths . The damage prompted the FSM government to declare two states as disaster areas , as well as a disaster declaration from the United States federal government . While Lupit was becoming extratropical , it became the first typhoon in December to threaten Japan in 13 years . There , the storm dropped rainfall that resulted in mudslides and flight cancellations .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of Typhoon Lupit were from a disturbance that persisted in the monsoon trough on November 14 to the northeast of Kwajalein Atoll . There was a weak circulation with pulsating convection ( thunderstorms ) and weak outflow . The system drifted to the southwest without much organization . On November 17 , the circulation intensified , although convection was initially unable to persist . The next day , outflow increased to the northeast , and the thunderstorms developed over the center . At around 1200 UTC on November 18 , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) classified the system as a tropical depression to the west of the Marshall Islands . Due to low wind shear , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) issued a tropical cyclone formation alert , indicating that tropical cyclogenesis was likely . Late on November 19 , the JTWC issued its first advisory on Tropical Depression 26W when the system was about 465 km ( 290 mi ) east @-@ northeast of Pohnpei .
With a ridge located to the north , the depression tracked to the west @-@ southwest upon forming . Late on November 20 , the JTWC upgraded the depression to a tropical storm following an increase in deep convection , although the thunderstorms were located south of the center . After it turned more to the west , the JMA upgraded the depression to Tropical Storm Lupit to the northwest of Pohnpei on November 21 . Outflow gradually increased , and an eye feature was evident by November 22 . Around that time , Lupit passed about 165 km ( 105 mi ) north of Chuuk . Based on the development of a 30 km ( 18 mi ) eye , the JTWC upgraded Lupit to a typhoon that day , and the JMA followed suit on November 23 when the storm was near the Caroline Islands . While the typhoon was intensifying , it briefly turned to the west @-@ southwest on November 23 , before a strengthening ridge to the southeast turned Lupit to the northwest . The eye gradually became better @-@ defined as the typhoon strengthened , and it passed well to the south of Guam . On November 25 , Lupit passed about 315 km ( 195 mi ) north of Yap in the Federated States of Micronesia ( FSM ) . The next day , the JTWC upgraded the system to a super typhoon , or a storm with maximum 1 ‑ minute sustained winds of 240 km / h ( 150 mph ) . On November 26 , the JMA estimated that Lupit attained peak 10 ‑ minute winds of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) in the Philippine Sea , and the next day the JTWC estimated peak 1 ‑ minute winds of 270 km / h ( 165 mph ) . On November 27 , the Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration classified the system as Super Typhoon " Yoyoy " after the storm entered the agency 's area of warning responsibility .
While around peak intensity , Typhoon Lupit had good outflow channels to the north and south . It had a 26 km ( 14 mi ) eye , and gale @-@ force winds reached a diameter of more than 740 km ( 460 mi ) . After peaking in intensity , Lupit underwent an eyewall replacement cycle , which caused the outflow to decrease and convection around the eye to diminish . Steady weakening began on November 28 , accelerated by increasing wind shear , and late that day it weakened below super typhoon status . Lupit entered a weakness in the subtropical ridge , resulting in a turn to the north and later northeast into an area of cooler waters and drier air . The typhoon accelerated into the westerlies , and dry air entered the circulation while the convection rapidly diminished . While moving northeast off the southeast coast of Japan , Lupit weakened into a tropical storm on December 1 . That day , the JTWC issued its last advisory on the storm , and the JMA declared Lupit as an extratropical cyclone on December 2 . The next day , Lupit dissipated off the east coast of Japan .
= = Impact = =
While it was first intensifying as a tropical storm , Lupit affected Pohnpei , passing about 120 km ( 75 mi ) north of Oroluk . Wind gusts peaked at 69 km / h ( 43 mph ) , and the storm dropped 160 mm ( 6 @.@ 28 in ) of rainfall . Later , the storm affected Chuuk Atoll in the FSM on November 23 . Tropical storm force winds were experienced through the state , and rainfall reached 162 mm ( 6 @.@ 37 in ) on Chuuk and 195 mm ( 7 @.@ 68 in ) on Ulul . The Chuuk state government helped people in low @-@ lying areas to evacuate . High waves flooded homes , and damaged roads and seawalls . About 200 houses were damaged or destroyed , and many homes affected by the typhoon had unsanitary conditions , a contaminated water supply , or lack of food . High winds downed banana and palm trees , and salt water damaged or wrecked all of the food crops in Chuuk .
Most of Yap State was affected by the typhoon , and the eye of Typhoon Lupit passed near the small atoll of Ulithi . The typhoon also passed near Fais , producing estimated gusts of over 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) . On both islands , Lupit produced waves of 4 @.@ 2 to 5 @.@ 5 m ( 14 to 18 ft ) , causing severe beach erosion , and sea spray and flooding contaminated water supplies . In Fais , there was little flooding because it is an elevated island , although several buildings were damaged , mostly to roofs . On Ulithi , areas along the coast were flooded up to 1 @.@ 5 m ( 5 ft ) deep . Crops were wrecked on both islands , and on Ulithi , it was estimated that the soil would be unfit for growing for at least a year . Stations on Ulithi reported wind gusts of 158 km / h ( 98 mph ) , and 263 mm ( 10 @.@ 35 in ) of rainfall . Lupit affected other islands in Yap State with coastal flooding of around 1 m ( 3 ft ) , severe beach erosion , and wrecked crops . Several islands ' water supply were contaminated . On Woleai , the storm downed trees and power lines , and the runway was closed for a week after being covered with water . Damage in Yap State was least on Yap , where winds gusted to 93 km / h ( 58 mph ) and rainfall totaled 128 mm ( 5 @.@ 02 in ) in a 24 ‑ hour period . There , Lupit downed trees and damaged crops , while high seas flooded areas . There was moderate beach erosion , and some seawalls and coastal roads were damaged .
Throughout the FSM , Typhoon Lupit caused about $ 1 @.@ 7 million in damage , although there were no deaths or serious injuries . After the storm , the governor of the FSM declared Chuuk and Yap states as disaster areas . The government sent water to affected areas via a private airline , although damaged runways prevented 60 % of flights from being delivered . A government boat was also used to deliver supplies , but its motor was damaged . After it was repaired , the boat delivered 25 @,@ 312 litres of water and 730 bags of rice . On December 19 , United States President George W. Bush declared Yap State as a federal disaster area , which allocated funds for repairing damaged public buildings and debris removal . FEMA also provided emergency food assistance to nine islands in Yap , including Ulithi and Fais . The United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs provided $ 10 @,@ 000 for purchasing supplies to the most affected areas . As part of Operation Christmas Drop , Japanese and American Air Force units sent four planes to various islands with various supplies and gifts , including to areas affected by the typhoon .
While Lupit was becoming extratropical , it produced a gust of 133 km / h ( 83 mph ) on the Japanese island of Chichi @-@ jima , and 130 km / h ( 81 mph ) on Hachijō @-@ jima . The storm dropped heavy rainfall across Japan , peaking at 283 mm ( 11 @.@ 1 in ) in Ōshima Subprefecture . In the Izu Islands , the high rains caused mudslides and flooding that affected eight buildings . Winds reached 83 km / h ( 51 mph ) in Miyake @-@ jima . In Yakushima , five flights were canceled due to the typhoon . Lupit was the first typhoon in 13 years to threaten Japan in the month of December .
= Jenks ' Day Off =
Jenks ' Day Off is a 1910 American silent short comedy produced by the Thanhouser Company . The film follows Mr. Jenks ' who drafts a telegram to himself as an excuse to get a reprieve from boredom and his wife 's requests . He walks along the beach and finds a secluded spot to go swimming . A convict in women 's clothing swaps his clothes with Jenks and Jenks has no choice to but to wear the discarded clothes . On his way back , Jenks answers a call for help and is mistaken for the robber . He is captured and has to explain circumstances which lead to awkward situation . Production and casting credits for the film are unknown , but likely Thanhouser staff offer possible identities of the writer and actors . The film was released on August 2 , 1910 and was met with approval by the trade publication . The film is presumed lost .
= = Plot = =
Though the film is presumed lost , a synopsis survives in The Moving Picture World from August 6 , 1910 . It states : " Mr. Jenks and his family are spending the summer in a fashionable summer hotel , and Mr. Jenks is kept bored and busy performing the many services demanded by his wife . He hits upon the bright idea of sending himself a business telegram which would necessitate his immediate presence in the city , then starts out on a little vacation on his own account . Walking on the beach he discovers a secluded spot , and leaving his clothes on the beach he takes a swim . In the meantime , a convict , who has escaped from a nearby penitentiary , has entered a house nearby in search of a change of clothes , his stripes being too conspicuous . The convict locks a woman of the house up and ransacks the house , but the only garments he can find are women 's clothes , and , deciding that they are better than stripes , he dons them . As the convict in his new disguise is walking along the beach he sees Jenks ' clothes lying there and promptly makes another change . There is nothing for Jenks to do when he comes out except to array himself as a woman . On his way back to the hotel he passes the house that has been robbed and is unlucky enough to hear the woman 's cry for help . When she gets out of the closet , through his aid , she naturally believes that he is the convict , and screams for help . Jenks , frightened , runs away , but is captured after a chase in which the entire village takes part . His wife and daughter witness humiliation , and it 's almost impossible for them to ' square things . ' "
= = Production = =
The writer of the scenario is unknown , but it was most likely Lloyd Lonergan . He was an experienced newspaperman employed by The New York Evening World while writing scripts for the Thanhouser productions . The comedy of the situation derives from Jenks ' own attempts to manufacture some free time to enjoy himself , only to regret the action because of the resultant circumstances . Advertising for the film confirms this by stating , " Jenk 's day off was a day of woe instead of the day of joy he meant it to be . It taught him to never , never leave his wife 's side - not even for a day ! " Jenks ' swimming in a secluded spot , inferring swimming in the nude through the lack of a swimming suit , sets the stage for the comedy when his clothes are swapped for those of the cross @-@ dressed convict . With no other option , Jenks dons the clothes and responds to the call for help . The lady identifies Jenks as the convict , wearing her clothes , and the film concludes with a chase that leads to the arrest and humiliation of Jenks . This comedy predates the well @-@ known cross @-@ dressing antics of Fatty Arbuckle and Charlie Chaplin by a few years . The film director is unknown , but it may have been Barry O 'Neil . Film historian Q. David Bowers does not attribute a cameraman for this production , but at least two possible candidates exist . Blair Smith was the first cameraman of the Thanhouser company , but he was soon joined by Carl Louis Gregory who had years of experience as a still and motion picture photographer . The role of the cameraman was uncredited in 1910 productions . The cast is uncredited because their identities are unknown . Bowers states that most of the credits are fragmentary for 1910 Thanhouser productions . Known and more prominent members of the cast to appear in productions include the leading ladies , Anna Rosemond and Violet Heming , and the leading man was Frank H. Crane .
= = Release and reception = =
The one reel comedy , approximately 960 feet long , was released on August 2 , 1910 . An alternative title for the production Jenk 's Day Off was included in several known Thanhouser advertisements . This would appear to be in error because the character 's name is Jenks and not Jenk . Theaters advertising the film included those in Missouri , Indiana , Nebraska , and Arizona . The Morning Telegraph gave a positive review to the film , stating that it was a " pretty good story " . The Moving Picture World mirrored this assessment with a bit more detail and referred to the story as being within the realm of reality which makes it funnier . The New York Dramatic Mirror provided the most detailed review of the film and praised the ingenuity of the plot and the acting with the exception of the Jenks ' wife . The reviewer also pointing out that Jenks wrote out the telegram too quickly .
= Wrecking Ball ( Miley Cyrus song ) =
" Wrecking Ball " is a song recorded by American singer Miley Cyrus for her fourth studio album Bangerz ( 2013 ) . It was released on August 25 , 2013 , by RCA Records as the album 's second single . The song was written by MoZella , Stephan Moccio , Sacha Skarbek , Kiyanu Kim , Lukasz Gottwald , and Henry Russell Walter ; production was helmed by the last two . " Wrecking Ball " is a pop ballad which lyrically discusses the deterioration of a relationship .
" Wrecking Ball " received generally favorable reviews from music critics , who appreciated its lyrical content and overall production . However , some critics questioned if Cyrus ' emotional delivery was genuine , since she had recently generated controversy for her increasingly sexual image . It debuted on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 at number fifty , and later became Cyrus ' first number @-@ one single in the United States after the release of its controversial music video ; it retained the peak position during the following week . Nine weeks later , the track returned to number one , and consequently had the largest gap between number @-@ one sittings in Billboard Hot 100 history . As of January 2014 , " Wrecking Ball " has sold three million copies in the United States . Internationally , the song charted strongly ; it topped the charts in Canada , Spain and the United Kingdom , and charted in the top ten throughout much of Europe and Oceania .
An accompanying music video for " Wrecking Ball " was released on September 9 , 2013 . It featured close @-@ up scenes of Cyrus tearfully singing , reminiscent of the clip for " Nothing Compares 2 U " by Sinéad O 'Connor , interspersed with footage of a nude Cyrus swinging on a wrecking ball . Critics were divided in their opinions of the music video , feeling that it was more provocative than the clip for her previous single " We Can 't Stop " . " Wrecking Ball " previously held the Vevo record for the most views in the first 24 hours after its release with 19 @.@ 3 million views . At the 2013 MTV Europe Music Awards , Cyrus took home the award for Best Video and the award for Video of the Year at the 2014 MTV Video Music Awards . Adding to the video 's success , Cyrus won the award for World 's Best Video at the 2014 World Music Awards in Monte Carlo . Cyrus has performed " Wrecking Ball " during several live performances , including the iHeartRadio Music Festival and an episode of Saturday Night Live .
= = Background = =
In 2012 , Cyrus announced plans to focus on her film career , effectively putting her musical endeavors on hiatus . That year , she appeared in the films LOL and So Undercover . She was also confirmed as a primary voice actress in the feature film Hotel Transylvania , but dropped out of the project to coordinate a musical comeback . In January 2013 , Cyrus ended her recording contract with Hollywood Records , under which she released the studio albums Meet Miley Cyrus ( 2007 ) , Breakout ( 2008 ) , Can 't Be Tamed ( 2010 ) , and the extended play ( EP ) The Time of Our Lives ( 2009 ) . Later that month , she signed a recording contract with RCA Records . In March , she confirmed that her fourth studio album would be released by the end of 2013 .
Before directly stating that " Wrecking Ball " was originally written with Beyoncé in mind , songwriter Sacha Skarbek tweeted " Beyonce song now becoming a Miley Cyrus song ? ! ! Good / bad ? I don 't know ? ? ! ! ! ! [ sic ] " in December 2012 . His representative commented that " " Originally , the [ songwriting session between Dr. Luke and Sacha ] was booked to write a song for Beyoncé . But as the song [ ' Wrecking Ball ' ] progressed , the songwriters realized the song would not work for her . "
The song , and the cover of its parent album Bangerz ( 2013 ) , were unveiled on August 25 , 2013 , before Cyrus ' performance at the 2013 MTV Video Music Awards . She released the cover artwork for " Wrecking Ball " on September 6 , which shows Cyrus dressed in a sleeveless white shirt and underwear while swinging on a wrecking ball . The song was serviced to contemporary hit radio stations in the United States on September 17 . It serves as the second single from Bangerz , following the lead single " We Can 't Stop " , which was released in June .
= = Composition = =
" Wrecking Ball " is a pop ballad ; According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Kobalt Music Publishing America , it is set in common time with a tempo of 60 beats per minute . The track is written in the key of D minor and follows the chord progression Dm – F – C – Gm . Miriam Coleman of Rolling Stone noted that it begins with a minimalist keyboard instrumentation , which puts emphasis on Cyrus " anguished vocals " , and also described it as a " heartbroken counterpoint " to " We Can 't Stop " . Its lyrics discuss the deterioration of a relationship , as mentioned in the lines " Don 't you ever say I just walked away / I will always want you / I can 't live a lie / running for my life / I will always want you . "
= = Critical reception = =
" Wrecking Ball " gained mostly positive reviews from contemporary music critics . Writing for The A.V. Club , Marah Eakin provided a favorable review , calling it a " solid ballad " and describing it as " a modern day " My Heart Will Go On " that discussed a deteriorated , shortlived young romance . Kitty Empire from The Observer opined that " the heartbreak section of Bangerz mostly repays your attention " and mentioned " Wrecking Ball " to be a part of it . Although he found the song " predictable , " Evan Sawdey of PopMatters gave it an overall positive review and complimented its production and the build up to its chorus , calling it " the kind of broad mainstream song that shows how you how to properly build up to a chorus before hitting us over the head with it . Jon Dolan of Rolling Stone felt that it " [ rides ] the hunger and confusion that make great coming @-@ of @-@ age pop . " Writing for AllMusic , Heather Phares considered the track to be a standout from Bangerz .
Writing for Digital Spy , Robert Copsey questioned Cyrus ' decision to premiere a ballad in the midst of controversies regarding her " salacious exploits " , but enjoyed the song itself and opined that it " proves that there 's method behind the madness . " In a more mixed review , Joseph Atilano from the Philippine Daily Inquirer appreciated the lyrics for seeming heartfelt , but felt that its production was " comparatively weaker " by comparison to her earlier projects . Mikael Wood of Los Angeles Times felt that the track proved that Cyrus " isn 't just a twerk @-@ bot programmed to titillate " , but suggested that her " singing throbs with what feels like an embarrassment of emotion " and found it peculiar that the song discussed the singer 's relationship with Hemsworth when her public behavior seemingly suggested that she " couldn 't care less about " it .
After a month of voting , on March 31 , 2014 , Billboard declared the song to be the winner of the 2014 Hot 100 March Madness and their favorite Top 5 single from the past year . It defeated songs like " Holy Grail " by Jay @-@ Z & Justin Timberlake , " Best Song Ever " by One Direction , " Applause " by Lady Gaga , " Timber " by Pitbull & Kesha and finally " Just Give Me a Reason " by Pink and Nate Ruess .
= = Commercial performance = =
Before officially being serviced as a single , " Wrecking Ball " made a " hot shot debut " at number 50 on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 for the week issued on September 7 , 2013 , with 90 @,@ 000 downloads in two days . It reached number 14 the following week with 201 @,@ 000 downloads . After its official premiere as the second single from Bangerz , the track peaked at number one in the United States in its fourth week , heavily assisted by online streaming credits from its recently released music video ; this gave Cyrus her first number @-@ one single in the country . It sold 477 @,@ 000 copies that week , becoming the third @-@ highest single sales week of 2013 , behind the 582 @,@ 000 units moved by " I Knew You Were Trouble " by Taylor Swift and the 557 @,@ 000 units moved by " Roar " by Katy Perry . In December , " Wrecking Ball " returned to the peak position after being stuck at number or two or three the previous nine weeks as Lorde 's " Royals " topped the Hot 100 , with assistance from a viral parody video and consequently became the largest gap between number @-@ one sittings in Billboard history . The next week it tumbled to number 5 as Eminem 's " The Monster " featuring Rihanna topped the chart . As of December 2014 , " Wrecking Ball " has sold 3 @,@ 640 @,@ 000 copies in the United States . The track peaked at number one on the Canadian Hot 100 , and was later certified triple @-@ platinum in the country . It reached the peak position on the Mexico Ingles Airplay .
" Wrecking Ball " charted strongly throughout Europe . In the United Kingdom , the song and Bangerz both debuted at number one on their respective charts in the same week , making Cyrus the first artist of 2013 to achieve a " chart double " in the country . It was later certified platunium by the British Phonographic Industry . Additionally , the song marked Cyrus ' second chart @-@ topping single in the country after " We Can 't Stop " . In Belgium , it respectively reached numbers four and five on the Belgian Ultratop in the Flanders and Wallonia regions , and was eventually awarded a gold certification . The track peaked at number six on the Official German Charts , and was later certified platinum . It charted at number three on the Italian FIMI chart , and earned a double @-@ platinum certification . In Oceania , " Wrecking Ball " charted at number two on both the Australian ARIA Charts and the Official New Zealand Music Chart . It was certified quadruple @-@ platinum in the former country , and was given a platinum certification in the latter .
= = Music video = =
= = = Synopsis = = =
An accompanying music video for " Wrecking Ball " was directed by Terry Richardson , and was premiered through Vevo on September 9 , 2013 . The clip features close @-@ up footage of Cyrus emotionally singing to the camera against a white backdrop , having been inspired by the music video for " Nothing Compares 2 U " by Sinéad O 'Connor . Interspersed throughout are scenes of Cyrus licking a sledgehammer and swinging on a wrecking ball . At first , she is shown dressed in a sleeveless shirt , panties and Doc Martens boots ; as the video progresses , she is then shown wearing only the boots .
= = = Reception = = =
The music video received generally mixed reviews from critics , who were divided in their opinions regarding Cyrus ' increasingly provocative image . Writing for Billboard , Jason Lipshutz stated that the " nude Cyrus shown straddling a swinging wrecking ball " was the most surprising piece of the clip . Amelia Proud from Daily Mail provided a mixed review , commenting that Cyrus delivered a visual that was more provocative than its " boisterous " predecessor " We Can 't Stop " and questioned if she has " finally gone too far this time " . The staff from Entertainment Weekly joked that viewers would be " scandalized / titillated / disappointed in Billy Ray Cyrus ' parenting skills " after seeing his daughter nude and " fellating a sledgehammer . [ sic ] " Writing for The Guardian , Michael Hann criticized Cyrus ' attempts to distance herself from her innocent Hannah Montana image , a former television series in which Cyrus portrayed the primary character Miley Stewart , a middle school student who led a secret double life as pop star Hannah Montana . He disapproved of the manner in which she transitioned into a career beyond her childhood success , specifically panning her for " exploring the iconography of porn . " As of January 2015 , Billboard named the video as the fourth best music video of the 2010s ( so far ) .
James Montgomery from MTV News noted that the controversy surrounding Cyrus ' nude performance in the video was " to be expected " given her recent controversies , and complimented Richardson " for toning down the salacious scenes ( if only for an instant ) , and allowing the softer , more genuine sides to shine through . " Mikael Wood of Los Angeles Times opined that the music video tried to paint Cyrus in a more serious light with its scenes of her emotionally singing and crying .
Billboard editor Jason Lipshutz opined " Wrecking Ball " is Cyrus ' " Cry Me a River " , for their controversial music videos and the artists ' music evolution . " A decade ago , Justin Timberlake was in " My music will shut everyone up " mode , too , as he railed against a teenybopper image " . He concluded " Cyrus is breathtaking and talented , and , now that she has our attention with her own version of " Cry Me a River , " can dial down the shock tactics and present her artistic vision in the form of a new full @-@ length . "
With 19 @.@ 3 million views in the first twenty @-@ four hours of its release , the clip held the record for having the most views in that time @-@ frame across Vevo platforms . The first @-@ day viewing record was surpassed by the video for " Anaconda " by Nicki Minaj in August 2014 , which received 19 @.@ 6 million views upon its premiere . The video has now received over 840 million views on YouTube . A director 's cut of the music video was released on September 24 , which features only the close @-@ up footage of Cyrus singing against the white backdrop . Vanessa White Wolf from MTV News noted that " the only time Richardson cuts away is at the very end , where , after a quick director 's credit page , we see Terry and Miley laughing and mugging for the camera . "
The 2014 Australian art prize the Bald Archy was awarded to Judy Nadin for Wrecking Balls Ashes to Ashes , parodying cricketer Mitchell Johnson as Cyrus .
= = Live performances = =
On September 21 , 2013 , Cyrus performed " Wrecking Ball " for the first time during the iHeartRadio Music Festival in Las Vegas ; she performed twice , first in the afternoon at Festival Village , and later in the evening at the MGM Grand Garden Arena . Despite generating media attention for a provocative wardrobe , the performance was considered to be " fairly tame considering the VMAs " , where she touched recording artist Robin Thicke 's crotch area with a giant foam finger and twerked against his crotch . On October 5 , Cyrus served as the host and musical guest during an episode of Saturday Night Live , which gained favorable reviews from music critics . The following Monday , Cyrus performed the track on Today as part of their Toyota Concert Series . She also performed the song during appearances on Late Night with Jimmy Fallon and The Ellen DeGeneres Show later that month .
In November , Cyrus traveled to Europe to sing " Wrecking Ball " at the 2013 MTV Europe Music Awards in Amsterdam on November 10 , 2013 ; she garnered media attention for smoking a joint of marijuana on @-@ stage while accepting the Best Video Award for the track . On November 17 , 2013 , she performed the song on The X Factor in the United Kingdom . After being criticized for delivering a lackluster vocal performance , Cyrus was placed under " vocal rest " by her doctors in preparation of the Bangerz Tour . During her trip , she also performed on Wetten , dass .. ? in Germany ( November 9 ) , BBC Radio 1 's Live Lounge in London ( November 12 ) , and the 2013 Bambi Awards in Germany ( November 14 ) . On November 24 , Cyrus performed " Wrecking Ball " at the 2013 American Music Awards ; a digitally animated cat projected on the screen behind her lip @-@ synced the lyrics alongside her . In December , she performed at Jingle Ball concerts in Los Angeles ( KIIS @-@ FM Jingle Ball ) , Saint Paul , Atlanta , New York City , Washington , D.C. , Tampa and Sunrise . Cyrus also performed " Wrecking Ball " on Dick Clark 's New Year 's Rockin ' Eve with Ryan Seacrest in Times Square on December 31 .
An episode of MTV Unplugged starring Cyrus premiered through MTV on January 29 , 2014 ; she performed an acoustic version of " Wrecking Ball " , among several additional tracks from Bangerz . On May 27 , 2014 Cyrus performed the song during the World Music Awards held in Monte Carlo , Monaco ; where she also won four World Music Awards . She wore a gown with a scenic theme based on flowers during the performance . It received positive reviews for its understated simplicity and strong vocal delivery . Cyrus returned to perform the song during the musical festival on June 21 , 2014 , Summertime Ball at Wembley Stadium of London , in front of 80 @,@ 000 people . Cyrus has performed the song during her ongoing Bangerz Tour . A critic from the Nashville Scene praised the performance , writing , " Wrecking Ball was sung by Miley and earnestly shouted in unison by the arena , some of the audience tearing up . " Blake Hannon praised Cyrus ' vocal delivery , writing , " The crowd kept going when things slowed down for Wrecking Ball . It was the highlight of the night , and not because of anything visual . The costumed characters vanished and the screen was black , with Cyrus belting out one of the best pop power ballads in recent memory with only a smattering of lights . It 's a reminder that beneath it all , Cyrus has a voice — and a pretty big one , at that . "
= = Cover versions and media usage = =
In September 2013 , British singer @-@ songwriter James Arthur covered " Wrecking Ball " on Radio Hamburg in Germany . Later that month , The Gregory Brothers released a country version , which Laura Vitto from Mashable felt " trades in Miley 's pop @-@ ballad sound for a twangier feel . " American singer @-@ songwriter Alonzo Holt released his own rendition in October , which featured vocals from Arthur ; it peaked at number 97 on the UK Singles Chart and number 71 on the Irish Singles Chart . American group Haim covered " Wrecking Ball " during their performance on BBC Radio 1 's Live Lounge , while the trio London Grammar sang it for the same session in December . Rumer Willis later sang the track during a performance which Chiderah Monde from Daily News felt " captured more of the emotion behind the song " than Cyrus ' version . American singer Rebecca Black uploaded an acoustic version to her YouTube channel in November . Canadian singer Sarah Blackwood of Walk Off the Earth also released an acoustic version Youtuber Patty Walters broke out to internet acclaim with his pop punk cover , gaining recognition and a contract with Fearless Records for his band As It Is .
Danie Geimer , a contestant on the third season of The X Factor USA , performed the track during the first live show on October 29 , while Dami Im from the fifth series of The X Factor Australia sang it in the semi @-@ final round . Marley Rose ( Melissa Benoist ) covered the song and parodied elements of the music video for the Glee episode " The End of Twerk " . Christina Grimmie sang the song during the Blind Auditions of sixth season of The Voice USA . Australian artist Kat Jade auditioned with a stripped @-@ back / single @-@ piano version in the third season of The Voice Australia after posting a popular acapella version of the song to her Youtube channel . " Weird Al " Yankovic covered the song as the first in his polka medley " NOW That 's What I Call Polka ! " for his 2014 album Mandatory Fun . Metal band August Burns Red covered the song for the compilation album Punk Goes Pop 6 . Melisa Cantiveros impersonated Miley Cyrus in Your Face Sounds Familiar ( Philippines season 1 ) and performed this song , which she won the season .
50 Cent told NME that the song was the one he would perform at karaoke : " Just a big pop song that no one would suspect , just to fuck with them . Make them go , What ? " The song was featured in the film The Night Before
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Bangerz .
Recording
Engineered at Conway Recording Studios ( Hollywood , California ) ; Luke 's In the Boo ( Malibu , California ) ; Monster Island Studio ( New York City , New York ) ; Maison de Musique ( Toronto , Canada ) ; Harmoney Studios ( West Hollywood , California ) ; Capitol Studios ( Hollywood , California )
Mixed at MixStar Studios ( Virginia Beach , Virginia )
Personnel
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= Six @-@ banded armadillo =
The six @-@ banded armadillo ( Euphractus sexcinctus ) , also known as the yellow armadillo , is an armadillo found in South America . The sole member of its genus , it was first described by Swedish zoologist Carl Linnaeus in 1758 . The six @-@ banded armadillo is typically between 40 and 50 centimeters ( 16 and 20 in ) in head @-@ and @-@ body length , and weighs 3 @.@ 2 to 6 @.@ 5 kilograms ( 7 @.@ 1 to 14 @.@ 3 lb ) . The carapace ( hard shell on the back ) is pale yellow to reddish brown , marked by scales of equal length , and scantily covered by buff to white bristle @-@ like hairs . The forefeet have five distinct toes , each with moderately developed claws .
Six @-@ banded armadillos are efficient diggers and form burrows to live in and search for prey . The armadillo is alert and primarily solitary . An omnivore , it feeds on insects , ants , carrion , and plant material . Due to their poor eyesight , armadillos rely on their sense of smell to detect prey and predators . Births take place throughout the year ; gestation is 60 to 64 days long , after which a litter of one to three is born . Weaning occurs at one month , and juveniles mature by nine months . The six @-@ banded armadillo inhabits savannas , primary and secondary forests , cerrados , shrublands , and deciduous forests . Fairly common , its range spans from Brazil and southern Suriname in the northeast through Bolivia , Paraguay , and Uruguay into northern Argentina in the southeast . The International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources ( IUCN ) classifies it as least concern , and there are no major threats to its survival .
= = Taxonomy and etymology = =
The six @-@ banded armadillo is the sole member of the genus Euphractus and is placed in the family Chlamyphoridae . It was first described by Swedish zoologist Carl Linnaeus as Dasypus sexcinctus in 1758 . The genera Chaetophractus ( hairy armadillos ) and Zaedyus ( pichi ) have at times been included in Euphractus , though karyotypical , immunological and morphological analyses oppose this . Fossil Euphractus excavated in Buenos Aires ( Argentina ) , Lagoa Santa , Minas Gerais ( Brazil ) and Tarija ( Bolivia ) date back to the Pleistocene .
The following five subspecies are recognized :
A 2006 morphological study of the phylogeny of armadillos showed that Chaetophractus , Chlamyphorus , Euphractus and Zaedyus form a monophyletic clade . The cladogram below ( based only on the extant species ) is based on this study .
However , a mitochondrial DNA investigation has concluded that Chlamyphorinae ( fairy armadillos ) is the sister group of Tolypeutinae ( giant , three @-@ banded and naked @-@ tailed armadillos ) , with Euphractinae ( hairy , six @-@ banded and pichi armadillos ) having diverged earlier .
The six @-@ banded armadillo differs from others in the subfamily Euphractinae , which also contains the pichi and hairy armadillos , in having a narrow head and six to seven movable bands on the carapace ( the hard shell on the back ) . Other names for this armadillo are tatu peludo and tatu peba ( in Portuguese ) , and ' yellow armadillo ' .
= = Description = =
The six @-@ banded armadillo is the largest in Euphractinae , which also contains the pichi and hairy armadillos ; in fact , it is the third largest armadillo after the giant armadillo and the greater long @-@ nosed armadillo . This armadillo is typically between 40 and 50 centimeters ( 16 and 20 in ) in head @-@ and @-@ body length , and weighs 3 @.@ 2 to 6 @.@ 5 kilograms ( 7 @.@ 1 to 14 @.@ 3 lb ) . The carapace is pale yellow to reddish brown ( though not a dark shade of brown or black ) , marked by scales of equal length , and scantily covered by buff to white bristle @-@ like hairs – unlike the hairy armadillos , that are covered by dense hairs . The shell narrows to 70 to 80 percent of its original width towards the top of the head , which is covered by plates arranged in a definite pattern . The forefeet have five distinct toes , each with moderately developed claws , of which the third is the longest .
Like the other euphractines and the pink fairy armadillo , the six @-@ banded armadillo has a tympanic bulla ; the ears are 32 to 47 centimeters ( 13 to 19 in ) long . There are 9 pairs of teeth on the upper jaw and 10 pairs on the lower jaw ; the teeth are large and strong and are assisted by strong muscles for chewing . A row of scutes , each 13 – 19 centimeters ( 5 @.@ 1 – 7 @.@ 5 in ) wide , extends along the back of the neck . The tail , 12 – 24 centimeters ( 4 @.@ 7 – 9 @.@ 4 in ) long , is covered by two to four bands of plates on the underside . Some of these plates have holes for scent gland secretions , a feature seen in no other armadillo except a few big hairy armadillos .
= = Ecology and behavior = =
Different studies have recorded different activity patterns for the six @-@ banded armadillo – some consider it to be diurnal ( active mainly during the day ) , while others show it is nocturnal ( active mainly at night ) . It is an alert animal ; unlike other armadillos , it flees on sensing danger and bites if handled . Primarily solitary , six @-@ banded armadillos will congregate only to feed on carrions . A 1983 study in eastern Brazil calculated the mean home range size as 93 @.@ 3 hectares ( 0 @.@ 360 sq mi ) . An efficient digger , this armadillo can dig U @-@ shaped burrows with a single opening , typically in dry areas ; the burrows may or may not be permanent shelters . These burrows can go deep into the ground and help in foraging . A study of burrows dug by the giant , six @-@ banded , southern naked @-@ tailed and greater naked @-@ tailed armadillos showed that all burrows were similar in the slopes of the burrow and the surrounding soil , and the direction of the entrance ; the location preferred for them and time spent in them , however , differed . Burrows could be easily differentiated by their dimensions ; burrows of six @-@ banded armadillos had a mean height of 19 centimeters ( 7 @.@ 5 in ) and were 21 centimeters ( 8 @.@ 3 in ) wide at the opening , and narrowed down to 10 centimeters ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) with a height of 16 centimeters ( 6 @.@ 3 in ) to 21 centimeters ( 8 @.@ 3 in ) into the burrow . Generally , burrows become wide enough to allow the armadillo to turn around as the depth increases . Unlike the moles , that throw the soil to a side while digging , the six @-@ banded armadillo digs with its forefeet and throws the soil behind with its hindfeet . Armadillos defecate outside their burrows .
= = = Diet = = =
The six @-@ banded armadillo is an omnivore that feeds on carrion , small invertebrates , insects , ants , fruits ( typically from bromeliads ) , palm nuts and tubers . A 2004 study classified it as a " carnivore @-@ omnivore " . In a study in a Brazilian ranch , plant material was found to predominate in the diet . Captive individuals have been observed preying upon large rats . Due to their poor eyesight , armadillos rely on their sense of smell to detect prey and predators . To kill the prey , the armadillo stands on it , grabs it using its teeth and tears it into pieces . Six @-@ banded armadillos can store subcutaneous fat to support themselves at times when food is scarce ; this fat can increase the weight to 8 to 11 kilograms ( 18 to 24 lb ) .
= = = Reproduction = = =
Breeding behaviour has been observed in captivity . Births take place throughout the year . After a gestational period of 60 to 64 days , a litter of one to three is born . Each newborn weighs 95 to 110 grams ( 3 @.@ 4 to 3 @.@ 9 oz ) , and has a hairless and soft carapace ; it can give out soft clicks . The pregnant female builds a nest before giving birth ; if disturbed , the mother can react aggressively and shift her offspring . The eyes , closed at birth , open at 22 to 25 days . Weaning occurs at one month and the juveniles mature by nine months . One of the armadillos lived for nearly 18 years .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
The six @-@ banded armadillo inhabits savannas , primary and secondary forests , cerrados , shrublands and deciduous forests . It can adapt to a variety of habitats ; it can even occur on agricultural lands and has been recorded at 1 @,@ 600 meters ( 5 @,@ 200 ft ) above the sea level . A study in southeastern Brazil estimated the population density at 0 @.@ 14 individuals per hectare . The same study showed that the six @-@ banded armadillo often displaces and is displaced by the sympatric southern naked @-@ tail armadillo ; this was considered to be helpful in their coexistence . The six @-@ banded armadillo has a wide distribution in South America , from Brazil and southern Suriname in the northeast through Bolivia , Paraguay and Uruguay into northern Argentina in the southeast . Its presence in Peru is doubted .
= = Threats and conservation = =
The IUCN classifies the six @-@ banded armadillo as least concern , due to its wide distribution , good degree of tolerance and presumably large populations . Moreover , it occurs in several protected areas . Though there are no major threats to its survival , six @-@ banded armadillo populations north of the Amazon River might be declining due to few patches of savannas , human settlement and industrial expansion . Moreover , these armadillos are reportedly hunted for medicinal purposes , though their meat is believed to have an unpalatable taste ; in some areas in its range , people detest its meat due to the belief that the animal feeds on " rotting human corpses " . A 2011 study compared the of six- and nine @-@ banded armadillos in Paraíba ( Brazil ) ; nine @-@ banded armadillo meat tasted better according to the majority of the locals . Consumption of six @-@ banded armadillo meat was not considered safe by the locals for people with certain health problems , such as injuries and hepatitis , a taboo that had stemmed probably from concerns over the armadillo 's diet . Six @-@ banded armadillos often raid cropfields to feed on tender plants ; farmers are known to use traps aided by corn baits for these animals to curb the menace .
= On the Run Tour ( Beyoncé and Jay Z ) =
The On the Run Tour was a co @-@ headlining stadium tour by American performer Beyoncé and rapper Jay Z. The joint tour came shortly after the two had finished their own solo tours — Beyoncé 's The Mrs. Carter Show World Tour and Jay @-@ Z 's Magna Carter World Tour ( both 2013 – 2014 ) . The tour 's name spins off from the 2013 song " Part II ( On the Run ) " , included on Jay @-@ Z 's album Magna Carta Holy Grail , on which Beyoncé features . An official poster for the tour was released along with the announcement of the venture , showing Beyoncé and Jay @-@ Z embracing whilst dressed in black ski masks , following the criminal " on the lam " narrative found in the couples ' 2002 first single together , " ' 03 Bonnie & Clyde " and " Part II ( On the Run ) " .
To promote the tour , a faux movie trailer video was premiered in May 2014 entitled " Run " ( stylized as " RUN " ) . The video , which features eight celebrity cameo appearances , showcases the couple in a variety of Bonnie and Clyde style , action and gun packed situations . The tour itself was noted to follow this same theme throughout , with similar video interludes incorporated into the production of the show . Critics generally lauded the tour , praising the extravagant set list , dynamic and detailed theme and story of the show and both artists ' performance abilities , however some felt the on stage chemistry between the couple was not what it could have been .
Due to the large demand and tickets selling out in minutes in multiple locations , extra tour dates were added to the itinerary . The tour became a commercial success , grossing $ 96 million in the first 19 North American shows and $ 109 @.@ 7 million in total as well as attendance totalling at 979 @,@ 781 . It was the fifth highest @-@ grossing tour of 2014 , according to Pollstar 's annual year end tour chart . The show was broadcast in its entirety on September 20 , 2014 , airing on the US television network HBO , following the taping of the two concerts in Paris , France , where the tour concluded .
= = Background = =
Beyoncé and Jay @-@ Z first collaborated in 2002 on " ' 03 Bonnie & Clyde " , a song from Jay @-@ Z 's seventh studio album , The Blueprint 2 : The Gift & The Curse . Since then , other notable collaborations between the pair include Beyoncé 's 2003 number @-@ one song , " Crazy in Love " featuring Jay @-@ Z , 2013 's " Part II ( On the Run ) " which is widely regarded as the follow up to " ' 03 Bonnie & Clyde " and " Drunk in Love " , the couple 's collaboration from Beyoncé 's self @-@ titled fifth album , which was unexpectedly released in December 2013 .
In July 2013 , Jay @-@ Z stated that a joint tour with Beyoncé was " slowly making sense , more sense every day " . Throughout 2013 and 2014 , during Beyoncé 's The Mrs. Carter Show World Tour , Jay @-@ Z made multiple guest appearances , starting in July at The Sound of Change Live charity concert where the couple performed " Crazy in Love " together , shortly followed by another guest appearance at Brooklyn 's Barclays Center in August , where Jay @-@ Z performed " Tom Ford " accompanied by Beyoncé 's backing vocals as found in the song . During Beyoncé 's final leg of the tour in 2014 , Jay @-@ Z appeared a total of seven times to perform their most recent collaboration , " Drunk in Love " , together . Jay @-@ Z accompanied Beyoncé on all six nights of her O2 Arena stint in London and finally , at the last night of the tour in Lisbon .
Rumours of a co @-@ headlining stadium tour from Beyoncé and Jay @-@ Z first circulated on April 15 , 2014 , when Page Six reported that a source had revealed the " power couple " would be partaking in a 20 stadium US tour starting in late June and that a performance in New York could take place on July 4 . Confirmation of the rumours started to arise when it was reported that the Pasadena City Council were holding a meeting to decide whether to approve the couples ' proposed concert on August 2 , 2014 at the Rose Bowl . The vote on the matter took place because the Rose Bowl – nestled within an affluent , residential neighbourhood – has a limited number of events permitted per year of twelve , which can only be extended if approved by the city council . The concert was ultimately reported to be the eighteenth approved event of 2014 for the Rose Bowl .
= = Development = =
The tour was " conceived and launched fast compared to most stadium tours " according to Live Nation , who noted that most tours of this nature take more than a year of planning , compared to the On the Run Tour that took around one month . " It came together quite quickly , around mid @-@ March , " Omar Al @-@ Joulani of Live Nation North America commented . " By April , we had everything together , and once the routing was in place we had about three weeks until the tour was announced . " Following the general sale of tour dates , fans were left concerned as the July 11 , 2014 show in East Rutherford , New Jersey remained pending to go on sale for many weeks , despite all other dates already being available to the public . Some reports stated that the reason for this was that the state of New Jersey had implemented a legislation resulting in 95 % of tickets for an event having to be available to the public . The show was eventually put on sale to the public on June 4 , 2014 . The On the Run Tour was the first tour to be a part of " Official Events " – the collaboration of Facebook and Live Nation in which the size and scale of Ticketmaster 's database is leveraged as events promoted by Live Nation are imported to Artists ' Facebook Pages as " Official Events " , providing fans with direct links to Ticketmaster to purchase verified tickets .
The tour was stated to have a running theme throughout the performances of being " on the run " by the Miami New Times , whether it is from " the media , their place in pop music , the haters , the bullshit and sometimes even each other " . When explaining the concept of the tour and its accompanying videos in a telephone conversation to New York @-@ based director Dikayal Rimmasch , Jay @-@ Z stated " We ’ re not trying to do this literally , it ’ s not that we ’ re Bonnie and Clyde . We ’ re on the run from everything . On the run from becoming a cliché . On the run from doing the same thing again . " During their individual performances , Beyoncé was often backed by both male and female dancers and Jay @-@ Z was noted to hold the stage for multiple songs without assistance . Beyoncé was backed by an all female band during her solo songs , whilst Jay @-@ Z was accompanied by other male instrumentalists ; however both artist 's musicians collaborated for the majority of the performance . Video interludes filled with " cop chases and other violent outbursts " carried the storytelling between songs . The performances of the joint tour was said to be split up similarly to Jay @-@ Z 's previous joint venture with Kanye West , the Watch the Throne Tour . Beyoncé and Jay @-@ Z would take turn holding down the stage , beginning with several songs by Beyoncé first , followed by duets and afterwards Jay @-@ Z rapping his songs . Both artists sported multiple outfits from a variety of fashion designers throughout the performances of the tour . In Beyoncé 's case , makeup artist Sir John Barnette commented on her quick changes backstage between performances , comparing them to " Daytona 500 " with every member of her team working on a separate part of her look .
= = Fashion = =
Both Beyoncé and Jay @-@ Z sported multiple outfits throughout the different performances of the tour . One of the more prominent designers for the tour was Versace , in which Beyoncé wore both a fishnet and leather Atelier black bodysuit ( complete with a plunging neckline , a fishnet head mask and high heel combat boots ) , as well as a colourful Atelier bodysuit from the designer . The leather Atelier black bodysuit took approximately 200 hours to craft and was used for the opening number of the tour , " ' 03 Bonnie & Clyde " . The colourful bodysuit was commented on by Versace who stated that the team had their inspiration from the street for the colour and added various crystals and stripes to show a " baseball vibe " while also trying to capture Beyoncé 's energy . Beyoncé 's tour shoes were designed by Stuart Weitzman and Joker 's Closet . Other outfits included a denim jumpsuit and a bedazzled leotard bodysuit that " showed off her derrière " . Beyoncé also sported more thematic and dramatic pieces of clothing , including a full bridal veil and a sweeping train made of a black @-@ and @-@ white American flag . The American flag outfit was designed by Riccardo Tisci of Givenchy and took over 500 hours to create . The American flag train was 16 @.@ 4 feet long but weighed around 500 grams allowing it to fly in the wind . The individual stars on the outfit were hand @-@ embroidered and its inspiration was said to be " American Danger : Bonnie & Clyde with a modern twist . " For the performance of " Ring the Alarm " , Beyoncé returned to designer Vrettos Vrettakos ( with whom she collaborated with notably on her previous solo tour ) . Designed by Dennis Kolpodinos , Vrettakos produced a red , " couture ' crystal spirit ' bodysuit " complete with fringe details on the limbs and " embellished with Swarovski crystals for stage @-@ ready shine " .
Alexander Wang designed a " bondage body suit " worn by Beyoncé during the show , as well as multiple pieces by Nicola Formichetti for Diesel . One of these included the previously mentioned denim outfit , which was " made from the company 's patented Jogg Jean material , accented with hand @-@ applied hardware and studwork , Swarovski crystal elements and black leather accessories " , worn for the performance of " Run the World ( Girls ) " . Formichetti commented on the outfit , saying " Every classic cops and robbers story blurs the lines between the good and bad , we wanted Beyoncé ’ s to be both . Her look is one part police officer and two parts jailbait . " Another piece designed by Diesel was an outfit consisting of jean @-@ shorts and a leather jacket embroiled with the word " Texas " . Biker gangs that developed in the United States after World War II served as an inspiration for the outfit ; Beyoncé 's was meant as a tribute to her hometown and a reminder of her roots . It took 4 – 5 hours to add the word Texas to the leather jacket . The bondage bodysuit was described as " a riff off of an urban bomber hoodie jacket that was cropped to expose a bondage bodysuit underneath that has graphic cutouts . When worn up , the oversized hood covers the face , adding an incognito element reminiscent of the On The Run theme . " It also contained snakeskin seamed into the sleeves of the outfit . One of the more controversial pieces worn by Beyoncé during the On the Run Tour was a black , thong leotard that " put her bare rear end on display in a kind of cage @-@ like cutout " . Erica Schwiegershausen of The Cut blog wrote that the number was a " somewhat disorienting look " . During the performance of " Single Ladies ( Put a Ring on It ) " , Beyoncé revisited a leotard from the song 's music video in a black and gold lace bodysuit designed by Michael Costello who wanted " Beyoncé to feel beautiful , strong , super sexy and ventilated " with the outfit . Lebanese designer Elie Saab created a bridal @-@ themed , white long @-@ sleeve lace @-@ embellished jumpsuit for Beyoncé for the performances of " Resentment " and " Love On Top " which was part of his Pre @-@ Fall 2014 collection .
Jay @-@ Z 's fashion was noted to be Kanye @-@ esque , with pieces worn by him including rotating ensembles of black leather as well as " giant , billowing pant scarves " . For the opening performance , Jay @-@ Z appeared on stage in black sunglasses , gold chains , a black and white star speckled shirt and a black jacket . During the performance of " Big Pimpin ' " Jay @-@ Z wore a fedora .
= = Promotion = =
The tour was officially announced on April 28 , 2014 , via Jay @-@ Z 's Facebook page . Announcements shortly followed through Beyoncé 's website and an official press release . Pre @-@ sale tickets for fans to secure their seats first before the general sale were sold through Beyoncé 's website and Chase credit and debit card users exclusively . A writer for Billboard noted that Chase was a surprising candidate for the official tour sponsor due to their lack of experience in the concert industry when compared to the live music sponsorship giants such as Citi and American Express . Chase allegedly scored the " 11th @-@ hour " deal due to previous connections with Roc Nation Sports ( owned by Jay Z ) and a $ 4 million bid on the position . A promotional poster for the tour was revealed showing Jay Z and Beyoncé embracing and wearing ski masks , following the criminals @-@ on @-@ the @-@ lam narrative of the couple 's two singles ( " ' 03 Bonnie & Clyde " and " Part II ( On the Run ) " ) . Beyoncé also wore a similar ski mask in her 2013 video " Superpower " featuring Frank Ocean from her self @-@ titled album . A second promotional poster was released on May 30 , 2014 , in an email to fans announcing the on sale times for certain tour dates . The poster features Beyoncé dressed in a white , short @-@ cut wedding dress whilst sitting behind and hugging Jay Z on a motorcycle .
Following the tour 's announcement , it was revealed that $ 1 from each ticket sold and a portion of certain VIP ticket proceeds would go to the Shawn Carter Foundation ( named based on Jay Z 's birth name ) , which would help and support existing students of the foundation that represent diverse backgrounds , and face significant barriers to success such as teen pregnancy , homelessness , poverty , former incarceration , sexual and domestic abuse , and gang membership . Fans in Houston , Texas were requested to bring preservable goods to a selected location by Beyoncé as part of her " # BeyGood " campaign , in association with the Houston Food Bank , Miss @-@ A @-@ Meal , The Bread of Life and Majic 102 @.@ 1 , to help work towards eradicating the nearly 870 @,@ 000
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addleworth .
In 616 Æthelfrith of Bernicia , an Anglo @-@ Saxon King , crossed the Pennines with an army and passed through Manchester to defeat the Britons in the Battle of Chester . A wave of Anglian colonists followed this military conquest and their settlements are identified by the Old English suffix ton in local place names . Royton , Middleton , Moston , Clayton , Ashton and Crompton are localities northeast of Manchester which may have been founded during that colonisation , suggesting that Crompton as a settlement could date from the 7th century .
During Anglo @-@ Saxon England , it is assumed from toponymic evidence that the township of Crompton formed around a predominantly Anglian community with a few Norse settlers , and within the extensive Hundred of Salfordshire . Following the Norman conquest of England , Crompton was part of a vast estate given to Roger the Poitevin , the maternal nephew of William the Conqueror . It was unmentioned in the Domesday Book of 1086 ; the first recorded use of the name Crompton for the township was discovered in legal documents relating to Cockersand Abbey near Lancaster , dating from the early 13th century . The document outlines that Gilbert de Notton , a Norman who had acquired the land from Roger de Montbegon , granted his estate to Cockersand Abbey . The Knights Hospitaller and Whalley Abbey held small estates in the township . In 1234 , about 80 acres ( 32 ha ) of land at Whitfield in Crompton were given to the Hospitallers , a religious order that provided care for poor , sick or injured pilgrims to the Holy Land . A medieval cross has been discovered in the ruins of a house at Whitfield .
During the High Middle Ages , Crompton was a collection of scattered woods , farmsteads , moorland , swamp and a single corn mill , occupied by a small and close community of families . The area was thinly populated and consisted of several dispersed hamlets , including Whitfield , High Crompton , Cowlishaw , Birshaw and Bovebeale ( above Beal ) . These hamlets were situated above the water @-@ logged valley bottoms and below the exposed high moors . Owing to complicated local arrangements of land tenure , inheritance , and absentee landlords , the local lordship was weak , and Crompton failed to emerge as a manor with its own lord and court . This slowly facilitated comparative freedoms and independence for the early people of Crompton , which encouraged the influx of families from the neighbouring parish of Rochdale , including the Buckleys , Cleggs , Greaves and Milnes .
During the Late Middle Ages , the Buckley and Crompton families were recorded as the largest landowners in Crompton , owning land and farmsteads at Whitfield and Crompton Fold respectively . The Crompton family has a well @-@ documented history and can be traced back to the time of Magna Carta , appearing in the Assize Roll for 1245 . Crompton is indigenous to the township , and first appears as a family name in the 13th century , when the locality 's principal landowner , Hugh de la Legh , changed his family name to " de Crompton " ( of Crompton ) , to reflect the estate he possessed . The family owned a large historic house by the name of Crompton Hall , on the site of Crompton Fold . Crompton Hall first appears in historical records as early as 1442 , owned by Thomas de Crompton and his family . The original " medieval " Crompton Hall was demolished around 1848 . A second Crompton Hall , set in its own prominent forested grounds , was erected by the family — by then an influential and affluent investor in the local cotton industry — but following the death of the last remaining family members , the site was sold and , in 1950 , the house was demolished to make way for an exclusive development of bungalows .
Because of the poor soils and rugged terrain , Samuel Lewis said Crompton 's inhabitants were " a race of hardy and laborious men " . They have also been described as having a reputation for being a " hardy , frugal and somewhat independent breed " , which has been attributed to the tradition of absentee landlords and self @-@ sustenance in earlier times . There had been a chapel of ease at the hamlet of Shaw since at least the early 16th century , but , due to ecclesiastical arrangements for the parish of Prestwich @-@ cum @-@ Oldham , the inhabitants were obliged to contribute money towards Oldham Parish Church , which in turn had obligation to the mother Church of St Mary the Virgin at Prestwich . On several occasions during the 15th and 16th centuries , the Archdeacon of Chester had to intervene because Crompton 's inhabitants refused to contribute towards holy bread and candles used at Prestwich . In 1826 , a poll was taken regarding the re @-@ building of Oldham Church . Not one person in Crompton voted in favour of the rebuilding and when a rate was levied to raise money for the new church at Oldham , the people of Crompton refused to pay .
= = = Textiles and the Industrial Revolution = = =
The manufacture of textiles in Crompton can be traced back to 1474 , when a lease dated from that year outlines that the occupant of Crompton Park had spinning wheels , cards and looms , all of which suggest that cloth was being produced in large quantities . The upland geography of the area constrained the output of crop growing , and so prior to industrialisation the area was used for grazing sheep , which provided the raw material for a local woollen weaving trade . Wills and inventories from the 15th and 16th centuries suggest most families were involved with small scale pasture , but supplemented their incomes by weaving woollens in the domestic system , and selling cloth , linen and fustians to travelling chapmen for the markets in Manchester and Rochdale . Despite its remoteness by the Pennines , by the Early Modern period the domestic system in Crompton had produced relatively wealthy inhabitants . The most affluent were those involved in cloth and linen , and their wealth was comparable to that of the merchants of Manchester and Salford .
Until the mid @-@ 18th century , Crompton 's textile sector had been closely linked with that of Rochdale and Saddleworth in the north and east ; it was a woollen manufacturing district . However , as the demand for cotton goods increased , Crompton mirrored developments in Oldham and Manchester in the south and southwest , importing raw cotton and making cotton cloth . To ensure that the woollen trade was kept buoyant , a law existed from 1675 to 1814 to encourage Shaw and Crompton 's wool production . It required that the deceased were to be buried in woollen garments .
In the second half of the 18th century , the technology of cotton @-@ spinning machinery improved , and the need for larger buildings to house bigger , better and more efficient equipment became apparent . The profitability of cotton spinning meant that open land that had been used for farming since antiquity , was utilised for purpose @-@ built weavers ' cottages . Larger buildings were still desired , and construction of two water powered cotton factories ( two or three times the size of a cottage ) can be traced to 1782 . The construction of more mills followed — ten by 1789 — facilitating a process of urbanisation and socioeconomic transformation in the region ; the population moved away from farming , adopting employment in the factory system . The introduction of the factory system led to an increase of the township 's population ; from 872 in 1714 to 3 @,@ 500 in 1801 , mostly as a result of an influx of people from Yorkshire and Lancashire looking for employment in the cotton mills .
Power looms introduced in the early 19th century put an end to the last remnants of the domestic system in Crompton , but not without resistance . Weavers and spinners were paid according to the amount of cloth they produced ; independent hand loom weavers saw a drop in their income , and could not compete with the mechanised mass production that was gathering pace in the township . Luddites rioted in the township in 1826 , smashing 24 power looms at Clegg 's mill at High Crompton in protest against their worsening standard of living .
Crompton 's damp climate provided the ideal conditions for cotton spinning to be carried out without the cotton drying and breaking , and newly developed 19th @-@ century mechanisation optimised cotton spinning for mass production for the global market . When suitable land in nearby Oldham ( then the largest and most productive mill town in the world ) had become scarce in the 1860s , there was a mill building boom in Shaw and Crompton , giving rise to the area as major mill town . The local townscape became dominated by distinctive rectangular brick @-@ built mills , and its former villages and hamlets agglomerated as a single town around these factories . Shaw and Crompton railway station and a goods yard was opened in 1863 , allowing improved transportation of textile goods and raw materials to and from the township . Neighbouring Royton had begun to encroach upon the township 's southern boundary , forming a continuous urban cotton @-@ spinning district with Oldham , Lees and Chadderton — the Oldham parliamentary constituency — which was responsible for 13 % of the world 's cotton production .
The demand for cheap cotton goods from this area prompted the flotation of cotton spinning companies ; the investment was followed by the construction of 12 new cotton mills from 1870 and 1900 . In the post @-@ war economic boom of 1919 – 20 , investors did not have the time to build new mills and so were prepared to pay vastly inflated sums for shares in existing companies . Many mills were refloated at valuations of up to £ 500 @,@ 000 ( £ 20 @,@ 720 @,@ 000 as of 2016 ) , or five times what they had cost to build before the war , resulting in the town being nicknamed " The Golden City " as the scramble for shares intensified . Because of this highly profitable share dealing , it was reported in the national press that Shaw and Crompton had more millionaires per capita than any other town in the world . The number of cotton mills in the township peaked at 36 in 1920 .
Supplies of raw cotton from the United States were cut during the Lancashire Cotton Famine of 1861 – 1865 , leading to the formation of the Crompton Local Board of Health in 1863 , whose purpose was to ensure social security and maintain hygiene and sanitation in the locality . The Great Depression , and First and Second World Wars each contributed to periods of economic decline in Shaw and Crompton . Although the industry endured , as imports of cheaper foreign yarns increased during the mid @-@ 20th century , Shaw and Crompton 's textile sector declined gradually to a halt ; said to have over @-@ relied upon the textile sector , cotton spinning reduced in the 1960s and 1970s , and by the early 1980s only four mills were operational . In spite of efforts to increase the efficiency and competitiveness of its production , the final cotton was spun in Shaw and Crompton in 1989 , in Lilac and Park mills . Of the 48 cotton mills that have occupied Shaw and Crompton , only six are still standing , all of which are now used as distribution centres .
= = = Post @-@ industrial history = = =
Since deindustrialisation , Shaw and Crompton 's population has continued to grow as a result of intensive housing expansion and redevelopment which has modernised much of its former Victorian and Edwardian terraced housing districts . The town has 9 @,@ 274 residential dwellings , of which one third are Victorian or Edwardian terraces , built for the cotton mill workers of former times . It is considered a popular residential area of relative prosperity , with a variety of housing types . The Buckstones and Rushcroft areas contain modern housing estates and are amongst the most affluent suburbs of the town . They were built as part of an agreement made in the 1950s between the then Crompton Urban District and the County Borough of Oldham councils , to alleviate Oldham 's chronic shortage of quality housing . The town has subsequently been described as having " good community spirit and relative prosperity , which , in turn , create popular residential areas " .
Shaw and Crompton has been used as a filming location for domestic films and television programmes , including The Parole Officer , Common As Muck , Scott & Bailey and The Fred Dibnah Story , the latter of which documented Fred Dibnah 's demolition of the Briar and Cape mill chimneys . The town entered the national media in 2010 , 2011 and 2012 ; for the kidnapping of Sahil Saeed , the mugging and death of Nellie Geraghty ( which featured on Crimewatch ) , and the explosion of a house in Buckley Street respectively . Shaw and Crompton Metrolink station opened as part of Greater Manchester 's light @-@ rail Metrolink network on 16 December 2012 .
= = Governance = =
Crompton was recorded in 1212 as being one of the five parts of the thegnage estate of Kaskenmoor , which was held on behalf of King John by Roger de Montbegon and William de Nevill . The other parts of this estate were Glodwick , Sholver , Oldham , and Werneth , names and places still familiar today . Crompton would later form a township within the ancient ecclesiastical parish of Prestwich @-@ cum @-@ Oldham , in the hundred of Salford . Throughout the Middle Ages , local men acted as jurors and constables for the purposes of upholding law and order in the township .
Following the Poor Law Amendment Act 1834 , Crompton formed part of the Oldham Poor Law Union , an inter @-@ parish unit established to provide social security . Crompton 's first local authority was a Local board of health established in 1863 ; Established with reference to the Local Government Act 1858 , Crompton Local Board of Health was a regulatory body responsible for standards of hygiene and sanitation in the township . Following the Local Government Act 1894 , the area of the Local Board became the Crompton Urban District , a local government district within the administrative county of Lancashire . The urban district council was based out of Shaw / Crompton Town Hall , which opened on 28 December 1894 .
Under the Local Government Act 1972 , the town 's Urban District status was abolished , and the area has , since 1 April 1974 , formed part of the Metropolitan Borough of Oldham , a local government district of the metropolitan county of Greater Manchester . A civil parish of Crompton was formed in April 1987 and renamed to " Shaw and Crompton " in July 1987 . The civil parish has its own parish council , giving it some limited local government autonomy from that of the wider Metropolitan Borough of Oldham , and including the status as a statutory consultee on local planning applications . The council comprises 14 locally elected members , Cllr Angie Farrell is the parish chairman 2016 @-@ 2017 and is consulted in planning applications that affect the area through the Shaw and Royton Area Committee of Oldham Metropolitan Borough Council . Shaw and Crompton Community Council , a separate body , meets at least four times per year and is designed to allow local people to put forward their priorities for the area in which they live , suggest improvements and have their say on how services are run on a local basis . Shaw and Crompton does not have a mayor , but does have a town crier , a purely ceremonial role . Shaw and Crompton is one of only a few parishes of England that still observes the ancient custom of Beating the bounds . Originally an annual event , it now takes place every seven years .
In terms of parliamentary representation , Shaw and Crompton after the Reform Act 1832 was represented as part of the Oldham parliamentary borough constituency , of which the first Members of Parliaments ( MPs ) were the radicals William Cobbett and John Fielden . Winston Churchill was the MP between 1900 and 1906 . Churchill once stayed at Crompton Hall , and letters written by him describe how peaceful and tranquil he thought the area to be . Constituency boundaries changed during the 20th century ; from 1885 to 1918 Shaw and Crompton lay within Prestwich constituency , from 1918 to 1950 in Royton constituency , from 1950 until 1983 in Heywood and Royton constituency , and from 1983 to 1997 in Littleborough and Saddleworth constituency . Since 1997 , Shaw and Crompton has lain within the parliamentary constituency of Oldham East and Saddleworth , and is represented in the House of Commons by Debbie Abrahams , a member of the Labour Party .
= = Geography = =
At 53 ° 34 ′ 39 ″ N 2 ° 5 ′ 32 ″ W ( 53 @.@ 5777 ° , -2.0928 ° ) Shaw and Crompton lies along the eastern edge of the ancient Lancashire border ; Saddleworth and the Pennines are close to the east . The larger towns of Rochdale and Oldham lie to the northwest and south respectively ; Royton is 1 @.@ 2 miles ( 1 @.@ 9 km ) west @-@ southwest . There are no motorways in Shaw and Crompton , though a light rail line bisects the town from north to south . The town has a post office under the Oldham post town . The territory of the civil parish is given as 4 @.@ 5 square miles ( 11 @.@ 7 km2 ) . For purposes of the Office for National Statistics , Shaw and Crompton forms part of the Greater Manchester Urban Area , with Manchester city centre itself 8 @.@ 7 miles ( 14 @.@ 0 km ) southwest of Shaw and Crompton .
Described in Samuel Lewis 's A Topographical Dictionary of England ( 1848 ) as located in " a bleak situation " , Shaw and Crompton is in the valley of the River Beal , which runs northward through the town towards the village of Newhey . The land to the east of the town steadily rises , reaching a height of 1 @,@ 283 feet ( 391 m ) at the summit of Crompton Moor . To the west , the land reaches around 699 feet ( 213 m ) at High Crompton and 825 feet ( 251 m ) at Whitfield , and from these highpoints the surface slopes away in all directions . The River Irk rises on Shaw and Crompton 's western boundary with Royton . The geology is represented by carboniferous coal measures . The soils of the town are broadly sterile , the poorest being in the upland moors . Rainfall rises steadily from the Cheshire Plain in a northeasterly direction , and totals are between 51 inches ( 1 @,@ 295 mm ) to 67 inches ( 1 @,@ 702 mm ) a year in Shaw and Crompton , which is well above the UK average of 45 @.@ 4 inches ( 1 @,@ 153 mm ) and compares to about 33 inches ( 838 mm ) a year at Ringway .
Shaw and Crompton 's built environment is similar to the urban structure of most towns in England , consisting of residential dwellings centred on a High Street in the town centre , which is the local centre of commerce . There is a mixture of low @-@ density urban areas , suburbs , semi @-@ rural and rural locations in Shaw and Crompton , but overwhelmingly the land use in the town is residential ; industrial areas and terraced houses give way to suburbs and rural greenery as the land rises out of the town . Generally , property in the centre , west , and south of the town is older and smaller in comparison to that found in the east and north .
Shaw and Crompton is divided into two political wards , named " Shaw " and " Crompton " ( to the east and west respectively ) , and residential suburbs , including High Crompton , Rushcroft , Buckstones , Clough , Jubilee , Shaw Side , Wrens Nest , Cowlishaw , Low Crompton , Nook , Goats , Wood End and Shore Edge .
= = Demography = =
According to census data , in 2001 Shaw and Crompton had a total resident population of 21 @,@ 721 , with a population density of around 4 @,@ 692 people per square mile ( 1 @,@ 811 per km ² ) , and an average age of 39 . Around 3 % of Shaw and Crompton 's population is from a black and minority ethnic background ( which includes a small but long established community of Bangladeshi heritage ) , the rest broadly being of white background .
Of the residents in the combined electoral wards of Shaw and Crompton ( which are coterminous with the town ) 41 @.@ 7 % were married , 9 @.@ 2 % were cohabiting couples , and 9 @.@ 7 % were lone parent families . Forty percent of households were made up of individuals and 14 % had someone living alone at pensionable age .
The ethnicity of the town was given as 96 % white , 0 @.@ 5 % mixed race , 2 @.@ 0 % Asian , 0 @.@ 3 % black and 0 @.@ 2 % Chinese or other .
The place of birth of the town 's residents was 96 @.@ 8 % United Kingdom ( including 95 @.@ 13 % from England ) , 0 @.@ 6 % Republic of Ireland , 0 @.@ 5 % from other European Union countries , and 2 @.@ 1 % from elsewhere in the world . Religion was recorded as 84 % Christian , 1 @.@ 7 % Muslim , 0 @.@ 2 % Hindu , 0 @.@ 2 % Buddhist , 0 @.@ 1 % Jewish and < 0 @.@ 1 % Sikh . Some 6 @.@ 8 % were recorded as having no religion , 0 @.@ 1 % had an alternative religion , and 5 @.@ 6 % did not state their religion .
The economic activity of residents aged 16 – 74 was 45 % in full @-@ time employment , 12 % in part @-@ time employment , 7 % self @-@ employed , 2 @.@ 4 % unemployed , 2 % students with jobs , 3 % students without jobs , 13 % retired , 4 % looking after home or family , 7 % permanently sick or disabled , and 2 % economically inactive for other reasons . This was roughly in line with the national figures . Of the town 's residents aged 16 – 74 , 15 % had a higher education qualification or the equivalent , compared with 20 % nationwide .
Below is a table outlining population growth of the area since 1901 . Earlier records show that the area had a population of 872 in 1714 .
= = Economy = =
From the 18th century onwards , Shaw and Crompton 's economy was closely tied with that of Britain 's textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution , particularly the cotton spinning sector .
Shaw and Crompton has become a base for distribution companies as a result of the town 's good transport links , its supply of large , disused mill properties , and its situation between Manchester , Oldham , Rochdale , Lancashire , and West Yorkshire . It is home to Shop Direct Group 's Shaw National Distribution Centre , one of the UK 's largest warehouse distribution centres . The company occupies three former cotton mills and state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art purpose @-@ built storage and sorting facilities on a 20 @-@ acre ( 8 @.@ 1 ha ) complex within the town . In 2007 , the site became the retail company 's only packing and distribution centre for non @-@ bulk items . It employs nearly 1 @,@ 000 staff , making it the Metropolitan Borough of Oldham 's largest private employer . The N Brown Group , and children 's toy distributors Toy Options have distribution centres in the town .
Until the 1990s , Shaw and Crompton was the home of Osram , the multinational lightbulb manufacturer , which occupied Duke Mill and was a significant employer in the area . Production has since been moved away from the United Kingdom . Warburtons had one of its 11 major bakeries in Shaw and Crompton from 1965 to January 2012 . The " Pennine " bakery produced around 500 @,@ 000 loaves a week and distributed them to major multiples and independent retailers throughout Greater Manchester , Cheshire , and Derbyshire . Located on Glebe Street , it employed around 200 staff and produced a wide range of Warburtons bread products . In August 2012 the building was bought by UDUNK who propose to redevelop the building as commercial units for up to 6 businesses .
Trent Mill Industrial Estate , on the edge of the town near Rushcroft , takes its name from the mill that was once there . The business park is home to several small industrial companies . It was partially destroyed by a fire that started in a plastics factory in the early hours of 28 April 2007 .
On 6 August 2007 , a 35 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 3 @,@ 252 m2 ) Asda supermarket opened on the site of the former Dawn Mill . A derelict row of houses on Eastway was demolished as part of this development . Two houses on Greenfield Lane were also demolished , allowing the existing ALDI store to expand — possibly to help it to compete with the new ASDA store . The original planning application was put to a public vote in 2005 , and included proposals for 316 parking spaces , improved bus facilities , pedestrian routes linked to Market Street , junction improvements to nearby streets , and the relocation of a local tyre @-@ fitting company . The supermarket cost £ 20 million to construct , and is the first ASDA store in the United Kingdom to use environmentally friendly construction techniques , which Wal @-@ Mart intends to use as a blueprint for all its new ASDA supermarkets . It incorporates a sustainable timber frame and an energy @-@ saving ventilation system , which together have eradicated the need for 500 tonnes of steel and 450 tonnes of carbon emissions .
= = Landmarks = =
= = = War memorials = = =
The main Crompton War Memorial , located on the High Street , consists of a Scottish granite plinth surmounted by a large bronze statue flanked by two Rolls of Honour containing the 346 names of those from Shaw and Crompton who fought and died in World War I. Panels listing the Roll of Honour from World War II were added and unveiled on 12 November 1950 by Councillor H. M. Turner . Commissioned by the Crompton War Memorial Committee , the statue was conceptualised in 1919 by Richard Reginald Goulden , and unveiled on 29 April 1923 by General Sir Ian Hamilton . The original cost for the memorial alone was £ 4 @,@ 000 , but the total cost , including site and layout , was about £ 6 @,@ 067 .
The inscription on the memorial reads :
In memory of the men of Crompton who fought and gave their lives to free mankind from the oppression and brutal tyranny of war . 1914 – 1919 .
The symbolic memorial depicts a group in which the central figure is a man defending the future generations , represented by young children , against foreign aggression , represented by a beast . The memorial is also a time capsule . Inside it is a lead casket containing coins , a copy of the local newspaper , three cops of spun cotton , and a length of cloth manufactured in the local area .
A second , smaller war memorial is located in Jubilee Gardens . It is dedicated to the soldiers who fought in the Second Boer War . It consists of a plaque built into a stone wall that is located between two large bushes .
Its inscription reads :
In memory of the Crompton men who lost their lives in the South African war 1899 – 1902
It then lists eight men : four who were " killed in action " , two who " died of wounds " , and two who " died of disease " .
In 1995 , to mark the 50th anniversary of the ending of the Second World War , a landmark known as The Shaw and Crompton Beacon was erected in Jubilee Gardens .
The inscription on the plaque below reads :
The Shaw and Crompton beacon
erected by the Parish Council in 1995 to
commemorate the fiftieth anniversary of
the ending of World War Twothis plaque was presented by members of the British Legion
= = = Crompton Moor = = =
Spanning approximately 160 acres ( 0 @.@ 6 km2 ) , and reaching an elevation of 1 @,@ 282 feet ( 391 m ) , Crompton Moor is one of the largest open spaces run by Oldham Countryside Service . It is a registered common of Greater Manchester , and , since 2003 , a designated Site of Biological Importance . Brushes Clough and Pingot are former coal and sandstone quarries on Crompton Moor . During the 1970s , quarrying was halted , the land was reclaimed , and thousands of pine trees were planted . The area has since been used for recreation , including hiking , orienteering , and mountain biking . Brushes Clough Reservoir was constructed in the 19th century by the Oldham County Borough Council , using stone quarried from this site . The area is now managed by United Utilities .
Since the 1960s an unnamed waterfall ( provisionally called Crompton Waterfall ) cascades off Crompton Moor into the now unused Pingot Quarry forming the Old Brook , a tributary of the River Beal .
= = = Big Lamp = = =
The Big Lamp was a six @-@ sided gas @-@ powered public street lamp standing 20 feet ( 6 m ) high at the original cross @-@ road junction of Manchester Road , Oldham Road , High Street , and Church Road . It was pulled down on 17 June 1925 , when electric lighting was introduced . During the 1970s , the junction was redeveloped to accommodate the new Crompton Way bypass . A large roundabout was built , and a scaled @-@ down replica of the original Big Lamp was erected in its centre . The new Big Lamp is electrically powered and stands about 6 feet ( 2 m ) high . On 17 April 2016 , a large sandstone rock welcoming people to Shaw has been sited on the roundabout .
= = Transport = =
Public transport in Shaw and Crompton is co @-@ ordinated by Transport for Greater Manchester . Shaw and Crompton had a railway line and station between 1863 and 2009 , opened initially for haulage , but later used for passenger and commuter journeys . Shaw and Crompton railway station was used by passenger trains running between Rochdale and Manchester on the Oldham Loop Line . After initially being rejected in the early 2000s , plans to turn the line into part of the light @-@ rail Metrolink system were accepted by the government on 6 July 2006 . Shaw and Crompton railway station closed on 3 October 2009 , so that it can be converted from use with heavy rail to Metrolink . Shaw and Crompton Metrolink station opened on 16 December 2012 .
Historically the town was served by two electric tram routes operated by Oldham Corporation . The first ran from Higginshaw and opened on 15 November 1904 it was almost immediately extended to Chadderton Road , Oldham . The second line from Royton opened on 13 April 1905 . By January 1921 both lines shared a terminus at Wrens Nest and the Royton line had been extended to Hollinwood . In the same year , the routes were assigned numbers ; Hollinwood to Shaw route was No.8 and the route to Chadderton Road was No.9. There were plans to extend the lines to the railway station and High Crompton but these never materialised . Route 9 was closed on 11 June 1935 and route 8 was closed on 2 December 1939 , both were replaced by buses .
The bus company First Greater Manchester operates services 58 , 59 , 181 , 182 , 408 and 428 , which provides frequent services to Oldham and Rochdale , with buses also running to Chadderton , Manchester , Middleton , Royton and Stalybridge . Rosso runs the 435 between Buckstones and Rochdale . There is also two Shaw Circular routes 403 and 404 which are run by First , serving the smaller roads of Shaw and Crompton . Shaw and Crompton is located south of junction 21 of the M62 motorway .
= = Education = =
There had been private cottage schools in the area from a very early time , but Crompton 's first public school was founded in 1791 . In 1838 , the Shaw National School was built . The construction of church schools followed , including Shaw Methodist School in 1842 , St Mary 's , in 1847 and St James ' 1851 . Shaw and Crompton is now served by a variety of schools , including some with religious affiliations . All the schools in the town perform either at or above the national average for test results . Crompton House Church of England School , a secondary school for 11- to 16 @-@ year @-@ olds , also has a sixth form college of further education for 16- to 18 @-@ year @-@ olds on the same site .
= = Religion = =
The township of Crompton was originally within the parish of Prestwich @-@ cum @-@ Oldham in the Diocese of Lichfield , until 1541 , when , owing to the English Reformation , this diocese was divided and Crompton became part of the Diocese of Chester . This in turn was divided in 1847 , when the present Diocese of Manchester was created .
The exact date of the establishment of a place of worship in Crompton is uncertain . Although Shaw Chapel is certain to have been in existence since the early 16th century , it has been put that " Shaw Chapel is even more ancient than Oldham Old Church " , as evidenced by the ancient toponymy of the area . Shaw Chapel was anciently known as St Patrick 's Chapel @-@ on @-@ the @-@ Moor , and during the reign of James I of England , " it was situate in the midst of the common called Shaw Moor , not a single habitation being near it " . It is thought to have been constructed following an increase in wealth produced by the localisation of the woollen trade during a very bleak period , although , in 1552 it was noted that it had no endowment , and its ornaments were in poor condition . It was rebuilt in 1739 and enlarged in 1798 , and rebuilt again in 1870 . It is now known as the Church of Holy Trinity .
Shaw and Crompton has three Church of England ecclesiastic parishes : Shaw , High Crompton , and East Crompton . In addition to the established church , a variety of Reformed denominations , particularly Nonconformism and Methodism , have been practiced in Shaw and Crompton . Presbyterian ministers were recorded preaching at Shaw Chapel in as early as the 1650s . The Religious Society of Friends held conventicles in Whitfield in 1660s and 1670s .
The following is a table of the churches presently in Shaw and Crompton , as of 2007 . Others have existed , but have been demolished .
Most of the above churches participate in Shaw 's annual Whit Walks event , when congregations , choirs , and brass bands parade through the streets from their respective churches before taking part in one large , communal , inter @-@ church service . The town centre is also home to a small mosque .
= = Community facilities = =
Shaw and Crompton has communal areas and public facilities , including public parks , sporting establishments , and playing fields . Public houses in the centre of the town include The Shay Wake ( a mill town @-@ themed J D Wetherspoon pub , named after the Shaw Wakes week ) , The Blue Bell , Duke of York , Coach and Horses , and The Pineapple . Outlying public houses include the Royal Oak at Cowlishaw , and the Park Inn at Buckstones Road .
Crompton Library is a purpose @-@ built library housing over 36 @,@ 000 items including books , CDs , and DVDs that can be borrowed by anyone who lives in the Oldham borough . It has communal Internet facilities . The library was built in the early 1990s after the original 1907 building , which exists now as apartments on Beal Lane , became too small .
There are three main public parks in Shaw and Crompton . Dunwood Park lies alongside the Oldham and Rochdale Metrolink Line and has a children 's play area , bowling green , and over a mile of wooded pathways along the base of a forested hillside . The land that forms Dunwood Park was presented to Crompton Urban District Council by Captain Abram Crompton JP on 22 June 1911 , and opened as a park by him on 14 September 1912 . It was redeveloped with a new park and bowling green for its 2012 centenary after winning a £ 1 million grant from the National Lottery . High Crompton Park is in High Crompton and is home to a tennis court , bowling green , children 's play area , and gardens . Jubilee Gardens are found in the centre of Shaw and Crompton town centre , behind the Crompton War Memorial . Shaw and Crompton has large areas of land reserved for sporting and communal events ; these are located off George Street , Edward Road , and Rushcroft Road respectively .
Shaw Market is open retailers and customers every Thursday and is held on Market Street , which is closed to traffic for the event . Westway , the original location of the market , is now used for car parking but has been used occasionally for fun fairs and other events . Shaw and Crompton town has several public sporting establishments . Crompton Pool was a swimming pool built in 1899 on Farrow Street in the town centre and served the community until its closure in July 2014 and subsequent demolition in February 2016 . Crompton Cricket Club , is located on Glebe Street .
Playhouse 2 is a 156 @-@ seat theatre in the heart of Shaw and Crompton town centre , which used to be an Odeon cinema . It has been the home of the Crompton Stage Society , an amateur theatre company , since 1966 . A wide variety of entertainment , professional as well as amateur , is produced each year .
= = Public services = =
Home Office policing in Shaw and Crompton is provided by the Greater Manchester Police . The force 's " ( Q ) Division " have their headquarters for policing the Metropolitan Borough of Oldham at central Oldham , which is now the nearest police station , the former one at Royton being demolished in 2014 to make way for a new leisure centre . Public transport is co @-@ ordinated by Transport for Greater Manchester . Statutory emergency fire and rescue service is provided by the Greater Manchester Fire and Rescue Service .
There are no hospitals in Shaw and Crompton — the nearest are in the larger settlements of Oldham and Rochdale — but some local health care is provided by Crompton Health Centre which is Shaw and Crompton 's NHS surgery . It has been subject to a development scheme intended to improve NHS facilities in the town . The North West Ambulance Service provides emergency patient transport in the area . Other forms of health care are provided for locally by several small specialist clinics and surgeries .
Waste management is co @-@ ordinated by the local authority via the Greater Manchester Waste Disposal Authority . Locally produced inert waste for disposal is sent to landfill at the Beal Valley . Shaw and Crompton 's Distribution Network Operator for electricity is United Utilities ; there are no power stations in the town . United Utilities also manages Shaw and Crompton 's drinking and waste water ; water supplies are sourced from several local reservoirs , including Dovestones and Chew .
= = Notable people = =
People from Shaw and Crompton are called Shaytonians or Cromptonians . Philip Gilbert Hamerton , an acclaimed etcher , painter , and art critic was born in the area in 1834 . The town is the home of Oldham @-@ born actress Shobna Gulati , former Oldham Athletic player and manager Andy Ritchie , and is the hometown of Kevin O 'Toole , a founding member of dance act N @-@ Trance . Tommy Cannon and Bobby Ball live locally .
= Off the Air ( TV series ) =
Off the Air is an American anthology television series created by Dave Hughes for Adult Swim . The series is presented without explanation or narration as a showcase of surreal footage arranged around a single loose theme ( expressed in the episode title ) and blended without pause into a single continuous presentation .
Hughes , a former employee of MTV Animation , first pitched it to Mike Lazzo at Adult Swim after producing a video mixtape for the network 's 2010 Carnival Tour event . As a result of its 4 a.m. graveyard slot and small selection of episodes , the series remains relatively unknown on the network , but has been received positively and dubbed a cult phenomenon by critics and Adult Swim itself .
= = Synopsis = =
The series is presented without explanation or narration as a showcase of surreal footage — animations , short films , music videos , viral videos , film and TV clips , stock footage and morphing psychedelic imagery — arranged around a single loose theme ( expressed in the episode title ) and blended without pause into a single continuous presentation .
= = Production = =
Series creator Dave Hughes first started working for Adult Swim in 2003 after an eight @-@ year stint with MTV Animation , where he had edited series such as Beavis and Butt @-@ head and Celebrity Deathmatch . Hughes , who saw Adult Swim " slipping away from its more experimental roots " as it got popular , had the concept for Off the Air in mind before , but never thought he would be the one to make it . While living in New York , 120 Minutes , Concrete TV , Liquid Television and Night Flight were among some of the experimental programming that exposed him " to a whole new world of ideas , music and people that I just didn 't see anywhere else on television . "
Hughes first pitched the series to the network through Mike Lazzo at Adult Swim sometime after late 2009 , after producing a video mixtape that would be projected behind musical performers for the network 's 2010 Carnival Tour event . He compiled footage for the mixtape using the Prelinger Archives , as well as various online sources , and applied visual effects to them " until you didn 't quite know what you were looking at . " He originally imagined for it to exist as a " bizarre collection " of Internet and archival footage intertwined with clips from Adult Swim shows , " set to good music . " He ultimately had to omit the latter material , however , as the network would still have to acquire licenses for their own series in derivative works . He found that once they were gone , " the show really opened up . "
In putting an episode together , Hughes seeks clips " with some kind of truth or integrity to them " , opting for both viral videos in addition to ones with fewer view counts . Tracking down licensees for clips proves to be the most difficult aspect of the process , he stated , with co @-@ producers Cody DeMatteis and Alan Steadman assisting him in pursuit of material hard to obtain . When asked if getting consent for other 's work posed a challenge , Hughes noted it to be helpful working under the " Adult Swim banner " , with only a few artists responding with reluctance . He wrote that each piece of the episode is treated with protection , not " trying to exploit anyone or make fun of anything or anybody . "
Each episode is edited using Final Cut Pro , along with Adobe Photoshop and Adobe After Effects for further manipulation ( often employing data @-@ moshing techniques ) . Hughes observed a large portion of producing episodes to stem from " finding the right music to go with the visuals , or vice versa " , and found transitions to " really help keep it moving . " Likewise , Hughes digressed from Liquid Television 's use of longer segments in order to make the series a " larger event rather than a series of smaller events " , and found visual effects and transitions to be " a huge part " of his theory in making an episode .
A compilation of videos that were once considered to be featured in the first season had been published on the network 's official blog . These videos , extending into its second season as well as hosting various other supplemental material , have since been published onto Network Awesome . A compilation of material from the first season and additional shorts was given a theatrical release at Cinefamily on August 25 , 2012 , which Hughes attended .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
Its pilot episode , " Animals " , premiered on Adult Swim on New Year 's Day 2011 at 4 a.m. ; it was broadcast twice in a row , back @-@ to @-@ back . Episodes have continued to air in this time slot — considered a graveyard slot in broadcast programming — and as a result of this and its small selection of episodes , the series remains relatively unknown on the network . However , Austin McManus of Juxtapoz noted word of mouth to be " gradually spreading " about it . He and the network also described the show as a cult phenomenon . Two specials have been produced : " Dan Deacon : U.S.A. " , broadcast July 6 , 2013 , consists of surreal footage of American landscapes , with music from the last four tracks of the album America by Dan Deacon . A second special — the second season episode " Nightmares " played in reverse — aired after Halloween night on November 1 , 2014 .
It has received positive critical reception , with McManus conducting an eight @-@ page interview and profile of Hughes in appreciation of the series . The magazine had previously published a special issue centered on the network and its shows in July 2012 , but overlooked Off the Air , presenting an " opportunity to shed a little insight and background on an extraordinary unique show . " Speaking from the first time he watched it , McManus praised it for not being " your typical try @-@ too @-@ hard @-@ to @-@ be @-@ weird production . " In Adweek , Sam Thielman ranked it second place out of 18 other programs on the network . He tied it with the network 's parody infomercial specials and wrote that it was " in the same category as King Star King among things that are so cool and strange that they look like they should probably be part of a video installation in an art gallery somewhere . "
For Neon Tommy , Jeremy Fuster called it " a dark , unspeakable corner of television where no light can reach and only the sleepless and drug @-@ addled dare to venture . " Amanda McCorquodale of the Miami New Times joked that , for artists featured on the show , " nothing compares to the prestige of sharing a network with Tim & Eric and Brak , right ? " Ultimately , she saw it as the " already bizarre network 's foray into out @-@ there visual experimentation . " Writing for The Fader , Matthew Trammell regarded it as " when things get really interesting . " PQ Ribber of The Overnightscape Underground dubbed the series a " modern version " of Liquid Television and called it " really kinda spiffy , and trippy , and cool . " Casper Kelly sought inspiration from the show during the production of his short film for the network , Too Many Cooks .
Ratings @-@ wise , several episodes have surpassed one million views according to Nielsen Media Research . Hughes added that he follows the series ' ratings when it occurs to him , but does not receive further analytics . He found it to trend on Twitter during the weeks of its airing , and likes viewing user 's statuses regarding it . In particular , he enjoys reactions from people who wake up to it after falling asleep to the network , and judged from the online response that its audience would be " pretty young , late teens , early 20s " and " strangely positive and engaged . " The network has broadcast praise of the show written by viewers in the form of bumpers , often hinting at further episodes being produced . Episodes have been distributed to sites like YouTube , while a continuous online stream of the show was launched by the network on September 5 , 2014 . On December 19 , 2014 , the show 's Facebook page announced that additional exclusive material will be added to the livestream .
= = Episodes = =
= = Explanatory notes = =
= Billy Liddell =
William Beveridge " Billy " Liddell ( 10 January 1922 – 3 July 2001 ) was a Scottish footballer , who played his entire professional career with Liverpool . He signed with the club as a teenager in 1938 and retired in 1961 , having scored 228 goals in 534 appearances ( placing Liddell fourth and 12th in the respective club rankings as of August 2010 ) . He was Liverpool 's leading goalscorer in the league in eight out of nine seasons from 1949 – 50 to 1957 – 58 , and surpassed Elisha Scott 's club record for most league appearances in 1957 .
With Liverpool , Liddell won a league championship in 1947 and featured in the club 's 1950 FA Cup Final defeat by Arsenal . He represented Scotland at international level on 29 occasions . While serving as a Royal Air Force navigator during the Second World War , Liddell continued his career by appearing in unofficial games for Liverpool and guesting for various teams in the United Kingdom and Canada . After his retirement from football , in 1961 , Liddell occupied himself as a Justice of the Peace ( from 1958 ) , bursar of Liverpool University , and voluntary worker . He died in 2001 .
Primarily a left winger , Liddell 's versatility enabled him to play comfortably on the opposite wing and as a striker , at centre and inside forward . Liddell became noted for his strong physique , acceleration , powerful shot , professionalism , and good conduct on the pitch . Such was his influence and popularity that the club acquired the contemporary nickname " Liddellpool " . Posthumous recognition has included a plaque unveiled in 2004 at Anfield and sixth place in a poll of Liverpool fans , conducted in 2006 under the title " 100 Players Who Shook The Kop " . He was inducted into the Scottish Football Hall of Fame in November 2008 .
= = Early life = =
Born in Townhill , near Dunfermline , Liddell was the eldest of coal miner James and wife Montgomery 's six children . During his childhood , Liddell experienced austerity and poverty , with his family often having to subsist on bread , kail , and salt porridge . His parents became determined that he would not become a miner and helped him to decide a future career . He did not originally consider football as a viable profession , eventually choosing accountancy in preference to the civil service and church . His interest in football developed at a young age , which persuaded his parents , despite financial difficulties , to buy him a pair of football boots as a Christmas present when he asked for them aged seven . Liddell 's participation in organised football began at age eight when he joined his school team , which had an average age of ten .
As a pupil at Dunfermline High School , Liddell studied chemistry , mathematics , physics , English and two other languages . He became a reluctant rugby player , under the guidance of retired Welsh international Ronnie Boon , while playing football for local teams and Scotland Schoolboys . By the age of 16 , Liddell had progressed sufficiently to earn a contract with Lochgelly Violet football club and be sought after by Liverpool , Hamilton Academical , and Partick Thistle . Liverpool manager George Kay became interested in signing Liddell on the recommendation of the club 's Scottish defender Matt Busby , who learned of the teenager from Manchester City 's Alex Herd while on a golf trip . Herd had forwent one of their rounds to take Willie McAndrew , manager of Hamilton , to watch Liddell play for Lochgelly . When Busby queried him about his absence and Liddell , Herd told him that a contract had not been agreed because limited resources prevented Hamilton from offering Liddell the assurances his parents insisted upon . Instead , Liddell signed for Liverpool as an amateur on 27 July 1938 and became a professional in 1939 on a weekly wage of £ 3 . Negotiations between his parents and the club guaranteed , as a pre @-@ requisite to acceptance , that Liverpool would permit Liddell to continue his accountancy studies , be housed in suitable accommodation , and be employed part @-@ time an accountant at a company in the club 's city .
Liddell entered the youth team on his arrival in 1938 . Before he established himself in the side , Liddell had been frustrated at the frequent rotation of players until trainer Albert Shelley advised him to be patient . An injury incurred against Blackburn Rovers threatened to end his career prematurely . He had struck his knee against concrete near the corner flag after being challenged while running with the ball . Doctors informed him of the extent of tissue damage , causing Liddell anxiety about his future . He remained in Blackburn for two weeks , living in the family home of a colleague , before returning to Liverpool to continue his recovery . The Second World War precluded an official debut for Liddell , as the Football Association suspended competitive football from the abandoned 1939 – 1940 season and instituted a regional system in its place . Until the cessation of hostilities in 1945 , Liddell guested for various domestic sides when unavailable for Liverpool and represented select teams , including a Football Association XI and Scottish Services XI . Liddell was capped eight times for Scotland during the war , scoring on his debut in a 5 – 4 win over England in 1942 .
With Liverpool , Liddell competed in the various regional leagues that the FA assigned the club to and scored 82 goals in 152 matches between 1940 and 1946 . He debuted on 1 January 1940 against Crewe Alexandra , scoring after two minutes in a 7 – 3 win . In his formative years , Liddell credited Matt Busby and Berry Nieuwenhuys as significant influences . He volunteered for the Royal Air Force and , despite wanting to qualify as a pilot , was trained as a navigator because of his proficiency at mathematics . After being mobilised in December 1942 , Liddell guested with Chelsea and Cambridge Town . He broke his leg in a friendly kickabout while stationed in Bridgnorth , which required admission to the RAF Remedial Centre at Blackpool .
Following his recovery , Liddell travelled to Canada to complete a course at the Central Navigation School and became a pilot officer navigator . While on leave , he was used as a substitute by the Toronto Scottish under an assumed name and scored twice in a semi @-@ final play @-@ off . He was recalled to Moncton , New Brunswick , before the final . After some seven months in Canada , Liddell returned to Britain and , when based in Perth in 1944 , accepted an offer to guest for his boyhood favourites Dunfermline Athletic . He subsequently moved to Northern Ireland for further training , where he declined an offer from former Liverpool goalkeeper Elisha Scott to guest for Belfast Celtic because of a prior agreement to play for Linfield . By the end of the war , Liddell had been assigned to 617 Squadron , helping to transport Allied soldiers back to Britain on leave from Italy .
= = Career = =
= = = Domestic = = =
= = = = 1946 – 1954 = = = =
Liddell 's official debut for Liverpool came in the third round of the FA Cup , the first competitive football tournament to be organised in post @-@ war England . He started in the first leg against Chester City on 5 January 1946 and scored in the 30th minute . The match ended in a 2 – 0 win and featured several additional debutants , including Bob Paisley , who would forge a chemistry with Liddell as a left half . League football completed its first full season under the provisional North and South divisional system , which facilitated the restoration of national football for the 1946 – 47 season . Although he established himself in the North League , scoring 17 goals in 42 matches , Liddell had yet to be discharged from the RAF and did not accompany Liverpool during its post @-@ season tour of North America in May 1946 . His unavailability extended to pre @-@ season training and the first two matches of the 1946 – 47 season . On 7 September , Liddell registered his first official league appearance and scored twice in a 7 – 4 defeat of Chelsea .
In his inaugural season of competitive football , Liddell confirmed his status as a regular and contributed to Liverpool 's first championship since 1923 . Positioned on the left wing , he appeared in 34 matches , scored seven goals , and supplied strikers Albert Stubbins and Jack Balmer with numerous assists . Severe conditions in the winter disrupted the league 's schedule and Liverpool did not secure the title until 14 June 1947 . The club won its final game away against Wolves 2 @-@ 1 , with Liddell setting up one of the goals , but the championship was decided by Sheffield United defeating contenders Stoke in the season 's last fixture . The game coincided with the Senior Cup Final between Liverpool and Everton at Anfield , where tannoys announced the result during the match . As a strict teetotaler , Liddell refrained from accepting glasses of champagne to celebrate the success .
The club was unable to replicate its form in the 1947 – 48 season , occupying 11th place on its conclusion in May 1948 . Despite that , Liddell reached double figures with a total of 11 goals . He accompanied the club when it embarked on its second exhibition tour of North America . His displays against Sweden 's Djurgården , played at the Brooklyn Dodgers ' Ebbets Field , and North American teams earned him praise from journalists and gained him 13 goals in 11 matches . In the 1948 – 49 season , Liddell occupied left back and four forward positions . During his career , he would fill all ten outfield roles , mostly because of injuries to other players . His brother , Tom , became a teammate in 1949 after Liverpool signed him from Lochore Welfare . He never represented the club as a senior . The club finished in eighth in the 1949 – 50 season , going undefeated for a post @-@ First World War record of 19 consecutive matches . Liddell scored ten goals in seven of those matches , including three braces .
Liverpool reached the FA Cup Final , making its first appearance at Wembley Stadium . Liddell had played in all seven matches during the club 's progression , scoring critical goals against Blackpool and Everton . Demand for tickets far exceeded supply , with more than 100 @,@ 000 applications being made for Liverpool 's allocation of only 8 @,@ 000 . Liddell recalled being inundated with requests from friends , family , and Liverpudlians in general . Some 100 @,@ 000 spectators witnessed Arsenal defeat Liverpool 2 – 0 on 29 April . Constant marking by Alex Forbes contained Liddell for much of the 90 minutes , and a tackle executed early in the game caused the winger pain . Journalist Brian Glanville questioned Arsenal 's tactics and recalled being told by Liddell that he had been unable to put his jacket on the next day . Subsequent match reports by the media accused Forbes of acting with malice in his marking , which Liddell and Arsenal 's Wally Barnes refuted . Liddell , who had scored 20 goals in all competitions , returned to Liverpool with his club after a trip to Brighton , to be greeted by thousands of supporters .
In 1950 , Liddell became one of many players to be offered a transfer to Colombia by agents representing Independiente Santa Fe and Club Deportivo Los Millonarios . The clubs belonged to the DIMAYOR , unrecognised by FIFA because of a dispute between the league and the domestic governing body . Restrictions in England limited the weekly wage ( £ 12 in the season and £ 10 during the summer ) and impeded a player 's ability to transfer to another club , which caused much discontent in British football until the system was reformed in the 1960s . Liddell chose to reject the contract offer , reportedly estimated at £ 12 @,@ 000 . His wife Phyllis , whom he married in 1946 , later attributed the decision to club loyalty and the recent birth of twins . He later recalled that the proposal had been tempting , acknowledging that the decision would have been more challenging had it not been for the births . Many footballers did agree to contracts , including Alfredo Di Stefano , Neil Franklin , Charlie Mitten , and Hector Rial .
Manager George Kay resigned in January 1951 because of declining health and was replaced by former guest player Don Welsh . Before Kay 's resignation , Liverpool failed to record a win in ten matches between September and November . Liddell ended the sequence in December with the deciding goal in a 1 – 0 defeat of Chelsea . The inconsistency continued for the rest of the season and Liverpool lost 3 – 1 to Third Division South Norwich City in the FA Cup third round . The club again underperformed in the 1951 – 52 season , in which Liddell scored a goal against Huddersfield Town described by contemporary media as the " shot of a lifetime " and reported in detail by the Liverpool Echo . When awarded a free kick outside the penalty box , Liverpool opted to have Kevin Baron take it instead of Liddell as was usual . Baron passed it to Liddell , who struck the ball with such force , after a momentary pause , that the shot surprised the Huddersfield defence and goalkeeper Harry Mills , and silenced spectators . Still played as a winger , Liddell finished the season with 19 goals in 40 league appearances . Liverpool only avoided relegation in the 1952 – 53 season by defeating Chelsea in the club 's final fixture , in April 1953 .
= = = = 1954 – 1961 = = = =
Liverpool 's decline culminated in relegation to the Second Division in the 1953 – 54 season , finishing last with 28 points to end 50 seasons in the top division . The club had conceded 97 goals and failed to record an away win in 24 consecutive matches over a period of 14 months . Liddell , like the rest of his teammates , struggled for form , scoring just seven goals and missing a penalty in a 1 @-@ 0 loss to Cardiff that confirmed relegation . Despite the club 's descent , Liddell elected to stay rather than accept a transfer elsewhere .
The prospect of a second relegation , rather than promotion , dominated the club 's thoughts at one stage in the 1954 – 55 season , yet a productive partnership formed . Liddell moved to centre forward , scoring 30 goals in 40 league appearances , one more than teammate John Evans . He scored Liverpool 's solitary goal in its record 9 @-@ 1 loss to Birmingham on 11 December 1954 . To confound the sporting media , Liverpool went on to defeat Everton 4 – 0 in January , in an FA Cup fourth round fixture at Goodison Park before a crowd of 72 @,@ 000 . Goals from Liddell , A 'Court , and Evans overcame the match favourites , with Liddell being characterised by the Liverpool Echo as " inspirational " . The club was eliminated in the next round and finished 11th at the end of the season - its lowest ever finish .
Liddell assumed the captaincy in the 1955 – 56 season , in succession to Laurie Hughes . Although the club challenged for promotion , finishing third , the directors decided to dismiss Don Welsh and appoint former player Phil Taylor . Liddell scored 32 goals in the league and cup , including a hat @-@ trick against Nottingham Forest . He could have had one more against Manchester City in an FA Cup fifth round replay at Anfield that Liverpool lost 2 – 1 . Seconds before full @-@ time , Liverpool dispossessed City and Liddell advanced from the halfway line to Bert Trautmann 's goal , striking in the penalty box , reportedly just as the referee signalled to end the match . Along with Trautmann and many other players , Liddell had been unaware of the full @-@ time whistle and Liverpool 's supporters stayed in expectation of extra time until an announcement informed them of the scoreline .
In the following season , Liverpool finished a single point behind second @-@ placed Nottingham Forest . While injuries to Louis Bimpson and Brian Jackson meant Liddell played much of the season as a right winger and inside right , he retained his place as the club 's leading scorer , with 21 goals . Promotion again eluded the club in the 1957 – 58 season , while Liddell surpassed Elisha Scott 's record of 430 league appearances ( then erroneously believed to be 429 ) in November 1957 to acclaim . In recalling the match against Notts County , which it transpired only equalled the record , Liddell confessed to having felt self @-@ conscious because of the attention that he received , while appreciative of the respect shown to his achievement , especially from his opponents , managed by friend Tommy Lawton .
As he approached the twilight of his career , Liddell slowed as a player and his appearances from the 1958 – 59 season became infrequent . He sought to mitigate his declining pace by adopting a deeper approach , with a " more thoughtful passing game " . His omission from the lineup for the match against Fulham , in which Bimpson replaced him , provoked criticism from supporters , with some opposition being expressed via letters to local newspapers . Bimpson scored and Liddell 's confinement to the reserves attracted the interest of Mersey neighbours New Brighton . The non @-@ leaguers approached Liddell with an offer to become player @-@ manager , which he and the club rejected . After one start in November , Liddell returned to the senior squad in March 1959 for his 466th league appearance , which the footballing community believed would surpass Ted Sagar 's Merseyside record of 465 . Liddell scored two goals in a 3 – 2 win over Barnsley at Anfield , but later learnt that Sagar 's accepted total had been erroneous ( 463 being the correct figure ) . During his absence , Liverpool unexpectedly succumbed to part @-@ time Worcester City in the third round of the FA Cup . Liddell had played in 40 consecutive cup fixtures , but his involvement in the 2 – 1 defeat had been limited to the studding of his colleagues ' boots .
Having missed the 1959 – 60 season opener in August , Liddell replaced Bimpson for the match against Bristol City and scored a brace in a 4 – 2 win . He had numerous chances to complete a hat @-@ trick , including two disallowed goals and a penalty taken by Jimmy Melia which the crowd had urged Liddell to take . He retained his place until an injury sustained in September granted Roger Hunt the opportunity to score on his league debut against Scunthorpe . Recurring injury further disrupted Liddell 's season after his return against Middlesbrough and damage to knee ligaments in October rendered him unavailable for four months . Phil Taylor resigned in December due to deteriorating performances and was succeeded by Huddersfield 's Bill Shankly . After Liddell recovered , Shankly selected him to play against Derby County in February , but the match had to be abandoned because of fog . He completed the next match , against Plymouth Argyle , and played in ten successive games , scoring his final goal for the club in a 5 – 1 defeat of Stoke in March .
For the match against Bristol Rovers in April , Shankly favoured an 18 @-@ year @-@ old Ian Callaghan , considered by Liddell to be his successor . He received a standing ovation at the end of the match and ultimately broke Liddell 's appearances record . Liddell 's last league game came in the 1960 – 61 season , in a 1 – 0 defeat to Southampton . The match gave him the distinction of being the oldest footballer to play for the club in a post @-@ war senior match ( at 38 years and 224 days ) until Kenny Dalglish in 1990 . To recognise Liddell 's 22 @-@ year service , Liverpool organised a testimonial in September between the club and an International XI at Anfield . The game had an attendance of 38 @,@ 789 and generated £ 6 @,@ 340 in revenue , enabling Liddell to purchase a home . He ended his career in the reserves and made his final appearance on 29 April 1961 , scoring one of his side 's five goals against Blackburn .
His influence gained the club the nickname " Liddellpool " , but a retired Liddell insisted that he had never carried the team . In remembering Liddell in his " 50 greatest Liverpool players " , The Times ' Tony Evans noted that he had been a leader who had inspired hope amongst the club 's support in " bleak times " . As of August 2010 , Liddell remains the oldest player to score for Liverpool ( at 38 years and 55 days ) , and is ranked as the club 's fourth highest goalscorer , bettered only by Ian Rush ( 346 goals ) , Roger Hunt ( 286 goals ) , and Gordon Hodgson ( 241 goals ) .
= = = International = = =
Liddell debuted for Scotland in a 5 – 4 wartime win over England at Hampden Park , equalising Tommy Lawton 's opening goal . He gained several more wartime caps . He gained his first full cap against Switzerland scoring twice in a 3 @-@ 1 win at Hampden Park on 15 May 1946 At international level , Liddell played predominantly as an outside left , in competition with Scotland @-@ based Lawrie Reilly and Willie Ormond . The Scottish Football Association ( SFA ) denied Liddell and his teammates the opportunity to participate in the 1950 World Cup , hosted by Brazil , because of an earlier decision not to sanction involvement as British Home Championship runners @-@ up . The decision meant qualification depended on the final match against England on 25 May 1950 , which Scotland lost 1 @-@ 0 when joint @-@ first needed only a draw . Despite pressure from players , the SFA maintained its position .
In 1951 , Scotland won the Home Championship , with Liddell scoring twice . His goal against England in a 3 @-@ 2 win followed a clash of heads with Wilf Mannion that fractured the English player 's cheek bone . For the 1954 World Cup , the SFA decided to authorise World Cup participation regardless of placement . After a 3 @-@ 3 draw with Wales , the SFA omitted Liddell from the starting lineup and he did not accompany the team to Switzerland . Scotland struggled in the World Cup and lost their two matches 1 – 0 and 7 – 0 to Austria and Uruguay , respectively . The team 's first manager , Andy Beattie , resigned in protest because of SFA interference in the selection process .
Having been overlooked for four matches that followed , Liddell was re @-@ called by the SFA after a 7 – 2 loss to England at Wembley . He returned as an outside left and scored one of Scotland 's three goals against Portugal on 4 May 1955 . His involvement in the tour of Yugoslavia , Austria and Hungary later in the month proved eventful . In a 2 – 2 draw with Yugoslavia , Liddell received a black eye when accidentally punched by goalkeeper Vladimir Beara while attempting a header . He scored his last goal for Scotland in an ill @-@ tempered 4 – 1 win over Austria at Praterstadion , where a brief pitch invasion involving large numbers of supporters reportedly resulted in altercations between players and fans . Late in the match against Hungary , Liddell missed his second penalty for Scotland while the side were losing 3 – 1 to the " Golden Team " . During his career with Liverpool , Liddell converted 34 of his 41 penalties .
Liddell gained two additional caps representing a Great Britain XI against the Rest of Europe in 1947 and 1955 . He became one of only two players ( the other being Stanley Matthews ) to twice be selected . The first exhibition had been arranged to celebrate FIFA 's readmission of the four Home Nations . Promoted as the " Match of the Century " and watched by 135 @,@ 000 spectators , the game ended in an emphatic 6 @-@ 1 victory for Britain . Liddell sustained a pulled muscle , which severely impaired his movement on the pitch and forced him out of two domestic matches . In the second match , organised to observe the 75th anniversary of the Irish FA 's creation , the Rest of Europe won decisively by a scoreline of 4 – 1 .
= = Later life and legacy = =
Liddell settled in Liverpool with Phyllis and their twin sons , residing in Merseyside until his death . When his father died in January 1951 , Liddell arranged for his mother , sister , and younger brothers to relocate to the city , concentrating his family in the region . While still a player , Liddell was appointed a Justice of the Peace for Liverpool in 1958 and contributed a column to the Echo 's football edition . He became occupied with voluntary work , which entailed him being an occasional disc jockey for the Women 's Voluntary Service at Alder Hey Children 's Hospital , working for local youth clubs , and teaching at a Sunday school . Although religious , Liddell had not been a lay preacher as some believed . His wife dismissed it as a misapprehension , recalling that , while Liddell had abstained from drinking and smoking , he had not objected to others doing so in his presence and never " rammed any of his views down people 's throats . " After retiring in 1961 , Liddell served as assistant permanent secretary and bursar to the University of Liverpool until 1984 , and authored a memoir , titled " My Soccer Story " .
While he had no desire to be a manager , Liddell , as a shareholder , had wanted to become a Liverpool director ; however , his repeated applications to board elections were unsuccessful . He continued to play football for a magistrates ' team until he decided to focus on tennis after breaking a cheek bone . In 1967 , Liddell and other footballing personalities appeared in a charity match to generate funds for Bankfield House Community Centre . More than 10 @,@ 000 people watched Liddell play opposite retired Hungarian international Ferenc Puskás at South Liverpool 's Holly Park ground , raising £ 1 @,@ 100 in the process . He later became chairman of Littlewoods ' Spot the Ball panel and president of the Liverpool FC Supporters Club . After being diagnosed with Parkinson 's disease in the early 1990s , Liddell resigned from the panel on the insistence of Phyllis . His wife had first noticed atypical behaviour on a visit to Anfield following the Hillsborough disaster in 1989 , when he did not appear able to register what had happened in Sheffield . When his condition worsened , Liddell moved to a nursing home in Mossley Hill . He died on 3 July 2001 , within a week of the deaths of former Liverpool manager Joe Fagan and director Tom Saunders .
In 2002 , former Liverpool Reserve player Jimmy Rolfe loaned to Anfield Museum a No. 11 shirt believed to be the only surviving example worn by Liddell in the league . He had acquired it from trainer Albert Shelley on leaving for Chester in 1953 . On 4 November 2004 , widow Phyllis and Ian Callaghan unveiled a commemorative plaque adjacent to the museum . Liddell 's biographer John Keith , who also presented on BBC Radio Merseyside , had proposed the memorial to then chairman David Moores and chief executive Rick Parry . Further recognition came in 2006 when Liddell attained sixth place in a poll of more than 110 @,@ 000 people conducted by Liverpool 's official website to determine a list of " 100 Players Who Shook The Kop " . When Liverpool approached former players to identify their personal favourites as a complement to the list , Ian Callaghan , Tommy Smith , David Johnson , and Roy Evans included Liddell in their " top five " . The Football League included Liddell in a 1998 list of notable players , titled the " 100 Legends " .
The Billy Liddell Memorial Group formed in 2007 to advocate further recognition for Liddell , specifically in his home village of Townhill , and secure induction into the Scottish FA 's Hall of Fame . A petition to the Scottish Parliament , to have Liddell inducted , succeeded in November 2008 when he became one of eight players admitted . His village renamed its sports complex in his honour and completed a memorial garden , with cairn , in May 2010 . The Deputy Provost of Fife Council , Councillor Lizz Mogg , officially unveiled the cairn on the 22nd in the presence of Liddell 's widow and other relatives . The memorial group announced its intention to disband in July , citing the success of its campaign .
= = Honours = =
Liverpool
English First Division ( 1 ) : 1946 – 47
FA Cup Runners @-@ up ( 1 ) : 1949 – 50
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Domestic = = =
= = = International goals = = =
Scores and results list Scotland 's goal tally first .
= Lenyadri =
Lenyadri ( Marathi : लेण ् याद ् री , Leṇyādri ) represents a series of about 30 rock @-@ cut Buddhist caves , located near Junnar in Pune district in the Indian state of Maharashtra . Cave 7 is a famous Hindu temple dedicated to the god Ganesha . It is one of the Ashtavinayak shrines , a set of the eight prominent Ganesha shrines in Western Maharashtra .
Twenty @-@ six of the caves are individually numbered . The caves face to the south and are numbered serially from east to west . Caves 6 and 14 are chaitya @-@ grihas ( chapels ) , while the rest are viharas ( dwellings for monks ) . The latter are in the form of dwellings and cells . There are also several rock @-@ cut water cisterns ; two of them have inscriptions . The layout of the caves , in general , are similar in pattern and shape . They generally have one or two sides with two long benches for occupants ' use .
The caves date from between the 1st and 3rd century AD ; the Ganesha shrine situated in Cave 7 is dated to the 1st century AD , though the date of conversion to a Hindu shrine is unknown . All of the caves arise from Hinayana Buddhism .
= = Names = =
The current name " Lenyadri " literally means " mountain cave " . It is derived from ' Lena ' in Marathi meaning " cave " and ' adri ' in Sanskrit meaning " mountain " or " stone " . The name " Lenyadri " appears in the Hindu scripture Ganesha Purana as well as in a Sthala Purana , in association to the Ganesha legend . It is also called Jeernapur and Lekhan parvat ( " Lekhan mountain " ) .
The hill is also known as Suleman Pahar ( " Suleman hill " ) or Ganesh Pahar ( " Ganesha hill " ) . An ancient inscription calls the place Kapichita ( Kapichitta ) . The caves are also known as Ganesh Lena or Ganesh Caves .
= = Geography = =
Lenyadri is located at 19 ° 14 ′ 34 ″ N 73 ° 53 ′ 8 ″ E , in the Indian state of Maharashtra in Pune district . Lenyadri is a deserted location , with no human settlement nearby . It is located at about 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) from Junnar , the headquarters of Junnar taluka . It is situated on the north @-@ west banks of river Kukadi , which flows between Golegaon and Junnar . It is also approached through Nanaghat , which was originally on the trade route between Aparantaka or the northern Konkan and the Deccan and descending to the plains of the Junnar town , dated to about 100 years before Christ was born . The circular hill , where Lenyadri caves have been emboweled , raises about 100 ft above the plains in the Hatkeshwar and Suleiman ranges .
Lenyadri is the only Ashtavinayaka temple on a mountain and within the precincts of Buddhist caves .
= = Cave 7 : Ganesha Temple = =
= = = Architecture = = =
The Ganesha temple is located in Cave 7 , the largest excavation around Junnar
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the centre , an icy mantle in the middle and an outer gaseous hydrogen / helium envelope . The core is relatively small , with a mass of only 0 @.@ 55 Earth masses and a radius less than 20 % of Uranus 's ; the mantle comprises its bulk , with around 13 @.@ 4 Earth masses , and the upper atmosphere is relatively insubstantial , weighing about 0 @.@ 5 Earth masses and extending for the last 20 % of Uranus 's radius . Uranus 's core density is around 9 g / cm3 , with a pressure in the center of 8 million bars ( 800 GPa ) and a temperature of about 5000 K. The ice mantle is not in fact composed of ice in the conventional sense , but of a hot and dense fluid consisting of water , ammonia and other volatiles . This fluid , which has a high electrical conductivity , is sometimes called a water – ammonia ocean .
The extreme pressure and temperature deep within Uranus may break up the methane molecules , with the carbon atoms condensing into crystals of diamond that rain down through the mantle like hailstones . Very @-@ high @-@ pressure experiments at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory suggest that the base of the mantle may comprise an ocean of liquid diamond , with floating solid ' diamond @-@ bergs ' .
The bulk compositions of Uranus and Neptune are different from those of Jupiter and Saturn , with ice dominating over gases , hence justifying their separate classification as ice giants . There may be a layer of ionic water where the water molecules break down into a soup of hydrogen and oxygen ions , and deeper down superionic water in which the oxygen crystallises but the hydrogen ions move freely within the oxygen lattice .
Although the model considered above is reasonably standard , it is not unique ; other models also satisfy observations . For instance , if substantial amounts of hydrogen and rocky material are mixed in the ice mantle , the total mass of ices in the interior will be lower , and , correspondingly , the total mass of rocks and hydrogen will be higher . Presently available data does not allow science to determine which model is correct . The fluid interior structure of Uranus means that it has no solid surface . The gaseous atmosphere gradually transitions into the internal liquid layers . For the sake of convenience , a revolving oblate spheroid set at the point at which atmospheric pressure equals 1 bar ( 100 kPa ) is conditionally designated as a " surface " . It has equatorial and polar radii of 25 559 ± 4 and 24 973 ± 20 km , respectively . This surface is used throughout this article as a zero point for altitudes .
= = = = Internal heat = = = =
Uranus 's internal heat appears markedly lower than that of the other giant planets ; in astronomical terms , it has a low thermal flux . Why Uranus 's internal temperature is so low is still not understood . Neptune , which is Uranus 's near twin in size and composition , radiates 2 @.@ 61 times as much energy into space as it receives from the Sun , but Uranus radiates hardly any excess heat at all . The total power radiated by Uranus in the far infrared ( i.e. heat ) part of the spectrum is 1 @.@ 06 ± 0 @.@ 08 times the solar energy absorbed in its atmosphere . Uranus 's heat flux is only 0 @.@ 042 ± 0 @.@ 047 W / m2 , which is lower than the internal heat flux of Earth of about 0 @.@ 075 W / m2 . The lowest temperature recorded in Uranus 's tropopause is 49 K ( − 224 ° C ) , making Uranus the coldest planet in the Solar System .
One of the hypotheses for this discrepancy suggests that when Uranus was hit by a supermassive impactor , which caused it to expel most of its primordial heat , it was left with a depleted core temperature . Another hypothesis is that some form of barrier exists in Uranus 's upper layers that prevents the core 's heat from reaching the surface . For example , convection may take place in a set of compositionally different layers , which may inhibit the upward heat transport ; perhaps double diffusive convection is a limiting factor .
= = = Atmosphere = = =
Although there is no well @-@ defined solid surface within Uranus 's interior , the outermost part of Uranus 's gaseous envelope that is accessible to remote sensing is called its atmosphere . Remote @-@ sensing capability extends down to roughly 300 km below the 1 bar ( 100 kPa ) level , with a corresponding pressure around 100 bar ( 10 MPa ) and temperature of 320 K. The tenuous thermosphere extends over two planetary radii from the nominal surface , which is defined to lie at a pressure of 1 bar . The Uranian atmosphere can be divided into three layers : the troposphere , between altitudes of − 300 and 50 km and pressures from 100 to 0 @.@ 1 bar ( 10 MPa to 10 kPa ) ; the stratosphere , spanning altitudes between 50 and 4000 km and pressures of between 0 @.@ 1 and 10 − 10 bar ( 10 kPa to 10 µPa ) ; and the thermosphere extending from 4 @,@ 000 km to as high as 50 @,@ 000 km from the surface . There is no mesosphere .
= = = = Composition = = = =
The composition of Uranus 's atmosphere is different from its bulk , consisting mainly of molecular hydrogen and helium . The helium molar fraction , i.e. the number of helium atoms per molecule of gas , is 0 @.@ 15 ± 0 @.@ 03 in the upper troposphere , which corresponds to a mass fraction 0 @.@ 26 ± 0 @.@ 05 . This value is close to the protosolar helium mass fraction of 0 @.@ 275 ± 0 @.@ 01 , indicating that helium has not settled in its centre as it has in the gas giants . The third @-@ most @-@ abundant component of Uranus 's atmosphere is methane ( CH4 ) . Methane has prominent absorption bands in the visible and near @-@ infrared ( IR ) , making Uranus aquamarine or cyan in colour . Methane molecules account for 2 @.@ 3 % of the atmosphere by molar fraction below the methane cloud deck at the pressure level of 1 @.@ 3 bar ( 130 kPa ) ; this represents about 20 to 30 times the carbon abundance found in the Sun . The mixing ratio is much lower in the upper atmosphere due to its extremely low temperature , which lowers the saturation level and causes excess methane to freeze out . The abundances of less volatile compounds such as ammonia , water , and hydrogen sulfide in the deep atmosphere are poorly known . They are probably also higher than solar values . Along with methane , trace amounts of various hydrocarbons are found in the stratosphere of Uranus , which are thought to be produced from methane by photolysis induced by the solar ultraviolet ( UV ) radiation . They include ethane ( C2H6 ) , acetylene ( C2H2 ) , methylacetylene ( CH3C2H ) , and diacetylene ( C2HC2H ) . Spectroscopy has also uncovered traces of water vapor , carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide in the upper atmosphere , which can only originate from an external source such as infalling dust and comets .
= = = = Troposphere = = = =
The troposphere is the lowest and densest part of the atmosphere and is characterized by a decrease in temperature with altitude . The temperature falls from about 320 K at the base of the nominal troposphere at − 300 km to 53 K at 50 km . The temperatures in the coldest upper region of the troposphere ( the tropopause ) actually vary in the range between 49 and 57 K depending on planetary latitude . The tropopause region is responsible for the vast majority of Uranus 's thermal far infrared emissions , thus determining its effective temperature of 59 @.@ 1 ± 0 @.@ 3 K.
The troposphere is thought to have a highly complex cloud structure ; water clouds are hypothesised to lie in the pressure range of 50 to 100 bar ( 5 to 10 MPa ) , ammonium hydrosulfide clouds in the range of 20 to 40 bar ( 2 to 4 MPa ) , ammonia or hydrogen sulfide clouds at between 3 and 10 bar ( 0 @.@ 3 to 1 MPa ) and finally directly detected thin methane clouds at 1 to 2 bar ( 0 @.@ 1 to 0 @.@ 2 MPa ) . The troposphere is a dynamic part of the atmosphere , exhibiting strong winds , bright clouds and seasonal changes .
= = = = Upper atmosphere = = = =
The middle layer of the Uranian atmosphere is the stratosphere , where temperature generally increases with altitude from 53 K in the tropopause to between 800 and 850 K at the base of the thermosphere . The heating of the stratosphere is caused by absorption of solar UV and IR radiation by methane and other hydrocarbons , which form in this part of the atmosphere as a result of methane photolysis . Heat is also conducted from the hot thermosphere . The hydrocarbons occupy a relatively narrow layer at altitudes of between 100 and 300 km corresponding to a pressure range of 10 to 0 @.@ 1 mbar ( 1000 to 10 kPa ) and temperatures of between 75 and 170 K. The most abundant hydrocarbons are methane , acetylene and ethane with mixing ratios of around 10 − 7 relative to hydrogen . The mixing ratio of carbon monoxide is similar at these altitudes . Heavier hydrocarbons and carbon dioxide have mixing ratios three orders of magnitude lower . The abundance ratio of water is around 7 × 10 − 9 . Ethane and acetylene tend to condense in the colder lower part of stratosphere and tropopause ( below 10 mBar level ) forming haze layers , which may be partly responsible for the bland appearance of Uranus . The concentration of hydrocarbons in the Uranian stratosphere above the haze is significantly lower than in the stratospheres of the other giant planets .
The outermost layer of the Uranian atmosphere is the thermosphere and corona , which has a uniform temperature around 800 to 850 K. The heat sources necessary to sustain such a high level are not understood , as neither the solar UV nor the auroral activity can provide the necessary energy to maintain these temperatures . The weak cooling efficiency due to the lack of hydrocarbons in the stratosphere above 0 @.@ 1 mBar pressure level may contribute too . In addition to molecular hydrogen , the thermosphere @-@ corona contains many free hydrogen atoms . Their small mass and high temperatures explain why the corona extends as far as 50 000 km , or two Uranian radii , from its surface . This extended corona is a unique feature of Uranus . Its effects include a drag on small particles orbiting Uranus , causing a general depletion of dust in the Uranian rings . The Uranian thermosphere , together with the upper part of the stratosphere , corresponds to the ionosphere of Uranus . Observations show that the ionosphere occupies altitudes from 2 000 to 10 000 km . The Uranian ionosphere is denser than that of either Saturn or Neptune , which may arise from the low concentration of hydrocarbons in the stratosphere . The ionosphere is mainly sustained by solar UV radiation and its density depends on the solar activity . Auroral activity is insignificant as compared to Jupiter and Saturn .
Uranus 's atmosphere
= = = Magnetosphere = = =
Before the arrival of Voyager 2 , no measurements of the Uranian magnetosphere had been taken , so its nature remained a mystery . Before 1986 , scientists had expected the magnetic field of Uranus to be in line with the solar wind , because it would then align with Uranus 's poles that lie in the ecliptic .
Voyager 's observations revealed that Uranus 's magnetic field is peculiar , both because it does not originate from its geometric centre , and because it is tilted at 59 ° from the axis of rotation . In fact the magnetic dipole is shifted from the Uranus 's center towards the south rotational pole by as much as one third of the planetary radius . This unusual geometry results in a highly asymmetric magnetosphere , where the magnetic field strength on the surface in the southern hemisphere can be as low as 0 @.@ 1 gauss ( 10 µT ) , whereas in the northern hemisphere it can be as high as 1 @.@ 1 gauss ( 110 µT ) . The average field at the surface is 0 @.@ 23 gauss ( 23 µT ) . In comparison , the magnetic field of Earth is roughly as strong at either pole , and its " magnetic equator " is roughly parallel with its geographical equator . The dipole moment of Uranus is 50 times that of Earth . Neptune has a similarly displaced and tilted magnetic field , suggesting that this may be a common feature of ice giants . One hypothesis is that , unlike the magnetic fields of the terrestrial and gas giants , which are generated within their cores , the ice giants ' magnetic fields are generated by motion at relatively shallow depths , for instance , in the water – ammonia ocean . Another possible explanation for the magnetosphere 's alignment is that there are oceans of liquid diamond in Uranus 's interior that would deter the magnetic field .
Despite its curious alignment , in other respects the Uranian magnetosphere is like those of other planets : it has a bow shock at about 23 Uranian radii ahead of it , a magnetopause at 18 Uranian radii , a fully developed magnetotail , and radiation belts . Overall , the structure of Uranus 's magnetosphere is different from Jupiter 's and more similar to Saturn 's . Uranus 's magnetotail trails behind it into space for millions of kilometres and is twisted by its sideways rotation into a long corkscrew .
Uranus 's magnetosphere contains charged particles : mainly protons and electrons , with a small amount of H2 + ions . No heavier ions have been detected . Many of these particles probably derive from the hot atmospheric corona . The ion and electron energies can be as high as 4 and 1 @.@ 2 megaelectronvolts , respectively . The density of low @-@ energy ( below 1 kiloelectronvolt ) ions in the inner magnetosphere is about 2 cm − 3 . The particle population is strongly affected by the Uranian moons , which sweep through the magnetosphere , leaving noticeable gaps . The particle flux is high enough to cause darkening or space weathering of their surfaces on an astronomically rapid timescale of 100 @,@ 000 years . This may be the cause of the uniformly dark colouration of the Uranian satellites and rings . Uranus has relatively well developed aurorae , which are seen as bright arcs around both magnetic poles . Unlike Jupiter 's , Uranus 's aurorae seem to be insignificant for the energy balance of the planetary thermosphere .
= = Climate = =
At ultraviolet and visible wavelengths , Uranus 's atmosphere is bland in comparison to the other giant planets , even to Neptune , which it otherwise closely resembles . When Voyager 2 flew by Uranus in 1986 , it observed a total of ten cloud features across the entire planet . One proposed explanation for this dearth of features is that Uranus 's internal heat appears markedly lower than that of the other giant planets . The lowest temperature recorded in Uranus 's tropopause is 49 K , making Uranus the coldest planet in the Solar System , colder than Neptune .
= = = Banded structure , winds and clouds = = =
In 1986 , Voyager 2 found that the visible southern hemisphere of Uranus can be subdivided into two regions : a bright polar cap and dark equatorial bands . Their boundary is located at about − 45 ° of latitude . A narrow band straddling the latitudinal range from − 45 to − 50 ° is the brightest large feature on its visible surface . It is called a southern " collar " . The cap and collar are thought to be a dense region of methane clouds located within the pressure range of 1 @.@ 3 to 2 bar ( see above ) . Besides the large @-@ scale banded structure , Voyager 2 observed ten small bright clouds , most lying several degrees to the north from the collar . In all other respects Uranus looked like a dynamically dead planet in 1986 . Voyager 2 arrived during the height of Uranus 's southern summer and could not observe the northern hemisphere . At the beginning of the 21st century , when the northern polar region came into view , the Hubble Space Telescope ( HST ) and Keck telescope initially observed neither a collar nor a polar cap in the northern hemisphere . So Uranus appeared to be asymmetric : bright near the south pole and uniformly dark in the region north of the southern collar . In 2007 , when Uranus passed its equinox , the southern collar almost disappeared , and a faint northern collar emerged near 45 ° of latitude .
In the 1990s , the number of the observed bright cloud features grew considerably partly because new high @-@ resolution imaging techniques became available . Most were found in the northern hemisphere as it started to become visible . An early explanation — that bright clouds are easier to identify in its dark part , whereas in the southern hemisphere the bright collar masks them – was shown to be incorrect . Nevertheless there are differences between the clouds of each hemisphere . The northern clouds are smaller , sharper and brighter . They appear to lie at a higher altitude . The lifetime of clouds spans several orders of magnitude . Some small clouds live for hours ; at least one southern cloud may have persisted since the Voyager flyby . Recent observation also discovered that cloud features on Uranus have a lot in common with those on Neptune . For example , the dark spots common on Neptune had never been observed on Uranus before 2006 , when the first such feature dubbed Uranus Dark Spot was imaged . The speculation is that Uranus is becoming more Neptune @-@ like during its equinoctial season .
The tracking of numerous cloud features allowed determination of zonal winds blowing in the upper troposphere of Uranus . At the equator winds are retrograde , which means that they blow in the reverse direction to the planetary rotation . Their speeds are from − 100 to − 50 m / s . Wind speeds increase with the distance from the equator , reaching zero values near ± 20 ° latitude , where the troposphere 's temperature minimum is located . Closer to the poles , the winds shift to a prograde direction , flowing with Uranus 's rotation . Wind speeds continue to increase reaching maxima at ± 60 ° latitude before falling to zero at the poles . Wind speeds at − 40 ° latitude range from 150 to 200 m / s . Because the collar obscures all clouds below that parallel , speeds between it and the southern pole are impossible to measure . In contrast , in the northern hemisphere maximum speeds as high as 240 m / s are observed near + 50 ° latitude .
= = = Seasonal variation = = =
For a short period from March to May 2004 , large clouds appeared in the Uranian atmosphere , giving it a Neptune @-@ like appearance . Observations included record @-@ breaking wind speeds of 229 m / s ( 824 km / h ) and a persistent thunderstorm referred to as " Fourth of July fireworks " . On August 23 , 2006 , researchers at the Space Science Institute ( Boulder , Colorado ) and the University of Wisconsin observed a dark spot on Uranus 's surface , giving scientists more insight into Uranus 's atmospheric activity . Why this sudden upsurge in activity occurred is not fully known , but it appears that Uranus 's extreme axial tilt results in extreme seasonal variations in its weather . Determining the nature of this seasonal variation is difficult because good data on Uranus 's atmosphere have existed for less than 84 years , or one full Uranian year . Photometry over the course of half a Uranian year ( beginning in the 1950s ) has shown regular variation in the brightness in two spectral bands , with maxima occurring at the solstices and minima occurring at the equinoxes . A similar periodic variation , with maxima at the solstices , has been noted in microwave measurements of the deep troposphere begun in the 1960s . Stratospheric temperature measurements beginning in the 1970s also showed maximum values near the 1986 solstice . The majority of this variability is thought to occur owing to changes in the viewing geometry .
There are some indications that physical seasonal changes are happening in Uranus . Although Uranus is known to have a bright south polar region , the north pole is fairly dim , which is incompatible with the model of the seasonal change outlined above . During its previous northern solstice in 1944 , Uranus displayed elevated levels of brightness , which suggests that the north pole was not always so dim . This information implies that the visible pole brightens some time before the solstice and darkens after the equinox . Detailed analysis of the visible and microwave data revealed that the periodical changes of brightness are not completely symmetrical around the solstices , which also indicates a change in the meridional albedo patterns . In the 1990s , as Uranus moved away from its solstice , Hubble and ground @-@ based telescopes revealed that the south polar cap darkened noticeably ( except the southern collar , which remained bright ) , whereas the northern hemisphere demonstrated increasing activity , such as cloud formations and stronger winds , bolstering expectations that it should brighten soon . This indeed happened in 2007 when it passed an equinox : a faint northern polar collar arose , and the southern collar became nearly invisible , although the zonal wind profile remained slightly asymmetric , with northern winds being somewhat slower than southern .
The mechanism of these physical changes is still not clear . Near the summer and winter solstices , Uranus 's hemispheres lie alternately either in full glare of the Sun 's rays or facing deep space . The brightening of the sunlit hemisphere is thought to result from the local thickening of the methane clouds and haze layers located in the troposphere . The bright collar at − 45 ° latitude is also connected with methane clouds . Other changes in the southern polar region can be explained by changes in the lower cloud layers . The variation of the microwave emission from Uranus is probably caused by changes in the deep tropospheric circulation , because thick polar clouds and haze may inhibit convection . Now that the spring and autumn equinoxes are arriving on Uranus , the dynamics are changing and convection can occur again .
= = Formation = =
Many argue that the differences between the ice giants and the gas giants extend to their formation . The Solar System is hypothesized to have formed from a giant rotating ball of gas and dust known as the presolar nebula . Much of the nebula 's gas , primarily hydrogen and helium , formed the Sun , and the dust grains collected together to form the first protoplanets . As the planets grew , some of them eventually accreted enough matter for their gravity to hold on to the nebula 's leftover gas . The more gas they held onto , the larger they became ; the larger they became , the more gas they held onto until a critical point was reached , and their size began to increase exponentially . The ice giants , with only a few Earth masses of nebular gas , never reached that critical point . Recent simulations of planetary migration have suggested that both ice giants formed closer to the Sun than their present positions , and moved outwards after formation ( the Nice model ) .
= = Moons = =
Uranus has 27 known natural satellites . The names of these satellites are chosen from characters in the works of Shakespeare and Alexander Pope . The five main satellites are Miranda , Ariel , Umbriel , Titania , and Oberon . The Uranian satellite system is the least massive among those of the giant planets ; the combined mass of the five major satellites would be less than half that of Triton ( largest moon of Neptune ) alone . The largest of Uranus 's satellites , Titania , has a radius of only 788 @.@ 9 km , or less than half that of the Moon , but slightly more than Rhea , the second @-@ largest satellite of Saturn , making Titania the eighth @-@ largest moon in the Solar System . Uranus 's satellites have relatively low albedos ; ranging from 0 @.@ 20 for Umbriel to 0 @.@ 35 for Ariel ( in green light ) . They are ice – rock conglomerates composed of roughly 50 % ice and 50 % rock . The ice may include ammonia and carbon dioxide .
Among the Uranian satellites , Ariel appears to have the youngest surface with the fewest impact craters and Umbriel 's the oldest . Miranda has fault canyons 20 kilometres deep , terraced layers , and a chaotic variation in surface ages and features . Miranda 's past geologic activity is thought to have been driven by tidal heating at a time when its orbit was more eccentric than currently , probably as a result of a former 3 : 1 orbital resonance with Umbriel . Extensional processes associated with upwelling diapirs are the likely origin of Miranda 's ' racetrack ' -like coronae . Ariel is thought to have once been held in a 4 : 1 resonance with Titania .
Uranus has at least one horseshoe orbiter occupying the Sun – Uranus L3 Lagrangian point — a gravitationally unstable region at 180 ° in its orbit , 83982 Crantor . Crantor moves inside Uranus 's co @-@ orbital region on a complex , temporary horseshoe orbit . 2010 EU65 is also a promising Uranus horseshoe librator candidate .
= = = Planetary rings = = =
The rings are composed of extremely dark particles , which vary in size from micrometres to a fraction of a metre . Thirteen distinct rings are presently known , the brightest being the ε ring . All except two rings of Uranus are extremely narrow – they are usually a few kilometres wide . The rings are probably quite young ; the dynamics considerations indicate that they did not form with Uranus . The matter in the rings may once have been part of a moon ( or moons ) that was shattered by high @-@ speed impacts . From numerous pieces of debris that formed as a result of those impacts , only a few particles survived , in stable zones corresponding to the locations of the present rings .
William Herschel described a possible ring around Uranus in 1789 . This sighting is generally considered doubtful , because the rings are quite faint , and in the two following centuries none were noted by other observers . Still , Herschel made an accurate description of the epsilon ring 's size , its angle relative to Earth , its red colour , and its apparent changes as Uranus travelled around the Sun . The ring system was definitively discovered on March 10 , 1977 by James L. Elliot , Edward W. Dunham , and Jessica Mink using the Kuiper Airborne Observatory . The discovery was serendipitous ; they planned to use the occultation of the star SAO 158687 ( also known as HD 128598 ) by Uranus to study its atmosphere . When their observations were analysed , they found that the star had disappeared briefly from view five times both before and after it disappeared behind Uranus . They concluded that there must be a ring system around Uranus . Later they detected four additional rings . The rings were directly imaged when Voyager 2 passed Uranus in 1986 . Voyager 2 also discovered two additional faint rings , bringing the total number to eleven .
In December 2005 , the Hubble Space Telescope detected a pair of previously unknown rings . The largest is located twice as far from Uranus as the previously known rings . These new rings are so far from Uranus that they are called the " outer " ring system . Hubble also spotted two small satellites , one of which , Mab , shares its orbit with the outermost newly discovered ring . The new rings bring the total number of Uranian rings to 13 . In April 2006 , images of the new rings from the Keck Observatory yielded the colours of the outer rings : the outermost is blue and the other one red . One hypothesis concerning the outer ring 's blue colour is that it is composed of minute particles of water ice from the surface of Mab that are small enough to scatter blue light . In contrast , Uranus 's inner rings appear grey .
Uranus 's rings
= = Exploration = =
In 1986 , NASA 's Voyager 2 interplanetary probe encountered Uranus . This flyby remains the only investigation of Uranus carried out from a short distance and no other visits are planned . Launched in 1977 , Voyager 2 made its closest approach to Uranus on January 24 , 1986 , coming within 81 @,@ 500 kilometres of the cloudtops , before continuing its journey to Neptune . The spacecraft studied the structure and chemical composition of Uranus 's atmosphere , including its unique weather , caused by its axial tilt of 97 @.@ 77 ° . It made the first detailed investigations of its five largest moons and discovered 10 new ones . It examined all nine of the system 's known rings and discovered two more . It also studied the magnetic field , its irregular structure , its tilt and its unique corkscrew magnetotail caused by Uranus 's sideways orientation .
Voyager 1 was unable to visit Uranus because investigation of Saturn 's moon Titan was considered a priority . This trajectory took Voyager 1 out the plane of the ecliptic , ending its planetary science mission .
The possibility of sending the Cassini spacecraft from Saturn to Uranus was evaluated during a mission extension planning phase in 2009 . It would take about twenty years to get to the Uranian system after departing Saturn . A Uranus orbiter and probe was recommended by the 2013 – 2022 Planetary Science Decadal Survey published in 2011 ; the proposal envisages launch during 2020 – 2023 and a 13 @-@ year cruise to Uranus . A Uranus entry probe could use Pioneer Venus Multiprobe heritage and descend to 1 – 5 atmospheres . The ESA evaluated a " medium @-@ class " mission called Uranus Pathfinder . A New Frontiers Uranus Orbiter has been evaluated and recommended in the study , The Case for a Uranus Orbiter . Such a mission is aided by the ease with which a relatively big mass can be sent to the system — over 1500 kg with an Atlas 521 and 12 @-@ year journey . For more concepts see Proposed Uranus missions .
= = In culture = =
In astrology , the planet Uranus ( ) is the ruling planet of Aquarius . Because Uranus is cyan and Uranus is associated with electricity , the colour electric blue , which is close to cyan , is associated with the sign Aquarius ( see Uranus in astrology ) .
The chemical element uranium , discovered in 1789 by the German chemist Martin Heinrich Klaproth , was named after the newly discovered planet Uranus .
" Uranus , the Magician " is a movement in Gustav Holst 's The Planets , written between 1914 and 1916 .
Operation Uranus was the successful military operation in World War II by the Soviet army to take back Stalingrad and marked the turning point in the land war against the Wehrmacht .
The lines " Then felt I like some watcher of the skies / When a new planet swims into his ken " , from John Keats 's " On First Looking Into Chapman 's Homer " , are a reference to Herschel 's discovery of Uranus .
= Mark Hanna =
Marcus Alonzo " Mark " Hanna ( September 24 , 1837 – February 15 , 1904 ) was an American businessman and Republican politician , who served as a United States Senator from Ohio . A friend and political ally of President William McKinley , Hanna used his wealth and business skills to successfully manage McKinley 's presidential campaigns in 1896 and 1900 .
Hanna was born in New Lisbon ( today Lisbon ) , Ohio , in 1837 . His family moved to the growing city of Cleveland in his teenage years , where he attended high school with John D. Rockefeller . He was expelled from college , and entered the family mercantile business . He served briefly during the American Civil War and married Charlotte Rhodes ; her father , Daniel Rhodes , took Hanna into his business after the war . Hanna was soon a partner in the firm , which grew to have interests in many areas , especially coal and iron . He was a millionaire by his 40th birthday , and turned his attention to politics .
Despite Hanna 's efforts on his behalf , Ohio Senator John Sherman failed to gain the Republican nomination for president in 1884 and 1888 . With Sherman becoming too old to be considered a contender , Hanna worked to elect McKinley . In 1895 , Hanna left his business career to devote himself full @-@ time to McKinley 's campaign for president . Hanna paid all expenses to get McKinley the nomination the following year , although he was in any event the frontrunner . The Democrats nominated former Nebraska Congressman William Jennings Bryan , who ran on a bimetallism , or " Free Silver " , platform . Hanna 's fundraising broke records , and once initial public enthusiasm for Bryan and his program subsided , McKinley was comfortably elected .
Declining a Cabinet position , Hanna secured appointment as senator from Ohio after Sherman was made Secretary of State ; he was re @-@ elected by the Ohio General Assembly in 1898 and 1904 . After McKinley 's assassination in 1901 , Senator Hanna worked for the building of a canal in Panama , rather than elsewhere in Central America , as had previously been proposed . He died in 1904 , and is remembered for his role in McKinley 's election , thanks to savage cartoons by such illustrators as Homer Davenport , who lampooned him as McKinley 's political master .
= = Early life and business career = =
Marcus Alonzo Hanna was born on September 24 , 1837 , in New Lisbon ( in 1895 renamed Lisbon ) , Ohio , to Dr. Leonard and Samantha Hanna . Leonard 's father , Benjamin Hanna , a Quaker of Scotch @-@ Irish descent , was a wealthy store owner in New Lisbon . Dr. Hanna practiced in Columbiana County , where New Lisbon was located , until he suffered a spinal injury while riding . After the accident , he joined the family business , B. , L. , and T. Hanna , by now a major grocery and goods brokering firm . Samantha , née Converse , and her parents had journeyed west from Vermont when she was 11 ; she was of English , possibly Irish , and French Huguenot descent .
Mark 's uncle Kersey Hanna described Mark as a boy as " short , strong and rugged , with a full round figure " . Young Mark attended the local public school , which conducted class in the basement of the Presbyterian church . He competed in the local boys ' debating society , and on the question of whether the black man had more cause for complaint than the Indian , carried the day arguing for the blacks .
Members of the Hanna family invested in a canal project to connect New Lisbon , distant from waterways , to the Ohio River . The canal was a failure , and the family lost large sums of money . Most Hanna family members left New Lisbon in the early 1850s . Dr. Hanna went into partnership with his brother Robert , starting a grocery business in Cleveland , and relocated his family there in 1852 . In Cleveland , Mark attended several public schools , including Cleveland Central High School , which he went to at the same time as John D. Rockefeller . After graduation in 1857 , Hanna attended Western Reserve College , but was dismissed for distributing mock programs at a solemn ceremonial . Hanna served in various capacities in the family business , learning it from the bottom up .
= = Civil War service = =
By the start of the Civil War , he was a major participant in the business . Dr. Hanna had fallen ill with complications from his spinal injury ( he died on December 15 , 1862 ) , and Mark Hanna , even before his father 's death , was made a partner .
With an ill father and many business responsibilities , Mark Hanna could not be spared by his family to join the Union Army , hiring a substitute to enlist in his place . Instead , he became a member of the Perry Light Infantry , a regiment of National Guard troops consisting mostly of young Cleveland business men . In 1864 , his regiment was briefly mustered into active service as the 150th Ohio Infantry and sent to be garrison troops at Fort Stevens , part of Washington , D.C. ' s defenses . During the time the Perry Light Infantry was in service , it saw brief combat action as Confederate General Jubal Early feigned an attack on Washington . However , Hanna , who had been commissioned a second lieutenant , was absent during that time , having been sent to escort the body of a deceased soldier back to Ohio . The regiment was mustered out in August 1864 . After the war , Hanna was elected a companion of the Ohio Commandery of the Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States - a military society of officers of the Union armed forces and their descendants .
= = Post war = =
Even before his service during the Civil War , Hanna had fallen in love with Charlotte Augusta Rhodes , whom he met in 1862 , shortly after her return from a finishing school . Her father Daniel Rhodes was an ardent Democrat and was distantly related to Illinois Senator Stephen A. Douglas , the unsuccessful Democratic candidate for president in 1860 . Rhodes disliked the fact that Hanna had supported the successful Republican candidate , former Illinois Congressman Abraham Lincoln . Daniel Rhodes eventually yielded , and Mark and Charlotte Augusta Hanna were married on September 27 , 1864 .
The 1850s and 1860s were a time of great expansion for Cleveland , which grew from a small lakeside town to a major player in Great Lakes commerce and a rival to the southern Ohio city of Cincinnati . With peace restored in 1865 , Hanna struck out on his own ventures . Foreseeing a demand for petroleum products , he built a refinery , and also invested his own money in the Lac La Belle , a swift Great Lakes steamer . The ship sank and the refinery burned , uninsured . The losses reduced Hanna to near @-@ insolvency . According to Hanna biographer Herbert Croly , " he had gained little from the first nine years of his business life except experience . " His father @-@ in @-@ law , appreciating Hanna 's potential , took him into his own business in 1867 as a partner , and soon retired . The firm , Rhodes and Company ( later M.A. Hanna and Company ) , dealt principally in coal and steel , but under Hanna expanded into many fields . The firm had close dealings with the railroads — especially the Pennsylvania Railroad , which carried much of its freight . Hanna later became director of two railroads , including one of the Pennsylvania 's leased lines .
In the 1868 presidential election , Hanna supported the Republican , former Union General Ulysses S. Grant . The flood of inflationary greenback currency issued during the war made Rhodes and Company 's dealings in the new confederation of Canada difficult ; merchants would accept a dollar in paper money as the equivalent of 35 cents in gold . Hanna hoped that Grant , who was elected , would institute policies which would return full value to the currency . The firm built many vessels and also gained interests in a wide variety of firms , which in turn used the Rhodes steamers . Hanna also purchased Cleveland 's opera house , allowing it to remain open at times when it could not pay its full rent .
During Grant 's first four @-@ year term , Hanna began to involve himself in politics . At first his interest was purely local , supporting Republican candidates for municipal and Cuyahoga County offices . In 1869 , he was elected to the Cleveland Board of Education , but as he was traveling a good deal for business at the time , was able to attend less than half the meetings . In 1873 , disgusted by local scandals and the influence of party bosses , he and other Republicans briefly abandoned the party to elect a Democrat running for mayor of Cleveland on a reform agenda .
= = Aspiring kingmaker ( 1880 – 1888 ) = =
In 1880 , Hanna added The Cleveland Herald newspaper to his business empire . This was resented by Edwin Cowles , who owned the Republican newspaper in Cleveland , The Cleveland Leader . For the next five years , until Hanna sold the newspaper , he was bitterly attacked by Cowles in his paper . According to Hanna biographer William T. Horner , the episode was the start of the negative image of Hanna in the press which would be further developed by the Hearst newspapers over a decade later . Cowles ' paper attacked Hanna personally , dubbing him " Marcus Aurelius " . Cowles ' choice of nickname was dictated by the coincidence of name , without regard to that emperor 's good reputation . The nickname remained with Hanna throughout the remainder of his career .
The incumbent in 1880 , President Rutherford Hayes , had no interest in seeking a second term ; after 36 ballots , the Republicans nominated Ohio Representative James Garfield . The nominee had gone to the convention as manager of the campaign of his fellow Ohioan , Secretary of the Treasury John Sherman . Garfield had emerged as a candidate after delegates were impressed by his nomination speech of Sherman . Although Hanna did not attend the convention , he was very active in the fall campaign . The industrialist helped found a businessman 's fundraising club to raise money for Garfield 's personal expenses in the campaign . Garfield , who ran a front porch campaign , often had to entertain politicians and others who came to meet him at his home in Mentor . According to Charles Dick , who succeeded Hanna in the Senate after the latter 's death in 1904 , " Mr. Hanna had as much to do with the election of Mr. Garfield as any single individual in the country . "
Hanna , according to his biographer Croly , was in charge of the arrangements for the campaign visit of former President Grant and New York Senator Roscoe Conkling to the state . Croly credits him with persuading the two men , who were Stalwarts hostile to Garfield 's Half @-@ Breed wing of the party , to visit Garfield in Mentor . Having Grant go to Mentor would be an important show of party unity — Grant had sought the presidency again in 1880 , but his faction had failed to gain the nomination for him . However , later biographer Horner believes the tale dubious , suggesting that Grant made the decision unaided by Hanna . Garfield favored civil service reform , a position disliked by Hanna , who felt that public jobs should be used to reward campaign workers . Nevertheless , he strongly supported Garfield as a fellow Ohioan , and the Republican candidate defeated his fellow Civil War general Winfield Hancock by a narrow margin in the November election . Hanna did much fundraising work , roaming the state to persuade business owners to contribute to the Garfield campaign .
Hanna sought no position in the Garfield administration , although Horner states that his services to the campaign entitled him to a reward , and speculates that Hanna did not make any request of Garfield because of their political differences . Garfield 's short @-@ lived administration ended with his assassination after six months in office . Hanna was in charge of the committee which took charge of the late president 's body when it was brought to Cleveland and saw to the funeral arrangements and interment at Lake View Cemetery — where Hanna himself was to be laid to rest over 20 years later .
In 1884 , Hanna sought election as a delegate to the Republican National Convention in support of the presidential bid of Senator Sherman ( as he was by then ) — President Chester A. Arthur , Garfield 's successor , was seeking re @-@ nomination , but was opposed by a number of other Republicans Hanna supported Sherman as the candidate favored the gold standard and worked to solve the problems of business , and because he was from Ohio . The industrialist was successfully opposed by Cowles at the local convention , but was elected a delegate at @-@ large from Ohio at the state convention . At the national convention , Hanna joined forces in support of Sherman with another delegate at @-@ large from Ohio , former Cincinnati judge Joseph B. Foraker , whose rise in state and national politics over the next 20 years would parallel Hanna 's . The Ohio delegation proved bitterly divided between supporters of Sherman and those supporting Maine Senator James G. Blaine . Foraker gained national acclaim with his speech nominating Sherman , and Hanna worked for the senator 's nomination , but Blaine won easily . With a non @-@ Ohioan the nominee , Hanna worked less energetically for the Republicans than he had in 1880 . Blaine lost to the Democratic candidate , New York Governor Grover Cleveland .
During the first Cleveland administration , Hanna continued to run his businesses , and prepared for another run by Sherman , whom he did not actually meet until 1885 . Once he did , however , a warm relationship grew between the two men . President Cleveland selected Hanna as one of the Union Pacific Railroad 's directors — part of the corporate board was then appointed by the government . The appointment was most likely at the recommendation of Senator Sherman . The industrialist 's work for the railroad was highly praised by its president , Charles Francis Adams ; Hanna 's knowledge of the coal business led to him being appointed head of one of the board 's committees with responsibility in that area . Hanna was a major campaign adviser and fundraiser for Foraker 's successful runs for governor in 1885 and 1887 .
= = McKinley partisan ( 1888 – 96 ) = =
= = = Early relationship = = =
It is uncertain when William McKinley and Mark Hanna first met — neither man in later life could remember the first meeting . McKinley , in 1896 , referred to a friendship with Hanna that had lasted over twenty years ; Hanna , in 1903 , stated after some thought that he had met McKinley before 1876 . McKinley biographer H. Wayne Morgan suggests that the two men may have met as early as 1871 , although initially without making much impression on each other .
The two men certainly met in 1876 , when McKinley , a lawyer , represented a number of coal miners who had rioted following attempts by owners to cut wages . Hanna was one of the mine owners affected by the unrest . The militia , called in by Governor Rutherford Hayes , had fired on the strikers , and 23 miners were arrested and put on trial in Canton , Ohio , the hometown of Major McKinley ( as he was often known , for his Civil War service ) . McKinley was hired to represent them , and only one was convicted . McKinley 's victory won him the gratitude of labor elements in both major parties , and he won election to Congress later that year . Hanna remembered , " I became intimate with him soon after he entered Congress , and our friendship ripened with each succeeding year . "
With Cowles ' enmity ended by Hanna 's sale of the Herald , the latter had little trouble being elected as a district delegate to the 1888 Republican National Convention . Among the delegates at @-@ large were Governor Foraker and Congressman McKinley . Hanna financed many of the arrangements for the Sherman campaign and was widely regarded as its manager . Sherman , as was customary at the time , remained in Washington and did not attend the convention in Chicago . There was widespread speculation in the press that Governor Foraker , nominally a Sherman supporter , would declare a favorite son candidacy or else support Blaine if he entered the race . The convention deadlocked , with Sherman in the lead but unable to secure the nomination . According to Hanna biographer Thomas Beer ,
At the Republican convention of 1888 an accident displayed Major McKinley favorably to Marcus Hanna . A distinct faction , made up of men from every part of the country , approached him with a suggestion that he let himself be nominated . McKinley refused , and bluntly . He had come there pledged to support John Sherman and he would support John Sherman ... Mr. Hanna 's admiration of Major McKinley was profuse . He appreciated men who stuck to a losing bargain .
McKinley began to pick up small numbers of votes although not a declared candidate . Hanna became convinced that McKinley was the only Ohioan who could gain the nomination , and by telegram hinted that Sherman should withdraw in the congressman 's favor as the only Ohio Republican with a chance at the presidency . Sherman , believing this to be his best chance for election , refused , a decision which Hanna accepted , fighting for Sherman to the end . Hanna was greatly impressed by McKinley 's loyal conduct in refusing to begin a run himself . Foraker threw his support to Blaine , though he returned to Sherman when the New Englander did not run . In the end , the nomination fell to former Indiana senator Benjamin Harrison . Hanna never forgave what he saw as Foraker 's treason . After 1888 , there was a strong dislike between the two men , and the separation split the Ohio Republican Party into two factions , a rupture that did not heal until after Hanna 's death in 1904 . Foraker stated in his memoirs that the break occurred because Hanna bribed black delegates from the South in 1888 . However , Ohio newspaper publisher J. B. Morrow contradicted Foraker 's account , stating : " I was at the convention in 1888 and know Senator Foraker [ as he later became ] brought great scandal to the Ohio people who were there and to the delegates with his secret work with Mr. Blaine 's friends ... Mr. Hanna became thoroughly angered at what he thought was Senator Foraker 's bad faith . " According to Horner , Foraker was the more embittered of the two as the years passed , feeling that if it had not been for that dispute , Foraker , not McKinley , might have become president .
Harrison was elected president after a campaign in which Hanna fundraised considerably , consoling himself with the thought that though Harrison was an Indianan , he had at least been born in Ohio . Harrison gave Hanna no control of any patronage in return for his fundraising . In the aftermath of Harrison 's victory , Hanna determined to bring an Ohioan to the presidency . With Harrison likely to be the Republican candidate in 1892 , the first real chance would be in 1896 . Sherman would be 73 in 1896 , likely considered too old to seek the presidency . Hanna had come to admire McKinley ; the two men shared many political views . Beginning in 1888 , they forged an increasingly close relationship . According to McKinley biographer Margaret Leech :
In choosing McKinley as the object on which to lavish his energies , Hanna had not made a purely rational decision . He had been magnetized by a polar attraction . Cynical in his acceptance of contemporary political practices , Hanna was drawn to McKinley 's scruples and idealistic standards , like a hardened man of the world who becomes infatuated with virgin innocence .
However , Hanna biographer Clarence A. Stern suggested that while the industrialist admired McKinley 's loyalty to Sherman , the principal reason that he decided to promote McKinley 's career was the congressman 's advocacy of high tariffs , which he also favored .
Hanna and his allies , such as Congressman Benjamin Butterworth , opposed Foraker 's effort to secure a third term as governor in 1889 . Foraker gained renomination , but fell in the general election . In November 1889 , Hanna traveled to Washington to manage McKinley 's campaign for Speaker of the House . The effort failed ; another Republican , Thomas B. Reed of Maine , was elected .
In 1890 McKinley was defeated for re @-@ election to Congress . This was not seen as a major setback to his career ; he was deemed beaten by Democratic gerrymandering in redistricting , and because of his sponsorship of a tariff bill — the increased tariffs had caused prices to rise . In 1891 , McKinley proved the consensus choice for the Republican nomination for governor . With McKinley 's candidacy needing little of his attention , Hanna spent much of his time working to secure Sherman 's re @-@ election by the Ohio Legislature ( senators were elected by state legislatures until the ratification of the 17th Amendment in 1913 ) by raising funds to gain the election of Republican candidates . Hanna traveled as far away from Ohio as New York and Iowa , soliciting funds , some of which went to McKinley , but which for the most part went to the state Republican committee .
Victories by McKinley in the gubernatorial race and by the Republicans in securing a majority in the legislature in 1891 did not guarantee Sherman another term , as he was challenged for his seat by Foraker . Hanna was instrumental in keeping enough Republican support to secure victory by Sherman in the Republican caucus , assuring his election by the legislature . Hanna hired detectives to find legislators who had gone into hiding and were believed to be Foraker supporters , and saw to it they supported Sherman . Stern notes that the defeat of Foraker " was ascribable largely to the efforts of Hanna " . McKinley 's victory in what was generally a bad year for Republicans made him a possible presidential contender , and Hanna 's involvement in the McKinley and Sherman victories established him as a force in politics . President Harrison attempted to neutralize Hanna , who was ill @-@ disposed to the President and likely to oppose his renomination , by offering to make him treasurer of the Republican National Committee . Hanna declined , feeling it would make him beholden to the administration .
= = = Preparing for a run = = =
As early as 1892 , McKinley and Hanna began to prepare for the 1896 campaign . Charles Dick recalled being asked to take the Republican state chairmanship :
I went first to see Governor McKinley . He urged me to accept and asked me to see Mr. Hanna , which I did the next day . The reasons both urged were that the campaigns from 1892 down to 1896 must be conducted with a view to bringing about McKinley 's nomination in 1896 . McKinley spoke of it and so did Mr. Hanna .
President Harrison had proven unpopular even in his own party , and with the start of 1892 , McKinley was talked about as a potential candidate . At the 1892 Republican National Convention in Minneapolis , McKinley 's keynote address sparked wild applause from a convention friendly to him . This popularity did not translate into delegate votes ; Harrison 's supporters were in control of the convention throughout . Hanna , a delegate from Ohio , promoted McKinley to delegates . McKinley , never a declared candidate , finished third , a fraction of a vote behind Blaine , who had declared himself not to be a candidate . Despite Harrison 's success , McKinley was carried from the convention hall to his hotel by supporters after he adjourned the convention . According to Morgan , many delegates " saw in [ McKinley ] their nominee for 1896 " .
Harrison and his adherents were unimpressed by McKinley 's conduct , recalling that he had cut off talk of a candidacy in 1888 , but had not done so in 1892 . Nevertheless , Hanna wrote in a letter that " I do not consider that Governor McKinley was placed in any false position by what was done ... Governor McKinley 's position today as a result of all that transpired at Minneapolis is in the best possible shape for his future . His bearing and conduct and personal magnetism won the hearts and respect of everybody . " McKinley campaigned loyally for President Harrison , who was defeated by former president Cleveland in the November election , and according to the governor 's secretary , Charles Bawsel , " [ McKinley ] is bound to be the nominee for the presidency , and the very fact of the defeat this year will elect him the next time . "
Among those who suffered reverses in the financial Panic of 1893 was a McKinley friend in Youngstown . McKinley , out of gratitude for loans in his younger days , had guaranteed the friend 's business notes , without ever grasping the full amount of the obligations he was taking on . He was called upon to pay over $ 100 @,@ 000 and proposed to resign as governor and earn the money as an attorney . Hanna was absent from the state when the crisis broke , causing the governor to say " I wish Mark was here . " McKinley 's wealthy supporters , including Hanna once he learned of the situation , undertook to buy up or pay the notes . McKinley was reluctant to take gifts , and eventually agreed to accept money only from those who expected nothing by lending the money but repayment . Even though both McKinley and his wife Ida insisted on putting their property in the hands of the supporters , who served as trustees , Hanna and his associates fundraised with such success from business owners and the general public that all McKinley property was returned intact , and when President McKinley died in 1901 , no claims were made against his estate . A request by McKinley for the names of the subscribers so he might repay them was refused by the trustees . The episode made McKinley more popular with the public , as many Americans had suffered in the hard times and sympathized with the Ohio governor .
McKinley was easily re @-@ elected as governor in 1893 . Despite the poor economic times in Ohio , he remained popular , and spoke across much of the nation for Republican candidates . He followed the usual Ohio custom and stepped down at the end of two two @-@ year terms , returning home to Canton in January 1896 to municipal celebrations . The Canton Repository stated , " It is just plain Mr. McKinley of Canton now , but wait a little while . " To devote full @-@ time to McKinley 's presidential campaign , Hanna in 1895 turned over management of his companies to his brother Leonard . Mark Hanna was certain , as he stated as McKinley 's campaign began , that " nothing short of a miracle or death will prevent his being the nominee of the party in ' 96 " .
= = Campaign of 1896 = =
= = = Nominating McKinley = = =
After leaving business , Hanna rented a house in Thomasville , Georgia , expressing a dislike for northern winters . He was joined there by the McKinleys in 1895 , even before the governor left office , and also in the winter of 1896 . The location was a plausibly nonpolitical vacation spot for McKinley , and also permitted him to meet many southern Republicans , including blacks . Although southern Republicans rarely had local electoral success , they elected a substantial number of delegates to the national convention .
During 1895 , Hanna journeyed east to meet with political bosses such as Senators Matthew Quay of Pennsylvania and Thomas Platt of New York . When Hanna returned to Canton , he informed McKinley that the bosses would guarantee his nomination in exchange for control of local patronage . McKinley was unwilling to make such a deal , and Hanna duly undertook to gain the former governor 's nomination without machine support .
Historian R. Hal Williams summarized the relationship between McKinley and Hanna :
McKinley and Hanna made an effective team . The Major commanded , decided general strategies , selected issues and programs . He stressed ideals ... Hanna organized , built coalitions , performed the rougher work for which McKinley had neither taste nor energy . Importantly , they shared a Hamiltonian faith in the virtue of industrialism , central authority , and expansive capitalism . That faith , triumphant in the 1896 presidential election , became one of the reasons for the vital importance of that election .
Through the months leading up to the Republican convention in June in St. Louis , Hanna built his organization , paying for expenses , and applying the techniques of business to politics . Hanna met with many politicians at his Cleveland home . He paid for thousands of copies of McKinley 's speeches to be printed , and shipped quantities of McKinley posters , badges , and buttons across the nation . New Hampshire Senator William E. Chandler commented , " If Mr. Hanna has covered every district in the United States in the same manner he did those in Alabama , McKinley will be nominated . "
McKinley 's most formidable rival for the nomination was former president Harrison , but in February 1896 , Harrison declared he would not run for president a third time . The eastern bosses were hostile to McKinley for failing to agree to the offer they had made to Hanna , and they decided to seek support for local favorite son candidates , believing that McKinley could be forced to bargain for support at the convention if he was denied a majority . The bosses supported candidates such as Speaker Reed , Senator Quay and former vice president Levi P. Morton of New York . Hanna spent much money and effort to undercut Reed in his native New England , and on " McKinley Clubs " in Pennsylvania to force Quay to spend time and money shoring up his base .
A key to defeating the bosses ' " favorite son " strategy was Illinois . A young Chicago businessman and McKinley supporter , Charles Dawes ( who would thirty years later be vice president under Coolidge ) worked at Illinois district and state conventions to elect delegates pledged to McKinley . Dawes and Hanna worked closely together , with the latter relying on the young entrepreneur to secure support from his connections in the Chicago business community . Despite the opposition of Illinois ' Republican political machine , Dawes and Hanna were able to secure all but a few of Illinois ' delegates for McKinley , giving the former Ohio governor a strong advantage going into the convention . According to Williams , " As early as March 1896 , the bandwagon had become a steamroller . "
As the convention approached , journalists awoke to the fact that McKinley would , most likely , be the Republican nominee . Those newspapers that were Democratic in their outlook , including publisher William Randolph Hearst 's New York Journal , sent reporters to Canton to dig up dirt on McKinley . The candidate had a sterling reputation for personal and political honesty , and reporters found that even McKinley 's few personal enemies spoke well of him . McKinley 's financial problem in 1893 was one of the few marks on his record , and the newspapers began to suggest that those who had made large contributions to aid him would own him as president . Attacks on some of McKinley 's associates , such as Chicago publisher H. H. Kohlsaat or McKinley 's old friend from his days as a practicing lawyer , Judge William R. Day , cut little ice with voters ; the press had better luck with Hanna . The Journal began to describe McKinley 's backers as a " Syndicate " , staking money to secure a bought @-@ and @-@ paid @-@ for president . Journal reporter Alfred Henry Lewis attracted considerable attention when he wrote , " Hanna and the others will shuffle and deal him like a pack of cards . "
In St. Louis , the bosses again tried to secure political favors in exchange for their support ; with little need to deal , Hanna , backed by McKinley via telephone from Canton , refused . McKinley was nominated easily . To balance the ticket , McKinley and Hanna selected New Jersey party official and former state legislator Garret Hobart , an easterner , as vice @-@ presidential candidate . The convention duly nominated Hobart ; Hanna was elected chairman of the Republican National Committee for the next four years .
= = = Currency question ; Democratic nomination = = =
A major issue , going into the 1896 election cycle , was the question of the currency . The United States , since 1873 , had effectively been on the gold standard — the metal , if presented to the government , would be assayed and struck into coin for a slight charge to cover expenses . Silver , on the other hand , though widely mined , could not be presented for conversion into coin , but had to be sold as a commodity . The gold standard was unpopular in many agricultural and mining areas , as the quantity of gold available limited the money supply , making it difficult for farmers to obtain loans and pay debts . Advocates of the free and unlimited coinage of silver believed that doing so would cure the country 's economic malaise by increasing the money supply . Advocates of the gold standard argued that a " free silver " policy ( sometimes called " bimetallism " ) would inflate the currency , and lead to difficulties in international trade with nations on the gold standard . At the time , the precious metal in a silver dollar was worth about $ 0 @.@ 53 , and under such proposals , silver worth that much would be returned to depositors as a one @-@ dollar coin , " free " — that is , without a charge for the Mint 's costs for assaying and coining .
Despite the controversy in the country , McKinley and Hanna decided that an explicit mention of the gold standard in the party platform would be a better strategy than remaining silent on the issue . McKinley sent Hanna to the convention with a draft plank calling for maintenance of the gold standard , which Hanna successfully placed in the party platform . The adoption of the plank caused some Republicans , mostly from the West , to walk out of the convention . As they left , Hanna stood on a chair , shouting " Go ! Go ! Go ! "
McKinley expected the election to be fought on the issue of tariffs ; he was a well @-@ known protectionist . The Democrats met in convention in July in Chicago ; former Missouri congressman Richard P. Bland was deemed likely to be the nominee . As McKinley awaited his opponent , he privately commented on the nationwide debate over silver , stating to his Canton crony , Judge Day , that " This money matter is unduly prominent . In thirty days you won 't hear anything about it . " The future Secretary of State and Supreme Court justice responded : " In my opinion in thirty days you won 't hear of anything else . "
On the third day of the Democratic convention , former Nebraska representative William Jennings Bryan concluded the debate on the party platform . Bryan stampeded the convention with what came to be known as the " Cross of Gold speech " , decrying the gold standard , which he believed disproportionately hurt the working classes . To the horror of Wall Street , the Democrats nominated Congressman Bryan for president , a nomination in which the Populist Party soon joined . Hanna had taken a yachting vacation in early July before beginning general election work ; with a wave of popular support for Bryan , Hanna wrote " The Chicago convention has changed everything " and returned to his labors .
= = = General election campaign = = =
According to Horner , " In 1896 , as the country was mired in an economic slowdown that affected millions , a real , substantive policy debate was conducted by candidates who believed firmly in their respective positions . " Bryan , whose campaign was ill @-@ financed , felt that his best means of persuading the voter of his position was personal communication , and embarked on an unprecedented itinerary of whistle stop appearances by train . If the train passed any large group of homes and did not stop for Bryan to speak , it would at least disgorge a bundle of political tracts for local distribution . McKinley felt he could not match Bryan 's speaking tour , as the Democrat was a better stump speaker . Despite Hanna 's urgings to the candidate to get on the road , the former governor decided on a front porch campaign ; he would remain at home in Canton and allow the people to come to him . As McKinley 's wife , Ida , was an invalid , this also boosted his image as a good husband .
When McKinley , Hanna and their associates saw the emotional appeal of the Bryan campaign for free silver , they decided upon an extensive and expensive effort to educate the electorate . The McKinley campaign had two main offices ; one in Chicago , effectively run by Dawes , and one in New York , used by Hanna as a base of operations as he sought to gain support from New York financiers . Hanna 's task was to raise the money ; other campaign officials , such as Dawes , determined how to spend it . Being relatively unknown on the national scene , Hanna initially had little success , despite Wall Street 's fear of Bryan . Some Wall Street titans , although disliking Bryan 's positions , did not take him seriously as a candidate and refused to contribute to the McKinley campaign . Those who did know Hanna , such as his old schoolmate Rockefeller — the magnate 's Standard Oil gave $ 250 @,@ 000 — vouched for him . Beginning in late July 1896 , Hanna had an easier time persuading industrialists to give to the McKinley / Hobart campaign . He also gave large sums himself . This money went to pay for advertising , brochures , printed speeches and other means of persuading the voter ; the country was flooded with such paper .
According to Rhodes , McKinley " spoke from the front veranda of his house in Canton to many deputations , some of them spontaneous , others arranged for . " Any delegation was welcome in Canton , so long as its leader wrote to McKinley in advance and introduced himself and his group . Delegations ranged up to thousands of people ; if possible , delegation leaders were brought to Canton in advance to settle with McKinley what each would say . If this could not be arranged , the delegation was met at the train station by a McKinley agent , who would greet it and learn what the leader proposed to say in his address . The agent would suggest any fine @-@ tuning necessary to make it fit within campaign themes , and send the information ahead by runner to McKinley , giving him time to prepare his response . The delegations left behind gifts , which were put to use when possible , but four eagles , named " McKinley " , " Mark Hanna " , " Republican " , and " Protection " , were donated to the local zoo .
Despite the initial popularity of Bryan 's message , Hanna was convinced the Democrat 's support would recede . " He 's talking Silver all the time , and that 's where we 've got him " , Hanna stated , pounding his desk , in July . He proved correct ; the silver enthusiasm waned by September and Bryan had no ready replacement for it . McKinley , on the other hand , convinced that his " sound money " campaign had worked , began to promote his tariff issue , stating to the crowds on his front lawn , " I do not know what you think about it , but I believe it is a good deal better to open the mills of the United States to the labor of America than to open the mints of the United States to the silver of the world . "
During the campaign , the Democratic newspapers , especially the papers owned by Hearst , attacked Hanna for his supposed role as McKinley 's political master . The articles and cartoons have contributed to a lasting popular belief that McKinley was not his own man , but that he was effectively owned by the corporations , through Hanna . Homer Davenport 's cartoons for the Hearst papers were especially effective in molding public opinion about Hanna . The Clevelander was often depicted as " Dollar Mark " , in a suit decorated with dollar signs ( a term for which " dollar mark " was a common alternative ) . McKinley 's personal financial crisis allowed him to be convincingly depicted as a child , helpless in the hands of businessmen and their mere tool in the 1896 campaign . Historian Stanley Jones , who studied the 1896 election , stated of this view :
The popularly accepted picture of Hanna 's domination was not true . Though McKinley did leave to Hanna the immensely complicated and exceedingly arduous task of organizing the campaign and although he usually deferred to Hanna 's judgment in this area , he himself retained control of the general structure and program . Nothing of significance was done without his approval . Hanna raised money , hired men , established headquarters offices , bought literature , with the same drive and skill that he managed his business . He was confident of his mastery of that kind of operation , but he never ceased to defer to McKinley 's mastery of the grand strategy of politics .
Hanna 's fundraising campaign , in which he asked banks and millionaires for a contribution equal to 0 @.@ 25 % of their assets , was unprecedented in its scale , but the basic concept was not unusual . According to Hanna biographer Croly , " Mr. Hanna merely systematized and developed a practice which was rooted deep in contemporary American political soil , and which was sanctioned both by custom and , as he believed , by necessity . " The largest election fundraising before that time had occurred in the 1888 presidential race , which was a polarizing election , closely fought over the tariff issue . In the 1888 campaign , Senator Quay ( on behalf of Harrison ) had sought funds from businessmen much as Hanna would eight years later . The first Harrison campaign raised about $ 1 @.@ 8 million ; Dawes , in charge of campaign spending for the Republicans in 1896 , later stated that the McKinley campaign raised just over $ 3 @.@ 5 million , though this did not include spending by state and local committees . In addition , the Republicans were supported by " in @-@ kind " corporate contributions , such as discounted railway fares for delegations coming to Canton . These discounts were so steep that they led to the quip that it was cheaper to visit Canton than to stay at home . Contributions to Bryan 's campaign were much smaller ; he had few wealthy supporters and the largest donor was most likely Hearst ; he donated about $ 40 @,@ 000 , and gave the Bryan campaign support in his papers .
In late October , Hanna wrote to Harrison , thanking him for his campaigning efforts , " The outlook is generally encouraging , and I feel there is no doubt of our success . " On Tuesday , November 3 , the voters had their say in most states . McKinley won 271 electoral votes to Bryan 's 176 . The Democratic candidate won in the South and in the western states except California and Oregon . Bryan was also successful in his native Nebraska and neighboring Kansas and South Dakota . McKinley swept the populous northeastern states , and the Midwest . He had hoped to end sectionalism , but his only successes in the " Solid South " were in the border states of Delaware , Maryland , West Virginia and Kentucky . McKinley took 51 @.@ 0 % of the vote , the first presidential majority since Grant in 1872 ; the intense voter interest in the campaign resulted in a turnout of 79 @.@ 3 % . On Election Night , Hanna wired from Cleveland to Canton , " The feeling here beggars description ... I will not attempt bulletins . You are elected to the highest office of the land by a people who always loved and trusted you . "
On November 12 , 1896 , the President @-@ elect wrote to his longtime friend , offering him a position in his Cabinet , and stating :
We are through with the election , and before turning to the future I want to express to you my great debt of gratitude for your generous life @-@ long and devoted service to me . Was there ever such unselfish devotion before ? Your unfaltering and increasing friendship through more than twenty years has been to me an encouragement and a source of strength which I am sure you have never realized , but which I have constantly felt and for which I thank you from the bottom of my heart . The recollection of all those years of uninterrupted loyalty and affection , of mutual confidences and growing regard fill me with emotions too deep for the pen to portray . I want you to know , but I cannot find the right words to tell you , how much I appreciate your friendship and faith .
= = Senator ( 1897 – 1904 ) = =
= = = McKinley advisor ( 1897 – 1901 ) = = =
= = = = Securing a Senate seat = = = =
In the wake of McKinley 's election , according to historian James Ford Rhodes ( who was also Hanna 's brother @-@ in @-@ law , though a Democrat ) , " Mark Hanna occupied an enviable position . Had it been usual , the freedom of Cleveland would have been conferred upon him . " According to John Hay , who would later become Secretary of State under McKinley , " What a glorious record Mark Hanna has made this year ! I never knew him intimately until we went into this fight together , but my esteem and admiration for him have grown every hour . "
Hanna stated that he would accept no office in the McKinley administration , as he feared it would be seen as a reward for his political efforts . He had long wished to be a senator , speaking of this desire as early as 1892 . Senator Sherman , now aged almost 74 , faced a difficult re @-@ election battle with the Democrats and the Foraker faction in 1898 . On January 4 , 1897 , McKinley offered Sherman the office of Secretary of State ; he immediately accepted . The poor record Sherman posted prior to his departure from office in 1898 led to attacks on Hanna , suggesting that a senile man had been placed in a key Cabinet position to accommodate him . Foraker , in his memoirs , strongly implied that Sherman was moved out of the way to allow Hanna to have his Senate seat . An embittered Sherman stated in a letter after his departure as secretary , " When [ McKinley ] urged me to accept the position of Secretary of State , I accepted with some reluctance and largely to promote the wishes of Mark Hanna . The result was that I lost the position both of Senator and Secretary ... They deprived me of the high office of Senator by the temporary appointment as Secretary of State . "
Horner argues that the position of Secretary of State was the most important non @-@ elective post in government , then often seen as a stepping stone to the presidency , and though Sherman no longer sought to be president , he was aware of the prestige . According to Rhodes , " Sherman was glad to accept the Secretaryship of State . He exchanged two years in the Senate with a doubtful succession for apparently a four years ' tenure of the Cabinet head of the new Republican administration , which was undoubtedly a promotion . " Rhodes suggested that Hanna did not give credence to warnings about Sherman 's mental capacity in early 1897 , though some of those tales must have been told by New York businessmen whom he trusted . The stories were not believed by McKinley either ; the President @-@ elect in February 1897 called accounts of Sherman 's mental decay " the cheap inventions of sensational writers or other evil @-@ disposed or mistaken people " .
Sherman 's acceptance of the post of Secretary of State did not assure Hanna of succeeding him as senator . A temporary appointment to the Senate was to be made by Ohio 's governor , Republican Asa Bushnell ; the legislature would then , in 1898 , hold elections both for the final portion of Sherman 's term ( expiring in March 1899 ) and for the full six @-@ year term to follow . Bushnell was of the Foraker faction — Foraker was by then a senator @-@ elect , selected by the legislature to fill Ohio 's other Senate seat for the term 1897 to 1903 . Sherman , who was at that time still grateful for his Cabinet appointment , used his influence on Hanna 's behalf ; so did McKinley . Governor Bushnell did not want to appoint a leader of the opposing faction and authorized Foraker to offer the place to Representative Theodore E. Burton , who declined it . Rhodes suggests that the difficulty over obtaining a Senate seat for Hanna led McKinley to persist in his offer to make his friend Postmaster General into mid @-@ February 1897 . Bushnell was a candidate for renomination and re @-@ election in 1897 ; without Hanna 's support his chances were smaller , and on February 21 , Bushnell wrote to Hanna that he would appoint him in Sherman 's place . Foraker , in his memoirs , stated that Hanna was given the Senate seat because of McKinley 's desires .
The 1897 legislative elections in Ohio would determine who would vote on Hanna 's bid for election for a full six @-@ year term , and were seen as a referendum on McKinley 's first year in office — the President visited Ohio to give several speeches , as did Bryan . McKinley was active behind the scenes , urging Republicans both inside and outside Ohio to support the senator . The 1897 Ohio Republican convention voted to support Hanna , as did county conventions in 84 of Ohio 's 88 counties . The Republicans won the election , with the overwhelming number of Republican victors pledged to vote for Hanna . However , a number of Republicans , mostly of the Foraker faction , did not want to re @-@ elect Hanna , and formed an alliance with the Democrats .
When the legislature met on January 3 , 1898 , the anti @-@ Hanna forces succeeded in organizing both houses of the legislature , The dissidents had not yet agreed upon a candidate ; after several days of negotiation , they settled on the Republican mayor of Cleveland , Robert McKisson . The Cleveland mayor was the insurgents ' candidate for both the short and long Senate term , and had been elected in 1895 to his municipal position despite the opposition of Hanna and the Cleveland business community . Rumors flew in Columbus that legislators had been kidnapped by either or both sides , and allegations of bribery were made . James Rudolph Garfield , the late president 's son , stated that he had been told by one Republican from Cleveland that he had to vote for McKisson because if he did not , his contracts to sell the city brick pavers would be cut off . According to Horner ,
Given Hanna 's determination to win and his willingness to play by the rules as they existed , money may have changed hands during the campaign , but if it did , it is important to remember the context . If Hanna engaged in such behavior , that was the way the game was played on both sides ... Hanna , of course , was not without resources . It is helpful , for example , when you are good friends with the president of the United States , a man also personally very influential in Ohio politics .
In the end , " Hanna 's tactics — whatever they really were " succeeded ; he was re @-@ elected with the barest possible majority .
= = = = Relationship with the President = = = =
Mark Hanna and William McKinley continued their friendship as they assumed their offices in March 1897 . Senator Hanna was looking for a residence ; President McKinley suggested that he stay at the Executive Mansion ( as the White House was still formally known ) until he found one . According to Hearst 's New York Journal , " the Senator doubtless feels that if anyone has the right to make himself at home in the White House he is the man " . Hanna soon moved into the Arlington Hotel , close to the White House , where he occupied a large suite . After the death of Vice President Hobart in November 1899 , Hanna took over the lease on his house on Lafayette Square , across Pennsylvania Avenue from the White House .
Despite civil service reform , a president had a large number of posts to fill . It was customary at the time to fill many of the lower level positions with party political workers . Hanna had a voice in some of McKinley 's appointments , but the President made the final decision . Hanna was allowed to recommend candidates for the majority of federal positions in Ohio , and was permitted a veto over Foraker 's candidates . Hanna was also dominant in the South , where there were few Republican congressmen to lobby the President . He and McKinley decided on a system where many southern appointees were recommended by the state 's member of the Republican National Committee and the defeated Republican congressional candidate for the area in question . Hanna and McKinley gave few places to those who had served under Harrison , as the two presidents were not friendly . " Silver Republicans " , who had bolted the party at the convention or later , received nothing .
Although Hanna was reputed to control the administration 's patronage , in fact , other men were more influential . McKinley 's friend Joseph Smith , who had served as State Librarian of Ohio during McKinley 's tenure as governor , probably had more influence over federal jobs until his death in 1898 . Charles Dawes , who was slated to be Comptroller of the Currency as soon as the incumbent left office , was also a McKinley confidant . Joseph Bristow , whose duties as Fourth Assistant Postmaster General under McKinley involved patronage appointments , later wrote that the President " gave Hanna 's requests great consideration and had confidence in the clearness of his opinion , but in the end he always followed his own judgment " .
As the year 1900 began , Hanna hinted that he might not want to run McKinley 's re @-@ election campaign , stating that he was suffering from rheumatism . In spite of his statement , the senator did want to run the campaign , but McKinley ( who apparently saw an opportunity to show the public that he was not Hanna 's creature ) was slow to ask him . This was a source of great stress to Hanna , who was concerned about the campaign and his relationship with McKinley ; the senator fainted in his office during the wait and may have suffered a heart attack . In late May , the President announced that Hanna would run his campaign . Margaret Leech suggested that McKinley was angry at Hanna for unknown reasons , thus the President 's " uncharacteristic coldness " . Morgan , on the other hand , wrote that " the president was using his usual indirect pressure and the power of silence . He wanted and needed Hanna , but on his own terms . "
= = = = Spanish – American War = = = =
Even during the second Cleveland administration , Americans took keen interest in the ongoing revolt in Cuba , then a Spanish colony . Most Americans believed that Cuba should be independent and that Spain should leave the Western Hemisphere . Beginning in 1895 , Congress passed a number of resolutions calling for Cuban independence . Although Cleveland pursued a policy of neutrality , his Secretary of State , Richard Olney , warned Spain that the patience of the United States was not inexhaustible . Sherman , then a senator , favored neutrality but believed that the US would inevitably go to war over Cuba . Soon after Hanna was appointed to the Senate , McKinley called Congress into special session to consider tariff legislation . Despite the stated purpose of the session , a number of resolutions were introduced calling for independence for Cuba , by force if necessary . When the press asked Hanna if he felt there would be action on Cuba during the session , he responded : " I don 't know . You can 't tell about that . A spark might drop in there at any time and precipitate action . "
Through 1897 , McKinley maintained neutrality on Cuba , hoping to negotiate autonomy for the island . Nevertheless , pro @-@ war elements , prominently including the Hearst newspapers , pressured McKinley for a more aggressive foreign policy . On May 20 , 1897 , the Senate passed a resolution favoring intervention in Cuba , 41 – 14 , with Hanna in the minority . As the crisis slowly built through late 1897 and early 1898 , Hanna became concerned about the political damage if McKinley , against popular opinion , kept the nation out of war . " Look out for Mr. Bryan . Everything that goes wrong will be in the Democratic platform in 1900 . You can be damn sure of that ! " Nevertheless , the Ohio senator believed that McKinley 's policy of quietly pressing Spain for colonial reform in Cuba had already yielded results without war , and would continue to do so .
On February 15 , 1898 , the American warship Maine sank in Havana harbor . Over 250 officers and men were killed . It was ( and is ) unclear if the explosion which caused Maine 's sinking was from an external cause or internal fault . McKinley ordered a board of inquiry while asking the nation to withhold judgment pending the result , but he also quietly prepared for war . The Hearst newspapers , with the slogan , " Remember the Maine and to hell with Spain ! " pounded a constant drumbeat for war and blamed Hanna for the delay . According to the Hearst papers , the Ohio senator was the true master in the White House , and was vetoing war as bad for business . Heart 's New York Journal editorialized in March 1898 :
Senator Hanna , fresh from the bargain for a seat in the United States Senate , probably felt the need of recouping his Ohio expenses as well as helping his financial friends out of the hole when he began playing American patriotism against Wall Street money ... Hanna said there would be no war . He spoke as one having authority . His edict meant that Uncle Sam might be kicked and cuffed from one continent to another .
As the nation waited for the report of the board of inquiry , many who favored war deemed McKinley too timid . Hanna and the President were burned in effigy in Virginia . Assistant Secretary of the Navy Theodore Roosevelt shook his fist under Hanna 's nose at the Gridiron Dinner and stated , " We will have this war for the freedom of Cuba in spite of the timidity of the commercial classes ! " Nevertheless , Hanna supported McKinley 's patient policy and acted as his point man in the Senate on the war issue .
The Navy 's report blamed an external cause , believed by many to be a Spanish mine or bomb , for the sinking of Maine ( modern reports have suggested an internal explosion within a coal bunker ) . Despite the increased calls for war , McKinley hoped to preserve peace . However , when it became clear that the United States would accept nothing but Cuban independence , which the Spanish were not prepared to grant , negotiations broke off . On April 11 , McKinley asked Congress for authority to secure Cuban independence , using force if necessary . Hanna supported McKinley in obtaining that authority , though he stated privately , " If Congress had started this , I 'd break my neck to stop it . " Spain broke off diplomatic relations on April 20 ; Congress declared war five days later , retroactive to April 21 .
The war resulted in a complete American victory . Nevertheless , Hanna was uncomfortable with the conflict . He stated during the war to a member of the public , " Remember that my folks were Quakers . War is just a damn nuisance . " After the Battle of El Caney , he viewed the American casualty lists and stated , " Oh , God , now we 'll have this sort of thing again ! " After the war , Hanna supported McKinley 's decision to annex Spanish colonies such as Puerto Rico and Guam .
= = = = Campaign of 1900 = = = =
Vice President Hobart had died in late 1899 . President McKinley was content to leave the choice of a vice presidential candidate for 1900 to the upcoming Republican convention . New York Senator Platt disliked his state 's governor , former Assistant Secretary of the Navy Theodore Roosevelt , who had pursued a reformist agenda in his year and a half in office . Platt hoped to sideline Roosevelt politically by making him vice president . Roosevelt was a popular choice in any event because of his well @-@ publicized service during the Spanish – American War , and Platt had little trouble persuading state delegations to vote for Roosevelt after McKinley 's renomination . Quay was a close Platt ally in the effort to make Roosevelt vice president . Hanna , who felt Roosevelt was overly impulsive , did not want him on the ticket , but did not realize that the efforts were serious until he was already at the convention in Philadelphia . As many of the delegates were political appointees , Hanna hoped to persuade McKinley to use patronage to get the delegates to vote for another candidate . After emerging from the telephone booth from which he had tried and failed to get McKinley to agree , Senator Hanna stated , " Do whatever you damn please ! I 'm through ! I won 't have anything more to do with the convention ! I won 't take charge of the campaign ! I won 't be chairman of the national committee again ! " When asked what the matter was , Hanna replied ,
Matter ! Matter ! Why , everybody 's gone crazy ! What is the matter with all of you ? Here 's this convention going headlong for Roosevelt for Vice President . Don 't any of you realize that there 's only one life between that madman and the Presidency ? Platt and Quay are no better than idiots ! What harm can he do as Governor of New York compared to the damage he will do as President if McKinley should die ?
On his return to Washington after the convention nominated McKinley and Roosevelt , Hanna wrote to the President , " Well , it was a nice little scrap at Phila [ delphia ] . Not exactly to my liking with my hand tied behind me . However , we got through in good shape and the ticket is all right . Your duty to the country is to live for four years from next March . "
The Democrats nominated Bryan a second time at their convention . This time , Bryan ran with a broader agenda , and attacked McKinley as an imperialist for taking the Spanish colonies . The Democratic candidate also urged increased use of the antitrust laws , and alleged that McKinley had been lax in their enforcement . Hanna summed up the Republican campaign in four words , " Let well enough alone . "
Hanna was called upon to do only small amounts of fundraising this time : no great educational campaign was required , and the corporations were willing to give . The President gave only one speech , the formal acceptance of his nomination in Canton in July . Roosevelt , on the other hand , traveled widely across the nation giving speeches . The New Yorker traveled 21 @,@ 000 miles ( 34 @,@ 000 km ) in the campaign , reaching 24 of the 45 states . Hanna was now a public figure , and wanted to campaign for the Republicans in the western states . McKinley , however , was reluctant , as Hanna had varied from the administration 's position on trusts in a recent speech . McKinley sent Postmaster General Charles Emory Smith to Chicago , where Hanna then was , to talk him out of the trip . Hanna rapidly discerned that Smith had been sent by the President , and told him , " Return to Washington and tell the President that God hates a coward . " McKinley and Hanna met in Canton several days later and settled their differences over lunch . Hanna made his speaking tour in the West . According to Hanna biographer Thomas Beer , Hanna 's tour was a great success , though many viewers were surprised he did not wear suits decorated with the " dollar mark " .
Hanna spent much of his time based at the campaign 's New York office , while renting a seaside cottage in Elberon , New Jersey . In September , a strike by the United Mine Workers threatened a crisis which might cause problems for McKinley . Hanna believed that the miners ' grievances were just , and he persuaded the parties to allow him to arbitrate . With Hanna 's aid , the two sides arrived at a negotiated settlement .
On November 6 , 1900 , the voters re @-@ elected McKinley , who took 51 @.@ 7 % of the popular vote , a slight increase from 1896 . He won 292 electoral votes to Bryan 's 155 . McKinley took six states that Bryan had taken in 1896 while holding all the states he had won . Although the majority was not large by later standards , according to historian Lewis L. Gould in his study of the McKinley presidency , " in light of the election results since the Civil War , however , it was an impressive mandate . "
= = = = Assassination of McKinley = = = =
McKinley traveled much during his presidency , and in September 1901 , journeyed to the Pan @-@ American Exposition in Buffalo , New York . On September 6 , 1901 , while receiving the public in the Temple of Music on the Exposition grounds , McKinley was shot by an anarchist , Leon Czolgosz . Hanna , along with many of the President 's close allies , hurried to his bedside .
As the President lay , wounded , he enquired " Is Mark there ? " ; the doctors told him that Senator Hanna was present , but that he should not exert himself with an interview . McKinley appeared to be improving , and Hanna , with the doctors ' reassurance , left Buffalo for an encampment of the Grand Army of the Republic in Cleveland , at which Hanna was to speak . While there , he received a telegram stating that the President had taken a turn for the worse , and hurried back to Buffalo . There he found an unconscious McKinley , whose sickbed had become a deathbed . On the evening of September 13 , Hanna was allowed to see the dying man , as were others close to the President , such as his wife and his brother , Abner McKinley . Hanna , weeping , went to the library in the Milburn House where the President lay , and as he awaited the end , made the necessary plans and arrangements to return his friend 's remains to Canton . At 2 : 15 am on September 14 , President McKinley died .
= = = Roosevelt years and death ( 1901 – 04 ) = = =
McKinley 's death left Hanna devastated both personally and politically . Although the two had not been allies , the new president , Roosevelt , reached out to Hanna , hoping to secure his influence in the Senate . Hanna indicated that he was willing to come to terms with Roosevelt on two conditions : that Roosevelt carry out McKinley 's political agenda , and that the President cease from his habit of calling Hanna " old man " , something which greatly annoyed the senator . Hanna warned Roosevelt , " If you don 't , I 'll call you Teddy . " Roosevelt , who despised his nickname , agreed to both terms , though he imperfectly carried out the second condition .
= = = = Panama Canal involvement = = = =
Hanna was a supporter of building a canal across Central America to allow ships to pass between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans without making the lengthy journey around Cape Horn . The senator believed a route across the Colombian province of Panama to be superior to its Nicaraguan rival . How he came to support this route is uncertain , though attorney and lobbyist William Nelson Cromwell later claimed to have personally converted Hanna to the Panama cause in 1901 . This was disputed by the French canal promoter , Philippe Bunau @-@ Varilla , who stated that at the end of his meeting with Hanna at the Arlington Hotel , the senator exclaimed , " Monsieur Bunau @-@ Varilla , you have convinced me . "
The Nicaragua route had many supporters and a bill sponsored by Iowa Congressman William Peters Hepburn , which would authorize the construction of a canal on the Nicaragua route , had passed the House of Representatives . In June 1902 , it was considered by the Senate , and on June 5 and 6 , Hanna made a speech against the Hepburn Bill . In his speech , he referred to enormous maps , which were displayed in the Senate Chamber as he spoke . This was a novel technique , especially as he referred to the possibility of active volcanoes on the Nicaragua route in his speech , and the maps showed active volcanoes marked with red dots and extinct ones with black . There was an almost continuous band of black dots through Nicaragua , with eight red ones ; no dots were placed on the map of Panama . Hanna pointed out many advantages of the Panama route : it was shorter than the Nicaraguan route , would require much less digging , and had existing harbors at either end . Hanna was in poor health as he gave the speech ; Alabama Senator John Tyler Morgan , the Senate sponsor of the Hepburn Bill , tried to ask Hanna a question , only to be met with , " I do not want to be interrupted , for I am very tired . " At the end , Hanna warned that if the US built the Nicaragua canal , another power would finish the Panama route . One senator stated that he had been converted to the " Hannama Canal " .
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they belonged to a union or not ... Ask them whether , when any men or any committee of men , came to me with a complaint if I ever refused to see them ... Ask them if I ever in my life intentionally wronged any workingman . I never did .
After Hanna issued the challenge , unions representing his workers confirmed his statement . Hanna became the first president of the National Civic Federation ( NCF ) , which tried to foster harmonious relations between business and labor . The NCF opposed militant labor unions ; it also resisted businessmen who sought to entirely prevent regulation . It recognized labor 's right to organize to seek better wages and conditions . In a 1903 speech to a labor convention , Hanna stated that the efforts of labor to organize into unions should be considered no more shocking than those of businesses organizing into trade groups .
A phrase sometimes attributed to Hanna is : " No man in public office owes the public anything " . This phrase supposedly appeared in a letter by Hanna to Ohio Attorney General David K. Watson in 1890 , urging him to drop a lawsuit against the Standard Oil Company . The phrase became an issue against Hanna in the 1897 campaign in Ohio . Watson , a Republican , denied that Hanna had written the phrase , but refused to discuss the matter further with reporters . Hanna 's early biographers , Croly and Beer , found the supposed quote dubious but as they did not definitely deny that Hanna had written it , a number of later works attribute the quote to Hanna . However , Professor Thomas E. Felt , who wrote an article about the controversy , believed Hanna unlikely to use such an inflammatory phrase to a man with whom he was not close , and which , in any event , did not accurately represent his political views .
Hanna is often credited with the invention of the modern presidential campaign . His campaign for McKinley in 1896 broke new ground because of its highly systematized and centralized nature , as well as for its fundraising success . Although Hanna has been depicted as the first national political boss , historians agree that McKinley dominated the relationship between the two . Nevertheless , Hanna is recognized for his innovative campaign work .
= = Public image today = =
New Jersey Senator Bill Bradley published a volume of memoirs , Time Present , Time Past in 1996 . In it , the Democrat mentioned having written a high @-@ school report on Hanna — his history teacher , Bradley related , told him that the lesson of the 1896 campaign is that money is power . Bradley , a former basketball player , mentioned that when he was being interviewed in high school , he stated that Hanna was one of his heroes . By the time he wrote the book , however , Bradley had come to believe in limits on campaign spending and blamed Hanna for a sharp escalation in campaign costs . Bradley also stated what Horner terms mischaracterizations of Hanna : that he was the Republican boss of Ohio , and that he did his best to disrupt Roosevelt 's presidency . Bradley alleged that since 1896 , Republicans have raised money easily from the rich . Despite his condemnation of Hanna , Bradley wrote that he regretted that he could not find a Hanna @-@ like figure who could play an analogous role in advancing his political career .
In 2000 , Texas Governor George W. Bush successfully ran for the presidency . As the campaign progressed , the media compared Hanna and Bush adviser Karl Rove , who was believed by some to hold a Svengali @-@ like influence over the Texas governor . During the campaign , and until his departure from the White House in 2007 , media members often suggested that Rove was able to manipulate Bush , and that Rove exerted considerable control over the government . Bush 's advisor was deemed a present @-@ day incarnation of Hanna , who was almost invariably presented negatively and at variance with historical fact . For example , writer Jack Kelly in a 2000 column incorrectly stated that McKinley 's front porch campaign was at the direction of Hanna to ensure the candidate did not vary from campaign themes , rather than McKinley deciding that it was his best response to Bryan 's national tour . These comparisons were fueled by Rove 's interest in , and by some reports , liking for Hanna . Rove studied the McKinley administration at the University of Texas under McKinley biographer Lewis L. Gould , and believes that Hanna 's influence has been overrated .
According to Horner , Davenport 's depiction of Hanna still lingers as the modern image of the former senator :
The portrait of Hanna that has stood the test of time is of a man who was grossly obese ; a cutthroat attack dog for the " Trusts " ; a cigar @-@ smoking man clad in a suit covered with dollar signs who stood side by side with a gigantic figure representing the trusts , and a tiny , childlike William McKinley . He will forever be known as " Dollar Mark " .
= = Electoral history = =
All elections are by the Ohio General Assembly , as state legislatures elected senators until the ratification of the 17th Amendment in 1913 .
= John Martin Scripps =
John Martin ( born John Martin Scripps , 9 December 1959 – 19 April 1996 ) was an English spree killer who murdered three tourists — Gerard Lowe in Singapore , and Sheila and Darin Damude in Thailand — with another three unconfirmed victims . He posed as a tourist himself when committing the murders , for which British tabloids nicknamed him " the tourist from Hell " . He cut up all his victims ' bodies , using butchery skills he had acquired in prison , before disposing of them .
Martin was arrested in Singapore ( where he had killed Lowe ) when he returned there after murdering the Damudes . Photographs of decomposed body parts were shown as evidence during his trial , making it " one of the most grisly " ever heard in Singapore . He defended himself by saying that Lowe 's death was an accident and that a friend of his killed the Damudes . The judge did not believe Martin 's account of events and sentenced him to death by hanging , making him the first Briton since Singapore 's independence from Britain and Malaysia to be given the death penalty . He is also one of the first Westerners to be executed in Singapore since independence , the first one being Johannes Van Damme .
= = Early life = =
John Martin Scripps was born in Letchworth , Hertfordshire , 9 December 1959 to Leonard and Jean Scripps , an East End lorry driver and a Fleet Street barmaid respectively . He travelled often in childhood , occasionally accompanied by his father , with whom he was very close . Leonard Scripps committed suicide when his son was nine . After his father 's death , Scripps developed problems with reading and writing , which led to him leaving school at the age of 15 . After dropping out of school he continued to travel , raising money for his trips by doing odd jobs and selling antiques .
= = Criminal career = =
Scripps was convicted of his first crime in May 1974 , when he was sentenced to a 12 @-@ month conditional discharge and fined £ 10 by Highgate Juvenile Court for burglary . The punishment did nothing to deter him from stealing , and by August 1976 he had stolen again three times . In June 1978 , he was fined £ 40 for indecent assault .
While traveling in Mexico , Scripps met María Pilar Arellanos , of Cancún , and married her in 1980 . They travelled together for two years until 1982 , when he was sentenced to a three @-@ year jail term for theft , burglary and resisting arrest . His imprisonment upset María , and their relationship was further soured when he ran away from jail during home leave in June 1985 — just months short of completing his term — and burgled again . He was sentenced to another three years ' imprisonment , during which she filed for divorce and married Police Constable Ken Cold , an officer in the Royal Protection Squad . This angered Scripps , who acted in revenge , stealing some of Cold 's clothing while released on home leave . He was appeased only when she divorced her new husband and returned to her hometown . After he was released , Scripps legally changed his name to John Martin .
Scripps began trafficking in drugs , and carried heroin between Asia and Europe for a syndicate . Singapore authorities first encountered his name in 1987 , when he was arrested at Heathrow Airport for possessing drugs . Police found a key on him that belonged to a safe deposit box in a bank in Orchard Road in Singapore , from which officers from Singapore 's Central Narcotics Bureau seized 1 @.@ 5 kilogrammes ( 3 @.@ 3 lb ) of heroin worth about US $ 1 million . For this and another drug offence , Southwark Crown Court in January 1988 sentenced him to seven years in jail . He escaped while on home leave but was later re @-@ arrested . In July 1992 , Winchester Crown Court added another six years to the original sentence , which would have kept him behind bars until 2001 had he not escaped again .
He was in custody at Albany Prison on the Isle of Wight from February 1992 to August 1993 , where he became a model prisoner . Initially he did menial jobs such as dishwashing and general cleaning and was later promoted to the position of butcher , under the training of James Quigley , a prison caterer with more than 20 years ' experience , and another inmate only identified as " Ginger " , who had been a professional butcher . They taught him how to dismember and remove the bone from animals after slaughtering them . Martin performed his duties with such efficiency that he once told Quigley he wished to open a butcher 's shop after his release .
On 20 August 1993 , Martin was transferred from Albany Prison to The Mount Prison in Hemel Hempstead , Hertfordshire , as a result of a change in his security categorisation . In October 1994 he escaped while on home leave , which was granted only two days after being refused parole . His mother , noting that he had sold all his belongings to fellow inmates while in prison ( a clear notice of his intention to escape ) , asked prison authorities not to release him . After Martin was sentenced to death , she reiterated :
The Home Office have buried their head in the sand over this . They know full well that if they had done what I told them , none of this would have ever happened . I begged them not to let him go .
His mother gave Scripps £ 200 to go overseas after his arrest . To avoid recapture , he used the birth certificate of another inmate , Simon James Davis , to get a passport in Davis ' name . Within a month of his escape , he turned up in Mexico as John Martin . He reported to the British Embassy there that he had lost his passport , and managed to get a replacement . Martin arrived in Singapore from San Francisco at about 2 a.m. SST on 8 March 1995 ( 6 p.m. UTC on 7 March ) .
= = Murder of tourists = =
Martin killed at least three people in Singapore and Thailand , and may have killed others in Belize , Mexico , and the United States . His modus operandi was to pose as a tourist and converse with another randomly chosen caucasian , either aboard their flights or while waiting at airports . He stayed in the same hotels as his victims in a room near theirs . Once he had an excuse to be in their rooms , he used an electroshock weapon to immobilise them before killing them by striking their heads with a hammer and cutting them up in their bathrooms . He chose caucasians as his victims because they were vacationing far away from their home countries , which made him less likely to be discovered . His motive apparently included money , as large amounts were withdrawn using the credit cards of Gerard Lowe and Timothy MacDowall .
= = = Gerard Lowe = = =
Gerard George Lowe came from Johannesburg , South Africa . He was a chemical engineer with South African Breweries . He went to Singapore to shop for electrical and electronic goods . Before he left Johannesburg on 7 March 1995 , he told his wife Vanessa , a local airlines employee , his exact schedule , saying : " I will call you the moment I check into the hotel to give you the contact number . If you do not hear from me on 10 March , it would mean that I would have a seat on the plane to return to South Africa and would arrive home on 11 March . But if I do call you on 10 March , that would mean that I have not managed to get a seat and would return on 12 March . "
When Lowe arrived at Singapore Changi Airport on the morning of 8 March , he was accosted by Martin ( under the assumed name of Simon Davis ) , who struck up a conversation with him and suggested that they share a room , to which Lowe agreed . They managed to book Room 1511 in the River View Hotel off Havelock Road . The next morning , Martin asked a hotel receptionist to delete Lowe 's name from the room registration system , saying that he had kicked Lowe out the previous night for being a homosexual . Martin checked out on 11 March and flew to Bangkok the same day .
On 13 March 1995 , a pair of legs , severed at the knees , was found in a plastic bag floating off Clifford Pier . Three days later , a pair of thighs and a torso were found in the same area , also in a plastic bag . Initially , Singapore police could only determine that the body parts belonged to a Caucasian , and they had a possible name after receiving a missing person report for Lowe from the South African High Commission . Vanessa Lowe filed the report because she was distressed that her husband , who used to make daily contact with his family when overseas , had not called home or returned to South Africa by 12 March . Lowe 's colleagues at work also tried to determine his whereabouts through personal contacts in Singapore . On 1 April , she confirmed that the body parts were her husband 's through visual identification . However , his arms and head were never found .
= = = Sheila and Darin Damude = = =
Sheila Mae Damude and her son Darin Jon Damude came from Saanich , British Columbia , Canada . She was an administrator at the Pacific Christian School in Victoria , while Darin was a college student . They had come to Thailand on holiday , with Darin flying to Asia first before Sheila met him in Bangkok during spring break . They flew to Phuket on 15 March with Martin ( still using his assumed name ) who was sitting in the same row as them . He befriended the two and they checked into Nilly 's Marina Inn facing Patong Beach . Martin was given Room 48 and the Damudes were given the adjacent Room 43 . The Damudes were not seen again after they ate breakfast the next morning ; at about 11 a.m. THA ( 5 a.m. UTC ) , Martin asked the inn 's receptionist to switch his room to Room 43 , saying that the Damudes had left and that he would pay their bill .
Martin checked out and returned to Singapore on 19 March . On that day the skulls of the Damudes were found in a disused tin mine in Kathu district . A torso and a pair each of arms and legs were found along Bahn Nai Trang Road , 9 @.@ 7 kilometres ( 6 mi ) away , five days later . The body parts were so badly decomposed that visual identification was impossible ; Royal Thai Police used dental records to identify the skulls and forensic analysis concluded that the torso , arms , and legs were likely to be Sheila 's . The other parts of Darin 's body were never found .
= = = Unconfirmed victims = = =
Scotland Yard suspected Martin of having separately killed two men from south London : financial adviser Timothy MacDowall and accountant William Shackel . In Mexico , Martin had discussed with his wife about going scuba diving with MacDowall , who was taking scuba lessons while on holiday on an island off Belize . MacDowall disappeared in Belize in early 1995 but police could not conclusively match him to body parts later found in that country ; the only suspicious activity they uncovered was the transfer of £ 21 @,@ 000 from MacDowall 's bank account to an account in San Francisco under Martin 's name . MacDowall is believed to have been murdered as he slept and his remains thrown into a crocodile @-@ infested river . Martin refused to be interviewed by Scotland Yard while he was on death row in Changi Prison , thus whether he killed MacDowall remains unconfirmed . Shackel was reported missing while on holiday in Cancún , Mexico . Police reports said that Martin was in Cancún the day Shackel cashed traveller 's cheques worth £ 4 @,@ 000 , after which he disappeared .
Martin was also wanted in San Francisco in the United States for the murder of homosexual prostitute Tom Wenger on 28 March 1994 . Wenger 's body was chopped up and drained of blood ; it was found in a garbage skip ( dumpster ) in Myrte Alley , in the Polk Street district . Although Martin was supposed to be in jail in the United Kingdom at the time , his photograph matched a facial composite picture made by San Francisco police .
= = Arrest and remand = =
Martin was arrested when he arrived at Changi Airport on the evening of 19 March 1995 and produced a passport with his assumed name , Simon Davis . Police had put the name on their wanted list on 14 March after they determined that Lowe had checked into River View Hotel with someone by that name . In a police interview room in the airport , Martin smashed a glass panel and cut his wrist with a shard of glass in a suicide attempt , fearing that he would be hanged like Flor Contemplacion , a Filipino who had been hanged two days before for a double murder . He was taken to Alexandra Hospital for treatment .
The police found five passports on Martin in addition to his own — two British passports issued to Simon Davis , two Canadian passports issued to Sheila and Darin Damude , and a South African passport issued to Gerard Lowe — each with Martin 's photograph affixed . They also found credit cards belonging to Sheila Damude and Gerard Lowe . In addition , police found Simon Davis ' birth certificate , and items that Martin had used to immobilise and kill : a hammer weighing 1 @.@ 5 kilogrammes ( 3 @.@ 3 lb ) , a battery @-@ operated Z @-@ Force III electroshock weapon , a can of mace , two pairs of handcuffs , a pair of thumbcuffs , two Police brand foldable knives , an oilstone and two Swiss army knives . Importation of some of these into Singapore is illegal .
On 21 March 1995 , Martin was taken to court on an initial charge , naming him as Simon James Davis and accusing him of forging Lowe 's signature on a DBS Bank credit card transaction slip to obtain S $ 6 @,@ 000 in cash on 9 March . Three days later , he was charged under his real name for the murder of Gerard Lowe in a River View Hotel room some time between 8 March and 9 . In subsequent hearings , he was additionally charged with forgery ( forging Lowe 's signature five more times to obtain cash and goods worth $ 3 @,@ 200 ) , vandalism ( smashing the glass panel ) , possession of an offensive weapon ( the electroshock weapon ) , and possession of a controlled drug ( he had 24 sticks of cannabis at the time of his arrest ) .
On 18 September , a preliminary enquiry in a district court was held to determine whether there was sufficient evidence for a trial to proceed . The magistrate overseeing the enquiry ordered Martin to stand trial for Gerard Lowe 's murder on 2 October after hearing statements from 39 witnesses , and looking at more than 100 exhibits and 100 photographs that the prosecution had prepared as evidence .
= = Trial = =
Before the trial , Martin made a statement explaining that he killed Lowe in self @-@ defence . He said he had fallen asleep after checking in , but woke up after someone touched his buttocks ; it was Lowe , who was clad only in his underwear and smiling at him . To him , this behaviour made Lowe appear to be a homosexual , so he kicked Lowe away . This angered Lowe , who threw Martin 's hammer at his stomach . Martin then grabbed the hammer and " hit [ Lowe ] several times on the head until he collapsed onto the carpeted floor . " A friend later helped him to dispose of Lowe 's body by throwing it into the Singapore River . Martin continued , " I am not sure what was the next thing I did ... everything was such a blur to me after this incident that I was walking around in a dream world for the next few days . " He refused to identify his friend , saying , " I cannot tell you his identity because if he knew he would harm my family back in Britain . " On 15 March , he flew to Phuket , where he met his friend again . His friend gave him the passports and other items belonging to the Damudes , whom he never met .
In court , Martin argued that he was by nature not a violent person . " I may have worked in the ( prison ) butchery , but cutting up a human body is another thing . When I saw the photographs ( of Lowe 's body parts ) , it made me feel sick . " He maintained that he had killed Lowe after the latter made homosexual advances that caused him to " freak out " ; he had previously fended off homosexual attacks twice while imprisoned : in Israel in 1978 , and in England in 1994 . When Deputy Public Prosecutors Jennifer Marie and Norul Rashid asked him what he did after killing Lowe , he said that he could not remember anything because he had drunk heavily and consumed Valium after Lowe 's death until he was arrested . He repeated that he had not killed the Damudes , and that he had come back to Singapore from Phuket to clear his conscience about Lowe 's death .
On 7 November , Judge T. S. Sinnathuray adjourned the trial for three days to consider his verdict . ( Singapore abolished jury trials in 1969 . ) When the trial resumed , the judge was satisfied that the prosecution had made its case and dismissed Martin 's version of events . In his verdict , he said :
I 'm satisfied beyond a reasonable doubt that Martin had intentionally killed Lowe . After that , he disarticulated Lowe 's body into separate parts , and it was he who subsequently disposed of the body parts by throwing them into the river behind the hotel .
On the evidence , I had no difficulty to find that it was Martin who was concerned with the deaths of Sheila and Darin and for the disposal of their body parts found in different sites in Phuket . The disarticulation of the body parts of Lowe , Sheila and Darin have the hallmark signs of having been done by the same person . Altogether , this similar fact evidence reinforces the decision I have made , for it puts beyond doubt that Martin is guilty on the charge of murder .
The sentence of this court upon you is that you will be taken from this place to a lawful prison and taken to a place to be hanged by the neck until you are dead . And may the Lord have mercy on your soul .
= = Appeal and hanging = =
On 15 November 1995 , Martin announced he would appeal the sentence . He later dropped the appeal without giving an explanation on 4 January 1996 , four days before it was to have been heard . He turned down a subsequent chance to petition the President of Singapore for clemency , saying that he was impatient to be executed .
In the days before his hanging , Martin wrote of an " emptiness " inside him and lamented that no one had loved him besides his family and his ex @-@ wife María , in a series of misspelled notes ( he was semi @-@ literate ) :
One day poor . One day reach . Money filds the pane of hunger but what will fill the emteness inside ? I know that love is beyond me . So do I give myself to god . The god that has betrad me . Can I be a person again ? Only time will tell me .
You may take my life for what it is worth , but grant thows that I love , pease and happiness .
He complained that in prison , " You are told every day that you are not a member of the uman rase [ a misspelling of ' human race ' ] . " The week before he was due to hang , he dreamed that he had avoided the sentence by committing suicide :
I tied the rope around my little neck before I got up on the old creaky chair . I reached down and picked up a handful of earth and put it in my mouth . Then I crawled up to the old creaky chair and pulled the rope tighter and tighter still . I was on tiptoe , just one more pull , then my feet left the chair knocking it over and darkness embraced me as the heavens opened . I woke up in darkness and felt a heavy weight on my chest . I cried out , " Mummy , I am here . "
Martin 's mother remarked , " Whoever he is now , he 's the person the prison service trained him to be . These bastards have no right to take my son 's life . I brought him into the world . I am the only person who can take him out of it . " However , no one formally protested against the hanging . At dawn on 19 April 1996 , Martin was hanged in Changi Prison together with two Singaporean drug traffickers . On that day , the Royal Canadian Mounted Police and the Royal Thai Police closed their files on the murders of Sheila and Darin Damude , declaring the case effectively solved .
When Martin 's ex @-@ wife María heard that he had been hanged , she said :
John disappeared on several trips and went to the United States and Southeast Asia . I knew something awful was happening , but I could not believe he had started killing people .
I knew this would happen to John but I didn 't know it would hurt so much . The last memory I have of him is a message he sent promising we would meet in the next life and that he would never let me go again .
= = Post @-@ death coverage = =
In May 1996 , Tan Ooi Boon , a reporter from The Straits Times who covered Martin 's case from start to finish , wrote a book on the case , titled Body Parts : A British Serial Killer in Singapore . He wrote the book in three months using material he had prepared for the newspaper . It mixed fictional narrative with fact and described how Martin disposed of his victims ' bodies .
In July 1996 , the story of how Martin murdered Gerard Lowe , and the investigation that followed , was featured in an episode of the Singapore Crimewatch , which was shown on Television Corporation of Singapore 's Channel 5 and Channel 8 . In the episode , actual photographs from the autopsy were shown , causing the series to be the first current affairs programme in Singapore to be given the PG ( Parental Guidance ) warning tag . Police justified their use of the photographs , saying that they wanted to " give an accurate account of the case to the public . " The story was also re @-@ enacted in the last episode of MediaCorp TV 's Channel 5 docu @-@ drama True Files on 23 July 2002 .
On 31 January 1997 , eight police officers who made significant contributions towards Martin 's conviction were awarded commemorative plaques by the High Commissioner for Canada in Singapore , Barry Carin .
= Northanger Abbey ( 2007 film ) =
Northanger Abbey is a 2007 British television film adaptation of Jane Austen 's eponymous novel . It was directed by British television director Jon Jones and the screenplay was written by Andrew Davies . Felicity Jones stars as the protagonist Catherine Morland and JJ Feild plays her love interest Henry Tilney . The story unfolds as the teenaged Catherine is invited to Bath to accompany some family friends . There she finds herself the object of Henry Tilney 's and John Thorpe 's ( William Beck ) affections . When she is asked to stay at Northanger Abbey , Catherine 's youthful and naive imagination takes hold and she begins to confuse real life with the Gothic romance of her favorite novels .
Northanger Abbey was one of three novels adapted for ITV 's Jane Austen season . It was shot on location in Ireland from late August 2006 on a budget of £ 2 million . The drama was co @-@ produced by Granada Productions and American studio WGBH Boston . Northanger Abbey premiered on 25 March 2007 in the United Kingdom and on 16 December 2007 in Canada . It was broadcast in the United States and Australia in 2008 . The drama was viewed by 5 @.@ 6 million people in the UK , making it the second most watched of the 2007 adaptations . Northanger Abbey garnered mostly positive reviews from television critics , with many praising the cast 's performances .
= = Plot = =
Seventeen @-@ year @-@ old Catherine Morland ( Felicity Jones ) , daughter of Mr. and Mrs. Morland ( Gerry O 'Brien and Julia Dearden ) , is a tomboy with a wild imagination and a passion for Gothic novels . Family friends Mr. and Mrs. Allen ( Desmond Barrit and Sylvestra Le Touzel ) , invite Catherine to spend the season in Bath and she readily accepts . At her first ball , Catherine meets and dances with Henry Tilney ( JJ Feild ) . The following day , Catherine makes the acquaintance of the Thorpe family . She becomes good friends with Isabella Thorpe ( Carey Mulligan ) and she meets Isabella 's brother , John ( William Beck ) , when she is reunited with her own brother , James ( Hugh O 'Conor ) .
John flirts with Catherine at a ball , but she is more interested in meeting with Henry and his sister , Eleanor ( Catherine Walker ) . Catherine is pressured by Isabella and John into riding to Blaise Castle , despite her having made plans for a walk with Henry and Eleanor . John assures her that he saw Henry driving a phaeton to Wick Rocks , but while Catherine is in John 's carriage , she sees the Tilneys walking along the street . Catherine asks John to stop , knowing he lied to her , but he refuses . Catherine runs into the Tilney family at the opera and makes her apologies , before planning another walk . John tells Henry 's father , General Tilney ( Liam Cunningham ) , that Catherine is the Allens ' heir , and the General invites her to spend the day with the family . Catherine is delighted when she learns Henry and Eleanor love books as much as she does .
On her return home , Isabella tells Catherine that she and James are engaged . James and John announce that they are to leave Bath for a few weeks and after talking about marriage with Catherine , John leaves believing she is in love with him . Isabella catches the eye of Henry 's older brother , Captain Frederick Tilney ( Mark Dymond ) , and flirts with him after she learns how low James ' income will be . General Tilney invites Catherine to stay with his family at Northanger Abbey and she accepts . When Isabella tells Catherine that John is going to propose to her , Catherine tells her friend to write to him and explains that he is mistaken . Isabella continues to flirt with Frederick and Catherine asks Henry to convince his brother to leave her alone . However , he tells Catherine that Frederick will be leaving town soon to re @-@ join his regiment .
Catherine states that Northanger Abbey looks exactly as she imagined it and she becomes intrigued by Mrs. Tilney 's death . Due to her overactive imagination , Catherine starts to believe that General Tilney murdered his wife . Henry catches her in his mother 's chamber and becomes offended when he realises what she has been thinking . Catherine apologises and Henry tells her that perhaps it is possible to read too many novels . Catherine receives a letter from James , in which he reveals that his engagement to Isabella has been called off , because she allowed Frederick to seduce her . Eleanor explains to Catherine that her brother has no intention of marrying Isabella . Catherine gets a letter from Isabella , asking her to apologise to James for her , but Catherine states that she will do no such thing .
General Tilney returns home from a trip away and orders Eleanor to send Catherine home to Fullerton that night . Catherine endures the trip alone and believes that Henry told the General about her suspicions . A few days later , Henry comes to Fullerton and explains that the General discovered that Catherine 's family were not as rich as John led him to believe . He apologises for his father 's actions and explains that even though he will probably be disinherited , he loves Catherine and proposes . Catherine accepts and the couple marry .
= = Production = =
= = = Conception and adaptation = = =
On 10 November 2005 , Julia Day from The Guardian reported ITV controller of drama , Nick Elliott , had ordered three new adaptations of Mansfield Park , Northanger Abbey and Persuasion . Elliot commented that the adaptations would be " important remakes for the new generation " . He explained , " About every 10 years , all the great stories need retelling . These films will be very much 2007 films ... we 've asked and pushed the production team to make them young . Her stories always make great TV drama and our Jane Austen season will feature the absolute cream of British acting talent . " Elliott revealed that he had deliberately shied away from ordering adaptations of Pride and Prejudice and Sense and Sensibility to focus on Austen 's lesser known works . Each of the productions were made by a different company , cast and directors , so they had " a distinct look " . They were also made to appeal to a younger audience that might have previously switched off other Austen adaptations . Northanger Abbey was given a budget of £ 2 million , and it marked only the second filmed adaptation of the book ; with the first being made and broadcast in 1986 .
Andrew Davies , the screenwriter who adapted Pride and Prejudice for the BBC , was commissioned to write the script for Northanger Abbey . He had previously written an adaptation of the novel for Weekend Television in 1998 . It was optioned by Harvey Weinstein for Miramax Films and drafts from other writers were added , before the project was abandoned . Davies told The Daily Telegraph 's Hugh Davies that Northanger Abbey was much more straightforward to adapt than Pride and Prejudice , which was " quite a fiendish bit of compression " . The reporter explained , " A young heroine thinks she has stumbled across a Gothic conspiracy of murder and concealed corpses . In fact , the true crimes are those of psychological cruelty and selfishness . Davies said that part of the back story was having the heroine read the 1764 best @-@ seller The Castle of Otranto by Horace Walpole , which he uses to fill Catherine 's head with the expectation of unspeakable secrets in the Abbey . " The writer admitted that he used artistic license when it came to the scene in which Catherine 's friend , Isabella , goes off with Captain Frederick Tilney . Austen did not state what happened to them in the novel , but Davies believed Frederick would have seduced Isabella .
During an interview with Marion McMullen from the Coventry Evening Telegraph , Davies explained that the Gothic elements to the novel gave him inspiration to add dream sequences and fantasies to the script . He told McMullen , " I 've been very faithful to the book , but one of the differences has been writing the scenes showing Catherine 's fantasies . Catherine is a great reader of horror fiction – the gothic novel was fairly popular in those days , like a young girl today who would read a lot of rather steamy romances . In this production , we see some of Catherine 's fantasies , some of which are quite steamy for a young girl . " Davies admitted that he was proud of his reputation for " sexing up " the novels he had adapted and commented that none of his scenes were gratuitous . He told McMullen that he often looked for excuses to get the characters out of their clothes , as he felt they were always being " buttoned up to the neck " . Producer Keith Thompson said Davies had made Northanger Abbey a bit more erotic than the novel and thought the script had " a wonderful cheekiness to it . " Davies chose to use a narrator to speak Austen 's words and help set the scene at the beginning and end of the film .
= = = Casting = = =
Karen Price from the Western Mail reported ITV were looking for " big names " and promised the best British acting talent , while they were casting the three adaptations . In July 2006 , Thompson revealed the cast had yet to be confirmed and that the casting agent , John Hubbard , was " scouring " Ireland and the United Kingdom for actors to fit the roles . On 14 August , a writer for the Irish Film and Television Network stated the casting for Northanger Abbey had finished and had been confirmed . British actress Felicity Jones was chosen to play Catherine , the protagonist and eldest daughter of the Morland family . Jones received the part upon her first audition , just two weeks after graduating from Oxford University . She revealed that she really wanted the role , explaining " sometimes when you read a script , you think ' God , I 'd love to do that . ' " While speaking of his fondness for the characters , Davies commented that Jones ' casting as Catherine was " perfect " . American @-@ born actor JJ Feild was cast as Henry Tilney , the " highly eligible young clergyman " , and William Beck received the role of John Thorpe , Henry 's rival for Catherine 's affections .
Actress Carey Mulligan was given the role of Catherine 's shallow and selfish friend Isabella Thorpe . The actress had previously worked with Davies on an adaptation of Bleak House . Speaking to Graham Fuller of The Arts Desk , Mulligan commented , " I wanted to play Isabella because I 'd never played a character like that before . " Irish actor Hugh O 'Conor was chosen to play James Morland , Catherine 's brother and Isabella 's fiancé . Other Irish actors cast in the production included Liam Cunningham as the " eccentric " General Tilney and Gerry O 'Brien and Julia Dearden as Mr. and Mrs. Morland respectively . Desmond Barrit and Sylvestra Le Touzel were cast as Mr. and Mrs. Allen , the wealthier older couple that invites Catherine to go to Bath with them . Le Touzel previously portrayed Fanny Price in the 1983 adaptation of Mansfield Park . Catherine Walker and Mark Dymond appeared as Henry 's siblings Eleanor and Captain Tilney . Geraldine James was credited as the narrator and voice of Austen .
= = = Filming = = =
Northanger Abbey was shot on location in Ireland from late August 2006 . The Independent 's Sarah Shannon stated that ITV had filmed in the country " largely thanks to the generous tax incentives offered by the republic 's government . " Filming lasted for five weeks and the drama was shot on Super 16 mm film . Twenty @-@ first century Dublin streets doubled for nineteenth century Bath , the setting for the novel . Shannon thought some viewers might be annoyed with this and Thompson commented , " But isn 't that shot of the Royal Crescent in Bath a bit of a cliché ? What we 've done is create our own Bath . " Lismore Castle in County Waterford was chosen as Northanger Abbey , home of the Tilney family . Higginsbrook House , near County Meath , served as the exterior to the Morland family 's home . The house was later used in Becoming Jane , a film about Austen 's early life . Other shooting locations included Dublin Castle , Ardbraccan House and Charleville Castle . Jones told Paul Byrne of the Evening Herald that she enjoyed shooting in Ireland as she got to see a lot of the country .
= = = Music and choreography = = =
British composer Charlie Mole wrote the score to Northanger Abbey , while the Pemberley Players provided other authentic pieces of music . Sue Mythen choreographed the ballroom scenes . Speaking to Benji Wilson of the Radio Times , Jones revealed the dance sessions were the most taxing part of the shoot . She explained that the cast had to learn all of the ballroom dances from scratch and they spent a week going over them to make sure they were right . She explained , " But what happens is as soon as you put the dialogue in , the dancing just goes to pot ! So it 's all about putting the movement and the dialogue together and remembering what your character is supposed to be thinking at the same time – that 's quite tricky ! " Jones praised Mythen and said the teacher often reminded the actors to relax into the dance and remember that their character would have been doing it for years , as they would have learnt at an early age . Jones added " the novelty for us with three weeks of dancing is not quite the same ! "
= = Promotion and broadcast = =
ITV launched a nationwide campaign to promote its Jane Austen Season . The campaign included three television adverts and cinema , outdoor and press adverts . ITV Creative made the 20 , 30 and 60 second promotional trailers , which began airing on ITV channels from 25 February 2007 . The following day adverts began appearing in selected national press publications . The outdoor and press adverts were created by M & C Saatchi and MindShare carried out the media buying .
Northanger Abbey was the second of the Austen adaptations to be shown in the UK . It was broadcast on ITV at 9 : 00 pm on 25 March 2007 . The drama aired on the TVOntario channel in Canada on 16 December 2007 . Northanger Abbey was shown on 20 January 2008 on the US channel PBS as part of their Austen Masterpiece Theatre series . On 15 June , the film was broadcast on Australia 's ABC1 channel .
= = = Home media = = =
Northanger Abbey was released on a single disc DVD and as part of a box @-@ set in the UK on 26 March 2007 . The Region 1 DVD was released on 22 January 2008 . In April of that year , ITV announced they would be making a range of classic programmes , including the adaptation of Northanger Abbey , available to purchase through the iTunes Store .
= = Reception = =
Upon its first broadcast in the United Kingdom , Northanger Abbey was viewed by 5 @.@ 6 million people and had a 26 @.@ 6 % audience share . This made it the second most popular of the adaptations , behind Mansfield Park . 931 @,@ 000 Australians watched the drama when it aired on ABC1 in June 2008 . Northanger Abbey garnered mostly positive reviews from critics . Shortly before it aired in the UK , reporters for four newspaper publications selected the drama as their " Pick of the Day . " Jade Wright of the Liverpool Echo thought the adaptation had showed " a good @-@ natured and frank Catherine " , with Jones managing to " combine humility and humour with perfect aplomb . " Wright praised the decision to cast Mulligan and said the actress " shone " as Isabella . A The Guardian reporter included Northanger Abbey in their feature on the week 's television highlights , saying " Yes , yes , more Austin [ sic ] , but Andrew Davies ' adaptation of one of her lighter novels is the perfect Sunday evening blend of eruditeness and pretty frocks . "
The Sydney Morning Herald 's Lenny Ann Low also praised the cast and their performances , stating " Lush with straining bosoms , knowing looks and segments bringing Morland 's wild dreams and fantasies to life , Northanger Abbey is well cast . Felicity Jones catches Morland 's mix of youthful naivety , heart @-@ whole feelings and mindful beliefs perfectly and J.J. Feild , as the dishy but sensible Tilney , grows in appeal as this feature @-@ length drama builds to a climax . " Low 's colleague , Joyce Morgan later selected Northanger Abbey as one of the week 's best television programmes . However , Ruth Ritchie , writing for the same newspaper , stated that the makers of the adaptation tried " desperately to create an air of mystery about the dastardly deeds at Northanger Abbey , " but the audience knew it was about as scary as " a ninja turtle . " Ritchie likened the ITV Austen adaptations to a " Posh Country Home and Away . " Mary McNamara of the Los Angeles Times wrote " Northanger Abbey the novel was as fun as it gets for Austen , and the television film quite lives up to the same standard . "
Ginia Bellafante , a critic for The New York Times , proclaimed the drama gave the audience " innocent faces and heaving breasts , hyperbolizing the sex that always lurks beneath the surface of Austen 's astringent presence . " She went on to say Northanger Abbey was made to be a television movie and commented that it was more fun than the book . The San Francisco Chronicle 's David Wiegand wrote " Persuasion is a bigger challenge to try to squeeze into 90 minutes , the real difference between that film and Northanger is the latter 's consistency of high @-@ quality performances , a careful and attentive adaptation by Andrew Davies and solid direction by Jon Jones . " Writing for The Daily Telegraph , James Walton observed " Northanger Abbey was a perfectly acceptable costume drama – but not one that ever really caught fire . " Simon Hoggart , writing for The Spectator , commented that Davies 's adaptation of Northanger Abbey " was much bolder and more confident than Mansfield Park the week before . "
The Hollywood Reporter 's Ray Bennett praised Northanger Abbey , calling it " a wonderfully evocative version " , which was " written with flair and imagination by Andrew Davies " . He proclaimed " Capturing vividly the flush and wonder of adolescence , the film mines Austen 's first @-@ written but last @-@ published novel to find purest nuggets of wit , romance and social satire . The story 's 18th @-@ century heroine , Catherine Morland , has a fevered imagination and Davies draws on Austen 's droll illustrations of it to create scenes of gothic adventure . " Bennett added " the film is shot beautifully by Ciarán Tanham while composer Charlie Mole 's score adds to the quickening pace of Catherine 's fantasies . " For his work on Northanger Abbey , cinematographer Tanham was nominated for Best Director of Photography at the 5th Irish Film and Television Awards .
= The Way You Make Me Feel =
" The Way You Make Me Feel " is a song by American recording artist Michael Jackson . Released by Epic Records in November 1987 , it was the third single from Jackson 's seventh studio album Bad . Written and composed by Jackson , and produced by Quincy Jones ( and co @-@ produced by Jackson ) , the song is credited as being a pop and rhythm and blues song .
Aside from appearing on Jackson 's Bad album , the song has also been featured on the first disc of Jackson 's compilation album HIStory : Past , Present and Future , Book I in 1995 , Number Ones in 2003 , The Ultimate Collection in 2004 , The Essential Michael Jackson in 2005 , Visionary : The Video Singles in 2006 and This Is It in 2009 . " The Way You Make Me Feel " has been covered by multiple recording artists since its release .
The song received positive reviews from contemporary critics . " The Way You Make Me Feel " became Bad 's third consecutive single to peak at number one on the Billboard Hot 100 , and charted mainly within the top ten and twenty internationally . A music video for " The Way You Make Me Feel " was released at the time showing Jackson pursuing and dancing with a woman . Since the music video 's release , it has become influential on other artists ' material . The song has been performed on all of Jackson 's world concert tours as a solo artist , and was planned to have been performed during the This Is It concerts from 2009 to 2010 . Notable live performances of the song by Jackson include a performance at the 1988 Grammy Awards ceremony .
= = Background and composition = =
" The Way You Make Me Feel " was recorded by Michael Jackson in 1987 for his seventh studio album Bad , which was released the same year it was recorded . Epic Records released the song as the third single from the album in November that year . " The Way You Make Me Feel " was written and co @-@ produced by Jackson , and produced by Quincy Jones . Before the recording of Bad , Jackson had written over sixty songs for the album , with plans of releasing a three disc album , but after Jones convinced Jackson to make Bad a one disc LP , " The Way You Make Me Feel " , as well as ten other songs were selected for the album . According to Bad 25 , a documentary about the 25th anniversary of Bad 's release , the song and subsequent video was intended to show another aspect to public 's perception of Michael Jackson in addition to his reputation as a lover ( I Just Can 't Stop Loving You ) and being streetwise ( Bad ) they wanted to show him as a flirt or able to pick up girls .
" The Way You Make Me Feel " has been featured on multiple greatest hits and compilation albums by Jackson since the song 's release , including the first disc of Jackson 's two disc compilation album HIStory : Past , Present and Future , Book I in 1995 , Jackson 's greatest hits album , Number Ones in 2003 and the This Is It compilation album in 2009 .
Musically , " The Way You Make Me Feel " is a pop and rhythm and blues song composed of blues harmonies . The song 's opening lyrics are " Hey , pretty baby with the high heels on " . " The Way You Make Me Feel " ' s lyrics pertain to being in love , as well as the feeling of loving someone . Throughout the song Jackson 's vocal range spans from B3 to A5 . The song is played in the key of E major . " The Way You Make Me Feel " has a mid @-@ tempo of medium rock and has a metronome of 120 beats per minute . The song follows in the chord progression of C — E ♭ / C — C — C / E ♭ in the first line , when Jackson sings " Hee @-@ hee ! Ooh Go on ! " and continues on the same progression in the second line , when Jackson sings " Girl ! Aaow ! " .
= = Critical reception = =
" The Way You Make Me Feel " generally received positive reviews from contemporary music critics . AllMusic reviewer Stephen Thomas Erlewine listed " The Way You May Me Feel " as well as the album 's title track , " I Just Can 't Stop Loving You " and " Man In The Mirror " as being a ' track picks ' from Bad . Erlewine commented that out of all of Bad 's songs , " only three can stand alongside album tracks from its predecessor " which were " Bad " , " The Way You Make Me Feel , " and " I Just Can 't Stop Loving You " . Jon Pareles , a writer for The New York Times , commented that Jackson 's songs , " The Way You Make Me Feel " and " I Just Can 't Stop Loving You " , " say nothing more personalized than their titles " .
Richard Cromelin , from the Los Angeles Times , described " The Way You Make Me Feel " as being a " loping shuffle " . Rolling Stone ' David Sigerson commented that " The Way You Make Me Feel " was " nearly as good " as being the third best song on Bad . Greg Quill , who writes for the Toronto Star , commented that " The Way You Make Me Feel " was to a " lesser extent in the love songs " because the song dealt " more with surrender than conquest or self @-@ gratification . " The Washington Post ' Rickard Harrington commented that on songs like " The Way You Make Me Feel , " Jackson " sings the way he dances " . " The Way You Make Me Feel " tied at number 22 on The Village Voice 's Pazz & Jop critics ' poll of 1987 .
= = Chart performance = =
" The Way You Make Me Feel " generally charted within the top ten and top twenty positions on music charts worldwide . The song climbed to number seven on the Billboard Hot 100 on the chart 's issue date of December 26 , 1987 . After charting within the top ten for five weeks , the song peaked at number one on the Hot 100 on January 23 , 1988 . " The Way You Make Me Feel " became the album 's third consecutive single to reach number one on the Hot 100 . " The Way You Make Me Feel " also charted on Billboard 's Adult Contemporary chart , peaking at number nine , and on the Hot Dance Music / Maxi Single Sales chart at the peak of number three . The song also charted at number one on the Billboard Hot Black Singles chart and Dance Club Play Singles chart .
The song entered the United Kingdom singles charts at number sixteen on December 5 , 1987 . The following week the song moved up thirteen spaces to number three , which was the song 's peak position . The song stayed at its peak position for two consecutive weeks , and remained on the country 's chart for ten weeks , before falling out of the top 100 positions , only to re @-@ enter the charts two weeks later .
The song peaked at number two on New Zealand music charts on January 17 , 1988 , and remained on the chart for a total of eleven weeks in 1987 and 1988 . In the Netherlands , the song debuted on the chart at number twenty on November 28 , 1987 . Two weeks later the song charted at its peak position , at number six . " The Way You Make Me Feel " debuted at number fourteen on Switzerland charts on December 13 , 1987 ; the following week , the song charted at its peak position at number eight . The song charted within the top thirty positions for ten consecutive weeks from 1987 to 1988 . The song debuted on French music charts on December 26 , 1987 at number 47 , and eventually peaked within the top thirty positions at number 29 . The song charted within the top 50 positions for ten consecutive weeks on the country 's chart . The song has sold over 1 @.@ 1 million digital copies .
" The Way You Make Me Feel " re @-@ entered music charts worldwide after Jackson 's music was re @-@ issued for the Visionary album . The song debuted on the Spanish Singles Chart at number one on April 9 , 2006 . The song remained on the country 's chart for ten weeks . In Italy , the song debuted within the top ten , peaking at number seven , on April 6 , 2006 ; after two weeks , the song charted out of the top 100 positions . " The Way You Make Me Feel " re @-@ entered Dutch charts on April 1 , 2006 at number 24 . The song re @-@ entered French music charts on April 1 , 2006 at number 59 ; the song remained within the top 100 positions for two consecutive weeks .
Following Jackson 's death , his music experienced a surge in popularity . The song re @-@ entered Dutch charts for the third time on July 4 , 2009 , at its peak position at number 40 ; the song remained on the chart for four consecutive weeks in 2009 . The song charted within the top ten , peaking at number six , on the Billboard Hot Digital Songs on July 11 , due to digital download sales . The song debuted on Swedish charts at number 30 on July 3 , and peaked at number 24 the following week . On July 4 , the song re @-@ entered the United Kingdom charts at number 47 , and peaked at number 34 the following week .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " The Way You Make Me Feel " was directed by Joe Pytka and produced by Michael Nesmith . It was choreographed by Vincent Paterson . The short version of the video is seven minutes and fifty @-@ four seconds long and the full version is nine minutes and thirty @-@ three seconds long . The video begins with a group of males trying to pick up women , but they don 't get any luck . One of the males ( Michael Jackson ) is told to go home and not to hang around with the other guys anymore . When the male walks home , an elderly man ( played by Joe Seneca ) , who is sitting on the steps of his house , tells him to just be himself . The male notices a female , played by model / dancer Tatiana Thumbtzen , walking down the streets alone .
Shortly after the male walks out of an alley and stands in front of the female while she 's walking down the street , although she ignores him and keeps walking . He gets her attention by shouting , and then begins singing " The Way You Make Me Feel " to her while also dancing . Uninterested , she walks away . He follows her , having been cheered on by his friends to pursue her . Another dance routine begins , involving the males friends , which leads to the male pursuing the female throughout the neighborhood . The video ends with the male eventually winning the female over , and embraces her , while a fire hydrant is spraying out water . The videoclip also features an appearance by his sister La Toya as one of Thumbtzen 's friends .
The music video was released on October 31 , 1987 , and received one nomination at the 1988 MTV Video Music Awards Ceremony . The video , alongside Jackson 's ' " Bad " video , was nominated for Best Choreography , but lost to Jackson 's younger sister Janet 's video " The Pleasure Principle " .
The music video was included on the video albums : Video Greatest Hits – HIStory ( long version on DVD and short version on VHS ) , Number Ones ( short version ) , Michael Jackson 's Vision ( long version ) and the Target version DVD of Bad 25 ( long version ) .
The introduction of the full version of the video also samples the Roy Ayers 1985 song " Hot " from his You Might Be Surprised album .
= = Live performances = =
" The Way You Make Me Feel " was performed by Jackson on all three of his world concert series tours as a solo artist as well as during award shows . For a majority of the songs performances , Jackson would wear a blue dress shirt with a white t @-@ shirt and black pants with a white belt . The song was first performed in concert by Jackson during the encore of the second leg of his Bad World Tour from 1987 to 1989 . A live version of the song is available on the DVD Live at Wembley July 16 , 1988 .
He performed " The Way You Make Me Feel " at the 1988 Grammy Awards Ceremony , during which Jackson wore his signature outfit and his signature black fedora , while doing a dance routine with four other dancers , and performed the song along with another one of his songs , " Man in the Mirror " . This performance was staged and choreographed by Vincent Paterson .
Tatiana Thumbtzen , who appeared in the short film for The Way You Make Me Feel , joined Jackson in some concerts of his Bad World Tour , and performed the song with him , strutting across the stage whilst he pursued her . However , she was fired from the tour by Jackson 's manager after an incident during one of the performances in which she approached Jackson and kissed him onstage .
" The Way You Make Me Feel " was also performed during the first leg of Jackson 's Dangerous World Tour from June 1992 to November 1993 . The tour was supposed to be longer , but was canceled due to Jackson 's health concerns and stress from the child sexual abuse accusations made against him . The next performance of the song was during select dates of Jackson 's world concert series tour , HIStory . The song was performed during selected concerts from September 1996 to June 1997 . The last performance of the song was at the Michael Jackson : 30th Anniversary Special in 2001 at Madison Square Garden on September 7 and September 10 , 2001 . The video footage from the performance ( which included Britney Spears ) was featured on CBS in November 2001 , as a two @-@ hour television special .
Since March 2009 , Jackson was preparing to perform " The Way You Make Me Feel ' " during his This Is It concert series from 2009 to 2010 . Following Jackson 's death in June of the same year , video footage of Jackson rehearsing the song was featured in the 2009 concert documentary film , Michael Jackson 's This Is It . The video rehearsal footage was also featured on the films DVD in January 2010 .
= = Cover versions and influences = =
" The Way You Make Me Feel " has been covered by multiple artists since its release , and the song 's music video has been influential on other artists ' material as well .
In 1989 , German comedian Otto Waalkes parodies the music video in his film Otto – Der Außerfriesische .
In 2003 , the music group Shakaya covered " The Way You Make Me Feel " and released their version as a non @-@ album single . The song only charted on Australian charts , peaking at number 21 on the country 's music charts .
In December 2009 , Stacey Solomon , a contestant on the X Factor in the United Kingdom , performed a cover of the song during the show 's semi @-@ finals , which received mixed opinions from the show 's judges .
In January 2010 , Jonas Brothers band member Nick Jonas performed the song during a concert at the Warner Theatre in promotion for his Nick Jonas & the Administration album . Dave McKenna , a writer for The Washington Post , commented on Jonas ' performance of the song that " whatever spots of trouble his ambition got him into " citing Jonas ' " falsetto faltered " cover of " The Way You Make Me Feel " , as well as another song , were able to be " carried through " by Jonas ' band members .
In February 2010 , Whitney Houston performed " The Way You Make Me Feel " , along with Jackson 's " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " , during her I Look to You Tour .
= = Track listings and formats = =
= = Official versions = =
Album Version – 4 : 59
Album Version # 2 – 4 : 58 – Full @-@ length version of the single remix sans the finger snap after the second verse .
7 " Re @-@ Mix – 4 : 25
Album Version # 2 ( Edit ) – 4 : 26 – Attempt at re @-@ creating the original 7 " version .
Instrumental – 4 : 25
Dance Extended Mix – 7 : 52
Dance Remix Radio Edit – 5 : 22
Dub Version – 5 : 02
A Cappella – 4 : 29
= = Personnel = =
= = Charts = =
= = = Weekly charts = = =
= = = Year @-@ end charts = = =
= SMS Dresden ( 1907 ) =
SMS Dresden ( " His Majesty 's Ship Dresden " ) was a German light cruiser built for the Kaiserliche Marine ( Imperial Navy ) , the lead ship of her class . She was laid down at the Blohm & Voss shipyard in Hamburg in 1906 , launched in October 1907 , and completed in November 1908 . Her entrance into service was delayed by accidents during sea trials , including a collision with another vessel that necessitated major repairs . Like the preceding Königsberg @-@ class cruisers upon which her design was based , Dresden was armed with ten 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) guns and two torpedo tubes .
Dresden spent much of her career overseas . After commissioning , she visited the United States in 1909 during the Hudson @-@ Fulton Celebration , before returning to Germany to serve in the reconnaissance force of the High Seas Fleet for three years . In 1913 , she was assigned to the Mediterranean Division . She was then sent to the Caribbean to protect German nationals during the Mexican Revolution . In mid @-@ 1914 , she carried the former dictator Victoriano Huerta to Jamaica , where the British had granted him asylum . She was due to return to Germany in July 1914 , but was prevented by the outbreak of World War I from doing so . At the onset of hostilities , Dresden operated as a commerce raider in South American waters in the Atlantic , then moved to the Pacific Ocean in September and joined Maximilian von Spee 's East Asia Squadron .
Dresden saw action in the Battle of Coronel in November , where she engaged the British cruiser HMS Glasgow , and at the Battle of the Falkland Islands in December , where she was the only German warship to escape destruction . She eluded her British pursuers for several more months , until she put into Robinson Crusoe Island in March 1915 . Her engines were worn out and she had almost no coal left for her boilers , so the ship 's captain contacted the local Chilean authorities to have Dresden interned . She was trapped by British cruisers , including her old opponent Glasgow . The British violated Chilean neutrality and opened fire on the ship in the Battle of Más a Tierra . The Germans scuttled Dresden and the majority of the crew escaped to be interned in Chile for the duration of the war . The wreck remains in the harbor ; several artifacts , including her bell and compass , have been returned to Germany .
= = Design = =
Dresden was 118 @.@ 3 meters ( 388 ft 1 in ) long overall with a beam of 13 @.@ 5 m ( 44 ft 3 in ) and a draft of 5 @.@ 53 m ( 18 ft 2 in ) forward . She displaced 4 @,@ 268 t ( 4 @,@ 201 long tons ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of two Parsons steam turbines , designed to give 14 @,@ 794 shp ( 11 @,@ 032 kW ) for a top speed of 24 knots ( 44 km / h ; 28 mph ) . The engines were powered by twelve coal @-@ fired water @-@ tube boilers . Dresden carried up to 860 tonnes ( 850 long tons ) of coal , which gave her a range of 3 @,@ 600 nautical miles ( 6 @,@ 700 km ; 4 @,@ 100 mi ) at 14 knots ( 26 km / h ; 16 mph ) . She had a crew of 18 officers and 343 enlisted men .
The ship was armed with ten 10 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 40 guns in single mounts . Two were placed side by side forward on the forecastle , six were located amidships , three on either side , and two were placed side by side aft . The guns could engage targets out to 12 @,@ 200 m ( 13 @,@ 300 yd ) . They were supplied with 1 @,@ 500 rounds of ammunition , for 150 shells per gun . The secondary battery comprised eight 5 @.@ 2 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) SK L / 55 guns , with 4 @,@ 000 rounds of ammunition . She was also equipped with two 45 cm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes with four torpedoes , mounted on the deck . The ship was protected by an armored deck that was up to 80 mm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) thick . The conning tower had 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick sides , and the guns were protected by 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick shields .
= = Service history = =
Dresden was ordered under the contract name Ersatz Comet . She was laid down at the Blohm & Voss shipyard in Hamburg in 1906 and launched on 5 October 1907 . The Oberbürgermeister of her namesake city , Otto Beutler , christened the ship . Fitting @-@ out work then commenced , and Dresden was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet on 14 November 1908 . Following her commissioning , Dresden began her sea trials . On 28 November she accidentally collided with and sank the Swedish galeas Cäcilie outside Kiel . Dresden 's starboard propeller shaft was shoved in 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) , and she required six months of repair work . She resumed sea trials in 1909 , but a turbine accident necessitated further repairs , which lasted until September .
Although Dresden had not completed the required testing , her trials were declared over on 7 September , as she had been ordered to visit the United States . The purpose of the voyage was to represent Germany at the Hudson @-@ Fulton Celebration in New York ; Dresden was joined by the protected cruisers Hertha and Victoria Louise and the light cruiser Bremen . Dresden left Wilhelmshaven on 11 September and stopped in Newport , where she met the rest of the ships of the squadron . The ships arrived in New York on 24 September , remained there until 9 October , and arrived back in Germany on 22 October .
Dresden then joined the reconnaissance force for the High Seas Fleet ; the following two years consisted of the peacetime routine of squadron exercises , training cruises , and annual fleet exercises . On 16 February 1910 , she collided with the light cruiser Königsberg . The collision caused significant damage to Dresden , though no one on either vessel was injured . She made it back to Kiel for repairs , which lasted eight days . Dresden visited Hamburg on 13 – 17 May that year . From 14 to 20 April 1912 , she was temporarily transferred to the Training Squadron , along with the armored cruiser Friedrich Carl and the light cruiser Mainz . For the year 1911 – 12 , Dresden won the Kaiser 's Schießpreis ( Shooting Prize ) for excellent gunnery amongst the light cruisers of the High Seas Fleet . From September 1912 through September 1913 , she was commanded by Fregattenkapitän ( Frigate Captain ) Fritz Lüdecke , who would command the ship again during World War I.
On 6 April 1913 , she and the cruiser Strassburg were sent from Kiel to the Adriatic Sea , where she joined the Mittelmeer @-@ Division ( Mediterranean Division ) , centered on the battlecruiser Goeben and commanded by Konteradmiral ( Rear Admiral ) Konrad Trummler . The ships cruised the eastern Mediterranean for several months , and in late August , Dresden was ordered to return to Germany . After arriving in Kiel on 23 September , she was taken into the Kaiserliche Werft ( Imperial Shipyard ) for an overhaul that lasted until the end of December . She was scheduled to return to the Mediterranean Division , but the Admiralstab ( Admiralty Staff ) reassigned Dresden to the North American station to protect German interests in the Mexican Revolution . The cruiser Bremen , then in North American waters , was also due to return to Germany , but her intended replacement , Karlsruhe , had not yet entered service . On 27 December 1913 , Dresden departed Germany and arrived off Vera Cruz on 21 January 1914 , under the command of Fregattenkapitän Erich Köhler . The United States had already sent a squadron of warships to the city , as had several other countries .
The Admiralstab ordered Hertha , which had been on a training cruise for naval cadets , to join Dresden off Mexico . Bremen was also recalled to reinforce the German naval contingent ; after arriving , she was tasked with transferring European nationals to German HAPAG liners . Dresden and the British cruiser HMS Hermione rescued 900 American citizens trapped in a hotel in Vera Cruz and transferred them to American warships . The German consul in Mexico City requested additional forces , and so Dresden provided a landing party of a maat ( Junior Petty Officer ) and ten sailors , armed with two MG 08 machine guns . On 15 April 1914 , Dresden steamed to Tampico on Mexico 's Caribbean coast . That month , the German @-@ flagged merchant ship SS Ypiranga arrived in Mexico , carrying a load of small arms for the regime of Mexican dictator Victoriano Huerta . The United States had put an arms embargo into effect in an attempt to reduce the violence of the civil war . The US Navy intercepted Ypiranga on 21 April . Dresden arrived , confiscated the merchantman , and pressed her into naval service to transport German refugees out of Mexico . Despite the American embargo , the Germans delivered the weapons and ammunition to the Mexican government on 28 May .
On 20 July , after the Huerta regime was toppled , Dresden carried Huerta , his vice president , Aureliano Blanquet , and their families to Kingston , Jamaica , where Britain had granted them asylum . Upon arriving in Kingston on the 25th , Köhler learned of the rising political tensions in Europe during the July Crisis that followed the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand . By this time , the ship was in need of a refit in Germany , and met with her replacement , Karlsruhe , in Port @-@ au @-@ Prince , Haiti , the following day . Lüdecke , who had arrived in command of Karlsruhe , traded places with Köhler aboard Dresden . The Admiralstab initially ordered Dresden to return to Germany for overhaul , but the heightened threat of war by the 31st led the staff to countermand the order , instead instructing Lüdecke to prepare to conduct Handelskrieg ( trade war ) in the Atlantic .
= = = World War I = = =
After receiving the order to remain in the Atlantic , Lüdecke turned his ship south while maintaining radio silence to prevent hostile warships from discovering his vessel . On the night of 4 – 5 August , he received a radio report informing him of Britain 's declaration of war on Germany . He chose the South Atlantic as Dresden 's operational area , and steamed to the Brazilian coast . Off the mouth of the Amazon River , he stopped a British merchant ship on 6 August . The ship , SS Drumcliffe , whose captain professed to know nothing of Britain 's entry into the war , was permitted to proceed unmolested in accordance with the rules set forth in the Hague Convention of 1907 . Dresden rendezvoused with the German collier SS Corrientes , a converted HSDG vessel . The cruiser moved to the Rocas Atoll on the 12th , along with the HAPAG steamers Prussia , Baden , and Persia . After departing the atoll , en route to Trinidade , Dresden caught the British steamer SS Hyades ; Lüdecke took off the ship 's crew and then sank the merchantman . Dresden captured the British collier SS Holmwood on 24 August and sank her after evacuating her crew . After arriving in Trinidade , she rendezvoused with the gunboat Eber and several steamers .
On 26 August , while steaming off the mouth of the Río de la Plata , she caught two more British steamers , but the poor condition of Dresden 's engines curtailed further operations . On 5 September , Dresden put into Hoste Island for engine maintenance until the 16th . While the ship was there , the HAPAG steamer Santa Isabel arrived from Punta Arenas with news of the war , and the heavy merchant traffic off the western coast of South America . Lüdecke decided to steam there , and on 18 September Dresden passed the Strait of Magellan . While en route , Dresden encountered the French steamer SS Ortega ; Lüdecke refrained from attacking the transport ship , since she had fled into neutral waters . After steaming up the Chilean coast , she stopped in the Juan Fernández Islands , where she made radio contact with the light cruiser Leipzig , which was operating on the Pacific coast of South America . Dresden saw no further success against British shipping , and on 12 October , she joined Vizeadmiral ( Vice Admiral ) Maximilian von Spee 's East Asia Squadron , which had crossed the Pacific and was coaling at Easter Island . The following day , Lüdecke was promoted to Kapitän zur See ( Captain at Sea ) .
On 18 October , Dresden and the East Asia Squadron , centered on the armored cruisers Scharnhorst and Gneisenau , departed Easter Island for the South American coast . They arrived at Más a Fuera island on 26 October . The following evening , the German cruisers escorted the auxiliary cruiser SS Prinz Eitel Friedrich and the merchant ships SS Yorck and SS Göttingen to Chile . The flotilla arrived off Valparaiso on 30 October , and the following evening , von Spee received intelligence that a British cruiser was at the Chilean port of Coronel . Von Spee decided that his squadron should ambush the cruiser — HMS Glasgow — when it was forced to leave port due to Chile 's neutral status , which required belligerent warships to leave after twenty @-@ four hours . Von Spee did not realize that Glasgow was in the company of Rear Admiral Christopher Craddock 's 4th Cruiser Squadron , which also included the armored cruisers Monmouth and Good Hope and the auxiliary cruiser Otranto .
= = = = Battle of Coronel = = = =
Early on the morning of 1 November , von Spee took his squadron out of Valparaiso , steaming at 14 knots ( 26 km / h ; 16 mph ) south toward Coronel . At around 16 : 00 , Leipzig spotted the smoke column from the leading British cruiser . By 16 : 25 , the other two ships had been spotted . The two squadrons slowly closed the distance , until the Germans opened fire at 18 : 34 , at a range of 10 @,@ 400 m ( 11 @,@ 400 yd ) . The German ships engaged their opposite numbers , with Dresden firing on Otranto . After Dresden 's third salvo , Otranto turned away ; the Germans claimed a hit that caused a fire , though Otranto reported taking no damage . Following Otranto 's departure , Dresden shifted her fire to Glasgow , which was also targeted by Leipzig . The two German cruisers hit their British opponent five times .
At around 19 : 30 , von Spee ordered Dresden and Leipzig to launch a torpedo attack against the damaged British armored cruisers . Dresden increased speed to position herself off the British bows , and briefly spotted Glasgow as she was withdrawing , but the British cruiser disappeared in the haze and gathering darkness . Dresden then encountered Leipzig ; both ships initially thought the other was hostile . Dresden 's crew was loading a torpedo when the two ships confirmed each other 's identity . By 22 : 00 , Dresden and the other two light cruisers were deployed in a line that searched unsuccessfully for the British cruisers . Dresden had emerged from the battle completely unscathed .
On 3 November , von Spee took Scharnhorst , Gneisenau , and Nürnberg back to Valparaiso for provisioning and to consult with the Admiralstab . Neutrality laws permitted only three belligerent warships in a port at a given time . Dresden and Leipzig remained with the squadron 's colliers in Más a Fuera . Von Spee returned to Más a Fuera on 6 November , and detached Dresden and Leipzig for a visit to Valparaiso , where they also restocked their supplies . The two cruisers arrived on 12 November , left the following day , and met the rest of the squadron at sea on 18 November . Three days later , the squadron anchored in St. Quentin Bay in the Gulf of Penas , where they coaled . The Royal Navy had deployed Vice Admiral Doveton Sturdee 's pair of battlecruisers , Invincible and Inflexible , to hunt down the German squadron . They left Britain on 11 November , and arrived in the Falkland Islands on 7 December . There , they joined the armored cruisers Cornwall , Kent , and Carnarvon , and the light cruisers Glasgow and Bristol .
On 26 November , the German East Asia Squadron left St. Quentin Bay , bound for the Atlantic . On 2 December , they caught the Canadian sailing ship Drummuir , which was carrying 2 @,@ 750 metric tons ( 2 @,@ 710 long tons ; 3 @,@ 030 short tons ) of high @-@ grade Cardiff coal . The following morning , the Germans anchored off Picton Island , where they unloaded the coal from Drummuir into their own auxiliaries . On the morning of 6 December , von Spee held a council aboard Scharnhorst to discuss their next moves . With the support of the captains of Scharnhorst and Gneisenau , he successfully argued for an attack on the Falklands to destroy the British wireless station and coal stocks there . Lüdecke and the captains of Leipzig and Nürnberg all opposed the plan , and were in favor of bypassing the Falklands and proceeding to the La Plata area to continue to raid British shipping .
= = = = Battle of the Falkland Islands = = = =
On the afternoon of 6 December , the German ships departed Picton Island , bound for the Falklands . On 7 December , they rounded Tierra del Fuego and turned north into the Atlantic . They arrived off the Falklands at around 02 : 00 ; three hours later , von Spee detached Gneisenau and Nürnberg to land a party ashore . By 08 : 30 , the ships were approaching Port Stanley , when they noticed thick columns of smoke rising from the harbor . After closing to the harbor entrance , they quickly realized they were confronted by a much more powerful squadron , which was just getting up steam . Von Spee immediately broke off the operation and turned east to flee before the British ships could catch his squadron . By 10 : 45 , Gneisenau and Nürnberg had rejoined the fleet , and the German auxiliaries were detached to seek shelter in the maze of islands off Cape Horn .
The British ships set off in pursuit , and by 12 : 50 , Sturdee 's two battlecruisers had overtaken the Germans . A minute later , he gave the order to open fire at the trailing German ship , Leipzig . Von Spee ordered the three small cruisers to try to escape to the south , while he turned back with Scharnhorst and Gneisenau in an attempt to hold off the British squadron . Sturdee had foreseen this possibility , and so had ordered his armored and light cruisers to pursue the German light cruisers . The battlecruisers quickly overwhelmed von Spee 's armored cruisers , and destroyed them with heavy loss of life . Dresden , with her turbine engines , was able to outpace her pursuers , and was the only German warship to escape destruction . Lüdecke decided to take his ship into the islands off South America to keep a steady supply of coal available .
On 9 December , she passed back around Cape Horn to return to the Pacific . That day , she anchored in Sholl Bay , with only 160 t ( 160 long tons ; 180 short tons ) of coal aboard . Oberleutnant zur See ( lieutenant at sea ) Wilhelm Canaris convinced the Chilean naval representative for the region to permit Dresden to remain in the area for an extra twenty @-@ four hours so enough coal could be taken aboard to reach Punta Arenas . She arrived there on 12 December , and received 750 t ( 740 long tons ; 830 short tons ) of coal from a German steamer . The Admiralstab hoped that Dresden would be able to break through to the Atlantic and return to Germany , but the poor condition of her engines precluded this . Lüdecke instead decided to attempt to cross the Pacific via Easter Island , the Solomon Islands , and the Dutch East Indies and raid commerce in the Indian Ocean . Dresden took on another 1 @,@ 600 t ( 1 @,@ 600 long tons ; 1 @,@ 800 short tons ) of coal on 19 January . On 14 February , Dresden left the islands off the South American coast for the South Pacific . On 27 February , the cruiser captured the British barque Conway Castle south of Más a Tierra . From December to February , the German liner Sierra Cordoba had supplied Dresden and had accompanied her northward to a final coaling at Juan Fernández Islands just before the cruiser was sunk .
On 8 March , Dresden was drifting in dense fog when lookouts spotted Kent , which also had her engines off , about 15 nautical miles ( 28 km ; 17 mi ) away . Both ships immediately raised steam , and Dresden escaped after a five @-@ hour chase . The strenuous effort depleted her coal stocks and overtaxed her engines . Lüdecke decided that his ship was no longer operational , and determined to have his ship interned to preserve it . The following morning , she put into Más a Fuera , dropping anchor in Cumberland Bay at 8 : 30 . The following day , Lüdecke received by wireless the Kaiser 's permission to let Dresden be interned , and so Lüdecke informed the local Chilean official of his intention to do so .
= = = = Battle of Más a Tierra = = = =
On the morning of 14 March , Kent and Glasgow approached Cumberland Bay ; their appearance was relayed back to Dresden by one of her pinnaces , which had been sent to patrol the entrance to the bay . Dresden was unable to maneuver , owing to her fuel shortage , and Lüdecke signaled that his ship was no longer a combatant . The British disregarded this message , as well as a Chilean vessel that approached them as they entered the bay . Glasgow opened fire , in violation of Chile 's neutrality ; Britain had already informed Chile that British warships would disregard international law if they located Dresden in Chilean territorial waters . Shortly thereafter , Kent joined in the bombardment as well . The German gunners fired off three shots in response , but the guns were quickly knocked out by British gunfire .
Lüdecke sent the signal " Am sending negotiator " to the British warships , and dispatched Canaris in a pinnace ; Glasgow continued to bombard the defenseless cruiser . In another attempt to stop the attack , Lüdecke raised the white flag , which prompted Glasgow to cease fire . Canaris came aboard to speak with Captain John Luce ; the former strongly protested the latter 's violation of Chile 's neutrality . Luce simply replied that he had his orders , and demanded an unconditional surrender . Canaris explained that Dresden had already been interned by Chile , and thereafter returned to his ship , which had in the meantime been prepared for scuttling .
At 10 : 45 , the scuttling charge detonated in the bow and exploded the forward ammunition magazines . The bow was badly mangled ; in about half an hour , the ship had taken on enough water to sink . As it struck the sea floor , the bow was torn from the rest of the ship , which rolled over to starboard . As the rest of the hull settled below the waves , a second scuttling charge exploded in the ship 's engine rooms .
= = = Aftermath = = =
Most of the ship 's crew managed to escape ; only eight men were killed in the attack , with another twenty @-@ nine wounded . The British auxiliary cruiser HMS Orama took fifteen severely wounded men to Valparaiso ; four of them died . The destruction of his ship had left Lüdecke in shock , and so Canaris took responsibility for the fate of the ship 's crew . They remained on the island for five days until two Chilean warships brought a German passenger ship to take the men to Quiriquina Island , where they were interned for the duration of the war . Canaris escaped from the internment camp on 5 August 1915 and reached Germany exactly two months later . On 31 March 1917 , a small group of men escaped on the Chilean barque Tinto ; the voyage back to Germany lasted 120 days . The rest of the crew did not return to Germany until 1920 .
The wreck lies at a depth of 70 meters ( 230 ft ) . In 2002 , the first survey of the wreck was done by a team led by James P. Delgado for the Sea Hunters documentary produced by the National Underwater and Marine Agency . The team included the archaeologist Dr. Willi Kramer , the first German to visit the wreck since she sank 88 years before . Dresden lies on her starboard side pointed north , toward the beach . The wreck is heavily damaged ; much of the upper works , including the bridge , the masts , the funnels , and many of the guns have been torn from the ship . The bow has been cut off by the scuttling charges detonated by the ship 's crew , and sits upright on the sea floor . The stern is also badly damaged , with the main deck blasted away and many shell holes in the ship 's side . Some of the damage to the aft of the ship appears to have been done by an undocumented salvage operation before Delgado 's survey . According to German records , Dresden was carrying gold coins from their colony at Tsingtau ; Delgado speculated that this salvage work was an attempt to retrieve these .
In 1965 , the ship 's compass and several flags were recovered and returned to Germany , where they are held at the German Naval Academy Mürwik in Flensburg @-@ Mürwik . In 2006 , Chilean and German divers found and recovered Dresden 's bell , which is now in Germany . CS Forester 's novel Brown on Resolution , and two subsequent movies , were inspired by the Dresden 's escape and subsequent destruction .
= Diamond =
Diamond ( pronunciation : / ˈdaɪəmənd / or / ˈdaɪmənd / ) is a metastable allotrope of carbon , where the carbon atoms are arranged in a variation of the face @-@ centered cubic crystal structure called a diamond lattice . Diamond is less stable than graphite , but the conversion rate from diamond to graphite is negligible at standard conditions . Diamond is renowned as a material with superlative physical qualities , most of which originate from the strong covalent bonding between its atoms . In particular , diamond has the highest hardness and thermal conductivity of any bulk material . Those properties determine the major industrial application of diamond in cutting and polishing tools and the scientific applications in diamond knives and diamond anvil cells .
Because of its extremely rigid lattice , it can be contaminated by very few types of impurities , such as boron and nitrogen . Small amounts of defects or impurities ( about one per million of lattice atoms ) color diamond blue ( boron ) , yellow ( nitrogen ) , brown ( lattice defects ) , green ( radiation exposure ) , purple , pink , orange or red . Diamond also has relatively high optical dispersion ( ability to disperse light of different colors ) .
Most natural diamonds are formed at high temperature and pressure at depths of 140 to 190 kilometers ( 87 to 118 mi ) in the Earth 's mantle . Carbon @-@ containing minerals provide the carbon source , and the growth occurs over periods from 1 billion to 3 @.@ 3 billion years ( 25 % to 75 % of the age of the Earth ) . Diamonds are brought close to the Earth 's surface through deep volcanic eruptions by magma , which cools into igneous rocks known as kimberlites and lamproites . Diamonds can also be produced synthetically in a HPHT method which approximately simulates the
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0 to 24 kilowatts ( 27 to 32 hp ) at 67 volts . Steering was controlled by a single rudder .
The ships ' propulsion system varied slightly in performance . Meteor 's engines were rated at 4 @,@ 500 indicated horsepower ( 3 @,@ 400 kW ) for a top speed of 19 knots ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) , though she exceeded both figures on sea trials , reaching a speed of 20 knots ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) . Comet 's engines were rated for 5 @,@ 000 ihp ( 3 @,@ 700 kW ) and 19 @.@ 5 kn ( 36 @.@ 1 km / h ; 22 @.@ 4 mph ) , which she did not exceed on her trials . Both ships had a range of approximately 960 nautical miles ( 1 @,@ 780 km ; 1 @,@ 100 mi ) at 9 kn ( 17 km / h ; 10 mph ) .
= = = Armament and armor = = =
The ships were armed with four 8 @.@ 8 cm SK L / 30 guns placed in single pivot mounts , two side @-@ by @-@ side forward , and two side @-@ by @-@ side aft . The guns were supplied with between 462 and 680 rounds of ammunition , and they had a range of 6 @,@ 900 m ( 22 @,@ 600 ft ) . They also carried three 35 cm ( 14 in ) torpedo tubes , one mounted submerged in the bow and the other two in deck @-@ mounted launchers on the broadside . They were supplied with eight torpedoes . Both ships were protected with steel armor . They had a 15 mm ( 0 @.@ 59 in ) thick deck with 25 mm ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) thick sloped sides . The conning tower had 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) thick plating on the sides , with a 15 mm thick roof .
= = Service history = =
Meteor was laid down at the Germaniawerft shipyard in Kiel in 1888 , and launched on 20 January 1890 . Fitting @-@ out work then commenced , and was completed by 19 May 1891 , when she was commissioned into the German fleet . Comet was built by the AG Vulcan shipyard in Stettin . She was laid down in 1890 and launched on 15 January 1892 . After fitting @-@ out was completed she was transferred to Kiel , where she was commissioned for sea trials . Comet was commissioned into the fleet on 29 April 1893 .
Neither ship remained on active service long , primarily due to their excessive vibration . Meteor was assigned as the dispatch vessel for the I Division of the Maneuver Squadron in 1893 , but was reduced to reserve status by 1895 . Comet served in the III Division for the annual maneuvers in August and September 1893 but she too was quickly placed in reserve . In 1904 , both ships were reactivated as guard ships , but this service did not last long either . By 1911 , both ships had again been withdrawn and stricken from the naval register ; Meteor became a barracks ship in Kiel while Comet was used as a mine hulk in Danzig . Meteor and Comet were sold for scrapping in 1919 and 1921 , respectively .
= Qianling Mausoleum =
The Qianling Mausoleum ( Chinese : 乾陵 ; pinyin : Qiánlíng ) is a Tang dynasty ( 618 – 907 ) tomb site located in Qian County , Shaanxi province , China , and is 85 km ( 53 mi ) northwest from Xi 'an , formerly the Tang capital . Built by 684 ( with additional construction until 706 ) , the tombs of the mausoleum complex house the remains of various members of the House of Li , the imperial family of the Tang dynasty . This includes Emperor Gaozong ( r . 649 – 83 ) , as well as his wife , Wu Zetian , who usurped the Tang throne and became China 's only governing female emperor from 690 – 705 . The mausoleum is renowned for its many Tang dynasty stone statues located above ground and the mural paintings adorning the subterranean walls of the tombs . Besides the main tumulus mound and underground tomb of Emperor Gaozong and Wu Zetian , there are 17 smaller attendant tombs or peizang mu . Presently , only five of these attendant tombs have been excavated by archaeologists , three belonging to members of the imperial family , one to a chancellor , and the other to a general of the left guard .
= = History = =
Following his death in 683 , Emperor Gaozong 's mausoleum complex was completed in 684 . After her death , Wu Zetian was interred in a joint burial with Emperor Gaozong at Qianling on July 2 , 706 . Tang dynasty funerary epitaphs in the tombs of her son Li Xián ( Crown Prince Zhanghuai , 653 – 84 ) , grandson Li Chongrun ( Prince of Shao , posthumously honored Crown Prince Yide , 682 – 701 ) , and granddaughter Li Xianhui ( Lady Yongtai , posthumously honored as Princess Yongtai , 684 – 701 ) in the mausoleum are inscribed with the date of burial as 706 AD , allowing historians to accurately date the structures and artwork of the tombs . In fact , this Sui and Tang dynasty practice of interring an epitaph that records the person 's name , rank , and dates of death and burial was consistent amongst tombs for the imperial family and high court officials . Both the Old Book of Tang and New Book of Tang record that , in 706 , Wu Zetian 's son Emperor Zhongzong ( r . 684 , 705 – 10 , Li Chongrun 's and Li Xianhui 's father and Li Xián 's brother ) exonerated the victims of Wu Zetian 's political purges and provided them with honorable burials , including the two princes and princess mentioned above . Besides the attendant tombs of these royal family members , two others that have been excavated belonging to Chancellor Xue Yuanchao ( 622 – 83 ) and General of the Left Guard Li Jinxing .
The five attendant tombs mentioned above were opened and excavated in the 1960s and early 1970s . In March 1995 , there was an organized petition to the Chinese government about efforts to finally excavate Emperor Gaozong and Wu Zetian 's tomb .
= = Location = =
The mausoleum is located on Mount Liang , north of the Wei River , and 1 @,@ 049 m ( 3 @,@ 442 ft ) above sea level . The grounds of the mausoleum are flanked by Leopard Valley to the east and Sand Canyon to the west . Although there are tumulus mounds to demarcate where each tomb is located , most of the tomb structures are subterranean . The tumulus mounds on the southern peaks are called Naitoushan or " Nipple Hills " , due to their resemblance to the shape of nipples . The Nipple Hills , with towers erected on the top of each to accentuate the hills ' name , form a sort of gateway into Qianling Mausoleum . The main tumulus mound is on the northern peak ; it is the tallest of the mounds and is the burial place of Gaozong and Wu Zetian . Halfway up this northern peak , the builders of the site dug a 61 m ( 200 ft ) long and 4 m ( 13 ft ) wide tunnel into the rock of the mountain that leads to the inner tomb chambers located deep within the mountain . The complex was originally enclosed by two walls , the remains of which have been discovered today , including what was four gatehouses of the inner wall . The inner wall was 2 @.@ 4 m ( 7 @.@ 8 ft ) thick , with a total perimeter of 5920 m ( 19 @,@ 422 ft ) enclosing a trapezoidal area of 240 @,@ 000 m2 ( 787 @,@ 400 ft2 ) . Only some corner parts of the outer wall have been discovered . During the Tang dynasty , there were hundreds of residential houses that surrounded Qianling , inhabited by families that maintained the grounds and buildings of the mausoleum . The remains of some of these houses have since been discovered . The building foundation of the timber offering hall situated at the south gate of the mausoleum 's inner wall has also been discovered .
= = Spirit Way = =
Leading into the mausoleum is a spirit way , which is flanked on both sides with stone statues like the later tombs of the Song dynasty and Ming Dynasty Tombs . The Qianling statues include horses , winged horses , horses with grooms , lions , ostriches , officials , and foreign envoys . The khan of the Western Turks presented an ostrich to the Tang court in 620 and the Tushara Kingdom sent another in 650 ; in carved reliefs of Qianling dated c . 683 , traditional Chinese phoenixes are modelled on the body of ostriches . Historian Tonia Eckfeld states that the artistic emphasis on the exotic foreign tribute of the ostrich at the mausoleum was " a sign of the greatness of China and the Chinese emperor , not of the foreigners who sent them , or of the places from which they came " . Eckfeld also asserts that the 61 statues of foreign diplomats sculpted in the 680s represents the " far @-@ reaching power and international standing " of the Tang Dynasty . These statues , now headless , represent the actual foreign diplomats who were present at Emperor Gaozong 's funeral . Historian Angela Howard notes that along the spirit ways of the auxiliary tombs — such as Li Xianhui 's — the statues are smaller , of lesser quality , and fewer in number than the main spirit way of Qianling leading to Emperor Gaozong and Wu 's burial . Besides the statues , there are also flanking sets of octagonal stone pillars meant to ward off evil spirits . A 6 @.@ 3 m ( 20 @.@ 7 ft ) tall , tiered stele dedicated to Emperor Gaozong is also located along the path , with a written inscription commemorating his achievements ; this is flanked by Wu Zetian 's stele which has no written inscriptions . An additional stele by the main tumulus was erected by the Qianlong Emperor ( r . 1735 – 96 ) during the mid @-@ Qing dynasty .
= = Tombs = =
The tomb chambers of Emperor Gaozong and Empress Wu are located deep within Mount Liang , a trend that was set by Emperor Taizong ( r . 626 – 49 ) with his burial at Mount Jiuzong . Of the 18 emperors of the Tang dynasty , 14 of these had natural mountains serving as the earthen mounds for their tombs . Only members of the imperial family were allowed to have their tombs located within natural mountains ; tombs for officials and nobles featured man @-@ made tumulus mounds and tomb chambers that were totally underground . Xinian Fu wrote that " Children of emperors were allowed tombs in the shape of truncated pyramids , but high @-@ ranking officials and lesser tomb constructors could only have conical mounds . The conical tombs of officials were allowed to have one wall surrounding it , but only one gate — positioned to the south — was permitted . The attendant tombs thus far excavated at Qianling feature truncated pyramid mounds above underground chambers that are approached by declining diagonal ramps with ground @-@ level entrances . There are six vertical shafts for the ramps of each of these tombs which allowed goods to be lowered into the side niches of the ramps .
The main hall in each of these underground tombs leads to two four @-@ sided brick @-@ laden burial chambers connected by a short corridor ; these chambers feature domed ceilings . The tomb of Li Xian features real fully stone doors , a tomb trend apparent in the Han and Western Jin dynasties that became more common by the time of the Northern Qi dynasty . The stylistic stone door of Lou Rui 's tomb of 570 closely resembles that of Tang stone doors , such as the one in Li Xian 's tomb .
Unlike many other Tang dynasty tombs , the treasures within the imperial tombs of the Qianling Mausoleum were never stolen by grave robbers . In fact , in Li Chongrun 's tomb alone , there were found over a thousand items of gold , copper , iron , ceramic figurines , three @-@ glaze colored figurines , and three @-@ glaze pottery wares . Altogether , the tombs of Li Xian , Li Chongrun , and Li Xianhui had over 4 @,@ 300 tomb articles when they were unearthed by archaeologists . However , the attendant tombs of the mausoleum were raided by grave robbers . Among the ceramic figurines found in Li Chongrun 's tomb were horses with gilt decoration supporting armed and armored soldiers , horsemen playing flutes , blowing trumpets , and waving whips to spur their horses . Ceramic sculptures found in the tomb of Li Xian included figurines of civil officials , warriors , and tomb guardian beasts , all of which were over a meter ( 3 ft ) in height .
= = Murals = =
The tombs thus far excavated for Li Xian , Li Chongrun , and Li Xianhui are all decorated with mural paintings and feature multiple shaft entrances and arched chambers . Historian Mary H. Fong states that the tomb murals in the subterranean halls of Li Xián 's , Li Chongrun 's , and Li Xianhui 's tombs are representative of anonymous but professional tomb decorators rather than renowned court painters of handscrolls . Although primarily funerary art , Fong asserts that these Tang tomb murals are " sorely needed references " to the sparse amount of description offered in Tang era documents about painting , such as the Tang Chao minghua lu ( ' Celebrated Painters of the Tang Dynasty ' ) by Zhu Jingxuan in the 840s and the Lidai Minghua ji ( ' A Record of the Famous Painters of the Successive Dynasties ' ) by Zhang Yanyuan in 847 . Fong also asserts that the painting skill of portraying " animation through spirit consonance " or qiyun shendong — an art critique associated with renowned Tang dynasty painters like Yan Liben , Zhou Fang , and Chen Hong — was achieved by the anonymous Tang dynasty tomb painters . Fong writes :
The " Palace Guard " and the " Two Seated Attendants " from Prince Zhang Huai 's tomb are especially outstanding in this respect . Not only are the relative differences in age achieved , but it is evident that the robust guard officer who stands at attention displays an attitude of respectful self @-@ assurance ; and the seated pair are deeply engrossed in a serious conversation .
Another important feature in the murals of the tomb was the representation of architecture . Although there are numerous examples of existing Tang stone and brick pagoda towers for architectural historians to examine , there are only six remaining wooden halls that have survived from the 8th and 9th centuries . Only the rammed earth foundations of the great palaces of the Tang capital at Chang 'an have survived . However , some of the mural scenes of timber architecture in Li Chongrun 's tomb at Qianling have been suggested by historians as representative of the Eastern Palace , residence of the crown prince during the Tang dynasty . According to historian Fu Xinian , not only do the murals of Li Chongrun 's tomb represent buildings of the Tang capital , but also " the number of underground chambers , ventilation shafts , compartments , and air wells have been seen as indications of the number of courtyards , main halls , rooms , and corridors in residences of tomb occupants when they were alive . " The underground hall of the descending ramp approaching Li Chongrun 's tomb chambers , as well as the gated entrance to the front chamber , feature murals of multiple @-@ bodied que gate towers similar to those whose foundations were surveyed at Chang 'an .
Ann Paludan , an Honorary Fellow of Durham University , provides captions in her Chronicle of the Chinese Emperors ( 1998 ) for the following pictures of Qianling tomb murals :
= Liberty Bell ( Portland , Oregon ) =
Liberty Bell refers to one of two replicas in Portland , Oregon , United States , of the original Liberty Bell in Philadelphia . The first replica was purchased in 1962 , and installed in the rotunda of City Hall in 1964 . On November 21 , 1970 , it was destroyed in a bomb blast that also damaged the building 's east portico . The second replica was installed outside of City Hall soon after the blast ( c . 1972 ) with funds from private donations . It was constructed at the McShane Bell Foundry in Baltimore and dedicated on November 6 , 1975 . The bell is listed as a state veterans memorial by the Oregon Department of Veterans ' Affairs .
= = History = =
Portland has had two replicas of Philadelphia 's original Liberty Bell . The first replica was purchased in 1962 for $ 8 @,@ 000 . It arrived in Portland in June 1963 , with a damaged base and beam since the sculpture had slipped off its supports . Repairs were made before the replica was paraded through the city on a flatbed truck , then put into storage until Independence Day . The bell was publicly rung for the first time during holiday celebrations and installed in City Hall 's rotunda on May 5 , 1964 .
On November 21 , 1970 , a dynamite bomb that had been placed beneath the bell detonated , damaging City Hall 's east portico columns , shattering windows , and destroying the replica . No one was injured , but " shards of bell went everywhere through the main portico " . The crime remains unsolved ; no one claimed responsibility or was prosecuted for the blast . In 1993 , The Oregonian said : " Wild , highly vocal speculation blamed the blast on either left @-@ wing or right @-@ wing terrorists , depending , of course , on the accusers ' own political persuasions . Others guessed it was a monumental prank that careened out of control . "
Portland 's second replica is located outside of City Hall 's east portico , near the intersection of Southwest Fourth and Madison streets and across from Terry Schrunk Plaza . Private donations totaling $ 8 @,@ 000 allowed a new bell to be purchased for $ 6 @,@ 000 and installed not long after the blast ( c . 1972 ) . The bell has also been attributed as a gift from Philadelphia residents to Portland school children . It was constructed at the McShane Bell Foundry in Baltimore and received a 25 @-@ year guarantee against breakage . The replica was dedicated on November 6 , 1975 . It was surveyed and considered " treatment needed " by the Smithsonian Institution 's " Save Outdoor Sculpture ! " program in October 1993 . The Oregon Department of Veterans ' Affairs lists the bell as one of the state 's veterans memorials .
= = Description and reception = =
The 1 ton ( 910 kg ) sculpture is made of Best Genuine Bell Metal , a sixteen percent min @-@ copper alloy , and measures approximately 66 by 64 by 66 inches ( 1 @.@ 7 m × 1 @.@ 6 m × 1 @.@ 7 m ) . It is attached to a horizontal beam that is supported by two V @-@ shaped beams . The base is made of brick , metal ( steel ) and wood ( mahogany covering ) that measures approximately 13 by 76 by 54 @.@ 5 inches ( 0 @.@ 33 m × 1 @.@ 93 m × 1 @.@ 38 m ) . The west side displays the inscription Pass and Stow / Philada / MDCCLIII . Raised lettering along the top of the bell reads PROCLAIM LIBERTY THROUGHOUT ALL THE LAND UNTO ALL THE INHABITANTS THEREOF LEV . XX VVX . / BY ORDER OF THE ASSEMBLY OF THE PROVINCE OF PENNSYLVANIA FOR THE STATE HOUSE IN PHILADA . The founder 's mark also appears . Smithsonian categorizes the sculpture as allegorical for symbolizing liberty .
The bell has been included in published walking tours of Portland .
= HMS Medway ( 1928 ) =
HMS Medway was the first purpose @-@ built submarine depot ship constructed for the Royal Navy . She was built by Vickers Armstrong at Barrow @-@ in @-@ Furness during the late 1920s . The ship served on the China Station before the Second World War and was transferred to Egypt in early 1940 . Ordered to evacuate Alexandria in the face of the German advance after the Battle of Gazala in May 1942 , Medway sailed for Lebanon at the end of June , escorted by a light cruiser and seven destroyers . Her strong escort could not protect her ; on 30 June a German submarine torpedoed and sank her .
= = Description and construction = =
Medway was designed to support up to 18 Odin and Parthian @-@ class submarines in peacetime and an additional three submarines during wartime . She carried three QF 4 @-@ inch Mk IV deck guns as spares together with 144 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedoes to resupply her submarines . The ship proved to be less top @-@ heavy than anticipated and had the enormously high metacentric height of 13 feet ( 4 @.@ 0 m ) at full load . Built with bilge keels only 12 inches ( 305 mm ) deep , Medway once rolled 42 ° each way with a period of nine seconds , losing her main topmast . Her bilge keels were subsequently increased in depth to 36 inches ( 914 mm ) .
She was 580 feet ( 176 @.@ 8 m ) long overall and had a beam of 85 feet 1 inch ( 25 @.@ 9 m ) and a draft of 21 feet 3 inches ( 6 @.@ 5 m ) . The ship displaced 14 @,@ 650 long tons ( 14 @,@ 890 t ) at standard load and up to 18 @,@ 362 long tons ( 18 @,@ 657 t ) at ( full load ) . Her crew numbered 400 officers and enlisted men ; she could also accommodate up to 1 @,@ 335 additional men .
The ship was powered by MAN diesel engines rated at 8 @,@ 000 brake horsepower ( 6 @,@ 000 kW ) , driving two shafts , and had a top speed of about 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . Medway carried 810 long tons ( 820 t ) of diesel fuel for herself and an additional 1 @,@ 880 long tons ( 1 @,@ 910 t ) for her submarines . Figures for her range are not available . The ship had five 560 @-@ kilowatt ( 750 hp ) diesel generators for electrical power and special provisions to recharge submarine batteries .
She was armed with two low @-@ angle 4 @-@ inch ( 102 mm ) guns in single mounts and four quick @-@ firing Mk V 4 @-@ inch anti @-@ aircraft guns , also in single mounts . The latter guns were controlled by a High @-@ Angle Control System mounted above the bridge . Medway was protected by an internal anti @-@ torpedo bulge which incorporated a water jacket of 1 @,@ 374 long tons ( 1 @,@ 396 t ) . Amidships a 1 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 38 mm ) torpedo bulkhead was located 13 feet inboard that inclined outwards above the waterline . The main deck was 1 @.@ 5 inches thick amdiships .
Medway was ordered on 14 September 1926 as part of the 1925 / 26 Naval Estimates . The ship was laid down in April 1927 by the Vickers Armstrong shipyard in Barrow @-@ in @-@ Furness , launched on 19 July 1928 , and completed on 3 July 1929 .
= = Career = =
HMS Medway served on the China Station before the start of the Second World War , supporting the 4th Submarine Flotilla , and was under refit at Singapore from September 1939 through February 1940 . Upon completion of the refit , Medway sailed for Hong Kong where she remained until she departed for Alexandria on 2 April . She arrived there on 3 May and thereafter supported the 1st Submarine Flotilla , which operated in the Eastern Mediterranean .
Two years later , Vice @-@ Admiral Henry Harwood , Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , Mediterranean Fleet , ordered all non @-@ essential ships to leave Alexandria in June 1942 as he was preparing to demolish the port facilities there to prevent their capture by the advancing Panzer Army Africa . Medway loaded stores and 1 @,@ 135 personnel on 29 June to establish a new base at Beirut , Lebanon and sailed later that day for Beirut . Accompanied by the Greek ship SS Corinthia , Medway was escorted by the light cruiser Dido and the destroyers Sikh , Zulu , Hero , Exmoor , Aldenham , Croome , and Tetcott . The next day , off Port Said , U @-@ 372 fired two torpedoes that sank Medway ; 30 men were lost in the sinking . 47 of the 90 spare torpedoes aboard floated free of the wreck and were salvaged .
= Battle of Cannae =
The Battle of Cannae ( / ˈkæni / or / ˈkæneɪ / ) was a major battle of the Second Punic War that took place on 2 August 216 BC in Apulia , in southeast Italy . The army of Carthage , under Hannibal , decisively defeated a larger army of the Roman Republic under the consuls Lucius Aemilius Paullus and Gaius Terentius Varro . It is regarded both as one of the greatest tactical feats in military history and as one of the worst defeats in Roman history .
Having recovered from their losses at Trebia ( 218 BC ) and Lake Trasimene ( 217 BC ) , the Romans decided to engage Hannibal at Cannae , with roughly 86 @,@ 000 Roman and allied troops . The Romans massed their heavy infantry in a deeper formation than usual , while Hannibal utilized the double @-@ envelopment tactic . This was so successful that the Roman army was effectively destroyed as a fighting force . Following the defeat , Capua and several other Italian city @-@ states defected from the Roman Republic to Carthage .
= = Strategic background = =
Shortly after the start of the Second Punic War , the Carthaginian general Hannibal crossed into Italy by traversing the Pyrenees and the Alps during the summer and early autumn . He quickly won major victories over the Romans at Trebia and at Lake Trasimene . After these losses , the Romans appointed Fabius Maximus as dictator to deal with the threat . Fabius used attrition warfare against Hannibal , cutting off his supply lines and avoiding pitched battles . These tactics proved unpopular with the Romans , who , as they recovered from the shock of Hannibal 's victories , began to question the wisdom of the Fabian strategy which had given the Carthaginian army a chance to regroup . The majority of Romans were eager to see a quick conclusion to the war . It was feared that , if Hannibal continued plundering Italy unopposed , Rome 's allies might defect to the Carthaginian side for self @-@ preservation .
Therefore , when Fabius came to the end of his term , the Senate did not renew his dictatorial powers and command was given to consuls Gnaeus Servilius Geminus and Marcus Atilius Regulus . In 216 BC , when elections resumed , Gaius Terentius Varro and Lucius Aemilius Paullus were elected as consuls , placed in command of a newly raised army of unprecedented size , and directed to engage Hannibal . Polybius wrote :
The Senate determined to bring eight legions into the field , which had never been done at Rome before , each legion consisting of five thousand men besides allies . ... Most of their wars are decided by one consul and two legions , with their quota of allies ; and they rarely employ all four at one time and on one service . But on this occasion , so great was the alarm and terror of what would happen , they resolved to bring not only four but eight legions into the field .
= = = Estimates of Roman troop numbers = = =
Rome typically employed four legions each year , each consisting of four thousand foot soldiers and two hundred cavalry . Perceiving the Carthaginian army as a real threat , for the first time ever the Senate introduced eight legions , each legion consisting of five thousand foot soldiers and three hundred cavalry with allied troops numbering the same amount of foot soldiers , but nine hundred cavalry per legion ; triple the legion numbers . Eight legions , some 40 @,@ 000 Roman soldiers and an estimated 2 @,@ 400 cavalry , formed the nucleus of this massive new army . However , some have suggested that the destruction of an army of 90 @,@ 000 troops would be impossible . They argue that Rome probably had 48 @,@ 000 troops and 6 @,@ 000 cavalry against Hannibal 's 35 @,@ 000 troops and 10 @,@ 000 cavalry . Livy quotes one source stating the Romans added only 10 @,@ 000 men to their usual army . While no definitive number of Roman troops exists , all sources agree that the Carthaginians faced a considerably larger foe .
= = Roman command = =
Consuls were each assigned two of the four legions to command , rarely employing all four legions at once to the same assignment , however , the Senate feared a real threat and not only employed all four legions into the field , but all eight , including allies . Ordinarily , each of the two consuls would command his own portion of the army , but since the two armies were combined into one , Roman law required them to alternate their command on a daily basis . The traditional account puts Varro in command on the day of the battle , and much of the blame for the defeat has been laid on his shoulders . However , his low origins seem to be exaggerated in the sources , and Varro may have been made a scapegoat by the aristocratic establishment . Varro lacked the powerful descendants that Paullus had : descendants who were willing and able to protect his reputation — most notably , Paullus was the grandfather of Scipio Aemilianus , the patron of Polybius .
= = Prelude = =
In the spring of 216 BC , Hannibal took the initiative and seized the large supply depot at Cannae , in the Apulian plain , placing himself between the Romans and their crucial source of supply . Hannibal recently harvested his crops so he had a well fed army ready for action in the city of Cannae . As Polybius noted , the capture of Cannae " caused great commotion in the Roman army ; for it was not only the loss of the place and the stores in it that distressed them , but the fact that it commanded the surrounding district " . The consuls , resolving to confront Hannibal , marched southward in search of him . After two days ' march , they found him on the left bank of the Aufidus River , and encamped six miles ( 10 km ) away .
Reportedly , a Carthaginian officer named Gisgo commented on how much larger the Roman army was . Hannibal replied , " another thing that has escaped your notice , Gisgo , is even more amazing — that although there are so many of them , there is not one among them called Gisgo " .
Varro , in command on the first day , is presented by contemporary sources as a man of reckless nature and hubris , who was determined to defeat Hannibal . While the Romans were approaching Cannae , a small portion of Hannibal 's forces ambushed them . Varro successfully repelled the attack and continued on his way to Cannae . This victory , though essentially a mere skirmish with no lasting strategic value , greatly bolstered the confidence of the Roman army , perhaps to overconfidence on Varro 's part . Paullus , however , was opposed to the engagement as it was taking shape . Unlike Varro , he was prudent and cautious , and he believed it was foolish to fight on open ground , despite the Romans ' numerical strength . This was especially true since Hannibal held the advantage in cavalry ( both in quality and quantity ) . Despite these misgivings , Paullus thought it unwise to withdraw the army after the initial success , and camped two @-@ thirds of the army east of the Aufidus River , sending the remainder to fortify a position on the opposite side . The purpose of this second camp was to cover the foraging parties from the main camp and harass those of the enemy .
The two armies stayed in their respective locations for two days . During the second day ( August 1 ) , Hannibal , aware that Varro would be in command the following day , left his camp and offered battle , but Paullus refused . When his request was rejected , Hannibal , recognizing the importance of the water from the Aufidus to the Roman troops , sent his cavalry to the smaller Roman camp to harass water @-@ bearing soldiers that were found outside the camp fortifications . According to Polybius , Hannibal 's cavalry boldly rode up to the edge of the Roman encampment , causing havoc and thoroughly disrupting the supply of water to the Roman camp .
= = Battle = =
= = = Armies = = =
Figures for troops involved in ancient battles are often unreliable , and Cannae is no exception . Figures should be treated with caution , especially those for the Carthaginian side . The Carthaginian army was a combination of warriors from numerous regions , and may have numbered between 40 @,@ 000 and 50 @,@ 000 . Along with the core of an estimated 8 @,@ 000 Libyans , there were 8 @,@ 000 Iberians , 16 @,@ 000 Gauls ( 8 @,@ 000 were left at camp the day of battle ) and around 5 @,@ 500 Gaetulian infantry . Hannibal 's cavalry also came from diverse backgrounds . He commanded 4 @,@ 000 Numidian , 2 @,@ 000 Iberian , 4 @,@ 000 Gallic and 450 Liby @-@ Phoenician cavalry . Finally , Hannibal had around 8 @,@ 000 skirmishers consisting of Balearic slingers and mixed nationality spearmen . The uniting factor for the Carthaginian army was the personal tie each group had with Hannibal .
The Roman forces totaled up to 79 @,@ 000 men : 63 @,@ 000 infantry and 6 @,@ 000 cavalry , plus , in the two fortified camps , another 2 @,@ 600 heavily armed men and 7 @,@ 400 lightly armed men .
= = = Equipment = = =
Rome 's forces used typical Roman equipment including pila ( heavy javelins ) and hastae ( thrusting spears ) as weapons as well as traditional helmets , shields and body armor . On the other hand , the Carthaginian army used a variety of equipment . The Iberians fought with swords suited for cutting and thrusting , as well as javelins and various types of spears . For defense , Iberian warriors carried large oval shields and the falcata . The Gauls were likely wearing no armor , and the typical Gallic weapon was usually a long , slashing sword . The heavy Carthaginian cavalry carried two javelins and a curved slashing sword , with a heavy shield for protection . The Numidian cavalry were very lightly equipped , lacking saddles and bridles for their horses , and used no armor but carried small shields , javelins and possibly a knife or longer blade . Skirmishers acting as light infantry carried either slings or spears . The Balearic slingers , who were famous for their accuracy , carried short , medium and long slings used to cast stones or bullets . They may have carried a small shield or simple leather pelt on their arms , but this is uncertain . Hannibal himself was wearing musculata armor and carried a falcata as well .
The equipment of the Libyan line infantry has been much debated . Head has argued in favor of short stabbing spears . Polybius states that the Libyans fought with equipment taken from previously defeated Romans . It is unclear whether he meant only shields and armor or offensive weapons as well , though a general reading suggests he meant the whole panoply of arms and armor , and even tactical organization . Apart from his description of the battle itself , when later discussing the subject of the Roman legion versus the Greek phalanx , Polybius says that " ... against Hannibal , the defeats they suffered had nothing to do with weapons or formations " because " Hannibal himself ... discarded the equipment with which he had started out ( and ) armed his troops with Roman weapons " . Daly is inclined to the view that Libyan infantry would have copied the Iberian use of the sword during their fighting there and so were armed similarly to the Romans . Connolly has argued that they were armed as a pike phalanx . This has been disputed by Head , because Plutarch states they carried spears shorter than the Roman Triarii and by Daly because they could not have carried an unwieldy pike at the same time as a heavy Roman @-@ style shield .
= = = Tactical deployment = = =
The conventional deployment for armies of the time was placement of infantry in the center , with the cavalry in two flanking wings . The Romans followed this convention fairly closely , but chose extra depth rather than breadth for the infantry in hopes of breaking quickly through the center of Hannibal 's line . Varro knew how the Roman infantry had managed to penetrate Hannibal 's center at Trebia , and he planned to recreate this on an even greater scale . The principes were stationed immediately behind the hastati , ready to push forward at first contact to ensure the Romans presented a unified front . As Polybius wrote , " the maniples were nearer each other , or the intervals were decreased ... and the maniples showed more depth than front " . Even though they outnumbered the Carthaginians , this depth @-@ oriented deployment meant that the Roman lines had a front of roughly equal size to their numerically inferior opponents . The typical style of ancient warfare was to continuously pour in infantry into the center and attempt to simply overpower the enemy . Hannibal understood that the Romans fought their battles like this , and he took his outnumbered army and strategically placed them around the enemy to win a tactical victory .
To Varro , Hannibal seemed to have little room to maneuver and no means of retreat as he was deployed with the Aufidus River to his rear . Varro believed that when pressed hard by the Romans ' superior numbers , the Carthaginians would fall back to the river and , with no room to maneuver , would be cut down in panic . Bearing in mind that Hannibal 's two previous victories had been largely decided by his trickery and ruse , Varro had sought an open battlefield . The field at Cannae was clear , with no possibility of hidden troops being brought to bear in an ambush .
Hannibal , on the other hand , had deployed his forces based on the particular fighting qualities of each unit , taking into consideration both their strengths and weaknesses . This aspect of Hannibal 's leadership was highlighted in the use of a Spanish unit , the Balearic Slingers , whom he placed behind the infantry to hurl their ranged missiles into the masses of Roman troops . He placed his Iberians and Gauls in the middle , alternating the ethnic composition across the front line , with himself at the front and center . Infantry from Punic Africa was on the wings at the very edge of his infantry line . These infantry were battle @-@ hardened , remained cohesive and would attack the Roman flanks .
Hasdrubal led the Iberian and Gaulish cavalry on the left ( south near the Aufidus River ) of the Carthaginian army . By placing the flank of his army on the Aufidus River , Hannibal prevented this flank from being overlapped by the more numerous Romans . Hasdrubal was given about 6 @,@ 500 cavalry , and Hanno had 3 @,@ 500 Numidians on the right .
Hannibal intended that his cavalry , comprising mainly medium Hispanic cavalry and Numidian light horse , and positioned on the flanks , would defeat the weaker Roman cavalry and swing around to attack the Roman infantry from the rear as it pressed upon Hannibal 's weakened center . His veteran African troops would then press in from the flanks at the crucial moment , and encircle the overextended Romans .
The Romans were in front of the hill leading to Cannae and hemmed in on their right flank by the Aufidus River , so that their left flank was the only viable means of retreat . In addition , the Carthaginian forces had maneuvered so that the Romans would face east . Not only would the morning sun shine low into the Romans ' eyes , but the southeasterly winds would blow sand and dust into their faces as they approached the battlefield . Hannibal 's unique deployment of his army , based on his perception of the terrain and understanding of the capabilities of his troops , proved decisive .
= = = Battle = = =
As the armies advanced on one another , Hannibal gradually extended the center of his line , as Polybius described : " After thus drawing up his whole army in a straight line , he took the central companies of Hispanics and Celts and advanced with them , keeping the rest of them in contact with these companies , but gradually falling off , so as to produce a crescent @-@ shaped formation , the line of the flanking companies growing thinner as it was prolonged , his object being to employ the Africans as a reserve force and to begin the action with the Hispanics and Celts . " Polybius described the weak Carthaginian center as deployed in a crescent , curving out toward the Romans in the middle with the African troops on their flanks in echelon formation . It is believed that the purpose of this formation was to break the forward momentum of the Roman infantry , and delay its advance before other developments allowed Hannibal to deploy his African infantry most effectively . While the majority of historians feel that Hannibal 's action was deliberate , some have called this account fanciful , and claim that the actions of the day represent either the natural curvature that occurs when a broad front of infantry marches forward , or the bending back of the Carthaginian center from the shock action of meeting the heavily massed Roman center .
When the battle was joined , the cavalry engaged in a fierce exchange on the flanks . Polybius described the Hispanic and Celtic horse dismounting in what he considers a barbarian method of fighting . When the Hispanic and Gauls got the upper hand , they cut down the Roman cavalry without giving quarter . On the other flank the Numidians engaged in a way that merely kept the Roman allied cavalry occupied . When the victorious Hispanic and Gallic cavalry came up , the allied cavalry broke and the Numidians pursued them off the field .
While the Carthaginians were in the process of defeating the cavalry , the masses of infantry on both sides advanced towards each other in the center of the field . The wind from the east blew dust in the Romans ' faces and obscured their vision . While the wind was not a major factor , the dust that both armies created would have been potentially debilitating to sight . Although it made seeing difficult , troops would still have been able to see others in the vicinity . The dust , however , was not the only psychological factor involved in battle . Because of the somewhat distant battle location , both sides were forced to fight on little sleep . Another Roman disadvantage was thirst caused by Hannibal 's attack on the Roman encampment during the previous day . Furthermore , the massive number of troops would have led to an overwhelming amount of background noise . All of these psychological factors made battle especially difficult for the infantrymen .
Hannibal stood with his men in the weak center and held them to a controlled retreat . The crescent of Hispanic and Gallic troops buckled inwards as they gradually withdrew . Knowing the superiority of the Roman infantry , Hannibal had instructed his infantry to withdraw deliberately , creating an even tighter semicircle around the attacking Roman forces . By doing so , he had turned the strength of the Roman infantry into a weakness . While the front ranks were gradually advancing , the bulk of the Roman troops began to lose their cohesion , as they began crowding themselves into the growing gap . Soon they were compacted together so closely that they had little space to wield their weapons . In pressing so far forward in their desire to destroy the retreating and seemingly collapsing line of Hispanic and Gallic troops , the Romans had ignored ( possibly due to the dust ) the African troops that stood uncommitted on the projecting ends of this now @-@ reversed crescent . This also gave the Carthaginian cavalry time to drive the Roman cavalry off on both flanks and attack the Roman center in the rear . The Roman infantry , now stripped of protection on both its flanks , formed a wedge that drove deeper and deeper into the Carthaginian semicircle , driving itself into an alley formed by the African infantry on the wings . At this decisive point , Hannibal ordered his African infantry to turn inwards and advance against the Roman flanks , creating an encirclement in one of the earliest known examples of a pincer movement .
When the Carthaginian cavalry attacked the Romans in the rear and the African flanking echelons assailed them on their right and left , the advance of the Roman infantry was brought to an abrupt halt . The Romans were enclosed in a pocket with no means of escape . The Carthaginians created a wall and began destroying them . Polybius wrote , " as their outer ranks were continually cut down , and the survivors forced to pull back and huddle together , they were finally all killed where they stood . "
As Livy described , " So many thousands of Romans were dying ... Some , whom their wounds , pinched by the morning cold , had roused , as they were rising up , covered with blood , from the midst of the heaps of slain , were overpowered by the enemy . Some were found with their heads plunged into the earth , which they had excavated ; having thus , as it appeared , made pits for themselves , and having suffocated themselves . " Cowley claims that nearly six hundred legionaries were slaughtered each minute until darkness brought an end to the bloodletting . Only 14 @,@ 000 Roman troops managed to escape , most of whom had cut their way through to the nearby town of Canusium .
= = = Casualties = = =
= = = = Roman = = = =
Polybius writes that of the Roman and allied infantry , 70 @,@ 000 were killed , 10 @,@ 000 captured , and " perhaps " 3 @,@ 000 survived . He also reports that of the 6 @,@ 000 Roman and allied cavalry , only 370 survived .
Livy wrote , " Forty thousand foot , two thousand seven hundred horse , there being an equal number of citizens and allies , are said to have been slain . " He also reports that 3 @,@ 000 Roman and allied infantry and 1 @,@ 500 Roman and allied cavalry were taken prisoner by the Carthaginians . Although Livy does not cite his source by name , it is likely to have been Quintus Fabius Pictor , a Roman historian who fought in and wrote on the Second Punic War . It is Pictor whom Livy names when reporting the casualties at the Battle of Trebia . In addition to the consul Paullus , Livy goes on to record that among the dead were 2 quaestors , 29 of the 48 military tribunes ( some of consular rank , including the consul of the previous year , Gnaeus Servilius Geminus , and the former Master of the Horse , Marcus Minucius Rufus ) , and 80 " senators or men who had held offices which would have given them the right to be elected to the Senate " .
Later Roman and Greco @-@ Roman historians largely follow Livy 's figures . Appian gave 50 @,@ 000 killed and " a great many " taken prisoner . Plutarch agreed , " 50 @,@ 000 Romans fell in that battle ... 4 @,@ 000 were taken alive " . Quintilian : " 60 @,@ 000 men were slain by Hannibal at Cannae " . Eutropius : " 20 officers of consular and praetorian rank , 30 senators , and 300 others of noble descent , were taken or slain , as well as 40 @,@ 000 foot @-@ soldiers , and 3 @,@ 500 horse " .
Some modern historians , while rejecting Polybius 's figure as flawed , are willing to accept Livy 's figure . Some more recent historians have come up with far lower estimates . Cantalupi proposed Roman losses of 10 @,@ 500 to 16 @,@ 000 . Samuels also regards Livy 's figure as far too high , on the grounds that the cavalry would have been inadequate to prevent the Roman infantry escaping to the rear . He doubts that Hannibal even wanted a high death toll , as much of the army consisted of Italians whom Hannibal hoped to win as allies .
= = = = Carthaginian = = = =
Livy recorded Hannibal 's losses at " about 8 @,@ 000 of his bravest men . " Polybius reports 5 @,@ 700 dead : 4 @,@ 000 Gauls , 1 @,@ 500 Spanish and Africans , and 200 cavalry .
= = Aftermath = =
Never when the city was in safety was there so great a panic and confusion within the walls of Rome . I shall therefore shrink from the task , and not attempt to relate what in describing I must make less than the reality . The consul and his army having been lost at the Trasimenus the year before , it was not one wound upon another which was announced , but a multiplied disaster , the loss of two consular armies , together with the two consuls : and that now there was neither any Roman camp , nor general nor soldiery : that Apulia and Samnium , and now almost the whole of Italy , were in the possession of Hannibal . No other nation surely would not have been overwhelmed by such an accumulation of misfortune .
For a brief period , the Romans were in complete disarray . Their best armies in the peninsula were destroyed , the few remnants severely demoralized , and the only remaining consul ( Varro ) completely discredited . As the story goes , Rome declared a national day of mourning as there was not a single person who was not either related to or acquainted with a person who had died . The Romans became so desperate that they resorted to human sacrifice , twice burying people alive at the Forum of Rome and abandoning an oversized baby in the Adriatic Sea ( perhaps one of the last instances of human sacrifices by the Romans , apart from public executions of defeated enemies dedicated to Mars ) .
Lucius Caecilius Metellus , a military tribune , despaired so much of the Roman cause as to suggest that everything was lost , and called the other tribunes to sail overseas and hire themselves into the service of some foreign prince . Afterwards , he was forced by his own example to swear an oath of allegiance to Rome for all time . The survivors of Cannae were reconstituted as two legions and assigned to Sicily for the remainder of the war as punishment for their humiliating desertion of the battlefield . In addition to the physical loss of her army , Rome suffered a symbolic defeat of prestige . A gold ring was a token of membership in the upper classes of Roman society ; Hannibal and his men collected more than 200 from the corpses on the battlefield , and sent this collection to Carthage as proof of his victory . The collection was poured on the floor in front of the Punic Senate , and was judged to be " three and a half measures . "
Hannibal had defeated the equivalent of eight consular armies ( 16 legions plus an equal number of allies ) . Within just three campaign seasons ( 20 months ) , Rome had lost one @-@ fifth ( 150 @,@ 000 ) of the entire population of male citizens over 17 years of age . Furthermore , the morale effect of this victory was such that most of southern Italy joined Hannibal 's cause . After Cannae , the Hellenistic southern provinces of Arpi , Salapia , Herdonia , Uzentum , including the cities of Capua and Tarentum ( two of the largest city @-@ states in Italy ) revoked their allegiance to Rome and pledged their loyalty to Hannibal . As Livy noted , " How much more serious was the defeat of Cannae than those which preceded it , can be seen by the behavior of Rome 's allies ; before that fateful day , their loyalty remained unshaken , now it began to waver for the simple reason that they despaired of Roman power . " In the same year the Greek cities in Sicily were induced to revolt against Roman political control , while the Macedonian king , Philip V , pledged his support to Hannibal , initiating the First Macedonian War against Rome . Hannibal also secured an alliance with the new King Hieronymus of Syracuse , the only independent left in Sicily .
Following the battle , the commander of the Numidian cavalry , Maharbal , urged Hannibal to seize the opportunity and march immediately on Rome . It is told that the latter 's refusal caused Maharbal 's exclamation : " Of a truth the gods have not bestowed all things upon the same person . You know how to conquer , Hannibal ; but you do not know how to make use of your victory . " Hannibal had good reasons to judge the strategic situation after the battle differently from Maharbal . As the historian Hans Delbrück pointed out , due to the high numbers of killed and wounded among its ranks , the Punic army was not in a condition to perform a direct assault on Rome . It would have been a fruitless demonstration that would have nullified the psychological effect of Cannae on the Roman allies . Even if his army was at full strength , a successful siege of Rome would have required Hannibal to subdue a considerable part of the hinterland to cut the enemy 's supplies and secure his own . Even after the tremendous losses suffered at Cannae and the defection of a number of her allies , Rome still had abundant manpower to prevent this and maintain considerable forces in Iberia , Sicily , Sardinia and elsewhere despite Hannibal 's presence in Italy . Hannibal 's conduct after the victories at Trasimene ( 217 BC ) and Cannae , and the fact that he first attacked Rome only five years later , in 211 BC , suggests that his strategic aim was not the destruction of his foe but to dishearten the Romans by carnage on the battlefield and to wear them down to a moderate peace agreement by stripping them of their allies .
Immediately after Cannae , Hannibal sent a delegation led by Carthalo to negotiate a peace treaty with the Senate on moderate terms . Despite the multiple catastrophes Rome had suffered , the Senate refused to parley . Instead , they redoubled their efforts , declaring full mobilization of the male Roman population , and raised new legions , enlisting landless peasants and even slaves . So firm were these measures that the word " peace " was prohibited , mourning was limited to only 30 days , and public tears were prohibited even to women . For the remainder of the war in Italy , they did not amass such large forces under one command against Hannibal ; they utilized several independent armies , still outnumbering the Punic forces in numbers of armies and soldiers . The war still had occasional battles , but was focused on taking strongpoints and constant fighting according to the Fabian strategy . This finally forced Hannibal with his shortage of manpower to retreat to Croton from where he was called to Africa for the battle of Zama , ending the war with a complete Roman victory .
= = Historical significance = =
= = = Effects on Roman military doctrine = = =
Cannae played a major role in shaping the military structure and tactical organization of the Roman Republican army . At Cannae , the Roman infantry assumed a formation similar to the Greek phalanx . This left them vulnerable to Hannibal 's tactic of double envelopment since their inability to maneuver independently from the mass of the army made it impossible for them to counter the strategic encirclement used by the Carthaginian cavalry . The laws of the Roman state requiring command to alternate between the two consuls restricted strategic consistency .
In the years following Cannae , striking reforms were introduced to address these deficiencies . First , the Romans " articulated the phalanx , then divided it into columns , and finally split it up into a great number of small tactical bodies that were capable , now of closing together in a compact impenetrable union , now of changing the pattern with consummate flexibility , of separating one from the other and turning in this or that direction . " For instance , at Ilipa and Zama , the principes were formed up well to the rear of the hastati — a deployment that allowed a greater degree of mobility and maneuverability . The culminating result of this change marked the transition from the traditional manipular system to the cohort under Gaius Marius , as the basic infantry unit of the Roman army .
In addition , a unified command came to be seen as a necessity . After various political experiments , Scipio Africanus was made general @-@ in @-@ chief of the Roman armies in Africa , and was assured this role for the duration of the war . This appointment may have violated the constitutional laws of the Roman Republic but , as Delbrück wrote , it " effected an internal transformation that increased her military potentiality enormously " while foreshadowing the decline of the Republic 's political institutions . Furthermore , the battle exposed the limits of a citizen @-@ militia army . Following Cannae , the Roman army gradually developed into a professional force : the nucleus of Scipio 's army at Zama was composed of veterans who had been fighting the Carthaginians in Hispania for nearly sixteen years , and had been moulded into a superb fighting force .
= = = Status in military history = = =
Cannae is as famous for Hannibal 's tactics as it is for the role it played in Roman history . Not only did Hannibal inflict a defeat on the Roman Republic in a manner unrepeated for over a century until the lesser @-@ known Battle of Arausio , the battle has acquired a significant reputation in military history . As military historian Theodore Ayrault Dodge wrote :
Few battles of ancient times are more marked by ability ... than the battle of Cannae . The position was such as to place every advantage on Hannibal 's side . The manner in which the far from perfect Hispanic and Gallic foot was advanced in a wedge in échelon ... was first held there and then withdrawn step by step , until it had the reached the converse position ... is a simple masterpiece of battle tactics . The advance at the proper moment of the African infantry , and its wheel right and left upon the flanks of the disordered and crowded Roman legionaries , is far beyond praise . The whole battle , from the Carthaginian standpoint , is a consummate piece of art , having no superior , few equal , examples in the history of war .
As Will Durant wrote , " It was a supreme example of generalship , never bettered in history ... and it set the lines of military tactics for 2 @,@ 000 years " .
Hannibal 's double envelopment at Cannae is often viewed as one of the greatest battlefield maneuvers in history , and is cited as the first successful use of the pincer movement within the Western world to be recorded in detail .
= = = " Cannae Model " = = =
Apart from being one of the greatest defeats inflicted on Roman arms , Cannae represents the archetypal battle of annihilation , a strategy that has rarely been successfully implemented in modern history . As Dwight D. Eisenhower , the Supreme Commander of the Allied Expeditionary Force in World War II , wrote , " Every ground commander seeks the battle of annihilation ; so far as conditions permit , he tries to duplicate in modern war the classic example of Cannae " . Furthermore , the totality of Hannibal 's victory has made the name " Cannae " a byword for military success , and is studied in detail in military academies around the world . The notion that an entire army could be encircled and annihilated within a single stroke led to a fascination among Western generals for centuries ( including Frederick the Great and Helmuth von Moltke ) , who attempted to emulate its tactical paradigm of envelopment and re @-@ create their own " Cannae " . Delbrück 's seminal study of the battle had a profound influence on German military theorists , in particular the Chief of the German General Staff , Alfred von Schlieffen , whose eponymous " Schlieffen Plan " was inspired by Hannibal 's double envelopment maneuver . Schlieffen taught that the " Cannae model " would continue to be applicable in maneuver warfare throughout the 20th century :
A battle of annihilation can be carried out today according to the same plan devised by Hannibal in long forgotten times . The enemy front is not the goal of the principal attack . The mass of the troops and the reserves should not be concentrated against the enemy front ; the essential is that the flanks be crushed . The wings should not be sought at the advanced points of the front but rather along the entire depth and extension of the enemy formation . The annihilation is completed through an attack against the enemy 's rear ... To bring about a decisive and annihilating victory requires an attack against the front and against one or both flanks ...
Schlieffen later developed his own operational doctrine in a series of articles , many of which were translated and published in a work entitled Cannae .
= = Historical sources = =
There are three main accounts of the battle , none of them contemporary . The closest is Polybius , who wrote his account 50 years after the battle . Livy wrote in the time of Augustus , and Appian later still . Appian 's account describes events that have no relation with those of Livy and Polybius . Polybius portrays the battle as the ultimate nadir of Roman fortunes , functioning as a literary device such that the subsequent Roman recovery is more dramatic . For example , some argue that his casualty figures are exaggerated — " more symbolic than factual " . Livy portrays the Senate in the role of hero and hence assigns blame for the Roman defeat to the low @-@ born Varro . Blaming Varro also serves to lift blame from the Roman soldiers , whom Livy has a tendency to idealize . Scholars tend to discount Appian 's account . The verdict of Philip Sabin — " a worthless farrago " — is typical .
Historian Martin Samuels has questioned whether it was in fact Varro in command on the day on the grounds that Paullus may have been in command on the right . The warm reception that Varro received after the battle from the Senate was in striking contrast to the savage criticism meted out to other commanders . Samuels doubts whether Varro would have been received with such warmth had he been in command . Gregory Daly notes that , in the Roman military , the right was always the place of command . He suggests that at the Battle of Zama Hannibal was quoted saying that he had fought Paullus at Cannae and concludes that it is impossible to be sure who was in command on the day .
= Stone Mountain Memorial half dollar =
The Stone Mountain Memorial half dollar was an American fifty @-@ cent piece struck in 1925 at the Philadelphia Mint . Its main purpose was to raise money on behalf of the Stone Mountain Confederate Monumental Association for the Stone Mountain Memorial near Atlanta , Georgia . Designed by sculptor Gutzon Borglum , the coin features a depiction of Confederate generals Robert E. Lee and Stonewall Jackson on the obverse and the caption : " Memorial to the Valor of the Soldier of the South " on the reverse . The piece was also originally intended to be in memory of the recently deceased president , Warren G. Harding , but no mention of him appears on the coin .
In the early 20th century , proposals were made to carve a large sculpture in memory of General Lee on Stone Mountain , a huge rock outcropping . The owners of Stone Mountain agreed to transfer title on condition the work was completed within 12 years . Borglum , who was , like others involved , a Ku Klux Klan member , was engaged to design the memorial , and proposed expanding it to include a colossal monument depicting Confederate warriors , with Lee , Jackson , and Confederate President Jefferson Davis leading them .
The work proved expensive , and the Association advocated the issuance of a commemorative half dollar as a fundraiser for the memorial . Congress approved it , though to appease Northerners , the coin was also made in honor of Harding , under whose administration work had commenced . Borglum designed the coin , which was repeatedly rejected by the Commission of Fine Arts . All reference to Harding was removed from the design by order of President Calvin Coolidge .
The Association sponsored extensive sales efforts for the coin throughout the South , though these were hurt by the firing of Borglum in 1925 , which alienated many of his supporters , including the United Daughters of the Confederacy . A 1928 audit of the fundraising showed excessive expenses and misuse of money , and construction halted the same year ; a scaled @-@ down sculpture was eventually completed in 1970 . Because of the large quantities issued — over a million remain extant — the Stone Mountain Memorial half dollar remains inexpensive compared with other U.S. commemoratives .
= = Background = =
The first European @-@ descended settlers inhabited the land around Stone Mountain , Georgia , today in the east Atlanta suburbs , around 1790 . They called the large outcropping , about 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) long and 1 @,@ 686 feet ( 514 m ) high , " Rock Mountain " . Rev. Adrel Sherwood of Macon , Georgia , first named it Stone Mountain in 1825 . The town of New Gibraltar was founded nearby in 1839 ; its name would be changed to Stone Mountain by the Georgia Legislature in 1947 . From about the time of the American Civil War , the mountain was used as a quarry ; this would not entirely cease until the 1970s .
John Gutzon de la mothe Borglum ( usually called Gutzon Borglum ) was born in Idaho Territory in 1867 , to one of several wives of a Dane who had converted to Mormonism . As a boy , Borglum lived in various places in the Far West . Turning to art as a career , he attended the San Francisco Art Academy , the Académie Julian , and the École des Beaux @-@ Arts . Greatly influenced by Rodin , whom he met , Borglum switched from painting to sculpture in 1901 . His Mares of Diomedes won a gold medal at the 1904 Louisiana Purchase Exposition in St. Louis , and became the first work of sculpture to be purchased by the Metropolitan Museum of Art .
= = Inception = =
In 1914 , editor John Temple Graves wrote in the Atlanta Georgian , suggesting the establishment of a memorial to Confederate General Robert E. Lee on Stone Mountain , " from this godlike eminence let our Confederate hero calmly look history and the future in the face ! " Others who called for the establishment of a Confederate memorial there included William H. Terrell , an Atlanta attorney who believed that while the North had spent millions of dollars on monuments to the Union , the South had not sufficiently honored Confederate heroes . Also active in the early days of the Stone Mountain proposal was Helen Plane ( 1829 – 1925 ) , who had been a belle from Atlanta before the war , and whose husband had given his life at the Battle of Antietam in 1862 . She devoted the remainder of her life to preserving the memory of the Southern cause .
The release of the film The Birth of a Nation in 1915 sparked increased interest in the Confederate cause in the South . Plane , who was lifetime honorary president of the Georgia organization of the United Daughters of the Confederacy ( UDC ) , asked Borglum to carve the image of General Lee on the mountain . The Stone Mountain project was initially a UDC endeavor . Officials originally contemplated a monument of perhaps 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) by 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) . Putting that on Stone Mountain , Borglum supposedly stated , would be like putting a postage stamp on a barn . He proposed a much larger sculpture , 200 feet ( 61 m ) high and 1 @,@ 300 feet ( 400 m ) long , and drew up plans in his Stamford , Connecticut , studio . He envisioned a huge depiction of the Confederate army , including artillery and infantry , as well as 65 Confederate generals , five to be nominated by the governor of each Southern state . In 1917 , the Stone Mountain Confederate Monumental Association ( the Association ) was founded to publicize and raise funds for a colossal sculpture at Stone Mountain . Samuel H. Venable and his family , owners of the land , agreed to deed it over for a monument , on condition that if the project was not completed in 12 years , title would revert to them . A formal dedication took place in May 1916 ; the preliminary work was interrupted by the US entry into World War I in 1917 .
Another organization which took an interest in the Stone Mountain work was the recently revived Ku Klux Klan , of which both Venable and Borglum were members . The Klan , through much of the 20th century , held regular encampments on or near Stone Mountain . Plane , in a 1915 letter to Borglum , stated that the original Klan had saved the South from " Negro domination " in the Reconstruction era , and suggested that the design include a small group of Klansmen in robes , seen in the distance , approaching .
Beginning in 1920 , the project slowly came under the control of Atlanta businessmen , brought in to aid with the massive fundraising , and the UDC became marginalized . The work on the sculpture resumed on June 18 , 1923 , when Borglum began carving Lee 's figure into the mountainside ; he planned for General Stonewall Jackson and Confederate President Jefferson Davis to be close by Lee . Borglum 's plans were for a huge sculpture depicting the Confederates , a memorial hall hewn from the granite at the base of the mountain in which artworks and artifacts could be displayed ( as well as rolls of honor listing the contributors ) and a giant amphitheater nearby . He estimated the total cost at $ 3 @.@ 5 million . Instead , the scope of the project was scaled back , though different sources give varying cost estimates and dimensions . Borglum signed a contract to complete the group of Lee , Jackson , and Davis within three years for $ 250 @,@ 000 .
The work was expensive and by November 1923 , the Association decided to advocate for a commemorative coin which it could buy from the government at face value and sell at a premium as a fundraiser . Two men each sought credit for coming up with the idea for a coin . Daniel W. Webb , executive secretary of the Association , said he had thought of it after finding an Alabama centennial half dollar at home ; journalist Harry Stillwell Edwards made a similar claim and apparently collected a reward from the Association .
On November 16 , 1923 , Edwards wrote to Bascom Slemp , secretary to President Calvin Coolidge ( the previous president , Warren G. Harding , had recently died ) . Edwards arranged a meeting between the President and himself , association president Hollins N. Randolph ( an Atlanta lawyer and direct descendant of early president Thomas Jefferson ) , and Borglum . President Coolidge agreed to support authorizing legislation for a Stone Mountain coin .
Borglum later stated that the Association asked him to write to people in Washington because of his contacts in the Republican Coolidge administration . He wrote to the powerful Republican Massachusetts senator , Henry Cabot Lodge , urging him to support legislation for a Stone Mountain commemorative coin ; the appeal apparently worked , as late in 1923 the committee chairmen having jurisdiction over coinage , Reed Smoot in the Senate and Louis Thomas McFadden in the House of Representatives , introduced legislation for a Stone Mountain Memorial half dollar . McFadden later wrote that he sponsored the legislation because of his friendship with Borglum . With the threat of sectional opposition if the coin only honored the South , the bill 's sponsors included language making the new half dollar also in memory of the recently deceased Harding ( an Ohioan ) , during whose presidency the renewed work had begun . The bill passed by unanimous consent in the House on March 6 , 1924 , and in the Senate five days later ; Coolidge signed it on March 17 . The bill authorizing the coin read :
Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled , That in commemoration of the commencement on June 18 , 1923 , of the work of carving on Stone Mountain , in the State of Georgia , a monument to the valor of the soldiers of the South , which was the inspiration of their sons and daughters and grandsons and granddaughters in the Spanish @-@ American and World Wars , and in memory of Warren G. Harding , President of the United States of America , in whose administration the work was begun ...
= = Preparation and design = =
Borglum was busy between the passage of the bill and the end of May 1924 , first working on the Children 's Founders Roll medal , and then the half dollar . The Children 's Founders Roll was open to white children up to the age of 18 who contributed one dollar to the building of the monument . Borglum must still have been fine @-@ tuning the monument 's design ; Jackson 's posture on the medal differs from that on the coin . Unlike the issued coin , Borglum 's models showed the front part of Davis 's horse , although the Confederate president is unseen , and marching soldiers appear in the background . Borglum met with Treasury Secretary Andrew Mellon who questioned first why " In God We Trust " appeared directly over Lee 's head ; Borglum responded that it was to pay tribute to the Confederates ' faith . Mellon then asked what the thirteen stars on the obverse represented ; Borglum replied that those on the north side of the Mason – Dixon line could consider them to represent the thirteen original colonies ( those south of it , the implication was , could consider them to be a tribute to the Southern states ) . Mellon laughed and gave preliminary approval . On July 2 , Mellon showed the designs to President Coolidge ; they were then sent to the Commission of Fine Arts for its members ' opinions .
According to numismatists William D. Hyder and R.W. Colbert , " Borglum , to put it mildly , was a temperamental artist who managed to offend most everyone with whom he worked " . They note that " Borglum 's past insolence had not left him in the good graces of the art community " and his designs met a hostile reception at the commission . Sculptor member James Earle Fraser , designer of the Buffalo nickel , rejected Borglum 's initial design on July 22 , eight days after they were received . The inscription on the reverse included a tribute to Harding ; Fraser deemed it inartistic . Borglum submitted a second set on August 14 , this was again rejected ; the commission criticized the design , which seemed to be only a segment of a larger one , rather than specifically designed to fit a half dollar . Borglum wanted to ignore what he deemed " damn fool suggestions " , but the Association threatened to fire him if he did not complete the coin . Borglum was concerned the reverse was still too crowded , and proposed leaving off the eagle , but space was saved when Coolidge did not like the reference to Harding , and it was omitted . With the eagle still in place on the reverse , Fraser finally approved the designs on October 10 , 1924 . In all , Borglum made nine plaster models for the design .
Even though all necessary approvals had been received , the Philadelphia Mint refused to proceed with preparations because of the lack of the mention of Harding , which it believed was congressionally mandated . Borglum wired Coolidge on October 31 , notifying him of the problem ; the President confirmed his approval of the design the following day . Despite the support of the federal government for the coin , the Grand Army of the Republic ( GAR ) , an organization of Union Civil War veterans , tried to prevent the issuance of a coin they believed honored treason by lobbying in late 1924 and early 1925 . Work on the sculpture slowed ( the head of Jackson was then being carved ) because of the sculptor being distracted by designing the coin , flaws in the rock on Stone Mountain , and the fact that the Association had ceased fundraising efforts in anticipation of a campaign to sell the coin . Revenues from the medal were not sufficient to meet expenses .
The obverse of the half dollar depicts Confederate generals Lee and Jackson , the latter with head bare , mounted on horseback . Although both Lee and Jackson were respected in the North , Davis would not have been acceptable on a federal coin , and he was omitted , although he appears on the Children 's Founders Roll medal which Borglum adapted for the obverse of the half dollar . There are thirteen stars in the upper field of the obverse ; they represent the thirteen states which either joined the Confederacy or had Confederate factions . Borglum 's initials , " GB " , are found on the extreme right of the piece , near the horses ' tails . The reverse depicts an eagle with wings stretched , representative of liberty , perched upon a mountaintop . There are 35 stars in the field , supposedly to represent the number of states at the start of the Civil War , although there were in fact 34 in 1861 , and there were 35 states only from 1863 to 1864 , between the admissions of West Virginia and Nevada .
Art historian Cornelius Vermeule , writing in 1971 , noted that the half dollar represents an unusual circumstance in American art , where a designer uses a coin as a bozzetto or small @-@ scale model of a work to be completed . Vermeule considered the children 's medal a better work of art , due to the inclusion of Davis . He believed that Borglum 's original design , before its rejection by the Commission of Fine Arts , was superior , as it included a sense of motion through the depiction of marching soldiers in the background , balanced by the inclusion of the head of Davis 's horse , though the Confederate president himself is unseen . According to Vermeule , the original design " would have made a magnificent coin , an unusual compression of monumentality and power into a limited and unorthodox historical space " .
= = Production and conflict = =
The Medallic Art Company of New York converted Borglum 's models to coinage dies . The first 1 @,@ 000 Stone Mountain Memorial half dollars were struck on a medal press at the Philadelphia Mint on January 21 , 1925 , the 101st anniversary of General Jackson 's birth ; Borglum and officials of the Association were present . The first piece struck was mounted on a plate made of gold mined in Georgia for presentation to President Coolidge . The second was mounted on a silver plaque , and presented to Secretary Mellon . The remainder of the first thousand were placed in numbered envelopes ; some were presented to officials or those involved in the Stone Mountain project . Between January and March 1925 , that mint struck 2 @,@ 310 @,@ 000 of the authorized mintage of 5 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 , plus 4 @,@ 709 pieces reserved for inspection by the 1926 Assay Commission . Except for the first thousand , for which Randolph paid in gold , the pieces were sent to the Federal Reserve Bank in Atlanta , which advanced the funds to purchase them from the government .
Although the Association unveiled the completed head of Lee on January 19 , 1924 ( the general 's birthday ) , within months , its relations with Borglum had become strained . Technical problems over the medal and the work on the mountain caused tensions , and political differences between Borglum , a Republican , and Randolph , an active Democrat , led to poor relations between the two . Borglum , Venable , and Randolph backed different KKK members for national leadership . Both Borglum and the Association accused each other of graft ; the sculptor proposed that he form a syndicate to purchase the half dollars from the Mint and sell them with the profits to be applied directly to construction costs . Randolph ridiculed the suggestion , stating that it would allow Borglum to carve " whatever he pleased on the mountain " . Borglum accused Randolph of using donations for his own benefit , and spending freely on an expense account . These dissensions became public , and in February 1925 , the Association fired Borglum . Randolph stated , as one reason for dismissing the sculptor , that Borglum had taken seven months to design the coin , when , he said , any competent artist could have done it in three weeks . He accused Borglum of delaying so that the Association would be embarrassed . According to Freeman , " despite all the points of conflict between Borglum and the committee , it was actually the commemorative coin that ended his career at Stone Mountain . "
Upon being dismissed , Borglum wrecked his models for the monument ; the Association sought to have him jailed for destruction of property . Borglum was addressing the ladies of the Atlanta chapter of the UDC when his assistant , Jesse Tucker , burst in and hurried him out the door with a minimum of explanation , only moments before a sheriff 's deputy arrived to serve the warrant . He left the state , but was arrested in Greensboro , North Carolina , though quickly allowed bail , and the Association abandoned extradition proceedings . Freed , the sculptor soon took up a project in South Dakota , Mount Rushmore . The publicity surrounding these events hurt the Association 's fundraising , as did allegations that the Association had misused hundreds of thousands of dollars put aside for the project .
= = Marketing and distribution = =
The Association hired Augustus H. Lukeman as replacement sculptor ; all of Borglum 's work was eventually blasted away . Despite the dispute with Borglum , the Association proceeded to market the half dollars ; it hired New York publicist Harvey Hill to run the campaign . The Association hoped for the opportunity to present the first coin to President Coolidge in person as a means of overcoming the bad publicity ; White House officials warily declined , writing that " no good purpose would be served by a formal presentation " . The half dollars were officially released on July 3 , 1925 ( though some were displayed as early as May ) ; they were sold at a price of one dollar . They were sent to 3 @,@ 000 banks by the Federal Reserve , with the proceeds from sales credited to the Association . White Southerners applauded the piece as symbolizing sectional reconciliation , the federal government paying homage to its Confederate heritage .
The coins were to be distributed through banks , and the Federal Reserve System cooperated by moving coins as needed , though at the Association 's expense . The Association set up local affiliates , with organizations throughout the South , as well as Oklahoma and the District of Columbia . Each state 's governor served as nominal head of the organization within his jurisdiction ; on July 20 , 1925 , at a meeting of the Conference of Southern Governors called for the purpose , they ( or their representatives ) resolved that the Association allocate sales quotas among the states on the " basis of white population and bank deposits " . The pieces were to be sold at the price of one dollar , and local organizations were to generate promotions for selling them . The overall drive to sell half dollars was dubbed the " Harvest Campaign " and began with the governors ' meeting in July 1925 . Georgia Governor Clifford Walker told his colleagues that the " South would be eternally disgraced if it failed to accept the challenge " of meeting the sales goal of 2 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 coins ; nevertheless , the governors devoted little time to the campaign .
Although volunteer enthusiasm was essential to the Association 's plans in the Harvest Campaign , it did not rely on it at the higher levels ; the state chairs were compensated , both by salary and commission . J.W. Gibbes , clerk of the South Carolina House of Representatives , was hired as that state 's executive director ; he undertook to sell 100 @,@ 000 coins and received just under $ 3 @,@ 500 in salary and commissions , all paid in 1926 . Local volunteers organized Chamber of Commerce luncheons to sell coins throughout the South ; chapters of the UDC purchased pieces to present to surviving Civil War veterans . The quota for Florida was 175 @,@ 000 coins , with each town and city apportioned its share . Often , Kiwanis or Rotary groups underwrote local quotas . Mrs. N. Burton Bass of Atlanta was reported to be the leading seller , once disposing of 233 coins in an afternoon . A series of dance balls honored the UDC members who sold large numbers of pieces . Nevertheless , Hyder and Colbert suggested that there was " a general lack of more ladies such as Mrs. Bass " ; many municipalities had trouble finding local chairs . Outside the South , sales were promoted by three professional publicists hired by the Association . To keep public interest high , the Association released Lukeman 's conceptions for Stone Mountain , which were on a smaller scale than Borglum 's . Lukeman conceived a scaled @-@ down concept , of the three Confederate leaders on horseback . Despite the campaign , sales were slower than expected . In late 1925 , the Association offered Northern banks a commission of seven cents a coin ; it is uncertain if any took up the offer . The continuing opposition of the GAR to the coins dampened sales in the North , and there was considerable criticism of the coin issue in newspapers .
One means of fundraising that Harvest Campaign administrators decided on was to counterstamp some of the coins for sale at premium prices . The letters and numbers are believed to have been punched by the Association , as they are almost entirely uniform . Some were given a state abbreviation and a number , and were sent to be auctioned in various towns . Gibbes reported that the counterstamped pieces sent to South Carolina sold for an average of $ 23 , ranging from $ 10 to $ 110 , and recommended that the auctions be preceded with the account of the sale of one in Bradenton , Florida , for $ 1 @,@ 300 . Which town got which number was the luck of the draw . Others were marked with " U.D.C. " and a state abbreviation , together with a number which probably represents a membership or chapter number . These were intended for presentation to members deserving of special honor , such as an outgoing president . They did not sell well , as the Association had alienated many UDC members over the firing of Borglum . The Association also announced a program for sale to the Sons of Confederate Veterans , although whether any coins were sold under this program is unclear , as none have been identified . Pieces marked " G.L. " and " S.L. " were puzzled over by collectors for many years ; A. Steve Deitert in the January 2011 edition of The Numismatist identified the markings as " Gold Lavalier " and " Silver Lavalier " . These coins were given to county winners and runners @-@ up in a selling competition for young ladies .
The Association sold coins through other means . They asked companies to purchase them : the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad [ B & O ] , the Southern Fireman 's Fund Insurance Company , the Coca @-@ Cola Company , and a number of banks , purchased thousands of pieces , many of which were given away as promotions . Those outside the South could obtain coins by orders passed through local banks . A bank in St. Louis gave away the half dollars to those who opened an account with at least $ 5 ; the B & O used them in making change .
The Association called an end to the Harvest Campaign as of March 31 , 1926 , most likely because the sales did not justify the continued salary expenses . Coins remaining at banks were to be sent to the Federal Reserve , and any credit balances remitted to the Association . Thereafter , coins were available either through the Association or the Federal Reserve at an increased price of $ 2 . With a price increase and the end to the campaign , sales plummeted . Total sales from the Harvest Campaign were about 430 @,@ 000 pieces . One exception to the drop in sales was a drive in New York under the sponsorship of Mayor Jimmy Walker , which succeeded in selling 250 @,@ 000 coins in 1926 , though at the original price of one dollar . Bernard Baruch , then a prominent investor and later a counselor of presidents , was honorary chairman of the organizing committee , and personally subscribed for some of the pieces .
= = Aftermath = =
The Atlanta chapter of the UDC in 1927 published a brochure accusing the Association of wrongfully firing Borglum and wasting between a quarter and a half million dollars . An audit of the Association 's books was performed in 1928 ; the examiners found its records in good order , excepting those regarding the Harvest Campaign , which were inadequate . The audit found that for every three dollars of revenue brought in from the half dollars , two were paid out in expenses , a ratio Hyder and Colbert called " incredible " . Of the total sum raised by the Association , only 27 cents of each dollar went to the carving . Venable stated that the Stone Mountain monument had " developed into the most colossal failure in history " .
The Association was discredited by the results of the audit ; the Georgia Senate voted to accuse it of gross mismanagement of funds . Randolph resigned when Venable made it clear he would not negotiate an extension of the twelve @-@ year deadline unless he did . The Atlanta lawyer had begun a political career ; the scandal finished it . With funds drying up , the Association stopped work on Stone Mountain on May 31 , 1928 , and when negotiations failed , the Venable family successfully sued to regain the property . Borglum was now a folk hero in Atlanta ; he was called upon to return to Stone Mountain in the early 1930s , but busy with Mount Rushmore , he did not . At the time of Borglum 's death in 1941 , no work was being done on Stone Mountain . The State of Georgia voted funds to purchase Stone Mountain in 1958 and five years later selected Walker Kirkland Hancock as architect . The sculpture , which depicts Lee , Jackson and Davis , and bears only a resemblance to Borglum 's original design , was dedicated in 1970 . At 90 feet ( 27 m ) by 190 feet ( 58 m ) , it is the largest relief sculpture in the world .
In 1930 , Secretary Mellon reported that although no Stone Mountain Memorial half dollars were held by the Mint , it was his understanding that large quantities of the piece were in the possession of banks . Eventually , arrangements were made to return a million half dollars to the Mint for melting . In spite of this , the State of Georgia still had Stone Mountain half dollars for sale at its exhibit at the 1933 Century of Progress Exposition . Many more were dumped into circulation in the 1930s . A quantity of half dollars once owned by Baruch were sold for $ 3 @.@ 25 each through a Georgia bank in the 1950s to finance a building in honor of Baruch 's mother , a Southerner , in Richmond , Virginia . A total of 1 @,@ 314 @,@ 709 Stone Mountain Memorial half dollars were distributed , after deducting those pieces melted .
Due to the large quantities extant , Stone Mountain Memorial half dollars remain inexpensive in comparison with other commemoratives . The 2014 edition of A Guide Book of United States Coins lists the piece at $ 65 in Almost Uncirculated condition ( AU @-@ 50 ) with pieces in near @-@ pristine MS @-@ 66 at $ 335 .
= Moonraker ( novel ) =
Moonraker is the third novel by the British author Ian Fleming to feature his fictional British Secret Service agent James Bond . It was published by Jonathan Cape on 5 April 1955 and featured a cover design conceived by Fleming . The plot is derived from a Fleming screenplay that was too short for a full novel so he added the bridge passage between Bond and the industrialist Hugo Drax . In the latter half of the novel , the premise of Bond seconded to Drax 's staff as the businessman builds the Moonraker , a prototype missile designed to defend England . Unknown to Bond , Drax is German , an ex @-@ Nazi now working for the Soviets ; his plan is to build the rocket , arm it with a nuclear warhead , and fire it at London . Uniquely for a Bond novel , Moonraker is set entirely in Britain , which raised comments from some readers , complaining about the lack of exotic locations .
Moonraker , like Fleming 's previous novels , was well received by critics . Moonraker plays on a number of 1950s fears , including attack by rockets ( following the V @-@ 2 strikes of the Second World War ) , Soviet communism , the re @-@ emergence of Nazism and the " threat from within " posed by both ideologies . Fleming examines Englishness , and the novel shows the virtues and strength of England . Adaptations include a broadcast on South African radio in 1956 starring Bob Holness and a 1958 Daily Express comic strip . The novel 's name was used in 1979 for the eleventh official film in the Eon Productions Bond series and the fourth to star Roger Moore as Bond ; the plot was significantly changed from the novel to include excursions into space .
= = Plot = =
The British Secret Service agent James Bond is asked by his superior , M , to join him at M 's club , Blades . A club member , the multi @-@ millionaire businessman Sir Hugo Drax , is winning considerable money playing bridge , seemingly against the odds . M suspects Drax is cheating , and while claiming indifference , is concerned as to why a multi @-@ millionaire and national hero would cheat . Bond confirms Drax 's deception and manages to turn the tables — aided by a pack of stacked cards — and wins £ 15 @,@ 000 .
Drax is the product of a mysterious background , purportedly unknown even to himself . Presumed to have been a British Army soldier during the Second World War , he was badly injured and stricken with amnesia in the explosion of a bomb planted by a German saboteur at a British field headquarters . After extensive rehabilitation in an army hospital , he returned home to become a wealthy industrialist . After building his fortune and establishing himself in business and society , Drax started building the " Moonraker " , Britain 's first nuclear missile project , intended to defend Britain against its Cold War enemies . The Moonraker rocket was to be an upgraded V @-@ 2 rocket using liquid hydrogen and fluorine as propellants ; to withstand the ultra @-@ high combustion temperatures of its engine , it used columbite , in which Drax had a monopoly . Because the rocket 's engine could withstand high heat , the Moonraker was able to use these powerful fuels , greatly expanding its effective range .
After a Ministry of Supply security officer working at the project is shot dead , M assigns Bond to replace him and also to investigate what has been going on at the missile @-@ building base , located between Dover and Deal on the south coast of England . All the rocket scientists working on the project are German . At his post on the complex , Bond meets Gala Brand , a beautiful police Special Branch officer working undercover as Drax 's personal assistant . Bond also uncovers clues concerning his predecessor 's death , concluding that the man may have been killed for witnessing a submarine off the coast .
Drax 's henchman Krebs is caught by Bond snooping through his room . Later , an attempted assassination by triggering a landslide nearly kills Bond and Brand , as they swim beneath the Dover cliffs . Drax takes Brand to London , where she discovers the truth about the Moonraker by comparing her own launch trajectory figures with those in a notebook picked from Drax 's pocket . She is captured by Krebs , and finds herself captive in a secret radio homing station — intended to serve as a beacon for the missile 's guidance system — in the heart of London . While she is being taken back to the Moonraker facility by Drax , Bond gives chase , but is also captured by Drax and Krebs .
Drax tells Bond that he was never a British soldier and has never suffered from amnesia : he was Graf Hugo von der Drache , the German commander of a Skorzeny commando unit . He was the saboteur whose team had placed the car bomb at the army field headquarters , only to be injured himself in the detonation . The amnesia story was simply a cover he used while recovering in hospital , in order to avoid Allied retribution , although it would lead to a whole new British identity . Drax remains a dedicated Nazi , bent on revenge against England for the wartime defeat of his Fatherland and his prior history of social slights suffered as a youth growing up in an English boarding school before the war . He explains that he now means to destroy London with the missile he had constructed , by means of a Soviet @-@ supplied nuclear warhead that has been secretly fitted to the Moonraker . He also plans to play the stock market the day before to make a huge profit from the imminent disaster .
Brand and Bond are imprisoned where the blast from the Moonraker 's engines will incinerate them , to leave no trace of them once the Moonraker is launched . Before the firing , the couple escape . Brand gives Bond the proper coordinates to redirect the gyros and send the Moonraker into the sea . Having been in collaboration with Soviet Intelligence all along , Drax and his henchman attempt to escape by Russian submarine — only to be killed as the vessel flees through the waters onto which the Moonraker has been retargeted . After their debriefing at headquarters , Bond meets up with Brand , expecting her company — but they part ways after she reveals that she is engaged to a fellow Special Branch officer .
= = Background and writing history = =
In early 1953 the film producer Alexander Korda read a proof copy of Live and Let Die , and informed its author , Ian Fleming , that he was excited by the book , but that it would not make a good basis for a film . Fleming told the producer that his next book was to be an expansion of an idea for a screenplay , set in London and Kent , adding that the location would allow " for some wonderful film settings in the old metropolis idiom " .
Fleming undertook a significant amount of background research in preparation for writing Moonraker ; he asked his fellow correspondent on The Sunday Times , Anthony Terry , for information on the Second World War German resistance force — the Werewolves — and German V @-@ 2 rockets . The latter was a subject on which he wrote to the science fiction writer Arthur C. Clarke and the British Interplanetary Society . Fleming also visited the Wimpole Street psychiatrist Eric Strauss to discuss the traits of megalomaniacs ; Strauss lent him the book Men of Genius , which provided the link between megalomania and childhood thumb @-@ sucking . Fleming used this information to give Drax diastema , a common result of thumb @-@ sucking . According to his biographer Andrew Lycett , Fleming " wanted to make Moonraker his most ambitious and personal novel yet . " Fleming , a keen card player , was fascinated by the background to the 1890 royal baccarat scandal , and when in 1953 he met a woman who had been present at the game , he questioned her so intently that she burst into tears .
In January 1954 Fleming and his wife , Ann , travelled to their Goldeneye estate in Jamaica for their annual two @-@ month holiday . He had already written two Bond novels , Casino Royale , which had been published in April 1953 , and Live and Let Die , whose publication was imminent . He began writing Moonraker on his arrival in the Caribbean . He later wrote an article for Books and Bookmen magazine describing his approach to writing , in which he said : " I write for about three hours in the morning ... and I do another hour 's work between six and seven in the evening . I never correct anything and I never go back to see what I have written ... By following my formula , you write 2 @,@ 000 words a day . " By 24 February he had written over 30 @,@ 000 words , although he wrote to a friend that he felt like he was already parodying the two earlier Bond novels . Fleming 's own copy bears the following inscription , " This was written in January and February 1954 and published a year later . It is based on a film script I have had in my mind for many years . " He later said that the idea for the film had been too short for a full novel , and that he " had to more or less graft the first half of the book onto my film idea in order to bring it up to the necessary length " .
Fleming considered a number of titles for the story ; his first choice had been The Moonraker , until Noël Coward reminded him of a novel of the same name by F. Tennyson Jesse . Fleming then considered The Moonraker Secret , The Moonraker Plot , The Inhuman Element , Wide of the Mark , The Infernal Machine , Mondays are Hell and Out of the Clear Sky . George Wren Howard of Jonathan Cape suggested Bond & the Moonraker , The Moonraker Scare and The Moonraker Plan , while his friend , the writer William Plomer , suggested Hell is Here ; the final choice of Moonraker was a suggestion by Wren Howard .
Although Fleming provided no dates within his novels , two writers have identified different timelines based on events and situations within the novel series as a whole . John Griswold and Henry Chancellor — both of whom have written books on behalf of Ian Fleming Publications — put the events of Moonraker in 1953 ; Griswold is more precise , and considers the story to have taken place in May of that year .
= = Development = =
= = = Plot inspirations = = =
The locations draw from Fleming 's personal experiences . Moonraker is the only Bond novel that takes place solely in Britain , which gave Fleming the chance to write about the England he cherished , such as the Kent countryside , including the White Cliffs of Dover , and London clubland . Fleming owned a cottage in St Margaret 's at Cliffe , near Dover , and he went to great lengths to get the details of the area right , including lending his car to his stepson to time the journey from London to Deal for the car chase passage . Fleming used his experiences of London clubs for the background of the Blades scenes . As a clubman , he enjoyed membership of Boodle 's , White 's and the Portland Club , and a combination of Boodles and the Portland Club is thought to be the model for Blades ; the author Michael Dibdin found the scene in the club to be " surely one of the finest things that Ian Fleming ever did . "
The early chapters of the novel centre on Bond 's private life , with Fleming using his own lifestyle as a basis for Bond 's . Fleming used further aspects of his private life , such as his friends , as he had done in his previous novels : Hugo Drax was named after his brother @-@ in @-@ law Hugo Charteris and a navy acquaintance Admiral Sir Reginald Aylmer Ranfurly Plunkett @-@ Ernle @-@ Erle @-@ Drax , while Fleming 's friend Duff Sutherland ( described as " a scruffy looking chap " ) was one of the bridge players at Blades . The name of the Scotland Yard superintendent , Ronnie Vallance , was made up from those of Ronald Howe , the actual assistant commissioner at the Yard , and of Vallance Lodge & Co . , Fleming 's accountants . Other elements of the plot came from Fleming 's knowledge of wartime operations carried out by T @-@ Force , a secret British Army unit formed to continue the work of the Fleming @-@ established 30 Assault Unit .
= = = Characters = = =
According to the author Raymond Benson , Moonraker is a deeper and more introspective book than Fleming 's previous work , which allows the author to develop the characters further . As such , Bond " becomes something more than ... [ the ] cardboard figure " that he had been in the previous two novels . The start of the book concentrates on Bond at home and his daily routines , which Fleming describes as " Elastic office hours from around ten until six , ... evenings spent playing cards in the company of a few close friends , ... or making love , with rather cold passion , to one of three similarly disposed married women . " This lifestyle was largely modelled on Fleming 's own , which the journalist and writer Matthew Parker sees as showing " a sourness " in the author 's character . According to Chancellor , two of Bond 's other vices were also displayed in the book : his fondness for gambling — illegal except in private members clubs in 1955 — and excessive drink and drug taking , neither of which were frowned upon in post @-@ war upper class circles . In preparation for beating Drax at cards , Bond consumes a vodka martini , a carafe of vodka shared with M , two bottles of champagne and a brandy ; he also mixes a quantity of Benzedrine , an amphetamine , into a glass of the champagne . According to The Times journalist and historian Ben Macintyre , to Fleming the alcohol consumption " meant relaxation , ritual and reliability " . Benzedrine was regularly taken by troops during the war to remain awake and alert , and Fleming was an occasional consumer .
Drax is physically abnormal , as are many of Bond 's later adversaries . He has very broad shoulders , a large head and protruding teeth with diastema ; his face is badly scarred from a wartime explosion . According to the writers Kingsley Amis and Benson — both of whom subsequently wrote Bond novels — Drax is the most successful villain in the Bond canon . Amis considers this to be " because the most imagination and energy has gone into his portrayal . He lives in the real world ... [ and ] his physical presence fills Moonraker . The view is shared by Chancellor , who considers Drax " perhaps the most believable " of all Fleming 's villains . The cultural historian Jeremy Black writes that as with Le Chiffre and Mr Big — the villains of the first two Bond novels — Drax 's origins and war history are vital to an understanding of the character . Like several other antagonists in the Bond canon , Drax was German , reminding readers of a familiar threat in 1950s Britain . Because Drax is without a girlfriend or wife he is , according to the norms of Fleming and his works , abnormal in Bond 's world .
Benson considers Brand to be one of the weakest female roles in the Bond canon and " a throwback to the rather stiff characterization of Vesper Lynd " from Casino Royale . Brand 's lack of interest in Bond removes sexual tension from the novel ; she is unique in the canon for being the one woman that Bond does not seduce . The cultural historians Janet Woollacott and Tony Bennett write that the perceived reserve shown by Brand to Bond was not due to frigidity , but to her engagement to a fellow police officer .
M is another character who is more fully realised than in the previous novels , and for the first time in the series he is shown outside a work setting at the Blades club . It is never explained how he received or could afford his membership of the club , which had a restricted membership of only 200 gentlemen , all of whom had to show £ 100 @,@ 000 in cash or gilt @-@ edged securities . Amis , in his study The James Bond Dossier , considers that on M 's salary his membership of the club would have been puzzling ; Amis points out that in the 1963 book On Her Majesty 's Secret Service it is revealed that M 's pay as head of the Secret Service is £ 6 @,@ 500 a year .
= = Style = =
Benson analysed Fleming 's writing style and identified what he described as the " Fleming Sweep " : a stylistic technique that sweeps the reader from one chapter to another using ' hooks ' at the end of each chapter to heighten tension and pull the reader into the next : Benson feels that the sweep in Moonraker was not as pronounced as Fleming 's previous works , largely due to the lack of action sequences in the novel .
According to the literary analyst LeRoy L. Panek , in his examination of 20th @-@ century British spy novels , in Moonraker Fleming uses a technique closer to the detective story than to the thriller genre . This manifests itself in Fleming placing clues to the plot line throughout the story , and leaving Drax 's unveiling of his plan until the later chapters . Black sees that the pace of the novel is set by the launch of the rocket ( there are four days between Bond 's briefing by M and the launch ) while Amis considers that the story to have a " rather hurried " ending .
Moonraker uses a literary device Fleming employs elsewhere , that of having a seemingly trivial incident between the main characters — the card game — that leads to the uncovering of a greater incident — the main plot involving the rocket . Dibdin sees gambling as the common link , thus the card game acts as an " introduction to the ensuing encounter ... for even higher stakes " . Savoye sees this concept of competition between Bond and villain as a " notion of game and the eternal fight between Order and Disorder " , common throughout the Bond stories .
= = Themes = =
Parker describes the novel as " a hymn to England " , and highlights Fleming 's description of the white cliffs of Dover and the heart of London as evidence . Even the German Krebs is moved by the sight of the Kent countryside in a country he hates . The novel places England — and particularly London and Kent — in the front line of the cold war , and the threat to the location further emphasises its importance . Bennett and Woollacott consider that Moonraker defines the strengths and virtues of England and Englishness as being the " quiet and orderly background of English institutions " , which are threatened by the disturbance Drax brings .
The literary critic Meir Sternberg considers the theme of English identity can be seen in the confrontation between Drax and Bond . Drax — whose real name Drache is German for dragon — is in opposition to Bond , who takes the role of Saint George in the conflict .
As with Casino Royale and Live and Let Die , Moonraker involves the idea of the " traitor within " . Drax , real name Graf Hugo von der Drache , is a " megalomaniac German Nazi who masquerades as an English gentleman " , while Krebs bears the same name as Hitler 's last Chief of Staff . Black sees that , in using a German as the novel 's main enemy , " Fleming ... exploits another British cultural antipathy of the 1950s . Germans , in the wake of the Second World War , made another easy and obvious target for bad press . " Moonraker uses two of the foes feared by Fleming , the Nazis and the Soviets , with Drax being German and working for the Soviets ; in Moonraker the Soviets were hostile and provided not just the atomic bomb , but support and logistics to Drax . Moonraker played on fears of the audiences of the 1950s of rocket attacks from overseas , fears grounded in the use of the V @-@ 2 rocket by the Nazis during the Second World War . The story takes the threat one stage further , with a rocket based on English soil , aimed at London and " the end of British invulnerability " .
= = Publication and reception = =
= = = Publication history = = =
Moonraker was published in the UK by Jonathan Cape in hardback format on 5 April 1955 with a cover designed by Kenneth Lewis , following Fleming 's suggestions of using a stylised flame motif ; the first impression was of 9 @,@ 900 copies . The US publication was by Macmillan on 20 September that year . In October 1956 Pan Books published a paperback version of the novel in the UK , which sold 43 @,@ 000 copies before the end of the year . In December that year the US paperback was published under the title Too Hot to Handle by Permabooks . This edition was rewritten to Americanise the British idioms used , and Fleming provided a number of explanatory footnotes such as the value of English currency against the dollar . Since its initial publication the book has been issued in numerous hardback and paperback editions , translated into several languages and has never been out of print .
= = = Reception = = =
Fleming 's friend — and neighbour in Jamaica — Noël Coward considered Moonraker to be the best thing Fleming had written to that point : " although as usual too far @-@ fetched , not quite so much so as the last two ... His observation is extraordinary and his talent for description vivid . " Fleming received numerous letters from readers complaining about the lack of exotic locations ; one of which protested " We want taking out of ourselves , not sitting on the beach in Dover . "
Julian Symons , writing in The Times Literary Supplement , found Moonraker " a disappointment " , and considered that " Fleming 's tendency ... to parody the form of the thriller , has taken charge in the second half of this story . " Maurice Richardson , in his review for The Observer , was more welcoming : " Do not miss this " , he urged , saying that " Mr. Fleming continues to be irresistibly readable , however incredible " . Hilary Corke , writing in The Listener , thought that " Fleming is one of the most accomplished of thriller @-@ writers " , and considered that Moonraker " is as mercilessly readable as all the rest " . Corke warned Fleming away from being over @-@ dramatic , declaring that " Mr Fleming is evidently far too accomplished to need to lean upon these blood @-@ and @-@ thunder devices : he could keep our hair on end for three hundred pages without spilling more blood than was allowed to Shylock . " The reviewer in The Scotsman considered that Fleming " administers stimuli with no mean hand ... ' Astonish me ! ' the addict may challenge : Mr Fleming can knock him sideways . "
John Metcalf for The Spectator thought the book " utterly disgraceful — and highly enjoyable ... without [ Moonraker ] no forthcoming railway journey should be undertaken " , although he also considered that it was " not one of Mr. Fleming 's best " . Anthony Boucher , writing in The New York Times , was equivocal , saying " I don 't know anyone who writes about gambling more vividly than Fleming and I only wish the other parts of his books lived up to their gambling sequences " . Richard Lister in the New Statesman thought that " Mr. Fleming is splendid ; he stops at nothing . " Writing for The Washington Post , Al Manola believed that the " British tradition of rich mystery writing , copious description and sturdy heroism all blend nicely " in Moonraker , providing what he considered was " probably the best action novel of the month " .
= = Adaptations = =
The actor John Payne attempted to take up the option on the film rights to the book in 1955 , but nothing came of the attempt . The Rank Organisation also came to an agreement to make a film , but this likewise fell through . The novel was not one of Fleming 's stories acquired by Eon Productions in 1961 ; in 1969 the company acquired the rights and commissioned Gerry Anderson to produce and co @-@ write a screenplay . Anderson and Tony Barwick prepared a 70 @-@ page treatment that was never filmed , but some elements were similar to the final screenplay of The Spy Who Loved Me .
The first adaptation of Moonraker was for South African radio in 1956 , with Bob Holness providing the voice of Bond . According to The Independent , " listeners across the Union thrilled to Bob 's cultured tones as he defeated evil master criminals in search of world domination " . The novel was adapted as a comic strip that was published in the Daily Express newspaper and syndicated worldwide . The adaptation was written by Henry Gammidge and illustrated by John McLusky , and ran daily from 30 March to 8 August 1959 . Titan Books reprinted the strip in 2005 along with Casino Royale and Live and Let Die as a part of the Casino Royale anthology .
" Moonraker " was used as the title for the eleventh James Bond film , produced by Eon Productions and released in 1979 . Directed by Lewis Gilbert and produced by Albert R. Broccoli , the film features Roger Moore in his fourth appearance as Bond . The Nazi @-@ inspired element of Drax 's motivation in the novel was indirectly preserved with the " master race " theme of the film 's plot . Since the screenplay was original , Eon Productions and Glidrose Publications authorised the film 's writer , Christopher Wood , to produce his second novelization based on a film ; this was entitled James Bond and Moonraker . Elements of Moonraker were also used in the 2002 film Die Another Day , with a scene set in the Blades club . The actress Rosamund Pike , who plays Miranda Frost in the film , later said that her character was originally to have been named Gala Brand .
= Storo ( station ) =
Storo is a rapid transit station on the Ring Line of the Oslo Metro , and a tram station on the Grünerløkka – Torshov Line of the Oslo Tramway . It is located at Storo in the Nordre Aker borough of Oslo , Norway . The tram station opened on 28 November 1902 , and the rapid transit station on 20 August 2003 . Metro lines 4 , 5 and 6 run to the station , with line 5 terminating there . The tram station serves lines 11 , 12 and 13 . The station is within walking distance of Grefsen Station on the Gjøvik Line . The station also functions as a bus hub , being located along Ring 3 . Storo is a mixed commercial and residential area , and a shopping center is located just north of the subway station .
= = History = =
Storo opened as a tram station as the terminus of the Grünerløkka – Torshov Line on 28 November 1902 . The line was extended northwards as the Kjelsås Line to Kjelsås on 25 September 1934 , and south @-@ eastwards as an extension of the Sinsen Line in 1939 .
The process of establishing a Ring Line to serve the northern parts of Oslo started in the late 1980s . The plans were passed by the city council in 1997 , and financing was secured in 2000 through Oslo Package 2 . Construction started in June 2000 , and the station building and platforms were completed in December 2002 . Until the opening , work continued on amenities and the tracks . Storo Station was opened on 20 August 2003 , at the same time as Nydalen .
= = Facilities = =
The rapid transit station was designed by architects Jensen & Skodvin Architects , and is visually and structurally very similar to the Sinsen Station , also one of their projects . It features a center platform with a roof , and uses wood , steel and concrete . The station is located just outside the tunnel that runs all the way to the connection with the Sognsvann Line . South of Storo , the metro tracks run parallel with the Gjøvik Line . The station is owned by Kollektivtransportproduksjon .
On the other side of the tracks , about 200 metres ( 660 ft ) away is Grefsen Station on the Gjøvik Line . It is served every 40 minutes by NSB Gjøvikbanen services of the Oslo Commuter Rail towards Nittedal , Hadeland and Gjøvik . The Norwegian National Rail Administration is planning to move the station platform to allow direct transfer .
Storo is a mixed residential and commercial area . It has traditionally been easily accessible by car due to being located along Ring 3 , a major highway . The shopping center Storo Storsenter is located just beside the station . Following the opening of the rapid transit station , a new housing complex was built on the west side of the station , on a former freight yard owned by the Norwegian State Railways . The first stage with 260 apartments was finished in 2006 ; when finished , it will feature 900 apartments . The area , named Stasjonsbyen ( " the Station City " ) was developed by ROM Eiendom . Ridership at Storo increased from 2 @,@ 060 per day to 3 @,@ 630 per day from 2003 to 2007 .
= = Service = =
Lines 4 , 5 and 6 of the Oslo Metro operate to Storo , each with a 15 @-@ minute headway . Lines 4 and 5 operate counterclockwise through the ring via the western part of town into the Common Tunnel , while line 6 operates clockwise via the eastern part into the Common Tunnel . Line 5 terminates at Storo . Lines 4 and 6 swap numbers between Nydalen and Storo . Travel time from Storo to Stortinget is 11 minutes clockwise and 14 minutes counterclockwise . Therefore , any traveler heading for the city center can get on the first train , independent of its direction and it is ensured to be the fastest connection to the downtown area . The metro is operated by Oslo T @-@ banedrift on contract with Ruter .
The tram station is served by lines 11 , 12 and 13 of the Oslo Tramway . Southbound , all three follow the Grünerløkka – Torshov Line to the city center . Travel time to Kirkeristen is 15 minutes . Northwards , line 11 and 12 continue on the Kjelsås Line . Both run to Kjelsås outside rush hour , but during peak services , line 12 terminates at the next station , Disen . Line 13 branches off and heads one stop to Grefsen . The tram service is provided by Oslo Sporvognsdrift on contract with Ruter . Storo is one of eight transfer points between the tramway and rapid transit systems .
The station serves several bus routes . Feeder line 55 to Lillo Terrasse to Nydalen passes by Storo . Lines 23 and 24 along Ring 3 from Lysaker to Simensbråten , and Brynseng to Fornebu stops at Storo . So does line 56 from Torshov to Solemskogen , and line 58 from Helsfyr to Nydalen . Most of the buses stop at a stop located on the motorway Ring 3 .
= Sirex woodwasp =
The Sirex woodwasp ( Sirex noctilio ) is a species of horntail , native to Europe , Asia , and northern Africa . Adults vary in length from 9 to 36 mm ( 0 @.@ 35 to 1 @.@ 42 in ) .
This woodwasp is an invasive species in many parts of the world , including Australia , New Zealand , North America , South America , and South Africa , where it has become a significant economic pest of pine trees . The wasp can attack a wide variety of pine species , although some species seem to be more susceptible than others , and stressed trees often are attacked .
During oviposition , the female wasp lays two eggs with or without a mucoid substance and a symbiotic fungus for the larvae to feed on once they hatch . The mucoid substance is toxic to trees and aids in tree decline . The ascospores from the symbiotic fungus , Amylostereum areolatum , are also pathogenic .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Adult = = =
The Sirex woodwasp has a sturdy , cylindrical body without a waist , but with a pointed abdomen . The female body is 15 – 36 mm ( 0 @.@ 59 – 1 @.@ 42 in ) , and the male is 9 – 32 mm ( 0 @.@ 35 – 1 @.@ 26 in ) long . Both sexes have long , black , bristle @-@ shaped antennae , which are rather close together .
The body of the male is black , except for the orange middle part of the abdomen . The wings are yellowish @-@ translucent and the antennae are black . The front pair of legs have a yellowish @-@ orange colour , the back pair is heavily thickened and is coloured black on the posterior splint and tarsus , while the femur is orange .
The females are iron blue , and have orange legs and black antennae . This is a notable distinction from Sirex juvencus , which has red antennae . The females also have yellowish wings . The ovipositor is below the tapering tip of the abdomen . The sting is connected with the mycetangia , which are special organs on the abdomen , where the female stores the oidiae ( asexual fungus spores ) , from broken segments of hyphae . These spores are deposited , together with the eggs , in the host tree wood to germinate . Both larvae and adults have strong mandibles and can drill through lead plates .
= = = Larva = = =
The larvae of the Sirex woodwasp are almost colourless and only have three stub @-@ shaped pairs of sterna . They cut through host wood with their powerful mandibles . They have a pointed , dark tip at their rear end , which presses the drilling dust on the walls of the borehole . They closely resemble other larvae in the genus Sirex .
= = Native and introduced range = =
The native habitat of the Sirex woodwasp is the temperate Palaearctic , ranging from Maghreb over Europe , Siberia , and Mongolia , to the Kamchatka peninsula . They live in deep pine @-@ rich forests .
The species has reached other continents , such as Australia , South Africa and North America , through the export of timber and firewood . While invasion was prevented in North America for a long time , the Sirex woodwasp established itself in New Zealand around 1900 . There , it contributed to massive pine declines in the first half of the 19th century , spreading to Tasmania in the 1950s and then to the Australian mainland . Since 1980 , it has reached pine plantations in Uruguay , and later also Argentina , Brazil and Chile ; it was found in South Africa in 1994 . The population increased in the Great Lakes area from 2004 on ; the species had reached Vermont , New York , Pennsylvania , Ohio , and Michigan by 2009 . The wasps can swarm between 20 and 50 km ( 12 and 31 mi ) , and will take until about 2050 to spread to the far southeast of the USA at the current spreading rate .
Subsequently , forestry authorities intensified their pest control methods and additionally started education campaigns , such as warning not to transport firewood over large distances or to store it too long . Through wood export , the wasp can spread to East Asia , West Australia and parts of Africa . Remote locations , such as the Horn of Africa , may be spared from the Sirex woodwasp , providing the area is controlled . The Invasive Species Specialist Group ( ISSG ) of the IUCN has graded the wasp as heavily invasive .
= = Ecology = =
= = = Phenology = = =
The flight time of the adults or imagines begins in the late summer to early autumn , but the date depends on the region and climate . The males hatch out earlier than females and create swarms which gather around the treetops . The females seek out leks and couple with the males on the uppermost shoots . Then the females search for suitable host trees , if possible choosing weak and dry wood . They orient on monoterpene hydrocarbon compounds , which weakened trees produce . When a tree is stressed through dryness or exterior injuries , the compounds pervade osmotic barriers and escape from the bark .
The female drills several holes through the bark down to the xylem to place one egg in each . At the same time , she inserts spores of Amylostereum areolatum and a phytotoxic secretion . The holes branch out into several tubes , which lead away radially . The eggs are white , sausage @-@ shaped , and 1 @.@ 0 – 1 @.@ 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 039 – 0 @.@ 059 in ) by 0 @.@ 2 – 0 @.@ 3 mm ( 0 @.@ 0079 – 0 @.@ 0118 in ) in size . Small females may lay 20 eggs , while the largest can lay up to 500 . Sometimes , eggs are not placed in every tube . In the last tube , the female injects only the secretion and the fungal spores . The females often die after just three or four days , sometimes even during oviposition ( egg @-@ laying ) , through overexertion .
= = = Development of larvae = = =
Larvae of Sirex woodwasp develop through arrhenotoky : male larvae develop only from unfertilized eggs , the females only from fertilized ones . Usually , 10 males are produced per female , but the ratio varies between 20 : 1 and 1 : 1 . The larvae hatch after eight days at the earliest , but in some exterior conditions , they may remain in the egg for several months . At the optimal temperature of around 25 ° C ( 77 ° F ) , they hatch out after 10 to 12 days . Although the larvae hatch at 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) two to three days earlier , they are 20 % more likely to die . Such extreme temperatures result in slower development , and below 6 @.@ 2 ° C ( 43 ° F ) , the larvae die . A sufficient interspersion of the wood with the mycelium of the woodwasp is crucial for its hatching , as the fungus prevents the wood from drying out . Without these prerequisites , hatching is not possible . The tree can only ward off the infestation if it floods the boreholes with resin or halts the fungus by producing a wall of polyphenols .
Six to 12 larval stages occur . During the first two stages , the larvae live off surrounding fungal tissue , until they reach the inner wood . Up to the fourth stage , they eat through the final summer wood along the tracheids , and finally towards the heartwood . After the seventh stage , they usually reach their maximum size . While penetrating further , they normally turn either up or down , but they turn back if they meet a foreign borehole , encounter bubbles of resin , or dry out . The larvae only live off the fungal mycelium , which they digest through a secretion . They pupate several centimeters under the bark . Before this , female larvae sequester a secretion containing fungal oidia , which adult females incorporate in their mycetangia above their ovipositors . The adults eat through the bark , but , depending on the weather , they remain in the hatch hole for up to three weeks before they leave the wood in warm and sunny weather .
The period from hatching to pupation lasts 10 days to two years , exceptionally up to six years . Climate is a major factor , because development is slower in colder regions .
= = = Symbiosis = = =
The Sirex woodwasp and Amylostereum areolatum have a mutualistic symbiotic relationship . The Sirex woodwasp is , together with Sirex juvencus and S. nitobei from eastern Asia , one of three symbionts of the fungus that in the first instance benefits from its vector function . Additionally , the wasp creates the optimal conditions for the infestation through the fungus by drilling into the underlying wood layers and weakening the host tree . The fungus adapted to this process in the course of the years and has created fruit bodies only rarely or in the crop .
Conversely , the woodwasp is fully dependent on the symbionts . Decomposition enables the larvae to unlock the wood by producing white rot . The mycetangia of this and other wasps from the family Siricidae support a close relationship with saprobiontic fungi . Without the process of decomposition of the host tree and weakening of the infested tree , the development of larvae is arrested . If the tree can recover from the consequences of the wasp secretion , it blocks the boreholes with resin , thus killing the larvae .
= = = Host spectrum = = =
The Sirex woodwasp only attacks conifers , especially pines . In its usual habitat , these are mainly Pinus sylvestris , Pinus pinaster and Pinus nigra . In the Southern Hemisphere and in North America , the wasp attacks exotic and domestic pine species , generally in plantations . Examples include Pinus radiata and Pinus taeda in the United States .
Unlike any other species of Siricidae , the Sirex woodwasp can damage relatively healthy trees so heavily , they die back . However , the wasp mainly infests weakened trees ; only when the population is high does the insect also attack intact and healthy trees . Because the wasp larvae and the fungus need healthy wood , the Sirex woodwasp does not infest dry or dead timber . However , wasps may hatch from processed wood which was already infested .
By the spring of 2011 , S. noctilio had been found in Michigan , Pennsylvania , New York , and Vermont . Pines in North America that have been attacked or confirmed as hosts are : Scots ( Pinus sylvestris ) , Monterey ( P. radiata ) , loblolly ( P. taeda ) , slash ( P. elliottii ) , shortleaf ( P. echinata ) , ponderosa ( P. ponderosa ) , lodgepole ( P. contorta ) , and jack ( P. banksiana ) ( Haugen 1999 ) .
= = = Symptoms of infestation = = =
Infestation damage can be divided into four categories or phases , depending on whether it is caused by the imago , fungus , larvae or secondary parasites .
The first reaction of the host tree is traced to the adult wasp and occurs after 10 to 14 days . A phytotoxic secretion of the wasp impairs metabolism in the shoots and needles , causing loss of water balance . The result is brown coloration of the needles and leaf drop . As with many other wood pests , fine resin drops in wasp boreholes are found in the central trunk . Attacked pines tend to develop flagging . Tip dieback begins with the needles becoming chlorotic and changing from green to yellowish @-@ red , finally turning completely brown over a three- to six @-@ month period . The wasp bores 1 / 8- to 3 / 8 @-@ inch @-@ diameter holes in the tree . Unstressed trees may be attacked uniformly along the main stem , while trees with low osmotic phloem pressure are preferentially attacked , with denser clusters of boreholes .
During this process , fungal spores germinate in the boreholes , a reaction caused by the dryness of the tree , creating an appropriate environment and an entry for air . The fungus breaks down the lignin , causing white rot . It moves towards the vertically aligned xylem . The vertical profile shows reddish and white streaks which run in the direction of growth .
In the third stage , the larva begins to bore into the wood . By doing this , it eats the path , which at first proceeds towards the trunk center , before turning and running back to the bark . The paths are not visible in cross @-@ section , because they are heavily blocked with wood flour ; they may also be unobserved during wood processing . The lengths of the paths vary , depending on the wood , between 5 and 20 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 and 7 @.@ 9 in ) in diameter , which depends on the size of the larvae . The exit holes are circular and of very small diameter .
Stressing of the host tree and visible larval boreholes appear in the fourth stage . The infestation is reinforced by further insects or fungi , which in turn may cause more symptoms . Imago , fungus , and larvae together can cause tree death in a period ranging from two weeks to eight months .
= = = Natural enemies and parasites = = =
Birds are the primary natural enemies of the Sirex woodwasp . The adults are frequently hunted by swallows ( Hirundidae ) and swifts ( Apodidae ) , both of which prefer males . The black woodpecker ( Dryocopius martius ) and great spotted woodpecker ( Dendrocopus major ) consume some larvae , but do not specialize on the Sirex woodwasp .
Several parasites have a larger impact on woodwasp populations . These include Ibalia leucospoides ( Ibaliidae ) ; Schletterius cinctipes , Megarhyssa nortoni ( Ichneumonidae ) ; and Rhyssa persuasoria . While I. leucospoides lay its eggs into the woodwasp 's egg and the hatching period is therefore similar to its host 's , the ichneumons mentioned lay their eggs on larvae or adult wood
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10 singles , a record for a hard rock act . In 1988 from 25 June to 5 November , the number one spot on the Billboard 200 album chart was held by a hard rock album for 18 out of 20 consecutive weeks ; the albums were OU812 , Hysteria , Appetite for Destruction , and New Jersey . A final wave of glam rock bands arrived in the late 1980s , and experienced success with multi @-@ platinum albums and hit singles from 1989 until the early 1990s , among them Extreme , Warrant Slaughter and FireHouse . Skid Row also released their eponymous début ( 1989 ) , reaching number six on the Billboard 200 , but they were to be one of the last major bands that emerged in the glam rock era .
= = = Grunge and Britpop ( 1990s ) = = =
Hard rock entered the 1990s as one of the dominant forms of commercial music . The multi @-@ platinum releases of AC / DC 's The Razors Edge ( 1990 ) , Guns N ' Roses ' Use Your Illusion I and Use Your Illusion II ( both in 1991 ) , Ozzy Osbourne 's No More Tears ( 1991 ) , and Van Halen 's For Unlawful Carnal Knowledge ( 1991 ) showcased this popularity . Additionally , The Black Crowes released their debut album , Shake Your Money Maker ( 1990 ) , which contained a bluesy classic rock sound and sold five million copies . In 1992 , Def Leppard followed up 1987 's Hysteria with Adrenalize , which went multi @-@ platinum , spawned four Top 40 singles and held the number one spot on the US album chart for five weeks .
While these few hard rock bands managed to maintain success and popularity in the early part of the decade , alternative forms of hard rock achieved mainstream success in the form of grunge in the US and Britpop in the UK . This was particularly evident after the success of Nirvana 's Nevermind ( 1991 ) , which combined elements of hardcore punk and heavy metal into a " dirty " sound that made use of heavy guitar distortion , fuzz and feedback , along with darker lyrical themes than their " hair band " predecessors . Although most grunge bands had a sound that sharply contrasted mainstream hard rock , several , including Pearl Jam , Alice in Chains , Mother Love Bone and Soundgarden , were more strongly influenced by 1970s and 1980s rock and metal , while Stone Temple Pilots managed to turn alternative rock into a form of stadium rock . However , all grunge bands shunned the macho , anthemic and fashion @-@ focused aesthetics particularly associated with glam metal . In the UK , Oasis were unusual among the Britpop bands of the mid @-@ 1990s in incorporating a hard rock sound .
In the new commercial climate glam metal bands like Europe , Ratt , White Lion and Cinderella broke up , Whitesnake went on hiatus in 1991 , and while many of these bands would re @-@ unite again in the late 1990s or early 2000s , they never reached the commercial success they saw in the 1980s or early 1990s . Other bands such as Mötley Crüe and Poison saw personnel changes which impacted those bands ' commercial viability during the decade . In 1995 Van Halen released Balance , a multi @-@ platinum seller that would be the band 's last with Sammy Hagar on vocals . In 1996 David Lee Roth returned briefly and his replacement , former Extreme singer Gary Cherone , was fired soon after the release of the commercially unsuccessful 1998 album Van Halen III and Van Halen would not tour or record again until 2004 . Guns N ' Roses ' original lineup was whittled away throughout the decade . Drummer Steven Adler was fired in 1990 , guitarist Izzy Stradlin left in late 1991 after recording Use Your Illusion I and II with the band . Tensions between the other band members and lead singer Axl Rose continued after the release of the 1993 covers album The Spaghetti Incident ? Guitarist Slash left in 1996 , followed by bassist Duff McKagan in 1997 . Axl Rose , the only original member , worked with a constantly changing lineup in recording an album that would take over fifteen years to complete .
Some established acts continued to enjoy commercial success , such as Aerosmith , with their number one multi @-@ platinum albums : Get a Grip ( 1993 ) , which produced four Top 40 singles and became the band 's best @-@ selling album worldwide ( going on to sell over 10 million copies ) , and Nine Lives ( 1997 ) . In 1998 , Aerosmith released the number one hit " I Don 't Want to Miss a Thing " , which remains the only single by a hard rock band to debut at number one . AC / DC produced the double platinum Ballbreaker ( 1995 ) . Bon Jovi appealed to their hard rock audience with songs such as " Keep the Faith " ( 1992 ) , but also achieved success in adult contemporary radio , with the Top 10 ballads " Bed of Roses " ( 1993 ) and " Always " ( 1994 ) . Bon Jovi 's 1995 album These Days was a bigger hit in Europe than it was in the United States , spawning four Top 10 singles on the UK Singles Chart . Metallica 's Load ( 1996 ) and ReLoad ( 1997 ) each sold in excess of 4 million copies in the US and saw the band develop a more melodic and blues rock sound . As the initial impetus of grunge bands faltered in the middle years of the decade , post @-@ grunge bands emerged . They emulated the attitudes and music of grunge , particularly thick , distorted guitars , but with a more radio @-@ friendly commercially oriented sound that drew more directly on traditional hard rock . Among the most successful acts were the Foo Fighters , Candlebox , Live , Collective Soul , Australia 's Silverchair and England 's Bush , who all cemented post @-@ grunge as one of the most commercially viable subgenres by the late 1990s . Similarly , some post @-@ Britpop bands that followed in the wake of Oasis , including Feeder and Stereophonics , adopted a hard rock or " pop @-@ metal " sound .
= = = Survivals and revivals ( 2000s ) = = =
A few hard rock bands from the 1970s and 1980s managed to sustain highly successful recording careers . Bon Jovi were still able to achieve a commercial hit with " It 's My Life " from their double platinum @-@ certified album Crush ( 2000 ) . and AC / DC released the platinum @-@ certified Stiff Upper Lip ( 2000 ) Aerosmith released a number two platinum album , Just Push Play ( 2001 ) , which saw the band foray further into pop with the Top 10 hit " Jaded " , and a blues cover album , Honkin ' on Bobo , which reached number five in 2004 . Heart achieved their first Top 10 album since the early 90s with Red Velvet Car in 2010 , becoming the first female @-@ led hard rock band to earn Top 10 albums spanning five decades . There were reunions and subsequent tours from Van Halen ( with Hagar in 2004 and then Roth in 2007 ) , The Who ( delayed in 2002 by the death of bassist John Entwistle until 2006 ) and Black Sabbath ( with Osbourne 1997 – 2006 and Dio 2006 – 2010 ) and even a one off performance by Led Zeppelin ( 2007 ) , renewing the interest in previous eras . Additionally , hard rock supergroups , such as Audioslave ( with former members of Rage Against the Machine and Soundgarden ) and Velvet Revolver ( with former members of Guns N ' Roses , punk band Wasted Youth and Stone Temple Pilots singer Scott Weiland ) , emerged and experienced some success . However , these bands were short @-@ lived , ending in 2007 and 2008 , respectively . The long awaited Guns N ' Roses album Chinese Democracy was finally released in 2008 , but only went platinum and failed to come close to the success of the band 's late 1980s and early 1990s material . More successfully , AC / DC released the double platinum @-@ certified Black Ice ( 2008 ) . Bon Jovi continued to enjoy success , branching into country music with " Who Says You Can 't Go Home " , which reached number one on the Hot Country Singles chart in 2006 , and the rock / country album Lost Highway , which reached number one in 2007 . In 2009 , Bon Jovi released another number one album , The Circle , which marked a return to their hard rock sound .
The term " retro @-@ metal " has been applied to such bands as Texas based The Sword , California 's High on Fire , Sweden 's Witchcraft and Australia 's Wolfmother . Wolfmother 's self @-@ titled 2005 debut album combined elements of the sounds of Deep Purple and Led Zeppelin . Fellow Australians Airbourne 's début album Runnin ' Wild ( 2007 ) followed in the hard riffing tradition of AC / DC . England 's The Darkness ' Permission to Land ( 2003 ) , described as an " eerily realistic simulation of ' 80s metal and ' 70s glam " , topped the UK charts , going quintuple platinum . The follow @-@ up , One Way Ticket to Hell ... and Back ( 2005 ) , reached number 11 , before the band broke up in 2006 . Los Angeles band Steel Panther managed to gain a following by sending up 80s glam metal . A more serious attempt to revive glam metal was made by bands of the sleaze metal movement in Sweden , including Vains of Jenna , Hardcore Superstar and Crashdïet .
Although Foo Fighters continued to be one of the most successful rock acts , with albums like In Your Honor ( 2005 ) reaching number two in the US and UK , many of the first wave of post @-@ grunge bands began to fade in popularity . Acts like Creed , Staind , Puddle of Mudd and Nickelback took the genre into the 2000s with considerable commercial success , abandoning most of the angst and anger of the original movement for more conventional anthems , narratives and romantic songs . They were followed in this vein by new acts including Shinedown and Seether . Acts with more conventional hard rock sounds included Andrew W.K. , Beautiful Creatures and Buckcherry , whose breakthrough album 15 ( 2006 ) went platinum and spawned the single " Sorry " ( 2007 ) , which made the Top 10 of the Billboard 100 . These were joined by bands with hard rock leanings that emerged in the mid @-@ 2000s from the garage rock or post punk revival , including Black Rebel Motorcycle Club and Kings of Leon , and Queens of the Stone Age from the US , Three Days Grace from Canada , Jet from Australia and The Datsuns from New Zealand . In 2009 Them Crooked Vultures , a supergroup that brought together Foo Fighters ' Dave Grohl , Queens of the Stone Age 's Josh Homme and Led Zeppelin bass player John Paul Jones attracted attention as a live act and released a self @-@ titled debut album that reached the top 20 in the US and UK and the top ten in several other countries .
= Rock ' n ' Roll ( John Lennon album ) =
Rock ' n ' Roll is the sixth studio album by John Lennon . Released in 1975 , it is an album of late 1950s and early 1960s songs as covered by Lennon . Recording the album was problematic and spanned an entire year : Phil Spector produced sessions in October 1973 at A & M Studios , and Lennon produced sessions in October 1974 at Record Plant Studios ( East ) . Lennon was being sued by Morris Levy over copyright infringement of one line in his song " Come Together " . As part of an agreement , Lennon had to include three Levy @-@ owned songs on Rock ' n ' Roll . Spector ran away with the session recordings , later being involved in a motor accident , which left the album 's tracks unrecoverable until the beginning of the Walls and Bridges sessions . With Walls and Bridges coming out first , featuring one Levy @-@ owned song , Levy sued Lennon expecting to see Lennon 's Rock ' n ' Roll album .
The album was released in February 1975 , reaching number 6 in both the United Kingdom and the United States , later being certified gold in both countries . It was supported by the single " Stand by Me " , which peaked at number 20 in the US , and 30 in the UK . The cover was taken by Jürgen Vollmer during the Beatles ' stay in Hamburg . It was Lennon 's last album until 1980 : With no recording contract obligation , he took a hiatus from recording to raise his son Sean .
= = Background = =
In 1969 , Lennon composed the song " Come Together " for the Beatles ' album Abbey Road . Inspired by the Chuck Berry tune " You Can 't Catch Me " , it bore too much of a melodic resemblance to the original — and Lennon took the third line of the second verse ( " Here come old flat @-@ top " ) for the new lyric . Publisher Morris Levy brought a lawsuit for infringement , and the case was due to be heard in a New York court in December 1973 . It was later settled out of court , with the agreement that , according to an announcement by Levy , Lennon had to " record three songs by Big Seven publishers on his next album . The songs [ he ] intends to record at this time are " You Can 't Catch Me " , " Angel Baby " and " Ya Ya " . " Lennon had the right to change the last two songs to any other songs that were published by Big Seven . In the meanwhile , Lennon had split with Yoko Ono and was living in Los Angeles with his personal assistant , May Pang . Nostalgia was a popular trend on film with American Graffiti , and television was readying the series Happy Days ( Lennon and Pang had even visited the set ) . Lennon , rather than writing his own songs , and partly inspired by his arrangement to include at least three songs from Levy 's publishing company catalogue , Big Seven Music , decided to record an album of oldies as his next release , following on from Mind Games .
= = Recording = =
Lennon initially teamed up with producer Phil Spector to record the album , letting Spector have full control . Spector chose some of the songs , booked the studio , and the musicians . When news got around that Lennon was in Hollywood making a record , every musician there wanted to be part of the sessions . In mid @-@ October 1973 , sessions were booked at A & M Studios , with many of them having over 30 musicians , but the sessions quickly fell into disarray — fuelled by alcohol . Spector once showed up dressed in a surgeon 's outfit and shot a gun in the ceiling of the studio , hurting Lennon 's ears . On another occasion , a bottle of whiskey had spilled on the A & M Studio 's mixing console causing future sessions to be banned from the facility . Unknown to Lennon , each night Spector would remove the master tapes from the studio , and move them to his house . Spector then disappeared with the session tapes and would not be heard from for several months . Spector made one cryptic call to Lennon , claiming to have the " John Dean tapes " from the recent Watergate scandal ; Lennon deduced that Spector meant he had the album 's master tapes . When a car accident on 31 March 1974 left Spector in a coma , the project was put on indefinite hold . In mid @-@ 1974 , Lennon returned to New York with Pang and began writing and recording a new album of original material , Walls and Bridges . Shortly before these sessions began , Al Coury , then @-@ head of A & R / promotion for Capitol Records retrieved the Spector tapes . Not wanting to break stride , Lennon shelved the tapes and completed work on Walls and Bridges .
With Walls and Bridges coming out first , Lennon had reneged on his deal with Levy and he threatened to refile his lawsuit , but Lennon explained to Levy what had happened , and assured him that the covers album was indeed in the works . Levy gave Lennon use of his farm in upstate New York to rehearse material . Lennon then recalled the session musicians from Walls and Bridges to complete the oldies tracks . Several tracks never made it past the rehearsal stage : " C 'mon Everybody " , " Thirty Days " , " That 'll Be the Day " – the band also played a few impromptu jams . On 21 October , Lennon went into Record Plant East , completing the oldies tracks in a few days . Lennon wanted the musicians to stay close to the original arrangements of the songs , apart from " Do You Wanna Dance ? " . Mixing and editing lasted until mid @-@ November . To assure him progress was being made , Lennon gave Levy a rough tape of the sessions to review . Levy took the tapes and pressed his own version of the album called Roots : John Lennon Sings the Great Rock & Roll Hits on his record label , Adam VIII , then proceeded to sue Lennon , EMI and Capitol for $ 42 million for breach of contract . Capitol / EMI quickly sought an injunction . After two trials , in which Lennon had to convince the court of the difference between a rough version and a final take , Levy won $ 6 @,@ 795 in damages , and Lennon won $ 144 @,@ 700 , in February 1976 . The album was originally scheduled for release in April 1975 , however , in February 1975 , Capitol Records rush @-@ released the official Rock ' n ' Roll as a Capitol " budget " album ( prefix code SK — one dollar cheaper than the usual releases ) to counteract sales of the Levy album .
= = Reception and aftermath = =
Although some critics derided the album as " a step backward " , The Rolling Stone Album Guide wrote that " John lends dignity to these classics ; his singing is tender , convincing , and fond . " AllMusic described the album " as a peak in [ Lennon 's ] post @-@ Imagine catalog : an album that catches him with nothing to prove and no need to try " .
The album was released on 17 February 1975 in the US , and a few days later in the UK , on 21 February 1975 . It reached number 6 in both the United Kingdom and the United States . On 10 March and 18 April 1975 , in the US and UK respectively , " Stand by Me " was released as a single , backed with " Move Over Ms. L " , a song that was meant to appear on Walls and Bridges but cut from the final line @-@ up . Peaking at 20 number in the US and number 30 in the UK . Lennon promoted the song by appearing on the BBC TV show Old Grey Whistle Test , which also featured an interview by Bob Harris . The show had Lennon singing live over the backing tracks of " Stand by Me " and " Slippin ' and Slidin ' " . Lennon also appeared on Salute to Sir Lew – The Master Showman singing live again over backing tracks , this time for three songs : " Stand by Me " , " Slippin ' and Slidin ' " and " Imagine " . A second single , " Slippin N Slidin " / " Ain 't That a Shame " ( Apple 1883 ) , was announced , promotional copies were pressed , but was never released . " Ya Ya " , backed with " Be @-@ Bop @-@ A @-@ Lula " , was released as a single only in Germany , peaking at number 47 on the Media Control Charts . Lennon said the following about Rock ' n ' Roll : " It started in ' 73 with Phil and fell apart . I ended up as part of mad , drunk scenes in Los Angeles and I finally finished it off on me own . And there was still problems with it up to the minute it came out . I can 't begin to say , it 's just barmy , there 's a jinx on that album . "
Not long after the album appeared , Lennon reconciled with Ono , and she soon became pregnant . Determined not to lose another baby after three consecutive miscarriages , Lennon decided to halt his musical career for his family . Sean Lennon was born that October ( on his father 's 35th birthday ) ; following the release of the compilation Shaved Fish , Lennon would not return with a new release until 1980 . " Stand by Me " was reissued in the US , with " Woman Is the Nigger of the World " , on 4 April 1977 . The album re @-@ charted in the UK on 17 January 1981 , at number 64 . In the US , it was reissued in October 1980 , also at budget price , and it was briefly reissued in the UK by the budget label Music for Pleasure with an alternative cover on 25 November 1981 . After Lennon 's death , the album , along with seven other Lennon albums , was reissued by EMI as part of a box set , which was released in the UK on 15 June 1981 . In 1981 , Belgium and France issued the album , along with the Beatles ' Rock ' n ' Roll Music , as part of a box set . The album was first issued on CD on 26 May 1987 . In 2004 , Yoko Ono supervised the remixing of Rock ' n ' Roll for its reissue , including four bonus tracks from the ill @-@ fated Spector sessions . These leftovers from the sessions had already appeared , as part of 1986 's Menlove Ave . ( a collection of outtakes ) or the John Lennon Anthology box set . ( The Lennon / Spector co @-@ composition " Here We Go Again " was not included on the remastered Rock ' n ' Roll , and can be found on Menlove Ave. as well as the soundtrack album for " The U.S. Vs John Lennon " and the 2010 " Gimme Some Truth " 4 @-@ CD set under the 4th CD entitled " Roots " featuring the " Rock ' N ' Roll " tracks ) . In 2010 , the original album mixes were remastered , the album was available separately or as part of the John Lennon Signature Box .
= = Cover art = =
Lennon planned to use some of his childhood drawings for the cover of his oldies album , and production had already begun when Lennon switched gears , so the artwork was used instead for Walls and Bridges . In September 1974 , May Pang attended the first Beatlefest convention at Lennon 's behest , and met Jürgen Vollmer , an old friend of the Beatles from Hamburg , Germany , who had photographed the band from their Hamburg days . He was selling some striking portraits , and Pang immediately phoned Lennon to tell him of her find . Reuniting with Vollmer in New York , Lennon chose one of his photos for the album 's cover .
The photo depicts Lennon in a doorway with three blurry figures walking past him in the foreground . The album 's working title had been Oldies But Mouldies ; no official title had been chosen until Lennon saw the neon sign prepared as cover art by John Uomoto , with Lennon 's name and the words " ROCK ' N ' ROLL " beneath . This struck Lennon in a positive way , and it became the album title .
= = Track listing = =
All tracks produced and arranged by John Lennon , except * produced by Phil Spector , and arranged by Spector and Lennon .
Side One
" Be @-@ Bop @-@ A @-@ Lula " ( Tex Davis , Gene Vincent ) – 2 : 39
" Stand by Me " ( Jerry Leiber , Mike Stoller , Ben E. King ) – 3 : 26
" Medley : Rip It Up / Ready Teddy " ( Robert ' Bumps ' Blackwell , John Marascalco ) – 1 : 33
" You Can 't Catch Me " * ( Chuck Berry ) – 4 : 51
" Ain 't That a Shame " ( Fats Domino , Dave Bartholomew ) – 2 : 38
" Do You Wanna Dance ? " ( Bobby Freeman ) – 3 : 15
" Sweet Little Sixteen " * ( Chuck Berry ) – 3 : 01
Side Two
" Slippin ' and Slidin ' " ( Eddie Bocage , Al Collins , Richard Wayne Penniman , James H. Smith ) – 2 : 16
" Peggy Sue " ( Jerry Allison , Norman Petty , Buddy Holly ) – 2 : 06
" Medley : Bring It On Home to Me / Send Me Some Lovin ' " ( Sam Cooke , John Marascalco , Leo Price ) – 3 : 41
" Bony Moronie " * ( Larry Williams ) – 3 : 47
" Ya Ya " ( Lee Dorsey , Clarence Lewis , Morgan Robinson , Morris Levy ) – 2 : 17
" Just Because " * ( Lloyd Price ) – 4 : 25
2004 reissue bonus tracks
" Angel Baby " * ( Rosie Hamlin ) – 3 : 44
" To Know Her Is to Love Her " * ( Phil Spector ) – 4 : 31
" Since My Baby Left Me " * ( Arthur Crudup ) – 4 : 40
" Just Because ( Reprise ) " * – 1 : 25
= = Personnel = =
John Lennon : Guitars , vocals
Jesse Ed Davis : Guitar
Jim Calvert : Guitar
Eddie Mottau : Acoustic guitar
José Feliciano : Acoustic guitar
Michael Hazelwood : Acoustic Guitar
Steve Cropper : Guitar
Klaus Voormann : Bass guitar , answer vocal on " Bring It On Home to Me "
Leon Russell : Keyboards
Ken Ascher : Keyboards
Jim Keltner : Drums
Hal Blaine : Drums
Gary Mallaber : Drums
Arthur Jenkins : Percussion
Nino Tempo : Saxophone
Jeff Barry : Horn
Barry Mann : Horn
Bobby Keys : Horn
Peter Jameson : Horn
Joseph Temperley : Horn
Dennis Morouse : Horn
Frank Vicari : Horn
= = Charts = =
= 9 @.@ 0 : Live =
9 @.@ 0 : Live is the first live album by American heavy metal band Slipknot . The band recorded the two @-@ disc album during a 2004 – 2005 world tour that promoted their third studio album Vol . 3 : ( The Subliminal Verses ) . Released by Roadrunner Records on November 1 , 2005 , 9 @.@ 0 Live features tracks from Slipknot 's first three studio albums : Slipknot , Iowa , and Vol . 3 : ( The Subliminal Verses ) . Many of the included tracks are rarely played live ; " Skin Ticket " from the album Iowa was its first live performance . 9 @.@ 0 : Live peaked in the top twenty in album sales for Austria and the United States , and was certified gold in the United States . Critical reception was generally positive , with Adrien Begrand of PopMatters calling it a " very worthy live album " .
= = Recording and production = =
While producing their second DVD Disasterpieces in 2002 , the band members of Slipknot were inspired to produce a live album after noticing how well they performed when they knew they were being recorded . Two years later , in 2004 , Slipknot promoted Vol . 3 : ( The Subliminal Verses ) during a world tour which included 233 concerts across 34 countries in 28 months ; music for the live album was recorded during the tour . The tracks on 9 @.@ 0 : Live were compiled from performances in Singapore , Tokyo , Osaka , Las Vegas , Phoenix , New York City , and Dallas .
Percussionist Shawn Crahan said the band made an effort to pay more attention to detail than usual during the tour , noting , " when you 've got a microphone hanging onto your every note , you tend to give maybe 115 percent instead of 110 percent . " The album begins with a staged vocal introduction which was recorded before a concert , informing the audience that the band would not be performing , in an effort to incite anger in the crowd . 9 @.@ 0 : Live includes tracks from the band 's first three studio albums , and the banned track " Purity " which was removed from the band 's debut album , Slipknot , due to copyright issues . It also contains tracks that are rarely played live , such as " Iowa " and " Get This " , as well as the only live performance of " Skin Ticket " .
= = Promotion = =
Before the album 's release , a sample from the live recording of " The Nameless " was made available on the Internet through the band 's record label . Slipknot attended a signing session at a Best Buy store in New York City the day of 9 @.@ 0 : Live 's release , on November 1 , 2005 . A music video featuring the live recording of " The Nameless " was created to promote the album . Head of marketing at Roadrunner Records , Bob Johnsen , stated that the price of 9 @.@ 0 : Live was reduced in an effort to give " added value " , resulting in the double @-@ disc album being " two hours of music for the price of one " . Johnsen continued , stating that as with most live albums , 9 @.@ 0 : Live targeted the " band 's most hard @-@ core fans . It 's a complete immersion in the band . " The album booklet includes 24 pages , most with pictures of band members .
= = Reception = =
Critical reception of 9 @.@ 0 : Live was generally positive . Reviewing for Allmusic , Johnny Loftus commented that the fans ' relationship with Slipknot is " what unifies the performances " on the live album . He said that throughout the band 's history , they have never compromised , and they had become " metal stars the real way , through relentless touring , embracing fan support , and penning some truly brutal songs " . Rolling Stone 's reviewer Christian Hoard wrote that the music featured on the album resembled a " new @-@ school Motörhead " , with its " scary @-@ clown rap @-@ metal bullshit getting steamrolled by big riffs and speed @-@ punk beats " . However , he noted the songs sounded similar to their recorded performances ; Hoard called it the " songs ' samey @-@ ness " . Adrien Begrand of PopMatters called 9 @.@ 0 : Live a " very worthy live album " , and complimented the band for gaining success the " old @-@ fashioned way , building a strong reputation as an extremely potent live act " . Begrand noted the band 's relationship with their " extremely devoted fans " as a strong point , and that the band 's fans are " arguably the most fervently loyal bunch since the early days of Metallica two decades ago " . However , he complained that it was distracting to have the band perform in a variety of undisclosed locations , rather than the one set throughout . Tom Day of MusicOMH wrote that the song " Before I Forget " is a " true gem and grinds out with a level of devastation that will make you green with envy if you weren 't at these shows " , and that drummer Joey Jordison took " centre stage " throughout the performance . Blair Fischer of the Chicago Tribune gave the album " three volume levels " , writing , " The most amazing feat is that nine genetic defectives can congeal for such synchronous brain @-@ damaged fury . " Billboard reviewer Christa Titus wrote that Slipknot was " relentless in its delivery " of their live performances , calling the album " an overwhelming frenzy of sound and fury " . Titus predicted the album would chart highly .
Some critics commented that the album is not as appealing to audiences who are unfamiliar with the band . Saul Austerlitz from The Boston Globe wrote that the album was " intended to cater primarily to rabid fans " , commenting that those who are not fans of Slipknot will probably " find the experience of listening to both discs of 9 @.@ 0 : Live roughly comparable to being hit in the head repeatedly with a two @-@ by @-@ four two hours of sludgy , indistinguishable songs , punctuated by profane outbursts about how the idiot media [ ... ] has ignored and abused them " .
9 @.@ 0 : Live debuted at the 17th position on the Billboard 200 charts in the United States , selling 42 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . The album also premiered in the top 50 in five other countries . On December 9 , 2005 , the Recording Industry Association of America certified 9 @.@ 0 : Live gold in the United States .
= = Track listing = =
All songs credited to Slipknot and , as noted , were recorded live .
Disc 1
" The Blister Exists – 6 : 24
" ( sic ) " – 3 : 52
" Disasterpiece " – 6 : 47
" Before I Forget " – 4 : 24
" Left Behind " – 3 : 44
" Liberate " – 3 : 48
" Vermilion " – 5 : 56
" Pulse of the Maggots " – 5 : 06
" Purity " – 5 : 12
" Eyeless " – 4 : 19
" Drum Solo " – 3 : 58
" Eeyore " – 2 : 16
Disc 2
" Three Nil " – 5 : 03
" The Nameless " – 5 : 28
" Skin Ticket " – 6 : 03
" Everything Ends " – 5 : 03
" The Heretic Anthem " – 4 : 08
" Iowa " – 6 : 37
" Duality " – 6 : 07
" Spit It Out " – 5 : 29
" People = Shit " – 5 : 53
" Get This " – 2 : 44
" Wait and Bleed " – 3 : 44
" Surfacing " – 5 : 50
= = Personnel = =
Aside from their real names , members of the band are referred to by numbers zero through eight .
= = Chart positions = =
= Birthday ( Selena Gomez song ) =
" Birthday " is a song by American recording artist Selena Gomez for her solo debut album Stars Dance ( 2013 ) . It was written and produced by Mike Del Rio , with additional writing by Crista Russo and Jacob Kasher Hindlin . Matt Beckley also provided additional vocal production for the song . Musically , " Birthday " combines deep electronic dance beats and police sirens with elements of trap music . The song 's instrumentation is created by blending purring , synthesized bass , snappy beats , handclaps , " oxygen @-@ sucking " sub @-@ bass , and trap snares with sexual moans and elements of hip hop music . Sparse drum beats and vocal chants are woven throughout the song 's composition , which has been described by critics as a mixture of electropunk and EDM , with trap and dubstep elements . The song was originally announced as a single , but was never officially released from the album .
Thematically , " Birthday " is a party song which discusses topics such as sexual appeal , self @-@ entitlement , and girl power , while its risqué lyrics speak of a night of hard partying . The song has received comparisons to the music of several artists , including Dev , M.I.A. , and Icona Pop . Upon release , " Birthday " received favorable reviews from music critics , who praised the song for its unique sound and production . Upon the release of Stars Dance , the song charted at number 12 on the US Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles . " Birthday " has charted at number 191 on the South Korea Gaon International Chart due to high digital downloads . An accompanying music video for the song was released on July 22 , 2013 , to coincide with Gomez 's 21st birthday , and features Gomez and her friends partying and singing the song in different locations , including an underground nightclub and a dark room .
= = Background and recording = =
" Birthday " was written by Crista Russo , with additional writing by Mike Del Rio and Jacob Kasher Hindlin , under his stage name " J. Kash " . Production of the song was handled by Del Rio and Matt Beckley , who provided the song 's vocal production . It was recorded at Conway Studios in Los Angeles , California , and was engineered by Jonathan Sher . Additional background vocals were done by Russo and Del Rio , while Serban Ghenea mixed the song at MixStar Studios in Virginia Beach , Virginia . John Hanes served as the engineer for mix , and Del Rio provided the song 's programming and sequencing .
= = Composition = =
" Birthday " was written and produced by Mike Del Rio , with additional writing by Crista Russo and Jacob Kasher Hindlin . Additional vocal production was handled by Matt Beckley . The three @-@ minute and twenty @-@ second track is an electropunk and EDM song , which draws influence from dubstep and trap music genres . The beat is composed of deep electronic dance beats , and is built around the sound of police sirens and sexual moans , while containing purring , synthesized bass , snappy beats , handclaps , " oxygen @-@ sucking " sub @-@ bass and trap snares . Sparse drum beats and vocal chants are woven throughout the song 's composition , which according to Christina Drill of Popdust , is reminiscent of Gwen Stefani 's debut solo album , Love . Angel . Music . Baby . ( 2004 ) .
Thematically , " Birthday " has been described as a " party anthem " , with the song exploring topics such as self @-@ entitlement , partying , girl power , and sex appeal . Lyrically , the song has been described as risqué , with lyrics such as " blow your dreams , blow your dreams , blow your dreams away " . According to Gomez , the song has a vibe similar to that of the Gwen Stefani song " Hollaback Girl " . " Birthday " has received comparisons to several artists for its unique genre , most notably Dev , M.I.A. , and Icona Pop . Julia Rubin of Headlines and Global News described the song as a " candy @-@ coated , clap @-@ happy club anthem with plenty of girl power and sex appeal , much like a bubblegum version of Rihanna 's " Cockiness ( Love It ) " , while Jim Farber of New York Daily News said that " Birthday " " has the bratty sense of entitlement , flagrant delivery and braying hook of Icona Pop ’ s smash “ I Love It . ”
= = Critical reception = =
Upon its release , " Birthday " received favorable reviews from music critics . Natalie Palmer of Entertainment Wise said Gomez should be praised for trying something new , saying that the song " isn ’ t what you would expect from Selena but the genre suits her well . " In a positive review , August Brown of The Los Angeles Times jokingly said the song was " almost as good as having shorts in every color . " Kia Makarechi of The Huffington Post was critical of " Birthday " , criticizing the song 's lyrics , as well as calling the song 's panting and moaning " overwrought " and " excessive " . Christina Drill of Popdust gave the song a highly positive 4 @.@ 5 out of 5 review , declaring it " super fun " and catchy , while later going on to say " Birthday " is " the weirdest and greatest thing Selena 's ever done " .
= = Music video = =
On July 22 , 2013 , Gomez unexpectedly uploaded a music video for " Birthday " to her official YouTube channel to coincide with her 21st birthday . Gomez left a short message , saying " I wanted to celebrate my 21st Birthday with all of you , so we made this video for us all to celebrate together . Thank You for all the love and support you have shown and continue to show me . I love you all so much ! ! " In the video , a " smiley " Gomez is seen in a black crop top and shorts with a flannel shirt around her waist , and is shown singing the song with her friends in a dark room . The video is also interspersed with clips of a party in an underground night club , as glitter falls from the ceiling . The video ends with Gomez 's friends singing " Happy Birthday " to her . Within the first 24 hours of being released , the video had garnered over a million views .
= = Awards and nominations = =
= = Chart positions = =
= = Track listing = =
Digital download
" Birthday " – 3 : 20
= Special Troops Battalion , 173rd Airborne Brigade Combat Team ( United States ) =
The Special Troops Battalion , 173rd Airborne Brigade Combat Team is a special troops battalion of the United States Army headquartered at Caserma Del Din in Vicenza , Italy . It is the organization for the command elements of the 173rd Airborne Brigade Combat Team .
The battalion contains the brigade 's senior command structure , including its Headquarters and Headquarters Company , as well as communication and support elements . Activated in 2000 from inactivating support units , the Special Troops Battalion deployed with the 173rd Airborne Brigade Combat Team to Afghanistan in 2007 until 2008 and again in early 2010 .
= = Organization = =
The Special Troops Battalion is subordinate to the 173rd Airborne Brigade Combat Team and is a permanent formation of the brigade , as the 173rd 's command elements are all contained in the STB .
The battalion consists of three companies and the brigade 's Headquarters and Headquarters Company . Company A is a Combat Engineer company , Company B is a Military Intelligence company , and Company C is a Signal company . These companies provide services for the other battalions of the 173rd Airborne Brigade Combat Team , and as such , all of the companies are Airborne qualified .
= = History = =
The Special Troops Battalion was formed as part of a reorganization of the 173rd Airborne Brigade into a modular brigade . The battalion was designed to be the self @-@ contained command component of the brigade , allowing it to function independently of any higher command . The battalion was activated on 8 June 2006 . Most of its components were drawn from the 82nd Engineer Battalion , which inactivated on 30 March 2006 . On 21 April 2006 , a coat of arms and a distinctive unit insignia were approved for the battalion .
On 11 October 2006 , the 173rd Airborne Brigade was redesignated as the 173rd Airborne Brigade Combat Team ( ABCT ) , as part of the Army 's " Unit of Action " modularized unit force restructuring that General Eric Shinseki had originally envisioned . This was a significant change as it signified the ability for the brigade to deploy its forces and sustain itself with its newly integrated support teams . By integrating these support elements , the unit became able to maintain its fighting forces with all that is required to keep the ground soldiers supplied and moving . While most of the brigade remained in Vicenza , Italy through the transition , four of the battalions had to relocate to Bamberg and Schweinfurt , Germany until additional facilities were constructed in the Vicenza area . The 1st Battalion , 508th Infantry was reflagged as 1st Battalion , 503rd Infantry to resume the Vietnam @-@ era lineage of the 503rd Infantry battalions under the 173rd Airborne Brigade . The 1st Battalion , 508th Infantry colors were moved to Ft . Bragg , North Carolina to serve under the 82nd Airborne Division . Immediately after its transformation , the brigade began intensive training in both Germany and Italy to prepare itself for future deployments .
In 2006 , the brigade was notified for a second tour of duty in Iraq during 2007 – 2008 , but its deployment plan was changed to Afghanistan in February 2007 when the Pentagon announced that it would relieve the 3rd Brigade Combat Team , 10th Mountain Division along with the 4th Brigade Combat Team , 82nd Airborne Division . In the spring of 2007 , the 173rd ABCT again deployed to Afghanistan , as Task Force Bayonet , in support of Operation Enduring Freedom ( OEF 07 – 09 ) , their first deployment as a fully transformed brigade combat team . The brigade was dispersed throughout the east of the country , with units operating in Nangarhar , Nuristan , Kunar , and Laghman Provinces . The 173rd ABCT officially relieved the 3rd Brigade Combat Team , 10th Mountain Division on 6 June 2007 .
The 173rd participated in various operations with the objective of ensuring security and subduing Taliban insurgents in the mountainous regions along Afghanistan 's border with Pakistan , one of these being Operation Rock Avalanche near the Hindu Kush . Throughout their 15 @-@ month deployment , the brigade participated in more than 9 @,@ 000 patrols throughout the region . Only two weeks before the brigade was to return to Italy , a platoon of 45 soldiers from the brigade stationed in the Dara @-@ I @-@ Pech district was caught in an ambush by 100 – 200 insurgents , the Battle of Wanat . Though the platoon was able to drive the insurgents back with air support , the fight resulted in 9 soldiers killed and 16 wounded ; the deadliest attack on troops in the country since 2005 . The brigade repositioned the base three days later . The 173rd 's tour ended in July 2008 , and the entire brigade returned to Italy by the end of that month .
The brigade began its fourth deployment to Afghanistan in early 2010 .
= = Honors = =
= = = Unit decorations = = =
The Special Troops Battalion , 173rd Airborne Brigade Combat Team has never received a unit decoration from the United States military .
= = = Campaign streamers = = =
= Miracle Science and Fantasy Stories =
Miracle Science and Fantasy Stories was a pulp science fiction magazine which published two issues in 1931 . The fiction was unremarkable , but the cover art and illustrations , by Elliott Dold , were high quality , and have made the magazine a collector 's item . The magazine ceased publication when Dold became ill and was unable to continue his duties both as editor and artist .
= = Publication history = =
In 1931 , Harold Hersey , who had been working in the pulp magazine field for over a decade , decided to launch a new science fiction ( sf ) and fantasy magazine . Hersey had been the editor for the first half of The Thrill Book 's run of 16 issues in 1919 , and had also worked for Clayton Magazines , where in 1928 he had proposed a sf magazine to William Clayton . Clayton turned down the idea , but the following year changed his mind and launched Astounding Stories of Super Science , with Harry Bates as editor . After Hersey left Clayton and started his own publishing company , he returned to the idea , probably with the encouragement of Elliott Dold , an artist who was providing artwork to Astounding .
Hersey launched Miracle Science and Fantasy Stories in 1931 , with Dold as editor . Dold also provided the cover artwork for the first issue . Dold 's brother , Douglas Dold , also worked on the magazine ; some sources credit Douglas as editor instead but sf historian Howard DeVore argues this stems from a misreading of Hershey 's autobiography . Only one more issue appeared : Elliott Dold fell ill and was unable to continue working on the magazine . Miracle included stories by Victor Rousseau and John Miller Gregory . The lead novel in the first issue is credited to Douglas Dold and the lead novel in the second issue to Elliott , but sf historian Richard Bleiler suggests both stories were collaborations by the two brothers . The quality of the fiction was generally very poor , but Elliott Dold 's artwork in both issues was of much higher quality , and is the reason that the magazine remains a collectors ' item to this day .
= = Bibliographic details = =
The editor for both issues was Elliott Dold ; the publisher was Good Story Magazine Co , based in Springfield , Massachusetts . The two issues were dated April − May and June − July 1931 ; both were printed in pulp format , priced at 20 cents , and 144 pages long .
= Welles Declaration =
The Welles Declaration was a diplomatic statement issued on July 23 , 1940 by Sumner Welles , the United States ' acting Secretary of State , condemning the June 1940 occupation by the Soviet Union of the three Baltic states of Estonia , Latvia and Lithuania , and refusing to recognize their annexation as Soviet Republics . It was an application of the 1932 Stimson Doctrine of non @-@ recognition of international territorial changes that were executed by force . It was consistent with U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt ’ s attitude towards territorial expansion .
The Soviet invasion was an implementation of its 1939 Molotov @-@ Ribbentrop Pact with Nazi Germany , which contained a secret protocol by which the two powers agreed to partition and annex the independent states between them . After the pact , the Soviets engaged in a series of ultimatums and actions ending in the annexation of the Baltic states during the summer of 1940 . While the area held little strategic importance to the United States , several legations of the U.S. State Department established diplomatic relationships there . The United States and Britain anticipated future involvement in the war , but U.S. isolationism and a foreseeable British @-@ Soviet alliance deterred open confrontation over the Baltics . Welles , concerned with postwar border planning , had been authorized by Roosevelt to issue stronger public statements gauging a move towards more intervention . Loy Henderson and other State Department officials familiar with the area kept the administration informed of developments there , and Henderson , Welles , and Roosevelt worked together to compose the declaration .
The Welles Declaration established a five @-@ decade non @-@ recognition of the Baltic states ' annexation . The document had major significance for overall U.S. policy toward Europe in the critical year of 1940 . While the U.S. did not engage the Soviet Union militarily in the region , the Declaration enabled the Baltic states to maintain independent diplomatic missions , and Executive Order 8484 protected Baltic financial assets . Its essence was supported by all subsequent U.S. presidents and Congressional resolutions . The Baltic states re @-@ established their independence in 1990 – 91 .
= = Background = =
= = = 19th and early 20th century status = = =
In the late 18th into the early 20th Century , the Russian Empire annexed the regions that now comprise the three Baltic States as well as Finland . Their national awareness movements began to gain strength , and each declared itself independent in the wake of World War I. All of the States were recognized by the League of Nations during the early 1920s . The Estonian Age of Awakening , the Latvian National Awakening , and the Lithuanian National Revival expressed the peoples ' wishes to create independent states . After World War I the three states declared their independence – Lithuania re @-@ established its independence on February 16 , 1918 , Estonia on February 24 , 1918 and Latvia on November 18 , 1918 . The Baltic countries often were seen as a unified group , despite dissimilarities in their languages and histories . Lithuania was recognized as a state in 1253 , Estonia and Latvia emerged from territories held by the Livonian Confederation ( established 1243 ) . All three states were admitted into the League of Nations in 1921 .
The U.S. had granted full de jure recognition to all three Baltic states by July 1922 . The recognitions were granted during the shift from the Democratic administration of Woodrow Wilson to the Republican administration of Warren Harding . While the U.S. did not sponsor any meaningful political or economic initiatives in the region during the interwar period , and its administrations did not consider the states strategically important , it maintained normal diplomatic relations with the states .
The U.S. had suffered over 100 @,@ 000 deaths during World War I and pursued an isolationist policy , determined to avoid involvement in any further European conflicts . In 1932 , however , Secretary of State Henry L. Stimson formally criticised the 1931 Japanese invasion of Manchuria , and the resulting Stimson Doctrine would go on to serve as a basis for the Welles declaration .
= = = Outbreak of World War II = = =
The situation changed after the outbreak of World War II . Poland was invaded in September 1939 . Great Britain became involved , and a series of German victories in Denmark , Norway , and the Netherlands during spring 1940 were alarming . Britain was clearly threatened and its leadership discussed the possibility of an alliance with the Soviet Union . Under the circumstances , direct British confrontation over the Baltic issue was difficult .
Roosevelt did not wish to lead the U.S. into the war ; his 1937 Quarantine Speech denouncing aggression by Italy and Japan had met mixed responses . Welles felt freer in this regard , looking towards postwar border issues and the establishment of a U.S.-led international body that could intervene in such disputes . Roosevelt saw Welles 's stronger public statements as experiments that would test the public mood in regard to U.S. foreign policy .
The secret protocol contained in the 1939 Molotov – Ribbentrop Pact between Germany and the Soviet Union had relegated Estonia , Latvia , and Lithuania to the Soviet sphere of influence . During the course of late 1939 and early 1940 , the Soviet Union issued a series of ultimatums to the Baltic governments that eventually led to the illegal annexation of the states . ( At about the same time , the Soviet Union was exerting similar pressure on Finland . ) About 30 @,@ 000 Soviet troops entered the Baltic states during June 1940 , followed by arrests of their leaders and citizens .
Elections to " People 's Assemblies " were held in all three states in mid @-@ July ; the Soviet @-@ sponsored slates received between 92 @.@ 2 % and 99 @.@ 2 % of the vote . During June , John Cooper Wiley of the State Department sent coded telegrams to Washington reporting developments in the Baltics , and these reports influenced Welles . The U.S. responded with a July 15 amendment to Executive Order 8389 that froze the assets of the Baltic states , thereby grouping them with German @-@ occupied countries , and by issuing the condemnatory Welles declaration .
= = Formulation = =
The Welles Declaration was written by Loy W. Henderson in consultation with Welles and Roosevelt . Welles would go on to participate in the creation of the Atlantic Charter , which stated that territorial adjustments should be made in accordance with the wishes of the peoples concerned . He increasingly served as acting Secretary of State during Cordell Hull 's illnesses . Henderson , then the State Department 's Director of the Office of European Affairs , was married to a Latvian woman . He had opened an American Red Cross office in Kaunas , Lithuania after World War I and served in the Eastern European Division of the State Department for 18 years .
In a conversation on the morning of July 23 , Welles asked Henderson to prepare a press release " expressing sympathy for the people of the Baltic States and condemnation of the Soviet action . " After reviewing the statement 's initial draft , Welles emphatically expressed his opinion that it was not strong enough . In the presence of Henderson , Welles called Roosevelt and read the draft to him . Roosevelt and Welles agreed that it needed strengthening . Welles then reformulated several sentences and added others which apparently had been suggested by the President . According to Henderson , " President Roosevelt was indignant at the manner in which the Soviet Union annexed the Baltic States and personally approved the condemnatory statement issued by Under Secretary Welles on the subject . " The declaration was made public , and telegraphed to the American Embassy in Moscow , later in the day .
= = Text of declaration = =
The statement read :
During these past few days the devious processes whereunder the political independence and territorial integrity of the three small Baltic Republics – Estonia , Latvia , and Lithuania – were to be deliberately annihilated by one of their more powerful neighbors , have been rapidly drawing to their conclusion .
From the day when the peoples of those Republics first gained their independent and democratic form of government the people of the United States have watched their admirable progress in self @-@ government with deep and sympathetic interest .
The policy of this Government is universally known . The people of the United States are opposed to predatory activities no matter whether they are carried on by the use of force or by the threat of force . They are likewise opposed to any form of intervention on the part of one state , however powerful , in the domestic concerns of any other sovereign state , however weak .
These principles constitute the very foundations upon which the existing relationship between the twenty @-@ one sovereign republics of the New World rests .
The United States will continue to stand by these principles , because of the conviction of the American people that unless the doctrine in which these principles are inherent once again governs the relations between nations , the rule of reason , of justice and of law – in other words , the basis of modern civilization itself – cannot be preserved .
= = Impact = =
= = = Impact during World War II = = =
Welles also announced that the U.S. government would continue to recognize the foreign ministers of the Baltic countries as the envoys of sovereign governments . At the same time , the Department of State instructed U.S. representatives to withdraw from the Baltic states for " consultations " . In 1940 The New York Times described the Welles Declaration as " one of the most exceptional diplomatic documents issued by the Department of State in many years . "
The Declaration was a source of contention during the subsequent alliance between the U.S. , Great Britain , and the USSR , but Welles persistently defended it . In a discussion with the media he asserted that the USSR had maneuvered to give " an odor of legality to acts of aggression for purposes of the record " . In a memorandum describing his conversations with British Ambassador Lord Halifax in 1942 , Welles stated that he would have preferred to characterize the plebiscites supporting the annexations as " faked " . In April 1942 he wrote that the annexation was " ... not only indefensible from every moral standpoint , but likewise extraordinarily stupid , " interpreting any concession in the Baltic issue as a precedent that would lead to further border struggles in eastern Poland and elsewhere .
As the war intensified , Roosevelt accepted the need for Soviet assistance and was reluctant to address postwar territorial conflicts . During the 1943 Tehran Conference , he " jokingly " assured Stalin that when Soviet forces reoccupied Baltic countries , " he did not intend to go to war with the Soviet Union on this point . " But , he explained , " the question of referendum and the right of self @-@ determination " would constitute a matter of great importance for the U.S. Despite his work with Soviet representatives in the early 1940s to forward the alliance , Welles saw Roosevelt 's and Churchill 's lack of commitment as dangerous .
= = = Postwar impact = = =
The Welles Declaration linked U.S. policy towards the Baltic states with the Stimson Doctrine , which did not recognize Japanese , German and Italian occupations during the 1930s . It broke with Wilsonian policies that had supported a strong Russian presence as a counterweight to German power . During the Cold War , the U.S. used the Baltic issue as a point of leverage in U.S.-Soviet relations .
Sir Hersch Lauterpacht , a judge of international law , described the basis of the non @-@ recognition doctrine as being founded on the principles of ex injuria jus non oritur :
This construction of non @-@ recognition is based on the view that acts contrary to international law are invalid and cannot become a source of legal rights for the wrongdoer . That view applies to international law one of ' the general principles of law recognized by civilized nation . ' The principle ex injuria jus non oritur is one of the fundamental maxims of jurisprudence . An illegality cannot , as a rule , become a source of legal right to the wrongdoer .
Like the Stimson Doctrine , Welles ' declaration was largely symbolic in nature , although it offered some material benefits in conjunction with Executive Order 8484 . It enabled the diplomatic representatives of the Baltic states in various other countries to fund their operations and protected the ownership of ships flying Baltic flags . By establishing a non @-@ recognition policy , it allowed some 120 @,@ 000 postwar displaced persons from the Baltic states to avoid repatriation to the Soviet Union and advocate independence from abroad .
The U.S. position that the Baltic states had been forcibly annexed would remain its official stance for the following 51 years . Subsequent U.S. presidents and Congressional resolutions reaffirmed the substance of the Declaration . President Dwight D. Eisenhower asserted the right of the Baltic states to independence in an address to the United States Congress on January 6 , 1957 . After confirming the Helsinki Final Act in July 1975 , the United States House of Representatives passed a resolution that the Final Act would not affect the continuity of U.S. recognition of the sovereignty of Baltic states .
On July 26 , 1983 , on the 61st anniversary of de jure recognition of the three Baltic countries by the U.S. in 1922 , President Ronald Reagan re @-@ declared the United States ' recognition of the independence of Estonia , Latvia and Lithuania . The declaration was read in the United Nations as well . Throughout the 51 years that followed the events of 1940 , all U.S. official maps and publications that mentioned the Baltic states included a statement of U.S. non @-@ recognition of Soviet occupation .
The independence movements in the states during the 1980s and 1990 succeeded and the United Nations recognized all three in 1991 . The states went on to become members of the European Union and NATO . Their development since independence is generally regarded as one of the most successful post @-@ Soviet stories .
When commenting on the Declaration 's seventieth anniversary , U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Rodham Clinton described it as " a tribute to each of our countries ’ commitment to the ideals of freedom and democracy . " On July 23 , 2010 a commemorative plaque inscribed with its text in English and Lithuanian was formally dedicated in Vilnius , the capital of Lithuania .
= Mycena sanguinolenta =
Mycena sanguinolenta , commonly known as the bleeding bonnet , the smaller bleeding Mycena , or the terrestrial bleeding Mycena , is a species of mushroom in the Mycenaceae family . It is a common and widely distributed species , and has been found in North America , Europe , Australia , and Asia . The fungus produces reddish @-@ brown to reddish @-@ purple fruit bodies with conic to bell @-@ shaped caps up to 1 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 6 in ) wide held by slender stipes up to 6 cm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) high . When fresh , the fruit bodies will " bleed " a dark reddish @-@ purple sap . The similar Mycena haematopus is larger , and grows on decaying wood , usually in clumps . M. sanguinolenta contains alkaloid pigments that are unique to the species , may produce an antifungal compound , and is bioluminescent . The edibility of the mushroom has not been determined .
= = Taxonomy = =
First called Agaricus sanguinolentus by Johannes Baptista von Albertini , the species was transferred to the genus Mycena in 1871 by German Paul Kummer , when he raised many of Fries ' " tribes " to the rank of genus . The specific epithet is derived from the Latin word sanguinolentus and means " bloody " . It is commonly known as the " bleeding bonnet " the " smaller bleeding Mycena " , or the " terrestrial bleeding Mycena " .
The fungus is classified in the section Lactipedes along with other latex @-@ producing species . A molecular phylogenetic analysis of several dozen European Mycena species suggests that M. sanguinolenta is closely related to M. galopus . Other phylogenically related species include M. galericulata and M. haematopus .
= = Description = =
The cap of M. sanguinolenta is either convex or conic when young , with its margin pressed against the stipe . As it expands , it becomes broadly convex or bell @-@ shaped , ultimately reaching a diameter of 3 – 15 mm ( 0 @.@ 1 – 0 @.@ 6 in ) . The surface is initially covered with a dense whitish @-@ grayish coating or powder that is produced by delicate microscopic cells , but these cells soon collapse and disappear , leaving the surface naked and smooth . The surface is moist with an opaque margin that soon developing furrows . The cap color is variable but always some shade of bright or dull reddish @-@ brown with a dull grayish @-@ brown margin . The flesh is thin , not very fragile , sordid reddish , and exudes a reddish latex when cut . The odor and taste are not distinctive .
The gills are adnate or slightly toothed , and well @-@ spaced . They are narrow to moderately broad , sordid reddish to grayish , with even edges that are dark reddish @-@ brown . The stipe is 2 – 6 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 2 @.@ 4 in ) long , 1 – 1 @.@ 5 mm thick , equal in width throughout , and fragile . The base of the stipe is covered with coarse , stiff white hairs , while the remainder is covered with a drab powder that soon sloughs off to leave the stipe polished , and more or less the same color as the cap . It also exudes a bright or dull @-@ red juice when cut or broken . The edibility of the mushroom is unknown — but it is considered too insubstantial to be of culinary interest .
The spores are 8 – 10 by 4 – 5 μm , roughly ellipsoid , and only weakly amyloid . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) four @-@ spored ( occasionally two- or three @-@ spored ) . The pleurocystidia ( cystidia on the face of a gill ) are rare to scattered or sometimes quite abundant , narrowly to broadly ventricose , measuring 36 – 54 by 8 – 13 μm . They are filled with a sordid @-@ reddish substance . The cheilocystidia ( cystidia on the gill edge ) are similar to the pleurocystidia or shorter and more obese , and very abundant . The flesh if the gill is made of broad hyphae the cells of which are often vesiculose ( covered with vesicles ) in age , and stain pale reddish @-@ brown in iodine . The flesh of the cap is covered with a thin pellicle , and the hypoderm ( the layer of cells immediately underneath the pellicle ) is moderately well @-@ differentiated . The remainder of the cap flesh is floccose and filamentous , and all except the pellicle stain pale vinaceous @-@ brown in iodine . Lactiferous ( latex @-@ producing ) hyphae are abundant .
= = = Similar species = = =
The other " bleeding Mycena " ( M. haematopus ) is readily distinguished from M. sanguinolenta by its larger size , different color , growth on rotting wood , and presence of a sterile band of tissue on the margin of the cap . Further , M. sanguinolenta consistently has red @-@ edged gills , while the gill edges of M. haematopus are more variable . The similarly named M. subsanguinolenta has red to orange juice , is slightly yellower , and does not have pleurocystidia . M. plicatus has a similar furrowed cap , but also has a tough stipe and does not ooze liquid when injured . Mycena specialist Alexander H. Smith has noted a " striking " resemblance to M. debilis , but this species has different colors ( pale vinaceous brown or sordid brown when faded ) , produces uncolored latex , and does not have differently @-@ colored gill edges .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Mycena sanguinolenta is common and widely distributed . It has been found from Maine to Washington and south to North Carolina and California in the United States , and from Nova Scotia to British Columbia in Canada . In Jamaica , it has been collected at an elevation of 1 @,@ 800 m ( 5 @,@ 900 ft ) . The distribution includes Europe ( Britain , Germany , The Netherlands , Norway , Romania and Sweden ) and Australia . In Asia , it has been collected from the alpine zone of the Changbai Mountains in Jilin Province , China , and from the provinces of Ōmi and Yamashiro in Japan .
The fruit bodies grow in groups on leaf mold , moss beds , or needle carpets during the spring and fall . It is common in forests of fir and beech , and prefers to grow in soil of high acidity .
= = Chemistry = =
The fruit bodies of Mycena sanguinolenta contain the blue alkaloid pigments , sanguinones A and B , unique to this species . It also has the red @-@ colored alkaloid sanguinolentaquinone . The sanguinones are structurally related to mycenarubin A , made by M. rosea , and the discorhabins , a series of compounds produced by marine sponges . Although the function of the sanguinones is not known , it has been suggested that they may have " an ecological role ... beyond their contribution to the color of the fruiting bodies , ... since predators rarely feed on fruiting bodies " . When grown in pure culture in the laboratory , the fungus produces the antifungal compound hydroxystrobilurin @-@ D. M. sanguinolenta is one of over 30 Mycena species that is bioluminous .
= Eugene Kaspersky =
Eugene Kaspersky ( born Yevgeny Valentinovich Kaspersky ) is a Russian cybersecurity expert and the CEO of Kaspersky Lab , an IT security company with 3 @,@ 000 employees . He cofounded Kaspersky Lab in 1997 and helped identify instances of government @-@ sponsored cyberwarfare as the head of research . He has been an advocate for an international treaty prohibiting cyberwarfare . There is a debate about whether Kaspersky 's views and security research show favoritism towards Russian political interests .
Kaspersky was born in 1965 in Novorossiysk , Russia . He graduated from the Institute of Cryptography , Telecommunications and Computer Science in 1987 with a degree in mathematical engineering and computer technology . His interest in IT security began when his work computer was infected with the Cascade virus in 1989 and he developed a program to remove it . Kaspersky helped grow Kaspersky Lab through security research and salesmanship . He became the CEO in 2007 .
= = Early life = =
Eugene Kaspersky was born on 4 October 1965 in Novorossiysk , Russia . He grew up near Moscow , where he moved at age nine . His father was an engineer and his mother a historical archivist . As a child he developed an early interest in math and technology . He spent his free time reading math books and won second place in a math competition at age 14 . When he was fourteen , Eugene began attending A.N. Kolmogorov boarding school , which is run by Moscow University and specializes in math . He was also a member of the youth division of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union .
At the age of 16 , Kaspersky entered a five @-@ year program with the Institute of Cryptography , Telecommunications and Computer Science , which was sponsored by the Russian military and KGB . At @-@ the @-@ time , the most prestigious schools in Russia for mathematicians were KGB sponsored . He graduated in 1987 with a degree in mathematical engineering and computer technology . After graduating college , Kaspersky served the Russian military as a software engineer . He met his first wife Natalya Kaspersky at Severskoye , a KGB vacation resort , in 1987 .
= = Kaspersky Lab = =
= = = Origins = = =
Eugene Kaspersky 's interest in IT security began in 1989 , when his PC was infected by the Cascade virus , while working for the Ministry of Defense . He studied how the virus worked and developed a program to remove it . Afterwards he continually found new viruses and developed software to remove them , as a hobby . Early on Kaspersky 's anti @-@ virus software had just 40 virus definitions and was distributed mostly to friends .
In 1991 , Kaspersky was granted an early release from his military service and left the defense ministry to take a job at the Information Technology Center of a private company KAMI , in order to work on his antivirus product full @-@ time . There , he and his colleagues improved the software and released it as a product called Antiviral Toolkit Pro in 1992 . At first the software was purchased by about ten clients per month . It earned about $ 100 per month , mostly from companies in Ukraine and Russia . Kaspersky 's then @-@ future wife Natalya Kaspersky became his coworker at KAMI .
In 1994 , Hamburg University in Germany gave Kaspersky 's software first place in a competitive analysis of antivirus software . This led to more business for Kaspersky from European and American companies . Kaspersky Lab was founded three years later by Kaspersky , his wife and Kaspersky 's friend . Natalya , who pushed Eugene to start the company , was the CEO , while Eugene was the head of research . The following year , the CIH virus ( AKA the Chernobyl virus ) created a boon for Kaspersky 's anti @-@ virus products , which Kaspersky said was the only software at @-@ the @-@ time that could cleanse the virus . According to Wired , " their software was advanced for the time . " For example , it was the first software to monitor viruses in an isolated quarantine .
Kaspersky 's company grew quickly in the late 1990s . From 1998 to 2000 , its annual revenue grew 280 percent and by 2000 almost sixty percent of revenues were international . By 2000 , it had a staff of 65 people , up from 13 shortly after its foundation . The antivirus product was renamed to Kaspersky Antivirus in 2000 , after an American company started using the product 's original name , which wasn 't trademarked .
= = = Threat discoveries = = =
As the head of research , Kaspersky authored papers on viruses and went to conferences to promote the software . He was often quoted in the technology press as an antivirus expert . He helped establish the company 's Global Research and Expert Analysis Team ( GReAT ) , which helps corporations and governments investigate IT security threats . Initially he told his team not to discuss cyber @-@ terrorism publicly , to avoid giving governments ideas on how to sabotage their political opponents . After Die Hard 4 was released , he said the idea was now public . He hired the researcher that identified the Stuxnet worm , which is believed to be the first instance of state @-@ sponsored cyberweapon . Afterwards , the company exposed the Flame virus at the request of the International Telecommunication Union . The virus was believed to have been used for cyber @-@ espionage in Middle @-@ Eastern countries .
Kaspersky Lab developed a reputation for discovering cybersecurity threats . In 2015 Kaspersky and Kaspersky Lab discovered a group of hackers known as Carbanak that were stealing money from banks . They also exposed Equation Group , which developed advanced spyware for monitoring desktop activity and was believed to be affiliated with National Security Agency in the U.S. According to The Economist , it was these discoveries , Kaspersky 's " relentless salesmanship " and the company 's anti @-@ virus product that made Kaspersky Lab uncommon as an internationally recognized Russian company .
= = = CEO = = =
Kaspersky became CEO of Kaspersky Lab in 2007 . According to a 2008 article in USA Today , he traveled to 20 to 30 countries per year promoting Kaspersky Lab products . In early 2009 , CRN said his personality contributed to the company 's growth from " relative obscurity to now nipping at the heels of its larger , better @-@ known rivals . " At the time , Kaspersky Lab was the fourth largest endpoint security company . It introduced new products for the enterprise market and expanded its channel programs .
In 2011 , Kaspersky made a decision against taking the company public , saying it would make decision @-@ making slow and prevent long @-@ term R & D investments . This led to a series of high @-@ level departures from the company , including his ex @-@ wife and co @-@ founder . Another series of departures occurred in 2014 due to disagreements over how to run the company .
Kaspersky Lab has defended itself against allegedly frivolous patent claims more aggressively than most IT companies . In 2012 , it was the only one of 35 firms named in a suit by patent troll Information Protection and Authentication ( IPAC ) to take the case to court , rather than pay a fee . The case was ruled in Kaspersky 's favor . Also in 2012 , another company , Lodsys , sued Kaspersky and 54 other companies for patent infringement , and that case also resulted in the claimant dropping the case against Kaspersky . According to an article in TechWorld , the company 's aversion to settling these claims is most likely because Eugene " just hates " patent trolls . In his blog he called them " parasites " and " IT racketeers . " Kaspersky himself is the co @-@ author of several patents , including one for a constraint @-@ and @-@ attribute @-@ based security system for controlling software component interaction .
As of 2015 , Kaspersky Lab now employs more than 2 @,@ 800 people . As of 2012 , Kaspersky has been working on developing software to protect critical infrastructure , like power plants , from cyberwarfare . He throws a New Years party each year with about 1 @,@ 500 guests and hosts Kaspersky conferences in exotic locations .
= = Controversies = =
= = = Alleged affiliations with Russia = = =
Eugene Kaspersky 's prior work for the Russian military and his education at a KGB @-@ sponsored technical college has led to controversy about whether he uses his position to advance Russian government interests and intelligence efforts . According to Kaspersky , allegations of dubious connections with Russian agencies began after he got his first clients in America . He spends much of his working life trying to get governments and organizations to trust him and his software in spite of the allegations .
Wired said Kaspersky 's critics accuse him of using the company to spy on users for Russian intelligence . Russian telecommunications companies for example are required by federal law in Russia to cooperate with the government 's military and spy operations if asked . Kaspersky said his company has never been asked to tamper with its software for espionage and called the accusations " cold war paranoia . " According to Wired , Kaspersky staffers argue " not unconvincingly " that spying on users would hurt its business and its relationship with the Russian FSB is limited . According to Gartner , " There 's no evidence that they have any back doors in their software or any ties to the Russian mafia or state ... but there is still a concern that you can ’ t operate in Russia without being controlled by the ruling party . ” Computing mocked some of the more extreme accusations of espionage , but said it would be unlikely for a Russian business to grow to the size of Kaspersky Lab without relationships within the Russian government . NPR journalists also said it was unlikely Kaspersky was using its software for espionage , because it would be risky for the company 's business , but said Kaspersky showed an unusual disinterest in Russia @-@ based cybercrime .
Bloomberg and The New York Times also said Kaspersky was less aggressive about identifying cyberattacks originating from Russia than from other countries , allegations Kaspersky refutes . For example , he allegedly ignored or downplayed a series of denial @-@ of @-@ service attacks in December 2011 that were made to disrupt online discussion criticizing Russian politicians . Kaspersky also allegedly ignored a Russian @-@ based spyware called Sofacy , which is believed to have been used by Russia against NATO and Eastern Europe . On the other hand , Kaspersky also published information on the Russia @-@ based Crouching Yeti cyberattacks two days before Bloomberg accused him of ignoring Russia @-@ based cyberattacks . At the time , the company had published eleven reports on malicious Russian programs . Competitor FireEye said it is awkward even in the U.S. to investigate cybercrimes performed by your own government .
A March 2015 article in Bloomberg said an increasing number of executive staff at Kaspersky Lab previously worked for Russian military and intelligence agencies . According to News & Observer , Kaspersky " published a mammoth response , tearing down Bloomberg 's accusations and accusing them of throwing facts out the window for the sake of a juicy anti @-@ Russian narrative . " Competitor FireEye said many U.S. IT companies also have executives that formerly worked for government military and intelligence agencies . NPR reported that Kaspersky has been doing an increasing amount of business with Russian cybersecurity agencies to catch cybercriminals . Kaspersky confirms that Russian agencies are among its government customers .
= = = Alleged anti @-@ virus spoofing = = =
In August 2015 , two former Kaspersky employees alleged that the company introduced modified files into the VirusTotal community anti @-@ virus database to trick its rivals ' programs into triggering false positives . The result of the false positives was that important uninfected files would be disabled or deleted . The allegations also claimed that Kaspersky himself had ordered some of the actions , specifically targeting competitors , including Chinese companies he felt were copying his software . Emails dated 2009 , two years after Kaspersky became CEO , were allegedly leaked to Reuters , one of which allegedly had Kaspersky threatening to go after competitors by " rubbing them out in the outhouse , " using a phrase popularized by Vladimir Putin . The company denied the allegations .
= = Personal life = =
Eugene Kaspersky lives in Moscow , Russia with his wife and kids . He and his first wife were divorced in 1998 . On 21 April 2011 , his son , Ivan , then 20 , was kidnapped for a $ 4 @.@ 4 million ransom . Kaspersky worked with a friend at the FSB and Russian police to trace the ransomer 's phone call . They set up a trap for the ransomers , where they rescued his son and arrested many of the kidnappers . The incident had an influence on Kaspersky 's sense of personal security . He now travels with a bodyguard and security detail .
Kaspersky is one of the richest people in Russia . His net worth is about $ 1 billion . According to Wired , he has " cultivated the image of a wild man with cash to burn . " He has an interest in racing and drives his sports cars on race tracks as a hobby . He sponsors various " quirky or scientific projects " such as Ferrari Formula One racing team . Kaspersky himself owns a BMW M3 . Kaspersky describes himself as an " adrenaline junky . " He has gone hiking on volcanoes in Russia and reserved a trip to space on the Virgin Galactic . He travels often and writes about his experiences in his personal blog . He also enjoys photography as a hobby .
Kaspersky is known for shunning formal attire , typically dressing in jeans and a shirt . He supports university projects and competitions in the IT security field .
= = Views = =
Eugene Kaspersky is influential among politicians and security experts . He has been active in promoting warnings about the possibility of cyberwarfare that targets critical infrastructure . He regularly speaks at conferences advocating for an international cyberwarfare treaty , that would ban government @-@ sponsored cyberattacks .
After the Stuxnet attack , Kaspersky proposed that the internet needed more regulation and policing . One idea was to have some parts of the internet anonymous , while more secure areas require user identification . He argued that anonymity mostly benefited cybercriminals and hackers . For example , accessing a network operated by a nuclear power plant could require a verified identity through a digital passport .
Kaspersky said anonymity on the internet could be protected by using a proxy , whereby a responsible international body maintains a record of which online identities correspond to which real @-@ world ones . For example , a browser 's identity would be revealed in cases of malicious activity . Some security experts believe that a centralized database of the real @-@ world identities of internet users would be " a privacy disaster and a highly attractive target for thieves . " The Age said it " sounds a little too close for comfort to a Big Brother scenario " and Wired said Kaspersky 's views were highly aligned with the Russian government 's agenda .
Many organizations have been considering reducing privacy to improve security as a result of Kaspersky 's arguments . In a more recent Slashdot interview Kaspersky said the internet should be divided into three zones : a red zone for voting , online banking , and other " critical transactions " that would require an internet ID ; a grey zone that may only require verification of age to access the site , but not identity ; and a green zone for blogs , news , and " everything related to your freedom of speech . " He proposes " special proxies " for red zone websites that allow disclosure of the user 's identity only in the case of suspected malfeasance .
= Babrak Karmal =
Babrak Karmal ( Persian : ببرک کارمل , born Sultan Hussein ; 6 January 1929 – 1 or 3 December 1996 ) was an Afghan politician who was installed as president of Afghanistan by the USSR when they invaded in 1979 . Karmal was born in Kamari and educated at Kabul University . When the People 's Democratic Party of Afghanistan ( PDPA ) was formed , Karmal became one of its leading members , having been introduced to Marxism by Mir Akbar Khyber during his imprisonment for activities deemed too radical by the government . He eventually became the leader of the Parcham faction . When the PDPA split in 1967 , the Parcham @-@ faction established a Parcham PDPA , while their ideological nemesis , the Khalqs , established a Khalqist PDPA . Under Karmal 's leadership , the Parchamite PDPA participated in Mohammad Daoud Khan 's rise to power , and his subsequent regime . While relations were good at the beginning , Daoud began a major purge of leftist influence in the mid @-@ 1970s . This in turn led to the reformation of the PDPA in 1977 . The PDPA took power in the 1978 Saur Revolution .
Karmal was appointed Deputy Chairman of the Revolutionary Council , synonymous with vice head of state , in the communist government . The Parchamite faction found itself under significant pressure by the Khalqists soon after taking power . In June 1978 , a PDPA Central Committee meeting voted in favor of giving the Khalqist faction exclusive control over PDPA policy . This decision was followed by a failed Parchamite coup , after which Hafizullah Amin , a Khalqist , initiated a purge against the Parchamites . Karmal survived this purge but was exiled to Prague . Karmal remained in exile until December 1979 , when the Soviet Union intervened in Afghanistan ( with the consent of the Afghan government ) to stabilize the country .
Karmal was promoted to Chairman of the Revolutionary Council and Chairman of the Council of Ministers on 27 December 1979 . He remained in office until 1981 , when he was succeeded by Sultan Ali Keshtmand . Throughout his term , Karmal worked to establish a support base for the PDPA by introducing several reforms . Among these were the Fundamental Principles of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan , introducing a general amnesty for those people imprisoned during Nur Mohammad Taraki 's and Amin 's rule . He also replaced the Khalqist flag with a more traditional one . These policies failed to increase the PDPA 's legitimacy in the eyes of the Afghan people .
These policy failures , and the stalemate that ensued after the Soviet intervention , led the Soviet leadership to become highly critical of Karmal 's leadership . Under Mikhail Gorbachev , the Soviet Union deposed Karmal and replaced him with Mohammad Najibullah . Following his loss of power , he was again exiled , this time to Moscow . He was allowed to return to Afghanistan in 1991 by the Najibullah government . Back in Afghanistan he became an associate of Abdul Rashid Dostum , and helped remove the Najibullah government from power . Not long after , in 1996 , Karmal died from liver cancer .
= = Early life and career = =
Karmal was born Sultan Hussein on 6 January 1929 , was the son of Muhammad Hussein Hashem , a Major General in the Afghan Army and former governor of the province of Paktia , and was the second of five siblings . His family was one of the wealthier families in Kabul . His ethnic background is disputed , some claim that he was Tajik who represented himself as a Ghilzai Pashtun but others claim that he descended from Hindu ancestors of Kashmir . In 1986 , Karmal announced that he , and his brother Mahmud Baryalay , were Pashtun because their mother came from the Mullakhel branch of the Pashtuns . However , this was controversial , considering that lineage in Afghanistan is supposed to be traced through the father , not the mother . The accusation that he was of Indian Muslim ancestry comes from the fact that his birthname , Sultan Hussein , is a common Indian Muslim name . In addition , Karmal 's own father denied his own ethnicity ; Karmal 's father was a Tajik . To further confuse the matter , Karmal spoke Dari ( Persian ) and not Pashto .
Karmal was born in Kamari , a village close to Kabul . He attended Nejat High School , a German @-@ speaking school , and graduated from it in 1948 , and applied to enter the Faculty of Law and Political Science of Kabul University . Karmal 's application was turned down because of his student union activities . He studied at the College of Law and Political Science at Kabul University from 1951 to 1953 . In 1953 Karmal was arrested because of his student union activities , but was released three years later in 1956 in an amnesty by Muhammad Daoud Khan . Shortly after , in 1957 , Karmal found work as an English and German translator , before quitting and leaving for military training . Karmal graduated from the College of Law and Political Science in 1960 , and in 1961 , he found work as an employee in the Compilation and Translation Department of the Ministry of Education . From 1961 to 1963 he worked in the Ministry of Planning . When his mother died , Karmal left with his maternal aunt to live somewhere else . His father disowned him because of his leftist views . Karmal was involved in much debauchery , which was controversial in the mostly conservative Afghan society .
= = = Communist politics = = =
Imprisoned from 1953 to 1956 , Karmal befriended fellow inmate Mir Akbar Khyber , who introduced Karmal to Marxism . Karmal changed his name from Sultan Hussein to Babrak Karmal , which means " Comrade of the Workers ' " in Pashtun , to disassociate himself from his bourgeoisie background . When he was released from prison , he continued his activities in the student union , and began to promote Marxism . Karmal spent the rest of the 1950s and the early 1960s becoming involved with Marxist organizations , of which there were at least four in Afghanistan at the time ; two of the four were established by Karmal . When the 1964 Afghan Provisional Constitution , which legalised the establishment of new political entities , was introduced several prominent Marxists agreed to establish a communist political party . The People 's Democratic Party of Afghanistan ( PDPA , the Communist Party ) was established in January 1965 in Nur Muhammad Taraki 's home . Factionalism within the PDPA quickly became a problem ; the party split into the Khalq led by Taraki alongside Hafizullah Amin , and the Parcham led by Karmal .
During the 1965 parliamentary election Karmal was one of four PDPA members elected to the lower house of parliament ; the three others were Anahita Ratebzad , Nur Ahmed Nur and Fezanul Haq Fezan . No Khalqists were elected ; however , Amin was 50 votes short of being elected . The Parchamite victory may be explained by the simple fact that Karmal could contribute financially to the PDPA electoral campaign . Karmal became a leading figure within the student movement in the 1960s , electing Mohammad Hashim Maiwandwal as Prime Minister after a student demonstration ( called for by Karmal ) concluded with three deaths under the former leadership .
In 1967 , the PDPA unofficially split into two formal parties , one Khalqist and one Parchamist . The dissolution of the PDPA was initiated by the closing down of the Khalqist newspaper , Khalq . Karmal criticised the Khalq for being too communist , and believed that its leadership should have hidden its Marxist orientation instead of promoting it . According to the official version of events , the majority of the PDPA Central Committee rejected Karmal 's criticism . The vote was a close one , and it is reported that Taraki expanded the Central Committee to win the vote ; this plan resulted in eight of the new members becoming politically unaligned with and one switching to the Parchamite side . Karmal and half the PDPA Central Committee left the PDPA to establish a Parchamite @-@ led PDPA . Officially the split was caused by ideological differences , but the party may have divided between the different leadership styles and plans of Taraki versus Karmal . Taraki wanted to model the party after Leninist norms while Karmal wanted to establish a democratic front . Other differences were socioeconomic . The majority of Khalqists came from rural areas ; hence they were poorer , and were of Pashtun origin . The Parchamites were urban , richer , and spoke Dari more often than not . The Khalqists accused the Parchamites of having a connection with the monarchy , and because of it , referred to the Parchamite PDPA as the " Royal Communist Party " . Both Karmal and Amin retained their seats in the lower house of parliament in the 1969 parliamentary election .
= = = The Daoud era = = =
Mohammed Daoud Khan , in collaboration with the Parchamite PDPA and radical military officers , overthrew the monarchy and instituted the Afghan Republic in 1973 . After Daoud 's seizure of power , an American embassy cable stated that the new government had established a Soviet @-@ style Central Committee , in which Karmal and Mir Akbar Khyber were given leading positions . Most ministries were given to Parchamites ; Hassan Sharq became Deputy Prime Minister , Major Faiz Mohammad became Minister of Internal Affairs and Nematullah Pazhwak became Minister of Education . The Parchamites took control over the ministries of finance , agriculture , communications and border affairs . The new government quickly suppressed the opposition , and secured their power base . At first , the National Front government between Daoud and the Parchamites seemed to work . By 1975 , Daoud had strengthened his position by enhancing the executive , legislative and judicial powers of the Presidency . To the dismay of the Parchamites , all parties other than the National Revolutionary Party ( NRP , established by Daoud ) were made illegal .
Shortly after the ban on opposition to the NRP , Daoud began a massive purge of Parchamites in government . Mohammad lost his position as interior minister , Abdul Qadir was demoted , and Karmal was put under government surveillance . To mitigate Daoud 's suddenly anti @-@ communist directives , the Soviet Union reestablished the PDPA ; Taraki was elected its General Secretary and Karmal , Second Secretary . While the Saur Revolution ( literally the April Revolution ) was planned for August , the assassination of Khyber led to a chain of events which ended with the communists seizing power . Karmal , when taking power in 1979 , accused Amin of ordering the assassination of Khyber .
= = = Taraki – Amin rule = = =
Taraki was appointed Chairman of the Presidium of the Revolutionary Council and Chairman of the Council of Ministers , retaining his post as PDPA general secretary . Taraki initially formed a government which consisted of both Khalqists and Parchamites ; Karmal became Deputy Chairman of the Revolutionary Council , while Amin became Minister of Foreign Affairs and Deputy Chairman of the Council of Ministers.Mohammad Aslam Watanjar became Deputy Chairman of the Council of Ministers . The two Parchamites Abdul Qadir and Mohammad Rafi , became Minister of Defence and Minister of Public Works , respectively . The appointment of Amin , Karmal and Watanjar led to splits within the Council of Ministers : the Khalqists answered to Amin ; Karmal led the civilian Parchamites ; and the military officers ( who were Parchamites ) were answerable to Watanjar ( a Khalqist ) . The first conflict arose when the Khalqists wanted to give PDPA Central Committee membership to military officers who had participated in the Saur Revolution ; Karmal opposed such a move but was overruled . A PDPA Politburo meeting voted in favour of giving Central Committee membership to the officers .
On 27 June , three months after the Saur Revolution , Amin outmaneuvered the Parchamites at a Central Committee meeting , giving the Khalqists exclusive right over formulating and deciding policy . A purge against the Parchamites was initiated by Amin and supported by Taraki on 1 July 1979 . Karmal , fearing for his safety , went into hiding in one of his Soviet friends ' homes . Karmal tried to contact Alexander Puzanov , the Soviet ambassador to Afghanistan , to talk about the situation . Puzanov refused , and revealed Karmal 's location to Amin . It should be noted that the Soviets probably saved Karmal 's life by sending him to the Socialist Republic of Czechoslovakia . In exile , Karmal established a network with the remaining Parchamites in government . A coup to overthrow Amin was planned for 4 September 1979 . Its leading members in Afghanistan were Qadir and the Army Chief of Staff General Shahpur Ahmedzai . The coup was planned for the Festival of Eid , in anticipation of relaxed military vigilance . The conspiracy failed when the Afghan ambassador to India told the Afghan leadership about the plan . Another purge was initiated , and Parchamite ambassadors were recalled . Few returned to Afghanistan ; Karmal and Mohammad Najibullah stayed in their respective countries .
Amin was informed of the Soviet decision to intervene in Afghanistan and was initially supportive , but was assassinated . Under the command of the Soviets , Karmal ascended to power . On 27 December 1979 Radio Kabul broadcast Karmal 's pre @-@ recorded speech to the Afghan people , saying : " Today the torture machine of Amin has been smashed , his accomplices – the primitive executioners , usurpers and murderers of tens of thousand of our fellow countrymen – fathers , mothers , sisters , brothers , sons and daughters , children and old people ... " Karmal was not in Kabul when the speech was broadcast ; he was in Bagram , protected by the KGB .
That evening Yuri Andropov , the Chairman of the KGB , congratulated Karmal on his rise to the Chairmanship of the Presidium of the Revolutionary Council , some time before Karmal received an official appointment . Karmal returned to Kabul on 28 December . He travelled alongside a Soviet military column . For the next few days Karmal lived in a villa on the outskirts of Kabul under the protection of the KGB . On 1 January 1980 Leonid Brezhnev , the General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union , and Alexei Kosygin , the Soviet Chairman of the Council of Ministers , congratulated Karmal on his " election " as leader .
= = Presidency = =
= = = Domestic policies = = =
= = = = The " Fundamental Principles " and amnesty = = = =
When he came to power , Karmal promised an end to executions , the establishment of democratic institutions and free elections , the creation of a constitution , and legalization of alternative political parties . Prisoners incarcerated under the two previous governments would be freed in a general amnesty . He promised the creation of a coalition government which would not espouse socialism . At the same time , he told the Afghan people that he had negotiated with the Soviet Union to give economic , military and political assistance . The mistrust most Afghans felt towards the government was a problem for Karmal . Many still remembered he had said he would protect private capital in 1978 — a promise later proven to be a lie .
Karmal 's three most important promises were the general amnesty of prisoners , the promulgation of the Fundamental Principles of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan and the adoption of a new flag containing the traditional black , red and green ( the flag of Taraki and Amin was red ) . His government granted concessions to religious leaders and the restoration of confiscated property . Some property , which was confiscated during earlier land reforms , was also partially restored . All these measures , with the exception of the general amnesty of prisoners , were introduced gradually . Of 2 @,@ 700 prisoners , 2 @,@ 600 were released from prison ; 600 of these were Parchamites . The general amnesty was greatly publicized by the government . While the event was hailed with enthusiasm by some , many others greeted the event with disdain , since their loved ones or associates had died during earlier purges . Amin had planned to introduce a general amnesty on 1 January 1980 , to coincide with the PDPA 's sixteenth anniversary .
Work on the Fundamental Principles had started under Amin : it guaranteed democratic rights such as freedom of speech , the right to security and life , the right to peaceful association , the right to demonstrate and the right that " no one would be accused of crime but in accord with the provisions of law " and that the accused had the right to a fair trial . The Fundamental Principles envisaged a democratic state led by the PDPA , the only party then permitted by law . The Revolutionary Council , the organ of supreme power , would convene twice every year . The Revolutionary Council in turn elected a Presidium which would take decisions on behalf of the Revolutionary Council when it was not in session . The Presidium consisted mostly of PDPA Politburo members . The state would safeguard three kinds of property : state , cooperative and private property . The Fundamental Principles said that the state had the right to change the Afghan economy from an economy where man was exploited to an economy were man was free . Another clause stated that the state had the right to take " families , both parents and children , under its supervision . " While it looked democratic at the outset , the Fundamental Principles was based on contradictions .
The Fundamental Principles led to the establishment of two important state organs : the Special Revolutionary Court , a specialized court for crimes against national security and territorial integrity , and the Institute for Legal and Scientific Research and Legislative Affairs , the supreme legislative organ of state , This body could amend and draft laws , and introduce regulations and decrees on behalf of the government . The introduction of more Soviet @-@ style institutions led the Afghan people to distrust the communist government even more .
= = = = Separation of power : Khalq – Parcham = = = =
With Karmal 's ascension to power , Parchamites began to " settle old scores " . Revolutionary Troikas were created to arrest , sentence and execute people . Amin 's guard were the first victims of the terror which ensued . Those commanders who had stayed loyal to Amin were arrested , filling the prisons . The Soviets protested , and Karmal replied , " As long as you keep my hands bound and do not let me deal with the Khalq faction there will be no unity in the PDPA and the government cannot become strong ... They tortured and killed us . They still hate us ! They are the enemies of the party ... " Amin 's daughter , along with her baby , was imprisoned for twelve years , until Mohammad Najibullah , then leader of the PDPA , released her . When Karmal took power , leading posts in the Party and Government bureaucracy were taken over by Parchamites . The Khalq faction was removed from power , and only technocrats , opportunists and individuals which the Soviets trusted would be appointed to the higher echelons of government . Khalqists remained in control of the Ministry of Interior , but Parchamites were given control over KHAD and the secret police . The Parchamites and the Khalqists controlled an equal share of the military . Two out of Karmal 's three Council of Ministers deputy chairmen were Khalqists . Khalqists controlled the Ministry of Communications and the interior ministry . Parchamites , on the other hand , controlled the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Ministry of Defence . In addition to the changes in government , the Parchamites held clear majority in the PDPA Central Committee . Only one Khalqi , Saleh Mohammad Zeary , was a member of the PDPA Secretariat during Karmal 's rule .
Over 14 and 15 March 1982 the PDPA held a party conference at the Kabul Polytechnic Institute instead of a party congress , since a party congress would have given the Khalq faction a majority and could have led to a Khalqist takeover of the PDPA . The rules of holding a party conference were different , and the Parchamites had a three @-@ fifths majority . This infuriated several Khalqists ; the threat of expulsion did not lessen their anger . The conference was not successful , but it was portrayed as such by the official media . The conference broke up after one and a half days of a 3 @-@ day long program , because of the inter @-@ party struggle for power between the Khalqists and the Parchamites . A " program of action " was introduced , and party rules were given minor changes . As an explanation of the low party membership , the official media also made it seem hard to become a member of the party .
= = = = PDPA base = = = =
When Karmal took power , he began expanding the support base of the PDPA . Karmal tried to persuade certain groups , which had been referred to class enemies of the revolution during Taraki and Amin 's rule , to support the PDPA . Karmal appointed several non @-@ communists to top positions . Between March and May 1980 , 78 out of the 191 people appointed to government posts were not members of the PDPA . Karmal reintroduced the old Afghan custom of having an Islamic invocation every time the government issued a proclamation . In his first live speech to the Afghan people , Karmal called for the establishment of the National Fatherland Front ( NFF ) ; the NFF 's founding congress was held in June 1981 . Unfortunately for Karmal , his policies did not lead to a notable increase in support for his regime , and it did not help Karmal that most Afghans saw the Soviet intervention as an invasion .
By 1981 , the government gave up on political solutions to the conflict . At the fifth PDPA Central Committee plenum in June , Karmal resigned from his Council of Ministers chairmanship and was replaced by Sultan Ali Keshtmand , while Nur Ahmad Nur was given a bigger role in the Revolutionary Council . This was seen as " base
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that Wright began offering McAvoy parts in his films . McAvoy kept declining them , however , and it wasn 't until six years later that the two actually worked together .
He also starred in Privates on Parade in the Donmar Warehouse , this time catching Sam Mendes ' attention . Also in 2001 , the actor appeared as Private James W. Miller in Band of Brothers , an eleven @-@ hour World War II miniseries by executive producers Steven Spielberg and Tom Hanks . This is the same miniseries in which his future coworker , Michael Fassbender , played the role of Burton " Pat " Christenson . It was shown on the HBO network . He gained the attention of critics in 2002 's White Teeth , a four @-@ part television drama miniseries adaption based on the novel of the same name by Zadie Smith .
In 2003 , McAvoy appeared in the Sci Fi Channel miniseries Frank Herbert 's Children of Dune , adapted from Frank Herbert 's novels . It is one of the highest @-@ rated programmes ever to be aired on the channel . More cable work came for him when he accepted the role of an unprincipled reporter in 2003 's State of Play . The well @-@ received six @-@ part British drama serial tells the story of a newspaper 's investigation into the death of a young woman and was broadcast on BBC One . Calling the programme a " must @-@ see " , the Chicago Tribune recommended State of Play for its cast 's performance . In 2002 , McAvoy shot scenes for Bollywood Queen , described as West Side Story meets Romeo and Juliet with bindis , the movie deals with star @-@ crossed lovers caught in the middle of clashing cultures ; it was shown as a special presentation at the 2003 Sundance Film Festival and opened in UK theatres on 17 October . In 2004 , he acted in a supporting role in the romantic comedy Wimbledon , also featuring Kirsten Dunst as a co @-@ lead . His next project was voicing a character named Hal in the 2004 English version of Strings , a mythic fantasy film . Another 2004 release for him was Inside I 'm Dancing , an Irish production helmed by Damien O 'Donnell starring alongside fellow Scotsman Steven Robertson . In it , the actor was cast as the principal character : a maverick with duchenne muscular dystrophy .
= = = Critical success = = =
McAvoy ended 2004 by appearing in the first two seasons of Shameless as Steve McBride , the moral hero of the BAFTA @-@ winning Channel 4 programme . His public profile was raised in 2005 with the release of Walt Disney Pictures 's The Chronicles of Narnia : The Lion , the Witch and the Wardrobe . McAvoy starred in the fantasy adventure film made by Andrew Adamson and based on C. S. Lewis 's children 's novel as Mr. Tumnus , a faun who befriends Lucy Pevensie ( played by Georgie Henley ) and joins Aslan ( Liam Neeson ) ' s forces . It was given a UK release of 9 December . At the UK box office , this movie opened at number one , earning around £ 8 @.@ 7 million at 498 cinemas over the weekend . Worldwide , Narnia grossed £ 463 million , making it the 41st highest @-@ grossing film of all @-@ time worldwide . That succeeding year he also accepted the principal role of Brian Jackson , a nerdy university student who wins a place on a University Challenge quiz team in the mid @-@ 1980s , in Starter for 10 . He was directed by David Nicholls , who adapted the film 's screenplay from his own book . The British / American production was given distribution in the UK on 10 November . 10 scored a rating of 89 % on review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes based on a sample of 75 reviews . In spite of the positive buzz , the movie flopped at the box office , unable to recover its production costs of £ 5 @.@ 7 million .
Forest Whitaker had suggested McAvoy to director Kevin Macdonald for the role of Nicholas Garrigan in 2006 's Academy Award @-@ winning low @-@ budgeted The Last King of Scotland . McAvoy portrayed a Scottish doctor who becomes the personal physician to dictator Idi Amin ( played by Whittaker ) while in Uganda . While the movie is based on factual events of Amin 's rule , the details of the story are fictional and adapted from Giles Foden 's acclaimed 1998 novel . McAvoy assessed his character to be a " completely selfish prick " . An overwhelmed McAvoy fainted during his first take of what would be the hardest scene for him to shoot , Nicolas 's torture . McAvoy was named Best Actor of the year by Scotland 's own BAFTA Awards , where the film swept the major categories , and received a nomination for the BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role . The movie itself walked away with three wins , including the honour for Outstanding British Film of the Year . This was accompanied by praise for McAvoy 's performance .
Following that , he played Irish attorney Tom Lefroy and love @-@ interest to Jane Austen in Becoming Jane , a 2007 historical movie inspired by the author 's early life . Next up was Penelope , which premiered at the 2006 Toronto International Film Festival . Also starring co @-@ producer Reese Witherspoon , it generated polarised reviews . The breakthrough role in McAvoy 's career came in Atonement , Joe Wright 's 2007 adaption of Ian McEwan 's novel of the same title . A romantic war film , it focuses on lovers Cecilia and Robbie 's ( Keira Knightley and McAvoy ) lives being torn apart after her jealous younger sister , Briony ( Saoirse Ronan ) falsely accuses him of rape . Upon reading the script , McAvoy said he thought " If I don 't get the part I 'm not reading the book because it 'll be devastating . It 's an amazing role and I really wanted it . " McAvoy has called the movie " incredibly sad " but considers it an uplifting experience . He also shared that he hoped viewers will be left " absolutely devastated and harrowed . " Screenings of Atonement were held at the 2007 Toronto International Film Festival , where it was one of the most acclaimed films present , and Venice Film Festival . Atonement was a big awards contender ; it was nominated for fourteen BAFTAs and seven Academy Awards . Both McAvoy and Knightley were nominated for their performances at the 65th Golden Globe Awards , respectively . Additionally , the film was lauded by critics , with Metacritic reporting it to have an approval rating of 85 . The Hollywood Reporter writer Ray Bennett said the duo gave " compelling and charismatic performances " .
= = = Wanted , X @-@ Men and subsequent work = = =
One of the biggest highlights of McAvoy 's career was starring with Angelina Jolie and Morgan Freeman in Wanted , an action film where he portrayed Wesley Gibson , a young American slacker who learns he is heir to a legacy of assassins . When McAvoy screen @-@ tested for the role , he was initially rejected because the studio was seeking an actor with conventional Hollywood leading @-@ man looks and physique . He later recalled being considered the " runt of the litter " of those who tested , but ultimately got the role in late 2006 since the studio " wanted someone geeky " . While shooting action scenes for Wanted , he suffered several injuries , including a twisted ankle and an injured knee . Nonetheless the actor said he had a " good time " doing the movie . McAvoy had never done this type of genre before and thought of Wanted as a chance to be more versatile . Loosely based on the comic book miniseries of the same name by Mark Millar , it saw a June 2008 release worldwide . It received favourable reviews from the press , who generally liked that it was fast @-@ paced . At the box office , Wanted was a success , grossing $ 341 million against a $ 75 million production budget . Next was The Last Station ( 2009 ) , a biopic that details the final months of celebrated writer Leo Tolstoy and also stars Anne @-@ Marie Duff , McAvoy 's wife at the time . It was shown at a limited number of screens in the US . Although most critics ' awards paid attention to co @-@ stars Helen Mirren and Christopher Plummer , the Satellite Awards nominated McAvoy for Best Supporting Actor . In 2009 , McAvoy voiced Angelina 's father , Maurice Mouseling , in the television series , Angelina Ballerina : The Next Steps .
He also appeared onstage in 2009 at Apollo Theater 's Three Days of Rain . He voiced the male titular character in Gnomeo and Juliet ( 2011 ) , an animated movie based on William Shakespeare 's play Romeo and Juliet . In Robert Redford 's historical American drama The Conspirator , McAvoy played the role of an idealistic war hero who reluctantly defends a co @-@ conspirator charged in the Abraham Lincoln assassination . It premiered at the 2010 Toronto International Film Festival . While this movie garnered mixed reception , critics lauded the actor for his work . In Owen Gleiberman 's assessment of The Conspirator , he found it " stiff @-@ jointed " and tedious , but regarded McAvoy as " an avid presence " .
In mid @-@ 2010 , McAvoy was cast as telepathic superhero Professor X , leader and founder of the X @-@ Men , in X @-@ Men : First Class . He joined an ensemble that included Michael Fassbender , Jennifer Lawrence and Kevin Bacon . Based on the Marvel Comics and a prequel to the film series , it is set primarily during the build @-@ up to the Cuban Missile Crisis and focuses on the relationship between Professor X and Magneto and the origin of their groups . McAvoy did not read comics as a child , and thus was unfamiliar with the Stan Lee originals which began publication in the 1960s , but was a fan of the X @-@ Men animated cartoon series . Released to the UK on 1 June , First Class topped its box office with ticket sales of around £ 5 million in its opening weekend . First Class was also reviewed favourably . In 2011 , McAvoy began filming the role of Max Lewinsky in the British thriller Welcome to the Punch . He played the lead role in the Danny Boyle film Trance .
In 2012 , McAvoy was cast as Bruce Robertson in Filth , an adaptation of an Irvine Welsh novel of the same name . The film 's ensemble cast includes Jamie Bell , Jim Broadbent , Eddie Marsan , and Imogen Poots . For his role , McAvoy won Best Actor at the British Independent Film Awards in December 2013 . It was also announced that he would co @-@ star with Jessica Chastain in a double @-@ feature film project , The Disappearance of Eleanor Rigby . He performed the male lead in radio play adaptation of Neverwhere written by Neil Gaiman .
McAvoy starred in Shakespeare 's Macbeth on London 's West End in early 2013 . Macbeth was the first performance at the Trafalgar Transformed , running from 9 February until 27 April . The production was directed by Jamie Lloyd who also directed McAvoy in his last stint on the stage in 2009 's Three Days of Rain . In 2015 , McAvoy won the Best Actor award at London 's Evening Standard Theater Awards for his portrayal of Jack Gurney in The Ruling Class , a revival of the Peter Barnes play directed once again by Jamie Lloyd . It ran at Trafalgar Studios from 16 January to 11 April 2015 .
McAvoy reprised his role as Professor X in X @-@ Men : Days of Future Past ( 2014 ) , which grossed $ 747 @.@ 9 million worldwide , making it the sixth highest grossing film of the year 2014 , and the second highest grossing film in the X @-@ Men franchise and in 2016 's X @-@ Men : Apocalypse .
= = Personal life = =
While working on Shameless , McAvoy started a relationship with his character 's love interest , Anne @-@ Marie Duff , and they married in October 2006 in a quiet ceremony . They have one child together , a son named Brendan ( b . 2010 ) . On 13 May 2016 , McAvoy and Duff jointly announced their decision to divorce .
After McAvoy won the " Rising Star " award from the BAFTAs , his estranged father spoke to the Sunday Mirror , stating that he would love to get in touch with his son , but did not know how to reach him . Though the actor did not read the piece , he heard about it and was unmoved . He enjoys fantasy themes which he said started from the age of 11 with The Lord of the Rings . His big interest outside acting and science fiction is football ; he is a huge fan of Celtic Football Club , stating that his dream role would be to play Celtic legend Jimmy Johnstone . McAvoy considers himself a spiritual person who no longer practices Catholicism . Speaking to Sky News , McAvoy said he believed that British filmmakers belittle and dumb down their productions to please American audiences . " It 's like we 're patronising them and short changing ourselves , " the actor commented . He had previously called 3 @-@ D films a " waste of money " , accusing film studios of using the effect to get more money out of their theatre audiences .
= = Charity = =
At one point , McAvoy did a " terrifying " BASE jump from the world 's tallest hospital building in a bid to help raise money for Ugandan children 's charity Retrak , an organisation which assists children on the streets . Additionally , McAvoy is a celebrity supporter of the British Red Cross with whom he travelled to Uganda to raise awareness of the projects there . He had become involved with the charity after shooting The Last King of Scotland there for several months and was shocked by what he saw . In February 2007 , he visited northern Uganda and spent four days seeing projects supported by the British Red Cross .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Film = = =
= = = Television = = =
= = = Stage = = =
= Covered Bridges Today =
Covered Bridges Today is a non @-@ fiction book on the architecture of covered bridges in the United States . The book was written by Brenda Krekeler and published by Daring Books in 1989 . Covered Bridges Today is a frequently cited source on the topic of covered bridges and serves as a record of numerous covered bridges that have since been dismantled or demolished since the book 's publication . Krekeler 's text includes 412 covered bridges in fourteen states with a complete record of all 142 covered bridges in Ohio during its writing in 1986 and 1987 . The work has been utilized in numerous citations by later publications including Historic American Engineering Record surveys and New England 's Covered Bridges : A Complete Guide , Indiana Covered Bridges and Covered Bridges in Virginia .
= = Background = =
Covered bridges are timber @-@ truss bridges with a roof and siding which , in most covered bridges , create an almost complete enclosure . The purpose of the covering is to protect the wooden structural members from the weather . Uncovered wooden bridges have a life span of only 10 to 15 years because of the effects of rain and sun . As of 2014 , the United States has more than 800 extant covered bridges with more than 10 @,@ 000 lost and historical bridges recorded by the National Society for the Preservation of Covered Bridges . Krekeler became interested in studying covered bridges , their lore and their history , while in college . Krekeler obtained her master 's degree in Historical Geography from the University of Cincinnati .
= = Contents = =
Covered Bridges Today provides information on 412 bridges in the states of Connecticut , Indiana , Kentucky , Maine , Maryland , Massachusetts , Michigan , New Hampshire , New York , Ohio , Pennsylvania , Vermont , Virginia and West Virginia . The book is geographically focused on Krekeler 's home state of Ohio and includes all 142 remaining covered bridges in the state at the time of writing . However , the book is not a complete inventory of each state 's extant bridges . When it was written , 76 of an estimated 228 Pennsylvania 's bridges were included , 68 of Indiana 's 98 covered bridges , and 43 of Vermont 's estimated 100 bridges were also featured . Krekeler 's use of estimations stems from the facts that covered bridges are lost periodically and that the bridges detailed include those restored or in immediate danger of collapse . Within a year of the publication of the book , 30 bridges were lost . Known bridges in states that are not in the listing are not named or cited . For example , West Virginia had 17 remaining bridges at time of publication , but the book only covers 10 of them .
Krekeler 's text uses the National Society for the Preservation of Covered Bridges ' numerical system for recording covered bridges . The system is a collection of three sets of two digits used to represent the state , the county and the designated bridge respectively . The book includes detailed information on each state 's historic bridges before providing an individual listing of surveyed bridges . A typical page includes two entries on a single page . Each entry includes a description of the bridge , its history , a black and white photograph , and a local street map with directions . Interspersed throughout the book is a collection of color photographs ranging from a full page to a quarter page in size . Krekeler states that construction dates prior to 1850 are often questionable because of an absence of records and that these early sources would often contradict one another . Krekeler 's bibliography cites an extensive collection of state maps , numerous local newspaper sources and works like World Guide to Covered Bridges by Richard Donovan . The information and sources used are cited at the end of each entry listing in the book , directly following the directions to the bridge . The book does not contain a typical index and instead favors a listing of bridges after the introduction of the state . The book was published in 1989 by Daring Books .
= = Impact = =
Larry Hart 's review of the work focused on Krekeler 's basic explanation of the various types of covered bridges from the early 1800s to the 1920s and the historical facts and trivia contained within about the distribution and surviving covered bridges . Hart recounts the claim that it is the " only complete pictorial study of covered bridges in the United States " . Though Hart 's review incorporates much of the book 's text , Hart shares an affinity for covered bridges and relates to the destroyed Batchellerville Bridge . Krekeler writes that she wished the Batchellerville Bridge had been preserved instead of being torched . Dr. Roger A. McCain notes that Krekeler 's book " includes a number of states with pictorial coverage , including some really exquisite color photographs . It is not comprehensive in most cases [ , ] but is especially strong for Ohio and Indiana . Pennsylvania bridges are pretty extensively documented in [ . ] " Paul Grondahl refers to the book as an " encyclopedic , definitive work " in an article in the Times Union . Historic American Engineering Record surveys have cited Krekeler 's work numerous times , ranging from the estimations of the surviving truss types of covered bridges to more general and unspecific references . Covered Bridges Today has been cited by later books on the subject of covered bridges including New England 's Covered Bridges : A Complete Guide , Indiana Covered Bridges and Covered Bridges in Virginia .
= William T. Anderson =
William T. Anderson ( 1840 – October 26 , 1864 ) , better known as Bloody Bill , was one of the deadliest and most brutal pro @-@ Confederate guerrilla leaders in the American Civil War . Anderson led a band that targeted Union loyalists and Federal soldiers in Missouri and Kansas .
Raised by a family of Southerners in Kansas , Anderson began supporting himself by stealing and selling horses in 1862 . After his father was killed by a Union @-@ loyalist judge , Anderson fled Kansas for Missouri . There , he robbed travelers and killed several Union soldiers . In early 1863 , Anderson joined Quantrill 's Raiders , a pro @-@ Confederate group of guerrillas that operated in Missouri . He became a skilled bushwhacker , earning the trust of the group 's leaders , William Quantrill and George M. Todd . Anderson 's acts as a guerrilla led the Union to imprison his sisters ; after one of them died in custody , Anderson devoted himself to revenge . He took a leading role in the Lawrence Massacre , and later participated in the Battle of Baxter Springs .
In late 1863 , while Quantrill 's Raiders spent the winter in Texas , animosity developed between Anderson and Quantrill . Anderson , perhaps falsely , implicated Quantrill in a murder , leading to the latter 's arrest by Confederate authorities . Anderson subsequently returned to Missouri as the leader of a group of raiders and became the most feared guerrilla in the state , killing and robbing dozens of Union soldiers and civilian sympathizers throughout central Missouri . Although Union supporters viewed him as incorrigibly evil , Confederate sympathizers in Missouri saw his actions as justified , possibly owing to their mistreatment by Union forces . In September 1864 , he led a raid on Centralia , Missouri . Unexpectedly , they were able to capture a passenger train , the first time Confederate guerrillas had done so . In what became known as the Centralia Massacre , possibly the war 's deadliest and most brutal guerrilla action , his men killed 24 Union soldiers on the train and set an ambush later that day that killed more than 100 Union militiamen . A month later , Anderson was killed in battle . Historians have made disparate appraisals of Anderson : some see him as a sadistic , psychopathic killer , but for others , his actions cannot be separated from the general lawlessness of the time .
= = Early life = =
William T. Anderson was born in 1840 in Hopkins County , Kentucky , to William C. and Martha Anderson . His siblings were Jim , Ellis , Mary Ellen , Josephine and Janie . His schoolmates recalled him as a well @-@ behaved , reserved child . During his childhood , Anderson 's family moved to Huntsville , Missouri where his father found employment on a farm and the family became well respected . In 1857 , the family relocated to Kansas , traveling southwest on the Santa Fe Trail and settling 13 miles ( 21 km ) east of Council Grove , Kansas . The Anderson family supported slavery , although they did not own slaves ; however , their move to Kansas was likely for economic rather than political reasons . At that time , there was significant debate about slavery in Kansas , and many residents of the northern United States had moved there to ensure that it would not become a slave state . Animosity soon developed between these immigrants and Confederate sympathizers , but there was little unrest in the Council Grove area . After settling near Council Grove , the family became friends with A. I. Baker , a local judge who was a Confederate sympathizer . By 1860 , William T. Anderson was a joint owner of a 320 @-@ acre ( 1 @.@ 3 km2 ) property that was worth $ 500 and his family had a net worth of around $ 1 @,@ 000 . On June 28 , 1860 , Martha Anderson died after being struck by lightning .
In the late 1850s , Ellis Anderson fled to Iowa after killing an Indian . Around the same time , William T. Anderson fatally shot a member of the Kaw tribe outside of Council Grove ; he related that the man had tried to rob him . He joined the freight shipping operation that his father worked for and was given a position known as " second boss " for a wagon trip to New Mexico . The trip was not successful : he returned to Missouri without the shipment , and stated that his horses had disappeared with the cargo . After he returned to Council Grove , he began horse trading , taking horses from towns in Kansas , transporting them to Missouri , and returning with more horses .
= = Horse trading and outlawry = =
After the Civil War began in 1861 , the demand for horses increased , and Anderson transitioned from trading horses to stealing horses , reselling them as far away as New Mexico . He worked with his brother Jim , their friend Lee Griffith , and several accomplices strung along the Santa Fe Trail . In late 1861 , Anderson traveled south with brother Jim and Judge Baker , in an apparent attempt to join the Confederate Army . Anderson had stated to a neighbor that he sought to fight for financial reasons , rather than loyalty to the Confederacy . However , the group was attacked by the Union 's 6th Regiment Kansas Volunteer Cavalry in Vernon County , Missouri ; the cavalry likely assumed they were Confederate guerrillas . The Anderson brothers escaped , but Baker was captured and spent four months in prison before returning to Kansas , professing loyalty to the Union . One way that he sought to prove his loyalty to the Union was by severing his ties with Anderson 's sister Mary , his former lover .
Upon his return to Kansas , Anderson continued horse trafficking , but ranchers in the area soon became aware of his operations . In May 1862 , Baker issued an arrest warrant for Griffith , whom Anderson helped hide . Some local citizens suspected that the Anderson family was assisting Griffith and traveled to their house to confront William C. Anderson . After hearing their accusations against his sons , he was incensed — he found Baker 's involvement particularly infuriating . The next day , he traveled to the Council Grove courthouse with a gun , intending to force Baker to withdraw the warrant . As he entered the building , he was restrained by a constable and fatally shot by Baker . William Anderson buried his father , and was subsequently arrested for assisting Griffith . However , he was quickly released owing to a problem with the warrant , and fled to Agnes City , fearing that he would be lynched . There he met Baker , who temporarily placated him by providing a lawyer . Anderson remained in Agnes City until he learned that Baker would not be charged , as the judge 's claim of self @-@ defense had been accepted by legal authorities . Anderson was outraged and went to Missouri with his siblings . William and Jim Anderson then traveled southwest of Kansas City , robbing travelers to support themselves .
On July 2 , 1862 , William and Jim Anderson returned to Council Grove and sent an accomplice to Baker 's house claiming to be a traveler seeking supplies . Baker and his brother @-@ in @-@ law brought the man to a store , where they were ambushed by the Anderson brothers . After a brief gunfight , Baker and his brother @-@ in @-@ law fled into the store 's basement . The Andersons barricaded the door to the basement and lit the store on fire , killing Baker and his brother @-@ in @-@ law . They also burnt Baker 's home and stole two of his horses before returning to Missouri on the Santa Fe Trail .
William and Jim Anderson soon formed a gang with a man named Bill Reed ; in February 1863 , the Lexington Weekly Union recorded that Reed was the leader of the gang . In his 2003 history of Civil War Missouri , Bruce Nichols stated that Reed led the gang until mid @-@ July of that year . William Quantrill , a Confederate guerrilla leader , later claimed to have encountered them in July and rebuked them for robbing Confederate sympathizers ; in their biography of Anderson , Albert Castel and Tom Goodrich speculate that this rebuke may have resulted in a deep resentment of Quantrill by Anderson . Anderson and his gang subsequently traveled east of Jackson County , Missouri , avoiding territory where Quantrill operated and continuing to support themselves by robbery . They also attacked Union soldiers , killing seven by early 1863 .
= = Quantrill 's Raiders = =
Missouri had a large Union presence throughout the Civil War , but also many civilians whose sympathies lay with the Confederacy . From July 1861 until the end of the war , the state suffered up to 25 @,@ 000 deaths from guerrilla warfare , more than any other state . Confederate General Sterling Price failed to gain control of Missouri in his 1861 offensive and retreated into Arkansas , leaving only the guerrillas to challenge Union dominance . Quantrill was at the time the most prominent guerrilla in the Kansas – Missouri area . In early 1863 , William and Jim Anderson traveled to Jackson County , Missouri , to join him . William Anderson was initially given a chilly reception from other raiders , who perceived him to be brash and overconfident .
In May 1863 , Anderson joined members of Quantrill 's Raiders on a foray near Council Grove , in which they robbed a store 15 miles ( 24 km ) west of the town . After the robbery , the group was intercepted by a United States Marshal accompanied by a large posse , about 150 miles ( 240 km ) from the Kansas – Missouri border . In the resulting skirmish , several raiders were captured or killed and the rest of the guerrillas , including Anderson , split into small groups to return to Missouri . Castel and Goodrich speculated that this raid may have given Quantrill the idea of a launching an attack deep in Kansas , as it demonstrated that the state 's border was poorly defended and that guerrillas could travel deep within the state before Union forces were alerted .
In early summer 1863 , Anderson was made a lieutenant , serving in a unit led by George M. Todd . In June and July , Anderson took part in several raids that killed Union soldiers , in Westport , Kansas City , and Lafayette County , Missouri . The first reference to Anderson in Official Records of the American Civil War concerns his activities at this time , describing him as the captain of a band of guerrillas . He commanded 30 – 40 men , one of whom was Archie Clement , an 18 @-@ year @-@ old with a predilection for torture and mutilation who was loyal only to Anderson . By late July , Anderson led groups of guerrillas on raids , and was often pursued by Union volunteer cavalry . Anderson was under Quantrill 's command , but independently organized some attacks .
Quantrill 's Raiders had a support network in Missouri , that provided them with numerous hiding places . Anderson 's sisters aided the guerrillas by gathering information inside Union territory . In August 1863 , however , Union General Thomas Ewing , Jr . , attempted to thwart the guerrillas by arresting their female relatives , and Anderson 's sisters were confined in a three @-@ story building on Grand Avenue in Kansas City with a number of other girls . While they were confined , the building collapsed , killing one of Anderson 's sisters . In the aftermath , rumors that the building had been intentionally sabotaged by Union soldiers spread quickly ; Anderson was convinced that it had been a deliberate act . Biographer Larry Wood wrote that Anderson 's motivation shifted after the death of his sister , arguing that killing then became his focus — and an enjoyable act . Castel and Goodrich maintain that killing became more than a means to an end at that point for Anderson : it became an end in itself .
= = = Lawrence Massacre = = =
Although Quantrill had considered the idea of a raid on Lawrence , Kansas , before the building collapsed in Kansas City , the deaths convinced the guerrillas to make a bold strike . Quantrill attained near @-@ unanimous consent to travel 40 miles ( 64 km ) into Union territory to strike Lawrence . The guerrillas gathered at the Blackwater River in Johnson County , Missouri . Anderson was placed in charge of 40 men , of which he was perhaps the angriest and most motivated — his fellow guerrillas considered him one of the deadliest fighters there . On August 19 , the group , which proved to be the most guerrillas under one commander in the war , began the trip to Lawrence . En route , some guerrillas robbed a Union supporter , but Anderson knew the man and reimbursed him .
After reaching Lawrence , the guerrillas immediately killed a number of Union Army recruits and one of Anderson 's men took their flag . The Provost Marshal of Kansas , a Union captain who commanded military police , surrendered to the guerrillas and Anderson took his uniform . ( Guerrillas often wore uniforms stolen from Union soldiers . ) They proceeded to pillage and burn many buildings , killing almost every man they found , but taking care not to shoot women . Anderson personally killed 14 people . Although some men begged him to spare them , he persisted , but he relented when a woman pleaded with him not to torch her house . The guerrillas under Anderson 's command , notably including Archie Clement and Frank James , killed more than any of the other group . They left town at 9 a.m. , after a company of Union soldiers approached the town . The raiding party was pursued by Union forces , but eventually managed to break contact with the soldiers and scatter into the Missouri woods . After a dead raider was scalped by a Union @-@ allied Lenape Indian during the pursuit , one guerrilla leader pledged to adopt the practice of scalping .
= = Texas = =
On August 25 , 1863 , General Ewing retaliated against the Confederate guerrillas by issuing General Order No. 11 , an evacuation order that evicted almost 20 @,@ 000 people from four Missouri counties and burned many of their homes . The order was intended to rob the guerrillas of their support network in Missouri . On October 2 , a group of 450 guerrillas under Quantrill 's leadership met at Blackwater River in Jackson County and left for Texas .
They departed earlier in the year than they had planned , owing to increased Union pressure . En route , they entered Baxter Springs , Kansas , the site of Fort Blair . They attacked the fort on October 6 , but the 90 Union troops there quickly took refuge inside , suffering minimal losses . Shortly after the initial assault , a larger group of Union troops approached Fort Blair , unaware that the fort had been attacked and that the men they saw outside the fort dressed in Union uniforms were actually disguised guerrillas . The guerrillas charged the Union forces , killing about 100 . Anderson and his men were in the rear of the charge , but gathered a large amount of plunder from the dead soldiers , irritating some guerrillas from the front line of the charge . Not satisfied with the number killed , Anderson and Todd wished to attack the fort again , but Quantrill considered another attack too risky . He angered Anderson by ordering his forces to withdraw .
On October 12 , Quantrill and his men met General Samuel Cooper at the Canadian River and proceeded to Mineral Springs , Texas , to rest for the winter . Anderson married Bush Smith , a woman from Sherman , Texas . Anderson ignored Quantrill 's request to wait until after the war and then separated his men from Quantrill 's band . The tension between the two groups markedly increased — some feared that open warfare would result — but by the wedding , relations had improved . In March , at the behest of General Price , Quantrill reassembled his men , sending most of them into active duty with the Confederate Army . He retained 84 men and reunited with Anderson . Quantrill appointed him a first lieutenant , subordinate only to himself and to Todd .
A short time later , one of Anderson 's men was accused of stealing from one of Quantrill 's men . Quantrill expelled him and warned him not to come back , and the man was fatally shot by some of Quantrill 's men when he attempted to return . It is likely that this incident angered Anderson , and he took 20 men to visit the town of Sherman . They told General Cooper that Quantrill was responsible for the death of a Confederate officer ; the general then had Quantrill arrested . Sutherland described Anderson 's betrayal of Quantrill as a " Judas " turn . Quantrill was taken into custody , but soon escaped . Anderson was told to recapture him and gave chase , but he was unable to locate his former commander and stopped at a creek . There , his men briefly engaged a group of guerrillas loyal to Quantrill , but no one was injured in the confrontation . Upon returning to the Confederate leadership , Anderson was commissioned as a captain by General Price .
= = Return to Missouri = =
Anderson and his men rested in Texas for several months before returning to Missouri . Although he learned that Union General Egbert B. Brown had devoted significant attention to the border area , Anderson led raids in Cooper and Johnson County , Missouri , robbing local residents . On June 12 , Anderson and 50 of his men engaged 15 members of the Missouri State Militia , killing and robbing 12 . After the attack , one of Anderson 's guerrillas scalped a dead militiaman . The next day , in Southeast Jackson County , Anderson 's group ambushed a wagon train carrying members of the Union 1st Northeast Missouri Cavalry , killing nine . The attacks prompted the Kansas City Daily Journal of Commerce to declare that rebels had taken over the area . Anderson and his men dressed as Union soldiers , wearing uniforms taken from those they killed . In response , Union militias developed hand signals to verify that approaching men in Union uniforms were not guerrillas . The guerrillas , however , quickly learned the signals , and local citizens became wary of Union troops , fearing that they were disguised guerrillas .
On July 6 , a Confederate sympathizer brought Anderson newspapers containing articles about him . Anderson was upset by the critical tone of the coverage and sent letters to the publications . In the letters , Anderson took an arrogant and threatening , yet playful , tone , boasting of his attacks . He protested the execution of guerrillas and their sympathizers , and threatened to attack Lexington , Missouri . He concluded the letters by describing himself as the commander of " Kansas First Guerrillas " and requesting that local newspapers publish his replies . The letters were given to Union generals and were not published for 20 years .
In early July , Anderson 's group robbed and killed several Union sympathizers in Carroll and Randolph counties . On July 15 , Anderson and his men entered Huntsville , Missouri , and occupied the town 's business district . Anderson killed one hotel guest whom he suspected was a U.S. Marshall , but spoke amicably with an acquaintance he found there . Anderson 's men robbed the town 's depository , gaining about $ 40 @,@ 000 in the robbery , although Anderson returned some money to the friend he had met at the hotel .
= = = Growing infamy = = =
In June 1864 , Todd usurped Quantrill 's leadership of their group , and forced him to leave the area . Todd rested his men in July to allow them to prepare for a Confederate invasion of Missouri . As Quantrill and Todd became less active , Anderson emerged as the best known , and most feared , Confederate guerrilla in Missouri . By August , the St. Joseph Herald , a Missouri newspaper , was describing him as " the Devil " . As Anderson 's profile increased , he was able to recruit more guerillas . Anderson was selective , turning away all but the fiercest applicants as he sought fighters similar to himself . His fearsome reputation gave a fillip to his recruiting efforts . Jesse James enlisted , joining his brother Frank ; they later became famous outlaws . General Clinton B. Fisk ordered his men to find and kill Anderson , but they were thwarted by Anderson 's support network and his forces ' superior training and arms . Many militia members had been conscripted and lacked the guerillas ' boldness and resolve . In 1863 , most Union troops left Missouri and only four regiments remained there . These regiments were composed of troops from out of state , who sometimes mistreated local residents — further motivating the guerrillas and their supporters . The Union militias sometimes rode slower horses and may have been intimidated by Anderson 's reputation .
On July 23 , 1864 , Anderson led 65 men to Renick , Missouri , robbing stores and tearing down telegraph wires on the way . They had hoped to attack a train , but its conductor learned of their presence and turned back before reaching the town . The guerrillas then attacked Allen , Missouri . At least 40 members of the 17th Illinois Cavalry and the Missouri State Militia were in town but took shelter in a fort . The guerrillas were only able to shoot their horses before reinforcements arrived , killing three of Anderson 's men . In late July , the Union military sent a force of 100 well @-@ equipped soldiers , and 650 other men , after Anderson . On July 30 , Anderson and his men kidnapped the elderly father of the local Union militia 's commanding officer . They tortured him until he was near death and sent word to the man 's son in an unsuccessful attempt to lure him into an ambush , before releasing the father with instructions to spread word of his mistreatment . On August 1 , while searching for militia members , Anderson and some of his men stopped at a house full of women and requested food . While they rested at the house , a group of local men attacked . The guerrillas quickly forced the attackers to flee , and Anderson shot and injured one woman as she fled the house . This action angered his men , who saw themselves as the protectors of women , but Anderson dismissed their concerns , stating that such things were inevitable . They chased the men who had attacked them , killing one and mutilating his body . By August 1864 , they were regularly scalping the men that they killed .
In early August , Anderson and his men traveled to Clay County . Around that time , he received further media coverage : the St. Joseph Morning Herald deemed him a " heartless scoundrel " , publishing an account of his torture of a captured Union soldier . On August 10 , while traveling through Clay County , Anderson and his men engaged 25 militia members , killing five of them and forcing the rest to flee . After hearing of the engagement , General Fisk commanded a colonel to lead a party with the sole aim of killing Anderson .
= = = Missouri River and Fayette = = =
On August 13 , Anderson and his men traveled through Ray County , Missouri , to the Missouri River , where they engaged Union militia . Although they forced the Union forces to flee , Anderson and Jesse James were injured in the encounter and the guerrillas retired to Boone County , to rest . On August 27 , Union soldiers killed at least three of Anderson 's men in an engagement near Rocheport . The next day , the 4th Missouri Volunteer Cavalry pursued them , but Anderson launched an ambush that killed seven Union soldiers . Anderson 's men mutilated the bodies , earning the guerrillas the description of " incarnate fiends " from the Columbia Missouri Statesman . On August 30 , Anderson and his men attacked a steamboat on the Missouri River , killing the captain and gaining control of the boat . They used it to attack other boats , bringing river traffic to a virtual halt . In mid @-@ September , while traveling through Howard County , Union soldiers ambushed two of Anderson 's parties , killing five men in one day . They found the guerrillas ' horses decorated with the scalps of Union soldiers . A short time later , another six of Anderson 's men were ambushed and killed by Union troops ; after learning of these events , Anderson was outraged and left the area to seek revenge .
Anderson met Todd and Quantrill on September 24 , 1864 ; although they had clashed in the past , they agreed to work together . Anderson suggested that they attack Fayette , Missouri , targeting the 9th Missouri cavalry , which was based at the town . Quantrill disliked the idea because the town was fortified , but Anderson and Todd prevailed . Clad in Union uniforms , the guerrillas generated little suspicion as they approached the town , even though it had received warning of nearby guerrillas . However , a guerrilla fired his weapon before they reached the town , and the cavalry quickly withdrew into their fort while civilians hid . Anderson and Todd launched an unsuccessful attack against the fort , leading charge after futile charge without injury . The defeat resulted in the deaths of five guerrillas but only two Union soldiers , further maddening Anderson .
On September 26 , Anderson and his men reached Monroe County , Missouri , and traveled towards Paris , but learned of other nearby guerrillas and rendezvoused with them near Audrain County . Anderson and his men camped with at least 300 men , including Todd . Although a large group of guerrillas was assembled , their leaders felt that there were no promising targets to attack , because all of the large towns nearby were heavily guarded .
= = Raid on Centralia = =
On the morning of September 27 , Anderson left his camp with about 75 men to scout for Union forces . They soon arrived at the small town of Centralia and proceeded to loot it , robbing people and searching the town for valuables . They found a large supply of whiskey and all began drinking . Anderson retreated into the lobby of the town hotel to drink and rest . A stagecoach soon arrived , and Anderson 's men robbed the passengers , including Congressman James S. Rollins and a plainclothes sheriff . The two were prominent Unionists , and hid their identities from the guerrillas . As the guerrillas robbed the stagecoach passengers , a train arrived . The guerrillas blocked the railroad , forcing the train to stop . Anderson 's men quickly took control of the train , which included 23 off @-@ duty Union soldiers as passengers . This was the first capture of a Union passenger train in the war .
Anderson ordered his men not to harass the women on the train , but the guerrillas robbed all of the men , finding over $ 9 @,@ 000 and taking the soldiers ' uniforms . Anderson forced the captured Union soldiers to form a line and announced that he would keep one for a prisoner exchange , but would execute the rest . He addressed the prisoners , castigating them for the treatment of guerrillas by Union troops . After selecting a sergeant for a potential prisoner swap , Anderson 's men shot the rest . Anderson gave the civilian hostages permission to leave but warned them not to put out fires or move bodies . Although he was alerted of the congressman 's presence in the town , he opted not to search for him . The guerrillas set the passenger train on fire and derailed an approaching freight train . Anderson 's band then rode back to their camp , taking a large amount of looted goods .
= = = Battle with Union soldiers = = =
Anderson arrived at the guerrilla camp and described the day 's events , the brutality of which unsettled Todd . By mid @-@ afternoon , the 39th Missouri Volunteer Infantry had arrived in Centralia . From the town , they saw a group of about 120 guerrillas and pursued them . The guerrillas heard that the cavalry was approaching , and Anderson sent a party to set an ambush . They drew the Union troops to the top of a hill ; a group of guerrillas led by Anderson had been stationed at the bottom and other guerrillas hid nearby . Anderson then led a charge up the hill . Although five guerrillas were killed by the first volley of Union fire , the Union soldiers were quickly overwhelmed by the well @-@ armed guerrillas , and those who fled were pursued . One Union officer reached Centralia and gave word of the ambush , allowing a few Union soldiers who had remained there to escape . However , most were hunted down and killed ; Anderson 's men mutilated the bodies of the dead soldiers and tortured some survivors .
At Centralia , Anderson 's men killed 125 soldiers in the battle and 22 from the train in one of the most decisive guerrilla victories of the Civil War . It was Anderson 's greatest victory , surpassing Lawrence and Baxter Springs in brutality and the number of casualties . The attack led to a near halt in rail traffic in the area and a dramatic increase in Union rail security . Anderson achieved the same notoriety that Quantrill had previously enjoyed , and he began to refer to himself as " Colonel Anderson " , partly in an effort to supplant Quantrill . Sutherland saw the massacre as the last battle in the worst phase of the war in Missouri , and Castel and Goodrich described the slaughter as the Civil War 's " epitome of savagery " . However , Frank James , who participated in the attack , later defended the guerrillas ' actions , arguing that the federal troops were marching under a black flag , indicating that they intended to show no mercy .
= = Aftermath of Centralia = =
Anderson left the Centralia area on September 27 , pursued for the first time by Union forces equipped with artillery . Anderson evaded the pursuit , leading his men into ravines that the Union troops would not enter for fear of ambush . In the aftermath of the attacks , Union soldiers committed several revenge killings of Confederate @-@ sympathizing civilians . They burned Rocheport to the ground on October 2 ; the town was under close scrutiny by Union forces , owing to the number of Confederate sympathizers there , but General Fisk maintained that the fire was accidental . Anderson watched the fire from nearby bluffs .
Anderson visited Confederate sympathizers as he traveled , some of whom viewed him as a hero for fighting the Union , whom they deeply hated . Many of Anderson 's men also despised the Union , and he was adept at tapping into this emotion . The Union soldier held captured at Centralia was impressed with the control that Anderson exercised over his men . Although many of them wished to execute this Union hostage , Anderson refused to allow it . On October 6 , Anderson and his men traveled to meet General Price in Boonville , Missouri . Price was disgusted that Anderson used scalps to decorate his horse , and would not speak with him until he removed them . He was , however , impressed by the effectiveness of Anderson 's attacks . Anderson presented him with a gift of fine Union pistols , likely captured at Centralia . Price instructed Anderson to travel to the Missouri railroad and disrupt rail traffic , making Anderson a de facto Confederate captain .
Anderson traveled 70 miles ( 110 km ) east with 80 men to New Florence , Missouri . The group then traveled west , disregarding the mission assigned by General Price in favor of looting . Anderson reached a Confederate Army camp ; although he hoped to kill some injured Union prisoners there , he was prevented from doing so by camp doctors . After Confederate forces under General Joseph O. Shelby conquered Glasgow , Anderson traveled to the city to loot . He visited the house of a well @-@ known Union sympathizer , the wealthiest resident of the town , brutally beat him , and raped his 12- or 13 @-@ year @-@ old black servant . Anderson indicated that he was particularly angry that the man had freed his slaves and trampled him with a specially trained horse . Local residents gathered $ 5 @,@ 000 , which they gave to Anderson ; he then released the man , who died of his injuries in 1866 . Anderson killed several other Union loyalists and some of his men returned to the wealthy resident 's house to rape more of his female servants . He left the area with 150 men .
= = Death = =
Union military leaders assigned Lieutenant Colonel Samuel P. Cox to kill Anderson , providing him with a group of experienced soldiers . Soon after Anderson left Glasgow , a local woman saw him and told Cox of his presence . On October 26 , 1864 , he pursued Anderson 's group with 150 men and engaged them in battle . Anderson and his men charged the Union forces , killing five or six of them , but turned back under heavy fire . Only Anderson and one other man , the son of a Confederate general , continued to charge after the others retreated . Anderson was hit by a bullet behind an ear , likely killing him instantly . Four other guerrillas were killed in the attack . The victory made a hero of Cox and led to his promotion .
Union soldiers identified Anderson by a letter found in his pocket and paraded his body through the streets of Richmond , Missouri . The corpse was photographed and displayed at a local courthouse for public viewing , along with Anderson 's possessions . Union soldiers claimed that Anderson was found with a string that had 53 knots , symbolizing each person he had killed . Union soldiers buried Anderson 's body in a field near Richmond in a fairly well @-@ built coffin . Some of them cut off one of his fingers to steal a ring . Flowers were placed at his grave , to the chagrin of Union soldiers . In 1908 , Cole Younger , a former guerrilla who served under Quantrill , reburied Anderson 's body in the Old Pioneer Cemetery ( Mormon ) in Richmond , Missouri . In 1967 , a memorial stone was placed at the grave .
Archie Clement led the guerrillas after Anderson 's death , but the group splintered by mid @-@ November . Most Confederate guerrillas lost heart around that time , owing to a cold winter and the failure of General Price 's 1864 Missouri campaign , which ensured that the state would remain under Union control . As the Confederacy collapsed , most of Anderson 's men joined Quantrill 's forces or traveled to Texas . Jim Anderson moved to Sherman , Texas , with his two sisters .
= = Legacy = =
After the war , information about Anderson initially spread through memoirs of Civil War combatants and works by amateur historians . He was later discussed in biographies of Quantrill , which typically cast him as an inveterate murderer . Three biographies of Anderson were written after 1975 . Asa Earl Carter 's novel The Rebel Outlaw : Josey Wales features Anderson as a main character . In 1976 , the book was adapted into a film , The Outlaw Josey Wales , which portrays a man who joins Anderson 's gang after his wife is killed by Union @-@ backed raiders . James Carlos Blake 's novel Wildwood Boys is a fictional biography of Anderson . He also appears as a character in several films about Jesse James .
Historians have been mixed in their appraisal of Anderson . Wood describes him as the " bloodiest man in America 's deadliest war " and characterizes him as the clearest example of the war 's " dehumanizing influence " . Castel and Goodrich view Anderson as one of the war 's most savage and bitter combatants , but they also argue that the war made savages of many others . According to journalist T. J. Stiles , Anderson was not necessarily a " sadistic fiend " , but illustrated how young men became part of a " culture of atrocity " during the war . He maintains that Anderson 's acts were seen as particularly shocking in part because his cruelty was directed towards white Americans of equivalent social standing , rather than targets deemed acceptable by American society , such as Native Americans or foreigners .
In a study of 19th @-@ century warfare , historian James Reid posits that Anderson suffered from delusional paranoia , which exacerbated his aggressive , sadistic personality . He sees Anderson as obsessed with , and greatly enjoying , the ability to inflict fear and suffering in his victims , and suggests he suffered from the most severe type of sadistic personality disorder . Reid draws a parallel between the bashi @-@ bazouks and Anderson 's group , arguing that they behaved similarly .
= Bolli Bollason =
Bolli Bollason ( also Bolli Bollison ) was a key historical character in the Medieval Icelandic Laxdæla saga , born around 1000 . He grew up in Orlygsstadir , at Helgafell on the Snæfellsnes Peninsula in Iceland . He divided his time between Helgafell and Tunga , the home of Snorri the Goði . [ Note 1 ] He was held in the highest regard among the contemporary Scandinavian rulers , and also in the Byzantine Empire , where he became the first known West Norseman in the Varangian Guard . [ Note 2 ] It is believed that he had reached the rank of manglabites in the Byzantine army , and on his return to Iceland , his finery and recognition earned him the name " Bolli the Elegant " .
His importance in the literary context of the saga is his prominence as the son of Bolli Þorleiksson and Guðrún Ósvífursdóttir , the two central characters of the work . He is mentioned at the end of the Sneglu @-@ Hall þáttur ( The Tale of Sarcastic Halli ) , and is also the subject of his own tale , the Bollaþáttur , which was later appended to the end of the manuscripts in the early 14th century .
= = Laxdæla saga = =
= = = Background = = =
The Laxdæla saga or Saga of the People of Laxardal is an Icelandic family saga written sometime between 1250 and 1270 , possibly by a woman author . " Vast in conception " , the grand sweep of the saga 's action spans well over a century from AD 890 to 1030 . Alongside Njál 's saga and Egil 's saga , the Laxdæla saga makes the strongest claim of any Icelandic saga for literary greatness . Shaped by continental literary traditions and several types of saga , the characterisation " highlights nobility , splendour and physical appearance " , although :
… in their actions the male characters tend not to live up to the grandeur and hyperbole with which they are presented . At foreign courts their stature is aristocratic , but at home in Iceland they are farmers with few outlets other than words and smart clothes for their aspirations to nobility . This is a saga in which even slaves are high @-@ born , descended from the kings of Ireland .
The saga is also a feud saga , in which " feuds escalate from trivial local squabbles into unstoppable vendettas . The male protagonists are splendid figures who die heroic deaths , while the women are strong characters who engineer much of the action " .
Many manuscripts of the Laxdæla saga have survived , although all printed versions have been based upon the Möðruvallabók ( dated 1330 @-@ 1370 ) , the only intact vellum manuscript . Historiographically , the distinction between narrative and history did not exist at the time when the sagas were written . However , the sagas develop a " dense and plausible " historical context , with the authenticating details and precision necessary for the narrative . The world within which the local and detailed stories of the individual sagas exist can be confirmed by archaeology and comparison with histories in other languages .
= = = Account = = =
= = = = Family and early life = = = =
Bolli Bollason was one of the People of Laxárdalur , in the Western Quarter of Iceland . He was born in 1006 to Guðrún Ósvífursdóttir , the winter after the killing of his father , Bolli Þorleiksson . Guðrún had been courted by Bolli Þorleiksson and his foster @-@ brother Kjartan Ólafsson , but although she preferred Kjartan , she gave herself to Bolli Þorleiksson on the basis of a false rumour that Kjartan was engaged . The consequent hostilities between the two foster @-@ brothers ended with Bolli Þorleiksson killing Kjartan , and then he in turn being killed by Kjartan 's kinsmen . Bolli Bollason grew up with his brother Thorleik , who was four years his senior , and his mother Guðrún in Helgafell , after she exchanged homes with the renowned Snorri the Goði .
Guðrún remarried , this time to Thorkell Eyjolffsson , who became a great chieftain in his own countryside and took over the running of the household at Helgafell . This left Bolli able to spend his time both at Helgafell and with Snorri in Tunga , and Snorri became very fond of him . Thorkell was fond of both his stepsons , but Bolli was regarded as " being the foremost in all things " . Thorleik journeyed abroad to Norway , and stayed with King Olaf II for several months .
When Bolli was eighteen years old he asked for his father 's portion , as he intended to woo Thordis Snorradottir , the daughter of Snorri Goði . He set out with his stepfather and a good many followers to Tunga . Snorri welcomed them , and the wedding feast took place that summer . Bolli abode at Tunga , and love grew between him and Thordis . The next summer , Thorleik returned in a goods @-@ laden ship to White @-@ river , " and the brothers greeted each other joyfully " .
The two brothers made peace with the sons of Ólaf , Kjartan 's kinsmen , at the Thorness Thing ; it is not known how much money was exchanged in compensation as part of the agreement , but Bolli received a good sword , and after the assembly " both sides were thought to have gained in esteem from these affairs " .
= = = = Travels abroad = = = =
Bolli 's later travels abroad with his brother Thorleik are well documented and notable for his role in the Varangian Guard . They departed Iceland , taking " a great deal of money abroad with him " , and reached Norway in the autumn . They stayed in Thrandheim for the winter , while King Olaf II was wintering in the east in Sarpsborg . Bolli soon became highly thought of in Norway , and his arrivals at the guild meeting @-@ places were noted for being better arrayed as to raiment and weapons than other townsfolk . Early in the spring the brothers prepared their ship and went east to meet the king . The king thought Bolli " a man of high mettle , " " even peerless among men " , and " the man of greatest mark that has ever come from Iceland . "
Bolli boarded a trade @-@ ship bound for Denmark , departing King Olaf in great friendship and with fine parting gifts . [ Note 2 ] Thorleik remained behind , but Bolli wintered in Denmark and became as well regarded as he had been in Norway . Travelling next to Constantinople , he spent many years in the Varangian Guard ; " and was thought to be the most valiant in all deeds that try a man , and always went next to those in the forefront . " The saga also records the finery his followers received from the Byzantine Emperor ( most likely Romanos III ) , and the influence he held after his return to Iceland , some time after the death of King Olaf II :
Bolli rode from the ship with twelve men , and all his followers were dressed in scarlet , and rode on gilt saddles , and all were they a trusty band , though Bolli was peerless among them . He had on the clothes of fur which the Garth @-@ king had given him , he had over all a scarlet cape ; and he had Footbiter girt on him , the hilt of which was dight with gold , and the grip woven with gold , he had a gilded helmet on his head , and a red shield on his flank , with a knight painted on it in gold . He had a dagger in his hand , as is the custom in foreign lands ; and whenever they took quarters the women paid heed to nothing but gazing at Bolli and his grandeur , and that of his followers .
The right to bear a gold @-@ hilted sword was one of the privileges of the court rank of manglabites , and is taken as an indicator that Bolli held this rank . In Iceland , his finery and recognition earned him the name " Bolli the Elegant " . His return to Thordis was joyful , and he took over the manor of Tunga when Snorri died at 67 years of age . Bolli had two children with Thordis : Herdis Bolladottir and Ospak Bollason .
= = Tales = =
= = = Bollaþáttur = = =
In Norse literature , a tale or þáttur referred to a short narrative often included as an episode in a larger whole , such as part of a saga . The Bolla þáttur Bollasonar , or Bolli Bollason 's Tale , is such a narrative about an episode in the life of Bolli Bollason , taken from the 14th century Möðruvallabók which contains the Laxdæla saga .
According to the tale , a man called Thorolf Stuck @-@ up had a bull which wounded his neighbours ' farm animals , damaged haystacks and caused " a great deal of trouble " . When an upstanding local farmer named Thord saw the bull damaging the stacks of peat on his farm at Marbaeli , he lunged at the animal with a spear and struck it dead . In revenge , Thorolf killed Thord 's seven- or eight @-@ year @-@ old son Olaf , to the disgust of Thorolf 's wife and kinsmen . Thorolf fled and eventually secured the protection of Thorvald Hjaltasson , a prominent leader who lived at Hjaltadal . After Christmas , Thorvald secured for him the safekeeping and support of Starri of Guddalir , who often sheltered outlaws .
Thord 's wife Gudrun , a first cousin of Bolli , asked him to take over the prosecution of the case . Accompanied by Arnor Crone 's @-@ nose and a large company of men , Bolli attended the Hegranes Assembly . Thorvald and Starri intended to block the prosecution " by force of arms and numbers " , but when they realised they were outnumbered , they withdrew and Bolli successfully had Thorolf outlawed . Passage out of Iceland was obtained for Thorolf aboard a merchant vessel at Hrutafjord . However , Bolli believed it would have been improper if the outlawed Thorolf were to escape , and having ridden north to Hrutafjord , he drew his sword Leg @-@ biter and " struck a blow right through " Thorolf , killing him .
He earned himself a great deal of honour by this , as men thought it quite an accomplishment to have the man outlawed in another district and then venture alone into the hands of his enemies and kill him there .
= = = Sneglu @-@ Halla þáttr = = =
Bolli died during the reign of Harald III of Norway , as is recorded at the end of The Tale of Sarcastic Halli . The tale makes reference to Bolli 's military prowess , in ironic contrast to the tale 's protagonist :
Harald learned of the deaths of two of his men from Iceland , Bolli the Elegant and Sarcastic Halli .
He said of Boli , " The warrior must have fallen victim to spears . "
But of Halli he said , " The poor devil must have burst eating porridge "
= Sphecomyrma =
Sphecomyrma is an extinct genus of ants which existed in the Cretaceous approximately 79 to 92 million years ago . The first specimens were collected in 1966 , found embedded in amber which had been exposed in the cliffs of Cliffwood , New Jersey , by Edmund Frey and his wife . In 1967 , zoologists E. O. Wilson , Frank Carpenter and William L. Brown , Jr. published a paper describing and naming Sphecomyrma freyi . They described an ant with a mosaic of features , a mix of characteristics from modern ants and aculeate wasps . It possessed a metapleural gland , a feature unique to ants , it was wingless and possessed a petiole which was ant @-@ like in form . The mandibles were short and wasp @-@ like with only two teeth , the gaster constricted and the middle and hind legs had double tibial spurs . The antennae were , in form , midway between the wasps and ants , having a short first segment but a long flexible funiculus . Two additional species , S. canadensis and S. mesaki , were described in 1985 and 2005 respectively .
The genus is among the earliest known ants to roam the earth and at the time was considered to be the evolutionary link between ants and wasps . It was suggested that ants diverged from tiphiid wasp ancestors , but later studies show that they originate from a different clade . It shows resemblance to extant primitive ants such as Nothomyrmecia and members of the tribe Aneuretini . Some scientists , however , doubted the nature of these ants and believed they were wasps , due to the possible absence of the metapleural gland in Sphecomyrma and short scapes which are key diagnostic traits for ants . Additional specimens collected proved Sphecomyrma was an ant as the metapleural gland was identified . Further fossil evidence and the slender body and large compound eyes suggest that they were epigaeic , foraging socially above ground and out in open areas . The sphecomyrmines , including these ants , most likely vanished by the end of the Mesozoic .
= = Taxonomy = =
Before the discovery of the first Sphecomyrma fossils , there were no fossil records of any ants from Cretaceous amber and the oldest social insects at the time extended back to the Eocene epoch ; the earliest known ant at the time was described from a forewing found in the Claiborne Formation in Tennessee . The great diversity of ant fossils found in the Baltic amber and Florissant shales of the Oligocene and in the Sicilian amber of the Miocene have prompted entomologists to search for ants of Cretaceous age that may link ants and non @-@ social wasps together . Such a link may shed light on the early origins of ants , but no fossils of any social insect existed before S. freyi was discovered , thus the early evolution of ants remained a mystery . Only a single hymenopterous Upper Cretaceous fossil has been the subject of possible significance to the evolution of aculeate wasps and ants . A single forewing was discovered in Siberia and described in 1957 as Cretavus sibiricus , with the author noting that the wing ventation closely resembles those of bethylid or scoliid wasps , of which these families of wasps have close connections with the origin of ants . However , there were several problems : as the fossil was only a single wing , scientists could not explain or answer whether or not the insect had key diagnostic body traits that would even place it within the subclade Aculeata .
In 1966 , the first fossils of S. freyi were collected by Edmund Frey and his wife during a trip collecting mineralogical specimens in the Magothy exposure near Cliffwood Beach in Raritan Bay , New Jersey . They found a large deep red piece of amber embedded in clay containing a number of insects , including some Diptera flies . The approximate age of the fossils dates back to the Cretaceous , 92 million years ago . Donald Baird of Princeton University first notified Carpenter about the recent discovery , and David Stager of the Newark Museum arranged to transfer the specimens to be studied and examined . At the time , the existence of ants of Cretaceous age was significant , but the ants were most likely not detected as much of the amber around the site was previously collected . The discovery of the ants confirmed the existence of Cretaceous ants , and the appearance of the workers closely matched the speculations of what Mesozoic ants looked like . As a result of these finds , E. O. Wilson and colleagues erected the new subfamily Sphecomyrminae and designated the genus Sphecomyrma ( meaning " wasp ant " ) as the type genus in an article they published in 1967 in the journal Science . The published paper included the first description of S. freyi , which was named after Edmund Frey and his wife . A holotype and a paratype of the species were collected and moved to the Museum of Comparative Zoology , but the holotype was accidentally destroyed . However , a neotype specimen numbered AMNH @-@ NJ @-@ 112 was collected from the Sunrise Landing site near Brunswick in 1994 , and was subsequently donated to the museum . The holotype was destroyed because the amber was accidentally cracked in half , separating the two workers from each other and later stored in a wooden cabinet in an uncovered draw with other fossil insects for 30 years ; the piece eventually deteriorated , appearing more dark and fractured .
Although the hypothesised description of what Mesozoic ants looked like was somewhat accurate when compared to actual specimens , some characteristics were inaccurate . They believed that ant @-@ like mandibles first appeared before the development of an ant @-@ like petiole , but such case was proven false when it was opposite on S. freyi specimens ( ant @-@ like petiole first appeared before the development of ant @-@ like mandibles ) . Based on drawings , it was suggested that Mesozoic ants had long mandibles with multiple teeth , toothed tarsal claws and a broadly jointed petiole . Examination of collected specimens , however , shows that these ants had very short mandibles , toothless tarsal claws and a separated petiole .
S. freyi remained as the sole member of Sphecomyrma until a fossil closely resembling the species was collected in Canadian amber deposits in 1985 . Wilson provided the first description of the fossil , naming it S. canadensis . He notes that the close resemblance of the fossils to S. freyi in key characteristics strongly support its inclusion in Sphecomyrminae . He further notes that the specimens are the first ants recorded in Canadian amber , but a vast diversity of insects have been found in the amber prior to the discovery , stretching as far back as the 19th century . The discovery of the specimens from Canada indicates that the subfamily was widespread through much of the northern hemisphere during the late Cretaceous . In 2005 , new fossils of an undescribed Sphecomyrma ant and S. freyi were collected in the White Oaks outcrop in Sayreville , New Jersey . The specimens were later donated to the American Museum of Natural History and studied by palaeoentomologists Michael Engel and David Grimaldi , who both provided the first description of the undescribed ant in an American Museum Novitates journal article , naming it Sphecomyrma mesaki . The age of these fossils are estimated at 79 to 92 million years .
In 1987 , Russian palaeoentomologist Gennady M. Dlussky elevated the subfamily at family level , renaming it as Sphecomyrmidae to accommodate Sphecomyrma and other fossil insects he studied throughout the Soviet Union . This placement was only short @-@ lived as Wilson , with new morphological evidence , elevated the family back to subfamily level and all studied Cretaceous ants were put into Sphecomyrma or Cretomyrma . However , Dlussky and Russian palaeoentomologist Elena B. Fedoseeva retained their classification and Sphecomyrma remained under Sphecomyrmidae . Their reasons were that the first segments of the antenna were too short to be elbowed and the structure of the mandibles . As elbowed antennae allow brood and food manipulation , or even sociality , it is impossible to classify Sphecomyrma and relatives as ants . Despite the authors ' notes , they did not cite any study as to how ants manipulate items and such with their antennae , but he may have implied that the apices , a feature found on the antenna , may have been too far away from the mandibles . The close distance of the apices from the mandibles would allow manipulation of food or antennation with other nestmates . Another issue was whether or not a metapleural gland was present , a unique feature only found in ants . Despite this and previous claims made by Dlussky saying that sphecomyrmines including Sphecomyrma were most likely solitary or semi @-@ communal , the confirmed existence of the metapleural gland through newly collected fossils confirms that Sphecomyrma and relatives were definitely social . The evidence against Dlussky eventually reinstated Sphecomyrma and the subfamily as members of Formicidae in 1997 , although some sources published before 1997 did not formally recognise Sphecomyrminae at family level . Additional doubts surrounding the nature of Sphecomyrma and relatives emerged when a 1999 paper concluded that the fossil ants found in Cretaceous amber in New Jersey were closer to wasps than they were to ants . This was quickly dismissed due to overwhelming evidence supporting their placement within the Formicidae , and the fact the authors cited unpublished cladograms and disregarded the key diagnostic traits ( synapomorphies ) found in the ants .
= = = Evolution = = =
Ants of this genus are considered to be the most primitive within the family Formicidae . The body presents a wasp @-@ like structure but with several ant @-@ like characteristics . These ant @-@ like characteristics , however , are primitive compared to more modern ants , and thus it is intermediate with other primitive ants and aculeate wasps . The presence of the metapleural gland , the nodiform ( a structure resembling a node , which is a segment found between the mesosoma and gaster , the bulbous posterior portion of the metasoma ) , the structure of the petiole and its general physical appearance of an ant concludes Sphecomyrma species are ants rather than wasps ; the absence of the metapleural gland would mean that it is most likely a wasp instead of an ant . It is not exactly known which group of wasps are the descendants of Sphecomyrma , but members of the family Tiphiidae , particularly those in the genus Methocha are strikingly similar with Sphecomyrma . Wilson placed the genus closest to the Tiphiidae among extant wasps , but a later study published in 1975 derives the ants from a later clade and not to the Tiphiidae .
Sphecomyrma may hold a close relationship with extant primitive ants . The Australian dinosaur ant ( Nothomyrmecia macrops ) is recognised as the most primitive living ant today , and both ants closely resemble each other . The Eocene genera of Aneuretini also resemble Sphecomyrma ants , which are believed to be the ancestors of Dolichoderinae . The subfamily Myrmeciinae was thought to be the ancestor of Aneure
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izans , or open turrets , and similar projections occur halfway along each wall . The parapet is supported on projecting stones , or corbels , arranged in a pattern of two tiers which alternate , rendering the lower tier purely decorative . Edzell represents an early occurrence of this style , known as chequered corbelling , which became more widespread later in the 16th century .
The two @-@ storey west range contains the main entrance , which enters the courtyard via an arched passage . Above the outside gate are spaces where armorial panels were once displayed . The windows on this front , larger than the original ones in the tower house , had iron grilles , and small gun holes beneath them . Beside the entrance was a kitchen , and above , a larger hall and drawing room . Only the western part of the three @-@ storey north range was completed , although the Lindsays planned to complete the courtyard . This range had another kitchen , as well as private chambers within the round tower at the north @-@ west corner . It was entered via a stair turret in the courtyard , fragments of which remain , including parts of an intricately carved door surround . Only the foundations of the east and south buildings remain , which probably contained a bakehouse and stables .
= = The walled garden = =
In addition to extending the castle , Sir David Lindsay also created Edzell 's most unusual feature , the walled garden , or " Pleasaunce " . Similar gardens were probably relatively common in Scotland during the Renaissance , but Edzell is a rare survivor . The garden would have provided a retreat from the castle , and was intended to delight , entertain , and instruct Sir David 's distinguished guests . It was started around 1604 , and shows signs of being hastily completed at his death in 1610 .
It is a rectangular enclosure some 52 metres ( 171 ft ) north to south , and 43 @.@ 5 metres ( 143 ft ) east to west , surrounded by a 3 @.@ 6 metres ( 12 ft ) high wall . The north wall is part of the castle courtyard , but the remaining three are intricately decorated . The walls are divided by pilasters ( now removed ) into regular sections , or compartments , each 3 metres ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) across . Each compartment has a niche above , possibly once containing statues . Those on the east wall have semi @-@ circular pediments carved with scrolls , and with the national symbols of thistle , fleur @-@ de @-@ lis , shamrock and rose , recalling the Union of the Crowns of England and Scotland , under James VI in 1603 . The pediments on the south wall are square , while there are no niches on the west wall , indicating that work may have prematurely come to a halt on Sir David 's death . Below the niches , the compartments are of alternating design . Three sets of seven carved panels occupy every other compartment . Between them , the walls are decorated with a representation of the Lindsay coat of arms , with eleven recesses in the form of a fess chequy , or chequered band , surmounted by three seven @-@ pointed stars , taken from the Stirling of Glenesk arms . Several spaces within the walls , including inside the stars , may have been intended as nesting holes for birds .
= = = The carved panels = = =
The sets of carved panels depict the seven Cardinal Virtues on the west wall , the seven Liberal Arts to the south , and the seven Planetary Deities on the east wall . Each panel is approximately 1 metre ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) high by 60 – 75 cm ( 2 @-@ 2 ½ ft ) wide . The deities are depicted in vesica @-@ shaped ( elliptical ) frames , the arts under arches , and the virtues in plain rectangles . W. Douglas Simpson describes the arts panels as the weakest set of carvings , again suggesting money was short for the west wall . He declared the arts panels to be the finest work , and compares the style of the deities to contemporary carvings found in Aberdeenshire , suggesting that the mason responsible may have come from there .
The carvings are all based on popular series of engravings , which were often published in pattern books . Nuremberg was the origin of numerous such books , and one may have been brought to Edzell by the miner Hans Ziegler . Specifically , the images of the deities are derived from engravings of 1528 – 29 by the German artist Georg Pencz ( or Iorg Bentz , c . 1500 – 1550 ) , a pupil of Albrecht Dürer ; the initials I. B. appear on the carving of Mars . The arts and virtues are both based on engravings derived from paintings by the Flemish artist Marten de Vos . The engravings , by Jan Sadeler and Crispijn de Passe , were widely distributed in Scotland , along with those of the deities . Indeed , the image of Prudence is identical to that used by the King 's Master of Works William Schaw , in the spectacular display to welcome Queen Anne to Scotland , following her marriage to James VI in 1589 .
= = = Buildings and planting = = =
To complement the garden , a bath house and summer house were constructed at the corners of the garden furthest from the castle . The bath house is ruined , but the two @-@ storey summer house survives intact . It comprises a groin @-@ vaulted lower room , with an upper chamber , containing the only surviving example of the castle ’ s carved @-@ oak wall panelling . Charles McKean attributes the design and construction of the garden buildings to Thomas Leiper , an Aberdeenshire stonemason , based on the elaborately decorated gun holes in the summer house .
The planting was recreated in the 1930s . No original plan of the renaissance garden survives , although records show fruit was grown in the 17th century . The garden has decorative hedges , trimmed into the shapes of the Scottish thistle , English rose , and French fleur @-@ de @-@ lis . Further planting is clipped into letters , spelling out the two Lindsay family mottoes , Dum Spiro Spero ( while I breathe I hope ) , and Endure Forte ( endure firmly ) .
= = = Interpretations = = =
The symbolism of the garden , particularly of the carvings , as well as the repetition of sevens and threes , has inspired many interpretations . The engravings upon which the carvings are based were commonplace in Scotland at the time , and were frequently used in the art of memory , a mnemonic memory technique associated with Freemasonry . The art of memory had become a feature throughout Scottish culture , from the court of Queen Anne , Danish consort of James VI , to the lodges of operative stonemasons . The potential influence of Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe 's symbolic garden at Uraniborg , which was visited by James IV of Scotland in 1590 , has also been noted .
Sir David Lindsay would have been well aware of the symbolic allusions of the carvings . In correspondence with his brother , Lord Menmuir , he discusses the relationship of the planets to the metals , which he had employed Hans Ziegler to search for on his land . Sir David 's nephew , David Lindsay , 1st Lord Balcarres , was noted for his interest in alchemy and the Rosicrucians .
Historian Adam McLean has suggested that the garden is associated with the Rosicrucians , and " should be seen as an early 17th @-@ century Mystery Temple " . McLean describes the garden as a place of instruction , and remarks that the whole structure is reminiscent of " Eliphas Levi 's description of the ancient Tarot of the Egyptians carved into the walls of their initiation temples , to which the candidate was taken to contemplate the sequence of the symbols " . He backs up this suggestion with the observation that the Mantegna Tarocchi , a set of 15th @-@ century engravings formerly thought to be a tarocchi or tarot deck , includes all these images amongst its symbols .
= Pawnee Zoo =
" Pawnee Zoo " is the second season premiere of the American comedy television series Parks and Recreation , and the seventh overall episode of the series . It originally aired on NBC in the United States on September 17 , 2009 . In the episode , Leslie accidentally takes a stand in favor of same @-@ sex marriage when she holds a marriage for two male penguins during a publicity stunt for the zoo .
The episode was written by Norm Hiscock and directed by Paul Feig . The writing staff sought to address more topical issues during the second season , and the same @-@ sex marriage plot was inspired by the real @-@ life pairing of Harry and Pepper , a pair of romantically involved male penguins at the San Francisco Zoo . However , Hiscock said he was focused more strongly on comedy than making a political or social statement .
" Pawnee Zoo " received generally positive reviews , with several commentators claiming it showed improvement and growth compared to the show 's first season , which received lukewarm reviews . According to Nielsen Media Research , " Pawnee Zoo " was watched by 5 million households . Among viewers aged between 18 and 49 , the episode was seen by 30 percent fewer viewers than the first season pilot episode . In March 2010 , " Pawnee Zoo " won the GLAAD Media Award for Outstanding Individual Episode .
= = Plot = =
The episode opens with Ron ( Nick Offerman ) saying to Leslie ( Amy Poehler ) , " Here 's the situation ... " , prompting her to go into a full rendition of the rap " Parents Just Don 't Understand " . Afterward , he tells her someone is on fire at a park and needs immediate assistance . Later , Leslie holds a marriage for two recently acquired penguins to help promote the Pawnee Zoo . Immediately after the marriage , the two penguins begin having sex in front of a crowd of children , who are informed by an adult in the audience that both penguins are actually males . The Bulge , a gay bar in Pawnee , later sends Leslie a wedding cake with two penguins on top to thank her for supporting the gay community . April ( Aubrey Plaza ) introduces Leslie to her boyfriend Derek ( Blake Lee ) , who himself also has a boyfriend named Ben ( Josh Duvendeck ) , much to Leslie 's confusion . They declare her their " hero " for holding the gay penguin wedding , but Leslie insists it was simply a publicity stunt , not a political statement . Nevertheless , Marcia Langman ( Darlene Hunt ) , a member of the Society for Family Stability Foundation , demands she annul the penguin wedding or resign from the parks department .
Ann ( Rashida Jones ) , who has been nursing Mark ( Paul Schneider ) at the hospital since he fell into the pit , says he has acted much nicer since the incident . Ann also reveals she has broken up with Andy ( Chris Pratt ) . Mark and Leslie kissed before he fell , but both insist they are just friends . Mark tries to ask Ann out , but she declines out of respect for Leslie 's friendship . Meanwhile , the Bulge holds a party in Leslie 's honor , which she attends along with Tom ( Aziz Ansari ) to announce she has not taken a political stand . However , she accepts the free drinks they offer her and ends up getting drunk and having a great time . The next day , she is invited to go on the Pawnee Today talk show to discuss her supposed stance on same @-@ sex marriage with Marcia Langman and television host Joan Callamezzo ( Mo Collins ) .
Meanwhile , Andy shows up at Ann 's house wearing a fancy suit . He tells her he has matured , gotten an office job and would like to get back together , but Ann declines . The camera follows Andy as he leaves , revealing he is actually living in a tent inside the pit . During the Pawnee Today show , Leslie and Marcia argue fiercely . Leslie insists she has not taken a political position , even after Marcia brings up the recent party at the Bulge . They take several callers , all of whom agree that Leslie should resign . Fed up , Leslie adamantly insists she will not resign , nor will she annul the penguin wedding . Later , she visits Ann and insists that Ann go on a date with Mark . The episode ends with Leslie driving the penguins from the Pawnee Zoo to a zoo in Iowa , where same @-@ sex marriage is legal .
= = Production = =
" Pawnee Zoo " was written by Norm Hiscock and directed by Paul Feig . It originally aired on NBC in the United States on September 17 , 2009 . It is the first episode to feature Chris Pratt in the title credits as a regular cast member rather than a guest star . The episode addressed the issue of same @-@ sex marriage , typically a controversial social topic for government officials . The staff of Parks and Recreation sought to address more topical issues with the second season episodes , and the writers discussed with series co @-@ creator Michael Schur possible topics for the season debut . They settled on same @-@ sex marriage , which was an issue of particularly high debate at the time , especially in the Los Angeles area . During that discussion , one of the writers brought up the real @-@ life pairing of Harry and Pepper , a pair of romantically involved male penguins at the San Francisco Zoo . The real @-@ life penguins had separated from each other shortly before the episode aired , which resulted in press coverage that the pair " broke up " .
Hiscock felt a gay penguin marriage was a good way to connect Leslie 's character and profession to the issue , since a zoo would be part of the parks department . He said , " It seemed like a funny starting place : a cute zoo promotion that spins out of control . " Although the storyline is comedic through its use of penguins in the same @-@ sex marriage , commentators inferred the episode nevertheless takes a position in favor of same @-@ sex marriage . Hiscock said in writing the script , he did not intend to make a strong political or social message , and that the staff was more focused on comedy and developing the Leslie Knope character . However , Hiscock said , " What I like is that Leslie doesn 't back down from her zoo promotion idea and refuses to annul the wedding . In a weird way she takes a stance . "
Within a week of the episode 's original broadcast , two deleted scenes from " Pawnee Zoo " were made available on the official Parks and Recreation website . In the first two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ minute clip , Tom talks at the penguin wedding about the " penguin bachelor party " he threw for the birds . Later , Tom and April help prepare Leslie for the Pawnee Today show by impersonating the other guests and berating Leslie without giving her a chance to speak . In the second two @-@ minute clip , Andy gives a tour of his home in the pit , and Leslie changes around Ann 's apartment to change the feng shui after her breakup with Andy . Ann also gives Mark brownies to bring to Leslie , which he promptly starts to eat himself .
= = Cultural references = =
During the episode 's cold open , Leslie Performs the third verse of " Parents Just Don 't Understand " , a rap song by DJ Jazzy Jeff & The Fresh Prince , while Ron tries to tell her about an emergency by saying the song 's starting line , " Here 's the situation " . April presents a stylized stencil poster of Leslie designed in a similar way to the Barack Obama " Hope " poster designed by artist Shepard Fairey , with the word " Knope " instead of " Hope " . While introducing Leslie at a gay bar , April says Leslie is " here to recruit you " , quoting a line from gay rights activist Harvey Milk . At the bar , Leslie sings a karaoke cover of the 2008 Lady Gaga song , " Poker Face " . When Leslie insults Tom 's shirt , he defends it by claiming it was featured in the monthly men 's magazine , Details . When sarcastically asking if Langman wants her to commit harakari , Leslie accidentally says " harikari , " a common mispronunciation of the traditional Japanese cultural term .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast on September 17 , 2009 , " Pawnee Zoo " was seen by 5 million households , according to Nielsen Media Research . The episode received a 2 @.@ 1 rating among viewers aged between 18 and 49 , a 30 percent drop in viewership compared to the first season pilot episode .
" Pawnee Zoo " received generally positive reviews . Time magazine writer James Poniewozik felt the episode " beautifully " merged the political and personal and improved upon previous episodes by using and balancing its supporting characters . Poniewozik added , " ' Pawnee Zoo ' was spot @-@ on , and had me cracking up beginning to end . " Henning Fog of Entertainment Weekly said with " Pawnee Zoo " , the series appeared to be finding its rhythm and starting to distinguish itself from its conceptual spinoff , The Office , which was also created by Parks and Recreation co @-@ creator Greg Daniels . Fog also felt bringing real social issues into the show was a positive direction for the series . Emily Christianson of the Los Angeles Times said " Pawnee Zoo " improves upon the first season by giving more attention to plot points outside the pit . Christianson particularly enjoyed the scenes with Leslie drunk in the bar , and liked the introduction of the Ann and Mark romance . Los Angeles Times writer Jon Caramanica said the same @-@ sex marriage subplot only alters the show 's dynamic " a smidge " , and mainly serves as " another opportunity for misadventure for Leslie Knope " . Caramanica added Poehler is talented , but ill @-@ suited for the goofy Leslie character .
Maureen Ryan of the Chicago Tribune said the episode appeared to be heading in a better direction than the first season and , regarding Leslie , added " You start to root for her this season , instead of wishing she would go away . " She also praised the " Parent 's Just Don 't Understand " rap , comparing it to Poehler 's acclaimed rap about the @-@ vice presidential candidate Sarah Palin during a Saturday Night Live sketch . Matt Fowler of IGN said " Pawnee Zoo " was " more solidly entertaining " than the entire first season , and made a stronger effort to build up the supporting cast , particularly by establishing a romance between Jones and Schneider . Fowler particularly praised Pratt and voiced excitement for his new subplot . San Francisco Chronicle writer Tim Goodman , who was very critical of the Parks and Recreation first season , said " Pawnee Zoo " brought new life to the series . Goodman felt the Leslie character was less clueless and ditzy , and that same @-@ sex marriage was " perfect fodder " for the show . Steve Heisler of The A.V. Club commented the " Pawnee Zoo " plot was strong , the supporting cast performed well and that Poehler feels " a lot more comfortable in Knope 's skin . " But Heisler said it " isn 't the best thing on tonight . " Not all reviews were positive . Verne Gay of Newsday voiced admiration for Parks and Recreation , but found " Pawnee Zoo " to be " flat , forced and messagey " , and did not make proper use of the supporting cast . He gave the premiere episode a C + grade . Johnny Firecloud of CraveOnline praised Poehler and the " Parents Just Don 't Understand " opening , but felt cast members like Jones are wasted . He also said there is little chemistry between Jones and Schneider .
In March 2010 , " Pawnee Zoo " won the GLAAD Media Award for Outstanding Individual Episode ( in a series without a regular LGBT character ) . It was nominated alongside the ABC drama series Private Practice , the NBC supernatural drama The Listener and the CW drama / horror series Supernatural in the category .
= = DVD release = =
" Pawnee Zoo " , along with the other 23 second season episodes of Parks and Recreation , was released on a four @-@ disc DVD set in the United States on November 30 , 2010 . The DVD included deleted scenes for each episode .
= 2nd Parachute Brigade ( United Kingdom ) =
The 2nd Parachute Brigade was an airborne forces brigade formed by the British Army during the Second World War .
The 2nd Parachute Brigade was the second parachute infantry brigade to be formed by the British Army in 1942 ; it was initially part of the 1st Airborne Division but in 1943 , after the invasion of Italy , became an independent formation . As an independent brigade it was variously assigned at different times , and served under the command of the 2nd New Zealand Division , the 8th Indian Infantry Division , and the 1st Airborne Task Force .
Before the end of the Second World War in Europe the brigade saw active service in Italy , the South of France and Greece . At the end of the European war the brigade returned to the United Kingdom and was intended to join the 44th Indian Airborne Division in the Far East , for service against the Japanese Empire , but the war ended before they sailed . Instead the brigade was assigned to the 6th Airborne Division , which had been named the Imperial Strategic Reserve , and sent to serve in the Mandate of Palestine .
Defence cuts in the British armed forces after the war forced a reduction in the number of parachute brigades . By 1948 the 2nd Parachute Brigade was the last surviving parachute formation dating from the Second World War , all other parachute divisions and brigades having been disbanded . The last three battalions of the Regular Army comprised in the brigade returned to the United Kingdom ; later in the same year the unit was posted to the British Army of the Rhine and redesignated the 16th Parachute Brigade .
= = Background = =
Impressed by the success of German airborne operations during the Battle of France in May 1940 , the British Prime Minister , Winston Churchill , directed the War Office to investigate the possibility of creating a corps of 5 @,@ 000 parachute troops . On 22 June 1940 No. 2 Commando was turned over to parachute duties and on 21 November re @-@ designated the 11th Special Air Service Battalion , with a parachute and glider wing and was later redesignated the 1st Parachute Battalion . It was these men who took part in the first British airborne operation , Operation Colossus , on 10 February 1941 . The success of the raid prompted the War Office to expand the existing airborne force , setting up the Airborne Forces Depot and Battle School in Derbyshire in April 1942 and creating the Parachute Regiment , as well as converting several infantry battalions into airborne battalions in August 1942 . The result was the formation of the 1st Airborne Division with the 1st Parachute Brigade and the 1st Airlanding Brigade . Its commander , Major @-@ General Frederick Arthur Montague Browning , expressed his opinion that the fledgling force must not be sacrificed in " penny packets " and urged the formation of a third brigade .
Permission was granted to form another parachute brigade in July 1942 , numbered the 2nd Parachute Brigade , and Brigadier Ernest E. Down was selected to become its first commander . The brigade was assigned the existing 4th Parachute Battalion , transferred from the 1st Parachute Brigade , and two new battalions converted from normal line infantry units to parachute duties : the 5th ( Scottish ) Parachute Battalion , converted from the 7th Battalion , Queen 's Own Cameron Highlanders in May 1942 ; and the 6th ( Royal Welch ) Parachute Battalion , converted from the 10th Battalion , Royal Welch Fusiliers in August 1942 .
= = Operations = =
The 2nd Parachute Brigade trained in the United Kingdom until June 1943 , when they left for North Africa with the 1st Airlanding Brigade . On arrival the two brigades were joined by the 1st Parachute Brigade , which had already been carrying out independent operations in the area during the Tunisia Campaign , and by the 4th Parachute Brigade , which had been forming in the Middle East . The 1st Airborne Division , now with one air @-@ landing and three parachute brigades , was based at Oran , preparing for the Allied invasion of Sicily under command of the British Eighth Army , commanded by General Sir Bernard Montgomery . During the invasion the division was to conduct three brigade @-@ scale airborne operations : the Ponte Grande road bridge south of Syracuse was to be captured by the 1st Airlanding Brigade , the port of Augusta was to be seized by 2nd Parachute Brigade , and finally the Primasole Bridge over the River Simeto was to be taken and secured by 1st Parachute Brigade . A lack of transport aircraft reduced the number of men that could be deployed , and the 2nd Para Brigade remained in Tunisia in a reserve role .
Fighting ended in Sicily on 17 August without use of the brigade ; they were , however , selected to take part in Operation Slapstick , an amphibious landing at the port of Taranto on mainland Italy . The brigade left Bizerta on the 8th of September , the day before the Italian surrender , and landed unopposed . Their only casualties were 58 men from the 6th Parachute Battalion who drowned after their transport ship , HMS Abdiel , hit a mine in the harbour . While the 4th Parachute Brigade pushed inland , the 2nd Brigade assumed responsibility for securing the port and surrounding area . During fierce fighting around the town and airfield of Gioia del Colle the divisional commander , Major @-@ General George F. Hopkinson , was killed and replaced by Brigadier Down . Command of the 2nd Parachute Brigade was given to Brigadier Charles Hilary Vaughan Pritchard . The 1st Airborne Division was withdrawn to England soon after , leaving the 2nd Parachute Brigade in Italy as an independent parachute brigade formation that came under command of the 2nd New Zealand Division . To support an independent role the brigade was assigned its own artillery with nine 6 @-@ pounder anti @-@ tank guns and eight 75mm pack howitzers . They also had their own engineers and other support units were attached , including a pathfinder platoon and a glider squadron .
= = = Independent Parachute Brigade = = =
On 2 December 1943 the 2nd Parachute Brigade formed the left flank of the 2nd New Zealand Division during the advance towards Orsogna . The New Zealanders were relieved by the 8th Indian Infantry Division , and the brigade continued the advance under their command . The brigade temporarily returned to the 2nd New Zealand Division on 16 January , then fought to the Sangro with the 8th Indian Division again , before going into the reserve at Guardia , from the end of March . The brigade returned to the front line and took part in the Battle of Monte Cassino on 4 April , once again coming under command of the 2nd New Zealand Division .
The 2nd Brigade 's next parachute operation was Operation Hasty in June 1944 . This was a small diversionary raid carried out by sixty men from the 6th ( Welch ) Parachute Battalion . They were dropped into the area between Sora and Avezzano , their objective being to harass the Germans withdrawing to the Gothic Line . The mission was a success : a German brigade was diverted to hunt the small force , and a German division was retained on rear @-@ area security duties instead of going into the front line . In June 1944 , the brigade was released from the Eighth Army and joined the 1st Airborne Task Force for airborne operations in the south of France .
= = = France = = =
The 2nd Independent Parachute Brigade carried out a brigade @-@ sized parachute landing during Operation Dragoon . On 15 August 1944 the brigade 's pathfinders landed in the south of France and set up Eureka beacons to guide the main brigade force to their drop zones . Despite the pathfinders ' success at marking the drop zones , only seventy @-@ three planes placed their parachutists in the correct location . The brigade commanding officer and eighty men were landed near Fayence , as were the 5th ( Scottish ) Battalion 's commanding officer , with half of battalion headquarters , ' C ' Company , and ' D ' Company . Other men were landed as far away as Cannes . The dispersed landings resulted in only about forty percent of the 4th Battalion making it to the brigade forming @-@ up point . Only seventy percent of the 6th ( Welch ) Battalion and only a single company of the 5th ( Scottish ) Battalion had arrived . The brigade headquarters was established at Le Mitan with the 5th ( Scottish ) Battalion company by 04 : 00 , and by 07 : 30 the 4th Battalion had occupied the heights at Le Muy . The 6th ( Welch ) Battalion occupied La Motte and , when the Germans at Clastron surrendered , moved a company into the village . Le Serres was captured by ' C ' Company , 4th Battalion , as was the bridge over the River Naturby on the road to Le Muy .
At the drop zone the pathfinders and Royal Engineers were removing anti @-@ glider poles so that the brigade 's glider force could land . The gliders , except for those carrying the anti @-@ tank battery , which were unable to locate the site in the heavy mist and had returned to Italy , landed successfully at 09 : 20 . The other gliders and towing aircraft had circled until the mist cleared . It was the sight of the gliders landing that persuaded the Germans at Clastron to surrender . By 10 : 15 the brigade had achieved all its objectives apart from capturing Le Muy , which had been allocated to the 5th ( Scottish ) Battalion . Units of the brigade fought off several counter @-@ attacks supported by the 64th Airlanding Battery 's guns . The missing men continued to come into the brigade 's area during the morning , and contact was made with American units who had dropped west and south of them .
Men continued to arrive in the brigade area , and by 16 : 00 the 4th Battalion could muster over two companies while the 6th ( Welch ) Battalion had over 300 men . Patrols were sent out to ambush German convoys retreating from Le Muy and to reconnoitre the town . At 18 : 00 the brigade anti @-@ tank battery arrived by glider with two American battalions and other supporting units . Patrolling continued over the night of 15 / 16 August , and Le Muy was captured by an American battalion at 15 : 30 . At the same time 115 men of the 5th ( Scottish ) Battalion arrived in the brigade area . On the morning of 18 August units of the American 36th Infantry Division , advancing from the coast , reached Le Muy . The 2nd Brigade then moved to the Frejus area , on 20 August ; Cannes was liberated on the 25 August . The next day the brigade sailed for Naples arriving on 28 August .
= = = Greece = = =
On its return to Italy the 2nd Parachute Brigade was sent to Rome on 3 September , and moved again on 8 September to a camp near Taranto to prepare for a possible mission in Greece , Operation Manna . The Russian advance in the east had forced the Germans to withdraw from Greece or be cut off from support and reinforcements . Over the night of 12 / 13 October 1944 ' C ' Company , 4th Parachute Battalion , were parachuted onto Megara airfield near Athens to prepare a landing strip for the follow @-@ up waves from the rest of the brigade . The company sustained several casualties while landing in adverse weather conditions that forced the remainder of the brigade to delay their arrival for another two days .
Once the brigade had deployed it advanced towards Athens , entering the city on 15 October , just behind the 2nd Special Service Brigade . They fought the retreating Germans for the next three months , advancing from Athens to Salonika , where units of the 2nd Parachute Brigade arrived by landing craft on 8 November . While in Greece the brigade also participated in the occupation of Athens , maintaining order and providing supplies to the population . Having been moved to Italy , the brigade had to return to Greece immediately after the outbreak of the Greek Civil War in December , becoming involved in several fights , suffering heavy casualties . They were joined in Greece by the British 23rd Armoured Brigade . During the civil war the brigade was involved in street fighting in Athens until the communist Greek People 's Liberation Army fighters were forced out of the capital in January 1945 ; they also provided food and other supplies to around 20 @,@ 000 people in Athens every day .
= = = Post war = = =
In January 1945 the 2nd Parachute Brigade was withdrawn from further operations and relocated to Italy . After the war ended in Europe , the brigade returned to the United Kingdom and reformed as a conventional brigade , losing its additional supporting arms . It had been planned for the brigade to go to the Far East and join the 44th Indian Airborne Division , fighting in Burma against the Japanese . However , the war ended before they departed , and instead the brigade was assigned to the 6th Airborne Division , which had been sent to Palestine . Leaving the United Kingdom the brigade arrived in Palestine on 22 October , and were based around Gaza .
The 6th Airborne Division had been named the Imperial Strategic Reserve and served in Egypt until September 1945 , when it moved to Palestine in an internal @-@ security role , to counter the activities of the Jewish paramilitary movements Hagana , Palmach , Irgun and the Stern Gang . When the 1st Airborne Division was disbanded in November 1945 , the 6th became the only airborne division in the British Army . While in Palestine in December 1947 , the 4th Parachute Battalion was amalgamated with the 6th ( Royal Welch ) Battalion and renamed the 4th / 6th Parachute Battalion . To fill the vacancy created by this amalgamation , the 7th ( Light Infantry ) Parachute Battalion was assigned to the 2nd Parachute Brigade .
= = = 16th Parachute Brigade = = =
In February 1948 the 2nd Parachute Brigade left the 6th Airborne Division and moved to Germany , becoming part of the British Army of the Rhine . The 6th Airborne Division was disbanded soon afterwards , leaving the 2nd Parachute Brigade as the only brigade @-@ sized airborne formation in the British Army .
Being the only surviving parachute formation , in June its battalions were renumbered : the 5th ( Scottish ) Parachute Battalion became the 2nd Battalion , Parachute Regiment , while the 4th / 6th Parachute Battalion became the 1st Battalion , Parachute Regiment , and the 7th ( Light Infantry ) Parachute Battalion became the 3rd Battalion , Parachute Regiment . Finally , in July 1948 , the brigade was renumbered the 16th Parachute Brigade , taking the numbers " 1 " and " 6 " from the two wartime airborne divisions . Finally , in July 1948 , the brigade was renumbered the 16th Parachute Brigade Group .
= = Order of battle = =
= = = Commanders = = =
Brigadier Ernest Down
Brigadier Charles Pritchard
= = = 2nd Parachute Brigade = = =
4th Parachute Battalion
5th ( Scottish ) Parachute Battalion
6th ( Royal Welch ) Parachute Battalion
= = = 2nd Independent Parachute Brigade = = =
4th Parachute Battalion
5th ( Scottish ) Parachute Battalion
6th ( Royal Welch ) Parachute Battalion
127th ( Parachute ) Field Ambulance
300th Airlanding Anti @-@ tank Battery Royal Artillery
64th Airlanding Battery Royal Artillery
2nd Parachute Squadron Royal Engineers
2nd Independent Parachute Brigade Group Signal Company Royal Signals
1st Independent Glider Squadron Army Air Corps
23rd Independent Platoon Army Air Corps ( Pathfinders )
2nd Independent Parachute Brigade Group Company Royal Army Service Corps
751st Parachute Brigade Company Royal Army Service Corps
T Company Royal Army Service Corps
2nd Independent Parachute Brigade Group Workshop Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers
2nd Independent Parachute Brigade Group Provost Section Royal Military Police
= = = 2nd Parachute Brigade 1948 = = =
4th / 6th Parachute Battalion
5th ( Scottish ) Parachute Battalion
7th ( Light Infantry ) Parachute Battalion
= = = Renumbered 16th Parachute Brigade = = =
1st Parachute Battalion
2nd Parachute Battalion
3rd Parachute Battalion
= Peter Till =
Peter Till ( born 7 September 1985 ) is an English semi @-@ professional footballer who plays as a winger for Northern Premier League Division One South club Stafford Rangers .
Till started his career with the Birmingham City youth system before making his first team debut in 2005 . He was loaned to Scunthorpe United , Boston United , Leyton Orient and Grimsby Town , whom he joined permanently in 2007 . Till made an appearance at Wembley Stadium in the 2008 Football League Trophy Final and was loaned to Chesterfield in 2009 . He was released after making over 80 appearances for Grimsby and subsequently joined hometown club Walsall . Being released after one season with the club , he joined York City of the Conference Premier in 2010 . Till signed for Fleetwood Town a year later and won the Conference Premier title in his one season with the club .
= = Career = =
= = = Birmingham City = = =
Born in Walsall , West Midlands , Till came through the Birmingham City youth system after joining the club as a schoolboy and he signed a two @-@ year professional contract on 4 July 2005 . He was included in the matchday first team squad on a few occasions during the 2004 – 05 season , with Academy manager Stewart Hall commenting " When he has trained and worked with the first team he has looked very good and he has had an excellent season in the reserves and looked a real threat " . He made his debut as an 85th minute substitute in a 2 – 0 victory over League One team Scunthorpe United in the League Cup on 20 September 2005 . Till was loaned to Scunthorpe United for a month on 5 October 2005 after being brought to their attention in the game weeks earlier , with manager Brian Laws commenting " I 've watched him twice more since our game and I 've liked what I 've seen " . His debut came two days later in a 2 – 0 victory over Tranmere Rovers . The loan deal was extended until January 2006 after Till impressed Laws . He returned to Birmingham on 9 January 2006 , having made only 10 appearances for Scunthorpe due to injury and illness .
Till was loaned out again on 13 January 2006 , joining League Two team Boston United . He made his debut a day later in a 1 – 0 victory at Chester City and his only goal came in a 3 – 1 victory over Bury on 21 January 2006 . On 31 January 2006 , the loan was extended until the end of the 2005 – 06 season and he finished his spell at the club with 16 appearances and one goal . Till joined League One team Leyton Orient on a one @-@ month loan on 6 October 2006 . His debut came the following day , making the starting line @-@ up in a 0 – 0 draw with Chesterfield and he picked up an injury on his final appearance , a 3 – 1 defeat to Bristol City in the Football League Trophy on 1 November 2006 . Orient opted not to extend Till 's loan and his period at the club ended on 4 November 2006 with five appearances to his name .
= = = Grimsby Town = = =
Having failed to establish himself at Birmingham , Till joined Grimsby Town of League Two on an initial one @-@ month loan on 23 November 2006 . Tony Butcher of Cod Almighty described him as an " instant hit with wonderful wingery " on his debut in a 2 – 0 victory over Accrington Stanley on 25 November 2006 . After impressing manager Alan Buckley during his loan at Blundell Park , Grimsby agreed a deal with Birmingham and offered Till a permanent contract . He eventually joined Grimsby on a two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year contract on 5 January 2007 , having already made seven appearances for the team during the 2006 – 07 season . His first appearance following his permanent transfer was a 2 – 0 defeat to Chester on 9 January 2007 . Till received the first yellow card of his career in a 1 – 0 defeat to Swindon Town on 17 March 2007 and he finished the season with 22 appearances .
His first appearance of the 2007 – 08 season came in a 1 – 1 draw with Notts County on 11 August 2007 and his first goal came in a 4 – 1 victory over Huddersfield Town in the Football League Trophy on 4 September 2007 . He played six games and scored two goals in Grimsby 's Football League Trophy run in the 2007 – 08 season , which saw Grimsby reach the final . Till started the game as Grimsby were beaten 2 – 0 by Milton Keynes Dons ( MK Dons ) at Wembley Stadium on 30 March 2008 . He finished the season with 44 appearances and four goals .
Till started the 2008 – 09 season by playing in a 0 – 0 draw with Rochdale on 9 August 2008 and he scored in the local derby against League Two rivals Lincoln City at Sincil Bank in a 1 – 1 draw on 30 August . Till joined fellow League Two team Chesterfield on a one @-@ month loan on 15 January 2009 , having made 21 appearances and scored two goals for Grimsby up to that point during the season . He made his debut in a 3 – 1 victory at Chester on 17 January 2009 and in February the loan was extended until the end of the season after impressing manager Lee Richardson . Grimsby released him on 30 April 2009 and in retrospect he commented " It has been a wake @-@ up call if I am honest . I have realised that I can ’ t coast if I want to get to where I want to be . I have to give 110 per cent every day , not just in games " . Till finished the loan at Chesterfield with 16 appearances .
= = = Walsall = = =
Till signed for League One side Walsall on a free transfer on a one @-@ year contract on 23 July 2009 following a successful trial with the club . He commented " To be at my hometown club gives me an extra incentive to do well " . His debut came in a 1 – 0 victory at Brighton & Hove Albion on 8 August 2009 , in which he was substituted in the 88th minute . Till suffered a hamstring injury in September 2009 , which allowed midfielder Mark Bradley to get a run in the team . After returning to fitness he made his comeback as a 74th @-@ minute substitute in a 1 – 0 defeat at MK Dons on 10 October 2009 and started on his next appearance , which was a 2 – 1 defeat at Colchester United on 24 October . He picked up a minor injury in a 1 – 1 draw with Charlton Athletic on 2 February 2010 and he was able to feature in the next game , a 0 – 0 draw with Bristol Rovers . During Walsall 's 2 – 1 victory at Leeds United on 16 February 2010 he picked up a hamstring injury and he returned to the team after entering a 2 – 0 defeat at Leyton Orient on 13 March as a 77th @-@ minute substitute . He finished an injury @-@ hit 2009 – 10 season with 30 appearances for Walsall before the club released him on 10 May 2010 .
= = = York City = = =
Till signed a one @-@ year contract with Conference Premier club York City on 29 June 2010 and following the move he said " I spoke to a number of clubs but this felt right . The gaffer made me feel really wanted so that was a key decision in coming " . He made his debut in the opening game of the 2010 – 11 season as a 38th @-@ minute substitute for Levi Mackin in a 2 – 1 defeat to Kidderminster Harriers on 14 August 2010 . His first goal for York came in his next appearance after he scored the equaliser in a 2 – 2 draw at Bath City on 21 August 2010 after entering the game as a 74th @-@ minute substitute . Till made his first start in a 3 – 0 victory against Altrincham on 28 August 2010 and he was substituted in the 82nd minute . He scored his first home goal with the opener as York beat Rushden & Diamonds 2 – 0 on 4 September 2010 . He finished the season with 45 appearances and four goals .
= = = Fleetwood Town = = =
Till agreed on 25 May 2011 to sign for Conference Premier rivals Fleetwood Town on a two @-@ year contract after the expiration of his York contract . Due to a knee injury , he had to wait until 12 November 2011 to make his Fleetwood debut , when he entered their 2 – 0 FA Cup first round victory over League One team Wycombe Wanderers as a substitute in stoppage time . Till finished the season with 22 appearances and one goal as Fleetwood won the Conference Premier title and thus promotion to League Two , before being released by the club after having his contract cancelled by mutual consent on 3 July 2012 .
= = = Tamworth = = =
Till signed for Conference Premier side Tamworth on 19 July 2012 . He made a scoring debut for Tamworth in the opening game of the 2012 – 13 season with the first goal of a 3 – 2 victory away at Hyde on 11 August 2012 . He finished the season with 34 appearances and one goal .
= = = Solihull Moors = = =
Till signed for Solihull Moors of the Conference North on 6 June 2013 .
= = = Leamington = = =
He signed for Solihull 's Conference North rivals Leamington on 22 January 2014 .
= = = Later career = = =
Till joined newly promoted Northern Premier League Premier Division club Halesowen Town on 12 June 2014 . He made five appearances before signing for Halesowen 's divisional rivals Stourbridge on 8 September 2014 . He stepped down a division when signing for Northern Premier League Division One South team Stafford Rangers during January 2015 .
= = Style of play = =
Till plays as winger on the left or right sides and his play has been described as " tricky " . He has described himself as an old @-@ fashioned winger , saying " I am very quick , very fit . I like to get at the full @-@ back – an old @-@ fashioned winger type , if you like . I like to cause the full @-@ back problems and get my crosses in and link up with our full @-@ back as well " . Walsall manager Chris Hutchings described him as " an attacking wide @-@ man with pace who is not afraid to take people on " in 2009 . Till is also able to play as a striker .
= = Personal life = =
His father Peter , Sr. is a former professional boxer .
= = Career statistics = =
As of match played 26 August 2015 .
= = Honours = =
Fleetwood Town
Conference Premier : 2011 – 12
= Jesus =
Jesus ( / ˈdʒiːzəs / JEE @-@ zuss Greek : Ἰησοῦς , translit . Iesous ; Hebrew : ישוע , translit . Yēšū ́ aʿ , lit . ' Yeshua ; " He saves " ' ; c . 4 BC – c . AD 30 ) , also referred to as Jesus of Nazareth or Jesus Christ , was a Jewish preacher who became the central figure of Christianity . Christians believe him to be the Son of God and the awaited Jewish Messiah ( Christ , the Anointed One ) of the Old Testament .
Virtually all modern scholars of antiquity agree that Jesus existed historically , and they consider the Synoptic Gospels ( Matthew , Mark , and Luke ) to be the best sources for investigating the historical Jesus . Most scholars agree that Jesus was a Galilean Jewish rabbi who preached his message orally , was baptized by John the Baptist , and was crucified by the order of the Roman Prefect Pontius Pilate . In the current mainstream view , Jesus was an apocalyptic preacher and the founder of a renewal movement within Judaism , although some prominent scholars argue that he was not apocalyptic . Jesus debated with Jewish authorities on the subject of God , performed some healings , taught in parables and gathered followers . After Jesus ' death , his followers believed he was resurrected , and the community they formed eventually became the Christian Church . His birth is celebrated annually on December 25 ( or various dates in January for some eastern churches ) as a holiday known as Christmas , and his resurrection is likewise celebrated as a holiday known as Easter . The widely used calendar era " AD " , from the Latin " Anno Domini " ( " in the year of our Lord " ) , and the alternative " CE " , are based on the birth of Jesus .
Christians believe that Jesus has a " unique significance " in the world . Christian doctrines include the beliefs that Jesus was conceived by the Holy Spirit , was born of a virgin named Mary , performed miracles , founded the Church , died by crucifixion as a sacrifice to achieve atonement , rose from the dead , and ascended into Heaven , whence he will return . Most Christians believe Jesus enables humans to be reconciled to God . The Nicene Creed asserts that Jesus will judge the dead either before or after their bodily resurrection , an event tied to the Second Coming of Jesus in Christian eschatology ; though some believe Jesus 's role as savior has more existential or societal concerns than the afterlife , and a few notable theologians have suggested that Jesus will bring about a universal reconciliation . The great majority of Christians worship Jesus as the incarnation of God the Son , the second of three persons of a Divine Trinity . A minority of Christian denominations reject Trinitarianism , wholly or partly , as non @-@ scriptural .
In Islam , Jesus ( commonly transliterated as Isa ) is considered one of God 's important prophets and the Messiah . According to the Quran , Jesus was a bringer of scripture and was born of a virgin but was not the Son of God . The Quran says that Jesus himself never claimed divinity , and predicts that at the Last Judgment , Jesus will deny having ever made such a claim ( Quran 5 : 116 ) . To most Muslims , Jesus was not crucified but was physically raised into Heaven by God . Judaism rejects the belief that Jesus was the awaited Messiah , arguing that his death on the cross signifies that he was rejected by God and that his resurrection is a Christian legend .
= = Etymology = =
A typical Jew in Jesus ' time had only one name , sometimes supplemented with the father 's name or the individual 's hometown . Thus , in the New Testament , Jesus is commonly referred to as " Jesus of Nazareth " ( e.g. , Mark 10 : 47 ) . Jesus ' neighbors in Nazareth refer to him as " the carpenter , the son of Mary and brother of James and Joses and Judas and Simon " ( Mark 6 : 3 ) , " the carpenter 's son " ( Matthew 13 : 55 ) , or " Joseph 's son " ( Luke 4 : 22 ) . In John , the disciple Philip refers to him as " Jesus son of Joseph from Nazareth " ( John 1 : 45 ) .
The name Jesus is derived from the Latin Iesus , a transliteration of the Greek Ἰησοῦς ( Iesous ) . The Greek form is a rendering of the Hebrew ישוע ( Yeshua ) , a variant of the earlier name יהושע ( Yehoshua ) , in English " Joshua " . The name Yeshua appears to have been in use in Judea at the time of the birth of Jesus . The first century works of historian Flavius Josephus , who wrote in Koine Greek , the same language as that of the New Testament , refer to at least twenty different people with the name Jesus ( i.e. Ἰησοῦς ) . The etymology of Jesus ' name in the context of the New Testament is generally given as " Yahweh is salvation " .
Since early Christianity , Christians have commonly referred to Jesus as " Jesus Christ " . The word Christ is derived from the Greek Χριστός ( Christos ) , which is a translation of the Hebrew משיח ( Meshiakh ) , meaning the " anointed " and usually transliterated into English as " Messiah " . Christians designate Jesus as Christ because they believe he is the awaited Messiah prophesied in the Hebrew Bible and Old Testament . In postbiblical usage , Christ became viewed as a name — one part of " Jesus Christ " — but originally it was a title . The term " Christian " ( meaning " one who owes allegiance to the person Christ " or simply " follower of Christ " ) has been in use since the first century .
= = Canonical gospel accounts = =
The four canonical gospels ( Mark , Matthew , Luke , and John ) are the only substantial sources for the life and message of Jesus . Other parts of the New Testament , such as the Pauline epistles , which were probably written decades before the gospels , also include references to key episodes in his life , such as the Last Supper in 1 Corinthians 11 : 23 – 26 . Acts of the Apostles ( 10 : 37 – 38 and 19 : 4 ) refers to the early ministry of Jesus and its anticipation by John the Baptist . Acts 1 : 1 – 11 says more about the Ascension of Jesus ( also mentioned in 1 Timothy 3 : 16 ) than the canonical gospels do .
Some early Christian and Gnostic groups had separate descriptions of the life and teachings of Jesus that are not included in the New Testament . These include the Gospel of Thomas , the Gospel of Peter , and the Apocryphon of James , among many other apocryphal writings . Most scholars consider these much later and less reliable accounts than the canonical gospels .
= = = Canonical gospels = = =
The canonical gospels are four accounts , each written by a different author . According to the Marcan priority , the first to be written was the Gospel of Mark ( written AD 60 – 75 ) , followed by the Gospel of Matthew ( AD 65 – 85 ) , the Gospel of Luke ( AD 65 – 95 ) , and the Gospel of John ( AD 75 – 100 ) . They often differ in content and in the ordering of events .
Traditionally , the writing of the gospels has been attributed to four evangelists with close ties to Jesus : Mark was written by John Mark , an associate of Peter ; Matthew was written by one of Jesus ' disciples ; Luke was written by a companion of Paul , someone mentioned in a few epistles ; and John was written by another of Jesus ' disciples , in fact part of an inner group of disciples , along with Peter and John 's brother James .
Three of them , Matthew , Mark , and Luke , are known as the Synoptic Gospels , from the Greek σύν ( syn " together " ) and ὄψις ( opsis " view " ) . They are similar in content , narrative arrangement , language and paragraph structure . Scholars generally agree that it is impossible to find any direct literary relationship between the Synoptic Gospels and the Gospel of John . While the flow of some events ( such as Jesus ' baptism , transfiguration , crucifixion and interactions with the apostles ) are shared among the Synoptic Gospels , incidents such as the transfiguration do not appear in John , which also differs on other matters , such as the Cleansing of the Temple .
Most scholars agree , following what is known as the " Marcan hypothesis " , that the authors of Matthew and Luke used Mark as a source when writing their gospels . Matthew and Luke also share some content not found in Mark . To explain this , many scholars believe that in addition to Mark , another source ( commonly called the " Q source " ) was used by the two authors .
According to a broad scholarly consensus , the Synoptic Gospels , and not John , are the primary sources of historical information about Jesus . However , not everything contained in the New Testament gospels is considered to be historically reliable . Elements whose historical authenticity is disputed include the Nativity , the Massacre of the Innocents , the Resurrection , the Ascension , Jesus ' miracles , and the Sanhedrin trial , among others . Historians , according to Gerd Theissen , are right to be skeptical of miracles such as walking on water , but exorcisms and healings are well @-@ documented in many cultures and should be considered possible . Views on the gospels range from their being inerrant descriptions of the life of Jesus to their providing little historical information about his life beyond the basics .
The Synoptics emphasize different aspects of Jesus . In Mark , Jesus is the Son of God whose mighty works demonstrate the presence of God 's Kingdom . He is a tireless wonder worker , the servant of both God and man . This short gospel records few of Jesus ' words or teachings . The Gospel of Matthew emphasizes that Jesus is the fulfillment of God 's will as revealed in the Old Testament , and he is the Lord of the Church . He is the kingly Messiah , referred to repeatedly as " king " and " Son of David . " A noteworthy feature of this gospel are the five discourses , collections of teachings on particular themes , including the Sermon on the Mount . Luke presents Jesus as the divine @-@ human savior who shows compassion to the needy . He is the friend of sinners and outcasts , come to seek and save the lost . This gospel includes Jesus ' most beloved parables , such as the Good Samaritan and the Prodigal Son .
The Synoptics and John agree on the main outline of Jesus ' life . John the Baptist precedes Jesus , their ministries overlap , and John witnesses to Jesus ' identity . Jesus teaches and performs miracles , at least partly in Galilee . He then visits Jerusalem , where the leaders have him crucified , and he is buried . After his tomb is found empty on Sunday , the risen Jesus presents himself to his followers .
The prologue to the Gospel of John identifies Jesus as an incarnation of the divine Word ( Logos ) . As the Word , Jesus was eternally present with God , active in all creation , and the source of humanity 's moral and spiritual nature . With this prologue , the evangelist establishes that Jesus is not only greater than any past human prophet but greater than any prophet could be . He not only speaks God 's Word ; he is God 's Word . In the Gospel of John , Jesus reveals his divine role publicly . Here he is the Bread of Life , the Light of the World , the True Vine and more .
In general , the authors of the New Testament showed little interest in an absolute chronology of Jesus or in synchronizing the episodes of his life with the secular history of the age . As stated in John 21 : 25 , the gospels do not claim to provide an exhaustive list of the events in the life of Jesus . The accounts were primarily written as theological documents in the context of early Christianity , with timelines as a secondary consideration . One manifestation of the gospels as theological documents rather than historical chronicles is that they devote about one third of their text to just seven days , namely the last week of the life of Jesus in Jerusalem , referred to as the Passion . Although the gospels do not provide enough details to satisfy the demands of modern historians regarding exact dates , it is possible to draw from them a general picture of the life story of Jesus .
= = = Genealogy and nativity = = =
Matthew and Luke each offer a genealogy of Jesus . Matthew traces Jesus ' ancestry to Abraham through David . Luke traces Jesus ' ancestry through Adam to God . The lists are identical between Abraham and David , but differ radically from that point . Traditional Christian scholars ( starting with the historian Eusebius ) have put forward various theories that seek to explain why the lineages are so different , such as that Matthew 's account follows the lineage of Joseph , while Luke 's follows the lineage of Mary . Modern biblical scholars such as Marcus J. Borg and John Dominic Crossan see both genealogies as inventions , conforming to Jewish literary convention .
Matthew and Luke each describe Jesus ' nativity ( or birth ) , especially that Jesus was born of a virgin in Bethlehem in fulfillment of prophecy . Luke 's account emphasizes events before the birth of Jesus and centers on Mary , while Matthew 's mostly covers those after the birth and centers on Joseph . Both accounts state that Jesus was born to Joseph and Mary , his betrothed , in Bethlehem , and both support the doctrine of the virgin birth , according to which Jesus was miraculously conceived by the Holy Spirit in Mary 's womb when she was still a virgin . The virgin birth has been a consistent tenet of orthodox Christian belief , although a number of liberal theologians have questioned it in the last 150 years . Matthew repeatedly cites the Old Testament to support the belief that Jesus is the Jews ' promised Messiah .
In Matthew , Joseph is troubled because Mary , his betrothed , is pregnant ( Matthew 1 : 19 – 20 ) , but in the first of Joseph 's three dreams an angel assures him not to be afraid to take Mary as his wife , because her child was conceived by the Holy Spirit . In Matthew 2 : 1 – 12 , wise men or Magi from the East bring gifts to the young Jesus as the King of the Jews . Herod hears of Jesus ' birth and , wanting him killed , orders the murders of male infants in Bethlehem . But an angel warns Joseph in his second dream , and the family flees to Egypt — later to return and settle in Nazareth .
In Luke 1 : 31 – 38 Mary learns from the angel Gabriel that she will conceive and bear a child called Jesus through the action of the Holy Spirit . When Mary is due to give birth , she and Joseph travel from Nazareth to Joseph 's ancestral home in Bethlehem to register in the census ordered by Caesar Augustus . While there Mary gives birth to Jesus , and as they have found no room in the inn , she places the newborn in a manger ( Luke 2 : 1 – 7 ) . An angel announces the birth to some shepherds , who go to Bethlehem to see Jesus , and subsequently spread the news abroad ( Luke 2 : 8 – 20 ) . After the presentation of Jesus at the Temple , Joseph , Mary and Jesus return to Nazareth .
= = = Early life , family , and profession = = =
Jesus ' childhood home is identified in the gospels of Luke and Matthew as the town of Nazareth in Galilee where he lived with his family . Although Joseph appears in descriptions of Jesus ' childhood , no mention is made of him thereafter . His other family members — his mother , Mary , his brothers James , Joses ( or Joseph ) , Judas and Simon and his unnamed sisters — are mentioned in the gospels and other sources .
According to Stephen L. Harris , Gospel of Mark says that Jesus comes into conflict with his neighbors and family . Jesus ' mother and brothers come to get him ( 3 : 31 – 35 ) because people are saying that he is crazy ( 3 : 21 ) . Jesus responds that his followers are his true family . In John , Mary follows Jesus to his crucifixion , and he expresses concern over her well @-@ being ( 19 : 25 – 27 ) .
Jesus is called a τέκτων ( tekton ) in Mark 6 : 3 , traditionally understood as carpenter but could cover makers of objects in various materials , including builders . The gospels indicate that Jesus could read , paraphrase , and debate scripture , but this does not necessarily mean that he received formal scribal training . When Jesus is presented in the temple per Jewish Law , a man named Simeon says to Mary and Joseph that Jesus " shall stand as a sign of contradiction , while a sword will pierce your own soul . Then the secret thoughts of many will come to light . " ( Luke 2 : 28 @-@ 35 ) When Jesus goes missing , they find him in the temple sitting among the teachers , listening to them and asking questions , and the people are amazed at his understanding and answers ; Mary scolds Jesus for going missing , to which Jesus replies that he must " be in his father 's house . " ( Luke 2 : 41 @-@ 52 )
= = = Baptism and temptation = = =
The Synoptic accounts of Jesus ' baptism are all preceded by information about John the Baptist . They show John preaching penance and repentance for the remission of sins and encouraging the giving of alms to the poor ( Luke 3 : 11 ) as he baptizes people in the area of the River Jordan around Perea and foretells ( Luke 3 : 16 ) the arrival of someone " more powerful " than he . Later , Jesus identifies John as " the Elijah who was to come " ( Matthew 11 : 14 , Mark 9 : 13 @-@ 14 ) , the prophet who was expected to arrive before the " great and terrible day of the Lord " ( Malachi 4 : 5 ) . Likewise , Luke says that John had the spirit and power of Elijah ( Luke 1 : 17 ) .
In Mark , John baptizes Jesus , and as he comes out of the water he see the Holy Spirit descending to him like a dove and he hears a voice from heaven declaring him to be God 's son ( Mark 1 : 9 – 11 ) . This is one of two events described in the gospels where a voice from Heaven calls Jesus " Son " , the other being the Transfiguration . The spirit then drives him into the wilderness where he is tempted by Satan ( Mark 1 : 12 – 13 ) . Jesus then begins his ministry after John 's arrest ( Mark 1 : 14 ) . Jesus ' baptism in Matthew is similar . Here , before Jesus ' baptism , John protests , saying , " I need to be baptized by you " ( Matthew 3 : 14 ) . Jesus instructs him to carry on with the baptism " to fulfill all righteousness " ( Matthew 3 : 15 ) . Matthew also details the three temptations that Satan offers Jesus in the wilderness ( Matthew 4 : 3 – 11 ) . In Luke , the Holy Spirit descends as a dove after everyone has been baptized and Jesus is praying ( Luke 3 : 21 @-@ 22 ) . John implicitly recognizes Jesus from prison after sending his followers to ask about him ( Luke 7 : 18 – 23 ) . Jesus ' baptism and temptation serve as preparation for his public ministry .
The Gospel of John leaves out Jesus ' baptism and temptation . Here , John the Baptist testifies that he saw the Spirit descend on Jesus ( John 1 : 32 ) . John publicly proclaims Jesus as the sacrificial Lamb of God , and some of John 's followers become disciples of Jesus . In this Gospel , John denies that he is Elijah ( John 1 : 21 ) . Before John is imprisoned , Jesus leads his followers to baptize disciples as well ( John 3 : 22 @-@ 24 ) , and they baptize more people than John ( John 4 : 1 ) .
= = = Public ministry = = =
The Synoptics depict two distinct geographical settings in Jesus ' ministry . The first takes place north of Judea in Galilee , where Jesus conducts a successful ministry ; and the second shows Jesus rejected and killed when he travels to Jerusalem . Notably , Jesus forbids those who recognize his identity to speak of it , including people he heals and demons he exorcises ( see Messianic Secret ) .
John depicts Jesus ' ministry as largely taking place in and around Jerusalem rather than in Galilee . In this Gospel , Jesus ' divine identity is publicly proclaimed and immediately recognized .
Scholars divide the ministry of Jesus into several stages . The Galilean ministry begins when Jesus returns to Galilee from the Judaean Desert after rebuffing the temptation of Satan . Jesus preaches around Galilee , and in Matthew 4 : 18 – 20 , his first disciples , who will eventually form the core of the early Church , encounter him and begin to travel with him . This period includes the Sermon on the Mount , one of Jesus ' major discourses , as well as the calming of the storm , the feeding of the 5 @,@ 000 , walking on water and a number of other miracles and parables . It ends with the Confession of Peter and the Transfiguration .
As Jesus travels towards Jerusalem , in the Perean ministry , he returns to the area where he was baptized , about a third of the way down from the Sea of Galilee along the Jordan ( John 10 : 40 – 42 ) . The final ministry in Jerusalem begins with Jesus ' triumphal entry into the city on Palm Sunday . In the Synoptic Gospels , during that week Jesus drives the money changers from the Temple and Judas bargains to betray him . This period culminates in the Last Supper and the Farewell Discourse .
= = = = Disciples and followers = = = =
Near the beginning of his ministry , Jesus appoints twelve apostles . In Matthew and Mark , despite Jesus only briefly requesting that they join him , Jesus ' first four apostles , who were fishermen , are described as immediately consenting , and abandoning their nets and boats to do so ( Matthew 4 : 18 – 22 , Mark 1 : 16 – 20 ) . In John , Jesus ' first two apostles were disciples of John the Baptist . The Baptist sees Jesus and calls him the Lamb of God ; the two hear this and follow Jesus . In addition to the Twelve Apostles , the opening of the passage of the Sermon on the Plain identifies a much larger group of people as disciples ( Luke 6 : 17 ) . Also , in Luke 10 : 1 – 16 Jesus sends seventy or seventy @-@ two of his followers in pairs to prepare towns for his prospective visit . They are instructed to accept hospitality , heal the sick and spread the word that the Kingdom of God is coming .
In Mark , the disciples are notably obtuse . They fail to understand Jesus ' miracles ( Mark 4 : 35 – 41 , 6 : 52 ) , his parables ( Mark 4 : 13 ) , or what " rising from the dead " would mean ( Mark 9 : 9 – 10 ) . When Jesus is later arrested , they desert him ( see below ) .
= = = = Teaching , preaching , and miracles = = = =
In the Synoptics , Jesus teaches extensively , often in parables , about the Kingdom of God ( or , in Matthew , the Kingdom of Heaven ) . The Kingdom is described as both imminent ( Mark 1 : 15 ) and already present in the ministry of Jesus ( Luke 17 : 21 ) . Jesus promises inclusion in the Kingdom for those who accept his message ( Mark 10 : 13 – 27 ) . Jesus talks of the " Son of Man , " an apocalyptic figure who would come to gather the chosen .
Jesus calls people to repent their sins and to devote themselves completely to God . Jesus tells his followers to adhere to Jewish law , although he is perceived by some to have broken the law himself , for example regarding the Sabbath . When asked what the greatest commandment is , Jesus replies : " You shall love the Lord your God with all your heart , and with all your soul , and with all your mind ... And a second is like it : ‘ You shall love your neighbor as yourself " ( Matthew 22 : 37 – 39 ) . Other ethical teachings of Jesus include loving one 's enemies , refraining from hatred and lust , and turning the other cheek ( Matthew 5 : 21 – 44 ) . In the Gospel of John , when an adulteress is about to be stoned to death in accordance with Moses ' Law , the Pharisees ask Jesus what he will say in this situation , to which Jesus replied " Let anyone among you who has no sin be the first to throw a stone at her " , causing the accusers to go away , and Jesus says to the woman that he does not condemn her for no one has , and tells her to not sin again ( John 8 : 1 @-@ 11 ) .
John 's Gospel presents the teachings of Jesus not merely as his own preaching , but as divine revelation . John the Baptist , for example , states in John 3 : 34 : " He whom God has sent speaks the words of God , for he gives the Spirit without measure . " In John 7 : 16 Jesus says , " My teaching is not mine but his who sent me . " He asserts the same thing in John 14 : 10 : " Do you not believe that I am in the Father and the Father is in me ? The words that I say to you I do not speak on my own ; but the Father who dwells in me does his works . "
In the gospels , the approximately thirty parables form about one third of Jesus ' recorded teachings . The parables appear within longer sermons and at other places in the narrative . They often contain symbolism , and usually relate the physical world to the spiritual . Common themes in these tales include the kindness and generosity of God and the perils of transgression . Some of his parables , such as the Prodigal Son ( Luke 15 : 11 – 32 ) , are relatively simple , while others , such as the Growing Seed ( Mark 4 : 26 – 29 ) , are sophisticated , profound and abstruse . When asked by his disciples about why he speaks in parables to the people , Jesus replies that the chosen disciples have been given to " know the secrets of the kingdom of heaven " , unlike the rest of their people , " For the one who has will be given more and he will have in abundance . But the one who does not have will be deprived even more . " , going on to say that the majority of their generation have grown " dull hearts " and thus are unable to understand ( Matthew 13 : 10 @-@ 17 ) .
In the gospel accounts , Jesus devotes a large portion of his ministry performing miracles , especially healings . The miracles can be classified into two main categories : healing miracles and nature miracles . The healing miracles include cures for physical ailments , exorcisms , and resurrections of the dead . The nature miracles show Jesus ' power over nature , and include turning water into wine , walking on water , and calming a storm , among others . Jesus states that his miracles are from a divine source . When Jesus ' opponents suddenly accuse him of performing exorcisms by the power of Beelzebul , the prince of demons , Jesus counters that he performs them by the " Spirit of God " ( Matthew 12 : 28 ) or " finger of God " , arguing that all logic suggests that Satan would not let his demons assist the Children of God because it would divide Satan 's house and bring his kingdom to desolation ; furthermore , he asks his opponents that if he exorcises by Beel 'zebub , " by whom do your sons cast them out ? " ( Luke 11 : 20 ) . In Matthew 12 : 31 @-@ 32 , he goes on to say that while all manner of sin , " even insults against God " or " insults against the son of man " , shall be forgiven , whoever insults goodness ( or " The Holy Spirit " ) shall never be forgiven ; he / she carries the guilt of his / her sin forever .
In John , Jesus ' miracles are described as " signs " , performed to prove his mission and divinity . However , in the Synoptics , when asked by some teachers of the Law and some Pharisees to give miraculous signs to prove his authority , Jesus refuses , saying that no sign shall come to corrupt and evil people except the sign of the prophet Jonah . Also , in the Synoptic Gospels , the crowds regularly respond to Jesus ' miracles with awe and press on him to heal their sick . In John 's Gospel , Jesus is presented as unpressured by the crowds , who often respond to his miracles with trust and faith . One characteristic shared among all miracles of Jesus in the gospel accounts is that he performed them freely and never requested or accepted any form of payment . The gospel episodes that include descriptions of the miracles of Jesus also often include teachings , and the miracles themselves involve an element of teaching . Many of the miracles teach the importance of faith . In the cleansing of ten lepers and the raising of Jairus ' daughter , for instance , the beneficiaries are told that their healing was due to their faith .
= = = = Proclamation as Christ and Transfiguration = = = =
At about the middle of each of the three Synoptic Gospels , two related episodes mark a turning point in the narrative : the Confession of Peter and the Transfiguration of Jesus . These events mark the beginnings of the gradual disclosure of the identity of Jesus to his disciples and his prediction of his own suffering and death . These two events are omitted in the Gospel of John .
In his Confession , Peter tells Jesus , " You are the Messiah , the Son of the living God . " Jesus affirms that Peter 's confession is divinely revealed truth .
In the Transfiguration ( Matthew 17 : 1 – 9 , Mark 9 : 2 – 8 , and Luke 9 : 28 – 36 ) , Jesus takes Peter and two other apostles up an unnamed mountain , where " he was transfigured before them , and his face shone like the sun , and his clothes became dazzling white . " A bright cloud appears around them , and a voice from the cloud says , " This is my Son , the Beloved ; with him I am well pleased ; listen to him " ( Matthew 17 : 1 – 9 ) . In 2 Peter 1 : 16 @-@ 18 , Peter himself affirms that he witnessed Jesus ' Transfiguration , stating that the apostolic tradition is based on eyewitness testimony .
= = = Passion Week = = =
The description of the last week of the life of Jesus ( often called Passion Week ) occupies about one third of the narrative in the canonical gospels , starting with Jesus ' triumphal entry into Jerusalem and ending with his Crucifixion .
= = = = Activities in Jerusalem = = = =
In the Synoptics , the last week in Jerusalem is the conclusion of the journey through Perea and Judea that Jesus began in Galilee . Jesus rides a young donkey into Jerusalem , reflecting an oracle from the Book of Zechariah in which the Jews ' humble king enters Jerusalem this way ( Zechariah 9 : 9 ) . People along the way lay cloaks and small branches of trees ( known as palm fronds ) in front of him and sing part of Psalm 118 : 25 – 26 .
Jesus next expels the money changers from the Temple , accusing them of turning it into a den of thieves through their commercial activities . Jesus then prophesies about the coming destruction , including false prophets , wars , earthquakes , celestial disorders , persecution of the faithful , the appearance of an " abomination of desolation , " and unendurable tribulations ( Mark 13 : 1 – 23 ) . The mysterious " Son of Man , " he says , will dispatch angels to gather the faithful from all parts of the earth ( Mark 13 : 24 – 27 ) . According to Stephen L. Harris , Jesus warns that these wonders will occur in the lifetimes of the hearers ( Mark 13 : 28 – 32 ) . In John , the Cleansing of the Temple occurs at the beginning of Jesus ' ministry instead of the end John 2 : 13 – 16 .
Also in the Synoptics , Jesus comes into conflict with the Jewish elders , such as when they question his authority and when he criticizes them and calls them hypocrites . Judas Iscariot , one of the twelve apostles , secretly strikes a bargain with the Jewish elder , agreeing to betray Jesus to them for 30 silver coins .
The Gospel of John recounts of two other feasts in which Jesus taught in Jerusalem before the Passion Week ( John 7 : 1 – 10 : 42 ) . He returns near Jerusalem , in Bethany , when he raises Lazarus from the dead , which increases the tension between him and the authorities . The authorities then conspire to kill him ( John 11 ) . Raising Lazarus is Jesus ' most potent sign yet . In Bethany , Mary of Bethany anoints Jesus ' feet , foreshadowing his entombment . Jesus then makes his Messianic entry into Jerusalem . The cheering crowds greeting Jesus as he enters Jerusalem add to the animosity between him and the establishment . In John , Jesus has already cleansed the Temple during an earlier Passover visit to Jerusalem . John next recounts Jesus ' Last Supper with his disciples .
= = = = Last Supper = = = =
The Last Supper is the final meal that Jesus shares with his 12 apostles in Jerusalem before his crucifixion . The Last Supper is mentioned in all four canonical gospels ; Paul 's First Epistle to the Corinthians ( 11 : 23 – 26 ) also refers to it . During the meal , Jesus predicts that one of his apostles will betray him . Despite each Apostle 's assertion that he would not betray him , Jesus reiterates that the betrayer would be one of those present . Matthew 26 : 23 – 25 and John 13 : 26 – 27 specifically identify Judas as the traitor .
In the Synoptics , Jesus takes bread , breaks it , and gives it to the disciples , saying , " This is my body , which is given for you " . He then has them all drink from a cup , saying , " This cup that is poured out for you is the new covenant in my blood " ( Luke 22 : 19 – 20 ) . The Christian sacrament or ordinance of the Eucharist is based on these events . Although the Gospel of John does not include a description of the bread @-@ and @-@ wine ritual during the Last Supper , most scholars agree that John 6 : 22 – 59 ( the Bread of Life Discourse ) has a eucharistic character and resonates with the institution narratives in the Synoptic Gospels and in the Pauline writings on the Last Supper .
In all four gospels , Jesus predicts that Peter will deny knowledge of him three times before the rooster crows the next morning . In Luke and John , the prediction is made during the Supper ( Luke 22 : 34 , John 22 : 34 ) . In Matthew and Mark , the prediction is made after the Supper ; Jesus also predicts that all his disciples will desert him ( Matthew 26 : 31 – 34 , Mark 14 : 27 – 30 ) . The Gospel of John provides the only account of Jesus washing his disciples ' feet after the meal . John also includes a long sermon by Jesus , preparing his disciples ( now without Judas ) for his departure . Chapters 14 – 17 of the Gospel of John are known as the Farewell Discourse and are a significant source of Christological content .
= = = = Agony in the Garden , betrayal , and arrest = = = =
After the Last Supper , Jesus takes a walk to pray , and then Judas and the authorities come and arrest him .
In Mark , they go to the garden of Gethsemane , where Jesus prays to be spared his coming ordeal . His disciples fall asleep while they should be watching ( Mark 37 – 41 ) . Then Judas comes with an armed mob , sent by the chief priests , scribes and elders . He kisses Jesus to identify him to the crowd , which then arrests Jesus . In an attempt to stop them , one of Jesus ' disciples uses a sword to cut off the ear of a man in the crowd . After Jesus ' arrest , his disciples go into hiding , and Peter , when questioned , thrice denies knowing Jesus . After the third denial , he hears the rooster crow and recalls the prediction as Jesus turns to look at him . Peter then weeps bitterly .
In Matthew , Jesus criticizes the disciple 's attack with the sword , enjoining his disciples not to resist his arrest . He says , " All who take the sword will perish by the sword " ( Matthew 26 : 52 ) .
In Luke , Jesus goes to the Mount of Olives to pray , and Jesus miraculously heals the ear that a disciple severed ( Luke 22 : 51 ) .
In John , Jesus does not pray to be spared his crucifixion , as the gospel portrays him as scarcely touched by such human weakness . The people who arrest him are soldiers and Jewish officers ( John 18 : 3 ) . Instead of being betrayed by a kiss , Jesus proclaims his identity , and when he does , the soldiers and officers fall to the ground ( John 18 : 4 – 7 ) . The gospel identifies Peter as the disciple who used the sword , and Jesus rebukes him for
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" The Empire of Brazil was determined to extend its zone of influence over South America .
The cabinet settled upon a risky alternative to resolve the complicated situation in the Platine region . Instead of undertaking a period of conscription to build up the Brazilian Army , which would have been costly , the Council decided to rely on the standing army . It sent a contingent south to secure the region . Brazil held an advantage in possessing a powerful and modern navy , along with an experienced professional army hardened by years of internal and external warfare . Up until this point , no other nation in South America possessed true navies or regular armies . Rosas ' and Oribe 's forces were largely made up of irregular troops on loan from those caudillos who supported them . Even a decade later , Argentina could only field an army of 6 @,@ 000 men . Brazil also decided to adopt Rosas ' own tactics by financing his opponents to weaken him both internally and externally .
= = = Alliance against Rosas = = =
The Brazilian government set about creating a regional alliance against Rosas , sending a delegation to the region led by Honório Hermeto Carneiro Leão ( later the Marquis of Paraná ) , who held plenipotentiary authority . He was assisted by José Maria da Silva Paranhos ( later the Viscount of Rio Branco ) . Brazil signed a treaty with Bolívia in which Bolivia agreed to strengthen its border defenses to deter any attack by Rosas , though it declined to contribute troops to a war with Argentina .
Isolationist Paraguay was more difficult to win over . Brazil made the initial overtures , becoming the first country to formally recognise Paraguayan independence in 1844 . This soon led to the establishment of excellent diplomatic relations . The Brazilian ambassador in Paraguay , Pimenta Bueno , became a private councilor to President Carlos Antonio López . A defensive alliance was signed on 25 December 1850 between Brazil and Paraguay , in which López agreed to supply the Empire with horses for its army . But Paraguay refused to contribute troops to fight Rosas , believing that Justo José Urquiza ( who had invaded Uruguay in 1839 and in 1845 ) , the ruler of the Argentine Entre Rios province , secretly wished to annex Paraguay .
Brazil 's involvement in the Uruguayan civil war also began to deepen . Luis Alves de Lima e Silva , the Count of Caxias , assumed the presidency ( governorship ) of Rio Grande do Sul and the command of the four Brazilian Army divisions headquartered in the province . Beginning in 1849 , the Imperial government directly assisted the besieged Uruguayan government of Colorados in Montevideo , and on 6 September 1850 the Uruguayan representative Andres Lamas signed an agreement with Irineu Evangelista de Sousa to transfer money to the Montevideo government through his bank . On 16 March 1851 , the Empire of Brazil openly declared its support of Colorado government of Uruguay against Oribe , something it had been covertly doing for more than two years . This did not please the Argentine government , and it began mobilizing for war .
Brazil had also been searching for support against Rosas inside Argentina , with some success . On 1 May 1851 , the province of Entre Rios , still governed by Urquiza , declared to Rosas that " it is the will of its people to re @-@ assume the entire exercise of its own sovereignty and power which had been delegated to the governor of Buenos Aires . " It was followed by the province of Corrientes , governed by Benjamín Virasoro , which sent the same message . Brazil encouraged and financially supported both uprisings . One of the reasons for Urquiza 's betrayal of Rosas was a long @-@ running rivalry . Rosas had tried to remove him from power several times since 1845 , suspecting that the caudillo was nurturing designs for his overthrow . This was the trigger for military intervention , and Brazil sent a naval force to the Platine region , basing it near the port of Montevideo . The British Rear admiral John Pascoe Grenfell , a veteran of the Brazilian War of Independence and of the Cisplatine War , was appointed to lead the fleet , which reached Montevideo on 4 May 1851 . His command included 1 frigate , 7 corvettes , 3 brigs and 6 steamships . The Brazilian Armada had a total of 59 vessels of various types in 1851 , including 36 armed sailing ships , 10 armed steamships , 7 unarmed sailing ships and 6 sailing transports .
Uruguay , Brazil and the Argentine provinces of Entre Rios and Corrientes joined in an offensive Alliance against Rosas on 29 May 1851 . The text of the treaty declared that the objective was to protect Uruguayan independence , pacify its territory , and expel Oribe 's forces . Urquiza would command the Argentine forces and Eugenio Garzón would lead the Colorado Uruguayans , with both receiving financial and military aid from the Empire of Brazil .
This was followed on 2 August 1851 by landings of the first Brazilian detachments in Uruguay , consisting of approximately 300 soldiers of the 6th Battalion of Skirmishers sent to protect Fuerte del Cerro ( Cerro Fort ) . In response , Rosas declared war against Brazil on 18 August 1851 .
According to Herrera y Obes , Rosas would have said , as war approached : " poor Brazilians , I 'm going to make of their Emperor my butler " .
= = Stage 1 - Allied invasion of Uruguay = =
The Count of Caxias led a Brazilian army of 16 @,@ 200 professional soldiers across the border between Rio Grande do Sul and Uruguay on 4 September 1851 . His force consisted of four divisions , with 6 @,@ 500 infantrymen , 8 @,@ 900 cavalrymen , 800 artillerymen and 26 cannons , a little under half the total Brazilian army ( 37 @,@ 000 men ) ; while another 4 @,@ 000 of his men remained in Brazil to protect its border .
The Brazilian Army entered Uruguay in three groups : the main force , consisting of the 1st and 2nd divisions left from Santana do Livramento — around 12 @,@ 000 men under Caxias 's personal command . The second force , under the command of Colonel David Canabarro departed from Quaraim , comprising the 4th division , protecting Caxias ' right flank . The third force , the 3rd Division under Brigadier General José Fernandes , left from Jaguarão , protecting Caxias ' left . Canabarro 's 4th Division joined Caxias 's troops shortly after arriving at the Uruguayan town of Frutuoso , the combined force then joining up with Fernandes just before reaching Montevideo .
= = = Defeat of Oribe = = =
Meanwhile , the troops of Urquiza and Eugenio Garzón had surrounded the army of Oribe near Montevideo . Their forces numbered roughly 15 @,@ 000 men , almost double Oribe 's 8 @,@ 500 . Realising that the Brazilians were approaching and knowing that there was no hope of victory , Oribe orderered his troops to surrender without a fight on 19 October , and retreated into seclusion on his farm in Paso del Molino .
The Brazilian fleet , with their ships scattered throughout the River Plate and tributaries , prevented the defeated army of Oribe from escaping into Argentina . Urquiza suggested to Grenfell that they should simply kill the resulting prisoners of war , but Grenfell refused to harm any of them . Instead , Oribe 's Argentine soldiers were incorporated into the army of Urquiza , and the Uruguayans into Garzon 's .
The Brazilian army easily took the remaining Blanco Uruguayan territory , fending off remnants of Oribe 's troops who attacked its flanks in several skirmishes . On 21 November the representatives of Brazil , Uruguay , Entre Rios and Corrientes then formed another alliance in Montevideo with the objective of " freeing the Argentine people from the oppression it suffers under the tyrant rule of Governor Rosas ” .
= = Stage 2 - Allied invasion of Argentina = =
= = = Allied army advance = = =
Shortly after the surrender of Oribe , the Allied forces split into two groups , the plan being for one force to maneuver upriver and sweep down on Buenos Aires from Santa Fe , while the other would make a landing at the port of Buenos Aires itself . The first of these groups , was composed of Uruguayan and Argentine troops , along with the 1st Division of the Brazilian Army under Brigadier General Manuel Marques de Sousa ( later the Count of Porto Alegre ) . It was initially based in the town of Colonia del Sacramento in the south of Uruguay across the Río de la Plata estuary from the city of Buenos Aires .
On 17 December 1851 , a squadron of Brazilian ships , consisting of four steamships , three corvettes and one brig under the command of Grenfell , forced a passage of the Paraná River in the battle which became known as the Passage of the Tonelero . The Argentines had formed a powerful defensive line at The Tonelero Pass , near the cliffs of Acevedo , protected by 16 pieces of artillery and 2 @,@ 000 riflemen under the command of general Lucio Norberto Mansilla . The Argentine troops exchanged fire with the Brazilian warships but were unable to prevent from them from progressing upriver . The following day , the Brazilian ships returned and broke their way through The Tonelero 's defenses , carrying the remaining troops of Marques de Sousa 's Brazilian division upstream towards Gualeguaichu . This second influx of ships caused Mansilla and his soldiers to withdraw in chaos , abandoning their artillery , believing that the Allies were intending to land and attack their positions from the rear .
The Allied army continued to make its way to the assembly point at Gualeguaichu . Urquiza and his cavalry traveled overland from Montevideo , while the infantry and artillery were carried by Brazilian warships up the Uruguay River . After meeting up , they marched west until they reached the city of Diamante on the east side of the Paraná River in the middle of December 1851 . Eugenio Garzón and his the Uruguayan troops were taken from Montevideo up to Potrero Perez by Brazilian warships and continued on foot until arriving at Diamante on 30 December 1851 , when all the Allied forces were finally reunited .
From Diamante contingents were ferried to the other side of the Paraná River , landing at Santa Fé . The Confederate Argentine troops in the region ran away without offering any resistance . The Allied Army , or the “ Grand Army of South America ” as it was officially called by Urquiza , marched on towards Buenos Aires .
Meanwhile , the second force , comprising the majority of the Brazilian troops ( about 12 @,@ 000 men ) under the command of Caxias , had remained in Colonia del Sacramento . The Brazilian commander took the steamship Dom Afonso ( named in honor of the late Prince Afonso ) and entered the port at Buenos Aires to select the best place to disembark his troops . He expected to have to defeat the Argentine flotilla anchored there , but the force did nothing to stop him and he safely returned to Sacramento to plan his assault . The attack was aborted , however , when news arrived of the Allied victory at Caseros .
= = = Rosas defeated = = =
The Allied army had been advancing on the Argentinian capital of Buenos Aires by land , while the Brazilian Army commanded by Caxias planned a supporting attack by sea . On 29 January at the Battle of Alvarez Field the Allied vanguard defeated a force of 4 @,@ 000 Argentines led by two colonels which General Ángel Pacheco had sent to slow down the advance . Pacheco retreated . Two days later , troops under his personal command were defeated at the Battle of Marques Bridge by two allied divisions . On 1 February 1852 , the Allied troops encamped approximately nine kilometers from Buenos Aires . The next day a brief skirmish between the vanguards of both armies ended with a retreat by the Argentines .
On 3 February the Allied army encountered the main Argentine force commanded by Rosas himself . On paper , the two sides were well @-@ matched . The Allies included 20 @,@ 000 Argentines , 2 @,@ 000 Uruguayans , 4 @,@ 000 Brazilian elite troops totalling 26 @,@ 000 men and 45 cannon ( 16 @,@ 000 cavalrymen , 9 @,@ 000 infantrymen and 1 @,@ 000 artillerymen ) . On the Argentine side , Rosas had 15 @,@ 000 cavalrymen , 10 @,@ 000 infantrymen and 1 @,@ 000 artillerymen , totalling 26 @,@ 000 men and 60 cannon . Rosas had been able to select the best positions for his army , choosing the high ground on the slopes of a hill at Caseros , which lay on the other side of the Morón creek . His headquarters were based in a mansion at the top of Caseros .
The Allied commanders were de Sousa , Manuel Luis Osório ( later the Marquis of Erval ) , Jose Maria Pirán , Jose Miguel Galán ( who replaced Garzón after his unexpected death in December 1851 ) , Urquiza , and the future Argentine presidents Bartolomé Mitre and Domingo Sarmiento — the latter both leading the Argentine Unitarians . These men formed a War Council , and gave orders to commence the attack . Almost immediately the forward units of the two armies began to engage in battle .
The Battle of Caseros resulted in a decisive victory for the Allies . Although they started with the inferior position on the battlefield , the Allied soldiers managed to annihilate Rosas 's troops in a fight that lasted for most of the day . A few minutes before the Allied forces reached Rosas ' headquarters , the Argentine dictator escaped the battlefield . Disguised as a sailor , he sought out Robert Gore , British ambassador in Buenos Aires , and requested asylum . The ambassador agreed to have de Rosas and his daughter Manuelita taken to the United Kingdom , where he would spend the last twenty years of his life . The official report stated that 600 men on the Allied side had been wounded or died , while the Argentine losses were 1 @,@ 400 killed or wounded and 7 @,@ 000 captured . Given the duration and scale of the battle , however , this may be an underestimate .
To mark their victory , the Allied troops marched in triumph through the streets of Buenos Aires . The parades included the Brazilian Army , which insisted that their triumphal procession take place on 20 February , to mark payback for the defeat it had suffered at the Battle of Ituzaingó twenty five years before on that date . The population of Buenos Aires was said to have looked on silently with a combination of shame and hostility as the Brazilians passed .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Brazil = = =
The triumph in Caseros was a pivotal military victory for Brazil . The independence of Paraguay and Uruguay was secured , and the planned Argentine invasion of Rio Grande do Sul was blocked . In a period of three years , the Empire of Brazil had destroyed any possibility of reconstituting a state encompassing the territories of old Viceroyalty of the Rio de la Plata , a goal cherished by many in Argentina since independence . Brazil 's army and fleet had accomplished what Great Britain and France , the great powers of that time , had not achieved through interventions by their powerful navies . This represented a watershed for the history of the region as it not only ushered in Imperial hegemony over the Platine region , but , according to Brazilian historian J. F. Maya Pedrosa , also in the rest of South America . The War of the Triple Alliance eighteen years later would only be a confirmation of Brazilian dominance .
Hispanic American nations from Mexico to Argentina suffered from coups d 'état , revolts , dictatorships , political upheavals , economic instability , civil wars and secessions . Brazil , on the other hand , came out of the conflict with its system of constitutional monarchy strengthened and the cessation of internal revolts . The problematic province of Rio Grande do Sul had actively participated in the war effort . As a consequence , there was increased identification with Brazil among its populace , quelling of separatist feeling , and an easier and effective integration with the rest of the nation . Internal stability also allowed Brazil to begin assuming a respected place on the international scene , coinciding with the parallel emergence of the United States which was only now establishing its own borders . The European powers perceived in the Empire of Brazil a rare exception in a continent afflicted by civil wars and dictatorships . Brazil entered into a period of great economic , scientific and cultural prosperity , lasting from 1850 until the end of its monarchy .
= = = Argentina = = =
Soon after the Battle of Caseros the San Nicolás Agreement was signed . It was meant to comply with the constitutional mandate of the Federal pact that presided over the Argentine Confederation , convening a Constitutional Assembly to meet in Santa Fe . This agreement was not accepted by the province of Buenos Aires , since it reduced its influence and power over the other provinces . Buenos Aires thereupon seceded from the confederation , thus Argentina got divided into two rival , independent states which fought to establish dominance . On the one side were the Federalists of the Argentine Confederation , led by Justo José de Urquiza . On the other , the Autonomists of Buenos Aires . The civil war was only brought to an end with the decisive victory of Buenos Aires over the Federation at the 1861 Battle of Pavón . The bonaerense liberal leader Bartolomé Mitre was elected the first President of a united Argentine Republic in 1862 .
= = = Paraguay and Uruguay = = =
With the opening of the Platine rivers , Paraguay now found it possible to contract with European technicians and Brazilian specialists to aid in its development . Unhindered access to the outside world also enabled it to import more advanced military technology . During the greater part of the 1850s , the dictator Carlos López harassed Brazilian vessels attempting to freely navigate the Paraguay River . López feared that the province of Mato Grosso might become a base from which an invasion from Brazil could be launched . This dispute was also leverage with the Imperial government for acceptance of his territorial demands in the region . The nation also experienced difficulties in delimiting its borders with Argentina which wanted the whole Gran Chaco region : a demand which Paraguay could not accept , as this would entail surrendering more than half of its national territory .
The end of the Platine War did not bring a halt to conflict in the region . Peace remained out of reach in Uruguay , which remained unstable and in a state of constant crisis due to continuing internecine strife between the Blancos and Colorados . Border disputes , power struggles among diverse regional factions , and attempts to establish regional and internal influence would eventually spark the Uruguayan War as well as the later Paraguayan War .
= = Endnotes = =
= Stan Benjamin =
Alfred Stanley " Stan " Benjamin ( May 20 , 1914 – December 24 , 2009 ) was a right fielder in Major League Baseball for five seasons ; four with the Philadelphia Phillies ( 1939 – 1942 ) , of the National League ( NL ) , and one with the Cleveland Indians ( 1945 ) , of the American League ( AL ) . The 6 ' 2 " , 194 lb . Benjamin batted and threw right @-@ handed , and was born in Framingham , Massachusetts . After graduating from high school , he attended Western Maryland College , now known as McDaniel College , where he played baseball , basketball , and football .
In addition to his major league playing career , he played in minor league baseball for ten seasons . He began at the age of 23 , with the Thomasville Orioles of the Georgia – Florida League in 1937 , and finished as the player @-@ manager for the Fresno Cardinals of the California League in 1948 . During that time , he played in 955 minor league games , and batted .304 , and hit 52 home runs . In the early 1940s , he was an assistant football coach at Northeastern University . Later , during his minor league career , he began coaching high school football , part @-@ time , in his home town of Framingham , and then full @-@ time once his playing and managing career ended .
Starting in 1948 , he was the head baseball coach and assistant football coach for Greenfield High School in Greenfield , Massachusetts , and took over the head football coaching duties in 1958 . He held both positions , in addition to being a physical education teacher for a local middle school and part @-@ time basketball referee until 1964 . In 1965 , he was hired as a talent scout for the Houston Astros , a job he held for nearly 40 years . It was his evaluation of Jeff Bagwell that led the Astros to acquire him from the Boston Red Sox for Larry Andersen .
= = Early life = =
Born on May 20 , 1914 , in Framingham , Massachusetts , Benjamin graduated from Framingham High School in 1932 , and later attended Western Maryland College , later renamed McDaniel College , on an athletic scholarship . He played football , basketball , and baseball and claimed to have once competed against Ohio State University track star and Olympic gold medalist Jesse Owens . When he was an end on the college 's football team , he was presented with the game ball autographed by his teammates after a 12 – 6 victory over Boston College .
= = Career = =
= = = Minor leagues = = =
Benjamin signed his first professional baseball contract with the Thomasville Orioles of the Class D minor league baseball Georgia – Florida League in 1937 . He played for this team for the 1937 and 1938 seasons as their third baseman . In 1937 , he batted .310 , and hit one home run . In 97 games played during the 1938 season , he batted .348 , hit 32 doubles , 12 triples , and three home runs . For the 1939 season , he joined the Chattanooga Lookouts of the Class A1 Southern Association as an outfielder ; he batted .323 , and hit 27 doubles , eight triples , and five home runs in 135 games played . It was at the conclusion of this minor league season , that he became a late @-@ season acquisition of the Philadelphia Phillies .
= = = Major leagues = = =
Benjamin made his Major League Baseball debut on September 16 , 1939 , with the Phillies , and appeared in 12 games , fielding a variety of positions , including all three outfield positions , and third base as well . He had 50 at bats that season , and collected seven hits for a .140 batting average .
The next season , he was optioned by the Phillies to the Baltimore Orioles of the Class AA International League , one of their minor league affiliates , as an outfielder . During the 1940 season , he played in 108 games , batted .304 , and hit 16 doubles , seven triples , and 11 home runs . At the conclusion of this season , he was a late @-@ season call @-@ up by the Phillies . He played in eight games and had two hits in nine at bats for a .222 batting average .
His most productive major league season came in 1941 , when he played a full season with the Phillies . He posted career @-@ highs in home runs ( 3 ) , RBIs ( 27 ) , runs scored ( 47 ) , hits ( 113 ) , doubles ( 20 ) , triples ( 7 ) , stolen bases ( 17 ) and games played ( 129 ) . In a game against the New York Giants on June 28 , Benjamin singled to bring home the game @-@ winning run in bottom of the 12th inning . On July 1 , he again produced a game @-@ winning single , this time in the bottom of the tenth inning , defeating the Brooklyn Dodgers . He began the 1942 season with the Phillies and batted .224 in 78 games before being sold , on August 5 , to the Louisville Colonels , a Class AA American Association affiliate of the Boston Red Sox .
= = = Return to the minors = = =
Benjamin finished the 1942 season with the Colonels as their third baseman . He appeared in 38 games , hit three home runs , and had a .303 batting average . Before the 1943 season , the Red Sox were in need of more outfielders , so manager Joe Cronin gave Benjamin a tryout in mid @-@ March ; however , he was not signed , and he continued to play with the Colonels , moving back to the outfield . In 123 games played , he hit just .237 , and did not hit a home run .
He returned to the Baltimore Orioles of the International League for the 1944 season , which had switched its major league affiliation to the Cleveland Indians . He enjoyed a resurgence in his offensive statistics that season , as his batting average rose to .301 , and he hit 24 doubles , eight triples , and 12 home runs in 133 games played . The Indians called up Benjamin for the 1945 season , and even though he was part of their regular roster , he appeared in only 14 games , batting .333 . On March 26 , 1946 , he was released by the Cleveland Indians , and he would never appear in another major league game . In his five @-@ season major league career , Benjamin hit .229 with five home runs and 41 RBIs in 241 games .
He played for and managed the Nazareth Cement Dusters of the Class D North Atlantic League . He played several different positions that season , including two games at pitcher . He batted .312 and hit four home runs during his only season with the Cement Dusters . Benjamin played for several different teams in 1947 , beginning the season with the Houston Buffaloes , a St. Louis Cardinals affiliate , but later joined the San Antonio Missions , a St. Louis Browns affiliate . Both teams were in the Texas League . Late in the season , the Browns promoted him to their Class AAA team , the Toledo Mud Hens of the American Association . In 1948 , he played for , and managed , the Fresno Cardinals of the Class C California League , an affiliate of the St. Louis Cardinals . In 125 games played that season , he batted .326 and hit 27 doubles , five triples , and nine home runs . After the season completed , he retired as a player .
= = Post @-@ playing career = =
= = = High school athletics = = =
After his baseball playing career ended , he moved to Greenfield , Massachusetts , and became an assistant football coach at Greenfield High School , while also working as a physical education teacher at a nearby middle school . Benjamin was Greenfield 's head football coach from 1958 to 1964 , as well as the head baseball coach from 1948 to 1964 . He coached the baseball team to several Western Massachusetts championships . Among the other duties , he also refereed high school and college basketball games in New England , as well as working as an assistant football coach at Deerfield Academy in 1964 and 1965 . He was also an assistant football coach for Northeastern University in the early 1940s .
= = = Scouting career = = =
Benjamin began his career as a talent scout for the Houston Astros in 1965 , and stayed in that capacity until retiring in 2002 . During his time with the Astros franchise he scouted amateur players in the New England region , as well as the American League East teams and their minor league affiliates . He later became the team 's scouting supervisor for the Northeast . He also scouted major league teams during spring training in Florida and spent many summer evenings evaluating some of the nation 's best college players in the Cape Cod Baseball League .
In 1970 , Mike Flanagan was suffering arm problems , and many scouts decided that he did not have a future baseball career , but he could hit well , so Benjamin suggested to the Astros that they could use him in that capacity and wait to see if his arm would recuperate . The Astros drafted Flanagan , but he decided not to sign , and instead attended University of Massachusetts Amherst on a baseball scholarship . During the 1990 season , the Astros were approached by the Boston Red Sox , who needed pitching and were interested in Larry Andersen . Benjamin recommended that they ask for Red Sox minor leaguer Jeff Bagwell in return . The Astros were hesitant initially due to Bagwell 's low home run totals , but Benjamin convinced them by explaining that his numbers were deceiving due to the large ballpark that he played in .
= = Personal life = =
Benjamin was married to his wife Barbara , maiden name Hall , from 1941 until her death 54 years later in 1995 . She was attending Framingham State Teachers College when they met , and school rules forbade female students from getting married or they faced expulsion . Town records didn 't publish marriages until after January 1 , each year , so the couple got married at 1 a.m. on New Year 's Day 1941 at her home in Raynham , Massachusetts . This prevented the school from learning about her marriage until after she had graduated . The Benjamins had one son , Richard , and three daughters , Nancy , Janice , and Joanne ; as well as 12 grandchildren , and 11 great @-@ grandchildren .
Benjamin died at the age of 95 , of heart failure , in his daughter 's home on December 24 , 2009 , in Harwich , Massachusetts . He is interred at Green River Cemetery in Greenfield , Massachusetts .
Benjamin was a member of both the McDaniel College and Massachusetts Baseball Coaches Association hall of fame , and in 2008 , he received a special recognition award from the Professional Baseball Scouts Foundation . Tal Smith , Astros ' president of baseball operations , said of Benjamin , " Stan 's positive evaluation of Bagwell was definitely a catalyst in our taking him ... He was a vital cog in our organization who had the ability to convey his opinion in a precise manner . You always knew where you stood with him . He was a longtime employee , but more important , a longtime friend . Smith also called him a " keen judge of talent . "
= Donald Trump ( Last Week Tonight ) =
" Donald Trump " is a segment of the HBO series Last Week Tonight with John Oliver , devoted to American businessman Donald Trump . It was first aired on February 28 , 2016 , as part of the third episode of the third season . During the 22 @-@ minute segment , comedian John Oliver discusses Trump 's 2016 presidential campaign and his long career in business . He also reveals that the Trump family name was changed at one point from the ancestral name " Drumpf " .
The segment , which is the show 's most viewed to date , popularized the term Donald Drumpf , and started a campaign urging viewers to " Make Donald Drumpf Again " – a play on Trump 's own campaign slogan , " Make America Great Again " .
= = Description = =
The 22 @-@ minute segment about Donald Trump was delivered by John Oliver on February 28 , 2016 , during the third episode of the third season of Last Week Tonight with John Oliver . The comedian introduces the topic of Trump 's presidential campaign by referring to it as " America 's back mole " , saying " It may have seemed harmless a year ago , but now that it 's become frighteningly bigger , it 's no longer wise to ignore it . "
Oliver then heavily criticizes Trump . He calls Trump a " serial liar " , and says that Trump had lied many times in the past , has made dubious and yet @-@ substantiated claims regarding his net worth , and has had " a string of broken business ventures [ including some of his real estate properties ] and the support of a former Klan leader , who he can 't decide whether or not to condemn " . Oliver mentions that Trump claimed to have declined an invitation to appear on Last Week Tonight despite never having been invited ; that Trump was not self @-@ funding his 2016 presidential campaign , despite Trump having said otherwise ; that Trump University ( among the defunct business ventures spearheaded by Trump that were cited in the segment ) misled people , since it was not a university , and despite Trump 's statement to the contrary , the related lawsuits were still pending ; and that Ivanka Trump , Donald 's daughter , had said – in an interview in the 2003 documentary Born Rich – that her father once portrayed himself as poorer than a homeless person .
The comedian also says that Trump had failed to repudiate former Ku Klux Klan leader David Duke in interviews with various Sunday morning talk shows on the day of the episode 's broadcast , after Duke advocated his white supremacist supporters the previous week to endorse Trump , due to the Republican candidate 's campaign rhetoric that have been criticized as bigoted towards Hispanics ( regarding his plan to reform the American immigration system , specifically by stemming illegal immigration across the U.S.-Mexico border through the construction of a border wall , and his statement in his introductory campaign speech suggesting that Mexico was importing drug dealers and criminals into the U.S. ) and Muslims ( in which Trump advocated a ban on Muslims seeking to enter the United States ) . In total , according to Oliver , Trump was lying three @-@ fourths ( 76 % ) of the time , citing a Politifact study of the statements made by Trump since he launched his Presidential campaign . He calls Trump inconsistent in the political views he expressed during and prior to his campaign , saying that " he 's been pro choice and pro @-@ life ; he 's been for and against assault weapon bans ; in favor of both bringing in Syrian refugees and deporting them out of the country , " as well as having advocated ( in a phone @-@ in interview on Fox & Friends ) committing a war crime by killing families of suspected terrorists as part of his strategy to defeat ISIS .
Oliver states that Trump had frequently threatened to file lawsuits against various people , but had never actually filed these lawsuits . He says that Trump was also sensitive about the size of his fingers due to an incident several years prior , in which Trump had been accosted about their size in a 1988 Spy feature piece criticizing him as a " short @-@ fingered vulgarian , " resulting in him sending the now @-@ defunct magazine 's editor , E. Graydon Carter ( who discussed the story in a November 2015 Vanity Fair article ) , envelopes enclosed with a photo of Trump at various times in subsequent years that highlighted his fingers in a circular gold Sharpie marking to dispute the piece 's claims . Discussion of Trump 's " short fingers " was later covered by other media , but in a Twitter post two days after the segment 's original showing , Trump said that he was not aware that people knew about his " short fingers " .
= = = " Make Donald Drumpf Again " = = =
In the final portion of the segment , Oliver urges viewers to refer to Trump as " Drumpf " , the Trump family 's ancestral name . Oliver previously pointed out that Trump had repeatedly mocked Jewish @-@ American comedian Jon Stewart by referring to him as " Jonathan Leibowitz " , the comedian 's birth name . Oliver , an alumnus of Stewart 's Daily Show , justified the " Drumpf " epithet by insisting , paraphrasing Trump 's mockery of Stewart , " [ Trump ] should be proud of his heritage ! " Oliver opines that this name is much more reflective of Trump 's true nature , and says that if viewers wanted to vote for " the charismatic guy promising to make America great again " , they should " stop and take a moment to imagine how [ they ] would feel if [ they ] just met a guy named Donald Drumpf " . Furthermore , he says of the name , " Drumpf is much less magical . It 's the sound produced when a morbidly obese pigeon flies into the window of a foreclosed Old Navy . ... It 's the sound of a bottle of store @-@ brand root beer falling off the shelf in a gas station minimart . "
A trademark application for the word " Drumpf " was filed with the United States Patent and Trademark Office by a company called Drumpf Industries , an LLC based in Delaware ; Oliver stated that he had trademarked that term . Oliver also released a Google Chrome browser extension called " Drumpfinator " after the segment , which changes all instances of " Trump " to " Drumpf " on webpages . Oliver created the hashtag " # MakeDonaldDrumpfAgain " during the segment . He also registered the web domain " donaldjdrumpf.com " , selling baseball caps with the slogan " Make Donald Drumpf Again , " modeled after Trump 's own " Make America Great Again " hat . The website sold out of 35 @,@ 000 of these hats by March 27 .
= = Reception and aftermath = =
Immediately after the segment had aired , web searches for " Donald Drumpf " , a term mentioned in the segment 's final minutes , went viral . By March 1 , on which the " Super Tuesday " primaries were held , Google Searches for " Donald Drumpf " had surpassed those for " Ted Cruz " and " Marco Rubio , " Trump 's fellow candidates for the Republican presidential nomination at the time .
By the morning of March 4 , six days after the segment 's original air date , the " Drumpfinator " Chrome extension had received over 333 @,@ 800 downloads and 5 @,@ 800 reviews . A similar add @-@ on for Mozilla Firefox with the same name had thousands of users . The extensions resulted in multiple outlets accidentally replacing Trump 's name . The American Jewish Congress announced the results of a poll of their members that referred to the candidate as " Donald Drumpf " , which they later acknowledged was an accident caused by someone 's use of the extension . Wired magazine published multiple articles replacing Trump 's name with the phrase " Someone with Tiny Hands " in reference to the " Short @-@ Fingered Vulgarian " meme , a result of another Chrome extension .
Reacting to the segment , Daniel Victor of The New York Times commented that " Donald Drumpf " was " a funny label " , but stated that " some fairness might be in order " . Victor stated that the Trump family had changed its name in the 17th century , and pointed out that many American entertainers and politicians , including two presidents ( Bill Clinton and Gerald Ford ) and a rival presidential candidate ( Hillary Clinton ) , had changed their names . CNET 's Chris Matyszczyk called the segment a " lengthy excoriation " of Trump , and commented that Oliver had " a greater purpose " than " mere satire " , which was to influence Americans to care enough to vote against Trump . S.I. Rosenbaum , a freelance journalist with the The Washington Post , was more critical , saying that making fun of foreign names " traffics in the very xenophobia that is Trump 's sick stock in trade " . Rosenbaum explained that : " We have a long history of this sort of thing in this country of immigrants — bestowing foreign @-@ sounding names to imply that the target isn 't really an American . "
DeepDrumpf , which received its namesake from Oliver 's segment , is a Twitterbot created at MIT which uses neural network technology and posts tweets to Twitter in an imitation of Trump . " The algorithm essentially learns an underlying structure from all the data it gets , and then comes up with different combinations of the data that reflect the structure that it was taught , " says the bot 's creator . He stated that if there were more data available , or even all the data that Facebook 's AI system can analyze , then the neural network would be better able to mimic the presidential candidate .
Within eight days of the original broadcast , the YouTube video of the segment had surpassed 19 million views , making it Oliver 's most watched segment . By comparison , the previous episode 's segment had a little over four million views on YouTube by that date . By March 8 , ten days after the broadcast , the website had sold over 35 @,@ 000 " Make Donald Drumpf Again " hats , comprising all of the inventory on hand . Other merchandise satirizing Trump had been sold by other retailers as well . By the end of March , the segment had been viewed 23 @.@ 3 million times on YouTube and 62 million times on Facebook , making its viewership " a record for any piece of HBO content . "
= = = Subsequent segments = = =
In much of a subsequent segment on March 20 , 2016 , three weeks after the original episode aired , Oliver talked about Drumpf 's proposed border wall between United States and Mexico , although the YouTube video 's description of the episode mentioned " Donald Drumpf 's " plan to build the wall . In that episode , titled " Border Wall " , Oliver explained some details of his criticism of Drumpf 's border wall idea , specifically the inconsistent estimates of the proposed wall 's construction cost as well as a federal law that prohibits building structures that may disrupt the flow of Rio Grande and other U.S. river basins ( citing an existing wall along the U.S.-Mexico border that had to be built several miles inland on the Texas side of the border because of such regulations ) .
In part of another subsequent segment on June 5 , 2016 , three months after " Donald Drumpf " first aired , Oliver talked about Drumpf 's business tactics at Drumpf University .
= = Name change timing dispute = =
While there was agreement among commentators that Drumpf was Trump 's ancestral name , and that neither Donald Trump nor his father were named Drumpf , they disagreed on whether the family name was changed in the 17th century or well into the 19th century , in 1885 . Kim LaCapria of Snopes.com , a popular rumor @-@ debunking website , reported that Drumpf was indeed the original family name , but the writers at Snopes were unable to determine what year the name was changed to Trump .
Some commentators stated that the name change happened in 1885 , and that Donald Trump 's grandfather , Frederick Trump , was formerly named Friedrich Drumpf . However , other , published sources stated that the name change occurred in the 17th century . In her 2001 book The Trumps : Three Generations of Builders and a Presidential Candidate , biographer Gwenda Blair wrote that the Trumps ' family name was changed during the Thirty Years ' War , as evidenced by the name of John Philip Trump , who lived in the 17th century . Blair also wrote that Frederick Trump 's original name was Friedrich Trump , and his father , born in the 19th century , was Johannes Trump . This position was endorsed by The Boston Globe , as well as by Daniel Victor , a reporter for The New York Times who wrote , " Despite mistaken impressions , Mr. Trump and his recent relatives had nothing to do with the surname change . Mr. Oliver himself was careful to refer to a ' prescient ancestor . ' " Kate Connolly of The Guardian — who visited Kallstadt , where Trump 's grandfather was born — referred to Frederick as " Friedrich Trump , " saying that " the Trump family name has had various permutations over the past five hundred years , according to the local church register " ; she did not mention the name " Drumpf " , however .
Several sources reported that Friedrich , his father , and his aunt were all named Trump , thus placing the name change to before the 18th century . For instance , genealogy organization FamilySearch provided information on Friedrich Trump , listing his father as Johann Ii Trump , while a genealogist at About.com listed Donald Trump 's grandfather as Friederich Trump and great @-@ grandfather as Christian Johannes Trump . In his 2013 book America 's Obsessives : The Compulsive Energy That Built a Nation , Joshua Kendall wrote that Donald Trump 's great @-@ grandfather and great @-@ grandaunt ( Frederick 's father and aunt ) were called John Trump and Charlotte Luise Trump , respectively .
= John Edward Brownlee =
John Edward Brownlee , QC ( August 27 , 1883 – July 15 , 1961 ) was the fifth Premier of Alberta , Canada , serving from 1925 until 1934 . Born in Port Ryerse , Ontario , he studied history and political science at the University of Toronto 's Victoria College before moving west to Calgary to become a lawyer . His clients included the United Farmers of Alberta ( UFA ) ; through his connection with that lobby group , he was involved in founding the United Grain Growers ( UGG ) .
After the UFA entered electoral politics and won the 1921 election , new premier Herbert Greenfield asked Brownlee to serve as his attorney @-@ general . Brownlee agreed and was elected to the Legislative Assembly of Alberta in a by @-@ election in the riding of Ponoka . As attorney @-@ general , he was an important member of Greenfield 's government . He was closely involved in its most important activities , including efforts to better the lot of farmers living in Alberta 's drought @-@ ridden south , divest itself of money @-@ losing railways , and win jurisdiction over natural resources from the federal government . When a group of UFA backbenchers grew frustrated with Greenfield 's weak leadership , they asked Brownlee to replace him . Brownlee eventually agreed , and became premier in 1925 .
Brownlee enjoyed early success as premier : he handily won the 1926 election , signed an agreement with the federal government transferring control over Alberta 's natural resources to its provincial government , sold the struggling government railways to the Canadian National and Canadian Pacific railway companies , and ran a series of balanced budgets . Things became more difficult with the advent of the Great Depression . Brownlee was unable to restore the province to prosperity in the face of a global economic crisis , and reluctantly ran budget deficits . Political radicalism increased , and Brownlee found his orthodox approach to political economy under attack .
In 1934 , Vivian MacMillan , a family friend , sued Brownlee for seduction . Brownlee denied any sexual relationship , but the jury found in MacMillan 's favour . Though the judge disregarded the jury 's verdict , the trial 's lurid testimony and the stigma resulting from the jury 's finding forced Brownlee 's resignation as premier . He ran for re @-@ election in Ponoka in the 1935 provincial election but was defeated , as William Aberhart 's Social Credit League swept the province . Once out of politics , Brownlee resumed the practice of law and joined the management of the UGG , serving as its president and general manager from 1948 until shortly before his death in 1961 .
= = Early life = =
= = = Childhood = = =
John Edward Brownlee was born August 27 , 1883 in Port Ryerse , Ontario , to William " Bill " James Brownlee ( 1856 – 1934 ) and Christina Brownlee ( née Shaw ) ( c . 1860 – 1941 ) . He was named for his maternal grandfather , miller John Shaw , and paternal grandfather , carpenter Edward James Brownlee . Christina Brownlee was a former school mistress and William James Brownlee was the operator of the Port Ryerse general store . John Brownlee had one sister , Maude , born September 12 , 1888 . The Brownlees lived in the general store building , and it was here that John spent the happiest times of his childhood : he much preferred his parents ' books , their political discussions with neighbours , and the details of their business to life outside the store . One anecdote has the village children , displeased with his serious temperament , throwing him into Lake Erie . By the age of seven , John was assisting at the store with such tasks as mixing butter from the different dairies with which his father dealt to produce a standardized blend .
By the end of the 1880s , Port Ryerse was dying out . The advent of railways was making tiny lake ports obsolete , and in Port Ryerse 's case this obsolescence was hastened by the town mill burning down in August 1890 . Against this backdrop , the family moved to Bradshaw , in Lambton County . There , John began school and attended Sunday school at the village 's Methodist church . He was the only pupil at his tiny school not from a farm ; he later claimed that this exposure to farmers gave him an early understanding of their concerns . He also became involved with his church 's young people 's club , which put on speaking programs . He was by nature shy , serious , and introverted , which made these programs a challenge at first ; however , he found that he was able to succeed at them through focus and discipline .
In September 1897 , Brownlee began high school . The closest high school was in Sarnia , too distant for a daily commute , so at the age of fourteen Brownlee boarded away from his family , seeing them only during holidays and occasional weekends . He was a good student — described by his instructors as " diligent " , if not brilliant — but was not a social success , being too studious for many of his peers . He wrote his departmental examinations in July 1900 and graduated shortly thereafter .
= = = Early professional career = = =
After graduating high school , Brownlee travelled with his father on a sales trip through northern Ontario , and otherwise assisted with the operation of the family business . His family expected him to become a teacher and , in September 1901 , just after his eighteenth birthday , he enrolled at Sarnia Model School . There , Brownlee completed a fifteen @-@ week program that included such subjects as school management , pedagogy , school law , reading instruction , and hygiene . He graduated December 12 , 1901 , second in his twenty @-@ person class , and within a month was one of two teachers at Bradshaw 's school .
He fast gained a reputation as a competent instructor : his old work ethic served him well , and his seriousness , cool blue @-@ grey eyes , and six foot four frame combined to give him an impressive presence . His $ 400 per year salary did not satisfy his ambition , and in the spring of 1904 , after two and a half years on the job , he decided that he wanted a university education . His teaching salary was not sufficient to finance this , so he spent the summer of 1904 selling a one volume encyclopaedia in the newly settled areas around Rapid City , Manitoba . Besides providing him with the income he required — he was a patient , effective salesman and later boasted that he was never thrown off of a farm — the job gave the now 21 @-@ year @-@ old Brownlee his first glimpse of Western Canada . Returning to Ontario at the summer 's end , he enrolled at Victoria College at the University of Toronto .
= = = University = = =
In Toronto , Brownlee pursued an honours program with specializations in history and political science . Besides these chosen subjects , he was required to study mathematics , biology , English literature , composition , Latin , and two additional languages — despite having some knowledge of French , he chose German and Hebrew . He continued his trend of diligent scholarship , and earned As in all subjects his first year except for Latin , German , and mathematics , in which he received Bs . The trend continued , and in his third year he was among the top five in his class in all subjects except economics , in which he was eighth . As he became more involved in extracurricular pursuits , these grades fell ; after his fourth and final year , he graduated with III Class Honours , leaving him out of the top tier of students . His professors included historian George Wrong , whom Brownlee held in high esteem .
Brownlee was involved in a wide array of extracurricular pursuits . Chief among these were the Union Literary Society ( dubbed " the Lit " ) , Acta Victoriana ( the college 's literary journal ) , and " the Bob " ( a satirical revue ) . The first of these allowed him to hone his skills at formal debate ; he earned a reputation as " one of the more effective although not the most dramatic of speakers " . In his involvement with the journal , he developed his business skills : in his second year he was named assistant business manager , and he was promoted to business manager in his fourth year . His financial management of Acta Victoriana , along with that of the college glee club ( for which he also served as business manager during his fourth year , organizing a ten @-@ day tour of the Niagara region ) , earned him accolades . For the Bob , Brownlee temporarily abandoned his seriousness to write skits poking fun at the college and his classmates ; these won good reviews , with the Acta Victoriana declaring the 1908 edition , which Brownlee headed , " one of the best ever " . The summer following his third year , he attended the Conference of College Young Men 's Associations at Niagara @-@ on @-@ the @-@ Lake , where he attended Bible study classes and heard guest speakers encourage him to pursue a career in the clergy .
Brownlee 's summers in university were spent selling stereoscopic viewers in England and magazine subscriptions in Toronto . He also derived a salary in his fourth year as business manager of the Acta Victoriana . These sources of income allowed him to rent a small room in a private home , and to subscribe to a meal plan at a local eatery for C $ 2 @.@ 50 per week .
= = = Family = = =
During Brownlee 's convocation in 1908 , he sneaked off to go canoeing in the Humber River with a female classmate , Isabella Govenlock . Upon their return , they announced that they were engaged . The news stunned friends of both , none of whom was aware of any romance between the two ; moreover , the apparent spontaneity of the engagement seemed at odds with Brownlee 's reputation for seriousness and caution . The engagement did not last , and the following winter Brownlee met and began to court Florence Edy , an arts student at McMaster College . In the summer of 1909 , Edy moved with her family to Calgary ; Brownlee , for a combination of personal and professional reasons , soon followed . The pair was married December 23 , 1912 , at the Toronto home of Edy 's sister Blanche . A honeymoon trip back to Calgary via Chicago followed .
Brownlee and his wife had two sons : John Edy Brownlee was born December 1915 , and Alan Marshall Brownlee was born September 1917 . Florence 's pregnancy with Alan , combined with a bout of poor health before it , made her a virtual invalid in subsequent years . This was exacerbated by the 1919 birth and death in infancy of a daughter . Also in 1919 , Brownlee visited his family in Ontario ; he returned to Alberta with his sister , Maude , who assisted Florence with the care of her children . Soon after , a full @-@ time maid was hired .
While John Brownlee relished life in Alberta , Florence missed her friends and family in Ontario . Her own health was only made worse by worry about her sons ' : John was perpetually nervous , and Alan was high @-@ strung and sickly . It did not help that , beginning in 1921 , her husband spent the work week in Edmonton , commuting home to Calgary only for the weekends . This situation continued until 1923 , when the family moved to Edmonton 's Garneau region . In 1926 , on the way home from a visit east , Florence Brownlee and her sons were examined at the Mayo Clinic , where all three were given clean bills of health ; Florence in particular was advised to " resume a more active life " .
Although Brownlee 's public image was of a severe and humourless technocrat , in private he allowed himself some levity . Christmas morning 1923 , the Brownlee boys awoke to find footprints of coal dust leading from the fireplace to the stairs and a handwritten note from Santa Claus apologizing for the mess and explaining that he had been searching for one of his reindeer . It transpired that he had mistaken one of Florence 's feet , emerging from the covers at the foot of her bed , for an antler . On another occasion , Brownlee reacted to his sons ' displeasure at leaving his parents ' cat in Ontario by acquiring a large bloodhound , which he himself came to enjoy .
= = Legal career = =
= = = Early career = = =
At the time of Brownlee 's graduation from Victoria College , the path of entry to his chosen profession , law , was through three years of articling instead of law school . Brownlee and Victoria classmate Fred Albright resolved to go west ; after narrowing the choice to either Calgary or Vancouver , the former was selected on the basis that its legal community was less established , and it offered better prospects to young lawyers without significant capital . There , Brownlee was articled to Lougheed , Bennett , Allison & McLaws , whose partners included Sir James Lougheed and R. B. Bennett . Brownlee became quite close to Bennett ; the future Prime Minister often visited him after hours while Brownlee was studying , and used his honed memory and impressive oratorical skills to give the younger man detailed lectures on whatever area of law he was reading about , illustrated by precise and invariably accurate references to cases . Despite his relationship with Bennett , Brownlee was dissatisfied with the work he was being given , and he moved to Muir , Jephson and Adams , where he hoped to practice more commercial law . There he benefited from the tutelage of James Muir , who spent hours finding precise citations relevant to Brownlee 's studies , and then left the casebooks open to the appropriate page for Brownlee to find the next morning .
On December 16 , 1912 , Brownlee was called to the Alberta Bar . He began work as an associate with Muir , Jephson and Adams ; in 1914 he was made partner . He took advantage of his membership in Victoria College 's newly founded Calgary alumni branch to build professional connections . On the outbreak of World War I , Brownlee did not enlist ; his biographer , Lakeland College historian Franklin Foster , speculates that this may have been because of his eyesight , but notes that he did not involve himself in patriotic fundraising or volunteer work and questions whether he " completely shared the values and ideals of his generation " .
= = = Farmers ' lawyer = = =
One of Muir , Jephson and Adams ' major clients was a new agricultural lobby organization called the United Farmers of Alberta ( UFA ) , and it was with this group that Brownlee began to work most closely . Among his first tasks for the UFA was to assist with the creation of a province @-@ wide farmer @-@ owned company to own and operate the province 's grain elevators . Early in 1913 , he was part of a delegation to lobby the provincial government of Arthur Sifton to grant a charter to such a company ; Sifton was cognizant of the political power of the UFA , and quickly incorporated the Alberta Farmers ' Cooperative Elevator Company ( AFCEC ) Limited , but refused the farmers ' request to guarantee bank loans to the new company . These guarantees were instead received from the Grain Growers ' Grain Company ( GGG ) , a Manitoba @-@ based equivalent of the AFCEC .
Brownlee became the AFCEC 's lawyer , and in that capacity dealt with lawsuits against the company alleging incompetence on the part of its general manager and fraud on the part of a former auditor . His most important work for the AFCEC , however , was in merging it with the GGG to form the United Grain Growers ( UGG ) . In 1916 , new AFCEC president Cecil Rice @-@ Jones began to advocate the amalgamation of western Canada 's farmer @-@ controlled grain elevator companies . The Saskatchewan Co @-@ operative Elevator Company was uninterested , leaving the AFCEC and the GGG as the two potential partners . After accompanying Rice @-@ Jones to a meeting with Alberta Public Works Minister Charles Stewart , Brownlee initially found himself in agreement with Stewart 's belief that the companies ' shareholders would not accept amalgamation , and that a holding company should instead be created to run both companies ' affairs . After further study , however , he changed his mind and pursued the amalgamation with his typical focus . He reviewed the two companies ' corporate charters , and found that the GGG 's prevented it from either selling out to another company or acquiring sufficient capitalization to buy out the AFCEC . The charter could only be amended by the Parliament of Canada , and the GGG was concerned that any request for amendment would lead eastern Canadian financial interests to successfully lobby for a weakening of farmers ' rights . A meeting of both companies ' boards at the GGG 's Winnipeg offices nevertheless reached the reluctant conclusion that such a request was necessary for amalgamation . Though Brownlee continued to fear resistance from shareholders , both companies ' annual general meetings approved the proposal . Brownlee was heavily involved at both meetings , fielding questions from shareholders about legal ramifications and serving on ad hoc subcommittees to study aspects of the proposal . Once the proposal was approved , he drew up the necessary agreements , bylaws , stock certificates , and other instruments . The UGG came into existence September 1 , 1917 .
As lawyer for the UGG , Brownlee began to sympathize with the prevailing farmers ' view that the eastern Canadian business establishment was hostile to their interests ( for example , when the UGG wanted to sell twine , no manufacturer would supply it ) . He recommended that the UGG reduce farmers ' reliance on the eastern establishment by expanding its operations into insurance , investment , and real estate . The result was the United Grain Growers Securities Ltd . He also helped the UGG quietly sell the stock it held in the Home Bank when UGG directors began to doubt the bank 's soundness ; this subtlety was considered essential , as the directors were concerned that airing their doubts publicly would make the bank 's failure a self @-@ fulfilling prophecy . When UGG Assistant General Manager J. R. Murray found an interested buyer , Brownlee advised Murray against insisting on an intricate written sales contract for fear that the buyer would sense the directors ' concerns . His advice was heeded , and the sale was concluded December 29 , 1919 . The bank failed less than four years later .
In July 1919 Brownlee left Muir , Jephson and Adams to accept a full @-@ time position with the UGG at $ 6 @,@ 000 per year . Several months later this was increased to $ 7 @,@ 500 in view of his increased responsibilities as General Manager of UGG Securities . In 1922 , he was made King 's Counsel . Brownlee was doing well in both law and business , and expected to continue doing so for the foreseeable future .
= = = UFA and politicization = = =
Though most of his legal work was for the AFCEC and then the UGG , Brownlee also made contact with leaders of the UFA proper , including William Irvine , Irene Parlby , Herbert Greenfield , and , most importantly , Henry Wise Wood . The charismatic Wood was the UFA 's president , and Brownlee often accompanied him to speaking engagements at UFA locals across Alberta in 1919 and 1920 . Wood held audiences enraptured with his sermons on cooperation and social justice — Brownlee at one point likened the UFA to a religion — while Brownlee explained the services offered by the UFA 's central office and answered members ' legal questions . His trips with Wood aroused Brownlee 's interest in the political side of the farmers ' movement , which he began to study in greater detail .
Another of Brownlee 's contacts was T. A. Crerar , who had recently become leader of the Progressive Party of Canada , and it was to him that Brownlee turned for his political education . Crerar introduced Brownlee to Ernest Charles Drury , the newly elected United Farmers of Ontario Premier of Ontario , and arranged for a meeting between Brownlee and Charles Stewart , by now Alberta Premier . During the latter meeting , Brownlee told Stewart that he felt that the UFA 's desires could be accommodated within Stewart 's Liberal government , but warned against a quick election . Foster suggests that this strategic advice from a political neophyte offended Stewart ; whether this is true or not , Stewart did call a quick election , for July 1921 . The UFA had decided in January 1919 , against Woods ' wishes , that it would run candidates in the next election .
Before the provincial election , there was a federal by @-@ election scheduled for June 1921 in Medicine Hat . Crerar 's Progressives were running Robert Gardiner , a local farmer , and Crerar asked Wood and Greenfield ( the Vice President of the UFA ) to broker an alliance between farmers and labour in the mixed rural @-@ urban riding . Before these efforts could come to fruition , the federal government of Conservative Arthur Meighen disclosed allegations of irregularities in the management of some of the UGG 's elevators . At a hearing on June 4 , former employees testified of storage bins with false bottoms and bribed railway employees . These allegations involved events from 1912 until 1914 , and their sudden prominence in 1921 made some in the UFA suspect that the hearings were politically motivated . Brownlee , as the UGG 's attorney , was successful in obtaining an injunction against further hearings until the UGG had time to conduct its own investigation and , as importantly , until the Medicine Hat by @-@ election was over . Gardiner won by a wide margin .
While most of the UFA was preparing for the 1921 provincial election , Brownlee went on vacation in Victoria for a month ; despite his recent interest in politics , he still viewed himself as a lawyer and businessman with little role to play in the UFA 's electoral activities . Before leaving Calgary , he was assured by Wood that the UFA would not win more than 20 of the Legislative Assembly of Alberta 's 61 seats ; in fact , it won 38 . Brownlee watched the results come in at the offices of the Victoria Colonist .
The UFA , not a political party in the conventional sense , had contested the election without a leader . While its control of the majority of seats in the legislature entitled it , under the conventions of the Westminster parliamentary system , to form the government , it was not clear who would become Premier . Wood was the natural choice , but he declined the job for several reasons . To Brownlee 's surprise , Wood proposed that he should become premier instead . Brownlee declined , surmising that many of the newly elected farmer @-@ politicians would have seen an urban lawyer in the premier 's office as a repudiation of much of what they stood for . Ultimately , Greenfield was selected .
= = Attorney @-@ General = =
Greenfield appointed Brownlee his attorney @-@ general , and soon after Brownlee was acclaimed in a by @-@ election in Ponoka . His training in business and law , unique in the UFA caucus , gave him a central role in most of the government 's initiatives ; he also led the defense against attacks from the Liberal opposition , and eventually became responsible for setting the agenda for cabinet meetings .
Brownlee quickly entrenched himself in the conservative wing of the UFA caucus . He resisted measures that would take decision @-@ making out of government departments and transfer them to the caucus or UFA locals , and opposed the efforts of some UFA backbenchers to transform the application of the Westminster system in Alberta . When the UFA 's more radical elements called for the creation of a government @-@ owned bank , Brownlee dismissed the idea as neither financially nor constitutionally feasible . His concern for the government 's finances extended to its budget deficit ; when he found Greenfield 's spending cuts wanting , he cut staff from his own department to set an example . In a further attempt to better the government 's financial position , he unsuccessfully advocated the sale of the its four money @-@ losing railways to Canadian National ( CPR ) or Canadian Pacific ( CPR ) .
A longstanding objective of the Alberta government had been winning control of Alberta 's lands and natural resources from the federal government . The older provinces already had this control , but when Alberta , Saskatchewan , and Manitoba were admitted to Confederation , the federal government retained resource rights and paid the provincial governments an annual grant as compensation . As attorney @-@ general , Brownlee was Alberta 's chief negotiator in these efforts , and met frequently with representatives of Liberal Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King . While negotiations occasionally seemed promising , King was unwilling to fully commit to the transfer , possibly because Charles Stewart , now King 's Alberta lieutenant , and John R. Boyle , leader of the provincial Liberals , were sworn enemies of the UFA .
As a farmers ' government , the UFA was committed to helping farmers in the province 's drought @-@ stricken south . Brownlee authored the Drought Relief Act , which created a Drought Relief Commissioner to provide farmers with financial counselling and help them reach settlements with banks when they were unable to pay their debts . He also played a leading role in the creation of the Alberta Wheat Pool .
Brownlee 's department was responsible for administration of prohibition . Though the policy initially enjoyed the support of most Albertans , disregard for it was sufficiently widespread that effective enforcement proved impossible . The 1922 murder of Alberta Provincial Police constable Steve Lawson by bootleggers Emil Picariello and Florence Lassandro , for which they were hanged , helped turn public opinion against it . A referendum held on the issue found most voters willing to replace prohibition with government @-@ owned liquor stores and rigidly @-@ regulated beer parlours . And the Act was repealed . The Lord 's Day Act , which prohibited most commerce on Sundays , was also Brownlee 's responsibility , though he had little enthusiasm for it and prosecuted only the most flagrant violations .
Many UFA MLAs came to see the government 's reliance on Brownlee as embarrassing , and Greenfield 's abilities as too limited to continue to lead . In 1924 , they pressured Greenfield to resign so Brownlee could replace him ; Brownlee scuppered the plot by warning that Greenfield 's resignation would be accompanied by his own . A second attempt in 1925 was successful when Wood intervened to convince Brownlee to accept the premiership and Greenfield assured him that he would be pleased to be rid of it . Brownlee became Premier of Alberta November 23 , 1925 .
= = Premier = =
= = = First term ( 1926 – 1930 ) = = =
Brownlee 's first challenges as premier were similar to those he had faced as attorney @-@ general : winning control of Alberta 's natural resources , selling the money @-@ losing railways , and balancing the provincial budget . Before he could do any of these , however , he needed to win the impending provincial election . He accomplished this by winning 43 seats in the 1926 election , an increase from the 38 that the UFA had won in 1921 and enough for a majority in the 60 @-@ seat legislature .
Once returned to office , Brownlee turned his attention to his other priorities . Many of them required the cooperation of King 's Liberal federal government : provincial control of resources would require the acquiescence of the federal government , and Brownlee felt that the deficit was in part the result of the federal government 's failure to cover its rightful share of expenses . King was himself reliant on the UFA : his minority government was survived thank to the support of Progressives and allied factions , including the 11 UFA MPs . Though some UFA legislators preferred Arthur Meighen 's Conservatives , Brownlee personally supported the King government , and even appeared to consider an offer from the Prime Minister to take Brownlee into his cabinet .
Brownlee attempted to leverage his relationship with King to win provincial control of natural resources . He won such an agreement in 1926 , but it was soon scuttled by the federal addition of a clause requiring Alberta to continue supporting separate Roman Catholic schools . Wrangling over this clause persisted until 1929 , when a compromise was reached . All that remained was the question of compensation to Alberta for land given away by the federal government , and by the end of 1929 agreement on this too was reached . Brownlee returned from Ottawa to Alberta , where he was greeted by 3 @,@ 000 cheering supporters .
Brownlee was similarly successful in divesting the government of its railways . When his initial attempts to sell them to the CNR or CPR failed , the provincial government took over direct operation of the lines in 1927 . In 1928 , they began to show a profit , and one of the lines was soon sold to the CPR . A joint offer from the CPR and CNR for the remaining lines was judged too low , and they were sold to the CPR near the end of 1928 for $ 25 million .
Control of natural resources and the divestment of the railways were two factors that permitted balanced provincial budgets , the first of which was registered in 1925 . Despite this success , Brownlee continued to advocate austerity , and tried unsuccessfully to persuade the federal government to assume a greater share of the costs of new social programs , such as the old age pension . His resulting reputation as a penny @-@ pincher came at a cost to his personal popularity .
Brownlee 's government also attempted to advance a progressive agenda . One way this manifested itself was an attempt to consolidate Alberta 's thousands of school districts into a far smaller number of school divisions . The plan was supported by educational reformers who believed that the decentralized status quo made province @-@ wide reform impossible , but was scrapped when rural residents expressed fears that it would mean the closure of local schools . Another progressive initiative was the Sexual Sterilization Act of Alberta , which allowed for the sterilization of " mental defectives " . While the act , repealed in 1972 , is now viewed as barbaric , at the time it enjoyed the support of moral reformers like Nellie McClung , who believed it was for the subjects ' own protection .
= = = Second term ( 1930 – 1934 ) = = =
Brownlee campaigned vigorously during the 1930 election , and was re @-@ elected with a slightly diminished majority . However , the Great Depression was making itself felt in Alberta . The price of wheat , Alberta 's major export , declined from a high of $ 1 @.@ 78 per bushel in the summer of 1929 , to $ 1 @.@ 00 in the following March , to $ 0 @.@ 45 by the end of 1930 . The Alberta Wheat Pool ( AWP ) guaranteed its members a minimum price of $ 1 @.@ 00 per bushel ( itself not enough for many farmers to earn a living ) , and it found itself facing ruination . Banks denied credit to it and to individual farmers , which in turn made it difficult for the latter to afford seed for the 1931 crop . The provincial government faced calls to provide loan guarantees . Brownlee was concerned that such guarantees would encourage lenders to make loans at higher interest rates , with the knowledge that the provincial government would pay them if the farmers defaulted . He sought a federally guaranteed minimum price of $ 0 @.@ 70 per bushel , but was rebuffed by Prime Minister R. B. Bennett , who saw the source of the problem as a global oversupply .
As farms failed , many young people migrated from farms to Alberta 's cities , where the situation was scarcely better . As the unemployment rate rose , so did labour militancy . December 1932 saw a " hunger march " , in which more than a thousand unemployed men and women attempted to hold a protest march to the Alberta legislature . Brownlee requested the Edmonton city government to prohibit such a display . While he pronounced himself sympathetic to the workers ' ordeal , he said he felt such an event would create a volatile atmosphere that would breed radicalism and communism . It was through this lens that he had viewed the 1932 founding of the Co @-@ operative Commonwealth Federation ( CCF ) . Though many UFA members supported this new party , which saw itself as a partnership between farmers and labourers , Brownlee considered it dangerously socialist . When the Hunger March @-@ ers attempted to go ahead without government sanction and were brutally dispersed by Mounties and Edmonton city police , Brownlee took much of the blame .
Further weakening Brownlee 's control of the situation , the UFA , around this time , took a sharp left @-@ ward turn , as Robert Gardiner replaced retiring Henry Wise Wood as president of the provincial body .
The weakened economy presented significant challenges to provincial government finances . 1931 saw the first deficit of Brownlee 's premiership , of approximately $ 2 @.@ 5 million , and 1932 's was still larger . During the latter year , the province came within hours of defaulting on a $ 3 million bond , which was avoided only by a loan from the federal government . Brownlee cut spending aggressively : he closed most of the province 's agricultural colleges , reduced the civil service by more than a third , cut provincial employees ' salaries , and disbanded the Alberta Provincial Police , replacing it with the RCMP . His government also increased corporate taxes and implemented a new provincial income tax . These measures proved insufficient , and Brownlee joined his colleagues in the other western provinces in entreating Bennett to help . Bennett said he was privately sympathetic to Brownlee but refused to provide assistance .
In 1933 , Brownlee was appointed to the Royal Commission on Banking and Currency as a representative of unorthodox economic views ( despite his conservative approach to Alberta 's finances - outside of the province he was viewed as a spokesperson of the progressive movement ) . Brownlee argued that banks were treating Eastern and Western debtors unequally , and that they were charging predatory interest rates to farmers . He joined the majority on the Commission in calling for the creation of a central bank in Canada but was alone in proposing that it be entirely publicly controlled .
During the Great Depression 's early years , Calgary schoolteacher and evangelist William Aberhart began to preach a version of C. H. Douglas 's social credit economic theory . Brownlee believed that Aberhart 's proposals would be both unconstitutional ( if implemented by a provincial government , which did not have control over monetary policy ) and ineffective ( since they would not create markets for Alberta 's agricultural products ) . As Aberhart gained popularity , Brownlee attacked his solutions as illusory but had little of his own to offer but critiques and orthodoxy .
= = = Sex scandal = = =
In 1934 , Brownlee was sued for the seduction of Vivian MacMillan , a Brownlee family friend and clerk in the provincial Attorney @-@ General 's office . MacMillan alleged that Brownlee had seduced her in 1930 and that the subsequent affair had lasted until 1933 ; Brownlee denied her story completely and said that the lawsuit was the result of a conspiracy between MacMillan , her fiance , and Brownlee 's opponents in the Liberal Party . After a sensational and well @-@ publicized trial , the jury found in MacMillan 's favour . However , Justice William Carlos Ives , who presided over the trial , disregarded its finding , ruling that MacMillan had failed to show that she had suffered any damage . Appeals eventually led to the Judicial Committee of the British Privy Council , at the time Canada 's highest court of appeal , where MacMillan emerged victorious .
Once the jury issued its finding , Brownlee realized that his time as Premier was finished . He announced that he would resign as soon as a successor could be found , and on July 10 , 1934 , was replaced by Richard Gavin Reid .
= = Later political career = =
In the months after his resignation , Brownlee kept a low profile , though he was still MLA for Ponoka . He returned to the public eye with a speech to the January 1935 UFA convention attacking Aberhart 's plans to implement social credit in Alberta alone : " I would impress you that nothing but disillusionment , loss of hope and additional despair can follow any attempt to inaugurate a system of that kind , because the Province has no jurisdiction in these matters . " Despite hearing directly from Aberhart , the convention defeated by a wide margin a motion to endorse his version of social credit .
Reid 's government made Brownlee its chief strategist against Aberhart and social credit . One tactic he adopted was C. H. Douglas to serve as a consultant to the Alberta government on economic reconstruction . In doing this , Brownlee hoped both to co @-@ opt the promise of social credit for the benefit of the UFA and to discredit Aberhart by demonstrating how widely his interpretation of social credit differed from Douglas 's . This effort failed because Albertans , confronted by the contrast between the fiery , charismatic Aberhart and the aloof , technocratic Douglas , preferred the former . Brownlee also invited Aberhart to come to Edmonton and prepare proposals on which the government could act ; this was an attempt to force him to take specific positions that could be attacked rather than relying on vague assurances of economic salvation , but was foiled by Aberhart 's continued evasiveness .
Brownlee himself toured southern Alberta attacking Aberhart 's policies as vague and unconstitutional . In April 1935 , he gave a series of radio speeches designed to counter Aberhart 's popular radio program , Back to the Bible Hour . When his customary appeals to logic did not work , Brownlee resorted to attacking Aberhart personally , comparing him to the Pied Piper of Hamelin . Aberhart did not resist the comparison , retorting that the pied piper had " rid the capitol of all the rats " ; Brownlee responded that , after doing that , he had led its children to their destruction . In May 1935 , after Aberhart announced that his social credit movement would contest the next provincial election , Brownlee ridiculed its candidate @-@ selection process — in which Aberhart personally interviewed and selected more candidates for each riding than could ultimately run — as one in which the candidates would be " wrapped in cellophane and carefully hidden away so they will not dry out on [ Aberhart ] , until the day he calls out the fittest and discards the rest " .
The 1935 election took place August 22 . Brownlee spent most of the campaign trying to retain his own riding of Ponoka . Despite the respect he commanded , his constituents were in desperate economic straits and tired of the UFA 's orthodoxy , which had failed to raise their condition . As Brownlee later recalled :
One man got up and said , " Mr. Brownlee , we have listened to you with a great deal of attention and the answers you have given seem pretty hard to meet . But I have one more question … I 'm selling my wheat at 25 cents a bushel . If I tried to sell a steer tomorrow I 'd probably hardly get enough to pay the freight . I get 3 cents a dozen for eggs . I 'm lucky to get a dollar for a can of cream . Will you tell me what I 've got to lose ? " and a cheer went over the audience . I knew then what the result of the election was going to be .
On election day , every UFA candidate in the province was defeated , as Aberhart 's Social Crediters won 56 of 63 seats . In Ponoka , Social Credit 's Edith Rogers defeated Brownlee 2 @,@ 295 votes to 879 . After this election , Brownlee never sought political office again .
= = Life after politics = =
Shortly after his electoral defeat , Brownlee started a new law firm based in Edmonton . The United Grain Growers soon re @-@ appointed him as their general counsel . By 1940 , Brownlee had restored his career to it position before he entered politics : his firm counted a number of major agricultural companies among its clients , and the UGG too brought him considerable work . He was also hired to write a legal column for the Western Review newspaper .
In his capacity as UGG general counsel , Brownlee was responsible for its restructuring . Its bylaws provided that only farmers could buy shares directly from the company , but placed no limitation on who could buy them from other shareholders . This had the effect of limiting capital inflow , since few farmers could afford to buy shares during the depression , and transferring control of the company to non @-@ farmers , who were purchasing shares from impoverished farmers . Brownlee 's solution was to create two classes of share : an investment share with a par value of $ 20 , and a voting share with a par value of $ 5 . The former could be held by any person , to a maximum of 250 shares per person , while the latter could be held only by farmers , to a maximum of 25 shares per person .
= = = UGG director and vice president = = =
When he restructured the UGG 's capital , Brownlee included a rider that non @-@ farmers who held shares at the time the new structure came into effect could hold voting shares . This clause allowed him to do so , and in consequence to be elected to the company 's board of directors at the 1942 annual shareholders ' meeting ; he was also appointed the UGG 's vice president .
At the time of Brownlee 's appointment , the UGG was embroiled in an income tax dispute . Though the farmers ' movement had generally supported the 1917 introduction of income tax , as rates climbed the UGG began to resent it , especially given that the pools were exempt . While the rationale for this exemption — that the pools were agents of their members , and that any income should therefore be taxed as personal income once disbursed , and not as corporate income pre @-@ disbursal — was initially accepted , the UGG argued that the pools ' 1931 reorganization eliminated the differences between them and the UGG , and that the exemption thus put the UGG at a competitive disadvantage . In 1941 , Brownlee travelled to Ottawa to express the UGG 's case ; there he collaborated with O. M. Biggar , representing the private grain companies in the form of the North @-@ West Line Elevators Association ( NLEA ) , who also objected to the pools ' exemption , on a joint brief to the Minister of National Revenue . The government ruled that the pools were taxable ; the pools appealed to the Exchequer Court , which found in the government 's favour in 1943 . By this time , the government had agreed not to tax the pools for pre @-@ 1941 revenue and to grant generous exemptions on taxation thereafter .
After World War II , the federal government appointed the Royal Commission on Taxation of Cooperatives to examine the question in greater detail . Brownlee prepared the UGG 's submission , and was pleased with the Commission 's eventual findings : it recognized the UGG as a cooperative , and recommended that it be granted the same exemptions as the pools enjoyed . However , the government still intended to collect taxes from 1940 and 1941 from the UGG , but not from the pools . In February 1947 , Brownlee returned to Ottawa to present the UGG 's case to Finance Minister Douglas Abbott , who eventually sided with the UGG and extended the pools ' exemption to it .
The acrimony this dispute engendered between the pools and the UGG led the former to suggest that the latter was not a true cooperative , but rather an old @-@ style grain company . Brownlee played a major role in disputing these allegations , and was a major contributor to The Grain Growers ' Record 1906 – 1943 , the UGG 's written response . When he , as the UGG 's delegate to the Canadian Federation of Agriculture , opposed a resolution calling for the continued tax @-@ exempt status of pools , the resolution 's proponents suggested stating that it was " endorsed by the cooperatives " ; Brownlee objected that the UGG was a cooperative , and the wording was withdrawn . The Alberta Wheat Pool later published a pamphlet entitled A History of Events Leading to Taxation of Cooperatives , which placed much of the blame on the UGG and Brownlee , accusing the latter of working with the hated private grain companies to " enforce taxation of the Wheat Pools " . Seizing on an incorrect date in the pamphlet , Brownlee dismissed the charges — which were substantially true , in light of his 1941 joint brief with Biggar — as factually incorrect . Though UGG shareholders subjected him to vigorous questioning , he held firm and the controversy died down after he gave a series of radio addresses in Alberta , Saskatchewan , and Manitoba .
= = = UGG President = = =
In the mid @-@ 1940s , UGG President and General Manager R. S. Law fell ill , and in February 1947 , Brownlee was named the UGG 's Acting General Manager . On January 1 , 1948 , he became full General Manager . In spring 1948 Law stepped down completely , and on May 1 Brownlee succeeded him as President and General Manager .
In this capacity , he had offices in Calgary and Winnipeg . He worked constantly , often arriving at work on a Monday with a briefcase full of dictation machine recordings for secretaries to transcribe . Foster says that Brownlee was known by his staff as " a man whose life was his work , who lived in his briefcase , and whose only recreation seemed to be changing from one job to another " .
He turned this work ethic to expanding the company , building new grain elevators and purchasing existing ones . At the same time , he undertook a study of the operating costs and volume of each of the UGG 's delivery points . He found that roughly a dozen elevators were losing money , with climbing costs threatening to increase this number . Brownlee tried to reach accommodations with the UGG 's competitors to divide among them centres too small to support more than one elevator , and achieved some success , especially with the Alberta Wheat Pool . At the same time , Brownlee increased the UGG 's presence in larger centres , especially Regina , Brandon , and Winnipeg .
Brownlee remained intimately involved in the grain industry even outside the UGG , in part through his position on the Canadian Federation of Agriculture executive . In this capacity , he found himself in the middle of a controversy over the British Wheat Agreement ( BWA ) . The BWA was an agreement to sell wheat to British clients at a fixed price over a four @-@ year period . The price was to be adjusted during the following two years , " having regard to " world wheat prices . During the first four years , world wheat prices were continually above the price stipulated in the agreement , breeding resentment towards the British , especially since they sold much of this fixed price wheat for a large profit in European markets . This was exacerbated when the British refused to adjust the price upwards for the last two years , on the grounds that there was nothing in the agreement to compel them to do so . The result was considerable ill will and a loss by grain farmers of an estimated $ 350 million . The federal government , which had negotiated the agreement , offered to supplement the British payments by $ 65 million , a sum large enough to raise the ire of eastern Canadians but too small to placate western farmers . Brownlee , who had opposed the agreement , authorized a purchase of advertising across the country pointing out that the government fixed the domestic price of wheat at $ 0 @.@ 77 per bushel while the world price reached as high as $ 2 @.@ 18 . In Brownlee 's view , the $ 65 million payment by the government paled in comparison to the benefit to consumers of the federal policy . Subsequent international agreements , for which Brownlee acted as an advisor to the Canadian delegation , resulted in more favourable terms for farmers . Brownlee 's continued status as one of the grain industry 's leading figures was also exhibited by his involvement in government relations . He appeared before the Canadian House of Commons Standing Committee on Agriculture to oppose a system of allocating box cars to each grain elevator by formula , favouring instead a system whereby the Canadian Wheat Board retained the flexibility to assign them as it saw fit . In his September 1960 submission to the Royal Commission on Transportation , In Defense of the Crow 's Nest Pass Rates , he rejected the railways ' calls to deregulate the rates they charged for the shipment of grain .
Brownlee 's presidency coincided with the fiftieth anniversary of the Grain Growers Grain Company , one of the UGG 's founding organizations . In celebration of the event , Brownlee travelled around the country speaking to UGG outlets . He also oversaw the publication , and wrote much , of The First Fifty Years , a history of the UGG to that point . In this capacity , he came into conflict with UGG Vice President R. C. Brown , in charge of the UGG department that published the book , and Assistant General Manager P. C. Watt . Brownlee had an interventionist style as President , which Foster acknowledged sometimes " verged on outright interference " . As the years wore on , his decision @-@ making became more autocratic , with the board of directors expected to serve as a rubber stamp .
On June 21 , 1961 , ill health forced Brownlee 's resignation from the UGG .
= = = Later political activities = = =
Brownlee never sought political office after his 1935 defeat , and commented publicly on political issues only rarely . His distaste for Aberhart 's social credit government — and in particular its contention , which Brownlee viewed as unfair , that the UFA had left the government bankrupt — did not prevent him from advising it behind the scenes on a number of issues , most notably Alberta 's submission to the Rowell @-@ Sirois Commission , The Case for Alberta .
In the early 1940s , he met M. J. Coldwell , the new federal leader of the CCF , on a train . According to Coldwell , in the ensuing conversation Brownlee indicated that he would be prepared to consider running federally as a CCF candidate . Coldwell excitedly reported this to some of the CCF 's Alberta leaders ; one of them telephoned Brownlee to question whether Coldwell 's report was true . Brownlee adhered to a conservative view of how politics should be conducted , and was perhaps put off by the audacious telephone call ; despite an apology from Coldwell , Brownlee did not indicate any further interest in running for the CCF .
Brownlee 's occasional public comments on political issues still attracted considerable attention . He spoke to the 1944 UFA convention on post @-@ war reconstruction , and expressed pessimism about Canada 's economic prospects . He advocated a policy of full employment , and emphasized that jobs had to be meaningful rather than " put [ ting ] men to work building roads like coolies in China when machines can do it better " . He criticized the government @-@ imposed wartime ceiling on wheat prices , of $ 1 @.@ 25 per bushel , as forcing farmers to shoulder an unfair burden of a national crisis , as they had during the depression .
= = = Personal life = = =
Brownlee 's father had died in January 1934 , while the MacMillan suit was still pending . In April 1941 , his mother died intestate and left an estate of $ 1 @,@ 507 . Brownlee relinquished any claim on the estate in favour of his sister , who had cared for their mother in her last years .
Brownlee 's sons became successful at their careers : Alan graduated from law at the University of Alberta and joined his father 's firm , which was renamed Brownlee , Baldwin and Brownlee , while John studied photography in Los Angeles and returned to Canada to work as a photographer . Both married and had children . In time , Brownlee relinquished the law firm — now Brownlee and Brownlee — to Alan , and returned to Calgary , where he and his wife led a quiet , reserved life . When Calgary planners announced their intention to widen Memorial Drive , where the Brownlees lived , several residents expressed concern that the plan would destroy the street 's trees ; they consulted Brownlee , who telephoned the mayor and saved the trees .
In his last years , Brownlee received a number of honours . Premier of Manitoba Duff Roblin inducted him into the province 's Order of the Buffalo Hunt in November 1960 , in recognition of his contributions to the prairie provinces . The UFA awarded him an honorary life membership , and Prime Minister John Diefenbaker appointed him to the National Productivity Council , though ill health prevented him from participating after its inaugural March 1961 meeting .
Beginning in June 1957 , Brownlee underwent a series of major surgeries . By this time his memory was failing , and he often had to ask his wife for details that escaped him . He died July 15 , 1961 , two weeks after resigning from the UGG board and barely three after resigning as President .
= = Legacy = =
As Premier , Brownlee is most remembered for the sex scandal that ended his career ; his accomplishments are largely forgotten . Still , he is highly regarded by historians : Foster calls him " Alberta 's greatest precitin and cites , in particular , his successful negotiations for the transfer of resource rights to the provincial government as the cause of Alberta 's subsequent prosperity . Journalist Ted Byfield concurs , noting that his willingness to confront the federal government sets him apart from Ernest Manning , another contender for the title . In 1980 , the Edmonton Journal wrote , " The lasting political estate left by former Premier John Brownlee has made Alberta what it is today , one of Canada 's wealthiest provinces fuelled by billions of dollars in oil and gas royalties . "
A University of Calgary undergraduate seminar in 2005 ranked Brownlee as the province 's third greatest premier , behind Manning and Peter Lougheed .
Brownlee 's impact is also felt through the organizations he participated in founding : the Alberta Wheat Pool remained an important player in Canadian agriculture until 1998 , when it merged with Manitoba Pool Elevators to form Agricore Cooperative Ltd .. In 2001 , this new company merged with the UGG to form Agricore United . In 2007 , the Saskatchewan Wheat Pool took it over , forming Viterra . Brownlee 's vision , unique among the members of the Macmillan Commission , of a publicly controlled central bank became a reality in 1938 , when the Bank of Canada shifted from private to government control .
Brownlee was buried at Evergreen Memorial Gardens near Edmonton . The provincial government 's John E. Brownlee Building in Edmonton is named in his honour , as is the University of Alberta Faculty of Law 's John E. Brownlee Memorial Prize in Local Government Law .
= = Electoral record = =
= = = As party leader = = =
= = = As MLA = = =
= Mimicry =
In evolutionary biology , mimicry is a similarity of one species to another that protects one or both . In the case of prey species , it is a class of antipredator adaptation . This similarity can be in appearance , behaviour , sound or scent . Mimics occur in the same areas as their models .
Mimicry occurs when a group of organisms , the mimics , evolve to share perceived characteristics with another group , the models . The evolution is driven by the selective action of a signal @-@ receiver or dupe . Birds , for example , use sight to identify palatable insects ( the mimics ) , whilst avoiding the noxious models .
The model is usually another species , except in cases of automimicry , where for example the back end of a butterfly may resemble its head , deceiving a predator both about where to strike , and the butterfly 's likely direction of movement . The deceived signal @-@ receiver is typically another organism , such as the common predator of two species . As an interaction , mimicry is in most cases advantageous to the mimic and harmful to the receiver , but may increase , reduce or have no effect on the fitness of the model depending on the situation . The model may be hard to identify : for example , eyespots may not resemble any specific organism 's eyes , and camouflage often cannot be attributed to a particular model .
Mimicry is related to camouflage , in which a species resembles its surroundings or is otherwise difficult to detect . In particular , mimesis , in which the mimic takes on the properties of a specific object or organism , but one to which the dupe is indifferent , is an area of overlap between camouflage and mimicry . For example , animals such as flower mantises , planthoppers and geometer moth caterpillars that resemble twigs , bark , leaves or flowers are mimetic.p51 The difficulty is sometimes avoided by choosing a different term ; " crypsis " ( in the broad sense ) is sometimes used to encompass all forms of avoiding detection , such as mimicry , camouflage and hiding .
Though visual mimicry through animal coloration is most obvious to humans , other senses such as olfaction ( smell ) or hearing may be involved , and more than one type of signal may be employed . Mimicry may involve morphology , behaviour , and other properties . In any case , the signal always functions to deceive the receiver by preventing it from correctly identifying the mimic . In evolutionary terms , this phenomenon is a form of co @-@ evolution usually involving an evolutionary arms race.p161 Mimicry should not be confused with convergent evolution , which occurs when species come to resemble each other by adapting to similar lifestyles .
Mimics may have different models for different life cycle stages , or they may be polymorphic , with different individuals imitating different models . Models themselves may have more than one mimic , though frequency dependent selection favors mimicry where models outnumber mimics . Models tend to be relatively closely related organisms , but mimicry of vastly different species is also known . Most known mimics are insects , though many other animal mimics are known . Plants and fungi may also be mimics , though less research has been carried out in this area .
= = Etymology = =
Use of the word mimicry dates to 1637 . It derives from the Greek term mimetikos , " imitative " , in turn from mimetos , the verbal adjective of mimeisthai , " to imitate " . Originally used to describe people , " mimetic " was used in zoology from 1851 , " mimicry " from 1861 .
= = Classification = =
Many types of mimicry have been described . An overview of each follows , highlighting the similarities and differences between the various forms . Classification is often based on function with respect to the mimic ( e.g. , avoiding harm ) . Some cases may belong to more than one class , e.g. , automimicry and aggressive mimicry are not mutually exclusive , as one describes the species relationship between model and mimic , while the other describes the function for the mimic ( obtaining food ) .
= = = Defensive = = =
Defensive or protective mimicry takes place when organisms are able to avoid harmful encounters by deceiving enemies into treating them as something else .
The first three such cases discussed here entail mimicry of organisms protected by warning coloration :
Batesian mimicry , where a harmless mimic poses as harmful ;
Müllerian mimicry , where two or more harmful species mutually advertise themselves as harmful ;
Mertensian mimicry , where a deadly mimic resembles a less harmful but lesson @-@ teaching model .
The fourth case , Vavilovian mimicry , where weeds resemble crops , is important for several reasons , and in this case humans are the agent of selection .
= = = = Batesian = = = =
In Batesian mimicry the mimic shares signals similar to the model , but does not have the attribute that makes it unprofitable to predators ( e.g. , unpalatability ) . In other words , a Batesian mimic is a sheep in wolf 's clothing . It is named after Henry Walter Bates , an English naturalist whose work on butterflies in the Amazon rainforest ( described in The Naturalist on the River Amazons ) was pioneering in this field of study . Mimics are less likely to be found out ( for example by predators ) when in low proportion to their model . This phenomenon is called negative frequency dependent selection , and it applies in most forms of mimicry . Batesian mimicry can only be maintained if the harm caused to the predator by eating a model outweighs the benefit of eating a mimic . The nature of learning is weighted in favor of the mimics , for a predator that has a bad first experience with a model tends to avoid anything that looks like it for a long time , and does not re @-@ sample soon to see whether the initial experience was a false negative . However , if mimics become more abundant than models , then the probability of a young predator having a first experience with a mimic increases . Such systems are therefore most likely to be stable where both the model and the mimic occur , and where the model is more abundant than the mimic . This is not the case in Müllerian mimicry , which is described next .
There are many Batesian mimics in the order Lepidoptera . Consul fabius and Eresia eunice imitate unpalatable Heliconius butterflies such as H. ismenius . Several palatable moths produce ultrasonic click calls to mimic unpalatable tiger moths . Octopuses of the genus Thaumoctopus ( the mimic octopus ) are able to intentionally alter their body shape and coloration to resemble dangerous sea snakes or lionfish . In the Amazon , the helmeted woodpecker ( Dryocopus galeatus ) , a rare species which lives in the Atlantic Forest of Brazil , Paraguay , and Argentina , has a similar red crest , black back , and barred underside to two larger woodpeckers : Dryocopus lineatus and Campephilus robustus . This mimicry reduces attacks on Dryocopus galeatus from other animals . Scientists had falsely believed that D. galeatus was a close cousin of the other two species , because of the visual similarity , and because the three species live in the same habitat and eat similar food .
= = = = Müllerian = = = =
Müllerian mimicry , named for the German naturalist Fritz Müller , describes a situation where two or more species have similar warning or aposematic signals and both share genuine anti @-@ predation attributes ( e.g. , being unpalatable ) . At first , Bates could not explain why this should be so — if both were harmful why did one need to mimic another ? Müller put forward the first explanation for this phenomenon : if a common predator confuses two species , individuals in both those species are more likely to survive . This type of mimicry is unique in several respects . Firstly , both the mimic and the model benefit from the interaction , which could thus be classified as mutualism in this respect . The signal receiver is also advantaged by this system , despite being deceived about species identity , as it avoids potentially harmful encounters . The usually clear distinction between mimic and model is also blurred . Where one species is scarce and another abundant , the rare species can be said to be the mimic . When both are present in similar numbers , however , it is more realistic to speak of each as a co @-@ mimic than of distinct ' mimic ' and ' model ' species , as their warning signals tend to converge . Also , the two species may exist on a continuum from harmless to highly noxious , so Batesian mimicry grades smoothly into Müllerian convergence .
The monarch butterfly ( Danaus plexippus ) is a member of a Müllerian complex with the viceroy butterfly ( Limenitis archippus ) , sharing coloration patterns and display behavior . The viceroy has subspecies with somewhat different coloration , each closely matching the local Danaus species . For example , in Florida , the pairing is of the viceroy and the queen butterfly , whereas in Mexico the viceroy resembles the soldier butterfly . The viceroy is thus involved in three different Müllerian pairs . This example was long believed to be Batesian , with the viceroy mimicking the monarch , but the viceroy is actually the more unpalatable species . The genus Morpho is palatable , but some species ( such as M. amathonte ) are strong fliers ; birds – even species that specialize in catching butterflies on the wing – find it hard to catch them . The conspicuous blue coloration shared by most Morpho species may be Müllerian , or may be " pursuit aposematism " . The " orange complex " of distasteful butterfly species includes the heliconiines Agraulis vanillae , Dryadula phaetusa , and Dryas iulia . At least seven species of millipedes in the genera Apheloria and Brachoria ( Xystodesmidae ) form a Müllerian mimicry ring in the eastern United States , in which unrelated polymorphic species converge on similar color patterns where their range overlaps .
= = = = Emsleyan / Mertensian = = = =
Emsleyan or Mertensian mimicry describes unusual cases where deadly prey mimic a less dangerous species . It was first proposed by Emsley as a possible answer for the theoretical difficulties a predator species faces when associating an aposematic phenotype of potentially dangerous animals , such as the coral snake , with unprofitability when the predator has an increased risk of death , negating any learned behaviour . The theory was developed by the German biologist Wolfgang Wickler in a chapter of Mimicry in Plants and Animals , who named it after the German herpetologist Robert Mertens . Sheppard points out that Hecht and Marien put forward a similar hypothesis ten years earlier . This scenario is a little more difficult to understand , since in other types of mimicry it is usually the most harmful species that is the model . But if a predator dies , it cannot learn to recognize a warning signal , e.g. , bright colors in a certain pattern . In other words , there is no advantage in being aposematic for an organism that is likely to kill any predator it succeeds in poisoning ; such an animal is better off being camouflaged , to avoid attacks altogether . If , however , there were some other species that were harmful but not deadly as well as aposematic , the predator could learn to recognize its particular warning colors and avoid such animals . A deadly species could then profit by mimicking the less dangerous aposematic organism if this reduces the number of attacks . The exception here , ignoring any chance of animals learning by watching a conspecific die ( see Jouventin et al. for a discussion of observational learning and mimicry ) , is the possibility of not having to learn that it is harmful in the first place : instinctive genetic programming to be wary of certain signals . In this case , other organisms could benefit from this programming , and Batesian or Müllerian mimics of it could potentially evolve . In fact , it has been shown that some species do have an innate recognition of certain aposematic warnings . Hand @-@ reared turquoise @-@ browed motmots ( Eumomota superciliosa ) , avian predators , instinctively avoid snakes with red and yellow rings . Other colors with the same pattern , and even red and yellow stripes with the same width as rings , were tolerated . However , models with red and yellow rings were feared , with the birds flying away and giving alarm calls in some cases . This provides an alternative explanation to Mertensian mimicry . See Greene and McDiarmid for a review of the subject .
Some harmless milk snake ( Lampropeltis triangulum ) subspecies , the moderately toxic false coral snakes ( genus Erythrolamprus ) , and the deadly coral snakes ( genus Micrurus ) all have a red background color with black and white / yellow rings . In this system , both the milk snakes and the deadly coral snakes are mimics , whereas the false coral snakes are the model . It has also been suggested that this system could be an instance of pseudomimicry , the similar colour patterns having evolved independently in similar habitats .
= = = = Wasmannian = = = =
Wasmannian mimicry refers to cases where the mimic resembles a model along with which it lives ( inquiline ) in a nest or colony . Most of the models here are social insects such as ants , termites , bees and wasps .
= = = = Mimetic weeds = = = =
Vavilovian mimicry describes weeds that come to share characteristics with a domesticated plant through artificial selection . It is named after Russian botanist and geneticist Nikolai Vavilov . Selection against the weed may occur either by manually killing the weed , or by separating its seeds from those of the crop . The latter process , known as winnowing , can be done manually or by a machine .
Vavilovian mimicry presents an illustration of unintentional ( or rather ' anti @-@ intentional ' ) selection by man . While some cases of artificial selection go in the direction desired , such as selective breeding , this case presents the opposite characteristics . Weeders do not want to select weeds that look increasingly like the cultivated plant , yet there is no other option . One case is Echinochloa oryzoides , a species of grass found as a weed in rice ( Oryza sativa ) fields . The plant looks similar to rice ; its seeds are often mixed in rice and have become difficult to separate through Vavilovian mimicry . A similar problem in agriculture is pesticide resistance : farmers do not wish to select for weeds that have increasingly similar resistance to pesticides as the crop itself , yet that is the inevitable effect . Vavilovian mimics may eventually be domesticated themselves , as in the case of rye in wheat ; Vavilov called these weed @-@ crops secondary crops .
Vavilovian mimicry can be classified as defensive mimicry , in that the weed mimics a protected species . This bears strong similarity to Batesian mimicry in that the weed does not share the properties that give the model its protection , and both the model and the dupe ( in this case people ) are harmed by its presence . There are some key differences , though ; in Batesian mimicry , the model and signal receiver are enemies ( the predator would eat the protected species if it could ) , whereas here the crop and its human growers are in a mutualistic relationship : the crop benefits from being dispersed and protected by people , despite being eaten by them . In fact , the crop 's only " protection " relevant here is its usefulness to humans . Secondly , the weed is not eaten , but simply destroyed . The only motivation for killing the weed is its effect on crop yields . Finally , this type of mimicry does not occur in ecosystems unaltered by humans .
= = = = Protective egg decoys = = = =
Unlike the previously mentioned forms of mimicry , Gilbertian mimicry involves only two species . The potential host ( or prey ) drives away its parasite ( or predator ) by mimicking it , the reverse of host @-@ parasite aggressive mimicry . It was coined by Pasteur as a phrase for such rare mimicry systems , and is named after the American ecologist Lawrence E. Gilbert .
This form of protective mimicry occurs in the genus Passiflora . The leaves of this plant contain toxins that deter herbivorous animals — however some Heliconius butterfly larvae have evolved enzymes that break down these toxins , allowing them to specialize on this genus . This has created further selection pressure on the host plants , which have evolved stipules that mimic mature Heliconius eggs near the point of hatching . These butterflies tend to avoid laying eggs near each existing ones , which helps avoid exploitative intraspecific competition between caterpillars — those that lay on vacant leaves provide their offspring with a greater chance of survival . Most Heliconius larvae are cannibalistic , meaning that on leaves older eggs hatch first and eat the new arrivals . Thus , it seems that such plants have evolved egg dummies due to these grazing herbivore enemies . In addition , the decoy eggs are also nectaries , attracting predators of the caterpillars such as ants and wasps . This acts as a further defense of the plant against the caterpillars .
= = = = Protective mimicry within a species = = = =
Browerian mimicry , named after Lincoln P. Brower and Jane Van Zandt Brower , is a form of automimicry ; where the model belongs to the same species as the mimic . This is the analogue of Batesian mimicry within a single species , and occurs when there is a palatability spectrum within a population . Examples include the monarch and the queen from the Danainae subfamily , which feed on milkweed species of varying toxicity . These species store toxins from its host plant , which are maintained even in the adult ( imago ) form . As levels of toxin vary depending on diet during the larval stage , some individuals are more toxic than others . Less palatable organisms , therefore , mimic more dangerous individuals , with their likeness already perfected .
This is not always the case , however . In sexually dimorphic species , one sex may be more of a threat than the other , which could mimic the protected sex . Evidence for this possibility is provided by the behavior of a monkey from Gabon , which regularly ate male moths of the genus Anaphe , but promptly stopped after it tasted a noxious female .
= = = Aggressive = = =
Aggressive mimicry describes predators ( or parasites ) that share the same characteristics as a harmless species , allowing them to avoid detection by their prey ( or host ) . The mimic may resemble the prey or host itself , or another organism that is either neutral or beneficial to the signal receiver . In this class of mimicry , the model may be affected negatively , positively or not at all . Just as parasites can be treated as a form of predator , host @-@ parasite mimicry is treated here as a subclass of aggressive mimicry .
The mimic may have a particular significance for duped prey . One such case is spiders , amongst which aggressive mimicry is quite common both in luring prey and disguising stealthily approaching predators . One case is the golden orb weaver ( Nephila clavipes ) , which spins a conspicuous golden colored web in well @-@ lit areas . Experiments show that bees are able to associate the webs with danger when the yellow pigment is not present , as occurs in less well @-@ lit areas where the web is much harder to see . Other colors were also learned and avoided , but bees seemed least able to effectively associate yellow pigmented webs with danger . Yellow is the color of many nectar bearing flowers , however , so perhaps avoiding yellow is not worthwhile . Another form of mimicry is based not on color but pattern . Species such as the silver argiope ( Argiope argentata ) employ prominent patterns in the middle of their webs , such as zigzags . These may reflect ultraviolet light , and mimic the pattern seen in many flowers known as nectar guides . Spiders change their web day to day , which can be explained by bee 's ability to remember web patterns . Bees are able to associate a certain pattern with a spatial location , meaning the spider must spin a new pattern regularly or suffer diminishing prey capture .
Another case is where males are lured towards what seems to be a sexually receptive female . The model in this situation is the same species as the dupe . Beginning in the 1960s , James E. Lloyd 's investigation of female fireflies of the genus Photuris revealed they emit the same light signals that females of the genus Photinus use as a mating signal . Further research showed male fireflies from several different genera are attracted to these " femmes fatales " , and are subsequently captured and eaten . Female signals are based on that received from the male , each female having a repertoire of signals matching the delay and duration of the female of the corresponding species . This mimicry may have evolved from non @-@ mating signals that have become modified for predation .
The listrosceline katydid Chlorobalius leucoviridis of inland Australia is capable of attracting male cicadas of the tribe Cicadettini by imitating the species @-@ specific reply clicks of sexually receptive female cicadas . This example of acoustic aggressive mimicry is similar to the Photuris firefly case in that the predator 's mimicry is remarkably versatile – playback experiments show that C. leucoviridis is able to attract males of many cicada species , including cicadettine cicadas from other continents , even though cicada mating signals are species @-@ specific .
Some carnivorous plants may also be able to increase their rate of capture through mimicry .
Luring is not a necessary condition however , as the predator still has a significant advantage simply by not being identified as such . They may resemble a mutualistic symbiont or a species of little relevance to the prey .
A case of the latter situation is a species of cleaner fish and its mimic , though in this example the model is greatly disadvantaged by the presence of the mimic . Cleaner fish are the allies of many other species , which allow them to eat their parasites and dead skin . Some allow the cleaner to venture inside their body to hunt these parasites . However , one species of cleaner , the bluestreak cleaner wrasse ( Labroides dimidiatus ) , is the unknowing model of a mimetic species , the sabre @-@ toothed blenny ( Aspidontus taeniatus ) . This wrasse resides in coral reefs in the Indian and the Pacific Oceans , and is recognized by other fishes that then let it clean them . Its imposter , a species of blenny , lives in the Indian Ocean — and not only looks like it in terms of size and coloration , but even mimics the cleaner 's " dance " . Having fooled its prey into letting its guard down , it then bites it , tearing off a piece of its fin before fleeing . Fish grazed on in this fashion soon learn to distinguish mimic from model , but because the similarity is close between the two they become much more cautious of the model as well , so both are affected . Due to victims ' ability to discriminate between foe and helper , the blennies have evolved close similarity , right down to the regional level .
Another interesting example that does not involve any luring is the zone @-@ tailed hawk , which resembles the turkey vulture . It flies amongst the vultures , suddenly breaking from the formation and ambushing its prey . Here the hawk 's presence is of no evident significance to the vultures , affecting them neither negatively or positively .
= = = = Parasites = = = =
Parasites can also be aggressive mimics , though the situation is somewhat different from those outlined previously . Some predators have a feature that draws prey ; parasites can also mimic their host 's natural prey , but are eaten themselves , a pathway into their host . Leucochloridium , a genus of flatworm , matures in the digestive system of songbirds , their eggs then passing out of the bird via the feces . They are then taken up by Succinea , a terrestrial snail . The eggs develop in this intermediate host , and then must find a suitable bird to mature in . Since the host birds do not eat snails , the sporocyst has another strategy to reach its host 's intestine . They are brightly colored and move in a pulsating fashion . A sporocyst @-@ sac pulsates in the snail 's eye stalks , coming to resemble an irresistible meal for a songbird . In this way , it can bridge the gap between hosts , allowing it to complete its life cycle . A nematode ( Myrmeconema neotropicum ) changes the colour of the abdomen of workers of the canopy ant Cephalotes atratus to make it appear like the ripe fruits of Hyeronima alchorneoides . It also changes the behaviour of the ant so that the gaster ( rear part ) is held raised . This presumably increases the chances of the ant being eaten by birds . The droppings of birds are collected by other ants and fed to their brood , thereby helping to spread the nematode .
In an unusual case , planidium larvae of some beetles of the genus Meloe form a group and produce a pheromone that mimics the sex attractant of its host bee species . When a male bee arrives and attempts to mate with the mass of larvae , they climb onto his abdomen . From there , they transfer to a female bee , and from there to the bee nest to parasitize the bee larvae .
Host @-@ parasite mimicry is a two species system where a parasite mimics its own host . Cuckoos are a canonical example of brood parasitism , a form of kleptoparasitism where the mother has its offspring raised by another unwitting organism , cutting down the biological mother 's parental investment in the process . The ability to lay eggs that mimic the host eggs is the key adaptation . The adaptation to different hosts is inherited through the female line in so @-@ called gentes . Cases of intraspecific brood parasitism , where a female lays in conspecific 's nest , as illustrated by the goldeneye duck ( Bucephala clangula ) , do not represent a case of mimicry . Another example is that of chemical mimicry , in which the parasitic butterfly Phengaris rebeli , which parasitizes the ant species Myrmica schencki by releasing chemicals that fool the worker ants to believe that the caterpillar larvae are ant larvae , and enable the P. rebeli larvae to be brought directly into the M. schencki nest . Parasitic ( cuckoo ) bumblebees ( formerly Psithyrus , now included in Bombus ) resemble their hosts more closely than would be expected by chance , at least in areas like Europe where parasite @-@ host co @-@ speciation is common . However , this is explainable as Müllerian mimicry , rather than requiring the parasite 's coloration to deceive the host and thus constitute aggressive mimicry .
= = = Reproductive = = =
Reproductive mimicry occurs when the actions of the dupe directly aid in the mimic 's reproduction . This is common in plants with deceptive flowers that do not provide the reward they seem to offer . Other forms of mimicry have a reproductive component , such as Vavilovian mimicry involving seeds , and brood parasitism , which can also involve aggressive mimicry .
= = = = Mimicry of flowers = = = =
Bakerian mimicry , named after Herbert G. Baker , is a form of automimicry where female flowers mimic male flowers of their own species , cheating pollinators out of a reward . This reproductive mimicry may not be readily apparent as members of the same species may still exhibit some degree of sexual dimorphism . It is common in many species of Caricaceae .
Like Bakerian mimicry , Dodsonian mimicry is a form of reproductive floral mimicry , but the model belongs to a different species than the mimic . The name refers to Calaway H. Dodson . By providing similar sensory signals as the model flower , it can lure its pollinators . Like Bakerian mimics , no nectar is provided . Epidendrum ibaguense ( Orchidaceae ) resembles flowers of Lantana camara and Asclepias curassavica , and is pollinated by monarch butterflies and perhaps hummingbirds . Similar cases are seen in some other species of the same family . The mimetic species may still have pollinators of its own though . For example , a lamellicorn beetle , which usually pollinates correspondingly colored Cistus flowers , is also known to aid in pollination of Ophrys species that are normally pollinated by bees .
= = = = Pseudocopulation = = = =
Pseudocopulation occurs when a flower mimics a female of a certain insect species , inducing the males to try to copulate with the flower . This is much like the aggressive mimicry in fireflies described previously , but with a more benign outcome for the pollinator . This form of mimicry has been called Pouyannian mimicry , after Maurice @-@ Alexandre Pouyanne , who first described the phenomenon . It is most common in orchids , which mimic females of the order Hymenoptera ( generally bees and wasps ) , and may account for around 60 % of pollinations . Depending on the morphology of the flower , a pollen sac called a pollinia is attached to the head or abdomen of the male . This is then transferred to the stigma of the next flower the male tries to inseminate , resulting in pollination . Visual mimicry is the most obvious sign of this deception for humans , but the visual aspect may be minor or non @-@ existent . It is the senses of touch and olfaction that are most important .
= = = = Inter @-@ sexual mimicry = = = =
Inter @-@ sexual mimicry occurs when individuals of one sex in a species mimic members of the opposite sex . An example is the three male forms of the marine isopod Paracerceis sculpta . Alpha males are the largest and guard a harem of females . Beta males mimic females and manage to enter the harem of females without being detected by the alpha males allowing them to mate . Gamma males are the smallest males and mimic juveniles . This also allows them to mate with the females without the alpha males detecting them . Similarly , among common side @-@ blotched lizards , some males mimic the yellow throat coloration and even mating rejection behavior of the other sex to sneak matings with guarded females . These males look and behave like unreceptive females . This strategy is effective against " usurper " males with orange throats , but ineffective against blue throated " guarder " males , which chase them away . Female spotted hyenas have pseudo @-@ penises that make them look like males .
= = = Automimicry = = =
Automimicry or intraspecific mimicry occurs within a single species . One form of such mimicry is where one part of an organism 's body resembles another part . For example , the tails of some snakes resemble their heads and they show behavior such as moving backwards when threatened and presenting the predator with the tail , thereby improving their chances of escape without fatal harm . Some species of fishes have eyespots near their tails , and when mildly alarmed swim slowly backwards , presenting the tail as a head . Some insects too , have tail patterns and appendages of various degrees of sophistication that promote attacks at the rear rather than at the head . Several species of pygmy owl bear " false eyes " on the back of the head , misleading predators into reacting as though they were the subject of an aggressive stare .
Some writers use the term " automimicry " when the mimic imitates other morphs within the same species . For example , in a species where males mimic females or vice versa , this may be an instance of sexual mimicry in evolutionary game theory . Examples are found in some species of birds , fishes , and lizards . Quite elaborate strategies along these lines are known , such as the well @-@ known " scissors , paper , rock " mimicry in Uta stansburiana , but there are qualitatively different examples in many other species , such as some Platysaurus .
Many species of insects are toxic or distasteful when they have fed on certain plants that contain chemicals of particular classes , but not when they have fed on plants that lack those chemicals . For instance , some species of the subfamily Danainae feed on various species of the Asclepiadoideae in the family Apocynaceae , which render them poisonous and emetic to most predators . Such insects frequently are aposematically coloured and patterned . When feeding on innocuous plants however , they are harmless and nutritious , but a bird that once has sampled a toxic specimen is unlikely to eat harmless specimens that have the same aposematic coloration . When regarded as mimicry of toxic members of the same species , this too may be seen as automimicry .
Some species of caterpillar , such as many hawkmoths ( Sphingidae ) , have eyespots on their anterior abdominal segments . When alarmed , they retract the head and the thoracic segments into the body , leaving the apparently threatening large eyes at the front of the visible part of the body .
Many insects have filamentous " tails " at the ends of their wings and patterns of markings on the wings themselves . These combine to create a " false head " . This misdirects predators such as birds and jumping spiders ( Salticidae ) . Spectacular examples occur in the hairstreak butterflies ; when perching on a twig or flower , they commonly do so upside down and shift their rear wings repeatedly , causing antenna @-@ like movements of the " tails " on their wings . Studies of rear @-@ wing damage support the hypothesis that this strategy is effective in deflecting attacks from the insect 's head .
= = = Others = = =
Some forms of mimicry do not fit easily within the classification given previously .
Floral mimicry is induced by the discomycete fungus Monilinia vaccinii @-@ corymbosi . In this unusual case , a fungal plant pathogen infects leaves of blueberries , causing them to secrete sugars , in effect mimicking the nectar of flowers . To the naked eye the leaves do not look like flowers , yet they still attract pollinating insects like bees using an ultraviolet signal . This case is unusual , in that the fungus benefits from the deception but it is the leaves that act as mimics , being harmed in the process . It is similar to host @-@ parasite mimicry , but the host does not receive the signal . It has a little in common with automimicry , but the plant does not benefit from the mimicry , and the action of the pathogen is required to produce it .
= = Evolution = =
It is widely accepted that mimicry evolves as a positive adaptation . The lepidopterist and novelist Vladimir Nabokov argued that although natural selection might stabilize a " mimic " form , it would not be necessary to create it .
The most widely accepted model used to explain the evolution of mimicry in butterflies is the two @-@ step hypothesis . The first step involves mutation in modifier genes that regulate a complex cluster of linked genes that cause large changes in morphology . The second step consists of selections on genes with smaller phenotypic effects , creating an increasingly close resemblance . This model is supported by empirical evidence that suggests that a few single point mutations cause large phenotypic effects , while numerous others produce smaller effects . Some regulatory elements collaborate to form a supergene for the development of butterfly color patterns . The model is supported by computational simulations of population genetics . The Batesian mimicry in Papilio polytes is controlled by the doublesex gene .
Some mimicry is imperfect . Natural selection drives mimicry only far enough to deceive predators . For example , when predators avoid a mimic that imperfectly resembles a coral snake ,
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Embothrium wickhamii by Joseph Maiden and Ernst Betche in 1911 after a collection by J.L.Boorman , the Dorrigo waratah was raised to species status and reclassified as Oreocallis pinnata by Dutch botanist Hermann Otto Sleumer in 1954 . The Australian members of the genus Oreocallis were recognised as markedly distinct from the South American species , which saw them allocated to the new genus Alloxylon . Hence , Oreocallis pinnata was given the new combination Alloxylon pinnatum in 1991 by Peter Weston and Mike Crisp of the Royal Botanic Gardens in Sydney . The species name refers to the pinnate leaves . Aside from Dorrigo waratah , it has also been called the Dorrigo oak , red silky oak , tree waratah , pink silky oak , red oak , Queensland waratah , and waratah oak . The genus name is derived from Ancient Greek allo- , meaning " other " or " strange " , and xylon , meaning " wood " . It refers to the genus 's unusual cell architecture compared with the related genera Telopea and Oreocallis .
Alloxylon pinnatum and the other three tree waratah species lie in the subtribe Embothriinae , along with the true waratahs ( Telopea ) , Oreocallis and the Chilean firetree ( Embothrium coccineum ) from South America . Almost all these species have red flowers that are terminal ( arising at the ends of branches ) , and hence the subtribe 's origin and floral appearance most likely predates the splitting of Gondwana into Australia , Antarctica , and South America over 60 million years ago . The position , colour and tubular shape of the flowers suggest that they are bird @-@ pollinated , and have been so since the radiation of nectar @-@ feeding birds such as honeyeaters in the Eocene . Triporopollenites ambiguus is an ancient member of the proteaceae known only from pollen deposits , originally described from Eocene deposits in Victoria . The fossil pollen closely resembles that of Telopea truncata , A. pinnatum and Oreocallis grandiflora .
Cladistic analysis of morphological features within the Embothriinae showed A. pinnatum to be the earliest offshoot within the genus and sister to the other three species . Along with members of other genera in the Embothriinae , A. pinnatum has crimson pollen , while the other three Alloxylon species have yellow pollen . Hence it is likely that the ancestral pollen colour was red , and remained so with the emergence of the genus Alloxylon , yet changed to yellow after the divergence of A. pinnatum .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The Dorrigo waratah is found in warm @-@ temperate rainforest from altitudes of 700 to 1 @,@ 250 m ( 2 @,@ 300 to 4 @,@ 100 ft ) along the McPherson Range in south @-@ east Queensland and the Dorrigo Plateau in northern New South Wales , with dominant tree species such as coachwood ( Ceratopetalum apetalum ) and Antarctic beech ( Lophozonia moorei ) . In Queensland it is associated with golden sassafras ( Doryphora sassafras ) and native crabapple ( Schizomeria ovata ) . It commonly grows on southern aspects of hills and slopes .
= = = Conservation status = = =
Alloxylon pinnatum is classified as 3RCa under the Rare or Threatened Australian Plant ( ROTAP ) criteria for threatened species , and listed as near threatened under the Queensland Nature Conservation Act 1992 . In 2016 , it was one of eleven species selected for the Save a Species Walk campaign in April 2016 ; scientists walked 300 km to raise money for collection of seeds to be prepared and stored at the Australian PlantBank at the Australian Botanic Garden , Mount Annan .
= = Cultivation = =
The bright , prominently displayed flowers and bird @-@ attracting properties of Alloxylon pinnatum make it a desirable garden plant . It reaches only about 6 – 10 m ( 20 – 33 ft ) in cultivation , but has proven difficult to grow . Alloxylon pinnatum has been successfully cultivated at the Australian National Botanic Gardens in Canberra in a sheltered position in part @-@ shade with a thick layer of mulch . It is propagated most easily by seed , which is ripe from February to June and keeps for around twelve months . Seedlings often perish once 15 cm ( 6 in ) high , and are difficult to transplant . It has also been grown at Mount Tomah Botanic Garden , where it was noted to be exacting in its requirements , needing very good drainage as well as a sheltered location to survive . It is slow growing ; specimens planted in 1989 have been flowering since 1999 . The considerably easier to grow A. flammeum has been considered as a stock plant for grafting .
The pinkish red timber has been used for cabinet- and furniture making . It is soft and light , weighing 500 kg per cubic metre .
= Colin Doyle ( footballer ) =
Colin Anthony Doyle ( born 12 June 1985 ) is an Irish professional footballer who plays as a goalkeeper for Bradford City and the Republic of Ireland national team . Doyle spent twelve years as a professional with Birmingham City . He made his debut in the Football League in April 2005 while on loan to Championship club Nottingham Forest , and also had loan spells at Chester City , Millwall and Coventry City . In 2015 , he signed for Blackpool .
At international level , Doyle has represented the Republic of Ireland at under @-@ 21 , B and senior levels . He made his full international debut in May 2007 against Ecuador .
= = Club career = =
= = = Early career = = =
Doyle was born in Cork , County Cork . He played both Gaelic football and hurling with his local club , Douglas , before taking up association football with Cork side Douglas Hall . He joined Birmingham City as an academy scholar during 2001 , before signing his first professional contract in 2003 . He made his first senior appearance for the club during the 4 – 0 victory over the Malaysian national team during the first Premier League Asia Trophy on 26 July 2003 , replacing Ian Bennett with 13 minutes of the game remaining .
Having not yet made a professional appearance for Birmingham , Doyle joined League Two side Chester City on loan in October 2004 . Chester 's first @-@ choice goalkeeper Wayne Brown was injured and they needed cover for reserve Chris Mackenzie . While at Chester , Doyle played his first game in English senior football as Chester defeated Rochdale in the Football League Trophy .
After returning to Birmingham , Doyle soon linked up with Championship club Nottingham Forest on a short @-@ term loan deal in December 2004 . The loan was then extended to keep him at the City Ground for the rest of the season . Doyle made his first @-@ team debut for Forest in a fifth @-@ round FA Cup tie against Tottenham Hotspur on 20 February 2005 . As the game approached half @-@ time , Doyle gifted Tottenham the lead as a Jermain Defoe free kick bounced out of his hands and into the net , but Forest were able to equalise in the second half to take the tie to a replay . Even though Doyle only played in a further three league games for Forest , he said he was glad to be able to play regular reserve @-@ team football and the loan spell had exceeded his expectations . He was rumoured to be returning to Forest on loan for the following season , a move which did not occur .
Doyle 's next loan move saw him join Millwall in November 2005 for a month . He went straight into the team for their game against Leeds United on 26 November . With the game goalless going into injury time , Millwall defender Ben May put the ball past Doyle for an own goal to give Leeds a 1 – 0 victory . Doyle was recalled from loan on 19 December to cover for the suspended Nico Vaesen . Doyle was on the bench for Birmingham 's Football League Cup quarter @-@ final against Manchester United the next day , and then returned to Millwall three days later on an emergency seven @-@ day loan . This loan deal was extended for another seven days before Doyle returned to Birmingham on 5 January 2006 after manager Steve Bruce had refused Millwall permission to use him in the FA Cup . A week later , Doyle agreed to go to Millwall for a third loan spell in the 2005 – 06 season , this time staying with " The Lions " until the end of the season . In total , Doyle played 14 games for Millwall during his three loan spells , keeping two clean sheets .
= = = First @-@ team football with Birmingham = = =
During his loan spell at Millwall , Doyle had suggested he might want to stay with the club on a permanent basis , despite the offer of a new contract from his parent club . However , at the end of the season he signed a two @-@ year deal with Birmingham . Because Vaesen 's contract had expired , there was an expectation that Doyle would step up to second @-@ choice goalkeeper behind Maik Taylor . Doyle played his first competitive game for Birmingham in their League Cup first @-@ round match against Shrewsbury Town on 22 August 2006 , in which he kept a clean sheet as his club won 1 – 0 . With Taylor injured , Doyle made his first league appearance for Birmingham four days later in a 2 – 0 defeat away to Cardiff City . Doyle played in the second and third rounds of the League Cup , against Wrexham and Sheffield United ,
Doyle was preferred to Taylor for the visit to Colchester United in February 2007 ; according to the Birmingham Mail , " Doyle was unruffled and did himself a lot of good . His handling was sound , he got the game moving quickly and even though some of his kicks were skewed wide , he whacked the ball long and hard . " Assistant manager Eric Black said that Doyle had " shown that he 's more than capable and he 's ready to have a go now and challenge Maik Taylor " for the starting position . He kept his place in the team for the remainder of the season as Birmingham were promoted back to the Premier League . At the club 's end of season awards , Doyle picked up the " Magic Moment of the Season " award , for his penalty save against Wolverhampton Wanderers at Molineux that gained Birmingham a crucial three points , and the " Breakthrough " award . Doyle finished the season with eight clean sheets from 22 appearances .
He remained in the starting line @-@ up for the start of the 2007 – 08 Premier League season , but after a difficult first three games , he was dropped in favour of Taylor , and Richard Kingson was selected as substitute goalkeeper . Birmingham were relegated at the end of the season but won immediate promotion back to the Premier League the following season ; Doyle played in two league games .
= = = Return to second choice = = =
Following the loan signing of Joe Hart from Manchester City for the 2009 – 10 Premier League season , Doyle remained third choice , behind Hart and Taylor , a position he retained after Hart 's replacement by England international Ben Foster and Taylor 's signing of a contract extension before the 2010 – 11 season .
On 29 July 2010 , Doyle had a trial with Plymouth Argyle , playing 45 minutes of a friendly against Hereford United , but no deal materialised , and on 10 August 2010 , Doyle signed on loan for Coventry City . He was signed as emergency cover while Keiren Westwood was away on international duty , coming in for the League Cup match against Morecambe , but was recalled only a day later because of an injury to Foster . In January 2011 , Doyle played his first game for Birmingham for nearly two years in a 3 – 2 defeat of Coventry in the FA Cup fourth round , and kept his place for the fifth @-@ round tie against Sheffield Wednesday , keeping a clean sheet as the home side won 3 – 0 . He made his first Premier League appearance since August 2007 , as a first @-@ half substitute for the injured Foster , in a 5 – 0 defeat at Liverpool in April in which he conceded three goals .
After Birmingham were relegated at the end of the season , the club took up their option of an extra year on Doyle 's contract , despite accusations of inappropriate late @-@ night drinking after the club 's end @-@ of @-@ season dinner . He made 16 appearances in the 2011 – 12 season , including three matches in Birmingham 's UEFA Europa League campaign , and both legs of the Championship play @-@ off semi @-@ final . He made an error in a 2 – 1 win over Maribor , where he misjudged a pass from Jonathan Spector to allow Dalibor Volaš to score the game 's opening goal . In the FA Cup , Doyle saved two penalties from Juan Mata in the FA Cup ; one in the initial fifth @-@ round match , which finished 1 – 1 , and one in the replay , which ended in a 2 – 0 defeat . His performance in the initial game against Chelsea resulted in him being named as the man of the match . At the end of the season , he received a special award for completing ten senior seasons with the club , extended to an eleventh when he signed a one @-@ year contract , despite expectations that youngster Jack Butland might be first choice goalkeeper .
Doyle made his first appearance of the 2012 – 13 season in a 3 – 2 League Cup defeat at Coventry City . Despite only playing three games during the 2012 – 13 season , Doyle was offered a new two @-@ year contract at the end of the season .
In July 2013 , Doyle was brought on as a centre forward for the last six minutes of a pre @-@ season game against Shamrock Rovers because of an injury to striker Matt Green after all the outfield substitutes had been used . Again , he made his first competitive appearance of the season in the League Cup . In the 2014 – 15 season , he played three cup matches and once in the league , putting in an impressive performance in a 1 – 0 defeat at Blackburn Rovers when Darren Randolph was suspended . He was released when his contract expired at the end of his twelfth season as a professional with Birmingham City . The Birmingham Mail dubbed his departure the " end of an era " .
= = = Blackpool = = =
In June 2015 , Doyle signed a two @-@ year contract with Blackpool , newly relegated to League One . He was named club captain , and selected as starting goalkeeper , ahead of Kyle Letheren , for the opening match of the season , away to Colchester United . He made several saves to keep his side in the match , but damaged a shoulder in thwarting Colchester 's Gavin Massey and had to leave the field . After an initial prognosis of three months out , a scan suggested he could return to action within a month . He was back in the team for the visit to Scunthorpe United on 5 September , and produced a man @-@ of @-@ the @-@ match performance that earned him a place in the Football League 's Team of the Week as Blackpool won their first match of the season . Ankle ligament damage suffered in early November kept him out until the new year .
= = = Bradford City = = =
Following Blackpool 's relegation , Doyle joined League One side Bradford City for a fee of £ 1 after Bradford triggered a release clause in Doyle 's contract .
= = International career = =
In August 2006 , Doyle played for the Republic of Ireland under @-@ 21s away against Greece and kept a clean sheet in a 2 – 0 victory . He went on to make three further appearances for the U21 side . He made his first appearance for the senior national team , starting in a 1 – 1 friendly draw with Ecuador , on 23 May 2007 . The match was at Giants Stadium in East Rutherford , New Jersey . Following this match , he made an appearance for the Republic of Ireland B squad , playing 81 minutes of a match against Scotland B on 20 November 2007 .
= = Club statistics = =
As of match played 8 May 2016
= Rescued by Rover =
Rescued by Rover is a 1905 British short silent drama film , directed by Lewin Fitzhamon , about a dog who leads its master to his kidnapped baby , which was the first to feature the Hepworth 's family dog Blair in a starring role ; following the release , the dog became a household name and he is considered to be the first dog film star . The film , which according to Michael Brooke of BFI Screenonline , " marks a key stage in the medium 's development from an amusing novelty to the seventh art , " and , " possibly the only point in film history when British cinema unquestionably led the world , " was an advance in filming techniques , editing , production and story telling .
Four hundred prints were sold , so many that the negatives wore out twice , requiring the film to be re @-@ shot each time . Two professional actors were paid to appear , and the film is cited as the first film to have used paid actors . The style of shooting and editing would bridge the gap between the styles of directors Edwin Stanton Porter and D. W. Griffith , and prints have been preserved in both the United States and the United Kingdom .
= = Plot = =
The film opens with Rover , a collie playing with a child in front of a fireplace . Later that day , the baby is taken out in a pram by her nurse . The nurse refuses to aid a beggar woman , and is then distracted upon meeting a soldier . While talking to the soldier , she pays no attention to the baby , and the beggar woman approaches from behind and snatches the sleeping child .
In the next scene , the nurse confesses to the mother that the child has been lost . Rover , also sitting in the room , listens before jumping through the window and racing down the street , going around a corner and across a river . The dog makes its way to a slum and barges through each and every door ; he finds the right one and enters . In an attic , the beggar woman is removing the clothing from the child ; the dog enters and is driven off by the beggar .
The dog leaves the house and swims back across the river , down the street and into its master and mistress 's home . In a study , the child 's father is sitting ; Rover enters and pleads with him to follow . They leave , with the man following the dog across the river in a boat to the slums . They enter the room where the child is hidden , and the father quickly takes the child from the beggar woman and leaves with the dog . Upon their return home , the child is placed in the arms of the mother , while Rover prances happily around them .
= = Production = =
Rescued by Rover was predominantly a family affair – Cecil Hepworth 's wife , Margaret , wrote the scenario and played the role of the mother on screen . Hepworth himself directed , painted the scenery and acted as the father . Their child was the baby on screen , and the part of Rover was played by the family dog , Blair . Two professional actors were paid to appear , Sebastian Smith as the soldier , and his wife as the old woman who stole the baby . The two actors were paid half a guinea each ; Hepworth would recall " We couldn 't get them for less " . The film is often cited as the first film to have used paid actors . Completing the cast was Mabel Clark , who had previously played Alice in Hepworth 's version of Alice in Wonderland , as the child 's nurse . Clark was also the cutting room assistant .
The movie was so successful that Hepworth had to re @-@ shoot the entire film twice . The first two negatives wore out in meeting the demand for prints .
= = Release = =
Rescued by Rover is often considered to be the United Kingdom 's first major fiction film . Some four hundred prints were sold at a price of £ 8 each , and they circulated for at least four or five years . The character of Rover the dog , played by Hepworth 's family dog Blair , became a household name and is considered the world 's first canine film star . This first appearance of a dog in a narrative based film caused the uncommon name of Rover to become popular for dogs .
= = = Legacy = = =
Previous films by Hepworth and his company had been considered a continuation of the cinema of attractions . The first few years of the 20th century were a period in which many film @-@ makers began placing a higher emphasis on portraying a narrative story , and lesser so more on the image and the ability to show something . The film is considered a step forward in both film grammar and structure . Contemporary audiences may find it rather hoary , although one scholar has noted the format would be familiar to fans of the dog character Lassie .
It gave rise to a number of other chase films centred on animals , including Lewin Fitzhamon 's later film Dumb Sagacity ( 1907 ) . Rescued by Rover has parallels with D. W. Griffith 's debut film The Adventures of Dollie ( 1908 ) .
Rescued by Rover contains more than twenty shots ; this is a considerable advance when compared with Hepworth 's own How it Feels to be Run Over ( 1900 ) , which contains a single shot . This not only made the film longer , but demonstrated that advances in film language could be made in editing as well as shooting . Additionally , the editing of Rescued by Rover is notable in its use of time contractions , which made Rover 's journeys take considerably less time by portrayal than they would have in reality .
In linking these shots together , Hepworth attempted to avoid the confusion of earlier multi @-@ shot films such as Edwin S. Porter 's The Great Train Robbery ( 1903 ) . Three shots are used to set up the plot , that of the baby being stolen by a beggar woman . Nearly all of the following shots show Rover tracking down the child . When the dog returns home , the shots ' settings are repeated in reverse as the dog travels them ; they are shown again in the original order , for a third time , when the dog brings the father . A fourth repetition is , rather radically for its time , spared by showing the kidnapper 's return to her room followed by a shot of the reunited family .
With its form and structure in consideration , Rescued by Rover shows a growing understanding among directors of how stories can be told on film ; that is , the belief that the audience does not need to see the family return to their home , but will instead assume this occurred while the beggar woman was returning to her hovel . While the duration of the shot does not correspond with the time necessary for the father and the family dog to travel back , it also does not affect the sense of realistic on @-@ screen representation .
Also , cinematographic improvements that modern viewers would find relatively minor were noted in their day . In the attic scenes , for instance , Hepworth 's use of arc lights was celebrated for being an early use of harsh lighting conditions to create ambiance and indicate a dangerous setting . Prints have been saved both in the Library of Congress film archive , and the National Film and Television Archive of the British Film Institute .
= Un Poco de Amor =
" Un Poco de Amor " ( English : " A Little Bit of Love " ) is a song by Colombian singer @-@ songwriter Shakira , taken from her debut studio album Pies Descalzos . It was released on May 16 , 1996 , by Sony Music and Columbia Records as the fourth single from the album . The song was written and produced by Shakira and Luis Fernando Ochoa . " Un Poco de Amor " is a Latin pop song that incorporates reggae elements . Lyrically , it states that Shakira is waiting to find someone who loves her .
Upon its release , " Un Poco de Amor " received generally favorable reviews from music critics , who recognized it as a stand @-@ out track from Pies Descalzos . The song peaked at number 11 on the Billboard Latin Pop Songs and Latin Songs component charts . While less successful than its preceding singles , its performance continued to aid its parent album in becoming her breakthrough record , which eventually attained platinum certifications in Argentina , Brazil , Colombia , and the United States .
A Portuguese @-@ language translation of the track titled " Um Pouco de Amor " appeared on Shakira 's first remix album The Remixes in 1997 . The song has additionally been performed during two of her concert tours to date .
= = Background and composition = =
Shakira released her first official studio album Pies Descalzos in 1995 by Sony Music and Columbia Records . Assuming a prominent position in its production , she co @-@ wrote and co @-@ produced each of the eleven tracks included on the record . Serviced as the fourth single from the project , " Un Poco de Amor " saw additional songwriting and production from Luis Fernando Ochoa . The track is heavily influenced by Latin pop elements , and additionally incorporates reggae styles . Lyrically , it states that Shakira is waiting to find someone who loves her . It became her first track to include phrases in English , performed by the uncredited Howard Glasford .
The accompanying music video for " Un Poco de Amor " was directed by Gustavo Garzón . The clip depicts a black @-@ haired and red @-@ haired Shakira dancing with Glasford , in addition to members of various ethnic groups . The music video received a Billboard Latin Music Award for Pop Video of the Year . A Portuguese version of the song , entitled " Um Pouco de Amor " , was included in Shakira 's 1997 remix album The Remixes .
= = Reception = =
Upon its release , " Un Poco de Amor " received generally favorable reviews from music critics , who recognized it as a stand @-@ out track from Pies Descalzos . Carlos Quintana of About.com complimented the track for its reggae influences , and placed it among his personal favorites from the record . Similarly , Jose F. Promis from Allmusic praised it for being a " dancehall @-@ lite " track , going on to select the song as an " Allmusic Pick " . The song peaked at number 11 on the Billboard Latin Pop Songs and Latin Songs component charts . While less successful than its preceding singles , its performance continued to aid its parent album in becoming her breakthrough record , which eventually attained platinum certifications in Argentina , Brazil , and the United States . Pies Descalzos was also awarded the " Diamond Prism " award in Colombia .
In 1996 , " Un Poco de Amor " was included in the reissue of Pies Descalzos , titled Colección de Oro . In 2005 , it was featured as the third track for Shakira 's first greatest hits album Grandes Éxitos . Its appearance in both records was complimented as being reminiscent of her rise to prominence .
= = Live performances = =
Shakira has performed " Un Poco de Amor " during two of her concert tours thus far . She first performed the track in Mexico City during her Tour Pies Descalzos , which ran from 1996 through 1997 . It was also included during the Tour of the Mongoose , held in support of her third studio album Laundry Service . The song was notably absent from her Tour Anfibio , Oral Fixation Tour , and The Sun Comes Out World Tour .
= = Track listing = =
Remix EP
" Un Poco De Amor "
" Un Poco De Amor " ( Memes Dancehall Posse Mix )
" Un Poco De Amor " ( The Extended Dancehall 12 )
" Un Poco De Amor " ( Memes Jazz Experience )
" Un Poco De Amor " ( Instrumental )
= = Charts = =
= Japanese aircraft carrier Unryū =
The Japanese aircraft carrier Unryū ( 雲龍 , Cloud Dragon ) was the lead ship of her class of fleet aircraft carriers built for the Imperial Japanese Navy ( IJN ) during World War II . She was commissioned in mid @-@ 1944 , but fuel and aircrew shortages limited her use to Japanese waters . The impending American invasion of Luzon caused the IJN to order her to transport aircraft and supplies to the Philippines in December . The ship was torpedoed and sunk by the American submarine USS Redfish in the East China Sea during the voyage .
= = Design and description = =
The last purpose @-@ built Japanese carrier construction during World War II was a group of vessels based on an improved Hiryū design , but with individual units differing in detail reflecting the changing circumstances as the conflict in the Pacific approached its conclusion . Unryū was ordered , under the provisional name of # 302 , as part of the Rapid Naval Armaments Supplement Programme of 1941 . The ship was one of 16 Unryū @-@ class aircraft carriers planned , although only three were completed before the end of the war .
Unryū had a length of 227 @.@ 35 meters ( 745 ft 11 in ) overall . She had a beam of 22 meters ( 72 ft 2 in ) and a draft of 8 @.@ 73 meters ( 28 ft 8 in ) . She displaced 20 @,@ 450 metric tons ( 20 @,@ 130 long tons ) . Her crew consisted of 1 @,@ 595 officers and men .
The ship used the same turbines and boilers as used in the heavy cruiser Suzuya . These consisted of four geared steam turbine sets with a total of 152 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 113 @,@ 000 kW ) , each driving one shaft , using steam provided by eight Kampon Type B water @-@ tube boilers . The ship had a designed speed of 34 knots ( 63 km / h ; 39 mph ) . Unryū carried 3 @,@ 670 metric tons ( 3 @,@ 610 long tons ) of fuel oil which gave her a range of 8 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 15 @,@ 000 km ; 9 @,@ 200 mi ) at 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) . She had two funnels on the starboard side , each angled below the horizontal . They were fitted with a water @-@ cooling system to reduce the turbulence caused by hot exhaust gases .
= = = Flight deck arrangements = = =
Unryū 's flight deck was 216 @.@ 9 meters ( 711 ft 7 in ) long and had a maximum width of 27 meters ( 88 ft 7 in ) . A small island was mounted well forward on the starboard side and contained the ship 's bridge and air operations control center . It was fitted with a small tripod mast that mounted one of the ship 's radar antennas . The ship was designed with two superimposed hangars that were served by two aircraft elevators , each 14 by 14 meters ( 46 by 46 ft ) ; the center elevator as used in Hiryū was deleted to simplify construction and reduce stress in the hull . The elevators had a maximum capacity of 7 @,@ 000 kilograms ( 15 @,@ 000 lb ) and took 19 seconds to go from the lower hangar to the flight deck . Unryū was fitted with hydraulically operated Type 3 arresting gear with nine cables . She also mounted three Type 3 crash barricades . No aircraft catapult was fitted . The ship mounted a retractable crane on the starboard side of the flight deck , just aft of the rear elevator . Unryū carried 397 @,@ 340 liters ( 87 @,@ 400 imp gal ; 104 @,@ 970 U.S. gal ) of aviation gasoline for her aircraft .
The ship 's air group was originally intended to consist of 12 Mitsubishi A6M Zero fighters , plus 3 in storage , 27 Aichi D3A Val dive bombers , plus 3 in reserve , and 18 Nakajima B5N " Kate " torpedo bombers plus 2 in crates . Amagi 's hangars could not accommodate so many aircraft so 11 planes were planned to be permanently carried on the flight deck . In 1943 the air group was revised to consist of 18 Mitsubishi A7M " Sam " fighters ( + 2 in storage ) , 27 Yokosuka D4Y " Judy " dive bombers and 6 Nakajima C6N " Myrt " reconnaissance aircraft . Of these , the C6Ns were intended to be carried on the flight deck . When the ship commissioned in 1944 , neither the A7M nor the C6Ns were yet in service , so the air group was reconfigured to consist of 27 Zeros , 12 D4Ys , 3 of which were to be the reconnaissance version , and 9 Nakajima B6N " Jill " torpedo bombers . By this time , however , the shortage of carrier @-@ qualified aircrew was such that they were ordered to operate from shore bases and Unryū never embarked her full air group .
= = = Armor , armament and sensors = = =
Unryū 's waterline armored belt was 46 millimeters ( 1 @.@ 8 in ) thick over her machinery spaces , but this increased to 140 millimeters ( 5 @.@ 5 in ) over her magazines . Her deck armor above the machinery was 25 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) thick , but the armor above the magazines was 56 millimeters ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) thick .
The ship 's primary armament consisted of a dozen 40 @-@ caliber 12 @.@ 7 cm ( 5 in ) Type 89 anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) guns in twin mounts on sponsons on the ship 's sides . Unryū was initially equipped with 16 triple 25 mm ( 1 in ) Type 96 and 3 single Type 96 AA gun mounts , most on sponsons along the sides of the hull . These guns were supplemented by six 28 @-@ round AA rocket launchers . Shortly after completion , another 4 triple and 13 single 25 mm mounts were added . For defense against submarines , the carrier was fitted with six depth charge throwers and carried between six and ten depth charges for them . A Type 3 sonar and a Type 93 hydrophone were fitted to detect any submarines .
Two Type 94 high @-@ angle fire @-@ control directors , one on each side of the ship , were fitted to control the Type 89 guns . Each director mounted a 4 @.@ 5 @-@ meter ( 14 ft 9 in ) rangefinder . Six Type 95 directors controlled the 25 mm guns and the 12 cm rocket launchers . Early warning was provided by two Type 2 , Mark 2 , Model 1 air search radars . One of these was mounted on the top of the island while the other retracted into the port side of the flight deck , between the two elevators . In addition , Unryū had two smaller Type 3 , Mark 1 , Model 3 early @-@ warning radars , one mounted on the tripod mast on the island and the other on the starboard aft retractable radio mast .
= = Construction and career = =
Unryū was laid down at Yokosuka Naval Arsenal on 1 August 1942 and launched on 25 September 1943 . Upon commissioning on 6 August 1944 , she was assigned to the 3rd Fleet . She underwent shakedown and trials within Tokyo Bay through mid @-@ September , and was then transferred to Kure Naval District , from which she made numerous training runs around the Seto Inland Sea until December . From 30 October to 7 November , she served briefly as the flagship of Vice Admiral Jisaburo Ozawa ’ s Mobile Fleet . Eight days later , the Mobile Fleet was disbanded and the ship was transferred to Carrier Division 1 . Later that month , some A6Ms and B6Ns were embarked .
= = = Final voyage = = =
On 13 December 1944 , thirty Yokosuka MXY7 Ōhka kamikaze rocket planes were loaded aboard Unryū for transport to Manila in the Philippines . Four days later , on 17 December 1944 , Unryū departed Kure , Hiroshima escorted by the destroyers Shigure , Hinoki , and Momi under the overall command of Captain Konishi . Her maiden sea voyage was a vain attempt to reinforce the garrison on the island of Luzon just prior to the Allied landings there .
On 19 December 1944 , Unryū was torpedoed and sunk by the submarine USS Redfish . Redfish fired four torpedoes , one of which hit directly under the carrier 's bridge on the starboard side at 16 : 35 . The hit stopped the vessel dead in the water as it severed the main steam line , flooded two boiler rooms , started several fires and gave the ship a 3 @-@ degree list . Just as the carrier began to get underway , another torpedo struck at 16 : 50 on the starboard side abreast the forward elevator and the highly volatile forward aviation gasoline tanks . The resulting explosion caused the warheads of the Ohka kamikaze planes stored on the lower hangar deck to detonate and essentially blew the bow off the ship . The ship listed to 30 degrees very quickly and the order to abandon ship was given . With a 90 @-@ degree list , the ship sank bow @-@ first to the bed of the East China Sea in just seven minutes at position 29 ° 59 ′ N 124 ° 03 ′ E. Casualties were very heavy with 1 @,@ 238 officers , crewmen and passengers losing their lives . Only 145 men survived to be rescued by Shigure , which returned to Sasebo , Nagasaki on 22 December . Unryū was struck from the Navy List on 20 February 1945 .
= Juldarigi =
Juldarigi ( Hangul : 줄다리기 , also chuldarigi ) is a traditional Korean sport similar to tug of war . It has a ritual and divinatory significance to many agricultural communities in the country , and is performed at festivals and community gatherings . The sport uses two huge rice @-@ straw ropes , connected by a central peg , which are pulled by teams representing the East and West sides of the village ( the competition is often rigged in favour of the Western team ) . A number of religious and traditional rituals are performed before and after the actual competition .
Several areas of Korea have their own distinct variations of juldarigi , and similar tug @-@ of @-@ war games with connections to agriculture are found in rural communities across Southeast Asia .
= = Cultural significance = =
Juldarigi is an important part of several agricultural celebrations , and is a common event at the Daeboreum lunar festival .
As with many Korean rural folk traditions , the sport is regarded as a predictor of future events , specifically harvests . The outcome of a ritualised contest between the two sides of a village ( East and West ) was seen as an indicator of the abundance ( or otherwise ) of that year 's rice crop , which would be harvested in the autumn ; as a result , juldarigi and similar folk sports are predominant in the rice @-@ growing areas of the South . This is due to the common association in Southeast Asia between dragons ( which the ropes of the juldarigi are thought to resemble ) and rain ; as a result juldarigi or similar tug @-@ of @-@ war ceremonies have also historically been staged during periods of drought . The connection of the two ropes used ( with one rope 's smaller loop being placed through the other 's larger loop ) is reminiscent of sexual intercourse , which also gives rise to the sport 's association with fecundity .
= = Equipment = =
The straw ropes used in juldarigi are immense , up to 200m in length and 1m in diameter . They can weigh as much as 40 tons . They are constructed of twisted rice straw ; this choice of material is symbolic , since rice is the staple grain in the areas where juldarigi is practiced . The construction process is a communal event , reflecting the communal nature of rice cultivation . Two ropes are used , one for each team ; they are connected by a wooden beam or stump known as a binyeomok , around three metres long . The rope held by the Eastern team is termed the sutjul ( Hangul : 숫줄 " male rope " ) and the Western team hold the amjul ( Hangul : 암줄 " female rope " ) . Because of the ropes ' great size , they cannot be grasped directly ; players attached smaller side @-@ ropes to the main rope to act as handles and fray its ends to provide additional hand @-@ holds .
= = Ceremony = =
The ceremony leading up to the tug of war begins at around midnight on the eve of the festival . Both teams repair to their respective ropes and offer prayers for victory ; this rite is known as goyu ( Hangul : 고유 ; hanja : 告由 ) . During this time , the teams guard their ropes against tampering , as well as preventing members of the opposing team from stepping over it ( it is believed that a woman who steps over the rope at this time will conceive a male heir ) . Punishments can be severe ; there are records of a woman being stoned to death in the early 20th century for such an infraction . The teams then gather at the festival site and perform further prayers , this time for the safety and prosperity of the village ; sacrifices are also offered to Teojushin , the earth goddess . These communal rituals are called gosa ( Hangul : 고사 ; hanja : 告祀 ) . At dawn , after the completion of these ceremonies , the two teams fetch their ropes to the site ; this involves a procession with flags and costumes , accompanied by percussion music . There is then a staged debate over the connection of the two ropes , which has a symbolic sexual aspect ; innuendo and bawdy taunts of the other team are common .
Once the two ropes are lashed together around the binyeomok , the contest begins , to the shouts and cheers of the celebrants . The actual competition is short , with victory usually decided after a single pull ( although some contests are played to best of three ) . Because of the association of the Western direction with the concept of fertility and fecundity , the match is often fixed to ensure that the West team win ( and thus ensure a bounteous harvest ) . After celebrating at the house of their team 's captain , the winners will then proceed to the house of the losing team 's captain to offer their commiserations ; this often resembles a funeral procession . Both ropes are taken by the winning team , dissected and sold ; the straw taken from them is believed to have unusual protective or nourishing properties .
A children 's version , known as gosat juldarigi ( Hangul : 고삿줄다리기 , " alley tug @-@ of @-@ war " ) is often played in the streets before the main event .
= = Regional variations = =
Two forms of juldarigi , from Gijisi ( Dangjin ) and Yeongsang , are recognised as Important Intangible Cultural Properties of Korea . The Yeongsan ceremony is held later in the year than elsewhere , having been moved from the lunar festival to March 1 in the mid @-@ twentieth century ( to commemorate the March 1st Movement ) . In 2009 , a special ₩ 20000 coin was minted in South Korea commemorating the Yeongsan juldarigi . In Gijisi , where the sport has been practiced for at least 500 years , the traditional East / West divide is replaced with a division of teams into upriver and downriver . The centipede @-@ like shape of the rope is said to resemble the way in which the villages of the region are arranged . Gijisi is also home to a museum devoted to the practice of juldarigi .
The Miryang Baekjung Festival features a unique form of this sport called gejuldarigi ( Hangul : 거미줄다리기 ) or " spider tug @-@ of @-@ war " , which is unique to Miryang . In this version , participants are tied by ropes to a central ring , and pull in all directions .
Similar communal tug @-@ of @-@ war games take place in Laos , Cambodia and Myanmar , in all cases having a connection to fecundity and the prospect of a bountiful harvest . The Kansai region of Japan also has a tug @-@ of @-@ war ceremony which is believed to have been introduced by Korean immigrants .
= The Sun Comes Out World Tour =
The Sun Comes Out World Tour ( also known as the Sale el Sol World Tour ) was the fifth concert tour by Colombian singer @-@ songwriter Shakira , launched in support of her eighth and ninth studio albums , She Wolf ( 2009 ) and Sale El Sol ( 2010 ) . After a special tour preview show held in Montreal , Canada , on 15 September 2010 , the North American leg of the tour commenced at Uncasville , Connecticut , on 17 September , and closed at Rosemont , Illinois , on 29 October 2010 . The European leg of the tour was planned to commence at Lyon , France , on 16 November , and end in London , England , on 20 December 2010 . The tickets for the initial dates of the European leg were soon sold out , and Shakira extended the tour into 2011 , beginning by announcing a show at Paris , France ; venues at countries such as Croatia , Russia , Spain and Switzerland were soon added . The Latin American leg of the tour was a part of the Pop Festival and visited countries like Argentina , Brazil , Colombia and Mexico were added to the tour dates .
The setlist of the tour was composed of songs taken primarily from Shakira 's ninth studio album Sale el Sol ; the rest were from her previous studio albums . The stage was shaped like the letter " T " to enable maximum amount of viewers to see Shakira easily . A large screen was set behind the stage , on which various visuals , designed by entertainment branding agency Loyalkaspar , were projected . For the performances , Shakira mainly wore a mesh gold crop top coupled with skin @-@ tight leather pants . Other attires Shakira wore during the concert shows included a hooded pink gown , a flamenco @-@ skirt , and a feathery blue dress .
The concert shows were well received by critics , many of whom praised the charisma Shakira displayed during the performances . Commercially , the tour was a success . It ranked at number 40 on Pollstar 's 2010 year @-@ end " Top 50 North American Tours " list as it grossed a total of $ 16 @.@ 9 million in the continent , with total ticket sales amounting up to 524 @,@ 723 . In 2011 , the tour ranked at number 20 on Pollstar 's 2011 " Top 25 Worldwide Tours " with a total gross of $ 53 @.@ 2 million and ticket sales amounting up to 692 @,@ 064 . A live album of the show held at the Palais Omnisports de Paris @-@ Bercy in Paris , France , was released as Shakira : Live from Paris , on 5 December 2011 .
= = Background = =
On 3 May 2010 , Shakira 's official website announced dates for the North American leg of the then @-@ unnamed global tour . Three dates and locations were confirmed in the announcement : the tour would appear in Madison Square Garden in New York , on 21 September , Toyota Center in Houston , on 8 October , and Staples Center in Los Angeles , on 23 October . Following a pre @-@ sale period , the tickets for the three locations were made available for public purchase on 7 May , on Shakira 's official website . The prices of the tickets ranged from $ 9 @.@ 50 to $ 149 @.@ 50 . By 23 , 19 August new tour dates and locations were added to the initial ones , summing the total count of the 2010 North American shows to 22 . It was also announced that a special tour preview show would be held in Montreal , Canada , on 15 September , to offer fans " an exclusive look at Shakira 's worldwide arena tour " , prior to the tour 's official commencement in Uncasville , Connecticut , on 17 September . The last location for the tour to touch upon was Rosemont , Illinois , on 29 October .
On 28 June , Shakira announced the dates for the European leg of the tour . 22 dates and locations were announced in total and the tour would begin at the Halle Tony Garnier concert hall in Lyon , on 16 November , and end at the O2 Arena in London , on 20 December . Notable locations the tour would appear in were the Palais Omnisports de Paris @-@ Bercy in Paris , the Festhalle Frankfurt in Frankfurt , the Manchester Arena in Manchester and The O2 in Dublin . After the tickets of the European leg of the tour were sold @-@ out , Shakira extended the tour into 2011 and announced a show to be held at the Palais Omnisports de Paris @-@ Bercy in Paris , on 14 June . Later , Shakira decided to add another date to the Paris show of the tour and set 13 June to perform at the Palais Omnisports de Paris @-@ Bercy . By 15 March , new tour dates were added at locations such as Croatia , Russia , Spain and Switzerland .
On 3 December , the Latin America dates of the tour were announced . The first date of the tour was decided to be held on 1 March in Salta , Argentina . Other locations the tour would touch upon included Bogotá , in Shakira 's native country Colombia , San José , in Costa Rica , Mexico City , in Mexico , and São Paulo , in Brazil . The final date for the Latin American leg of the tour was scheduled to be held on 12 April , in Panama .
The name of the tour was initially speculated to be " Tour of Earthly Delights " , until Shakira 's official website revealed the poster of the tour on 8 September , which highlighted " The Sun Comes Out World Tour " as the name . The poster of the tour features Shakira jumping in the air wearing a golden bikini top coupled with golden pants , similar to the cover art of her 2010 single " Loca " . The tour was launched to promote Shakira 's eighth studio album She Wolf , which was released in October 2009 , and her ninth studio album Sale el Sol , which was set to release on 19 October 2010 . The words " Sale el Sol " are Spanish for " The Sun Comes Out " , hence the tour was also referred to as the Sale el Sol World Tour .
= = Development = =
In 2008 , Shakira signed a 10 @-@ year deal with international touring giant Live Nation , which prompted Forbes to deem her as the fourth highest earning female musician in history . The Sun Comes Out World Tour was her first tour to be promoted by Live Nation . The Latin American leg of the tour was part of Pop Festival , a " brand new festival that will bring international music stars to Latin America , and which will also showcase the latest in contemporary art and technology " . According to Valentina España , senior managing editor of Terra.com , the production budget of the tour was big enough to " put Britney 's Circus ( Tour ) to shame " . Shakira talked about the tour , saying :
" It 's going to have themes and there 'll be a lot of audience interaction . My live show will have a lot of that — a lot of dancing , a joie de vivre . I feel such freedom on stage . It 's such a rush to be performing . I like to see everybody 's faces on stage , to see the reaction . Normally , you can only see the front row because of the lights . So you 'll see a lot of ( my ) energy ... but there are also going to be other moments that I hope are artistically energetic . I want people to feel things up close "
On 27 November 2009 , it was revealed that Shakira was conducting auditions to choose a different opening act for each of the tour 's appearances in different cities . The acts willing to audition were required to upload videos of their performances to Shakira 's official website . Fans were allowed to vote for their favourite acts and the ones with the most would proceed to the finals ; Shakira and her team would then pick the winner out of them . Sean Wolfington , Shakira 's digital @-@ business partner , talked about the decision and told the New York Post that " The artists will open for Shakira live in big cities and virtually through a video performance in smaller markets . There are a lot of talented artists , and Shakira wants to help them by giving them part of her stage " . The visuals and conceptual video scenes for the tour were managed and designed by entertainment branding agency Loyalkaspar , who had previously designed tour visuals for artists like U2 and Jay @-@ Z. Elliott Chaffer , the creative director of the agency , talked about the project , saying that " Shakira was a much bigger undertaking then anything we 've attempted previously . They were looking for original content that had to work over two LED screens and on a huge projector mapping surreal models of an ever @-@ changing animated face , all in just three weeks . This is for her global world tour , so modifications to the setlist and track durations continued through nine rounds of revisions " . The visuals were projected onto the large screen set behind the stage . The stage was shaped in the form of the letter " T " to enable maximum amounts of viewers to see Shakira .
= = Concert synopsis = =
The concert began with the lights dimming and a sole spotlight being focused on the crowd . The spotlight then followed Shakira as she entered the hall wearing a hooded fuchsia gown . Singing the " pensive " and " sentimental " ballad " Pienso En Tí " ( " I Think of You " ) , she began walking towards the stage while shaking her fans ' hands and hugging them . As soon as Shakira climbed the stage , she threw off the gown to reveal her main attire : a mesh gold crop top coupled with skin @-@ tight leather pants . A more energetic routine followed as she " sprinted , jumped , and yodelled " across the stage while performing more guitar @-@ oriented versions of " Why Wait " and " Te Dejo Madrid " ( " I Leave You Madrid " ) . After stopping to play a harmonica solo , Shakira performed " Si Te Vas " ( " If You Go " ) accompanied by " dense " musical instrumentation . This was followed by a more rock @-@ tinged performance of " Whenever , Wherever " , during which Shakira invited four female fans onto the stage and taught them how to belly dance .
The band moved to a small platform in the middle of the hall and Shakira came onto the stage after changing into a wine red @-@ coloured flamenco skirt . A short set of acoustic songs followed , beginning with a cover of " Nothing Else Matters " , a ballad by American heavy metal band Metallica . According to Jon Parales from The New York Times , the cover of the song " made it sound Andean , with six @-@ beat drumming and the strumming of a ukulele @-@ sized charango " . The cover was blended straight into a performance of " Despedida " ( " Farewell " ) , a song recorded by Shakira for the soundtrack of the 2007 film Love in the Time of Cholera , during which she " tested " her band drummer 's musical skill by " incorporating him into her moves " . " Gypsy " was performed with a " folk lilt " and Shakira 's vocals were backed by " accordion , fiddles and the rhythm section " . The segment was closed with a performance of " La Tortura " ( " Torture " ) .
The mariachi @-@ influenced " Ciega , Sordomuda " ( " Blind , Deaf , and Dumb " ) was performed using a Stroh violin , which was used to replace the horn sections of the original recording . David Hardwick from SpinningPlatters.com said the use of the instrument was " impressive " . She then sang the power ballad " Underneath Your Clothes " . A large animated face resembling that of Residente , the lead singer of Puerto Rican band Calle 13 , was projected onto the screen behind the stage during the performance of " Gordita " ( " Chubby " ) , a hip hop and rap track in which the artist was featured . The face was used to cover Residente 's portions of the song through prerecorded vocals . Shakira then sang the " Sale el Sol , " a song which was originally said to be dedicated to Argentine musician Gustavo Cerati , Shakira 's close friend and frequent collaborator , who had been in a coma . Shakira then changed into a pair of neon leopard @-@ print pants and performed " Loca " ( " Crazy " ) with more " intricate and urban choreographies " . Shakira then let out a long howl , signaling the start of the performance of " She Wolf " . The performance marked the first time back @-@ up dancers were featured in the show . Dave Simpson from The Guardian commented that Shakira was " howling like a banshee " during the performance . The performance of the Middle Eastern music @-@ flavoured " Ojos Así " ( " Eyes Like Yours " ) was the final one on the setlist of the concert . Shakira incorporated belly dancing steps into her choreography during the performance .
The encore segment of the concert began with a performance of " Antes de las Seis " ( " Before Six O 'clock " ) , during which artificial snow was launched into the air as the song neared its end . The keyboardist of the concert band impersonated Haitian @-@ American rapper Wyclef Jean , the featured artist on Shakira 's hit single " Hips Don 't Lie " during the performance of the song . The concert show ended with the performance of " Waka Waka ( This Time for Africa ) " , the worldwide hit Shakira recorded as the official anthem song of the 2010 FIFA World Cup , during which she again invited fans onto the stage to dance with her as confetti " filled the entire arena " .
= = Critical response = =
The tour received numerous positive reviews from critics . Terry Mathews from The Sulphur Springs News @-@ Telegram , in his review of the concert held at the American Airlines Center in Dallas , opined that the show was " equally enormous and bombastic as it was intimate " and that there was a " joyful atmosphere after the show " , which proved that Shakira " had done her job " . However , she also felt that the " fast paced , familiar tracks " of She Wolf should have been included more on the setlist rather than the " still unknown singles " of Sale el Sol . Mikael Wood from the Los Angeles Times , in his review of the concert held at the Staples Center in Los Angeles , also complimented Shakira 's charisma and praised her for not going over the top , instead noting that she was " carrying out a plan , skillfully and with no shortage of superstar charisma " . Dakin Hardwick from SpinningPlatters.com , in his review of the concert held at the Oracle Arena in Oakland , praised Shakira 's interaction with the fans and called her " truly one of the great performers " , commenting that " the woman simply will not stop dancing " . Jim Farber from Daily News , in his review of the concert held at Madison Square Garden in New York , felt that Shakira 's voice lacked sensuality and that it " displayed a clucky , burpy style " . However , he also said that her energetic live performance and ability to dance " smoothed out her rougher elements " , and that she " whipped up the kind of charisma that doesn 't need to come from any particular place to charm " . Jon Pareles from The New York Times , in his review of the concert held at Madison Square Garden in New York , praised Shakira 's multi @-@ cultural approach during the show and called it " globalization " with " pure positive thinking " and Shakira a " star with a conscience " . Mick Stingley from The Hollywood Reporter , in his review of the concert held at Madison Square Garden in New York , said that the show " cemented Shakira 's place as an arena @-@ rock star " , and concluded that the concert was an " effervescent message of love from a world music diva with dance fever " .
Tim Burrows from The Telegraph , in his review of the concert held at the O2 Arena in London , complimented Shakira 's charisma during the show and her ability to make sure that the " crowd still left glowing " , saying that it was the product of a " masterclass in cold calculation " . Dave Simpson from The Guardian , in his review of the concert held at the Manchester Arena in Manchester , favoured Shakira 's charisma and bold sexuality , noting that it is " upfront and yet nowhere near as overt as a Christina Aguilera or Madonna " . He described Shakira 's approach towards the performances during the show , saying that she " gives everything to the performance while revealing nothing " , and that she appears to be " simultaneously like a hyperintelligent pop mastermind and an overawed little girl having tremendous fun " .
= = Commercial reception = =
During its North American appearances spanning from 21 September to 23 October 2010 , the tour grossed $ 3 @,@ 685 @,@ 377 , and ranked at number four on Billboard Hot Tours chart on 11 November 2010 . The shows at Madison Square Garden in New York and Staples Center in Los Angeles were sold out . Pop Festival , the sponsor of the Latin American leg of the tour , grossed $ 13 @,@ 516 @,@ 890 during the dates spanning from 12 to 27 March 2011 , and ranked at number two on the Billboard Hot Tours chart on 8 April 2011 . According to Spanish automobile manufacturer SEAT , the sponsor of the European leg , the 21 venues the tour appeared at were all sold @-@ out , and attended by an approximate total of 360 @,@ 000 fans . It was one of the highest grossing tours of the year 2010 .
According to Pollstar , the tour grossed a total of $ 16 @.@ 9 million during its North American dates , thus ranking at number 40 on Pollstar 's 2010 year @-@ end " Top 50 North American Tours " list . In North America , the tour sold an average of 9 @,@ 335 tickets , and a total of 205 @,@ 271 tickets . Its average gross was $ 768 @,@ 182 . Worldwide , the tour grossed a total of $ 39 @.@ 9 million from 1 January 2011 , to 30 June 2011 , and ranked at number 11 on Pollstar 's " Top 50 Worldwide Tours " list , compiled on the basis of this period . It sold an average of 11 @,@ 661 tickets , and a total of 524 @,@ 723 tickets . Its average gross was $ 886 @,@ 667 during this period . From 1 January 2011 , to 31 December 2011 , the tour grossed a total of $ 53 @.@ 2 million , and ranked at number 20 on Pollstar 's " Top 25 Worldwide Tours " , compiled on the basis of this period . It sold an average of 13 @,@ 106 tickets , and a total of 692 @,@ 064 tickets . Its average gross was $ 1 @,@ 108 @,@ 333 .
= = Live recording = =
The performances that took place at the Palais Omnisports de Paris @-@ Bercy in Paris , France , on 13 and 14 June 2011 , were recorded for inclusion in the live album of the tour . The live album was titled Live from Paris ( En Vivo Desde París in Hispanic countries ) , and was released on 5 December 2011 . It was made available in three formats : an exclusive edition which includes a DVD and live audio CD , a standard DVD edition , and a Blu @-@ ray Disc edition . The debut of the live album was preceded by the release of " Je l 'aime à mourir " , Shakira 's rendition of the original song written and performed by French singer @-@ songwriter Francis Cabrel , on 29 November 2011 . In France , Live from Paris was certified platinum in France by the Syndicat National de l 'Édition Phonographique for sales of 100 @,@ 000 units .
= = Opening acts = =
= = Set list = =
The following set list is representative of the show on 21 September 2010 .
" Pienso en Ti "
" Why Wait "
" Te Dejo Madrid "
" Si Te Vas "
" Whenever , Wherever "
" Inevitable "
" El Nay A 'Atini Nay " ( Interlude )
Medley : " Nothing Else Matters " / " Despedida "
" Gypsy "
" La Tortura "
" Ciega , Sordomuda "
" Underneath Your Clothes "
" Gordita "
" Sale el Sol "
" Las de la Intuición "
" Loca "
" She Wolf "
" Ojos Así "
" Antes de las Seis "
" Hips Don 't Lie "
" Waka Waka ( This Time for Africa ) "
= = Rock In Rio ( 2011 ) = =
The following set list is representative of the show during Rock In Rio in Brazil during her 2011 leg .
" Estoy Aqui "
" Te Dejo Madrid "
" Si Te Vas "
" Whenever , Wherever "
" Inevitable "
" El Nay A 'Atini Nay " ( Interlude )
Medley : " Nothing Else Matters " / " Despedida "
" Gypsy "
" La Tortura "
" Ciega , Sordomuda "
" Sale el Sol "
" Las de la Intuición "
" Loca "
" She Wolf "
" Ojos Así "
" Pais Tropical "
" Hips Don 't Lie "
" Waka Waka ( This Time for Africa ) "
Additional notes :
Certain songs were performed in their Spanish versions on select dates
" Pienso en ti , " " Underneath Your Clothes , " " Si Te Vas , " and " Gordita " were not performed on select dates .
A cover of " Je l 'aime à mourir " by Francis Cabrel was performed on Francophone dates .
" Estoy Aquí " was performed as the opening number on select dates .
A cover of " Pais Tropical " by Jorge Ben Jor was performed with Brazilian artist Ivete Sangalo at the concert held in Rock in Rio , Brazil , instead of " Antes de las Seis . "
= = Tour dates = =
= = Personnel = =
Credits for the tour adapted from the liner notes of Live from Paris DVD , and AllMusic .
= Persona 2 : Eternal Punishment =
Persona 2 : Eternal Punishment ( ペルソナ2 罰 , Perusona Tsū : Batsu ) is a role @-@ playing video game developed by Atlus , and chronologically the third installment in the Persona series , a subseries of the Megami Tensei franchise . It was originally published in 2000 by Atlus in Japan and North America for the PlayStation . The game was later remade by Atlus for the PlayStation Portable . This version , released in Japan in 2012 , did not receive an overseas release . In response to this , the PlayStation version was released on PlayStation Network in 2013 .
Eternal Punishment takes place in the fictional Japanese city of Sumaru , and is a direct sequel to Persona 2 : Innocent Sin . Taking place a few months after Innocent Sin , the game follows reporter Maya Amamo as she investigates the Joker Curse , a malign phenomenon where people 's wishes and rumors are coming true and causing chaos . During her investigations , she and others who join her gain the ability to summon Personas , personified aspects of their personalities . The gameplay features turn @-@ based battle gameplay , where characters use their Personas in battle against demons , and a separate Rumor system , where rumors spread around the city can influence events in the characters ' favor .
Halfway through the production of Innocent Sin , writer Tadashi Satomi felt that a fresh point of view was needed in addition to Tatsuya , laying the groundwork for Eternal Punishment . The original producer ( Kouji Okada ) , character designer ( Kazuma Kaneko ) and composers ( Toshiko Tasaki , Kenichi Tsuchiya and Masaki Kurokawa ) returned alongside Satomi . The second game began development after Innocent Sin was completed , and while it reused most of the assets from Innocent Sin , the gameplay and Rumor system were improved upon . The game 's theme song , " Change Your Way " , was written by English singer @-@ songwriter Elisha La 'Verne based on the game 's premise . Reception of the game in Japan and the west has generally been positive , with reviewers appreciating improvements over Innocent Sin , the plot , the gameplay systems , and the improved localization compared to the original Persona .
= = Gameplay = =
Persona 2 : Eternal Punishment is a role @-@ playing game where the player takes control of a group of characters exploring the fictional city of Sumaru . The camera follows the party from an adjustable angled overhead perspective . The city in general is navigated using an overworld map . A key element to the story and gameplay is the Rumor system : after the characters hear a rumor , they can spread that rumor around the city using certain characters , and those rumors can grant the characters special items or other positive or negative effects .
Battles consist of both story @-@ related boss fights and random encounters with standard enemies . Battles are turn @-@ based , with the player characters and enemies moving around a small battle arena to perform actions . Once the player has laid out their strategy in the battle menu , the characters perform their assigned actions until the battle ends with victory for one side or the player pauses the action to change strategies . Instead of the grid @-@ based battle system from the original Persona , party members and enemy units act in the same phase of a turn , rather than being restricted by their placement on the field .
During battle , players cast spells using an assigned Persona : each spell drains a character 's Spell Point meter . Each Persona has different elemental strengths and weaknesses , and different Personas can be used for defense , healing or elemental attacks . While a Persona is originally quite weak , if it is used enough , it will achieve a higher rank , with Rank 8 being the highest possible . As the Persona 's rank is raised , that Persona is able to cast more powerful spells . In addition to individual actions , the player can align characters to trigger a Fusion Spell : when two or more party members use a certain sequence of spells , they will automatically summon multiple Personas to generate a powerful attack . During battles , both characters and Personas earn experience points . The player has the option to activate an Auto @-@ battle option , having combat play out without player interaction .
During battle , the player can converse with enemies , though they are restricted to a single set of dialogue options instead of four as in the original Persona . If the player succeeds in talking with the enemy using the right character , it both causes the enemy to leave the battlefield and gains a spell card ( a Tarot card linked to one of the Arcanum or family of Personas ) , which can be used to create Personas in a location called the Velvet Room . In the Velvet Room , the player can summon a new Persona that belongs to a spell card 's particular Persona family group . As a character gains experience levels , more powerful Personas from a spell card 's group become available . In addition to pre @-@ set spell cards , the player can also obtain blank skill cards by forming contracts with enemies through the right conversation . These blank skill cards can be tailored to fit a chosen Persona family .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Setting and characters = = =
Set a few months after the ending of Persona 2 : Innocent Sin , Eternal Punishment takes place in 1999 in Sumaru ( 珠閒瑠 ) , a fictional seaside city in Japan with a population of 1 @.@ 28 million , its own television stations , and a structure leftover from its foundations during the Warring States period . Many of the characters come from two high schools in Sumaru : Seven Sisters ( 七姉妹学園 ) , a prestigious school that is the setting of Innocent Sin , and the less @-@ prestigious Kasugayama ( 春日山 ) . All the protagonists wield Personas , manifestations of their personalities . The ability to wield Personas was granted to them by Philemon , a benevolent personification of humanity 's Collective Unconscious . The events of Innocent Sin are said to stem from a contest between Philemon and his opposite Nyarlathotep to see if humans could find a higher purpose in life despite embracing contradictory emotions . During the events of Innocent Sin , Nyarlathotep influenced events in his favor and all the world except Sumaru City was destroyed . In order to reset events , the party used the power of the Collective Unconscious to will the key event that caused the events of Innocent Sin out of existence in exchange for their memories of those events : this created an alternate timeline , with the Innocent Sin timeline existing as a separate " Other Side " . A key element to the story of Eternal Punishment is Kegare , a negative energy that can possess humans and trigger rises in crime and the perpetuation of more Kegare .
The main protagonist of Eternal Punishment is Maya Amano , a reporter for teen magazine " Coolest " who was a playable character in Innocent Sin . She is joined on her adventure by others , including people who were involved in the events of Innocent Sin : Tatsuya Suou , a student at Seven Sisters and the main protagonist of Innocent Sin ; Ulala Serizawa , a school friend of Maya 's an aspiring fashion designer ; Baofu , a former prosecuting attorney out for revenge against the Taiwanese Mafia ; and Katsuya Suou , Tatsuya 's older brother and a sergeant in the Sumaru City Police Department . Returning antagonists include Tatsuya Sudou , a madman who was involved in the incident that precipitated the events of Innocent Sin ; and Takahisa Kandori , a former servant of Nyarlathotep and the main antagonist of Revelations : Persona who is resurrected through the power of Kotodama . Kandori in turn serves Tatsuzou Sudou , Tatsuya Sudou 's father . Two other central characters from Revelations : Persona , Kei Nanjō and Eriko Kirishima , act as supporting characters and optional playable characters . The other protagonists of Innocent Sin ( Eikichi " Michel " Mishina , Lisa " Ginko " Silverman , Jun Kashihara ) play minor supporting roles .
= = = Plot = = =
Eternal Punishment begins when Maya is sent to write a story about the Joker phenomenon : according to rumor , if someone phones their own number , the Joker will kill on request . Going to Seven Sisters , she , Ulala , and Katsuya find the school principal murdered by the Joker . The Joker then attacks them , forcing each of them to summon their Personas . After the Joker knocks them out , Philemon contacts them and warns of a growing danger to the city . After waking , the three pursue the Joker into the school clock tower , where he attempts for force a student to remember the events of Innocent Sin . They are saved by Tatsuya , who tells Maya to forget about him . After Katsuya is removed from the case by his superior Captain Shimazu , he teams up with Maya and Ulala to find the Joker . They eventually ally with Baofu , who believes that Tatsuya Sudou and his father Tatsuzou are involved with the Joker . Going to the mental institution where Sudou is held , they discover that Tatsuzou sent Taiwanese Mafia hitmen to kill Sudou . Once confronted , Sudou admits that he is the Joker , and reveals that he is attempting to trigger the reappearance of the Other Side . Pursuing him to the Sky Museum , the party runs into Tatsuya and saves Jun from Sudou after Sudou sets the building on fire . After escaping with the museum 's visitors on a blimp , an injured Sudou makes a final attack that damages the blimp before Tatsuya kills him . When the party regroup , Tatsuya has vanished .
Upon their return , the party continue to investigate Tatsuzou 's activities , and find that negative feelings are turning other people into new " Jokers " , who are in turn being kidnapped by Tatsuzou 's agents . The party eventually learn that Tatsuzou and a secret organization he leads , the New World Order , are manipulating Sumaru 's government , corporations , and media for his own ends . After this , they hear of two others , Kei and Eriko , investigating the New World Order and their links with the Joker curse and an increasingly prevalent fortune telling craze used to manipulate the spread of rumors : they are involved due to the possible involvement of Kandori , a former enemy of theirs , who is posing as Tatsuzou 's secretary . Depending on the party 's actions at this point , either Kei or Eriko will join their party as they go to investigate the holding area for the new Jokers . Upon arriving , they find Eikichi captured by Kandori while looking for a friend . While Kandori attempts to awaken Eikichi 's memories of the Other Side , Tatsuya intervenes and enables the party and Eikichi to escape . The group then save Lisa and her girl group from their promoter , another Order member , with help from Tatsuya , who again vanishes afterwards . Through a friendly informant in the Police , they learn the New World Order 's ultimate goal : to raise Sumaru City in the rumor @-@ generated spaceship " Torifune " , and trigger the destruction of the Earth 's surface by sacred dragons by creating a concentration of Kegare to create a new world free of sin . The only way to stop the plan 's fulfillment is defeating the Order .
After failing to corner Tatsuzou and puzzled about Tatsuya 's motives , the party finally persuade Tatsuya to reveal the truth . During the original confrontation with Nyarlathotep , Maya was killed , prompting the rest of the group ( Tatsuya , Lisa , Jun and Eikichi ) to reset events . Tatsuya refused to forget the events of the Other Side , creating a dangerous loophole : if all the other members of the original group could be forced to remember , the Other Side would be brought back into existence , destroying the present reality . After revealing this , Tatsuya is allowed to join the party in place of either Kei or Eriko . After returning to Sumaru proper , the city is raised by Tatsuzou as part of Torifune . Successfully infiltrating Torifune and defeating Tatsuzou and his " god " Gozen , the city returns to the surface , but the party are drawn into the Collective Unconscious by Nyarlathotep . Making their way into his domain , they discover Nyarlathotep has kidnapped Eikichi , Lisa and Jun in an effort to force their memories of the Other Side into reality . Defeating the Shadow Selves guarding them , the party saves each of them , then confront Nyarlathotep , who mocks Tatsuya for refusing to fulfill his part of Philemon 's agreement . After Nyarlathotep is defeated , Tatsuya fulfills his side of the bargain , and after saying his final goodbyes separates his Other Side consciousness from his current self . With the city returned to normal and any specific memories of the Other Side gone , the party return to their normal lives .
= = Development = =
The concept for Eternal Punishment emerged during the writing for Persona 2 : Innocent Sin . Halfway through writing the latter 's script , Tadashi Satomi felt that the draft gave him the impression of needing an alternate point of view to that of the main hero . This concept formed the basis for Eternal Punishment 's plot . To foreshadow this , the team showed the main characters from Eternal Punishment through minor roles in Innocent Sin . Eternal Punishment began full development after the release of Innocent Sin . Innocent Sin and Eternal Punishment both used the same game engine and structure . Kouji Okada , Innocent Sin 's producer , returned in the same role . When developing Eternal Punishment , the development team took what they learned from Innocent Sin and used it to improve the gameplay and the Rumor system . One of the biggest concerns when making Eternal Punishment was how much the development staff wanted to include , which went well beyond their original plans .
The overarching theme of Eternal Punishment , as with Persona and Innocent Sin , was exploration of the human psyche and the main characters discovering their true selves . While Innocent Sin focused on the protagonists as teenagers , Eternal Punishment looked at the protagonists as adults : for its central character theme , Eternal Punishment focused on how people realize their true selves as adults faced with reality . A theme carried over from Innocent Sin was the " power of Kotodama " , the Japanese belief that words can influence the physical and spiritual world , with this power manifesting through the spreading of rumors . Terms and concepts used in the games , including Persona , Shadows and the character Philemon , were drawn from Jungian psychology and archetypes . The character of Nyarlathotep , who had made a cameo appearance as a Persona in the original game , was inspired by the character of the same name from H. P. Lovecraft 's Cthulhu Mythos . Other antagonists and enemy creatures in the games were also drawn from the Cthulhu Mythos and played a key role in the narrative .
The main characters were designed by Kazuma Kaneko , while secondary characters were designed by Shigenori Soejima . The protagonists of Eternal Punishment were adults and so could not be given a single standardized outfit as the high school protagonists of Innocent Sin had been . While designing the outfits for Eternal Punishment , Kaneko tried to keep an image of normal adults in mind , but in doing so was restricted when trying to portray the characters ' heroism . In the end , he designed the characters to look normal while having a " different feeling " from other people . One of the characters that helped drive this style home was Ulala , who was a minor character in Innocent Sin and a main protagonist in Eternal Punishment . The Joker character from Innocent Sin was carried over into Eternal Punishment : the new Joker 's actions were made increasingly murderous , creating a contrast between the two incarnations .
= = = Port and localization = = =
Eternal Punishment was first announced in April at the 2000 Tokyo Game Show . During the show , Atlus held a talk spot hosted by Kouji Okada and Kazuma Kaneko , and featuring an appearance by Elisha La 'Verne , the singer responsible for the game 's theme song . Unlike Innocent Sin , Eternal Punishment was chosen for release in the West . Its localization was significantly different to that done for the original Persona , released in 1996 . Persona received numerous alterations for its overseas release , including altering character and location names . For Eternal Punishment and future titles , Atlus decided to remain as faithful as possible to the Japanese version . According to Atlus , the game marks a " halfway point " in their localization history : while more faithful to the Japanese version than the original Persona , it still needed to take that previous localization into account for the naming of returning characters . Its release in the West was officially announced the following month at that year 's Electronic Entertainment Expo , with Atlus previously teasing it as a " secret RPG " . Eternal Punishment received a limited reprint exclusive to Amazon.com in 2008 to celebrate the release of Shin Megami Tensei : Persona 4 .
Eternal Punishment was remade for the PlayStation Portable . Like the remake of Innocent Sin , it was directed by Shoji Meguro . The original plan at Altus was to have Innocent Sin and Eternal Punishment released as a single game , but both could not fit onto a single UMD . Even before the completion of Innocent Sin 's remake , when there were no plans for a remake of Eternal Punishment , Meguro was keen to make one if the opportunity arose . For the remake , the team had two points of reference : the original version , and the remake of Innocent Sin . The team carried over most of the features implemented Innocent Sin 's remake while further simplifying and streamlining the mechanics , aiming for a " culmination " to Persona 2 as a whole . A large portion of the initial work was playing through the original version . A new opening animation was created by anime production company Madhouse . In addition to the gameplay modifications , a new scenario was added focusing on Tatsuya 's activities before he joined the party . Satomi , after having written the script for a downloadable quest for Innocent Sin 's remake , was asked whether he would like to write a new scenario for the Eternal Punishment 's remake , and accepted willingly . During the writing process , Satomi suggested giving Maya dialogue , but this was vetoed as Persona protagonists were silent without exception . The scenario 's new characters were designed by Masayuki Doi .
The remake was announced in February 2012 by Famitsu . For the packaging , Kaneko was asked to design a new piece of key art . The artwork features Maya and her initial Persona Maia . The remake was not released outside Japan due to " unusual circumstances " . Game Informer included the game on its list of " RPGs Released Late In The PSP 's Life Cycle " , games that were likely never to see a release due to the flagging western PSP market . In response to the decision not to localize the remake , the original version was released on PlayStation Network in 2013 . As part of the announcement , PlayStation Blog released a guide showing which characters had received name changes in the original localization . Intended to be playable on PSP , PlayStation Vita and PlayStation 3 , a fault at release meant only the PS3 version was playable , with Sony creating a fix for the problem after players complained about the fault .
= = = Music = = =
The original music for Eternal Punishment was composed by Toshiko Tasaki , Kenichi Tsuchiya and Masaki Kurokawa , the composers for Innocent Sin . As with Innocent Sin , Tsuchiya found the writing process difficult for a number of reasons . Tsuchiya 's favorite piece for the score , which was carried over from Innocent Sin , was " Maya 's Theme " . The tune has remained popular with the Persona fan base : Tsuchiya has attributed its popularity to the enduring nature of the Persona series as a whole , and compared it to a fashionable item of the time that now requires a " certain courage " to wear in later times . The game 's theme song , " Change your Way " , was written and sung by British singer @-@ songwriter Elisha La 'Verne , and the music was composed by T.Kura. La 'Verne wrote the song with the premise of Eternal Punishment in mind , and so she wanted the song to sound positive . For inspiration , she drew on her experiences of walking round London and seeing homeless people who appeared unable to improve their status : the song 's theme is that there is always a way out of a bad situation and you can change that situation for the better . The title also stemmed from this concept . Together with Innocent Sin , Eternal Punishment is the one of the first entries in the Megami Tensei series to feature voice acting .
For the PSP version , the music was remixed by Toshiki Konishi , Ryota Kozuka and Atsushi Kitajoh , who also worked on the remixed music for Innocent Sin 's port . The team , while remixing the music , did not want to destroy the original 's foundation . The ruling concept , as defined by Konishi , was " not to far and not too close to the original " . For the opening animation , Meguro requested Konishi to personally remix the game 's original opening theme . It was the first time he had been put in charge of an opening theme , and it proved troublesome for him , as he needed to rerecord the vocals and make sure he did justice to the original version . For Kitajoh , one of the most notable arrangements he did was for " Maya 's Theme " : Meguro , who had previously remixed this track for Persona 3 : FES , asked for a remix with a faster tempo and incorporated hard rock elements . The new scenario also used remixed music from the original game instead of new tracks .
= = Reception = =
During its first week of release in Japan , Eternal Punishment reached the top of Japanese sales charts , selling 106 @,@ 563 copies . The following week , the game was still in the top five , selling a further 16 @,@ 333 and bringing sales to 122 @,@ 896 . By the end of the year , it ranked at # 60 in Japan 's best @-@ selling titles of the year , with final sales totaling 200 @,@ 103 units . The PSP remake debuted at # 3 in Japanese sales charts , selling 24 @,@ 547 copies . The following week , it sold a further 4 @,@ 885 , but had dropped to # 20 . By October 2012 , as stated in Index Holding 's announced sales data , the game had sold just 60 @,@ 000 copies , putting it well behind other Atlus titles such as Etrian Odyssey IV : Legends of the Titan for the Nintendo 3DS and Persona 4 Golden for the Vita .
Famitsu praised the improvements made to the gameplay over Innocent Sin , calling the experience " thrilling " and citing the story as generally enjoyable . One comment was that the game 's aesthetics did not deviate much from those of Innocent Sin . The magazine 's later review of the remake was also fairly positive , finding the atmosphere sombre and the battles entertaining , stating that the reviewers appreciated being able to play both parts of Persona 2 on PSP . IGN 's David Smith , while noting the game 's slower pace than other contemporary RPGs , he generally enjoyed the plot 's mature themes and the Rumor and Persona systems . Summing up , he said : " Its unique visual style , its unusual characters , and its absorbing gameplay systems make it a game to kill plenty of hours with this winter . "
RPGFan 's Ken Chu , despite finding the camera 's movement speed awkward and disliking some aspects of the graphics , found the characters " reasonably strong " and generally praised the gameplay . He rounded off the review by saying that , because if its difficulty , it may put off more casual RPG players , but that other players " [ were ] strongly recommended to check it out . " GameSpot 's Jeff Gerstmann generally shared these points of praise with other reviewers , despite finding some aspects of gameplay potentially unbalanced and the graphics unappealing , said that " if [ players ] can manage to get over these flaws , you 'll find an RPG that dares to be different , but not at the sake of an interesting story and exciting gameplay . " A common point of praise with reviewers was the improved localization when compared to that of Persona , although opinions on the voice acting varied and faults in the grammar were mentioned .
= = Legacy = =
Eternal Punishment was enough of a success to firmly establish the Persona franchise in the West , and would also be the last Persona game not to carry the Shin Megami Tensei moniker as of 2015 . The next title in the series , Shin Megami Tensei : Persona 3 for the PlayStation 2 , was released in 2006 . The game , along with Innocent Sin , received a spin @-@ off manga titled Persona : Tsumi to Batsu ( ペルソナ 罪と罰 , Persona : Sin and Punishment ) , featuring new characters from Seven Sisters . Its 2011 reprint featured new content connecting the manga to Innocent Sin . In 2009 , Atlus and Bbmf developed and published a mobile version of the game titled Persona 2 : Eternal Punishment - Infinity Mask ( ペルソナ2 罰 インフィニティマスク , Perusona Tsū : Batsu Infiniti Masuku ) . Similar to the mobile port of Innocent Sin , it incorporates the gameplay functions of the console version while tailoring them to a mobile device . Maya Amano was later featured in an internal tech demo for the graphics engine used in Shin Megami Tensei : Nocturne .
= Abu 'l @-@ Aswar Shavur ibn Fadl =
Abu 'l @-@ Aswar or Abu 'l @-@ Asvar Shavur ibn Fadl ibn Muhammad ibn Shaddad was a member of the Shaddadid dynasty . Between 1049 and 1067 he was the eighth Shaddadid ruler of Arran ( today in western Azerbaijan ) from Ganja . Prior to that , he ruled the city of Dvin ( in what is now Armenia and northeastern Turkey ) from 1022 as an autonomous lord . A capable warrior , and a wise and cunning ruler , Abu 'l @-@ Aswar was engaged in several conflicts with most of his neighbours . During his rule over Dvin , he was mostly involved in the affairs of the Armenian principalities . He collaborated with the Byzantine Empire in its conquest of the last remnants of Bagratid Armenia in 1045 , but when the Byzantines later turned on him , he survived three successive offensives that sought to take Ganja . In 1049 , a revolt in Ganja overthrew his infant great @-@ great @-@ nephew , Anurshirvan . The rebels invited him to take up the family 's emirate , and he moved from Dvin to Ganja . Under his rule , the Shaddadid dynasty reached its zenith . He undertook successful campaigns into Georgia and Shirvan , although the limits of Shaddadid power were exposed by his failure to take over the Emirate of Tiflis and by devastating raids by the Alans . At the same time , his reign witnessed the rapid rise of the Seljuk Empire and the extension of its control over the Transcaucasian principalities . Abu 'l @-@ Aswar became a Seljuk vassal in 1054 / 5 . Although he gained control over the former Armenian capital of Ani through Seljuk patronage in 1065 , this association also paved the way for the dynasty 's decline after his death in November 1067 .
= = Biography = =
= = = Origin = = =
The main historical source on the Shaddadids is the work of the Ottoman historian Münejjim Bashi ( died 1702 ) . Münejjim Bashi considered the family to be of Kurdish origin , a view widely accepted by modern scholars . The family 's founder , Muhammad ibn Shaddad , briefly seized control of Dvin in the early 950s . The family then moved to Ganja , the main Muslim town of Arran , which was seized by Muhammad 's sons Lashkari ( I ) , Marzuban , and Fadl ( I ) c . 970 . The brothers successively ruled the city as emirs after that . Abu 'l @-@ Aswar Shavur was the second son of the youngest of the three brothers , and fourth Shaddadid ruler , Fadl . In his long reign ( 985 – 1031 ) , Fadl expanded the family 's control over much of Arran as well as parts of Armenia , capturing Syunik . Fadl was succeeded as emir at Ganja by his eldest son Musa ( r . 1031 – 1034 ) who was in turn murdered by his own son Abu 'l @-@ Hasan Lashkari ( II ) ( r . 1034 – 1049 ) . Abu 'l @-@ Aswar Shavur 's name is an Arabic – Persian hybrid : " Shavur " is the old Persian name " Shapur " , while his kunya contains the Arabicized form of the Iranian ( possibly Daylamite ) name " Asvar " ( cognate with savar , " horseman , knight " ) .
= = = Lord of Dvin ( 1022 – 49 ) = = =
Münejjim Bashi records that at the time of his death in 1067 , Abu 'l @-@ Aswar 's total reign , both in Ganja and before that " over some territories " , had lasted 46 years . " Some territories " clearly refers to his rule over Dvin , known from other sources , meaning that he became ruler of the city in c . 1022 . The city , although part of the Bagratid Kingdom of Armenia , had been left defenceless after the death of Gagik I of Armenia in 1020 and the dispute of his sons over their inheritance , and suffered a devastating Daylamite raid in 1021 which effectively cut it off from the remainder of the Armenian kingdom . In the aftermath , the city appears to have sought the protection of the Shaddadids , and Abu 'l @-@ Aswar became its ruler . From this base , he pursued a virtually independent course from his brother , and later his nephew , in Ganja , focused more on Armenia than Arran . Abu 'l @-@ Aswar was intimately connected with the Armenian princely houses , having married a sister of David I Anhoghin , King of Tashir . His second son even bore the typically Armenian name of Ashot . Due to his focus on the affairs of his domain , he is not mentioned by Münejjim Bashi until his takeover of the main family seat at Ganja in 1049 . For his activities in the period 1022 – 49 , the main sources derive from his opponents , the Armenians and the Byzantines .
Abu 'l @-@ Aswar is first recorded by the history of Matthew of Edessa in 1040 , when the Armenian nobleman Abirat , who had become embroiled in the dispute between Gagik I 's sons Ashot IV and Hovhannes @-@ Smbat III , came to Dvin . Fearful of the latter 's displeasure , Abirat with 12 @,@ 000 horsemen sought Abu 'l @-@ Aswar 's protection . Abu 'l @-@ Aswar initially welcomed Abirat and gave him a high position , but soon came to mistrust him , and had him killed , whereupon Abirat 's lieutenant Sare departed for Ani with Abirat 's supporters . Despite their kinship , at about the same time Abu 'l @-@ Aswar attacked David of Tashir . The Shaddadid army , numbering an impossible 150 @,@ 000 according to Matthew of Edessa , captured much of Tashir , but David was able to assemble a broad alliance against Abu 'l @-@ Aswar . David himself fielded 10 @,@ 000 troops , Hovhannes @-@ Smbat III of Ani sent 3 @,@ 000 men , the King of Kapan sent 2 @,@ 000 , and even the King of Georgia sent 4 @,@ 000 , while David also secured the public backing of the Catholicos of Albania . As a result , Abu 'l @-@ Aswar was defeated and evicted from Tashir .
Ashot IV and Hovhannes @-@ Smbat III died at almost the same time ( c . 1040 / 41 ) , and Ashot '
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s son Gagik II ( r . 1042 – 1045 ) succeeded them both and began consolidating his position . The chief danger to his throne was the Byzantine Empire , which throughout the early 11th century had been encroaching on the Armenian principalities . Hovhannes @-@ Smbat had even bequeathed his kingdom to the Empire , and after his death , Emperor Michael IV the Paphlagonian ( r . 1034 – 1041 ) sent troops to capture Ani . Gagik managed to repel the attack , and political turmoil in Constantinople gained him a couple of years of reprieve after that , but in 1042 a new emperor , Constantine IX Monomachos ( r . 1042 – 1055 ) , came to the throne determined to secure Byzantine claims in Armenia .
To this end , he contacted Abu 'l @-@ Aswar and called upon him to attack the Armenians from the rear . Abu 'l @-@ Aswar agreed , in exchange for guarantees that he would retain his conquests , a request granted in an imperial chrysobull . Faced with a two @-@ pronged assault , Gagik was forced to visit Constantinople . There he was kept hostage and Ani was surrendered to the Byzantines in 1045 . Notwithstanding his previous promises , immediately after taking possession of Ani , the emperor requested that Abu 'l @-@ Aswar vacate the fortresses he had conquered . When the latter refused , a large army under Michael Iasites and the magistros Constantine the Alan , containing numerous Armenians , marched against Dvin . Abu 'l @-@ Aswar let them approach , and then opened the irrigation canals and flooded the plain around the city . Stuck in the mud , the besiegers were easy prey for the Shaddadid archers , who inflicted huge casualties on the Byzantine force . Constantine IX responded by placing Katakalon Kekaumenos and the parakoimomenos Constantine in charge of Armenia . Instead of attacking Dvin , however , the new Byzantine leadership concentrated its efforts on recovering the forts captured by Abu 'l @-@ Aswar . Surmari , Anberd , and Khor Virap fell to the Byzantine army , but Chelidonion ( modern Yerevan ) resisted until September 1047 , when the outbreak of a rebellion led by Leo Tornikios forced the army 's recall to Constantinople . A peace treaty was hastily concluded , whereby Abu 'l @-@ Aswar agreed not to raid Byzantine territory and to recognize the authority of the emperor .
The successful resistance of Dvin put an end to the Byzantine advance in Armenia , helping preserve the independence of the smaller Armenian realms of Syunik , Tashir and Khachen . Soon after , the regional balance of power was permanently altered with the first large @-@ scale raid of the Seljuk Turks under Qutlumush ibn Arslan Isra 'il and Ibrahim Inal into Byzantine Armenia in 1048 . While the Shaddadids may have been tempted to see in them welcome allies against the Byzantines , they were equally likely to be a threat , as demonstrated by the attack on Ganja by Qutlumush in 1046 / 47 .
Shortly after , in late 1048 or early 1049 — although some authors have suggested a later date , c . 1050 ( A.F. Gfrörer and M.H. Yinanç ) or even c . 1055 / 56 ( E. Honigmann ) — the Byzantines launched another offensive against Dvin under the rhaiktor Nikephoros . According to the contemporary Byzantine historian John Skylitzes , this was because Abu 'l @-@ Aswar ( " Aplesphares " , as the Byzantines called him ) had violated the previous agreement and raided Byzantine lands . The Shaddadid ruler remained ensconced in Dvin , while the Byzantines devastated its environs " as far as the Iron Bridge and Ganja " , forcing Abu 'l @-@ Aswar to renew his previous oath of subservience and hand over his great @-@ nephew Ardashir , the son of Abu 'l @-@ Hasan Lashkari , as a hostage .
= = = Emir of Ganja ( 1049 – 67 ) = = =
In 1049 , Abu 'l @-@ Aswar 's nephew Lashkari , the emir of Ganja , died , after a troubled reign of 15 years . He was succeeded by his infant son Anushirvan , but actual power was in the hands of his chamberlain ( hajib ) , Abu Mansur . After barely two months , a group of elders opposed to the new regime 's policies deposed Abu Mansur while he was at Shamkur and called upon Abu 'l @-@ Aswar to assume control of Ganja as well . Abu 'l @-@ Aswar agreed and abandoned Dvin , which had become too exposed to the Byzantines . The city was left in the hands of a series of governors until 1053 , when he appointed his son Abu Nasr Iskandar as ruler of the city and the surrounding regions . The Shaddadid ruler first set things in order in Shamkur , and then entered Ganja , taking possession " all the lands of Arran and its fortresses " .
At this point in his career , Abu 'l @-@ Aswar had achieved a considerable reputation as a ruler and a warrior ; the Ziyarid prince Keikavus ( r . 1050 – 1087 ) , who later wrote a well @-@ known mirror for princes , the Qabusnameh , even came to Ganja and spent several years at the Shaddadid court to participate in the jihad against the Christians , after having spent eight years at the court of Maw 'dud of Ghazni . According to Keikavus , his host was " a great king , a man firm and clever , [ ... ] just , courageous , eloquent dialectician , of pure faith and far @-@ sighted " . This estimate was shared by the Byzantines , for Skylitzes likewise calls him " as clever a strategist as anybody else , capable of thwarting the enemies ' tactics and policies " , while Münejjim Bashi writes that after his takeover of Ganja , " Abu 'l @-@ Aswar [ ... ] restored the name of the dynasty to life after it had nearly died out . He became strong and the situation of the subjects and the army became orderly . "
According to Münejjim Bashi , in 1053 , Abu 'l @-@ Aswar seized the ( unidentified ) fortress of Basra from the Georgians , and refortified and garrisoned it with many men . In 1054 / 5 , along with many of the neighbouring rulers , he became a vassal of the Seljuk Sultan Toghrul Beg ( r . 1037 – 1063 ) , although at least initially the impact of Seljuk overlordship seems to have been light , as neither Toghrul nor his successor Alp Arslan ( r . 1063 – 1072 ) appeared on Shaddadid coinage at this time . In 1062 , Abu 'l @-@ Aswar received a delegation from the Emirate of Tiflis , an isolated Muslim stronghold within the Christian Georgian kingdoms . Following the death of Emir Ja 'far ibn Ali , the locals had evicted his quarrelling sons , and now asked Abu 'l @-@ Aswar to assume control of the city . The Shaddadid ruler was inclined to accept , but his vizier , Bakhtiyar ibn Salman , dissuaded him by warning that such an action would disperse his limited forces . After Abu 'l @-@ Aswar 's refusal , Tiflis was occupied by the Georgians , until they were evicted by Alp Arslan in 1068 . This event highlighted the limitations of Shaddadid power , which was further demonstrated by an Alan invasion through the Darial Pass in the same year : more than 20 @,@ 000 inhabitants of Arran were carried off as slaves according to Münejjim Bashi 's account . In response to the Alan threat , Abu 'l @-@ Aswar built a wall and moat around the suburb ( rabad ) of his capital Ganja . The gates installed by Abu 'l @-@ Aswar for this new fortification were carried off by the Georgians under Demetrius I in 1139 , and are still preserved at the Gelati Monastery in modern Georgia . In 2012 – 14 , replicas of the original gates were installed in Ganja 's Museum of Archaeology and Ethnography .
At the same time , Abu 'l @-@ Aswar 's relations with his neighbour , Shirvanshah Fariburz I ( r . 1063 – 1069 ) , abruptly deteriorated . The two dynasties were linked by family ties — Fariburz 's predecessor , Sallar ( r . 1050 – 1063 ) , had even been married to a daughter of Abu 'l @-@ Aswar — but now the Shaddadid ruler launched a series of invasions against Shirvan . In spring 1063 , Abu 'l @-@ Aswar captured the Quylamiyan castle , marched on to the capital of Shirvan , Shamakhi , defeated the Shirvanshah 's forces in battle , plundered their camp , and captured his own daughter , her treasure and retinue . He then withdrew to Arran , but in July returned to Shirvan to raid it . In the next year , he again invaded Shirvan and captured a number of fortresses , while the local Kurdish tribes went over to him . After his return to Ganja , a peace treaty was signed with the Shirvanshah in June / July 1064 , whereby Abu 'l @-@ Aswar returned Quylamiyan in exchange for 40 @,@ 000 gold dinars .
In 1064 , the Seljuk sultan Alp Arslan invaded Byzantine Armenia and took Ani . Abu 'l @-@ Aswar himself led raids into the area , capturing the unidentified fortress of Wyjyn ( " one of the best in Armenia " according to Münejjim Bashi ) . Münejjim Bashi further records that Alp Arslan handed over control of Ani to him ; Ibn al @-@ Athir reports the transfer to an unnamed emir , while Vardan Areveltsi records that the fortress was granted only to Abu 'l @-@ Aswar 's son and successor , Fadl . Immediately after his return to Ganja and the dispersal of his army , however , the Alans again crossed the Darial Pass in October 1065 , and , allied with the inhabitants of Shakki , raided Arran . At Shamkur they killed more than 200 volunteers for the jihad , and raided even to the very gates of Ganja itself , before moving on to raid the environs of Barda 'a . Abu 'l @-@ Aswar and his troops preferred to remain within the protection of the walled cities rather than face the raiders in the field , and the Alans reached all the way to the Araxes before turning back north , along with the prisoners they had taken .
Abu 'l @-@ Aswar died on 19 November 1067 , and was buried at the main mosque of Ganja . He was succeeded by his eldest son , Fadl II , whom he had already announced as his heir , and to whom the oath of allegiance ( bay 'ah ) had been taken by the Shaddadid family , the army and the people of Arran . Apart from Fadl , Abu 'l @-@ Aswar had four more sons — Ashot , Iskandar , Manuchihr , and Marzuban — as well as an unnamed daughter , wife of the Shirvanshah Sallar .
Abu 'l @-@ Aswar 's reign represented the zenith of the Shaddadid dynasty , but their fall began almost immediately after his death : the Seljuks strengthened their grip on Arran and the other principalities of the region , and Alp Arslan visited Ganja in person to extract an enormous tribute . Fadl II 's reign was troubled — at one point he was captured and held by the Georgians for eight months — but he managed to capture Derbent . Fadl II was overthrown by his son Fadlun ( Fadl III ) in 1073 , who was in turn deposed in 1075 by the Turkish ghulam Sav Tegin , to whom the Seljuks had assigned control of Arran and Derbent . This ended the family 's rule over Arran , but a junior line , led by Abu 'l @-@ Aswar 's third son Manuchihr , continued to govern Ani as emirs , initially as Seljuk , and later as Georgian , vassals . This last branch of the Shaddadids maintained a precarious independence until the end of their dynasty in c . 1200 .
= Delaware Route 300 =
Delaware Route 300 ( DE 300 ) is an 11 @.@ 83 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 19 @.@ 04 km ) state highway in Kent County , Delaware . The route is a continuation of Maryland Route 300 ( MD 300 ) from the Maryland border near Everetts Corner . It runs in a northeast direction from there to Smyrna , where it ends at U.S. Route 13 ( US 13 ) while concurrent with DE 6 . Along the way , DE 300 passes through rural areas as well as the towns of Kenton and Clayton . The road intersects DE 44 in Everetts Corner , DE 11 southwest of Kenton , DE 42 in Kenton , DE 15 between Kenton and Clayton , and DE 6 in Smyrna . The road was first built as a state highway in the 1920s and 1930s between the Maryland border and Clayton , with the DE 300 designation given to the road by 1936 . The route was extended to its current terminus in the 1950s .
= = Route description = =
DE 300 begins at the Maryland border , where it continues west into that state as MD 300 . From the state line , the route heads east on two @-@ lane undivided Sudlersville Road through agricultural areas and woods with some homes . A short distance after the state line , the road intersects the western terminus of DE 44 in Everetts Corner . DE 300 continues east @-@ northeast , intersecting the northern terminus of DE 11 . The route curves northeast , crossing an abandoned railroad line before entering Kenton . At this point , the road becomes Main Street and passes homes with a few businesses , intersecting DE 42 in the center of town .
Past Kenton , DE 300 continues northeast on Wheatleys Pond Road , passing through more farm fields with some woodland and residences . The road forms a brief concurrency with DE 15 before heading north . DE 300 enters Clayton , running northeast through industrial areas and crossing Norfolk Southern 's Delmarva Secondary railroad line . The route continues past a mix of homes and businesses , heading into Smyrna and intersecting DE 6 . At this point , DE 6 turns northeast and forms a concurrency with DE 300 on Glenwood Avenue . The road widens into a divided highway before it intersects US 13 in a business area . At this point , DE 300 ends and DE 6 turns southeast to form a concurrency with US 13 .
DE 300 has an annual average daily traffic count ranging from a high of 16 @,@ 120 vehicles at the eastern terminus at US 13 to a low of 1 @,@ 756 vehicles at the DE 11 intersection . The portion of DE 300 between the Maryland border and DE 44 is part of the National Highway System .
= = History = =
By 1920 , what is now DE 300 existed as an unimproved county road . The road was completed as a state highway between Kenton and Clayton and was proposed as one west of Kenton four years later . By 1931 , the entire route between Clayton and the Maryland border was completed as a state highway . DE 300 was designated between the Maryland border and an intersection with DE 6 between Clayton and Smyrna by 1936 . By 1954 , DE 300 was extended east to its present terminus at US 13 in Smyrna . By the 1990s , DE 6 was routed along DE 300 in Smyrna , bypassing the downtown area .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Kent County .
= Live and Let Die ( novel ) =
Live and Let Die is the second novel in Ian Fleming 's James Bond series of stories , and is set in London , the US and Jamaica . It was first published in the UK by Jonathan Cape on 5 April 1954 . Fleming wrote the novel at his Goldeneye estate in Jamaica before his first book , Casino Royale , was published ; much of the background came from Fleming 's travel in the US and knowledge of Jamaica .
The story centres on Bond 's pursuit of " Mr Big " , a criminal who has links to the American criminal network , the world of voodoo and SMERSH — an arm of the Russian secret service — all of which are threats to the West . Bond becomes involved in the US through Mr Big 's smuggling of 17th @-@ century gold coins from British territories in the Caribbean . The novel deals with the themes of the ongoing East @-@ West struggle of the Cold War — including British and American relations , Britain 's position in the world , race relations and the struggle between good and evil .
As with Casino Royale , Live and Let Die was broadly well received by the critics . The initial print run of 7 @,@ 500 copies quickly sold out and a second print run was ordered within the year . US sales , when the novel was released there a year later , were much slower . Following a comic @-@ strip adaptation in 1958 – 59 by John McLusky in the Daily Express , the novel was adapted in 1973 as the eighth film in the Eon Productions Bond series and the first to star Roger Moore as Bond . Major plot elements from the novel were also incorporated into the Bond films For Your Eyes Only in 1981 and Licence to Kill in 1989 .
= = Plot = =
The British Secret Service agent James Bond is sent by his superior , M , to New York City to investigate " Mr Big " , real name Buonaparte Ignace Gallia . Bond 's target is an agent of the Soviet counterintelligence organisation SMERSH , and an underworld voodoo leader who is suspected of selling 17th @-@ century gold coins in order to finance Soviet spy operations in America . These gold coins have been turning up in Harlem and Florida and are suspected of being part of a treasure that was buried in Jamaica by the pirate Sir Henry Morgan .
In New York Bond meets up with his counterpart in the CIA , Felix Leiter . The two visit some of Mr Big 's nightclubs in Harlem , but are captured . Bond is interrogated by Mr Big , who uses his fortune @-@ telling employee , Solitaire ( so named because she excludes men from her life ) , to determine if Bond is telling the truth . Solitaire lies to Mr Big , supporting Bond 's cover story . Mr Big decides to release Bond and Leiter , and has his henchman Tee @-@ Hee break one of Bond 's fingers . On leaving , Bond kills Tee @-@ Hee and several more of Mr Big 's men , while Leiter is released with minimal physical harm by a gang member , sympathetic because of a shared appreciation of jazz .
Solitaire later leaves Mr Big and contacts Bond ; the couple travel by train to St. Petersburg , Florida , where they meet Leiter . While Bond and Leiter are scouting one of Mr Big 's warehouses used for storing exotic fish , Solitaire is kidnapped by Mr Big 's minions . Leiter later returns to the warehouse by himself , but is either captured and fed to a shark or tricked into standing on a trap door over the shark tank through which he falls ; he survives , but loses an arm and a leg . Bond finds him in their safe house with a note pinned to his chest " He disagreed with something that ate him " . Bond then investigates the warehouse himself and discovers that Mr Big is smuggling gold by placing it in the bottom of fish tanks holding poisonous tropical fish , which he is bringing into the US . He is attacked in the warehouse by the Robber , another of Mr Big 's men ; during the resultant gunfight , Bond outwits the Robber and causes him to fall into the shark tank .
Bond continues his mission in Jamaica , where he meets a local fisherman , Quarrel , and John Strangways , the head of the local MI6 station . Quarrel gives Bond training in scuba diving in the local waters . Bond swims through shark- and barracuda @-@ infested waters to Mr Big 's island and manages to plant a limpet mine on the hull of his yacht before being captured once again by Mr Big . Bond is reunited with Solitaire ; the following morning Mr Big ties the couple to a line behind his yacht and plans to drag them over the shallow coral reef and into deeper water so that the sharks and barracuda that he attracts to the area with regular feedings will eat them .
Bond and Solitaire are saved when the limpet mine explodes seconds before they are dragged over the reef : though temporarily stunned by the explosion and injured on the coral , they are protected from further harm by the reef and Bond watches as Mr Big , who survived the explosion , is killed by the sharks and barracuda . Quarrel then rescues the couple .
= = Background = =
Between January and March 1952 the journalist Ian Fleming wrote Casino Royale , his first novel , at his Goldeneye estate in Jamaica . Fleming conducted research for Live and Let Die , and completed the novel before Casino Royale was published in January 1953 , four months before his second book was published . Fleming and his wife Ann flew to New York before taking the Silver Meteor train to St. Petersburg in Florida and then flying on to Jamaica . In doing so they followed the same train route Fleming had taken with his friend Ivar Bryce in July 1943 , when Fleming had first visited the island .
Once Fleming and his wife arrived at Goldeneye , he started work on the second Bond novel . In May 1963 he wrote an article for Books and Bookmen magazine describing his approach to writing , in which he said : " I write for about three hours in the morning ... and I do another hour 's work between six and seven in the evening . I never correct anything and I never go back to see what I have written ... By following my formula , you write 2 @,@ 000 words a day . " As he had done with Casino Royale , Fleming showed the manuscript to his friend , the writer William Plomer , who reacted favourably to the story , telling Fleming that " the new book held this reader like a limpet mine & the denouement was shattering " . On a trip to the US in May 1953 Fleming used his five @-@ day travelling time on RMS Queen Elizabeth to correct the proofs of the novel .
Fleming intended the book to have a more serious tone than his debut novel , and he initially considered making the story a meditation on the nature of evil . The novel 's original title , The Undertaker 's Wind , reflects this ; the undertaker 's wind , which was to act as a metaphor for the story , describes one of Jamaica 's winds that " blows all the bad air out of the island " .
The literary critic Daniel Ferreras Savoye considers the titles of Fleming 's novels to have importance individually and collectively ; Live and Let Die , he writes , " turns an expression of collective wisdom , in this case fraternal and positive , into its exact opposite , suggesting a materialistic epistemological outlook , individualistic and lucid " . This is in keeping with the storyline in that Bond brings order without which " the world would quickly turn into the dystopian , barbarian reality feared by [ Thomas ] Hobbes and celebrated by [ Marquis ] de Sade . "
Although Fleming provided no dates within his novels , two writers have identified different timelines based on events and situations within the novel series as a whole . John Griswold and Henry Chancellor — both of whom have written books on behalf of Ian Fleming Publications — put the events of Live and Let Die in 1952 ; Griswold is more precise , and considers the story to have taken place in January and February that year .
= = Development = =
= = = Plot inspirations = = =
Much of the novel draws from Fleming 's personal experiences : the opening of the book , with Bond 's arrival at New York 's Idlewild Airport was inspired by Fleming 's own journeys in 1941 and 1953 , and the warehouse at which Leiter is attacked by a shark was based on a similar building Fleming and his wife had visited in St. Petersburg , Florida on their recent journey . He also used his experiences on his two journeys on the Silver Meteor as background for the route taken by Bond and Solitaire .
Some of Fleming 's friends had their names used in the story , with Ivar Bryce giving his name to the alias used by Bond , while another friend , Tommy Leiter , found his surname being used for Felix Leiter ; Ivar Bryce 's middle name of Felix was used for Leiter 's first name , while John Fox @-@ Strangways saw part of his surname being used for the name of the MI6 station chief in Jamaica . Fleming also used the name of the local Jamaican Rufous @-@ throated solitaire bird as the name of the book 's main female character .
Fleming 's experiences on his first scuba dive with Jacques Cousteau in 1953 provided much of the description of Bond 's swim to Mr Big 's boat , while the concept of limpet @-@ mining is probably based on the wartime activities of the elite 10th Light Flotilla , a unit of Italian navy frogmen . Fleming also used , and extensively quoted , information about voodoo from his friend Patrick Leigh Fermor 's 1950 book The Traveller 's Tree , which had also been partly written at Goldeneye .
Fleming had a long @-@ held interest in pirates , from the novels he read as a child , through to films such as Captain Blood ( 1935 ) with Errol Flynn , which he enjoyed watching . From his Goldeneye home on Jamaica 's northern shore , Fleming had visited Port Royal on the south of the island , which was once the home port of Sir Henry Morgan , all of which stimulated Fleming 's interest . For the background to Mr Big 's treasure island , Fleming appropriated the details of Cabritta Island in Port Maria Bay , which was the true location of Morgan 's hoard .
= = = Characters = = =
Fleming builds the main character in Live and Let Die to make Bond come across as more human than in Casino Royale , becoming " a much warmer , more likeable man from the opening chapter " , according to the American novelist Raymond Benson , who between 1997 and 2002 wrote a series of Bond novels and short stories . Savoye sees the introduction of a vulnerable side to Bond , identifying the agent 's tears towards the end of the story as evidence of this . Similarly , over the course of the book , the American character Leiter develops and also emerges as a more complete and human character and his and Bond 's friendship is evident in the story . Despite the relationship , Leiter is again subordinate to Bond . While in Casino Royale his role was to provide technical support and money to Bond , in Live and Let Die the character is secondary to Bond , and the only time he takes the initiative , he loses an arm and a leg , while Bond wins his own battle with the same opponent . Although Fleming had initially intended to kill Leiter off in the story , his American literary agent protested , and the character was saved .
Quarrel was Fleming 's ideal concept of a black person , and the character was based on his genuine liking for Jamaicans , whom he saw as " full of goodwill and cheerfulness and humour " . The relationship between Bond and Quarrel was based on a mutual assumption of Bond 's superiority . Fleming described the relationship as " that of a Scots laird with his head stalker ; authority was unspoken and there was no room for servility " .
Fleming 's villain was physically abnormal — as many of Bond 's later adversaries were . Mr Big is described as being intellectually brilliant , with a " great football of a head , twice the normal size and very nearly round " and skin which was " grey @-@ black , taut and shining like the face of a week @-@ old corpse in the river " . For Benson , " Mr Big is only an adequate villain " , with little depth to him . According to the literary analyst LeRoy L. Panek , in his examination of 20th century British spy novels , Live and Let Die showed a departure from the " gentleman crook " that showed in much earlier literature , as the intellectual and organisational skills of Mr Big were emphasised , rather than the behavioural . Within Mr Big 's organisation , Panek identifies Mr Big 's henchmen as " merely incompetent gunsels " when compared with Bond , who the latter can eliminate with relative ease .
= = Style = =
Benson analysed Fleming 's writing style and identified what he described as the " Fleming Sweep " : a stylistic point that sweeps the reader from one chapter to another using ' hooks ' at the end of chapters to heighten tension and pull the reader into the next : Benson felt that the " Fleming Sweep never achieves a more engaging rhythm and flow " than in Live and Let Die . The writer and academic Kingsley Amis — who also subsequently wrote a Bond novel — disagrees , and thinks that the story has " less narrative sweep than most " . Parker considers the novel possibly Fleming 's best , as it has a tight plot and is well paced throughout ; he thinks the book " establishes the winning formula " for the stories that follow .
Savoye , comparing the structure of Live and Let Die with Casino Royale , believes that the two books have open narratives which allow Fleming to continue with further books in the series . Savoye finds differences in the structure of the endings , with Live and Let Die 's promise of future sexual encounters between Bond and Solitaire to be more credible than Casino Royale 's ending , in which Bond vows to battle a super @-@ criminal organisation .
Within the novel Fleming uses elements that are " pure Gothic " , according to the essayist Umberto Eco . This includes the description of Mr Big 's death by shark attack , in which Bond watches as " Half of The Big Man 's left arm came out of the water . It had no hand , no wrist , no wrist watch . " Eco considers that this is " not just an example of macabre sarcasm ; it is an emphasis on the essential by the inessential , typical of the école du regard . " Benson considers that Fleming 's experiences as a journalist , and his eye for detail , add to the verisimilitude displayed in the novel .
= = Themes = =
Live and Let Die , like other Bond novels , reflects the changing roles of Britain and America during the 1950s and the perceived threat from the Soviet Union to both nations . Unlike Casino Royale , where Cold War politics revolve around British @-@ Soviet tensions , in Live and Let Die Bond arrives in Harlem to protect America from Soviet agents working through the Black Power movement . In the novel America was the Soviet objective and Bond comments " that New York ' must be the fattest atomic @-@ bomb target on the whole face of the world ' . "
Live and Let Die also gave Fleming a chance to outline his views on what he saw as the increasing American colonisation of Jamaica — a subject that concerned both him and his neighbour Noël Coward . While the American Mr Big was unusual in appropriating an entire island , the rising number of American tourists to the islands was seen by Fleming as a threat to Jamaica ; he wrote in the novel that Bond was " glad to be on his way to the soft green flanks of Jamaica and to leave behind the great hard continent of Eldollarado . "
Bond 's briefing also provides an opportunity for Fleming to offer his views on race through his characters . " M and Bond ... offer their views on the ethnicity of crime , views that reflected ignorance , the inherited racialist prejudices of London clubland " , according to the cultural historian Jeremy Black . Black also points out that " the frequency of his references and his willingness to offer racial stereotypes [ was ] typical of many writers of his age " . The writer Louise Welsh observes that " Live and Let Die taps into the paranoia that some sectors of white society were feeling " as the civil rights movements challenged prejudice and inequality . That insecurity manifested itself in opinions shared by Fleming with the intelligence industry , that the American National Association for the Advancement of Colored People was a communist front . The communist threat was brought home to Jamaica with the 1952 arrest of the Jamaican politician Alexander Bustamante by the American authorities while he was on official business in Puerto Rico , despite the fact that he was avowedly anti @-@ communist . During the course of the year local Jamaican political parties had also expelled members for being communists .
Friendship is another prominent element of Live and Let Die , where the importance of male friends and allies shows through in Bond 's relationships with Leiter and Quarrel . The more complete characters profiles in the novel clearly showed the strong relationship between Bond and Leiter . In turn this provides a strengthened motive for Bond to chase Mr Big as revenge for the shark attack on Leiter .
Live and Let Die continues the theme Fleming examined in Casino Royale , that of evil or , as Fleming 's biographer , Andrew Lycett , describes it , " the banality of evil " . Fleming uses Mr Big as the vehicle to voice opinions on evil , particularly when he tells Bond that " Mister Bond , I suffer from boredom . I am prey to what the early Christians called ' accidie ' , the deadly lethargy that envelops those who are sated . " This allowed Fleming to build the Bond character as a counter to the accidie , in what the writer saw as a Manichaean struggle between good and evil . Benson considers evil as the main theme of the book , and highlights the discussion Bond has with René Mathis of the French Deuxième Bureau in Casino Royale , in which the Frenchman predicts Bond will seek out and kill the evil men of the world .
= = Publication and reception = =
= = = Publication history = = =
Live and Let Die was published in hardback by Jonathan Cape on 5 April 1954 and , as with Casino Royale , Fleming designed the cover , which again featured the title lettering prominently . It had an initial print run of 7 @,@ 500 copies which sold out , and a reprint of 2 @,@ 000 copies was soon undertaken ; by the end of the first year , a total of over 9 @,@ 000 copies had been sold . In May 1954 Live and Let Die was banned in Ireland by the Irish Censorship of Publications Board . Lycett observed that the ban helped the general publicity in other territories . In October 1957 Pan Books issued a paperback version which sold 50 @,@ 000 copies in the first year .
Live and Let Die was published in the US in January 1955 by Macmillan ; there was only one major change in the book , which was that the title of the fifth chapter was changed from " Nigger Heaven " to " Seventh Avenue " . Sales in the US were poor , with only 5 @,@ 000 copies sold in the first year of publication .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Philip Day of The Sunday Times noted " How wincingly well Mr Fleming writes " , while the reviewer for The Times , thought that " [ t ] his is an ingenious affair , full of recondite knowledge and horrific spills and thrills – of slightly sadistic excitements also – though without the simple and bold design of its predecessor " . Elizabeth L Sturch , writing in The Times Literary Supplement , observed that Fleming was " without doubt the most interesting recent recruit among thriller @-@ writers " and that Live and Let Die " fully maintains the promise of ... Casino Royale . " Tempering her praise of the book , Sturch thought that " Mr Fleming works often on the edge of flippancy , rather in the spirit of a highbrow " , although overall she felt that the novel " contains passages which for sheer excitement have not been surpassed by any modern writer of this kind " . The reviewer for The Daily Telegraph felt that " the book is continually exciting , whether it takes us into the heart of Harlem or describes an underwater swim in shark @-@ infested waters ; and it is more entertaining because Mr Fleming does not take it all too seriously himself " . George Malcolm Thompson , writing in The Evening Standard , believed Live and Let Die to be " tense ; ice @-@ cold , sophisticated ; Peter Cheyney for the carriage trade " .
Writing in The New York Times , Anthony Boucher — a critic described by Fleming 's biographer , John Pearson , as " throughout an avid anti @-@ Bond and an anti @-@ Fleming man " — thought that the " high @-@ spots are all effectively described ... but the narrative is loose and jerky " . Boucher concluded that Live and Let Die was " a lurid meller contrived by mixing equal parts of Oppenheim and Spillane " . In June 1955 Raymond Chandler was visiting the poet Stephen Spender in London when he was introduced to Fleming , who subsequently sent Chandler a copy of Live and Let Die . In response , Chandler wrote that Fleming was " probably the most forceful and driving writer of what I suppose still must be called thrillers in England " .
= = Adaptations = =
Live and Let Die was adapted as a daily comic strip which was published in The Daily Express newspaper and syndicated around the world . The adaptation ran from 15 December 1958 to 28 March 1959 . The adaptation was written by Henry Gammidge and illustrated by John McLusky , whose drawings of Bond had a resemblance to Sean Connery , the actor who portrayed Bond in Dr. No three years later .
Before Live and Let Die had been published , the producer Alexander Korda had read a proof copy of the novel . He thought it was the most exciting story he had read for years , but was unsure whether it was suitable for a film . Nevertheless , he wanted to show the story to the directors David Lean and Carol Reed for their impressions , although nothing came of Korda 's initial interest . In 1955 , following the television broadcast of an adaptation of Fleming 's earlier novel Casino Royale , Warner Bros. expressed an interest in Live and Let Die , and offered $ 500 for an option , against $ 5 @,@ 000 if the film was made . Fleming thought the terms insufficient and turned them down .
Live and Let Die , a film based loosely on the novel starring Roger Moore as Bond , was released in 1973 , which played on the cycle of blaxploitation films produced at the time . The film was directed by Guy Hamilton , produced by Albert R. Broccoli and Harry Saltzman , and is the eighth in the Eon Productions Bond series . Some scenes from the novel were depicted in later Bond films , including the sequence of Bond and Solitaire being dragged behind Mr Big 's boat , which was used in the film For Your Eyes Only , while Felix Leiter was not fed to a shark until Licence to Kill , which also faithfully adapts Live and Let Die 's shoot @-@ out in the warehouse .
= Astronomy =
Astronomy , a natural science , is the study of celestial objects ( such as stars , galaxies , planets , moons , asteroids , comets and nebulae ) and processes ( such as supernovae explosions , gamma ray bursts , and cosmic microwave background radiation ) , the physics , chemistry , and evolution of such objects and processes , and more generally all phenomena that originate outside the atmosphere of Earth . A related but distinct subject , physical cosmology , is concerned with studying the Universe as a whole .
Astronomy is one of the oldest sciences . The early civilizations in recorded history , such as the Babylonians , Greeks , Indians , Egyptians , Nubians , Iranians , Chinese , and Maya performed methodical observations of the night sky . Historically , astronomy has included disciplines as diverse as astrometry , celestial navigation , observational astronomy and the making of calendars , but professional astronomy is nowadays often considered to be synonymous with astrophysics .
During the 20th century , the field of professional astronomy split into observational and theoretical branches . Observational astronomy is focused on acquiring data from observations of astronomical objects , which is then analyzed using basic principles of physics . Theoretical astronomy is oriented toward the development of computer or analytical models to describe astronomical objects and phenomena . The two fields complement each other , with theoretical astronomy seeking to explain the observational results and observations being used to confirm theoretical results .
Astronomy is one of the few sciences where amateurs can still play an active role , especially in the discovery and observation of transient phenomena . Amateur astronomers have made and contributed to many important astronomical discoveries .
= = Etymology = =
Astronomy ( from the Greek ἀστρονομία from ἄστρον astron , " star " and -νομία -nomia from νόμος nomos , " law " or " culture " ) means " law of the stars " ( or " culture of the stars " depending on the translation ) . Astronomy should not be confused with astrology , the belief system which claims that human affairs are correlated with the positions of celestial objects . Although the two fields share a common origin , they are now entirely distinct .
= = = Use of terms " astronomy " and " astrophysics " = = =
Generally , either the term " astronomy " or " astrophysics " may be used to refer to this subject . Based on strict dictionary definitions , " astronomy " refers to " the study of objects and matter outside the Earth 's atmosphere and of their physical and chemical properties " and " astrophysics " refers to the branch of astronomy dealing with " the behavior , physical properties , and dynamic processes of celestial objects and phenomena " . In some cases , as in the introduction of the introductory textbook The Physical Universe by Frank Shu , " astronomy " may be used to describe the qualitative study of the subject , whereas " astrophysics " is used to describe the physics @-@ oriented version of the subject . However , since most modern astronomical research deals with subjects related to physics , modern astronomy could actually be called astrophysics . Few fields , such as astrometry , are purely astronomy rather than also astrophysics . Various departments in which scientists carry out research on this subject may use " astronomy " and " astrophysics , " partly depending on whether the department is historically affiliated with a physics department , and many professional astronomers have physics rather than astronomy degrees . One of the leading scientific journals in the field is the European journal named Astronomy and Astrophysics . The leading American journals are The Astrophysical Journal and The Astronomical Journal .
= = History = =
In early times , astronomy only comprised the observation and predictions of the motions of objects visible to the naked eye . In some locations , early cultures assembled massive artifacts that possibly had some astronomical purpose . In addition to their ceremonial uses , these observatories could be employed to determine the seasons , an important factor in knowing when to plant crops , as well as in understanding the length of the year .
Before tools such as the telescope were invented , early study of the stars was conducted using the naked eye . As civilizations developed , most notably in Mesopotamia , Greece , India , China , Egypt , and Central America , astronomical observatories were assembled , and ideas on the nature of the Universe began to be explored . Most of early astronomy actually consisted of mapping the positions of the stars and planets , a science now referred to as astrometry . From these observations , early ideas about the motions of the planets were formed , and the nature of the Sun , Moon and the Earth in the Universe were explored philosophically . The Earth was believed to be the center of the Universe with the Sun , the Moon and the stars rotating around it . This is known as the geocentric model of the Universe , or the Ptolemaic system , named after Ptolemy .
A particularly important early development was the beginning of mathematical and scientific astronomy , which began among the Babylonians , who laid the foundations for the later astronomical traditions that developed in many other civilizations . The Babylonians discovered that lunar eclipses recurred in a repeating cycle known as a saros .
Following the Babylonians , significant advances in astronomy were made in ancient Greece and the Hellenistic world . Greek astronomy is characterized from the start by seeking a rational , physical explanation for celestial phenomena . In the 3rd century BC , Aristarchus of Samos estimated the size and distance of the Moon and Sun , and was the first to propose a heliocentric model of the solar system . In the 2nd century BC , Hipparchus discovered precession , calculated the size and distance of the Moon and invented the earliest known astronomical devices such as the astrolabe . Hipparchus also created a comprehensive catalog of 1020 stars , and most of the constellations of the northern hemisphere derive from Greek astronomy . The Antikythera mechanism ( c . 150 – 80 BC ) was an early analog computer designed to calculate the location of the Sun , Moon , and planets for a given date . Technological artifacts of similar complexity did not reappear until the 14th century , when mechanical astronomical clocks appeared in Europe .
During the Middle Ages , astronomy was mostly stagnant in medieval Europe , at least until the 13th century . However , astronomy flourished in the Islamic world and other parts of the world . This led to the emergence of the first astronomical observatories in the Muslim world by the early 9th century . In 964 , the Andromeda Galaxy , the largest galaxy in the Local Group , was discovered by the Persian astronomer Azophi and first described in his Book of Fixed Stars . The SN 1006 supernova , the brightest apparent magnitude stellar event in recorded history , was observed by the Egyptian Arabic astronomer Ali ibn Ridwan and the Chinese astronomers in 1006 . Some of the prominent Islamic ( mostly Persian and Arab ) astronomers who made significant contributions to the science include Al @-@ Battani , Thebit , Azophi , Albumasar , Biruni , Arzachel , Al @-@ Birjandi , and the astronomers of the Maragheh and Samarkand observatories . Astronomers during that time introduced many Arabic names now used for individual stars . It is also believed that the ruins at Great Zimbabwe and Timbuktu may have housed an astronomical observatory . Europeans had previously believed that there had been no astronomical observation in pre @-@ colonial Middle Ages sub @-@ Saharan Africa but modern discoveries show otherwise .
The Roman Catholic Church gave more financial and social support to the study of astronomy for over six centuries , from the recovery of ancient learning during the late Middle Ages into the Enlightenment , than any other , and , probably , all other , institutions . Among the Church 's motives was finding the date for Easter .
= = = Scientific revolution = = =
During the Renaissance , Nicolaus Copernicus proposed a heliocentric model of the solar system . His work was defended , expanded upon , and corrected by Galileo Galilei and Johannes Kepler . Galileo used telescopes to enhance his observations .
Kepler was the first to devise a system that described correctly the details of the motion of the planets with the Sun at the center . However , Kepler did not succeed in formulating a theory behind the laws he wrote down . It was left to Newton 's invention of celestial dynamics and his law of gravitation to finally explain the motions of the planets . Newton also developed the reflecting telescope .
The English astronomer John Flamsteed catalogued over 3000 stars . Further discoveries paralleled the improvements in the size and quality of the telescope . More extensive star catalogues were produced by Lacaille . The astronomer William Herschel made a detailed catalog of nebulosity and clusters , and in 1781 discovered the planet Uranus , the first new planet found . The distance to a star was first announced in 1838 when the parallax of 61 Cygni was measured by Friedrich Bessel .
During the 18 – 19th centuries , attention to the three body problem by Euler , Clairaut , and D 'Alembert led to more accurate predictions about the motions of the Moon and planets . This work was further refined by Lagrange and Laplace , allowing the masses of the planets and moons to be estimated from their perturbations .
Significant advances in astronomy came about with the introduction of new technology , including the spectroscope and photography . Fraunhofer discovered about 600 bands in the spectrum of the Sun in 1814 – 15 , which , in 1859 , Kirchhoff ascribed to the presence of different elements . Stars were proven to be similar to the Earth 's own Sun , but with a wide range of temperatures , masses , and sizes .
The existence of the Earth 's galaxy , the Milky Way , as a separate group of stars , was only proved in the 20th century , along with the existence of " external " galaxies , and soon after , the expansion of the Universe , seen in the recession of most galaxies from us . Modern astronomy has also discovered many exotic objects such as quasars , pulsars , blazars , and radio galaxies , and has used these observations to develop physical theories which describe some of these objects in terms of equally exotic objects such as black holes and neutron stars . Physical cosmology made huge advances during the 20th century , with the model of the Big Bang heavily supported by the evidence provided by astronomy and physics , such as the cosmic microwave background radiation , Hubble 's law , and cosmological abundances of elements . Space telescopes have enabled measurements in parts of the electromagnetic spectrum normally blocked or blurred by the atmosphere . Recently , in February 2016 , it was revealed that the LIGO project had detected evidence of gravitational waves , in September 2015 .
= = Observational astronomy = =
In astronomy , the main source of information about celestial bodies and other objects is visible light or more generally electromagnetic radiation . Observational astronomy may be divided according to the observed region of the electromagnetic spectrum . Some parts of the spectrum can be observed from the Earth 's surface , while other parts are only observable from either high altitudes or outside the Earth 's atmosphere . Specific information on these subfields is given below .
= = = Radio astronomy = = =
Radio astronomy studies radiation with wavelengths greater than approximately one millimeter . Radio astronomy is different from most other forms of observational astronomy in that the observed radio waves can be treated as waves rather than as discrete photons . Hence , it is relatively easier to measure both the amplitude and phase of radio waves , whereas this is not as easily done at shorter wavelengths .
Although some radio waves are produced by astronomical objects in the form of thermal emission , most of the radio emission that is observed from Earth is the result of synchrotron radiation , which is produced when electrons orbit magnetic fields . Additionally , a number of spectral lines produced by interstellar gas , notably the hydrogen spectral line at 21 cm , are observable at radio wavelengths .
A wide variety of objects are observable at radio wavelengths , including supernovae , interstellar gas , pulsars , and active galactic nuclei .
= = = Infrared astronomy = = =
Infrared astronomy is founded on the detection and analysis of infrared radiation ( wavelengths longer than red light ) . The infrared spectrum is useful for studying objects that are too cold to radiate visible light , such as planets , circumstellar disks or nebulae whose light is blocked by dust . Longer infrared wavelengths can penetrate clouds of dust that block visible light , allowing the observation of young stars in molecular clouds and the cores of galaxies . Observations from the Wide @-@ field Infrared Survey Explorer ( WISE ) have been particularly effective at unveiling numerous Galactic protostars and their host star clusters . With the exception of wavelengths close to visible light , infrared radiation is heavily absorbed by the atmosphere , or masked , as the atmosphere itself produces significant infrared emission . Consequently , infrared observatories have to be located in high , dry places or in space . Some molecules radiate strongly in the infrared . This allows the study of the chemistry of space ; more specifically it can detect water in comets .
= = = Optical astronomy = = =
Historically , optical astronomy , also called visible light astronomy , is the oldest form of astronomy . Optical images of observations were originally drawn by hand . In the late 19th century and most of the 20th century , images were made using photographic equipment . Modern images are made using digital detectors , particularly detectors using charge @-@ coupled devices ( CCDs ) and recorded on modern medium . Although visible light itself extends from approximately 4000 Å to 7000 Å ( 400 nm to 700 nm ) , that same equipment can be used to observe some near @-@ ultraviolet and near @-@ infrared radiation .
= = = Ultraviolet astronomy = = =
Ultraviolet astronomy refers to observations at ultraviolet wavelengths between approximately 100 and 3200 Å ( 10 to 320 nm ) . Light at these wavelengths is absorbed by the Earth 's atmosphere , so observations at these wavelengths must be performed from the upper atmosphere or from space . Ultraviolet astronomy is best suited to the study of thermal radiation and spectral emission lines from hot blue stars ( OB stars ) that are very bright in this wave band . This includes the blue stars in other galaxies , which have been the targets of several ultraviolet surveys . Other objects commonly observed in ultraviolet light include planetary nebulae , supernova remnants , and active galactic nuclei . However , as ultraviolet light is easily absorbed by interstellar dust , an appropriate adjustment of ultraviolet measurements is necessary .
= = = X @-@ ray astronomy = = =
X @-@ ray astronomy is the study of astronomical objects at X @-@ ray wavelengths . Typically , X @-@ ray radiation is produced by synchrotron emission ( the result of electrons orbiting magnetic field lines ) , thermal emission from thin gases above 107 ( 10 million ) kelvins , and thermal emission from thick gases above 107 Kelvin . Since X @-@ rays are absorbed by the Earth 's atmosphere , all X @-@ ray observations must be performed from high @-@ altitude balloons , rockets , or spacecraft . Notable X @-@ ray sources include X @-@ ray binaries , pulsars , supernova remnants , elliptical galaxies , clusters of galaxies , and active galactic nuclei .
= = = Gamma @-@ ray astronomy = = =
Gamma ray astronomy is the study of astronomical objects at the shortest wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum . Gamma rays may be observed directly by satellites such as the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory or by specialized telescopes called atmospheric Cherenkov telescopes . The Cherenkov telescopes do not actually detect the gamma rays directly but instead detect the flashes of visible light produced when gamma rays are absorbed by the Earth 's atmosphere .
Most gamma @-@ ray emitting sources are actually gamma @-@ ray bursts , objects which only produce gamma radiation for a few milliseconds to thousands of seconds before fading away . Only 10 % of gamma @-@ ray sources are non @-@ transient sources . These steady gamma @-@ ray emitters include pulsars , neutron stars , and black hole candidates such as active galactic nuclei .
= = = Fields not based on the electromagnetic spectrum = = =
In addition to electromagnetic radiation , a few other events originating from great distances may be observed from the Earth .
In neutrino astronomy , astronomers use heavily shielded underground facilities such as SAGE , GALLEX , and Kamioka II / III for the detection of neutrinos . The vast majority of the neutrinos streaming through the Earth originate from the Sun , but 24 neutrinos were also detected from supernova 1987A . Cosmic rays , which consist of very high energy particles that can decay or be absorbed when they enter the Earth 's atmosphere , result in a cascade of particles which can be detected by current observatories . Additionally , some future neutrino detectors may also be sensitive to the particles produced when cosmic rays hit the Earth 's atmosphere .
Gravitational @-@ wave astronomy is an emerging new field of astronomy which aims to use gravitational @-@ wave detectors to collect observational data about compact objects . A few observatories have been constructed , such as the Laser Interferometer Gravitational Observatory LIGO . LIGO made its first detection on 14 September 2015 , observing gravitational waves from a binary black hole . A second gravitational wave was detected on 26 December 2015 and additional observations should continue but gravitational waves are extremely difficult to detect .
Combining observations made using electromagnetic radiation , neutrinos or gravitational waves with those made using a different means , which shall give complementary information , is known as multi @-@ messenger astronomy .
= = = Astrometry and celestial mechanics = = =
One of the oldest fields in astronomy , and in all of science , is the measurement of the positions of celestial objects . Historically , accurate knowledge of the positions of the Sun , Moon , planets and stars has been essential in celestial navigation ( the use of celestial objects to guide navigation ) and in the making of calendars .
Careful measurement of the positions of the planets has led to a solid understanding of gravitational perturbations , and an ability to determine past and future positions of the planets with great accuracy , a field known as celestial mechanics . More recently the tracking of near @-@ Earth objects will allow for predictions of close encounters , and potential collisions , with the Earth .
The measurement of stellar parallax of nearby stars provides a fundamental baseline in the cosmic distance ladder that is used to measure the scale of the Universe . Parallax measurements of nearby stars provide an absolute baseline for the properties of more distant stars , as their properties can be compared . Measurements of radial velocity and proper motion plot the movement of these systems through the Milky Way galaxy . Astrometric results are the basis used to calculate the distribution of dark matter in the galaxy .
During the 1990s , the measurement of the stellar wobble of nearby stars was used to detect large extrasolar planets orbiting nearby stars .
= = Theoretical astronomy = =
Theoretical astronomers use several tools including analytical models ( for example , polytropes to approximate the behaviors of a star ) and computational numerical simulations . Each has some advantages . Analytical models of a process are generally better for giving insight into the heart of what is going on . Numerical models reveal the existence of phenomena and effects otherwise unobserved .
Theorists in astronomy endeavor to create theoretical models and from the results predict observational consequences of those models . The observation of a phenomenon predicted by a model allows astronomers to select between several alternate or conflicting models .
Theorists also try to generate or modify models to take into account new data . In the case of an inconsistency , the general tendency is to try to make minimal modifications to the model so that it produces results that fit the data . In some cases , a large amount of inconsistent data over time may lead to total abandonment of a model .
Topics studied by theoretical astronomers include : stellar dynamics and evolution ; galaxy formation ; large @-@ scale structure of matter in the Universe ; origin of cosmic rays ; general relativity and physical cosmology , including string cosmology and astroparticle physics . Astrophysical relativity serves as a tool to gauge the properties of large scale structures for which gravitation plays a significant role in physical phenomena investigated and as the basis for black hole ( astro ) physics and the study of gravitational waves .
Some widely accepted and studied theories and models in astronomy , now included in the Lambda @-@ CDM model are the Big Bang , Cosmic inflation , dark matter , and fundamental theories of physics .
A few examples of this process :
Dark matter and dark energy are the current leading topics in astronomy , as their discovery and controversy originated during the study of the galaxies .
= = Specific subfields = =
= = = Solar astronomy = = =
At a distance of about eight light @-@ minutes , the most frequently studied star is the Sun , a typical main @-@ sequence dwarf star of stellar class G2 V , and about 4 @.@ 6 billion years ( Gyr ) old . The Sun is not considered a variable star , but it does undergo periodic changes in activity known as the sunspot cycle . This is an 11 @-@ year fluctuation in sunspot numbers . Sunspots are regions of lower @-@ than- average temperatures that are associated with intense magnetic activity .
The Sun has steadily increased in luminosity over the course of its life , increasing by 40 % since it first became a main @-@ sequence star . The Sun has also undergone periodic changes in luminosity that can have a significant impact on the Earth . The Maunder minimum , for example , is believed to have caused the Little Ice Age phenomenon during the Middle Ages .
The visible outer surface of the Sun is called the photosphere . Above this layer is a thin region known as the chromosphere . This is surrounded by a transition region of rapidly increasing temperatures , and finally by the super @-@ heated corona .
At the center of the Sun is the core region , a volume of sufficient temperature and pressure for nuclear fusion to occur . Above the core is the radiation zone , where the plasma conveys the energy flux by means of radiation . Above that are the outer layers that form a convection zone where the gas material transports energy primarily through physical displacement of the gas . It is believed that this convection zone creates the magnetic activity that generates sunspots .
A solar wind of plasma particles constantly streams outward from the Sun until , at the outermost limit of the Solar System , it reaches the heliopause . This solar wind interacts with the magnetosphere of the Earth to create the Van Allen radiation belts about the Earth , as well as the aurora where the lines of the Earth 's magnetic field descend into the atmosphere .
= = = Planetary science = = =
Planetary science is the study of the assemblage of planets , moons , dwarf planets , comets , asteroids , and other bodies orbiting the Sun , as well as extrasolar planets . The Solar System has been relatively well @-@ studied , initially through telescopes and then later by spacecraft . This has provided a good overall understanding of the formation and evolution of this planetary system , although many new discoveries are still being made .
The Solar System is subdivided into the inner planets , the asteroid belt , and the outer planets . The inner terrestrial planets consist of Mercury , Venus , Earth , and Mars . The outer gas giant planets are Jupiter , Saturn , Uranus , and Neptune . Beyond Neptune lies the Kuiper Belt , and finally the Oort Cloud , which may extend as far as a light @-@ year .
The planets were formed in the protoplanetary disk that surrounded the early Sun . Through a process that included gravitational attraction , collision , and accretion , the disk formed clumps of matter that , with time , became protoplanets . The radiation pressure of the solar wind then expelled most of the unaccreted matter , and only those planets with sufficient mass retained their gaseous atmosphere . The planets continued to sweep up , or eject , the remaining matter during a period of intense bombardment , evidenced by the many impact craters on the Moon . During this period , some of the protoplanets may have collided , the leading hypothesis for how the Moon was formed .
Once a planet reaches sufficient mass , the materials of different densities segregate within , during planetary differentiation . This process can form a stony or metallic core , surrounded by a mantle and an outer surface . The core may include solid and liquid regions , and some planetary cores generate their own magnetic field , which can protect their atmospheres from solar wind stripping .
A planet or moon 's interior heat is produced from the collisions that created the body , radioactive materials ( e.g. uranium , thorium , and 26Al ) , or tidal heating . Some planets and moons accumulate enough heat to drive geologic processes such as volcanism and tectonics . Those that accumulate or retain an atmosphere can also undergo surface erosion from wind or water . Smaller bodies , without tidal heating , cool more quickly ; and their geological activity ceases with the exception of impact cratering .
= = = Stellar astronomy = = =
The study of stars and stellar evolution is fundamental to our understanding of the Universe . The astrophysics of stars has been determined through observation and theoretical understanding ; and from computer simulations of the interior . Star formation occurs in dense regions of dust and gas , known as giant molecular clouds . When destabilized , cloud fragments can collapse under the influence of gravity , to form a protostar . A sufficiently dense , and hot , core region will trigger nuclear fusion , thus creating a main @-@ sequence star .
Almost all elements heavier than hydrogen and helium were created inside the cores of stars .
The characteristics of the resulting star depend primarily upon its starting mass . The more massive the star , the greater its luminosity , and the more rapidly it expends the hydrogen fuel in its core . Over time , this hydrogen fuel is completely converted into helium , and the star begins to evolve . The fusion of helium requires a higher core temperature , so that the star both expands in size , and increases in core density . The resulting red giant enjoys a brief life span , before the helium fuel is in turn consumed . Very massive stars can also undergo a series of decreasing evolutionary phases , as they fuse increasingly heavier elements .
The final fate of the star depends on its mass , with stars of mass greater than about eight times the Sun becoming core collapse supernovae ; while smaller stars form a white dwarf as it ejects matter that forms a planetary nebulae . The remnant of a supernova is a dense neutron star , or , if the stellar mass was at least three times that of the Sun , a black hole . Close binary stars can follow more complex evolutionary paths , such as mass transfer onto a white dwarf companion that can potentially cause a supernova . Planetary nebulae and supernovae are necessary for the distribution of metals to the interstellar medium ; without them , all new stars ( and their planetary systems ) would be formed from hydrogen and helium alone .
= = = Galactic astronomy = = =
Our solar system orbits within the Milky Way , a barred spiral galaxy that is a prominent member of the Local Group of galaxies . It is a rotating mass of gas , dust , stars and other objects , held together by mutual gravitational attraction . As the Earth is located within the dusty outer arms , there are large portions of the Milky Way that are obscured from view .
In the center of the Milky Way is the core , a bar @-@ shaped bulge with what is believed to be a supermassive black hole at the center . This is surrounded by four primary arms that spiral from the core . This is a region of active star formation that contains many younger , population I stars . The disk is surrounded by a spheroid halo of older , population II stars , as well as relatively dense concentrations of stars known as globular clusters .
Between the stars lies the interstellar medium , a region of sparse matter . In the densest regions , molecular clouds of molecular hydrogen and other elements create star @-@ forming regions . These begin as a compact pre @-@ stellar core or dark nebulae , which concentrate and collapse ( in volumes determined by the Jeans length ) to form compact protostars .
As the more massive stars appear , they transform the cloud into an H II region ( ionized atomic hydrogen ) of glowing gas and plasma . The stellar wind and supernova explosions from these stars eventually cause the cloud to disperse , often leaving behind one or more young open clusters of stars . These clusters gradually disperse , and the stars join the population of the Milky Way .
Kinematic studies of matter in the Milky Way and other galaxies have demonstrated that there is more mass than can be accounted for by visible matter . A dark matter halo appears to dominate the mass , although the nature of this dark matter remains undetermined .
= = = Extragalactic astronomy = = =
The study of objects outside our galaxy is a branch of astronomy concerned with the formation and evolution of Galaxies ; their morphology ( description ) and classification ; and the observation of active galaxies , and at a larger scale , the groups and clusters of galaxies . Finally , the latter is important for the understanding of the large @-@ scale structure of the cosmos .
Most galaxies are organized into distinct shapes that allow for classification schemes . They are commonly divided into spiral , elliptical and Irregular galaxies .
As the name suggests , an elliptical galaxy has the cross @-@ sectional shape of an ellipse . The stars move along random orbits with no preferred direction . These galaxies contain little or no interstellar dust ; few star @-@ forming regions ; and generally older stars . Elliptical galaxies are more commonly found at the core of galactic clusters , and may have been formed through mergers of large galaxies .
A spiral galaxy is organized into a flat , rotating disk , usually with a prominent bulge or bar at the center , and trailing bright arms that spiral outward . The arms are dusty regions of star formation where massive young stars produce a blue tint . Spiral galaxies are typically surrounded by a halo of older stars . Both the Milky Way and our nearest galaxy neighbor , the Andromeda Galaxy , are spiral galaxies .
Irregular galaxies are chaotic in appearance , and are neither spiral nor elliptical . About a quarter of all galaxies are irregular , and the peculiar shapes of such galaxies may be the result of gravitational interaction .
An active galaxy is a formation that emits a significant amount of its energy from a source other than its stars , dust and gas . It is powered by a compact region at the core , thought to be a super @-@ massive black hole that is emitting radiation from in @-@ falling material .
A radio galaxy is an active galaxy that is very luminous in the radio portion of the spectrum , and is emitting immense plumes or lobes of gas . Active galaxies that emit shorter frequency , high @-@ energy radiation include Seyfert galaxies , Quasars , and Blazars . Quasars are believed to be the most consistently luminous objects in the known universe .
The large @-@ scale structure of the cosmos is represented by groups and clusters of galaxies . This structure is organized into a hierarchy of groupings , with the largest being the superclusters . The collective matter is formed into filaments and walls , leaving large voids between .
= = = Cosmology = = =
Cosmology ( from the Greek κόσμος ( kosmos ) " world , universe " and λόγος ( logos ) " word , study " or literally " logic " ) could be considered the study of the Universe as a whole .
Observations of the large @-@ scale structure of the Universe , a branch known as physical cosmology , have provided a deep understanding of the formation and evolution of the cosmos . Fundamental to modern cosmology is the well @-@ accepted theory of the big bang , wherein our Universe began at a single point in time , and thereafter expanded over the course of 13 @.@ 8 billion years to its present condition . The concept of the big bang can be traced back to the discovery of the microwave background radiation in 1965 .
In the course of this expansion , the Universe underwent several evolutionary stages . In the very early moments , it is theorized that the Universe experienced a very rapid cosmic inflation , which homogenized the starting conditions . Thereafter , nucleosynthesis produced the elemental abundance of the early Universe . ( See also nucleocosmochronology . )
When the first neutral atoms formed from a sea of primordial ions , space became transparent to radiation , releasing the energy viewed today as the microwave background radiation . The expanding Universe then underwent a Dark Age due to the lack of stellar energy sources .
A hierarchical structure of matter began to form from minute variations in the mass density of space . Matter accumulated in the densest regions , forming clouds of gas and the earliest stars , the Population III stars . These massive stars triggered the reionization process and are believed to have created many of the heavy elements in the early Universe , which , through nuclear decay , create lighter elements , allowing the cycle of nucleosynthesis to continue longer .
Gravitational aggregations clustered into filaments , leaving voids in the gaps . Gradually , organizations of gas and dust merged to form the first primitive galaxies . Over time , these pulled in more matter , and were often organized into groups and clusters of galaxies , then into larger @-@ scale superclusters .
Fundamental to the structure of the Universe is the existence of dark matter and dark energy . These are now thought to be its dominant components , forming 96 % of the mass of the Universe . For this reason , much effort is expended in trying to understand the physics of these components .
= = Interdisciplinary studies = =
Astronomy and astrophysics have developed significant interdisciplinary links with other major scientific fields . Archaeoastronomy is the study of ancient or traditional astronomies in their cultural context , utilizing archaeological and anthropological evidence . Astrobiology is the study of the advent and evolution of biological systems in the Universe , with particular emphasis on the possibility of non @-@ terrestrial life . Astrostatistics is the application of statistics to astrophysics to the analysis of vast amount of observational astrophysical data .
The study of chemicals found in space , including their formation , interaction and destruction , is called astrochemistry . These substances are usually found in molecular clouds , although they may also appear in low temperature stars , brown dwarfs and planets . Cosmochemistry is the study of the chemicals found within the Solar System , including the origins of the elements and variations in the isotope ratios . Both of these fields represent an overlap of the disciplines of astronomy and chemistry . As " forensic astronomy " , finally , methods from astronomy have been used to solve problems of law and history .
= = Amateur astronomy = =
Astronomy is one of the sciences to which amateurs can contribute the most .
Collectively , amateur astronomers observe a variety of celestial objects and phenomena sometimes with equipment that they build themselves . Common targets of amateur astronomers include the Moon , planets , stars , comets , meteor showers , and a variety of deep @-@ sky objects such as star clusters , galaxies , and nebulae . Astronomy clubs are located throughout the world and many have programs to help their members set up and complete observational programs including those to observe all the objects in the Messier ( 110 objects ) or Herschel 400 catalogues of points of interest in the night sky . One branch of amateur astronomy , amateur astrophotography , involves the taking of photos of the night sky . Many amateurs like to specialize in the observation of particular objects , types of objects , or types of events which interest them .
Most amateurs work at visible wavelengths , but a small minority experiment with wavelengths outside the visible spectrum . This includes the use of infrared filters on conventional telescopes , and also the use of radio telescopes . The pioneer of amateur radio astronomy was Karl Jansky , who started observing the sky at radio wavelengths in the 1930s . A number of amateur astronomers use either homemade telescopes or use radio telescopes which were originally built for astronomy research but which are now available to amateurs ( e.g. the One @-@ Mile Telescope ) .
Amateur astronomers continue to make scientific contributions to the field of astronomy and it is one of the few scientific disciplines where amateurs can still make significant contributions . Amateurs can make occultation measurements that are used to refine the orbits of minor planets . They can also discover comets , and perform regular observations of variable stars . Improvements in digital technology have allowed amateurs to make impressive advances in the field of astrophotography .
= = Unsolved problems in astronomy = =
Although the scientific discipline of astronomy has made tremendous strides in understanding the nature of the Universe and its contents , there remain some important unanswered questions . Answers to these may require the construction of new ground- and space @-@ based instruments , and possibly new developments in theoretical and experimental physics .
What is the origin of the stellar mass spectrum ? That is , why do astronomers observe the same distribution of stellar masses – the initial mass function – apparently regardless of the initial conditions ? A deeper understanding of the formation of stars and planets is needed .
Is there other life in the Universe ? Especially , is there other intelligent life ? If so , what is the explanation for the Fermi paradox ? The existence of life elsewhere has important scientific and philosophical implications . Is the Solar System normal or atypical ?
What caused the Universe to form ? Is the premise of the Fine @-@ tuned universe hypothesis correct ? If so , could this be the result of cosmological natural selection ? What caused the cosmic inflation that produced our homogeneous universe ? Why is there a baryon asymmetry ?
What is the nature of dark matter and dark energy ? These dominate the evolution and fate of the cosmos , yet their true nature remains unknown . What will be the ultimate fate of the universe ?
How did the first galaxies form ? How did supermassive black holes form ?
What is creating the ultra @-@ high @-@ energy cosmic rays ?
Why is the abundance of lithium in the cosmos four times lower than predicted by the standard Big Bang model ?
What really happens beyond the event horizon ?
= Harris Theater ( Chicago ) =
The Joan W. and Irving B. Harris Theater for Music and Dance ( also known as the Harris Theater for Music and Dance , the Harris & Harris Theater or , most commonly , the Harris Theater ) is a 1 @,@ 525 @-@ seat theater for the performing arts located along the northern edge of Millennium Park on Randolph Street in the Loop community area of Chicago in Cook County , Illinois , US . The theater , which is largely underground due to Grant Park @-@ related height restrictions , was named for its primary benefactors , Joan and Irving Harris . It serves as the park 's indoor performing venue , a complement to Jay Pritzker Pavilion , which hosts the park 's outdoor performances .
Constructed in 2002 – 2003 , it provides a venue for small and medium @-@ sized music and dance groups , which had previously been without a permanent home and were underserved by the city 's performing venue options . Among the regularly featured local groups are Joffrey Ballet , Hubbard Street Dance Chicago and Chicago Opera Theater . It provides subsidized rental , technical expertise , and marketing support for the companies using it , and turned a profit in its fourth fiscal year .
The Harris Theater has hosted notable national and international performers , such as the New York City Ballet 's first visit to Chicago in over 25 years ( in 2006 ) . The theater began offering subscription series of traveling performers in its 2008 – 2009 fifth anniversary season . Performances through this series have included the San Francisco Ballet , Mikhail Baryshnikov , and Stephen Sondheim .
The theater has been credited as contributing to the performing arts renaissance in Chicago , and has been favorably reviewed for its acoustics , sightlines , proscenium and for providing a home base for numerous performing organizations . Although it is seen as a high caliber venue for its music audiences , the theater is regarded as less than ideal for jazz groups because it is more expensive and larger than most places where jazz is performed . The design has been criticized for traffic flow problems , with an elevator bottleneck . However , the theater 's prominent location and its underground design to preserve Millennium Park have been praised . Although there were complaints about high priced events in its early years , discounted ticket programs were introduced in the 2009 – 10 season .
= = Background and construction = =
The Harris Theater was built to fill the need for a modern performance venue in downtown Chicago , which would be a new home for previously itinerant performing arts companies . Such troupes were never sure from year to year where they would be able to perform ; for example , the Chicago Tribune reported in 1993 that six dance companies lost their performance space during renovations at the Civic Opera House . The need for a new theater was identified by the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation in a 1990 study ; the new venue had to be flexible , affordable , and technically and physically " state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art " . Once the need was identified , the theater was the culmination of " years of planning by Chicago 's philanthropic , arts , business and government leaders " including groups like Music of the Baroque , which now perform there regularly . The plan also extended Chicago 's performing arts district , which had been predominantly west of Michigan Avenue , east towards Lake Michigan , and linked it more with the Museum Campus and Michigan Avenue cultural institutions .
The Harris Theater is in Grant Park , which lies between Lake Michigan to the east and the Loop to the west , and has been Chicago 's front yard since the mid @-@ 19th century . Grant Park 's northwest corner , north of Monroe Street and the Art Institute , east of Michigan Avenue , south of Randolph Street , and west of Columbus Drive , had been Illinois Central rail yards and parking lots until 1997 , when it was made available for development by the city as Millennium Park . As of 2007 , Millennium Park trails only Navy Pier as a Chicago tourist attraction .
In 1836 , a year before Chicago was incorporated , the Board of Canal Commissioners held public auctions for the city 's first lots . Foresighted citizens , who wanted the lakefront kept as public open space , convinced the commissioners to designate the land east of Michigan Avenue between Randolph Street and Park Row ( 11th Street ) " Public Ground — A Common to Remain Forever Open , Clear and Free of Any Buildings , or Other Obstruction , whatever . " Grant Park has been " forever open , clear and free " since , protected by legislation that has been affirmed by four previous Illinois Supreme Court rulings . In 1839 , United States Secretary of War Joel Roberts Poinsett declared the land between Randolph Street and Madison Street east of Michigan Avenue " Public Ground forever to remain vacant of buildings " .
Aaron Montgomery Ward , who is known both as the inventor of mail order and the protector of Grant Park , twice sued the city of Chicago to force it to remove buildings and structures from Grant Park and to keep it from building new ones . In 1890 , arguing that Michigan Avenue property owners held easements on the park land , Ward commenced legal actions to keep the park free of new buildings . In 1900 , the Illinois Supreme Court concluded that all landfill east of Michigan Avenue was subject to dedications and easements . In 1909 , when he sought to prevent the construction of the Field Museum of Natural History in the center of the park , the courts affirmed his arguments . As a result , the city has what are termed the Montgomery Ward height restrictions on buildings and structures in Grant Park ; structures over 40 feet ( 12 m ) tall are not allowed in the park , with the exception of bandshells . Therefore , the theater is mostly underground , while the adjacent Jay Pritzker Pavilion was described as a work of art to dodge the height restriction .
The theater is named for its primary benefactors , Joan and Irving Harris , who gave a gift of $ 15 million gift ( $ 19 @.@ 7 million in current dollars ) and a $ 24 million ( $ 31 @.@ 6 million ) construction loan to the Music and Dance Theater Chicago ; this was believed to be largest single monetary commitment ever to a performing arts organization in Chicago . The Harrises had a long history of philanthropy benefitting the arts .
The Harris Theater was designed by Thomas Beeby of Hammond Beeby Rupert Ainge Architects ; his previous work in Chicago includes the Harold Washington Library Center and the Art Institute of Chicago Building 's Rice Wing . Thornton Tomasetti was the structural engineer . The building is located on ground leased from the City of Chicago , and cost $ 52 @.@ 7 million ( $ 67 @.@ 8 million in current dollars ) . Construction began on February 1 , 2002 , and the theater opened for use on November 8 , 2003 .
= = Architecture = =
The above @-@ ground entrance to the Harris Theater is a glass @-@ walled lobby at 205 E. Randolph Street , which spans several metallic and neon floors in what the Chicago Tribune 's Pulitzer Prize @-@ winning architecture critic Blair Kamin describes as " a multistory shaft of space that explodes downward from street level " . The theater and adjacent Millennium Park Garage are located mostly underground , with a passage connecting them . Kamin also notes that the theater 's underground design and the Millennium Park Garage entrance causes many theater goers to miss the spatial grandeur of the lobby , and has led to complaints about the time it takes to descend the many stairs to the theater . The theater has a rooftop terrace that is available for private events .
The Harris Theater is located beneath and directly north of the Jay Pritzker Pavilion , Millennium Park 's outdoor performance venue . The theater and pavilion were built adjacent to each other at about the same time , with the benefit that they share a loading dock , rehearsal rooms and other backstage facilities . The entire auditorium is in a cube 100 feet ( 30 @.@ 5 m ) on a side , so all the seats are relatively close to the stage . The seating capacity is 1525 , with approximately 600 main floor seats , 500 raised orchestra level seats and 400 balcony seats . The modern orchestra pit , which can be closed , accommodates 45 musicians . The seats are maplewood ; carpeting and walls have a muted color scheme — blacks , charcoals and grays . Kamin felt the modest palette is appropriate for a modest structure that attempts to complement the exuberant neighboring pavilion .
The proscenium is 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) high and is flanked by 75 @-@ foot ( 22 @.@ 9 m ) steel reflector towers to help focus sound . The stage is both 45 feet ( 13 @.@ 7 m ) wide and deep , with 75 feet ( 22 @.@ 9 m ) of flyspace above . The offstage right distance is 26 feet ( 7 @.@ 9 m ) , while offstage left is 27 feet 10 inches ( 8 @.@ 5 m ) . The theater 's sightlines and acoustics provide " an unusually modern and stainless @-@ steel bolstered environment " for experiencing performances according to the Centerstage City Guide .
The original design planned for most theater patrons to enter the theater from the underground parking garage , but the success of Millennium Park and neighboring businesses has caused most attendees to enter at street level . The design 's limited elevator service has caused bottlenecks for street level patrons . Additional elevators and escalators , which would require special dedicated funding , have been considered . The initial construction leaked and did not protect some non @-@ public spaces from water exposure ; this cost Chicago taxpayers $ 1 million for repairs in 2008 .
= = Performers and Events = =
The Harris Theater is a privately owned institution serving mostly local mid @-@ size non @-@ profit arts companies and projects , including those , like Old Town School of Folk Music , which sponsor touring artists . The theater provides subsidized rental , technical expertise , and marketing support , and underwrites over two @-@ thirds of the daily usage costs for its non @-@ profit users while providing marketing , box office , front of house , and technical services at no extra charge . As of 2008 , the theater was used on average 262 days a year for 112 different performances with audiences at about 65 percent of capacity .
= = = Local performers = = =
When the Harris Theater opened , it served as the home venue for a dozen founding music and dance groups : Ballet Chicago , Chicago Opera Theater , Chicago Sinfonietta , The Dance Center of Columbia College Chicago , Hubbard Street Dance Chicago , Joffrey Ballet of Chicago , Lyric Opera Center for American Artists , Mexican Fine Arts Center Museum , Muntu Dance Theatre of Chicago , Music of the Baroque , Old Town School of Folk Music , and Performing Arts Chicago . After the 2003 opening , small dance companies aspired to perform in the state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art theater ; one such troupe , Luna Negra Dance Theater , achieved its goal and performed there in 2006 and 2007 .
In 2010 , Frommer 's noted that the major local dance troupes performing regularly at the theater included Columbia College Chicago , Hubbard Street , Joffrey , Muntu , and River North Dance Company . The 2009 edition of Fodor 's cited Music of the Baroque 's seven performances at the Harris Theater each year . The theater also hosts Grant Park Music Festival events that include a few free seats . According to the 2005 Frommer 's Irreverent Guide to Chicago , by providing a regular performing venue , the Harris Theater has also " raised the profile of local dance groups " in Chicago .
The attempt to facilitate modest @-@ sized performance groups has been recognized by philanthropists ; both the Chicago @-@ based John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation and the New York @-@ based Andrew W. Mellon Foundation have provided grants to the theater . For example , in 2009 the MacArthur Foundation gave the theater $ 150 @,@ 000 over three years " in support of a subsidized usage program for smaller arts organizations " .
= = = Visiting performers = = =
In the fall of the 2006 – 07 season , the Harris Theater hosted the New York City Ballet for five days of performances that marked the company 's first visit to Chicago in over 25 years . This presentation grossed $ 2 @.@ 3 million and enticed 600 new donors to support the theater , which netted $ 800 @,@ 000 for operations and rental subsidies for its resident troupes . This contributed to the theater 's first year of profitability in fiscal year 2007 ; it had net income of $ 1 @.@ 3 million on revenues of $ 8 @.@ 2 million . In July 2007 , Mikhail Baryshnikov made his first visit to Chicago as a performer in seven years , with two shows at the theater .
The theater began to present its own music series of touring groups in its fifth season ( 2008 – 09 ) , which put it in competition with the Chicago Symphony Orchestra 's " Symphony Center Presents " series and Chicago 's Auditorium Theatre . The " Harris Theater Presents " series was in addition to programs by its numerous resident performing arts groups . The theater 's music series for the 2008 – 09 season included a five @-@ concert classical music series and a three @-@ performance dance series by the San Francisco Ballet and the Lar Lubovitch Dance Company . The San Francisco Ballet is America 's oldest professional ballet troupe , and was on a widely publicized four @-@ city 75th anniversary celebration tour . Many of the performers for the Harris Theater 's first subscription series were internationally acclaimed artists .
The lineup for the Harris Theater 's 2009 – 10 second subscription season included Mikhail Baryshnikov , Lang Lang , Kathleen Battle and Stephen Sondheim . Harris theater has been involved in hosting the Chicago International Film Festival . Prior to 2008 , the Chicago Theatre had hosted the annual opening @-@ night film of the festival , but that year the festivities were moved to the Harris Theater .
The theater has hosted several successful jazz performances , including Nicholas Payton 's comeback and the first indoor Chicago show by the Portuguese fado singer Mariza . In 2005 , the theater hosted the 14th annual Jazz Dance World Congress , and the following year it hosted " Imagine Tap ! " , a show that featured an array of tap dance styles .
= = Reception = =
The Harris Theater has been the subject of numerous reviews , which are probably best summed up by the Chicago Tribune 's architecture critic Blair Kamin , who describes it as a " solid , though not unqualified , success " , while giving it a two star rating ( out of a possible four ) . Among the foibles that he notes were the off @-@ putting industrial aesthetics , mundane concrete @-@ framing , under @-@ refined modest palette and blunt entrance . However , Kamin praises the spacious lobby and the theater 's underground design as a concession to preserve the green lakefront .
Kamin also praises the design of the proscenium and the venue 's sightlines and acoustics , which also drew praise from Tribune journalist Howard Reich and Chicago Sun @-@ Times journalist Wynne Delacoma . Reich , who notes that the theater has a wonderful stage , describes the theater as a blessing for both audiences and arts organizations because its high profile confers " instant prominence and credibility to musicians and presenters " . Reich feels it is a less than perfect jazz music venue because of its " cavernous " size and high rental cost ( $ 4 @,@ 750 in 2008 , plus costs for stagehands ) . Nonetheless , Delacoma describes it as " an astonishingly beautiful place to listen to music . Its acoustics cradle sound like a velvet @-@ lined jewel box . "
Tribune journalist Chris Jones credits the theater 's founding as part of Chicago 's performing arts renaissance , and praises it as " the only major Chicago arts building with a long @-@ term commitment to equal partnerships " with its performance groups . Another Tribune journalist , John von Rhein , describes the theater as a boon to the performing groups that it serves , and praises it for being state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art . He also notes that because of the theater 's success it is able " to present an increasing number of risky , sometimes boundary @-@ busting events the likes of which audiences will hear nowhere else in the area " .
However , von Rhein notes that the theater 's size poses a challenge to the performers attempting to fill its seats , and feels that it overemphasizes high @-@ priced events . In 2009 – 2010 , the theater introduced a pair of discounted ticket programs : a five dollar lunchtime series of 45 @-@ minute dance performances , and a discounted ten dollar ticket program was initiated for in @-@ person , cash @-@ only purchases in the last 90 minutes before performances .
The theater has been recognized with the 2002 American Architecture Award , and the 2005 American Institute of Architects Chicago Institutional Design Excellence Award . In 2008 , Joan Harris was recognized with a National Arts Award from Americans for the Arts for her arts leadership and achievement , exemplified in part by funding the Harris Theater with her late husband .
= M @-@ 106 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 106 is a state trunkline highway in the Lower Peninsula of the US state of Michigan in and near the city of Jackson . M @-@ 106 travels in a southwest @-@ to @-@ northeast direction from Jackson to Gregory at a junction with M @-@ 36 just a few miles northwest of Hell . The highway was first designated in 1928 running north out of downtown Jackson . It connected U.S. Highway 12 ( US 12 ) to the state prison and Bunkerhill Road . A pair of changes in the early 1930s resulted in the extension eastward to Gregory . From the 1960s until the early years of the 21st century , a section of M @-@ 106 in downtown Jackson was routed along one @-@ way streets .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 106 starts in downtown Jackson at the corner of Cooper Street and Michigan Avenue . Michigan Avenue runs east – west carrying Business Loop Interstate 94 ( BL I @-@ 94 ) , Business US 127 ( Bus . US 127 ) and M @-@ 50 , and Cooper Street runs northwesterly from here carrying M @-@ 106 . The highway passes through residential neighborhoods immediately north of downtown , and turns due north near Jackson Catholic Middle School and the historic Michigan State Prison . Continuing a few miles north through an interchange with I @-@ 94 and US 127 , M @-@ 106 runs north out of town . Cooper Street continues out of town , and the trunkline runs by the State Prison of Southern Michigan .
North of the current prison , the highway curves to the northwest following Bunkerhill Road . Through this area , M @-@ 106 runs through farm fields and forests . The highway turns onto Plum Orchard Road near Batteese Lake and runs east into the community of Munith . M @-@ 106 merges onto Territorial Road east of the town before crossing the county line into Ingham County . South of Stockbridge , M @-@ 106 merges with M @-@ 52 and the two run concurrently into that community . M @-@ 106 turns east in the downtown area and continues along Morton Road into Livingston County . The highway ends at a junction with M @-@ 36 in Gregory .
M @-@ 106 is maintained by MDOT like other state highways in Michigan . As a part of these maintenance responsibilities , the department tracks the volume of traffic that uses the roadways under its jurisdiction . These volumes are expressed using a metric called annual average daily traffic , which is a statistical calculation of the average daily number of vehicles on a segment of roadway . MDOT 's surveys in 2010 showed that the highest traffic levels along M @-@ 106 were the 15 @,@ 474 vehicles daily south of I @-@ 94 ; the lowest counts were the 1 @,@ 550 vehicles per day in near the M @-@ 36 junction . The only section of M @-@ 106 has been listed on the National Highway System ( NHS ) is between M @-@ 50 and I @-@ 94 in Jackson . The NHS is a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
M @-@ 106 was first designated in 1928 on a route that ran from US 12 ( Michigan Avenue ) along Cooper Street to Bunkerhill Road , a total of 4 1 ⁄ 2 miles ( 7 @.@ 2 km ) . This highway was extended north to Stockbridge in late 1930 or early 1931 . A further realignment of M @-@ 36 resulted in the extension of M @-@ 106 to Gregory . Cooper Street in Jackson was converted to one @-@ way , southbound traffic in 1967 . A northbound routing along Milwaukee Street was established . The south end of southbound M @-@ 106 was trimmed back to end at BL I @-@ 94 / Bus . US 127 / M @-@ 50 . Two @-@ way traffic was restored in 2004 . M @-@ 106 was shifted to run only along Cooper Street ( formerly Milwaukee Street ) , and Francis Street ( formerly Cooper Street ) is left as an unsigned trunkline .
= = Major intersections = =
= Flag of Europe =
The Flag of Europe , or European Flag , consists of a circle of 12 golden ( yellow ) stars on an azure background . It is an official symbol of two separate organizations — the Council of Europe ( CoE ) and the European Union ( EU ) — both of which term it the " Flag of Europe " or the " European Flag " . It was first adopted in 1955 by the Council of Europe to represent the European continent as a whole . Due to the subsequent emergence of the EU , the flag is sometimes colloquially known as the " flag of the European Union " , but this term is not official .
In its broadest sense , the flag represents the continent of Europe or the countries of Europe independent of any institution . Consequently , the number of stars does not vary according to the member states as they are intended to represent all the peoples of Europe , including those outside the EU .
The flag was designed in 1955 for the Council of Europe as its symbol , and the CoE urged it to be adopted by other organisations . In 1985 the European Economic Community ( EEC ) , adopted it as its own flag ( having had no flag of its own before ) at the initiative of the European Parliament .
The flag is not mentioned in the EU 's treaties , its incorporation being dropped along with the European Constitution , but it is formally adopted in law . In order to avoid confusion with the European Union , the Council of Europe has a distinctive " Council of Europe Logo " , which employs a lower @-@ case " e " in the centre . The Logo is not meant to be a substitute for the flag , which the Council flies in front of and in its headquarters , annexes and field office premises .
Since its adoption by the European Union it has become more associated with the EU due to the EU 's higher profile and heavy usage of the emblem . The flag has also been used to represent Europe in sporting events and as a pro @-@ democracy banner outside the Union . It has partly inspired other flags , such as those of other European organisations and those of sovereign states where the EU has been heavily involved ( such as Kosovo and Bosnia and Herzegovina ) .
= = History = =
= = = Creation = = =
The search for a symbol began in 1950 when a committee was set up in order to look into the question of a European flag . There were numerous proposals but a clear theme for stars and circles emerged . Count Richard Nikolaus von Coudenhove @-@ Kalergi proposed that they adopt the flag of his International Paneuropean Union , which was a blue field , with a red cross inside an orange circle at the centre , which he had himself recently adopted for the European Parliamentary Union . Due to the cross symbolism , this was rejected by Turkey ( a member of the Council of Europe since 1949 ) . Kalergi then suggested adding a crescent to the cross design , to overcome the Muslim objections . Another organisation 's flag was the European Movement , which had a large green E on a white background . A further design was one based on the Olympic rings : eight silver rings on a blue background . It was rejected due to the rings ' similarity with " dial " , " chain " and " zeros " . One proposal had a large yellow star on a blue background , but it was rejected due to its similarity with the so @-@ called Burnet flag and the flag of the Belgian Congo .
The Consultative Assembly narrowed their choice to two designs . One was by Salvador de Madariaga , the founder of the College of Europe , who suggested a constellation of stars on a blue background ( positioned according to capital cities , with a large star for Strasbourg , the seat of the Council ) . He had circulated his flag round many European capitals and the concept had found favour . The second was a variant by Arsène Heitz , who worked for the Council 's postal service and had submitted dozens of designs ; the design of his that was accepted by the Assembly was similar to Salvador de Madariaga 's , but rather than a constellation , the stars were arranged in a circle . In 1987 , Heitz claimed that his inspiration had been the crown of twelve stars of the Woman of the Apocalypse , often found in Marian iconography ( see below ) .
The Consultative Assembly favoured Heitz 's design . However , the flag the Assembly chose had fifteen stars , reflecting the number of states of the Council of Europe . The Consultative Assembly chose this flag and recommended the Council of Europe to adopt it . The Committee of Ministers ( the Council 's main decision making body ) agreed with the Assembly that the flag should be a circle of stars , but the number was a source of contention . The number twelve was chosen , and Paul M. G. Lévy drew up the exact design of the new flag as it is today . The Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe approved it on 25 October 1955 . Adopted on 8 December 1955 , the flag was unveiled at the Château de la Muette in Paris on 13 December 1955 .
Unsuccessful entries
= = = European Communities = = =
Following Expo 58 in Brussels , the flag caught on and the Council of Europe lobbied for other European organisations to adopt the flag as a sign of European unity . The European Parliament took the initiative in seeking a flag to be adopted by the European Communities . Shortly after the first direct elections in 1979 a draft resolution was put forward on the issue . The resolution proposed that the Communities ' flag should be that of the Council of Europe and it was adopted by the Parliament on 11 April 1983 .
The June 1984 European Council ( the Communities ' leaders ) summit in Fontainebleau stressed the importance of promoting a European image and identity to citizens and the world . The following year , meeting in Milan , the 28 – 29 June European Council approved a proposal from the Committee on a People ’ s Europe ( Adonnino Committee ) in favour of the flag and adopted it . Following the permission of the Council of Europe , the Communities began to use it from 1986 , with it being raised outside the Berlaymont building ( the seat of the European Commission ) for the first time on 29 May 1986 . The European Union , which was established by the Maastricht Treaty in 1992 to replace the EC and encompass its functions , also adopted the flag . Since then the use of the flag has been controlled jointly by the Council of Europe and the European Union .
= = = Previous flags = = =
Prior to development of political institutions , flags representing Europe were limited to unification movements . The most popular were the European Movement 's large green ' E ' on a white background , and the " Pan European flag " ( see " Creation " below ) . With the development of institutions , aside from the Council of Europe , came other emblems and flags . None were intended to represent wider Europe and have since been replaced by the current flag of Europe .
The first major organisation to adopt one was the European Coal and Steel Community ( ECSC ) , which merged into the European Communities . The ECSC was created in 1952 and the flag of the ECSC was unveiled in 1958 Expo in Brussels .
The flag had two stripes , blue at the top , black at the bottom with six gold ( silver after 1973 ) stars , three on each stripe . Blue was for steel , black for coal and the stars were the six member @-@ states . The stars increased with the members until 1986 when they were fixed at twelve . When the ECSC treaty expired in 2002 , the flag was lowered outside the European Commission in Brussels and replaced with the European flag .
The European Parliament also used its own flag from 1973 , but never formally adopted it . It fell out of use with the adoption of the twelve star flag by the Parliament in 1983 . The flag followed the yellow and blue colour scheme however instead of twelve stars there were the letters EP and PE ( initials of the European Parliament in the six community languages at the time ) surrounded by a wreath .
= = = Barcode flag = = =
In 2002 , Dutch architect Rem Koolhaas and his architecture firm Office for Metropolitan Architecture ( OMA ) designed a new flag in response to Commission President Romano Prodi 's request to find ways of rebranding the Union in a way that represents Europe 's " diversity and unity " . The proposed new design was dubbed the " barcode " , as it displays the colors of every European flag ( of the then 15 members ) as vertical stripes . As well as the barcode comparison , it had been compared unfavourably to wallpaper , a TV test card , and deckchair fabric . Unlike the current flag , it would change to reflect the member states .
It was never officially adopted by the EU or any organisation ; however , it was used as the logo of the Austrian EU Presidency in 2006 . It had been updated with the colours of the 10 members who had joined since the proposal , and was designed by Koolhaas 's firm . Its described aim is " to portray Europe as the common effort of different nations , with each retaining its own unique cultural identity " . There were initially some complaints , as the stripes of the flag of Estonia were displayed incorrectly .
= = = Recent events = = =
In April 2004 , the flag was flown in space for the first time by European Space Agency astronaut André Kuipers while on board the International Space Station .
The flag was to have been given a formal status in the proposed European Constitution . However , since the ratification of that failed , the leaders removed the state @-@ like elements such as the flag from the replacement Treaty of Lisbon . The European Parliament however had supported the inclusion of symbols , and in response backed a proposal to use the symbols , such as the flag more often in the Parliament . Jo Leinen MEP suggesting that the Parliament should again take the avant @-@ garde in their use . Later , in September 2008 , Parliament 's Committee on Constitutional Affairs proposed a formal change in the institution 's rules of procedure to make better use of the symbols . Specifically , the flag would be present in all meeting rooms ( not just the hemicycle ) and at all official events . The proposal was passed on 8 October 2008 by 503 votes to 96 ( 15 abstentions ) .
Additionally , a declaration by sixteen Member States on the symbols , including the flag , was included in the final act of the Treaty of Lisbon stating that the flag , the anthem , the motto and the currency and Europe Day " will for them continue as symbols to express the sense of community of the people in the European Union and their allegiance to it . "
= = Usage = =
= = = Council of Europe = = =
The flag was originally designed by the Council of Europe , and as such the CoE holds the copyright for the flag . However , the Council of Europe agreed that the European Communities could use the flag and it had promoted its use by other regional organisations since it was created . The Council of Europe now shares responsibility with the European Commission for ensuring that use of the symbol respects the dignity of the flag — taking measures to prevent misuse of it .
Besides using the flag , the Council also uses a defaced version of the flag as its emblem : it is the existing design with a stylised , green " e " over the stars .
= = = European Union = = =
The flag symbolises the EU as a whole . All EU institutions , bodies and agencies have their own logo or emblem , albeit often inspired by the flag 's design and colours . As part of the EU 's usage , the flag appears on the euro banknotes . Euro coins also display the twelve stars of the flag on both the national and common sides and the flag is sometimes used as an indication of the currency or the eurozone ( a collective name for those countries that use the Euro ) . The flag appears also on many driving licences and vehicle registration plates issued in the Union .
= = = = Protocol = = = =
It is mandatory for the flag to be used in every official speech made by the President of the European Council and it is often used at official meetings between the leaders of an EU state and a non @-@ EU state ( the national flag and European flag appearing together ) . While normally the national flag takes precedence over the European flag in the national context , meetings between EU leaders sometimes differ . For example , the Italian flag code expressly replaces the Italian flag for the European flag in precedence when dignitaries from other EU countries visit – for example the EU flag would be in the middle of a group of three flags rather than the Italian flag .
The flag is usually flown by the government of the country holding the rotating presidency Council of Ministers , though in 2009 the Czech President Václav Klaus , a eurosceptic , refused to fly the flag from his castle . In response , Greenpeace projected an image of the flag onto the castle and attempted to fly the flag from the building themselves .
Some members also have their own rules regarding the use of the flag alongside their national flag on domestic occasions , for example the obligatory use alongside national flags outside police stations or local government buildings . As an example according to the Italian laws it is mandatory for most public offices and buildings to hoist the European Flag alongside the Italian national Flag ( Law 22 / 2000 and Presidential Decree 121 / 2000 ) . Outside official use , the flag may not be used for aims incompatible with European values .
In national usage , national protocol usually demands the national flag takes precedence over the European flag ( which is usually displayed to the right of the national flag from the observer 's perspective ) . On occasions where the European flag is flown alongside all national flags ( for example , at a European Council meeting ) , the national flags are placed in alphabetical order ( according to their name in the main language of that state ) with the European flag either at the head , or the far right , of the order of flags .
Extraordinary flying of the flag is common on the EU 's flag day , known as Europe Day , which is celebrated annually on 9 May . On Europe Day 2008 , the flag was flown for the first time above the German Reichstag .
= = = = Military and naval use = = = =
In addition to the flags use by the government and people , the flag is also used in EU military operations ; however , it is not used as a civil ensign . In 2003 , a member of the European Parliament tabled a proposal in a temporary committee of the European Parliament that national civil ensigns be defaced with the European flag . This proposal was rejected by Parliament in 2004 , and hence the European flag is not used as a European civil ensign .
Despite not having a civil ensign , the EU 's Fishery Inspection teams display a blue and yellow pennant . The pennant is flown by inspection vessels in EU waters . The flag is triangular and quartered blue and yellow and was adopted according to EEC Regulation # 1382 / 87 on 20 May 1978 . There are no other variants or alternative flags used by the EU ( in contrast to countries which have presidential , naval and military variants ) .
= = = Ukraine = = =
The flag became a symbol of European integration of Ukraine in 2010s , particularly after Euromaidan . Ukraine is not a part of the EU but the flag is used by the Cabinet of Ukraine , Prime Minister of Ukraine , and MFA UA during official meetings .
= = = Wider use = = =
The flag has been used to represent Europe in its wider sense . The Council of Europe covers all but three European countries , thereby representing much of Europe .
In particular , the flag has become a banner for pro @-@ Europeanism outside the Union , for example in Georgia , where the flag is on most government buildings since the coming to power of Mikhail Saakashvili , who used it during his inauguration , stating : " [ the European ] flag is Georgia ’ s flag as well , as far as it embodies our civilisation , our culture , the essence of our history and perspective , and our vision for the future of Georgia . " It was later used in 2008 by pro @-@ western Serbian voters ahead of an election .
It is also used as a pro @-@ democracy emblem in countries such as Belarus , where it has been used on protest marches alongside the banned former national flag and flags of opposition movements . The flag was used widely in a 2007 European March in Minsk as protesters rallied in support of democracy and accession to the EU . Similarly , the flag was flown during the 2013 Euromaidan pro @-@ democracy and pro @-@ EU protests in Ukraine .
The flag , or features of it , are often used in the logos of organisations of companies which stress a pan @-@ European element , for example European lobbyist groups or transnational shipping companies .
The flag is also used in certain sports arrangements where a unified Team Europe is represented as in the Ryder Cup and the Mosconi Cup .
Following the 2004 Summer Olympics , President Romano Prodi pointed out that the combined medal total of the European Union was far greater than that of any other country and called for EU athletes to fly the European flag at the following games alongside their own as a sign of solidarity ( which did not happen ) .
The design of the European flag was displayed on the Eiffel Tower in Paris to celebrate the French presidency of the EU Council in the second half of 2008 .
= = Design = =
The flag is rectangular with 2 : 3 proportions : its fly ( width ) is one and a half times the length of its hoist ( height ) . Twelve gold ( or yellow ) stars are centered in a circle ( the radius of which is a third of the length of the hoist ) upon a blue background . All the stars are upright ( one point straight up ) , have five points and are spaced equally according to the hour positions on the face of a clock . The diameter of each star is equal to one @-@ ninth of the height of the hoist .
The heraldic description given by the EU is : " On an azure field a circle of twelve golden mullets , their points not touching . " The Council of Europe gives the flag a symbolic description in the following terms ;
Against the blue sky of the Western world , the stars represent the peoples of Europe in a circle , a symbol of unity . Their number shall be invariably set at twelve , the symbol of completeness and perfection .
= = = Colours = = =
The base colour of the flag is a dark blue ( reflex blue , a mix of cyan and magenta ) , while the golden stars are portrayed in Yellow . The colours are regulated according to the Pantone colouring system ( see table for specifications ) .
A large number of designs were proposed for the flag before the current flag was agreed . The rejected proposals are preserved in the Council of Europe Archives . One of these consists of a design of white stars on a light blue field , as a gesture to the peace and internationalism of the United Nations . An official website makes a reference to blue and gold being the original colours of Count Richard Nikolaus von Coudenhove @-@ Kalergi , who proposed a Pan European Union in 1923 , and was an active proponent of the early Community .
= = = Number of stars = = =
The number of stars on the flag is fixed at 12 , and is not related to the number of member states of the EU ( although the EU did have 12 member states from 1986 to 1994 ) . This is because it originally was the flag of the Council of Europe . In 1953 , the Council of Europe had 15 members ; it was proposed that the future flag should have one star for each member , and would not change based on future members . West Germany objected to this as one of the members was the disputed area of Saarland , and to have its own star would imply sovereignty for the region . Twelve was eventually adopted as a number with no political connotations and as a symbol of unity . In his 2006 book Boris Johnson drew attention to the Emperor Necklace which depicts twelve Caesars , and looks ' uncannily like the euro flag ' . While 12 is the correct number of stars , sometimes flags or emblems can be found that incorrectly show 15 ( as of the rejected proposal ) or 25 ( as suggested by some after the expansion of the EU to 25 member states in 2004 ) . However , the flag also remains that of the Council of Europe , which now has 47 member states .
= = Derivative designs = =
The design of the European flag has been used in a variation , such as that of the Council of Europe mentioned above , and also to a greater extent such as the flag of the Western European Union ( WEU ; now defunct ) , which uses the same colours and the stars but has a number of stars based on membership and in a semicircle rather than a circle . It is also defaced with the initials of the former Western European Union in two languages .
The flag of Bosnia and Herzegovina does not have such a strong connection as the WEU flag , but was partly inspired by the European involvement in , and aspirations of , Bosnia and Herzegovina . It uses the same blue and yellow colours and the stars , although of a different number and colour , are a direct reference to those of the European flag .
Likewise , the Republic of Kosovo uses blue , yellow and stars in its flag in reference to the European flag , symbolising its European ambitions ( membership of the European Union ) . Kosovo has , like Bosnia and Herzegovina , seen heavy European involvement in its affairs , with the European Union assuming a supervisory role after its declared independence in 2008 .
The flag of the Brussels @-@ Capital Region consists of a yellow iris with a white outline upon a blue background . Its colours are based on the colours of the Flag of Europe , because Brussels is considered the unofficial capital of the EU .
The national flag of Cape Verde also shows similarity to the flag of the European Union . The flag is made of a circular formation of ten yellow stars on a dark blue background and a band of white and red . The stars represent the main islands of the nation ( a chain of islands off the coast of West Africa ) . The blue represents the ocean and the sky . The band of white and red represents the road toward the construction of the nation , and the colours stand for peace ( white ) and effort ( red ) . The flag was adopted on 22 September 1992 .
Other labels take reference to the European flag such as the EU organic food label that uses the twelve stars but reorders them into the shape of a leaf on a green background . The original logo of the European Broadcasting Union used the twelve stars on a blue background adding ray beams to connect the countries .
= = Marian interpretation = =
In 1987 , following the adoption of the flag by the EEC , Arsène Heitz ( 1908 – 89 ) , one of the designers who had submitted proposals for the flag 's design , suggested a religious inspiration for it . He claimed that the circle of stars was based on the iconographic tradition of showing the Blessed Virgin Mary as the Woman of the Apocalypse , wearing a " crown of twelve stars " . The French satirical magazine Le Canard enchaîné reacted to Heitz 's statement with an article entitled L ’ Europe violée par la Sainte Vierge ( " Europe Raped by the Blessed Virgin " ) in the 20 December 1989 edition . Heitz also made a connection to the date of the flag 's adoption , 8 December 1955 , coinciding with the Catholic Feast of the Immaculate Conception of the Blessed Virgin Mary .
Paul M. G. Lévy , then Director of Information at the Council of Europe responsible for designing the flag , in a 1989 statement maintained that he had not been aware of any religious connotations .
In an interview given 26 February 1998 , Lévy denied not only awareness of the " Marian " connection , but also denied that the final design of a circle of twelve stars was Heitz 's . To the question " Who really designed the flag ? " Lévy replied :
" I did , and I calculated the proportions to be used for the geometric design . Arsène Heitz , who was an employee in the mail service , put in all sorts of proposals , including the 15 @-@ star design . But he submitted too many designs . He wanted to do the European currencies with 15 stars in the corner . He wanted to do national flags incorporating the Council of Europe flag . "
Carlo Curti Gialdino ( 2005 ) has reconstructed the design process to the effect that Heitz 's proposal contained varying numbers of stars , from which the version with twelve stars was chosen by the Committee of Ministers meeting at Deputy level in January 1955 as one out of two remaining candidate designs .
Lévy 's 1998 interview apparently gave rise to a new variant of the " Marian " anecdote . An article published in Die Welt in August 1998 alleged that it was Lévy himself who was inspired to introduce a " Marian " element as he walked past a statue of the Blessed Virgin Mary .
An article posted in La Raison in February 2000 further connected the donation of a stained glass window for Strasbourg Cathedral by the Council of Europe on 21 October 1956 . This window , a work by Parisian master Max Ingrand , shows a blessing Madonna underneath a circle of 12 stars on dark blue ground . The overall design of the Madonna is inspired by the banner of the cathedral 's Congrégation Mariale des Hommes , and the twelve stars are found on the statue venerated by this congregation inside the cathedral ( twelve is also the number of members of the congregation 's council ) .
= = Similar flags = =
= Avengers : Age of Ultron =
Avengers : Age of Ultron is a 2015 American superhero film based on the Marvel Comics superhero team the Avengers , produced by Marvel Studios and distributed by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures . It is the sequel to 2012 's The Avengers and the eleventh film in the Marvel Cinematic Universe ( MCU ) . The film was written and directed by Joss Whedon and features an ensemble cast that includes Robert Downey Jr . , Chris Hemsworth , Mark Ruffalo , Chris Evans , Scarlett Johansson , Jeremy Renner , Don Cheadle , Aaron Taylor @-@ Johnson , Elizabeth Olsen , Paul Bettany , Cobie Smulders , Anthony Mackie , Hayley Atwell , Idris Elba , Stellan Skarsgård , James Spader , and Samuel L. Jackson . In Avengers : Age of Ultron , the Avengers fight Ultron , an artificial intelligence obsessed with causing human extinction .
The sequel was announced in May 2012 , after the successful release of The Avengers . Whedon , the director of the first film , was brought back on board in August and a release date was set . By April 2013 , Whedon had completed a draft of the script , and casting began in June with the re @-@ signing of Downey . Second unit filming began in February 2014 in South Africa with principal photography taking place between March and August 2014 . The film was primarily shot at Shepperton Studios in Surrey , England , with additional footage filmed in Italy , South Korea , Bangladesh , New York , and various locations around England . While in post production , the film was converted to 3D and over 3 @,@ 000 visual effects shots were added .
Avengers : Age of Ultron premiered in Los Angeles on April 13 , 2015 , and was released on May 1 , 2015 in North America , in 3D and IMAX 3D . The film received positive reviews from critics , most of whom enjoyed its action sequences and villain , judging them to be extravagant but unmemorable . It grossed over $ 1 @.@ 4 billion worldwide , making it the seventh @-@ highest @-@ grossing film in history and the fourth @-@ highest @-@ grossing film of 2015 . Two sequels , Avengers : Infinity War – Part 1 and Avengers : Infinity War – Part 2 , are scheduled to be released on May 4 , 2018 , and May 3 , 2019 , respectively .
= = Plot = =
In the Eastern European country of Sokovia , the Avengers – Tony Stark , Steve Rogers , Thor , Bruce Banner , Natasha Romanoff , and Clint Barton – raid a Hydra facility commanded by Baron Wolfgang von Strucker , who has been experimenting on humans using the scepter previously wielded by Loki . They encounter two of Strucker 's experiments – twins Pietro , who has superhuman speed , and Wanda Maximoff , who can manipulate minds and project energy – and apprehend Strucker , while Stark retrieves Loki 's scepter .
Stark and Banner discover an artificial intelligence within the scepter 's gem , and secretly use it to complete Stark 's " Ultron " global defense program . The unexpectedly sentient Ultron , believing he must eradicate humanity to save Earth , eliminates Stark 's A.I. J.A.R.V.I.S. and attacks the Avengers at their headquarters . Escaping with the scepter , Ultron uses the resources in Strucker 's Sokovia base to upgrade his rudimentary body and build an army of robot drones . Having killed Strucker , he recruits the Maximoffs , who hold Stark responsible for their parents ' deaths by his weapons , and go to the base of arms dealer Ulysses Klaue to obtain Wakandan vibranium . The Avengers attack Ultron and the Maximoffs , but Wanda subdues them with haunting visions , causing the Hulk ( Banner ) to rampage until Stark stops him with his anti @-@ Hulk armor.1
A worldwide backlash over the resulting destruction , and the fears Wanda 's hallucinations incited , send the team into hiding at a safehouse . Thor departs to consult with Dr. Erik Selvig on the meaning of the apocalyptic future he saw in his hallucination , while Romanoff and Banner plan to flee together after realizing a mutual attraction . However , Nick Fury arrives and encourages the team to form a plan to stop Ultron . In Seoul , Ultron forces the team 's friend Dr. Helen Cho to use her synthetic @-@ tissue technology , together with vibranium and the scepter 's gem , to perfect a new body for him . As Ultron uploads himself into the body , Wanda is able to read his mind ; discovering his plan for human extinction , the Maximoffs turn against Ultron . Rogers , Romanoff , and Barton find Ultron and retrieve the synthetic body , but Ultron captures Romanoff .
The Avengers fight amongst themselves when Stark secretly uploads J.A.R.V.I.S. – who is still operational after hiding from Ultron inside the Internet – into the synthetic body . Thor returns to help activate the body , explaining that the gem on its brow – one of the six Infinity Stones , the most powerful objects in existence – was part of his vision . This " Vision " and the Maximoffs accompany the Avengers to Sokovia , where Ultron has used the remaining vibranium to build a machine to lift a large part of the capital city skyward , intending to crash it into the ground to cause global extinction . Banner rescues Romanoff , who awakens the Hulk for the battle . The Avengers fight Ultron 's army while Fury arrives in a Helicarrier with Maria Hill , James Rhodes and S.H.I.E.L.D. agents to evacuate civilians . Pietro dies when he shields Barton from gunfire , and a vengeful Wanda abandons her post to destroy Ultron 's primary body , which allows one of his drones to activate the machine . The city plummets , but Stark and Thor overload the machine and shatter the landmass . In the aftermath , the Hulk , unwilling to endanger Romanoff by being with her , departs in a Quinjet , while the Vision confronts Ultron 's last remaining body .
Later , with the Avengers having established a new base run by Fury , Hill , Cho , and Selvig , Thor returns to Asgard to learn more about the forces he suspects have manipulated recent events . As Stark leaves and Barton retires , Rogers and Romanoff prepare to train new Avengers : Rhodes , the Vision , Sam Wilson , and Wanda .
In a mid @-@ credits scene , Thanos , dissatisfied by the failures of his pawns , dons a gauntlet2 and vows to retrieve the Infinity Stones himself .
= = Cast = =
Robert Downey , Jr. as Tony Stark / Iron Man :
The benefactor of the Avengers , who is a self @-@ described genius , billionaire , playboy , and philanthropist with electromechanical suits of armor of his own invention . On how his character evolves after the events of Iron Man 3 , Downey said , " ... I think he realizes that tweaking and making all the suits in the world — which is what he has been doing — still didn 't work for that thing of his tour of duty that left him a little PTSD . So his focus is more on how can we make it so that there 's no problem to begin with . That , you know , there 's a bouncer at our planet 's rope . That 's the big idea . "
Chris Hemsworth as Thor :
An Avenger and the crown prince of Asgard , based on the Norse mythological deity of the same name . Regarding Thor 's place in the film , Hemsworth stated that Thor has remained on Earth since Thor : The Dark World and has begun to feel at home here so he considers the threat from Ultron to be a personal attack . Hemsworth stated that he had to work harder to bring new elements to the character to avoid repeating himself saying , " It gave us room to kind of make him a little more grounded and human and have him in some civilian clothes and mixing it up at a party . " Hemsworth noted that this is the first MCU film in which he did not work closely with Tom Hiddleston so Thor 's motivation in this film is completely different as it was previously driven by his relationship with Loki .
Mark Ruffalo as Bruce Banner / Hulk :
An Avenger and a genius scientist who , because of exposure to gamma radiation , transforms into a monster when enraged or agitated . Ruffalo worked with motion capture performer Andy Serkis ' The Imaginarium Studios in preparation for the role . Ruffalo stated that the role grew from the previous film and is a bit " more complex . " Ruffalo explained that a confrontation is brewing between Banner and the Hulk saying , " There 's a very cool thing happening : Hulk is as afraid of Banner as Banner is afraid of Hulk .. and they have got to come to peace somehow with each other . " While filming in London , Ruffalo said that Whedon still had not given him any of the Hulk 's lines . Whedon later explained that he writes the Hulk 's dialogue spontaneously , saying , " What makes the Hulk so hard to write is that you 're pretending he 's a werewolf when he 's a superhero . You want it vice versa ... So the question is , how has he progressed ? How can we bring changes on what the Hulk does ? And that 's not just in the screenplay , that 's moment to moment . "
Chris Evans as Steve Rogers / Captain America :
The leader of the Avengers and a World War II veteran , who was enhanced to the peak of human physicality by an experimental serum and frozen in suspended animation before waking up in the modern world . Evans stated that since the fall of S.H.I.E.L.D. in Captain America : The Winter Soldier , Rogers has been left to depend on his Avenger teammates without the structure of military life and is now " looking to understand where he belongs , not just as a soldier , as Captain America , but as Steve Rogers , as a person . " Evans said that he was able to maintain the strength he built up for Captain America : The Winter Soldier by working out up to an hour a day . Regarding Captain America 's fighting style , Evans felt he did not want to take a step back from the skills shown in The Winter Soldier , making sure Rogers ' fight style advanced , showing " a consistent display of strength " and having Rogers utilizing his environment .
Scarlett Johansson as Natasha Romanoff / Black Widow :
An Avenger who formerly worked for S.H.I.E.L.D. as a highly trained spy . Producer Kevin Feige stated that more of the character 's backstory is explored in the film . Johansson elaborated , " In Avengers 2 we go back ... we definitely learn more about Widow 's backstory , and we get to find out how she became the person you see . All of these characters have deep , dark pasts , and I think that the past catches up to some of us a little bit . " On where the film picks up Widow 's story , Johansson felt it was a continuation of what was seen for her character in The Winter Soldier , with the fact that " ' [ Widow ] never made an active choice . [ She 's ] a product of other people 's imposition . ' That 's going to catch up with her . That 's bound to have a huge effect . There 's got to be a result of that realization ... You 'll see her actively making some choices in her life , for better or worse . " A mixture of close @-@ ups , concealing costumes , stunt doubles and visual effects were used to help hide Johansson 's pregnancy during filming .
Jeremy Renner as Clint Barton / Hawkeye :
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Avenger and master archer who previously worked as an agent for S.H.I.E.L.D. Whedon said that Hawkeye interacts more with the other characters in the film , as opposed to the first film where the character had been " possessed pretty early by a bad guy and had to walk around all scowly . " As the character did not appear in any other of Marvel 's Phase Two films , Whedon stated Age of Ultron sheds light on to what the character was doing since the end of The Avengers . Renner described the character as " kind of a loner " and " a team player only ' cause he sort of has to be . He 's not really a company man . Captain America can be that guy . In [ Age of Ultron ] you 'll understand why [ Hawkeye ] thinks the way he thinks . "
Don Cheadle as James " Rhodey " Rhodes / War Machine : An officer in the U.S. Air Force and Tony Stark 's close personal friend who operates the War Machine armor .
Aaron Taylor @-@ Johnson as Pietro Maximoff / Quicksilver :
The twin brother of the Scarlet Witch , who can move at superhuman speed . Taylor @-@ Johnson felt Pietro was defined by the fact that he and his sister were abandoned by their family , and they both had to grow up " in Eastern Europe defending and looking out for themselves and each other , " that they both look to the other for guidance . Taylor @-@ Johnson also said that Quicksilver was " very overprotective " of Scarlet Witch and has " real anger frustration " , which results in him being easily bored because of a short attention span . Feige stated exploring Quicksilver 's relationship with his sister and his backstory growing up in Eastern Europe would help differentiate the character from Evan Peters ' version in X @-@ Men : Days of Future Past ( 2014 ) . Taylor @-@ Johnson stated that the running style for Quicksilver went through multiple iterations , saying , " The running style we tested early on was just very one @-@ dimensional and boring to look at , but if you try to do free running , like parkour , then that 's very much Captain America 's style ... You have to find your own place in the stunt world . " Much of Taylor @-@ Johnson 's scenes were filmed outdoors to give " life " to his running , as opposed to running indoors in front of a green screen .
Elizabeth Olsen as Wanda Maximoff / Scarlet Witch :
The twin sister of Quicksilver , who can engage in hypnosis and telekinesis . Olsen felt Wanda was " overly stimulated " rather than " mentally insane " because " she has such a vast amount of knowledge that she 's unable to learn how to control it . No one taught her how to control it properly ... she can connect to this world and parallel worlds at the same time , and parallel times . " Describing her character 's mind control powers , Olsen said that the character is able to do more than manipulating someone 's mind , with Scarlet Witch able to " feel and see what they feel and see " by projecting visions that they have never seen . Olsen expanded saying , " What I love about her is that , in so many superhero films , emotions are kind of negated a bit , but for her everything that someone else could feel — like their weakest moments — she physically goes through that same experience with them , which is pretty cool . " Olsen drew on her relationship with her older brother and her sisters to prepare for the role , as well as looking to the comics for inspiration . Olsen revealed that Whedon was inspired by dancers as a way to visually represent how the character moves . As such , Olsen mostly trained with a dancer in lieu of traditional stunt training . Olsen is signed for this film and another .
Paul Bettany as J.A.R.V.I.S. and Vision :
Bettany , who voiced J.A.R.V.I.S. , Stark 's A.I. companion in previous films , was cast again as the Vision , an android created by Ultron . Bettany stated that he was surprised when Whedon asked him if he wanted to be the Vision because once an actor has been cast as a particular character in the MCU , they usually are not cast as another . On what intrigued him about the Vision , Bettany said , " The thing that appealed to me is that this sort of nascent creature being born , being both omnipotent and totally naive , the sort of danger of that and complex nature of a thing being born that is that powerful and that created in a second and the choices he makes morally are really complex and interesting . They 've really managed to maintain all of that " . Bettany also stated that the Vision feels paternal and protective to a number of people in the film , particularly Scarlet Witch , and has the ability to change his density . Bettany did wire work for the part . Whedon stated he wanted to include the Vision in a second Avengers film before he signed onto the first film . Bettany 's make @-@ up , which consisted of a mix of face paint and prosthetics , took two hours to apply with make @-@ up artists Jeremy Woodhead and Nik Williams citing the correct hue of the Vision 's skin as the hardest thing to figure out .
Cobie Smulders as Maria Hill :
A former high @-@ ranking S.H.I.E.L.D. agent who now works for Stark . Describing Hill 's situation in the film , Smulders said that after The Winter Soldier , Hill does not " really know who 's a good guy and who 's a bad guy and she 's trying to figure out that throughout this film . " She added , " She 's not getting any sleep . She 's doing all the work . She doesn 't have the kind of manpower that she had in S.H.I.E.L.D. , " instead working for Tony Stark at the Avenger 's headquarters " trying to keep everything running as smoothly as possible ... it 's an entirely different vibe for her . "
Anthony Mackie as Sam Wilson / Falcon :
A former pararescueman trained by the military in aerial combat using a specially designed wing pack and a friend of Steve Rogers . Discussing the relationship between Wilson and Rogers , Mackie said that the two characters have a mutual " soldier respect " , which is explored in the film and in Captain America : Civil War . Feige said that it was decided to reshoot the final scene of the film to incorporate the new Falcon suit designed for Ant @-@ Man , which released after Age of Ultron , as Falcon was originally shot in his original suit from The Winter Soldier . Mackie stated he did not realize Wilson had become an Avenger until he watched the film at the premiere , as he was only given the script for the scenes he worked on .
Hayley Atwell as Peggy Carter : A retired officer with the Strategic Scientific Reserve and a co @-@ founder of S.H.I.E.L.D. , who is a former love interest of Steve Rogers .
Idris Elba as Heimdall : The all @-@ seeing , all @-@ hearing Asgardian sentry of the Bifröst Bridge , based on the mythological deity of the same name .
Stellan Skarsgård as Erik Selvig :
An astrophysicist and a friend of Thor . Skarsgård said he was originally not supposed to appear in the film , but received a call because " they 'd written a couple of scenes , and I went and did them , " not knowing if the scenes would appear in the final cut of the film .
James Spader as Ultron :
An artificial intelligence repurposed by Tony Stark and Bruce Banner for a pilot peace program that is overwhelmed with a god complex , and now desires to pacify the Earth by eradicating humanity . Director Joss Whedon stated that Spader was his " first and only choice " for the role , because of his " hypnotic voice that can be eerily calm and compelling " while also being very human and humorous . Feige clarified that Spader 's face and body were motion captured " to create a whole performance ... We did not hire James Spader to do a robot voice . " Extensive scans were taken of Spader 's head and body in preparation for the role . About the character Whedon said , " He 's always trying to destroy the Avengers , goddamn it , he 's got a bee in his bonnet . He 's not a happy guy , which means he 's an interesting guy . He 's got pain . And the way that manifests is not going to be standard robot stuff . " Whedon added that Ultron is " not a creature of logic — he 's a robot who 's genuinely disturbed . We 're finding out what makes him menacing and at the same time endearing and funny and strange and unexpected , and everything a robot never is . " Whedon compared Ultron to Frankenstein 's monster , saying , " It 's our new Frankenstein myth [ ... ] We create something in our own image and the thing turns on us . It has that pain of ' Well , why was I made ? I want to kill Daddy . ' " Spader called the character " self @-@ absorbed " and added , " I think he sees the Avengers as being part of a problem , a more comprehensive problem in the world . He sees the world from a very strange , [ biblical ] point of view because he 's brand new , he 's very young ... He 's immature , and yet has knowledge of comprehensive , broad history and precedent , and he has created in a very short period of time a rather skewed worldview . " Spader elaborates , " He truly is an artificial intelligence with absolutely no censorship at all , no parameters really … he ’ s got too much power , too much strength and speed and size , so he ’ s a very dangerous child . "
Samuel L. Jackson as Nick Fury :
The former director of S.H.I.E.L.D. who originally recruited the Avengers and continues to be a mentor and leader for the team . Jackson described the role as a cameo , saying , " I 'm just kind of passing by there ... Because , it 's another one of those ' people who have powers fighting people who have powers ' . That 's why I didn 't get to New York in The Avengers . There 's not a lot I could do except shoot a gun . "
Thomas Kretschmann and Henry Goodman reprise their roles as Baron Wolfgang von Strucker and Dr. List , Hydra leaders who specialize in human experimentation , advanced robotics , and artificial intelligence from Captain America : The Winter Soldier . Linda Cardellini portrays Laura Barton , Hawkeye 's wife . Claudia Kim portrays Helen Cho , a world @-@ renowned geneticist who helps the Avengers from her office in Seoul , and Andy Serkis portrays Ulysses Klaue , a black @-@ market arms dealer , smuggler and gangster who is a former acquaintance from Stark 's weapons @-@ dealing days . Julie Delpy appears as Madame B. , who mentored Black Widow into becoming an assassin . Kerry Condon voices the artificial intelligence F.R.I.D.A.Y. , a replacement for J.A.R.V.I.S. , while Spader also voices Stark 's Iron Legion droids . Josh Brolin makes an uncredited appearance during the mid @-@ credits scene as Thanos , reprising his role from Guardians of the Galaxy . Avengers co @-@ creator Stan Lee makes a cameo appearance in the film as a military veteran who attends the Avengers ' victory party . Tom Hiddleston was to reprise his role of Loki , but his scenes did not make the theatrical cut of the film .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
In October 2011 , Kevin Feige , president of Marvel Studios said the studio was beginning to look at their Phase Two films , which would start with Iron Man 3 and would culminate in a second Avengers film . In March 2012 , Joss Whedon , director of the first film , stated that he would want a sequel to be " smaller . More personal . More painful . By being the next thing that should happen to these characters , and not just a rehash of what seemed to work the first time . By having a theme that is completely fresh and organic to itself . " Despite the production of the film becoming increasingly wider in scope , Feige maintained that this was not their intention , always looking to see where the team wanted to take the characters , over how to make it bigger than The Avengers .
At the premiere of The Avengers , Feige said the studio had an option for Whedon to return as director . In May 2012 , after the successful release of the first film , Disney CEO Bob Iger announced a sequel was in development . Most of the film 's cast members were under contract to potentially appear in the sequel ; however , Robert Downey Jr. was not , as his four picture deal with Marvel expired after Iron Man 3 .
At the 2012 San Diego Comic @-@ Con International , Whedon said he was undecided about directing . However , in August 2012 , Iger announced that Whedon would return to write and direct the sequel and develop the Marvel television series , Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. , for ABC . Later in the month , Disney set a May 1 , 2015 release date . When asked about his decision to return , Whedon said , " Avengers 2 , it wasn 't a tough decision . For a long time I thought , ' Well , it 's just not going to happen . ' Then when I actually started to consider it , it became so clear that I desperately wanted to say more about these characters , it would 've been an easy no and it was a spectacularly easy yes . There was no wrestling . " Whedon said that they intended for the film 's production to not be as rushed as the first one .
In December 2012 , Whedon stated that he had completed an outline for the film . In February , at the 2013 Jameson Dublin International Film Festival , Whedon said that death would play a theme in the sequel , and in March , he said that he looked to The Empire Strikes Back and The Godfather Part II as inspirations .
Feige revealed that Captain Marvel , who is scheduled to appear in her own MCU film in 2019 , appeared in an early draft of the screenplay , but was removed since the character had not yet been cast , saying , " It didn 't feel like the time . We didn 't want to introduce her fully formed flying in a costume before you knew who she was or how she came to be . " Whedon went so far as to shoot visual effects plates for Captain Marvel to fly into Avengers Tower at the end of the film ; those shots were reused , however , for Scarlet Witch instead .
= = = Pre @-@ production = = =
By April 2013 , filming was scheduled to begin in early 2014 at Shepperton Studios in England . At the Hollywood premiere of Iron Man 3 , Whedon said that he had completed a draft of the script , started the storyboard process , and met with actors . Whedon also mentioned that he wrote with Downey in mind and included a " brother / sister act " from the comic books , later confirming that he was referring to Quicksilver and Scarlet Witch . Whedon explained his rationale for including the characters in the film saying , " their powers are very visually interesting . One of the problems I had on the first one was everybody basically had punchy powers ... [ Quicksilver ] ' s got super speed . [ Scarlet Witch ] can weave spells and a little telekinesis , get inside your head . There 's good stuff that they can do that will help sort of keep it fresh , " though cautioned he was not throwing in more characters for the sake of doing that . Whedon stated that the twins allowed him to add more conflict : " They don 't like America , and they don 't like the Avengers ... The Avengers are like a world power , and not everybody 's on board with the Avengers coming in and starting fights , even in the name of justice . So you need that dissenting voice , and you need to understand it and sympathize with it . " Because Marvel Studios shares the film rights to Quicksilver and Scarlet Witch with 20th Century Fox and had to avoid conflict with Fox 's X @-@ Men films , Whedon introduced two important characters into the Marvel Cinematic Universe completely on his terms for the first time , which allowed him to connect their origin stories to the universe that they created and avoid the concept of mutants . Whedon relished at the storytelling opportunities by introducing a character with telepathic powers , explaining , " it meant we could spend a little time inside the Avengers ' heads — either their past or their impressions of what 's going on , or their fears , or all of the above . " By May , Downey had entered negotiations to extend his contract with Marvel Studios and reprise his role as Iron Man in the film . A month later , Downey signed on to return for the then @-@ untitled Avengers sequel , as well as a third Avengers film .
At the 2013 San Diego Comic @-@ Con International , Whedon announced the film would be subtitled Age of Ultron . Despite the subtitle , the film is not based on the 2013 comic book miniseries Age of Ultron . Feige explained that they simply liked the title Age of Ultron but the plot was taken from decades of Avengers story arcs . Whedon added that Ultron 's origin would differ from his comics roots , and that Hank Pym would not be involved with Ultron 's creation . Whedon disclosed that Edgar Wright had rights to the character first through his inclusion in Ant @-@ Man , which was already in development . He also thought that Ultron needed to be conceived through the Avengers and since they already had Tony Stark and Bruce Banner on the team , it would not make sense to bring in a third scientist . Whedon also said the film would have a darker tone due to Ultron 's involvement .
The title of the film came as a surprise to many fans who were expecting Thanos , the mastermind behind the events of the first film , to be the main villain in the sequel , with Whedon saying , " Thanos was never meant to be the next villain . He 's always been the overlord of villainy and darkness . " Commenting on finding the right balance between technology- and fantasy @-@ based heroes in Avengers : Age of Ultron , Feige said " Iron Man is a very technological hero his movies are always technologically based . The first Thor was all about introducing Asgard and Thor in that more fantastical realm into the more reality @-@ based MCU ... As we go into Ultron clearly he does come out of technology , but we 're using all of our tools at our disposal that we 've established so far as part of the MCU to build the storyline of Age of Ultron . "
Casting continued into August 2013 , with the announcement that James Spader would play Ultron . In November , Marvel confirmed that Elizabeth Olsen and Aaron Taylor @-@ Johnson would play the Scarlet Witch and Quicksilver , respectively . Taylor @-@ Johnson had been in negotiations since as early as June , while Olsen 's potential involvement was first reported in August . By the end of the year , Mark Ruffalo , Chris Evans , Samuel L. Jackson , Chris Hemsworth , Scarlett Johansson , Jeremy Renner and Cobie Smulders were confirmed to be returning to their roles from the first film , and Don Cheadle , who portrayed James Rhodes in the Iron Man films , had committed to a part in the film . In the early months of 2014 , Thomas Kretschmann was cast as Baron Wolfgang von Strucker , Claudia Kim was cast in an unspecified role , and Paul Bettany , who voiced J.A.R.V.I.S. in previous MCU films , was cast as the Vision . Whedon said " juggling " all the characters in the film was " a nightmare " explaining , " They 're very disparate characters . The joy of the Avengers is they really don 't belong in the same room . It 's not like the X @-@ Men , who are all tortured by the same thing and have similar costumes . These guys are just all over the place . And so it 's tough . Honestly , this is as tough as anything I 've ever done . "
On January 24 , 2014 , the Forte di Bard Association announced that filming would take place at Fort Bard in the Aosta Valley region of Italy in March 2014 , as well as other locations in Aosta Valley including Aosta , Bard , Donnas , Pont @-@ Saint @-@ Martin , and Verrès . The next month , the Gauteng Film Commission announced that action sequences would be filmed in Johannesburg , South Africa and other locations in Gauteng , beginning in mid @-@ February . A few weeks later Marvel announced that portions of the film would be shot in South Korea . Feige cited the nation 's " cutting @-@ edge technology , beautiful landscapes and spectacular architecture " as ideal for the film . The nation 's capital , Seoul , and Seoul 's surrounding province , Gyeonggi , were selected as filming locations , with South Korea 's Ministry of Culture , Sports and Tourism reimbursing up to 30 % of the studio 's expenditures , as part of a state @-@ funded incentive program .
= = = Filming = = =
Filming began on Tuesday , February 11 , 2014 in Johannesburg , South Africa , having been postponed that Monday . Second unit crews shot action sequences without the main cast , to be used as background plates for scenes featuring the Hulk , in the Central Business District of Johannesburg for a period of two weeks . By mid @-@ March , principal photography had begun at Shepperton Studios near London and was scheduled to film there for at least four months . Filming at Shepperton as well as other locations in England allowed Whedon to get a " number of different looks and textures and moods " to give the film a different palette and fresh aesthetic from its predecessor . Production designer Charles Wood built an enormous , new Avengers Tower set , one of the largest sets ever built for a Marvel film . The set featured multiple connected environments and levels . On March 22 , production moved to Fort Bard , Italy and continued in the Aosta Valley region through March 28 . The region doubled as the fictional Eastern European nation of Sokovia , with crews replacing local storefronts with Cyrillic script . Filming in South Korea began on March 30 on the Mapo Bridge , and continued through April 14 at various locations in Seoul . While in Seoul , the production was able to attach cameras to drones and race cars to get unique camera angles and footage . An artificial island on the Han River known as the Saebit Dungdungseom served as the headquarters of an IT institute featured in the film . Scenes involving Ultron 's attack on parts of the city were shot in the Gangnam District .
In April , shooting began in Hawley Woods in Hampshire , England , and Hayley Atwell , who played Peggy Carter in previous MCU films , filmed scenes inside the Rivoli Ballroom in London while extras performed the Lindy Hop . That June , scenes were shot at the University of East Anglia in Norwich and at Dover Castle in Kent , with Dover Castle used for interior shots of Strucker 's Hydra base in Sokovia . The next month , filming took place at a training facility for London 's Metropolitan Police Service , which doubled as a city in Sokovia . Additional filming took place in Chittagong , Bangladesh , including the Chittagong Ship Breaking Yard , and in New York . On August 6 , Whedon announced on social media that he had completed principal photography on Avengers : Age of Ultron . Disney spent $ 330 @.@ 6 million on Avengers : Age of Ultron from February 2013 to November 2014 , but $ 50 @.@ 7 million of this was offset by payments from the UK tax authority . A report on actual production costs for films from FilmL.A. Inc . , indicated a gross budget of $ 316 million , with a net of $ 267 @.@ 4 million for Avengers : Age of Ultron .
Cinematographer Ben Davis , who also worked with Marvel on Guardians of the Galaxy , shot the film with a main unit of three Arri Alexa cameras . Davis said , " Although the Alexa was Marvel 's preferred camera , we weren 't locked into that choice from the start . What wasn 't negotiable was the fact that we were shooting digital : that 's how Marvel shoots all of its films . " Davis also used Blackmagic Design 's Pocket Cinema Cameras to meet the needs of the second unit kit explaining , " The second unit typically needs a fleet of smaller cameras that are less expensive and are rugged enough to handle the various trials by fire , as it were , that we throw at them . " About the camera system , Whedon stated that this film was shot very differently from the first one ; using lots of long lenses , and that he aimed to shoot the film almost like a documentary . To create the scenes depicting how Quicksilver views the world , scenes were shot with an ultra @-@ high @-@ speed camera and later combined with shots of Taylor @-@ Johnson moving through the same scene at normal speed .
= = = Post @-@ production = = =
In June 2014 , the IMAX Corporation announced that the IMAX release of the film would be converted to IMAX 3D . Following the completion of principal photography several more cast members were revealed including Stellan Skarsgård , Anthony Mackie , Idris Elba and Tom Hiddleston , who all reprise their roles from previous MCU films . However , Hiddleston 's scenes did not make the theatrical cut of the film , with Whedon saying what was shot " didn 't play " and he did not want the film to feel " overstuffed " . According to Hiddleston , " In test screenings , audiences had overemphasized Loki 's role , so they thought that because I was in it , I was controlling Ultron , and it was actually imbalancing people 's expectations . " Whedon later explained that Elba and Atwell appear in the film because of exploring the psyches of the Avengers from Scarlet Witch 's power . In December 2014 , Kim 's role was revealed as Dr. Helen Cho . Additional scenes were scheduled to be filmed in January 2015 at Pinewood Studios . In February 2015 , Marvel confirmed through promotional material that Serkis portrays Ulysses Klaue in the film . In early April 2015 , Linda Cardellini and Julie Delpy were confirmed to be part of the film 's cast . At the same time , Whedon stated that the film would not contain a post @-@ credits scene , which had become customary for MCU films . Whedon tried to come up with a post @-@ credit scene but felt that he could not top the " Shawarma scene " in The Avengers explaining , " It didn 't seem to lend itself in the same way , and we wanted to be true to what felt right . The first rule of making a sequel is take the best moments and do something else . Don 't do the Indiana Jones gun trick again differently . Just go somewhere else . Don 't try to hit the same highs , because people will sense it . " However Feige clarified , " There will be a tag [ shortly after the credits start ] . But there 's not a post @-@ post @-@ credit scene . "
In May 2015 , Whedon revealed he was in conflict with Marvel executives and the film 's editors about certain scenes in the film . The executives were not " thrilled " with the scenes at Hawkeye 's farm or the dream sequences the Avengers experience because of Scarlet Witch . Also , Whedon had originally shot a much longer scene with Thor and Selvig in the cave , compromising with including a reduced amount of the total footage shot , as test audiences did not respond to it . In the scene , Thor would be possessed by a Norn , a goddess of destiny , while Selvig would quiz her about Thor 's hallucination . Additionally , Whedon reiterated he had wanted to include Captain Marvel and Spider @-@ Man at the end , but deals for each character ( signing of an actress and a deal with Sony Pictures Entertainment , respectively ) were not completed in time for their inclusion .
The film contains 3 @,@ 000 visual effects shots , completed by ten different visual effects studios , including Industrial Light & Magic ( ILM ) , Trixter , Double Negative , Animal Logic , Framestore , Lola VFX , Territory , Perception , Method Studios , Luma Pictures and The Third Floor . ILM opened a facility in London , citing Avengers : Age of Ultron as a catalyst for the expansion , and developed a new motion capture system for the film called Muse , which can better capture an actor 's performance and combine different takes . About the motion capture process , Ruffalo called it " more of a collaboration " since the technology is advancing , with " the face capture and the motion capture can now [ being ] put together , [ allowing ] you [ to ] get a lot more latitude as a performer ... you 're no longer constricted by the attributes that you have as a person : your age , or weight , or size . None of that matters anymore . And so there 's this whole exciting place to go that is kind of unknown . " Visual effects supervisor Christopher Townsend said that the visual effects team considered depicting the Hulk when manipulated by Wanda Maximoff as being grey skinned with red eyes , but eventually decided against it , as they did not want to confuse audiences who might associate it with " Joe Fixit " , the grey Hulk from the comics .
Method Studios created the interior of the new Avengers training facility by digitally designing the training facility , extracting the characters from the original set and placing them into the new CG environment . Method also contributed to Iron Man 's new Mark 45 suit and played a key role in creating Scarlet Witch 's CG mind control effect . Following the trend in recent years , most of the computer screens in Stark 's lab , Dr Cho 's laboratory , the Quinjet and other locations in the film were not added in post @-@ production but were actually working screens on set , adding to the realism of the film and saving some on the post @-@ production budget . London @-@ based Territory Studio delivered the screen visuals filled with unique imagery and animations that matched the character using them . Perception worked on the main @-@ on @-@ end and main titles for the film . Before settling on the marble monument depiction for the main @-@ on @-@ end titles , Perception created three other versions , which were based on Ultron 's hive mind ability from the film , " renderings of power and pure energy " inspired by classic comic panels , and classic moments for each character . The final design was inspired by war monuments such as the Iwo Jima memorial . For the main titles , Marvel wanted the typeface to be a direct continuation of the first film . Perception made the typeface a marble texture to mimic the main @-@ on @-@ end titles and changed the title 's rotation ( away from the camera instead of towards the camera in The Avengers ) , before " Age of Ultron " overtakes " Avengers " in a vibranium texture .
= = Music = =
In March 2014 , Brian Tyler signed on to compose the film 's score , replacing the composer for the first film , Alan Silvestri , while also marking his third film collaboration with Marvel following Iron Man 3 and Thor : The Dark World in 2013 . Tyler stated that the score pays homage to John Williams ' scores for Star Wars , Superman , and Raiders of the Lost Ark and references the scores for the Iron Man , Thor , and Captain America films in order to create a similar musical universe , saying , " That 's the goal for sure . You have to build in nostalgia and do it upfront so you can relate to it . " Danny Elfman also contributed music to the score , using Silvestri 's theme from the first film to create a new hybrid theme . Hollywood Records released the album digitally on April 28 , 2015 , and in physical formats on May 19 .
= = Release = =
Avengers : Age of Ultron made its world premiere at the Dolby Theatre in Hollywood on April 13 , 2015 , and held its European premiere on April 21 at the Vue West End in London . The film was released in 11 territories on April 22 , with its release jumping to 55 % of its international market ( 44 countries ) by the end of its first weekend , before the North American release on May 1 , in 3D and IMAX 3D . In North America , the film opened in 4 @,@ 276 theaters , including 2 @,@ 761 3D theaters , 364 IMAX , 400 premium large format , and 143 D @-@ Box theaters . Many independent theater owners in Germany ( approximately 700 screens ) boycotted the film in response to Disney raising its rental fee from 47 @.@ 7 % to 53 % of ticket sales . The owners felt that the " increased fees , coupled with the cost of digitization , and rising staff and marketing costs may force some of them out of business . "
In September 2014 , TNT acquired the US cable broadcast rights , for broadcast two years after its theatrical release . On March 4 , 2015 , ticket pre @-@ sales for the film began . Variety noted , " The two @-@ month gap between advance sales and the release is much wider than normal and reflects the heavy fan anticipation for " the film .
= = = Marketing = = =
At the 2013 San Diego Comic @-@ Con International , Whedon introduced a teaser trailer for the film , which included a look at an Ultron helmet and a title treatment . Footage of the teaser , as well as a brief interview with Whedon , was made available as part of Iron Man 3 's second screen companion app for its Blu @-@ ray release on September 24 , 2013 . On March 18 , 2014 , ABC aired a one @-@ hour television special titled , Marvel Studios : Assembling a Universe , which included a sneak peek of Avengers : Age of Ultron . The special debuted concept art for Quicksilver and Scarlet Witch , as well as art of the Hulk fighting the " Hulkbuster " Iron Man suit . Harley @-@ Davidson partnered with Marvel to provide their first electric motorcycle , Project LiveWire , for use by Black Widow in the film . At the 2014 San Diego Comic @-@ Con , the cast was introduced to promote the film , along with screening footage from the film . Avengers : Age of Ultron received the second most amount of social media mentions at the convention , following Batman v Superman : Dawn of Justice , but had a higher intend @-@ to @-@ see response .
The first trailer was scheduled to premiere during the airing of an episode of Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. on October 28 , 2014 . However , on October 22 , the trailer leaked online , and within a few hours Marvel officially released the trailer on YouTube . Entertainment Weekly and The Hollywood Reporter noted the effective use of the song " I 've Got No Strings " from Pinocchio ( 1940 ) in the trailer . Scott Mendelson of Forbes felt the trailer was " such a textbook ' dark sequel ' trailer that it borders on parody " but said , " it 's a pretty spectacular piece of marketing , one that elevates itself both by the music choices and by James Spader 's vocals as the title villain " . The trailer received 34 @.@ 3 million global views in 24 hours , 26 @.@ 2 million from Marvel 's YouTube channel , which broke the previous record held by Iron Man 3 with 23 @.@ 14 million views . In comparison , the original Avengers teaser received 20 @.@ 4 million views in 24 hours after its debut . In response , Marvel agreed to air footage from Age of Ultron during the episode of Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. that was originally scheduled to premiere the trailer . At the end of October , Marvel Comic 's Editor @-@ in @-@ Chief Axel Alonso stated there were comic tie @-@ in plans for the film .
In November 2014 , ABC aired another one @-@ hour television special titled Marvel 75 Years : From Pulp to Pop ! , which featured behind the scenes footage of Age of Ultron . Also in November , an extended trailer debuted on Samsung Mobile 's YouTube channel , featuring product placement for various Samsung devices . In December 2014 , additional behind the scenes footage was released as a special feature on the Guardians of the Galaxy BIu @-@ ray , highlighting the various filming locations for the film . Also in the month , ABC announced that an episode of Marvel 's Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. would tie @-@ in to the events of the film . The episodes " The Frenemy of My Enemy " and " The Dirty Half Dozen " feature " Easter eggs , plot threads and other connective tissue leading into the opening scene of Avengers : Age of Ultron " while " Scars " explores the aftermath of the film .
In January 2015 , a featurette focusing on Ultron was shown at Samsung 's " Night With Marvel " event at the 2015 Consumer Electronics Show ( CES ) . Also at CES , Samsung revealed a selection of hardware inspired by the Avengers films , as well as a simulation of Avengers Tower via its Gear VR virtual reality device . A second trailer premiered on ESPN on January 12 , 2015 during the broadcast of the 2015 College Football Playoff National Championship . Mendelson enjoyed the trailer , but wished it did not reveal as many story elements as it did . However , he added , " the marketing thus far [ for the film ] has been far superior to much of what sold The Avengers three years ago , both in terms of the specific footage and the artistic choices being made ... I 'm sold , and I imagine most of the general moviegoers are already onboard too . "
On February 3 , 2014 , Marvel " stealth released " a one @-@ shot tie @-@ in comic , Avengers : Age of Ultron Prelude — This Scepter 'd Isle . Written by Will Corona Pilgrim and illustrated by Wellinton Alves , it reveals how Strucker came into possession of Loki 's scepter and the origin of the Maximoff twins ' abilities . At the end of the month , the film 's official poster was revealed . Graeme McMillian of The Hollywood Reporter criticized it for its lack of originality , calling it " pretty much the poster for the first Avengers movie , except with added flying robots in the background " and the fact that it incorporated many of the same tropes the other MCU Phase Two film posters did . These included : the hero ( es ) staring off camera ; destruction in the background as well as something occurring in the sky ; and poor Photoshop on the poster , highlighting the fact that each of the actors were obviously photographed separately and were later composited together into the poster . Mendelson agreed with many of McMillian 's observations , and called the poster " hilariously photoshopped " .
The final trailer was " unlocked " by fans on March 4 , 2015 , via the use of hashtags on Twitter , ahead of its broadcast debut during the series premiere of American Crime on March 5 . Mendelson felt " this [ was ] a fine final trailer , teasing what we already know , hinting at the scale and a few new action beats without telling us much we don 't already know " adding , " Here we have the fourth and final Avengers : Age of Ultron trailer and we don 't know all that much about what transpires in a moment @-@ to @-@ moment sense in the finished 150 @-@ minute feature . I have expressed my concern dating back to October that Marvel and Disney would release too many trailers and would by default give away too much plot and character information between October and May . But if this really is the final Avengers 2 trailer , then at least on the trailer front they have kept the film relatively unspoiled . " A week after the final trailer debuted , Marvel revealed that the trailer had " smashed records " with over 35 million views .
In April 2015 , members of the cast presented Downey with the MTV Generation Award at the 2015 MTV Movie Awards , along with debuting an exclusive clip from the film . On April 27 , Downey and Renner along with executives from Marvel Entertainment rang the opening bell of the New York Stock Exchange in celebration of the film 's theatrical release . Disney spent a total of $ 26 @.@ 9 million on television advertisements for the film , from an estimated total marketing budget of $ 180 million .
= = = = Merchandise = = = =
In January 2015 , Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment and Traveller 's Tales announced a Lego video game adaptation of the first film and Age of Ultron for release in late 2015 on a variety of video game consoles . In March 2015 , Disney said it planned to broaden its merchandising strategy with Avengers : Age of Ultron by expanding the target demographics to women and to fans of the individual superheroes that make up the Avengers . Paul Gitter , senior vice president of Marvel licensing for Disney Consumer Products , said , " For the first film , we primarily focused on the Avengers property and the group shots ... Now we 're broadening the line and scope to create skews that focus on the team and the individuals characters , as well . " Disney Consumer Products partnered with Hasbro , Lego , Hot Wheels and Funko for action figures , playsets and other toys , and with Under Armour for apparel . Disney established new partnerships in the food and packaged @-@ goods categories , including with Sage Fruit , ConAgra , Crunchpak and Chobani . Walt Disney India 's consumer products partnered with 50 brands to promote the film in India , considered the highest ever for any film — Hollywood or Bollywood — released in India ( the previous record held by Ra.One had 25 partners ) . Some of the brands include Amazon India , toy retailer Hamleys India , online fashion store Myntra , Hero Cycles , Mountain Dew , Liberty Shoes , Tupperware , and Subway restaurants among others .
= = = Home media = = =
Avengers : Age of Ultron was released by Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment on digital download on September 8 , 2015 and on Blu @-@ ray and DVD on October 2 , 2015 . The digital and Blu @-@ ray releases include behind @-@ the @-@ scenes featurettes , audio commentary , deleted scenes and a blooper reel . The film was also collected in a 13 @-@ disc box set , titled " Marvel Cinematic Universe : Phase Two Collection " , which includes all of the Phase Two films in the Marvel Cinematic Universe . It was released on December 8 , 2015 . In July 2015 , Whedon stated that he did not intend on releasing a director 's cut of Avengers : Age of Ultron because despite the film 's complexity , he was satisfied with the theatrical version and did not think it needed to be tweaked .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
Avengers : Age of Ultron grossed $ 459 million in North America and $ 946 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $ 1 @.@ 405 billion . It is the seventh highest @-@ grossing film worldwide and the fourth highest @-@ grossing 2015 film . Avengers : Age of Ultron 's worldwide opening of $ 392 @.@ 5 million is the seventh @-@ largest ever . The film set a worldwide IMAX opening @-@ weekend record with $ 25 @.@ 2 million ( previously held by The Dark Knight Rises ) and also broke the record for the fastest movie to make over $ 40 million in IMAX theaters , doing so in 12 days . According to some analysts , the opening weekend box office gross was lower than expected because of the weekend 's featured boxing match between Floyd Mayweather and Manny Pacquiao . Deadline.com calculated the net profit of the film to be $ 382 @.@ 32 million , when factoring together " production budgets , P & A , talent participations and other costs , with box office grosses , and ancillary revenues from VOD to DVD and TV , " placing it fourth on their list of 2015 's " Most Valuable Blockbusters " .
On May 15 , 2015 , Avengers : Age of Ultron became the twenty @-@ first film in cinematic history , the third Marvel Studios film and the eighth film distributed by Disney to cross the $ 1 billion threshold at the box office .
= = = = North America = = = =
Avengers : Age of Ultron earned $ 84 @.@ 46 million on its opening day , marking the biggest opening day for a superhero film and the second @-@ biggest opening and second @-@ biggest single @-@ day gross , behind Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2 ( $ 91 @.@ 7 million ) . The film 's Friday gross included $ 27 @.@ 6 million from Thursday night , which began at 7 p.m. , and was the sixth @-@ highest ever for Thursday preview earnings and the highest among Marvel films . The film totaled $ 191 @.@ 3 million in its opening weekend , the third @-@ highest gross behind Jurassic World ( $ 208 @.@ 8 million ) and The Avengers ( $ 207 @.@ 4 million ) . It also saw the second @-@ highest IMAX opening weekend total with $ 18 million ( behind The Dark Knight Rises ) , a record $ 13 @.@ 5 million from premium large format theaters and the highest share for the first weekend in May , accounting for 85 % of the top twelve box office total earnings ( previously held by Spider @-@ Man 3 ) . Of those in attendance the first weekend , 59 % were male , 41 % were female and 59 % were over the age of 25 .
In its second weekend , the film fell 59 % , earning $ 77 @.@ 7 million , which was the second @-@ biggest second weekend gross behind The Avengers ' $ 103 million ( both were surpassed a month later by Jurassic World 's $ 106 @.@ 6 million ) . It holds the record for the second biggest loss between first and second weekends with $ 113 @.@ 6 million , only behind Deathly Hallows – Part 2 's $ 121 million loss between its first and second weekends in 2011 . As of July 24 , 2016 , it is the tenth @-@ highest domestic @-@ grossing film , and the third highest of 2015 .
= = = = Outside North America = = = =
Avengers : Age of Ultron earned $ 200 @.@ 2 million in its first weekend from 44 countries , opening in first in all , which was 44 % above its predecessor 's opening . Additionally , the film saw the largest non @-@ China international IMAX opening with $ 10 @.@ 4 million . The top earning countries were South Korea ( $ 28 @.@ 2 million ) , the UK ( $ 27 @.@ 3 million ) and Russia ( $ 16 @.@ 2 million ) . The film broke records in many countries , including : opening @-@ day records in Mexico ( $ 6 @.@ 8 million ) , the Philippines ( $ 1 @.@ 6 million ) and Indonesia ( $ 900 @,@ 000 ) ; opening @-@ weekend records in Mexico ( $ 25 @.@ 5 million ) , Russia and the CIS ( $ 16 @.@ 2 million ) , Hong Kong ( $ 6 @.@ 4 million ) and the Philippines ( $ 7 @.@ 7 million ) ; and highest opening weekend for a superhero film in the UK , Ireland and Malta ( $ 27 @.@ 3 million ) , Germany ( $ 9 @.@ 3 million ) , Sweden , Norway , and the Netherlands .
In the UK , where Age of Ultron was filmed , it earned $ 5 @.@ 4 million on its opening day and $ 27 @.@ 3 million during the weekend , setting an opening @-@ weekend record for a superhero film , Marvel 's biggest opening in Britain , the biggest April opening , the eighth @-@ biggest debut . It also set the best single @-@ day earning for a Disney and superhero film with its $ 9 @.@ 4 million haul on Saturday . In South Korea , also where part of the film was shot , the film earned $ 4 @.@ 9 million on its opening day and $ 28 @.@ 2 through the weekend . It held the record for advance @-@ ticket sales rate , accounting for 96 % of tickets reserved , breaking Transformers : Dark of the Moon 's record of 94 @.@ 6 % in 2011 , the widest release ever , across 1 @,@ 826 screens , also breaking Dark of the Moon 's 1 @,@ 420 screens , and the fastest imported film to surpass one million admissions , doing so in two days ; it topped the box office for three consecutive weekends , and became the biggest Disney / Marvel release as well as the second biggest Western film in the country . The Chinese opening scored the biggest weekday opening day , as well as the biggest Disney / Marvel opening , with $ 33 @.@ 9 million , and the second @-@ biggest six @-@ day start with $ 156 @.@ 3 million ( behind Furious 7 ) of which $ 17 @.@ 5 million came from IMAX theaters — the biggest ever .
As of January 3 , 2016 , it is the seventh highest @-@ grossing film , and the fourth highest @-@ grossing 2015 film . Additionally , the film 's largest markets as of July 17 , 2015 are : China ( $ 240 @.@ 1 million ) , South Korea ( $ 80 @.@ 5 million ) , and the UK , Ireland and Malta ( $ 76 @.@ 6 million ) .
= = = Critical response = = =
The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 75 % approval rating with an average rating of 6 @.@ 7 / 10 based on 302 reviews . The website 's consensus reads , " Exuberant and eye @-@ popping , Avengers : Age of Ultron serves as an overstuffed but mostly satisfying sequel , reuniting its predecessor 's unwieldy cast with a few new additions and a worthy foe . " On Metacritic , the film achieved an average score of 66 out of 100 , based on 49 critics , signifying " generally favorable reviews " . CinemaScore reported that audiences gave the film an " A " grade on an A + to F scale .
Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter said , " Avengers : Age of Ultron succeeds in the top priority of creating a worthy opponent for its superheroes and giving the latter a few new things to do , but this time the action scenes don 't always measure up . " Scott Foundas of Variety wrote , " If this is what the apotheosis of branded , big @-@ studio entertainment has come to look like in 2015 , we could be doing much worse . Unlike its title character , Age of Ultron most definitely has soul . " Writing for the Chicago Sun @-@ Times and giving the film three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half out of four stars , Richard Roeper said , " Some day , an Avengers film might collapse under the weight of its own awesomeness . I mean , how many times can they save the world ? But this is not that day . " Peter Travers of Rolling Stone wrote , " Age of Ultron is a whole summer of fireworks packed into one movie . It doesn 't just go to 11 , it starts there . [ Joss Whedon ] takes a few wrong turns , creating a jumble when the action gets too thick . But he recovers like a pro , devising a spectacle that 's epic in every sense of the word . " Matt Zoller Seitz of RogerEbert.com , who in the past grieved of the reliance on formula by most superhero films , gave the film three out of four stars and stated that despite being " bigger , louder and more disjointed " than its predecessor , " it ’ s also got more personality — specifically Whedon ’ s — than any other film in the now seven @-@ year @-@ old franchise . "
Conversely , Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times said , " Although this movie is effective moment to moment , very little of it lingers in the mind afterward . The ideal vehicle for our age of immediate sensation and instant gratification , it disappears without a trace almost as soon as it 's consumed . " Scott Mendelson of Forbes said , " Avengers : Age of Ultron plays like an obligation , a box to be checked off on a list before all parties move onto the things they really want to do . " Manohla Dargis of The New York Times wrote , " This Avengers doesn 't always pop the way that the first one sometimes did , partly because its villain isn 't as memorable , despite Mr. Spader 's silky threat . " Camilla Long of The Sunday Times remarked , " Two hours of boredom and boobs add up to a sorry basis for the new Avengers . " Much like the release of Guardians of the Galaxy , the film received mixed reviews upon release in China , due to poor translations . The translations , which were said to be too literal , were thought " to have been done by Google Translate . "
= = = Accolades = = =
In December 2015 , the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences placed Avengers : Age of Ultron on their shortlist of potential nominees for the Academy Award for Best Visual Effects at the 88th Academy Awards , but ultimately did not nominate it for the award .
= = Sequels = =
The two @-@ part Avengers : Infinity War will be directed by Anthony and Joe Russo , from a script by Christopher Markus & Stephen McFeely . Part 1 is scheduled to be released on May 4 , 2018 , with Part 2 scheduled for May 3 , 2019 . Downey , Evans , Hemsworth , Hiddleston , Ruffalo , Renner , and Brolin are expected to reprise their roles as Iron Man , Captain America , Thor , Loki , Hulk , Hawkeye , and Thanos , respectively , in the films . Chris Pratt , who played Peter Quill / Star @-@ Lord in Guardians of the Galaxy and its sequel , will also appear in the films .
= Fame Kills : Starring Kanye West and Lady Gaga =
Fame Kills : Starring Kanye West and Lady Gaga was a planned co @-@ headlining concert tour by American rapper Kanye West and singer Lady Gaga . For the tour , which would have supported West 's fourth album 808s & Heartbreak ( 2008 ) and Gaga 's The Fame Monster EP ( 2009 ) , the pair conceived a production that would unite their different musical audiences . The tour was scheduled to run from November 2009 to January 2010 , but was canceled after public controversy regarding West 's interruption of Taylor Swift 's Best Female Video speech at the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards . Shortly after the cancellation , Gaga embarked on her own tour , The Monster Ball Tour , while West took a break from his career .
= = Background and development = =
In June 2009 , West announced on The View he would be touring with Gaga , but she would not perform as an opening act . " She 's talented and so incredible that she 's not an opening act , " he said . " We 're doing it together , with no opening act . " In August , Gaga expressed her belief that the tour would be " one of the most groundbreaking moments in touring history . " Before the singer agreed to collaborate with West , she demanded that the tour would remain accessible to her gay fans . " I 'm gay , " she recalled telling West in an interview with Out magazine , " my music is gay . My show is gay . And I love that it 's gay . And I love my gay fans and they 're all going to be coming to our show . And it 's going to remain gay . "
The tour 's stage was designed by Gaga and West as a traverse ; " Instead of being on just one end of the arena , the stage traverses the entire arena , " Gaga noted . " It 's not really in @-@ the @-@ round ; it 's more of a runway . " The concept of the tour was to feature the performers on opposite ends of the stage , with Gaga 's end representing " home and humble beginnings " and West 's end representing " the fame , " with the two fighting for each other 's positions throughout the show . West would perform his singles , Gaga would perform hers , and then the duo would perform several duets .
Gaga said she enjoyed designing Fame Kills with West , calling themselves " creative kindreds . " She explained that they did not plan to tour for themselves , but rather for " everybody else " ; the goal of the tour would have been to bring two different groups of fans and music enthusiasts together . " I make pop music and Kanye 's fans love pop music because he has changed what hip @-@ hop means , " she said . " For me , the tour is more about just bringing people together and having a big dance party . The show is a celebration of creativity , art , fashion and choreography . " She also noted that West showed her a lot during the creative planning of the show , such as one instance where Gaga wanted to put side panels on the stage that would have obstructed the view for some fans . " He was like , ' I 'm not selling a ticket to a fan who can 't see the show , ' and he 's right , " she said .
A promotional video for the tour was released in September 2009 . West posted the video on his blog accompanied by the text , " What happened to all the rock stars ? The fame killed them ! " The 30 @-@ second clip features slow @-@ motion footage of a topless Gaga being carried by a man presumed to be West . Daniel Kreps from Rolling Stone described it as " soft 70s porn " , while adding that he had " no idea what [ the text in the video ] has to do with the 30 @-@ second clip , but we 're sure it 'll start to make more sense as more promos roll out as we approach the tour 's launch . "
= = Cancellation = =
Following singer Taylor Swift 's win for the music video " You Belong with Me " at the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards for Best Female Video , West stormed the stage , grabbed Swift 's microphone , and declared that singer Beyoncé deserved the award for her " Single Ladies ( Put a Ring on It ) " video . He declared , " Yo , Taylor , I 'm really happy for you , and I 'm going to let you finish , but Beyoncé had one of the best videos of all time . " West was profusely criticized from celebrities and fans alike over the incident . Following the interruption , the status of Fame Kills was rumored to be in question . A representative from an US urban radio station commented : " I think this could potentially affect his upcoming tour with Lady Gaga . This isn 't an urban tour — urban audiences can be a bit more forgiving than mainstream audiences are . I can see him going on stage and people booing him . It 's unfortunate . " Less than a week after the ticket sales began , the tour was canceled but no reason was given .
Various reasons circulated as to why the tour was canceled . It was suspected that it was canceled due to extremely poor ticket sales , feuding between Gaga and West 's management teams , and Gaga 's desire to play in smaller venues . Gaga 's choreographer , Laurieann Gibson , said the tour was terminated due to " creative differences " between Gaga and West . West said that , among other consequences , the VMA incident led him to cancel a " tour with the number one pop star in the world . " Gaga claimed that the cancellation was a mutual decision , and added that she would soon embark on her own headlining tour , The Monster Ball Tour in the coming weeks , while West would be taking a break . In 2016 , West claimed that Gaga had been solely responsible for canceling the tour .
Gaga was scheduled to begin The Monster Ball Tour in March 2010 , but following the cancellation of Fame Kills , The Monster Ball Tour began in November 2009 . Gaga said that while she was inspired by what she and West had planned to do with the Fame Kills tour , she decided not to use any of the ideas and concepts they created together , citing integrity as her reason .
= = Scheduled tour dates = =
All tour dates were canceled .
= You 're Whole =
You 're Whole is an American satirical television series created by Michael Ian Black for Adult Swim . The show parodies self @-@ help infomercials and stars Black as the host , Randall Tyree Mandersohn . In it , Mandersohn advertises his systems of objects and actions designed to help people with their issues . It was the production of Abominable Pictures , with which Black originally consulted with the premise of the show in mind . Meanwhile , Michael Showalter , longtime collaborator of Black , served as the director .
The show originally ran from November 5 , 2012 to December 2 , 2013 , airing two seasons and totaling eight episodes . Both seasons were broadcast at 4 : 00 a.m. as part of DVR Theater on Adult Swim . On air , it was promoted as a series of genuine infomercials . Critical reception was positive , with many praising Black 's performance . A live performance was held at the 2014 SF Sketchfest , also positively received .
= = Synopsis and production = =
You 're Whole is presented as a parody of self @-@ help infomercials . Each episode is advertised as part of a larger DVD set , consisting of 27 discs . The show features Michael Ian Black as the host , Randall Tyree Mandersohn : a " totally blind " , volleyball @-@ obsessed , self @-@ help guru . Along with his wife , Pam ( Cathy Shim ) , Mandersohn aims to help people using his bizarre , convoluted systems of objects and actions . The show was directed by Michael Showalter , a longtime collaborator of Black . Actor Crista Flanagan indicated that the second season was filmed as recently as August 2013 .
In a June 2014 interview with the Detroit Metro Times , Black stated that no further seasons would be produced . Writing retrospectively the amount of research put into the show , Black stated that he " didn 't spend a lot of time thinking about it " , as it would have spoiled " some of the stupidity " , joking that " I 'm nothing if not stupid " . Abominable Pictures producer David Soldinger later wrote that Black had come to the company with the idea in mind , and that , with their other parody infomercial Swords , Knives , Very Sharp Objects and Cutlery , " it was a happy marriage " between their company and Adult Swim .
= = = Live performance = = =
A live performance of the show was given at the 2014 SF Sketchfest on January 31 . In addition to acting , Black and Showalter interlaced it with clips from the show . Art Siriwatt of The Daily Californian observed Showalter to be the " straight man " to Black 's antics , with both frequently breaking character . He gave the performance a positive review , writing that " the result was a concise , lighthearted performance that was faithful to the show . "
= = Broadcast and reception = =
The show premiered on November 5 , 2012 on Adult Swim ; two seasons have been broadcast , totaling eight episodes . Advertised as a series of genuine infomercials , both seasons were broadcast at 4 a.m. , as part of the network 's DVR Theater block . The early @-@ morning timeslot was chosen since infomercials usually air during such hours . The first episode was published on YouTube the day after its premiere . One critic — Eliot Glazer of Vulture — called the early morning time slot " terrible " , directing readers toward online distribution . Although the show premiered during a graveyard slot in U.S. dayparting , nearly one million viewers ( 993 @,@ 000 ) saw it on air . The second season premiere marked a slight increase in viewers ( 996 @,@ 000 ) , while both maintained a Nielsen rating of 0 @.@ 7 .
Critical reception was positive , with many reviewers praising Black 's performance and the satirizing of American self @-@ help gurus , as conveyed through his casual racism and cultural appropriation of foreign rituals . Erik Adams of The A.V. Club found that the show conveys itself " in a manner familiar to anyone who 's ever killed time before daylight by flipping through their cable package . " Britt Hayes of ScreenCrush called the show " absolutely fantastic " and Black 's portrayal " spot @-@ on " . Similarly , Aisha Harris of Slate wrote that Black 's performance was " wonderfully committed " , while the show " has pretty much every common trope of the self @-@ help craze covered " , citing the appropriation of foreign customs for Western audiences as " perhaps the most scathing treatment " .
Meanwhile , Kelly West of Television Blend highlighted some of the more surreal systems , calling the diet in the premiere episode " a winner " . For Splitsider , Bradford Evans dubbed the show " a more mainstream version " of Paid Programming , an unsuccessful pilot that was also pitched as a mock @-@ infomercial . He found that starring Black , " recognizable as a comedic actor , " would lead to its success , whereas the former preferred to use unknown actors instead .
= = Episodes = =
= = = Season 1 ( 2012 ) = = =
= = = Season 2 ( 2013 ) = = =
= Calvin and Hobbes =
Calvin and Hobbes is a daily comic strip by American cartoonist Bill Watterson that was syndicated from November 18 , 1985 to December 31 , 1995 . Commonly cited as " the last great newspaper comic , " Calvin and Hobbes has evinced broad and enduring popularity , influence , and academic interest .
Calvin and Hobbes follows the humorous antics of Calvin , a precocious , mischievous , and adventurous six @-@ year @-@ old boy , and Hobbes , his sardonic stuffed tiger . The pair is named after John Calvin , a 16th @-@ century French Reformation theologian , and Thomas Hobbes , a 17th @-@ century English political philosopher . Set in the contemporary , suburban United States , the strip depicts Calvin 's frequent flights of fancy and his friendship with Hobbes . It also examines Calvin 's relationships with family and classmates , especially the love / hate relationship between him and his classmate , Susie Derkins . Hobbes ' dual nature is a defining motif for the strip : to Calvin , Hobbes is a live anthropomorphic tiger ; all the other characters see Hobbes as an inanimate stuffed toy . Though the series does not mention specific political figures or current events , it does explore broad issues like environmentalism , public education , philosophical quandaries , and the flaws of opinion polls .
At the height of its popularity , Calvin and Hobbes was featured in over 2 @,@ 400 newspapers worldwide . In 2010 , reruns of the strip appeared in more than 50 countries , and nearly 45 million copies of the Calvin and Hobbes books had been sold .
= = History = =
Calvin and Hobbes was conceived when Bill Watterson , working in an advertising job he detested , began devoting his spare time to cartooning , his true love . He explored various strip ideas but all were rejected by the syndicates . United Feature Syndicate finally responded positively to one strip called Critturs , which featured a side character ( the main character 's little brother ) who had a stuffed tiger . Told that these characters were the strongest , Watterson began a new strip centered on them . Though United Feature rejected the new strip , Universal Press Syndicate eventually took it .
The first strip was published on November 18 , 1985 , and the series quickly became a hit . Within a year of syndication , the strip was published in roughly 250 newspapers . Before long the strip was in wide circulation outside the United States . By April 5 , 1987 , Watterson and his work were featured in an article in The Los Angeles Times . Calvin and Hobbes twice earned Watterson the Reuben Award from the National Cartoonists Society in the Outstanding Cartoonist of the Year category , first in 1986 and again in 1988 . He was nominated again in 1992 . The Society awarded him the Humor Comic Strip Award for 1988 . Calvin and Hobbes has also won several more awards .
Watterson took two extended breaks from writing new strips , from May 5 , 1991 , to February 1 , 1992 , and from April 3 through December 31 , 1994 . In 1995 , Watterson sent a letter via his syndicate to all editors whose newspapers carried his strip :
I will be stopping Calvin and Hobbes at the end of the year . This was not a recent or an easy decision , and I leave with some sadness . My interests have shifted however , and I believe I 've done what I can do within the constraints of daily deadlines and small panels . I am eager to work at a more thoughtful pace , with fewer artistic compromises . I have not yet decided on future projects , but my relationship with Universal Press Syndicate will continue .
That so many newspapers would carry Calvin and Hobbes is an honor I 'll long be proud of , and I 've greatly appreciated your support and indulgence over the last decade . Drawing this comic strip has been a privilege and a pleasure , and I thank you for giving me the opportunity .
The final strip ran on Sunday , December 31 , 1995 . It depicted Calvin and Hobbes outside in freshly fallen snow , reveling in the wonder and excitement of the winter scene . " It 's a magical world , Hobbes , ol ' buddy ... Let 's go exploring ! " Calvin exclaims as they zoom off over the snowy hills on their sled , leaving , according to one critic ten years later , " a hole in the comics page that no strip has been able to fill . "
= = = Syndication and formatting = = =
From the outset , Watterson found himself at odds with the syndicate , which urged him to begin merchandising the characters and touring the country to promote the first collections of comic strips . Watterson refused . To him , the integrity of the strip and its artist would be undermined by commercialization , which he saw as a major negative influence in the world of cartoon art .
Watterson also grew increasingly frustrated by the gradual shrinking of available space for comics in the newspapers . He lamented that without space for anything more than simple dialogue or sparse artwork , comics as an art form were becoming dilute , bland , and unoriginal . Watterson strove for a full @-@ page version of his strip , in contrast to the few cells allocated for most strips . He longed for the artistic freedom allotted to classic strips such as Little Nemo and Krazy Kat , and he gave a sample of what could be accomplished with such liberty in the opening pages of the Sunday strip compilation , The Calvin and Hobbes Lazy Sunday Book .
During Watterson 's first sabbatical from the strip , Universal Press Syndicate continued to charge newspapers full price to re @-@ run old Calvin and Hobbes strips . Few editors approved of the move , but the strip was so popular that they had little choice but to continue to run it for fear that competing newspapers might pick it up and draw its fans away .
Upon Watterson 's return , Universal Press announced that Watterson had decided to sell his Sunday strip as an unbreakable half of a newspaper or tabloid page . Many editors and even a few cartoonists criticized him for what they perceived as arrogance and an unwillingness to abide by the normal practices of the cartoon business . Watterson had negotiated the deal to allow himself more creative freedom in the Sunday comics :
I took a sabbatical after resolving a long and emotionally draining fight to prevent Calvin and Hobbes from being merchandised . Looking for a way to rekindle my enthusiasm for the duration of a new contract term , I proposed a redesigned Sunday format that would permit more panel flexibility . To my surprise and delight , Universal responded with an offer to market the strip as an unbreakable half page ( more space than I 'd dared to ask for ) , despite the expected resistance of editors .
To this day , my syndicate assures me that some editors liked the new format , appreciated the difference , and were happy to run the larger strip , but I think it 's fair to say that this was not the most common reaction . The syndicate had warned me to prepare for numerous cancellations of the Sunday feature , but after a few weeks of dealing with howling , purple @-@ faced editors , the syndicate suggested that papers could reduce the strip to the size tabloid newspapers used for their smaller sheets of paper . ... I focused on the bright side : I had complete freedom of design and there were virtually no cancellations .
For all the yelling and screaming by outraged editors , I remain convinced that the larger Sunday strip gave newspapers a better product and made the comics section more fun for readers . Comics are a visual medium . A strip with a lot of drawing can be exciting and add some variety . Proud as I am that I was able to draw a larger strip , I don 't expect to see it happen again any time soon . In the newspaper business , space is money , and I suspect most editors would still say that the difference is not worth the cost . Sadly , the situation is a vicious circle : because there 's no room for better artwork , the comics are simply drawn ; because they 're simply drawn , why should they have more room ?
= = = Animation = = =
Watterson did consider allowing Calvin and Hobbes to be animated , and has expressed admiration for the art form of animation . In a 1989 interview in The Comics Journal he said :
If you look at the old cartoons by Tex Avery and Chuck Jones , you 'll see that there are a lot of things single drawings just can 't do . Animators can get away with incredible distortion and exaggeration ... because the animator can control the length of time you see something . The bizarre exaggeration barely has time to register , and the viewer doesn 't ponder the incredible license he 's witnessed .
In a comic strip , you just show the highlights of action — you can 't show the buildup and release ... or at least not without slowing down the pace of everything to the point where it 's like looking at individual frames of a movie , in which case you 've probably lost the effect you were trying to achieve . In a comic strip , you can suggest motion and time , but it 's very crude compared to what an animator can do . I have a real awe for good animation .
After this he was asked if it was " a bit scary to think of hearing Calvin 's voice . " He responded that it was " very scary , " and that although he loved the visual possibilities of animation , the thought of casting voice actors to play his characters was uncomfortable . He was also unsure whether he wanted to work with an animation team , as he had done all previous work by himself . Ultimately , Calvin and Hobbes was never made into an animated series . Watterson later stated in The Calvin and Hobbes Tenth Anniversary Book that he liked the fact that his strip was a " low @-@ tech , one @-@ man operation , " and took great pride in the fact that he drew every line and wrote every word on his own .
= = Merchandising = =
Bill Watterson insists that cartoon strips should stand on their own as an art form , and has resisted the use of Calvin and Hobbes in merchandising of any sort . Watterson explained in a 2005 press release :
Actually , I wasn 't against all merchandising when I started the strip , but each product I considered seemed to violate the spirit of the strip , contradict its message , and take me away from the work I loved . If my syndicate had let it go at that , the decision would have taken maybe 30 seconds of my life .
Almost no legitimate Calvin and Hobbes merchandise exists outside the book collections . Exceptions produced during the strip 's original run include two 16 @-@ month calendars ( 1988 – 1989 and 1989 – 1990 ) , and the textbook Teaching with Calvin and Hobbes , which has been described as " perhaps the most difficult piece of official Calvin and Hobbes memorabilia to find . "
On July 16 , 2010 , the United States Postal Service released a set of postage stamps honoring five comic strips , one of them Calvin and Hobbes .
Uclick , the digital division of Andrews McMeel Universal , offers licensed prints of Calvin and Hobbes strips through its website .
The strip 's immense popularity has led to the appearance of various counterfeit items such as window decals and T @-@ shirts that often feature crude humor , binge drinking and other themes that are not found in Watterson 's work . Images from one strip in which Calvin and Hobbes dance to loud music at night were commonly used for copyright violations . After threat of a lawsuit alleging infringement of copyright and trademark , some sticker makers replaced Calvin with a different boy , while other makers made no changes . Watterson wryly commented , " I clearly miscalculated how popular it would be to show Calvin urinating on a Ford logo . "
= = Style and influences = =
The strip borrows several elements and themes from three major influences : Walt Kelly 's Pogo , George Herriman 's Krazy Kat , and Charles M. Schulz 's Peanuts . Schulz and Kelly particularly influenced Watterson 's outlook on comics during his formative years .
Notable elements of Watterson 's artistic style are his characters ' diverse and often exaggerated expressions ( particularly those of Calvin ) , elaborate and bizarre backgrounds for Calvin 's flights of imagination , expressions of motion , and frequent visual jokes and metaphors . In the later years of the strip , with more panel space available for his use , Watterson experimented more freely with different panel layouts , art styles , stories without dialogue , and greater use of whitespace . He also makes a point of not showing certain things explicitly : the " Noodle Incident " and the children 's book Hamster Huey and the Gooey Kablooie are left to the reader 's imagination , where Watterson was sure they would be " more outrageous " than he could portray .
Watterson 's technique started with minimalist pencil sketches drawn with a light pencil ( though the larger Sunday strips often required more elaborate work ) on a piece of Bristol board , with his brand of choice being Strathmore because he felt it held the drawings better on the page as opposed to the cheaper brands ( Watterson said he would use any cheap pad of Bristol board his local supply store had , but switched to Strathmore after he found himself growing more and more displeased with the results ) . He would then use a small sable brush and India ink to fill in the rest of the drawing , saying that he did not want to simply trace over his penciling and thus make the inking more spontaneous . He lettered dialogue with a Rapidograph fountain pen , and he used a crowquill pen for odds and ends . Mistakes were covered with various forms of correction fluid , including the type used on typewriters . Watterson was careful in his use of color , often spending a great deal of time in choosing the right colors to employ for the weekly Sunday strip ; his technique was to cut the color tabs the syndicate sent him into individual squares , lay out the colors , and then paint a watercolor approximation of the strip on tracing paper over the Bristol board and then mark the strip accordingly before sending it on . When Calvin and Hobbes began there were 64 colors available for the Sunday strips . For the later Sunday strips Watterson had 125 colors as well as the ability to fade the colors into each other .
= = = Art and academia = = =
Watterson used the strip to poke fun at the art world , principally through Calvin 's unconventional creations of snowmen but also through other expressions of childhood art . When Miss Wormwood complains that he is wasting class time drawing impossible things ( a Stegosaurus in a rocket ship , for example ) , Calvin proclaims himself " on the cutting edge of the avant @-@ garde . " He begins exploring the medium of snow when a warm day melts his snowman . His next sculpture " speaks to the horror of our own mortality , inviting the viewer to contemplate the evanescence of life . " In later strips , Calvin 's creative instincts diversify to include sidewalk drawings ( or , as he terms them , examples of " suburban postmodernism " ) .
Watterson also lampooned the academic world . In one example , Calvin carefully crafts an " artist 's statement , " claiming that such essays convey more messages than artworks themselves ever do ( Hobbes blandly notes , " You misspelled Weltanschauung " ) . He indulges in what Watterson calls " pop psychobabble " to justify his destructive rampages and shift blame to his parents , citing " toxic codependency . " In one instance , he pens a book report based on the theory that the purpose of academic writing is to " inflate weak ideas , obscure poor reasoning , and inhibit clarity , " entitled The Dynamics of Interbeing and Monological Imperatives in Dick and Jane : A Study in Psychic Transrelational Gender Modes . Displaying his creation to Hobbes , he remarks , " Academia , here I come ! " Watterson explains that he adapted this jargon ( and similar examples from several other strips ) from an actual book of art criticism .
Overall , Watterson 's satirical essays serve to attack both sides , criticizing both the commercial mainstream and the artists who are supposed to be " outside " it . Not long after he began drawing his " Dinosaurs in Rocket Ships " series , Calvin tells Hobbes :
Calvin : The hard part for us avant @-@ garde post @-@ modern artists is deciding whether or not to embrace commercialism . Do we allow our work to be hyped and exploited by a market that 's simply hungry for the next new thing ? Do we participate in a system that turns high art into low art so it 's better suited for mass consumption ?
Of course , when an artist goes commercial , he makes a mockery of his status as an outsider and free thinker . He buys into the crass and shallow values art should transcend . He trades the integrity of his art for riches and fame .
...
Oh , what the heck . I 'll do it .
...
Hobbes ( rolling his eyes ) : That wasn 't so hard .
The strip for Sunday , June 21 , 1992 , criticized the naming of The Big Bang theory as not evocative of the wonders behind it , and coined the term " Horrendous Space Kablooie " , an alternative that achieved some informal popularity among scientists and was often shortened to " the HSK . " The term has also been referred to in newspapers , books , and university courses .
= = Main characters = =
= = = Calvin = = =
Calvin , named after the 16th @-@ century theologian John Calvin , is a six @-@ year @-@ old , whose last name is never mentioned in the strip . Despite his poor grades in school , Calvin demonstrates his intelligence through his sophisticated vocabulary and a philosophical mind :
Calvin : " Dad , are you vicariously living through me in the hope that my accomplishments will validate your mediocre life and in some way compensate for all of the opportunities you botched ? "
Dad : " If I were , you can bet I 'd be re @-@ evaluating my strategy . "
Calvin ( later , to his mother ) : " Mom , Dad keeps insulting me . "
He commonly wears his distinctive red @-@ and @-@ black striped shirt , black pants , and white @-@ and @-@ magenta sneakers . He also wears a light blue jacket when going to school or when playing in the snow . He is an enthusiastic reader of comic books and has a tendency to order items marketed in comic books or on boxes of his favorite cereal , Chocolate Frosted Sugar Bombs . Watterson described Calvin :
Calvin is pretty easy to do because he is outgoing and rambunctious , and there 's not much of a filter between his brain and his mouth .
I guess he 's a little too intelligent for his age . The thing that I really enjoy about him is that he has no sense of restraint ; he doesn 't have the experience yet to know the things that you shouldn 't do .
Calvin also has a sensitive side as well . This is displayed , for example , when he finds a dying raccoon and tries to save it but fails . The scene is made even more poignant by Calvin asking Hobbes not to " go anywhere " while Hobbes hugs him and promises him he won 't .
= = = Hobbes = = =
From Calvin 's point of view , Hobbes is an anthropomorphic tiger , much larger than Calvin and full of independent attitudes and ideas . When the perspective shifts to any other character , readers again see merely a stuffed animal , usually seated at an off @-@ kilter angle and blankly staring into space . Watterson explains :
When Hobbes is a stuffed toy in one panel and alive in the next , I 'm juxtaposing the ' grown @-@ up ' version of reality with Calvin 's version , and inviting the reader to decide which is truer .
In more than one strip , Hobbes is shown being washed in a washing machine , a fact Calvin takes in stride and which Watterson has referred to as " one of the stranger blurrings of what Hobbes is . "
Hobbes is named after the 17th @-@ century philosopher Thomas Hobbes , who held what Watterson describes as " a dim view of human nature . " Hobbes ( the tiger ) is much more rational and aware of consequences than Calvin , but seldom interferes with Calvin 's troublemaking beyond a few oblique warnings . Hobbes is sarcastic when Calvin is being hypocritical about things he dislikes .
Although the debut strip shows Calvin capturing Hobbes by means of a snare ( with a tuna sandwich as the bait ) , a later comic ( August 1 , 1989 ) indicates that Hobbes has been with Calvin since Calvin was a baby :
Calvin : " The whole first half of my life is a complete blank ! What on earth did I know that someone wanted me to forget ? "
Hobbes : " I seem to recall you spent most of the time burping up . "
Another later strip featured Hobbes humorously claiming that Calvin 's mom " wanted another tiger " instead of Calvin , indicating that Hobbes was around before Calvin was born . Watterson eventually decided that it was not important to establish how Calvin and Hobbes met .
= = = Calvin 's parents = = =
Calvin 's unnamed mother and father are typical middle @-@ class parents . Like many other characters in the strip , they are relatively down @-@ to @-@ earth and their sensible attitudes serve as a foil for Calvin 's outlandish behavior .
Watterson says some fans were angered by the way Calvin 's parents thought of Calvin . This is shown by the fact that Calvin 's father claimed that he wanted a dachshund instead of Calvin , and often tries to " deny " that Calvin is his biological son :
Mom : You 're not sorry we had Calvin , are you ?
Dad : Are you ?
Mom : I asked first . Besides , it wasn 't all my decision .
Dad : All I know is , I offered to buy us a dachshund , but no , you said ...
Dad : Someday I 'm going to get my DNA checked to see if he 's really my kid .
Mom : Take my word for it .
Dad : I just know some nurse switched the bassinets .
Calvin 's parents are not above some outrageous behavior of their own . For example , Calvin asks for a cigarette and his mother gives him one to teach him a lesson . Calvin 's father tells Calvin sarcastic lies when asked a straight question , and Calvin often believes them :
Calvin : Dad , how do people make babies ?
Dad : Most people just go to Sears , buy the kit , and follow the assembly instructions .
Calvin : I CAME FROM SEARS ? ?
Dad : No . You were a Blue Light Special at K @-@ Mart ; almost as good , and a lot cheaper .
Calvin : AAUUGHHH !
Mom ( out of frame ) : Dear , what are you telling Calvin now ? !
Watterson defends what Calvin 's parents do , remarking that in the case of parenting a kid like Calvin , " I think they do a better job than I would . " Calvin 's father is overly concerned with " character building " activities in a number of strips , either in the things he makes Calvin do or in the masochistic eccentricities of his own lifestyle . For example , Calvin 's father is shown coming home from an early morning run in the snow , which he follows with a bowl of plain oatmeal .
Calvin 's father is a patent attorney ( like Watterson 's own father ) and his mother is a stay @-@ at @-@ home mom . Both remain unnamed except as " Mom " and " Dad , " or pet names such as " honey " and " dear " between themselves . Watterson says , " As far as the strip is concerned , they are important only as Calvin 's mom and dad . "
Calvin 's father has a brother named Max , who lives out of state . Watterson introduced him in a week of strips but said he later regretted the idea . Although Watterson said the idea of having Max in the strip was to set up potential future storylines , he realized that his intent to have the parents remain nameless worked against him because Max could not refer to either one by name . This was cited as one of the main reasons Max never reappeared .
= = = Susie Derkins = = =
Susie Derkins , the only important character with both a first and last name , is a classmate of Calvin 's who lives on his street . Getting her last name from the pet beagle of Watterson 's wife 's family , she appeared early in the strip as a new student in Calvin 's class . She is polite and studious , and likes to play house or host tea parties with her stuffed animals . However , she is also depicted playing imaginary games with Calvin in which she is a high @-@ powered lawyer or politician and he is her househusband . Though both of them hate to admit it , Calvin and Susie have quite a bit in common . For example , Susie is shown on occasion with a stuffed bunny rabbit named " Mr. Bun . " Susie also has a mischievous ( and sometimes aggressive ) streak , which can be seen when she subverts Calvin 's attempts to cheat on school tests by feeding him incorrect answers , or clobbers Calvin when he attacks her with snowballs . Susie also regularly bests Calvin in confrontations such as their water balloon and snowball fights , employing guile or force . Hobbes often openly expresses romantic feelings for Susie , much to Calvin 's disgust . Calvin starts a " club " ( of which he and Hobbes are the only members ) that he calls G.R.O.S.S. ( Get Rid Of Slimy GirlS ) , and while holding " meetings " in Calvin 's treehouse or in the " box of secrecy " in Calvin 's room , they usually come up with some way to annoy or socially maim Susie , most of which backfire on them completely . In one instance , Calvin steals one of Susie 's dolls for ransom , only to have Susie retaliate by nabbing Hobbes . Watterson admits that Calvin and Susie have a nascent crush on each other , and that Susie is inspired by the type of woman whom Watterson himself found attractive and eventually married .
= = Secondary characters = =
Calvin also interacts with a handful of secondary characters . These include his babysitter , the school bully , his school teacher and the school principal .
= = = Rosalyn = = =
Rosalyn is Calvin 's babysitter . She takes advantage of his parents ' desperation to leave the house and the fact that no one else will babysit for Calvin by demanding advances and raises . She is also probably the only character in the strip whom Calvin really fears , as she does not mince words or actions to get Calvin to behave or go to bed on time . Watterson put her in a Sunday strip early on , never thinking of her as a regular character . But Rosalyn 's intimidation of Calvin surprised Watterson , so she came back several times . At one point she was Calvin 's swimming instructor , though he was only shown to attend one lesson . In Rosalyn 's last story , she is revealed to have in common with Calvin a sense of imagination , and the two of them play Calvinball with Hobbes .
= = = Moe = = =
Moe is , according to Calvin , a " six @-@ year @-@ old who shaves " and a stereotypical bully who picks on Calvin ( both physically and emotionally ) and calls him names . Moe is the only regular character whose speech is shown in an unusual font as his frequently monosyllabic dialogue is shown in crude , lower @-@ case letters . Watterson describes Moe as " every jerk I 've ever known . "
= = = Miss Wormwood = = =
Miss Wormwood is Calvin 's world @-@ weary teacher , named after the junior devil in C. S. Lewis ' The Screwtape Letters . She usually wears either a polka @-@ dotted dress or a brown dress , and is another character who serves as a foil to Calvin 's mischief . Calvin , when in his Spaceman Spiff persona , sees Miss Wormwood as a slimy , often dictatorial alien . Calvin refers to Miss Wormwood 's indigestion ( " It 's really gross how she drinks Maalox straight from the bottle " ) , her medication ( " I wonder if her doctor knows she mixes all those prescriptions " ) and her smoking habit ( " Rumor has it she 's up to two packs a day , unfiltered " ) . Miss Wormwood reacts to Calvin 's behavior by tightly shutting her eyes and thinking " Five years until retirement " repeatedly . Watterson describes her as " an unhappy person " due to her belief in the value of education .
= = = Mr. Spittle = = =
Mr. Spittle is the school principal to whose office Miss Wormwood threatens to send Calvin for his pranks . Susie also occasionally accompanies Calvin to the principal 's office . Though his name has only been shown in one story , he has appeared many times including the first story about Calvin 's duplicator .
= = = Uncle Max = = =
Uncle Max is Calvin 's paternal uncle . Uncle Max was originally meant as a character who could increase the possibilities of the strip : as Watterson noted , " Calvin could go visit Uncle Max ... " . However , Watterson dropped the character after finding it was awkward that Max could not address Calvin 's parents by name , and realizing that Max was redundant as far as the strip 's personality goes .
= = Recurring elements = =
There are many recurring gags in the strip , some in " reality " and others in Calvin 's imagination . These are as follows :
= = = Calvin 's roles = = =
Calvin imagines himself as a great many things , including dinosaurs , elephants , jungle @-@ farers and superheroes . Three of his alter egos are well @-@ defined and recurrent :
" Spaceman Spiff " is a heroic spacefarer who narrates his experiences in the third person . As Spiff , Calvin battles aliens ( typically his parents or teacher , but also sometimes other kids his age ) with a ray gun known as a " zorcher " ( later " frap @-@ ray blaster " , " death ray blaster " or " atomic napalm neutralizer " ) and travels to distant planets ( his house , school , or neighborhood ) , often crashing unhurt on a planet . Calvin 's self @-@ narration as Spaceman Spiff is frequently riddled with alliteration : " Zounds ! Zorched by Zarches , Spaceman Spiff 's crippled craft crashes on planet Plootarg ! "
" Tracer Bullet " is a hardboiled private eye , who says he has eight slugs in him ( " One 's lead , and the rest are bourbon . " ) . In one story , Bullet is called to a case in which a " pushy dame " ( Calvin 's mother ) accuses him of destroying an expensive lamp ( broken during an indoor football game between Calvin and Hobbes ) . Later , he is snatched by the pushy dame 's " hired goon " ( Calvin 's father having a talk with him ) . He made his debut when Calvin donned a fedora to hide a haircut Hobbes had given him . These strips are drawn in elaborate , shadowy black @-@ and @-@ white that evoke film noir . Watterson did not attempt Tracer Bullet stories often , due the time @-@ consuming way the strip needed to be drawn and inked .
As " Stupendous Man " he pictures himself as a superhero in disguise , wearing a mask and a cape made by his mother , and narrating his own adventures . While in character as Stupendous Man , he refers to his alter ego as a mild @-@ mannered millionaire playboy . Stupendous Man almost always " suffers defeat " at the hands of his opponent . When Hobbes asks if Stupendous Man has ever won any battles , Calvin says all his battles are " moral victories . " Stupendous Man 's nemeses include " Mom @-@ Lady " ( Calvin 's mom ) , " Annoying Girl " ( Susie Derkins ) , " Crab Teacher " ( Miss Wormwood ) , and " Baby @-@ Sitter Girl " ( Rosalyn ) . Some of the " super powers " of the villains have been revealed : Mom @-@ Lady has a " mind scrambling eyeball ray " that wills the victim to " do her nefarious bidding , " and Baby Sitter Girl has a similar power of using a " psycho beam " which weakens " Stupendous Man 's stupendous will " . The " powers " of Annoying Girl and Crab Teacher are unknown . Calvin often tries to pretend he and " Stupendous Man " are two different people , but it never seems to work . Stupendous Man has multiple " superpowers " , including , but not limited to , super strength , the ability to fly , various vision powers ( such as " high @-@ speed vision " ) and a stomach of steel .
= = = Cardboard boxes = = =
Calvin has had several adventures involving corrugated cardboard boxes , which he adapts for many different uses . In one strip , during which Calvin shows off his Transmogrifier , a device that transforms its user into any desired shape , Hobbes remarks , " It 's amazing what they do with corrugated cardboard these days . " Calvin is able to change the function of the boxes by rewriting the label and flipping the box onto another side . In this way , a cardboard box can be used not only for its conventional purposes ( a storage container for water balloons , for example ) , but also as a flying time machine , a duplicator or , with the attachment of a few wires and a colander , a " Cerebral Enhance @-@ o @-@ tron . "
In addition , Calvin uses a cardboard box as a desk when he is attempting to sell things . Often , Calvin 's merchandise is something that no one would want , such as " suicide drink " , " a swift kick in the butt " for one dollar , or a " frank appraisal of your looks " for fifty cents . In one strip , he sells " happiness " for ten cents ; if one bought it , Calvin hit the person in the face with a water balloon , then revealed that he meant his own happiness . In another strip , he sold " insurance " , firing a slingshot at those who refused to buy it . In some strips , he tried to sell " great ideas " , and in one earlier strip , he attempted to sell the family car to obtain money for a grenade launcher .
The box has also functioned as a secret meeting place for G.R.O.S.S. , as the " Box of Secrecy " .
= = = Calvinball = = =
Calvinball is a game played by Calvin and Hobbes as a rebellion against organized team sports ; according to Hobbes , " No sport is less organized than Calvinball ! " Calvinball was first introduced to the readers at the end of a 1990 storyline involving Calvin reluctantly joining recess baseball . It quickly became a staple of the comic afterwards .
The only hint at the true creation of the game ironically comes from the last Calvinball strip , in which a game of football quickly devolves into a game of Calvinball . Calvin remarks that " sooner or later , all our games turn into Calvinball " , suggesting a similar scenario that directly led to the creation of the sport . Calvin and Hobbes usually play by themselves , although in one storyline Rosalyn ( Calvin 's baby @-@ sitter ) plays in return for Calvin doing his homework , and plays very well once she realizes that the rules are made up on the spot .
The only consistent rule states that Calvinball may never be played with the same rules twice . Scoring is also arbitrary , with Hobbes at times reporting scores of " Q to 12 " and " oogy to boogy " . The only recognizable sports Calvinball resembles are the ones it emulates ( i.e. , a cross between croquet , polo , badminton , capture the flag , and volleyball ) . Equipment includes a volleyball ( the eponymous " Calvinball " ) , a croquet set , a badminton set , assorted flags , bags , signs , a hobby horse , and enigmatic and never @-@ pictured " time @-@ fracture wickets " . Other things appear as needed , such as a bucket of ice @-@ cold water , a water balloon , and various songs and poetry . Players also wear masks resembling blindfolds with holes for the eyes . When Rosalyn asks Calvin the reason for the requirement , Calvin responds : " Sorry , no one 's allowed to question the masks . " When asked how to play , Watterson states : " It 's pretty simple : you make up the rules as you go . " Calvinball is a nomic or self @-@ modifying game , a contest of wits , skill and creativity rather than stamina or athletic skill , in which Hobbes ( and on one occasion , Rosalyn ) usually outwits Calvin , who takes it in stride , in contrast to his otherwise poor sportsmanship .
= = = Snow sculptures = = =
Calvin often creates horrendous / dark humor scenes with his snowmen . He uses the snowman for social commentary , revenge , or pure enjoyment . Examples include Snowman Calvin being yelled at by Snowman Dad to shovel the snow ; one snowman eating snow cones taken from a second snowman , who is lying on the ground with an ice @-@ cream scoop in his back ; a snowman house of horror ; and snowmen representing the people he hates . " The ones I really hate are small , so they 'll melt faster , " he says . There was even an occasion on which Calvin accidentally brought a snowman to life and it made itself and a small army into " deranged mutant killer monster snow goons . "
Calvin 's snow art is often used as a commentary on art in general . For example , Calvin has complained more than once about the lack of originality in other people 's snow art and compared it with his own grotesque snow sculptures . In one of these instances , Calvin and Hobbes claim to be the sole guardians of high culture ; in another , Hobbes admires Calvin 's willingness to put artistic integrity above marketability , causing Calvin to reconsider and make an ordinary snowman .
= = = Wagon and sled = = =
Calvin and Hobbes frequently ride downhill in a wagon , sled , or toboggan , depending on the season , as a device to add some physical comedy to the strip and because , according to Watterson , " it 's a lot more interesting ... than talking heads . " While the ride is sometimes the focus of the strip , it also frequently serves as a counterpoint or visual metaphor while Calvin ponders the meaning of life , death , God , philosophy or a variety of other weighty subjects . Many of their rides end in spectacular crashes which leave them battered and broken , a fact which convinces Hobbes to sometimes hop off before a ride even begins . In the final strip , Calvin and Hobbes depart on their toboggan to go exploring . This theme is similar ( perhaps even homage ) to scenarios in Walt Kelly 's Pogo .
= = = G.R.O.S.S. = = =
G.R.O.S.S. , which stands for Get Rid Of Slimy GirlS , is a club which consists of only two members : Calvin and Hobbes . The club was founded in the garage of their house . To clear space for its activities , Calvin and ( purportedly ) Hobbes push Calvin 's parents ' car , causing it to roll into a ditch ( but not suffer damage ) ; the incident necessitates changing the club 's location to Calvin 's treehouse . They hold meetings to attempt to annoy Susie Derkins . Notable actions include planting a fake secret tape near her in attempt to draw her in to a trap , trapping her in a closet at their house , and creating elaborate water balloon traps . Calvin gave himself and Hobbes important positions in the club , Calvin being " Dictator @-@ for @-@ Life " and Hobbes being " President @-@ and @-@ First @-@ Tiger " . They go into Calvin 's treehouse for their club meetings and often get into fights during them . The password to get into the treehouse is intentionally long and difficult , which has on at least one occasion ruined Calvin 's plans . ( Because Hobbes can climb the tree without the rope , he got to think up the password , which heaps praise upon tigers . ) An example of this can be seen in the comic strip where Calvin , rushing to get into the treehouse to throw things at a passing Susie Derkins , insults Hobbes , who is in the treehouse and thus has to let down the rope . Hobbes forces Calvin to say the password for insulting him . By the time Susie arrives , in time to hear Calvin saying some of the password , causing him to stumble , Calvin is on " Verse Seven : Tigers are perfect ! / The E @-@ pit @-@ o @-@ me / of good looks and grace / and quiet .. uh .. um .. dignity " . The opportunity to pelt Susie with something having passed , Calvin threatens to turn Hobbes into a rug.G.R.O.S.S. is one of the most common adventures that Calvin has .
= = Books = =
There are 18 Calvin and Hobbes books , published from 1987 to 1997 . These include 11 collections , which form a complete archive of the newspaper strips , except for a single daily strip from November 25 , 1985 . ( The collections do contain a strip for this date , but it is not the same strip that appeared in some newspapers . Treasuries usually combine the two preceding collections with bonus material and include color reprints of Sunday comics . )
Watterson included some new material in the treasuries . In The Essential Calvin and Hobbes , which includes cartoons from the collections Calvin and Hobbes and Something Under the Bed Is Drooling , the back cover features a scene of a giant Calvin rampaging through a town . The scene is based on Watterson 's home town of Chagrin Falls , Ohio , and Calvin is holding the Chagrin Falls Popcorn Shop , an iconic candy and ice cream shop overlooking the town 's namesake falls . Several of the treasuries incorporate additional poetry ; The Indispensable Calvin and Hobbes book features a set of poems , ranging from just a few lines to an entire page , that cover topics such as Calvin 's mother 's " hindsight " and exploring the woods . In The Essential Calvin and Hobbes , Watterson presents a long poem explaining a night 's battle against a monster from Calvin 's perspective .
A complete collection of Calvin and Hobbes strips , in three hardcover volumes totaling 1440 pages , was released on October 4 , 2005 , by Andrews McMeel Publishing . It includes color prints of the art used on paperback covers , the treasuries ' extra illustrated stories and poems , and a new introduction by Bill Watterson in which he talks about his inspirations and his story leading up to the publication of the strip . The alternate 1985 strip is still omitted , and two other strips ( January 7 , 1987 , and November 25 , 1988 ) have altered dialogue . A four @-@ volume paperback version was released November 13 , 2012 .
To celebrate the release ( which coincided with the strip 's 20th anniversary and the tenth anniversary of its absence from newspapers ) , Bill Watterson answered 15 questions submitted by readers .
Early books were printed in smaller format in black and white . These were later reproduced in twos in color in the " Treasuries " ( Essential , Authoritative , and Indispensable ) , except for the contents of Attack of the Deranged Mutant Killer Monster Snow Goons . Those Sunday strips were not reprinted in color until the Complete collection was finally published in 2005 .
Watterson claims he named the books the " Essential , Authoritative , and Indispensable " because , as he says in The Calvin and Hobbes Tenth Anniversary Book , the books are " obviously none of these things . "
= = = Teaching with Calvin and Hobbes = = =
An officially licensed children 's textbook entitled Teaching with Calvin and Hobbes was published in a single print run in Fargo , North Dakota , in 1993 . The book , which has been " highly recommend [ ed ] " as a teaching resource , includes five complete Calvin and Hobbes multi @-@ strip story arcs together with lessons and questions to follow , such as :
What do you think the principal meant when he said they had " quite a file " on Calvin ?
The book is rare , sought by collectors , and highly valued . Only eight libraries in the world hold a copy of the book .
= = Academic response = =
In 1993 , paleontologist and paleoartist Gregory S. Paul praised Bill Watterson for the scientific accuracy of the dinosaurs appearing in Calvin and Hobbes .
In her 1994 book When Toys Come Alive , Lois Rostow Kuznets says that Hobbes serves both as a figure of Calvin 's childish fantasy life and as an outlet for the expression of libidinous desires more associated with adults . Kuznets also looks at Calvin 's other fantasies , suggesting that they are a second tier of fantasies utilized in places like school where transitional objects such as Hobbes would not be socially acceptable .
Political scientist James Q. Wilson , in a paean to Calvin and Hobbes upon Watterson 's decision to end the strip in 1995 , characterized it as " our only popular explication of the moral philosophy of Aristotle . "
Alisa White Coleman analyzed the strip 's underlying messages concerning ethics and values in " ' Calvin and Hobbes ' : A Critique of Society 's Values , " published in the Journal of Mass Media Ethics in 2000 .
A collection of original Sunday strips was exhibited at Ohio State University 's Billy Ireland Cartoon Library & Museum in 2001 . Watterson himself selected the strips and provided his own commentary for the exhibition catalog , which was later published by Andrews McMeel as Calvin and Hobbes : Sunday Pages 1985 – 1995 .
Since the discontinuation of Calvin and Hobbes , individual strips have been licensed for reprint in schoolbooks , including the Christian homeschooling book The Fallacy Detective in 2002 , and the university @-@ level philosophy reader Open Questions : Readings for Critical Thinking and Writing in 2005 ; in the latter , the ethical views of Watterson and his characters Calvin and Hobbes are discussed in relation to the views of professional philosophers . Since 2009 , Twitter users have indicated that Calvin and Hobbes strips have appeared in textbooks for subjects in the sciences , social sciences , mathematics , philosophy , and foreign language .
In a 2009 evaluation of the entire body of Calvin and Hobbes strips using grounded theory methodology , Christijan D. Draper found that : " Overall , Calvin and Hobbes suggests that meaningful time use is a key attribute of a life well lived , " and that " the strip suggests one way to assess the meaning associated with time use is through preemptive retrospection by which a person looks at current experiences through the lens of an anticipated future ... "
Jamey Heit 's Imagination and Meaning in Calvin and Hobbes , a critical , academic analysis of the strip , was published in 2012 .
Calvin and Hobbes strips were again exhibited at the Billy Ireland Cartoon Library & Museum at Ohio State University in 2014 , in an exhibition entitled Exploring Calvin and Hobbes . An exhibition catalog by the same title , which also contained an interview with Watterson conducted by Jenny Robb , the curator of the museum , was published by Andrews McMeel in 2015 .
= = Legacy = =
" Since its concluding panel in 1995 , Calvin and Hobbes has remained one of the most influential and well @-@ loved comic strips of our time . "
– The Atlantic , " How Calvin and Hobbes Inspired a Generation , " October 25 , 2013
Years after its original newspaper run , Calvin and Hobbes has continued to exert influence in entertainment , art , and fandom .
In television , Calvin and Hobbes are depicted in stop motion animation in the 2006 Robot Chicken episode " Lust for Puppets , " and in traditional animation in the 2009 Family Guy episode " Not All Dogs Go to Heaven . " In the 2013 Community episode " Paranormal Parentage , " the characters Abed Nadir ( Danny Pudi ) and Troy Barnes ( Donald Glover ) dress as Calvin and Hobbes , respectively , for Halloween .
British artists , merchandisers , booksellers , and philosophers were interviewed for a 2009 BBC Radio 4 half @-@ hour programme about the abiding popularity of the comic strip , narrated by Phill Jupitus .
The first book @-@ length study of the strip , Looking for Calvin and Hobbes : The Unconventional Story of Bill Watterson and His Revolutionary Comic Strip by Nevin Martell , was first published in 2009 ; an expanded edition was published in 2010 . The book chronicles Martell 's quest to tell the story of Calvin and Hobbes and Watterson through research and interviews with people connected to the cartoonist and his work . The director of the later documentary Dear Mr. Watterson referenced Looking for Calvin and Hobbes in discussing the production of the movie , and Martell appears in the film .
The American documentary film Dear Mr. Watterson , released in 2013 , explores the impact and legacy of Calvin and Hobbes through interviews with authors , curators , historians , and numerous professional cartoonists .
The enduring significance of Calvin and Hobbes to international cartooning was recognized by the jury of the Angoulême International Comics Festival in 2014 by the awarding of its Grand Prix to Watterson , only the fourth American to ever receive the honor ( after Will Eisner , Robert Crumb , and Art Spiegelman ) .
= = = Grown @-@ up Calvin = = =
A number of artists and cartoonists have created works portraying Calvin as a teenager or an adult ; the concept has also inspired writers .
In 2011 , a comic strip appeared by cartoonists Dan and Tom Heyerman called Hobbes and Bacon . The strip depicts Calvin as an adult , married to Susie Derkins , with a young daughter named after philosopher Francis Bacon , to whom Calvin gives Hobbes . Though consisting of only four strips originally , Hobbes and Bacon received considerable attention when it appeared and was continued by other cartoonists and artists .
A novel entitled Calvin by CLA Young Adult Book Award @-@ winning author Martine Leavitt was published in 2015 . The story tells of seventeen @-@ year @-@ old Calvin — who was born on the day that Calvin and Hobbes ended , and who has now been diagnosed with schizophrenia — and his hallucination of Hobbes , his childhood stuffed tiger . With his friend Susie , who might also be an hallucination , Calvin sets off to find Bill Watterson , in the hope that the cartoonist can provide aid for Calvin 's condition .
= Typhoon Lynn ( 1987 ) =
Typhoon Lynn , more commonly known in the Philippines as Typhoon Pepang , was responsible for the worst flooding in Taiwan in 40 years . Typhoon Lynn originated from an area of disturbed weather in the central north Pacific in mid @-@ October 1987 . On October 15 , the system was upgraded into a tropical storm . Moving west @-@ northwest , it slowly deepened over the next few days , though the intensification process briefly stopped on October 15 . Two days later , Lynn was upgraded into a typhoon , while passing northwest of Guam . Lynn maintained low @-@ end typhoon strength until October 19 , when the storm began to rapidly intensify . On October 21 , Lynn attained its peak intensity while tracking towards the west . Weakening then commenced soon after Lynn interacted with Luzon . However , the core of the typhoon remained well offshore both the Philippines and Taiwan . On October 25 , Lynn weakened to a severe tropical storm . Three days later , it dissipated , though its remains later brought rain to China .
While passing near Guam , power was knocked out and 40 residents were evacuated . Throughout the Mariana Islands , 15 families were rendered homeless and damage totaled $ 2 million ( 1987 USD ) . After brushing Luzon , seven people perished
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, over 30 @,@ 000 homes were damaged , 100 houses were destroyed , and 7 @,@ 000 individuals were left homeless . Damage in the Philippines totaled to $ 25 @.@ 3 million . Even though Lynn passed a bit south of Taiwan , the storm brought widespread damage to the nation . Nine children were swept away and killed on a field trip , while the other 72 survived and were evacuated . In Taipei , 13 persons perished and 2 @,@ 230 people were rescued . Lynn was considered the worst tropical cyclone to affect the city in four decades . Nationwide , 168 @,@ 000 people lost power and 42 casualties occurred .
= = Meteorological history = =
Typhoon Lynn originated from a broad , poorly organized area of convection situated within the monsoon trough roughly 370 km ( 230 mi ) north @-@ northeast of the Marshall Islands in the middle of October 1987 . The Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) started monitoring the system on October 14 , and later that day , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) followed suit . Following an increase in convection and outflow , the JTWC issued a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert ( TCFA ) for the system at 0300 UTC on October 15 about 670 km ( 415 mi ) north @-@ northwest of Pohnpei of the eastern Carolina Islands at the time . Three hours later , the JTWC classified the system as Tropical Storm Lynn based on Dvorak estimates of 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) . At midday , the JMA followed suit and upgraded the system into a tropical storm .
Tracking along the southern periphery of a subtropical ridge , the cyclone decelerated . Lynn gradually intensified , though this process briefly halted on October 17 . Early the next day , the JMA reported that Lynn had deepened into a severe tropical storm . Shortly thereafter , radar data and satellite imagery revealed the formation of an eye 37 km ( 23 mi ) in diameter , and thus the JTWC upgraded Lynn into a typhoon , though post @-@ storm analysis noted that Lynn could have been a typhoon before then . Also around this time , the JMA designated Lynn as a typhoon . At midday , Lynn made its closest approach to Guam , passing around 150 km ( 95 mi ) northeast of the island . Three hours later , Lynn passed 28 km ( 17 mi ) southwest of Tinian before proceeding west @-@ northwest .
After moving away from the Mariana Islands , Lynn initially maintained its intensity , but on August 19 , it began to rapidly intensify . Later that day , the JTWC upgraded Lynn to a super typhoon and early on August 20 , Typhoon Lynn attained winds of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) according to the JMA . After leveling off in intensity for roughly 24 hours , the JMA estimates that Lynn reached its peak intensity of 195 km / h ( 120 mph ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 920 mbar ( 27 inHg ) . At 0000 UTC on August 21 , the JTWC indicated that Lynn reached its peak intensity of 255 km / h ( 160 mph ) , equivalent to a Category 5 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson hurricane wind scale . According to the JTWC , Typhoon Lynn was the third typhoon in 1987 to attain such intensity . Meanwhile , the Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration ( PAGASA ) also monitored the storm and assigned it with the local name Pepang .
Shortly after attaining maximum intensity , Lynn began to track westward while steadily weakening . Initially , the JTWC predicted Lynn to take a more west @-@ northwesterly course , but the European Center for Medium @-@ Range Weather Forecasting ( ECMWF ) correctly predicted Lynn to move due west due to a subtropical ridge situated north of the cyclone . On October 22 , the JMA indicated that Lynn leveled off in intensity , though at 0000 UTC on October 23 , the cyclone deteriorated slightly . Roughly 24 hours later , the JMA reduced the intensity of Lynn to 145 km / h ( 90 mph ) ; by this time , the typhoon entered the Luzon Straits . Over the next two days , Lynn interacted with mountainous terrain of the Philippines ; however , at its closest approach , the core of the system remained over 200 km ( 120 mi ) offshore . Meanwhile , the weakening process accelerated , and on October 25 , the JMA reported that Lynn was no longer a typhoon . Furthermore , the storm exited PAGASA 's warning zone . Increased wind shear took toll on Lynn , and the next day , satellite imagery indicated that all of the storm 's deep convection was confined north @-@ northeast of the center . At 0000 UTC on October 27 , the JTWC ceased watching the system , though the JMA continued tracking it until the morning of August 28 . The remnants of the storm later brought showers to China .
= = Impact = =
= = = Mariana Islands = = =
Although the eye of Lynn passed just offshore Guam , it brought violent conditions to the island . There , a maximum sustained wind speed of 67 km / h ( 42 mph ) and a peak wind gust of 105 km / h ( 65 mph ) was recorded in Agana . Moreover , 154 @.@ 4 mm ( 6 @.@ 08 in ) of rain fell at a nearby air force base . Power was briefly knocked out for the entire island , though by October 20 , electricity had been restored to most of the island . Around 40 residents were evacuated to shelter along low @-@ lying areas . Several homes sustained serious damages while many others suffered roof damage . The banana and papaya crops were largely destroyed by the typhoon , but damage to other crops was minimal . No one in Guam was injured by Lynn .
After passing near Saipan , winds of 80 km / h ( 50 mph ) and gusts of 121 km / h ( 75 mph ) were observed . All commercial flights to and from the island , as well as all schools and government offices , were cancelled on both October 19 and 20 . Both Saipan and Rota experienced island @-@ wide power outages on the evening of October 18 . Saipan bore the most significant effects from the cyclone ; four people were hurt and two homes were destroyed . Several homes and office buildings on the island were also damaged . Elsewhere , around 10 families fled to shelter as a result of strong winds . Although damage in Rota was minor , the island of Tinian received considerable damage and all of the island 's 2 @,@ 000 residents were briefly left without electricity . Heavy rains resulted in flooding that destroyed several dwellings and deluged many more .
Throughout the Mariana Islands , agriculture damage was estimated at $ 2 million ( 1987 USD ) and 15 families were displaced from their homes . Roughly 100 people sought help from the Red Cross . A few weeks later , the Northern Marianas Islands were declared a major disaster area by the Federal Emergency Management Agency ( FEMA ) .
= = = Philippines = = =
On October 23 , most of Luzon was placed under weather alerts . Due to the threat of both storm surge and high waves , low @-@ lying residents were advised to evacuate their homes . A total of five towns flooded in the Cagayan and Ilocos Norte provinces , while Lynn triggered landslides in Benguet . In the mountain resort of Baguio City , communication and power lines sustained damage and many roads outside of Manila were destroyed ; over 200 homes were damaged and 100 others were demolished . Nationwide , 79 people were hurt and 31 @,@ 557 homes were partially damaged , while 18 @,@ 396 were " totally " damaged . Furthermore , around 6 @,@ 000 were rendered homeless and seven fatalities occurred . Damage totaled $ 25 @.@ 3 million , mostly due to public infrastructure and agriculture .
= = = Taiwan = = =
In preparation for Lynn , typhoon warnings were issued . Despite not striking the country directly , Typhoon Lynn brought torrential rains to much of the island , including a maximum of 1 @,@ 700 mm ( 67 in ) in Taipei . Two fourth graders and seven third graders were swept out to sea due to 20 ft ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) waves while on a field trip in Maopitou , a scenic spot in Kenting National Park . However , on October 24 , the bodies of two girls and a boy were found near Hengchun while the remaining were presumed dead . The other 72 students on the trip were safely evacuated . Elsewhere , a 31 @-@ year @-@ old man was killed due to falling debris in Hualien . Two people were killed and four others were buried in Keelung , where several cargo containers were swept offshore . Damage in Keelung totaled $ 5 million . In Pingtung , 30 @,@ 000 houses were flooded . Across northern Taiwan , nine people were killed . In Taipei , torrential rains deluged the city and resulted in landslides that destroyed numerous dwellings and took 13 lives . City @-@ wide , 2 @,@ 230 people were rescued by police , while after supply in the capital was cut by 75 % . In all , Lynn was considered the worst system to affect Taipei in 40 years .
Throughout the island , domestic flights and train service was cancelled . At the northern port of Ilan , about 60 fishing boats were lost . Three fishermen were rescued after their boat capsized . A total of 168 @,@ 000 people lost power at some point during the storm 's passage , though by October 27 , power was restored to all but 88 @,@ 000 . Overall , 42 people were killed nationwide .
= Widnes =
Widnes is an industrial town in the unitary authority of Halton and the ceremonial county of Cheshire in Northwest England . In 2011 it had a population of 60 @,@ 221 . Historically in Lancashire , it is on the northern bank of the River Mersey where the estuary narrows to form the Runcorn Gap . Directly to the south across the Mersey is the town of Runcorn . Upstream and 8 miles ( 13 km ) to the east is the town of Warrington , and downstream to the west is Speke , part of the city of Liverpool .
Before the Industrial Revolution Widnes was made up of small settlements on marsh and moorland . In 1847 , the first chemical factory was established and the town rapidly became a major centre of the chemical industry . The demand for labour was met by large @-@ scale immigration from Ireland , Poland , Lithuania and Wales . The town continues to be a major manufacturer of chemicals .
Widnes and Hough Green railway stations are on the Liverpool to Manchester line . The main roads through the town are the A557 in a north – south direction and the A562 east – west . The disused Sankey Canal terminates in an area known as Spike Island .
= = History = =
= = = Toponymy = = =
The most usual explanation for the origin of the name Widnes is that it comes from the Danish words vid , meaning wide , and noese , meaning nose and that it refers to the promontory projecting into the River Mersey . However , the Widnes promontory is not particularly wide and another possible explanation is the first part derives from the Danish ved , meaning a wood and possibly referring to a tree @-@ covered promontory . Earlier spellings of the name have been Vidnes , Wydnes and Wydness .
= = = Early history = = =
There is little evidence of any early human occupation of the area although a flint arrowhead was discovered at Pex Hill , suggesting there was some human presence in the Stone Age . Pex Hill is a disused quarry , located to the north of the town . Roman roads by @-@ passed the area but some Roman coins were found where the Ditton railway station stands today . In the 9th century Vikings had invaded the country and Widnes was at the extreme south of the Danelaw . The River Mersey derives its name from the Anglo @-@ Saxon maeres ea , which means boundary river , the boundary being that between the Danelaw and the Saxon kingdom of Mercia . At the beginning of the 20th century it was believed that some earthworks on Cuerdley Marsh had been constructed by the Vikings but an archaeological investigation in the 1930s found nothing to confirm this .
Following the Norman conquest , William the Conqueror granted the Earldom of Lancaster to Roger de Poictou who in turn granted the barony of Widnes to Yorfrid . Yorfrid had no sons and his elder daughter married William FitzNigel , the second Baron of Halton . On Yorfrid 's death the barony of Widnes passed to that of Halton . The current St. Luke 's , a Norman church , was built in Farnworth . Its date of origin is uncertain but it is likely to be around 1180 . In 1500 the South Chapel was added to the church and in 1507 a grammar school was established in Farnworth ; both were endowments from Bishop William Smyth . Until the middle of the 19th century the area consisted of the scattered hamlets of Farnworth , Appleton , Ditton , Upton and Woodend . Nearby were the villages of Cronton and Cuerdley .
In the 1750s the Sankey Canal was constructed . This linked the area of St Helens with the River Mersey at Sankey Bridges , near Warrington and was in operation by 1757 . It was extended to Fiddler 's Ferry in 1762 and then in 1833 a further extension to Woodend was opened . In the same year the St Helens and Runcorn Gap Railway was opened . The railway connected St Helens with an area in Woodend which was to become known as Spike Island . The termini of the canal and railway were adjacent and here Widnes Dock , the world 's first railway dock , was established . Despite these transport links and the emergence of the chemical industry at nearby Runcorn and elsewhere in the Mersey Valley , the Industrial Revolution did not arrive at Widnes until 14 years later , with the arrival at Spike Island of John Hutchinson .
= = = Coming of the chemical industry = = =
John Hutchinson built his first factory in 1847 on land between the Sankey Canal and the railway making alkali by the Leblanc process . This was an ideal site for the factory because all the raw materials could be transported there by the waterways and railway , and the finished products could similarly be transported anywhere else in the country or overseas . Further chemical factories were soon built nearby by entrepreneurs including John McClelland , William Gossage , Frederic Muspratt , Holbrook Gaskell and Henry Deacon . The town grew rapidly as housing and social provision was made for the factory workers . Soon the villages of Farnworth , Appleton , Ditton and Upton were subsumed within the developing town of Widnes . Woodend became known as West Bank . The substances produced included soap , borax , soda ash , salt cake and bleaching powder . Other industries developed including iron and copper works . The town became heavily polluted with smoke and the by @-@ products of the chemical processes . In 1888 the town was described as " the dirtiest , ugliest and most depressing town in England " and in 1905 as a " poisonous hell @-@ town " .
Their especial ugliness is , however , never more marked than when the spring is making beautiful every nook and corner of England , for the spring never comes hither . It never comes because , neither at Widnes nor St. Helens , is there any place in which it can manifest itself . The foul gases which , belched forth night and day from the many factories , rot the clothes , the teeth , and , in the end , the bodies or the workers , have killed every tree and every blade of grass for miles around .
The demand for workers meant that , in addition to people from other areas of the United Kingdom , large numbers of workers came from other countries . Initially these were Irish but from the late 1880s significant numbers arrived from Poland and Lithuania who were fleeing from persecution and poverty in their home countries . Immigrants also came from other areas , in particular Wales . In 1890 the chemical companies making alkali by the Leblanc process combined to form the United Alkali Company , later one of the constituent companies of ICI . This involved practically all of the chemical industries in Widnes , which was considered to be the principal centre of the new company . However , during the 1890s the chemical business in Widnes went into decline as more efficient methods of making alkali were developed elsewhere .
= = = Recent history = = =
During the early decades of the 20th century there was a revival in the local economy , particularly as the United Alkali Company began to manufacture new products . Improvements were being made to the structure of the town , in particular the opening of the Widnes – Runcorn Transporter Bridge in 1905 which gave the first direct link over the Mersey for road traffic . In 1909 the town became the first in Britain to have a regular covered @-@ top double @-@ decker bus service .
By 1919 the health of the residents of the town was improving . In the 1920s and 1930s there was further diversification of the chemical industry and the products it manufactured . Slums were being replaced by more and better homes . After the Second World War more slums were cleared and there was ongoing growth and variation in the chemical industry . By the 1950s the town had 45 major chemical factories .
In 1961 the Silver Jubilee Bridge replaced the outdated Transporter Bridge and in recent years many of the old heavy chemical factories have closed to be replaced by more modern factories . Much of the land previously polluted by the old dirty chemical processes has been reclaimed , and there have been improvements in the cleanliness and environment of the town .
= = Governance = =
From Saxon times Widnes was part of the hundred of West Derby in Lancashire . Modern local government in the town of Widnes commenced with the creation of the Widnes Local Board in 1865 , prior to which the town had been part of the administrative district of Prescot . In 1892 the town received a Charter of Incorporation giving it borough status . In 1974 , as part of the Local Government Act 1972 , Widnes Borough Council was abolished and its territory amalgamated with Runcorn to form the borough of Halton . This became a district of Cheshire , the outcome of local representation to avoid becoming part of the proposed metropolitan county of Merseyside . In 1998 the borough of Halton became a unitary authority . However , in 2009 the council entered into an agreement with the five metropolitan district councils of Merseyside to form the Liverpool City Region , in effect reversing its opposition to integration in the 1970s ; its unitary status is similar to that of the metropolitan boroughs .
In 1885 Widnes became a parliamentary constituency and elected its first Member of Parliament . The UK parliamentary constituency is Halton and the current Member of Parliament is Derek Twigg . The local authority is the borough of Halton and the town is divided into nine electoral wards . For elections to the European Parliament , Widnes lies in the North West England constituency .
= = Geography = =
Widnes is situated on the north bank of the River Mersey . The whole town is low @-@ lying with some slightly higher areas in Farnworth and Appleton . To the south of the town a spur projecting into the river forms the West Bank area of Widnes ; together with a spur projecting northwards from Runcorn these form Runcorn Gap , a narrowing of the River Mersey . Runcorn Gap is crossed by Runcorn Railway Bridge , carrying the Liverpool branch of the West Coast Main Line , and the Silver Jubilee Bridge , carrying the A533 road which then curves in a westerly direction towards Liverpool becoming the A562 . The density of housing is generally high but there are some open green areas , including Victoria Park in Appleton and two golf courses which are geographically near the centre of the urban development . Most of the chemical and other factories are close to the north bank of the River Mersey . A second crossing of the Mersey is planned , to be known as the Mersey Gateway .
Drainage of the Widnes area is into the Mersey via Ditton , Steward 's and Bower 's Brooks . The bedrock of the area is rock from the Sherwood sandstone group . There are a few outcrops of sandstone but elsewhere the bedrock is covered by drift . Most of this consists of till except near the bank of the Mersey where it is recent alluvium . Large areas are also covered by industrial waste .
When borings were made in the 1870s prior to the building of chemical works a deep gorge measuring around 100 feet ( 30 m ) was found in the bedrock which was filled with glacial deposits . From this it was concluded that before the Ice Age the Mersey had flowed in a more northerly course , and when it was blocked by glacial deposits it had made a new channel through Runcorn Gap .
Being close to the west coast and the Irish Sea , the climate is generally temperate with few extremes of temperature or weather . The mean average temperature in the years 1971 to 2000 was 9 @.@ 4 to 9 @.@ 7 ° C , which was slightly above the average for the United Kingdom as was the average amount of annual sunshine at 1391 to 1470 hours . The average annual rainfall was 741 to 870 mm , which was slightly below the average for the UK . The average number of days in the year when snow is on the ground is 0 to 6 , which is low for the United Kingdom . The average number of days of air frost is 2 to 39 , which is also low .
= = Demography = =
Since the borough of Halton became a unitary authority in 1998 , which resulted in its having one level of local government , demographic statistics have been collated for the authority as a whole , rather than separately for the towns of Runcorn and Widnes . While the two towns have different histories and come from different historic counties , their demographic features are similar .
The estimated population of Halton in 2010 was 119 @,@ 300 . The change in population during the 20th century is shown in the following table .
In 2003 Halton had the largest proportion of the population in Cheshire in the age groups under 5 , 5 to 15 and 16 to pension age and , at 16 @.@ 1 % the lowest proportion of people at pension age or older . At 1 @.@ 2 % the proportion of non @-@ white ethnic groups in 2001 equalled the lowest in all local authorities in Cheshire . At 11 @.@ 5 per 1 @,@ 000 population , the live birth rate in Halton and Warrington , is the highest in the county . At 121 the standardised mortality ratio and at 21 @.@ 5 % the percentage of persons with limiting long @-@ term illness are considerably the highest in Cheshire .
There has been an increase in the number of households from 47 @,@ 214 in 1991 to 52 @,@ 501 in 2006 . The average household size has reduced from 2 @.@ 70 in 1991 to 2 @.@ 44 in 2001 . 89 @.@ 8 % of houses had central heating in 2001 compared with 75 @.@ 8 % in 2001 . The type of housing has also changed with an increase from 15 @.@ 5 % to 19 @.@ 2 % in detached houses from 1991 to 2001 , an increase over the same years in semi @-@ detached houses from 30 @.@ 0 % to 33 @.@ 0 % and a corresponding decrease in terraced houses from 44 @.@ 0 % to 37 @.@ 5 % . The percentage of dwellings in council tax bands A @-@ B is , at 69 % the highest in any Cheshire local authority while the percentages in bands E @-@ F ( 8 % ) and G @-@ H ( 1 % ) are the lowest .
= = Economy = =
Widnes continues to be an industrial town and its major industry is still the manufacture of chemicals although there has been some diversification in recent years . In 2006 a new freight park , known as the 3MG Mersey Multimodal Gateway , was opened in the West Bank area of the town . This provides a link for freight arriving by road , air or sea to be transferred to the rail network . It is expected to create up to 5 @,@ 000 new jobs . In 2010 the first phase of Stobart Park , a " multimodal logistics service for warehousing and distribution " , and part of the Stobart Group , was opened . This consists of a 520 @,@ 000 square feet ( 48 @,@ 000 m2 ) refrigerated warehouse for Tesco .
In 2014 work began on the new Mersey Gateway bridge and will be complete in 2017 , the project is to build a new six lane toll bridge over the River Mersey between the towns of Runcorn and Widnes that will relieve the congested and aging Silver Jubilee Bridge . It is foreseen that the new route will become a major strategic transport route linking the Liverpool city @-@ region and the north west to the rest of the country and will also support sustained growth at Liverpool Ports and Liverpool John Lennon Airport and improve business productivity throughout the Mersey corridor .
There has been considerable development of shopping areas in the town . The Greenoaks Centre , a mall which was opened in 1995 is adjacent to the long @-@ established Widnes Market which has both a market hall and an open market . Also adjacent is a Morrisons supermarket . In the Simms Cross area an Asda supermarket opened in 2004 . A new shopping development , known as Widnes Shopping Park , opened on 18 March 2010 , the flagship store being a Marks and Spencer shop . Other businesses involved in the development are Next , New Look , Boots , River Island and British Home Stores . The Outfit out @-@ of @-@ town chain outlet incorporates fashion brands , including Dorothy Perkins , Miss Selfridge , Topman , Wallis and Burton . Other businesses included in the development are Wilkinson , Costa Coffee , Halfords , Gala Bingo and KFC .
In Autumn 2011 construction began of a Tesco Extra 24 @-@ hour store . The glass fronted 120 @,@ 000 sq ft store has been built on the old B & Q site next to Ashley Way and was opened in March 2012 . The store was built on stilts allowing a car park to be built underneath the store for around 600 cars .
= = Landmarks = =
As a town with a relatively short history , Widnes has few historical sites . However , reclamation of chemical factory sites and areas formerly polluted with chemical waste has given opportunities for developments . These include Victoria Promenade at West Bank , alongside the River Mersey , and Spike Island , now cleared of industry , which forms an open recreation area leading to footpaths along the former towpath of the Sankey Canal . Adjacent to Spike Island occupying John Hutchinson 's former Tower Building is the Catalyst Science Discovery Centre .
Much of the architecture of the town is undistinguished but there are a number of listed buildings , many of them in the more outlying areas but some are scattered throughout the town . The listed churches are the Anglican churches of St Luke 's , Farnworth ( and its adjacent bridewell ) , and St Mary 's , West Bank , the Roman Catholic churches of St Michael 's , St Marie 's and St Bede 's , and the two chapels in the cemetery . The railway stations of Widnes North and Hough Green are listed , as are the former town hall and the former power house of the transporter bridge .
= = Transport = =
Widnes is on the southern route of the Liverpool to Manchester railway line . There are two stations , Hough Green and Widnes from which services are operated by Northern Rail and East Midlands Trains . Northern Rail operate frequent services to Liverpool and Manchester city centre from Hough Green and Widnes . East Midlands Trains link Widnes station at hourly intervals throughout the day to Liverpool , Manchester , Stockport , Sheffield , Nottingham and Norwich .
However passengers to and from London , the Midlands and the South are likely to use Runcorn station and make the short journey across the Silver Jubilee Bridge by bus or taxi .
The two main bus operators providing local services are Halton Transport and Arriva .
The A562 road passes through Widnes linking Liverpool to the west with Penketh to the east . The A557 road passes though the town linking Runcorn to the south , via the Silver Jubilee Bridge , with the M62 motorway , some 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 km ) to the north .
Widnes is 6 miles ( 10 km ) from Liverpool John Lennon Airport and 25 miles ( 40 km ) from Manchester Airport .
= = Education = =
There are nineteen primary schools in the town and three nursery schools . The three secondary schools are Saints Peter & Paul Catholic College , Ormiston Chadwick Academy and Wade Deacon High School . The former colleges , Halton College and Widnes and Runcorn Sixth Form College , merged in 2006 to form Riverside College . There are three special schools . Also in Widnes is the Woodview Child Development Centre in Crow Wood Lane . Kingsway Learning Centre offers opportunities for Adult Learning , Basic Skills and Skills for Success .
As part of the Building Schools for the Future programme , Fairfield High School closed down in 2010 and merged with Wade Deacon High School . The school was founded in 1507 as Farnworth Grammar School by Bishop William Smyth and a school has been on the site since the 16th century . In the 1960s two separate @-@ sex secondary schools amalgamated and the school took the title Fairfield High School from 1974 up until its closure . When it closed in August 2010 , the schools pupils were transferred to Wade Deacon High School , though still operating from the same site , this continued until March 2013 when Wade Deacon High School 's new build was completed . Demolition of the school began in August 2013 and was completed by the end of 2013 , the site will be developed into a housing estate and a cemetery .
= = Religion = =
The 2001 census showed that of the people living in the borough of Halton , 83 @.@ 8 % declared themselves to be Christian , 8 @.@ 7 % stated that they had " no religion " and for 7 @.@ 0 % their religion was not stated . Those declaring other religions ( Buddhism , Hinduism , Jewish , Islam , Sikh and " other religions " ) amounted to 0 @.@ 5 % .
The Anglican churches are administered by the Diocese of Liverpool . The longest established church is St Luke 's , Farnworth . The other Anglican churches are St Mary 's in West Bank , St Paul 's in Victoria Square , St John 's in Greenway Road and St Ambrose in Halton View Road . The Anglicans share the building of St Michael 's in Ditchfield Road with Hough Green Methodist Church . The Anglicans also share the building of All Saints in Hough Green Road with the Catholic Church of St Basil 's .
The Roman Catholic churches in Widnes are part of the Archdiocese of Liverpool . There are eight churches in Widnes , namely St Bede 's in Appleton , Our Lady of Perpetual Succour in Mayfield Avenue , St John Fisher in Moorfield Road , St Marie 's in Lugsdale Road , St Michael 's in St Michael 's Road , St Pius X in Sefton Avenue and St Raphael 's in Liverpool Road . Owing to a shortage of Catholic Priests and the " Leaving Safe Harbours " project in effect throughout the Archdiocese St Marie 's was closed , the last Mass was celebrated on 6 January 2007 . The church is a listed building , but it has been placed on the Buildings at Risk list by the campaign group Save Britain 's Heritage and was identified by The Victorian Society on their 2008 annual list as being one of the ten most endangered Victorian buildings in Britain .
Trinity Methodist Church is in Peelhouse Lane and there are Methodist churches in Farnworth and Halebank . There is a Baptist church in Deacon Road and Evangelical Christian churches at The Foundry in Lugsdale Road and in Ditton . The Jehovah 's Witnesses have a Kingdom Hall in Moorfield Road and The Widnes National Spiritualist Church is in Lacey Street .
= = Sports = =
The major sporting body in the town is Widnes Vikings Rugby League Football Club . Cup kings of the 1970s and 1980s , they were World Club Champions in 1989 , after defeating Australian side Canberra Raiders at Old Trafford . More recently , they were winners of the Northern Rail Cup in 2007and 2009 . Their home ground is Select Security Stadium in Lowerhouse Lane , which is owned and run by Halton Borough Council . In addition to being a sporting ground it has facilities for conferences and banqueting . In October 2007 the club was defeated in the National League One Grand Final . Following this , and because of the club 's financial situation , its board decided to put it into administration . It was subsequently purchased by Steve O 'Connor , a local businessman . Stobart Stadium Halton was also the temporary home of St Helens RLFC , they were using the stadium for the 2011 season while their new stadium - Langtree Park - in St Helens was completed .
In Heath Road is a rugby union club , Widnes Rugby Union Football Club ( otherwise known as " the wids " ) , an amateur sports club which is managed and administered by volunteers . The players are all club members and pay subscriptions . The club welcomes and encourages the development of rugby within all sections of the local community by promoting links with local schools , local authorities and the Rugby Football Union constituency body .
Widnes Cricket Club ( WA8 9LA ) was founded in 1865 and have its ground in Beaconsfield Road . Moorfield Sports & Social Club in Moorfield Road hosts sports including Football , rugby league , cricket and bowls . In Highfield Road is a private golf club .
Widnes Tennis Academy is located on Highfield Rd , WA8 7DW , sharing an entrance with St Peter and Pauls School . This is a privately operated facility consisting of 3 in @-@ door courts , six floodlit outside courts and a gym . It is a Beacon facility and has many links with schools , the local authority and the LTA to promote and develop tennis in the area . It is the home of Lane Tennis Club ( Est 1876 ) which has a number of men 's , women 's and junior teams playing competitively in the Warrington District League . Other sports facilities are available .
In March 2012 it was announced that a new football club Widnes Vikings F.C. had been formed , after the club formerly known as Widnes Dragons joined the Vikings Sports Brand . The club currently plays in the North West Counties Football League . In June 2014 , the club became known as Widnes Football Club , after distancing themselves from the Vikings brand .
Since May 2013 there has been an Ice Hockey club Widnes Wild based at the Silver Blades ice rink which plays in the English National Hockey League Laidler Conference .
= = Culture = =
The Queens Hall opened in 1957 , it was originally Victoria Road Weslyan Methodist Chapel . It was in use as a theatre and concert hall until the opening of The Brindley in Runcorn in 2004 . The Queens Hall was demolished ( December 2011 – February 2012 ) . Adjacent to the hall , in Lacey Street , is the Queen 's Hall Studio , originally built as a Sunday School in 1879 . It was a venue for music and live performance but closed in 2004 . After years of campaigning by the volunteer group Loose , and with the support of the Community Assets Fund / Big Lottery Fund and WREN and other donors , it re @-@ opened on 17 April 2010 .
There is a tradition that the song Homeward Bound was written by Paul Simon at a Widnes station . A quote from Paul Simon reads as follows : " If you know Widnes , then you 'll understand how I was desperately trying to get back to London as quickly as possible . Homeward Bound came out of that feeling . " Also , the song " Stars of Track and Field " by Scottish indie rock band Belle and Sebastian , from the album If You 're Feeling Sinister makes reference to the town of Widnes in the lyrics , as does the song " Watch Your Step " by Elvis Costello from his album Trust .
= = Community facilities = =
The main library in Victoria Square has been refurbished . In addition to the normal services provided by a library , this library holds a large collection of material relating to railways . There is a branch library in the Ditton area of the town .
The Queens Hall Studio , now known as the Studio , is in Lacey Street and is a community venue . Live music and theatre events take place , and the ACCESS ALL AREAS project is based there for young people interested in music and associated creative activities , funded by the Big Lottery Fund .
Victoria Park is in the Appleton area of the town and has a number of attractions , including a cafeteria and refreshment kiosk , a bandstand , model boating lake , tennis and basketball courts , bowling greens , a skateboarding facility , glasshouses with a pets ' corner and a butterfly house . Hough Green Park is in the Ditton area of the town . Crow Wood Park is in the eastern part of Widnes and Sunnybank is a large area of open ground also in the eastern part of the town . There are a number of nature reserves . Pickerings Pasture is an area of wildflower meadows overlooking the River Mersey which was built on the site of a former household and industrial landfill . The other nature reserves in the town are Clincton Wood and Hale Road Woodlands .
Kingsway Leisure Centre , Places for People , has a swimming pool and a gym in addition to a sports hall . There are a number of football , cricket and rugby league clubs in the town . St Michael 's Golf Course was a municipal golf course which was built on reclaimed industrial waste land but high levels of arsenic have been found in the soil and at present it is closed . There is a private golf club in Highfield Road .
In October 2011 the Hive Leisure Park opened in a new development as part of the Widnes Waterfront . Its facilities include Reel Cinema , a five @-@ screen multiplex cinema , a Frankie & Benny 's bar and restaurant , Super Bowl UK Widnes containing a 16 @-@ lane ten @-@ pin bowling centre , a children 's play area , licensed bar , a Nando 's restaurant , a Premier Inn , Brewers Fayre pub opened in February 2012 and also a brand new Ice Rink operated by Silverblades opened on 21 December 2012
= = = Health = = =
There is no hospital in Widnes . For acute medical care patients go to Warrington Hospital which is run by Warrington & Halton Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust or to Whiston Hospital which is run by St Helens and Knowsley Teaching Hospitals NHS Trust . Halton Clinical Commissioning Group is responsible for NHS services in the area . They established the Widnes Urgent Care Centre in 2015 to ease pressure on local accident and emergency units . General practitioner services are provided in health centres and in separate medical practices . There are dental practices providing a mixture of National Health Service and private dental care .
See also Healthcare in Liverpool
= = Notable people = =
Three men born in or near the village of Farnworth achieved prominent positions in the Anglican church . They were William Smyth ( c.1460 – 1514 ) who became Bishop of Coventry and Lichfield , then Bishop of Lincoln and who built the grammar school in the village , Richard Barnes ( 1532 – 1587 ) who became Bishop of Carlisle , then Bishop of Durham , and Richard Bancroft ( 1544 – 1610 ) who became Bishop of London and then Archbishop of Canterbury .
During the late 19th century a number of prominent chemists and industrialists lived in Widnes . Amongst these was Ludwig Mond , co @-@ founder of Brunner Mond & Company . He lived in The Hollies , Farnworth and there his two sons were born , both of whom became notable . Sir Robert Mond ( 1867 – 1938 ) became a chemist and archaeologist and his younger brother Alfred Mond , 1st Baron Melchett ( 1868 – 1930 ) became an industrialist , financier and politician .
Charles Glover Barkla ( 1877 – 1944 ) who was born in Widnes was the winner of the 1917 Nobel prize in physics . Born in the village of Farnworth was Roy Chadwick ( 1893 – 1947 ) , the designer of the Avro Lancaster bomber . Thomas Mottershead ( 1893 – 1917 ) , also born in Widnes , joined the Royal Flying Corps during the First World War ; he was awarded the Victoria Cross and the Distinguished Conduct Medal posthumously for his gallantry . Another Widnes man , Thomas Wilkinson ( 1898 – 1942 ) of the Royal Naval Reserve , was awarded the Victoria Cross posthumously in the Second World War .
Jack Ashley ( 1922 – 2012 ) was born in Widnes and was a local councillor there . He was then a Member of Parliament for Stoke @-@ on @-@ Trent for many years . He became a Companion of Honour in 1975 and was invested as a Privy Councillor in 1979 . In 1992 he was made a life peer as Baron Ashley of Stoke , of Widnes in the County of Cheshire . Gordon Oakes ( 1931 – 2005 ) who was born and educated in Widnes became a local Member of Parliament and a government minister .
Vince Karalius ( 1932 – 2008 ) , international rugby league player , was born in Widnes . Andrew Higginson ( b . 1977 ) is a professional snooker player from Widnes . Melanie Chisholm ( b . 1974 ) , who was born in Merseyside and went to school in Widnes , is a former Spice Girl known as Mel C or Sporty Spice . Actor David Dawson ( b . 1982 ) was born and raised in Widnes . The composer and multi @-@ instrumentalist Ian Finney ( b . 1966 ) is from Widnes . Former Tour de France rider Paul Sherwen was born in Widnes . George Nicholls ( born 14 May 1944 ) born in Widnes , played rugby league for Great Britain and England , and in 1972 was in the team that won the Rugby League World Cup . The distinguished Victorian cricketer John Briggs , the only man to have taken a hat trick and scored a century in Ashes cricket , lived in the town from 1877 until the 1890s . John Bowles ( darts player ) is a professional darts player from Widnes .
The singer / musician Jane Weaver was brought up in the town .
= = Further bibliography = =
= Key Biscayne =
Key Biscayne is an island located in Miami @-@ Dade County , Florida , United States , between the Atlantic Ocean and Biscayne Bay . It is the southernmost of the barrier islands along the Atlantic coast of Florida , and lies south of Miami Beach and southeast of Miami . The key is connected to Miami via the Rickenbacker Causeway , originally built in 1947 .
The northern portion of Key Biscayne is home to Crandon Park , a county park . The middle section of the island consists of the incorporated Village of Key Biscayne . The southern part of the island is now protected as Bill Baggs Cape Florida State Park , adjacent to Biscayne National Park , one of the two national parks in Miami @-@ Dade County .
= = Geography = =
Key Biscayne , although named a " key " , is not geologically part of the Florida Keys , but is a barrier island composed of sand eroded from the Appalachian Mountains , carried to the coast by rivers and then moved along the coast from the north by coastal currents . There is no hard bedrock near the surface of the island , only layers of weak " shelly sandstone " to depths of 100 feet ( 30 m ) or more . The coastal transport of sand southward ends at Key Biscayne . In the 1850s Louis Agassiz noted that " [ s ] outh of Cape Florida no more silicacious sand is to be seen . " ( The beaches in the Florida Keys , by contrast , consist primarily of finely pulverized shells . ) Geologists believe that the island emerged around 2000 BCE , soon after the sea level stopped rising , as the sand built up to form new barrier islands on the southern Florida coast .
Key Biscayne is elongated in the north @-@ south direction , tapering to a point at each end . It is approximately 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) long and 1 to 2 miles ( 1 @.@ 6 to 3 @.@ 2 km ) wide . The northern end of the island is separated from another barrier island , Virginia Key , by Bear Cut . The southern end of the island is Cape Florida . The Cape Florida Channel separates the island from the Safety Valve , an expanse of shallow flats cut by tidal channels that extends southward about 9 miles ( 14 km ) to the Ragged Keys , at the northern end of the Florida Keys . Only Soldier Key , approximately 200 yards ( 180 m ) by 100 yards ( 91 m ) wide , lies between Key Biscayne and the Ragged Keys . The Cape Florida Channel ( ten to eleven feet [ three to three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half meters ] deep in 1849 ) and Bear Cut ( four feet [ a little more than one meter ] deep in 1849 ) are the deepest natural channels into Biscayne Bay . They provided the only access for ocean @-@ going vessels to Biscayne Bay until artificial channels were dredged starting early in the 20th century . In 1849 the island had a fine sandy beach on the east side , and mangroves and lagoons on the west side . The average elevation of the island is less than five feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) above sea level .
People from Key Biscayne are known as " Key Rats . "
Key Biscayne is located at 25 ° 41 ′ 25 ″ N 80 ° 9 ′ 54 ″ W ( 25 @.@ 690329 , -80.165118 ) .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
The first known indigenous inhabitants of Key Biscayne were Tequestas . Shells , bones and artifacts found on the island indicate extensive use of it by the Tequesta . A large community appeared to inhabit the island between 1 @,@ 500 and 2 @,@ 000 years ago . In 1992 Hurricane Andrew scoured much of the vegetation from the southern end of Key Biscayne . An archaeological survey of the exposed ground found evidence of extensive habitation .
Juan Ponce de León charted Key Biscayne on his first mission to the New World in 1513 . He christened the island Santa Marta and claimed it for the Spanish Crown . He reported that he found a fresh water spring on the island . Ponce de León called the bay behind the island ( Biscayne Bay ) Chequescha , a variant form of Tequesta .
The next European known to have visited the Key Biscayne area was Pedro Menéndez de Avilés . In 1565 his ship took refuge in Biscayne Bay from a storm . Relations were established with the Tequesta , and in 1567 a mission was established on the mainland across the bay from Key Biscayne . The mission was abandoned three years later in 1570 . No other mission was established on the mainland until 1743 , but it was withdrawn a few months later .
Hernando de Escalante Fontaneda related that a sailor from the Bay of Biscay , called the Viscayno or Biscayno , had lived on the lower east coast of Florida for a while after being shipwrecked . A 17th @-@ century map shows Cayo de Biscainhos , the probable origin of Key Biscayne .
The first known European settlers on Key Biscayne were Pedro Fornells , his family and household . Fornells and his wife Mariana were Minorcan survivors of the New Smyrna colony in northern Florida . Pedro and Mariana had joined other Minorcans in seeking refuge at St. Augustine after leaving New Smyrna . They stayed in the city after the Spanish regained Florida in 1783 . Fornells received a Royal Grant for 175 acres ( 71 ha ) on the southern end of Key Biscayne in 1805 . The grant required Fornells to live on the island and establish cultivation within six months . He moved his household to the island , but after six months , the family returned to St. Augustine , leaving a caretaker Vincent on the island .
= = = Territorial years = = =
Following the First Seminole War and a treaty with Spain , Florida became a U.S. territory in 1821 . Under pressure from US settlers , Seminole and Black Seminoles began to migrate into central and southern Florida . In the early nineteenth century , African @-@ American slaves and Black Seminoles escaped to the Bahamas from Cape Florida , including hundreds in the 1820s , to evade American slavers .
In 1824 Mary Ann Channer Davis , who had moved to St. Augustine with her husband in 1821 , bought the Fornells claim to Key Biscayne from one of the Fornells ' heirs for US $ 100 . Mary and her husband William Davis , a deputy U.S. Marshal , probably were aware of plans to build a lighthouse on the Florida coast somewhere between St. Augustine and Key West , and knew that Key Biscayne was a likely location for it . Mary and William sold three acres ( about one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ quarter hectares ) of their newly acquired land at the southern tip of the island ( Cape Florida ) to the U.S. government for US $ 225 . The federal government built the Cape Florida lighthouse on that land in 1825 .
During the early 1820s an estimated 300 Black Seminoles found passage from Key Biscayne to Andros Island in the Bahamas on seagoing canoes and Bahamian boats . In 1820 one traveler reported seeing 60 " Indians " , 60 " runaway slaves " , and 27 boats of Bahamian wreckers preparing to leave Cape Florida . Although Key Biscayne was less suitable as a departure point after the lighthouse was built , the Bahamas remained a haven for escaping slaves . In a notorious case in 1844 , Jonathan Walker was caught " within sight of Cape Florida " with seven runaway slaves on his boat . His punishment included having his hand branded with the initials " SS " ( for " slave stealer " ) . John Greenleaf Whittier 's poem The Branded Hand was inspired by this incident .
The first U.S. citizens to take up permanent residence on Key Biscayne were Captain John Dubose , his wife Margaret and their five children in 1825 , when Dubose became the first keeper for the new Cape Florida Light , a post he held until the lighthouse was burned in 1836 . The family was also accompanied by two former slaves of Margaret 's brother . The Dubose household grew during that time and was reported in 1833 to consist of " eleven whites and several negroes " . During his tenure as lighthouse keeper , Dubose received hundreds of plants and seeds from Dr. Henry Perrine , United States Consul in Campeche , Mexico , which he planted on the island . In 1835 a major hurricane struck the island , damaging the lighthouse and the keeper 's house , and putting the island under three feet of water , which killed almost all the plants that Dr. Perrine had sent from Mexico .
= = = War with the Seminoles = = =
In 1836 , during the Second Seminole War , Seminoles attacked and burned the Cape Florida lighthouse , severely wounding the assistant lighthouse keeper in charge ; his black assistant died of wounds . The lighthouse was not repaired and put back into commission until 1847 .
A military post was established on Key Biscayne in March 1838 . Its first commander was Lt. Col. James Bankhead . The fort was initially known as Fort Dallas or Fort Bankhead , but it was eventually renamed Fort Russell for Captain Samuel L. Russell . He was killed when the Seminoles ambushed two boats on the Miami River in February 1839 . In the summer of 1839 , a total of 143 soldiers and sailors were stationed at Fort Russell . Some of the Seminoles captured during the war were held at Fort Russell until they could be placed on ships to be removed to Indian Territory .
A hospital was established at Fort Russell for U.S. Army , Navy and Marine Corps personnel . In August 1840 , the Army surgeon at the hospital treated 103 patients , including 23 for fever and 26 for dysentery . Dysentery was the leading cause of death at the fort , followed by malaria , tuberculosis , gunshot wounds and alcoholism .
Colonel Bankhead was replaced by Lieutenant Colonel William S. Harney in 1839 . Colonel Harney had two earlier encounters with Seminoles , the first a battle in which Chief Arpeika eluded capture , and a second in which Harney escaped in only his shirt and drawers from an early morning attack ( the Harney Massacre ) on his camp led by Chief Chakaika . In light of these experiences , Harney instituted an intensive training program in swamp and jungle warfare for his men . After Chakaika led the raid on Indian Key in August 1840 , Harney set out into the Everglades after Chakaika , and killed him in his own camp . The war quieted down after that , with active pursuit of the Seminoles ending in 1842 , although some of the Seminoles remained hidden in the Everglades .
While the war against the Seminoles continued , Mary and William Davis made plans to develop a town on Key Biscayne . They had a town plan printed in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania . The island was touted as an ideal destination " for the recovery of the health " . When Indian Key had been named the seat for the newly created Dade County in 1836 , the county provided that the county court would meet annually on Key Biscayne . In late 1839 the United States Postmaster General approved a post office for Key Biscayne . The first two lots of the new town were sold to Lt. Col. Harney for a total of US $ 1 @,@ 000 . There is no evidence that the post office ever opened ; in 1842 the Postmaster General noted that the appointed postmaster had not completed any of the requirements for opening the post office . No further sales of town lots were made after Harney 's purchase .
A complication arose when Venancio Sanchez of St. Augustine purchased for US $ 400 a half share in the old Fornells grant from another surviving heir , who lived in Havana . A feud quickly developed between Sanchez and the Davises , with Sanchez demanding a division of the property , and the Davises refusing to acknowledge that Sanchez had any claim to the island . The Davises had hoped that a restored lighthouse would be the centerpiece of their town , but all attempts to repair the lighthouse failed while the war was on . Shortly after the end of the war , the Davises gave up on Key Biscayne and moved to Texas . Their older son Edmund J. Davis eventually was elected as governor there .
= = = Surveys and lighthouses = = =
The numerous ship wrecks that occurred along the southeast coast of Florida from Key Biscayne to the Dry Tortugas was a cause for concern . Between the late 1840s and the late 1850s , more than 500 ships were wrecked on the Florida Reef . The Assistant United States Coast Surveyor reported that in the period from 1845 through 1849 , almost one million ( United States ) dollars worth of vessels and cargoes were lost on the reef .
In 1849 the United States Board of Engineers conducted a preliminary survey of the coast of Florida . In a report written by Lieutenant Colonel Robert E. Lee , the Board recommended that Key Biscayne be made a military reservation , and the United States Secretary of War so ordered in March 1849 . Later that year , the United States Army Corps of Topographical Engineers set up a camp with an astronomical / magnetic station to serve as a datum base for a survey of the Florida Keys and the Great Florida Reef .
The triangulation survey was conducted by the U.S. Coast Survey with men detailed from the U.S. Army and U.S. Navy . Approximately forty men were based at Cape Florida working on the survey when Alexander Dallas Bache , Superintendent of the U.S. Coast Survey , went to Key Biscayne in 1855 to take charge of it . The survey eventually covered Key Biscayne , Biscayne Bay , the Florida Keys from south of Key Biscayne to the Marquesas Keys , and Florida Bay from the Keys to Cape Sable . The survey base marker at Cape Florida ended up under water , as the south end of the island eroded . It could be seen at low tide as late as 1913 .
In 1988 the Cape Florida base marker was recovered from under water and installed near the Cape Florida lighthouse . The north base marker for Key Biscayne was discovered in 1970 as workers were clearing land . It was at first mistaken as a gravestone for someone named A. D. Bache .
To learn more about the Great Florida Reef , Alexander Bache invited Louis Agassiz to study it . The U.S. Coast Survey sent Agassiz to Key Biscayne in 1851 . He wrote a detailed report for Bache on the reefs stretching from Key Biscayne to the Marquesas Keys .
In 1846 , US Congress appropriated $ 23 @,@ 000 to rebuild the Cape Florida lighthouse and work was completed in 1847 . In 1861 , Confederate militants sabotaged the lighthouse so that it could not guide Union sailors during the blockade of Confederate Florida . The lighthouse was repaired and re @-@ lit again in 1866 . In 1878 the Cape Florida Light was replaced by the Fowey Rocks Light , seven miles ( 11 km ) southeast of Cape Florida .
In 1898 , in response to the growing tension with Spain over Cuba , which led to the Spanish – American War , the Cape Florida lighthouse was briefly made U.S. Signal Station Number Four . It was one of 36 along the U.S. East Coast and Gulf Coast from Maine to Texas . The Signal Stations were established to provide an early warning of any approach of the Spanish fleet .
= = = Biscayne Bay Yacht Club = = =
From 1888 to 1893 , the Cape Florida lighthouse was leased by the United States Secretary of the Treasury for a total of US $ 1 @.@ 00 ( 20 cents per annum ) to the Biscayne Bay Yacht Club for use as its headquarters . It was listed as the southernmost yacht club in the United States , and the tallest in the world . After the lease expired , the yacht club moved to Coconut Grove , where it continues .
= = = Development = = =
Key Biscayne was first developed for coconut cultivation . The earliest mention of coconuts on Key Biscayne is a Spanish account from 1568 , although the reference may be to cocoplums rather than coconuts . Mature coconut trees were on Cape Florida by the 1830s , likely grown from coconuts sent from Mexico by Henry Perrine to the first lighthouse keeper , John Dubose .
In the 1880s Ezra Asher Osborn and Elnathan T. Field of New Jersey started an enterprise to develop the Florida coast from Key Biscayne to Jupiter by clearing native vegetation , leveling Indian midden mounds and beach dunes , and planting coconuts . Osborn and Field imported 300 @,@ 000 unhusked coconuts from the Caribbean , of which 76 @,@ 000 were planted on Key Biscayne . Most of the shoots from the coconuts on Key Biscayne were eaten by rats and marsh rabbits ( Sylvilagus palustris ) . As a result of their efforts , in 1885 Osborn and Field were allowed to purchase Key Biscayne and other oceanfront land from the Florida Internal Improvement Trust Fund for 70 cents an acre .
Mary Ann Davis , who had bought the Fornells grant on Key Biscayne in 1821 , died in Galveston , Texas in 1885 . Her son Waters Smith Davis began taking steps to assert the family title to the island . In 1887 he purchased the rights of the other Davis heirs and received a new deed in his name . He could not get a clear title , however . Venancio Sanchez still claimed a half share of the Fornells Grant , two of the town lots had been sold to William Harney around 1840 , and Osborne and Field had their deed from the Florida Internal Improvement Fund . Davis received quitclaims from Osborn and Field , and on the Harney lots , but was unable to settle with Sanchez . He finally received a patent from the United States government for his land in 1898 . In 1903 Davis bought the abandoned Cape Florida lighthouse from the United States Treasury for US $ 400 .
Davis started a pineapple plantation on Key Biscayne ; six acres ( two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half hectares ) had been cleared and planted in pineapples in 1893 – 94 . Davis also directed his caretaker to plant one @-@ half to one acre ( two @-@ tenths to four @-@ tenths of a hectare ) of bananas . By 1898 , a great variety of tropical fruit trees had been planted on the island . Davis also had a large dwelling built for his use . It was a two @-@ story cottage with five bedrooms and verandas on three sides , raised ten feet above the ground on pilings to protect against storm surges .
In the late 1890s Davis hired Ralph Munroe to oversee his Key Biscayne property . Munroe had begun visiting Biscayne Bay in 1877 . He soon built a home , the Barnacle , on land on the mainland in Coconut Grove that he bought from John Frow , keeper of the Cape Florida Light and Fowey Rocks Light . Munroe engaged in wrecking in the waters around Key Biscayne , built sailboats , worked as a pilot for the Cape Florida Channel and opened a pineapple cannery , to which Davis sent his pineapples . Before mail service to the Miami area improved , Munroe would camp out on Key Biscayne every Tuesday evening so that he could sail out to the edge of the Gulf Stream early Wednesday morning to retrieve a package of newspapers and magazines dropped for him in waterproof pouches by a passing steamship . Munroe was also one of the founding members of the Biscayne Bay Yacht Club .
In 1896 Henry Morrison Flagler brought the Florida East Coast Railway to Miami . Mary Ann and William Davis had dreamed of building a city on Key Biscayne . Now their son Waters was a retired millionaire , and interested only in preserving Key Biscayne as a quiet retreat for his family . For a while Flagler 's arrival did disturb their quiet , as Flagler brought in dredges to deepen the Cape Florida Channel and the approaches to the mouth of the Miami River , muddying the formerly clear waters of Biscayne Bay . Soon , however , a shorter route from the ocean to Miami was dredged through the southern end of what is now Miami Beach , at Government Cut , and the Cape Florida Channel was allowed to return to a natural state .
= = = Coconut plantation and would @-@ be resort = = =
In 1902 William John Matheson , who had made his fortune in the aniline dye business , visited Biscayne Bay on his yacht . He soon built a winter home in Coconut Grove overlooking the bay . In 1908 Matheson began buying up the property on Key Biscayne north of the Davis holdings , all the way to Bear Cut , over 1 @,@ 700 ( about 690 hectares ) acres . Matheson created a plantation community , employing 42 workers by 1915 , and 60 later . It included housing for the workers and their families , packing houses , docks , a school , a big barn , windmills , and 15 miles ( 24 km ) of ( unpaved ) roads . The plantation had 36 @,@ 000 coconut trees , and a variety of other tropical fruits . In 1921 Matheson introduced the Malay Dwarf coconut to the United States . This is now the most common variety of coconut found in Florida , after lethal yellowing killed off most of the Jamaican Tall coconut trees and many other varieties . The Matheson coconut plantation was at least twice as large as any other in the United States . By 1933 , the world price for coconut products had dropped to about two @-@ fifths of its 1925 level , and the plantation stopped shipping .
Waters Davis decided to sell his Key Biscayne property in 1913 ( he died the following year ) . He appointed Ralph Munroe to act as his broker . Although Matheson bid on the property , Munroe arranged a sale , for US $ 20 @,@ 000 , to James Deering , the International Harvester heir and owner of Vizcaya in Miami . In 1914 Deering decided to develop his new land on the island as a tropical resort . He felt that Cape Florida 's " future lies in making sales for homes . " To prepare , the land was cleared , with marshes and mangroves were filled in . Jetties were built on the ocean side , in the belief that they would protect the beaches from erosion . They have been found to aggravate erosion .
Waters Davis stipulated in his sale to Deering that the Cape Florida lighthouse be restored . Deering wrote to the U.S. government seeking specifications and guidelines for the lighthouse . Government officials were taken aback by the request , wondering how a federal lighthouse could have passed into private hands . An Act of Congress and two Executive Orders , in 1847 and 1897 , had reserved the island for the federal lighthouse and for military purposes . Patient legal work eventually convinced the U.S. Congress and President Woodrow Wilson to agree to recognize Matheson 's and Deering 's ownership of Key Biscayne .
In 1920 the heirs of Venancio Sanchez filed a lawsuit against James Deering , claiming an undivided half interest in his Cape Florida property . This brought development of the resort on Cape Florida to a halt . After many legal battles , the suit was finally decided in Deering 's favor by the United States Supreme Court in 1926 . The decision came too late for Deering ; he had died the previous year .
= = = 1920s to 1950s = = =
In February 1926 William Matheson entered into an agreement with D. P. Davis ( a land developer , not related to Waters Davis ) to develop and re @-@ sell the northern half of Key Biscayne , including all of what is now Crandon Park and about half the present Village of Key Biscayne . Davis had experience with turning submerged or partially submerged land into prime real estate , having created the Davis Islands in Tampa and Davis Shores near St. Augustine . Later in 1926 , the City of Coral Gables incorporated with Key Biscayne , which was included in its boundaries . There were dreams of a bridge to the island , making Key Biscayne the seaside resort for Coral Gables , as Miami Beach had become for Miami .
Obstacles to the project arose . In March 1926 the U.S. government auctioned off some lots on Key Biscayne that had been retained when the rest of the island was transferred to the State of Florida . The Mathesons wanted to have clear title to all of their land , and determined to outbid other interested parties for it . They ended up paying US $ 58 @,@ 055 for a total of 6 @.@ 84 acres ( 2 @.@ 77 ha ) of land , a record price per acre for the auction of U.S. government land up to that date . On September 18 , 1926 , the Great Miami Hurricane crossed over Key Biscayne on its way to Miami . Although no lives were lost on the island , most of the buildings were destroyed or badly damaged . Many of the plantings were lost , including half of the coconut trees . The Mathesons rushed to restore their plantation , replanting and buying new equipment to replace what was lost . They soon had 30 @,@ 000 coconut trees replanted on 900 acres ( 364 ha ) . D. P. Davis could not meet his contract ; he declared bankruptcy and disappeared en route to Europe by ship .
The Florida Land Boom was over . There was no bridge built and no development on Key Biscayne for the next two decades . William Matheson died in 1930 , leaving the island to his children . In 1939 , the U.S. Navy approved a proposal to develop Virginia Key as an air base and sea port . There was talk of putting an air base on the north end of Key Biscayne .
In 1940 William Matheson 's heirs donated 808 @.@ 8 acres ( 327 @.@ 3 ha ) of land ( including two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) of beach on the Atlantic Ocean ) on the northern end of Key Biscayne to Dade County to be used as a public park ( later named Crandon Park ) . The county commissioner who negotiated the gift , Charles H. Crandon , had offered to have the county build a causeway to Key Biscayne in exchange for the land donation . As planning for the air and sea complex on Virginia Key was proceeding , construction on a causeway to Virginia Key started in 1941 .
The Attack on Pearl Harbor and the entry of the United States into World War II stopped all work on the causeway and the development of Virginia Key . After the war , Crandon pushed on with the development project . He got financier Ed Ball to buy six million ( U.S. ) dollars worth of bonds financing construction of the causeway . The causeway was named for Eddie Rickenbacker , World War I flying ace , and founder and president of the Miami @-@ based Eastern Air Lines . Starting in 1951 , the Mackle Construction Company offered new homes on the island for US $ 9 @,@ 540 , with just US $ 500 down . A U.S. Post Office contract branch was opened , the Community Church started holding services , and the Key Biscayne Elementary School opened in 1952 .
= = = Cape Florida becomes a state park = = =
In 1948 José Manuel Áleman , who had fled Cuba in the wake of scandals surrounding his service as education minister under Ramón Grau San Martín , bought the Cape Florida property from the Deering estate . His offer to donate the lighthouse and ten acres ( four hectares ) of land around it to the National Park Service was not accepted .
In 1950 the Dade County Planning Board announced a plan to build a highway connecting Key Biscayne with the Overseas Highway on Key Largo . The project envisioned bridges connecting artificial islands , to be built on the Safety Valve and existing small keys to Elliott Key and on to Key Largo . Áleman was expected to donate the right @-@ of @-@ way for a road running down the middle of the island to the first bridge at Cape Florida . With the prospect of a major highway passing through his property , Áleman rushed to prepare it for development : he had it completely cleared , leveled and filled in . A seawall was constructed along the western ( Biscayne Bay ) side of the Cape Florida property .
Áleman died in 1951 , and the County soon backed down from its road and bridge plan . His widow , Elena Santeiro Garcia , added to her Cape Florida property by buying an ocean @-@ to @-@ bay strip that had been part of the Matheson property . It included a canal dug by William Matheson in the 1920s , extending from the bay across most of the island . The land north of the canal was developed as part of the present @-@ day Village of Key Biscayne . Garcia sold the Cape Florida property in 1957 for US $ 9 @.@ 5 million , but the buyer defaulted and died the next year . Garcia sold the property again , for US $ 13 million . Development started on a model community ' of luxury homes and resort properties . By 1962 the new developers were in financial trouble , and the property reverted again to Garcia in 1963 .
Dade County began considering purchase of 50 acres ( 200 @,@ 000 m2 ) around the Cape Florida lighthouse for a park in 1964 . Bill Baggs , editor of The Miami News , campaigned for all the Cape Florida property to be preserved in a park . U.S. Interior Secretary Stewart Udall inspected the property and recommended that it be preserved , although not with Federal funds . In 1966 Baggs brokered a deal between Elena Santeiro Garcia and the state of Florida , in which Florida bought the property for US $ 8 @.@ 5 million , of which US $ 2 @.@ 3 million came from the U.S. government . This land was named the Bill Baggs Cape Florida State Park , and opened January 1 , 1967 . In 2004 a sign was installed to commemorate the site as part of the National Underground Railroad Network to Freedom Trail , for the Black Seminoles who escaped to the Bahamas .
= = = = Demographic = = = =
Key Biscayne is a small , intimate community . The majority of families that live there have known each other for generations . The kids that grew up on the island are known as Key Rats .
= Second Generation ( advertisement ) =
" Second Generation " is a 2006 television advertisement introducing Nike 's Air Jordan XXI brand of basketball shoes . The ad depicts signature moves from Michael Jordan 's NBA career , recreated in the present day by twelve young basketball players around the world . Included are moments from the 1989 , 1991 , 1992 , and 1998 NBA playoffs and the iconic 1992 slam dunk .
The ad was produced by Smuggler and directed by Brian Beletic for the advertising agency Wieden + Kennedy . Casting began in November 2005 , filming took place in January 2006 , and the ad debuted on television that February . Advertising publications gave favorable reviews to " Second Generation " , although it did not win major awards .
The ad is also listed as " 2nd Generation " ; its tagline is " Let your game speak " .
= = Production = =
The ad was conceived by the agency Wieden + Kennedy . Copywriters Derek Barnes and Paul Renner were in a shopping mall when they noticed many of the youths around them wearing Air Jordan shoes , despite Jordan having retired in 2003 : " Just one look around the food court , you knew kids still waved his flag . " The creative directors were Kevin Proudfoot and Todd Waterbury . Waterbury explained , " We thought of the fact that a version of him is alive in everyone that loves basketball . And there are moments in Jordan 's career where you just say the move , or the game , and people who love the man , and love the sport , immediately can imagine that scene . Here , we were just taking advantage of those incredible moments . "
Wieden + Kennedy hired Brian Beletic to direct the ad . W + K art director Jesse Coulter said of choosing Beletic , " He gets it . He brings the flavor . " The music was composed by Jonathan Elias and David Wittman of Elias Arts .
Casting calls were held in three U.S. cities . A November 2005 ad put out by Ulysses Terrero and T & T Casting asked for " [ BOYS ] All ethnicities , ages 13 @-@ 21 , with amazing basketball skills - amazing enough to recreate some of Michael Jordan 's greatest moments on the basketball court . " Some 350 young basketball players auditioned over eight days ; Beletic recalls the process as " an absurd amount of casting " . The main challenge was in finding players who could match Jordan 's jumping ability ; the toughest shots were cast for older players . Casting was also complicated by the amateurism rules of the National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) : anyone who might play college basketball in the future couldn 't appear in the ad .
Filming took place in Los Angeles in January 2006 . The action is set in the present day , across the world ; various scenes take place in Africa , China , Chicago , and New York City . Each scene is a few seconds long , depicting a young basketball player recreating a famous Jordan moment in slow motion . The actors were not shown footage of the moves they were performing ; rather , their performances were based on their own memories . The staff then " fine @-@ tuned " the scenes for accuracy .
= = Sequence = =
The ad opens on a young man dribbling in place . The music starts with a simple ostinato C – G – B ♭ – C line played by a muted synth bass . At 0 : 05 , a young man wags his tongue while dribbling . This is a signature move of Jordan 's . At 0 : 09 , a player drives to the basket with his tongue hanging out . He recreates a moment from the 1991 NBA Finals , game 2 : Jordan scored a layup after switching hands in midair to avoid Sam Perkins of the Los Angeles Lakers .
The music starts growing in complexity , adding violins and a new bass line as a piano takes over the ostinato . At 0 : 13 , the camera shows a young man chewing gum . At 0 : 15 , a young man spreads his arms in a defensive stance . His jersey is colored red , yellow , and black to evoke Africa . At 0 : 21 , an Asian boy palms the basketball . At 0 : 22 , a young woman shoots a fall away jumper .
The music adds a second violin line and a snare drum cadence . At 0 : 25 , a young man performs a " rock the cradle " slam dunk . At 0 : 29 , a young man recreates Jordan 's free throw line dunk from the 1988 NBA All @-@ Star Game Slam Dunk Contest . This is the only shot where the original scenery is imitated . The set colors match the colors of the Chicago Stadium , and the crowd is spaced out in the same way as the crowd during Jordan 's dunk ; they nevertheless wear modern clothes , as the ad is set in the present . The intent is that by this point , the viewer is aware of the significance of each shot . Waterbury said , " We built the action in a way so that it created tension in the spot . As the commercial continues to build , the viewer will recognize scene after scene after scene . "
At 0 : 35 , the camera cuts to the aftermath of The Shot . A young man jumps in the air and pumps his fist as another young man in an opposing jersey sinks to the floor . The moment is from the 1989 NBA Playoffs , when Jordan hit a game @-@ winning jump shot over Cleveland Cavaliers guard Craig Ehlo . At 0 : 38 is Jordan 's last shot with the Chicago Bulls , after a crossover dribble past Utah Jazz guard Bryon Russell at the end of Game 6 of the 1998 NBA Finals . These scenes are musically punctuated with a bass drum roll and a cymbal crash . Finally , at 0 : 44 a young man shrugs after hitting a shot , as Jordan shrugged after scoring six three @-@ point field goals in the first half of Game 1 of the 1992 NBA Finals against the Portland Trail Blazers .
The rhythm of the music pauses for two beats . It resumes at a calmer level as the camera shows Jordan in street clothes , watching from the sideline . Jordan is shown for just two seconds , smiling and nodding . Waterbury said of this shot , " We wanted to make sure that , through this commercial , people understood Michael 's role as a mentor and a coach . His nod of approval at the end is his way of saying , ' Go . ' " The camera cuts back to the young player ; the tagline " LET YOUR GAME SPEAK " is shown , and the scene fades to black with the " XXI " logo and then the " Jumpman " logo .
= = Reception = =
The ad received positive reviews from advertising publications . It listed by Adweek as the " Ad of the Day " and as one of the " Best Spots of February 2006 " . SHOOT named the ad their " Top Spot of the Week " . ESPN 's Darren Rovell wrote that " it deserves to be considered at the top of the list " of Jordan 's more than 400 commercials . Creativity called the ad " impeccably executed " , and Boards called it " so rich in detail that it entices in an instant " . Second Generation did not win any major industry awards . Another Nike / W + K / Smuggler effort in August 2006 , Pretty starring Maria Sharapova , would fare much better in that category .
On February 27 , 2006 , an anonymous Jordan fan uploaded a breakdown of the ad on YouTube , showing it side @-@ by @-@ side with the original footage . In an interview , Beletic commented on this video : " It is pretty awesome to watch . "
= December to Dismember ( 2006 ) =
December to Dismember ( 2006 ) was a professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view event produced by World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) , which took place on December 3 , 2006 , at the James Brown Arena in Augusta , Georgia . Professional wrestling is a type of sports entertainment in which theatrical events are combined with a competitive sport . The buildup to the matches and the scenarios that took place before , during , and after the event , were planned by WWE 's script writers . The event starred wrestlers from the ECW brand : storyline expansions of the promotion where employees are assigned to wrestling brands under the WWE banner . Despite it being an ECW brand pay @-@ per @-@ view , wrestlers from the Raw and SmackDown ! brands also worked on the pay @-@ per @-@ view . Its name was derived from the December to Dismember event held by the original Extreme Championship Wrestling in 1995 .
The main attraction on the event card was an Extreme Elimination Chamber match for the ECW World Championship . It featured wrestlers fighting in a ring surrounded by a steel structure of chain and girders . The six participants were defending champion Big Show , Bobby Lashley , Rob Van Dam , Hardcore Holly , CM Punk and Test . Lashley won the match and the ECW World Championship after pinning Big Show following a spear . The featured bout on the undercard was a tag team bout between The Hardys ( real @-@ life brothers Matt and Jeff ) and MNM ( Joey Mercury and Johnny Nitro ) , in which The Hardys were victorious .
The event had an attendance of 4 @,@ 800 and received about 90 @,@ 000 pay @-@ per @-@ view buys , with 55 @,@ 000 of them domestic buys — the lowest buyrate in WWE history until the introduction of the WWE Network in 2014 . Although it was scheduled to be held again in 2007 , the show was canceled after all pay @-@ per @-@ view events became tri @-@ branded , which meant that there would be pay @-@ per @-@ view events with the entire roster on two consecutive weeks .
= = Background = =
Outside of the weekly ECW on Sci Fi broadcast , one of WWE 's primary television programs , the pay @-@ per @-@ view received little buildup on both Raw and SmackDown ! television shows , as WWE concentrated more on advertising the Survivor Series pay @-@ per @-@ view that aired one week prior to December to Dismember . At this time , the main storyline on the Raw brand featured tag teams , D @-@ Generation X and Rated @-@ RKO , and the SmackDown ! brand 's main storyline featured Batista and World Heavyweight Champion King Booker . The buildup for December to Dismember began in the middle of October . ( six weeks before the event occurred ) This was the only ECW brand exclusive pay @-@ per @-@ view WWE produced before the decision was made to have all three brands featured on future pay @-@ per @-@ views .
The main event at December to Dismember featured an Extreme Elimination Chamber match for the ECW Championship . On the October 24 , 2006 episode of ECW , Rob Van Dam defeated the ECW World Champion , Big Show for the second consecutive time . Per the stipulation , if Van Dam were to defeat the Big Show again , in a ladder match , he could then choose a time to face the Big Show for the ECW Championship . Van Dam chose to have his title shot at the December to Dismember pay @-@ per @-@ view . Authority figure , Paul Heyman , authorized Van Dam 's decision and added him to the Extreme Elimination Chamber contest for the ECW Championship along with Big Show and four other ECW superstars . The remaining four participants for the Extreme Elimination Chamber match were decided through standard singles matches . The first person to qualify for the match was Sabu , who defeated Kevin Thorn on the October 31 , 2006 episode of ECW . The following week , CM Punk and Test qualified by defeating Mike Knox and Tommy Dreamer , respectively . The final place was to be given to Hardcore Holly in a contract signing segment on the November 14 , 2006 episode of ECW . As Holly was making his way to the ring , Bobby Lashley , a wrestler from the SmackDown ! brand , attacked Holly and signed his contract himself to gain the sixth and final place in the Extreme Elimination Chamber . Although the six spots in the bout were filled , Heyman announced a Extreme Rules match , between Van Dam and Holly , on the November 21 , 2006 episode of ECW . If Holly were to defeat Van Dam he would take his place in the Extreme Elimination Chamber ; Van Dam however , won the match and cemented his place in the Extreme Elimination Chamber . Van Dam continued gaining momentum going into December to Dismember pay @-@ per @-@ view , as he , along with team members Sabu , Lashley , John Cena and Kane defeated the team of Big Show , Test , Umaga , Finlay and Montel Vontavious Porter in a 5 @-@ on @-@ 5 , elimination tag team match , at the Survivor Series pay @-@ per @-@ view . On the final episode of ECW , before December to Dismember , Van Dam defeated Sabu . Later in the show , CM Punk faced Test , but both men were counted out in their bout . In the main event , Big Show was disqualified in his match against Lashley as Test and Heyman 's Security Force ( Doug and Danny Basham ) assaulted Lashley .
The other main rivalry heading into December to Dismember was between the Hardy Boyz and MNM ( Joey Mercury , Johnny Nitro and Melina ) . Unlike the Extreme Elimination Chamber rivalry , this one did not include ECW superstars and only featured members of the Raw and SmackDown ! brands , making the pay @-@ per @-@ view non @-@ exclusive to ECW , spanning all three WWE brands . The buildup to the match between them began when Nitro and Jeff Hardy started to feud over the Intercontinental Championship on Raw . The two competed in several different types of matches , including a ladder match . The Hardy Boyz had just teamed up for the first time since 2002 , when they defeated Tony Mamaluke and Little Guido Maritato on an episode of ECW . At Survivor Series , The Hardy Boyz , along with D @-@ Generation X and CM Punk defeated the team of Nitro , Rated @-@ RKO ( Edge and Randy Orton ) , Mike Knox and Gregory Helms in a traditional Survivor Series team elimination match . The next day at the December to Dismember press conference , The Hardy Boyz announced an open challenge for the pay @-@ per @-@ view . Later that night on Raw , Nitro accepted the challenge , announcing the return of Mercury and the " one night only " reformation of MNM . On the following episode of ECW , MNM attacked The Hardy Boyz after they defeated Elijah Burke and Sylvester Terkay . Meanwhile , Voodoo Kin Mafia , a tag team from the Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) promotion , issued a statement via the TNA website stating that they had accepted The Hardy Boyz open challenge for December to Dismember . However , Voodoo Kin Mafia did not turn up at the event , and WWE never acknowledged their challenge . Only two matches were officially announced for the pay @-@ per @-@ view before it aired .
= = Event = =
Before the event went live on pay @-@ per @-@ view , Stevie Richards defeated René Duprée in a dark match , a non @-@ televised match used to generate excitement in the crowd .
= = = Preliminary matches = = =
The first match that aired was the tag team encounter between MNM and The Hardy Boyz . After a back and forth match , which lasted over 20 minutes , MNM performed a flapjack DDT on Jeff , a move that sees an opponent get pushed upwards in air by the tag team and then is driven into the mat onto his own head . During a pinfall attempt , Matt Hardy made the save and performed a double neckbreaker on both members of MNM . Jeff then performed a Swanton bomb onto Nitro and made the winning pin . Next was Matt Striker versus Balls Mahoney in a " Striker 's Rules " match , a match with " no gouging of the eyes , no pulling of the hair , no maneuvers off the top rope and , most importantly , no foul language " . Mahoney won the match after he performed a spinebuster and pinned Striker for the victory .
After the match between Balls Mahoney and Matt Striker , Sabu was depicted as being injured backstage and unable to compete in the Extreme Elimination Chamber match . In reality , however , it was rumored that Sabu had animosity surrounding him backstage and was said to be uninterested at television tapings . Rumors evolved stating that WWE viewed Sabu as being " useless " in normal matches and that he could only perform in matches that included " stunts and tables and they [ WWE ] don 't respect him because of that " . This was reportedly part of the reason he had been scripted to be easily defeated by Umaga on an episode of Raw a few weeks earlier . WWE chairman Vince McMahon wanted to put Holly in Sabu 's place , so Lashley would have more villains to overcome . Heyman was legitimately unhappy with the decision , saying that Sabu 's high @-@ flying wrestling would be " the ideal showcase " inside the Extreme Elimination Chamber . The fans inside the James Brown Arena chanted " bullshit " during the segment .
In the second tag @-@ team match of the night , Elijah Burke and Sylvester Terkay defeated F.B.I. members Little Guido Maritato and Tony Mamaluke . Burke pinned Mamaluke after performing a Forward Russian legsweep on him and gaining the pinfall . After the match , Terkay performed a Muscle Buster on Maritato . During this match , the fans inside the James Brown Arena chanted " TNA , TNA " ( a reference to WWE 's rival professional wrestling promotion , as well as two of their performers utilizing moves used by TNA wrestlers , Jeff Jarrett and Samoa Joe , respectively ) . A standard match between Daivari and Tommy Dreamer followed with The Great Khali accompanying Daivari to the ring but was ejected from ringside early on for interfering . After Daivari won the match using a roll @-@ up , Khali came back out to the ring and grabbed Dreamer by the neck and gave him a chokebomb . EMTs came out to help Dreamer get up , but he ended up getting up on his own and headed backstage .
The next match of the night was an intergender tag team match , with Kevin Thorn and Ariel against Mike Knox and Kelly Kelly . Before the match began , Kelly Kelly was shown wishing CM Punk , her on @-@ screen crush , luck for the main event . The end of the match came when Knox abandoned Kelly Kelly in the ring and Ariel performed a legsweep , a variation of a takedown , on Kelly Kelly before covering her for the win . Following the match , Ariel and Thorn attempted to attack Kelly Kelly , before The Sandman interrupted and hit Thorn repeatedly with a kendo stick .
= = = Main event match = = =
The main event was the Extreme Elimination Chamber for the ECW World Championship . After a segment earlier in the event showed an injured Sabu was unable to compete in the match , it was decided that Hardcore Holly would take his spot in the ECW Championship match . Before the match began , Paul Heyman announced the rules of the match and explained that each superstar had a weapon with them in each of their pods . Before entering the ring , Heyman had a conversation backstage with Big Show , that was unseen by television viewers , with him revealing that for the first time in his professional career he was not motivated to give the promo . Rob Van Dam and Hardcore Holly were the first superstars to begin the match and one of the other four competitors were then released from their pod every five minutes afterward . The first person to be released from his pod was CM Punk , who entered the match with a steel chair in hand . Test then followed , five minutes after him , with a crowbar . Punk was the first eliminated from the match , after Van Dam performed a Five Star Frog Splash from the top turnbuckle and covered him for the 3 @-@ count . Moments later , Test charged and hit Holly in the head with a big boot and eliminated him with a pin . Van Dam was the third person eliminated , after Test delivered a diving elbow drop from the top of a pod and pinned him . When it was Bobby Lashley 's turn his pod wouldn 't open , he could not exit it because Heyman 's Security Force had bolted the door shut . Lashley then used the table that was with him to smash through the pod , allowing him to escape . He then hit Test with a spear and then eliminated him with a pinfall . The defending ECW Champion , Big Show , was the final man to exit his pod and had a baseball bat wrapped in barbed wire in tow . Lashley was able to block Big Show 's swing of the barbed wire bat with a folding chair and then threw him into the pod , causing him to bleed . Lashley managed to reverse a chokeslam from the Big Show into a DDT and then landed a spear and gained the last pinfall to win the match and become the new ECW Champion .
= = Aftermath = =
Not long after December to Dismember , Big Show was offered a long @-@ term contract extension by WWE , reported to be around $ 1 million a year . He declined the offer , however , reasoning he was burned out and hurting physically . On the first episode of ECW to air after December to Dismember , Show and Lashley would compete in a rematch for the ECW Championship . The Big Show lost , thus ending their storyline feud , and he announced his retirement from wrestling .
After the storyline feud with Big Show ended , Lashley entered a short program with Rob Van Dam , which led to Van Dam earning a title match on the January 2 , 2007 episode of ECW . The match between the two ended in a No Contest after Test interfered during the bout . Test 's interference led to a storyline with the champion , leading to a title match at the Royal Rumble , which Lashley won .
= = = Reception = = =
Less than 24 hours after the pay @-@ per @-@ view , WWE announced on their official website that Vince McMahon had sent Heyman home , citing " slumping television ratings and a disgruntled talent roster as causes for Mr. Heyman 's dismissal " . Heyman and McMahon clashed on the plane to the North Charleston Coliseum and after a producers ' meeting , Heyman was escorted from the Coliseum and sent home . He was also immediately pulled from ECW 's creative team after the altercation . McMahon was attempting to put the blame on Heyman for the poorly received pay @-@ per @-@ view , and after a meeting with Vince and Stephanie McMahon , Heyman legitimately left World Wrestling Entertainment but remained under contract . Heyman was against the decision of Lashley being booked to win the ECW Championship , and instead wanted to have CM Punk win it , a decision McMahon disliked . This situation was cited by Punk in his controversial shoot promo in 2011 , in which he referred to the idea as one in which " Heyman saw something in [ Punk ] that nobody else wanted to admit . " In an early 2008 interview with The Sun , Heyman gave more details on how he would have booked the Extreme Elimination Chamber main @-@ event , which included having Punk enter first and quickly eliminating Big Show via submission . According to the interview , McMahon nixed the idea , but Big Show liked the direction Heyman was heading , and was eager for the opportunity to " make " a rising star like Punk . He also stated that he kept going to McMahon on the night of the pay @-@ per @-@ view to say that " The people are going to throw this back in our face " . Upset at how the event turned out , Tommy Dreamer and Stevie Richards both asked after the event to be released from their contracts . Both requests were refused by McMahon and WWE 's Vice President of Talent Relations John Laurinaitis .
Balls Mahoney gave an interview in 2015 to The Pay @-@ per @-@ Viewists and said that he was not allowed to use his finisher which he pitched to use from the second rope so as the bend the " Strikers rules ' stipulation . He also said that the match was so bad that he lost any desire to watch wrestling as a fan .
Critics had a negative reaction to the pay @-@ per @-@ view , with the only match that received praise being the Hardy Boyz versus MNM tag team match . Slam ! Sports rated the pay @-@ per @-@ view 4 out of 10 stars , stating , " the two matches that were promoted saved this thing from being a debacle " . In the 2006 Wrestling Observer Newsletter awards , the event was voted the " worst major wrestling show of the year " .
= = Results = =
= = = Elimination Chamber entrances and eliminations = = =
= Human Nature ( Michael Jackson song ) =
" Human Nature " is a song performed by American recording artist Michael Jackson . The lyrics describe a passer @-@ by in New York City . It was written and composed by Steve Porcaro and John Bettis , and produced by Quincy Jones . It is the fifth single from the singer 's sixth solo album , Thriller ( 1982 ) . Initially , Porcaro had recorded a rough demo of the song on a cassette , which was then given to Jones . Enjoying the demo , Jones brought in Bettis to finish the lyrics and had the ballad included on the " Thriller " album . The song was the last selected for the album , removing " Carousel " from the final track listing .
" Human Nature " was released on July 3 , 1983 , as the album 's fifth single . Although not released in the UK , the song achieved chart success in the US . Reaching number two on Billboard 's Hot Adult Contemporary chart and number seven on the Hot 100 , the song became Jackson 's fifth Top 10 hit from " Thriller " . In New Zealand the single reached number 11 . The ballad garnered many positive reviews from music critics . " Human Nature " has been covered and sampled by numerous artists , including Stevie Wonder , Vijay Iyer , John Mayer , Miles Davis , SWV , ELEW , Nas , 2Cellos , Jason Nevins , Danny Chan , David Mead and Chris Brown .
= = Production = =
" Human Nature " was written and composed by Steve Porcaro of Toto and John Bettis for Michael Jackson 's Thriller album . Initially , Porcaro recorded a rough demo of the song on a cassette . He had written the song after his first grade daughter came home crying because a boy pushed her off the slide . He blurted out three reasons for the incident to comfort her : one the boy liked her , two people can be strange and three it 's human nature . Fellow Toto band member David Paich gave the demo , along with two songs written by Paich , to producer Quincy Jones , hoping they would be included on Thriller . Jones did not think Paich 's songs were right for the album , but enjoyed the rough demo of " Human Nature " at the end of the cassette . Jones explained , " All of a sudden , at the end , there was all this silence , there was : ' why , why , dah dah da @-@ dum dah dah , why , why ' . Just a dummy lyric and a very skeletal thing — I get goosebumps talking about it . I said , ' This is where we wanna go , because it 's got such a wonderful flavor ' " . However , Jones was dissatisfied with the original lyrics and so Bettis , who had written lyrics for hits by The Carpenters and The Pointer Sisters , among others , was asked to add lyrics to the song . He completed the song in two days . The producer asked if the song could be included on Jackson 's album , to which Porcaro and Bettis agreed . " Human Nature " was the last song selected for Thriller , ousting " Carousel " from the final track listing .
= = Release and reception = =
" Human Nature " was released on July 3 , 1983 , as the fifth single from Thriller . Although not released in the UK , the song achieved moderate chart success in the US . Reaching number two on Billboard 's Hot Adult Contemporary chart and number seven on the Hot 100 , the song became Jackson 's fifth Top 10 hit from Thriller . " Human Nature " charted at number 27 on the R & B singles chart . In the Netherlands the single reached number 11 .
John Rockwell , of The New York Times , stated that " Human Nature " was a " haunting , brooding ballad " with an " irresistible " chorus . Allmusic noted that the " gentle and lovely " " Human Nature " coexisted comfortably with the " tough , scared " " Beat It " . They later added that the song was a " soft rocker " . Reflecting on Thriller , Slant expressed their fondness of the song , stating that it was " probably the best musical composition on the album and surely one of the only A / C ballads of its era worth remembering " . The magazine added that the track 's " buttery harmonies " were powerful . Stylus also praised the song , describing it as " the smoothest of ballads " . They further added that the music " does little to embody the song ’ s message " and that it couches Jackson 's " glazed voice " in " bubble synths and drum pillows " .
About.com 's Bill Lamb looked back on the track 25 years after its release . He felt that the song " set down a blueprint for what would become known as adult R & B " . Kelefa Sanneh of Blender described the " soft @-@ serve balladry " of the song as a " silk @-@ sheets masterstroke " . In a 2008 IGN review , Todd Gilchrist explained that the elements of " Human Nature " worked better today than they did before . He added that it may be because modern R & B " sucks " . Tom Ewing , reviewer for Pitchfork Media , described the song as " meltingly tender " , with MTV adding that it was an " airy ballad " . Rolling Stone claimed that the " most beautifully fragile " " Human Nature " was so open and brave it made " She 's Out of My Life " seem phony . The Los Angeles Times concluded that it was Jackson 's delivery that made the " middling ballad " take off .
Vogue cites the poster for starting one of the hottest trends in costume jewelry that year . “ Several years back he borrowed three heraldic @-@ style brooches -with crests , crowns , and Maltese crosses- for a poster he was shooting , and the minute that poster came out , everybody wanted brooches , ” says Connie Parente in the Vogue interview . Connie Parente is the popular Los Angeles jewelry collector who gave the pieces for the shoot , close to the photographers and Michael Jackson 's personal stylist at the time Jyl Klein .
= = Live performances = =
The song was first performed during The Jacksons ' Victory Tour . Michael started to sing " Ben " , but stopped and proceeded to sing " Human Nature " . It was also performed during Michael 's Bad World Tour and Dangerous World Tour . Jackson performed the song live for the last time during his 1996 Royal Brunei concert . It was going to be performed for Jackson 's This Is It concerts , but they were cancelled due to his death , however it was included on the posthumous album to coincide with the concerts . Live versions of the song are available on the DVDs Live at Wembley July 16 , 1988 and Live in Bucharest : The Dangerous Tour .
= = Charts = =
= = Track listing = =
45 RPM :
" Human Nature " ( 7 " remix ) – 3 : 47 ( Misprinted as 4 : 06 )
" Baby Be Mine " – 4 : 20
= = Official remixes = =
Album version – 4 : 06
7 " remix – 3 : 47 ( This version features an alternate synth before the bridge and several bars are cut after the final verse . The only digital source is the 3 " CD single for " Thriller " released in Japan in 1987 . )
Edit – 3 : 46 ( This edit from the Essential Collection is an attempt at re @-@ creating the original 7 " version , however it does not match the instrumentation . )
Live – 4 : 29 ( This version is taken from Live at Wembley July 16 , 1988 and included in the deluxe edition of Bad 25 . )
" Speechless " / " Human Nature " – 3 : 18 ( Immortal version )
= = Cover versions = =
In 1984 , the song was first covered by Philadelphia saxophonist George Howard in his album Steppin ' Out .
In 1985 , American jazz artist Miles Davis included a cover version of the song on his album You 're Under Arrest . At the time , Rolling Stone described the track 's inclusion on the album as " glorified filler " . The Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer disagreed , stating it was " particularly good " . In extended and reworked versions , the song would soon become a staple of Davis ' concerts during his last years , with Kenny Garrett soloing on saxophone . There are several recorded live takes , notably an impassioned version on the Miles in Paris video and album , recorded in 1989 .
In 1991 , Hong Kong singer Danny Chan covered this song in Cantonese
In 2003 , Brass band Youngblood Brass Band ( from Oregon , Wisconsin , U.S. ) recorded a Riot Jazz version of the song under the name " Human Nature Pt . 2 " on their album Center : Level : Roar .
In 2004 , Boyz II Men included a Latin @-@ style cover of the song on their Throwback , Vol . 1 album .
In 2004 , Filipina pop singer Kyla covered the song from her album , Not Your Ordinary Girl .
In 2004 , Nashville singer @-@ songwriter David Mead also recorded a version of " Human Nature " for his release , Indiana , which featured Butterfly Boucher .
In 2008 , jazz fusion / contemporary jazz pianist David Benoit covered the song from his renditions album Heroes .
In 2009 , on July 7 John Mayer performed an instrumental version of the song at Jackson 's public memorial service .
In 2009 , Mario covered the song in memory of Michael Jackson .
In 2010 , Jazz pianist Vijay Iyer included a solo piano version of the song in his album Solo ; in 2012 , he included a trio version of it in his album Accelerando .
In 2010 , Brazilian star Ivete Sangalo recorded the song for their DVD live at Madison Square Garden .
In 2010 , Heather Peace covered the song on her acoustic album This Is Me .
In 2010 , singer Craig David sang an acoustic cover of the song .
In 2011 , Toto ( whose band members wrote the song and performed the background music on Michael Jackson 's original version ) performed the song in memory of Jackson and a dedication to Mike Porcaro during their 2011 tour . Joseph Williams was the lead vocalist . Toto continued to perform this as a cover on their 2012 tour .
In 2011 , at the induction of John Bettis into the Songwriter 's Hall of Fame , Skylar Grey performed the song using a lap dulcimer .
In 2011 , Marcus Miller covered the song on his album Tutu Revisited – Live 2010 .
In 2012 , Amber Riley and Chord Overstreet ( respectively as their characters Mercedes Jones and Sam Evans ) covered this song in Glee 's episode " Michael " ( aired on January 31 ) . This cover debuted and peaked at number 56 at Billboard Hot 100 , number 31 at Billboard Hot Digital Songs , and number 62 at Billboard Canadian Hot 100 chart at the week of February 18 , 2012 .
In 2013 , Australian singer Taylor Henderson recorded a version for his album Taylor Henderson .
In 2014 , Tori Amos performed a cover , in a live mash @-@ up with " Torn " by Ednaswap / covered by Natalie Imbruglia , at the Britt Festival in Jacksonville , OR .
In 2014 , Justin Timberlake covered this song during his The 20 / 20 Experience World Tour , almost every concert of the tour .
In 2015 , the Cincinnati Pops Orchestra performed an instrumental version during their " Unforgettable : An Evening with Natalie Cole " concert at Music Hall in Cincinnati , Ohio .
= = = Sampling = = =
In 1992 , " Human Nature " was sampled by R & B group SWV . Titled " Right Here / Human Nature " , the song was a remix of the group 's " Right Here " . The song was later included on the soundtrack album of Free Willy , alongside Jackson 's " Will You Be There " .
In 1997 , " Human Nature " was sampled by R & B singer Aaliyah for the pop / R & B version of the song titled " Journey to the Past " for the 1997 animated film Anastasia soundtrack .
SWV 's remix was sampled by the late American rapper Tupac Shakur on " Thug Nature " , from the 2001 posthumous album Too Gangsta for Radio .
In 1994 , New York @-@ based rapper Nas sampled the song for his track " It Ain 't Hard to Tell " from his debut album Illmatic .
Jason Nevins , a DJ from New York City , sampled Jackson 's track on " I 'm in Heaven " , which also featured vocals by Holly James .
In 2003 , American R & B group BLACKstreet 's " Why , Why " also sampled " Human Nature " . The song appeared on the album Level II .
In 2006 , R & B / pop artist Ne @-@ Yo used a sample of " Human Nature " for his remix version of " So Sick " , which also featured rapper LL Cool J. The remix released later on LL Cool J 's album Todd Smith .
In 2006 , " Human Nature " was remixed by Japanese drum and bass producer Makoto together with The Specialist .
In 2007 , singer Tyra B ( Tyra Bolling ) sampled and did a remix version including parts of Jackson 's " Human Nature " with her song " Givin ' Me a Rush " as well as Paula Abdul 's " Rush Rush " .
In 2009 , following Jackson 's death on June 25 , the American rappers Yung Berg and Lil Wayne sampled " Human Nature " on their tribute song " We Miss You " .
In 2011 , English singer and musician , Floetry 's Marsha Ambrosius briefly sampled the song on the track " I Want You to Stay " from her debut album Late Nights & Early Mornings .
In 2011 , American pop singer Chris Brown sampled " Human Nature " and SWV 's remix version for the fourth single " She Ain 't You " from his album F.A.M.E ..
In 2013 , Eurovision 2011 winners Ell & Nikki sampled " Human Nature " on their tribute song " Music Still Alive "
In 2015 , " Human Nature " was sampled by American rapper Ludacris on " This Has Been My World " , from the album Ludaversal .
= = Personnel = =
Written and composed by Steve Porcaro and John Bettis
Produced by Quincy Jones
Michael Jackson : vocals
David Paich : synthesizer
Steve Porcaro : synthesizer , synthesizer programming
Steve Lukather : guitar
Jeff Porcaro : drums
Paulinho Da Costa : percussion
Michael Boddicker : E @-@ mu Emulator
Arrangement by David Paich , Steve Porcaro and Steve Lukather
= Viva Piñata ( video game ) =
Viva Piñata is a 2006 life simulation game developed by Rare and published by Microsoft Game Studios for the Xbox 360 . The game revolves around the player tending to a neglected garden in Piñata Island , in which different variations of piñatas must be bred whilst fending off disruptive interlopers . The project was headed by Gregg Mayles and the team behind the Banjo @-@ Kazooie series , based on an idea from Rare co @-@ founder Tim Stamper . Microsoft wanted the game to become a key franchise for the platform , and developed a tie @-@ in television show to accompany the series . Viva Piñata released in November 2006 .
The game received positive reviews from critics , who praised the graphics , color palette , and numerous types of piñatas . They disliked the disruption caused by frequent autosaving . A Windows version was released in November 2007 . The game started the Viva Piñata series , with a direct sequel and a portable version both released in 2008 . Viva Piñata is included in Rare 's 2015 Rare Replay , a compilation of 30 games for the Xbox One .
= = Gameplay = =
Viva Piñata is a first @-@ person life simulation game in which the player restores and tends to a neglected garden on Piñata Island . The player uses gardening tools , such as shovels and watering cans , to plough their garden , sow seeds , create ponds , and sculpt the garden to their liking . When certain requirements are fulfilled , the garden will attract a black @-@ and @-@ white outline of a given piñata species . After fulfilling additional requirements , the piñata will become a resident , changing into a full @-@ color version .
Once two piñatas of the same species are residents and their mating requirements are met , they can perform a " romance " dance . If the player successfully completes a maze minigame , the romance results in a baby piñata egg , which is delivered by a stork . The piñatas are not gendered , and hence any two piñatas of the same species can mate . Once a piñata species has successfully romanced , the player can use a candy shortcut to bypass their original romance requirements . The player can hatch the egg or send it to another player over Xbox Live . The game 's antagonists include the " Ruffians " led by Professor Pester and " sour piñatas " who occasionally enter the player 's garden with the sole intent of wreaking havoc : eating seeds , dropping poisonous piñata candies , and destroying objects . The player may tame sour piñatas by constructing fences around them . Weeds may occasionally sprout in the player 's garden and will quickly spread to destroy vegetable rows if the player does not kill them in time .
The game features sixty types of piñatas . Certain animals are " piñatavores " , and must eat other piñatas to become residents or reproduce . A food chain ( referred to as the doughnut of life ) exists , with a number of piñata species having one or two others that are considered prey . When such piñatas are visiting the garden , they devour garden residents to satisfy their residency requirements . Once piñatas are residents , they will not eat each other unless instructed to do so by the player , although fights can break out between residents who do not share the predator – prey relationship . Piñatas die when they are broken open , either from another piñata 's predaciousness , the hit of the player 's or Professor Pester 's shovel , or following an extended illness . Dead piñatas forfeit their equipped accessories .
= = Development = =
Rare co @-@ founder Tim Stamper conceptualized a gardening game for the handheld Pocket PC platform in 2002 . A three @-@ person team began work on a simple prototype while the company was still affiliated with Nintendo , prior to its Microsoft acquisition . Development transferred to the original Xbox and , ultimately , to the Xbox 360 for its enhanced graphical capabilities . The development team wanted its animals to have a unified style , which was how the concept artist arrived at the piñata conceit . The idea was exciting for the team , as piñatas were not commonplace in the United Kingdom . The connection between piñatas and candy @-@ filled insides led to new gameplay directions .
The Viva Piñata team was a model for productivity and regular output within Rare and Microsoft Studios . Though compared to the 12 @-@ person teams behind earlier Rare games , the company 's Xbox 360 development teams consisted of 50 to 60 people . The Viva Piñata team included about 50 people at its zenith . Microsoft transitioned its development teams to use its XNA package to streamline and reduce duplication in engineering efforts . Microsoft pressured the Viva Piñata development team to keep the game 's themes children @-@ friendly , as the parent company planned for the game and resulting franchise to increase the market appeal of their Xbox 360 . In 2006 , a Microsoft Games executive called the game its most important franchise . But its reception was tepid .
Viva Piñata was planned as a larger intellectual property . 4Kids TV had agreed to make a Viva Piñata cartoon before the game was released . 4Kids selected the series out of several Microsoft properties offered . 4Kids also handled the series merchandising . The cartoon is tied very closely to the game , and its animations are based on the game 's own 3D character models . Its episodes are approved by Rare 's Gregg Mayles for their applicability to the game . The cartoon was also designed to give viewers tips on how to interact with the in @-@ game piñatas . The animated series ' storyline later influenced the plot of Trouble in Paradise .
= = = Release = = =
After the release of Viva Piñata in 2006 , its development team saw it as incomplete . The developers cut partial ideas from the release to meet their deadlines . Rare 's Gregg Mayles said that the game sold well and steadily on par with their expectations and Xbox executive Phil Spencer added that the game was considered a success inside the company . The team incorporated player feedback and worked towards a " more definitive version " of the original .
During the Microsoft press conference at E3 2007 , a Microsoft Windows port of Viva Piñata was announced . The conversion was handled by Climax Group . The game is part of the Games for Windows programme which offers easier installation and support for Windows Vista 's Games Explorer , Xbox 360 Controller for Windows , Parental Controls , and the use of Games For Windows - Live .
In 2007 , Microsoft collaborated with amusement park Six Flags Mexico to promote the Xbox 360 as well as Viva Piñata . To accomplish this , a 48 feet ( 15 m ) tall , 52 feet ( 16 m ) long piñata , specifically a Horstachio , was constructed at the park . At the time , it was the largest recorded piñata ever built .
= = Reception = =
Viva Piñata received " generally favorable " reviews , according to video game review aggregator Metacritic . Nearly a year after its release , Rare 's Justin Cook said that the game had sold about 500 @,@ 000 copies .
The graphics were unanimously praised by critics . Justin Calvert of GameSpot stated the attention to detail was " uniformly impressive " , and asserted that the visuals were cohesive . Erik Brudvig of IGN found that the game 's graphical slowdown during its frequent autosaving to be startling , although he praised the presentation overall . Andrew Taylor of the Official Xbox Magazine praised the vibrant use of colors and attention to detail . Will Tuttle of Team Xbox similarly stated the colors were " vividly vibrant " and the design aesthetics " remarkably appealing " , although he also found the autosaving slowdown frustrating . Gerald Villoria of GameSpy stated the graphics were " breathtaking " , and noted the color palettes of the piñatas themselves gave the appearance that they were " stripped directly from an animated show " .
Critics commended various aspects of the gameplay . Calvert enjoyed the wide customization options and large number of piñata variations , stating that the gameplay itself was " silky smooth " . Brudvig noted that there was a " ton to do " ; he praised the encouragement of discovery and stated that it was " constantly filled with moments where you find something new to do " . Tuttle commended the large number of piñatas , stating that finding managing all of the resources is " a lot of work " . Villoria praised the " surprisingly deep " strategic gameplay , saying that it was one of the most " entertaining and fulfilling " experiences for the Xbox 360 .
Viva Piñata was nominated for six awards by the Academy of Interactive Arts and Sciences for its 10th annual awards covering 2006 . The music score by Grant Kirkhope was nominated for Original Score at the 2007 BAFTA awards . The game was nominated for the " Best Original Game " in X @-@ Play 's " Best Video Games of 2006 " awards . Other accolades include a Parents ' Choice Award from the Parents ' Choice Foundation. and GameSpot included the title as one of their ten nominees for their " 2006 Game of the Year " award , although it received only 3 % of the total votes .
= = = Legacy = = =
A sequel , Viva Piñata : Trouble in Paradise was announced in May 2008 and released in September of that year . The sequel adds more than 30 new piñata species , a " Just for Fun " sandbox mode , and new co @-@ operative modes , as well as new desert and arctic environments .
Rare announced plans to release a Nintendo DS version of the game at Comic @-@ Con 2007 . It was later revealed to be titled Viva Piñata : Pocket Paradise and was subsequently released in September 2008 . Key changes include a control scheme which makes use of the stylus , as well as the presence of additional context @-@ sensitive information on the second screen . On October 30 , 2007 , a party game spin @-@ off , Viva Piñata : Party Animals was released for the Xbox 360 . Developed by Krome Studios , the game features the TV show piñata characters competing in races and close to 50 party mini @-@ games .
= The Springfield Files =
" The Springfield Files " is the tenth episode of The Simpsons ' eighth season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on January 12 , 1997 . The episode sees Homer believe he has discovered an alien in Springfield . It was written by Reid Harrison and directed by Steven Dean Moore . Leonard Nimoy guest stars as himself and David Duchovny and Gillian Anderson guest star as Agents Fox Mulder and Dana Scully , their characters on The X @-@ Files . The episode serves as a crossover with The X @-@ Files and features numerous references to the series . The story came from former showrunners Al Jean and Mike Reiss , who returned to produce this episode while under contract at Disney . It received mostly positive reviews from critics ; Jean and Reiss won an Annie Award for producing it .
= = Plot = =
Leonard Nimoy begins the episode hosting a show about alien encounters . He talks about an encounter in a town called Springfield .
At Moe 's on a Friday night , Homer drinks ten beers , and after insisting he takes a breathalyzer test where Homer reaches " Boris Yeltsin " level , Moe declares that he is drunk and will not let him drive . Homer decides to walk home , but takes a wrong path and ends up in the woods . In a clearing , he sees a glowing thin @-@ boned alien . Although the alien says " Don 't be afraid " , Homer panics and runs home screaming .
The rest of the family do not believe Homer 's story , believing it to be a drunken hallucination , and his attempts to report the alien sighting to the local police are dismissed . Agents Fox Mulder and Dana Scully of the FBI hear of the sighting and go to investigate . After receiving no results from their psychological tests of him ( which involved Homer making a polygraph explode and jogging on a treadmill ( which served no purpose other than Scully wanting Homer to lose weight ) , Homer fails to provide any proof that he actually did see an alien , including bringing the agents to the clearing where he saw the alien , which only succeeds in coming across a lost and confused Grampa . Homer is ridiculed by most of the neighborhood ; even Marge refuses to believe in his claims and demands he forget about it , but Bart admits that he does believe what Homer is saying . The next Friday night , the pair camp out in the forest . The alien arrives and promises peace , but Homer scares it away when he accidentally steps on their camp fire and screams in pain . Fortunately , Bart captured the entire incident on tape , and Homer thanks him , cheering for the evidence of the alien in their hands .
Leonard Nimoy tells the viewers goodnight . He is then reminded that the show still has ten minutes left by an off @-@ screen Squeaky Voiced Teen , at which point he runs to his car and leaves . The Squeaky Voiced Teen takes over the narrating duties .
Following the successful capture of the alien 's existence , Homer and Bart present it to the media . Although Bart 's tape is only three seconds long and is mostly static , everyone in town finally believes Homer , including Marge , who apologizes to Homer for doubting him . Lisa , on the other hand , refuses to believe this and maintains that there should be a more logical explanation . Friday comes again and everyone , including Leonard Nimoy and Agent Scully , goes to the forest . Sure enough , the alien appears again , promising love . The townspeople begin to riot , and charge at the alien . Lisa and Waylon Smithers stop them just in time , showing that the " alien " is actually Mr. Burns . Smithers explains that Burns receives longevity treatment once a week in order to cheat death for a further seven days ; this leaves him twisted and disoriented , as well as giving him a soft , high pitched voice as a result of a vocal cord scraping . Back to his normal self , Burns reveals that his green glow is due to many years of working in his nuclear plant , and then renounces his promises of peace and love and instead says that he now intends to bring fear , famine and pestilence , shortly before receiving another booster injection from Dr. Nick . He instantly reverts to his " alien " self ; he begins to sing " Good Morning Starshine " , with the entire crowd ( including Mulder , Scully , and Chewbacca ) joining in as the sun rises over the clearing . Squeaky @-@ voiced Teen closes the episode by telling the viewers to watch the skies ( he momentarily mispronounced it as skis ) .
= = Production = =
The episode was produced by Al Jean and Mike Reiss , who had served as showrunners of seasons three and four . They returned to the show to produce this and several other episodes while under contract at The Walt Disney Company . The episode was written by Reid Harrison and directed by Steven Dean Moore . It had one of the longest episode gaps between its conception to the time it was finished . The idea was first conceived at a story retreat . Jean found a copy of TV Guide while in the bathroom , with The X @-@ Files on the cover . Feeling a crossover would be a good idea , he came back into the room , told Reiss his idea , and the pair pitched it . None of the other staff wanted to do it , so Reiss and Jean decided to do it themselves . Before the episode was produced the script was sent to Chris Carter , the creator of The X @-@ Files , who said that it was an " honor " to be satirized by The Simpsons . Al Jean was worried that the episode was not funny , as at the table reading there were only a few of the writers present and as such , the script got no laughs at all . It took a long time to come up with an ending , and an explanation for the alien . Originally it was just going to be left as a mystery . Mulder and Scully 's office was designed to be exactly the same as the one used in The X @-@ Files . After it had been finished , Fox sent the episode out for a critical review , which was " really great " . The scene with the " Homer is a dope " T @-@ shirts originally had an extra line : " I told you , we 're sold out ! " , thus filling in the plot error in the actual episode in which Homer asks for some T @-@ shirts , despite just being told that they were sold out . The scene after Homer 's first encounter with the alien , in which he runs through a field writing " Yahhh ! " in the grass was written by David M. Stern , and added in after the original read through .
= = Cultural references = =
The Leonard Nimoy segments are a send @-@ up of the paranormal documentary series In Search Of ... , which Nimoy hosted .
In addition to the appearances of Mulder and Scully , the episode features several other references to The X @-@ Files .
Mulder 's FBI badge has a picture of himself only wearing a speedo on it ; this is a reference to a scene in The X @-@ Files episode " Duane Barry " in which David Duchovny wore just a speedo .
Also , in the scene where Scully gives Homer a lie detector test , The Smoking Man is in the background .
At one point , Mulder begins a lengthy monologue ( leading Scully to roll her eyes and walk away ) including a reference to " the unsolved mysteries of Unsolved Mysteries . "
The Budweiser Frogs appear in the swamp , chanting their names , " Bud ... Weis ... Er . " They are then eaten by an alligator who growls " Coors ! "
Homer 's suggestion that he and Bart fake an alien encounter and sell it to the Fox network is an allusion to the Alien Autopsy hoax.As Homer recounts his experience to Chief Wiggum , he recalls the alien having a sweet , heavenly voice and appearing every Friday night " like Urkel " , from the ABC / CBS sitcom Family Matters .
Homer , when asked by the agents about his pre @-@ sighting activities , falsely describes an evening in which he with members of the gentlemen 's club played a game of backgammon while discussing Wittgenstein . Such reference alludes to the Cambridge Moral Sciences Club , an elite club where Wittgenstein dominated in discussions to the extent of provoking fellow philosopher , Karl Popper , by brandishing a red @-@ hot poker at him ( according to Popper ) .
There are also numerous film references .
Marvin the Martian , Gort from The Day the Earth Stood Still ( 1951 ) , Chewbacca , ALF , and one of the Kang and Kodos siblings make up the FBI line @-@ up .
The music played by the Springfield Philharmonic comes from Psycho ( 1960 ) .
The narration sequences are based on Plan 9 from Outer Space ( 1959 ) .
In one chapter title , the phrase " All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy " being printed out ad infinitum is a reference to The Shining ( 1980 ) .
Mr. Largo conducts five of his students in playing the famous five @-@ note tones from Close Encounters of the Third Kind ( 1977 ) with marching band instruments .
Homer recounts seeing Speed ( 1994 ) , but believes it was called " The Bus That Couldn 't Slow Down " .
Milhouse plays a Kevin Costner 's Waterworld arcade game , moving just a few steps before having to insert another forty quarters , a reference to the budget overrun on Kevin Costner 's 1995 film Waterworld .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " The Springfield Files " finished 26th in ratings for the week of January 6 – 12 , 1997 , with a Nielsen rating of 11 @.@ 7 , equivalent to approximately 11 @.@ 3 million viewing households . It was the third @-@ highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , following The X @-@ Files and the series premiere of King of the Hill .
Al Jean and Mike Reiss won the Annie Award for Best Individual Achievement : Producing in a TV Production for their work on the episode . The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , said that it was " a very clever episode , with the line @-@ up one of the best visual gags in ages . " IGN.com ranked Leonard Nimoy 's performance in this episode , and " Marge vs. the Monorail " , as the 11th @-@ best guest appearance in the show 's history . Total Film 's Nathan Ditum ranked Duchovny and Anderson 's performances as the fourth @-@ best guest appearances in the show 's history . Skeptical Inquirer reviewed the episode positively , stating that " It 's rare that a
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is heavy and steady . It flies with its wings held flat or very slightly above horizontal , in what is called the dihedral position . The flight of the greater yellow @-@ headed is an example of static soaring flight , which uses thermals to maintain altitude without the need to flap its wings . The greater yellow @-@ headed vulture also has the unusual habit of urohidrosis , in which it urinates or defecates on its legs to cool them evaporatively . This behavior is exhibited by storks and New World vultures .
= = = Diet = = =
The greater yellow @-@ headed vulture is a scavenger and subsists entirely on carrion . It will eat roadkill or other animal carcasses . It prefers fresh meat , but often cannot make the first cut into the carcass of a larger animal as its beak is not strong enough to tear into the tough hide . After a few days , the greater yellow @-@ headed vulture will no longer feed on a piece of carrion , as the meat will begin to decay and become contaminated with microbial toxins . It will drink water from a pool , pond , or any receptacle provided . Like other vultures , they play an important role in the ecosystem by disposing off carrion which could otherwise be a breeding ground for disease .
The greater yellow @-@ headed vulture forages using its keen eyesight to locate carrion on the ground , but also uses its sense of smell , an ability which is uncommon in the avian world . It locates carrion by detecting the scent of ethyl mercaptan , a gas produced by the beginnings of decay in dead animals . The olfactory lobe of its brain responsible for processing smells is particularly large compared to other animals . This characteristic of New World vultures has been used by humans : ethyl mercaptan is injected into pipelines , and engineers looking for leaks then follow the vultures .
King vultures , which lack the ability to smell carrion , follow the greater yellow @-@ headed vultures to carcasses , where the king vulture tears open the skin of the dead animal . This allows the smaller greater yellow @-@ headed vulture access to food , as it does not have a bill strong enough to tear the hide of larger animals . This is an example of mutual dependence between species . It is generally displaced from carcasses by both turkey vultures and king vultures , due to their larger size .
= = = Reproduction = = =
Greater yellow @-@ headed vultures do not build nests , but rather lay their eggs directly on cliffs , the floors of caves , the ground , or in the hollows of stumps . Eggs are cream @-@ colored and blotched with brown spots , particularly around the larger end . Clutch size ranges from one to three , though two is the norm . The chicks are altricial — blind , naked and relatively immobile upon hatching , and grow down feathers later . The parents feed their young by regurgitating pre @-@ digested food into their beak , where the chicks then drink it . Young fledge after two to three months .
= = Conservation = =
The greater yellow @-@ headed vulture is listed as a species of Least Concern by the World Conservation Union ( IUCN ) . It has an estimated global range of 6 @,@ 700 @,@ 000 square kilometers ( 2 @,@ 600 @,@ 000 sq mi ) and a population of between 100 @,@ 000 and 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 individuals . There is evidence that suggests a decline in the species ' population , but it is not significant enough to warrant an upgrade in conservation status .
= Texas Park Road 30 =
Park Road 30 ( PR 30 ) , also known as Balmorhea State Park Road , is a short Park Road located in the western region of the U.S. state of Texas . The route is 0 @.@ 277 miles ( 0 @.@ 446 km ) long , and connects Balmorhea State Park to State Highway 17 ( SH 17 ) in Toyahvale in southwestern Reeves County . The route is made up of several individual drives within the park . The route was first built by the CCC in the mid @-@ 1930s , and was designated as PR 30 in 1941 . The highway is maintained by the Texas Department of Transportation ( TxDOT ) .
= = Route description = =
The main roadway of PR 30 begins at the circulating drive around the parking lot in front of the concession building of the swimming pool at San Solomon Springs . The route proceeds to the north with a spur branching off to the east to the San Solomon Springs Courts before passing the park headquarters near the terminus of the road at SH 17 .
An extension of PR 30 begins at the entrance to the San Solomon Springs parking lot and proceeds to the east to the park campground . At the campground , the route ends as a circular drive accessing individual camping spaces and a viewing exhibit for a reconstructed desert wetland . The circular drive is bisected by another drive with bath facilities and campsites for recreational vehicles .
= = History = =
The main portion of PR 30 from the parking lot at the swimming pool to SH 17 including the spur to the San Solomon Springs Courts was constructed between 1935 and 1940 by Company 1856 of the Civilian Conservation Corps . An 0 @.@ 66 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 06 km ) long stretch of the spur was designated as PR 30 on April 23 , 1941 . On May 30 , 1961 , the modern routing of PR 30 was designated , including the eastward extension toward the campgrounds .
= = Major intersections = =
This entire route is located in Balmorhea State Park , Reeves County .
= Hurricane Inez =
Hurricane Inez was a major hurricane that affected the Caribbean , Bahamas , Florida , and Mexico in 1966 . It was the first storm on record to affect all of those areas . It originated from a tropical wave over Africa , and became a tropical depression by September 21 . It moved slowly westward , initially failing to intensify much ; it was upgraded to Tropical Storm Inez on September 24 . The storm strengthened into a hurricane and was quickly intensifying when it struck the French overseas region of Guadeloupe on September 27 . Inez severely damaged the island 's banana and sugar crops , and thousands of homes were damaged , leaving 10 @,@ 000 people homeless . Damage on Guadeloupe was estimated at $ 50 million , and there were 40 deaths . After entering the Caribbean , Inez briefly weakened before restrengthening , attaining peak sustained winds of 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) on September 28 . That day a Hurricane Hunters flight reported a gust of 197 mph ( 317 km / h ) , which was the highest recorded at the time .
Continuing westward , Inez made landfall as a small hurricane on the Barahona Peninsula of the Dominican Republic . There , the storm flooded many rivers and destroyed over 800 houses . Nationwide , there were about 100 deaths and $ 12 million in damage . After affecting the country , Inez struck southwestern Haiti , where it was considered the worst hurricane since the 1920s . As many as 1 @,@ 000 people were killed , and 60 @,@ 000 people were left homeless . Damage totaled $ 20 @.@ 35 million in Haiti , prompting the United States government to send aid for the first time in nearly ten years due to previous mishandling of funds . Inez weakened quickly over Hispaniola , although it reintensified into a major hurricane before striking southeastern Cuba on September 30 . In the country , 125 @,@ 000 people were forced to evacuate , and there were three deaths and $ 20 million in damage .
The hurricane moved slowly over Cuba for two days before emerging into the Atlantic Ocean near the Bahamas . It was expected to continue out to sea , although it stalled and resumed its previous westward path . In the Bahamas , heavy rainfall and high tides caused flooding , which killed five people and left $ 15 @.@ 5 million in damage . Hurricane @-@ force winds occurred throughout the Florida Keys , where 160 homes and 190 trailers were damaged . Salt spray damaged crops in the region , and there was $ 5 million in damage and four deaths . In the Straits of Florida , Inez capsized a boat of Cuban refugees , killing 45 people . In the northern Gulf of Mexico , a helicopter crashed after carrying evacuees from an oil rig , killing 11 people . The hurricane threatened the northern Yucatán Peninsula , and although it remained offshore , Inez produced flooding and caused some power outages . At its final landfall , Inez flooded portions of Tamaulipas and cut off roads to Tampico . About 84 @,@ 000 people were left homeless , and the hurricane destroyed at least 2 @,@ 500 houses . Damage was estimated at $ 104 million , and there were 74 deaths in Mexico .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of Inez were from a tropical wave that formed over the Sahara in central Africa on September 15 from the monsoon . It moved westward in the prevailing winds , exiting the west coast of Africa on September 18 . The precursor to Inez was a disturbance along the northern portion of the wave , which was considered a tropical depression by September 18 in the annual tropical cyclone summary . Tracked by satellites , the system moved to the west @-@ southwest , and was officially classified a tropical depression on September 21 about halfway between the Lesser Antilles and Africa . The system remained weak as it turned toward the west @-@ northwest . A Hurricane Hunters flight indicated some intensification in the system , prompting the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) to initiate advisories on Tropical Storm Inez , located about 800 mi ( 1 @,@ 300 km ) east of Martinique . With warm water temperatures , the storm developed a circular area of convection over its center . Inez slowed while curving westward around a ridge to its north and quickly intensified , reaching hurricane status on September 26 .
On September 27 , Inez strengthened to reach winds of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) , making it a Category 3 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson scale . Later that day , it moved directly over the island of Guadeloupe . At the time , Inez was a small cyclone , with hurricane @-@ force winds extending 50 mi ( 80 km ) from the center ; meteorologists labeled it as a " micro @-@ hurricane ... because of its characteristic small , tight cloud structure and strong maximum surface wind . " Its structure became disrupted by the island , and the central pressure rose from 961 mbar ( 28 @.@ 4 inHg ) to 970 mbar ( 29 inHg ) , indicative of weakening . However , Inez re @-@ intensified after entering the eastern Caribbean Sea , reaching a minimum pressure of 927 mbar ( 27 @.@ 4 inHg ) south of Puerto Rico on September 28 . The Hurricane Hunters reported sustained winds of 197 mph ( 317 km / h ) at a height of 8 @,@ 000 ft ( 2 @,@ 400 m ) , the strongest winds recorded for the storm . The same flight estimated surface winds between 150 to 175 mph ( 241 to 282 km / h ) near the center . The peak intensity listed in the Atlantic hurricane database is 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) , making Inez a strong Category 4 hurricane .
While near peak intensity , Inez was located about 160 mi ( 260 km ) southwest of San Juan , Puerto Rico , and the eye was tracked by radar from the island . Its increasing outflow caused Tropical Storm Judith to the east over the central Atlantic to dissipate . On September 29 , the small but powerful hurricane made landfall on the Barahona Peninsula , and quickly weakened over land . It briefly moved offshore and struck the southern peninsula of Haiti near Jacmel . The eye emerged into the Windward Passage near Léogâne , although severely weakened . The pressure rose to 987 mbar ( 29 @.@ 1 inHg ) , and the winds decreased to 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) over land . However , Inez quickly re @-@ intensified over water , reaching winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) on September 30 before striking southeastern Cuba near Guantánamo Bay . When Inez was over Cuba , forecasters had difficulty in predicting the storm 's future ; it was expected that the hurricane would move to the north off the east coast of the United States due to a weakness in the ridge to the north . The hurricane drifted west @-@ northwestward within light steering currents , weakening over the high terrain but later moving offshore the southern coast of Cuba . While over water , the eye reorganized , and the cyclone maintained hurricane intensity . Inez eventually turned to a northward drift over central Cuba and emerged into the Atlantic Ocean on October 2 .
Shortly after exiting Cuba into the Atlantic , Inez weakened into a tropical storm , and was moving northeastward through the Bahamas about 24 hours later than forecast . At the time , the storm was expected to continue to the northeast around the Bermuda high . With little outflow and a large , diffuse circulation , Inez did not restrengthen much despite otherwise favorable conditions , potentially due to a nearby trough . The movement slowed , and the 1966 hurricane summary remarked that " Inez probably became nearly stationary closer to the United States mainland than any other storm . " On October 3 , Inez turned to the west @-@ southwest as another ridge strengthened over the western Gulf of Mexico . Over the subsequent few days , the eye moved directly over the Florida Keys from Key Largo to Key West and continued through the Gulf of Mexico while slowly intensifying . On October 7 , Inez brushed the northern coast of the Yucatán Peninsula with hurricane @-@ force winds . By then , the ridge had begun to weaken , allowing the hurricane to turn more west @-@ northwestward . On October 8 , Inez attained a secondary peak intensity of 140 mph ( 220 km / h ) , with a pressure of 948 mbar ( 28 @.@ 0 inHg ) . Briefly threatening the coastline of Texas , Inez turned to the southwest after the ridge again strengthened . On October 10 , the hurricane made its final landfall near Tampico , Tamaulipas , in northeastern Mexico . It weakened rapidly over the region 's high terrain , dissipating on October 11 .
The unusual track of Inez marked the first time on record that a tropical cyclone affected the Lesser and Greater Antilles , Bahamas , Florida , and Mexico . The Associated Press described Inez as the " first to strike the Yucatán Peninsula in many years . " It was also the first to move across the Gulf of Mexico without turning to the north so late in the season , and the 65 advisories issued by the NHC was the highest number at the time . The path taken by Inez was compared to Hurricane Betsy in 1965 , which also slowed and moved erratically due to a strong ridge . Forecasters had difficulty with the hurricane because of its unusual path , as well as the inability to fly the Hurricane Hunters into Inez while it was over Cuba .
= = Preparations = =
In Guadeloupe , which was the first area the hurricane affected , residents evacuated to schools set up as shelters . Pan American World Airways canceled flights to the region . When Inez was near peak intensity , the NHC warned residents in southern Haiti and the Dominican Republic of the danger posed by the hurricane . The agency emphasized that the eye was visible on radar to calm tension of an unexpected change in track . In general , hurricane warnings were issued 24 hours in advance , with the exception of southeastern Florida due to the hurricane 's slowing track . Overall , 250 @,@ 000 people evacuated along the path of Inez . At Guantánamo Bay , officials ordered residents at the naval base to evacuate to storm shelters . Large ships at the port there were moved to Jamaica before the storm struck . Throughout eastern Cuba , Premier Fidel Castro ordered about 125 @,@ 000 people to evacuate in low @-@ lying areas , mostly in Oriente Province . United States Air Force tracking stations in the Bahamas were secured or moved to safer locations . Residents in the Florida Keys boarded up windows and store fronts , and hundreds of people evacuated to a shelter in Key West . In southeastern Florida , government offices and schools closed .
Along the Yucatán peninsula , about 15 @,@ 000 people were evacuated from the coastal city of Progreso , in a region that seldom experiences hurricanes . In the northern Gulf of Mexico , a helicopter crashed after evacuating workers from an oil platform about 65 mi ( 105 km ) south @-@ southwest of Morgan City , Louisiana , in otherwise calm conditions ; 11 people died , including the pilot . When Inez was approaching its final landfall , the United States Weather Bureau issued hurricane warnings from Brownsville to Port Isabel , Texas , with gale warnings northward to Corpus Christi . At least 2 @,@ 000 people evacuated from Port Isabel alone , and many shrimp boats were secured . In the Tampico area where Inez made its final landfall , over 31 @,@ 000 people evacuated to higher grounds .
= = Impact = =
Overall , Hurricane Inez killed about 1 @,@ 000 people , mostly on Hispaniola , and caused over $ 200 million in damage . Crop damage was less than other storms of similar magnitude , due to Inez 's small size and its occurrence late in the season .
= = = Caribbean and Bahamas = = =
When Inez struck Guadeloupe , a station on the island reported sustained winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) , with gusts to 94 mph ( 151 km / h ) , before communications failed . Rain on the island reached 6 @.@ 5 in ( 170 mm ) . The high winds destroyed the roofs of thousands of houses , leaving 10 @,@ 000 people homeless . There was heavy damage to both the banana and sugar crops , described as " flattened " by the St. Petersburg Times . The storm flooded a power plant in Pointe @-@ à @-@ Pitre and downed many power lines , causing power outages . The Associated Press described the hurricane as having " virtually leveled a whole district of Pointe @-@ à @-@ Pitre " . Hundreds of people were injured , although because of damaged hospitals and the power outage , most only received makeshift treatment . Inez left 40 people dead and $ 50 million in damage on the island . Strong winds also affected nearby Antigua , and damage was reported from that island to Dominica .
In the United States Virgin Islands , a station on St. Croix reported 45 mph ( 72 km / h ) gusts . When Inez passed south of Puerto Rico , its rainbands produced gusty winds along the island 's southern coast , reaching 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) in Peñuelas . On Isla de Mona , wind gusts were estimated at 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) . Flooding occurred in southern Puerto Rico , and high winds damaged 20 houses .
Hurricane Inez struck the Dominican Republic near peak intensity . Along the Barahona Peninsula , more than 800 homes were destroyed , and nationwide about 5 @,@ 000 people were left homeless . There was heavy damage to the country 's cotton industry , as well as the coffee , sugar cane , and cocoa crops along the Barahona Peninsula . In the capital city of Santo Domingo , heavy rains flooded hundreds of homes along the Ozama River , forcing thousands to evacuate . High seas there damaged a portion of a seawall . Many rivers along the Barahona Peninsula were also flooded . Throughout the country , Inez killed about 100 people , including 55 in Juancho , and left $ 12 million in damage .
In neighboring Haiti , high winds downed power lines and radio towers , which cut outside communication . High rainfall led to flash flooding between mountain ranges , in a location nicknamed the " valley of death " ; there , the Weather Bureau remarked that " local winds ... may well have exceeded 160 mph ( 260 km / h ) " . Thousands of homes were either destroyed or lost their roof . The Haitian government reported over 1 @,@ 000 deaths in the weeks after the storm . The United States government reported that the hurricane " killed no more than 50 " in Haiti , and " nor was there a real emergency , " due to president François Duvalier misusing previous aid . The U.S. assessment was incorrect , as the 1966 annual tropical cyclone summary in the Monthly Weather Review indicated 750 deaths in Haiti , mostly in Jacmel . President Duvalier considered the hurricane the " worst storm ... since the 1920s . " In the country , 1 @,@ 000 people were injured and 60 @,@ 000 were left homeless , and damage was estimated at $ 20 @.@ 35 million . Throughout Hispaniola , about 1 @,@ 500 people were seriously injured , and many people were still recovering from Hurricane Flora in 1963 .
A station at Guantánamo Bay reported winds of 138 mph ( 222 km / h ) when Inez moved ashore in Cuba , and rainfall reached 12 in ( 300 mm ) . Tides were 10 ft ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) above normal there . The hurricane knocked down trees and power lines , and many roofs were damaged on the naval base . In the city of Guantánamo , the hurricane destroyed 500 houses . High winds heavily damaged the country 's sugar and coffee crops . When Inez re @-@ entered the Gulf of Mexico , it threatened northwestern Cuba and produced 12 in ( 300 mm ) of rainfall . High waves and strong winds affected the coastline . In La Habana Province , flooding forced 21 @,@ 000 people to evacuate , mostly in low @-@ lying areas . One building was destroyed in Havana . Nationwide , Inez injured at least 38 people , and caused five deaths , three of which occurred after Inez moved southwestward from the Florida Keys . Damage totaled $ 20 million .
In the Bahamas , the hurricane dropped heavy rainfall over three days , reaching 14 @.@ 31 in ( 363 mm ) in Nassau . There , Inez spawned a small tornado that produced winds of over 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) , killing one person and injuring three . High tides flooded portions of Nassau . Two waterspouts were reported in Freeport . Wind gusts in the archipelago reached 90 mph ( 140 km / h ) at West End , Grand Bahama , and sustained winds reached 64 mph ( 103 km / h ) in Freeport . Five people died throughout the country , and damage was estimated at $ 15 @.@ 5 million .
= = = United States = = =
In the Straits of Florida , high waves from Inez overturned a 24 ft ( 7 @.@ 3 m ) blockade runner carrying Cuban exiles to Miami . Ten of the passengers escaped on a damaged raft , but the only survivor was the captain ; 45 people died due to the boat capsizing . High waves also disabled three ships and beached a Coast Guard boat near Miami ; a lifeguard and people on the beach assisted in rescuing the crew of nine Coast Guardsmen amid rough seas .
When the hurricane moved across the Florida Keys , it dropped light rainfall , reaching 4 @.@ 80 in ( 122 mm ) near Kendall . Inez was considered a " dry hurricane " , and about 1 in ( 25 mm ) of the precipitation that fell was largely in the form of sea water spray . Light rainfall occurred in Miami , where strong winds damaged crops due to salt spray onto local vegetation . During its passage , Inez produced above normal tides , reaching 5 ft ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) above normal on Big Pine Key . Inez produced strong winds while it was intensifying , and the strongest winds occurred after the passage of the eye . The highest sustained winds were 98 mph ( 158 km / h ) on Plantation Key , and peak gusts were 120 mph ( 190 km / h ) in the Dry Tortugas . On Big Pine Key , sustained winds were estimated at 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) , with gusts to 165 mph ( 266 km / h ) . On the Florida mainland , the highest gusts were 92 mph ( 148 km / h ) at Flamingo . The winds damaged smaller tree limbs and uprooted some trees . About 20 % of the local avocado crop was blown off trees , although most was salvageable . Winds and salt spray severely damaged vegetables in southern Dade County , including up to 80 % losses of tomatoes in some farms . Power outages were reported in Key West . In the Florida Keys , the hurricane damaged 160 homes and 190 trailers . Statewide , damage totaled $ 5 million , and there were four deaths ; three were elderly people who died of heart attacks while installing shutters , and the fourth was a teenager who was swept by large surf . Inez was the last hurricane to threaten the Miami metropolitan area until Hurricane David in 1979 , and the last hurricane to strike the Florida Keys until Hurricane Kate in 1985 .
When Inez was making its final landfall in Mexico , its outer circulation reached southern Texas , producing winds of 22 mph ( 35 km / h ) and trace rainfall . Tides reached 3 @.@ 1 ft ( 0 @.@ 94 m ) above normal in Corpus Christi , and 10 ft ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) waves caused $ 5 @,@ 000 in damage to piers .
= = = Mexico = = =
While the hurricane was off the north coast of the Yucatán peninsula , Inez produced sustained winds of 69 mph ( 111 km / h ) , with gusts to 81 mph ( 130 km / h ) , in Mérida . The winds cut power and knocked down trees in Progreso , as well as nearby cities . High waves destroyed a dock in Telchac Puerto . Heavy rainfall flooded streets in Mérida , although damage was not severe .
At the hurricane 's final landfall , a station in Tampico reported sustained winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) , with gusts to 127 mph ( 204 km / h ) before communications were cut . Inez dropped heavy rainfall upon moving ashore , causing flooding . In Soto la Marina , Tamaulipas , rainfall totaled 10 @.@ 12 in ( 257 mm ) . In northeastern Mexico , more than 3 @,@ 000 people were stranded by flooding after dozens of rivers and streams rose above their banks , forcing some families to hold onto trees . The floods washed out roads around Tampico and cut communications and the water supply . In Tamaulipas , 15 people died while trying to deliver supplies to residents along the Tambesi River . Throughout the country , the hurricane left about 84 @,@ 000 people homeless , and destroyed at least 2 @,@ 500 houses . Agricultural damage totaled over $ 80 million , and property damage was estimated at $ 24 million in Tampico and Ciudad Madero alone . Overall , Inez killed 74 people in Mexico .
= = Aftermath = =
In the days after the storm struck Guadeloupe , there was a food shortage . Officials quickly cleared roads and worked to restore the damaged banana crop . Charles de Gaulle visited the island , and the French population unified to provide assistance to the island . In late October 1966 , the French government set up a relief fund for Guadeloupe totaling $ 34 million ( ₣ 170 million francs ) . The government initiated plans to rebuild the island to withstand the winds of strong hurricanes . The United States Agency for International Development flew 20 @,@ 000 pounds of blankets and clothing to the island . Due to the heavy damage in Hispaniola , VMM @-@ 365 , a United States Marine Corps helicopter division , spent 454 hours and flew 740 sorties to provide 186 @,@ 676 tons of relief supplies to Haiti and the Dominican Republic . The division also helped evacuate 142 hospital patients . The Dominican Air Force also assisted in transporting injured people from outlying areas to Santo Domingo . The country deployed 5 @,@ 000 troops to send food , medicine , and clothing to the storm @-@ damaged areas in the interior , as well as Barahona Peninsula . The Holy See sent $ 2 @,@ 000 to assist the residents affected by the storm in Haiti . After a nearly ten year boycott due to the actions of Haitian president François Duvalier , the United States provided a $ 1 @.@ 3 million loan to the country to help rebuild infrastructure and provide education . Industrialist Clint Murchison gave $ 50 @,@ 000 in flour and food from a mill he owned in the country . The United States also sent vaccines and 4 @,@ 360 pounds of food .
In Cuba , sailors on the USS America ( CV @-@ 66 ) spent about 1 @,@ 700 hours to assist Guantánamo Bay in recovery . The sole survivor of the sinking boat carrying Cuban exiles was tried in a military tribunal . The man was held responsible for the 44 boat deaths and was quickly executed . The United States Coast Guard deployed boats , helicopters , and airplanes to find victims of the boat capsized in the Straits of Florida . In the United States , the price for lettuce and tomatoes rose due to Inez 's crop damage in Florida and reduced crop output in California . The country 's military sent helicopters and planes to join the Mexican Air Force , as well as trucks by land , to deliver tons of supplies , including food , clothing , and medicine to flood @-@ affected areas in Tamaulipas . In the weeks after the storm , many residents had minimal food access , and some areas remained flooded . Conditions in Tampico , located near where the storm moved ashore , gradually returned to normal . Heavy rainfall in Mexico restored reservoirs , which assisted future crop growing .
The name Inez was retired and will never again be used for an Atlantic hurricane name .
= Yannis Makriyannis =
General Yannis Makriyannis ( Greek : Γιάννης or Ιωάννης Μακρυγιάννης , Giánnēs or Iōánnīs Makrygiánnīs ; 1797 – 1864 ) , born Ioannis Triantaphyllos ( Ιωάννης Τριαντάφυλλος , Iōánnēs Triantáfyllos ) , was a Greek merchant , military officer , politician and author , best known today for his Memoirs . Starting from humble origins , he joined the Greek struggle for independence , achieving the rank of general and leading his men to notable victories . Following Greek independence , he had a tumultuous public career , playing a prominent part in the granting of the first Constitution of the Kingdom of Greece and later being sentenced to death and pardoned .
Despite his important contributions to the political life of the early Greek state , general Makriyannis is mostly remembered for his Memoirs . Aside from being a source of historical and cultural information about the period , this work has also been called a " monument of Modern Greek literature " , as it is written in pure Demotic Greek . Indeed , its literary quality led Nobel laureate Giorgos Seferis to call Makriyannis one of the greatest masters of Modern Greek prose .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Yannis Makriyannis was born to a poor family in the village of Avoriti , in the vicinity of Doris . " Makriyannis " was a nickname he acquired because of his height . His father , Dimitris Triantaphyllou , was killed in a clash with the forces of Ali Pasha . His family was forced to flee to Levadeia , where Makriyannis spent his childhood up to 1811 . At age seven , he was given as a foster son to a wealthy man from Levadeia , but the menial labour and beatings he endured were , in his own words , " his death " . Thus , in 1811 he left for Arta to stay with an acquaintance who maintained close relations with Ali Pasha . There , still a teenager , he was involved in trade and , according to his memoirs , became a wealthy man . His property amounted to 40 @,@ 000 piastres . According to Sphyroeras , he probably joined the Filiki Etaireia , a secret anti @-@ Ottoman society , in 1820 . In March 1821 he left for Patras , in the Peloponnese , supposedly on business . His actual assignment , however , was to inform local members of the Filiki Etaireia of the state of affairs in his native Roumeli . Having met with Odysseas Androutsos , he returned to Arta two days before the revolution broke out in Patras and was promptly arrested by the Ottoman authorities and placed under arrest in the local fortress . He was held captive for 90 days but managed to escape and , in August 1821 , first took up arms against the Ottomans under chieftain Gogos Bakolas .
= = = Activity during the War of Independence = = =
Under the command of Gogos Bakolas , in September 1821 he took part in the battle of Stavros , near Tzoumerka , and in the battle of Peta , where he sustained a light leg injury . A few days later he took part in the siege of Arta that temporarily brought the city under Greek control . In late 1821 , he left for Mesolonghi , but there , according to his memoirs , he fell seriously ill , only recovering in March 1822 . Having spent his recovery in the village of Sernikaki , near Salona , he resumed military action , assuming the leadership of a band of warriors from four villages in the vicinity . He fought alongside several other chieftains during the successful siege of Patratziki , which had been fortified with considerable Ottoman forces .
After the Acropolis of Athens was surrendered by the Ottomans in June 1822 , Makriyannis was appointed Supervisor of Public Order in the city by the executive authority of Roumeli on 1 January 1823 . In that office , he took severe measures aimed at stopping arbitrary oppression of the populace and thievery . In the summer of 1823 , he fought alongside Nikitaras in the eastern part of Central Greece . In October 1823 , he led a force of Roumeliots in the Peloponnese , and fought alongside the government of Georgios Kountouriotis against the rebels in the civil war . For his actions during that conflict , he was rewarded with the rank of brigadier , promoted to lieutenant general in August 1824 and full general in late 1824 .
In March 1825 , after the Peloponnese had been invaded by Egyptian forces , he was appointed politarch ( head of public order ) of Kyparissia and took part in the defence of Neokastro . After the fortress fell on 11 May 1825 , he hurried to Myloi , near Nafplio , arriving with one hundred men on 10 June . He ordered the construction of makeshift fortifications , as well as the gathering of provisions . More chieftains soon arrived in Myloi and Ibrahim Pasha , the commander of the Egyptian forces , was unable to take the position , despite numerical superiority and the launching of fierce attacks on 12 and 14 June . Makriyannis was injured during the battle and was carried to Nafplio .
Soon after the battle , he married the daughter of a prominent Athenian , and his activities were thereafter inextricably linked with that city until his death . After Athens was captured by Ibrahim Pasha in June 1826 , Makriyannis helped organise the defence of the Acropolis , and became the provisional commander of the garrison after the death of the commander , Yannis Gouras . He managed to repel a fierce assault against the Odeon of Herodes Atticus on 7 October , and during the defence of the Acropolis , he sustained heavy injures three times , to the head and to the neck . These wounds troubled him for the remainder of his life , but they did not dissuade him from taking part in the last phase of the war : in the spring of 1827 he took part in the battles of Piraeus and the battle of Analatos .
= = = Activity after Greek Independence = = =
= = = = Governorship of Kapodistrias = = = =
Makriyannis 's activity did not cease with the achievement of Greek independence . After Governor Ioannis Kapodistrias arrived in Greece , he appointed Makriyannis " General Leader of the Executive Authority of the Peloponnese " , based in Argos , in 1828 . It was during this period , and more specifically on 26 February 1829 , that he started writing his Memoirs . After Kapodistrias restructured the military in 1830 , Makriyannis was given the rank of brigadier . However , he slowly came to oppose the Governor 's policies and eventually broke with him . He opposed what he considered Kapodistrias 's personal authoritarianism and , on a more personal level , was concerned about whether his home region would be included or not in the liberated Greek state . Influenced by Ioannis Kolettis , he even tried to force the Governor into accepting a constitutional form of government , using the troops under his command , but had no success . Finally , in August 1831 , the government forced all civil servants and military personnel to sign an oath stating they were not part of secret organizations and that they were loyal servants of the government 's commands . Makriyannis considered this to be degrading , and tried to author his own version of an oath instead . This , however , was not accepted by the government , and he was consequently stripped of his positions . His opposition to the existing regime did not cease with the Governor 's assassination on 9 October 1831 . He took the side of the " Constitutionalists " and fought against the governor 's brother and successor Augustinos Kapodistrias . He did , however , condemn the assassination itself in the strongest terms .
= = = = Reign of King Otto = = = =
Otto , Prince of Bavaria , was chosen as the first King of Greece in 1832 , under the name Othon . His arrival in Nafplio , then the Greek capital , was hailed enthusiastically by Makriyannis . This attitude is exemplified in his Memoirs :
Today the fatherland is reborn , that for so long was lost and extinguished . Today are raised from the dead the fighters , political , religious , as well as military , for our King has come , that we begot with the power of God . Praised be your most virtuous name , omnipotent and most merciful Lord .
The hopes he had for the new regime , however , were soon to be dispelled . King Otho was underage and Bavarian regents were named to rule on his behalf during the first months of his rule . During the regency , Makriyannis came into conflict with the War Minister , the Bavarian Heideck , due to the latter 's attitude towards the veterans of the War of Independence . In the newly restructured Greek Army , there was little place left for the irregular bands of klephts . These guerilla @-@ styled fighters had formed the backbone of the Greek forces during the war , and Makriyannis considered their exclusion from the newly formed army disrespectful . Furthermore , most of these men had been left with no resources after their exclusion from the military , and found themselves in a dire financial situation . Makriyannis also believed that the Prime Minister , the Bavarian von Armansperg , was personally responsible for the serious problems faced by the newly formed state . As a consequence , Makriyannis briefly retired from active politics .
After municipalities were first instituted by Royal decree on 27 December 1833 , Makriyannis was elected to the city council of Athens ( the city becoming the new capital in 1834 ) . In that capacity he harshly criticised , to the extent that it was possible , what he perceived as omissions and authoritarianism by the royal administration and Palace Cabinet . He often voiced his demand for constitutional rule , even though the royal administration had initially held him in high esteem and given him the rank of colonel . During the King 's absence from Greece on the occasion of his marriage to Queen Amalia ( late 1836 – early 1837 ) , public discontent with von Armansperg was at its peak . The newspapers Athena and Elpis criticized him severely , and some politicians called for his removal . Makriyannis , in his capacity as President of the Athens city council , proposed , in January 1837 , the adoption of a resolution to be handed to the King upon his return requesting the granting of a Constitution . Not long before that , at a banquet attended by former fighters of the War of Independence , such as Kountouriotis , Kolokotronis and others , Makriyannis had toasted the health of the royal couple , adding " may God enlighten them to rule us through constitutional laws , in accordance with the fatherland 's sacrifices " . Von Armansperg immediately dissolved the city council , fired Mayor Petrakis and had Makriyannis placed under house arrest . Sometime during this period , Makriyannis commissioned 25 engravings from the painter and veteran of the War of Independence , Panaghiotis Zographos . The profits from the sales were used to the benefit of veterans of the war .
Meanwhile , the demand for constitutional liberties was becoming widespread , as was discontent with King Otto 's Bavarian administration . The situation escalated in the 3 September 1843 Revolution that led to the granting of the first Constitution . Makriyannis was one of the three leaders of the movement . He played a crucial part in paving the way for this , having started as early as 1840 . After its granting , he also played an important part in the forming of the new cabinet . He was elected as a representative of Athens to the National ( Constitutional ) Assembly , and headed an informal group of 63 representatives loyal to him . He personally proposed various recommendations during the course of the proceedings . Soon after the conclusion of the Assembly 's work , however , he retired from politics . For his leading role in the creation of the first Greek Constitution , Makriyannis was depicted on the reverse of the Greek 50 drachmas commemorative coin issued in 1994 for the 150th anniversary of this historic document . There are three versions of the coin , each featuring one of the three leaders of the 3 September movement : one features Makriyannis , one colonel Dimitrios Kallergis , and one minister ( and later prime minister ) Andreas Metaxas .
Makriyannis stopped working on his memoirs in 1850 , so information about the rest of his life , including his trial , comes from other sources . He was always outspoken about his views , and as a result he stirred negative reactions among his opponents . He opposed what he perceived as a continued degradation of the veterans of the War of Independence , and had repeatedly been considered suspect of plotting against King Otho . Furthermore , the King never quite forgave him for his part in the 3 September movement . When summoned to the palace and asked to denounce all the conspirators of 1843 , Makriyannis refused , saying " I am not a slave " . Eventually , in 1852 , he was accused of planning to " overthrow the establishments and assassinate the King " . On 13 April 1852 he was placed under house arrest , heavily guarded and with an officer posted in the room next to his own . On 16 March 1853 he was sentenced to death , in what has been called a " pre @-@ fabricated trial " . According to Vidal @-@ Naquet , the prosecution brought up false testimonies and false evidence . Furthermore , the president of the tribunal , Kitsos Tzavelas , was a personal enemy of Makriyannis . Five out of the six judges voted for the death sentence , and requested the King to extend royal clemency . His sentence was commuted to life imprisonment by the King , but he only spent 18 months in prison . King Otho reduced the sentence first to twenty , and later to ten years . He was finally pardoned and released on 2 September 1854 , thanks to the Crimean War . The blockade of Peiraeus by the French and British fleets also led to the imposition of Kallergis as Minister of War , despite his previous attempts at overthrowing the King . Thus , Kallergis used his newly acquired influence to have Makriyannis released . Makriyannis suffered greatly in prison , and after his release suffered from hallucinations . His condition did not improve with the death of one of his younger sons in the cholera epidemic that struck Athens .
On 10 October 1862 a revolution broke out , which led to the eviction of King Otho I from the country . Makriyannis 's son , the future general Othon Makriyannis , reportedly presented his father with the King 's golden crown . Makriyannis was restored to the ranks he had been stripped of as a result of his trial , and was re @-@ elected as a representative of Athens to the new National ( Constitutional ) Assembly of 1864 . He was promoted to the rank of general on 20 April 1864 , and died on 27 April .
= = Literary work = =
= = = Assessment and significance = = =
Makriyannis concluded work on his Memoirs in the years before his imprisonment ; the last entries seem to be from September or October 1850 , as evinced by his references to the events of that period . In the text of the Memoirs , one can see not only the personal adventures and disappointments of his long public career , but , more significantly , his views on people , situations and events , phrased clearly and quite often passionately . They were first published in 1907 by Yannis Vlahogiannis , while some fragments of them had earlier been published in the newspaper Acropolis in 1904 . Spyridon Lambros , in 1908 , noted his straightforwardness and slight egotism , along with his holding firm to his own opinion ( as quoted by Sphyroeras ) . Kostis Palamas , in 1911 , called his work " incomparable in its kind , a masterpiece of his illiterate , but strong and autonomous mind " ( ibid ) . It should be noted that Makriyannis had received only the most basic and fragmentary education , and , according to his own testimony , mastered writing shortly before he started writing his Memoirs , while he was stationed in Argos .
Makriyannis , having been ignored by history , and hardly mentioned by chroniclers of the War of Independence , had renewed interest in the revolution by offering a significant personal testimony to historical research . Despite this , after the initial interest in the newly published Memoirs , they were hardly cited for almost 40 years . One could say that Makriyannis was forgotten , not only as a fighter , but also as the author of a text written in Demotic Greek ; a text that , besides reproducing the heroic atmosphere of the War of Independence , is also a treasure @-@ house of linguistic knowledge concerning the common Greek tongue of the time .
Makriyannis 's reputation was revived during the German occupation of Greece . In 1941 , Yorgos Theotokas published an article on the general , calling his Memoirs " a monument of Modern Greek literature " because they were written in pure Demotic Greek . Two years later , in 1943 , the Greek Nobel laureate Giorgos Seferis gave a lecture on him , saying :
In our times , ... when people seek to find in other people something clear and stable and compassionate , it is appropriate to speak of people such as Makriyannis .
According to the National Book Centre of Greece , Seferis also stated that Makriyannis , along with Alexandros Papadiamantis , is one of the two greatest masters of modern Greek prose .
Since then hundreds of essays have been written on the subject of his Memoirs , and it would be fair to say that the chronicler has overshadowed the fighter , and with good reason , according to Sphyroeras . Spyros Asdrachas has noted that :
The fact that an illiterate man managed to use the Demotic speech ... to achieve an expressive density and dynamism entirely unusual of Greek prose made a terrific impression on people .
The general 's objectivity , however , has often been questioned . Vlahogiannis , in his preface to the Memoirs , praises his honesty and contrasts it to his lack of objectivity and impartiality . While always straightforward , Makriyannis clearly holds a grudge against people he had come into conflict with . He often uses disparaging language against people like Kolokotronis , while staying silent about the more questionable deeds of people he had a favourable opinion of . According to Sphyroeras , however , his judgements do not stem from selfishness , but rather from his severity against those he considered were defaming the cause of Greece .
A few months after completing his Memoirs , on New Year 's Eve in 1851 , Makriyannis started to write another " history " , as he called it , which he interrupted rather abruptly in late March 1852 , when he was under house arrest . This text was acquired in 1936 or 1937 by Vlahogiannis , and was finally published in 1983 by Angelos Papakostas , aptly titled Visions and Wonders . It has , according to Papakostas , far less historical significance than the Memoirs . The events described therein are given briefly , and are used only as an excuse for his meditations and the interpretation of his Visions , on which he particularly insists . Vlahogiannis , according to Sphyroeras , considered the manuscript to be an overzealous work of a deranged mind , and that is the reason he did not publish it . The work , however , is also the product of a physically and mentally tormented soul , who , being isolated at the age of 54 , instead converses with God , the Panagia , and the saints . It also shows Makriyannis 's deep religious feeling ; he turns away from guns , instead seeking the nation 's salvation through divine intervention . Furthermore , as Sphyroeras points out , the work is unique in Modern Greek literature in its subject matter , and is , as the Memoirs , a significant source of linguistic and cultural information .
= = = Works = = =
Ἀπομνημονεύματα ( Memoirs ) first published : Athens : 1907
Ὁράματα καὶ Θάματα ( Visions and Wonders ) first published : Athens : 1983
= Common cold =
Common cold , also known simply as a cold , is a viral infectious disease of the upper respiratory tract that primarily affects the nose . The throat , sinuses , and voice box may also be affected . Signs and symptoms may begin less than two days following exposure . They include coughing , sore throat , runny nose , sneezing , headache , and fever . People usually recover in seven to ten days . Some symptoms may last up to three weeks . In those with other health problems , pneumonia may occasionally develop .
Well over 200 virus strains are implicated in the cause of the common cold ; the rhinoviruses are the most common . They spread through the air during close contact with infected people and indirectly through contact with objects in the environment followed by transfer to the mouth or nose . Risk factors include going to daycare , not sleeping well , and psychological stress . Symptoms are mostly due to the body 's immune response to the infection rather than to tissue destruction by the viruses themselves . People with influenza often show similar symptoms as people with a cold , though symptoms are usually more severe in the former .
There is no vaccine for the common cold . The primary methods of prevention are hand washing ; not touching the eyes , nose or mouth with unwashed hands ; and staying away from other sick people . Some evidence supports the use of face masks . No cure for the common cold exists , but the symptoms can be treated . Nonsteroidal anti @-@ inflammatory drugs ( NSAIDs ) such as ibuprofen may help with pain . Antibiotics should not be used . Evidence does not support a benefit from cough medicines .
The common cold is the most frequent infectious disease in humans . The average adult gets two to four colds a year , while the average child may get six to eight . They occur more commonly during the winter . These infections have been with humanity since ancient times .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
The typical symptoms of a cold include a cough , a runny nose , nasal congestion and a sore throat , sometimes accompanied by muscle ache , fatigue , headache , and loss of appetite . A sore throat is present in about 40 % of the cases and a cough in about 50 % , while muscle ache occurs in about half . In adults , a fever is generally not present but it is common in infants and young children . The cough is usually mild compared to that accompanying influenza . While a cough and a fever indicate a higher likelihood of influenza in adults , a great deal of similarity exists between these two conditions . A number of the viruses that cause the common cold may also result in asymptomatic infections .
The color of the sputum or nasal secretion may vary from clear to yellow to green and does not indicate the class of agent causing the infection .
= = = Progression = = =
A cold usually begins with fatigue , a feeling of being chilled , sneezing , and a headache , followed in a couple of days by a runny nose and cough . Symptoms may begin within sixteen hours of exposure and typically peak two to four days after onset . They usually resolve in seven to ten days , but some can last for up to three weeks . The average duration of cough is eighteen days and in some cases people develop a post @-@ viral cough which can linger after the infection is gone . In children , the cough lasts for more than ten days in 35 % – 40 % of the cases and continues for more than 25 days in 10 % .
= = Cause = =
= = = Viruses = = =
The common cold is a viral infection of the upper respiratory tract . The most commonly implicated virus is a rhinovirus ( 30 % – 80 % ) , a type of picornavirus with 99 known serotypes . Other commonly implicated viruses include human coronavirus ( ≈ 15 % ) , influenza viruses ( 10 % – 15 % ) , adenoviruses ( 5 % ) , human respiratory syncytial virus , enteroviruses other than rhinoviruses , human parainfluenza viruses , and metapneumovirus . Frequently more than one virus is present . In total over 200 different viral types are associated with colds .
= = = Transmission = = =
The common cold virus is typically transmitted via airborne droplets ( aerosols ) , direct contact with infected nasal secretions , or fomites ( contaminated objects ) . Which of these routes is of primary importance has not been determined ; however , hand @-@ to @-@ hand and hand @-@ to @-@ surface @-@ to @-@ hand contact seems of more importance than transmission via aerosols . The viruses may survive for prolonged periods in the environment ( over 18 hours for rhinoviruses ) and can be picked up by people 's hands and subsequently carried to their eyes or nose where infection occurs . Transmission is common in daycare and at school due to the proximity of many children with little immunity and frequently poor hygiene . These infections are then brought home to other members of the family . There is no evidence that recirculated air during commercial flight is a method of transmission . People sitting in close proximity appear to be at greater risk of infection .
Rhinovirus @-@ caused colds are most infectious during the first three days of symptoms ; they are much less infectious afterwards .
= = = Weather = = =
The traditional theory is that a cold can be " caught " by prolonged exposure to cold weather such as rain or winter conditions , which is how the disease got its name . Some of the viruses that cause the common colds are seasonal , occurring more frequently during cold or wet weather . The reason for the seasonality has not been conclusively determined . Possible explanations may include cold temperature @-@ induced changes in the respiratory system , decreased immune response , and low humidity causing an increase in viral transmission rates , perhaps due to dry air allowing small viral droplets to disperse farther and stay in the air longer .
The apparent seasonality may also be due to social factors , such as people spending more time indoors , near infected people , and specifically children at school . There is some controversy over the role of low body temperature as a risk factor for the common cold ; the majority of the evidence suggests that it may result in greater susceptibility to infection .
= = = Other = = =
Herd immunity , generated from previous exposure to cold viruses , plays an important role in limiting viral spread , as seen with younger populations that have greater rates of respiratory infections . Poor immune function is a risk factor for disease . Insufficient sleep and malnutrition have been associated with a greater risk of developing infection following rhinovirus exposure ; this is believed to be due to their effects on immune function . Breast feeding decreases the risk of acute otitis media and lower respiratory tract infections among other diseases , and it is recommended that breast feeding be continued when an infant has a cold . In the developed world breast feeding may not be protective against the common cold in and of itself .
= = Pathophysiology = =
The symptoms of the common cold are believed to be primarily related to the immune response to the virus . The mechanism of this immune response is virus specific . For example , the rhinovirus is typically acquired by direct contact ; it binds to human ICAM @-@ 1 receptors through unknown mechanisms to trigger the release of inflammatory mediators . These inflammatory mediators then produce the symptoms . It does not generally cause damage to the nasal epithelium . The respiratory syncytial virus ( RSV ) , on the other hand , is contracted by direct contact and airborne droplets . It then replicates in the nose and throat before frequently spreading to the lower respiratory tract . RSV does cause epithelium damage . Human parainfluenza virus typically results in inflammation of the nose , throat , and bronchi . In young children when it affects the trachea it may produce the symptoms of croup due to the small size of their airways .
= = Diagnosis = =
The distinction between viral upper respiratory tract infections is loosely based on the location of symptoms with the common cold affecting primarily the nose , pharyngitis the throat , and bronchitis the lungs . However , there can be significant overlap and multiple areas can be affected . The common cold is frequently defined as nasal inflammation with varying amount of throat inflammation . Self @-@ diagnosis is frequent . Isolation of the viral agent involved is rarely performed , and it is generally not possible to identify the virus type through symptoms .
= = Prevention = =
The only useful ways to reduce the spread of cold viruses are physical measures such as hand washing and face masks ; in the healthcare environment , gowns and disposable gloves are also used . Isolation or quarantine is not used as the disease is so widespread and symptoms are non @-@ specific . Vaccination has proved difficult as there are many viruses involved and they mutate rapidly . Creation of a broadly effective vaccine is , thus , highly improbable .
Regular hand washing appears to be effective in reducing the transmission of cold viruses , especially among children . Whether the addition of antivirals or antibacterials to normal hand washing provides greater benefit is unknown . Wearing face masks when around people who are infected may be beneficial ; however , there is insufficient evidence for maintaining a greater social distance .
Zinc supplements may help to reduce the prevalence of colds . Routine vitamin C supplements do not reduce the risk or severity of the common cold , though they may reduce its duration . Gargling with water was found useful in one small trial .
= = Management = =
No medications or herbal remedies have been conclusively demonstrated to shorten the duration of infection . Treatment thus comprises symptomatic relief . Getting plenty of rest , drinking fluids to maintain hydration , and gargling with warm salt water are reasonable conservative measures . Much of the benefit from treatment is , however , attributed to the placebo effect .
= = = Symptomatic = = =
Treatments that help alleviate symptoms include simple analgesics and antipyretics such as ibuprofen and acetaminophen / paracetamol . There is not good evidence for cough medicines . They are not recommended for use in children due to a lack of evidence supporting effectiveness and the potential for harm . In 2009 , Canada restricted the use of over @-@ the @-@ counter cough and cold medication in children six years and under due to concerns regarding risks and unproven benefits . The misuse of dextromethorphan ( an over @-@ the @-@ counter cough medicine ) has led to its ban in a number of countries .
In adults antihistamines may improve symptoms in the first day or two ; however , there is no longer @-@ term benefit and they have adverse effects such as drowsiness . Other decongestants such as pseudoephedrine are effective in adults . Ipratropium nasal spray may reduce the symptoms of a runny nose but has little effect on stuffiness .
Due to lack of studies , it is not known whether increased fluid intake improves symptoms or shortens respiratory illness , and there is a similar lack of data for the use of heated humidified air . One study has found chest vapor rub to provide some relief of nocturnal cough , congestion , and sleep difficulty .
= = = Antibiotics and antivirals = = =
Antibiotics have no effect against viral infections or against the viruses that cause the common cold . Due to their side effects , antibiotics cause overall harm but are still frequently prescribed . Some of the reasons that antibiotics are so commonly prescribed include people 's expectations for them , physicians ' desire to help , and the difficulty in excluding complications that may be amenable to antibiotics . There are no effective antiviral drugs for the common cold even though some preliminary research has shown benefits .
= = = Alternative medicine = = =
While there are many alternative treatments used for the common cold , there is insufficient scientific evidence to support the use of most . As of 2014 there is insufficient evidence to recommend for or against honey . As of 2015 there is tentative evidence to support nasal irrigation . Zinc has been used to treat symptoms , with studies suggesting that zinc , if taken within 24 hours of the onset of symptoms , reduces the duration and severity of the common cold in otherwise healthy people . Due to wide differences between the studies , further research may be needed to determine how and when zinc may be effective . Whereas zinc lozenges may produce side effects , there is only a weak rationale for physicians to recommend zinc for the treatment of the common cold . Some zinc remedies directly applied to the inside of the nose have led to the loss of the sense of smell .
Vitamin C 's effect on the common cold , while extensively researched , is disappointing , except in limited circumstances : specifically , individuals exercising vigorously in cold environments . There is no firm evidence that Echinacea products provide any meaningful benefit in treating or preventing colds . It is unknown if garlic is effective . A single trial of vitamin D did not find benefit .
= = Prognosis = =
The common cold is generally mild and self @-@ limiting with most symptoms generally improving in a week . Half of cases go away in 10 days and 90 % in 15 days . Severe complications , if they occur , are usually in the very old , the very young , or those who are immunosuppressed . Secondary bacterial infections may occur resulting in sinusitis , pharyngitis , or an ear infection . It is estimated that sinusitis occurs in 8 % and ear infection in 30 % of cases .
= = Epidemiology = =
The common cold is the most common human disease and affects people all over the globe . Adults typically have two to five infections annually , and children may have six to ten colds a year ( and up to twelve colds a year for school children ) . Rates of symptomatic infections increase in the elderly due to declining immunity .
Native Americans and Inuit are more likely to be infected with colds and develop complications such as otitis media than Caucasians . This may be explained by issues such as poverty and overcrowding rather than by ethnicity .
= = History = =
While the cause of the common cold has only been identified since the 1950s , the disease has been with humanity since ancient times . Its symptoms and treatment are described in the Egyptian Ebers papyrus , the oldest existing medical text , written before the 16th century BCE . The name " cold " came into use in the 16th century , due to the similarity between its symptoms and those of exposure to cold weather .
In the United Kingdom , the Common Cold Unit was set up by the Medical Research Council in 1946 and it was where the rhinovirus was discovered in 1956 . In the 1970s , the CCU demonstrated that treatment with interferon during the incubation phase of rhinovirus infection protects somewhat against the disease , but no practical treatment could be developed . The unit was closed in 1989 , two years after it completed research of zinc gluconate lozenges in the prophylaxis and treatment of rhinovirus colds , the only successful treatment in the history of the unit .
= = Society and culture = =
The economic impact of the common cold is not well understood in much of the world . In the United States , the common cold leads to 75 – 100 million physician visits annually at a conservative cost estimate of $ 7 @.@ 7 billion per year . Americans spend $ 2 @.@ 9 billion on over @-@ the @-@ counter drugs and another $ 400 million on prescription medicines for symptom relief . More than one @-@ third of people who saw a doctor received an antibiotic prescription , which has implications for antibiotic resistance . An estimated 22 – 189 million school days are missed annually due to a cold . As a result , parents missed 126 million workdays to stay home to care for their children . When added to the 150 million workdays missed by employees suffering from a cold , the total economic impact of cold @-@ related work loss exceeds $ 20 billion per year . This accounts for 40 % of time lost from work in the United States .
= = Research directions = =
Antivirals have been tested for effectiveness in the common cold ; as of 2009 , none had been both found effective and licensed for use . There are ongoing trials of the anti @-@ viral drug pleconaril which shows promise against picornaviruses as well as trials of BTA @-@ 798 . The oral form of pleconaril had safety issues and an aerosol form is being studied . DRACO , a broad @-@ spectrum antiviral therapy , has shown preliminary effectiveness in treating rhinovirus , as well as other infectious viruses .
The genomes for all known human rhinovirus strains have been sequenced .
= Battle of Short Hills =
The Battle of Short Hills ( also known as the Battle of Metuchen Meetinghouse and other names ) was a conflict between a Continental Army force commanded by Brigadier General William Alexander ( " Lord Stirling " ) , and an opposing British force commanded by Lieutenant General William Howe . The battle took place on June 26 , 1777 , at Scotch Plains and Metuchen , New Jersey , during the American Revolutionary War . Despite the name , no fighting occurred in modern @-@ day Short Hills , a section of Millburn .
In mid @-@ June General Howe marched most of his army into central New Jersey in an attempt to lure George Washington 's Continental Army to a place where it might be better attacked than its defensive position in the Watchung Mountains . When Washington refused to abandon his position Howe returned to Amboy on June 22 . Washington 's forward divisions , including that of Lord Stirling , shadowed this British movement , and Washington moved his main army out of the hills . Howe seized this opportunity , and on June 26 marched two columns of troops out in an attempt to cut Washington off from the high ground . These troops skirmished with Lord Stirling 's troops , and eventually engaged in a pitched battle in Scotch Plains . Stirling 's outnumbered force retreated , but Washington , alerted to the British movement , had by then retreated back into the hills .
= = Background = =
In March 1776 the British forces of Lieutenant General William Howe withdrew from Boston after Major General George Washington fortified high ground threatening the city and its harbor . With this army augmented by reinforcements from Europe , General Howe captured New York City , forcing Washington to retreat all the way across New Jersey . At the end of 1776 , Washington crossed the Delaware River and surprised German troops at Trenton , New Jersey , and eventually regained control of most of the state . The two armies then settled into winter quarters , and engaged in a war of skirmishes during the winter months .
General Howe spent the winter planning a campaign to capture the seat of the rebel Congress , Philadelphia . The constant skirmishing throughout the winter had taken its toll on his troops stationed in New Jersey , and even a major attack on the Continental Army outpost at Bound Brook in April had not been entirely successful . Howe apparently did not divulge his plans or his intended route to Philadelphia to many people , and General Washington did not know what his intentions were , although Philadelphia was one target he suspected Howe was interested in . On May 29 , Washington moved most of his army from its winter quarters near Morristown to a strong position at Middlebrook in the Watchung Mountains from which he could observe and interfere with British moves toward Philadelphia .
Historians who mention this battle only occasionally give it a name . It is often called " Short Hills " , even though the battle took place primarily in present @-@ day Edison and Scotch Plains , New Jersey . Historians also give the battle other names ; David Martin calls it " Flat Hills " or " Metuchen Meeting House " ; one British regimental history refers to it by " Westfield " .
= = Prelude = =
On June 9 , Howe began moving troops from Staten Island to Perth Amboy . On June 11 , almost his entire army moved up the roads along the Raritan River to New Brunswick . Washington 's intelligence reports indicated that Howe had left behind equipment needed for crossing the Delaware River and was unlikely to be heading for Philadelphia ; Washington , as a precautionary measure , called out the militia in southern New Jersey . On June 14 , Howe 's army marched again , its destination Somerset Court House ( present @-@ day Millstone ) . Apparently seeking to draw Washington into battle on open terrain , Howe remained there five days . Washington refused to move out of the hills , and on June 19 , Howe began the march back to Perth Amboy , which he reached on June 22 , having completely evacuated New Brunswick .
After refusing to fall for Howe 's trap , Washington followed the retreating British , bringing his army down from Middlebrook to Quibbletown , and sent a strong forward detachment under Brigadier General William Alexander ( aka " Lord Stirling " ) to the Scotch Plains area north of New Brunswick , to cover his left flank and to harass the British . Stirling 's command , numbering about 2 @,@ 500 , comprised William Maxwell 's New Jersey brigade , Thomas Conway 's Pennsylvania brigade , Daniel Morgan 's Corps of Riflemen and Ottendorf 's Corps . Maxwell 's brigade consisted of the 1st through 4th New Jersey Continentals and Oliver Spencer 's Additional Regiment , while Conway 's consisted of the 3rd , 6th , 9th , and 12th Pennsylvania Continentals . Ottendorf 's Corps , although it was named for its principal recruiter , a German mercenary named Nicholas Dietrich , Baron de Ottendorf , was commanded by Charles Armand , a French soldier of fortune who was given its command in May 1777 after Ottendorf abruptly left the army .
Howe took advantage of Washington 's movement , and launched a sudden attack against Lord Stirling 's position , meant to devastate Stirling 's forces , cut off Washington 's retreat back to Middlebrook , and engage the Americans in a pitched battle on relatively open terrain . At 1 : 00 am on the morning on June 26 Howe marched two columns of troops out of Perth Amboy . The first column , under the command of Lieutenant General Charles Cornwallis , consisted of several companies of Hessian jägers , three battalions of Hessian grenadiers and one British , mounted Hessian chasseurs and some British dragoons from the 16th Light Dragoons , a battalion from the Brigade of Guards , and the Loyalist provincial unit of Queen 's Rangers . The second column was under the command of Major General John Vaughan and accompanied by General Howe . It consisted of jäger companies from Hesse @-@ Kassel and Ansbach @-@ Bayreuth , and battalions of British light infantry and grenadiers .
= = The battle = =
The column of General Cornwallis marched for Woodbridge , while Vaughan 's marched toward Bonhamton . As the two columns moved on roughly parallel paths through the Short Hills area , they came into contact with Stirling 's guards , and a running skirmish began , with the Americans firing on the British from the underbrush as they fell back . The retreating Americans lead both of the armies into the Ash Swamp and Scotch Plains areas , where Stirling prepared a defensive position . Severe cannon fire and strength of British numbers forced Stirling , as determined as he was to stand against them , to retreat even further back , toward Westfield . There the British , suffering under the extreme heat of the day , ended the pursuit , and Stirling was able to fall back in good order toward the post at Middlebrook . A messenger had alerted Washington to Howe 's proximity , prompting Washington to precipitately withdraw to a more secure position further in the hills . Later in the day , Howe arrived to inspect Washington 's lines and adjudged them too strong to attack . Because Stirling 's resistance may have provided Washington with enough time to manage his withdrawal to more secure ground , the battle is considered a strategic victory for the Americans . The British , after spending the night at Westfield , returned to their post at Perth Amboy , and completely evacuated New Jersey by June 30 . In mid @-@ July , Howe embarked much of his army on transports , and sailed off toward Philadelphia , destination unknown to Washington .
A local tale arose in Westfield about an encounter between General Cornwallis and " Aunt Betty " Frazee , a local resident who had been baking bread for the Americans . When Cornwallis arrived , he requested a loaf of bread from her . When she offered it to him , saying " I give this not in love but in fear " , Cornwallis graciously declined the offer , responding " Not a man of my command shall touch a single loaf . "
= = Casualties = =
A British officer recorded the British and Hessian casualties as 5 killed and 30 wounded . The only officer casualty was Captain The Honourable John Finch of the Guards Light Infantry . He had been to the forefront of the attack and , at one point , called out to Lord Stirling , " Come here , you damned rebel , and I will do for you ! " Stirling 's response was to instruct four marksmen to concentrate their fire upon the captain . Finch soon received a wound , from which he died three days later .
The American casualties are not fully known ; the British claimed the Americans suffered 100 killed and wounded , and both sides acknowledged the American loss of three cannons , and the capture of 70 men . Ottendorf 's Corps , who had formed Stirling 's advance guard appear to have been hardest hit : out of 80 men , 32 were killed or captured . Colonel Israel Shreve , commander of the 2nd New Jersey Regiment wrote on July 6 , 1777 that Maxwell 's Brigade " had 12 killed and about 20 wounded and as many taken prisoners ... " ; he also noted in his journal , " We had between 20 & 30 Wounded ... mostly slightly Except 3 or 4 ... " Two officers are recorded as having been lost in the 2nd New Jersey : Captain Ephraim Anderson , killed , and Captain James Lawrie , captured .
= = Legacy = =
An area of the battlefield , encompassing about 300 acres ( 120 ha ) in Edison Township , was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2014 . The area includes portions of the municipal land , as well as a part of the Plainfield Country Club . Edison 's Oak Tree Pond Park is used as a reenactment site of the battle .
= Commercial Import Program =
The Commercial Import Program , sometimes known as the Commodity Import Program ( CIP ) , was an economic aid arrangement between South Vietnam and its main supporter , the United States . It lasted from January 1955 until the Fall of Saigon in 1975 and the dissolution of South Vietnam following the invasion by North Vietnam after US forces had withdrawn from the country due to the 1973 cease @-@ fire agreement . The initiative was a trading plan that was designed to inject large amounts of American capital into the South Vietnamese economy to help fuel its industrialisation , growth and self @-@ sufficiency , without incurring the high levels of inflation that would normally occur in such a drastic injection of money .
The CIP was a scheme whereby US dollars were given to the South Vietnamese government treasury . Selected businesspeople were given import licenses that allowed them to purchase US dollars with South Vietnamese currency at a rate far below the market value . The importers then used their American currency to buy US goods , while the Saigon government kept the South Vietnamese currency paid by the businessmen to fund the military and public service . The objective of the mechanism was to inject large amounts of money into the economy in an indirect way , through material goods , so that inflation would be avoided . However , the initiative failed to generate much economic development , as licenseholders spent most of their funds on consumer goods .
The main effect of the aid package was to fuel a rapid expansion in the urban middle and upper class , while life remained mostly unchanged for South Vietnam 's rural majority . This served to increase anti @-@ government resentment among peasants , while solidifying urban support for the Saigon government . US officials were aware of the failure of the program to propel economic development , but did not try and divert the spending to investment as they regarded the solidification of urban support for the government to be very important . They also used the dependence of the urban class on the CIP to achieve political changes in South Vietnam . In 1963 , when the US sought to pressure the government of Ngo Dinh Diem after the alliance began to falter , they cut off funding as a gesture to the urban civil servant and military officer class that they disapproved of Diem . Following the South Vietnamese leader 's overthrow and assassination in a US @-@ backed coup , the CIP resumed .
= = History = =
During World War II , Imperial Japan attacked Indochina and wrested control from France , but when they were defeated by the Allies in 1945 , a power vacuum resulted . The communist @-@ dominated Vietminh of Ho Chi Minh fought for Vietnamese independence , while the French attempted to regain control of their colony by creating the French Union @-@ allied State of Vietnam . Up until 1954 , the First Indochina War raged . In 1954 , the French lost the Battle of Dien Bien Phu and the Geneva Conference was held to determine the future of French Indochina . The Vietminh were given control of North Vietnam , while the State of Vietnam controlled the territory south of the 17th parallel . The Geneva agreements , which the State of Vietnam did not sign , called for reunification elections to be held in 1956 . The State of Vietnam received support from the US and other anti @-@ communist countries in the midst of the Cold War , which saw it as a partner in a fight against the spread of communism .
The Commercial Import Program was created in January 1955 , immediately upon the transfer of France 's remaining direct influence over the State of Vietnam to the chief of state , former Emperor Bảo Đại and his Prime Minister Ngo Dinh Diem . The Americans and Diem feared a communist electoral victory and national polls never took place . In October , Diem proclaimed himself the president of the newly formed Republic of Vietnam after he won a fraudulent referendum , and the aid continued as the US wanted to build a strong and stable anti @-@ communist state in Southeast Asia . When the program was first introduced , it generated turbulence for merchant importers in Vietnam . As a large proportion of the imports up to that point had been from France , traders who were dependent on selling French products found themselves in difficulties as their wares would now be more expensive than those of import licenseholders who now had access to cheaper American alternatives . The suppliers of French goods threatened to organize a strike , but this never materialized . At the time , South Vietnam was also suffering from a lack of foreign currency reserves and the CIP was seen as an urgent mechanism of remedying this . The introduction of the CIP brought an unprecedented new level of economic liberalism and capitalism , and at first , the entrepreneurial class struggled to meet the challenges of a deregulated market , leading to a series of significant shortages and surpluses of various goods due to their inexperience in judging market forces and resultant imbalances in the economy . Initially 25 @,@ 000 applications for import licenses were received , many from speculators . In the early years of the initiative , a proportion of the US funding for the CIP came through the proceeds of the sale of surplus American agricultural products to France .
Upon the inception of the program in 1955 , around 20 @,@ 000 CIP licenses were granted , but it was determined that the progress was too unwieldy to manage , so the number of licenses was decreased and people were obliged to assemble into conglomerates to access the scheme . At first , inflation was regarded as such a pressing concern that there were very few limitations on what could be imported , the most notable restrictions being alcohol and jewellery . It was reasoned that more restrictions on imports would cause a lack of supply of goods , causing price increases . However , restrictions were increased in the next three years to an average of 75 .
In 1955 , Washington pumped USD322.4 million into South Vietnam , and the historian George McTurnan Kahin calculated that 87 % of this came through the CIP . From the end of 1955 , when Diem took full control of the country after ousting Bảo Đại and declaring himself president , until 1961 , the US provided Saigon with USD1.447 billion in aid , mostly through the CIP . In addition , USD95.6 million of loans were given . In 1958 and 1959 , the CIP accounted for around 80 % of economic assistance . By 1960 , Diem had accumulated USD216.4 million in reserves . The amount of CIP aid peaked at USD398 million in 1966 and began dropping thereafter , reaching USD233 million by 1973 .
= = Economic method = =
The program used import subsidies to pump US dollars into the South Vietnamese treasury . The regimes sold these dollars to business people who held licenses to import American goods . The businessmen bought the US dollars from the Saigon treasury with their South Vietnamese piasters at half the official exchange rate ; they then used this cheaply acquired American currency to import US goods . This meant that American manufacturers would still get the same amount of US currency they would have received for selling their goods on the free market , while South Vietnamese importers could get twice as much goods for the same money . The piasters that the Saigon government collected from selling the US aid dollars were to be placed in a fund held by the National Bank of Vietnam , which was to be used to fund the expansion and training of the Army of the Republic of Vietnam , national police and civil service .
During the rule of Diem , the majority of the cost of military , police and public service was paid by the US through the CIP . As the extra money was not actually circulating in the South Vietnamese economy and competing for the same supply of goods and services , inflation was not stimulated . A similar fiscal device was employed in the Marshall Plan aid package for the rebuilding of Western Europe following the destruction caused during World War II . One American economist described the CIP as the " greatest invention since the wheel " .
= = Operation = =
Although the plan was theoretically sound , it was ineffective in stimulating economic growth . During Diem 's time , there was little meaningful economic investment or development of infrastructure . The businessmen mostly used the import subsidies to purchase consumer goods such as boats , motorbikes , refrigerators , radios , music systems and other similar goods , which were luxuries at the time . The program was thus effective in expanding the size of the urban middle class , but it did not generate much economic investment . Only a minority of the purchases were of capital goods such as manufacturing equipment and supplies for factory production . As a result , not much of the subsidies created more economic production . The government funds generated from selling importing licenses also became a problem , with corruption and explicit theft dogging its effectiveness as a means of bankrolling the military and civil service . In addition , some government officials would not sell the coveted licenses to the businessmen until a bribe was paid . Another criticism of the CIP was that the funds collected by the government were not used for any significant amount of government @-@ sector economic investment but mainly to fund the army . Diem defended this by stating that national security was paramount .
In time , the ineffectiveness of the CIP began to concern the Eisenhower administration , who were worried about the lack of industrialization . The corruption that permeated the initiative remained a problem . The rural peasants of Vietnam , who comprised more than 80 % of the population , were unaffected by the aid package except for the resentment that it instilled in them when they observed the relative affluence of their city counterparts compared to their own impoverished state . However , the program was credited with transforming the textile industry , as 25 @,@ 000 sewing machines were imported in the first year of its operation .
Phan Quang Dan , an anti @-@ communist opposition politician who was Diem 's most prominent opponent , and one of only two dissidents to win a seat at the 1959 legislative election but was imprisoned by Diem and barred from taking up his position , said that " The U.S. Commercial Import Program — which costs us nothing — brings in on a massive scale luxury goods of all kinds , which give us an artificial society — enhanced material conditions that don 't amount to anything , and no sacrifice ; it brings luxury to our ruling group and middle class , and luxury means corruption . "
One of the political impacts of the massive infusion into the South Vietnamese economy was to expand the urban middle @-@ class and ease the pressure on the government to collect taxes . This was because the government had set high import duties , which were effectively 50 % of the cut @-@ price exchange rate used under the CIP ; these funds were also part of normal revenue , and were not subject to American oversight , unlike the proceeds of the counterpart fund . As a result of the proceeds of the import duty , income tax was very low , and without the progressive income tax rate in most countries , the upper @-@ class were not affected by taxation as much as their peers in other nations , and thus supported Diem strongly . The effective income taxation rate was no more than 5 % , and the South Vietnamese president privately told an adviser from the Michigan State University Group that he was happy that the CIP had allowed him to build a large support base among the newly created middle and upper class . American economic aid administrators were also aware of the effects of the CIP on urban political support for Diem and his successors . They were aware that the CIP had not been yielding substantial gains in economic development , and noted this in their reports , but said that the program should be continued regardless , as it was effective in enriching the urban middle class and ensuring their political support , thereby gaining loyalty from military officers , business leaders and public servants . A 1959 report concluded that if the CIP was absent or diluted to equilibrium economic levels , the resulting fall in living standards would create " serious political problems " due to erosion of the government 's support among the urban minority .
As the CIP allowed licensees to import goods at half price , it was regarded as a virtual guarantee of business success , regardless of entrepreneurial skill . As a result , the licenses were highly prized . For those who were not confident in their sales ability , a healthy profit was usually made by selling their license to other willing businessmen , especially as demand far outstripped supply . A 1966 US Government report concluded that it was possible to guarantee a 100 % domestic profit on piasters , and that a 50 % profit could be safely achieved by using black market exchange rates and depositing one 's money in an American bank .
Despite its shorter term political benefits , the South Vietnamese government also had complaints about the way the Americans set up the CIP . Diem and Nhu claimed that the paperwork involved in the applications for imports made the process was too slow and hindered the development of an emerging economy where the market situation changed rapidly . In particular , any investment in capital goods by importers that cost more than USD500,000 needed a formal American review before approval . Nhu also publicly criticized the review policy on several occasions , citing several private infrastructure investments that were blocked by American administrators . Nhu and Diem felt that the regulations that the Americans put on the use of the piaster fund obtained from Vietnamese importers were stifling their ability to accelerate development , especially as the planning and approval reviews took a long time .
Despite the fact the CIP had the effect of building an urban middle class base for his regime through the proliferation of consumer goods , Diem was unhappy with the situation , fearing the long @-@ term detrimental effects that the lack of investment in capital goods would have on his country . He was particularly opposed to the clause in the importation regulations that restricted the purchase of capital goods to
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gathered interviews from 108 Tibetan individuals discussing the political situation , all of whom agreed to have their faces shown on camera . The pair gathered 40 hours of interview footage shot by a single camera . They had completed filming and just smuggled the tapes out of Lhasa , the Tibetan capital , when riots erupted and began to spread through Tibetan @-@ majority areas of China . As part of the government response that followed , both Jigme Gyatso and Dhondup Wangchen were detained on 28 March in Tong De , Qinghai Province .
The footage were taken to Switzerland , where colleagues at Dhondup Wangchen 's production company , Filming for Tibet , assembled it into Leaving Fear Behind . The 25 @-@ minute documentary constructed from Dhondup Wangchen and Jigme Gyatso 's footage showed ethnic Tibetans criticizing the choice of China to host the 2008 Summer Olympics , praising the Dalai Lama , and expressing dislike of ethnic Han migrants . The result was described by The New York Times as " an unadorned indictment of the Chinese government " . Dhondup Wangchen states in the documentary that " My aim for this film is not to make a famous or particularly entertaining film . This film is about the plight of the Tibetan people — helpless and frustrated . " The film premiered on the opening day of the Olympics and was clandestinely screened for foreign reporters in Beijing .
= = Trial and imprisonment = =
Following Dhondup Wangchen 's March 2008 arrest , he was held for several days in unofficial detention at Gonshang Hotel . Amnesty International reported that while there , Chinese security forces beat him and deprived him of food , water , and sleep .
He was later moved to Xining City No. 1 Detention Centre , where he was held incommunicado until April 2009 , when he was allowed to meet with his lawyer , Li Dunyong . Three months later , however , Li Dunyong dropped his case , reporting that he had been ordered to do so by judicial authorities . Another lawyer was reportedly threatened with the closing of his law firm if he chose to defend Dhondup Wangchen .
On 28 December 2009 , Dhondup Wangchen was sentenced to six year 's imprisonment for subversion , following a secret trial in Xining . On 7 January 2010 , Filming for Tibet reported that he had been unable to appeal his sentence because he had been denied access to his lawyer until his right to appeal expired .
His family stated that he has contracted Hepatitis B while imprisoned , and his health was said to be failing . In April 2010 , he was transferred to Xichuan Labour Camp in Qinghai Province , where prisoners ' work reportedly includes the manufacture of bricks , concrete , and aluminum @-@ alloy windows . On 6 April 2012 , Amnesty International issued another appeal on Wangchen 's behalf warning that he was being denied needed medical treatment .
= = International response = =
Jigme Gyatso and Dhondup Wangchen 's arrests were condemned by numerous human rights groups . Amnesty International protested the arrests of both men , noting Jigme Gyatso to be at risk of further torture and naming Dhondup Wangchen a prisoner of conscience . Human Rights Watch , Front Line , The Committee to Protect Journalists , Reporters Without Borders , and the Tibetan Center for Human Rights and Democracy also advocated on Dhondup Wangchen 's behalf .
On 10 March 2011 , former Speaker of the United States House of Representatives Nancy Pelosi called for Dhondup Wangchen 's release in honor of Tibetan Uprising Day . Also in early 2011 , Boston 's American Repertory Theater and System of a Down 's Serj Tankian dedicated their production of Prometheus Bound to him and seven other activists , stating in program notes that " by singing the story of Prometheus , the God who defied the tyrant Zeus by giving the human race both fire and art , this production hopes to give a voice to those currently being silenced or endangered by modern @-@ day oppressors " .
A coalition of human rights and Tibetan activist groups calling for Dhondup Wangchen 's release held a rally in New York City 's Times Square on 9 March 2012 , the day before Tibetan Uprising Day . Speakers included Dhondup Wangchen 's wife Lhamo Tso as well as poet @-@ activist Tenzin Tsundue . Excerpts from Leaving Fear Behind were shown on a twelve @-@ foot video screen beneath the Xinhua Jumbotron .
In 2012 , Dhondup Wangchen won the International Press Freedom Award of the Committee to Protect Journalists . The award recognizes journalists who show courage in defending press freedom despite facing attacks , threats , or imprisonment . He was honored in absentia at the organization 's November 2012 banquet due to his ongoing imprisonment .
In 2014 , he receives the Václav Havel Prize for Creative Dissent .
= Buddha ( album ) =
Buddha is the third demo by the American rock band Blink @-@ 182 . Recorded and released in January 1994 under the name Blink , it was the band 's first recording to be sold and distributed . Blink @-@ 182 was formed in Poway , California , a suburb outside of San Diego , in August 1992 . Guitarist Tom DeLonge and Mark Hoppus were introduced to one another by Hoppus ' sister . The duo recruited drummer Scott Raynor and began to practice together in his bedroom , spending hours together writing music , attending punk shows and movies and playing practical jokes . The band had recorded two previous demos in Raynor 's bedroom — Flyswatter and Demo No.2 — using a four track recorder . Most of the tracks from the demo were re @-@ recorded for their debut album Cheshire Cat .
Pat Secor , Hoppus ' boss at music store The Wherehouse , was attempting to start his own record label , named Filter Records . Secor pulled money from his savings and helped finance and produce the demo recording . Buddha was recorded live at local Santee studio Doubletime , compiling a collection that represented nearly all of the songs the band had written up to that point . Hoppus and friends Cam Jones and Kerry Key created the cassette artwork , and the original cassette packaging was compiled by the band and Hoppus ' family . Locally distributed to several San Diego record stores and available for purchase at early concerts , Buddha helped the trio cement an audience and was a deciding factor in their signing to local label Cargo in 1993 .
The recording became the subject of a legal dispute between the band and Secor in later years . The band accused Secor of selling the tape without paying royalties , and attempted to put a stop to his distribution with help of lawyer Joe Escalante of The Vandals , who also owned independent record label Kung Fu Records . Kung Fu digitally remixed and remastered the demo and commercially re @-@ released it in October 1998 , deleting two original tracks for other recordings from the original session . Kung Fu has since reportedly sold 300 @,@ 000 copies of Buddha . It is currently the only commercially available demo by Blink @-@ 182 .
= = Background = =
Blink @-@ 182 was formed in Poway , California , a suburb outside of San Diego , in August 1992 . After Mark Hoppus graduated from high school in Ridgecrest , he relocated to San Diego to work at a record store and attend college . Tom DeLonge was kicked out of Poway High for attending a basketball game drunk and was forced to attend another local school for one semester . At Rancho Bernardo High School , he befriended Kerry Key , also interested in punk music . Key 's girlfriend , Anne Hoppus , introduced her brother Mark to DeLonge on August 2 , 1992 . The two clicked instantly and played for hours in DeLonge 's garage , exchanging lyrics and co @-@ writing songs — one of which became " Carousel " . DeLonge recruited friend Scott Raynor for drums , whom he met at a Rancho Bernado Battle of the Bands competition . Raynor was by far the youngest member of the trio at 14 , and his event account differs significantly : he claims he and DeLonge formed the group after meeting at the Battle of the Bands and worked through a variety of bassists before meeting Hoppus .
The trio began to practice together in Raynor 's bedroom , spending hours together writing music , attending punk shows and movies , and playing practical jokes . Hoppus and DeLonge would alternate singing vocal parts . The trio first operated under a variety of names , including Duck Tape and Figure 8 , until DeLonge rechristened the band " Blink " . Hoppus ' girlfriend was angered by her boyfriend 's constant attention for the band and demanded him to make a choice between the band and her , which resulted in Hoppus leaving the band shortly after formation . Shortly thereafter , DeLonge and Raynor borrowed a four track recorder from friend and collaborator Cam Jones and were preparing to record a demo tape , with Jones on bass . Hoppus promptly broke up with his girlfriend and returned to the band . Flyswatter — a combination of original songs and punk covers — was recorded in Raynor 's bedroom in May 1993 . Southern California had a large punk population in the early 1990s , aided by an avid surfing , skating and snowboarding scene . In contrast to East Coast punk music , the West Coast wave of groups , Blink included , typically introduced more melodic aspects to their music . " New York is gloomy , dark and cold . It makes different music . The Californian middle @-@ class suburbs have nothing to be that bummed about , " said DeLonge . San Diego at this time was " hardly a hotbed of [ musical ] activity " , but the band 's popularity grew as did California punk rock concurrently in the mainstream .
The band 's first performance was at a local high school during lunch , and soon the trio graduated to San Diego 's Spirit Club and influential local shop Alley Kat Records . DeLonge called clubs constantly in San Diego asking for a spot to play , as well as calling up local high schools convincing them that Blink was a " motivational band with a strong anti @-@ drug message " in hopes to play at an assembly or lunch . The band soon became part of a circuit that also included the likes of Ten Foot Pole and Unwritten Law , and they found their way onto the bill as the opening band for local acts at SOMA , a local all @-@ ages venue which they longed to headline . The band 's equipment was piled into a blue station wagon for touring purposes and they first began to play shows outside San Diego .
= = Recording and production = =
Buddha was financed by Pat Secor , Hoppus ' boss at Wherehouse Music in San Diego . Secor was wanting to start his own record label and offered to help pay for costs . " He was like , hey , I 'll front you the money , and we 'll split the profits until you pay me back , " recalled Hoppus in 2001 . The two had met when Secor transferred from a north San Diego location . The two became friends quickly , despite Secor 's seniority of post . " At that point they 'd played around enough to get their chops up so I took all the money I had in savings and we went into the studio for two days , " said Secor .
The recording sessions at Doubletime Studios in Santee , California took place in January 1994 , and were scheduled around work and school commitments . Hoppus was sick at the time of recording . Despite this , the band carried on and the demo was complete within two days . " Buddha was cut live then we added the vocals . Two days and they were done — including the mix . It 's quite standard for a young punk band to do that , " said engineer Jeff Forrest . Despite this , the liner notes for the cassette claim it was recorded in twelve hours , while the later remaster of Buddha contend it was recorded " over three rainy nights . " The trio were " super stoked " about a sound effects tape they found at the studio , and took time out to add in applause and laughter tracks because they deemed it humorous .
Hoppus and DeLonge took the songwriting for their first legitimate release very seriously . The two strove for perfection writing songs that they felt would be relatable . Blink also recorded joke tracks , as they felt that , in addition to the serious songs , " it was almost as important to make people laugh . " DeLonge recalled that the band spent more time at the end of production on Buddha trying to perfect the joke songs rather than their serious tracks . The band 's main influence on Buddha , according to DeLonge , was the Descendents . " I was trying to emulate that band . Really punchy guitars , fast , simple and formulaic nursery rhyme love songs , " he said in 2012 .
= = Packaging and release = =
The photographs in the original cassette release of Buddha were photographs taken by friend of the band Cam Jones . Kerry Key , drummer for the Iconoclasts and friend of the band , also is credited with artwork in the original cassette . To produce the artwork , Hoppus and Jones spent an afternoon together taking " artsy " photographs in and around Raynor 's backyard . The cover art is a picture of a Buddha statue , which was a present from Hoppus ' stepfather that the bassist grabbed on the way to Raynor 's for the photos . After developing the photos , they took them to a copy shop to run off color copies . Afterwards , they cut , pasted and rearranged them until they found something suitable . The lyric sheets were handwritten and photocopied . Hoppus and his family in Ridgecrest would spend hours folding and combining pieces of artwork to compile the Buddha cassette . When this was complete , Hoppus would load the cassettes into his car and deliver them to local record stores around town .
" I totally remember driving around to all the record stores to drop off tapes to sell . I 'd go to Lou 's Records , and Off the Record , and Music Trader . It was so cool because the tapes were actually selling , that 's why I had to keep going back every week . Music Trader would have sold one copy , Off the Record sold two , or whatever . But that meant people were actually walking into a music store and buying something we had written and recorded . It was awesome . "
The demo tape , which was originally untitled , came to be known by the name Buddha , and was released by Filter Records in 1994 . Cassette copies of Buddha were also sold at early Blink concerts , alongside homemade T @-@ shirts .
= = Reception = =
Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic called Buddha a " promising debut , " considering it " a solid skatepunk record that illustrates the group 's flair for speedy , catchy hooks and irreverent humor . " Rolling Stone viewed it , alongside proper debut album Cheshire Cat ( 1995 ) as " slapped together lilting melodies and racing beats in an attempt to connect emo and skate punk , a sort of pop hardcore . " " This fast and furious beauty may have been recorded in two days , but it soon had the labels knocking at DeLonge and co ’ s door , " said Total Guitar in 2012 .
= = Controversy = =
The rights to Buddha and its associated recordings were the subject of a legal dispute between the band and Secor in later years . According to Secor , he and the band had a gentleman 's agreement : he would pay for the costs of recording and manufacturing the tape , and in exchange would receive half of all the profits from it . Raynor contends that the oral agreement was that Secor would invest $ 1 @,@ 000 and when that money was recouped , the band would have complete ownership of the work product . Secor helped the band sign to Cargo Music in 1994 , as he had connections at the label ; he felt that by helping the briskly growing band sign a deal he could build his own label , Filter , in the wake of Blink 's success . According to Secor , he attempted to contact the band to discuss the rights to the tape , but would only receive comments such as " Oh , let me call my manager and I 'll call you right back . " Secor asserted he should have the rights to the master tapes , as he financed the entire production . Cargo Music began calling and making threats , and Secor had no money to fight back with , as they had no written contract . In 1996 , the band signed a joint @-@ venture deal with major label MCA Records , who also began making calls to Secor . " Try going up against that , " Secor remarked in 2001 .
The band began to grow suspicious that Secor was keeping the money from selling the tape , and contacted their lawyer — Joe Escalante of The Vandals , who also owned independent record label Kung Fu Records . The group informed as Escalante that they believed " someone 's bootlegging it , " and requested his legal help to stop Secor . In exchange for legal fees , Blink @-@ 182 would allow Escalante 's label , Kung Fu , to re @-@ release Buddha on compact disc . The band had told Secor to not sell any more copies of the tape , but they held suspicions that he had anyway . Anonymously , Escalante ordered a tape from Secor , and Secor sold it to him . The band asserted that they were not receiving royalties for these sales . " I paid off all of the royalties for the remaining stash of tapes that I had of Buddha , " said Secor in 2001 . " It was about 25 . The tapes sold for five bucks , and I gave them half of what their profit would be . I wanted to have a few to give to people and to have on hand . " Secor felt it was his right to sell his stock of the tape , as the band " had been paid royalties for that already . "
Kung Fu re @-@ released Buddha on CD and cassette in November 1998 , and has since re @-@ released the recording on vinyl and retains digital distribution . The remaster cleans and sharpens the sound of tracks , and contains a slightly different track listing . " They 'd already sold 60 @,@ 000 copies of Cheshire Cat , and I thought , ' Man , if I can sell just 10 % of that that would be great for the label , ' and of course it sold a lot more because they went on to be superstars , " said Escalante . In 2001 , the label had reportedly sold 300 @,@ 000 copies of Buddha . " At this point it 's not even the money , " Secor said at the time . " It 's the fact that there is no mention of my work anywhere ; no credit has been given to me . "
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Mark Hoppus , Tom DeLonge , and Scott Raynor , except where noted .
= = Personnel = =
= Pink Friday : Roman Reloaded – The Re @-@ Up =
Pink Friday : Roman Reloaded – The Re @-@ Up is the reissue of Trinidadian @-@ American recording artist Nicki Minaj 's second studio album Pink Friday : Roman Reloaded ( 2012 ) . It was released on November 19 , 2012 , by Young Money , Cash Money , and Republic Records . Released seven months after the original , The Re @-@ Up features seven newly recorded songs and an exclusive behind @-@ the @-@ scenes footage DVD . The new material incorporates hip hop and R & B styles . As co @-@ executive producer , Minaj enlisted collaborators Boi @-@ 1da , Juicy J and T @-@ Minus .
Upon its release , Pink Friday : Roman Reloaded – The Re @-@ Up received generally positive reviews from music critics , who complimented the balanced variety of genres . Its three singles " The Boys " , " Freedom " , and " High School " peaked at numbers 41 , 31 , and 20 on the US Billboard Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart respectively , and the latter peaked at number 64 on the Billboard Hot 100 . The album was additionally promoted through the Pink Friday : Reloaded Tour and Minaj 's performance of " Freedom " at the 2012 American Music Awards .
= = Background = =
In April 2012 , Minaj released her second studio album Pink Friday : Roman Reloaded . She recorded the album between 2011 and early 2012 . For the album 's production , Minaj worked with collaborators including Alex da Kid , David Guetta , Dr. Luke , Hit @-@ Boy , and RedOne . Following its release , Pink Friday : Roman Reloaded became a commercial success . It peaked at number one on the UK Albums Chart . It also peaked at number one the US Billboard 200 . It was met with a generally mixed response from music critics , receiving an average score of 60 , based on 30 reviews on Metacritic , indicating " generally mixed or average reviews " . The album 's lead single " Starships " became Minaj 's most successful and certified single to date , becoming one of the best @-@ selling singles of all time and making US Billboard history after debuting in the top ten and then spending a total of 21 consecutive weeks in the top ten of the Hot 100 .
At the 2012 MTV Video Music Awards , Minaj announced the reissue of Pink Friday : Roman Reloaded , subtitled The Re @-@ Up , commenting " I 'm putting lots of new songs on there and I 'm actually going to drop my new single like next week . Barbz , you are gonna spaz . You are gonna love it . You are gonna go crazy ! " Its artwork was released the following month , featuring an image of Minaj from the music video of her song " I Am Your Leader " . In November , she added that the expanded album would contain an additional disc with seven newly recorded songs and an exclusive behind @-@ the @-@ scenes DVD to supplement the standard edition of the original album . The project served as the main focus of her three @-@ part E ! special Nicki Minaj : My Truth .
= = Composition = =
Minaj commented on On Air with Ryan Seacrest that " I feel like the music is such a better representation of me where I am now as an artist in my career . As long as people can hear the music , I 'm good . " Much of the new material incorporates hip hop and R & B styles previously seen in Minaj 's earlier mixtapes . The opening track " Up in Flames " incorporates a " slow , heavy and melodramatic beat " , where Minaj addresses her wealth and delivers negative remarks directed towards her adversaries . The second song " Freedom " was compared to material from her debut studio album Pink Friday ( 2010 ) ; it utilizes minimal production and reflects on Minaj 's rise to prominence . The third song " Hell Yeah " features Parker and further criticizes Minaj 's opponents . She references her much @-@ publicized on @-@ set tension with fellow American Idol judge Mariah Carey in the line " But I 'm quick to check a bitch if she ’ s outta line " and references the series ' personnel in the line " Shout out Mike Darnell and Nigel [ Lythgoe ] / Why these bums so mad that the queen on Idol " .
The fourth track " High School " features Lil Wayne and discusses sexual desires with a man who had been in prison . The fifth song " I 'm Legit " features Ciara and was characterized by having " snappy flows " and being " primed for the streets and clubs " . The sixth track " I Endorse These Strippers " features Tyga and Brinx ; its lyrics were described by Sal Cinquemani of Slant as " less clever than inexcusably archaic " . The seventh song " The Boys " features American recording artist Cassie . It incorporates both hip hop and electropop influences , and has been described as a " girls ' night anthem " . The final track " Va Va Voom " was previously included on the original deluxe version of Pink Friday : Roman Reloaded , and also contains prominent electropop styles .
= = Singles = =
" The Boys " , a collaboration with Cassie , was released as the lead single from The Re @-@ Up on September 13 , 2012 . The song peaked at number 41 on the US Billboard Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart . Its music video premiered through Vevo on October 18 , 2012 .
" Freedom " was released as the second single digitally through iTunes on November 2 , 2012 . The song peaked at number 31 on the Billboard Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart . Its music video premiered on 106 and Park on November 19 , 2012 .
The third single " High School " features Lil Wayne and was released on April 16 , 2013 . The song peaked at number 64 on the Billboard Hot 100 , and at number 20 on the Billboard Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart . Its music video was released by MTV on April 2 , 2013 .
= = Critical reception = =
Pink Friday : Roman Reloaded - The Re @-@ Up received generally positive reviews from music critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 72 , based on eight reviews . David Jeffries of Allmusic opined that " the too @-@ pop Roman Reloaded now feels more balanced once this eight @-@ track EP worth of material tips the scales " , adding that the additional tracks and DVD is " the better deal and bigger picture " than the original . Dan Weiss of the Boston Phoenix complimented Minaj 's rapping , commenting that " the rapper who rhymes " fri @-@ vo @-@ lous " with " po @-@ ly @-@ ga @-@ mist " is X @-@ Acto sharp as ever " . The Los Angeles Times ' Gerrick D. Kennedy noted the variety of genres incorporated in the reissue , stating " Sure , she flirts with dance pop and R & B balladry , but you can forgive her for wanting to satisfy different tastes . Here , it actually works " . Andy Gill of The Independent provided a mixed review , feeling that the material was generic and " does not add much to the Minaj experience " . Slant Magazine 's Sal Cinquemani criticized the lyrical content and featured guests , adding that " as long as [ Minaj ] keeps comparing herself to Jesus , we probably shouldn 't hold our breath " . Kyle Anderson of Entertainment Weekly placed the album at number two on his list of The Worst Albums Of The Year , writing that the album was " soul @-@ less , lazy , and totally unnecessary . "
= = Commercial performance = =
Charting together with the original Pink Friday : Roman Reloaded ( according to the rules by Billboard ) , The Re @-@ Up sold 36 @,@ 000 copies in first @-@ week sales and rose eighty spots on the US Billboard 200 , from number 107 to number 27 , with a 591 % sales gain . An associate from Billboard commented on the commercial performance of The Re @-@ Up stating that " expanded reissues aren 't always guaranteed big sellers . It really depends on the extra content and timing of the release ... Nicki 's reissue was seemingly timed to profit from holiday shopping " , also adding that the sales of The Re @-@ Up were actually better than similar reissues by Minaj 's contemporaries . In New Zealand , the album charted within Roman Reloaded release and debuted at twenty @-@ one .
Minaj commented that of the album 's limited availability , " it 's hard to get the album because the stores basically said that the last few re @-@ releases [ stores ] had put out did not do well and they didn 't want to take a chance . Target and Wal @-@ Mart are not selling the album , and Target is actually my biggest retailer . Best Buy only took limited [ stock ] because they wanted to play it safe . It kinda sets you up to fail . " Walmart responded that they do not issue albums with the Parental Advisory label , while Target sold the record on their website anyway .
= = Track listing = =
Notes
( * ) Denotes co @-@ producer .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from Allmusic .
Performance
Producers
Technical
Miscellaneous
Joshua Berkman – A & R
Safaree " SB " Samuels – A & R
Hype Williams – photography
Jahshari Wilson – cover design
= = Charts = =
Notes
A ^ In these territories , The Re @-@ Up was combined with the original chart entry for Pink Friday : Roman Reloaded , and thus re @-@ entered the chart as one release .
= = Release history = =
= SMS Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse =
SMS Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse ( " HMS Emperor William the Great " ) was a German pre @-@ dreadnought battleship of the Kaiser Friedrich III class , built around the turn of the 20th century . The ship was one of the first battleships built by the German Imperial Navy ( Kaiserliche Marine ) as part of a program of naval expansion under Kaiser Wilhelm II . Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse was built in Kiel at the Germaniawerft shipyard . She was laid down in January 1898 , launched in June 1899 , and completed in May 1901 . The ship was armed with a main battery of four 24 @-@ centimeter ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) guns in two twin gun turrets .
Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse served in the main fleet — the Heimatflotte ( Home Fleet ) and later the Hochseeflotte ( High Seas Fleet ) — for the first seven years of her career . She participated in several of the fleet 's training cruises and maneuvers , primarily in the North and Baltic Seas . Her peacetime career was relatively uneventful and she suffered no accidents . She was decommissioned for a major reconstruction in 1908 – 10 , after which she was assigned to the Reserve Division with her four sister ships .
At the outbreak of World War I in 1914 , the battleship and her sisters were placed back in active service as the V Battle Squadron of the High Seas Fleet and tasked with coastal defense in the North Sea . They were also deployed briefly to the Baltic but saw no action . In 1915 , the ships were again withdrawn from service and relegated to secondary duties . Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse was used as a depot ship in Kiel and eventually a torpedo target ship . After the war , the Treaty of Versailles greatly reduced the size of the German Navy . The vessel was sold for scrapping to a German company and broken up in 1920 .
= = Design = =
Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse was 125 @.@ 3 m ( 411 ft 1 in ) long overall and had a beam of 20 @.@ 4 m ( 66 ft 11 in ) and a draft of 7 @.@ 89 m ( 25 ft 11 in ) forward and 8 @.@ 25 m ( 27 ft 1 in ) aft . She displaced 11 @,@ 097 t ( 10 @,@ 922 long tons ) normally and up to 11 @,@ 785 t ( 11 @,@ 599 long tons ) at full load . The ship was powered by three 3 @-@ cylinder vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engines that drove three screw propellers . Steam was provided by four Marine @-@ type and eight cylindrical boilers , all of which burned coal . Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse 's powerplant was rated at 13 @,@ 000 metric horsepower ( 12 @,@ 822 ihp ; 9 @,@ 561 kW ) , which generated a top speed of 17 @.@ 5 knots ( 32 @.@ 4 km / h ; 20 @.@ 1 mph ) .
The ship 's armament consisted of a main battery of four 24 cm ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) SK L / 40 guns in twin gun turrets , one fore and one aft of the central superstructure . Her secondary armament consisted of eighteen 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 inch ) SK L / 40 guns and twelve 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 45 in ) SK L / 30 quick @-@ firing guns . She also carried twelve 3 @.@ 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) machine cannon . Six 45 cm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes were mounted in above @-@ water swivel mounts . The ship 's belt armor was 300 mm ( 11 @.@ 8 in ) thick , and the deck was 65 mm ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) thick . The conning tower and main battery turrets were protected with 250 mm ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) of armor , and the secondary casemates received 150 mm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) of protection .
= = Service history = =
= = = Construction and early service = = =
Kaiser Wilhelm II , the emperor of Germany , believed that a strong navy was necessary for the country to expand its influence outside continental Europe . He initiated a program of naval expansion in the late 1880s ; the first battleships built under this program were the four Brandenburg @-@ class ships . These were immediately followed by the five Kaiser Friedrich III @-@ class battleships , of which Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse was the third . Her keel was laid on 22 January 1898 at the Germaniawerft shipyard in Kiel , as construction number 22 . She was ordered under the contract name Ersatz König Wilhelm , to replace the obsolete armored frigate König Wilhelm . Her scheduled launching on 29 April 1899 was delayed to 1 June after a large fire at the shipyard damaged the slipway . Louise , the Grand Duchess of Baden , christened the ship after her father Wilhelm I of Germany , the ship 's namesake . Wilhelm II gave the launching speech for the ship commemorating his grandfather . After completing fitting @-@ out work , dockyard sea trials began on 19 February 1901 , followed by acceptance trials that started on 18 March . These were completed by May , and she was formally commissioned on 5 May . That year , Erich Raeder — who went on to command the Kriegsmarine in World War II — was promoted to serve as a watch officer aboard her .
After commissioning in 1901 , Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse joined her sister ships in the I Squadron of the Heimatflotte ( Home Fleet ) . After her sister Kaiser Friedrich III ran aground and had to be docked for repairs , Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse replaced her as the I Squadron flagship , which was commanded by Prince Heinrich , the brother of Wilhelm II . She held this post until 24 October , when Kaiser Friedrich III returned to service . In the meantime , Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse was present for the Kiel Week sailing regatta in June and the dedication of a monument at the Marineakademie ( Naval Academy ) in Kiel . At the end of July , she led the squadron on a cruise to Spanish waters , and while docked in Cádiz , they rendezvoused with the Brandenburg @-@ class battleships returning from East Asian waters . The I Squadron was back in Kiel by 11 August , though the late arrival of the Brandenburgs delayed the participation of the I Squadron in the annual autumn fleet training . The maneuvers began with exercises in the German Bight , followed by a mock attack on the fortifications in the lower Elbe . Gunnery drills took place in Kiel Bay before the fleet steamed to Danzig Bay , where the maneuvers concluded on 15 September . Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse and the rest of I Squadron went on their normal winter cruise to Norway in December , which included a stop at Oslo from 7 to 12 December .
In 1902 , the new battleship Wittelsbach ran aground off Korsør ; Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse took her under tow back to port . The I Squadron went on a short cruise in the western Baltic then embarked on a major cruise around the British Isles , which lasted from 25 April to 28 May . Individual and squadron maneuvers took place from June to August , interrupted only by a cruise to Norway in July . The annual fleet maneuvers began in August in the Baltic and concluded in the North Sea with a fleet review in the Jade . During the exercises , Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse was assigned to the " hostile " force , as were several of her sister ships . The " hostile " force was first tasked with preventing the " German " squadron from passing through the Great Belt in the Baltic . Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse and several other battleships were then tasked with forcing an entry into the mouth of the Elbe River , where the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal and Hamburg could be seized . The " hostile " flotilla accomplished these tasks within three days . The regular winter cruise followed during 1 – 12 December .
In 1903 , the fleet , which was composed of only one squadron of battleships , was reorganized as the " Active Battle Fleet " . Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse remained in the I Squadron along with her sister ships and the newest Wittelsbach @-@ class battleships , while the older Brandenburg @-@ class ships were placed in reserve to be rebuilt . The first quarter of 1903 followed the usual pattern of training exercises . The squadron went on a training cruise in the Baltic , followed by a voyage to Spain from 7 May to 10 June . In July , the I Squadron went on its annual cruise to Norway . The autumn maneuvers consisted of a blockade exercise in the North Sea , a cruise of the entire fleet first to Norwegian waters and then to Kiel in early September , and finally a mock attack on Kiel . The exercises concluded on 12 September . The winter cruise began on 23 November in the eastern Baltic and continued into the Skagerrak on 1 December .
= = = 1904 – 14 = = =
The I Squadron held its first exercise of 1904 in the Skagerrak from 11 to 21 January . Further squadron exercises followed from 8 to 17 March . A major fleet exercise took place in the North Sea in May , and in July the I Squadron and the I Scouting Group visited Britain , stopping at Plymouth on 10 July . The German fleet departed on 13 July , bound for the Netherlands ; the I Squadron anchored in Vlissingen the following day . There , the ships were visited by Queen Wilhelmina . The I Squadron remained in Vlissingen until 20 July , when it departed for a cruise in the northern North Sea with the rest of the fleet . The squadron stopped in Molde , Norway , on 29 July , while the other units went to other ports . The fleet reassembled on 6 August and steamed back to Kiel , where it conducted a mock attack on the harbor on 12 August . The fleet then began preparations for the autumn maneuvers , which began on 29 August in the Baltic . The fleet moved to the North Sea on 3 September , where it took part in a major landing operation , after which the ships took the ground troops from the IX Corps that participated in the exercises to Altona for a parade for Wilhelm II . The ships then conducted their own parade for the Kaiser off the island of Helgoland on 6 September . Three days later , the fleet returned to the Baltic via the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal , where it participated in further landing operations with the IX Corps and the Guards Corps . On 15 September , the maneuvers came to an end . The I Squadron went on its winter training cruise , this time to the eastern Baltic , from 22 November to 2 December .
The ships of the I Squadron went on a pair of training cruises during 9 – 19 January and 27 February – 16 March 1905 . Individual and squadron training followed , with an emphasis on gunnery drills . On 12 July , the fleet began a major training exercise in the North Sea . The fleet then cruised through the Kattegat and stopped in Copenhagen and Stockholm . The summer cruise ended on 9 August ; the autumn maneuvers that would normally have begun shortly thereafter were delayed by a visit from the British Channel Fleet that month . The British fleet stopped in Danzig , Swinemünde , and Flensburg , where it was greeted by units of the German Navy ; Kaiser Wilhelm II and the main German fleet were anchored at Swinemünde for the occasion . The visit 's impact was lessened by the ongoing Anglo @-@ German naval arms race . As a result of the British visit , the 1905 autumn maneuvers were shortened considerably , from 6 to 13 September , and consisted only of exercises in the North Sea . The first exercise presumed a naval blockade in the German Bight , and the second envisioned a hostile fleet attempting to force the defenses of the Elbe . During the exercises , Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse won the Kaiser 's Schiesspreis ( Shooting Prize ) for excellent gunnery in the I Squadron . In October , the ship was reassigned to the I Division of the II Squadron . In early December , the I and II Squadrons went on their regular winter cruise , this time to Danzig , where they arrived on 12 December . On the return trip to Kiel , the fleet conducted tactical exercises .
Over the winter of 1906 – 07 , Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse underwent a major overhaul in Kiel , which was completed by the end of April . By this time , the newest Deutschland @-@ class battleships were coming into service ; along with the Braunschweig @-@ class battleships , these provided enough modern battleships to create two full battle squadrons . As a result , the Heimatflotte was renamed the Hochseeflotte ( High Seas Fleet ) . Starting on 13 May , major fleet exercises took place in the North Sea and lasted until 8 June with a cruise around the Skagen into the Baltic . The fleet began its usual summer cruise to Norway in mid @-@ July . The fleet was present for the birthday of Norwegian King Haakon VII on 3 August . The German ships departed the following day for Helgoland , to join exercises being conducted there . The fleet was back in Kiel by 15 August , where preparations for the autumn maneuvers began . On 22 – 24 August , the fleet took part in landing exercises in Eckernförde Bay outside Kiel . The maneuvers were paused from 31 August to 3 September when the fleet hosted vessels from Denmark and Sweden , along with a Russian squadron from 3 to 9 September in Kiel . The maneuvers resumed on 8 September and lasted five more days .
A shorter period of dockyard work took place from 7 December to 27 January 1908 . She returned to the fleet for the normal peacetime routine of training exercises , and after the conclusion of the autumn maneuvers , Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse was decommissioned in Kiel on 21 September . She was taken into the Kaiserliche Werft shipyard in Kiel for an extensive modernization that lasted until 1910 . During the refit , four of the ship 's 15 cm guns and the stern @-@ mounted torpedo tube were removed . Two 8 @.@ 8 cm guns were added and the arrangement of the 8 @.@ 8 cm battery was modified . Her superstructure was also cut down to reduce the ship 's tendency to roll excessively , and the ship 's funnels were lengthened . After reconstruction , the ship was assigned to the Reserve Division in the Baltic , along with her sister ships . She was reactivated on 31 July 1911 and assigned to the III Squadron during the annual fleet exercises , then returned on 15 September to the Reserve Division . She remained there for the rest of her peacetime career .
= = = World War I = = =
As a result of the outbreak of World War I , Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse and her sisters were brought out of reserve and mobilized as the V Battle Squadron on 5 August 1914 . The ships were prepared for war very slowly , and were not ready for service in the North Sea until the end of August . They were initially tasked with coastal defense , but they served in this capacity for a very short time . In mid @-@ September , the V Squadron was transferred to the Baltic , under the command of Prince Heinrich . He initially planned to launch a major amphibious assault against the Russians at Windau , but a shortage of transports forced a revision of the plan . Instead , the V Squadron was to carry the landing force , but this too was cancelled after Heinrich received false reports of British warships having entered the Baltic on 25 September . Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse and her sisters returned to Kiel the following day , disembarked the landing force , and then proceeded to the North Sea , where they resumed guard ship duties . Before the end of the year , the V Squadron was once again transferred to the Baltic .
Prince Heinrich ordered a foray toward Gotland . On 26 December 1914 , the battleships rendezvoused with the Baltic cruiser division in the Bay of Pomerania and then departed on the sortie . Two days later , the fleet arrived off Gotland to show the German flag , and was back in Kiel by 30 December . The squadron returned to the North Sea for guard duties , but was withdrawn from front @-@ line service in February 1915 . Shortages of trained crews in the High Seas Fleet , coupled with the risk of operating older ships in wartime , necessitated the deactivation of Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse and her sisters . Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse first went to Hamburg , where her crew was reduced on 5 March . She was moved to Kiel on 30 April , where the rest of her crew were removed . She was disarmed and thereafter used as a depot ship . The following year , the ship was used as a torpedo target ship . In November 1918 , Germany surrendered and signed the Armistice at Compiègne that ended the fighting . According to Article 181 of the Treaty of Versailles , signed on 28 June 1919 , that formally ended the war , Germany was permitted to retain only six battleships of the " Deutschland or Lothringen types " . On 6 December 1919 , the vessel was struck from the naval list and sold to a shipbreaking firm based in Berlin . The following year , Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse was broken up for scrap metal in Kiel @-@ Nordmole .
= Death of John Lennon =
John Lennon was an English musician who gained worldwide fame as one of the members of the Beatles , for his subsequent solo career , and for his political activism and pacifism . On 8 December 1980 , Lennon was shot by Mark David Chapman in the archway of the Dakota , his residence in New York City . Lennon had just returned from Record Plant Studio with his wife , Yoko Ono .
After sustaining four major gunshot wounds , Lennon was pronounced dead on arrival at Roosevelt Hospital . At the hospital , it was stated that nobody could have lived for more than a few minutes after sustaining such injuries . Shortly after local news stations reported Lennon 's death , crowds gathered at Roosevelt Hospital and in front of the Dakota . Lennon was cremated at the Ferncliff Cemetery in Hartsdale , New York two days after his death ; the ashes were given to Ono , who chose not to hold a funeral for him . The first media report of Lennon 's death to a US national audience was announced by Howard Cosell , on ABC 's Monday Night Football .
= = Events preceding his death = =
= = = 8 December 1980 = = =
Photographer Annie Leibovitz went to the Lennons ' apartment to do a photo shoot for Rolling Stone magazine . Leibovitz promised Lennon that a photo with Ono would make the front cover of the magazine , even though she initially tried to get a picture with Lennon by himself . Leibovitz said , " Nobody wanted [ Ono ] on the cover " . Lennon insisted that both he and his wife be on the cover , and after taking the pictures , Leibovitz left their apartment at 3 : 30 p.m. After the photo shoot , Lennon gave what would be his last interview , to San Francisco DJ Dave Sholin , for a music show to be broadcast on the RKO Radio Network . At 5 : 40 p.m. , Lennon and Ono , delayed by a late limousine , left their apartment to mix the song " Walking on Thin Ice " ( an Ono song featuring Lennon on lead guitar ) at the Record Plant Studio .
= = = Mark David Chapman = = =
As Lennon and Ono walked to a limousine , shared with the RKO Radio crew , they were approached by several people seeking autographs . Among them was Mark David Chapman . It was common for fans to wait outside the Dakota to meet Lennon and ask for his autograph . Chapman , a 25 @-@ year @-@ old security guard from Honolulu , Hawaii , had previously travelled to New York to murder Lennon in October ( before the release of Double Fantasy ) , but had changed his mind and returned home . Chapman silently handed Lennon a copy of Double Fantasy , and Lennon obliged with an autograph . After signing the album , Lennon asked , " Is this all you want ? " Chapman smiled and nodded in agreement . Photographer and Lennon fan Paul Goresh took a photo of the encounter . Chapman had been waiting for Lennon outside the Dakota since mid @-@ morning , and had even approached the Lennons ' five @-@ year @-@ old son , Sean , who was with the family nanny , Helen Seaman , when they returned home in the afternoon . According to Chapman , he briefly touched the boy 's hand .
The Lennons spent several hours at the Record Plant studio before returning to the Dakota , at approximately 10 : 50 pm . Lennon had decided against dining out so he could be home in time to say goodnight to his son , before going on to the Stage Deli restaurant with Ono . Lennon liked to oblige any fans who had been waiting for long periods of time to meet him with autographs or pictures , once saying during an interview with BBC Radio 's Andy Peebles on 6 December 1980 : " People come and ask for autographs , or say ' Hi ' , but they don 't bug you . " The Lennons exited their limousine on 72nd Street instead of driving into the more secure courtyard of the Dakota .
= = Murder = =
The Dakota 's doorman , Jose Perdomo , and a nearby cab driver saw Chapman standing in the shadows by the archway . As Lennon passed by , he glanced briefly at Chapman , appearing to recognize him from earlier . Seconds later , Chapman took aim directly at the center of Lennon 's back and fired five hollow @-@ point bullets at him from a Charter Arms .38 Special revolver in rapid succession from a range of about nine or ten feet ( about 3 m ) away . Based on statements made that night by NYPD Chief of Detectives James Sullivan , numerous radio , television , and newspaper reports claimed at the time that , before firing , Chapman called out " Mr. Lennon " and dropped into a combat stance . Later court hearings and witness interviews did not include either " Mr. Lennon " or the " combat stance " description . Chapman has said he does not remember calling out to Lennon before he fired , but he claimed to have taken a " combat stance " in a 1992 interview with Barbara Walters . The first bullet missed , passing over Lennon 's head and hitting a window of the Dakota building . Two of the next bullets struck Lennon in the left side of his back , and two more penetrated his left shoulder .
Lennon , bleeding profusely from external wounds and also from his mouth , staggered up five steps to the security / reception area , saying , " I 'm shot , I 'm shot " . He then fell to the floor , scattering cassettes that he had been carrying . The concierge , Jay Hastings , first started to make a tourniquet , but upon ripping open Lennon 's blood @-@ stained shirt and realizing the severity of his multiple injuries , he covered Lennon 's chest with his uniform jacket , removed his blood @-@ covered glasses , and summoned the police .
Outside , doorman Perdomo shook the gun out of Chapman 's hand then kicked it across the sidewalk . Chapman then removed his coat and hat in preparation for the arrival of police — to show he was not carrying any concealed weapons — and sat down on the sidewalk . Perdomo shouted at Chapman , " Do you know what you 've just done ? " to which Chapman calmly replied , " Yes , I just shot John Lennon . " The first policemen to arrive were Steven Spiro and Peter Cullen , who were at 72nd Street and Broadway when they heard a report of shots fired at the Dakota . The officers arrived around two minutes later and found Chapman sitting " very calmly " on the sidewalk . They reported that Chapman had dropped the revolver to the ground and was holding a paperback book , J. D. Salinger 's The Catcher in the Rye . They immediately put Chapman in handcuffs and placed him in the back seat of their squad car . Chapman made no attempt to flee or resist arrest .
The second team , officers Herb Frauenberger and his partner , Tony Palma , arrived a few minutes later . They found Lennon lying face down on the floor of the reception area with Hastings attending to him , blood pouring from his mouth and his clothing already soaked with blood . Realizing the extent of his injuries , the policemen decided not to wait for an ambulance and immediately carried Lennon into their squad car and rushed him to St Luke 's @-@ Roosevelt Hospital Center . Officer James Moran said they placed Lennon in the back seat . Reportedly , Moran asked , " Are you John Lennon ? " to which Lennon nodded and replied " Yes . " There are conflicting accounts of this , however . According to another account by officer Bill Gamble , Lennon nodded slightly and tried to speak , but could only manage to make a gurgling sound , and lost consciousness shortly thereafter .
Dr. Stephan Lynn , head of the Emergency Department , who had been called in again after having just returned home after a 13 @-@ hour @-@ long work shift , received Lennon in the emergency room at Roosevelt Hospital a few minutes before 11 : 00 pm when Officers Frauenberger and Moran arrived , with Moran carrying Lennon on his back from their squad car and onto a gurney , into the emergency room demanding a doctor for a multiple gunshot wound victim . When Lennon arrived , he had no pulse and was not breathing . Dr. Lynn , two other doctors , a nurse and two or three other medical attendants worked on Lennon for ten to 15 minutes in a desperate attempt to resuscitate him . As a last resort , Dr. Lynn cut open Lennon 's chest and attempted manual heart massage to restore circulation , but he quickly discovered that the damage to the blood vessels above and around Lennon 's heart from the multiple bullet wounds was too great . Lennon was pronounced dead on arrival in the emergency room at the Roosevelt Hospital at 11 : 15 pm by Dr. Lynn , but the time of 11 : 07 pm has also been reported . Lennon 's body was then taken to the city morgue at 520 First Avenue and autopsied . The cause of death was reported as " hypovolemic shock , caused by the loss of more than 80 % of blood volume due to multiple through @-@ and @-@ through gunshot wounds to the chest and aortic arch " . The pathologist who performed the autopsy on Lennon also stated in his report that even with prompt medical treatment , no person could have lived for more than a few minutes with such multiple bullet injuries to all of the major arteries and veins around the heart .
The surgeon also noted — as did other witnesses — that , at the moment Lennon was pronounced dead , a Beatles song ( " All My Loving " ) came over the hospital 's sound system .
Three of the four bullets that struck Lennon 's back passed completely through his body and out of his chest , one of which hit and became lodged in his upper left arm , while the fourth lodged itself in his aorta beside his heart ; nearly all of them would have been fatal by themselves as each bullet hit vital arteries around the heart . As Lennon had been shot four times at close range with hollow @-@ point bullets , Lennon 's affected organs ( particularly his left lung ) and major blood vessels above his heart were virtually destroyed upon impact . Lynn later stated to reporters on the extent of Lennon 's injuries : " If he [ Lennon ] had been shot this way in the middle of the operating room with a whole team of surgeons ready to work on him ... he still wouldn 't have survived his injuries " .
When told by Dr. Lynn of her husband 's death , Ono started sobbing and said , " Oh no , no , no , no ... tell me it 's not true ! " Dr. Lynn remembers that Ono lay down and began hitting her head against the floor , but calmed down when a nurse gave Lennon 's wedding ring to her . She was led away from Roosevelt Hospital by Geffen Records ' president , David Geffen , in a state of shock .
= = Announcements = =
= = = Monday Night Football = = =
Ono asked the hospital not to report to the media that her husband was dead until she had informed their five @-@ year @-@ old son Sean , who was at home . Ono said he was probably watching television and did not want him to learn of his father 's death from a TV announcement .
Meanwhile , news producer Alan J. Weiss from WABC @-@ TV had been waiting to be treated in the emergency room at Roosevelt Hospital due to having been involved in an accident earlier that evening while riding his motorcycle . Weiss recalled in an interview for the CNN series Crimes of the Century in 2013 that he had seen Lennon being wheeled into the room surrounded by several police officers . After he learned what happened , Weiss called back to the station to relay the information . Eventually , word made its way through the chain of command to ABC News president Roone Arledge , who was tasked with finding a way to bring this major development to the viewing audience .
While all of this was happening Arledge , who was also the president of the network 's sports division , was presiding over ABC 's telecast of Monday Night Football in his capacity as its executive producer . At the exact moment he received word of Lennon 's death , the game between the New England Patriots and the Miami Dolphins was tied with less than a minute left in the fourth quarter and the Patriots were driving toward the potential winning score .
As the Patriots tried to put themselves in position for a field goal , Arledge informed Frank Gifford and Howard Cosell of the shooting and suggested that they be the ones to report on the murder . Cosell , who had previously interviewed Lennon on a 1974 broadcast , was chosen to do so but was apprehensive of it at first , as he felt the game should take precedence and that it was not their place to break such a big story . Gifford convinced Cosell otherwise , saying that he should not " hang on to ( the news ) " as the significance of the event was much greater than the finish of the game .
The following exchange begins with thirty seconds left in the fourth quarter , shortly after Gifford and Cosell were informed of what had transpired .
Cosell : ... but ( the game ) ' s suddenly been placed in total perspective for us ; I 'll finish this , they 're in the hurry @-@ up offense.Gifford : Third down , four . ( Chuck ) Foreman ... it 'll be fourth down . ( Matt ) Cavanaugh will let it run down for one final attempt , he 'll let the seconds tick off to give Miami no opportunity whatsoever . ( Whistle blows . ) Timeout is called with three seconds remaining , John Smith is on the line . And I don 't care what 's on the line , Howard , you have got to say what we know in the booth.Cosell : Yes , we have to say it . Remember this is just a football game , no matter who wins or loses . An unspeakable tragedy confirmed to us by ABC News in New York City : John Lennon , outside of his apartment building on the West Side of New York City , the most famous perhaps , of all of the Beatles , shot twice in the back , rushed to Roosevelt Hospital , dead on arrival . Hard to go back to the game after that news flash , which , in duty bound , we have to take . Frank ? Gifford : ( after a pause ) Indeed , it is .
= = = Other announcements = = =
It has been claimed that the first nationally @-@ telecast bulletin about the shooting was made by Kathleen Sullivan as part of a standard newscast on Cable News Network ; Sullivan reported that Lennon had been shot but his condition was not known at the time of the bulletin . NBC @-@ TV momentarily broke into its East Coast feed of The Best of Carson for its bulletin of Lennon 's death before returning in the middle of a comedy piece being performed by Johnny Carson .
New York rock station WNEW @-@ FM 102 @.@ 7 immediately suspended all programming and opened its lines to calls from listeners . Stations throughout the country switched to special programming devoted to Lennon and / or Beatles music .
The following day , Ono issued a statement : " There is no funeral for John . John loved and prayed for the human race . Please do the same for him . Love , Yoko and Sean . "
= = Aftermath = =
Lennon 's murder triggered an outpouring of grief around the world on an unprecedented scale . Lennon 's remains were cremated at Ferncliff Cemetery in Hartsdale , Westchester County , N.Y. ; no funeral was held . Ono sent word to the chanting crowd outside the Dakota that their singing had kept her awake ; she asked that they re @-@ convene at Central Park 's Naumburg Bandshell the following Sunday for ten minutes of silent prayer . On 14 December 1980 , millions of people around the world responded to Ono 's request to pause for ten minutes of silence to remember Lennon . Thirty thousand gathered in Liverpool , and the largest group — over 225 @,@ 000 — converged on New York 's Central Park , close to the scene of the shooting . For those ten minutes , every radio station in New York City went off the air .
At least three Beatles fans committed suicide after the murder , leading Ono to make a public appeal asking mourners not to give in to despair . Ono released a solo album , Season of Glass , in 1981 . The cover of the album is a photograph of Lennon 's blood @-@ spattered glasses . That same year she also released " Walking on Thin Ice " , the song the Lennons had mixed at the Record Plant less than an hour before he was murdered , as a single . Chapman pleaded guilty in 1981 to murdering Lennon . Under the terms of his guilty plea , Chapman was sentenced to 20 @-@ years @-@ to @-@ life and later automatically became eligible for parole up until 2000 . However , Chapman has been denied parole eight times and remains incarcerated at the Wende Correctional Facility .
= = Memorials and tributes = =
Annie Leibovitz 's photo of a naked Lennon embracing his wife , taken on the day of the murder , was the cover of Rolling Stone 's 22 January 1981 issue , most of which was dedicated to articles , letters and photographs commemorating Lennon 's life and death . In 2005 the American Society of Magazine Editors ranked it as the top magazine cover of the last 40 years .
George Harrison released a tribute song , " All Those Years Ago " , which featured Ringo Starr and Paul McCartney , in 1981 . McCartney released his tribute , " Here Today " , on his 1982 album , Tug of War . Elton John , who had recorded the number @-@ one hit " Whatever Gets You thru the Night " with Lennon , teamed up with his lyricist Bernie Taupin and recorded a tribute to Lennon , entitled " Empty Garden ( Hey Hey Johnny ) . " It appeared on his 1982 album , Jump Up ! , and peaked at # 13 on the US Singles Chart that year . When he performed the song at a sold @-@ out concert in Madison Square Garden in August 1982 , he was joined on stage by Ono and Sean . Queen , during their Game Tour , performed a cover of Lennon 's solo song " Imagine " at concerts after Lennon 's death . Queen also performed the song " Life Is Real " , from the album Hot Space ( 1982 ) , in his honour . It was written by singer Freddie Mercury .
Roxy Music added a cover version of the song " Jealous Guy " to their set while touring in Germany , which they recorded and released in March 1981 . The song was their only UK # 1 hit , topping the charts for two weeks . It features on many Bryan Ferry / Roxy Music collections , though not always in its full @-@ length version .
Paul Simon 's homage to Lennon , " The Late Great Johnny Ace " , initially sings of the rhythm and blues singer Johnny Ace , who is said to have shot himself in 1954 , then goes on to reference John Lennon , as well as President John F. Kennedy who was assassinated in 1963 , the year Beatlemania started . Simon had actually premiered the song during Simon & Garfunkel 's reunion Concert in Central Park in 1981 ; near the end of the song , a fan ran onto the stage , possibly in response to Simon mentioning Lennon in the lyrics . The man was dragged offstage by Simon 's personnel , saying to Simon , " I have to talk to you " ; all of which can be seen in the DVD of the concert . The song also appears on Simon 's 1983 Hearts and Bones album .
David Bowie , who befriended Lennon in the mid @-@ 1970s ( Lennon co @-@ wrote and performed on Bowie 's US # 1 hit " Fame " in 1975 ) , performed a tribute to Lennon in the final show of his Serious Moonlight Tour at the Hong Kong Coliseum on 8 December 1983 — the third anniversary of Lennon 's death . Bowie announced that the last time he saw Lennon was in Hong Kong , and after announcing " On this day , December the 8th 1980 , John Lennon was shot and killed outside of his New York apartment , " he performed Lennon 's " Imagine " .
David Gilmour of Pink Floyd wrote and recorded the song " Murder " in response to Lennon 's death ; the song was released on Gilmour 's solo album , About Face ( 1984 ) .
In 1985 , New York City dedicated an area of Central Park directly across from the Dakota as Strawberry Fields , where Lennon had frequently walked . In a symbolic show of unity , countries from around the world donated trees and the city of Naples , Italy , donated the Imagine mosaic centerpiece . A symbolic grave for Lennon was erected in Prague 's Mala Strana square , which hosted demonstrations during the fall of the communist regime in Czechoslovakia .
Lennon was honoured with a Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award in 1991 . In 1994 , the breakaway autonomous republic of Georgia , Republic of Abkhazia , issued two postage stamps featuring the faces of Lennon and Groucho Marx , rather than portraits of Vladimir Lenin and Karl Marx , spoofing Abkhazia 's Communist past . On 8 December 2000 , Cuba 's President Fidel Castro unveiled a bronze statue of Lennon in a park in Havana . In 2000 , the John Lennon Museum was opened at the Saitama Super Arena in the city of Saitama , Japan ( but closed on 30 September 2010 ) , and Liverpool renamed its airport Liverpool John Lennon Airport , adopting the motto , " Above us only sky " , in 2002 . The minor planet 4147 Lennon , discovered 12 January 1983 by B. A. Skiff at the Anderson Mesa Station of the Lowell Observatory , was named in memory of Lennon . On 9 December 2006 , in the city of Puebla , Mexico , a plaque was revealed , honouring Lennon 's contribution to music , culture and peace . On 9 October 2007 , Ono dedicated a new memorial called the Imagine Peace Tower , located on the island of Viðey , off the coast of Reykjavík , Iceland . Each year , between 9 October and 8 December , it projects a vertical beam of light high into the sky in Lennon 's memory . In 1990 a group of citizens came forward with an initiative to rename one of the streets of Warsaw in honour of John Lennon . The petition had approximately 5000 supporting signatures and passed through city council unchallenged .
Every 8 December a memorial ceremony is held in front of the Capitol Records building on Vine Street in Hollywood , California . People also light candles in front of Lennon 's Hollywood Walk of Fame star , outside the Capitol Building . From 28 to 30 September 2007 , Durness held the John Lennon Northern Lights Festival which was attended by Julia Baird ( Lennon 's half @-@ sister ) , who read from Lennon 's writings and her own books , and Stanley Parkes , Lennon 's Scottish cousin . Parkes said , " Me and Julia [ Baird ] are going to be going to the old family croft to tell stories " . Musicians , painters and poets from across the UK performed at the festival .
In 2009 , the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame 's New York City annexe hosted a special John Lennon exhibit , which included many mementos and personal effects from Lennon 's life , as well as the clothes he was wearing when he was murdered , still in the brown paper bag from Roosevelt Hospital . Ono still places a lit candle in the window of Lennon 's room in the Dakota on 8 December . In 2012 , Bob Dylan released the Lennon tribute " Roll on John " on his Tempest album .
= = On film = =
Two films depicting the murder of Lennon were released close together more than 25 years after the event . The first of the two , The Killing of John Lennon , was released on 7 December 2007 . Directed by Andrew Piddington , the movie had Jonas Ball play Mark David Chapman . The second film was Chapter 27 , released on 28 March 2008 . Directed by J. P. Schaefer , Mark David Chapman was played by Jared Leto . Lennon was portrayed by actor Mark Lindsay Chapman , who coincidentally has the same first and last name as the person who killed Lennon . Lindsay Chapman had previously been cast ( and billed then as ' Mark Lindsay ' ) in NBC Television 's John & Yoko : A Love Story in 1985 , but the role of Lennon was re @-@ cast when it was revealed that the actor 's real surname was Chapman .
= Ability ( Fringe ) =
" Ability " is the fourteenth episode of the first season of the American science fiction drama television series Fringe . The plot follows the Fringe team 's investigation into ZFT and David Robert Jones , who claims that Olivia is a soldier equipped with abilities to fight in an upcoming war between two parallel universes . A skeptical Olivia must discover a way to avoid unleashing an attack that causes fatal accelerated cellular growth in its victims .
The episode 's teleplay was written by co @-@ executive producer David H. Goodman from a story by executive story editors Glen Whitman and Robert Chiappetta . It was directed by Norberto Barba , his only contribution to the series . Jared Harris guest starred as Jones , alongside actors Clark Middleton , Michael Gaston , Noah Bean , and Chance Kelly .
It first aired in the United States on February 10 , 2009 on the Fox network to an estimated 9 @.@ 83 million viewers , placing second in its timeslot . The episode earned a 4 @.@ 1 / 10 ratings share among adults aged 18 to 49 , meaning that it was seen by 4 @.@ 1 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 10 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of broadcast . " Ability " received mixed reviews from television critics .
= = Plot = =
A newspaper vendor dies by suffocation after receiving a two @-@ dollar bill coated in a chemical substance that causes all his orifices to close up . Walter analyzes the chemical agent as a catalyst that speeds up the protein production in scar tissue and accelerating cell growth . Meanwhile , Olivia postulates that the initials " ZFT " may not be of a terrorist organization but of a book , and discovers the German name , " Zerstörung durch Fortschritte der Technologie " , roughly " Destruction by Advancement of Technology " . Peter takes Olivia to a rare book storekeeper , Edward Markam ( Clark Middleton ) who gets a copy of the ZFT from another collector . Peter returns with it to Walter 's lab , learning that it is a typewritten manifesto preparing " soldiers " for an upcoming war between two universes .
Concurrently , David Robert Jones ( Jared Harris ) turns himself in at the FBI headquarters . Suffering from effects of being teleported out of his German prison cell by Walter 's technology , he insists on only speaking to Olivia , warning that she is the only one that can stop a bomb from going off in 36 hours . Sanford Harris ( Michael Gaston ) instead orders Olivia to join other agents in raiding a warehouse which they believe Jones and his men used . Evidence confirms Jones had been there , but an agent dies from suffocation after finding another two @-@ dollar bill .
Olivia convinces Harris to let her see Jones alone , attributing the agent 's death to his misfire . In the interrogation room , Olivia discovers that Jones believes she is one of the soldiers in his war , having been a test subject on a Massive Dynamic nootropic drug known as " Cortexiphan " when she was a child . Jones claims that she is special , and instructs her to a remote site with a key in his possession to retrieve a package . Olivia follows his instructions , finding a package full of strange puzzles . The first puzzle is a light box containing a number of lights which Jones ' instructions require her to disable with her thoughts only . Olivia , having learned from Nina Sharp that the only Cortexiphan trials were done in Ohio , far from her childhood Jacksonville , Florida home , is confident Jones is mistaken .
As Jones ' condition worsens and he is brought to Walter 's lab , Peter rigs the lightbox to make the lights go off automatically . Olivia performs the test in front of Jones , and he supplies her the address of the bomb . When Olivia and the FBI arrive , they find that the bomb is set to release the deadly agent across the city but can only be defused if Olivia turns off a similar array of lights as were on the puzzle . Despite faking the earlier test , Olivia is successful at disabling the lights and the bomb with her thoughts .
In the episode 's epilogue , Jones , having been transferred to secured hospital , is rescued by his men , leaving a message on the wall telling Olivia she passed . Meanwhile , Walter , who has also started reading the ZFT , recognizes a unique offset letter , and finds that his own lab typewriter produces the same offset . Olivia receives a call from Nina who had further looked into the Cortexiphan trials and discovered a smaller case study that occurred at Jacksonville .
= = Production = =
The episode 's teleplay was written by co @-@ executive producer David H. Goodman based on a story by executive story editors and scientists Glen Whitman and Robert Chiappetta . It was Goodman 's fifth contribution to the series and Whitman and Chiappetta 's first . The episode was directed by Norberto Barba , his only directional credit with the series .
Noah Bean noted that his character Officer Kemp " meets pretty gruesome , unbelievable ends , " as Kemp 's face becomes covered with skin and scar tissue . To create the effect of Kemp 's orifices closing , the crew used a combination of make @-@ up and computer graphic effects . They created casts of Bean , including the front of his face , ears , back , and torso . They applied make @-@ up over parts of his face at different stages as the scene demanded . For Olivia 's unsuccessful emergency tracheotomy , the actress cut into a fake neck that Bean wore .
Guest actor Jared Harris made his third appearance of the season in " Ability " . At the time , the actor had not heard whether his character would be returning , though he later appeared in the first season finale and five fourth season episodes . Harris described his character as an " anti @-@ hero who is fighting for the just cause " and the episode as " a page @-@ turner ... When I read it , I said , ' Ah , this is a fantastic one . I can 't wait to see it . ' It 's directed with a lot of energy , a lot of tension . It 's a good one , a really good one " .
The episode featured the first of many guest appearances by actor Clark Middleton as the rare bookseller Edward Markham . In addition to Bean and Harris , the episode 's guest stars included Michael Gaston as Sanford Harris , Chance Kelly as Mitchell Loeb , Kenneth Tigar as Johan Lennox , Philip LeStrange as Thomas Avery , and Michael Cerveris as the Observer .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Ability " was watched by an estimated 9 @.@ 83 million viewers on its initial broadcast in the United States , placing in second in its timeslot behind CBS ' The Mentalist . Fringe was the Fox network 's fourth most watched show for the week , and received a 5 @.@ 9 / 9 rating share among all American households . Among adults aged 18 to 49 , the episode finished in fourteenth place for the week by earning a 4 @.@ 1 / 10 ratings share , meaning that it was seen by 4 @.@ 1 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 10 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of broadcast .
= = = Reviews = = =
Den of Geek viewed the episode positively , observing that in contrast to the previous installment , " Ability " " progresses the main plot arc in a substantial way ... I ’ m now really interested to see what happens next , whereas last week I wasn ’ t that bothered . " IGN 's Ramsey Isler was a little more critical and rated the episode 7 @.@ 8 / 10 . He noted that though the ending with Walter " was as good as you could ask for " and enjoyed David Robert Jones as a villain , the episode had a " number of rough patches , " as the middle was " paced slowly " and lacking in suspense , Peter 's " handiness was again reduced to ... ' that guy with connections ' " , and the audience was " once again subjected to the torture that is Sanford Harris " . After describing the Olivia @-@ Peter scene near the end as " tense and cleverly written , " Isler concluded his review by noting references to The X @-@ Files and hoping Jones would appear again soon .
Noel Murray from The A.V. Club graded the episode an A- , explaining he thought it must have been " satisfying " for those viewers tired of the " monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week " storylines . Murray also enjoyed two twists : that Olivia had to shut off the lights for real , and that Walter discovers he wrote the ZFT manual at the end . Jane Boursaw of AOL TV ( previously TV Squad ) opined that it was a " really great episode that 's probably worth another viewing to pick up more clues , " while the Los Angeles Times ' Andrew Hanson thought it " managed to have a couple good twists to it . " Annalee Newitz of io9 praised " Ability " , remarking that " overall , this was a terrific episode , and a great way to go into a show hiatus . We got a lot of payoff when we discovered why Olivia was being stalked by the ZFT weirdos , and we learned more about the Pattern than we had in a really long time . "
= Danny Higginbotham =
Daniel John " Danny " Higginbotham ( born 29 December 1978 ) is a former professional footballer who played as a defender .
Born in Manchester , Higginbotham started his career at his local club Manchester United . He made seven appearances at Old Trafford as well as a loan spell with Belgian side Royal Antwerp before joining Derby County in order to play more matches . He spent three years at Derby but handed in a transfer request when the club was relegated from the Premier League . Southampton signed Higginbotham for a £ 1 @.@ 5 million fee in February 2003 , and he helped them reach the 2003 FA Cup Final . When Southampton were relegated in 2005 , Higginbotham rejected a new contract and was placed on the transfer list .
He joined fellow Championship side Stoke City for a £ 225 @,@ 000 fee in August 2006 . He was made captain when Michael Duberry left in January 2007 and Stoke went on to narrowly miss out on a play @-@ off place . With Stoke not being promoted Higginbotham again decided to hand in a transfer request to help force through a move to Sunderland . He spent one season at the Stadium of Light before returning to Stoke in 2008 . He became a vital member of Tony Pulis ' squad as Stoke established themselves in the Premier League . He scored the winning goal in the FA Cup quarter @-@ final against West Ham United but missed out on both the semi @-@ final and the final due to a knee injury . After his recovery he struggled to force his way back into the side and spent time out on loan to Nottingham Forest and Ipswich Town before joining Sheffield United on a free transfer in January 2013 . After eight months at Bramall Lane , he left to join Conference Premier side Chester before ending his career with a short spell at Altrincham .
Higginbotham made his international debut for the Gibraltar national team in a friendly against Slovakia in November 2013 at the age of 34 , qualifying through his maternal grandmother . In January 2014 , Higginbotham retired from club football after a 14 @-@ year career , but made two more international appearances for Gibraltar until his international retirement in March .
= = Early life = =
Born in Manchester , Higginbotham grew up in nearby Altrincham . Despite passing his eleven plus exam he was denied entry into Altrincham Grammar School for Boys . His elder brother , Paul , played non @-@ League football for Witton Albion .
= = Club career = =
= = = Manchester United = = =
Higginbotham started his career at his local club Manchester United , but was not highly rated during the first year of his apprenticeship and his career was almost ended when he broke his femur in a B team match . However , he recovered well from the injury and was given a two @-@ year professional contract in 1998 . He made his Premier League debut on 10 May 1998 , coming on for Michael Clegg 60 minutes into a 2 – 0 win over Barnsley at Oakwell .
He was sent to Belgian Second Division side Royal Antwerp on a loan spell . He got off to a bad start at the club and asked to return to Old Trafford after being abused by Antwerp supporters outside the Bosuilstadion , and had to be talked into staying by manager Regi Van Acker . Following this start the club then won 15 matches in a row and Higginbotham become popular with the fans . However , the season ended with defeat in a play @-@ off game , and after the final whistle there was an alleged attack on referee Amand Ancion by teammate Ronnie Wallwork . Higginbotham was subsequently banned from football for a year for his involvement . In September 1999 , a Belgian court reduced Higginbotham 's ban to four months . Ancion maintained that Wallwork had grabbed him by the throat and that Higginbotham had headbutted him . Higginbotham always maintained his innocence , stating that he had tried to intervene peacefully after Wallwork had confronted Ancion in an aggressive manner . Alex Ferguson believed the player 's innocence and handed both players four @-@ year contracts as the club appealed their suspensions .
Higginbotham played six games for United during the 1999 – 2000 season , including appearances in the UEFA Champions League and at the Maracanã Stadium in the FIFA Club World Championship . He made his full debut in a 3 – 0 defeat to Aston Villa at Villa Park on 13 October 1999 , in what was described as a blow to the credibility of the League Cup as United had fielded a number of young players . He suffered with concussion during the match after a clash of heads with Dion Dublin . He failed to break into the first team on a regular basis as Denis Irwin , Phil Neville and Mikaël Silvestre were all preferred ahead of him at left @-@ back .
= = = Derby County = = =
Higginbotham 's desire to play regular first @-@ team football led to him joining Derby County for a £ 2 million fee – a large sum for a young player with just four top @-@ flight appearances to his name . His decision to leave Manchester United was praised by the player he failed to displace , Denis Irwin . Higginbotham made his debut in a 2 – 2 draw with Southampton , and had a good start to his Derby career until he was substituted at half @-@ time during his third appearance after struggling to contain Everton 's Niclas Alexandersson . Manager Jim Smith soon switched to a new system without any full @-@ backs but Higginbotham adapted well to playing on the left @-@ side of a three @-@ man defence . Derby avoid relegation out of the Premier League on the penultimate day of 2000 – 01 with a 1 – 0 victory over former his club Manchester United at Old Trafford .
He began 2001 – 02 on the left @-@ side of central defence despite Smith reverting to a 4 – 4 – 2 formation . Smith was sacked after a poor start , but his replacement Colin Todd failed to improve the club 's form , and Todd was sacked and replaced with John Gregory , with similarly poor results . Higginbotham scored his first goal in English football on 16 March 2002 , converting a penalty to secure a 3 – 1 victory over Bolton Wanderers after striker Fabrizio Ravanelli backed out of taking the penalty . This would prove to be the last win of a relegation campaign , with the only remaining positive to the season for Higginbotham coming when he was voted as the fans ' Player of the Year .
On 17 August 2002 , he collided badly with Grimsby Town forward Steve Livingstone and knocked Livingstone unconscious ; this left Livingstone with a skull fracture injury that would see him out of action for two months . It was expected that Higginbotham would eventually move unless Derby did well enough to gain promotion back to the Premier League , and so in January 2003 , with Derby struggling in the First Division , he moved to Southampton on loan , joining permanently in February .
= = = Southampton = = =
Following Derby 's relegation from the Premier League , Higginbotham moved to Southampton in January 2003 on loan until the end of 2002 – 03 . The move was made permanent in February 2003 for a £ 1 @.@ 5 million fee . He featured in Southampton 's FA Cup run in 2002 – 03 , playing once in the fifth round against Norwich City , but was an unused substitute for the final against Arsenal .
The 2003 – 04 season was difficult for the club , and Gordon Strachan resigned in March . Higginbotham felt that his replacement , Paul Sturrock , was unable to handle the pressure at St Mary 's , but denied press rumours that Sturrock had lost the confidence of the players . Steve Wigley took charge for 2004 – 05 and the club 's decline continued . Wigley demoted Higginbotham to the reserves after following a falling out between the pair , though he soon reversed the decision and returned him to the first team . Harry Redknapp replaced Wigley as manager in December2004 but failed to arrest the decline , and Southampton were relegated in last place . Higginbotham had scored the equalising goal in the penultimate match of the season at Crystal Palace , but a final day defeat to Manchester United left Southampton two points from safety .
George Burley took over from Redknapp in December 2005 , though neither manager was unable to put together an effective promotion campaign and Southampton ended the season 12th in the Championship . Higginbotham rejected a new contract and as a result was placed on the transfer list in July 2006 . He told the local press that he felt disrespected the way Southampton chairman Rupert Lowe had handled his contract – he had taken a pay cut to move from Derby , a 40 % pay cut following relegation , and then the new contract offer was lower still than his current contract .
= = = Stoke City = = =
Higginbotham joined Southampton 's Championship rivals Stoke City on 3 August 2006 for an initial £ 225 @,@ 000 fee , and quickly cemented a regular place in Tony Pulis 's starting line @-@ up . He began 2006 – 07 at left @-@ back , but soon established himself at centre @-@ back after initially filling in for Clint Hill following Hill 's sending off at Wolverhampton Wanderers on 23 September 2006 . Pulis gave Stoke a reputation as a " Battersea Dogs Home " club , and Higginbotham proved to be a typical signing in this regard as he felt unwanted at Southampton and said that his career had been reinvigorated by the move to the Britannia Stadium . Stoke went seven games without conceding a goal , and during this run Higginbotham scored the only goal of the game against local rivals West Bromwich Albion after deposing Carl Hoefkens as the club 's penalty taker . In February 2007 , he was awarded the club captaincy following Michael Duberry 's departure to Reading . Over the course of the season he scored a career @-@ high seven goals in his 46 appearances . Though Stoke narrowly missed out on the play @-@ offs , a successful personal campaign culminated in Higginbotham being voted the club 's Player of the Year .
= = = Sunderland = = =
On 28 August 2007 , it was announced that a bid from Sunderland had been accepted by Stoke , after Higginbotham had handed a transfer request to the club . Higginbotham wrote in his autobiography that Pulis would only authorise the deal if he handed in a transfer request . Higginbotham signed a four @-@ year deal with Sunderland the following day , moving for a £ 2 @.@ 5 million fee , possibly rising to £ 3 million dependent on appearances . He said that the chance to play Premier League football under Roy Keane was too good to refuse . On 10 November 2007 , Higginbotham scored the opening goal for Sunderland which was believed to come off his ear in a 1 – 1 draw with their Tyne @-@ Wear rivals Newcastle United at the Stadium of Light . He was only a bit @-@ part player by the start of 2008 – 09 , and Keane allowed him to return to Stoke for the same fee that he had paid to Stoke .
= = = Return to Stoke City = = =
Higginbotham re @-@ joined Stoke , now in the Premier League , in September 2008 for a £ 2 @.@ 5 million fee . On 19 October 2008 , Higginbotham scored the first goal of his second spell , with a penalty in a 2 – 1 win over Tottenham Hotspur . He was the first choice at left @-@ back for manager Tony Pulis , playing in 28 league matches as the team successfully fought for survival . However , he missed the final five matches of the season due to a slipped disc . He later underwent surgery .
With the summer signing of Danny Collins , Higginbotham was dropped to the bench before regaining his place in the team , mainly being utilised in his more natural position in the centre of defence , and scored the first goal in a 3 – 0 win over Blackburn Rovers on 8 February 20
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As the art department 's mechanical sharks suffered many malfunctions , Spielberg decided to mostly suggest the animal 's presence , employing an ominous , minimalistic theme created by composer John Williams to indicate the shark 's impending appearances . Spielberg and others have compared this suggestive approach to that of classic thriller director Alfred Hitchcock . Universal Pictures gave the film what was then an exceptionally wide release for a major studio picture , over 450 screens , accompanied by an extensive marketing campaign with a heavy emphasis on television spots and tie @-@ in merchandise .
Now considered one of the greatest films ever made , Jaws was the prototypical summer blockbuster , with its release regarded as a watershed moment in motion picture history . Jaws became the highest @-@ grossing film of all time until the release of Star Wars ( 1977 ) . It won several awards for its soundtrack and editing . Along with Star Wars , Jaws was pivotal in establishing the modern Hollywood business model , which revolves around high box @-@ office returns from action and adventure pictures with simple " high @-@ concept " premises that are released during the summer in thousands of theaters and supported by heavy advertising . It was followed by three sequels , none with the participation of Spielberg or Benchley , and many imitative thrillers . The film ranks fifth on Empire magazine 's 2008 list of the 500 greatest movies of all time . In 2001 , Jaws was selected by the Library of Congress for preservation in the United States National Film Registry , being deemed " culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant " .
= = Plot = =
During a late @-@ night beach party on Amity Island , a young woman goes swimming in the ocean . While treading water , she is violently pulled under . The next morning , her partial remains are found on shore . The medical examiner ruling the death a shark attack leads Police Chief Martin Brody to close the beaches . Mayor Larry Vaughn overrides him , fearing it will ruin the town 's summer economy . The coroner now concurs with the mayor 's theory that the girl was killed in a boating accident .
Brody reluctantly accepts their conclusion until another fatal shark attack occurs shortly after . Amid an amateur shark @-@ hunting frenzy , local professional shark hunter Quint offers his services for $ 10 @,@ 000 . Meanwhile , Matt Hooper , a consulting oceanographer , examines the first victim 's remains and concludes the death was from a shark attack .
When local fishermen catch a large tiger shark , the mayor proclaims the beaches safe . Hooper disputes it being the same predator , confirming this after no human remains are found inside it . Hooper and Brody find a half @-@ sunken boat while searching the night waters in Hooper 's boat . Hooper examines it underwater and retrieves a sizable great white shark 's tooth embedded in the hull . He drops it after finding a partial corpse . Vaughn discounts Brody and Hooper 's claims that a huge great white shark is responsible and refuses to close the beaches , allowing only added safety precautions . On the Fourth of July weekend , tourists pack the beaches . Following a juvenile prank , the real shark enters a nearby estuary , killing a boater . Brody convinces Vaughn to hire Quint .
Quint , Brody and Hooper set out on Quint 's boat , the Orca , to hunt the shark . While Brody lays down a chum line , Quint waits for an opportunity to hook the shark . Without warning , it appears behind the boat . Quint , estimating its length at 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) , harpoons it with a line attached to a flotation barrel , but the shark pulls the barrel underwater and disappears .
At nightfall , the three retire to the boat 's cabin and swap stories . The great white returns unexpectedly , ramming the boat 's hull and killing the power . The men work through the night repairing the engine . In the morning , Brody attempts to call the Coast Guard , but Quint smashes the radio , enraging Brody . After a long chase , Quint harpoons another barrel into the shark . The line is tied to the stern , but the shark drags the boat backwards , swamping the deck and flooding the engine compartment . Quint severs the line to prevent the transom from being pulled out . He heads toward shore to draw the shark into shallower waters , but the overtaxed engine quits , immobilizing the boat .
With the Orca slowly sinking , the trio attempt a riskier approach : Hooper dons scuba gear and enters the water in a shark @-@ proof cage , intending to lethally inject the shark with strychnine using a hypodermic spear . The shark demolishes the cage before Hooper can inject it , and he escapes to the seabed . The shark attacks the boat directly , killing Quint . Brody , trapped on the sinking vessel , stuffs a pressurized scuba tank into the shark 's mouth , and , climbing the mast , shoots the tank with a rifle . The resulting explosion obliterates the shark . Hooper surfaces , and he and Brody paddle to Amity Island clinging to boat wreckage .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Richard D. Zanuck and David Brown , producers at Universal Pictures , independently heard about Peter Benchley 's novel Jaws . Brown came across it in the literature section of lifestyle magazine Cosmopolitan , then edited by his wife , Helen Gurley Brown . A small card written by the magazine 's book editor gave a detailed description of the plot , concluding with the comment " might make a good movie " . The producers each read the book over the course of a single night and agreed the next morning that it was " the most exciting thing that they had ever read " and that they wanted to produce a film version , although they were unsure how it would be accomplished . They purchased the movie rights in 1973 , before the book 's publication , for approximately $ 175 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to $ 0 @.@ 93 million in 2015 ) . Brown claimed that had they read the book twice , they would never have made the film because they would have realized how difficult it would be to execute certain sequences .
To direct , Zanuck and Brown first considered veteran filmmaker John Sturges — whose résumé included another maritime adventure , The Old Man and the Sea — before offering the job to Dick Richards , whose directorial debut , The Culpepper Cattle Co. had come out the previous year . However , they grew irritated by Richards 's habit of describing the shark as a whale and soon dropped him from the project . Meanwhile , Steven Spielberg very much wanted the job . The 26 @-@ year @-@ old had just directed his first theatrical film , The Sugarland Express , for Zanuck and Brown . At the end of a meeting in their office , Spielberg noticed their copy of the still @-@ unpublished Benchley novel , and after reading it was immediately captivated . He later observed that it was similar to his 1971 television film Duel in that both deal with " these leviathans targeting everymen " . After Richards 's departure , the producers signed Spielberg to direct in June 1973 , before the release of The Sugarland Express .
Before production began , however , Spielberg grew reluctant to continue with Jaws , in fear of becoming typecast as the " truck and shark director " . He wanted to move over to 20th Century Fox 's Lucky Lady instead , but Universal exercised its right under its contract with the director to veto his departure . Brown helped convince Spielberg to stick with the project , saying that " after [ Jaws ] , you can make all the films you want " . The film was given an estimated budget of $ 3 @.@ 5 million and a shooting schedule of 55 days . Principal photography was set to begin in May 1974 . Universal wanted the shoot to finish by the end of June , when the major studios ' contract with the Screen Actors Guild was due to expire , to avoid any disruptions due to a potential strike .
= = = Writing = = =
For the screen adaptation , Spielberg wanted to stay with the novel 's basic plot , while omitting Benchley 's many subplots . He declared that his favorite part of the book was the shark hunt on the last 120 pages , and told Zanuck when he accepted the job , " I 'd like to do the picture if I could change the first two acts and base the first two acts on original screenplay material , and then be very true to the book for the last third . " When the producers purchased the rights to his novel , they promised Benchley that he could write the first draft of the screenplay . The intent was to make sure a script could be done despite an impending threat of a Writer 's Guild strike , given Benchley was not unionized . Overall , he wrote three drafts before the script was turned over to other writers ; delivering his final version to Spielberg , he declared , " I 'm written out on this , and that 's the best I can do . " Benchley would later describe his contribution to the finished film as " the storyline and the ocean stuff – basically , the mechanics " , given he " didn 't know how to put the character texture into a screenplay . " One of his changes was to remove the novel 's adulterous affair between Ellen Brody and Matt Hooper , at the suggestion of Spielberg , who feared it would compromise the camaraderie between the men on the Orca . During the film 's production , Benchley agreed to return and play a small onscreen role as a reporter .
Spielberg , who felt that the characters in Benchley 's script were still unlikable , invited the young screenwriter John Byrum to do a rewrite , but he declined the offer . Columbo creators William Link and Richard Levinson also declined Spielberg 's invitation . Tony and Pulitzer Prize – winning playwright Howard Sackler was in Los Angeles when the filmmakers began looking for another writer and offered to do an uncredited rewrite ; since the producers and Spielberg were unhappy with Benchley 's drafts , they quickly agreed . At the suggestion of Spielberg , Brody 's characterization made him afraid of water , " coming from an urban jungle to find something more terrifying off this placid island near Massachusetts . "
Spielberg wanted " some levity " in Jaws , humor that would avoid making it " a dark sea hunt " , so he turned to his friend Carl Gottlieb , a comedy writer @-@ actor then working on the sitcom The Odd Couple . Spielberg sent Gottlieb a script , asking what the writer would change and if there was a role he would be interested in performing . Gottlieb sent Spielberg three pages of notes , and picked the part of Meadows , the politically connected editor of the local paper . He passed the audition one week before Spielberg took him to meet the producers regarding a writing job .
While the deal was initially for a " one @-@ week dialogue polish " , Gottlieb eventually became the primary screenwriter , rewriting the entire script during a nine @-@ week period of principal photography . The script for each scene was typically finished the night before it was shot , after Gottlieb had dinner with Spielberg and members of the cast and crew to decide what would go into the film . Many pieces of dialogue originated from the actors ' improvisations during these meals ; a few were created on set , most notably Roy Scheider 's ad @-@ lib of the line " You 're gonna need a bigger boat . " John Milius contributed dialogue polishes , and Sugarland Express writers Matthew Robbins and Hal Barwood also made uncredited contributions . Spielberg has claimed that he prepared his own draft , although it is unclear to what degree the other screenwriters drew on his material . One specific alteration he called for in the story was to change the cause of the shark 's death from extensive wounds to a scuba tank explosion , as he felt audiences would respond better to a " big rousing ending " . The director estimated the final script had a total of 27 scenes that were not in the book .
Benchley had written Jaws after reading about sport fisherman Frank Mundus 's capture of an enormous shark in 1964 . According to Gottlieb , Quint was loosely based on Mundus , whose book Sportfishing for Sharks he read for research . Sackler came up with the backstory of Quint as a survivor of the World War II USS Indianapolis disaster . The question of who deserves the most credit for writing Quint 's monologue about the Indianapolis has caused substantial controversy . Spielberg described it as a collaboration between Sackler , Milius , and actor Robert Shaw , who was also a playwright . According to the director , Milius turned Sackler 's " three @-@ quarters of a page " speech into a monologue , and that was then rewritten by Shaw . Gottlieb gives primary credit to Shaw , downplaying Milius 's contribution .
= = = Casting = = =
Though Spielberg complied with a request from Zanuck and Brown to cast known actors , he wanted to avoid hiring any big stars . He felt that " somewhat anonymous " performers would help the audience " believe this was happening to people like you and me " , whereas " stars bring a lot of memories along with them , and those memories can sometimes ... corrupt the story . " The director added that in his plans " the superstar was gonna be the shark " . The first actors cast were Lorraine Gary , the wife of then @-@ president of Universal Sid Sheinberg , as Ellen Brody , and Murray Hamilton as the mayor of Amity Island . Stuntwoman @-@ turned @-@ actress Susan Backlinie was cast as Chrissie ( the first victim ) as she knew how to swim and was willing to perform nude . Most minor roles were played by residents of Martha 's Vineyard , where the film was shot . One example was Deputy Hendricks , played by future television producer Jeffrey Kramer .
The role of Brody was offered to Robert Duvall , but the actor was interested only in portraying Quint . Charlton Heston expressed a desire for the role , but Spielberg felt that Heston would bring a screen persona too grand for the part of a police chief of a modest community . Roy Scheider became interested in the project after overhearing Spielberg at a party talk with a screenwriter about having the shark jump up onto a boat . Spielberg was initially apprehensive about hiring Scheider , fearing he would portray a " tough guy " , similar to his role in The French Connection .
Nine days before the start of production , neither Quint nor Hooper had been cast . The role of Quint was originally offered to actors Lee Marvin and Sterling Hayden , both of whom passed . Zanuck and Brown had just finished working with Robert Shaw on The Sting , and suggested him to Spielberg . Shaw was reluctant to take the role since he did not like the book , but decided to accept at the urging of both his wife , actress Mary Ure , and his secretary — " The last time they were that enthusiastic was From Russia with Love . And they were right . " Shaw based his performance on fellow cast member Craig Kingsbury , a local fisherman , farmer , and legendary eccentric , who was playing fisherman Ben Gardner . Spielberg described Kingsbury as " the purest version of who , in my mind , Quint was " , and some of his offscreen utterances were incorporated into the script as lines of Gardner and Quint . Another source for some of Quint 's dialogue and mannerisms , especially in the third act at sea , was Vineyard mechanic and boat @-@ owner Lynn Murphy .
For the role of Hooper , Spielberg initially wanted Jon Voight . Timothy Bottoms , Joel Grey , and Jeff Bridges were also considered for the part . Spielberg 's friend George Lucas suggested Richard Dreyfuss , whom he had directed in American Graffiti . The actor initially passed , but changed his decision after he attended a pre @-@ release screening of The Apprenticeship of Duddy Kravitz , which he had just completed . Disappointed in his performance and fearing that no one would want to hire him once Kravitz was released , he immediately called Spielberg and accepted the role in Jaws . Because the film the director envisioned was so dissimilar to Benchley 's novel , Spielberg asked Dreyfuss not to read it . As a result of the casting , Hooper was rewritten to better suit the actor , as well as to be more representative of Spielberg , who came to view Dreyfuss as his " alter ego " .
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography began May 2 , 1974 , on the island of Martha 's Vineyard , Massachusetts , selected after consideration was given to eastern Long Island . Brown explained later that the production " needed a vacation area that was lower middle class enough so that an appearance of a shark would destroy the tourist business . " Martha 's Vineyard was also chosen because the surrounding ocean had a sandy bottom that never dropped below 35 feet ( 11 m ) for 12 miles ( 19 km ) out from shore , which allowed the mechanical sharks to operate while also beyond sight of land . As Spielberg wanted to film the aquatic sequences relatively close @-@ up to resemble what people see while swimming , cinematographer Bill Butler devised new equipment to facilitate marine and underwater shooting , including a rig to keep the camera stable regardless of tide and a sealed submersible camera box . Spielberg asked the art department to avoid red in both scenery and wardrobe , so that the blood from the attacks would be the only red element and cause a bigger shock .
Three full @-@ size pneumatically powered prop sharks — which the film crew nicknamed " Bruce " after Spielberg 's lawyer , Bruce Ramer — were made for the production : a " sea @-@ sled shark " , a full @-@ body prop with its belly missing that was towed with a 300 feet ( 91 m ) line , and two " platform sharks " , one that moved from camera @-@ left to -right ( with its hidden left side exposing an array of pneumatic hoses ) , and an opposite model with its right flank uncovered . The sharks were designed by art director Joe Alves during the third quarter of 1973 . Between November 1973 and April 1974 , the sharks were fabricated at Rolly Harper 's Motion Picture & Equipment Rental in Sun Valley , California . Their construction involved a team of as many as 40 effects technicians , supervised by mechanical effects supervisor Bob Mattey , best known for creating the giant squid in 20 @,@ 000 Leagues Under the Sea . After the sharks were completed , they were trucked to the shooting location . In early July , the platform used to tow the two side @-@ view sharks capsized as it was being lowered to the ocean floor , forcing a team of divers to retrieve it . The model required 14 operators to control all of the moving parts .
The film had a troubled shoot and went far over budget . David Brown said that the budget " was $ 4 million and the picture wound up costing $ 9 million " ; the effects outlays alone grew to $ 3 million due to the problems with the mechanical sharks . Disgruntled crew members gave the film the nickname " Flaws " . Spielberg attributed many problems to his perfectionism and his inexperience . The former was epitomized by his insistence on shooting at sea with a life @-@ sized shark ; " I could have shot the movie in the tank or even in a protected lake somewhere , but it would not have looked the same , " he said . As for his lack of experience : " I was naive about the ocean , basically . I was pretty naive about mother nature and the hubris of a filmmaker who thinks he can conquer the elements was foolhardy , but I was too young to know I was being foolhardy when I demanded that we shoot the film in the Atlantic Ocean and not in a North Hollywood tank . " Gottlieb said that " there was nothing to do except make the movie " , so everyone kept overworking , and while as a writer he did not have to attend the ocean set every day , once the crewmen returned they arrived " ravaged and sunburnt , windblown and covered with salt water " .
Shooting at sea led to many delays : unwanted sailboats drifted into frame , cameras got soaked , and the Orca once began to sink with the actors on board . The prop sharks frequently malfunctioned owing to a series of problems including bad weather , pneumatic hoses taking on salt water , frames fracturing due to water resistance , corroding skin , and electrolysis . From the first water test onward , the " non @-@ absorbent " neoprene foam that made up the sharks ' skin soaked up liquid , causing the sharks to balloon , and the sea @-@ sled model frequently got entangled among forests of seaweed . Spielberg later calculated that during the 12 @-@ hour daily work schedule , on average only four hours were actually spent filming . Gottlieb was nearly decapitated by the boat 's propellers , and Dreyfuss was almost imprisoned in the steel cage . The actors were frequently seasick . Shaw also fled to Canada whenever he could due to tax problems , engaged in binge drinking , and developed a grudge against Dreyfuss , who was getting rave reviews for his performance in Duddy Kravitz . Editor Verna Fields rarely had material to work with during principal photography , as according to Spielberg " we would shoot five scenes in a good day , three in an average day , and none in a bad day . "
The delays proved beneficial in some regards . The script was refined during production , and the unreliable mechanical sharks forced Spielberg to shoot many scenes so that the shark was only hinted at . For example , for much of the shark hunt , its location is indicated by the floating yellow barrels . The opening had the shark devouring Chrissie , but it was rewritten so that it would be shot with Backlinie being dragged and yanked by cables to simulate an attack . Spielberg also included multiple shots of just the dorsal fin . This forced restraint is widely thought to have added to the film 's suspense . As Spielberg put it years later , " The film went from a Japanese Saturday matinee horror flick to more of a Hitchcock , the less @-@ you @-@ see @-@ the @-@ more @-@ you @-@ get thriller . " In another interview , he similarly declared , " The shark not working was a godsend . It made me become more like Alfred Hitchcock than like Ray Harryhausen . " The acting became crucial for making audiences believe in such a big shark : " The more fake the shark looked in the water , the more my anxiety told me to heighten the naturalism of the performances . "
Footage of real sharks was shot by Ron and Valerie Taylor in the waters off Dangerous Reef in South Australia , with a short actor in a miniature shark cage to create the illusion that the sharks were enormous . During the Taylors ' shoot , a great white attacked the boat and cage . The footage of the cage attack was so stunning that Spielberg was eager to incorporate it in the film . No one had been in the cage at the time , however , and the script , following the novel , originally had the shark killing Hooper in it . The storyline was consequently altered to have Hooper escape from the cage , which allowed the footage to be used . As production executive Bill Gilmore put it , " The shark down in Australia rewrote the script and saved Dreyfuss 's character . "
Although principal photography was scheduled to take 55 days , it did not wrap until October 6 , 1974 , after 159 days . Spielberg , reflecting on the protracted shoot , stated , " I thought my career as a filmmaker was over . I heard rumors ... that I would never work again because no one had ever taken a film 100 days over schedule . " Spielberg himself was not present for the shooting of the final scene in which the shark explodes , as he believed that the crew were planning to throw him in the water when the scene was done . It has since become a tradition for Spielberg to be absent when the final scene of one of his films is being shot . Afterward , underwater scenes were shot at the Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer water tank in Culver City , with stuntmen Dick Warlock and Frank James Sparks as stand @-@ ins for Dreyfuss in the scene where the shark attacks the cage , as well as near Santa Catalina Island , California . Fields , who had completed a rough cut of the first two @-@ thirds of the film , up until the shark hunt , finished the editing and reworked some of the material . According to Zanuck , " She actually came in and reconstructed some scenes that Steven had constructed for comedy and made them terrifying , and some scenes he shot to be terrifying and made them comedy scenes . " The ship used for the Orca was brought to Los Angeles so the sound effects team could record sounds for both the ship and the underwater scenes .
Two scenes were altered following test screenings . As the audience 's screams had covered up Scheider 's " bigger boat " one @-@ liner , Brody 's reaction after the shark jumps behind him was extended , and the volume of the line was raised . Spielberg also decided that he was greedy for " one more scream " , and reshot the scene in which Hooper discovers Ben Gardner 's body , using $ 3 @,@ 000 of his own money after Universal refused to pay for the reshoot . The underwater scene was shot in Fields 's swimming pool in Encino , California , using a lifecast latex model of Craig Kingsbury 's head attached to a fake body , which was placed in the wrecked boat 's hull . To simulate the murky waters of Martha 's Vineyard , powdered milk was poured into the pool , which was then covered with a tarpaulin .
= = = Music = = =
John Williams composed the film 's score , which earned him an Academy Award and was later ranked the sixth @-@ greatest score by the American Film Institute . The main " shark " theme , a simple alternating pattern of two notes — variously identified as " E and F " or " F and F sharp " — became a classic piece of suspense music , synonymous with approaching danger ( see leading @-@ tone ) . Williams described the theme as " grinding away at you , just as a shark would do , instinctual , relentless , unstoppable . " The piece was performed by tuba player Tommy Johnson . When asked by Johnson why the melody was written in such a high register and not played by the more appropriate French horn , Williams responded that he wanted it to sound " a little more threatening " . When Williams first demonstrated his idea to Spielberg , playing just the two notes on a piano , Spielberg was said to have laughed , thinking that it was a joke . As Williams saw similarities between Jaws and pirate movies , at other points in the score he evoked " pirate music " , which he called " primal , but fun and entertaining " . Calling for rapid , percussive string playing , the score contains echoes of La mer by Claude Debussy as well of Igor Stravinsky 's The Rite of Spring . Williams also interpolated the naval tune " Spanish Ladies " , which is sung repeatedly by Quint , in the score .
There are various interpretations of the meaning and effectiveness of the primary music theme , which is widely described as one of the most recognizable cinematic themes of all time . Music scholar Joseph Cancellaro proposes that the two @-@ note expression mimics the shark 's heartbeat . According to Alexandre Tylski , like themes Bernard Herrmann wrote for Taxi Driver , North by Northwest , and particularly Mysterious Island , it suggests human respiration . He further argues that the score 's strongest motif is actually " the split , the rupture " — when it dramatically cuts off , as after Chrissie 's death . The relationship between sound and silence is also taken advantage of in the way the audience is conditioned to associate the shark with its theme , which is exploited toward the film 's climax when the shark suddenly appears with no musical introduction .
Spielberg later said that without Williams 's score the film would have been only half as successful , and according to Williams it jumpstarted his career . He had previously scored Spielberg 's debut feature , The Sugarland Express , and went on to collaborate with the director on almost all of his films . The original soundtrack for Jaws was released by MCA Records on LP in 1975 , and as a CD in 1992 , including roughly a half hour of music that Williams redid for the album . In 2000 , two versions of the score were released : Decca / Universal reissued the soundtrack album to coincide with the release of the 25th @-@ anniversary DVD , featuring the entire 51 minutes of the original score , and Varèse Sarabande put out a rerecording of the score performed by the Royal Scottish National Orchestra , conducted by Joel McNeely .
= = Inspirations and themes = =
Herman Melville 's Moby @-@ Dick is the most notable artistic antecedent to Jaws . The character of Quint strongly resembles Captain Ahab , the obsessed captain of the Pequod who devotes his life to hunting a sperm whale . Quint 's monologue reveals a similar obsession with sharks ; even his boat , the Orca , is named after the only natural enemy of the white shark . In the novel and original screenplay , Quint dies after being dragged under the ocean by a harpoon tied to his leg , similar to the death of Ahab in Melville 's novel . A direct reference to these similarities may be found in Spielberg 's draft of the screenplay , which introduces Quint watching the film version of Moby @-@ Dick ; his continuous laughter prompts other audience members to get up and leave the theater ( Wesley Strick 's screenplay for the 1991 remake of Cape Fear features a similar scene ) . However , the scene from Moby @-@ Dick could not be licensed from the film 's star , Gregory Peck , its copyright holder . Screenwriter Carl Gottlieb also drew comparisons to Ernest Hemingway 's The Old Man and the Sea : " Jaws is ... a titanic struggle , like Melville or Hemingway . "
The underwater scenes shot from the shark 's point of view have been compared with passages in two 1950s horror films , The Creature from the Black Lagoon and The Monster That Challenged the World . Gottlieb named two science fiction productions from the same era as influences on how the shark was depicted , or not : The Thing from Another World , which Gottlieb described as " a great horror film where you only see the monster in the last reel " ; and It Came From Outer Space , where " the suspense was built up because the creature was always off @-@ camera " . Those precedents helped Spielberg and Gottlieb to " concentrate on showing the ' effects ' of the shark rather than the shark itself " . Scholars such as Thomas Schatz described how Jaws melds various genres while essentially being an action film and a thriller . Most is taken from horror , with the core of a nature @-@ based monster movie while adding elements of a slasher film . The second half provides a buddy film in the interaction between the crew of the Orca , and a supernatural horror based on the shark 's depiction of a nearly Satanic menace .
Critics such as Neil Sinyard have described similarities to Henrik Ibsen 's play An Enemy of the People . Gottlieb himself said he and Spielberg referred to Jaws as " Moby @-@ Dick meets Enemy of the People " . The Ibsen work features a doctor who discovers that a seaside town 's medicinal hot springs , a major tourist attraction and revenue source , are contaminated . When the doctor attempts to convince the townspeople of the danger , he loses his job and is shunned . This plotline is paralleled in Jaws by Brody 's conflict with Mayor Vaughn , who refuses to acknowledge the presence of a shark that may dissuade summer beachgoers from coming to Amity . Brody is vindicated when more shark attacks occur at the crowded beach in broad daylight . Sinyard calls the film a " deft combination of Watergate and Ibsen 's play " .
= = = Scholarly criticism = = =
Jaws has received attention from academic critics . Stephen Heath relates the film 's ideological meanings to the then @-@ recent Watergate scandal . He argues that Brody represents the " white male middle class — [ there is ] not a single black and , very quickly , not a single woman in the film " , who restores public order " with an ordinary @-@ guy kind of heroism born of fear @-@ and @-@ decency " . Yet Heath moves beyond ideological content analysis to examine Jaws as a signal example of the film as " industrial product " that sells on the basis of " the pleasure of cinema , thus yielding the perpetuation of the industry ( which is why part of the meaning of Jaws is to be the most profitable movie ) " .
Andrew Britton contrasts the film to the novel 's post @-@ Watergate cynicism , suggesting that its narrative alterations from the book ( Hooper 's survival , the shark 's explosive death ) help make it " a communal exorcism , a ceremony for the restoration of ideological confidence . " He suggests that the experience of the film is " inconceivable " without the mass audience 's jubilation when the shark is annihilated , signifying the obliteration of evil itself . In his view , Brody serves to demonstrate that " individual action by the one just man is still a viable source for social change " . Peter Biskind argues that the film does maintain post @-@ Watergate cynicism concerning politics and politicians insofar as the sole villain beside the shark is the town 's venal mayor . Yet he observes that , far from the narrative formulas so often employed by New Hollywood filmmakers of the era — involving Us vs. Them , hip counterculture figures vs. " The Man " — the overarching conflict in Jaws does not pit the heroes against authority figures , but against a menace that targets everyone regardless of socioeconomic position .
Whereas Britton states that the film avoids the novel 's theme of social class conflicts on Amity Island , Biskind detects class divisions in the screen version and argues for their significance . " Authority must be restored " , he writes , " but not by Quint " . The seaman 's " working class toughness and bourgeois independence is alien and frightening ... irrational and out of control " . Hooper , meanwhile , is " associated with technology rather than experience , inherited wealth rather than self @-@ made sufficiency " ; he is marginalized from the conclusive action , if less terminally than Quint . Britton sees the film more as concerned with the " vulnerability of children and the need to protect and guard them " , which in turn helps generate a " pervasive sense of the supreme value of family life : a value clearly related to [ ideological ] stability and cultural continuity " .
Fredric Jameson 's Marxist analysis highlights the polysemy of the shark and the multiple ways in which it can be and has been read — from representing alien menaces such as communism or the Third World to more intimate dreads concerning the unreality of contemporary American life and the vain efforts to sanitize and suppress the knowledge of death . He asserts that its symbolic function is to be found in this very " polysemousness which is profoundly ideological , insofar as it allows essentially social and historical anxieties to be folded back into apparently ' natural ' ones ... to be recontained in what looks like a conflict with other forms of biological existence . " He views Quint 's demise as the symbolic overthrow of an old , populist , New Deal America and Brody and Hooper 's partnership as an " allegory of an alliance between the forces of law @-@ and @-@ order and the new technocracy of the multinational corporations ... in which the viewer rejoices without understanding that he or she is excluded from it . "
Neal Gabler analyzed the film as showing three different approaches to solving an obstacle : science ( represented by Hooper ) , spiritualism ( represented by Quint ) , and the common man ( represented by Brody ) . The last of the three is the one which succeeds and is in that way endorsed by the film .
= = Release = =
= = = Promotion = = =
Universal spent $ 1 @.@ 8 million promoting Jaws , including an unprecedented $ 700 @,@ 000 on national television spot advertising . The media blitz included about two dozen 30 @-@ second advertisements airing each night on prime @-@ time network TV between June 18 , 1975 , and the film 's opening two days later . Beyond that , in the description of film industry scholar Searle Kochberg , Universal " devised and co @-@ ordinated a highly innovative plan " for the picture 's marketing . As early as October 1974 , Zanuck , Brown , and Benchley hit the television and radio talk show circuit to promote the paperback edition of the novel and the forthcoming film . The studio and publisher Bantam agreed on a title logo that would appear on both the paperback and in all of the advertising for the film . The centerpieces of the joint promotion strategy were John Williams 's theme and the poster image featuring the shark approaching a lone female swimmer . The poster was based on the paperback 's cover , and had the same artist , Bantam employee Roger Kastel . The Seiniger Advertising agency spent six months designing the poster ; principal Tony Seiniger explained that " no matter what we did , it didn 't look scary enough " . Seiniger ultimately decided that " you had to actually go underneath the shark so you could see his teeth . "
More merchandise was created to take advantage of the film 's release . In 1999 , Graeme Turner wrote that Jaws was accompanied by what was still " probably the most elaborate array of tie @-@ ins " of any film to date : " This included a sound @-@ track album , T @-@ shirts , plastic tumblers , a book about the making of the movie , the book the movie was based on , beach towels , blankets , shark costumes , toy sharks , hobby kits , iron @-@ transfers , games , posters , shark 's tooth necklaces , sleepwear , water pistols , and more . " The Ideal Toy Company , for instance , produced a game in which the player had to use a hook to fish out items from the shark 's mouth before the jaws closed .
= = = Theatrical run = = =
The glowing audience response to a rough cut of the film at two test screenings in Dallas on March 26 , 1975 , and one in Long Beach , on March 28 , along with the success of Benchley 's novel and the early stages of Universal 's marketing campaign , generated great interest among theater owners , facilitating the studio 's plan to debut Jaws at hundreds of cinemas simultaneously . A third and final preview screening , of a cut incorporating changes inspired by the previous presentations , was held in Hollywood on April 24 . After Universal chairman Lew Wasserman attended one of the screenings , he ordered the film 's initial release — planned for a massive total of as many as 900 theaters — to be cut down , declaring , " I want this picture to run all summer long . I don 't want people in Palm Springs to see the picture in Palm Springs . I want them to have to get in their cars and drive to see it in Hollywood . " Nonetheless , the several hundred theaters that were still booked for the opening represented what was then an unusually wide release . At the time , wide openings were associated with movies of doubtful quality ; not uncommon on the exploitation side of the industry , they were customarily employed to diminish the effect of negative reviews and word of mouth . There had been some recent exceptions , including the rerelease of Billy Jack and the original release of its sequel The Trial of Billy Jack , the Dirty Harry sequel Magnum Force , and the latest installments in the James Bond series . Still , the typical major studio film release at the time involved opening at a few big @-@ city theaters , which allowed for a series of premieres . Distributors would then slowly forward prints to additional locales across the country , capitalizing on any positive critical or audience response . The outsized success of The Godfather in 1972 had sparked a trend toward wider releases , but even that film had debuted in just five theaters , before going wide in its second weekend .
On June 20 , Jaws opened across North America on 464 screens — 409 in the United States , the remainder in Canada . The coupling of this broad distribution pattern with the movie 's then even rarer national television marketing campaign yielded a release method virtually unheard @-@ of at the time . ( A month earlier , Columbia Pictures had done something similar with a Charles Bronson thriller , Breakout , though that film 's prospects for an extended run were much slimmer . ) Universal president Sid Sheinberg reasoned that nationwide marketing costs would be amortized at a more favorable rate per print relative to a slow , scaled release . Building on the film 's success , the release was subsequently expanded on July 25 to nearly 700 theaters , and on August 15 to more than 950 . Overseas distribution followed the same pattern , with intensive television campaigns and wide releases — in Great Britain , for instance , Jaws opened in December at more than 100 theaters .
For its fortieth anniversary , the film was released in selected theaters ( across approximately 500 theaters ) in the United States on Sunday , June 21 and Wednesday , June 24 , 2015 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office performance = = =
Jaws opened with a $ 7 million weekend and recouped its production costs in two weeks . In just 78 days , it overtook The Godfather as the highest @-@ grossing film at the North American box office , sailing past that picture 's earnings of $ 86 million to become the first film to earn $ 100 million in US theatrical rentals . Its initial release ultimately brought in $ 123 @.@ 1 million in rentals . Theatrical re @-@ releases in 1976 and 1979 brought its total rentals to $ 133 @.@ 4 million .
The picture entered overseas release in December 1975 , and its international business mirrored its domestic performance . It broke records in Singapore , New Zealand , Japan , Spain , and Mexico . By 1977 , Jaws was the highest @-@ grossing international release with worldwide rentals of $ 193 million , equating to about $ 400 million of gross revenue ; it supplanted The Godfather , which had earned $ 145 million in rentals .
Jaws was the highest @-@ grossing film of all time until Star Wars , which debuted two years later . Star Wars surpassed Jaws for the U.S. record six months after its release and set a new global record in 1978 . As of June 2013 , it is the 127th @-@ highest @-@ grossing film of all time with $ 470 @.@ 7 million worldwide , and the 66th highest domestically with a total North American gross of $ 260 million . Adjusted for inflation , Jaws has earned almost $ 2 billion worldwide at 2011 prices and is the second most successful franchise film after Star Wars . In North America , it is the seventh @-@ highest @-@ grossing movie of all time , with a total of $ 1 @.@ 017 billion at current prices , based on an estimated 128 @,@ 078 @,@ 800 tickets sold . In the United Kingdom , it is the seventh @-@ highest @-@ grossing film to be released since 1975 , earning the equivalent of over £ 70 million in 2009 / 10 currency , with admissions estimated at 16 @.@ 2 million . Jaws has also sold 13 million tickets in Brazil , the second @-@ highest attendance ever in the country behind Titanic .
On television , the American Broadcasting Company aired it for the first time right after its 1979 re @-@ release . The first U.S. broadcast attracted 57 percent of the total audience , the second highest televised movie share at the time behind Gone with the Wind . In the United Kingdom , 23 million people watched its inaugural broadcast in October 1981 , the second biggest TV audience ever for a feature film behind Live and Let Die .
= = = Critical response = = =
Jaws received mostly positive reviews upon release . Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times called it " a sensationally effective action picture , a scary thriller that works all the better because it 's populated with characters that have been developed into human beings " . Variety 's A. D. Murphy praised Spielberg 's directorial skills , and called Robert Shaw 's performance " absolutely magnificent " . According to The New Yorker 's Pauline Kael , it was " the most cheerfully perverse scare movie ever made ... [ with ] more zest than an early Woody Allen picture , a lot more electricity , [ and ] it 's funny in a Woody Allen sort of way " . For New Times magazine , Frank Rich wrote , " Spielberg is blessed with a talent that is absurdly absent from most American filmmakers these days : this man actually knows how to tell a story on screen . ... It speaks well of this director 's gifts that some of the most frightening sequences in Jaws are those where we don 't even see the shark . " Writing for New York magazine , Judith Crist described the film as " an exhilarating adventure entertainment of the highest order " and complimented its acting and " extraordinary technical achievements " . Rex Reed praised the " nerve @-@ frying " action scenes and concluded that " for the most part , Jaws is a gripping horror film that works beautifully in every department " .
The film was not without its detractors . Vincent Canby of The New York Times wrote , " It 's a measure of how the film operates that not once do we feel particular sympathy for any of the shark 's victims . ... In the best films , characters are revealed in terms of the action . In movies like Jaws , characters are simply functions of the action ... like stage hands who move props around and deliver information when it 's necessary " . He did , however , describe it as " the sort of nonsense that can be a good deal of fun " . Los Angeles Times critic Charles Champlin disagreed with the film 's PG rating , saying that " Jaws is too gruesome for children , and likely to turn the stomach of the impressionable at any age . ... It is a coarse @-@ grained and exploitative work which depends on excess for its impact . Ashore it is a bore , awkwardly staged and lumpily written . " Marcia Magill of Films in Review said that while Jaws " is eminently worth seeing for its second half " , she felt that before the protagonists ' pursuit of the shark the film was " often flawed by its busyness " . William S. Pechter of Commentary described Jaws as " a mind @-@ numbing repast for sense @-@ sated gluttons " and " filmmaking of this essentially manipulative sort " ; Molly Haskell of The Village Voice similarly characterized it as a " scare machine that works with computer @-@ like precision . ... You feel like a rat , being given shock therapy " . The most frequently criticized aspect of the film has been the artificiality of its mechanical antagonist : Magill declared that " the programmed shark has one truly phony close @-@ up " , and in 2002 , online reviewer James Berardinelli said that if not for Spielberg 's deftly suspenseful direction , " we would be doubled over with laughter at the cheesiness of the animatronic creature . " Halliwell 's Film Guide stated that " despite genuinely suspenseful and frightening sequences , it is a slackly narrated and sometimes flatly handled thriller with an over @-@ abundance of dialogue and , when it finally appears , a pretty unconvincing monster . "
= = = Accolades = = =
Jaws won three Academy Awards for Best Film Editing , Best Original Dramatic Score , and Best Sound ( Robert Hoyt , Roger Heman , Earl Madery and John Carter ) . It was also nominated for Best Picture , losing to One Flew Over the Cuckoo 's Nest . Spielberg greatly resented the fact that he was not nominated for Best Director . Along with the Oscar , John Williams 's score won the Grammy Award , the BAFTA Award for Best Film Music , and the Golden Globe Award . To her Academy Award , Verna Fields added the American Cinema Editors ' Eddie Award for Best Edited Feature Film .
Jaws was chosen Favorite Movie at the People 's Choice Awards . It was also nominated for best Film , Director , Actor ( Richard Dreyfuss ) , Editing , and Sound at the 29th British Academy Film Awards , and Best Film — Drama , Director , and Screenplay at the 33rd Golden Globe Awards . Spielberg was nominated by the Directors Guild of America for a DGA Award , and the Writers Guild of America nominated Peter Benchley and Carl Gottlieb 's script for Best Adapted Drama .
In the years since its release , Jaws has frequently been cited by film critics and industry professionals as one of the greatest movies of all time . It was number 48 on American Film Institute 's 100 Years ... 100 Movies , a list of the greatest American films of all time compiled in 1998 ; it dropped to number 56 on the 10 Year Anniversary list . AFI also ranked the shark at number 18 on its list of the 50 Best Villains , Roy Scheider 's line " You 're gonna need a bigger boat " 35th on a list of top 100 movie quotes , Williams 's score at sixth on a list of 100 Years of Film Scores , and the film as second on a list of 100 most thrilling films , behind only Psycho . In 2003 , The New York Times included the film on its list of the best 1 @,@ 000 movies ever made . The following year , Jaws placed at the top of the Bravo network 's five @-@ hour miniseries The 100 Scariest Movie Moments . The Chicago Film Critics Association named it the sixth scariest film ever made in 2006 . In 2008 , Jaws was ranked the fifth greatest film in history by Empire magazine , which also placed Quint at number 50 on its list of the 100 Greatest Movie Characters of All Time . The film has been cited in many other lists of 50 and 100 greatest films , including ones compiled by Leonard Maltin , Entertainment Weekly , Film4 , Rolling Stone , Total Film , TV Guide , and Vanity Fair .
In 2001 , the United States Library of Congress selected it for preservation in the National Film Registry as a " culturally significant " motion picture . In 2006 , its screenplay was ranked the 63rd best of all time by the Writers Guild of America .
= = Legacy = =
Jaws was key in establishing the benefits of a wide national release backed by heavy television advertising , rather than the traditional progressive release in which a film slowly entered new markets and built support over time . Saturation booking , in which a film opens simultaneously at thousands of cinemas , and massive media buys are now commonplace for the major Hollywood studios . According to Peter Biskind , Jaws " diminish [ ed ] the importance of print reviews , making it virtually impossible for a film to build slowly , finding its audience by dint of mere quality . ... Moreover , Jaws whet corporate appetites for big profits quickly , which is to say , studios wanted every film to be Jaws . " Scholar Thomas Schatz writes that it " recalibrated the profit potential of the Hollywood hit , and redefined its status as a marketable commodity and cultural phenomenon as well . The film brought an emphatic end to Hollywood 's five @-@ year recession , while ushering in an era of high @-@ cost , high @-@ tech , high @-@ speed thrillers . "
Jaws also played a major part in establishing summer as the prime season for the release of studios ' biggest box @-@ office contenders , their intended blockbusters ; winter had long been the time when most hoped @-@ for hits were distributed , while summer was largely reserved for dumping films thought likely to be poor performers . Jaws and Star Wars are regarded as marking the beginning of the new U.S. film industry business model dominated by " high @-@ concept " pictures — with premises that can be easily described and marketed — as well as the beginning of the end of the New Hollywood period , which saw auteur films increasingly disregarded in favor of profitable big @-@ budget pictures . The New Hollywood era was defined by the relative autonomy filmmakers were able to attain within the major studio system ; in Biskind 's description , " Spielberg was the Trojan horse through which the studios began to reassert their power . "
The film had broader cultural repercussions , as well . Similar to the way the pivotal scene in 1960 's Psycho made showers a new source of anxiety , Jaws led many viewers to fear going into the ocean . Reduced beach attendance in 1975 was attributed to it , as well as an increased number of reported shark sightings . It is still seen as responsible for perpetuating negative stereotypes about sharks and their behavior , and for producing the so @-@ called " Jaws effect " , which allegedly inspired " legions of fishermen [ who ] piled into boats and killed thousands of the ocean predators in shark @-@ fishing tournaments . " Benchley stated that he would not have written the original novel had he known what sharks are really like in the wild . Conservation groups have bemoaned the fact that the film has made it considerably harder to convince the public that sharks should be protected .
Jaws set the template for many subsequent horror films , to the extent that the script for Ridley Scott 's 1979 science fiction film Alien was pitched to studio executives as " Jaws in space " . Many films based on man @-@ eating animals , usually aquatic , were released through the 1970s and 1980s , such as Orca , Grizzly , Mako : The Jaws of Death , Barracuda , Alligator , Day of the Animals , Aatank , Tintorera and Eaten Alive . Spielberg declared Piranha , directed by Joe Dante and written by John Sayles , " the best of the Jaws ripoffs " . Among the various foreign mockbusters based on Jaws , three came from Italy : Great White , which inspired a plagiarism lawsuit by Universal and was even marketed in some countries as a part of the Jaws franchise ; Monster Shark , featured in Mystery Science Theater 3000 under the title Devil Fish ; and Deep Blood , that blends in a supernatural element . The 1995 thriller film Cruel Jaws even has the alternate title Jaws 5 : Cruel Jaws , and the 2009 Japanese horror film Psycho Shark was released in the United States as Jaws in Japan .
Martha 's Vineyard celebrated the film 's 30th anniversary in 2005 with a " JawsFest " festival , which had a second edition in 2012 . An independent group of fans produced the feature @-@ length documentary The Shark is Still Working , featuring interviews with the film 's cast and crew . Narrated by Roy Scheider and dedicated to Peter Benchley , who died in 2006 , it debuted at the 2009 Los Angeles United Film Festival .
= = = Home video releases = = =
The first ever LaserDisc title marketed in North America was the MCA DiscoVision release of Jaws in 1978 . A second LaserDisc was released in 1992 , before a third and final version came out under MCA / Universal Home Video 's Signature Collection imprint in 1995 . This release was an elaborate boxset that included deleted scenes and outtakes , a new two @-@ hour documentary on the making of the film directed and produced by Laurent Bouzereau , a copy of the novel Jaws , and a CD of John Williams 's soundtrack .
MCA Home Video first released Jaws on VHS in 1980 . For the film 's 20th anniversary in 1995 , MCA Universal Home Video issued a new Collector 's Edition tape featuring a making @-@ of retrospective . This release sold 800 @,@ 000 units in North America . Another , final VHS release , marking the film 's 25th anniversary in 2000 , came with a companion tape containing a documentary , deleted scenes , outtakes , and a trailer .
Jaws was first released on DVD in 2000 for the film 's 25th anniversary , accompanied by a massive publicity campaign . It featured a 50 @-@ minute documentary on the making of the film ( an edited version of the one featured on the 1995 LaserDisc release ) , with interviews with Spielberg , Scheider , Dreyfuss , Benchley , and other cast and crew members . Other extras included deleted scenes , outtakes , trailers , production photos , and storyboards . The DVD shipped one million copies in just one month . In June 2005 , a 30th @-@ anniversary edition was released at the JawsFest festival in Martha 's Vineyard . The new DVD had many extras seen in previous home video releases , including the full two @-@ hour Bouzereau documentary , and a previously unavailable interview with Spielberg conducted on the set of Jaws in 1974 . On the second JawsFest in August 2012 , the Blu @-@ ray Disc of Jaws was released , with over four hours of extras , including The Shark Is Still Working . The Blu @-@ ray release was part of the celebrations of Universal 's 100th anniversary , and debuted at fourth place in the charts , with over 362 @,@ 000 units sold .
= = = Sequels = = =
Jaws spawned three sequels , none of which approached the success of the original . Their combined domestic grosses amount to barely half of the first film 's . In October 1975 , Spielberg declared to a film festival audience that " making a sequel to anything is just a cheap carny trick " . Nonetheless , he did consider taking on the first sequel when its original director , John D. Hancock , was fired a few days into the shoot ; ultimately , his obligations to Close Encounters of the Third Kind , which he was working on with Dreyfuss , made it impossible . Jaws 2 ( 1978 ) was eventually directed by Jeannot Szwarc ; Scheider , Gary , Hamilton , and Jeffrey Kramer ( who portrayed Deputy Hendricks ) reprised their roles . It is generally regarded as the best of the sequels . The next film , Jaws 3 @-@ D ( 1983 ) , was directed by Joe Alves , who had served as art director and production designer , respectively , on the two preceding films . Starring Dennis Quaid and Louis Gossett , Jr . , it was released in the 3 @-@ D format , although the effect did not transfer to television or home video , where it was renamed Jaws 3 . Jaws : The Revenge ( 1987 ) , directed by Joseph Sargent , starring Michael Caine , and featuring the return of Gary , is considered one of the worst movies ever made . While all three sequels made a profit at the box office ( Jaws 2 and Jaws 3 @-@ D were among the top 20 highest @-@ grossing films of their respective years ) , critics and audiences alike were generally dissatisfied with the films .
= = = Adaptations and merchandise = = =
The film has inspired two theme park rides : one at Universal Studios Florida , which closed in January 2012 , and one at Universal Studios Japan . There is also an animatronic version of a scene from the film on the Studio Tour at Universal Studios Hollywood . There have been at least two musical adaptations : JAWS The Musical ! , which premiered in 2004 at the Minnesota Fringe Festival , and Giant Killer Shark : The Musical , which premiered in 2006 at the Toronto Fringe Festival . Three video games based on the film were released : 1987 's Jaws , developed by LJN for the Nintendo Entertainment System ; 2006 's Jaws Unleashed by Majesco Entertainment for the Xbox , PlayStation 2 , and PC ; and 2011 's Jaws : Ultimate Predator , also by Majesco , for the Nintendo 3DS and Wii . A mobile game was released in 2010 for the iPhone . Aristocrat made an officially licensed slot machine based on the movie .
= Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3 =
Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3 ( Japanese : アルティメット マーヴル VS . カプコン3 , Hepburn : Arutimetto Māvuru bāsasu Kapukon Surī ) is a crossover fighting game developed by Capcom in collaboration with Eighting . It is an updated version of Marvel vs. Capcom 3 : Fate of Two Worlds . The game features characters from both Capcom 's video game franchises and comic book series published by Marvel Comics . The game was released in November 2011 for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 , and was featured as a launch title for the PlayStation Vita in 2012 .
In Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3 , players select a team of three characters to engage in combat and attempt to knock out their opponents . As an update , the game utilizes largely identical gameplay mechanics to the original . However , both the aerial combat and X @-@ Factor systems , introduced in Fate of Two Worlds , have received adjustments . In addition to gameplay modifications and new playable characters , the game features several aesthetic changes .
After the events of the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami disrupted the development schedule for downloadable content for Fate of Two Worlds , the additional content was created into a standalone title , Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3 , for a discounted retail price . The game received generally positive reviews upon release ; critics praised the expanded character roster and improved online experience , but criticized the lack of new features and game modes .
= = Gameplay = =
Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3 is an updated version of Marvel vs. Capcom 3 : Fate of Two Worlds , an arcade @-@ style fighting game , and changes little from the basic gameplay of the original . Players select teams of three different characters to engage in one @-@ on @-@ one combat . The game utilizes the same tag team @-@ based fighting mechanics as its predecessors ; players may choose to swap between their characters at any point during a match . Players must use the various attacks in their arsenal , such as character assists , special moves , and hyper combos , to exhaust their opponent 's life gauge and defeat the entire enemy team , or have the most cumulative health when time runs out . While the core mechanics remain the same , a number of aesthetic changes have been made in Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3 , with a stronger emphasis on the comic book motif . The HUD , character selection , and stage selection screens have been redesigned . In addition , many returning characters receive balancing changes , which include new moves and animation tweaks .
Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3 uses the same simplified , three @-@ button control scheme of undefined light , medium , and heavy attacks introduced in Fate of Two Worlds . The " exchange button " , used to launch opponents into the air and switch between characters while performing air combos , returns . The aerial exchange feature has been altered in Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3 ; players can either remove meter from their opponent 's Hyper Combo gauge , add meter to their own gauge , or simply deal more damage . The “ X @-@ Factor ” mechanic , which grants increased damage output , speed , and health regeneration for a limited time , also reappears from Fate of Two Worlds . In Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3 , the attack and speed boosts for each character while using X @-@ Factor have been adjusted . X @-@ Factor can now be used while in the air , as opposed to the previous game , in which activation was restricted to characters on the ground .
= = = Modes = = =
Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3 includes several game modes from the original , including Arcade Mode , where the player fights against AI @-@ controlled opponents to reach the final boss character , Galactus ; Versus Mode , where two players engage in combat ; Mission Mode , which includes a series of trials for each playable character ; and Training Mode . " Heroes and Heralds " is a free downloadable single @-@ player and multiplayer team @-@ based mode where players earn new abilities with upgrade cards , customize their characters with new powers , and compete in factions as either the heroes defending Earth or as one of Galactus ’ Heralds . The " ability cards " , which feature various characters from the Marvel and Capcom universes , unlock special power @-@ ups , such as invisibility and projectile invincibility , for use during mode @-@ specific combat . Up to three different cards may be equipped at once , with more than 100 cards available to collect . A new offline mode , called " Galactus Mode " , allows players to fight as Galactus against AI @-@ controlled opponents .
An optimized netcode is present in the game , providing smoother online play compared to Fate of Two Worlds . A new spectator mode allows up to six players to watch online matches between other players . Rematch features and leaderboard functionality have also been improved to enhance the game 's online experience .
= = = Playable characters = = =
Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3 features the original 36 characters from Marvel vs. Capcom 3 : Fate of Two Worlds and introduces 12 new playable fighters . The six new Marvel Comics characters include Doctor Strange , Ghost Rider , Hawkeye , Iron Fist , Nova , and Rocket Raccoon . The six new Capcom characters consist of Firebrand from Ghosts ' n Goblins , Frank West from Dead Rising , Nemesis T @-@ Type from Resident Evil , Phoenix Wright from Ace Attorney , Strider Hiryu from Strider , and Vergil from Devil May Cry . Jill Valentine and Shuma @-@ Gorath , the two characters released as downloadable content ( DLC ) for the previous game , remained available for download up until all DLC content for the game was removed from online stores in December 2013 .
= = Development = =
On July 20 , 2011 , at the San Diego Comic @-@ Con International , Capcom announced that an updated version of Marvel vs. Capcom 3 : Fate of Two Worlds was under development . The update , titled Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3 , would add new characters , stages , modes , and other enhancements to improve the game 's balance and online functionality . According to Capcom , many new features and refinements , such as the addition of a spectator mode and tweaks to X @-@ Factor , were the results of fan feedback . At the 2011 Tokyo Game Show , Capcom video game producer , Yoshinori Ono , would later announce that the game would also be released as a launch title for the PlayStation Vita . The handheld edition promised to contain the same content as the console versions , in addition to touchscreen control support .
After the release of Marvel vs. Capcom 3 : Fate of Two Worlds , the game 's development team had plans to release more downloadable content . However , after the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami , in addition to staff health issues , delayed the development schedule , producer Ryota Niitsuma and his team decided to release the proposed DLC , along with rebalanced gameplay and other additions , as a separate installment . As a result , the makeup of Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3 is split " about half and half " between DLC meant for Fate of Two Worlds and brand new content .
Character selection was a collaborative process between Capcom and Marvel . According to Seth Killian , a former community manager for Capcom , Marvel presented a list of their own characters that they were interested in seeing in Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3 . Capcom then provided input regarding moveset possibilities in order to reach a consensus . Each company also had their own set of interests and priorities . Marvel characters , such as Rocket Raccoon and Nova , were chosen to cross @-@ promote upcoming products . On the other hand , Capcom sought to bring more diversity into the cast . For example , Capcom wanted a monster @-@ like character that could fight while in the air , leading to the inclusion of Firebrand .
= = Release = =
Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3 was released for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 on November 15 , 2011 in North America , November 17 in Japan , and November 18 in Europe . The PlayStation Vita version was released on December 17 , 2011 in Japan , and February 22 , 2012 in North America and Europe . People who ordered the PlayStation Vita " First Edition " bundle in North America were able to receive an early copy of Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3 on February 15 , 2012 , one week ahead of the console 's official launch date .
To promote Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3 , special retailer @-@ exclusive costume packs were available as pre @-@ order bonuses . If the game was pre @-@ ordered from GameStop , the players received the Femme Fatale Pack ( Chun @-@ Li , Morrigan , Storm , X @-@ 23 ) . Amazon offered the New Age of Heroes Costume Pack ( Akuma , Doctor Doom , Sentinel , Strider Hiryu ) , while Best Buy gave access to the Villains Costume Pack ( C. Viper , M.O.D.O.K. , Super @-@ Skrull , Wesker ) . After the game 's launch , several other costume packs became available for purchase on specific dates through the Xbox Live Marketplace and PlayStation Network . The Ancient Warriors Costume Pack , consisting of Arthur , Firebrand , Hulk , and Magneto , was originally planned to be released in December 20 , 2011 . However , on December 19 , 2011 , Capcom announced that the pack would be delayed until March 6 , 2012 , due to existing controversy with Magneto 's alternate costume . The costume in question , which was based on Magneto 's appearance in Marvel 's House of M series , bore similarities to the attire of the King of Spain , Juan Carlos I , and was later removed from the pack .
Prior to the release of Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3 , both Capcom and Marvel announced that the game would include reversible packaging . The front cover art featured the work of Capcom illustrator Shinkiro , while the reverse side featured the art of Marvel Comics ' Mark Brooks . Brook 's alternate cover featured all twelve of the game 's new characters in his own comic book style . Both pieces of art were printed on a single reversible cover for the entire first run of Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3 in North America .
On December 13 , 2013 , Capcom announced that digital versions of Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3 and its DLC would be removed from online platforms towards the end of the month , following the apparent expiration of Capcom 's licensing contracts with Marvel Comics . The game was pulled from the PlayStation Network on December 17 and 19 in North America and Europe , respectively , and from the Xbox Live Arcade on December 26 .
= = Reception = =
Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3 was released to generally favorable reviews , garnering scores of 80 / 100 and 79 / 100 from Metacritic for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 versions , respectively , and aggregate scores of 81 % from GameRankings for both systems . The PlayStation Vita version received a score of 80 / 100 from Metacritic and 82 % from GameRankings .
The game received praise for addressing several gameplay issues prevalent in Marvel vs. Capcom 3 : Fate of Two Worlds and refining the online experience . Daniel Maniago of G4 praised the game for its " simple , yet deep gameplay " , character roster , and improved online features . 1UP.com 's Neidel Crisan cited the game as a major improvement over the original . GameSpot 's Maxwell McGee stated that Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3 was unquestionably the superior version , highlighting the series ' " unique blend of structured insanity " .
A common criticism amongst reviewers for Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3 was the lack of additional on @-@ disc content beyond the expanded character roster and gameplay tweaks . While IGN 's Steven Hopper praised the inclusion of new characters , he criticized the lack of new features and modes . As a result , he stated that the game 's US $ 40 price tag was " a little hard to swallow " . Tim Turi of Game Informer stated that while hardcore fans would appreciate Capcom 's balancing tweaks , casual fans who already played Fate of Two Worlds and were only interested in new characters would " likely be left wanting " .
Reviewers praised the PlayStation Vita version for its technical performance , despite hardware constraints , and for providing the full console version experience on a portable system . Hopper complimented the graphics , stating that the Vita port matched the visual fidelity of the console versions . Martin Robinson of Eurogamer claimed Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3 was one of the Vita 's " finer @-@ looking launch games , " praising its detail and faithfulness to the original . However , he criticized the addition of touchscreen controls , stating its implementation fell short of the mark laid down by Super Street Fighter IV : 3D Edition .
Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3 sold approximately 600 @,@ 000 units worldwide for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 during the first two months of its release . As of March 2015 , the game sold 1 @.@ 2 million units across its various platforms .
= Really Achieving Your Childhood Dreams =
" Really Achieving Your Childhood Dreams " ( also referred to as " The Last Lecture " ) was a lecture given by Carnegie Mellon University computer science professor Randy Pausch on September 18 , 2007 , that received a large amount of media coverage , and was the basis for The Last Lecture , a New York Times best @-@ selling book co @-@ authored with Wall Street Journal reporter Jeffrey Zaslow . Pausch had been diagnosed with pancreatic cancer in September 2006 . On September 19 , 2006 , Pausch underwent a pancreaticoduodenectomy to remove the malignant tumor from his pancreas . In August 2007 , after doctors discovered that the cancer had recurred , Pausch was given a terminal diagnosis and was told to expect a remaining three to six months of good health .
During the lecture , Pausch was upbeat and humorous , alternating between wisecracks , insights on computer science and engineering education , advice on building multi @-@ disciplinary collaborations , working in groups and interacting with other people , offering inspirational life lessons , and performing push @-@ ups on stage . He also commented on the irony that the " Last Lecture " series had recently been renamed as " Journeys " : " I thought , damn , I finally nailed the venue and they renamed it . " After Pausch finished his lecture , Steve Seabolt , on behalf of Electronic Arts , which is now collaborating with CMU in the development of Alice 3 @.@ 0 , pledged to honor Pausch by creating a memorial scholarship for women in computer science , in recognition of Pausch 's support and mentoring of women in CS and engineering .
Professor Pausch 's " Last Lecture " has received attention and recognition both from the American media and from news sources around the world . The video of the speech became an Internet sensation , being viewed over a million times in the first month after its delivery on social networking sites such as YouTube , Google video , MySpace , and Facebook . Randy Pausch gave an abridged version of his speech on The Oprah Winfrey Show in October 2007 . On April 9 , 2008 , the ABC network aired an hour @-@ long Diane Sawyer feature on Pausch entitled " The Last Lecture : A Love Story For Your Life " . Four days after his death from pancreatic cancer on July 25 , 2008 , ABC aired a tribute to Pausch , remembering his life and his famous lecture .
= = Background = =
= = = Previous lectures = = =
Pausch was known for some lectures in his previous jobs . In his previous career , Pausch was associate professor in the Department of Computer Science at the University of Virginia 's School of Engineering and Applied Science in 1997 and 1998 , and also worked for The Walt Disney Company as an imagineer and for Electronic Arts . At the University of Virginia , he was known for a lecture on the importance of making technology more friendly to users in which he demonstrated his point by presenting a VCR ( other wise known as a video cassette recorder ) that was hard to program and then smashing it with a sledgehammer . He was also known for his lecture on time management which he delivered in 1998 at the University of Virginia , and again in 2007 at the same venue . " Really Achieving Your Childhood Dreams " was the first lecture of the nine part " Journeys " lecture series conducted by Carnegie Mellon , which also included speakers such as Raj Reddy , Jay Apt , and Jared Cohon , the university president . The series of lectures was focused on university staff members discussing their professional journeys and the decisions and challenges they faced .
= = = Terminal cancer = = =
At the time that Pausch gave the lecture , he was a pancreatic cancer patient . In an interview , Pausch stated that he had felt bloated , and learned that he had a cancerous tumor when doctors performed a CT Scan to check for gallstones . He then underwent pancreaticoduodenectomy surgery ( or the " Whipple procedure " ) to try to stop the growth of the cancerous tumor in his body , which later proved to be unsuccessful . The doctors removed his gall bladder , parts of his small intestine , a third of his pancreas , and parts of his stomach , and proceeded to begin an experimental radiation treatment that could possibly increase his chances of survival for another 5 years to 45 percent . Pausch began the radiation treatments in November 2006 and stopped in May 2007 , and felt that he was in good health after finishing . In July and August , tests conducted at Johns Hopkins University showed that Pausch was free of cancer . However , in late August of that year , Pausch informed readers of his website that his cancer had returned , saying : " A recent CT scan showed that there are 10 tumors in my liver , and my spleen is also peppered with small tumors . The doctors say that it is one of the most aggressive recurrences they have ever seen . " The doctors estimated Pausch had three to six months of good health left to live .
Pausch based the lecture on the generic " Last Lecture " given by some professors , and on the idea of imagining what one would say and what one would want their legacy to be if they could only have one last chance to share their knowledge with the world . Carnegie Mellon had previously had a lecture series titled the " Last Lecture " , but had renamed the series to " Journeys " , and had staff talk about their professional experiences . Pausch was offered the lecture around the time when he was diagnosed with pancreatic cancer , and had just received the news that he only had a few months left to live after his unsuccessful treatment for the tumors . Pausch nearly cancelled the lecture due to the terminal cancer , but discussed the issue with his wife and decided to take the one final chance to share his thoughts with the world . Pausch compared it to the final scene of The Natural , in which Roy Hobbs ( the main character ) overcomes injury and old age to hit one final home run .
= = = Speech inspiration = = =
Before Pausch was diagnosed with pancreatic cancer , he was originally going to have his lecture based on the generic academic @-@ style " Last Lecture " talk explained earlier , and was not expecting his cancer to play a part in the decision . Pausch could not think of a subject for the speech , and was constantly being e @-@ mailed by speech organizers and event organizers from Carnegie Mellon . Pausch was told in August , a month before the lecture , that a poster must be printed and he needed to decide on a subject immediately . The same week , he was told that the prognosis for his pancreatic cancer was to be terminal . Pausch nearly canceled the lecture after hearing the news . He was deciding whether to make the speech , or to stay at home to get his family in order so that they would be set to live a normal life following Pausch 's death . Pausch discussed the matter with his wife Jai , who requested that Pausch stay at home . Jai suggested that Pausch should be spending some of his time left with their three children , not giving a speech at his workplace . Pausch decided against this , after explaining that his children would remember him through seeing his lecture .
= = Speech = =
" Really Achieving Your Childhood Dreams " was delivered on September 18 , 2007 , at Carnegie Mellon University 's McConomy Auditorium . Over 450 Carnegie Mellon students , staff members , and friends of Pausch attended the lecture , leaving only standing room as this was more than the auditorium could hold . Pausch later commented about this in an interview , saying " A couple of hundred people in a room , looking and listening and laughing and applauding – hopefully at the appropriate times – that gives a lot of validation to my kids that a lot of people believe in this , and a lot of people who knew me believe that I did my best to try to live this way . " The first introduction of the speech as well as the series of lectures was given by Indira Nair , the Vice Provost for Education at Carnegie Mellon . Nair first explained the university 's aforementioned lecture series called " Journeys " , in which eight more professors from Carnegie Mellon would share their insights on their professional and personal experiences over the years .
Pausch was then introduced by Steve Sea @-@ bolt , who was the Vice President of Worldwide Publishing and Marketing at Electronic Arts , in addition to being Pausch 's close friend and former co @-@ worker . Sea @-@ bolt began with a joke referring to Electronic Arts , and another joke about a bet he and Pausch had made about how many people would attend the lecture , saying that " ... depending upon whose version of the story you hear , he either owes me 20 dollars or his new Volkswagen . " Seabolt began the next part of the introduction by talking about Pausch 's academic achievements and previous career with the University of Virginia and Electronic Arts . Seabolt concluded his introduction by describing the qualities of Pausch , saying that " Randy 's dedication to making the world a better place is self evident to anyone who has crossed paths with him . " He described how his accomplishments had affected others , as well as his wife and three children . Seabolt then turned the speech over to Pausch , who was greeted with a standing ovation .
As Pausch walked into the standing ovation , he tried to stop the applause , get the audience to sit down , and begin the speech by commenting " make me earn it " , to which one member of the audience responded " you did " . He then commented on the irony of his " last lecture " in a series that used to be the " Last Lecture " series , but was renamed " Journeys " : " It 's wonderful to be here . What Indira didn ’ t tell you is that this lecture series used to be called the ' Last Lecture ' . If you had one last lecture to give before you died , what would it be ? I thought , damn , I finally nailed the venue and they renamed it . "
Before beginning part I of the lecture , Pausch explained his story of having pancreatic cancer and only having 3 to 6 months to live , but still made a joke of it by saying that he was still in the best shape of his life ( and " better than most of you [ the audience ] " ) , proceeding to do a series of push @-@ ups on stage while still speaking . Pausch also talked about what he would not cover in the lecture , which included his family and children , religion , spirituality , and his terminal cancer or any other cancer .
= = = Pausch 's childhood dreams = = =
Pausch then went to the first part of his speech , explaining his childhood dreams and how he accomplished ( or tried to accomplish ) them . Pausch first explained his childhood , as well as his family life in the 1960s . Pausch stated that he had a " really good childhood " , and , when going back through his family archive of photographs , had never found a picture of him not smiling . Some of these pictures were shown on the projection as slides , including one of him dreaming . He explained how he was inspired by the Apollo 11 lunar landing in 1969 . Pausch then transitioned to a slide which contained a list of his childhood dreams , and explained them . His dreams were being in zero gravity , playing in the National Football League , being the author of a World Book Encyclopedia article , being Captain Kirk , being " one of the guys who won the big stuffed animals in the amusement park " , and becoming a Disney Imagineer .
First off , Pausch explained his dream of being in zero gravity . As a child , this had been a dream inspired by Apollo 11 , and had stayed with him as an adult . When he was the computer science professor at Carnegie Mellon , he learned of a program that NASA has that allows college students to go up into the air in NASA 's Vomit Comet , which uses parabolic arcs to simulate the feeling of weightlessness . Faculty members were not allowed to go ( Pausch called this a " brick wall " he faced ) , so he had to present himself as a web journalist , because local media was allowed on . Pausch proceeded to begin talking about his second childhood dream , playing in the National Football League . Although Pausch was never a player in the National Football League , he spoke about his childhood experiences with Pop Warner Football and how they had affected his life and taught him lessons . Pausch then moved on to his dream of publishing an article in the World Book Encyclopedia . As a child , Pausch always kept and read a World Book Encyclopedia in his home . As he progressed into a career , he became one of the leading professors in the field of virtual reality . World Book then called Pausch , interested in him writing for the encyclopedia . Currently , the article " virtual reality " in the World Book Encyclopedia is the one authored by Pausch .
Next , Pausch explained his dream of being like Captain Kirk from the Star Trek series , with the slide showing " Being like Meeting Captain Kirk " . Pausch explained that he realized that there were some things he just could not do , and that was one of them . He eventually changed the goal into meeting William Shatner , the actor who played Captain Kirk . Shatner had written a book on the science of Star Trek , and had gone to Pausch for help with the virtual reality section of the book . Pausch met and worked with Shatner for this purpose . Pausch concluded the section with the story of his becoming an Imagineer at Disney , as well as his achieving the goal of " being one of those guys who wins stuffed animals " , which was at a carnival with his wife and children .
= = = Enabling the dreams of others = = =
After explaining his childhood dreams , Pausch then began the second part of his speech , which was about how he enabled the dreams of others . He decided to become a professor , and reflected in the speech that there was no better job to enable the childhood dreams of other people . He also mentioned that working for Electronic Arts was " probably a close second " . Pausch told the audience about how he realized he could enable the dreams of others , due to Tommy Burnett , one of his students at the University of Virginia . Burnett was interested in joining Pausch 's research group . Pausch asked Burnett what his childhood dream was while talking about joining the team , and he responded that his dream was to work on the next Star Wars film . Burnett worked on Pausch 's virtual reality team while at the University of Virginia , and Pausch helped Burnett to try achieve this dream . When Pausch moved to Carnegie Mellon , his entire team moved with him except Burnett , who had been offered a job by Lucasfilm ( the creator of Star Wars ) . He eventually worked with Lucasfilm on three Star Wars films : The Phantom Menace , Attack of the Clones , and Revenge of the Sith .
This led Pausch to conduct a virtual reality class at Carnegie Mellon , to teach others and to help them realize their childhood dreams . In the course , 50 students from the university were separated into random teams of four and were each assigned a project relating to building a virtual world . Each group had two weeks to work on the project , and then presented the project to the group . The teams were then randomized again and a new project began . The project then evolved into something that people came to watch , and helped his students realize their potential . Finally , Pausch gave a few words of advice on how others could achieve their childhood dreams , and who his role models were when he was trying to do so .
= = = Conclusion = = =
After Pausch finished his lecture , Steve Seabolt , on behalf of Electronic Arts , which is now collaborating with Carnegie Mellon in the development of Alice 3 @.@ 0 , pledged to honor Pausch by creating a memorial scholarship for women in computer science in recognition of Pausch 's support and mentoring of women in CS and engineering . Then , university president Jared Cohon called his contributions to the university and to education " remarkable and stunning " . He then announced that Carnegie Mellon would build a raised pedestrian bridge named for Pausch in honor of his contributions to the university and to the world . This connected Carnegie Mellon 's new Computer Science building and the Center for the Arts , a symbol of the way Pausch linked those two areas . Finally , Brown University professor Andries van Dam followed Pausch 's last lecture with a tearful and impassioned speech praising him for his courage and leadership , calling him a role model .
= = Post @-@ speech media coverage = =
Pausch was named " Person of the Week " on ABC 's World News with Charles Gibson on September 21 . His " Last Lecture " attracted wide attention from the international media , became an Internet hit , and was viewed over a million times in the first month after its delivery . On October 22 , 2007 , Pausch appeared on The Oprah Winfrey Show , where he discussed his situation and recapped his " Last Lecture " for millions of TV viewers .
On October 6 , 2007 , Pausch joined the Pittsburgh Steelers for the day during their regular practice , after the organization learned that one of his childhood dreams mentioned in his " Last Lecture " was to play in the National Football League . A devoted Star Trek fan , Pausch was invited by film director J. J. Abrams to film a role in the latest Star Trek movie . Abrams heard of Pausch 's condition and sent a personal e @-@ mail inviting Pausch to the set . Pausch happily accepted and traveled to Los Angeles , California to shoot his scene . In addition to appearing in the film , he also has a line of dialogue and donated the $ 217 @.@ 06 paycheck to charity . On April 9 , 2008 , the ABC network aired an hour @-@ long Diane Sawyer feature on Pausch entitled " The Last Lecture : A Love Story For Your Life " . On July 29 , 2008 , ABC aired a follow up to the Last Lecture special , remembering Pausch .
= = Book = =
The Disney @-@ owned publisher Hyperion paid $ 6 @.@ 7 million for the rights to publish a book about Pausch called The Last Lecture , co @-@ authored by Pausch and Wall Street Journal reporter Jeffrey Zaslow . The Last Lecture explained Pausch 's speech , and the events that led up to it . According to Robert Miller , a publisher for Hyperion Books , the book would " flesh out his speech " and show others " how to deal with mortality " and how to live well while death is imminent . The book was well @-@ received , eventually earning the number one spot on the New York Times bestseller list in the " Advice " category during the week of June 22 , 2008 . The book remained on the New York Times bestseller list for 80 straight weeks .
= Essence ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Essence " is the twentieth and penultimate episode of the eighth season and the 181st episode overall of the science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . The episode first aired in the United States on May 13 , 2001 on Fox , and subsequently aired in the United Kingdom . It was written by executive producer Chris Carter and directed by Kim Manners . " Essence " earned Nielsen rating of 7 @.@ 7 and was viewed by 12 @.@ 8 million viewers . The episode received largely positive reviews from critics .
The show centers on FBI special agents John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) — as well as ex @-@ FBI agent Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) — who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . In this episode , Mulder , Walter Skinner ( Mitch Pileggi ) , and Doggett come up against the horrible consequences of the Syndicate ’ s pact with the aliens , as Billy Miles ( Zachary Ansley ) — reprogrammed as a soldier — attempts to erase all evidence of the tests — including Scully 's soon @-@ to @-@ be @-@ born baby . Upon hearing information from Alex Krycek ( Nicholas Lea ) , the men reluctantly call upon him as well as Monica Reyes ( Annabeth Gish ) to help them .
" Essence " is a story milestone for the series . It was one of the later season eight episodes , starting with " Per Manum " , that introduced the story arc about super @-@ soldiers , which would continue throughout the ninth season . The series was the first part of two , and concluded with the season finale " Existence " . In addition , Nicholas Lea reprises his role as Alex Krycek , who temporarily switches sides and aides Mulder and Scully .
= = Plot = =
While preparing for Dana Scully 's ( Gillian Anderson ) baby shower , her mother , Margaret , invites a woman named Lizzy Gill to help Scully around her apartment . Unbeknownst to Scully , Gill tampers with her pregnancy medications . Meanwhile , Billy Miles , satisfied with the research conducted at Zeus Genetics in Germantown , kills a scientist ( Dr. Lev ) and burns the laboratory . All of the evidence at Zeus Genetics is destroyed , including the viable hybrid fetus .
Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) informs John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) of the fire at Zeus Genetics , and asks to go along to survey the crime scene . Mulder reveals that Dr. Lev is connected to Scully 's former obstetrician , Dr. Parenti . While searching Dr. Parenti 's office , the agents find another storage room containing hybrid fetuses . They confront Dr. Parenti , who denies everything .
Back at Scully 's apartment , Gill leaves for the day . She gets into a car driven by Duffy Haskell , and tells him she thinks Scully trusts her .
At the lab , Agent Crane derides Doggett for dealing with Mulder . Mulder and Doggett leave the office , during which time Miles appears and decapitates Dr. Parenti . The agents confront Miles — Mulder is thrown through a glass barrier while Doggett shoots him several times with no apparent effect . While Mulder and Doggett are distracted , Miles escapes .
The two go to Scully 's house to regroup . Gill overhears and contacts Haskell , who is at an illegal human @-@ cloning facility . At the other end , Haskell is also decapitated by Billy Miles . As Doggett , Skinner and Mulder survey Haskell 's murder scene , Scully catches Gill in the act of tampering with her medications . Later , Gill confesses that she , along with Haskell and others , have been monitoring Scully 's pregnancy as part of the Syndicate 's plans . However , she tells the agents that Scully 's baby is a perfect human child with no human weaknesses .
Mulder , fearing for Scully 's safety , prepares to take her away . Doggett and Agent Crane receive a call from Miles claiming to surrender , but this turns out to be a distraction . Miles instead goes after Scully , just as she and Mulder escape . As Miles is about to catch Mulder and Scully , Alex Krycek ( Nicholas Lea ) runs him over and takes them to Doggett and Walter Skinner ( Mitch Pileggi ) , just before Miles gets back up . At the FBI , Krycek confesses that Billy Miles is one of a new type of aliens that are trying to wipe out humanity 's ability to survive the invasion — including Scully 's baby , which Krycek states is a special child that the aliens fear .
Mulder tells Doggett to send for help . Monica Reyes ( Annabeth Gish ) arrives as Miles shows up at the J. Edgar Hoover Building . Scully is able to sneak out of the building with the help of Krycek , Doggett and Reyes . Mulder and Skinner , meanwhile , lead Miles to the roof , where Mulder pushes him off into a waiting garbage truck , which then compacts him . Scully and Reyes pull away . The episode ends with Agent Crane pointing them to safety , then turning around , revealing to the camera protrusions on his spine .
= = Production = =
" Essence " was written by series creator Chris Carter . The episode , which was the first part of two and concluded with the season finale " Existence " , was written during a time of uncertainty for the series . Near the end of season eight , it was unclear whether or not the show would continue onto a ninth season . Carter had maintained for sometime that he would not continue the show without lead actor David Duchovny . However , Duchovny announced that after the end of the eighth season , he would leave the show for good . In addition , lead actress Gillian Anderson 's contract also expired at the end of the eighth season . Anderson had expressed her growing disinterest in the series ever since the beginning of the eighth season , saying " For a lot of people , if you don 't like your job , you can quit your job , I don 't necessarily have that option . " Anderson cited the fact that " eight years is a long time " as a contributing factor to her indifference . However , Carter soon changed his position and announced he would remain on the show and continue only if Anderson agreed to do another season . Eventually , Fox offered Anderson a " generous " incentive to stay , resulting in the retention of Carter and Anderson and a final season of the show .
The episode marks the return of Nicholas Lea as Alex Krycek . In previous episodes , Krycek was one of the series ' main antagonists . However , in " Essence " , he temporarily switches sides . As such , portraying actor Lea explains the character 's motivation : " Toward the end , he realizes that it 's possible that the world could completely go down the tubes — then he 's got a stake in trying to keep that from happening . That 's when he starts giving the information to Mulder so that he can use it . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Essence " first aired on Fox on May 13 , 2001 . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 7 @.@ 7 , meaning that it was seen by 7 @.@ 7 % of the nation 's estimated households . The episode was viewed by 7 @.@ 87 million households , and 12 @.@ 8 million viewers . The episode ranked as the 41st most @-@ watched episode for the week ending April 8 . In the United Kingdom and Ireland , the episode made its first televised appearance on June 28 , 2001 on Sky1 and was the third most watched program that week , receiving 0 @.@ 65 million viewers . Fox promoted the episode with a poster parodying the 1968 horror movie Rosemary 's Baby . The episode 's tagline was " Scully 's baby is born . " The episode was later included on The X @-@ Files Mythology , Volume 4 – Super Soldiers , a DVD collection that contains episodes involved with the alien super soldiers arc .
= = = Reviews = = =
" Essence " received mostly positive reviews from critics . Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club awarded the episode a " B + " , noting that while much of the episode was a " blur " , it was nonetheless exciting . Handlen was complimentary towards the installment 's " tremendous sense of purpose [ that ] builds to a fever pitch that makes questions of who exactly wants what largely irrelevant . " While he offered a pessimistic opinion in regards to the series ' mythology as a whole , Handlen concluded that the eighth season 's sense of purpose , as exemplified in " Essence " , made the episode successful . George Avalos and Michael Liedtke of Contra Costa Times praised the episode , writing " where have nifty episodes like [ " Essence " ] been the last two years ? " Tom Kessenich , in his book Examinations , gave the episode a largely positive review . Praising the storyline , he noted that " Thanks to ' Essence ' , I 've become a believer again . " John Keegan of Critical Myth gave the episode a 9 out of 10 rating and wrote " overall , this was a wonderful episode that served to prepare us for the final installment of the alien mythology ( presumably ) and managed to keep us in our seats the entire way . " Gareth Wigmore of TV Zone was positive toward both " Essence " and " Existence " . Wigmore gave the episodes a 9 out of 10 rating and wrote " the reason that this two @-@ parter works is that its plot is simple enough for the audience to still have a handle on " . Jessica Morgan of Television Without Pity awarded the episode a B + .
Not all reviews were so positive , however . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , gave the episode a more mixed two stars out of five . The two cited dense dialogue and bizarre characterization — most notably the fact that " there 's usually one FBI agent so angry that he interrupts [ ... ] only to be stopped by a calmer counterpart " — as detractors . Shearman and Pearson , however , did praise the final ten minutes , noting that the final act was " so good [ ... ] that it almost makes up for the episode which sadly returns to the style of the traditional mytharc exposition " . Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode a scathing review and awarded it no stars out of four . She heavily derided the plot , noting that the episode turned Scully into a " passive , mostly silent Virgin Mary who is about to give birth to … Jesus Christ . " She concluded that the episode " raise [ ed ] the [ misogyny ] to a whole new level " .
= Hello Pappy scandal =
The Hello Pappy scandal , alluding to the nickname of involved host Willie Revillame and the Hello Garci scandal , was a scandal surrounding an incident during the August 20 , 2007 episode of the Filipino variety show Wowowee , broadcast by ABS @-@ CBN . During the episode , a technical error occurred during the final jackpot round of the show 's Wilyonaryo segment which raised allegations within the media that the segment was , or could be , rigged by the producers . The incident prompted an investigation by the country 's Department of Trade and Industry , and was also the catalyst of an on @-@ air feud between Revillame and Joey de Leon , a personality from the rival GMA Network .
ABS @-@ CBN , who claimed that the incident was the result of a " design flaw " that had been fixed , was fined ₱ 290 @,@ 000 by the Department of Trade and Industry for violating the country 's Consumers Act .
= = Development = =
During the episode , a contestant named Weng participated in the Wilyonaryo segment of the show . In the earlier rounds , she had won ₱ 37 @,@ 000 . For the jackpot portion of the game , out of the 12 " wheels " used in the game ; she was randomly given a white @-@ colored wheel . Weng now had to choose between two big prizes : the ₱ 100 @,@ 000 that the host Willie Revillame was offering her , or whatever was inside the white wheel , which , according to the rules , could be a jackpot prize of ₱ 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 ( US $ 45 @,@ 000 ) , a jackpot prize of ₱ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 ( US $ 22 @,@ 500 ) , a jackpot prize of ₱ 500 @,@ 000 ( US $ 11 @,@ 250 ) , a house and lot , or nothing at all ( which would be signified by the numeral zero ) .
At first , she decided to go with what was inside the white wheel . However , after being prodded by the hosts to take the money instead , Weng decided to forgo the possible jackpot prize revealed in the white wheel and instead take home the ₱ 100 @,@ 000 for this round , plus the ₱ 37 @,@ 000 from the earlier round . After this , Willie pulled the dark film from the window embedded in the wheel to reveal what prize the contestant had lost by choosing to take home the ₱ 137 @,@ 000 . Pulling the dark film revealed the numeral zero . This meant that if she had chosen the white wheel instead , she would have gone home with only ₱ 37 @,@ 000 .
After the decision , Willie went on to reveal where the other prizes — the ₱ 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cash prize , the ₱ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cash prize , the ₱ 500 @,@ 000 cash prize , and the house and lot — were hidden . He said that the symbol for the ₱ 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cash prize — the numeral " 2 " — was in the window of the violet wheel . He was handed the violet wheel , and he reached behind the wheel , supposedly to pull the dark film in order to reveal the numeral " 2 . " However , when he pulled the film , the numeral " 0 " appeared instead . He appeared to fiddle with the back of the wheel and then he pulled out two films : one dark film ( supposedly the " cover " film ) and another film with the numeral " 2 " printed on it . As he held those two films in his hand , the numeral " 0 " was still visible in the window of the violet wheel .
Although ABS @-@ CBN officials stated that this occurrence with the then @-@ new game was a " mechanical glitch " and an honest mistake , controversy erupted as many critics asked whether the mistake was a sign that the show — or at least this portion of the show — could be or was rigged .
= = Reactions and criticisms = =
The scandal grew after Joey de Leon , one of the hosts of Eat Bulaga ! , a rival variety show broadcast by GMA Network , began making comments about the incident - ending an edition of his Manila Bulletin entertainment column about the incident with the statement , " Teasing is not bad . Cheating is ... on TV . "
On the August 29 , 2007 episode of Wowowee , Willie Revillame emotionally , but obviously no shed of tears , addressed Joey de Leon and insisted that he had not been cheating . Joey retaliated Willie 's statement the following day in a 15 @-@ minute long monologue on Eat Bulaga ! by advising his rival to " explain before you complain " ; not mentioning Willie or Wowowee directly at all during the speech , but clearly directing the speech at him . He also accused Willie of resorting to personal attacks in order to dodge questions about the incident . Joey also clarified in the address that he was not directly accusing Willie or the Wowowee staff of cheating ; noting that the only information he got about the incident was through video postings on YouTube and text messages he had received about the incident .
On August 30 , 2007 , Senator Mar Roxas , chair of the Senate trade and commerce committee , announced that he would propose an inquiry into this alleged game rigging after getting information from the Department of Trade and Industry ( DTI ) and concerned parties . Joey had jokingly called upon lawmakers to stop probing the Hello Garci scandal , and to start probing the " Hello Pappy " scandal during his speech the previous day . The game was also later discontinued from the show .
The Movie and Television Review and Classification Board also became increasingly concerned about the scandal due to the escalating on @-@ air feuds between Willie and Joey — asking Willie to make an on @-@ air apology about his remarks towards Joey on the September 4 episode of Wowowee .
= = = Explanation by ABS @-@ CBN = = =
In response to the incident , network Vice President Bong Osorio stated that a fixed " design flaw " was the cause of the incident , further remarking that " [ we ] have no intention to manipulate results , but rather to add excitement and suspense . " Osorio also stated that a game shows can experience " glitches " during development , and re @-@ enforced that all game shows broadcast by the network were operated in accordance with ABS @-@ CBN 's corporate values of honesty and integrity .
= = = DTI probe , administrative fine and appeal = = =
On October 13 , 2008 , the DTI ordered ABS @-@ CBN to pay an administrative fine of ₱ 290 @,@ 000 , ruling that the Wilyonaryo segment violated the Consumers Act of the Philippines , ruling that “ A reasonable assessment of the existing game mechanics and procedures reveals that the game show segment allowed for reasonable likelihood of error and provided the host and organizers significant latitude in controlling the outcome of the contest . ” ABS @-@ CBN later released a statement that they would file an appeal on the decision .
= A Ghost Story for Christmas =
A Ghost Story for Christmas is a strand of annual British short television films originally broadcast on BBC One between 1971 and 1978 , and revived in 2005 on BBC Four . With one exception , the original instalments were directed by Lawrence Gordon Clark and the films were all shot on 16 mm colour film . The remit behind the series was to provide a television adaptation of a classic ghost story , in line with the oral tradition of telling supernatural tales at Christmas .
Each instalment is a separate adaptation of a short story , ranges between 30 and 50 minutes in duration , and features well @-@ known British actors such as Clive Swift , Robert Hardy , Peter Vaughan , Edward Petherbridge and Denholm Elliott . The first five are adaptations of ghost stories by M. R. James , the sixth is based on a short story by Charles Dickens , and the two final instalments are original screenplays by Clive Exton and John Bowen respectively . The stories were titled A Ghost Story for Christmas in listings such as the Radio Times , although this never appeared on screen , where they were regarded as individual films .
An earlier black @-@ and @-@ white adaptation of M. R. James 's Whistle and I 'll Come to You , directed by Jonathan Miller and shown as part of the series Omnibus in 1968 , is often cited as an influence upon the production of the films , and is sometimes included as part of the series . The series was revived by the BBC in 2005 with a new set of adaptations that were produced intermittently over the next few years .
= = Production = =
= = = Background = = =
The first five films are adaptations of stories from the four books by M. R. James published between 1904 and 1925 . The ghost stories of James , an English mediaeval scholar and Provost of Eton College and King 's College , Cambridge , were originally narrated as Christmas entertainments to friends and selected students .
The sixth film , The Signalman , is an adaptation of a story by Charles Dickens published in his magazine All the Year Round in 1866 . In its original context it was one of eight stories set around the fictional Mugby Junction and its branch lines . It was inspired by the Staplehurst rail crash of June 1865 , which Dickens himself survived , having attended to dying fellow passengers . He subsequently suffered panic disorders and flashbacks as a result .
The final two stories were based on original screenplays , one by Clive Exton , who was an experienced television screenwriter , and the other by John Bowen , who was primarily known as a novelist and playwright .
= = = Adaptation = = =
In an interview in 1995 Lawrence Gordon Clark stated that the stories " focus on suggestion . The aim , they say , is to chill rather than shock . Partly because television is not best suited to carrying off big @-@ screen pyrotechnics , but mainly because they want to keep faith with the notion of a ghost story in its literary rather than cinematic tradition . " Helen Wheatley notes that the best adaptations maintain the stories ' " sense of decorum and restraint , ... withholding the full revelation of the supernatural until the very last moment , and centring on the suggestion of a ghostly presence rather than the horror of visceral excess and abjection . "
After the first two adaptations , both done by Clark , the tales were adapted by a number of playwrights and screenwriters . In most instances the adaptations alter the original source material . For example , A Warning to the Curious frequently deviates from its literary source . The screenplay avoids the convoluted plot structure of M. R. James 's original , opting for a more linear construction and reducing the number of narrators . In addition the central character , Paxton , is changed from a young fair @-@ haired innocent who stumbles across the treasure to a middle @-@ aged character driven by poverty to seek the treasure and acting in full awareness of what he is doing .
To take another example , in his screenplay for The Signalman Andrew Davies adds scenes of the traveller 's nightmare @-@ plagued nights at an inn , and reinforces the ambiguity of the traveller @-@ narrator by restructuring the ending and matching his facial features with those of the spectre . The film also makes use of visual and aural devices . For example , the appearance of the spectre is stressed by the vibrations of a bell in the signalbox and a recurring red motif connects the signalman 's memories of a train crash with the danger light attended by a ghostly figure .
= = = Filming = = =
Lawrence Gordon Clark had made his name as a BBC documentary director during the 1960s . The Stalls of Barchester was the first dramatic production he directed . Clark recalled in an interview for the BFI 's DVD release in 2012 that " the BBC at that time gave you the space to fail , and generously so too . They backed you up with marvellous technicians , art departments , film departments and so forth . "
Unusually for a BBC television drama of the 1970s , each instalment was filmed entirely on location using 16 mm film . As a result , the cameraman John McGlashan , who filmed all of the original adaptations , was able to make use of night shoots and dark , shadowy interiors , which would not have been possible with the then @-@ standard video @-@ based studio interiors . Of The Stalls of Barchester Clark recalls that " Paul Fox ( Controller of BBC One ) gave us a tiny budget ... and we set out to do a full @-@ blooded drama on location . Budgets were really tiny , and we shot for ten days and brought the film in for about 8 @,@ 000 pounds . "
The filming of the adaptations took place at a variety of locations , although East Anglia , where M. R. James set many of his stories , was the location for early instalments . The Stalls of Barchester was filmed at Norwich Cathedral and in the surrounding close . A Warning to the Curious was filmed on the coast of North Norfolk , at Waxham , Happisburgh and Wells @-@ next @-@ the @-@ Sea , although the original story was set in " Seaburgh " ( a disguised version of Aldeburgh , Suffolk ) . Later locations include the Severn Valley Railway for The Signalman and Wells Cathedral for The Treasure of Abbot Thomas .
= = Episode list = =
With the exception of the final film , the tales were directed by Lawrence Gordon Clark and produced by Rosemary Hill . The final episode was directed by Derek Lister .
= = Revivals = =
BBC Four revisited the series at Christmas 2004 , and in 2005 began to produce new adaptations of stories by M. R. James , broadcast along with repeats of episodes from the original series .
BBC Two premiered a new adaptation by Neil Cross of M. R. James 's Oh , Whistle and I 'll come to You , My Lad on Christmas Eve 2010 .
Mark Gatiss 's adaptation of The Tractate Middoth , yet another story by M. R. James , was broadcast on BBC Two on Christmas Day 2013 . This was followed by a documentary , M. R. James : Ghost Writer .
= = Critical reception = =
The critical reception of the films has been varied , but several are regarded as classic television ghost stories . Sarah Dempster , writing in The Guardian in 2005 , noted that " Perhaps the most surprising aspect ... is how little its adaptations ... have dated . They may boast the odd signifier of cheap 1970s telly – outlandish regional vowels , inappropriate eyeliner , a surfeit of depressed oboes – but lurking within their hushed cloisters and glum expanses of deserted coastline is a timelessness at odds with virtually everything written , or broadcast , before or since . "
The production values have received particular praise . Helen Wheatley writes that " the series was shot on film on location , with much attention paid to the minutiae of period detail ; ... it might be seen to visually prefigure the filmic stylishness and traditions of later literary adaptations such as Brideshead Revisited and The Jewel in the Crown . " However , she notes that , unlike those adaptations , the sinister tone of the period pieces could lend itself the label of a " feel bad " heritage television drama .
The Signalman is perhaps the most critically acclaimed . Simon Farquhar suggests that the film is the first evidence of Andrew Davies 's gift as an adaptor of literary fiction : " despite an extremely arduous shoot , Davies and Clarke 's fog @-@ wreathed , flame @-@ crackling masterpiece manages something the production team could never have imagined : it 's better than the book . " Dave Rolinson notes that , while " the adaptation inevitably misses Dickens 's nuanced and often unsettling prose , ... it achieves comparably skilful effects through visual language and sound , heightening theme and supernatural mood . ... The production heightens the story 's crucial features of repetition and foreshadowing . "
Sergio Angelini writes about A Warning to the Curious : " Of Clark 's many adaptations of James 's stories , this is perhaps the most varied in its use of landscape and the most visually arresting in its attempt to create an otherworldly atmosphere . ... Using long lenses to flatten the scenery and make the ghost indistinct in the background , John McGlashan 's fine cinematography brilliantly conveys the ageless , ritualistic determinism of Ager 's pursuit and signposts the inevitability of Paxton 's demise . " Angelini is less appreciative of The Ash Tree , noting that the literal adaptation of the story 's ending loses the atmosphere of earlier instalments : " While the creatures are certainly grotesque and threatening , compared with some of the other adaptations of the series , The Ash Tree does lose some power through this lack of ambiguity . The result overall remains satisfyingly unsettling , however , thanks also to Petherbridge 's restrained , psychologically acute performance . "
The adaptations have had an influence on the work of the writer Mark Gatiss . Interviewed in 2008 , Gatiss said that Lost Hearts is his favourite adaptation because it is the one that frightened him as a child and that " I absolutely love The Treasure of Abbot Thomas . The moment when Michael Bryant has found the treasure and ... is obviously losing his wits . He just says , rationally , ' It is a thing of slime , I think . Darkness and slime ... ' There 's also the fantastic scene where he thinks he 's got away with it by putting the treasure back .
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ριον phylacterion , form of phylássein , φυλάσσειν meaning " to guard , protect " ) , are a set of small black leather boxes containing scrolls of parchment inscribed with verses from the Torah . They are worn by male observant Jews during weekday morning prayers .
Although " tefillin " is technically the plural form ( the singular being " tefillah " ) , it is loosely used as a singular as well . The arm @-@ tefillin , or shel yad , is placed on the upper arm , and the strap wrapped around the arm / hand , hand and fingers ; while the head @-@ tefillin , or shel rosh , is placed above the forehead . The Torah commands that they should be worn to serve as a " sign " and " remembrance " that God brought the children of Israel out of Egypt .
The scriptural texts for tefillin are obscure in literal meaning . For example , Deuteronomy 11 : 18 is one of the standard texts referenced as supporting the obligation , but does not designate what specifically to " bind upon your arm , " and the definition of totafot between your eyes is not obvious . It is the Talmud , the authoritative oral tradition for Rabbinic Judaism , which explains what are to be bound to the body and the form of tefillin .
= = Biblical source = =
The obligation of tefillin , as expounded by the Oral Law , is mentioned four times in the Torah : twice when recalling The Exodus from Egypt :
And it shall be for a sign for you upon your hand , and for a memorial between your eyes , that the law of the LORD may be in your mouth ; for with a strong hand did the LORD bring you out of Egypt .
And it shall be for a sign upon your hand , and as totafot between your eyes ; for with a mighty hand did the LORD bring us forth out of Egypt .
and twice in the shema passages :
And you shall bind them as a sign upon your arm , and they shall be as totafot between your eyes .
You shall put these words of mine on your heart and on your soul ; and you shall tie them for a sign upon your arm , and they shall be as totafot between your eyes .
= = Etymology = =
The ultimate origin of Hebrew " tefillin " is uncertain . The word " tefillin " is not found in the Bible , which calls them ṭoṭafot . The Septuagint renders " ṭoṭafot " ἀσαλευτόν , " something immovable . " Some believe it refers to a charm , similar to the Hebrew neṭifot , " round jewel . " The Talmud ( Sanhedrin 4b ) explains that the word ṭoṭafot is combination of two foreign words : Tot means " two " in the " Caspi " language and Fot means " two " in the " Afriki " language , hence tot and fot means " two and two " , corresponding to the four compartments of the head @-@ tefillin . Menahem ben Saruq explains that the word is derived from the Hebrew Ve 'hateif and Tatifoo , both expressions meaning " speech " , " for when one sees the tefillin it causes him to remember and speak about The Exodus from Egypt . "
The first texts to use " tefillin " are the Targumim and Peshitta and it is also used in subsequent Talmudic literature , although the word " ṭoṭafah " was still current , being used with the meaning of " frontlet . " " Tefillin " may have derived from the Aramaic palal , " to plead , pray , " a word closely related to the Hebrew tefillah , " prayer . " Jacob ben Asher ( 14th century ) suggests that " tefillin " is derived from the Hebrew pelilah , " justice , evidence , " for tefillin act as a sign and proof of God 's presence among the Jewish people .
The only instance of the name " phylacteries " in ancient times occurs once in the Greek New Testament ( Matthew 23 : 5 ) whence it has passed into the languages of Europe . " Phylacteries " derives from the Greek phulaktērion - φυλακτήριον , " defences , " and in late Greek , " amulets " or " charms . " Neither Aquila nor Symmachus use the word " phylacteries . "
= = Purpose = =
The tefillin are to serve as a reminder of God 's intervention at the time of the Exodus from Egypt . Maimonides details of the sanctity of tefillin and writes that " as long as the tefillin are on the head and on the arm of a man , he is modest and God @-@ fearing and will not be attracted by hilarity or idle talk ; he will have no evil thoughts , but will devote all his thoughts to truth and righteousness . " The Sefer ha @-@ Chinuch ( 14th century ) adds that the purpose of tefillin is to help subjugate a person 's worldly desires and encourage spiritual development . Joseph Caro ( 16th century ) explains that tefillin are placed on the arm adjacent to the heart and on the head above the brain to demonstrate that these two major organs are willing to perform the service of God .
Many have the custom to have high quality tefillin and beautiful tefillin bags as a Hiddur Mitzvah . This idea comes from the verse " This is my God and I will glorify Him " ( Exodus 15 : 2 ) . The Jewish Sages explain : " Is it possible for a human being to add glory to his Creator ? What this really means is : I shall glorify Him in the way I perform mitzvot . I shall prepare before Him a beautiful lulav , beautiful sukkah , beautiful fringes ( Tsitsit ) , and beautiful phylacteries ( Tefilin ) . "
= = Manufacture and contents = =
The manufacturing processes of both the boxes and the parchment scrolls are intricate and governed by hundreds of detailed rules . In earlier Talmudic times , tefillin were either cylindrical or cubical , but later the cylindrical form became obsolete . Nowadays the boxes should be fashioned from a single piece of animal hide and form a base with an upper compartment to contain the parchment scrolls . They are made in varying levels of quality . The most basic form , called peshutim ( " simple " ) , are made using several pieces of parchment to form the inner walls of the head tefillin . The higher quality tefillin , namely dakkot ( " thin " ) , made by stretching a thin piece of leather , and the more durable gassot ( " thick " ) are both fashioned from the single piece of hide . Black leather straps ( retsu 'ot ) pass through the rear of the base and are used to secure the tefillin onto the body . On both sides of the head @-@ tefillin , the Hebrew letter shin ( ש ) is moulded . The knot of the head @-@ tefillin strap forms the letter dalet ( ד ) or double dalet ( ד ) ( known as the square @-@ knot ) while the strap that is passed through the arm @-@ tefillin is formed into a knot in the shape of the letter yud ( י ) . These three letters spell Shaddai ( שדי ) , one of the names of God .
= = = Parchment scrolls = = =
Four biblical passages which refer to the tefillin are placed inside the leather boxes . These are : " Sanctify to me ... " ( Exodus 13 : 1 @-@ 10 ) ; " When YHWH brings you ... " ( Exodus 13 : 11 @-@ 16 ) ; " Hear , O Israel ... " ( Deuteronomy 6 : 4 @-@ 9 ) ; and " If you observe My Commandments ... " ( Deuteronomy 11 : 13 @-@ 21 ) . They are written by a scribe with special ink on parchment scrolls ( klaf ) . The Hebrew Ashuri script must be used and there are three main styles of lettering used : Beis Yosef – generally used by Ashkenazim ; Arizal – generally used by Hasidim ; Velish – used by Sefardim . The passages contain 3 @,@ 188 letters , which take a sofer ( scribe ) between 10 – 15 hours to complete . The arm @-@ tefillin has one large compartment , which contains all four biblical passages written upon a single strip of parchment . The head @-@ tefillin has four separate compartments in each of which one scroll of parchment is placed .
There was considerable discussion among the commentators of the Talmud about the order in which the scrolls should be inserted into the four compartments of the head @-@ tefillin . In the Middle Ages , a famous debate on the issue was recorded between Rashi and his grandson Rabbeinu Tam . Rashi held that the passages are placed according to the chronological order as they appear in the Torah : Kadesh Li , Ve @-@ haya Ki Yeviehcha , Shema , Ve @-@ haya Im Shemoa , while according to Rabbeinu Tam , the last two passages are switched around . Of the tefillin dating from the 1st @-@ century CE discovered at Qumran in the Judean Desert , some were made according to the order understood by Rashi and others in the order of Rabbeinu Tam . The prevailing custom is to arrange the scrolls according to Rashi 's view , but some pious Jews are also accustomed to briefly lay the tefillin of Rabbeinu Tam as well , a custom of the Ari adopted by the Hasidim . The placement of the protrusion of a tuft of the sinew ( se 'ar eigel ) identifies as to which opinion the tefillin were written . The Vilna Gaon , who wore the tefillin of Rashi , rejected the stringency of also laying Rabbeinu Tam , pointing out that there were sixty @-@ four permutations for the arrangement of the tefillin scrolls .
= = Obligation = =
The duty of laying tefillin rests upon males after the age of thirteen years . Although women are exempt from the obligation , some early codifers allowed them to do so . Moses Isserles ( 16th century ) , however , strongly discourages it . Historically , the mitzvah of tefillin was not performed by women , but the ritual was apparently kept by some women in medieval France and Germany . Traditions exist of some prominent women laying tefillin and the idea is gaining a following among women affiliated to the Conservative movement . In 2013 SAR High School in Riverdale , New York began allowing girls to wrap tefillin during Shacharit @-@ morning prayer ; it is probably the first Modern Orthodox high school in the U.S. to do so . The wearing of tefillin by members of Women of the Wall at the Western Wall caused consternation from the rabbi in charge of the site until a Jerusalem District Court judge ruled in 2013 that doing so was not a violation of “ local custom . ”
Others who are not obliged to lay tefillin include a mourner during the first day of his mourning period , and a bridegroom on his wedding @-@ day . A sufferer from stomach @-@ trouble or one who is otherwise in pain and can not concentrate his mind is also exempt . One who is engaged in the study of the Law and scribes of and dealers in tefillin and mezuzot while engaged in their work if it can not be postponed , are also free from this obligation .
The codes view the commandment of tefillin as important and call those who neglect to observe it " transgressors . " Maimonides counts the commandment of laying the arm @-@ tefillin and head @-@ tefillin as two separate positive mitzvot . The Talmud cites Rav Sheshet who said that by neglecting the precept , one transgresses eight positive commandments . A report of widespread laxity in its observance is reported by Moses of Coucy in 13th century Spain . It may have arisen from the fear of persecution , similar to what had occurred to the Jews living in the Land of Israel under Roman rule in the 2nd @-@ century .
= = Performance = =
Originally tefillin were worn all day , but not during the night . Nowadays the prevailing custom is to wear them only during the weekday morning service , although some individuals wear them at other times during the day as well .
Tefillin are not donned on Shabbat and the major festivals because these holy days are themselves considered " signs " which render the need of the " sign " of tefillin superfluous . On Chol HaMoed ( intermediate days ) of Pesach and Sukkot , there is a great debate among the early halachic authorities as to whether tefillin should be worn or not . Those who forbid it consider the " sign " of intermediate days as having the same status as the festival itself , making the ritual of tefillin redundant . Others argue and hold that Chol HaMoed does not constitute a " sign " in which case tefillin must be laid . Three customs evolved resulting from the dispute :
To refrain from wearing tefillin : This ruling of the Shulchan Aruch is based on kabbalah and the Zohar which strongly advocate refraining from laying tefillin on Chol HaMoed . This position is maintained by Sephardic Jews and is also the opinion of the Vilna Gaon whose ruling has been universally accepted in Israel .
To wear tefillin without reciting the blessings : This is the opinion of , among others , Jacob ben Asher , Moses of Coucy and David HaLevi Segal . The advantage of this compromise is that one avoids the transgressions of either not donning tefillin or making a blessing in vain .
To wear tefillin and recite the blessings in an undertone : This opinion , based on Maimonides , is the ruling of Moses Isserles who writes that this is the universally accepted practice among Ashkenazic Jews . However , he was evidently mistaken , since many Ashkenazim refrain from wearing it or wear it without a blessing during Chol HaMoed .
In light of the conflicting opinions , the Mishna Berura ( 20th @-@ century ) recommends Ashkenazim make the following stipulation before donning tefillin : " If I am obligated to don tefillin I intend to fulfill my obligation and if I am not obligated to don tefillin , my doing so should not be considered as fulfilling any obligation " and that the blessing not be recited .
On the fast day of Tisha B 'Av , tefillin are not worn in the morning , as tefillin are considered an " adornment " , symbols of beauty , which is deemed inappropriate for a day of mourning . They are worn instead at the afternoon Mincha service . There are those however who have a custom ( Jews from Aleppo , Syria ) on Tisha B 'Av to privately put on tefillin at home and pray privately , say the Amidah and take off the tefillin and go to synagogue to finish the prayers .
= = = How to put on tefillin = = =
Ashkenazim put on and remove the arm tefillin while standing in accordance to the Shulchan Aruch , while most Sephardim do so while sitting in accordance with the Ari . All , however , put on and remove the head tefillin while standing . It is forbidden to speak or be distracted while putting on the tefillin . An Ashkenazi says two blessings when laying tefillin , the first before he ties the arm @-@ tefillin : ... lehani 'ach tefillin ( " to bind tefillin " ) , and the second after placing the head tefillin : ... al mitzvat tefillin ( " as to the commandment of tefillin " ) , thereafter he tightens the head straps and says " Baruch Shem Kovod .... " ( " blessed be the holy name " ) The Sephardic custom is that no blessing is said for the head @-@ tefillin , the first blessing sufficing for both . Sephardim and many members of the Chabad Orthodox movement only recite the blessing on the head @-@ tefillah if they spoke about something not related to tefillin since reciting the blessing on the arm @-@ tefillah .
Procedure
The arm @-@ tefillin is laid on the inner side of the bare left arm , right arm if one is left handed , two finger breadths above the elbow , so that when the arm is bent the tefillin faces towards the heart . The arm @-@ tefillin is tightened with the thumb , the blessing is said , and the strap is immediately wrapped around the upper arm in the opposite direction it came from in order to keep the knot tight without having to hold it . Some wrap it around the upper arm for less than a full revolution ( the bare minimum to keep the knot tight ) and then wrap it around the forearm seven times , while others wrap it around the upper arm an addition time before wrapping it around the forearm . Many Ashkenazim wear the knot to be tightened ( not to be confused with the knot on the base which is permenently tied and always worn on the inside , facing the heart ) on the inside and wrap inward , while Nusach Sephard Ashkenazim and all Sephardim wear it on the outside and wrap outward .
Then the head @-@ tefillin is placed on the middle of the head just above the forehead , so that no parts rests below the hairline . A bald or partially bald person 's original hairline is used . The knot of the head @-@ tefillin sits at the back of the head , upon the part of the occipital bone that protrudes just above the nape , directly opposite the optic chiasm . The two straps of the head @-@ tefillin are brought in front of the shoulders , with their blackened side facing outwards . Now the remainder of the arm @-@ tefillin straps are wound three times around the middle finger and around the hand to form the shape of the Hebrew letter of either a shin ( ש ) according to Ashkenazim , or a dalet ( ד ) according to Sephardim . There are various customs regarding winding the strap on the arm and hand . In fact , the arm strap is looped for counter @-@ clockwise wrapping with Ashkenazi tefillin while it is knotted for clockwise wrapping with Sephardic and Chabad tefillin . On removing the tefillin , the steps are reversed .
= = Biblical passages = =
= Prince of Persia : The Sands of Time =
Prince of Persia : The Sands of Time is a third @-@ person action @-@ adventure puzzle @-@ platform video game developed and published by Ubisoft . First revealed in March 2003 , it was released across PlayStation 2 , Xbox , GameCube , Game Boy Advance and Microsoft Windows in November 2003 . The Sands of Time is a reboot of the Prince of Persia series , created by Jordan Mechner . Mechner served as creative consultant , designer , and scenario writer for The Sands of Time .
The game follows an unnamed Prince whose father sacks a Maharaja 's city at the instigation of its treacherous Vizier . During the attack , the Prince obtains an artifact called the Dagger of Time , while his army captures an hourglass containing the Sands of Time . Visiting Azad to present the Sands as a gift to the city 's ruler , the Vizier tricks the Prince into releasing the Sands , transforming the city 's population into savage monsters . Together with the Maharaja 's daughter Farah , the Prince works to correct his mistake and return the Sands to the hourglass . The gameplay revolves around the Prince 's platforming abilities , broken up by fights with the creatures created by the Sands . A key mechanic in the game is using the Dagger to rewind time if the Prince makes a mistake platforming , and using it to kill and freeze enemies .
Concept work began in spring of 2001 , after Ubisoft acquired the Prince of Persia catalog . After Mechner was brought on board , production began in June of that year . After the initial story draft was scrapped as it was too complex , the team began with four guiding concepts , including the ability to rewind time : this idea grew into the Dagger , the Sands , and the various powers related to them . Mechner 's script drew inspiration from the Shahnameh , with the main focus on creating a simple narrative that worked with the pace of gameplay . The game used Ubisoft 's Jade engine , originally designed for Beyond Good & Evil , another game published by the company . Production was troubled , with the team facing problems with the engine structure and delays with environment assets , while also managing to create an effective tester network to seek out the game 's bugs . In 2004 , a version for mobile phones was developed and published in North America by Gameloft .
Upon release , it received critical acclaim , won and was nominated for numerous awards , and has been recognized by many as one of the greatest games of all time . Sales of the title were initially slow , but it eventually became a commercial success . Its success prompted the development of a sequel , Prince of Persia : Warrior Within , which was released in November 2004 . Further games set in the Sands of Time continuity have been developed , and it is generally cited as the reason for the Prince of Persia series ' return to fame .
= = Gameplay = =
Prince of Persia : The Sands of Time is an action @-@ adventure puzzle @-@ platformer . The player controls the main protagonist , an unnamed Prince from a kingdom in Persia . Environments are seen through a controllable third @-@ person view . The camera 's view changes to different positions triggered by entering certain areas or performing actions . The Prince can be moved in all directions , and he is able to manipulate large objects such as blocks and levers connected to mechanisms . His health and power metre are represented in the top left @-@ hand corner of the screen . The Prince restores health by drinking water from pools and fountains . Collecting Sands increases the Prince 's power , and drinking from hidden magic fountains increases the Prince 's maximum health . During several points in the game , the Prince is assisted by his companion Farah , who fires a bow at enemies , though her arrows can also hit the Prince if he strays into her line of fire . Monsters will attack her , and if she is killed , the game ends .
During exploration , the Prince navigates areas filled with traps : these traps include spike pits , arrow traps , wall @-@ mounted blades and saws , and spinning spiked stakes . The Prince 's main contextual move is wall @-@ running , an action where he runs up onto and along a wall for a set distance , either to land on or jump off to a platform . The Prince 's other acrobatic abilities include climbing along and across ledges , walking along beams , swinging on and jumping from poles , jumping onto and between pillars , and swinging on ropes . Large environmental puzzles are encountered during the Prince 's journey , extending across multiple areas in large rooms . Many puzzles are cooperative , requiring Farah 's help to complete them . In combat , the Prince fights monsters created by the Sands infecting the Palace 's inhabitants . A single command contextually triggered different moves depending on position and directional movement , while other special moves such as a somersault attack and bouncing off walls into enemies require additional commands . Enemies can only be killed by stabbing them with the Dagger of Time , which gathers up the Sands inside them .
The Sands the Prince collects from enemies and the environment are tied to his magical abilities , themselves connected with the Dagger . The most basic power is Rewind , the ability for the Prince to rewind time by up to ten seconds if he makes a mistake in platforming or dies . In combat , the Prince can also slow time immediately around him , freeze time for a single enemy , and freeze time completely so the Prince can attack his enemies at great speed while they are unable to move . Each use of power uses up one Sand Tank , and when empty , all powers become inaccessible until more Sand is collected . More powerful abilities , such as freezing time , are powered by Power Tanks . Increasing their number unlocks new Sand @-@ based powers . Starting out with a small amount of Sand available to him , its capacity can be increased by collecting Sand from enemies , along with Sand Clouds scattered around the palace . Large columns of Sand within the Palace grant visions of future areas and act as save points .
The Game Boy Advance version shares basic elements with its console counterparts . Displayed from a side @-@ scrolling view , the Prince navigates the palace of Azad using his acrobatic skills . The Rewind ability is still present to save the Prince 's life , and is also involved in solving some puzzles and fighting bosses . New moves and abilities are gained by the Prince by performing moves and solving puzzles . Farah is featured as a second playable character in some sections , with switching between the two being key to some puzzles . The mobile version is similarly a side @-@ scroller , featuring simple puzzles and traps . The powers linked to the Sands are absent , but enemies must still be killed by stabbing them with the Dagger . There are three enemy types : archers , flying enemies , and foot soldiers .
= = Plot = =
The story is set in Persia during the 9th century AD , and begins with the Prince narrating to an unseen listener about his adventures . The Prince and the army of his father Shahraman are passing through India to visit the Sultan of Azad . The Vizier of a local Maharaja , wanting to prevent his death using a substance known as the Sands of Time , entices them into attacking the Maharaja 's palace , where the Sands are stored . During the fight , the Prince loots an artefact called the Dagger of Time , and the Maharaja 's daughter Farah is taken as a gift for the Sultan of Azad . Visiting Azad , the Vizier tricks the Prince into releasing the Sands , turning everyone but the Prince , the Vizier and Farah ( protected by the Dagger , a staff and a medallion respectively ) into monsters . The Vizier attempts to seize the Dagger from the Prince , but he escapes and eventually allies with Farah to undo the damage he has caused and prevent the Sands from covering the world , even though he has doubts about her loyalties and motives .
After navigating the palace of Azad and reaching the hourglass of the Sands in the Tower of Dawn , the Prince hesitates when following Farah 's instructions on containing the Sands , unsure of whether to trust her . The Vizier ambushes them and they barely escape with the Dagger , ending up in a tomb beneath the city . Eventually finding shelter in a mysterious bathhouse , the two rest and consummate their growing feelings for each other . When the Prince wakes up back in the palace , Farah has gone with the Dagger , leaving him her medallion . He follows her and only just manages to catch her as she is driven over a ledge above the hourglass by monsters . To save the Prince , Farah allows herself to fall to her death . As the Prince mourns over her , the Vizier offers him eternal life in exchange for the Dagger . The Prince refuses and stabs the hourglass with the Dagger . Time rewinds to before the attack on the Maharaja 's palace , and the Prince , still in possession of the Dagger and his memories , runs ahead to warn Farah of the Vizier 's treachery . It is now revealed that the Prince has been recounting his tale to Farah , and as he finishes , the Vizier enters to kill him . The Prince kills the Vizier and returns the Dagger to Farah , who believes his narrative was just a story . In parting , the Prince mentions a private word she told him during their time in the tomb , leaving her amazed .
= = Development = =
The development of the initial concept work for The Sands of Time began in the second quarter of 2001 , after Ubisoft had bought the Prince of Persia license . While Ubisoft held the Prince of Persia catalog , the actual IP still belonged to the series original creator Jordan Mechner , but he was initially unwilling to return to the series after poor experiences with Prince of Persia 2 : The Shadow and the Flame and Prince of Persia 3D . The game was developed by Ubisoft Montreal , which was also a year into developing Tom Clancy 's Splinter Cell . After some mock assets had been created , Ubisoft asked Mechner to come and help develop the game , showing them their concepts and the assets as AVIs . Mechner was impressed by Ubisoft 's work and came on board as a creative consultant . He soon became more involved with the project , becoming the game 's designer and writer . Full production began in June 2001 , and at its peak was worked on by a staff of 65 people , internally known as " PoP Team " . Development ran parallel to that of Splinter Cell , and as part of their research , the development team read One Thousand and One Nights , a collection of stories originating from the Middle East that Mechner had previously used as inspiration when designing the original Prince of Persia . Over the course of production , the team ran through over 150 different versions before the retail version .
The game 's title was thought up by the production team , but the original story built around the title proved impossible to work . The original draft had nine characters ( including the Prince , two love interests , two villains , and two helper characters ) representing different political factions , and the setting of the Prince 's own palace home instead of in another kingdom . This storyline ultimately impeded other aspects of development , and so was scrapped . In starting over , the team returned to the " The Sands of Time " title and concept . They decided upon four key elements for the game : " Unity of time and place " , with the game taking place over twenty @-@ four hours within the palace of Azad ; " Acrobatics " , referring to the gameplay and how the setting was constructed around this concept ; " Combat " , with the palace being filled with monsters to give the game and story a fast @-@ paced feeling ; and " Rewind " , the ability to turn back and manipulate time . One of the early decisions made by the production team was not to refer to Prince of Persia 3D in any degree in designing the gameplay , instead looking to the 1989 original for reference . They intended to capture the original feeling of platforming an adventure in a 3D environment . The Rewind mechanic began as a gameplay wish for the title , surviving the initial rewrite of the story and becoming key to both story and gameplay . The Dagger of Time and the Sands were both born from the need to explain this mechanic in @-@ game . The initial concept was simply using the Dagger to rewind time and dispatch enemies , but its powers were gradually expanded into its current roster . The main character 's acrobatics were designed to be novel to the video game medium , inspired by similar stunts performed in Crouching Tiger , Hidden Dragon and The Matrix . A video game which provided inspiration for the acrobatic feats of the Prince was Tony Hawk 's Pro Skater . Elements such as using ladders as part of combat , and riding on a magic carpet or a horse were axed early in development . The Rewind function was suggested by the game 's director Patrice Désilets based on experiences playing Donald Duck : Goin ' Quackers , where he had wished to rewind after making a mistake rather than restarting the entire level .
Pre @-@ production was originally estimated at ten months , but ultimately extended to fourteen months . Each time a new movement or ability was created for the Prince , it required adjustments to multiple other systems , as leaving them alone would have damaged the game . They also needed to make adjustments to the enemy and partner artificial intelligence , and they did not have time to polish those systems . All this meant that the debugging started much later than originally scheduled . The Prince had over 780 scripted movements , far more than any other character in the game . This caused problems with creating the movements for other characters . To make the character movements realistic , the team used motion capture to animate their movements . Art director Raphael Lacoste did not join the team until July 2002 , well into the game 's production , resulting in multiple delays in creating the game 's environments . This issue was compounded by the need to produce a demo for the 2003 Electronic Entertainment Expo , then to deliver an entire game at the same if not a higher quality than the demo . Each environment needed to work for the Prince 's set of movements and abilities : the work needed involved checking each rewind sequence , and each of the Prince 's movement in and effect on the environment worked . These issues were compounded by the late delivery of environmental maps . In hindsight , producer Yannis Mallat lamented the fact that they did not have enough time to work out the problems caused by these issues . Despite these problems , other parts of production including play @-@ testing , management of creative tools , and the integrated testing system worked smoothly . A cited example was the team discovering a tester that was good at finding severe bugs , so they included her in one of their testing groups , giving her a development kit she could use to sort out those bugs . This was replicated , and managed to greatly increase the amount of bugs that could be found and fixed . The development team 's enthusiasm was also high , which enabled the problems during development to be overcome . During the aftermath of E3 , the team considered release The Sands of Time as two games so they could include all the desired content , but the idea was dropped . Another element that needed to be cut after the demo was a griffin boss that would appear three times during the Prince 's journey .
The game used an updated version of the company 's Jade engine , designed for Beyond Good & Evil . When the team saw the capacities of the Jade engine , they decided to use it for The Sands of Time . For The Sands of Time , the team made improvements to the engine by adding additional walking and running animations , enabling smoother character movement . They also made custom animations for the character . The engine made editing and fine @-@ tuning the game very easy due to its easy @-@ to @-@ use tools . Using this as a base , they were able to focus on rapid integration of new elements into the game , and were also able to do quick testing and adjustments . The team developed " substance " and " glow " systems , which respectively enabled natural movements of cloth and gave the lightning effects a " magical " feel . The way the engine was structured , with all assets in a single accessible folder , proved problematic when alterations needed to be made or new features added , as the team size meant too many people were accessing the engine and were causing data to be overwritten , files to be corrupted , and the whole system to crash . They attempted to solve the problem using a " data monkey " solution which would allow for simultaneous access , but it came late in development and they did not risk making such a radical change to the system . Instead , they set up a file server to manage check @-@ in times , which could allow for management of access and prioritisation of critical work .
= = = Writing = = =
Mechner created the scenario and wrote the game 's script . While doing his research for the script , Mechner read a translation of the Shahnameh , an epic poem written by Ferdowsi between the 10th and 11th century . Reading it through helped Mechner visualise the new Prince as a more mature character than the original . Despite this , Mecnher felt that the character could not fully shed the " happy @-@ go @-@ lucky " elements of One Thousand and One Nights . In retrospect , Mechner also felt that this inability to resolve this inherent conflict gave the character his charm . Mechner also included specific references in the Prince 's dialogue to stories from the Shahnameh . The story and the Prince were created for newcomers to the series . The main scenario was based around second chances , while an unstated anti @-@ war theme was also included by Mechner and showcased in the game 's opening level . Mechner created the Dagger of Time as a combined gameplay and narrative device within the four core concepts created by the team . Its acquisition by the Prince was directly inspired by the opening of Raiders of the Lost Ark , which had previously inspired his portrayal of the Prince in the original Prince of Persia . The palace of Azad was crafted to be the Prince 's " playground " , while some scenes which developed the Prince 's portrayal ( the opening attack on the Maharaja 's palace , activating Azad 's traps on the instructions of a deranged guard ) were deliberately meant to be morally dubious to the player while increasing empathy with the character .
Mechner 's main preoccupation for this new storyline was keeping the narrative simple and engaging , using his preferred writing style of keeping cutscenes short and working as much of the story as possible into the gameplay . He also aimed to mix narrative and gameplay genres that might normally clash with one @-@ another . The three main characters he created were the hero ( the Prince ) , the villain ( the Vizier ) and the love interest and sidekick ( Farah ) . Two non @-@ playable authority figures ( the Prince 's father Shahraman and the Sultan of Azad ) were included to add weight to the Prince 's burden as they were transformed into monsters by the Sands . The three artefacts each character used ( the Dagger , Farah 's medallion and the Vizier 's staff ) were created to explain their survival of the Sands ' release , with the Dagger also becoming integral to gameplay . The Prince 's narration was both difficult and satisfying for Mechner . It needed to be written to work on two levels : first to be understandable for first @-@ time players , and to gain greater significance upon future playthroughs . The narration also served to give gentle hints to the player , and expand upon the setting and add depth to the experience . Among his cited reference points for the narration were the 1940s version of The Thief of Bagdad , the works of Edgar Allan Poe , and films such as Double Indemnity and Sunset Boulevard . The Prince 's interactions with Farah were also an important factor . As part of the character interaction , Farah was deliberately designed not to be a perfect archer , sometimes hitting the Prince if he strayed into her line of fire . Despite this , unspecified features planned for her needed to be cut .
= = = Audio = = =
The music for The Sands of Time was composed by Stuart Chatwood of the Canadian rock band The Tea Party . Chatwood was chosen for the role as Ubisoft wanted music that had Persian elements in it to fit the setting , while not being pure Persian music . When he was approached , Chatwood expanded his music library as part of his research . To achieve the desired effect , rock elements were mixed with Middle Eastern music and melodies , along with Indian elements . Chatwood used different instruments , including an Indian tabla and strings , along with vocal tracks by Cindy Gomez and Maryem Tollar . A soundtrack album for the game , Prince of Persia : The Sands of Time Original Soundtrack , was released in Japan in October 20 , 2004 by Scitron Digital Content . Tracks from the game were included in an album featuring music from both The Sands of Time and its two sequels Warrior Within and The Two Thrones . Titled Prince Of Persia The Official Trilogy Soundtrack , the album was released by Ubisoft on December 1 , 2005 .
For the sound effects , the team worked with sound company Dane Tracks to create most of the game 's sound effects , with the rest being done by Ubisoft Montreal . To make the enemies in the game stand out , the sound team mixed " organic and evil " sound effects with whispering sounds , rather than using sound effects associated with the undead . Mechner supervised the game 's voice recording . One of the unconventional choices made by the team was not to halt gameplay during in @-@ game dialogue , meaning players could miss large portions of character interaction . In addition to story @-@ based dialogue and banter , context @-@ specific dialogue was written for certain situations . Over one thousand lines of dialogue were written , though over half of them were cut . To help with voice recording , the recording team created a graph to help the actors playing the Prince and Farah time their exchanges correctly . Aside from some exceptions which played in sequence , all comments made by Farah when the Prince did a specific thing were stand @-@ alone responses . The Prince was voiced by Yuri Lowenthal , whose performance was proven popular and would return to voice the character in future games set after The Sands of Time . Speaking in a 2008 interview , Lowenthal felt " that [ he ] in a way originated that role " .
= = Release = =
The Sands of Time was announced in March 2003 . It was released for the PlayStation 2 , Xbox , GameCube , Game Boy Advance and Microsoft Windows . The versions were released gradually between October and November 2003 . The various versions had multiple differences in both graphics and control options . The GameCube and Xbox versions included a documentary about the making of the game . Gameloft developed a version of the game for mobile phones , which released in April 2004 . Two versions were developed for higher and lower @-@ spec mobile phones . Connecting the GameCube and Game Boy Advance versions of the game gave access to a port of the original Prince of Persia with the GameCube version , along with the ability for the Prince to automatically regenerate health . The PS2 version was released in Japan in September 2004 . The game was published in the region by Sony Computer Entertainment Japan , who were impressed by both the quality and the praise it earned in the west . The Sands of Time was later re @-@ released with its two sequels in a Europe @-@ exclusive PlayStation 3 collection on November 19 , 2010 , which included a 3D display option .
= = Reception = =
During its North American debut , the game suffered from poor sales : by December , the PS2 version had sold 218 @,@ 000 copies , the Xbox version 128 @,@ 000 copies , and the GameCube version 85 @,@ 000 copies . Its combined sales since release at that time totaled 272 @,@ 000 ( PS2 ) , 172 @,@ 000 ( Xbox ) , and 100 @,@ 000 copies ( GameCube ) . It was speculated that its sales were negatively affected by the concurrent release of Beyond Good & Evil , alongside other prominent releases at the time . In response to this , Ubisoft offered copies of their other games free with purchases of The Sands of Time , providing a boost to sales . As of 2006 , the game has sold 700 @,@ 000 copies in North America , bringing an estimated revenue of $ 24 million . During its week of release in Japan , the game reached seventh place in the charts , selling 14 @,@ 000 copies . This was noted as being high for a western game released in Japan . By the end of 2004 , it had sold 26 @,@ 116 copies . In Europe , it was among the top ten best @-@ selling games across main territories , selling over two million copies . The game eventually sold over 14 million copies worldwide .
The Sands of Time received critical acclaim upon launch . Edge said that , despite difficulty spikes caused by respawning enemies , " the game cannot be commended highly enough " . IGN 's Matt Casamassina found the entire experience enjoyable , saying that " Whether you 're a diehard Prince of Persia fan or somebody with a mild interest in action @-@ adventures , The Sands of Time is a must own -- a soon @-@ to @-@ be @-@ classic worthy of a permanent place in your collection " . 1UP.com , while pointing out the camera control as " tricky " , said that the game " will make your chest explode if you 've got a heart condition ( in a good way , of course ) " . GameSpot 's Greg Kasavin called it " a game that can be recommended wholeheartedly " . Both Eurogamer and Official PlayStation Magazine positively compared the game 's aesthetics and presentation to Ico . Francesca Reyes of Official Xbox Magazine gave the game a good review , praising the story and general gameplay , but finding the combat difficult at times and lack of new skills . In closing , she praised the game 's lasting appeal : " When the whole thing is over , it 's perfectly timed to leave you wanting more . It 's a stunning and rare achievement that makes you feel happy to be a gamer . " Japanese gaming magazine Famitsu gave the PS2 version a good review , saying that the action was smooth and challenging , bearing similarities to the original Prince of Persia , and one reviewer found the Prince " colourful " .
The PC version shared much of the console version 's praise , but the controls and responsiveness of the camera caused criticism . The Game Boy Advance version garnered lower scores than the console and PC versions due to its scaled @-@ down gameplay and presentation , but was still generally praised as a competent port of the game . Nintendo Power said that " Acrobatic moves and inventive traps have never been as free @-@ flowing as they are in [ The Sands of Time ] " . Reviewing the mobile version , IGN reviewer Levi Buchanan was impressed by the company 's adaptation of the console game 's basic actions and atmosphere , giving it a score of 9 @.@ 5 out of 10 . 1UP reviewer Corey Padnos was pleased with the Prince 's acrobatic performance and the game 's general performance , while lamenting the lack of the time @-@ based mechanics of the main games and the lack of plot .
At E3 2003 , The Sands of Time was named as " Game of the Year " . The game was named as Editor 's Choice by GameSpot and IGN . At the 2003 Game Critics Awards , the game was awarded as " Best Action / Adventure Game " . The Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences , at its meeting in 2004 , recognised the game as " Console Game of the Year " , " Console Platform Action Adventure Game of the Year " , and " Computer Action / Adventure Game of the Year " . It was also awarded for " Outstanding Innovation in Computer Gaming " , " Outstanding Achievement in Game Design " , " Outstanding Achievement in Visual Engineering " , " Outstanding Achievement in Animation " , and " Outstanding Achievement in Game Play Engineering " . At the 2004 Game Developers Choice Awards , the game won the " Excellence in Game Design " and " Excellence in Programming " awards . It was also nominated in the " Game of the Year " and " Excellence in Visual Arts " categories .
In 2009 , Official Nintendo Magazine ranked it the 86th best game available on Nintendo platforms . The staff praised the developer 's successful transition from 2D to 3D . IGN and Edge both named it among their 100 greatest games of all time in 2005 and 2007 respectively . Computer and Video Games placed it in its 2007 list of the 101 best PC games ever . In 2010 , GamePro chose it as the 13th best PS2 game of all time .
= = Legacy = =
The year after the game 's release , the game was featured in an episode of How It 's Made , in a segment dedicated to video game production . The game has been cited as the reason why the Prince of Persia series , formerly ignored after Prince of Persia 3D , returned to prominence in the gaming world . In 2004 , Mechner began work on a film adaptation , produced by Jerry Bruckheimer . The film was eventually released in 2010 . The success of the game prompted immediate development on a sequel . Titled Prince of Persia : Warrior Within , the game was made aesthetically darker by the team . It released in November 2004 . Several further sequels set in the continuity of The Sands of Time followed . Aspects of its design , such as the relationship between the Prince and Farah , later provided inspiration for the 2008 series reboot .
= Eat You Up =
" Eat You Up " is a song recorded by South Korean recording artist BoA for her twelfth studio and debut English eponymous studio album ( 2009 ) . It was released on October 16 , 2008 in Japan as the lead single from the album . The song was written by Remee and Thomas Troelsen , while production was handled by Henrik Jonback . The song was BoA 's first attempt into the Western market , particularly North America . Musically , the track was described as an electronic dance song with elements of R & B.
Upon its release , " Eat You Up " garnered positive reviews from music critics . Many critics commended the song 's electronic and dance @-@ infused composition , and praised the song 's commercial appeals ; they also felt it was a choice to release through Western markets , and felt BoA 's English skills had improved . It was successful on the US Billboard Dance Club Songs chart , peaking at number eight and staying in the chart for 12 consecutive weeks .
Two music videos were created for the single ; the first had BoA dancing in ballet recital with back @-@ up dancers , whilst the second has her dancing in a utopian @-@ inspired planet . BoA performed the single during several of her concerts , including her Nowness and Who 's Back ? concert tours . Since its release , the song has received several recognitions and has been listed on several best lists by Eastern and Western publications . " Eat You Up " is one of the first songs by a Korean artist to be produced and written by Western producers , and is recognized as a key factor to the Korean Wave movement .
= = Background and composition = =
In January 2008 , publications in South Korea reported that BoA was planning on her North American debut . However , the head of BoA 's label SM Entertainment , Lee Soo Man , denied the claims , saying that BoA was continuing work in Asian markets . South Korean publications started to surface once again about her North American debut , after SM Entertainment announced their US subsidiary label . On September 2 , 2008 , SM Entertainment officially announced BoA 's North American debut under their subsidiary label . Ten days later , a press conference was held at the Seoul Imperial Palace Hotel to further clarify her plans . During her press conference , SM Entertainment announced that a song entitled " Eat You Up " was chosen as her debut English single . " Eat You Up " was first released on Japanese radio stations Tokyo @-@ FM and JFN 38 Station on October 16 . It was originally set for release on October 14 , 2008 in the US , but was then pushed back to October 21 , 2008 .
" Eat You Up " was written by Remee and Thomas Troelsen , while production was handled by Henrik Jonback . It was programmed and contained background vocals by Troelsen , while mixing was handled by Anders Hvenare . Musically , the track was described as an electronic dance song with elements of R & B and pop music . Victoria Goldenberg from Purple Sky Magazine noted the songs " combination of grimy rhythms and staccato singing with the most melodic development of any track on the album . " Majority of the songs composition , including the use of synthesizers and keyboards , have been processed through a reverse filter . The use of drum machines was overlapped after the reverse filter was used on the demo version , and was mixed after its completion .
= = Critical reception = =
" Eat You Up " received positive reviews from most music critics . Patrick Sullivan from AllMusic was positive in his review , labelling it a " catchily electro " song ; Sullivan highlighted the song as an album stand out track , while David Hickey from the same publication selected the song as one of BoA 's best career moments . Staff members from Idolator listed the songs parent album on their " 13 Great Pop Albums That Were Overlooked and Underrated In Their Time " list . Reviewing the album , Bradley Stern highlighted the song as one of the best tracks and stated that the material " deserves so , so much more than the dust it was dealt . " Victoria Goldenberg from Purple Sky Magazine selected the song as the album 's best track . A staff member from CD Journal was positive in their review ; They commended the commercial appeal for its North American release , and praised the mixture of R & B and electronic music musical elements .
A reviewer from Selective Hearing was positive in his review . They praised the production and BoA 's English pronunciation , stating " The production as a whole has a bit of en edge to it which is a slight departure from the typical BoA song but it works ... Her pronunciation is miles above the English in her older songs . Her vocals are as strong as ever and even when the vocal effects are laid on thick her voice doesn ’ t get drowned in them . You can still hear her clearly . " Overall , the reviewer felt it was a great debut track for the North American audience . Asian Junkie member Random J reviewed the song on his personal blog site , and his response was mixed . He felt the song was " boring " and " bog standard " upon its release . However , he stated , " But in comparison to the rest of the album , the song is actually rather decent and a highlight . A definite grower . "
= = = Accolades = = =
" Eat You Up " was ranked at number six on Spin 's " 21 Greatest K @-@ Pop Songs of All Time " list ; they said , " Though “ Eat You Up ” didn ’ t take upon arrival , it ’ s hard to hear why a pop offering this muscular ( it ’ s got a chorus like a Clydesdale ) couldn ’ t put a dent on American charts right this second . " The song was recognized by Michael Fuhr , who wrote the book Globalization and Popular Music in South Korea : Sounding Out K @-@ Pop , as one of the first songs by a South Korean artist to be handled by Western and European artists . It was ranked at number 12 on Koreaboo 's Introduction to K @-@ Pop list . It was ranked at number six on Buzzfeed 's 21 Greatest Korean Pop Songs Ever list . It was ranked at number two on Allkpop 's seven greatest North American debuts .
= = Commercial response = =
Because of its digital release , it was ineligible to chart on Japan 's Oricon Singles Chart , making it BoA 's first single to not chart there since her 2005 single " Girls on Top " . Despite its online success throughout several digital retailers in North America , it has failed to chart on the US Billboard Hot 100 or the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart , or the Canadian Hot 100 . The single charted on US Dance Club Songs chart ; it debuted at number 42 and peaked at number 27 for the week ending December 27 , 2008 . It was present for seven weeks , before it reached its peak position of eight on the week end of February 7 . It fell to number 15 the following week end of February 14 . It slipped outside the top 20 on the week end of February 21 , and spent its final week at number 22 on the week end of February 28 . The song was present for 12 weeks on the chart . It remains her only top ten single on the Dance Club Songs chart , her only top ten in any US Billboard chart , and her longest charting single . As of May 2009 , Nielsen Soundscan confirmed that " Eat You Up " has sold over 28 @,@ 000 units in the United States .
= = Music videos = =
Two music videos were filmed for the single ; a North American version directed by American director Diane Martel , and an Asian video by Korean director Eun Taek Cha . Due to heavily speculation of its premiere , SM Entertainment revealed that they planned on using both music videos to promote the single under the titles Version A ( North American video ) and Version B ( Asian video ) . They said they never intended to use the Version A for Asia and Version B for North America , as they only labelled the videos as Version A and B. The North American video premiered in Japan on Mega Hits on October 17 , 2008 . Both videos were choreographed by Misha Gabriel and Flii Stylz respectively . The background dancers for both music videos are Nick Bass , Kenny Wormald and Trent Dickens .
The North American video starts with BoA standing in front of a window in a high @-@ rise building , showing close @-@ ups of her . The verse starts with her and backup dancers dancing on a deserted planet , with inter cut scenes of her singing in the high @-@ rise building . The second verse shows her singing to the male lead interest , with inter cut scenes of her singing the second verse in a snow globe setting . She sings the bridge while dancing on the planet with her dancers with closeup scenes of her as well as a clip of the sun rising . The final chorus shows BoA dancing by herself with a wall of graffiti behind her as well as the deserted planet during the daytime as it is becoming more violent with winds blowing about . The video ends with her name BoA being displayed as well as the title of the song " Eat You Up " .
The Asian video starts with BoA turning on a radio which starts the song . BoA starts to sing the song whilst dancing in the hallway of a large house . At the start of the second verse , a girl is doing ballet dancing in front a group of judges . When the chorus starts again BoA and her dancers breaks down the door and proceeds to dance in front of the judges . Due to the intensity of their dancing , they make cracks in the floor and cause a picture to fall from where it once stood . During the bridge , BoA is dancing alone and then switches back and she is dancing by herself in the faces of the judges . During the second chorus , things starts to explode such as a clock that was hanging from the wall , the male judge 's glasses and books start to fall from a bookcase . As the chorus ends most of the remaining windows break , the chandelier falls and a fire starts , which turn on the sprinklers . The video ends with BoA and her dancers leaving , and the room is left in destruction .
Both music videos received positive reviews from critics . Jun Eun @-@ Young , writing in his book The Korean Wave , commended BoA 's sexual image and felt its American appeal made it quite " infamous " . A staff member from Rap Up was positive , commending BoA 's " impressive moves " . Lorna Fitzsimmons and John A. Lent , writing in their book Asian Popular Culture in Transition , commended BoA 's dance moves and found that the directors " collaboration with various US @-@ basec artists clearly shows SM Entertainment 's attempt to recreate an Americanized @-@ localized BoA in the hope of accommodating her US pop customers tastes more easily . " It was ranked at number seven on Eat Your Kim Chi 's Seven Best SM Entertainment music videos .
= = Promotion and legacy = =
A remix of the single featured American rapper Flo Rida , which was slated for a November 2008 release . However , after the single was leaked online , the release was scrapped . BoA performed the song at YouTube 's Tokyo Live concert , and performed in New York City on December 3 , 2008 , as well as the Jingle Ball at the Anaheim Honda Center on December 6 , 2008 . She headlined as a performer for the San Francisco Pride Festival on June 28 , 2009 alongside Solange Knowles and The Cliks . She also performed the song , alongside " Energetic " and " I Did It for Love " . from the self @-@ titled studio album .
BoA performed the song on her Best & USA concert tour . It was later included on the live DVD for her studio album Identity ( 2010 ) . The song was performed on BoA 's Identity tour in Asia , where it was included during the first segment . It included on the live album , released on August 18 , 2010 . The song was performed on Here I Am tour in South Korea , where it was included during the first segment . It was included on the live DVD , released on July 2 , 2015 . The song was performed on BoA 's Who 's Back concert tour in Japan , where it was included during the first segment . It included on the live album , released on February 25 , 2015 . The song was performed on BoA 's Nowness concert tour in Japan , where it was included during the first segment .
" Eat You Up " was included on BoA 's double album Best & USA ( 2009 ) . " Eat You Up " , and BoA herself , have both been recognized by publications as a factor towards Korean Wave ; a neologism that justifies an immigration of the culture of South Korea into Western market and society . But despite BoA 's attempts to break into the Western market , particularly North America , such attempts did not succeed . Esther Oh , a freelance journalist writing for CNN , stated that BoA and another South Korean recording artist Se7en moved back to South Korea after their U.S. music careers struggled to gain traction . Oh labelled their attempts as " complete flops " .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of the promotional CD .
= = Charts and sales = =
= Broken ( Lifehouse song ) =
" Broken " is a song by American alternative band Lifehouse . It is the third single released from their fourth studio album , Who We Are ( 2007 ) . Lead singer Jason Wade was inspired to write the song after he visited a friend in Nashville who needed a kidney transplant . Originally released on June 18 , 2007 as the fifth track on Who We Are , the song was then edited for radio to give it more of a " rock " feel . The new radio version of the song was released via digital download on July 8 , 2008 .
The song received positive reviews from critics , as they applauded the use of instruments in the song . The song charted at number 83 and 84 in the United States and Canada respectively , and later charted in New Zealand at number 21 . The song 's music video premiered on VH1.com on September 16 , 2008 . It is set in the scene of a tunnel where Wade is walking away in the opposite direction of a car crash . Lifehouse has played " Broken " live on several occasions , including on Soundstage and at the 2011 Pinkpop Festival in the Netherlands . A seven @-@ minute extended version is often the final song in their concert setlist .
= = Background , release and composition = =
The song was written by Jason Wade , who originally finished the song in a hotel room after he visited a friend in Nashville who needed a kidney transplant . It was produced by John Fields and Scott Faircloff . In an interview with Alternative Addiction , Wade said , " Broken is the song that moves me the most . I wrote it in Nashville , about 6 months ago . I was in my hotel room at 3 AM , I was out there visiting a friend ... he ’ s really sick , he needs a kidney transplant . " Furthermore , he said , " That [ the ] song just kinda fell in my lap , and I really haven ’ t written a song like that since ' Hanging by a Moment ' where it just happened within a 15 minute time period . " Broken was released as the third single from the album on June 18 , 2007 . The song was then edited for radio to give it more of a " rock " feel and was released via digital download on July 8 , 2008 .
" Broken " was described as a pop @-@ rock song with influences of adult alternative . According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Sony / ATV Music Publishing , the song is set in common time with a slow tempo of 69 beats per minute . It is composed in the key of C major with Wade 's vocal range spanning from the low @-@ note of G3 to the high @-@ note of G5 . The song has a basic chord progression of F2 – Am7 – F2 – Am7 – F2 – Am7 – C / G – G. Alex Lai of Contactmusic.com described as a song " [ that ] features great string use and takes a tender tone " . A review from Alternative Addiction said that the song was one of the best Wade has ever written and noted " [ that ] the more you listen to it , the better it gets . "
= = Chart performance = =
In the United States , " Broken " debuted at number 95 on the Billboard Hot 100 for the week of November 8 , 2008 . It fluctuated on the chart for several weeks , before reaching its peak of 83 . The song debuted at number 70 on the Billboard Digital Songs chart and peaked at number 38 after being on the chart for three non @-@ consecutive weeks . On the Billboard Adult Pop Songs chart , the song debuted at number 38 for the week of August 2 , 2008 and after moving around the chart for 32 consecutive weeks , the song eventually peaked at number seven .
The song also charted internationally . " Broken " debuted at number 92 on the Canadian Hot 100 for the week of January 26 , 2008 . On July 26 , 2008 , the song reappeared in the chart and peaked at number 84 . It debuted at number 40 on the New Zealand Singles Chart for the week of May 26 , 2008 . After being on the chart for 13 consecutive weeks , the song eventually peaked at number 21 .
= = Promotion = =
= = = Music video = = =
The music video for " Broken " was filmed on August 24 , 2008 in Los Angeles and was directed by Kiefer Sutherland and Frank Borin . It first premiered on VH1.com on September 16 , 2008 . Wade and Sutherland then appeared together on the VH1 Top 20 Video Countdown on September 20 , 2008 to debut the music video on VH1 . In an interview with Ultimate Guitar , Wade described his experience with working with Sutherland by saying , " Whilst listening to the song a little while back , Kiefer came up with the video 's concept . Working with him was a great experience ; with all of the expressions and very moments , Kiefer was extremely hands on . With him handling direction , acting in the music video was extremely easy . "
The video starts with Wade in the drivers seat of a car , with the other members of Lifehouse in the car with him . The traffic is at a stand still in a tunnel , as a swarm of people have abandoned their vehicles and are walking through . Wade and the band members get out of the car , and begin walking in the opposite direction of the crowd to the other side of the tunnel . Wade pushes through the people , who are in a rush to get to the entrance of the tunnel and is constantly focused on his destination to get to the end . When he reaches the tunnel 's end , he sees the wreckage of a car crash with firefighters and paramedics cleaning up the mess . Wade then sees a girl observing what appears to be herself , dead inside one of the crashed car . He then looks to the left , and sees an old man observing himself , dead on the ground . As Wade looks into the other car , he sees himself , also seemingly dead . Upon this , he frantically runs back into the tunnel towards his car . He sees himself in the car with the band members , however everyone seems to be frozen as he bangs on the windows . Suddenly he 's inside the car again , and a police officer comes to the window to motion him to continue driving , since he is stopped in the middle of the tunnel for no apparent reason .
= = = Live performances = = =
Lifehouse performed " Broken " along with other songs on Nissan Live Sets on Yahoo ! Music in 2007 . On October 15 , 2007 , Lifehouse performed an acoustic version of the song on VH1 . In January 2008 , the band performed the song as part of a set list on the PBS show Soundstage . The song was also performed live at the 2011 Pinkpop Festival on June 11 , 2011 , as part of a set list of songs at the festival .
= = = Media appearances = = =
" Broken " was featured on General Hospital , Criminal Minds , Grey 's Anatomy and One Tree Hill .
The song was used in the trailer for The Time Traveler 's Wife .
= = = Cover versions = = =
Daniel Evans , a finalist on series 5 of The X Factor ( UK ) recorded a mellow contemporary version and was a standout track on his 2013 iTunes EP " Reflections "
In 2016 , Trisha Yearwood covered the song for the soundtrack to the U.S. version of The Passion and performed the song during the live broadcast for the special . Her version peaked at number 48 on the Billboard Hot Christian Songs chart , and # 20 on the Billboard A / C Chart
= = Credits and personnel = =
Songwriting – Jason Wade
Production – Jason Wade , Jude Cole
Mixing – Thom Panunzio , Jack Joseph Puig , Florian Ammon , Keith Armstrong , Dean Nelson , Jeff Rothschild
Engineering – Florian Ammon , Scott Faircloff , Ross Hogarth , Will Sandalls
Credits and personnel adapted from Allmusic .
= = Charts = =
= Battle record of Arthur Wellesley , 1st Duke of Wellington =
Field Marshal Arthur Wellesley , 1st Duke of Wellington , KG , GCB , GCH , PC , FRS ( 1 May 1769 – 14 September 1852 ) , was one of the leading British military and political figures of the 19th century . Often referred to as " The Duke of Wellington " , he led a successful military career during the Napoleonic Wars .
Starting his career in 1787 as a commissioned officer in the infantry , before seeing his first action in the Flanders Campaign , Wellesley rose in rank by purchasing his first four commissions , as was common practice in the British Army for wealthy officers . His continued rise in status and fame thereafter was the result of his ability as a commander .
Between 1794 and 1815 Wellesley participated in a number of military campaigns where he achieved tactical , strategic , and decisive victories in India and across six countries of western Europe . He faced and defeated many of Napoleon 's marshals as the commander in chief of the Anglo @-@ Portuguese Army during the Peninsular War , but his best known battle was at Waterloo in 1815 where he led an Anglo @-@ Allied force to a decisive victory over Napoleon I. It was to be his last battle .
= = Military career = =
There is speculation by historians and biographers about how many battles Wellington actually participated in during his career . Military historian , Ian Fletcher , identifies twenty @-@ four major battles and sieges involving the British Army between 1808 and 1815 with Wellington in command of seventeen . Military historian , Mark Adkin , comments that " Wellington had fought in some twenty @-@ four battles and sieges prior to Waterloo " . Although this is easily contested , the precise number of battles may never be known . It can be established from records , dispatches and reports dating back to the events that he was present in at least fifty separate military actions , including an assortment of meeting engagements , pitched battles , sieges , skirmishes and minor engagements , throughout his career . He also ordered countless other remote engagements mostly whilst serving in the Napoleonic Wars , during which Britain played a major role in securing Europe against French occupation , between 1805 and 1815 .
= = = Commissions and promotions = = =
Wellington was gazetted ensign on 7 March 1787 , in the 73rd ( Highland ) Regiment of Foot , and became an aide @-@ de @-@ camp in October . He purchased his commission to lieutenant on 25 December 1787 , in the 76th Regiment . As a junior officer he transferred to the 41st Regiment soon after to avoid duty in the East Indies , and in June 1789 transferred again , to the 12th ( Prince of Wales 's ) Light Dragoons cavalry regiment . He obtained his commission to captain on 30 June 1791 , in the 58th ( Rutlandshire ) Regiment , having served the regulation minimum of three years , and again to major on 30 April 1793 , in the 33rd ( First Yorkshire West Riding ) Regiment , having served six years . He purchased his final commission to lieutenant @-@ colonel on 30 September 1793 , at the age of 24 . From there on further promotion could only be attained through seniority , per Army Regulations .
In September 1794 , Wellesley experienced his first battle , against the French , at the Battle of Boxtel with the 33rd . His promotion to colonel , on 3 May 1796 , came by seniority , and in June he was sent with the 33rd to India . In 1799 he fought in the Fourth Anglo @-@ Mysore War , commanding three victorious actions with the British East India Company . After winning the war , and serving as governor of Seringapatam and Mysore , Wellesley was promoted to major @-@ general on 29 April 1802 , although he did not receive the news until September . Whilst in India he wrote of his regiment " I have commanded them for nearly ten years during which I have scarcely been away from them and I have always found them to be the quietest and best behaved body of men in the army . "
Wellesley gained further success in India during the Second Anglo @-@ Maratha War of 1803 – 05 , and in 1806 Wellesley succeeded the Marquis Cornwallis as Colonel of the 33rd , which he held until 1813 . By 1807 , Napoleon 's attempt to prevent continental Europe from trading with Britain had resulted in all but Sweden , Denmark and Portugal closing their ports . In June 1807 , Napoleon pressured Denmark further , resulting in the British naval bombardment of Copenhagen and seizure of the Danish fleet to prevent it from falling into French hands . Wellesley 's brief role against Danish land forces at the Battle of Køge helped secure Denmark . Wellesley later disapproved of the bombardment , saying " we might have taken the capital with greater ease " . He was promoted to lieutenant @-@ general on 25 April 1808 , and in June was given command of 9 @,@ 000 men set to invade revolutionary Spanish America . But in 1807 , Napoleon had invaded Portugal , via Spain , intent on preventing its continued trade with Britain , but replaced the Spanish royal family with his own brother , Joseph Bonaparte , in May 1808 . In Madrid , the Spanish resisted the French occupation , leading the Portuguese to call on British support . In August 1808 , Wellesley entered the Peninsular War with 15 @,@ 000 men .
When the head of the British forces in the Peninsula , Sir John Moore , was killed in the Battle of Corunna in January 1809 , the British Army having been driven from the Peninsula in disarray , Wellington sent the Secretary of War a memo insisting that a British force of no less than 30 @,@ 000 British troops should be sent to defend and rebuild Portugal 's military strength . His proposal was approved and he re @-@ embarked to Lisbon on 16 April 1809 , where he was appointed to head of the forces in Portugal – a motion supported by the government and Prince Regent George IV , as Wellington did not hold seniority .
On 31 July 1811 , he was promoted to general , although it only applied in the Peninsula . His final promotion to field marshal came on 21 June 1813 , following his success at the Battle of Vitoria which had broken the remaining French hold in Spain . Wellington was awarded with a Marshal 's baton – partially designed by the Prince Regent himself – the first of its kind in the Britain Army .
= = = Allied commander = = =
Wellington was appointed head of all British forces from April 1809 , following the death of Sir John Moore , and due to the second invasion of Portugal by the French he remained to continue the Peninsular War for a further five years , engaging the French armies across Portugal , Spain , and north into France until Napoleon 's abdication in 1814 . He returned to Europe in 1815 appointed overall commander of the Anglo @-@ Allied forces of the Seventh Coalition , better known as the Hundred Days , following Napoleon 's escape from exile and attempt to retain power .
Despite many battles to his name , over twenty @-@ one years of duty , it would be shortly after the battle at Waterloo upon hearing of approximately 50 @,@ 000 casualties dead or dying that he wept , saying " I hope to God I have fought my last battle " . It had been a close victory at such great cost that it broke his fighting spirit , and marked the end of his long service overseas with a notable military career . He returned to British politics and became a leading statesman . He was appointed Master @-@ General of the Ordnance ( 1819 – 27 ) and Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Forces ( 1827 – 28 / 1842 – 52 ) , but Wellington did not fight again .
= = Generalship = =
Wellington 's understanding of logistics was to prove valuable in leading an expeditionary force against the French invasion of Portugal and Spain . He was adept at planning long marches through unknown territory , understanding that he not only had thousands of men to manage efficiently , but that a huge amount of supplies were required to adequately feed and sustain his army . Secure supply lines to the Portuguese coast were of vital importance if he was to maintain his ability to fight the French .
In April 1809 , Wellington returned to Portugal with 28 @,@ 000 British and 16 @,@ 000 Portuguese troops under his command – the French Army of Spain numbered 360 @,@ 000 . Despite many French troops having been dispersed to garrisons across Spain or located to protect supply and communication lines , even with the Portuguese Army and militia , and remnants of the Spanish Army and guerrillas to support him , Wellington faced overwhelming odds . Throughout the Peninsular War the number of soldiers enlisted in Britain rarely exceeded 40 @,@ 000 , though Wellington had some 57 @,@ 000 British soldiers under his command at Vitoria in 1813 . He also had the men of the King 's German Legion ( KGL ) and the British @-@ trained Portuguese Army under his command . Many British politicians were opposed to the war in Europe and favoured withdrawal , which hampered its will to muster a larger force to defeat Napoleon . This served in sharpening Wellington 's awareness that a defensive strategy was essential , initially , to ensure the British Army survived . At Waterloo , of his roughly 73 @,@ 000 strong army , around 26 @,@ 000 ( 36 percent ) were British , though this relatively low number was due to the majority of his Peninsular veterans being shipped elsewhere after Napoleon 's first abdication , many being sent to North America to serve in the final months of the war against the United States .
Wellington faced armies formed from the disbanded French Grande Armée , once an overpowering force , which having conquered Europe and expanded the French Empire had been led by Napoleon and his marshals since 1804 . It had been reformed into multiple smaller and more mobile armies from October 1808 . In the Peninsula the French were grouped into multiple armies , each operating chiefly in its own area , in order to secure Portugal and Spain . These forces were commanded by French marshals , senior generals chosen for elevation by Napoleon himself . Though these armies were under the nomiminal command of Napoleon 's brother , King Joseph Bonaparte , the marshals commanded their armies with a high degree of independence . Wellington arrived in Lisbon in 1809 with an army composed mostly of volunteers . British troops were better trained than their French counterparts and were required to repeatedly practice firing with live rounds before encountering combat . Napoleon only personally campaigned in Spain once , between October 1808 and January 1809 , taking most of his Guard and many élite troops with him when he left . After the disastrous failure of the invasion of Russia , Napoleon weakened his forces in Spain in early 1813 by redeploying many veteran troops from the Peninsula to Germany to shore up his losses . Subsequently , many of the remaining troops became a second line in quality , experience and equipment – some new recruits were often not French .
Wellington 's army consisted of four combat arms : Infantry , cavalry and artillery . Engineers also played a valuable role in the Peninsula , such as the building of the Lines of Torres Vedras – a defensive line of forts built to protect Lisbon – and making preparations for any sieges throughout the war . Wellington 's main combat arm was his well @-@ trained infantry . He never had more than 2 @,@ 000 cavalry before 1812 and his cannons , although highly competent , were inferior to French guns in both number and quality . It was with this force that Wellington aimed to defend Portugal until he took to an offensive strategy in 1812 , beating the French at the Salamanca . He advanced on to Madrid , arriving on 12 August 1812 – Joseph Bonaparte had abandoned the capital after the defeat at Salamanca .
The Spanish government made Wellington commander @-@ in @-@ chief of all allied armies , providing an extra 21 @,@ 000 Spanish troops after Salamanca . Although not completely undefeated he never lost a major battle . His greatest defeat came at the Siege of Burgos in 1812 , where he had hoped to prevent French forces concentrating . After losing 2 @,@ 000 men and causing only 600 French casualties he was forced to raise the siege and retreat , calling it " the worst scrape I was ever in . " Retiring to winter quarters , where he received reinforcements that brought his regular army up to 75 @,@ 000 men , Wellington began his final offensive in June 1813 . He advanced north , through the Pyrenees , and into France itself . The French were no longer fighting to keep Spain but to defend their own border .
Ultimately , between the battles of Roliça ( August 1808 ) and Toulouse ( April 1814 ) , the war against the French lasted for six years , with Wellington finally managing to drive the French from the Iberian Peninsula . Shortly thereafter , on 12 April 1814 , word reached Wellington that Napoleon had abdicated on 6 April . The war on the Peninsula was over . Wellington and his army had marched over an estimated 6 @,@ 000 miles ( 9 @,@ 656 km ) and fought in many engagements through Portugal and Spain , the consequences of which helped bring the downfall of Napoleon , resulting in peace across Europe .
= = Battle record = =
There are a large number of battles attributed to Wellington . Although many leave the impression that he was present or in command at those actions , it was sometimes the case that he entrusted other officers to engage the enemy , such as at remote locations , and that he could not have attended them all in person . Similarly , Wellington was not usually in command of rear guard actions , during advances or retreats , despite his army engaging in them often . Engagements where the lack of his presence is absolutely certain , or where his position is unconfirmed by records and accounts , are not included in his battle record .
Key to opponent flags
Key to outcome
* Indicates a decisive victory
= Hurricane Manuel =
Hurricane Manuel ( pronounced / mænˈwɛl , mɑːn- , ˌmænuˈɛl , -ju- / ) was a destructive tropical cyclone that brought widespread flooding across much of Mexico in September 2013 . The fifteenth named storm and seventh hurricane in the Eastern Pacific that year , Manuel originated from a strong area of low pressure south of Acapulco on September 13 . Within favorable conditions aloft , the storm intensified into a tropical storm as it tracked northward . The following day , Manuel curved westward and strengthened to a point just shy of hurricane intensity before making its first landfall at that intensity on September 15 . Due to interaction with land , the tropical storm quickly weakened , and its center dissipated over western Mexico on September 16 . However , the storm 's remnants continued to track northwestward into the Gulf of California , where they reorganized into a tropical cyclone the next day . Manuel regained tropical storm status on September 18 as it began to curve northeastward . Shortly thereafter , Manuel attained hurricane intensity , before making its final landfall just west of Culiacán at peak intensity . Over land , Manuel quickly weakened due to interaction with Mexico 's high terrain , and the storm dissipated early on September 20 .
Due to the impending threat of Manuel , several Mexican municipalities were put under disaster alerts . Upon making its first landfall , Manuel caused extreme flooding in southern Mexico . Property and agricultural damage as a result of the system was widespread , and roughly one million people were estimated to have been directly affected . In Guerrero , 97 people perished , including 18 in Acapulco . Seventy @-@ one others died due to a mudslide in La Pintada . In Guerrero alone , around 30 @,@ 000 homes were damaged and 46 rivers overflowed their banks . There , 20 @,@ 000 persons were evacuated to shelters . Statewide , repairs to damage from the storm totaled MXN $ 3 billion ( $ 230 million USD ) . Other impacts from Manuel spread as far east as the Isthmus of Tehuantepec , where 300 families were displaced . In the region , at least 11 @,@ 591 homes were destroyed by the floods . Meanwhile , the nation sustained additional impacts from Atlantic Hurricane Ingrid .
After its second landfall , additional floods occurred in several towns , and in Sinaloa over 100 @,@ 000 people were rendered homeless and four people died . As a result of Manuel 's impacts , 107 municipalities were declared disaster regions . Damage in Sinaloa totaled MXN $ 500 million ( US $ 37 @.@ 9 million ) . The Mexican Army was dispatched in several locations to aid in post @-@ tropical cyclone relief operations . Following the storm , looting in heavily impacted areas became commonplace , and as such government forces were also dispatched to prevent further looting . Overall , 123 people lost their lives in Mexico while damage exceeded MXN $ 55 billion ( US $ 4 @.@ 2 billion ) .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of Manuel can be traced back to a tropical wave that left the African continent in late August . The wave entered the Caribbean Sea on September 5 , although the northern portion of the wave axis later developed into Hurricane Ingrid . On September 10 , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) remarked the potential for a low @-@ pressure area to develop off the southwest coast of Mexico during the subsequent few days , provided the system remained offshore . The next day , a low formed while it was nearly stationary , accompanied by scattered convection . Strong wind shear and proximity to land were expected to limit development , although conditions became more favorable on September 12 . On that day , the convection became better organized . At 1200 UTC on September 13 , the NHC initiated advisories on Tropical Depression Thirteen @-@ E , noting that the system had enough of a well @-@ defined circulation and convection . By that time , wind shear had diminished and warm waters were expected to allow intensification , and the main inhibiting factors for development were proximity to Mexico and association with the intertropical convergence zone .
Within a few hours of developing , the depression quickly intensified into Tropical Storm Manuel . By early on September 14 , an eye feature developed as rainbands increased . However , Manuel was embedded within a broad weather system that extended from the eastern Pacific across Mexico , which included Hurricane Ingrid in the Bay of Campeche on the Gulf of Mexico coast . The broad system , including Manuel , moved generally northward . By early on September 15 , Manuel had developed a central dense overcast , with a 17 mi ( 28 km ) wide eye in the center . Based on the structure and satellite @-@ intensity estimates , the NHC estimated Manuel attained secondary peak winds of 70 mph ( 115 km / h ) , just shy of hurricane status . The agency noted the potential for further strengthening into a hurricane , citing the warm waters , moist environment , and low shear . A break in the subtropical ridge to the north allowed the storm to initially continue generally to the north @-@ northeast , but after attaining its secondary peak , Manuel turned back to the northwest while accelerating . On September 15 , Manuel made landfall near Aquila in Michoacán as a high @-@ end tropical storm , though operationally , it was believed to have moved ashore near Manzanillo in Colima . Early on September 16 , the storm weakened into a tropical depression after the circulation became disrupted , although it continued dropping heavy rainfall . Later that day , the surface center dissipated over western Mexico .
The remnants of Manuel tracked northwest around a ridge situated over the southeastern United States , and late on September 16 , emerged over open waters . Despite only marginally favorable conditions , convection soon increased over the center . At 1800 UTC on September 17 Manuel regenerated into a tropical depression after redeveloping a well @-@ defined circulation . Furthermore , conditions favored additional strengthening as the system tracked slowly northwestward around a ridge , although the cyclone was expected to move onshore the Baja California Peninsula in a few days . Although the convection was initially ragged , Manuel re @-@ intensified into a tropical storm on September 18 . Later that day , an eye developed in the center of the increasingly organizing convection , and at 0000 UTC on September 19 , Manuel became a hurricane . It thus became the first eastern North Pacific tropical cyclone since records began in 1949 to make landfall in mainland Mexico , and later redevelop into a hurricane . The storm shifted more to the north , resulting in land interaction earlier than anticipated . Around 1200 UTC on September 19 , Manuel made landfall just west of Culiacán as a minimal hurricane . Moving over the high terrain of western Mexico , Manuel quickly weakened into a tropical storm . The circulation dissipated at 0000 UTC on September 20 , over the Sierra Madre Occidental mountain range .
= = Preparations = =
On the afternoon of September 13 , a tropical storm warning was issued from Acapulco to Lázaro Cárdenas , Michoacán . Thirty @-@ six hours later , a hurricane warning was issued from Lázaro Cárdenas to Manzanillo as the system was expected to become a hurricane prior to landfall . Later on Sepemteber 15 , a tropical storm watch was declared north of the hurricane warning . By early the next day , all watches and warnings were no longer in effect . In addition to the
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actor in The Man Who Laughs , [ the 1928 movie based on the novel ] by Victor Hugo . ... Bill Finger had a book with a photograph of Conrad Veidt and showed it to me and said , ' Here 's the Joker ' . Jerry Robinson had absolutely nothing to do with it , but he 'll always say he created it till he dies . He brought in a playing card , which we used for a couple of issues for him [ the Joker ] to use as his playing card .
Robinson credited himself , Finger and Kane for the Joker 's creation . He said he created the character as Batman 's larger @-@ than @-@ life nemesis when extra stories were quickly needed for Batman # 1 , and he received credit for the story in a college course :
In that first meeting when I showed them that sketch of the Joker , Bill said it reminded him of Conrad Veidt in The Man Who Laughs . That was the first mention of it ... He can be credited and Bob himself , we all played a role in it . The concept was mine . Bill finished that first script from my outline of the persona and what should happen in the first story . He wrote the script of that , so he really was co @-@ creator , and Bob and I did the visuals , so Bob was also .
Although Kane adamantly refused to share credit for many of his characters ( and refuted Robinson 's claim until Kane 's death ) , many comic historians credit Robinson with the Joker 's creation and Finger with the character 's development . By 2011 , Finger , Kane , and Robinson had died , leaving the story unresolved .
= = = Golden Age = = =
The Joker debuted in Batman # 1 ( 1940 ) as the eponymous character 's first villain , shortly after Batman 's debut in Detective Comics # 27 ( May 1939 ) . The Joker initially appeared as a remorseless serial killer , modeled after a joker playing card with a mirthless grin , who killed his victims with " Joker venom " : a toxin which left their faces smiling grotesquely . The character was intended to be killed in his second appearance in Batman # 1 , after being stabbed in the heart . Finger wanted the Joker to die because of his concern that recurring villains would make Batman appear inept , but was overruled by then @-@ editor Whitney Ellsworth ; a hastily drawn panel , indicating that the Joker was still alive , was added to the comic . The Joker went on to appear in nine of Batman 's first twelve issues .
The character 's regular appearances quickly defined him as the archenemy of the dynamic duo , Batman and Robin ; he killed dozens of people , and even derailed a train . By issue # 13 , Kane 's work on the syndicated Batman newspaper strip left him little time for the comic book ; artist Dick Sprang assumed his duties , and editor Jack Schiff collaborated with Finger on stories . Around the same time , DC Comics found it easier to market its stories to children without the more mature pulp elements that had originated many superhero comics . During this period , the first changes in the Joker began to appear , portraying him more as a prankster than threat ; when he kidnaps Robin , Batman pays the ransom by check , meaning that the Joker cannot cash it without being arrested . Comic book writer Mark Waid suggests that the 1942 story " The Joker Walks the Last Mile " was the beginning point for the character 's transformation into a more goofy incarnation , a period that Grant Morrison considered lasted the following thirty years .
The 1942 cover of Detective Comics # 69 , known as " Double Guns " ( with the Joker emerging from a genie lamp , aiming two guns at Batman and Robin ) , is considered one of the greatest superhero comic covers of the Golden Age and is the only image of the character using traditional guns . Robinson said that other contemporary villains used guns , and the creative team wanted the Joker — as Batman 's adversary — to be more resourceful .
= = = Silver Age = = =
The Joker was one of the few popular villains appearing regularly in Batman comics from the Golden Age into the Silver Age , as the series continued during the rise in popularity of mystery and romance comics . In 1951 , Finger wrote an origin story for the Joker in Detective Comics # 168 , which introduced the characteristic of him formerly being the criminal Red Hood , and his disfigurement the result of a fall into a chemical vat .
By 1954 , the Comics Code Authority had been established in response to increasing public disapproval of comic book content . The backlash was inspired by Frederic Wertham , who hypothesized that mass media ( especially comic books ) was responsible for the rise in juvenile delinquency , violence and homosexuality , particularly in young males . Parents forbade their children from reading comic books , and there were several mass burnings . The Comics Code banned gore , innuendo and excessive violence , stripping Batman of his menace and transforming the Joker into a goofy , thieving trickster without his original homicidal tendencies .
The character appeared less frequently after 1964 , when Julius Schwartz ( who disliked the Joker ) became editor of the Batman comics . The character risked becoming an obscure figure of the preceding era until this goofy prankster version of the character was adapted into the 1966 television series Batman , in which he was played by Cesar Romero . The show 's popularity compelled Schwartz to keep the comics in a similar vein . As the show 's popularity waned , however , so did that of the Batman comics . After the TV series ended in 1968 , the increase in public visibility had not stopped the comic 's sales decline ; editorial director Carmine Infantino resolved to turn things around , moving stories away from schoolboy @-@ friendly adventures . The Silver Age introduced several of the Joker 's defining character traits : lethal joy buzzers , acid @-@ squirting flowers , trick guns , and goofy , elaborate crimes .
= = = Bronze Age = = =
In 1973 , after a four @-@ year disappearance , the Joker was revived ( and revised ) by writer Dennis O 'Neil and artist Neal Adams . Beginning with Batman # 251 's " The Joker 's Five @-@ Way Revenge " , the character returns to his roots as an impulsive , homicidal maniac who matches wits with Batman . This story began a trend in which the Joker was used , sparingly , as a central character . O 'Neil said his idea was " simply to take it back to where it started . I went to the DC library and read some of the early stories . I tried to get a sense of what Kane and Finger were after . " O 'Neil 's 1973 run introduced the idea of the Joker being legally insane , to explain why the character is sent to Arkham Asylum ( introduced by O 'Neil in 1974 as Arkham Hospital ) instead of to prison . Adams modified the Joker 's appearance , changing his more average figure by extending his jaw and making him taller and leaner .
DC Comics was a hotbed of experimentation during the 1970s , and in 1975 the character became the first villain to feature as the title character in a comic book series , The Joker . The series followed the character 's interactions with other supervillains , and the first issue was written by O 'Neil . Stories balanced between emphasizing the Joker 's criminality and making him a likable protagonist whom readers could support . Although he murdered thugs and civilians , he never fought Batman ; this made The Joker a series in which the character 's villainy prevailed over rival villains , instead of a struggle between good and evil . Because the Comics Code Authority mandated punishment for villains , each issue ended with the Joker being apprehended , limiting the scope of each story . The series never found an audience , and The Joker was cancelled after nine issues ( despite a " next issue " advertisement for an appearance by the Justice League ) . The complete series became difficult to obtain over time , often commanding high prices from collectors . In 2013 , DC Comics reissued the series as a graphic novel .
When Jenette Kahn became DC editor in 1976 , she redeveloped the company 's struggling titles ; during her tenure , the Joker would become one of DC 's most popular characters . While O 'Neil and Adams ' work was critically acclaimed , writer Steve Englehart and penciller Marshall Rogers 's eight @-@ issue run in Detective Comics # 471 @-@ 476 ( August 1977 @-@ April 1978 ) defined the Joker for decades to come with stories emphasizing the character 's insanity . In " The Laughing Fish " , the Joker disfigures fish with a rictus grin resembling his own ( expecting copyright protection ) , and is unable to understand that copyrighting a natural resource is legally impossible . Englehart and Rogers ' work on the series influenced the 1989 film Batman , and was adapted for 1992 's Batman : The Animated Series . Rogers expanded on Adams ' character design , drawing the Joker with a fedora and trench coat . Englehart outlined how he understood the character by saying that the Joker " was this very crazy , scary character . I really wanted to get back to the idea of Batman fighting insane murderers at 3 a.m. under the full moon , as the clouds scuttled by . "
= = = Modern Age = = =
Years after the end of the 1966 television series , sales of Batman continued to fall and the title was nearly canceled . Although the 1970s restored the Joker as an insane , lethal foe of Batman , it was during the 1980s that the Batman series started to turn around and the Joker came into his own as part of the " dark age " of comics : mature tales of death and destruction . The shift was derided for moving away from tamer superheroes ( and villains ) , but comic audiences were no longer primarily children . Several months after Crisis on Infinite Earths launched the era by killing off Silver @-@ Age icons such as the Flash and Supergirl and undoing decades of continuity , Frank Miller 's The Dark Knight Returns ( 1986 ) re @-@ imagined Batman as an older , retired hero and the Joker as a lipstick @-@ wearing celebrity who cannot function without his foe . The late 1980s saw the Joker exert a significant impact on Batman and his supporting cast . In the 1988 – 89 story arc " A Death in the Family " , the Joker murders Batman 's sidekick ( the second Robin , Jason Todd ) . Todd was unpopular with fans ; rather than modify his character , DC opted to let them vote for his fate and a 28 @-@ vote plurality had the Joker beat Todd to death with a crowbar . This story altered the Batman universe : instead of killing anonymous bystanders , the Joker murdered a core character in the Batman fiction ; this had a lasting effect on future stories . Written at the height of tensions between the United States and Iran , the story 's conclusion had Iranian leader Ayatollah Khomeini appoint the Joker his country 's ambassador to the United Nations ( allowing him to temporarily escape justice ) .
Alan Moore and Brian Bolland 's 1988 graphic novel The Killing Joke expands on the Joker 's origins , describing the character as a failed comedian who adopts the identity of Red Hood to support his pregnant wife . Unlike The Dark Knight Returns , The Killing Joke takes place in mainstream continuity . The novel is described by critics as one of the greatest Joker stories ever written , influencing later comic stories ( including the forced retirement of then @-@ Batgirl Barbara Gordon after she is paralyzed by the Joker ) and films such as 1989 's Batman and 2008 's The Dark Knight . Grant Morrison 's 1989 Arkham Asylum : A Serious House on Serious Earth explores the psychoses of Batman , the Joker and other rogues in the eponymous facility .
The 1992 animated series introduced the Joker 's female sidekick : Harley Quinn , a psychiatrist who falls for — and ends up in an abusive relationship with — the Joker , becoming his supervillain accomplice . The character was popular , and was adapted into the comics as the Joker 's romantic interest in 1999 . In the same year , Alan Grant and Norm Breyfogle 's comic book Anarky concluded with the revelation that the titular character was the Joker 's son . Breyfogle conceived the idea as a means to expand on Anarky 's characterization , but O 'Neil ( by then the editor for the Batman series of books ) was opposed to it , and only allowed it to be written under protest , and with a promise that the revelation would eventually be revealed incorrect . However , the Anarky series was cancelled before the rebuttal could be published . The Joker 's first major storyline in The New 52 , DC Comics ' 2011 reboot of story continuity , was 2012 's " Death of the Family " by writer Scott Snyder and artist Greg Capullo . The story arc explores the symbiotic relationship between Joker and Batman , and sees the villain shatter the trust between Batman and his adopted family . Capullo 's Joker design replaced his traditional outfit with a utilitarian , messy , and disheveled appearance to convey that the character was on a mission ; his face ( surgically removed in 2011 's Detective Comics # 1 ) was reattached with belts , wires , and hooks , and he was outfitted with mechanics overalls . The Joker 's face was restored in Snyder 's and Capullo 's " Endgame " ( 2014 ) , the concluding chapter to " Death of the Family " , which featured the deaths of Joker and Batman .
= = Character biography = =
The Joker has undergone many revisions since his 1940 debut . The most common interpretation of the character is that he is disguised as the criminal Red Hood , and pursued by Batman . The Joker falls into a vat of chemicals which bleaches his skin , colors his hair green and his lips red , and drives him insane . The reasons why the Joker was disguised as the Red Hood , and his identity before his transformation have changed over time .
The character was introduced in Batman # 1 ( 1940 ) , in which he announces that he will kill three of Gotham 's prominent citizens ( including Mayor Henry Claridge ) . Although the police protect Claridge , the Joker had poisoned him before making his announcement and Claridge dies with a ghastly grin on his face ; Batman eventually defeats him , sending him to prison . The Joker commits whimsical , brutal crimes for reasons that , in Batman 's words , " make sense to him alone " . Detective Comics # 168 ( 1951 ) introduced the Joker 's first origin story as Red Hood : a criminal who , during his final heist , vanishes after leaping into a vat of chemicals to escape Batman . His resulting disfigurement led him to adopt the name " Joker " , from the playing card figure he came to resemble . The Joker 's Silver @-@ Age transformation into a figure of fun was established in 1952 's " The Joker 's Millions " . In this story the Joker is obsessed with maintaining his illusion of wealth and celebrity as a criminal folk hero , afraid to let Gotham 's citizens know that he is penniless and was tricked out of his fortune . The 1970s redefined the character as a homicidal psychopath . " The Joker 's Five @-@ Way Revenge " has the Joker taking violent revenge on the former gang members who betrayed him ; in " The Laughing Fish " the character chemically adds his face to Gotham 's fish ( hoping to profit from a copyright ) , killing bureaucrats who stand in his way .
Batman : The Killing Joke ( 1988 ) built on the Joker 's 1951 origin story , portraying him as a failed comedian pressured into committing crime as the Red Hood to support his pregnant wife . Batman 's interference causes him to leap into a chemical vat , which disfigures him . This , combined with the trauma of his wife 's earlier accidental death , causes him to go insane and become the Joker . However , the Joker says that this story may not be true and prefers his past to be " multiple choice " . In this graphic novel , the Joker shoots and paralyzes Barbara Gordon and tortures her father , Commissioner James Gordon , to prove that it only takes one bad day to drive a normal man insane . After Batman rescues Gordon and subdues the Joker , he offers to rehabilitate his old foe and end their rivalry . Although the Joker refuses , he shows his appreciation by sharing a joke with Batman .
The character 's maiming of Barbara arguably turned her into a more @-@ important character in the DC Universe : Oracle , a data gatherer and superhero informant who has her revenge in Birds of Prey by shattering the Joker 's teeth and destroying his smile . In the 1988 story " A Death in the Family " , the Joker beats Jason Todd with a crowbar and leaves him to die in an explosion . Todd 's death haunts Batman , and for the first time he considers killing the Joker . The Joker temporarily escapes justice when Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini appoints him the Iranian ambassador to the United Nations , giving him diplomatic immunity . However , when he tries to poison the UN membership , he is brought down by Batman and Superman .
In the 1999 " No Man 's Land " storyline , the Joker murders Commissioner Gordon 's second wife , Sarah , as she shields a group of infants . He taunts Gordon , who shoots him in the kneecap . The Joker , lamenting that he may never walk again , collapses with laughter when he realizes that the commissioner has avenged Barbara 's paralysis . This story also introduced the Joker 's girlfriend , Harley Quinn .
The 2000s began with the crossover story " Emperor Joker " , in which the Joker steals Mister Mxyzptlk 's reality @-@ altering power and remakes the universe in his image ( torturing and killing Batman daily , before resurrecting him ) . When the supervillain then tries to destroy the universe , his reluctance to eliminate Batman makes him lose control and Superman defeats him . Broken by his experience , Batman 's experiences of death are transferred to Superman by the Spectre so he can heal mentally . In " Joker 's Last Laugh " ( 2001 ) , the doctors at Arkham Asylum convince the character that he is dying in an attempt to rehabilitate him . Instead , the Joker ( flanked by an army of " Jokerized " supervillains ) launches a final crime spree . Believing that Robin ( Tim Drake ) has been killed in the chaos , Dick Grayson beats the Joker to death ( although Batman revives his foe to keep Grayson from being a murderer ) and the character succeeds in making a member of the Bat @-@ family break their rule against killing .
In " Under the Hood " ( 2005 ) , a resurrected Todd tries to force Batman to avenge his death by killing the Joker ( who enjoys their conflict more than killing Todd ) . Batman refuses , arguing that if allows himself to kill the Joker , he will not be able to stop killing other criminals . The Joker kills Alexander Luthor in Infinite Crisis ( 2005 ) for excluding him from the Secret Society of Super Villains , which considers him too unpredictable for membership . In Morrison 's " Batman and Son " ( 2006 ) , a deranged police officer who impersonates Batman shoots the Joker in the face , scarring and disabling him . The supervillain returns in " The Clown at Midnight " ( 2007 ) as a cruel , enigmatic force who awakens and tries to kill Harley Quinn to prove to Batman that he has become more than human . In the 2008 story arc " Batman R.I.P. " the Joker is recruited by the Black Glove to destroy Batman but betrays the group , killing its members one by one . After Batman 's apparent death in " Final Crisis " ( 2008 ) , Grayson investigates a series of murders ( which leads him to a disguised Joker ) . The Joker is arrested , and then @-@ Robin Damian Wayne beats him with a crowbar ( paralleling Todd 's murder ) . When the Joker escapes , he attacks the Black Glove , burying its leader ( Simon Hurt ) alive after the supervillain considers him a failure as an opponent ; the Joker is then defeated by the recently returned Batman .
In DC 's New 52 , a 2011 relaunch of its titles following Flashpoint , the Joker has his own face cut off . He disappears for a year , returning to launch an attack on Batman 's extended family in " Death of the Family " so he and Batman can be the best hero and villain they can be . At the end of the storyline , the Joker falls off a cliff into a dark abyss . The Joker returns in the 2014 storyline " Endgame " , the Joker , believing that Batman has betrayed their relationship , mind controls the Justice League into attacking Batman . The story implies that the Joker is immortal — having existed for centuries in Gotham causing tragedies — and is able to regenerate from mortal injuries . " Endgame " restores the Joker 's face , and also reveals that he knows Batman 's secret identity . The story ends with the deaths of Batman and the Joker at each other 's hands .
= = = Origins = = =
Though a number of backstories have been given , a definitive one has not yet been established for the Joker . An unreliable narrator , the character is uncertain of who he was before and how he became the Joker : " Sometimes I remember it one way , sometimes another ... if I 'm going to have a past , I prefer it to be multiple choice ! " A story about the Joker 's origin appeared in Detective Comics # 168 ( February 1951 ) , nearly a decade after the character 's debut . Here , the character is a laboratory worker who becomes the Red Hood ( a masked criminal ) to steal a million dollars from his employer and retire . He falls into a vat of chemical waste when his heist is thwarted by Batman , emerging with bleached white skin , red lips , green hair and a permanent grin .
This story was the basis for the most often @-@ cited origin tale , Moore 's one @-@ shot The Killing Joke . The Joker quits his job as a Lab assistant , becoming a stand @-@ up comedian to support his pregnant wife . Unsuccessful , he agrees to help mobsters with a robbery and dons the Red Hood . The heist goes awry ; the comedian leaps into a chemical vat to escape Batman , surfacing disfigured . This , combined with the earlier accidental death of his wife and unborn child , drives the comedian insane and he becomes the Joker . This version has been cited in many stories , including Batman : The Man Who Laughs ( in which Batman deduces that the Red Hood survived his fall and became the Joker ) , Batman # 450 ( in which the Joker dons the Red Hood to aid his recovery after the events in A Death in the Family , but finds the experience too traumatic ) and " Death of the Family " . Other stories have expanded on this origin ; " Pushback " explains that the Joker 's wife was murdered by a corrupt policeman working for the mobsters , and " Payback " gives the Joker 's first name as " Jack " .
However , the Joker 's unreliable memory has allowed writers to develop other origins for the character . " Case Study " , a Paul Dini @-@ Alex Ross story , describes the Joker as a sadistic gangster who creates the Red Hood identity to continue the thrill of small @-@ time criminality . He has his fateful first meeting with Batman , which results in his disfigurement . It is suggested that the Joker is sane , and feigns insanity to avoid the death penalty . In Batman Confidential ( # 7 @-@ 12 ) , the character , Jack , is a talented criminal who is bored with his work . He encounters ( and becomes obsessed with ) Batman during a heist , embarking on a crime spree to attract his attention . After Jack injures Batman 's girlfriend , Batman scars Jack 's face with a permanent grin and betrays him to a group of mobsters , who torture him in a chemical plant . Jack escapes , but falls into an empty vat as gunfire punctures chemical tanks above him . The flood of chemicals ( used in anti @-@ psychotic medication ) alters his appearance and completes his transformation . The superhero Atom sees the Joker 's memory of burning his parents alive ( after they find him killing animals ) in The Brave and the Bold # 31 , and Snyder 's " Zero Year " ( 2013 ) suggests that the pre @-@ disfigured Joker was a criminal mastermind leading a gang of Red Hoods .
The Joker has claimed a number of origins , including being the child of an abusive father who broke his nose and the long @-@ lived jester of an Egyptian pharaoh . As Batman says , " Like any other comedian , he uses whatever material will work " .
= = = Alternative versions = = =
A number of alternate universes in DC Comics publications allow writers to introduce variations on the Joker , in which the character 's origins , behavior , and morality differ from the mainstream setting . The Dark Knight Returns depicts the final battle between an aged Batman and Joker ; others portray the aftermath of the Joker 's death at the hands of a number of characters , including Superman . Still others describe distant futures in which the Joker is a computer virus or a hero trying to defeat the era 's tyrannical Batman . In some stories , the Joker is someone else entirely ; " Flashpoint " features Batman 's mother Martha Wayne as the Joker in response to her son 's murder , and in Superman : Speeding Bullets Lex Luthor becomes the Joker in a world where Superman is Batman .
= = Characterization = =
Renowned as Batman 's greatest enemy , the Joker is known by a number of nicknames , including the Clown Prince of Crime , the Jester of Genocide , the Harlequin of Hate , and the Ace of Knaves . During the evolution of the DC Universe , interpretations and versions of the Joker have taken two forms . The original , dominant image is that of an extreme psychopath , with genius @-@ level intelligence and a warped , sadistic sense of humor . The other version , popular in comic books from the late 1940s to the 1960s and in the 1960s television series , is an eccentric , harmless prankster and thief . Like other long @-@ lived characters , the Joker 's character and cultural interpretations have changed with time , however unlike other characters who may need to reconcile or ignore previous versions to make sense , more than any other comic book character , the Joker thrives on his mutable and irreconcilable identities . The Joker is typically seen in a purple suit with a long @-@ tailed , padded @-@ shoulder jacket , a string tie , gloves , striped pants and spats on pointed @-@ toe shoes ( sometimes with a wide @-@ brimmed hat ) . This appearance is such a fundamental aspect of the character that when the 2004 animated series The Batman placed the Joker in a straitjacket , it quickly redesigned him in his familiar suit .
The Joker is obsessed with Batman , the pair representing a yin @-@ yang of opposing dark and light force ; although it is the Joker who represents humor and color and Batman who dwells in the dark . Murder , theft , and terrorism , no crime is beyond the Joker , and his exploits are a theatrical performance that are funny to him alone . Spectacle is more important than success for the Joker , and if it is not spectacular it is boring . Although the Joker claims indifference to everything , he secretly craves Batman 's attention and validation . The character was described as having killed over 2 @,@ 000 people in The Joker : Devil 's Advocate ( 1996 ) . Despite this body count , he is always found not guilty by reason of insanity and sent to Arkham Asylum , avoiding the death penalty . Many of the Joker 's acts attempt to force Batman to kill ; if the most orderly and self @-@ controlled of humans can murder , anyone is capable of becoming a monster like the Joker . The villain displays no instinct for self @-@ preservation , and is willing to die to prove his point . The Joker is the " personification of the irrational " , and represents " everything Batman [ opposes ] " .
= = = Personality = = =
The Joker 's main characteristic is his apparent insanity , although he is not described as having any particular psychological disorder . Like a psychopath , he lacks empathy , a conscience , and concern over right and wrong . In A Serious House on Serious Earth , the Joker is described as capable of processing outside sensory information only by adapting to it . This enables him to create a new personality every day ( depending on what would benefit him ) and explains why , at different times , he is a mischievous clown or a psychopathic killer . In " The Clown at Midnight " ( Batman # 663 , 2007 ) , the Joker enters a meditative state where he evaluates his previous selves to consciously create a new personality , effectively modifying himself for his needs .
The Killing Joke ( in which the Joker is the unreliable narrator ) explains the roots of his insanity as " one bad day " : losing his wife and unborn child and being disfigured by chemicals , paralleling Batman 's origin in the loss of his parents . He tries ( and fails ) to prove that anyone can become like him after one bad day by torturing Commissioner Gordon , physically and psychologically . Batman offers to rehabilitate his foe ; the Joker apologetically declines , believing it too late for him to be saved . Other interpretations show that the Joker is fully aware of how his actions affect others and that his insanity as merely an act . Comics scholar Peter Coogan describes the Joker as trying to reshape reality to fit himself by imposing his face on his victims ( and fish ) in an attempt to make the world comprehensible by creating a twisted parody of himself . Englehart 's " The Laughing Fish " demonstrates the character 's illogical nature : trying to copyright fish which bear his face , and not understanding why threatening the copyright clerk cannot produce the desired result .
The Joker is alternatively depicted as sexual and asexual . In The Dark Knight Returns and Arkham Asylum : A Serious House on Serious Earth , the Joker is seductive toward Batman ; it is uncertain if their relationship has homoerotic undertones or if the Joker is simply trying to manipulate his nemesis . Frank Miller interpreted the character as fixated on death and uninterested in sexual relationships , while Robinson believes that the Joker is capable of a romantic relationship . His relationship with Harley Quinn is abusively paradoxical ; although the Joker keeps her at his side , he heedlessly harms her ( for example , throwing her out a window without seeing if she survives ) . Harley loves him but the Joker does not reciprocate her feelings , chiding her for distracting him from other plans .
Snyder 's " Death of the Family " describes the Joker as in love with Batman , although not in a traditionally romantic way . The Joker believes that Batman has not killed him because he makes Batman better , and he loves the villain for that . Batman comic book writer Peter Tomasi concurred , stating that the Joker 's main goal is to make Batman the best that he can be . The Joker and Batman represent opposites : the extroverted Joker wears colorful clothing and embraces chaos , while the introverted , monochromatic Batman represents order and discipline . The Joker is often depicted as defining his existence through his conflict with Batman . In 1994 's " Going Sane " the villain tries to lead a normal life after Batman 's ( apparent ) death , reverting when Batman reappears ; in " Emperor Joker " , an apparently omnipotent Joker cannot destroy Batman without undoing himself . Since the Joker is simply " the Joker " , he believes that Batman is " Batman " ( with or without the costume ) and has no interest in what is behind Batman 's mask , ignoring opportunities to learn Batman 's secret identity . Given the opportunity to kill Batman , the villain demurs ; he believes that without their game , winning is pointless . The character has no desire for typical criminal goals like money or power ; his criminality is designed only to continue his game with Batman .
The Joker does not express any fears , showing no effect when exposed to the supervillain Scarecrow 's fear gas in Knightfall ( 1993 ) . The villain has been temporarily rendered sane by several means , including telepathic manipulation by the Martian Manhunter and being resurrected in a life @-@ restoring Lazarus Pit ( an experience typically inducing temporary insanity in the subject ) . At these moments , the Joker is depicted as expressing remorse for his acts ; however , during a medically induced period of partial sanity in Batman : Cacophony he tells his opponent : " I don 't hate you ' cause I 'm crazy . I 'm crazy ' cause I hate you " and confirms that he will only stop murdering when Batman is dead .
= = = Skills and equipment = = =
The Joker has no inherent superhuman abilities . He commits crimes with a variety of weaponized thematic props such as a deck of razor @-@ tipped playing cards , rolling marbles , Jack @-@ in @-@ the @-@ boxes with unpleasant surprises and exploding cigars capable of leveling a building . The flower in his lapel sprays acid , and his hand often holds a lethal joy buzzer conducting a million volts of electricity , although both items were introduced in 1952 as harmless joke items . However , his chemical genius provides his most @-@ notable weapon : Joker venom , a liquid or gaseous toxin which sends its targets into fits of uncontrollable laughter ; higher doses can lead to paralysis , coma or death , leaving its victim with a ghoulish , pained rictus grin . The Joker has used venom since his debut ; only he knows the formula , and is shown to be gifted enough to manufacture the toxin from ordinary household chemicals . Another version of the venom ( used in " Joker 's Last Laugh " ) makes its victims resemble the Joker , susceptible to his orders . The villain is immune to venom and most poisons ; in Batman # 663 ( 2007 ) , Morrison writes that being " an avid consumer of his own chemical experiments , the Joker 's immunity to poison concoctions that might kill another man in an instant has been developed over years of dedicated abuse . "
The character 's arsenal is inspired by his nemesis ' weaponry , such as batarangs . In " The Joker 's Utility Belt " ( 1952 ) , he mimicked Batman 's utility belt with non @-@ lethal items , such as Mexican jumping beans and sneezing powder . In 1942 's " The Joker Follows Suit " the villain built his versions of the Batplane and Batmobile , the Jokergyro and Jokermobile ( the latter with a large Joker face on its hood ) , and created a Joker signal with which criminals could summon him for their heists . The Jokermobile lasted for several decades , evolving with the Batmobile . His technical genius is not limited by practicality , allowing him to hijack Gotham 's television airwaves to issue threats , transform buildings into death traps , launch a gas attack on the city and rain poisoned glass shards on its citizens from an airship .
The Joker is portrayed as skilled in melee combat , from his initial appearances when he defeats Batman in a sword fight ( nearly killing him ) , and others when he overwhelms Batman but declines to kill him . He is talented with firearms , although even his guns are theatrical ; his long @-@ barreled revolver often releases a flag reading " Bang " , and a second trigger @-@ pull launches the flag to skewer its target . Although formidable in combat , the Joker 's chief asset is his mind .
= = = Relationships = = =
The Joker 's unpredictable , homicidal nature makes him one of the most feared supervillains in the DC Universe ; the Trickster says in the 2005 mini @-@ series Underworld Unleashed , " When super @-@ villains want to scare each other , they tell Joker stories " . Gotham 's villains also feel threatened by the character ; depending on the circumstances , he is as likely to fight with his rivals for control of the city as he is to join them for an entertaining outcome . The Joker interacts with other supervillains who oppose Batman , whether he is on the streets or in Arkham Asylum . He has collaborated with criminals like the Penguin , the Riddler and Two @-@ Face , although these partnerships rarely end well due to the Joker 's desire for unbridled chaos , and uses his stature to lead others ( such as Killer Croc and the Scarecrow ) . The Joker 's greatest rival is the smartest man in the world , Lex Luthor . Although they have a friendly partnership in 1950 's World 's Finest Comics # 88 , later unions emphasized their mutual hostility and clashing egos .
Despite his tendency to kill subordinates on a whim , the Joker has no difficulty attracting henchmen with a seemingly infinite cash supply and intimidation : they are too afraid of their employer to refuse his demands that they wear red clown noses or laugh at macabre jokes . Even with his unpredictability and lack of superhuman powers , the 2007 limited series Salvation Run sees hundreds of villains fall under his spell because they are more afraid of him than the alternative : Luthor . Batman # 186 ( 1966 ) introduced the Joker 's first sidekick : the one @-@ shot character , Gaggy Gagsworth , who is short , and dressed like a clown ; the character was later resurrected as an enemy of his replacement , Harley Quinn . Introduced in the 1992 animated series , Quinn is the Joker 's former Arkham psychiatrist who develops an obsessive infatuation with him and dons a red @-@ and @-@ black harlequin costume to join him in the 1999 graphic novel Batman : Harley Quinn . Although Quinn loves the Joker , he is obsessed with Batman and uses her to achieve his goals at her expense . Despite violent abuse , she returns to him . The Joker is sometimes shown to keep hyenas as pets ; this trait was introduced in the 1977 animated series The New Adventures of Batman . A 1976 issue of Batman Family introduced Duela Dent as the Joker 's daughter , though her parentage claim was later proven to be false .
Although his chief obsession is Batman , the character has occasionally ventured outside Gotham City to fight Batman 's superhero allies . In " To Laugh and Die in Metropolis " ( 1987 ) the character kidnaps Lois Lane , distracting Superman with a nuclear weapon . The story is notable for the Joker taking on a ( relative ) god and the ease with which Superman defeats him — it took only 17 pages . Asked why he came to Metropolis , the Joker replies simply : " Oh Superman , why not ? " In 1995 , the Joker fought his third major DC hero : Wonder Woman , who drew on the Greek god of trickery to temper the Joker 's humor and shatter his confidence . The character has joined supervillain groups like the Injustice Gang and the Injustice League , to take on superhero groups like the Justice League .
= = Cultural impact = =
The Joker is considered one of , if not , the most @-@ recognizable and iconic fictional characters in popular culture ( Batman 's arguable equal ) , one of the best comic villains , and one of the greatest villains of all @-@ time . The character was well @-@ liked following his debut , appearing in nine out of the first twelve Batman issues , and remained one of Batman 's most popular foes throughout his publication . The character is considered one of the four top comic book characters , alongside Batman , Superman , and Spider @-@ Man . Indeed , when DC Comics released the original series of Greatest Stories Ever Told ( 1987 @-@ 1988 ) featuring collections of stories about heroes like Batman and Superman , the Joker was the only villain included alongside them . The character has been the focus of ethical discussion on the desirability of Batman ( who adheres to an unbreakable code forbidding killing ) saving lives by murdering the Joker ( a relentless dealer of death ) . These debates weigh the positive ( stopping the Joker permanently ) against its effect on Batman 's character and the possibility that he might begin killing all criminals .
In 2006 , the Joker was number one on Wizard magazine 's " 100 Greatest Villains of All Time " . In 2008 Wizard 's list of " 200 Greatest Comic Book Characters of All Time " placed the Joker fifth , and the character was eighth on Empire 's list of " 50 Greatest Comic Book Characters " ( the highest @-@ ranked villain on both lists ) . In 2009 the Joker was second on IGN 's list of " Top 100 Comic Book Villains " , and in 2011 Wired named him " Comics ' Greatest Supervillain " . Complex , CollegeHumor and WhatCulture named the Joker the greatest comic book villain of all time while IGN listed him the top DC Comics villain in 2013 , and Newsarama as the greatest Batman villain .
The Joker 's popularity ( and his role as Batman 's enemy ) has involved the character in most Batman @-@ related media , from television to video games . These adaptations of the character have been received positively on film , television , and in video games . As in the comics , the character 's personality and appearance shift ; he is campy , ferocious or unstable , depending on the author and the intended audience .
The character inspired theme @-@ park roller coasters ( The Joker 's Jinx , The Joker in Mexico and California , and The Joker Chaos Coaster ) , and featured in story @-@ based rides such as Justice League : Battle for Metropolis . The Joker is one of the few comic book supervillains to be represented on children 's merchandise and toys , appearing on items including action figures , trading cards , board games , money boxes , pajamas , socks , and shoes . The Jokermobile was a popular toy ; a Corgi die @-@ cast metal replica was successful during the 1950s , and in the 1970s a Joker @-@ styled , Flower power @-@ era Volkswagen microbus was manufactured by Mego . In 2015 , " The Joker : A Serious Study of the Clown Prince of Crime " became the first academic book to be published about a supervillain .
= = = Literary analysis = = =
Since the Bronze Age of Comics , the Joker has been interpreted as an archetypal trickster , displaying talents for cunning intelligence , social engineering , pranks , theatricality , and idiomatic humor . Like the trickster , the Joker alternates between malicious violence and clever , harmless whimsy . He is amoral and not driven by ethical considerations , but by a shameless and insatiable nature , and although his actions are condemned as evil , he is necessary for cultural robustness . The trickster employs amoral and immoral acts to destabilize the status quo and reveal cultural , political , and ethical hypocrisies that society attempts to ignore . However , the Joker differs in that his actions typically only benefit himself . The Joker possesses abnormal body imagery , reflecting an inversion of order . The trickster is simultaneously subhuman and superhuman , a being that indicates a lack of unity in body and mind . In Arkham Asylum : A Serious House on Serious Earth , the Joker serves as Batman 's trickster guide through the hero 's own psyche , testing him in various ways before ultimately offering to cede his rule of the Asylum to Batman .
Rather than the typical anarchist interpretation , others have analysed the character as a Marxist ( opposite to Batman 's capitalist ) , arguing that anarchism requires the rejection of all authority in favor of uncontrolled freedom . The Joker rejects most authority , but retains his own , using his actions to coerce and consolidate power in himself and convert the masses to his own way of thinking , while eliminating any that oppose him . In The Killing Joke , the Joker is an abused member of the underclass who is driven insane by failings of the social system . The Joker rejects material needs , and his first appearance in Batman # 1 sees him perpetrate crimes against Gotham 's wealthiest men and the judge who had sent him to prison . Batman is wealthy , yet the Joker is able to triumph through his own innovations .
Ryan Litsey described the Joker as an example of a " Nietzschean Superman " , arguing that a fundamental aspect of Friedrich Nietzsche 's Superman , the " will to power " , is exemplified in all of the Joker 's actions , providing a master morality to Batman 's slave morality . The character 's indomitable " will to power " means he is never discouraged by being caught or defeated and he is not restrained by guilt or remorse . Joker represents the master , who creates rules and defines them , who judges others without needing approval , and for whom something is good because it benefits him . He creates his own morality and is bound only by his own rules without aspiring to something higher than himself , unlike Batman , the slave , who makes a distinction between good and evil , and is bound to rules outside of himself ( such as his avoidance of killing ) , in his quest for justice . The Joker has no defined origin story that requires him to question how he came to be , as like the Superman he does not regret or assess the past and only moves forward .
The Joker 's controlling and abusive relationship with Harley Quinn has been analysed as a means of the Joker reinforcing his own belief in his power in a world where he may be killed or neutralized by another villain or Batman . Joker mirrors his identity through Harley in her appearance , and even though he may ignore or act indifferent towards her , he continues to try and subject her to his control . When Harley successfully defeats Batman in Mad Love ( 1994 ) , the Joker , emasculated by his own failure , severely injures her out of fear of what the other villains will think of him . However , while Harley recovers , the Joker sends her flowers which she accepts , reasserting his control over her .
Harley 's co @-@ creator , Paul Dini , describes their relationship as Harley being someone who makes the Joker feel better about himself , and who can do the work that he does not want to do himself . In the 1999 one @-@ shot comic Batman : Harley Quinn , the Joker decides to kill Harley , after admitting that he does care for her , that their relationship is romantic , and that these feelings prevent him from fulfilling his purpose . Removing the traditional male @-@ female relationship , such as in the Batman : Thrillkiller storyline where the Joker ( Bianca Steeplechase ) is a female and involved in a lesbian relationship with Harley , their relationship lacks any aspects of violence or subjugation .
= = = In other media = = =
The Joker has appeared in a variety of media , including television series , animated and live @-@ action films . WorldCat ( a catalog of libraries in 170 countries ) records over 250 productions featuring the Joker as a subject , including films , books , and video games , and Batman films featuring the character are typically the most successful . The character 's earliest on @-@ screen adaptation was in the 1966 television series Batman , in which he was played as a cackling prankster by Cesar Romero ( reflecting his contemporary comic counterpart ) . The Joker then appeared in the animated television shows The Adventures of Batman ( 1968 , voiced by Larry Storch ) , The New Adventures of Batman ( 1977 , voiced by Lennie Weinrib ) and The Super Powers Team : Galactic Guardians ( 1985 , voiced by Frank Welker ) . A darker version of the Joker ( played by Jack Nicholson ) made his film debut in 1989 's Batman , which earned over $ 400 million at the worldwide box office . The role was a defining performance in Nicholson 's career and was considered to overshadow Batman 's , with film critic Roger Ebert saying that the audience must sometimes remind themselves not to root for the Joker . Batman 's success led to the 1992 television series , Batman : The Animated Series . Voiced by Mark Hamill , the Joker retained the darker tone of the comics in stories acceptable for young children . Hamill 's Joker is considered a defining portrayal , and he voiced the character in spin @-@ off films ( 1993 's Batman : Mask of the Phantasm and 2000 's Batman Beyond : Return of the Joker ) , video games ( 2001 's Batman : Vengeance ) , related series ( 1996 's Superman : The Animated Series , 2000 's Static Shock and 2001 's Justice League ) , action figures , toys and amusement @-@ park voiceovers . A redesigned Joker , voiced by Kevin Michael Richardson , appeared in 2004 's The Batman ; Richardson was the first African @-@ American to play the character .
After Christopher Nolan 's successful 2005 Batman film reboot , Batman Begins , which ended with a teaser for the Joker 's involvement in a sequel , the character appeared in 2008 's The Dark Knight , played by Heath Ledger as an avatar of anarchy and chaos . While Batman Begins earned a worldwide total of $ 370 million ; The Dark Knight earned over $ 1 billion and was the highest @-@ grossing film of the year , setting several box @-@ office records ( including highest @-@ grossing midnight opening , opening day and opening weekend ) . Ledger won a posthumous Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for his performance , the first acting Oscar ever won for a superhero film . The Joker has featured in a number of animated projects , such as 2009 's Batman : The Brave and the Bold ( voiced by Jeff Bennett ) and 2011 's Young Justice ( voiced by Brent Spiner ) , and comic book adaptations ( including 2010 's Batman : Under the Red Hood , in which he is voiced by John DiMaggio ) . In 2012 , Michael Emerson voiced the character in a two @-@ part animated adaptation of The Dark Knight Returns . The Joker is scheduled to appear in the 2016 film Suicide Squad , portrayed by Jared Leto .
The Joker has also been featured in video games . Hamill returned to voice the character in 2009 's critically acclaimed Batman : Arkham Asylum , its equally praised 2011 sequel Batman : Arkham City and the multiplayer DC Universe Online . Hamill was replaced by Troy Baker for the 2013 prequel , Batman : Arkham Origins , and the Arkham series ' animated spin @-@ off Batman : Assault on Arkham , returning for the 2015 series finale , Batman : Arkham Knight . Richard Epcar voiced the Joker in the 2008 fighting game , Mortal Kombat vs. DC Universe , and 2013 's Injustice : Gods Among Us . The character also appeared in Lego Batman : The Videogame ( 2008 ) , Lego Batman 2 : DC Super Heroes ( 2012 ) and its animated adaptation , and Lego Batman 3 : Beyond Gotham ( 2014 ) ( the latter three voiced by Christopher Corey Smith ) .
= Maryland Route 135 =
Maryland Route 135 ( MD 135 ) is a state highway in the U.S. state of Maryland . Known for most of its length as Maryland Highway , the state highway runs 29 @.@ 00 miles ( 46 @.@ 67 km ) from U.S. Route 219 ( US 219 ) in Oakland in Garrett County east to US 220 in McCoole in Allegany County . MD 135 is the main link between the towns of Oakland , Mountain Lake Park , Loch Lynn Heights , and Deer Park on the Appalachian Plateau and the communities of Bloomington , Luke , Westernport , and McCoole in the upper valley of the Potomac River . These groups of towns are separated by Backbone Mountain .
MD 135 was originally built in the early 1930s as a link between McCoole and Westernport . In the late 1930s , the state highway was extended west to Bloomington . In addition , a separate segment of MD 135 was completed around Swanton in the mid @-@ 1930s . These separate segments were unified in the early 1950s when the highway over Backbone Mountain was completed . In the late 1950s , MD 135 was extended west over a portion of MD 38 and all of Maryland Route 41 to Oakland , and was mostly rebuilt over its entire length , bypassing Bloomington , Swanton , Deer Park , and Mountain Lake Park . MD 135 remains notorious for the eastbound descent from Backbone Mountain , which has claimed many lives . The Maryland State Highway Administration has instituted many measures to get trucks down the mountain safely and to avoid the downgrade if possible .
= = Route description = =
MD 135 begins at an intersection with US 219 on the eastern edge of Oakland . Northbound US 219 ( Oak Street ) continues straight west into downtown Oakland , southbound US 219 ( Garrett Highway ) heads south toward Red House , and 9th Street heads north along the alignment of the future Oakland Bypass . MD 135 heads east through Mountain Lake Park as Maryland Highway , a controlled access two @-@ lane highway . Oakland Drive , which is unsigned MD 825B , splits to the northeast to serve residential areas on the north side of town . The old alignment rejoins MD 135 at G Street before access controls cease upon crossing the Little Youghiogheny River . The state highway intersects MD 560 ( Paull Street ) , which heads south into Loch Lynn Heights . After crossing the river again , MD 135 leaves Mountain Lake Park . The state highway passes scattered residences , farms , and businesses before entering Deer Park . After passing Deer Park Hotel Road , which passes the Pennington Cottage , MD 135 intersects the old alignment of MD 38 , which is Sand Flat Road to the north and Main Street to the south . The state highway passes the historic home Glamorgan and Edgewood Drive , part of the old alignment of MD 38 , before leaving Deer Park . Upon reaching the hamlet of Altamont , MD 495 ( Swanton Road ) continues straight northeast toward Swanton while MD 135 turns to the southeast .
MD 135 heads straight southeast toward a grade @-@ separated crossing of CSX 's Mountain Subdivision very close to the railroad 's crossing of the Eastern Continental Divide . The state highway curves to the northeast and gently ascends Backbone Mountain . A scenic overlook marks the highest point on MD 135 ( 2 @,@ 969 feet ( 905 m ) ) shortly before the intersection with MD 38 ( Kitzmiller Road ) . The state highway continues northeast along the ridgeline through Potomac @-@ Garrett State Forest and intersects Swanton Road and a few roads on the south side of the highway that access Jennings Randolph Lake . Upon leaving the state forest , MD 135 begins to pass scattered residences ahead of the descent of Backbone Mountain , which has grades as steep as 9 % . Trucks are required to stop at three different brake check locations and obey a posted speed limit of 10 mph ( 16 km / h ) . After Bloomington Hill Road splits to the north and the state highway passes the third brake check stop , a runaway truck ramp splits to the south . The downhill grade eases as MD 135 enters Bloomington , where the name of the highway changes to Bloomington Road . After passing through residential areas , the state highway crosses the Mountain Subdivision and the Savage River before meeting Savage Hillside Road at a T intersection in front of Franklin Hill .
MD 135 turns southeast into Allegany County and enters the town of Luke as Pratt Street . The state highway immediately intersects Masteller Road , which is unsigned MD 135D and meets the eastern end of the western segment of West Virginia Route 46 ( WV 46 ) at the Potomac River . At a bend in the river , MD 135 makes a sharp turn to the north around the mountain and the road passes the large NewPage Corporation paper mill . The state highway turns east and its name changes to Church Street upon entering Westernport , where the highway intersects MD 36 ( New Georges Creek Road ) , which crosses the Potomac River to become the eastern segment of WV 46 . MD 135 crosses Georges Creek and meets the Georges Creek Railway at @-@ grade before intersecting Main Street , which is unsigned MD 937 . Upon leaving Westernport , the road 's name changes to McCoole – Westernport Road . MD 135 parallels the Potomac River and Georges Creek Railway as it passes scattered residences and businesses . Upon reaching McCoole , the highway passes unsigned MD 135A , which provides an alternate access route to US 220 north . Shortly after , MD 135 reaches Paxton Street , which is officially MD 135B but is marked as MD 135 . Paxton Street leads to a junction with US 220 ( McMullen Highway ) . MD 135 itself continues east under the McCoole – Keyser bridge to its eastern terminus at the intersection of Queens Point Road and Golden Cross Street .
= = History = =
The present course of MD 135 consists of the original course of the state highway and its extensions westward , and assumption of a portion of MD 38 and all of MD 41 . MD 135 also followed a segment of what is today MD 495 . The original segment of MD 135 was under construction between McCoole and Westernport in 1930 and completed by 1931 . The state highway was constructed between Bloomington and Luke in 1936 and 1937 , including the bridge over the Savage River . This segment was connected to Westernport in 1940 by carving a roadbed out of the cliffs of Franklin Hill . MD 38 was paved from its original northern terminus to Altamont between 1924 and 1926 and to the top of Backbone Mountain by 1930 . The present segment of MD 38 south to Kitzmiller was under construction by 1930 and completed by 1933 . MD 41 included the first section of what is now MD 135 to be constructed ; the segment of the state highway between Oakland and Mountain Lake Park was paved between 1916 and 1919 . The state highway was extended past Loch Lynn Heights in 1933 and to MD 38 in Deer Park by 1938 .
A second , disconnected segment of MD 135 was constructed in two sections between MD 38 in Altamont and Swanton that were completed in 1933 and 1935 . This road was extended east to the top of Backbone Mountain in 1939 . The discontinuous segments of MD 135 were unified in 1953 when the pre @-@ existing Bloomington Road was reconstructed between the eastern end of the western MD 135 on top of Backbone Mountain and the western end of the eastern MD 135 in Bloomington . When the present US 220 bridge over the Potomac River was completed in 1951 , MD 135 was extended east from its old intersection with US 220 , which is today the intersection with MD 135A , to its present eastern terminus .
MD 135 attained its present alignment through several projects in the mid to late 1950s , concurrent with MD 135 's extension west over part of MD 38 and all of MD 41 to Oakland in 1956 . The segment of MD 38 in Deer Park was bypassed by the newly extended state highway in 1956 . The state highway between McCoole and Westernport was relocated , and Bloomington Hill Road was bypassed with a straighter highway featuring a grade @-@ separated crossing of the railroad in Bloomington in 1956 and 1957 . The present section of MD 135 between MD 38 and Swanton Road was built in 1955 and 1956 ; MD 135 was then removed through Swanton and partially replaced by MD 495 . The segment between Swanton Road and Bloomington Hill Road was upgraded between 1953 and 1956 . Finally , the portion of MD 135 between Deer Park and Oakland , including the bypass of Mountain Lake Park , was rebuilt between 1957 and 1959 .
Since the present alignment of MD 135 was completed west of Bloomington in the late 1950s , the descent of Backbone Mountain has become notorious due to its steep grade and the 90 degree turn at the bottom to avoid a mountain dead ahead . A retaining wall at the bottom of the mountain features white crosses in memoriam of those who lost their lives ; there were 24 crosses painted as of 2009 . After five people had been killed on the descent by 1965 , the State Roads Commission responded in 1967 by enacting the truck speed limit of 10 mph ( 16 km / h ) , marking the three mandatory stopping areas , and installing ample warning signage , including the infamous " If Brakes Fail Ditch Truck Immediately " sign . In 1997 , signs were installed on Interstate 68 , US 219 , and US 40 advising truckers to use MD 36 instead of MD 135 to access Luke and Westernport . The runaway truck ramp was installed by 2005 and supplemented with a runaway truck warning system and updated signage in 2007 .
= = Junction list = =
= = Auxiliary routes = =
MD 135A is the unsigned designation for the unnamed 0 @.@ 78 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 26 km ) connector between MD 135 in McCoole and US 220 north of McCoole . The state highway heads north from MD 135 on the western edge of McCoole and passes under US 220 . MD 135A curves northwest and intersects Burke Hill Road before reaching its northern terminus at an oblique intersection with US 220 opposite Red Rock Lane . MD 135A is part of the original alignment of US 220 through McCoole prior to the completion of the present alignment in 1951 .
MD 135B is the designation for Paxton Street and Chesapeake Avenue , a 0 @.@ 11 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 18 km ) connector between MD 135 and US 220 in McCoole . MD 135B is signed as MD 135 .
MD 135C is the unsigned designation for an unnamed 0 @.@ 03 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 048 km ) connector between MD 135 and MD 825C , itself an unsigned and unnamed highway , on top of Backbone Mountain east of MD 38 . MD 135C provides access to a salt dome .
MD 135D is the unsigned designation for Masteller Road , a 0 @.@ 02 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 032 km ) connector between MD 135 in Luke and the western segment of WV 46 across the Potomac River in Beryl .
MD 135E is the designation for Chesapeake Avenue , a 0 @.@ 09 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 14 km ) connector between MD 135 and US 220 in McCoole . MD 135E was designated in 2013 .
= USS Princess Matoika ( ID @-@ 2290 ) =
USS Princess Matoika ( ID @-@ 2290 ) was a transport ship for the United States Navy during World War I. Before the war , she was a Barbarossa @-@ class ocean liner that sailed as SS Kiautschou for the Hamburg America Line and as SS Princess Alice ( sometimes spelled Prinzess Alice ) for North German Lloyd . After her World War I Navy service ended , she served as the United States Army transport ship USAT Princess Matoika . In post @-@ war civilian service she was SS Princess Matoika until 1922 , SS President Arthur until 1927 , and SS City of Honolulu until she was scrapped in 1933 .
Built in 1900 for the German Far East mail routes , SS Kiautschou traveled between Hamburg and Far East ports for most of her Hamburg America Line career . In 1904 , she was traded to competitor North German Lloyd for five freighters , and renamed SS Princess Alice . She sailed both transatlantic and Far East mail routes until the outbreak of World War I , when she was interned in the neutral port of Cebu in the Philippines . Seized by the U.S. in 1917 , the newly renamed USS Princess Matoika carried over 50 @,@ 000 U.S. troops to and from France in U.S. Navy service from 1918 to 1919 . As an Army transport after that , she continued to return troops and repatriated the remains of Americans killed overseas in the war . In July 1920 , she was a last @-@ minute substitute to carry a large portion of the United States team to the 1920 Summer Olympics in Antwerp . From the perspective of the Olympic team , the trip was disastrous and a majority of the team members published a list of grievances and demands of the American Olympic Committee in an action known today as the Mutiny of the Matoika .
After her Army career ended , Princess Matoika was transferred to the United States Mail Steamship Line for European passenger service in early 1921 . After that company 's financial troubles resulted in her seizure , Princess Matoika was assigned to the newly formed United States Lines and resumed passenger service . In 1922 , the ship was renamed SS President Arthur , in honor of the 21st U.S. President , Chester A. Arthur . When changes in U.S. laws severely curtailed the number of immigrants that could enter the country in the early 1920s , the ship was laid up in Baltimore in late 1923 .
President Arthur was purchased in October 1924 by the Jewish @-@ owned American Palestine Line to begin regular service between New York , Naples , and Palestine . On her maiden voyage to Palestine , she reportedly became the first ocean liner to fly the Zionist flag at sea and the first ocean liner ever to have female officers . Financial difficulties for American Palestine ended the service after three roundtrips , and the liner was sold to the Los Angeles Steamship Company for Los Angeles – Honolulu service . Following three years of carrying tourists and freight , the liner burned in Honolulu Harbor in 1930 . She was deemed too expensive to repair and was eventually scrapped in Japan in 1933 .
= = Hamburg America Line = =
In March 1900 the Hamburg America Line ( German : Hamburg @-@ Amerikanische Packetfahrt @-@ Aktien @-@ Gesellschaft or HAPAG ) announced the plans for 22 new ships totaling 150 @,@ 000 gross register tons ( GRT ) at a cost of $ 11 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 . One of the two largest ships announced was SS Kiautschou at an announced 10 @,@ 200 GRT . The ship was laid down at AG Vulcan Stettin in Stettin , Germany ( present @-@ day Szczecin , Poland ) . During her construction , HAPAG renamed the ship twice before finally settling on Kiautschou , the German colony in China , as her namesake . Built , along with sister ship Hamburg , for HAPAG 's entry into the Deutsche Reichspost 's Far East routes , Kiautschou was launched on 14 September 1900 , and sailed on her maiden voyage from Hamburg to the Far East on 22 December 1900 .
The ship was 525 feet ( 160 m ) long and featured twin screws powered by two quadruple expansion steam engines that generated 9 @,@ 000 horsepower ( 6 @,@ 700 kW ) . The liner also featured bilge keels that helped stabilize her ride . On the interior , Kiautschou 's first @-@ class state rooms were described as " light and large " and located in the center of the ship . She had two large promenade decks , a music room , and a library . Her smoking room was at the rear of the upper promenade deck , and her large dining room featured a balcony where the ship 's orchestra could serenade diners .
Kiautschou sailed on the Hamburg – Far East route until May 1902 . For one round trip that month , Kiautschou replaced fellow HAPAG steamer Deutschland on Hamburg – New York service , calling at Southampton and Cherbourg on her eastbound trip , and at Cherbourg and Plymouth on her westbound return . After this one transatlantic excursion , Kiautschou was returned to Hamburg – Far East service . On 20 February 1904 , in exchange for abandoning the mail routes shared with North German Lloyd , HAPAG traded Kiautschou for Lloyd freighters Bamberg , Königsberg , Nürnberg , Stolberg , and Strassburg .
= = North German Lloyd = =
North German Lloyd renamed the newly acquired ship Princess Alice , though the German spelling Prinzess Alice was widely used in contemporary press coverage and , often , by the Lloyd themselves . There is some confusion as to who exactly was the namesake of the ship . Edwin Drechsel , in his two @-@ volume work Norddeutscher Lloyd , Bremen , 1857 – 1970 , reports that the ship was named equally for Princess Alice of Albany and Alice Roosevelt . Princess Alice of Albany was a granddaughter of Victoria , Queen of the United Kingdom , and the new bride of Prince Alexander of Teck in Württemberg . Alice Roosevelt , daughter of the then @-@ current U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt , was nicknamed " Princess Alice " by the press , and had launched the racing yacht of Kaiser Wilhelm II , Meteor , at Staten Island two years before . William Lowell Putnam gives the namesake as Princess Alice of the United Kingdom , the daughter of Queen Victoria .
Princess Alice departed her new homeport of Bremen on 22 March 1904 for her maiden voyage under her new owners . After arriving in New York draped in flags and bunting , her dining room was the site of a press luncheon thrown by Lloyd staff celebrating her first arrival in that city . Princess Alice made four more roundtrips through early August , then shifted to Bremen – Suez Canal – Far East service , making her first Lloyd voyage on that route 31 August . Princess Alice would continue this pattern — sailing the North Atlantic during the heaviest @-@ trafficked season and shifting to the Far East runs for the balance of the year — through 1910 .
Throughout the rest of her Lloyd North Atlantic career she carried some notable passengers to and from Europe . In May 1905 , for example , noted Baltimore gynecologist Howard Atwood Kelly , one of the co @-@ founders of Johns Hopkins Hospital , sailed from New York ; author Hamilton Wright Mabie and his wife sailed from New York the following month . American botanist Charles Frederick Millspaugh returned to New York aboard the German liner in June 1906 , and retired U.S. Navy Rear admiral Alfred Thayer Mahan did the same in June 1907 . Senator Augustus O. Bacon ( D @-@ GA ) , sailed for Europe on 1 August 1908 .
Prompted by the successful use of wireless in saving lives during the sinking of RMS Republic in January 1909 , and by proposed U.S. legislation ( later passed as the Wireless Ship Act of 1910 ) requiring wireless for ships calling at U.S. ports , Princess Alice received her first wireless set in February 1909 . Operating with call letters " DKZ " on the 300 m band , her radio had a 250 @-@ mile ( 400 km ) range .
At 10 : 00 on 27 May 1909 , loaded with over 1 @,@ 000 passengers headed for Europe , Princess Alice departed the Lloyd pier in Hoboken , New Jersey . As she neared The Narrows in a heavy fog , she steamed to stay clear of outbound French Line steamer La Bretagne and ran hard aground on a submerged rocky ledge near the seawall of Fort Wadsworth a few minutes after 11 : 00 . After the fog lifted , it was revealed that the bow of Princess Alice had stopped some 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) from the outer walls of the Staten Island fort . Lighthouse tender Larkspur was the first ship to come to the aid of the Princess , followed by U.S. Army Quartermaster 's ship General Meigs and revenue cutter Seneca . No passengers were hurt in the incident and it was determined there was no damage to the hull of the liner . But , despite the effort of attending ships , she remained stuck on the ledge . Eventually , after offloading 500 short tons ( 450 t ) of cargo from her front hold onto lighters called to the scene , ten steam tugs and power from Princess Alice 's own engines freed the ship at 01 : 47 on 28 May , almost 15 hours after running aground . The force required to free the liner was great enough that she was then propelled into SS Marken , at anchor some distance away , damaging one of that ship 's fenders . After then making her way to the nearby New York City Quarantine Station , Princess Alice anchored to reload her cargo , and by 09 : 05 , she was underway again . However , she ran aground again in soft mud in Ambrose Channel at 10 : 15 . This time she was able to free herself and proceeded on to Bremen , a little more than 24 hours late . This voyage was further marred by the apparent suicide of a despondent New York attorney on 30 May . The man , headed to the spa town of Bad Nauheim in Hesse , had previously suffered a nervous breakdown and was under the care of a doctor on board the ship at the time he jumped overboard .
In May 1910 , Princess Alice sailed her last North Atlantic passage for her German owners . Put permanently on the Far East route , she plied Pacific waters for North German Lloyd until the outbreak of World War I. In late July 1914 , as war spread across Europe , Princess Alice neared her destination of Hong Kong with £ 850 @,@ 000 of gold from India . Rather than face seizure of the ship and her cargo by British authorities there , Princess Alice instead sped to the Philippines and deposited the gold with the German Consul at Manila . Leaving the neutral port in under 24 hours , the ship then rendezvoused with German cruiser Emden at Angaur before returning to the Philippines in early August and putting in at Cebu where she was interned .
= = USS Princess Matoika = =
On 6 April 1917 the United States declared war and immediately seized interned German ships at U.S. and territorial ports , but unlike most other German ships interned by the United States , Princess Alice had not been sabotaged by her German crew before her seizure . Assigned the Identification Number of 2290 , she was soon renamed Princess Matoika . Sources disagree about the identity of the ship 's namesake , who is often reported as either a member of the Philippine Royal Family , or a Japanese princess . Putnam , however , provides another answer : one of the given names of Pocahontas was Matoaka , which was sometimes spelled Matoika . The newly renamed ship was taken to Olongapo City , 60 miles ( 97 km ) north of Manila and placed in the drydock Dewey at Subic Bay where temporary repairs were made . She then made her way to San Francisco , and eventually to the east coast . Princess Matoika was the last ex @-@ German ship to be commissioned .
= = = Transporting troops to France = = =
Placed under the command of William D. Leahy in April 1918 , the ship was readied for her first transatlantic troop run . At Newport News , Virginia , elements of the 4th Infantry Division boarded on 9 May . Sailing at 18 : 30 the next day , Princess Matoika was accompanied by American transports Pastores , Wilhelmina , Lenape , Antigone , and Susquehanna , the British steamer Kursk , and the Italian Duca d 'Aosta . The group rendezvoused with a similar group that left New York the same day , consisting of President Lincoln , Covington , Rijndam , British troopship Dwinsk , and Italian steamers Caserta and Dante Alighieri . American cruiser Frederick served as escort for the assembled ships , which were the 35th U.S. convoy of the war . During the voyage — because of the inability to finish serving three meals for all the men during daylight hours — mess service was curtailed to two daily meals , a practice continued on later voyages . On 20 May , the convoy sighted and fired on a " submarine " that turned out to be a bucket ; the next day escort Frederick left the convoy after being relieved by nine destroyers . Three days later the convoy sighted land at 06 : 30 and anchored at Brest that afternoon . Princess Matoika sailed for Newport News and arrived there safely on 6 June with Pastores and Lenape . Fate , however , was not as kind to former convoy mates President Lincoln and Dwinsk . On their return journeys they were sunk by German submarines U @-@ 90 and U @-@ 151 , respectively .
After loading officers and men from the 29th Infantry Division on 13 June , Princess Matoika set sail from Newport News the next day with Wilhelmina , Pastores , Lenape , and British troopship Czar . On the morning of 16 June , lookouts on Princess Matoika spotted a submarine and , soon after , a torpedo heading directly for the ship . The torpedo missed her by a few yards and gunners manning the ship 's 6 @-@ inch ( 150 mm ) guns claimed a hit on the sub with their second shot . Later that morning , the Newport News ships met up with the New York portion of the convoy — which included DeKalb , Finland , Kroonland , George Washington , Covington , Rijndam , Dante Alighieri , and British steamer Vauben — and set out for France . The convoy was escorted by cruisers North Carolina and Frederick , and destroyers Stevens and Fairfax ; battleship Texas and several other destroyers joined in escort duties for the group for a time . The convoy had a false alarm when a floating barrel was mistaken for submarine , but otherwise uneventfully arrived at Brest on the afternoon of 27 June . Princess Matoika , Covington , Lenape , Rijndam , George Washington , DeKalb , Wilhelmina , and Dante Alighieri left Brest as a group on 30 June . The following evening at 21 : 15 , Covington was torpedoed by U @-@ 86 and sank the next afternoon . Princess Matoika and Wilhelmina arrived back at Newport News on 13 July .
Around this time , Commander Leahy left Princess Matoika to serve as Director of Gunnery Exercises and Engineering Performance in Washington . For his service on Princess Matoika , though , Leahy was awarded the Navy Cross . He was cited for distinguished service as commander of the ship while " engaged in the important , exacting and hazardous duty of transporting and escorting troops and supplies through waters infested with enemy submarines and mines " .
In the next months , Princess Matoika successfully completed two additional roundtrips from Newport News . On the first trip , she left Newport News with DeKalb , Dante Alighiere , Wilhelmina , Pastores , and British troopship Czaritza on 18 July . The group joined a New York contingent and arrived in France on 30 July . Departing soon after , the Princess returned to Newport News on 13 August . Nine days later she departed in the company of the same ships from her last convoy — with French steamer Lutetia replacing DeKalb — and arrived in France on 3 September . Princess Matoika returned stateside two weeks later .
On 23 September , Princess Matoika departed New York with 3 @,@ 661 officers and men accompanied by transports President Grant , Mongolia , Rijndam , Wilhelmina , British steamer Ascanius , and was escorted by battleship Georgia , cruisers Montana and North Carolina , and destroyer Rathburne . As with other Navy ships throughout 1918 , Princess Matoika was not immune to the worldwide Spanish flu pandemic . On this particular crossing , two of her crewmen were felled by the disease as her convoy reached Saint @-@ Nazaire on 6 October . After her return to the U.S. on 21 October , she departed New York once again on 28 October , arriving in France on 9 November , two days before the Armistice . In all , she carried 21 @,@ 216 troops to France on her six trips overseas .
= = = Returning troops home = = =
With the fighting at an end , the task of bringing home American soldiers began almost immediately . Princess Matoika did her part by carrying home 30 @,@ 110 healthy and wounded men in eight roundtrips . On 20 December , 3 @,@ 000 troops boarded her and departed France for Newport News , arriving there on 1 January 1919 . Among those carried were Major General Charles T. Menoher , the newly appointed chief of the air service , and elements of the 39th Infantry Division . The Matoika arrived with another 2 @,@ 000 troops on 11 February .
In March 1919 , Princess Matoika and Rijndam raced each other from Saint @-@ Nazaire to Newport News in a friendly competition that received national press coverage in the United States . Rijndam , the slower ship , was just able to edge out the Princess — and cut two days from her previous fastest crossing time — by appealing to the honor of the soldiers of the 133rd Field Artillery ( returning home aboard the former Holland America liner ) and employing them as extra stokers for her boilers .
On her next trip , the veteran transport loaded troops at Saint @-@ Nazaire that included nine complete hospital units . After two days delay because of storms in the Bay of Biscay , Princess Matoika departed on 16 April , and arrived at Newport News on 27 April with 3 @,@ 500 troops . Shifting south to Charleston , South Carolina , the Matoika embarked 2 @,@ 200 former German prisoners of war ( POWs ) and hauled them to Rotterdam . This trip was followed up in May with the return of portions of the 79th Infantry Division from Saint @-@ Nazaire to New York .
In mid @-@ July , Princess Matoika delivered another load of 1 @,@ 900 former German POWs from Charleston to Rotterdam ; most of these prisoners were officers and men from interned German passenger liners and included Captain Heinler the former commander of Vaterland . One former POW , shortly after debarking in Europe , presciently commented that " this [ was ] no peace ; only a temporary truce " . After loading American crews of returned Dutch ships , Princess Matoika called at Antwerp and Brest before returning to New York on 1 August .
The ship departed New York on 8 August for her final roundtrip as a Navy transport . She departed Brest 23 August and returned to New York on 10 September . She was decommissioned there on 19 September , and handed over to the War Department for use as a United States Army transport .
= = USAT Princess Matoika = =
As her career as an Army transport began , Princess Matoika picked up where her Navy career had ended and continued the return of American troops from Europe . After returning to France she loaded 2 @,@ 965 troops at Brest — including Brigadier General W. P. Richardson and members of the Polar Bear Expedition , part of the Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War — for a return to New York on 15 October . In December , Congressman Charles H. Randall ( Prohibitionist @-@ CA ) and his wife sailed on the Matoika to Puerto Rico and the Panama Canal .
On 5 April , Princess Matoika carried a group of 18 men and three officers of the U.S. Navy who were to attempt a transatlantic flight in the rigid airship R38 , being built in England for the Navy . Several of the group that traveled on the Matoika were among the 45 men killed when the airship crashed on 24 August 1921 .
In May 1920 Princess Matoika took on board the bodies of ten female nurses and over 400 soldiers who died while on duty in France during the war . The ship then transited the Kiel Canal and picked up 1 @,@ 600 U.S. residents of Polish descent at Danzig , all of whom had enlisted in the Polish Army at the outset of the war . Also included among the passengers were 500 U.S. soldiers who had been released from occupation duty at Koblenz . The ship arrived at New York on 23 May with little fanfare and no ceremony ; bodies returned but not claimed by families were buried at Arlington National Cemetery . On 21 July , Princess Matoika arrived in New York after a similar voyage with 25 war brides , many repatriated Polish troops among its 2 @,@ 094 steerage passengers , and the remains of 881 soldiers . In between these two trips , the Belgian Ambassador to the United States , Baron Emile de Cartier de Marchienne , sailed from New York to Belgium on board the Matoika . It was , however , Princess Matoika 's next trip to Belgium that was the most infamous .
= = = " Mutiny of the Matoika " = = =
Beginning 26 July 1920 , a majority of the U.S. Olympic contingent destined for the 1920 Summer Olympics in Antwerp , Belgium , endured a troubled transatlantic journey aboard Princess Matoika . The voyage and the events onboard — later called the " Mutiny of the Matoika " — were still being discussed in the popular press years later . The Matoika was a last @-@ minute substitute for another ship and , according to the athletes , did not have adequate accommodations or training facilities on board . Near the end of the voyage , the athletes published a list of grievances and demands and distributed copies of the document to the United States Secretary of War , the American Olympic Committee members , and the press . The incident received wide coverage in American newspapers at the time .
After the contingent of athletes debarked at Antwerp on 8 August , Princess Matoika made one more voyage of note while under U.S. Army control . The Matoika sailed for New York on 24 August and arrived on 4 September carrying a portion of the returning Olympic team , American Boy Scouts returning from the International Boy Scout Jamboree in London , and the remains of 1 @,@ 284 American soldiers for repatriation .
= = U.S. Mail Line = =
At the conclusion of her Army service , Princess Matoika was handed over to the United States Shipping Board ( USSB ) , who chartered the vessel to the United States Mail Steamship Company for service from New York to Italy . This solution of how to use the Princess for civilian service was the culmination of efforts by the USSB to find a suitable civilian use for her . In 1919 , she was one of the ships suggested for a proposed service from New Orleans , Louisiana , to Valparaiso , Chile , and in November 1919 , tentative plans were announced for her service with the Munson Line between New York and Argentina beginning in mid @-@ 1920 , but both of these proposals fell through .
Princess Matoika — outfitted for 350 cabin @-@ class and 500 third @-@ class passengers and at 10 @,@ 421 gross register tons ( GRT ) — kicked off her U.S. Mail Line service on 20 January 1921 when she sailed from New York to Naples and Genoa on her first of three roundtrips between these ports . After a storm damaged the Matoika 's steering gear , she had to be towed back in to New York on 28 January .
After repairs and a successful eastbound crossing , Princess Matoika had an encounter with an iceberg off Newfoundland while carrying some 2 @,@ 000 Italian immigrants on her first return trip from Italy . On the night of 24 February , the fully laden ship struck what was reported in The New York Times as either " an iceberg or a submerged wreck " off Cape Race . The ship 's steering gear was damaged in the collision , leaving the ship adrift for over seven hours before repairs were effected . The Matoika 's captain indicated that no passengers were hurt in the collision . According to the story of one third @-@ class passenger , she , suspecting there was something seriously amiss , made inquiry after the commotion . A crew member told her that the Matoika had only stopped to greet a ship passing in the night . When she went on deck , insistent on seeing the other ship herself , she saw the iceberg and observed the first @-@ class passengers queued up to board the already @-@ lowered lifeboats . She took her daughter with her to join one of the queues , and , though initially rebuffed , was allowed to remain . The lifeboats were never deployed , however , and the Matoika arrived in Boston , where she had been diverted due to a typhus scare , on 28 February without further incident .
On the Matoika 's third and final return voyage from Italy , begun on 17 May , U.S. Customs Service agents at New York seized $ 150 @,@ 000 worth of cocaine — along with valuable silks and jewels — being smuggled into the United States . Officials speculated that because of a maritime strike , members of a smuggling ring were able to infiltrate the crew of the ship .
After her withdrawal from the Italian route , Princess Matoika was transferred to New York – Bremen service , sailing on her first commercial trip to Germany since before World War I on 14 June . In July , during her second roundtrip on the Bremen route , late rental payments to the USSB resulted in action to seize the nine ships chartered by the U.S. Mail Line , including the Matoika , after its return from Bremen . The ships were turned over to United American Lines — W. Averell Harriman 's steamship company — for temporary operation . After some legal wrangling by both the USSB and the U.S. Mail Line — and in light of financial irregularities by the U.S. Mail Line that were uncovered — the ships were permanently retained by the USSB in August .
= = United States Lines = =
Upon the formation of the United States Lines in August 1921 , Princess Matoika and the eight other ex @-@ German liners formerly operated by the U.S. Mail Line were transferred to the new company for operation . The Princess , still on New York – Bremen service , sailed on her first voyage for the new steamship line on 15 September . In October , Matoika crewmen were reported as taking advantage of the German inflation by consuming champagne available for $ 1 @.@ 00 per quart and mugs of " the best beer " for an American penny . In November , United States Lines announced that Princess Matoika would be replaced on the Bremen route in order to better compete with North German Lloyd , the liner 's former owner , but that never came about . The Princess continued on runs to Bremen , calling at the additional ports of Queenstown , Southampton , and Danzig , as her schedule shifted from time to time .
On 28 January 1922 , the Matoika departed with 400 passengers , among them , 312 Polish orphans headed for repatriation in their homeland . Two days and 100 nautical miles ( 190 km ) out of New York , the liner experienced a heavy gale that disabled her steering gear , and forced her return to New York after temporary repairs failed . The captain was able to steer her through the use of the ship 's engines , and arrived safely back in port on 31 January . This incident was the yet another misfortune that had befallen the young Poles . After being orphaned by the fighting between Polish and Soviet forces , the orphans had been taken across Siberia , evacuated to Japan , transported to Seattle , Washington , and taken by rail to Chicago , Illinois , where they were enrolled in school while searches for relatives in Poland were conducted .
After four Bremen roundtrips for United States Lines , Princess Matoika had sailed her last voyage under that name . When newly built Type 535 vessels named for American presidents came into service for the company in May 1922 , the Princess was renamed SS President Arthur in honor of the 21st U.S. President , Chester A. Arthur , matching the naming style of the new ships .
After her rename , she continued plying the North Atlantic between New York and Bremen , and was involved in a few episodes of note during this time . In June 1922 , two years into Prohibition in the United States , President Arthur was raided while at her dock in Hoboken , New Jersey , which netted 150 cases of smuggled spirits . Officials involved denied reports that the raid was conducted as a legal test case intended to test the determination of USSB chair Albert Lasker that United States @-@ flagged ships could carry and sell alcohol outside the three @-@ mile territorial limit of the United States . Congressman James A. Gallivan ( D @-@ MA ) , an anti @-@ prohibition leader , publicly demanded to know why the ship had not been seized for violating U.S. laws .
In September , President Arthur carried Irish republicans Muriel MacSwiney , widow of the recently deceased Lord Mayor of Cork Terence MacSwiney , and Linda Mary Kearns , who had been jailed for murder under the Black and Tans , to New York . Wearing buttons with pictures of Harry Boland , an anti @-@ treaty Irish nationalist who had been killed the previous month , the two women were there to raise funds for orphans of Anti @-@ Treaty IRA forces , who were then fighting in southern Ireland . In October , a Hoboken man , after securing a last @-@ minute court order , was able to halt the deportation of his German niece on President Arthur ; she was retrieved from the ship ten minutes before sailing time .
In November 1922 , U.S. Customs Service agents , seized a cache of Colt magazine guns aboard President Arthur . The entire crew was questioned but all denied any knowledge of the eight weapons found stowed behind a bulkhead . In August the following year , President Arthur took on board a seaman suffering from pneumonia from the Norwegian freighter Eastern
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Star in a mid @-@ ocean transfer . The ship 's doctor and nurse attended to the sailor but were unable to save him .
President Arthur sailed on her last transatlantic voyage from Bremen on 18 October 1923 , carrying 656 passengers to New York . Anchoring off Gravesend Bay on 30 October , President Arthur was one of 15 passenger ships whose arrival in New York was timed to coincide with the opening of the November immigration quota period . Under the Emergency Quota Act passed in 1921 , numerical limits on European immigration were imposed which created nationality quotas . At the conclusion of this voyage , President Arthur was laid up in Baltimore , Maryland , for almost a year .
= = American Palestine Line = =
On 9 October 1924 , the newly formed American Palestine Line announced that it had purchased President Arthur from the United States Shipping Board ( USSB ) , with plans to inaugurate service between New York and Palestine the following March . The American Palestine Line was formed in 1924 for the purpose of providing direct passenger service from New York to Palestine and was reportedly the first steamship company owned and operated by Jews . The company had negotiated to purchase three ocean liners from the USSB but was only able to purchase President Arthur . After refurbishing the liner , the company inaugurated service between New York and Palestine in March 1925 , when President Arthur sailed on her maiden voyage . A crowd of 15 @,@ 000 witnessed ceremonies that included songs , prayers , and speeches in English and Yiddish . The company claimed that President Arthur was the first ocean liner to fly the Zionist flag at sea , and the first ocean liner ever to have female officers .
The line had labor difficulties and financial difficulties throughout its existence . Rumors of a mutiny during President Arthur 's first trip were reported in The New York Times , and several crew members got into an altercation with members of the Blackshirts , the Italian fascist paramilitary group , when the liner made an intermediary stop in Naples . On her second voyage , the ship 's master @-@ at @-@ arms was killed by a fellow crew member . Financial difficulties included unpaid bills and resultant court actions , and accusations of fraud against company officers that were leveled in the press . In late 1925 the company was placed in the hands of a receiver , President Arthur — after a two @-@ alarm fire in her forward cargo hold — ended up back in the hands of the USSB , and the company 's office furniture and fixtures were sold at auction in early 1926 .
= = Los Angeles Steamship Company = =
In August 1926 the Los Angeles Steamship Company ( LASSCO ) announced the acquisition of President Arthur from the USSB . The liner would be extensively rebuilt and then sail opposite of City of Los Angeles ( the former North German Lloyd liner Grosser Kurfürst ) on a Los Angeles – Hawaii route . Arriving from New York on 24 September , the ship was docked at Los Angeles Shipbuilding and Drydock to immediately begin a $ 2 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 refit . Although initially planned to be ready for February 1927 sailings , progress was slowed by drydock access , and her completion date was pushed to May . During her refit , the ship was renamed City of Honolulu , becoming the second LASSCO ship of that name . At the conclusion of her reconstruction in May , City of Honolulu sailed on a 24 @-@ hour shakedown cruise .
= = = Maiden voyage = = =
City of Honolulu was rebuilt to 10 @,@ 680 GRT and had accommodations for around 450 first @-@ class and 50 third @-@ class passengers . Her hull was painted all white for LASSCO service , and she sported period designs in her common areas . The dining room , large enough to seat 300 in a single sitting , was decorated in a Grecian theme , and featured 18 stained glass windows designed by San Diego architect Carleton Winslow . The smoking room was done up in a Tudor style ; the music room was decorated in a combined French and Italian Renaissance manner ; and the writing room was in Adam style . The suites were all done in either Adam , Queen Anne , or Louis XVI styles . The ship featured six passenger elevators , and a swimming pool patterned on a Pompeian design . One of the few remaining traces of her pre @-@ war German decoration was the rosewood railing on her grand staircase .
On 4 June 1927 , a crowd of 7 @,@ 000 well @-@ wishers saw City of Honolulu depart on her maiden voyage . The festivities were also broadcast on radio station KGFO , a portable station operating form the front cargo deck of the ship . During the journey , broadcasts of the City of Honolulu 's orchestra , along with radio personalities and musicians from Los Angeles station KHJ , entertained both passengers and listeners on shore ( while the ship was in range ) .
Several notable passengers sailed on the liner 's maiden voyage . Jay Gould II , tennis champion and grandson of railroad tycoon Jay Gould , sailed for a three @-@ month stay at his Hawaiian home . Also sailing were movie star Laura La Plante and her husband , director William A. Seiter , and , Western Auto founder George Pepperdine , who began a three @-@ month tour of the Orient with his daughters . On arrival in Honolulu on 10 June , City of Honolulu was adorned with flowers and received a welcome from airplanes and a flotilla of outrigger canoes that escorted her into the harbor . After a ten @-@ day stay in the islands , she departed for Los Angeles , returning there on 26 June .
= = = Career = = =
After completion of her maiden voyage , City of Honolulu began regular service from Los Angeles to Honolulu and Hilo on what LASSCO called the " Great Circle Route of Sunshine " . After arriving at Honolulu , the ship would sail southeast to Hilo , passing the islands of Molokai and Maui on their north sides . On the return from Hilo , the liner would traverse the ʻAlalākeiki , the ʻAuʻau , and the Kalohi Channels , taking the ship between Maui and Molokai on the north and the islands of Kahoolawe and Lanai on the south .
Throughout her career , City of Honolulu transported many notable passengers to Hawaii . In July 1927 , for example , Henry Smith Pritchett , president of the Carnegie Foundation , sailed to Hawaii en route to a meeting with the Institute of Pacific Relations . In June 1928 , movie stars Norma Talmadge , Gilbert Roland , and Lottie Pickford began a Hawaiian vacation , and on 28 July , Jane Addams , the founder of Hull House and a pioneer of the settlement movement , headed there as well . Addams was on her way to attend the Pan @-@ Pacific Women 's Conference and the congress of the Women 's International League for Peace and Freedom ; a former Governor of Hawaii , Walter F. Frear , returned to the islands on that same voyage . In December , Al Jolson and his wife , Ruby Keeler , sailed on the liner for a vacation , and early the next February , the reigning British Open golf champion , Walter Hagen , sailed to start a four @-@ month golfing tour and exhibition in Australia . Hagan was accompanied by Australian golfer Joe Kirkwood ; Arctic explorer Donald B. MacMillan also left for Hawaii on the same sailing .
City of Honolulu also carried notable visitors to the mainland . Farris M. Brown , a dealer in Stradivarius instruments , arrived in Los Angeles in May 1928 with three of the famous maker 's violins , including the Baron Knoop Stradivarius . In April 1929 , Swedish swimmer Arne Borg , accompanied by his wife , arrived in Los Angeles on a world swimming tour , and in May , Sir James Gunnson , a former Mayor of Auckland , arrived for a one @-@ month visit to promote increased trade between California and New Zealand . The next January , Herbert Hagerman , former Governor of New Mexico Territory ; author Basil Woon , who had been doing research for a Hawaiian story ; and aviation promoter and chewing gum magnate William Easterwood all sailed stateside on the ship .
Apart from notable passengers carried during her tenure , City of Honolulu also frequently served as a conveyance for newlyweds heading for Hawaiian honeymoons . She also carried , in addition to passengers , cargo in both directions , transporting commodities , such as fertilizer and oil , to Hawaii , and Hawaiian goods , like sugar and fresh and canned pineapple to the mainland .
= = = Fire and scrapping = = =
City of Honolulu 's career as a tropical liner , however , was short @-@ lived . On the afternoon of 25 May 1930 , just shy of completing three years of LASSCO service , a fire broke out on her B deck while she was docked in her namesake city . Although aided by fireboat Leleiona and U.S. Navy submarine rescue ship Widgeon , firefighters were unable to bring the blaze under control quickly , and it spread to 100 short tons ( 91 t ) of potash aboard the liner . Fears that her cargo of 16 @,@ 000 barrels ( 2 @,@ 500 m3 ) of oil would explode caused firefighters to intentionally sink the liner at her pier in order to help extinguish the conflagration . Through firefighters ' efforts , the fire was contained to the upper three decks , leaving the ship 's power plant relatively undamaged . All crew members and LASSCO employees on board the ship got off safely ; no passengers were on the ship at the time of the fire .
The ship was pumped out and raised on 9 June , and taken to the naval drydock at Pearl Harbor for inspection on 12 June . While remaining in Hawaii , one engine was restored to working order and the ship departed for Los Angeles under her own power on 30 October . After her arrival , further inspections were conducted , and it was determined that repairs would be too expensive , especially given the global economic conditions . City of Honolulu was declared a total loss , and was laid up in the West Basin of Los Angeles Harbor for almost three years . During her lay up , fittings and fixtures stripped from the vessel were auctioned in July 1932 , and in December , film crews from Columbia Pictures Corporation spent ten days filming on board the ship .
City of Honolulu was sold to Japanese shipbreakers in mid 1933 , and — in the company of Calawaii , another LASSCO ship destined for the scrap heap — the City of Honolulu departed Los Angeles in late August under her own power . Manned by a Filipino crew , the 33 @-@ year @-@ old liner developed a problem with one of her boilers almost immediately and had to put in to San Francisco for repairs . Getting underway after a lengthy delay , one of her engines failed in mid @-@ ocean , leaving her to plod on to Japan on one engine . She eventually arrived in Osaka at the shipbreaker in mid @-@ December , and was scrapped shortly thereafter .
= Pacific Aviation Museum Pearl Harbor =
Pacific Aviation Museum Pearl Harbor is a non @-@ profit founded in 1999 to develop an aviation museum in Hawaii . Part of Senator Daniel Inouye 's vision for a rebirth of Ford Island , the museum hosts a variety of aviation exhibits with a majority relating directly to the attack on Pearl Harbor and World War II . The first section of the museum , hangar 37 , opened with the museum on December 7 , 2006 , and features much of the museum 's static exhibits . The museum 's hangars show damage from the attacks on Pearl Harbor from December 7 , 1941 .
The museum has been involved in community events ranging from preservation of historical landmarks to educational tours throughout Hawai 'i . The focus devoted efforts to restoring the Ford Island control tower and signed a lease with the Navy to begin repairs . Visitors to the museum gain access via tour bus from the Pearl Harbor Historic Sites on Halawa landing or use a US Military ID card at the Admiral Clarey bridge gate . The museum has received awards for their efforts to restore historical buildings and is listed as a top 10 aviation museum on TripAdvisor .
= = History = =
In 1983 , the Pacific Aerospace Museum was formed inside Honolulu International Airport after pressure from the Hawaiian Chamber of Commerce to create an aviation museum in Hawaii succeeded . The first phase of the museum opened in 1991 and was founded by Frank Der Yuen . The idea for the Pacific Aviation Museum began on the anniversary of the victory over Japan in 1995 . After the September 11 attacks , the Pacific Aerospace Museum operation was suspended by the state and finally removed two years later . A few of the exhibits were salvaged by the Pacific Aviation Museum Pearl Harbor foundation as well as responsibility for the education and scholarship programs .
Prior to the completion of the Admiral Clarey Bridge in 1998 , access to Ford Island was provided via ferry boat only to those residing on Ford Island and their guests . Senator Inouye proposed a $ 500 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 " rebirth " of Ford Island through special legislation 2814 U. S. Code to authorize the Navy to sell land to fund the rebirth . The plan included 500 new homes for Navy personnel , a new child development center , a new Navy lodge , and the Pacific Aviation Museum Pearl Harbor . The original museum was called the Military Aviation Museum of the Pacific . The foundation sought funds to raise the original $ 46 million goal from various sources including the US State of Hawaii , the United States Congress , the United States Navy , and fundraising dinners . It received support from former US astronaut Captain Walter Schirra . While executive director of the San Diego Air & Space Museum , Allan Palmer was hired by the United States Air Force to conduct a feasibility study on an aviation museum in Hawaii and then hired as its executive direction and chief executive operating officer .
A groundbreaking ceremony was held March 21 , 2006 for the $ 75 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 construction of the museum . It opened on December 7 , 2007 on the 65th anniversary of the attack on Pearl Harbor . Its board consists of former United States president George H.W. Bush , Brigadier General Chuck Yeager , and formerly Brigadier General Paul Tibbets . The museum occupies hangars 37 , 54 , and 79 on Ford Island and covers 16 acres . In 2012 , the Pacific Aviation Museum Pearl Harbor was named an affiliate of the Smithsonian Institution as part of the Smithsonian Affiliations program . On April 4 , 2013 , the museum received its millionth visitor .
= = = Facilities = = =
Due to its historical significance , as the location of the first radio alert of the attack on Pearl Harbor , the museum plans to spend over $ 7 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 repairing the Ford Island control tower . It was registered as a category 1 structure in the 1978 Pearl Harbor Naval Base Historic Preservation Plan and is being restored by Kiewit Building Group ; the same contractor who built the museum . The 70 @-@ year @-@ old 158 feet ( 48 m ) tower suffers from deteriorating steel stairs , landing , and beams that require repair or replacement . A grant through the United States Department of Defense appropriations for the stabilization and restoration of a historical landmark was given to the museum for $ 3 @,@ 800 @,@ 000 which provided the initial funds to start the project . The control tower , as well as the runway , has been designated a national historic landmark since 1964 . In 2010 , records filed with Congress shows that defense firms had donated nearly $ 449 @,@ 000 to the museum during efforts to raise money to restore the tower . The tower was considered a personal issue for Senator Inouye and many of these donations were made in his memory . The tower was featured in the films Tora ! Tora ! Tora ! and Pearl Harbor .
Hangar 37 , a former seaplane hangar and one of the few survivors of the attack on Pearl Harbor , was the first hangar developed for the museum . The 7 @.@ 25 acres ( 2 @.@ 93 ha ) facility consists of nine exhibits , a movie theater , flight simulators , a store and a restaurant . The renovation cost was $ 11 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 and was raised by federal and state grants and through donations by local corporations . Built in 1939 and at over 87 @,@ 000 square feet ( 8 @,@ 100 m2 ) , Hangar 79 is the restoration hangar but also contains many of the museums exhibits including the flying tigers exhibit , MiG Alley exhibit , and various helicopters , jets , and civil aircraft . The hangar 's glass windows are still riddled with bullet holes from Japanese aircraft from the day of the attack . Tawani Foundation donated $ 82 @,@ 500 for the renovation of Hangar 79 .
= = Exhibits = =
In 2009 , former McDonalds CEO Fred L. Turner sponsored the restoration of a Douglas SBD Dauntless . The Boeing N2S @-@ 3 Stearman used by former President George H.W. Bush for flight training and used for his first solo flight is an exhibit at the museum .
The remains of the Japanese A6M2 Zero " B11 @-@ 120 " from the carrier Hiryu piloted by Airman First Class Shigenori Nishikaichi , who crash landed on Ni 'ihau after the second wave of the attack on Pearl Harbor , are stored at the museum . It is displayed exactly as it was after the crash . The remains of the tractor used to create trenches to prevent such a landing are stored at the museum . The trenches were created after the island was warned that the Japanese had planned to use the island as a forward operating base .
A Japanese A6M2 @-@ 21 Zero similar to the aircraft used in the attack on Pearl Harbor was salvaged in 1968 and restored to flying condition in 1985 . Originally , it flew with the Japanese air group 201 in the Solomon Islands . It was sold to the Confederate Air Force for use in air shows and later sold to the museum in 2006 .
On April 11 , 2013 , the remains of a B @-@ 17 bomber arrived at the Pacific Aviation Museum Pearl Harbor almost 70 years after avoiding destruction during the attack on Pearl Harbor . The restoration project is expected to cost $ 5 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 . The plane , called " Swamp Ghost " , was supposed to fly to Hickam Field on December 7 , 1941 but was delayed due to engine trouble and avoided the attack . Later , it was used in the February 22 , 1942 bombing of Rabaul . After the bombing , the plane was attacked by nine Japanese fighters on its return to base , was struck on the wing , and crashed in marsh water . The plane remained there for 64 years , earning its nickname , and the wreckage was used as a navigational aid . It appeared in National Geographic in 1992 and several attempts were made to recover the aircraft , but it was not successfully recovered until 2006 and arrived back in the United States in 2010 . It was purchased by the museum in 2011 . It was delivered in seven separate shipment containers and is being restored outside of hangar 79 .
In June 2012 , the museum debuted a 10 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) tall , 40 @-@ foot ( 12 m ) wide diorama of the Battle of Midway . The diorama was commissioned in 2008 for $ 400 @,@ 000 on the advice of Turner and took three years to complete by former US Navy pilot Karl Lau .
= = = Collection = = =
= = = East , Wind , Rain = = =
In 2008 , the Hawaii Pacific University documentary and corporate video class completed development of a 12 @-@ minute film titled East , Wind , Rain to replace the older film shown to visitors at the museum . The film explains the surprise attack on Pearl Harbor to museum guests and won the 2010 Pixie Gold Award from American Pixel Academy .
= = Public reception = =
= = = Controversies = = =
In 2013 , the Navy was concerned about plans by the museum to host 1 @,@ 500 Chinese nationals from Amway China on Ford Island , as it remains an active military installation , who were particularly interested in the Flying Tigers exhibit . Despite these concerns , the Navy approved the event and erected a 6 @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) tall fence .
In March 2013 , the museum 's online ticketing service was hacked , the museum 's service provider , Vendini , believed that none of the data of its customers was accessed .
In June 2013 , the museum fought the US Navy 's plan to install 60 @,@ 000 photovoltaic panels over 28 acres on the Ford Island runway . The Navy had intended to comply with Congressional and Defense Department mandates to reduce dependence on fossil fuels and offset the cost of Hawaiian energy costs , which are the highest in the United States . The plan deviated from a 2009 proposal which would use the panels to define the historic runway in favor of panels which would produce twice the power . The Navy offered the museum $ 250 @,@ 000 toward renovation of the control tower 's elevator in exchange for their support of the plan which the museum declined . It organized an internet campaign to oppose the plan based on historical significance . Instead , the Navy decided to install the panels on existing structures around Pearl Harbor .
= = = Community involvement = = =
In 2008 , the museum received a grant from BAE Systems to fund its Barnstorming program to build wind tunnels and plane props that will tour local schools to teach aerospace education to sixth graders . In 2012 , the program was credited with teaching 3 @,@ 500 students from 40 schools .
In 2013 , the U.S. State Department awarded the museum the " Museums Connect " grant for the " Past to Present : U.S. -Sino Bridge of Connections " program . The program allowed students from Kaiser High School to participate in a cultural heritage exchange with students in Chengdu , China and conduct research into 1940s American @-@ Chinese relations .
= = = Tourism = = =
During the 2013 federal budget sequestration in the United States , the Pacific Aviation Museum Pearl Harbor received an increase in tourists , due to limited ferry trips to the USS Arizona Memorial which are operated by active duty United States Navy personnel . Because Ford Island is still part of the active military base Joint Base Pearl Harbor @-@ Hickam , tourists gain access via the National Park Service 's Halawa Landing , now known as the Pearl Harbor Historic Sites , for tickets to the museum and then are transported via tour bus onto the installation for the museum and the USS Missouri .
= = Recognition and awards = =
Pacific Aviation Museum Pearl Harbor was listed as the eighth top aviation attraction in the United States by TripAdvisor . In 2007 , the museum was awarded a preservation award from the Historic Hawaii foundation for " a specific project that preserved , rehabilitated or restored a historic building , object , site or district " in the redevelopment of hangar 37 .
= Columbus ( Providence , Rhode Island ) =
Columbus is an historic statue in Providence , Rhode Island , United States on Elmwood Avenue . Columbus is a bronze cast of a sterling silver statue which was created by Rhode Island 's Gorham Manufacturing Company for the 1892 Columbian Exposition in Chicago . The original silver statue was not meant for permanent exhibition , but rather as a demonstration of the skills of the Gorham Company , and was later melted down . The bronze cast was dedicated November 8 , 1893 as a gift from the Elmwood Association to the City of Providence . It stands upon a granite base at the center of a grassy triangle at the intersection of Reservoir Avenue and Elmwood Avenue . The statue features Christopher Columbus , was created in 1893 by Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi and added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2001 .
= = History = =
Cast in 1893 , the statue of Columbus that stands on Elmwood Avenue was produced by the Gorham Manufacturing Company who commissioned master sculptor , Auguste Bartholdi . The bronze statue is a cast of the original made of sterling silver , which was commissioned for the 1892 Columbian Exposition in Chicago , Illinois . For the upcoming exposition , Gorham wanted a demonstration piece to show the skill of its foundry and commissioned Bartholdi to create a statue of Columbus . The completed model was shipped across the Atlantic Ocean to be cast from 30 @,@ 000 ounces of silver at Providence , Rhode Island . The casting was a ceremonial affair , where guests " were feted as they watched the process " . Gorham officials accompanied and shipped the statue to Chicago via rail . It served as a demonstration piece at the exposition , showcasing the skill of its foundry in the technically difficult task of casting a work in sterling silver . After the exposition , the statue was returned to Providence where it was melted down : a silver statue was impractical as a permanent outdoor sculpture and the piece had already served its celebratory and advertisement purpose .
In 1893 , a bronze Columbus was cast by the Gorham company and gifted to the City of Providence by the Elmwood Association , a civic group from a neighborhood near Gorham . It is known that Bartholdi visited Newport , Rhode Island in 1893 , but it is unknown if he was involved in the production of the bronze cast . The statue was dedicated on November 8 , 1893 at 2 : 30 p.m. Professor Alonzo Williams was the presenter of the statue to the city and Mayor Potter acted as " response on behalf the city " . Music was provided by the Reeves American Band and the song Columbus was performed . The oration was given by Reverend H. W. Rugg and a chorus of children lead the crowd in singing My Country , ' Tis of Thee . The site of the statue was originally deeded to the Town of Cranston by Joseph Cooke on May 24 , 1824 . The Town of Cranston deeded it to Providence in 1868 and renamed it Columbus Park in 1893 .
= = Design = =
The bronze cast depicts a 6 @.@ 6 feet ( 2 @.@ 0 m ) by 4 @.@ 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 4 m ) wide and deep , " larger @-@ than @-@ life size " standing figure of Christopher Columbus atop a 5 @.@ 25 feet ( 1 @.@ 60 m ) by 5 @.@ 33 feet ( 1 @.@ 62 m ) plain square base of grey Westerly , Rhode Island granite . The National Historic Register of Places nomination describes the statue : " The explorer is caught in mid @-@ stride , his left foot stepping off the base . In his left hand he holds a globe ; his right arm is raised , his index finger pointing , as if giving an order or sighting land . Columbus wears a short tunic ; a wide belt wraps the waist ; a second belt across the hip holds a sword . A short full cloak billows out around the figure , and he wears a brimmed hat . There is a coil of line at his feet . " The square base is inscribed with " Columbus " on the front , " 1492 " on the right side and " 1893 " on the left side .
The statue is in good overall condition , but has some very small cracks in the figure and the tail ends of the bronze swag are missing . The base is also in good condition with only some chipping on the lower edge of the base being noted in the nomination . In 2010 , the statue was defaced on Columbus Day with red paint and a sign which read " murderer " hanging from its waist . The statue has also been the subject of graffiti " tagging " vandalism .
= = Importance = =
The National Register of Historic Places nomination lists the Columbus statue under both criteria A and C. Criterion A requires that the property must make a contribution to the major pattern of American history , and criterion C concerns the distinctive characteristics of its architecture and construction , including having great artistic value or being the work of a master . The basis for meeting criterion A is that the work is an example of the Gorham Manufacturing Company 's large statue . Columbus was listed under criterion C as an example of the work of Auguste Bartholdi 's work . The statue has not been moved from its original location , but the " significance of the work is not dependent upon its setting but is encompassed within the object itself . " Columbus was added to the National Register of Historic Places on October 19 , 2001 .
Though it is a bronze cast copy of the original silver work , the sculpture itself was declared a masterpiece because " [ l ] ife and vigor are implied in every line and feature , and the general effect is one of great beauty . " In relation to the original silver cast , James Wilson Pierce declared it as an exemplary work of art that surpasses all other Christopher Columbus sculptures in the United States .
= Homogenic =
Homogenic is the third international solo album by Icelandic musician Björk , released in September 1997 . Produced by Björk , Mark Bell , Guy Sigsworth , Howie B and Markus Dravs , it was released on One Little Indian Records . The music of Homogenic was a new style for Björk , focusing on similar sounding music combining electronic beats and string instruments with songs in tribute to her native country Iceland . Homogenic was originally to be produced in her home in London , but was later recorded in Spain . Homogenic marked the first of several production collaborations between Björk and Mark Bell , whom Björk would cite as a major influence on her musical career . The album peaked at number twenty @-@ eight on the Billboard 200 , and at number four on the UK Albums Chart .
Five singles were released from Homogenic : " Jóga " , " Bachelorette " , " Hunter " , " Alarm Call " and " All Is Full of Love " . Homogenic was highly acclaimed on its initial release and continues to be praised by critics , with Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine stating that " if not the greatest electronic album of all time , it 's certainly the greatest of its decade " .
= = Production = =
= = = Maida Vale sessions = = =
After an extensive tour in 1996 , Björk returned to her home in Maida Vale with an urgent need to write new songs as a form of therapy . Björk would let audio engineer Markus Dravs into her home studio to start creating new songs . Björk wanted to create an album with " a simple sound " and " only one flavour " . The album began with the working title of Homogeneous , but Björk shortly afterwards changed it to Homogenic .
The sessions with Dravs and Björk were casual , with Björk allowing Dravs freedom with the album . Björk only left the studio to cook meals for the both of them . One of the first songs created during the sessions was " 5 Years " which Dravs created the fast beat for . The progress of Homogenic in these sessions was halted due to a media sensation caused by the suicide of Björk 's stalker Ricardo López . To deal with the stress of being at home during this incident , Björk imagined herself as the protagonist in a Spanish soap opera . The character 's image inspired a song titled " So Broken " which she sang to herself in her kitchen . The song was later included on the Japanese import of the album .
= = = Málaga sessions = = =
To record in privacy away from the sudden unwanted media interest , Björk 's tour drummer Trevor Morais offered his studio in Spain . Björk went to Málaga and arranged to meet with flamenco guitarist Raimundo Amador . Björk had originally intended to stay in Málaga only briefly , but later decided to record the entirety of Homogenic there . Björk made a final trip out of the country before staying in Spain . As she had done since moving to London , Björk returned to Iceland for Christmas . While there , she wrote more new songs for Homogenic , including " Jóga " . Before returning to Spain to record , Björk was sidetracked by a two @-@ week worldwide press tour for the promotion of her remix album Telegram , which had just been released .
After returning to the studio in Spain in late January , Björk decided that producer Nellee Hooper , who had produced both Debut and Post , would not return , as Björk stated that they had " both stopped surprising each other " . Björk had intended to produce the album alone , but she abandoned the idea and sought out a group of close collaborators including Dravs , Howie B , Guy Sigsworth and LFO 's Mark Bell . Howie B had worked with Björk previously on Debut and Post and Sigsworth had played harpsichord on Post . The American hip hop group Wu @-@ Tang Clan almost contributed to the production of Homogenic , but were unable due to their production on the album Wu @-@ Tang Forever , which had taken longer than planned . Most of the melodies on the album were created by Björk , who then composed string sections on a Casio keyboard and brought them to programmers who would add suitable rhythmic patterns . Björk desired to have Mark Bell contribute to her albums Debut and Post , only finding him available for Homogenic . Mark Bell was credited for the majority of the album 's production , including the songs " Pluto " , " Alarm Call " , and the bass line in " Jóga " . Björk stated about her collaboration with Bell that she " trusts and respects what [ Bell ] does for me . If I were to say who has influenced me most it would be Stockhausen , Kraftwerk , Brian Eno and Mark Bell " . Other unorthodox methods of recording were used during the production , including Björk wanting to record outside on the porch and using non @-@ professionals to help with production , such as Rebecca Storey , who was hired as a babysitter but added to the production staff after showing interest in the equipment .
String arrangements were added late in the recording process . Björk had friend Eumir Deodato conduct , transcribe and compose original pieces for the few songs that Björk did not arrange for herself . To keep with the Icelandic theme of the album , Björk ordered the services of the Icelandic String Octet . By June 1997 , the album was behind schedule and Björk was uncertain of the final track listing and unhappy with some of the recorded vocals .
= = Composition = =
Before production began on Homogenic , Björk wanted to create an album with " a simple sound " and " only one flavour " . Heather Phares of Allmusic described the sound of Homogenic as a " fusion of chilly strings ( courtesy of the Icelandic String Octet ) , stuttering , abstract beats , and unique touches like accordion and glass harmonica " . The album differs from her previous two releases stylistically , and Neva Chonin of Rolling Stone stated the album was " certain to be rough going for fans looking for the sweet melodies and peppy dance collages of her earlier releases " .
Björk wanted Homogenic to have a conceptual focus on her native Iceland . Producer Markus Dravs recalled Björk wanting it to sound like " rough volcanoes with soft moss growing all over it ... " In an interview for Oor , Björk explained that " in Iceland , everything revolves around nature , 24 hours a day . Earthquakes , snowstorms , rain , ice , volcanic eruptions , geysers ... Very elementary and uncontrollable . But at the other hand , Iceland is incredibly modern ; everything is hi @-@ tech . The number of people owning a computer is as high as nowhere else in the world . That contradiction is also on Homogenic . The electronic beats are the rhythm , the heartbeat . The violins create the old @-@ fashioned atmosphere , the colouring . "
Björk 's vocals on Homogenic range from primitive sounding screams to a traditional singing method used by Icelandic choir men , a combination of speaking and singing as illustrated in the song " Unravel " . The majority of songs on Homogenic have lyrics about love and failed relationships . The song " Jóga " was written as a tribute to her best friend and tour masseuse of the same name . Björk called " All is Full of Love " a song about " believing in love " and that " Love isn 't just about two persons . It 's everywhere around you " . " All Neon Like " contains snippets of a poem Björk wrote called " Techno Prayer " in 1996 . The song " 5 Years " appeared in live form a few weeks after her breakup with musician Tricky and music journalists considered it a response to it . " Bachelorette " was originally written for director Bernardo Bertolucci for his film Stealing Beauty . Björk later faxed Bertolucci , informing him the song would be used for her album instead . " Bachelorette " and " Jóga " were written with Icelandic poet Sjón , because Björk wanted to use epic lyrics . " Immature " was written about mistakes in past relationships , shortly after the breakup with Goldie . Björk described " Pluto " as about " being plastered , that need to destroy everything so you can start again " . " Unravel " is a song about lamenting love , with brief flashes of hope .
= = Release = =
The album was released later than One Little Indian Records had intended . Björk was behind schedule and the album 's cover design by Nick Knight needed a reshoot . Towards the end of August 1997 , One Little Indian delayed the album by a month . Homogenic was released on September 22 , 1997 on One Little Indian in the United Kingdom and on September 23 Elektra Records in North America on compact disc and cassette . The album was later issued on vinyl and DualDisc formats . The Japanese version of Homogenic included several bonus tracks and remixed versions of songs . The DualDisc release featured the full album on the CD side and the DVD side included the album with superior sound quality and the music videos for the singles .
On the album 's initial release , it charted in the United States on October 11 , 1997 , and stayed in the charts for nine weeks peaking at number 28 . Homogenic entered the charts in Canada for one week at number 20 . In the United Kingdom , Homogenic entered the charts on October 4 , 1997 , stayed in the charts for thirteen weeks and peaked at number four . Of the ten songs on Homogenic , five were released as singles . A music video for " Jóga " directed by Michel Gondry was filmed in the middle of 1997 and was the first single for the album . " Bachelorette " was released in December 1997 with another music video directed by Gondry . In 1998 , two singles were released : " Hunter " , which had a music video directed by Paul White , and " Alarm Call " , which had a video directed by Alexander McQueen . The final single from Homogenic was " All Is Full of Love " , released in 1999 with a music video directed by Chris Cunningham . " Jóga " was the only single to not chart in the United Kingdom and " All Is Full of Love " was the only single to chart in the United States , peaking at number eight the Hot Dance Singles Sales chart . In Canada , the Canadian Recording Industry Association certified Homogenic as a gold record on June 12 , 1998 , and in the United States the RIAA certified the album as Gold on August 31 , 2001 .
= = = Album cover = = =
The themes of the album are reflected in the album cover designed by Alexander McQueen . Björk approached McQueen explaining to him the person who wrote Homogenic 's songs was someone who " had to become a warrior . A warrior who had to fight not with weapons , but with love . I had 10 kilos of hair on my head , and special contact lenses and a manicure that prevented me from eating with my fingers , and gaffer tape around my waist and high clogs so I couldn 't walk easily " .
= = = Tour = = =
When the release of Homogenic was delayed by a month , its tour began with the audience not being familiar with the album 's songs since it had not been released yet . The tour started at the beginning of September with a backing band that consisted only of Mark Bell and made stops in Germany , the Netherlands , France , Belgium , Spain , and England . These shows were brief live shows lasting about half an hour consisting of only new material . Another tour took place in late October and lasted less than four weeks . Stops on this tour included Italy , Switzerland , France , England , Scotland , Germany , Ireland , and Denmark . In late November , Björk was diagnosed with a kidney infection and while she was still healthy she was advised to take a three @-@ week rest and was forced to cancel her American tour . In 1998 , a North American tour with Radiohead was announced but canceled later due to difficulty of changing the stage between performances of the acts . Björk had another tour in the middle of 1998 through Europe , and outside of the continent through other countries , including Chile , Brazil and Argentina . Opening acts for portions of the tour included electronic musician µ @-@ Ziq .
= = Reception = =
Homogenic has been met with unanimous critical acclaim since its initial release , winning multiple awards , as well as being placed on several " best of " charts . The album was nominated in the Best Alternative Music Performance category at the 1998 Grammy Awards , losing to Radiohead 's OK Computer . Michel Gondry 's music video for " Bachelorette " was nominated for best Best Short Form Music Video at the 1999 Grammy Awards , but lost to Jonas Åkerlund 's video for the Madonna song " Ray of Light " . Homogenic landed Björk the award for Best International Female at the BRIT Awards where she accepted the award stating " I am grateful grapefruit " .
Initial critical reception was very positive . David Browne of Entertainment Weekly stated that " Homogenic could have been stuffy and dull — Sting with a sex @-@ change operation . It 's a testament to Bjork 's continued weirdness that even overtures toward adulthood come out delightfully skewed " . Neva Chonin of Rolling Stone cited it as " one of the boldest – and most exciting – albums of the year " . NME 's Ted Kessler praised Homogenic as Björk 's best album and " her most emotional , highly charged and groovy record , as well as a stinging triumph for the spirit of adventure . " Heather Phares of AllMusic cited the album as being more emotionally deep than any of Björk 's previous work and called it a " seamless fusion of chilly strings , stuttering , abstract beats , and unique touches like an accordion and glass harmonica . "
A more negative review came from Stephen Thompson of The A.V. Club , who said " Homogenic is stylish enough , and it 's as restlessly creative as you 'd expect , but the album rarely gives Björk 's songs a chance to assert themselves " . Robert Christgau of The Village Voice assigned the album a two @-@ star honorable mention rating , indicating a " likable effort consumers attuned to its overriding aesthetic or individual vision may well enjoy . "
= = Commercial reception = =
The album debuted at number six on the Australian Albums Chart on 12 October 1997 . The album descended to number 45 after five weeks in the chart . Homogenic debuted at number eight on the New Zealand Albums Chart on 12 October 1997 . The album peaked at number six on 19 October 1997 , but descended after six weeks on the chart .
The album was released in North America digitally on August 3 , 2004 . The album debuted at number twenty @-@ eight on the Billboard 200 . The stayed a total of nine weeks inside the top 200 , where its last position was at number 164 . The album was certified gold on August 1 , 2001 by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipments of 500 @,@ 000 copies . The album debuted at twenty on the Canadian Albums Chart , becoming Bjork 's first album to chart on the Canada Billboard chart and spent a sole week there . The album was certified gold by the Canadian Music Industry on June 12 , 1998 .
= = Legacy = =
American critics rated Homogenic highly in end of the year polls . In Village Voice 's Pazz & Jop critics ' poll of 1997 , the album placed at number nine . Spin ranked the album at number four on their list of " Top 20 Albums of the Year " . British critics listed the album in similar polls , with Melody Maker ranking the album at number thirty @-@ three on their list of " Albums of the Year " and NME placed the album at number fifteen in its Critics ' Poll . Later reception to the album has also been generally positive . Ryan Schrieber of Pitchfork Media gave Homogenic a 9 @.@ 9 out of 10 rating , claiming the album was " absolutely brilliant " . In 2002 , Homogenic placed at number ten on Slant Magazine 's list of " The Greatest Electronic Albums of the 20th Century " . In 2003 , Homogenic placed on number 21 on the music webzine Pitchfork Media 's list of the top one hundred albums of the 1990s , claiming it as " one of the most perfectly formed records of any era , and it is entirely possible that Björk will never approach this level of consistently enrapturing beauty again " . In 2007 , Slant Magazine gave the highest possible rating of five out of five stars , describing the album as " gorgeous and evocative " and praising it as one of the best albums of the 1990s . In a career retrospective in 2007 , Spin gave the album five out of five stars . In 2011 , Slant Magazine placed the album at number one on their list of best albums of the 1990s . According to Tiny Mix Tapes , Homogenic is " one of the most groundbreaking albums of all @-@ time , an album that assuredly caused countless hearts to soar . "
= = Track listing = =
All songs written by Björk and produced by Björk and Mark Bell , except where otherwise noted .
= = Personnel = =
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= Charles L. McNary =
Charles Linza McNary ( June 12 , 1874 – February 25 , 1944 ) was a United States Republican politician from Oregon . He served in the Senate from 1917 to 1944 and was Senate Minority Leader from 1933 to 1944 . In the Senate , McNary helped to pass legislation that led to the construction of Bonneville Dam on the Columbia River , and worked on agricultural and forestry issues . He also supported many of the New Deal programs at the beginning of the Great Depression . Until Mark O. Hatfield surpassed his mark in 1993 , he was Oregon 's longest @-@ serving senator .
McNary was the Republican vice presidential candidate in 1940 , on the ticket with presidential candidate Wendell Willkie . They lost to the Democratic ticket , composed of Franklin D. Roosevelt , who was running for his third term as president , and Henry A. Wallace in a landslide . McNary was a justice of the Oregon Supreme Court from 1913 to 1915 and was dean of Willamette University College of Law , in his hometown of Salem , from 1908 to 1913 . Before that , he was a deputy district attorney under his brother , John Hugh McNary , who later became a federal judge for the District of Oregon .
McNary died in office after unsuccessful surgery on a brain tumor . Oregon held a state funeral for him , during which his body lay in state at the Oregon State Capitol in Salem . McNary Dam , McNary Field , McNary High School , and McNary Country Club ( on land he owned ) in Oregon are named in his honor .
= = Early life = =
McNary was born on his maternal grandfather 's family farm north of Salem on June 12 , 1874 . He was the ninth of ten children , and the third son , born to Hugh Linza McNary and Mary Margaret McNary ( née Claggett ) . When the two married in 1860 , Hugh McNary 's father @-@ in @-@ law gave him a 112 @-@ acre ( 0 @.@ 45 km2 ) farm in what is now the city of Keizer . Charles McNary 's paternal grandfather , James McNary , moved to Oregon Country from Kentucky in 1845 , while his maternal grandfather and namesake , Charles Claggett , moved from Missouri in 1852 .
McNary 's father helped on the family farm , then taught school for a few years before returning to farming near Salem . When McNary 's mother died in 1878 , his father moved the family to Salem where he bought a general merchandise store after being unable to run the family farm because of declining health . Charles , known as Tot , began his education at a one @-@ room school in Keizer and later attended Central School in Salem , living on North Commercial Street . Hugh McNary died in 1883 , making Charlie an orphan at the age of nine .
Nina McNary became the head of the household , while other siblings took jobs in order to provide for the family . As a boy , Charles worked as a paperboy , in an orchard , and at other farming tasks . He met Herbert Hoover , a future U.S. president , who moved to Salem in 1888 . He later worked in the county recorder 's office for his brother John Hugh McNary , who had been elected as county recorder in 1890 , and for a short time attended the Capital Business College . After leaving that school , he enrolled in college preparatory classes at Willamette University , with an eye towards attending Stanford University or the University of California . During this time he met Jessie Breyman , whom he began dating , at a social club he helped start . Another member of the club was Oswald West , a future governor of Oregon .
= = = Legal career = = =
In the autumn of 1896 , McNary moved to California to attend Stanford , where he studied law , economics , science , and history while working as a waiter to pay for his housing . He left Stanford and returned to Oregon in 1897 after his family asked him to come home . Back in Salem , he read law under the supervision of his brother John and Samuel L. Hayden , and passed the bar in 1898 . The brothers practiced law together in Salem as McNary & McNary , while John also served as deputy district attorney for Marion County . At this time , Charles bought the old family farm and returned it to the family . From 1909 to 1911 he served as president of the Salem Board of Trade , and in 1909 helped to organize the Salem Fruit Union , an agricultural association .
While still partnered with his brother , McNary began teaching property law at Willamette University College of Law in the spring of 1899 and courting Jessie Breyman . In 1908 , he was hired as its dean to replace John W. Reynolds . As dean , he worked to enlarge the school and secure additional classroom space . He recruited prominent local attorneys to serve on the faculty and increased the size of the school from four graduates in 1908 to 36 in 1913 , his last year as dean . In his drive to make Willamette 's law school one of the top programs on the West Coast , he had it re @-@ located from leased space in office buildings to the university campus .
On November 19 , 1902 , he married Jessie Breyman , the daughter of successful Salem businessman Eugene Breyman . Jessie died on July 3 , 1918 , in an automobile accident south of Newberg on her way home to Salem . She had been in Oregon to attend the funeral of her mother and was returning from Portland in the Boise family 's car when it flipped and crushed her . McNary spent several days in Oregon for her funeral and then returned to Washington . Charles and Jessie had no children .
= = State politics = =
McNary first held public office in 1892 when he became Marion County 's deputy recorder , remaining in the position until 1896 . In 1904 he managed successful campaign of his brother , John , for district attorney for the third judicial district of Oregon . John then appointed Charles as his deputy , who served until 1911 .
Steve Neal , McNary 's biographer , describes McNary as a progressive who stuck with the Republican Party in 1910 even when many progressives left the party in favor of West , a Democrat . McNary backed the Progressive Era reforms ( the initiative , recall , referendum , primary elections , and the direct election of US senators ) of Oregonian William Simon U 'Ren , and he was an early supporter of public , rather than private , power companies . After West won the election , he chose McNary to be special legal counsel to Oregon 's railroad commission , who urged lower passenger and freight rates . Meanwhile , McNary maintained friendly relations with both progressive and conservative factions of the Oregon Republicans and with West .
In 1913 , West appointed McNary to the Oregon Supreme Court to fill a new position , created by the legislature 's expansion of the court from five justices to seven . The youngest of the justices , at 38 , McNary left law school and private practice behind . He quickly " established himself as a judicial activist and strong advocate of progressive reform . " A supporter of organized labor , McNary " consistently defended the rights of injured workers and was not hesitant about using the bench as an instrument for social change " such as an eight @-@ hour day for public employees . Unions supported McNary throughout his political career .
Several criminal convictions resulted from the Portland vice scandal in November 1912 surrounding the city 's gay male subculture . By the time McNary was seated , some convictions had been appealed to the court . He wrote the dissenting opinion in the reversal of the conviction of prominent Portland attorney Edward McAllister . The dissent was emotionally charged and " revealed a deeply seated personal discomfort with same @-@ sex eroticism . "
In 1914 , the court moved into the new Oregon Supreme Court Building , and McNary filed to run for a full six @-@ year term on the bench . At that time the office was partisan , and McNary lost the Republican primary , by a single vote , to Henry L. Benson , after several recounts and the discovery of uncounted ballots . After his defeat , he served the remainder of his partial term and left the court in 1915 . On July 8 , 1916 , after a close , multiballot contest , with several contenders , the Republican State Committee elected McNary to be the chair . He was seen as someone who could unify the progressive and conservative wings of the party in Oregon .
= = Federal politics = =
As chairman of the state 's Republican Party , McNary campaigned to get the Republican presidential nominee , Charles Evans Hughes , elected in the 1916 presidential election . Hughes , a former US Supreme Court justice and future chief justice , carried Oregon but lost the presidency to the incumbent , Woodrow Wilson . When US Senator Harry Lane died in office , on May 23 , 1917 , it created an opportunity for McNary to redeem himself after his failed bid for election to the Oregon Supreme Court . McNary was among several possible successors considered by Oregon Governor James Withycombe . The governor preferred someone who supported national women 's suffrage and Prohibition , and he shared with McNary an interest in farming . Furthermore , McNary supporters argued that both progressive and conservative factions of the Republican Party would accept McNary and that unity would give the party the best chance of retaining the Senate seat in the next election . Withycombe appointed McNary to the unexpired term on May 29 .
After resigning as state party chairman , McNary prepared to campaign for a full term in the Senate . He faced Speaker of the Oregon House of Representatives Robert N. Stanfield in the May 1918 Republican primary . McNary defeated Stanfield 52 @,@ 546 to 30 @,@ 999 . In the November general election , he defeated a friend and former governor , Oswald West , 82 @,@ 360 to 64 @,@ 303 , to win a full , six @-@ year term in the Senate . Meanwhile , Frederick W. Mulkey won the election to replace McNary and finished Lane 's original term , which would end in January 1919 , and Mulkey took office on November 6 , 1918 , replacing McNary in that seat .
Shortly after taking office , Mulkey resigned the seat effective December 17 , 1918 , and McNary was then reappointed to the Senate on December 12 , 1918 , and took office on December 18 , instead of taking office in January , when his term he was elected to would have started . Mulkey resigned in order to give McNary a slight seniority edge over other new members of the Senate . In 1920 , former adversary Stanfield defeated incumbent Democrat George Earle Chamberlain for Oregon 's other Senate seat , making McNary the state 's senior senator . McNary won re @-@ election four times , in 1924 , 1930 , 1936 , and 1942 , serving in Washington , D.C. , until his death .
= = = Senate years = = =
After World War I , Wilson sought Senate approval of the Treaty of Versailles . Because the treaty included provisions for establishing and joining the League of Nations , one of Wilson 's Fourteen Points , Republicans opposed it . Going against much of his party , McNary , part of a group of senators known as " reservationists , " proposed minor changes to support the United States entry into the League . Ultimately , the Senate never ratified the Treaty of Versailles , and the United States never joined the League .
One of the prime opponents of Wilson and the League was Senate Majority Leader Henry Cabot Lodge . After McNary demonstrated his skill in the debate over the League , Lodge took him under his wing , and the two formed a longtime friendship . The friendship helped McNary secure favorable committee assignments and ushered him into the inner power circle of the Senate . Early in his career , he served as chairman of the Irrigation and Reclamation of Arid Lands Committee , and as a member of the Agriculture and Forestry Committee . In 1922 , President Warren G. Harding asked McNary to be the Secretary of the Interior to replace Albert B. Fall because of Fall 's involvement in the ongoing Teapot Dome scandal . McNary declined , preferring to stay in the Senate .
In 1933 , McNary was selected as the Senate Minority Leader by fellow Republicans , while the Senate was under Democratic control during the New Deal era . He remained Minority Leader for the rest of his time in office and " hovered most of the time on the periphery of the Republican left " and opposed disciplining Republican senators who supported Roosevelt . He supported many of the New Deal programs , at the beginning of Roosevelt 's presidency . As World War II approached , he favored " all aid to England and France short of war . " He voted to keep an arms embargo in place but supported the Lend @-@ Lease agreement with the British in 1941 and the reinstatement of Selective Service in 1940 , in preparation for military conscription of civilian men .
As early as the 1920s , McNary supported the development of federal hydroelectric power dams , and in 1933 , he introduced legislation that led to the building of the Grand Coulee and Bonneville dams on the Columbia , as public works projects . He voted for the US joining the World Court in 1926 . He favored buying more National Forest lands , reforestation , fire protection for forests via the Clarke – McNary Act , and farm support . Although vetoed by President Calvin Coolidge , the McNary – Haugen Farm Relief Bill was the forerunner of the farm legislation of the New Deal .
= = = Vice presidential nomination = = =
In 1940 , he was the Republican nominee for vice president , as a western farm leader chosen to balance the ticket of presidential nominee Wendell Willkie , a pro @-@ business leader from the east .
The two men differed on many issues . Writing for Life magazine shortly before the general election in 1940 , Richard L. Neuberger said , " Whether as Vice President of the U.S. Charley McNary can keep on endorsing Government @-@ power projects , isolation , high tariffs and huge outlays for farm relief under a President who believes in none of these things remains to be seen . " McNary 's acceptance speech reiterated his support for the Tennessee Valley Authority , a federally owned power @-@ producing corporation that Willkie , as " the head of a far @-@ flung [ private ] utilities empire , " had opposed . During the campaign , McNary promoted farming issues and criticized foreign trade agreements , which , he said , had " closed European markets to our grain , meat , fruits and fiber . " The Willkie – McNary ticket lost massively to that of Roosevelt – Wallace .
= = Family and legacy = =
On December 29 , 1923 , McNary married for the second time , to Cornelia Woodburn Morton . He met Morton at a dinner party during World War I , in her hometown of Washington , D.C. Before the marriage , she had worked as his private secretary . As with his first marriage , his second did not produce children , but Charles and Cornelia adopted a daughter , Charlotte , in 1935 .
In 1926 , McNary built a new $ 6 @,@ 000 ranch @-@ style house , which he designed himself , along two creeks on his farm north of Salem . His estate , called " Fir Cone , " featured a putting green , rose garden , tennis court , fishpond , and arboretum , and more than 250 acres ( 1 @.@ 0 km2 ) of trees . Fir Cone was described as Oregon 's Monticello by later Senator Richard L. Neuberger , as it hosted many meetings with politicians from the national stage . The farm included 110 acres ( 0 @.@ 45 km2 ) of nut and fruit orchards , through which McNary helped establish the filbert industry in Oregon and on which he developed the Imperial prune .
After complaining of headaches and suffering slurred speech beginning in early 1943 , McNary went to the Bethesda , Maryland , Naval Hospital on November 8 , 1943 , where doctors diagnosed a malignant brain tumor . They removed it that week , and McNary was released from the hospital on December 2 , but the cancer had already spread to other parts of his body . He and his family departed for Fort Lauderdale , Florida , to spend the winter . He partly recovered from the surgery , but by February 24 , 1944 , when he was re @-@ elected as Republican Senate leader , he was comatose . Charles L. McNary died in Fort Lauderdale , and he was buried in Belcrest Memorial Cemetery in Salem . He was given a state funeral during which his body lay in state in the chamber of the Oregon House of Representatives at the Oregon State Capitol , Salem .
McNary 's running mate , Willkie , died six months later . It was the only time both members of a major @-@ party presidential ticket died during the term for which they sought election . At the time of his death , McNary held the record for longest @-@ serving senator from Oregon , a record he kept until 1993 , when Mark O. Hatfield surpassed his mark of 9726 days in office .
McNary Dam on the Columbia River between Oregon and Washington is named after him , as is McNary Field , Salem 's airport . McNary High School in Keizer and McNary Residence Hall at Oregon State University are also named in his honor .
= Interstate 496 =
Interstate 496 ( I @-@ 496 ) is an auxiliary Interstate Highway that passes through downtown Lansing in the US state of Michigan . Also a component of the State Trunkline Highway System , the freeway connects I @-@ 96 to the downtown area . It has been named the R.E. Olds Freeway ( sometimes just Olds Freeway ) for Ransom E. Olds , the founder of Oldsmobile and the REO Motor Car Company . I @-@ 496 runs east – west from I @-@ 96 / I @-@ 69 near the downtown area and north – south along a section that runs concurrently with US Highway 127 ( US 127 ) . The trunkline also passes a former assembly plant used by Oldsmobile and runs along or crosses parts of the Grand and Red Cedar rivers .
Construction of I @-@ 496 started in 1963 , and the freeway opened on December 18 , 1970 . Segments of the freeway south of downtown Lansing were built in the location of a historically black neighborhood . This neighborhood was formed based on the segregationist practices of the early 20th century . Community leaders worked for different housing opportunities for the black residents displaced by I @-@ 496 rather than fight the freeway . As the trunkline neared completion , competing proposals to name it resulted in two similar , but separate designations applied to I @-@ 496 . The city originally approved one name in honor of a former mayor . The local historical society proposed that the state name it as a memorial to Olds after the demolition of the Olds Mansion . The city renamed it the Oldsmobile Expressway , the name under which it opened in December 1970 . Two years later , the Michigan Legislature restored its preferred name and it has been the Olds Freeway since .
= = Route description = =
I @-@ 496 starts at an interchange with I @-@ 96 / I @-@ 69 at that freeway 's exit 95 in Delta Township in Eaton County . The freeway runs eastward through suburban areas of the township adjacent to some residential subdivisions . Continuing eastward , there is an interchange for Creyts Road before I @-@ 496 angles to the northeast . At the interchange with Waverly Road , I @-@ 496 crosses into Ingham County . The freeway then runs parallel to the Grand River . Near a partial interchange with Lansing Road ( old US 27 ) , the freeway gains a pair of service drives : St. Joseph Street runs one @-@ way westbound on the north side , and Malcolm X Street runs eastbound to the south . The next interchange is for the connection to the Capitol Loop and M @-@ 99 , both of which run along Martin Luther King Boulevard . The Capitol Loop , also internally numbered Connector 496 , is a signed connector that provides access to various state government buildings like the Michigan State Capitol . South of this interchange , M @-@ 99 connects to the Lansing Car Assembly plant , a former facility for Oldsmobile .
Continuing eastward , I @-@ 496 passes north of the assembly plant complex and south of the central business district . East of a partial interchange with Walnut Street , the freeway passes the Michigan Women 's Hall of Fame , which is located on I @-@ 496 's southern service drive . The south side of the freeway is adjacent to Cooley Gardens near the confluence of the Grand and Red Cedar rivers . I @-@ 496 crosses the Grand River downstream from the confluence and meets the eastern terminus of the Capitol Loop . This interchange with Cedar and Larch streets is also a connection to Business Loop I @-@ 96 ( BL I @-@ 96 ) and Pennsylvania Avenue . St. Joseph Street ends after the connection to Pennsylvania Avenue . The main freeway crosses a rail line owned by CSX Transportation . I @-@ 496 runs parallel to the north side of the rail line while Malcolm X Street follows to the south as far as the Clemens Avenue overpass . The freeway then crosses into East Lansing near the Red Cedar Natural Area .
After crossing the city line , I @-@ 496 turns southward and merges with US 127 . The two highways run concurrently , and they cross a line of the Canadian National Railway . The freeway runs along the western edge of the campus of Michigan State University . South of campus , I @-@ 496 / US 127 crosses back into Lansing and has an interchange with Jolly Road before entering Delhi Township . About two @-@ thirds of a mile ( 1 @.@ 1 km ) south of Jolly Road , I @-@ 496 meets I @-@ 96 and terminates ; US 127 continues southward as a freeway toward Jackson .
Like other state highways in Michigan , I @-@ 496 is maintained by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) . In 2011 , the department 's traffic surveys showed that on average , 61 @,@ 082 vehicles used the freeway between BL I @-@ 96 and the Trowbridge Road interchange south of US 127 , the highest traffic count along I @-@ 496 . West of Creyts Road , 17 @,@ 600 vehicles did so each day , which was the lowest count along the trunkline . As an Interstate Highway , all of I @-@ 496 is listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads deemed important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
An east – west freeway was originally planned as an Interstate Highway allowing traffic to access downtown Lansing in the 1955 General Location of National System of Interstate Highways ( Yellow Book ) , an early proposal for what would become the Interstate Highway System . As originally proposed by the Michigan State Highway Department in 1958 , the freeway was to be called I @-@ 296 . The department was waiting on approval of a final numbering scheme the next year , before the first Interstates were signed in the state in 1959 . By the time construction started on the Lansing freeway , it was numbered I @-@ 496 .
The section near downtown was to be built through a historically African @-@ American neighborhood . The neighborhood was formed through " unwritten rules of segregation " as real estate agents and mortgage brokers guided black residents to the area when they were looking to buy homes . When the state and federal governments were planning the freeway , the area was chosen for the path of I @-@ 496 . The neighborhood boasted a community center and several businesses that catered to the black population of Lansing , including the only record store that sold rhythm and blues music . Community leaders did not fight the freeway and instead lobbied for affordable housing and relocation assistance . The construction spurred integration of blacks into the wider community ; some were able to move into neighborhoods previously closed to them , purchasing " newer houses near better schools . " In total , the construction of the freeway required the demolition or removal of nearly 600 homes , 60 businesses , and 15 farms .
The first section of I @-@ 496 was opened in December 1963 , and ran from I @-@ 96 northerly to M @-@ 43 / M @-@ 78 ( Saginaw and Kalamazoo streets ) between Lansing and East Lansing . The freeway , comprising the southern two @-@ thirds , was designated I @-@ 496 / M @-@ 78 / BL I @-@ 96 while the northern portion was on city streets as M @-@ 78 / BL I @-@ 96 . Some 50 men completed the work by year 's end ; they went entirely without vacation time to accomplish the feat . Another section of freeway was opened in 1966 , and US 127 was rerouted to follow I @-@ 496 / M @-@ 78 . BL I @-@ 96 was removed from I @-@ 496 / US 127 / M @-@ 78 and routed along the former US 127 . The freeway segment north of the Trowbridge Road interchange continuing northward as part of US 127 was opened in 1969 . Another section opened at the same time was the western section from I @-@ 96 to Lansing Road ( then US 27 ) in 1969 . The remaining section between M @-@ 99 ( then Logan Street , now Martin Luther King , Jr . Boulevard ) and I @-@ 496 / US 127 opened on December 18 , 1970 , completing construction .
The freeway underwent a $ 42 @.@ 4 million reconstruction ( equivalent to $ 63 @.@ 5 million in 2015 ) between April and November 2001 which included the rehabilitation or reconstruction of 35 bridges , 8 @.@ 5 miles ( 13 @.@ 7 km ) of freeway , and the addition of a weave @-@ merge lane between Pennsylvania Avenue and US 127 . Speed limits were raised along I @-@ 496 from 55 to 70 miles per hour ( 89 to 113 km / h ) in 2007 to reflect the speeds motorists were driving during studies conducted by MDOT and the Michigan State Police .
The name applied to the freeway was not without controversy . The Lansing City Council named it in September 1966 after Ralph W. Crego , a former city council member and the longest @-@ serving mayor in the city 's history . The Historical Society of Greater Lansing wanted it named the " R.E. Olds Expressway " , in part because the new road brought about the demolition of the Olds Mansion , which was listed on the National Register of Historic Places , and to " recogniz [ e ] the contributions of R.E. Olds to the industries of the city . " The society approached the Michigan Legislature , which introduced House Resolution 48 in February 1970 using the historical society 's preferred name . The city council realized that they had been bypassed and conveniently discovered that their original resolution was not " formally adopted " . They named a park for Crego instead in October 1970 and adopted a resolution to name I @-@ 496 the " Oldsmobile Expressway " . The Legislature approved its resolution resulting in two names , one for the founder of the car company , and one for the company itself . The council member who introduced the city 's resolution criticized the Legislature for taking action without consultation . The state resolution was intercepted before it could be sent to the Michigan Department of State Highways , and the freeway opened on December 18 , 1970 , with the " Oldsmobile Expressway " name . On August 21 , 1972 , during the celebrations for the 75th anniversary of Oldsmobile , Senate Concurrent Resolution 345 renamed I @-@ 496 the " R.E. Olds Freeway " .
= = Exit list = =
= = Related trunkline = =
The Capitol Loop is a state trunkline highway running through Lansing that was commissioned on October 13 , 1989 . It forms a loop route off I @-@ 496 through downtown near the Michigan State Capitol complex , home of the state legislature and several state departments . However , unlike other business loops in Michigan , it has unique reassurance markers — the signs that serve as regular reminders of the name and number of the highway . It is known internally at MDOT as Connector 496 for inventory purposes . The highway follows a series of one @-@ way and two @-@ way streets through downtown Lansing , directing traffic downtown to the State Capitol and other government buildings . Unlike the other streets downtown , the seven streets composing the Capitol Loop are under state maintenance and jurisdiction .
The loop was originally proposed in 1986 as part of a downtown revitalization effort . Almost from the beginning before the highway was commissioned in 1989 , it was affected by controversial proposals . The first was related to suggestions by community leaders to rename city streets in honor of Martin Luther King , Jr . Another controversy dealt with rebuilding the streets as part of a downtown beautification project ; the downtown business community protested the original scope of construction , and the Lansing City Council threatened to cancel the project in response to the controversy . In 2010 , additional controversies surfaced regarding the posting and enforcement of speed limits on city streets in Michigan , including the streets that make up the Capitol Loop .
= Pterosaur =
Pterosaurs ( / ˈtɛrəˌsɔːr , ˈtɛroʊ- / ; meaning " winged lizard " ) are flying reptiles of the extinct clade or order Pterosauria . They existed from the late Triassic to the end of the Cretaceous Period ( 228 to 66 million years ago ) . Pterosaurs are the earliest vertebrates known to have evolved powered flight . Their wings were formed by a membrane of skin , muscle , and other tissues stretching from the ankles to a dramatically lengthened fourth finger . Early species had long , fully toothed jaws and long tails , while later forms had a highly reduced tail , and some lacked teeth . Many sported furry coats made up of hair @-@ like filaments known as pycnofibers , which covered their bodies and parts of their wings . Pterosaurs spanned a wide range of adult sizes , from the very small Anurognathids to the largest known flying creatures of all time , including Quetzalcoatlus and Hatzegopteryx .
Pterosaurs are often referred to in the popular media and by the general public as " flying dinosaurs " , but this is scientifically incorrect . The term " dinosaur " is restricted to just those reptiles descended from the last common ancestor of the groups Saurischia and Ornithischia ( clade Dinosauria , which includes birds ) , and current scientific consensus is that this group excludes the pterosaurs , as well as the various groups of extinct marine reptiles , such as ichthyosaurs , plesiosaurs , and mosasaurs . Like the dinosaurs , and unlike these other reptiles , pterosaurs are more closely related to birds than to crocodiles or any other living reptile . Pterosaurs are also colloquially referred to as pterodactyls , particularly in fiction and by journalists . Technically , " Pterodactyl " refers only to members of the genus Pterodactylus , and more broadly to members of the suborder Pterodactyloidea of the pterosaurs .
= = Description = =
The anatomy of pterosaurs was highly modified from their reptilian ancestors by the adaption to flight . Pterosaur bones were hollow and air @-@ filled , like the bones of birds . They had a keeled breastbone that was developed for the attachment of flight muscles and an enlarged brain that shows specialised features associated with flight . In some later pterosaurs , the backbone over the shoulders fused into a structure known as a notarium , which served to stiffen the torso during flight , and provide a stable support for the scapula ( shoulder blade ) .
= = = Wings = = =
Pterosaur wings were formed by membranes of skin and other tissues . The primary membranes attached to the extremely long fourth finger of each arm and extended along the sides of the body to the ankles .
While historically thought of as simple , leathery structures composed of skin , research has since shown that the wing membranes of pterosaurs were highly complex and dynamic structures suited to an active style of flight . The outer wings ( from the tip to the elbow ) were strengthened by closely spaced fibers called actinofibrils . The actinofibrils themselves consisted of three distinct layers in the wing , forming a crisscross pattern when superimposed on one another . The function of the actinofibrils is unknown , as is the exact material from which they were made . Depending on their exact composition ( keratin , muscle , elastic structures , etc . ) , they may have been stiffening or strengthening agents in the outer part of the wing . The wing membranes also contained a thin layer of muscle , fibrous tissue , and a unique , complex circulatory system of looping blood vessels .
As evidenced by cavities in the wing bones of larger species and soft tissue preserved in at least one specimen , some pterosaurs extended their system of respiratory air sacs ( see Paleobiology section below ) into the wing membrane itself .
= = = = Parts of the wing = = = =
The pterosaur wing membrane is divided into three basic units . The first , called the propatagium ( " first membrane " ) , was the forward @-@ most part of the wing and attached between the wrist and shoulder , creating the " leading edge " during flight . This membrane may have incorporated the first three fingers of the hand , as evidenced in some specimens . The brachiopatagium ( " arm membrane " ) was the primary component of the wing , stretching from the highly elongated fourth finger of the hand to the hind limbs ( though where exactly on the hind limbs it anchored is controversial and may have varied between species , see below ) . Finally , at least some pterosaur groups had a membrane that stretched between the legs , possibly connecting to or incorporating the tail , called the uropatagium ; the extent of this membrane is not certain , as studies on Sordes seem to suggest that it simply connected the legs but did not involve the tail ( rendering it a cruropatagium ) . It is generally agreed though that non @-@ pterodactyloid pterosaurs had a broader uro / cruropatagium , with pterodactyloids only having membranes running along the legs .
A bone unique to pterosaurs , known as the pteroid , connected to the wrist and helped to support a forward membrane ( the propatagium ) between the wrist and shoulder . Evidence of webbing between the three free fingers of the pterosaur forelimb suggests that this forward membrane may have been more extensive than the simple pteroid @-@ to @-@ shoulder connection traditionally depicted in life restorations . The position of the pteroid bone itself has been controversial . Some scientists , notably Matthew Wilkinson , have argued that the pteroid pointed forward , extending the forward membrane . This view was contradicted in a 2007 paper by Chris Bennett , who showed that the pteroid did not articulate as previously thought and could not have pointed forward , but rather inward toward the body as traditionally thought . Peters ( 2009 ) proposed that the pteroid articulated with the ‘ saddle ' of the radiale ( proximal syncarpal ) and both the pteroid and preaxial carpal were migrated centralia . This view of the articulation of the pteroid has since been supported by specimens of Changchengopterus pani and Darwinopterus linglongtaensis , both of which show the pteroid in articulation with the proximal syncarpal .
The pterosaur wrist consists of two inner ( proximal ) and four outer ( distal ) carpals ( wrist bones ) , excluding the pteroid bone , which may itself be a modified distal carpal . The proximal carpals are fused together into a " syncarpal " in mature specimens , while three of the distal carpals fuse to form a distal syncarpal . The remaining distal carpal , referred to here as the medial carpal , but which has also been termed the distal lateral , or pre @-@ axial carpal , articulates on a vertically elongate biconvex facet on the anterior surface of the distal syncarpal . The medial carpal bears a deep concave fovea that opens anteriorly , ventrally and somewhat medially , within which the pteroid articulates .
There has been considerable argument among paleontologists about whether the main wing membranes ( brachiopatagia ) attached to the hind limbs , and if so , where . Fossils of the rhamphorhynchoid Sordes , the anurognathid Jeholopterus , and a pterodactyloid from the Santana Formation seem to demonstrate that the wing membrane did attach to the hindlimbs , at least in some species . However , modern bats and flying squirrels show considerable variation in the extent of their wing membranes and it is possible that , like these groups , different species of pterosaur had different wing designs . Indeed , analysis of pterosaur limb proportions shows that there was considerable variation , possibly reflecting a variety of wing @-@ plans .
Many , if not all , pterosaurs also had webbed feet .
= = = Skull , teeth and crests = = =
Most pterosaur skulls had elongated jaws with a full complement of needle @-@ like teeth . In some cases , fossilized keratinous beak tissue has been preserved , though in toothed forms , the beak is small and restricted to the jaw tips and does not involve the teeth . Some advanced beaked forms were toothless , such as the pteranodonts and azhdarchids , and had larger , more extensive , and more bird @-@ like beaks .
Unlike most archosaurs , the nasal and antorbital openings of pterodactyloid pterosaurs merged into a single large opening , called the nasoantorbital fenestra . This feature likely evolved to lighten the skull for flight .
Some species of pterosaurs featured elaborate crests . The first and perhaps best known of these is the distinctive backward @-@ pointing crest of some Pteranodon species , though a few pterosaurs , such as the tapejarids and Nyctosaurus , sported extremely large crests that often incorporated keratinous or other soft tissue extensions of the bony crest base .
Since the 1990s , new discoveries and more thorough study of old specimens have shown that crests are far more widespread among pterosaurs than previously thought , due mainly to the fact that they were frequently extended by or composed completely of keratin , which does not fossilize as often as bone . In the case of pterosaurs like Pterorhynchus and Pterodactylus , the true extent of these crests has only been uncovered using ultraviolet photography . The discovery of Pterorynchus and Austriadactylus , both crested " rhamphorhynchoids " , showed that even primitive pterosaurs had crests ( previously , crests were thought to be restricted to the more advanced pterodactyloids ) .
= = = Pycnofibers = = =
At least some pterosaurs had hair @-@ like filaments known as pycnofibers on the head and body , similar to , but not homologous ( sharing a common structure ) with , mammalian hair . A fuzzy integument was first reported from a specimen of Scaphognathus crassirostris in 1831 by Goldfuss , and recent pterosaur finds and the technology for histological and ultraviolet examination of pterosaur specimens have provided incontrovertible proof : pterosaurs had pycnofiber coats . Pycnofibers were not true hair as seen in mammals , but a unique structure that developed a similar appearance . Although , in some cases , actinofibrils ( internal structural fibers ) in the wing membrane have been mistaken for pycnofibers or true hair , some fossils , such as those of Sordes pilosus ( which translates as " hairy demon " ) and Jeholopterus ninchengensis , do show the unmistakable imprints of pycnofibers on the head and body , not unlike modern @-@ day bats , another example of convergent evolution . The head @-@ coats do not cover the pterosaur 's large jaws in many of the specimens found so far .
Some ( Czerkas and Ji , 2002 ) have speculated that pycnofibers were an antecedent of proto @-@ feathers , but the available impressions of pterosaur integuments are not like the " quills " found on many of the bird @-@ like maniraptoran specimens in the fossil record . Pterosaur pycnofibers were structured similarly to theropod proto @-@ feathers . Pycnofibers were flexible , short filaments , " only 5 @-@ 7mm in some specimens " and rather simple , " apparently lacking any internal detail aside from a central canal " . Pterosaur " pelts " found " preserved in concentrated , dense mats of fibers , similar to those found surrounding fossilized mammals " suggest coats with a thickness comparable to many Mesozoic mammals , at least on the parts of the pterosaur covered in pycnofibers . The coat thickness , and surface area covered , definitely varied by pterosaur species .
The presence of pycnofibers ( and the demands of flight ) imply that pterosaurs were endothermic ( warm @-@ blooded ) . The absence of pycnofibers on pterosaur wings suggests that the coat did not have an aerodynamic function , lending support to the idea that pycnofibers evolved to aid pterosaur thermoregulation , as is common in warm @-@ blooded animals , insulation being necessary to conserve the heat created by an endothermic metabolism .
Pterosaur " hair " was so obviously distinct from mammalian fur and other animal integuments , it required a new , separate name . The term " pycnofiber " , meaning " dense filament " , was first coined in a paper on the soft tissue impressions of Jeholopterus by palaeontologist Alexander W.A. Kellner and colleagues in 2009 . Research into the genetic code of American alligator embryos could suggest that pycnofibres , crocodile scutes and avian feathers are developmentally homologous , based on the construction of their beta @-@ keratin .
= = History of discovery = =
The first pterosaur fossil was described by the Italian naturalist Cosimo Alessandro Collini in 1784 . Collini misinterpreted his specimen as a seagoing creature that used its long front limbs as paddles . A few scientists continued to support the aquatic interpretation even until 1830 , when the German zoologist Johann Georg Wagler suggested that Pterodactylus used its wings as flippers . Georges Cuvier first suggested that pterosaurs were flying creatures in 1801 , and coined the name " Ptero @-@ dactyle " in 1809 for the specimen recovered in Germany . However , due to the standardization of scientific names , the official name for this genus became Pterodactylus , though the name " pterodactyl " continued to be popularly and incorrectly applied to all members of Pterosauria . Paleontologists now avoid using " pterodactyl " and prefer the term " pterosaur " . They relegate the term " pterodactyl " specifically for members of the genus Pterodactylus or more broadly for members of the suborder Pterodactyloidea .
= = Paleobiology = =
= = = Flight = = =
The mechanics of pterosaur flight are not completely understood or modeled at this time .
Katsufumi Sato , a Japanese scientist , did calculations using modern birds and concluded that it was impossible for a pterosaur to stay aloft . In the book Posture , Locomotion , and Paleoecology of Pterosaurs it is theorized that they were able to fly due to the oxygen @-@ rich , dense atmosphere of the Late Cretaceous period . However , both Sato and the authors of Posture , Locomotion , and Paleoecology of Pterosaurs based their research on the now outdated theories of pterosaurs being seabird @-@ like , and the size limit does not apply to terrestrial pterosaurs , such as azhdarchids and tapejarids . Furthermore , Darren Naish concluded that atmospheric differences between the present and the Mesozoic were not needed for the giant size of pterosaurs .
Another issue that has been difficult to understand is how they took off . Earlier suggestions were that pterosaurs were largely cold @-@ blooded gliding animals , deriving warmth from the environment like modern lizards , rather than burning calories . In this case , it was unclear how the enormously large giant pterosaurs , with an inefficient cold @-@ blooded metabolism , could manage a bird @-@ like takeoff strategy , using only the hind limbs to generate thrust for getting airborne . Later research shows them instead as being warm @-@ blooded and having powerful flight muscles , and using the flight muscles for walking as quadrupeds . Mark Witton of the University of Portsmouth and Mike Habib of Johns Hopkins University suggested that pterosaurs used a vaulting mechanism to obtain flight . The tremendous power of their winged forelimbs would enable them to take off with ease . Once aloft , pterosaurs could reach speeds of up to 120 kilometres per hour ( 75 mph ) and travel thousands of kilometres .
In 1985 , the Smithsonian Institution commissioned aeronautical engineer Paul MacCready to build a half @-@ scale working model of Quetzalcoatlus northropi . The replica was launched with a ground @-@ based winch . It flew several times in 1986 and was filmed as part of the Smithsonian 's IMAX film On the Wing . However , the model was not anatomically correct and embodied vertical and horizontal tail stabilizers that pterosaurs did not have . It also had a longer tail , changing the weight distribution .
= = = Size = = =
Pterosaurs had a wide range of sizes , with wingspans ranging from 250 mm ( 10 in ) at their smallest , to 10 – 11 m ( 33 – 36 ft ) at their largest .
= = = Air sacs and respiration = = =
A 2009 study showed that pterosaurs had a lung @-@ air sac system and a precisely controlled skeletal breathing pump , which supports a flow @-@ through pulmonary ventilation model in pterosaurs , analogous to that of birds . The presence of a subcutaneous air sac system in at least some pterodactyloids would have further reduced the density of the living animal .
Like modern crocodilians , pterosaurs appeared to have had a hepatic piston , seeing as their shoulder @-@ pectoral girdles were too inflexible to move the sternum as in birds , and they possessed strong gastralia . Thus , their respiratory system had characteristics comparable to both modern archosaur clades .
= = = Nervous system = = =
An X @-@ ray study of pterosaur brain cavities revealed that the animals ( Rhamphorhynchus muensteri and Anhanguera santanae ) had massive flocculi . The flocculus is a brain region that integrates signals from joints , muscles , skin and balance organs .
The pterosaurs ' flocculi occupied 7 @.@ 5 % of the animals ' total brain mass , more than in any other vertebrate . Birds have unusually large flocculi compared with other animals , but these only occupy between 1 and 2 % of total brain mass .
The flocculus sends out neural signals that produce small , automatic movements in the eye muscles . These keep the image on an animal 's retina steady . Pterosaurs may have had such a large flocculus because of their large wing size , which would mean that there was a great deal more sensory information to process . The low relative mass of the flocculi in birds is also a result of birds having a much larger brain overall , indicating that pterosaurs lived in a structurally simpler environment , and had less complex behaviour compared to birds .
= = = Ground movement = = =
Pterosaurs ' hip sockets are oriented facing slightly upwards , and the head of the femur ( thigh bone ) is only moderately inward facing , suggesting that pterosaurs had an erect stance . It would have been possible to lift the thigh into a horizontal position during flight , as gliding lizards do .
There was considerable debate whether pterosaurs ambulated as quadrupeds or as bipeds . In the 1980s , paleontologist Kevin Padian suggested that smaller pterosaurs with longer hindlimbs , such as Dimorphodon , might have walked or even run bipedally , in addition to flying , like road runners . However , a large number of pterosaur trackways were later found with a distinctive four @-@ toed hind foot and three @-@ toed front foot ; these are the unmistakable prints of pterosaurs walking on all fours .
Unlike dinosaurs , which walk on their toes with their heels held off the ground ( digitigrade ) , fossil footprints show that pterosaurs stood with the entire foot in contact with the ground ( plantigrade ) , in a manner similar to many mammals like humans and bears . Footprints from azhdarchids and several unidentified species show that pterosaurs walked with an erect posture with their four limbs held almost vertically beneath the body , an energy @-@ efficient stance used by most modern birds and mammals , rather than the sprawled limbs of modern reptiles . Indeed , erect @-@ limbs may be omnipresent in pterosaurs .
Though traditionally depicted as ungainly and awkward when on the ground , the anatomy of some pterosaurs ( particularly pterodactyloids ) suggests that they were competent walkers and runners . Early pterosaurs have long been considered particularly cumbersome locomotors due to the presence of large cruropatagia , but they too appear to have been generally efficient on the ground .
The forelimb bones of azhdarchids and ornithocheirids were unusually long compared to other pterosaurs , and , in azhdarchids , the bones of the arm and hand ( metacarpals ) were particularly elongated . Furthermore , as a whole , azhdarchid front limbs were proportioned similarly to fast @-@ running ungulate mammals . Their hind limbs , on the other hand , were not built for speed , but they were long compared with most pterosaurs , and allowed for a long stride length . While azhdarchid pterosaurs probably could not run , they would have been relatively fast and energy efficient .
The relative size of the hands and feet in pterosaurs ( by comparison with modern animals such as birds ) may indicate what type of lifestyle pterosaurs led on the ground . Azhdarchid pterosaurs had relatively small feet compared to their body size and leg length , with foot length only about 25 % – 30 % the length of the lower leg . This suggests that azhdarchids were better adapted to walking on dry , relatively solid ground . Pteranodon had slightly larger feet ( 47 % the length of the tibia ) , while filter @-@ feeding pterosaurs like the ctenochasmatoids had very large feet ( 69 % of tibial length in Pterodactylus , 84 % in Pterodaustro ) , adapted to walking in soft muddy soil , similar to modern wading birds .
Though clearly forelimb @-@ based launchers , basal pterosaurs have hindlimbs well adapted for hopping , suggesting a connection with archosaurs such as Scleromochlus .
= = = Natural predators = = =
Pterosaurs are known to have been eaten by theropods . In the 1 July 2004 edition of Nature , paleontologist Eric Buffetaut discusses an early Cretaceous fossil of three cervical vertebrae of a pterosaur with the broken tooth of a spinosaur embedded in it . The vertebrae are known not to have been eaten and exposed to digestion , as the joints are still articulated .
= = = Reproduction and life history = = =
Very little is known about pterosaur reproduction , and pterosaur eggs are very rare . The first known pterosaur egg was found in the quarries of Liaoning , the same place that yielded feathered dinosaurs . The egg was squashed flat with no signs of cracking , so evidently the eggs had leathery shells , as in modern lizards . This was supported by the description of an additional pterosaur egg belonging to the genus Darwinopterus , described in 2011 , which also had a leathery shell and , also like modern reptiles but unlike birds , was fairly small compared to the size of the mother . In 2014 five unflattened eggs from the species Hamipterus tianshanensis were found in an Early Cretaceous deposit in northwest China . Examination of the shells by scanning electron microscopy showed the presence of a thin calcareous eggshell layer with a membrane underneath . A study of pterosaur eggshell structure and chemistry published in 2007 indicated that it is likely pterosaurs buried their eggs , like modern crocodiles and turtles . Egg @-@ burying would have been beneficial to the early evolution of pterosaurs , as it allows for more weight @-@ reducing adaptations , but this method of reproduction would also have put limits on the variety of environments pterosaurs could live in , and may have disadvantaged them when they began to face ecological competition from birds .
A Darwinopterus specimen showcases that at least some pterosaurs had a pair of functional ovaries , as opposed to the single functional ovivary in birds , dismissing the reduction of functional ovaries as a requirement for powered flight .
Wing membranes preserved in pterosaur embryos are well developed , suggesting that pterosaurs were ready to fly soon after birth . Fossils of pterosaurs only a few days to a week old ( called " flaplings " ) have been found , representing several pterosaur families , including pterodactylids , rhamphorhinchids , ctenochasmatids and azhdarchids . All preserve bones that show a relatively high degree of hardening ( ossification ) for their age , and wing proportions similar to adults . In fact , many pterosaur flaplings have been considered adults and placed in separate species in the past . Additionally , flaplings are normally found in the same sediments as adults and juveniles of the same species , such as the Pterodactylus and Rhamphorhynchus flaplings found in the Solnhofen limestone of Germany , and Pterodaustro flaplings from Brazil . All are found in deep aquatic environment far from shore .
It is not known whether pterosaurs practiced any form of parental care , but their ability to fly as soon as they emerged from the egg and the numerous flaplings found in environments far from nests and alongside adults has led most researchers , including Christopher Bennett and David Unwin , to conclude that the young were dependent on their parents for a relatively short period of time , during a period of rapid growth while the wings grew long enough to fly , and then left the nest to fend for themselves , possibly within days of hatching . Alternatively , they may have used stored yolk products for nourishment during their first few days of life , as in modern reptiles , rather than depend on parents for food .
Growth rates of pterosaurs once they hatched varied across different groups . In more primitive , long @-@ tailed pterosaurs ( " rhamphorhynchoids " ) , such as Rhamphorhynchus , the average growth rate during the first year of life was 130 % to 173 % , slightly faster than the growth rate of alligators . Growth in these species slowed after sexual maturity , and it would have taken more than three years for Rhamphorhynchus to attain maximum size . In contrast , the more advanced , large pterodactyloid pterosaurs , such as Pteranodon , grew to adult size within the first year of life . Additionally , pterodactyloids had determinate growth , meaning that the animals reached a fixed maximum adult size and stopped growing .
= = = Daily activity patterns = = =
Comparisons between the scleral rings of pterosaurs and modern birds and reptiles have been used to infer daily activity patterns of pterosaurs . The pterosaur genera Pterodactylus , Scaphognathus , and Tupuxuara have been inferred to be diurnal , Ctenochasma , Pterodaustro , and Rhamphorhynchus have been inferred to be nocturnal , and Tapejara has been inferred to be cathemeral , being active throughout the day for short intervals . As a result , the possibly fish @-@ eating Ctenochasma and Rhamphorhynchus may have had similar activity patterns to modern nocturnal seabirds , and the filter @-@ feeding Pterodaustro may have had similar activity patterns to modern anseriform birds that feed at night . The differences between activity patterns of the Solnhofen pterosaurs Ctenochasma , Rhamphorhynchus , Scaphognathus , and Pterodactylus may also indicate niche partitioning between these genera .
= = Evolution and extinction = =
= = = Origins = = =
Because pterosaur anatomy has been so heavily modified for flight , and immediate transitional fossil predecessors have not so far been described , the ancestry of pterosaurs is not fully understood . Several hypotheses have been advanced , including links to the avemetatarsalian @-@ like Scleromochlus , an ancestry among the basal archosauriforms , like Euparkeria , or among the protorosaurs .
Two researchers , Chris Bennett ( 1996 ) and David Peters ( 2000 ) , have found pterosaurs to be protorosaurs or closely related to them . Peters used a technique called DGS , which involves applying the digital tracing features of photo editing software to images of pterosaur fossils . Bennett only recovered pterosaurs as close relatives of the protorosaurs after removing characteristics of the hind limb from his analysis , in an attempt to test the idea that these characters are the result of convergent evolution between pterosaurs and dinosaurs . However , subsequent analysis by Dave Hone and Michael Benton ( 2007 ) could not reproduce this result . Hone and Benton found pterosaurs to be closely related to dinosaurs even without hind limb characters . They also criticized previous studies by David Peters , raising questions about whether conclusions reached without access to the primary evidence , that is , pterosaur fossils , can be held to have the same weight as conclusions based strictly on first @-@ hand interpretation . Hone and Benton concluded that , although more primitive pterosauromorphs are needed to clarify their relationships , pterosaurs are best considered archosaurs , and specifically ornithodirans , given current evidence . In Hone and Benton 's analysis , pterosaurs are either the sister group of Scleromochlus or fall between it and Lagosuchus on the ornithodiran family tree . Sterling Nesbitt ( 2011 ) found strong support for a clade composed of Scleromochlus and pterosaurs .
More recent studies on basal pterosaur hindlimb morphology seem to vindicate a connection to Scleromochlus . Like this archosaur , basal pterosaur lineages have plantigrade hindlimbs that show adaptations for saltitation .
= = = Classification = = =
In phylogenetic taxonomy , the clade Pterosauria has usually been defined as node @-@ based and anchored to several extensively studied taxa as well as those thought to be primitive . One 2003 study defined Pterosauria as " The most recent common ancestor of the Anurognathidae , Preondactylus and Quetzalcoatlus and all their descendants . " However , these types of definition would inevitably leave any related species that are slightly more primitive out of the Pterosauria . To remedy this , a new definition was proposed that would anchor the name not to any particular species but to an anatomical feature , the presence of an enlarged fourth finger that supports a wing membrane . A broader clade , Pterosauromorpha , has been defined as all ornithodirans more closely related to pterosaurs than to dinosaurs .
The internal classification of pterosaurs has historically been difficult , because there were many gaps in the fossil record . Starting from the 21st Century , new discoveries are now filling in these gaps and giving a better picture of the evolution of pterosaurs . Traditionally , they were organized into two suborders : the Rhamphorhynchoidea , a " primitive " group of long @-@ tailed pterosaurs , and the Pterodactyloidea , " advanced " pterosaurs with short tails . However , this traditional division has been largely abandoned . Rhamphorhynchoidea is a paraphyletic ( unnatural ) group , since the pterodactyloids evolved directly from them and not from a common ancestor , so , with the increasing use of cladistics , it has fallen out of favor among most scientists .
The precise relationships between pterosaurs is still unsettled . Many studies of pterosaur relationships in the past have included limited data and were highly contradictory . However , newer studies using larger data sets are beginning to make things clearer . The cladogram ( family tree ) below follows a phylogenetic analysis presented by Andres & Myers in 2013 .
= = = Extinction = = =
It was once thought that competition with early bird species might have resulted in the extinction of many of the pterosaurs . By the end of the Cretaceous , only large species of pterosaurs are known . The smaller species seem to have become extinct , their niche filled by birds . However , pterosaur decline ( if actually present ) seems unrelated to bird diversity , as ecological overlap between the two groups appears to be minimal . At the end of the Cretaceous period , the Cretaceous – Paleogene extinction event , which wiped out all non @-@ avian dinosaurs and most avian dinosaurs as well , and many other animals , seems also to have taken the pterosaurs . Alternatively , some pterosaurs may have been specialised for an ocean @-@ going lifestyle . Consequently , when the Cretaceous – Paleogene extinction event severely affected the marine life on which these pterosaurs fed , they became extinct . However , forms like azhdarchids and istiodactylids were not marine in habits .
In the early 2010s , several new pterosaur taxa were discovered dating to the Campanian / Maastrichtian , such as the ornithocheirids Piksi and " Ornithocheirus " , possible pteranodontids and nyctosaurids , several tapejarids and the indeterminate non @-@ azhdarchid Navajodactylus . This suggests that late Cretaceous pterosaur faunas were far more diverse than previously thought , possibly not even having declined significantly from the early Cretaceous .
It appears that pterodactyloid diversity seemingly " stalled " after the initial radiation in the Early Cretaceous , apparently not diversifying much afterwards . This would have made pterosaur diversities specialised , and thus vulnerable to minor extinction events . Nonetheless , azhdarchids appear to have radiated in diversity towards the end of the Cretaceous , exploring several unusual ecological niches and increasing species wise , dismissing notions of authentic decline .
Small sized pterosaur species apparently were present in the Csehbánya Formation , indicating a higher diversity of Late Cretaceous pterosaurs than previously accounted for .
At least some non @-@ pterodactylod pterosaurs survived into the Late Cretaceous , postulating a lazarus taxa situation for late Cretaceous pterosaur faunas .
= = In popular culture = =
Pterosaurs have been a staple of popular culture for as long as their cousins the dinosaurs , though they are usually not featured as prominently in films , literature or other art . Additionally , while the depiction of dinosaurs in popular media has changed radically in response to advances in paleontology , a mainly outdated picture of pterosaurs has persisted since the mid 20th century .
While the generic term " pterodactyl " is often used to describe these creatures , the animals depicted frequently represent either Pteranodon or Rhamphorhynchus , or a fictionalized hybrid of the two . Many children 's toys and cartoons feature " pterodactyls " with Pteranodon @-@ like crests and long , Rhamphorhynchus @-@ like tails and teeth , a combination that never existed in nature . However , at least one type of pterosaur did have the Pteranodon @-@ like crest and teeth — for example , the Ludodactylus , a name that means " toy finger " for its resemblance to old , inaccurate children 's toys . Also , some depictions of pterosaurs incorrectly identify them as " birds " , when in real life they were flying reptiles , and birds are actually descended from theropod dinosaurs .
Pterosaurs were used in fiction in Arthur Conan Doyle 's 1912 novel The Lost World , and subsequent 1925 film adaptation . They have been used in a number of films and television programs since , including the 1933 film King Kong , and 1966 's One Million Years B.C .. In the latter , animator Ray Harryhausen had to add inaccurate bat @-@ like wing fingers to his stop motion models in order to keep the membranes from falling apart , though this particular error was common in art even before the film was made . Pterosaurs were mainly absent from notable film appearances until 2001 , with Jurassic Park III . However , paleontologist Dave Hone has noted that , even after the 40 intervening years , the pterosaurs in this film had not been significantly updated to reflect modern research . Among the errors he noted as persisting from the 1960s to the 2000s , were teeth even in toothless species ( the Jurassic Park III pterosaurs were intended to be Pteranodon , which translates as " toothless wing " ) , nesting behavior that was known to be inaccurate by 2001 , and leathery wings , rather than the taut membranes of muscle fiber that was actually present and required for pterosaur flight .
In most media appearances , pterosaurs are depicted as aerial predators similar to birds of prey , grasping human victims with their taloned feet . No pterosaur species known so far possesses prehensile feet ; all known pterosaurs have flat , plantigrade feet with no opposable toes , often poorly muscled and , in the case of pteranodontians , generally proportionally small . However , some pterosaurs might have had raptorial tendencies ; Thalassodromeus possesses powerful jaws akin to those of phorusrhacids , and Hatzegopteryx 's short neck and more powerful jaws have been interpreted as a speciation on larger prey .
= Mark Hammett =
Mark Garry ' Hammer ' Hammett ( born 13 July 1972 ) is a New Zealand rugby union coach and former player . Haven represented Canterbury provincially 76 times , and the Crusaders 81 times and the All Blacks 30 times – including 29 Test matches , Hammett later went on to coach both Canterbury and Crusaders as a forwards / assistant coach . He is currently the head coach of Japanese Super Rugby franchise the Sunwolves and will return to New Zealand in mid @-@ 2016 to join the coaching staff at Tasman Makos .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Early career : 1989 – 97 = = =
Hammett first represented New Zealand , while he was a pupil at St Thomas of Canterbury College , when selected for the New Zealand Under 17 team in 1989 . He then captained the Under 19 team in 1991 , before making his first appearance for Canterbury in 1992 . Although his one game for Canterbury in 1992 was as a replacement , he played seven games the following season . As hooker , he played mainly as backup to Matt Sexton in 1993 ; however , by 1994 they were sharing the role . By 1995 , Hammett played more games than Sexton .
Rugby turned professional in late 1995 , and in 1996 the Canterbury Crusaders ( now called the Crusaders ) franchise was established . Hammett became a founding member of the side , which struggled in the inaugural Super 12 , finishing in last place . The 1997 season went better for Hammett ; the Crusaders finished sixth , and the Canterbury provincial team won the National Provincial Championship ( NPC ) after beating Counties in the final . Although Hammett was receiving more and more game time , he still only participated in the NPC final as a replacement .
= = = Super 12 success : 1998 – 2001 = = =
Hammett started regularly for both Canterbury , and the Crusaders in 1998 , with the latter he won his first Super 12 title . The 1998 Super 12 final was played against the Blues at Eden Park ; Hammett said of the match " If we 'd been polled in that week , and had to give an honest answer , most of the boys , deep down , would probably have thought that the Blues would beat us . " Despite this , the Crusaders defeated the reigning champions 20 – 13 . Hammett was rewarded with a New Zealand trial , where he captained his team . He was subsequently selected for New Zealand A and played against Tonga .
The Crusaders achieved more success in 1999 as they finished the round @-@ robin in fourth place , then won their semi @-@ final , and final ( both away from home ) to take another championship . Hammett 's achievements with the Crusaders were rewarded by being called into the All Blacks in 1999 , at the age of 26 . His first game was against New Zealand ' A ' , on 11 June in Christchurch , quickly followed by his first Test against France on 26 June . Hammett eventually played in the 1999 Tri Nations Series , and was selected for the 1999 Rugby World Cup .
After winning a third title with the Crusaders in 2000 , he was again selected for the All Blacks ; getting a start against Tonga , and in that years Tri @-@ Nations . After returning from All Blacks duty , he played for Canterbury and contributed to a Ranfurly Shield win over Waitako . Canterbury then reached the NPC final , giving Hammett the opportunity to be part of a Super 12 , Ranfurly Shield , and NPC winning team , all in the same year . Wellington won the NPC final however , and the opportunity was lost . Hammett was then selected for the end @-@ of @-@ year All Blacks tour , and played against France and Italy ( both as a substitute ) .
Hammett 's 2001 Super 12 season was marred by a shoulder injury , and the Crusaders eventually finished tenth . Due to injury , Hammett only played one game for the All Blacks , as a substitute against Argentina in June . He missed the entire NPC campaign due to injury : an ankle problem which required surgery and causes him to also miss the 2001 end @-@ of @-@ year All Black tour .
= = = Final seasons : 2002 – 03 = = =
After the 2001 NPC , Crusaders ' captain Todd Blackadder left New Zealand to play rugby in Scotland . During the 2002 Super 12 pre @-@ season , half @-@ back Justin Marshall questioned which of the senior players were going to step into Blackadder 's leadership role for the tough matches . Hammett took the comment " as a slap in the face " , as " one player doesn 't make a team . " Hammett later said " I took it that way , and I think a lot of the others must have as well , because we all ended up stepping up ! " Subsequently , the Crusaders went through the season unbeaten , including a 96 – 19 victory over the New South Wales Waratahs . He again played for the All Blacks in 2002 , starting against Australia and South Africa in the Tri @-@ Nations . The 2002 NPC season was Hammett 's last , and although Canterbury were knocked out in their semi @-@ final , they managed to retain the Ranfurly Shield . Hammett 's last match was his 76th for Canterbury .
The 2003 Super 12 season was Hammett 's last . The team ended the round @-@ robin second on the table , and eventually travelled to Eden Park to face the Blues in the final . Although the Crusaders lost the final , Hammett scored two tries , becoming one of only three players to score two tries in a Super 12 final . Despite the two tries , Hammett calls the match the biggest disappointment of his career . Hammett was again chosen for the All Blacks , and eventually played in the 2003 Rugby World Cup . The All Blacks call @-@ up made Hammett reconsider his retirement plans . He planned to continue playing after 2003 , however a neck injury during the 2004 pre @-@ season ended his playing career .
= = = Honours = = =
= = Coaching career = =
= = = In New Zealand : 2006 – 2014 = = =
Two years after his playing career ended with the Crusaders , Hammett was back with the Crusaders , working as a forwards coaching adviser for the 2006 Super 14 season . He went on to fulfill the same role for Canterbury in the 2006 Air New Zealand Cup . He was later appointed as the new Crusaders assistant coach in November 2006 as a replacement for Vern Cotter who departed to France . Hammett remained as assistant coach from 2007 to 2010 , and was not appointed as Crusaders ' head coach when Robbie Deans left to coach Australia in 2008 ; Todd Blackadder was given the head coach role instead . During his time at the Crusaders , he helped guide the team to the semi @-@ finals of every single season he was at the franchise , before securing their sixth and seventh title in 2006 and 2008 . In later 2010 , he was appointed coach of the Wellington @-@ based Hurricanes ahead of the 2011 Super Rugby season . After the 2011 Super Rugby season – his first season in charge – Hammett decided controversially not to renew the contracts of All Blacks Ma 'a Nonu and then Hurricanes ' captain Andrew Hore . In the three years at the helm in Wellington , the Hurricanes failed to progress to the knock @-@ out phase of the competition , only getting as high as seventh on the table ; in 2014 Super Rugby season . In April 2014 Hammett indicated he would not be seeking to renew his contract when it expired at the end of the 2014 season .
= = = Outside New Zealand : 2014 – 2016 = = =
On 18 May 2014 , Hammett was named Director of Rugby for Wales @-@ based team Cardiff Blues , working alongside Dale McIntosh and Paul John . The Mark Hammett era was a slow start , losing both the pre @-@ season friendlies . However , the first round saw Cardiff defeat Zebre 41 – 26 . Despite only winning one game in his first competitive 6 games , Hammett lead Cardiff to a surprise victory over French side Grenoble and an easy victory over Rovigo Delta in the 2014 – 15 European Rugby Challenge Cup . These games were backed @-@ up by a narrow loss to Irish giants Munster . On 24 January 2015 , Hammett led the Blues to an away victory over Grenoble , to see the side through to the quarter @-@ finals of the 2014 – 15 European Rugby Challenge Cup . On 20 February 2015 , Cardiff were beaten by Benetton Treviso 40 – 24 in Treviso , which later turned out to be Hammett 's last game in charge of the Welsh side . On 25 February 2015 , after six months of a three year contract , Cardiff Blues agreed to release Hammett at his request for personal reasons , to allow him to return home to New Zealand .
On 21 December 2015 , the Japan Rugby Football Union announced Hammett as the head coach of the newly formed Japanese Super Rugby franchise , the Sunwolves . In their debut season , the side finished bottom of the newly expanded table , with 1 win . Ironically , their win came against the other newly formed team , the Jaguares , a team made up predominantly of the successful Argentine side from the 2015 Rugby World Cup . On 27 June , it was announced that Hammett would be leaving the Japanese side to return to New Zealand . It had previously been announced that Hammett would be joining the Tasman Makos in 2016 as their new assistant coach for the 2016 Mitre 10 Cup . While in June 2016 , it was announced that Mark Hammett will remain in Super Rugby , but as as an assistant coach at the Highlanders .
In March 2016 , Hammett was named as the caretaker coach for the Japanese national team , while Jamie Joseph closes out his contract with the Highlanders . Hammett led the Brave Blossoms to a 26 – 22 win over Canada , before losing 2 – 0 to Scotland during their two @-@ test series .
= = = Honours = = =
Crusaders ( as assistant coach )
Super 14 / Super Rugby
Winners : 2006 , 2008
Runners @-@ up : 2011
= Early life of Jan Smuts =
Jan Christian Smuts ( aka Jan Christiaan Smuts ) , OM , CH , ED , KC , FRS ( 24 May 1870 – 11 September 1950 ) was a prominent South African and Commonwealth statesman , military leader , and philosopher . He served as a Boer General during the Boer War , a British General during the First World War and was appointed Field Marshal by King George VI during the Second World War . In addition to various cabinet appointments , he served as Prime Minister of the Union of South Africa from 1919 until 1924 and from 1939 until 1948 . From 1917 to 1919 he was one of five members of the British War Cabinet , helping to create the Royal Air Force . He played a leading part in the post @-@ war settlements at the end of both world wars , making significant contributions towards the creation of the League of Nations and the United Nations . He did much to redefine the relationship between Britain and the Dominions and Colonies , leading to the formation of the British Commonwealth .
Jan Smuts was born in 1870 , the second son of a traditional Boer farming family . By rural tradition , the eldest son would be the only child to receive a full formal education ; however , on the death of his elder brother in 1882 , 12 @-@ year @-@ old Jan was sent to school for the first time . After four years of education he had made exceptional progress , gaining admission to study at Victoria College in Stellenbosch . He graduated in 1891 with first @-@ class honours in Literature and Science . With this strong academic background , he applied for , and won , the Ebden scholarship for overseas study , electing to read Law at Christ 's College , Cambridge . After further academic success , and the recipient of many prestigious academic awards , he graduated in 1894 with double First @-@ class honours . After graduating , Smuts passed the examinations for the Inns of Court , entering the Middle Temple . In 1895 , despite the prospect of a bright future in the United Kingdom , the homesick Smuts returned to South Africa .
= = In South Africa = =
= = = Childhood = = =
On 24 May 1870 , at the Smuts family farm , Bovenplaats , in the district of Malmesbury , Cape Colony , a child was born to Jacobus Smuts and his wife Catharina . This child , their second son in what was to become a family of four sons and two daughters , was christened Jan Christiaan after his maternal grandfather , Jan Christiaan de Vries
The Smuts family were prosperous yeoman farmers , long @-@ established in the area . For four generations , since 1786 , they had farmed in the Malmesbury district , settling on the farm Ongegund , of which Bovenplaats was a part , in 1818 . This area was part of the so @-@ called Swartland , the chief wheat @-@ growing area of the Cape Colony .
1870 found Bovenplaats under the care of Jacobus Abraham Smuts and his wife Catharina Petronella . Jacobus Smuts lived in much the same manner as his forefathers — a hard @-@ working farmer , a pillar of the Church , and one who took a leading part in the social and political affairs of the neighbourhood . Such was the regard in which he was held that he was later to be elected as the Member for Malmesbury in the Cape Parliament . Smuts 's mother , born Catharina Petronella de Vries , was the sister of Boudewijn Homburg de Vries , the predikant of the nearby town of Riebeek West , some three miles ( 5 km ) from Bovenplaats . The de Vries family originated from the area around Worcester , Cape Colony . Catharina accompanied her brother as his housekeeper when he took up his appointment at Riebeek West , eventually meeting and marrying her husband in 1866 . She was a woman of considerable education and culture , at least according to the standards of the area , having studied music and French in Cape Town .
When Jan was six years of age the family moved from Bovenplaats to a new farm some thirteen miles ( 19 km ) away . This farm , Klipfontein , was a bequest to Jacobus Smuts , who , keen to have a farm of his own rather than one under the supervision of his father , moved his family there in 1876 .
= = = = Family life = = = =
The Smuts family were traditional Afrikaner farmers . As such , questions of property and family affairs were extensively governed by custom . Custom dictated that it was upon the first son that family expectations fell ; the family would strive , so far as their means allowed , to provide him with the best possible education with the goal of paving the way for his entry into one of the professions . As for the others , they would be put to work on the farm , while at the same time receiving a rudimentary home education . As the second son this was to be Jan 's role . While he remained at the farm , his elder brother , Michiel , was sent to begin his schooling in Riebeek West , destined , like his uncle Boudewyn , for a future as a predikant in the Dutch Reformed Church .
Farmwork combined with lessons from his mother — such was the order of Jan 's life for the next few years . During his early childhood , still too young to be given formal responsibilities on the farm , Jan accompanied the Coloured farm labourers as they went about their daily work . At this time the relations between master and servant , between black and white , were certainly not based on social equality ; nevertheless , on these Swartland farms there was little of the rigid segregation which was already emerging elsewhere in South Africa and which was later to have such profound consequences . Since 1828 the Cape had enshrined in law the principle of strict legal equality between the races . Unlike the rest of South Africa , all adult males , were entitled to vote and to stand for election to the Colonial legislature , subject only to a property qualification . In these country districts therefore , there existed a certain intimacy between the farm owners and their labourers . At harvest times it was common to find both working together to gather in the crops and it was also commonplace to find the farm 's children playing with one another , irrespective of race .
In this relatively liberal environment Jan accompanied the servants in their work , listening to their stories , learning the ways of the countryside , and trying to help as best he could . As his knowledge and confidence increased Jan began to go out into the countryside by himself , exploring the hills and valleys which surrounded him . Later , as an older boy , his chief responsibility was as a herd — first of the pigs and poultry in the farmyard , and later of the cattle out on the veld . The same laws of custom which had preordained Jan 's role as a farmer also had their beneficial aspect ; Boer farmers customarily allotted their sons a share of the natural increase of the beasts under their care . As time passed Jan gradually built up a respectable holding of livestock .
At home , away from the work of the farm , his education was not neglected . Although restricted to rudimentary home schooling , his mother 's own notable education placed him and his siblings at an advantage compared with other children in similar circumstances .
= = = = Outside influence = = = =
The Smuts family lived in an almost exclusively Afrikaner world . Nevertheless , this cultural identity , unlike that of the Boer republics to the north , did not define itself on opposition to Britain or the British . Swartland farmers had been largely insulated from the causes of discontent of earlier years , discontent which eventually culminated in the mass Boer migrations of the Great Trek . As a result , Jacobus Smuts largely unmoved by the Afrikaner nationalism preached by such organisations as the Afrikaner Bond , founded by Rev. SJ du Toit in 1877 . After 1884 , having come under the leadership of Jan Hendrik Hofmeyr , the Bond became more to the Smuts ' taste . Hofmeyr changed the fundamental basis of the organisation , from one preaching Afrikaner separatism to one which combined a pragmatic policy of economic protectionism for Cape farmers and their produce with a call for unity between the English and Dutch @-@ speaking populations and cooperation with the Colonial authorities . As a member of the Cape legislature Jacobus Smuts pledged his support to Hofmeyr and the reformed Bond .
Unlike many parts of South Africa , conflict was an element largely absent from Jan Smuts 's early life . Whether conflict between Briton and Boer , or conflict between Black and White — it had been many years since the farmers of the Swartland had had to deal with turmoil on their doorsteps . The absence of conflict , along with its inevitable counterpart , development of prejudice , had its effect upon Smuts .
In later years Smuts was to look upon this time with the uttermost fondness . Of all his childhood experiences it was the time spent out on the veld , whether tending the cattle or out on excursions of his own , which seemed to have the most marked effects on him , developing an attachment which was almost spiritual in nature . As he wrote in 1902 , aged 32 :
In ordinary circumstances Jan Smuts would have , in time , taken over the running of the family farm , spending his life as a farmer as his father , grandfather , and great @-@ grandfather had before him . However this was not to be ; events were to conspire to change this predetermined fate .
= = = Schooldays = = =
In 1882 tragedy struck the Smuts family . Their eldest son , Michiel , suddenly succumbed to typhoid while attending school at Riebeek West . This time of family grief and upheaval had a direct effect upon Jan ; now , as the eldest son , the weight of family expectation fell squarely upon his shoulders .
Within weeks Jan was sent from the familiar surroundings of Klipfontein to a boarding house at Riebeek West , to take his brother 's place at the school of Mr TC Stoffberg . As had been the case with his brother , his parents had already mapped out his future ; like his brother Jan was destined for a future in the Dutch Reformed Church , to be ordained as a predikant at the conclusion of his studies . This vocation , though imposed upon him by his parents , was by no means regarded as an imposition by Jan , growing up as he had in an environment where adherence to the Church and piety of deeds counted for a good deal . This upbringing had turned twelve @-@ year @-@ old Jan into a deeply religious , serious @-@ minded boy . Now , attending school for the first time , he faced a number of obstacles . Foremost amongst these was his rudimentary grasp of English , at a time when it was the main medium of instruction and crucial for any Afrikaner who wished to play a role in wider Cape society . Thanks to his mother 's efforts. in this as well as in other subjects , he was better prepared than most children in similar circumstances , but nevertheless he was to start his schooling alongside children many years younger than himself with many years of study separating him from his contemporaries .
Even so , despite these disadvantages , Jan proved himself an outstanding scholar . He surpassed the other children both in terms of innate ability and in terms of dedication to his work . It was not for nothing that his headmaster , Mr Stoffberg , described him as " one of the most brilliant pupils he had ever taught , and the most hard @-@ working boy he had ever met . " Within three years Jan had made sufficient progress to have caught up with his age group , children with up to ten years of formal education behind them . He compounded this remarkable achievement when the time came for him to sit the Cape Colony elementary examination in 1885 ; Jan was placed ninth in the entire colony . The next year he surpassed even this , coming second in the School Higher examination .
During these few years at Riebeek West Jan worked assiduously at his studies — self @-@ evidently , given his achievements . His academic abilities were soon noted by his headmaster , who went out of his way to provide Jan with further curricular reading . Yet this was to prove insufficient to meet what was becoming an almost insatiable thirst for knowledge . Jan borrowed books and yet more books from the headmaster , poring over them at all times rather than engaging in the childish pursuits of the other children , separated from them by his strong work ethic . A few weeks before the School Higher examination this had its consequences — Jan fell ill , an illness exacerbated by his unremitting study . With a strict injunction from his doctor , ordering a complete rest with an absolute prohibition on work and reading , Jan was packed off to bed . Nevertheless , despite the doctor 's orders , Jan went to strenuous lengths to evade the ban . One story told of him during this enforced convalescence describes how he used to involve the headmaster 's youngest son in his subterfuges , bribing the four @-@ year @-@ old child to bring him books from his father 's study . This enjoyed considerable success until the day of an unannounced visit from the headmaster 's wife . In his sparsely furnished room there were few possibilities , but Jan made the best job that he could of concealing his by now substantial collection of books . The headmaster 's wife upon entering the room found Jan , as expected , in bed . However the boy did not look to be comfortably resting as he ought , in fact he looked positively uncomfortable . She offered to make Jan 's bed for him , he declined , insisting that he was perfectly comfortable ; she insisted and , being the headmaster 's wife , got her way . Embarking upon her deed of kindness she found , to her astonishment , the real reason for Jan 's restlessness — underneath his bedclothes he was making a valiant effort to conceal an immense pile of contraband books !
This dedication to reading and study might , in another boy , have been nothing more than a reaction to the impending examinations — but not in Jan 's case . What made this particular episode revealing was that the books found under his bedclothes were largely unconnected with his studies . In Riebeek West he developed a lifelong habit , that of reading avidly outside the prescribed curriculum , seeking knowledge for its own sake .
In 1886 , at the age of sixteen , Jan embarked on the next stage of his education . Jan applied to , and was accepted by , Victoria College , Stellenbosch — one of the most prominent institutes of higher education in the Cape . In late 1886 he bade farewell to Riebeek West , ready to embark upon a new stage in life .
= = = Life in Stellenbosch = = =
Mr Stoffberg 's school did not take its pupils to the final stage of secondary education . Before Jan could set his schooldays behind him and commence his higher education he would have to sit the Matriculation exam . Jan duly moved from Riebeek West to Stellenbosch , spending early 1886 to late 1886 preparing for this test .
At Riebeeck West Jan had been a hard @-@ working , deeply religious child , with a strongly reserved , almost solitary , nature . This disposition , a legacy of his pious , rural upbringing , is manifest in what is his earliest surviving letter . This letter , written to Professor C Murray , a tutor at Victoria College , was for the most part a run @-@ of @-@ the @-@ mill enquiry into the administrative arrangements for the forthcoming term . Yet in amongst this mundane request for information on such matters as textbooks and school fees Jan found himself confiding his innermost motive forces to this stranger . As he wrote :
In the event , Smuts 's resolution to " make the proper use of my precious time " overcame such moral and religious temptations as a small town like Stellenbosch was capable of providing . Religion and his studies – these remained unchallenged as the twin poles of his existence during his matriculation year . In the seclusion of Mr Ackermann 's boarding house Jan studied assiduously , attended Church with zeal , and ignored the blandishments of the " puerile element " .
The Matriculation exam tested candidates on five subjects : Latin , Greek , Mathematics , Science , and English Literature . By exam @-@ time this dedication to his studies had paid off spectacularly ; the 1887 Cape lists placed Jan third overall , with the highest marks in the Colony in Greek . In what had been by any standards a year of tremendous success the latter achievement was especially outstanding ; a misunderstanding at the start of the year led Jan to believe that he would be exempted from the Greek exam – as a result it was a subject which he largely disregarded . Six days before the exam this potentially devastating oversight was exposed – there was now less than a week in which to catch up with a year ’ s study . Jan immediately shut himself away in his rooms , spending the next days in total seclusion , working from sunrise to sunset in the attempt to master the grammar and vocabulary upon which he was shortly to be tested . By the time of the exam this hard work had paid off . Within a relatively short period Jan had largely memorised his books and had mastered the Greek language to a remarkable degree .
Without doubt Smuts 's determined work ethic played a central role in these successes , yet he was also aided in no small part by his formidable memory . At that age Jan found himself able to memorise large portions of book simply by reading through them , and though this ability gradually diminished as the years passed , it never entirely disappeared . As his son was later to recount :
With the hurdle of Matriculation behind him the start of the 1887 term finally saw Smuts admitted as a student of Victoria College and enrolled as an undergraduate of the University of the Cape of Good Hope .
= = = = Victoria College = = = =
Victoria College proved fertile grounds for Smuts 's imagination . As his biographer WK Hancock was to write :
Smuts thrived in this environment . With these new vistas of knowledge and learning now revealed that he spared no effort in his attempts to master them . His surviving notebooks from this period reveal the range and breadth of his studies : Latin , Greek , German , the Classics , Optical Physics , Inorganic Chemistry and Metallurgy , Organic Chemistry and Agriculture , and Geology - to name but a few . Once again , as had been the case at Riebeek West , this was not merely study for the sake of exams - as ever , Smuts continued to study avidly outside the confines of the curriculum .
Over the next few years at Victoria College , Smuts 's religion continued to be of crucial importance . On Sundays he would attend both morning and evening church services , also leading a Bible study class for local Coloured boys , and during the week he was an assiduous attendee at evening prayer meetings . Within Victoria College , one of the strongest friendships he formed was with Professor JI Marais , the head of the Theology faculty .
Smuts 's religious observance was unsurprising in one who whose moral outlook was based exclusively upon Biblical teachings and who was destined for a future in the Church . Yet , though religion continued to serve in this central role , his studies at Stellenbosch , with their decidedly scientific bias , led Smuts towards a more
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station code is FIT . There are three platforms but minimal facilities . The station is managed by Great Western Railway , the seventh company to be responsible for the station , and the third franchise since privatisation in 1997 . They provide most train services at the station , with two trains per day operated by CrossCountry . The general service level is eight trains per hour - two to South Wales , two to Bristol Parkway , two toward Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare and two toward Westbury .
Filton Abbey Wood is the third station on the site . The first station , Filton , was opened in 1863 by the Bristol and South Wales Union Railway . The station had a single platform , with a second added in 1886 to cope with traffic from the Severn Tunnel . The station was closed in 1903 , replaced by a new station , Filton Junction , 0 @.@ 15 miles ( 0 @.@ 24 km ) further north , which was built at the junction with the newly constructed Badminton Line from Wootton Bassett . The new station had four platforms , each with waiting rooms and large canopies .
Services at Filton Junction declined in the second half of the twentieth century , with the station buildings and Badminton Line platforms demolished in 1976 . The station was closed completely in 1996 , replaced by the current station , Filton Abbey Wood . This was built 0 @.@ 3 miles ( 0 @.@ 48 km ) south of the original station , adjacent to a new Ministry of Defence office development . The station was built with two platforms , but a third was added in 2004 .
The line through Filton Abbey Wood is not electrified , but will be as part of the planned modernisation of the Great Western Main Line . A new platform will also be built , allowing increased services between Bristol Parkway and Bristol Temple Meads .
= = Description = =
Filton Abbey Wood railway station is located in the Filton area of South Gloucestershire , within the Bristol conurbation . The area to the west of the station is primarily residential , while to the east is a large commercial area , including MoD Abbey Wood which is adjacent to the station . The main access to the station is via a long footpath ( a slope of approximately 1 in 8 ) and bridge from Emma @-@ Chris Way to the north , which has a small car park . There is also foot access from MoD Abbey Wood to the east . The station is on the Cross Country Route between Bristol Temple Meads and Bristol Parkway , and just off the South Wales Main Line south of Patchway and the eastern end of the Henbury Loop Line . It is 4 miles 30 chains ( 7 @.@ 0 km ) from Bristol Temple Meads and 113 miles 21 chains ( 182 @.@ 3 km ) from London Paddington ( via Bristol Parkway ) . The station is just north of Filton South Junction , where the northbound line to South Wales and the westbound line to Avonmouth split from the line to Bristol Parkway , and just south of Filton Junction No. 1 , where the southbound lines from South Wales and Parkway converge . The next station south is Stapleton Road , the next station north is Patchway , and the next station east is Bristol Parkway .
The station is on an alignment of 032 degrees , curving towards the west . There are three active platforms : platform 1 is the easternmost , separated from platforms 2 and 3 , which share an island , by two running lines . Platform 1 is for southbound trains and has a speed limit of 70 miles per hour ( 110 km / h ) . Platform 2 is for northbound trains towards Bristol Parkway , but can be used by trains towards South Wales . Platform 3 is for northbound trains towards South Wales . Both platforms 2 and 3 have a speed limit of 60 miles per hour ( 97 km / h ) , and all three platforms are 108 metres ( 118 yd ) long .
Facilities at the station are minimal - there are metal and glass shelters on each platform , and some seating . A small ticket office operates on platform 1 on weekday afternoons , but there are no other facilities for buying tickets and the station is generally unstaffed . There are customer help points , giving next train information for both platforms , as well as dot @-@ matrix displays showing the next trains on each platform . A small pay and display car park with 30 spaces is to the north of the station , as are racks for eight bicycles . CCTV cameras are in operation at the station . A number of buses stop by the station car park .
Over the decade 2002 – 2012 , passenger numbers at Filton Abbey Wood almost doubled , from 395 @,@ 000 to 771 @,@ 000 . In the 2006 / 07 financial year , over 50 @,@ 000 passengers used Filton Abbey Wood to travel to or from Bristol Temple Meads . The line through Filton Abbey Wood has a loading gauge of W8 , and the line handles over 15 million train tonnes per year . It is not electrified , though it is planned that it will be electrified as part of the 21st @-@ century modernisation of the Great Western Main Line .
= = Services = =
Filton Abbey Wood is managed by Great Western Railway who operate most services from the station . The basic service Monday to Friday is four trains per hour in each direction , split between four services . These are the hourly services each way between Bristol Parkway and Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare ; Taunton and Cardiff Central ; Portsmouth Harbour and Cardiff Central ; and finally Gloucester and Westbury . The Taunton service has occasional extensions to Exeter St David 's and beyond , while the Gloucester to Westbury has alternate hour extensions to Great Malvern ( via Worcester ) in the north , to Weymouth in the south , and one daily extension to Brighton . Combined , there are two trains per hour to Bristol Parkway , two trains per hour to Cardiff Central and four trains per hour to Bristol Temple Meads . A single direct service from London Paddington calls at Filton Abbey Wood in the morning , continuing to Swansea , but there are no direct services to London . All services are operated by Great Western Railway , with the exception of one morning and one evening service operated by CrossCountry from Cardiff Central to Manchester Piccadilly via Bristol Temple Meads and Birmingham New Street . The morning service operates to Manchester Piccadilly whilst the evening service returns to Cardiff Central . Other CrossCountry services pass non @-@ stop throughout the day , operating two trains per hour each direction between the South West , Bristol , Manchester and Scotland .
The local services described above are formed using Class 150 , 153 and 158 diesel multiple @-@ unit trains . Until 2012 , Class 143 Pacer units were a regular sight , but these have been moved south to work in Devon and Cornwall following a cascade of Class 150 / 1 units from London Midland and London Overground . The London to Swansea service is operated by an HST set , and CrossCountry services are operated using Class 220 and 221 Voyager diesel @-@ electric multiple units .
The standard journey time to Bristol Temple Meads is 8 minutes , to Bristol Parkway is 4 minutes , and to Cardiff Central is 50 minutes .
= = History = =
There have been three different stations in the area of Filton Abbey Wood . The first , Filton , opened in 1863 just north the site of the current Filton Abbey Wood , and was closed in 1903 . A second station was opened a few hundred yards to the north , and was known as Filton Junction . This station closed in 1996 , replaced by Filton Abbey Wood .
= = = First station : Filton = = =
The first station at Filton opened on 8 September 1863 when services began on the Bristol and South Wales Union Railway ( BSWUR ) , which ran from Bristol Temple Meads to New Passage Pier , north of Bristol on the banks of the River Severn . At New Passage , passengers were transferred to a ferry to cross the Severn to continue on in to Wales . The line , engineered by Isambard Kingdom Brunel , was built as single track 7 ft 1 ⁄ 4 in ( 2 @,@ 140 mm ) broad gauge , with a platform on the western side of the line . The station was situated in the county of Gloucestershire , 4 miles 53 chains ( 7 @.@ 5 km ) from Bristol Temple Meads and immediately south of the modern bridge over the A4174 Avon Ring Road . The BSWUR was amalgamated with the Great Western Railway , who had from the beginning operated all BSWUR services , in 1868 ; and in 1873 the line was converted to 1 @,@ 435 mm ( 4 ft 8 1 ⁄ 2 in ) standard gauge . Although the line made travel from Bristol to Wales easier , the change from train to ferry to train was inconvenient , and so a tunnel was built under the River Severn . To cope with the anticipated increase in demand , the line through Filton was doubled , with a new platform built on the eastern side of the new track , complete with waiting room . The new track was first used on 1 September 1886 when the Severn Tunnel opened . The station continued in use until 1 July 1903 , when it was closed and replaced by a new station 11 chains ( 0 @.@ 22 km ) further north . There is no trace remaining of the original station .
= = = Second station : Filton Junction = = =
In 1900 , almost all trains from London to Wales travelled via Bath and Bristol , with some still routed via Gloucester . However , the final 15 miles ( 24 km ) to Bristol were relatively slow and congested , so a new route was built further north , the GWR 's Badminton Line , now part of the South Wales Main Line , running from Wootton Bassett to Patchway . The new line opened in 1903 , and allowed faster services to Wales . There was a new triangular junction between Patchway and Filton , with the new line coming in from the east . The new station , opened on 1 July 1903 , was on an embankment at the southern apex of the junction , just north of the present A4174 . It was 11 chains ( 0 @.@ 22 km ) north of the first station , 4 miles 64 chains ( 7 @.@ 7 km ) from Bristol Temple Meads and 112 miles 67 chains ( 181 @.@ 6 km ) from London Paddington via the new line .
The new station had four platform faces - two outer platforms , and two inner platforms sharing an island between the southbound line from Patchway and the westbound line to London . The western platforms served trains between Bristol and Wales , while the eastern platforms served trains on the new line . The platforms were linked by a subway which led to the booking office , situated on ground level by the main entrance on the east side of the station . The approach road led south from the main entrance , towards the A4174 . There were waiting rooms and large canopies on each of the platforms . There were goods facilities to the south of the road , on the west side of the line and covering the site of the first station . There was a goods shed with a loading platform on a passing loop , as well as a north @-@ facing covered loading platform and a south @-@ facing siding . An additional south @-@ facing siding for coal traffic was added after the First World War . Opposite the goods yard was Filton Junction Signal Box , which controlled the junction and by 1948 had more than 70 levers .
Following the opening of the Henbury Loop Line , which diverged from the line towards Wales 3 chains ( 60 m ) to the north , the station was renamed Filton Junction on 1 May 1910 . Trains on this line used the western platforms , and often operated loop services to and from Bristol Temple Meads via Clifton Down . From 1928 , trains could also run loop services via Clifton Down , Severn Beach and Patchway . As well as being useful for passengers changing trains ( due to its junction status ) , Filton Junction was also used by workers at the nearby Filton Aerodrome and the attendant aircraft works .
When the railways were nationalised in 1948 , Filton Junction came under the aegis of the Western Region of British Railways . Following the publication of the Beeching Report , the Henbury Line was closed to passengers in 1964 , and service levels began to decline . The line between Pilning and Severn Beach was also closed , putting an end to loop services . The goods yard was closed in July 1965 , and the station 's name reverted to Filton from 6 May 1968 . Much of the station buildings were demolished in 1976 , as were the platforms serving Badminton Line trains , as no trains on this line called at Filton anymore . The remaining two platforms had small replacement shelters built on them .
In 1974 , when the Local Government Act 1972 came into effect , the southern part of Gloucestershire , including the district of Filton , became part of the new county of Avon . British Rail was split into business @-@ led sectors in the 1980s , at which time operations at Filton passed to Regional Railways .
In the 1990s , plans were made to build a new station in Filton and close the 1903 station . The last train called on 8 March 1996 , with services moving to the new Filton Abbey Wood from 11 March , with two intervening days of no service due to a closure of the Severn Tunnel . The remains of Filton Junction can still be seen from passing trains , and the two western platforms are still present , albeit overgrown . The subway has been blocked off , and the access road is now a residential street called " The Sidings " .
= = = Third station : Filton Abbey Wood = = =
In the early 1990s , the Ministry of Defence procurement division was consolidated into a major office development in Filton , known as MoD Abbey Wood . As part of this development , a new station was built in Filton , primarily to serve the MoD workers . Construction began in 1995 , and cost £ 1 @,@ 400 @,@ 000 . The station , named Filton Abbey Wood , was opened to the public on 11 March 1996 and officially opened on 19 March by Minister for Transport Steven Norris MP and the Chair of Avon County Council . Shortly after the station was opened , the county of Avon was disbanded , with the Filton region now governed by South Gloucestershire council .
The new station was situated 23 chains ( 460 m ) south of the first Filton station , and 34 chains ( 680 m ) south of Filton Junction . There were two platforms , each 108 metres ( 118 yd ) long , separated by two running lines . A ramped footbridge connected the platforms at the north end , and each platform had ground @-@ level access from the sides : the eastern , southbound platform from MoD Abbey Wood ; the western , northbound platform via a footpath from the car park to the north . There were metal and glass shelters on each platform and a small , rarely used booking office on the southbound platform .
Initial services at the station included local stopping services from Bristol to South Wales , and services between Gloucester and Westbury . Services towards Bath were of particular importance to the MoD , as many of their staff had been based there prior to the construction of MoD Abbey Wood . South Gloucestershire council provided a subsidy for half @-@ hourly services to Bath . The station proved popular with MoD workers , local residents commuting into central Bristol , and also students and staff at the University of the West of England .
When the railway was privatised in 1997 , local services were franchised to Wales & West , which was succeeded by Wessex Trains , an arm of National Express , in 2001 . The line through Filton closed for two weeks in June 2004 to enable the construction of a new platform and third running line on the west side of the station , separating trains towards Bristol Parkway from trains towards Wales before the station , and so allowing through @-@ trains to pass stopping trains . The project cost £ 16 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 , and caused the complete suspension of Severn Beach Line services to allow longer @-@ distance services to use it as a diversion .
The Wessex franchise was amalgamated with the Great Western franchise into the Greater Western franchise from 2006 , and responsibility passed to First Great Western , a subsidiary company of FirstGroup , and rebranded as Great Western Railway in 2015 . First introduced new services between Bristol Parkway and Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare , and between Cardiff Central and Taunton , each calling at Filton Abbey Wood . From December 2006 , Virgin CrossCountry began operating a single daily service Newcastle Central to Cardiff Central via Bristol Temple Meads and Filton Abbey Wood . This service was taken over by Arriva CrossCountry when the CrossCountry franchise changed hands in 2007 , and then replaced by a daily service each direction between Cardiff Central and Manchester Piccadilly .
= = Future = =
First Great Western declined a contractual option to continue the Greater Western passenger franchise beyond 2013 , citing a desire for a longer @-@ term contract due to the impending upgrade to the Great Western Main Line . The franchise was put out to tender , but the process was halted and later scrapped due to the fallout from the collapse of the InterCity West Coast franchise competition . A two @-@ year franchise extension until September 2015 was agreed in October 2013 , and subsequently extended until March 2019 . The CrossCountry franchise is also due to expire in 2019 .
The line through Filton Abbey Wood is due to be electrified by 2017 as part of the Great Western Main Line electrification project . However , the Cross Country Route , the Bristol to Exeter Line and the Heart of Wessex Line will not be electrified , so services at Filton Abbey Wood will still be provided by diesel trains , with " Sprinter " units expected to be replaced by Class 165 and 166 " Turbo " units . The group Friends of Suburban Bristol Railways supports the electrification continuing beyond the main lines , as does MP for Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare John Penrose . The electrification scheme also includes the four @-@ tracking of the line through Filton to allow more services between Bristol Parkway and Bristol Temple Meads and to separate fast inter @-@ city services from local stopping services .
Filton Abbey Wood is on the Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare / Yate corridor , one of the main axes of the Greater Bristol Metro , a rail transport plan which aims to enhance transport capacity in the Bristol area . The plan will also see the reopening of the Henbury Loop Line and the opening of a new station between Filton and Stapleton Road .
= Posting system =
The posting system ( ポスティングシステム , posutingu shisutemu ) is a baseball player transfer system that operates between Japan 's Nippon Professional Baseball ( NPB ) and the United States ' Major League Baseball ( MLB ) , or between the Korea Baseball Organization ( KBO ) and MLB . Despite the drafting of the United States – Japanese Player Contract Agreement , unveiled in 1967 to regulate NPB players moving to MLB , problems began to arise in the late 1990s . Some NPB teams lost star players without compensation , an issue highlighted when NPB stars Hideo Nomo and Alfonso Soriano left to play in MLB after using loopholes to void their existing contracts . A further problem was that NPB players had very little negotiating power if their teams decided to deal them to MLB , as when pitcher Hideki Irabu was traded to an MLB team for which he had no desire to play . In 1998 , the Agreement was rewritten to address both problems ; the result was dubbed the " posting system " .
Under this system , when an NPB player is " posted " , his NPB team notifies the MLB Commissioner and sets a posting fee not exceeding $ 20 million . The player is then given 30 days to negotiate with any MLB team willing to pay the NPB team 's set posting fee . If the player agrees on contract terms with a team before the 30 @-@ day period has expired , the NPB team receives the posting fee from the signing MLB team as a transfer fee , and the player is free to play in MLB . If no MLB team comes to a contract agreement with the posted player , then no fee is paid , and the player 's rights revert to his NPB team . The current process replaced one in which MLB held a silent auction during which MLB teams submitted sealed , uncapped bids in an attempt to win the exclusive negotiating rights with the posted player for a period of 30 days . Once the highest bidding MLB team was determined , the player could then only negotiate with that team .
Up to the end of the 2014 – 15 posting period , 20 NPB players had been posted using the system . Of these , 11 signed Major League contracts , three signed minor league contracts , four were unsuccessful in attracting any MLB interest , and two could not come to a contract agreement during the 30 @-@ day negotiation period . The four highest @-@ profile players that have been acquired by MLB teams through the posting system are Ichiro Suzuki , Daisuke Matsuzaka , Yu Darvish , and Masahiro Tanaka . The first three attracted high bids of $ 13 @.@ 125 million , $ 51 @.@ 1 million , and $ 51 @.@ 7 million respectively . Tanaka was the first player posted under the current procedure ; he was posted for the maximum $ 20 million allowed under the new rules . However , since its implementation the posting system has been criticized by the media and baseball insiders from both countries .
= = History = =
The first instance of a Japanese @-@ born player playing in Major League Baseball was in 1964 , when the Nankai Hawks , an NPB team , sent three exchange prospects to the United States to gain experience in MLB 's minor league system . One of the players , pitcher Masanori Murakami , was named the California League Rookie of the Year while playing for the Fresno Giants ( the San Francisco Giants ' Class @-@ A team ) . Giants executives were impressed with his talent and on September 1 , 1964 Murakami was promoted , thus becoming the first Japanese player to play in MLB . After Murakami put up good pitching statistics as a reliever , Giants executives sought to exercise a clause in their contract with the Hawks that , they claimed , allowed them to buy up an exchange prospect 's contract . NPB officials objected , stating that they had no intention of selling Murakami 's contract to the Giants and telling them that Murakami was merely on loan for the 1964 season . After a two @-@ month stalemate the Giants eventually agreed to send Murakami back to the Hawks after the 1965 season . Thus , after pitching one more season for the Giants , Murakami returned to Japan to play for the Hawks . This affair led to the 1967 United States – Japanese Player Contract Agreement , also known as the " working agreement " , between MLB and NPB , which was basically a hands @-@ off policy .
= = = Complications = = =
MLB and NPB officials created the posting system as a combined reaction to three cases in the 1990s , involving NPB players who moved to MLB . The first of these occurred in the winter of 1994 when pitcher Hideo Nomo , with the help of agent Don Nomura , became the second Japanese @-@ born player to play in MLB , 30 years after Murakami . Nomo , who was not yet eligible for free agency in Japan , was advised by Nomura that the Japanese Uniform Players Contract 's reserve clause limited the Kintetsu Buffaloes ' control over him to Japan only . Nomo utilized this loophole by voluntarily retiring from NPB to terminate his contract with the Buffaloes , circumvent its reserve clause and play in MLB . He announced his retirement from NPB in late 1994 and signed with the Los Angeles Dodgers in February 1995 , where he won the National League Rookie of the Year award . The following year , the Dodgers signed Nomo to a three @-@ year , $ 4 @.@ 3 million contract .
In early 1997 , after months of negotiations , the San Diego Padres signed a working agreement with the Chiba Lotte Marines that gave the Padres exclusive signing rights to another Nomura client , Hideki Irabu . Although both Irabu and Nomura stated that Irabu would only sign with the New York Yankees , neither the Padres nor the Marines consulted Irabu before finalizing their deal . The Major League Baseball Players Association ( MLBPA ) sided with Irabu , stating that the arrangement unfairly disregarded a player 's expressed wishes . However , MLB 's executive council ruled that the Padres had not violated any existing rule , and therefore legally held the rights to Irabu . Following this decision , Irabu contemplated a number of different options , including playing in NPB until he became a free agent , and taking the matter to the U.S. judicial system . By May , however , the Padres gave in and traded Irabu to the Yankees , who signed him for $ 12 @.@ 8 million over four years .
The final incident occurred in 1998 , when Alfonso Soriano was unable to leave the Hiroshima Toyo Carp due to contract restrictions . Soriano disliked the intense Japanese practice schedule , and the Carp denied him a salary increase from $ 45 @,@ 000 ( the league 's minimum ) to $ 180 @,@ 000 per year . Like Nomo and Irabu , Soriano hired Nomura to help his situation . After first attempting to void Soriano 's NPB contract by unsuccessfully arguing that the player was legally a minor when he signed it Nomura advised him , like Nomo , to retire from NPB and pursue a career in MLB . This prompted Carp executives to file an injunction against Soriano and send letters to MLB teams demanding that they cease all negotiations with him . NPB officials claimed that after the Nomo case they had privately amended the Player Contract to give NPB teams the right to prohibit a player from signing a new contract anywhere after voluntarily retiring . Since MLB officials were not consulted and they did not agree to any changes , MLB Commissioner Bud Selig declared that MLB would recognize Soriano as a free agent on July 13 , 1998 , and the Carp backed down . He signed a 5 @-@ year , $ 3 @.@ 1 million contract with the New York Yankees the same year .
= = = Resolution = = =
In 1998 , Orix BlueWave general manager Shigeyoshi Ino rewrote the 1967 United States – Japanese Player Contract Agreement , when he drafted the " posting system " . Selig and NPB Commissioner Hiromori Kawashima signed this new agreement in December 1998 . It sought to address each of the problems brought up by the Nomo , Irabu and Soriano cases , by requiring MLB teams to place " bids " for NPB players . These bids became the basis of transfer fees that are paid as compensation to NPB teams whose star players sign with MLB . NPB players are also allowed to negotiate with MLB teams over the terms of their new contracts . Through the 2013 season , the agreement was in effect on a year @-@ to @-@ year basis , terminable at the option of either the MLB Commissioner or the NPB Commissioner provided notice to terminate is given by June 18 of any given year . A new agreement between MLB and NPB , with significantly different rules , was announced on December 16 , 2013 and took effect immediately ; it will continue through the 2016 MLB and NPB seasons .
The system only applies to players currently under contract with a Japanese team , although players who have nine or more years of playing service with NPB are exempt . It does not apply to free agents or to amateur players who have never played in NPB . Mac Suzuki , Micheal Nakamura , Kazuhito Tadano , and Junichi Tazawa are the only Japanese players to have debuted in MLB without having played in NPB . The system does not work in reverse ; it does not regulate MLB players , such as Alex Cabrera , who moved to NPB .
= = Process = =
When a player under contract with a Nippon Professional Baseball team wishes to play in Major League Baseball , he must notify his current team 's management and request that they make him available for posting during the next posting period ( November 1 – March 1 through the 2013 season , and November 1 – February 1 in the current agreement ) . The NPB team can reject this request , and the player will not be posted . However , if the team consents , the player is presented to the MLB Commissioner , who then notifies all MLB teams of the posted player .
In the original process , MLB held a four @-@ day @-@ long silent auction during which interested MLB teams submitted sealed bids in U.S. dollars to the Commissioner 's Office . After the allotted four days passed , the Commissioner closed the bidding process and notified the posted player 's NPB team of the highest bid amount but not who the bidding team was . The NPB team then had four days to either accept or reject the non @-@ negotiable bid amount .
If the bid was rejected , the NPB team retained rights to the player . If it was accepted , the successful MLB team was granted the exclusive rights to negotiate with the player for 30 days . If the player and the MLB team agreed on contract terms before the 30 @-@ day period expired , the NPB team received the bid amount as a transfer fee within five business days . The player was then free to play for his new MLB team in the coming season . The transfer fee was not included when calculating an MLB team 's total payroll , which is subject to a luxury tax when it exceeds $ 155 million . If the MLB team could not come to a contract agreement with the posted player , then no fee was paid and the rights to the player reverted to his NPB team . A player could request to be posted again in subsequent years , and the process would be repeated with no advantage to the club that had won the bidding the previous year .
Under the current process , when the NPB team notifies the MLB Commissioner of a posting , it also sets the posting fee , which is now capped at a maximum of $ 20 million . Once the MLB Commissioner announces the posting and the fee , the player has 30 days to sign with an MLB team . Unlike the past system , in which only the team that won the bidding process had negotiating rights , the current system allows the posted player to negotiate with any MLB team willing to pay the posting fee . As in the previous process , if the player signs with an MLB team during the negotiating window , the signing team will pay the posting fee ; otherwise , his rights revert to his NPB team . Also mirroring the past system , an unsuccessfully posted player can request a posting in a later year , with the process repeated .
= = Past postings = =
Of the 53 Japanese @-@ born players who have played in MLB , 14 have entered the league using the posting system . Since the system 's creation in 1998 , the 20 players that have used it have experienced a range of success . Of these twenty , ten were immediately signed to Major League contracts and one player who drew no bids on his first posting was signed to a Major League contract on his second posting . These contracts range from $ 1 @.@ 4 million to $ 155 million . Of the remaining nine , three were signed to Minor League contracts , two were unable to reach a contract agreement and four were unsuccessful in drawing bids from any Major League clubs ( one player failed to draw bids during two separate postings ) . The following tables outline each posting and its outcome .
^ § This was Otsuka 's second attempt to play in MLB after an unsuccessful posting the previous year .
^ ψ Though MLB teams traditionally disclose bid amounts after negotiating rights have been won , the Dodgers chose not to publicly reveal their amount .
^ † This specific amount was chosen by Red Sox owner John Henry because he deemed it lucky .
^ ‡ The final three digits , 194 , represent Igawa 's total strikeout count for his 2006 season .
^ € The final four digits represent two significant player numbers — 34 was the number that Nolan Ryan , then Rangers principal owner and CEO , wore when he played for the team , and 11 was Darvish 's number with the Fighters .
^ P This player is a pitcher .
^ § This is the only instance that a player has posted more than once in the same posting period .
^ P This player is a pitcher .
= = Criticism = =
Since its implementation in late 1998 the posting system has been heavily criticized . Ichiro Suzuki 's agent remarked that " the player literally gets zero advantage from [ the posting system ] ... the Japanese teams benefit by holding the players hostage " . Don Nomura called the process a " slave auction " . Much of the criticism of the system stems from its forcing NPB players to negotiate their contracts solely with the MLB team that submitted the highest bid . The Japan Times columnist Marty Kuehnert believes that since no other team is allowed to submit competitive counter @-@ offers , negotiations result in salaries below the player 's market value . Kuehnert also believes the system fosters a " take @-@ it @-@ or @-@ leave @-@ it " situation ; if the team and the player have not finalized contract negotiations by the end of a 30 @-@ day period , the team can make a low offer knowing that the player 's only other option is to play in Japan for another year . It has been suggested that this is a violation of the Anti @-@ Monopoly Act , a Japanese antitrust law that prohibits parties from signing " an international agreement or international contract which contains such matters as constitute an unreasonable restraint of trade or unfair business practices " .
The Japanese Professional Baseball Players Association ( JPBPA ) was not consulted before the system was implemented by NPB club owners , and did not subsequently ratify it . Since its introduction JPBPA has expressed many concerns , likening the process to " human trafficking " . Agreeing that the system takes unfair advantage of NPB players , the Major League Baseball Players Association ( MLBPA ) offered to help JPBPA fight the posting system in court . However , according to one JPBPA official , the Japanese court process is too long and involved ; therefore , the " problem can 't be helped " .
Yomiuri Giants club representative Hidetoshi Kiyotake has expressed dislike of the system , because it enables Major League Baseball to poach players from Japan . By using the posting system , he says , Japanese teams make a profit in the short term , but by allowing Japan 's best players to be sold to MLB , NPB teams and Japanese baseball suffer in the longer term . When Giants pitcher Koji Uehara asked to be posted in 2005 , Kiyotake denied his request , saying : " We don 't recognize the posting system . I 've said from the beginning that this is out of the question . "
In the middle of the 2012 – 13 posting season , MLB approached NPB seeking to change the way MLB teams bid for the right to negotiate with NPB players . Instead of using a silent auction in which teams bid blindly , MLB would prefer its teams to participate in a traditional , open auction where the bids are known and teams can knowingly outbid each other . Such a change would likely lower the price of the transfer fees paid to NPB teams . MLB and the players ' unions agree that they 'd prefer to see the players receive more money for the transfer rather than the teams . The Japan Times columnist Jason Coskrey also believed that these talks provided the JPBPA an opportunity to voice their concerns about the posting system and attempt to gain more leverage for themselves during the posting process . The new agreement , as noted , was announced on December 16 , 2013 , with most of the changes desired by MLB and players from both leagues .
= = = 2006 – 07 controversy = = =
The posting system was criticized by MLB insiders and by the U.S. media , after the controversial 2006 – 07 posting period . Before the posting of the period 's first player , Daisuke Matsuzaka , in early November 2006 , there was speculation that he might draw bids as high as $ 30 million — more than twice the previous record bid that Ichiro Suzuki had garnered in 2000 – 01 . After his silent auction was closed , it was revealed that Matsuzaka had drawn a bid of $ 51 @.@ 1 million , shocking American and Japanese baseball executives . The Boston Red Sox 's winning bid was more than $ 11 million higher than the next largest .
With the negotiations between Matsuzaka and the Red Sox at a stalemate as the negotiation period neared its close , The Washington Post 's Dave Sheinin questioned both parties ' intentions . Sheinin believed that the Red Sox had foreseen the contractual stalemate and had submitted a high bid simply to deny the New York Yankees an opportunity to negotiate with Matsuzaka . However , after Matsuzaka 's agent Scott Boras threatened to take Matsuzaka back to NPB if his price was not met , Sheinin theorized that Boras intentionally wanted to hinder contract negotiations . ESPN The Magazine 's Tim Kurkjian described the situation as " the most obvious game of chicken ever . " Sheinin suggested that , should the negotiations fail , Boras could take legal action on the grounds that the requirement of MLB teams to pay large transfer fees to NPB teams artificially depressed the player 's personal contract . Boras did not believe that the transfer fee should affect the player 's compensation .
Despite the negotiation difficulties , the Boston Red Sox eventually signed Matsuzaka . The team paid approximately $ 103 @.@ 1 million in total , including the transfer fee and contract , to acquire the pitcher . Kurkjian believes that with fees and contracts this high , small @-@ market teams could not afford to compete with large @-@ market teams for the rights to negotiate with some posted Japanese players . Kurkjian blames the posting system 's use of a blind bidding system as the cause of Matsuzaka 's " outrageous offer . " He also postulates that Matsuzaka 's high bid amount helped to inflate the bids for Kei Igawa who was posted two weeks later , perpetuating the problem further . After winning the negotiation rights to Igawa , Yankees ' general manager Brian Cashman told reporters that " the posting system , clearly with what took place this winter , might not necessarily be the best system " . Kurkjian claims that other MLB executives already believe that a traditional free agent structure , where the highest bidder wins , would be better than the current system . Cashman and Yankees team president Randy Levine met with NPB team officials in early 2007 to discuss the posting system , among other things . These meetings did not result in any immediate changes .
= Thistle , Utah =
Thistle is a ghost town in Utah County , Utah , United States , about 65 miles ( 105 km ) southeast of Salt Lake City . During the era of steam locomotives , the town 's primary industry was servicing trains for the Denver and Rio Grande Western Railroad ( often shortened to D & RG , D & RGW , or Rio Grande ) . The fortunes of the town were closely linked with those of the railroad until the changeover to diesel locomotives , when the town started to decline .
In April 1983 , a massive landslide ( specifically a complex earthflow ) dammed the Spanish Fork River . The residents were evacuated as nearly 65 @,@ 000 acre feet ( 80 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 m3 ) of water backed up , flooding the town . Thistle was destroyed ; only a few structures were left partially standing . Federal and state government agencies have said this was the most costly landslide in United States history , the economic consequences of which affected the entire region . The landslide resulted in the first presidentially declared disaster area in Utah .
U.S. Route 6 ( US @-@ 6 ) , US @-@ 89 and the railroad ( now part of Union Pacific Railroad 's Central Corridor ) were closed for several months , until they were rebuilt on a higher alignment overlooking the area . The remains of Thistle are visible from a rest area along US @-@ 6 or from the California Zephyr passenger train .
= = Geography = =
Thistle is about 65 miles ( 105 km ) southeast of Salt Lake City , at the confluence of the two primary tributaries to the Spanish Fork River , Thistle Creek and Soldier Creek . This confluence , at an elevation of 5 @,@ 043 feet ( 1 @,@ 537 m ) , is also the junction of two naturally formed routes across the mountains of central Utah . The primary route crosses the Wasatch Mountains , via the Wasatch Plateau and Soldier Summit . This route was carved by the tributaries of the Price River on the eastern side of the mountains and the Spanish Fork River on the west . In addition , Thistle Creek provides a route south from Thistle towards the communities of the Sanpete and Sevier Valleys . The Spanish Fork River flows northwest from Thistle , towards the city of Spanish Fork , before reaching Utah Lake .
These natural paths have provided the route of several transcontinental trails , highways and railroads since their discovery . The named transportation arteries passing through Thistle include : US @-@ 6 ( originally numbered US @-@ 50 ) , US @-@ 89 , the Denver and Rio Grande Western Railroad 's Utah Division ( now part of Union Pacific Railroad 's Central Corridor ) and D & RGW 's Marysvale branch line ( abandoned because of the landslide ) .
= = History = =
The trade route on which Thistle lies was used by Native American tribes before the arrival of European settlers ; two Ute chiefs , Taby and Peteetneet , led seasonal migrations through the canyon each spring and fall . The first recorded journey by Europeans to modern Thistle was the Dominguez – Escalante Expedition , which was escorted through the territory by Indian guides . A small group of Utes inhabiting the canyon frequently clashed with newcomers , and as a result were forcibly relocated in the 1870s .
Most of Thistle 's residents were railroad employees sent to live in the town , but there were some who had settled before the railroads arrived . The first Europeans were part of the Mormon migration to Utah , and the first of these was the Pace family , who migrated from Nauvoo , Illinois , reaching Thistle in 1848 . Fifth @-@ generation descendants of the Pace settlers continued to operate a family @-@ owned cattle ranch until the town was evacuated . Other settlers included Mormons who originally settled elsewhere in Utah but subsequently arrived to homestead fertile ground on Billies Mountain , on the north wall of the canyon . Among them was the mountain 's presumed namesake , William Johnson . Homesteading was practiced in Thistle until the early 1900s . Until the arrival of the railroads , the town 's economy was based mainly on farming and ranching , although there was also some mining activity in the region , including a vein of asphaltum that was mined between 1892 and 1914 .
= = = Railroads = = =
The first railroad track laid through Thistle was a narrow @-@ gauge spur line servicing coal mines near today 's Scofield Reservoir , built in 1878 by the Utah and Pleasant Valley Railway . By 1890 , the Denver and Rio Grande Western , which acquired the line in a foreclosure sale in 1882 , had rebuilt the line to standard gauge . The D & RGW connected this line with one they had built west from Colorado , completing a link from Salt Lake City to Denver .
The railroad built several facilities in Thistle to service and prepare trains for the change in grade and curvature of the line . The railroad placed helper engines on eastbound trains at Thistle for the ascent to Soldier Summit . The town provided a meal service for the trains until the use of on @-@ board dining cars eliminated the need for meal stops .
Thistle saw more rail traffic with the construction of the Marysvale branch line . This line branched from the main at Thistle , following modern US @-@ 89 towards mines near Marysvale . Another line through Thistle , paralleling the D & RGW main , was built by the Utah Railway . The two lines were later combined into a dual @-@ track main line , as part of a trackage rights agreement between the two companies .
Rail traffic through Thistle continued to increase as the Rio Grande cooperated with connecting railroads , making the rail line through Thistle a bridge line for transcontinental rail traffic . The growth of Thistle was closely tied to the success of the Denver and Rio Grande Railroad throughout the era of steam locomotives .
At its peak , around 1917 , Thistle had about 600 residents . The town 's railroad infrastructure included a five @-@ stall roundhouse , depot , machine shop , and structures to restock passing trains with sand , coal and water . Non @-@ railroad infrastructure included general stores , a post office , barber shop , saloon , pool hall , bakeries and restaurants . The largest building was a two @-@ story schoolhouse , built in 1911 .
In the 1950s , the Denver & Rio Grande Western began to phase out steam locomotives in favor of diesel locomotives , which require less maintenance . With the change in technology , Thistle faded in importance . Gradually the town shrank in population ; the passenger depot was torn down in 1972 and the post office closed in 1974 . By 1983 , only a few families remained in Thistle .
= = = Landslide = = =
Rio Grande maintenance personnel began noticing unstable ground downstream from Thistle years before the landslide occurred . Maintenance crews repaired the track on several occasions , but they did not fully investigate the problem . Beginning with the remnants of Hurricane Olivia , the autumn and winter of 1982 – 83 featured record @-@ breaking snow and rainfall . As the spring thaw melted the winter snow , the mountains in the area became saturated with water .
By April 1983 , track deformation was a serious issue . On April 13 , the division trackmaster flew to Denver to explain the situation at a specially @-@ called staff meeting . On the same day , a Utah Highway Patrol officer struck a newly created buckle in the highway that threw him against the roof of his vehicle . By the end of the day , a full maintenance crew was struggling to keep US @-@ 6 open . All trains were limited to speeds less than 10 miles per hour ( 16 km / h ) , and were accompanied by maintenance personnel who had to continually work to keep the tracks in line . The last train to pass through downtown Thistle was the westbound Rio Grande Zephyr , on April 14 , 1983 at about 8 : 30 p.m. That night , both US @-@ 6 and the rail line were closed . One westbound freight train that had already left Denver was turned back . All through trains between Denver and Salt Lake City were rerouted to Union Pacific Railroad 's Overland Route through Wyoming . By April 16 , the tracks were completely buried and a voluntary evacuation order was issued for the town .
On April 17 , a final attempt to keep the landslide from blocking the flow of the river failed . That day , the Utah Department of Transportation and the Rio Grande announced plans to abandon the existing transportation arteries and build new corridors . Both the highway and railroad would be re @-@ routed by blasting a path scaling the north wall of Spanish Fork Canyon . The new arteries would pass the slide by dynamiting through Billies Mountain , also along the north canyon wall . Engineers estimated the dam created by the toe of the landslide would eventually reach between 200 feet ( 60 m ) and 300 feet ( 90 m ) tall . The evacuation order was changed from voluntary to mandatory . Volunteers transported as many people and belongings as possible to the small town of Birdseye , about 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) south . Most residents were able to recover only a fraction of their belongings ; some had less than two hours ' notice before the water reached their house . Thistle 's oldest resident celebrated her 90th birthday at the evacuation center in Birdseye . By the 18th , the waterline had reached the rooftops of the 22 previously occupied houses . By the 19th , an entire mountain was moving at about 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 6 m ) per hour and US @-@ 6 was buried by 50 feet ( 15 m ) of soil .
Governor Scott Matheson requested federal aid to deal with the situation . After a visit to the area by the director of the Federal Emergency Management Agency , U.S. president Ronald Reagan issued the first presidential disaster area declaration for the state of Utah . The landslide eventually formed a dam that created a lake 3 miles ( 5 km ) long and over 200 feet ( 60 m ) deep . Concerned the dam could fail , the state of Utah decided to build a tunnel to re @-@ route the flow of the Spanish Fork River . The residents of downstream Spanish Fork were told to be prepared to evacuate . Engineers estimated that if the dam failed , they would have 30 to 45 minutes notice before the water reached the city .
= = = Aftermath = = =
Thistle was almost completely destroyed . Most wooden buildings were carried away in the floodwaters . The state installed a temporary pumping station to prevent the lake from overflowing the dam ; patrol boats skimmed up the floating remains of the town to prevent the debris from blocking the pumps . Most remains were either naturally deposited or placed on the eastern shore of the lake .
By autumn , the tunnels to restore the flow of the river and drain the lake were operational . Shortly after , debates between former residents , neighboring residents , and government agencies began on what to do with the dam created by the landslide ; some wanted to make the lake permanent . The state engineer commissioned a study to determine if the landslide dam could be used to retain water ; it recommended building a new dam upstream from the landslide , rather than attempting engineering work on the landslide dam .
In the years following , the former residents of Thistle filed various lawsuits to recover their losses . In one , they claimed that their property was taken to rebuild the road and railroad without just compensation . Another lawsuit claimed negligence on the part of the D & RGW . The residents argued that the railroad 's maintenance workers knew the ground was unstable ; however , they only repaired the track . The residents contended the slide could have been prevented by using a water drainage system to relieve pressure at the head of the unstable area . They further contended that such a system could have been put in place had the railroad thoroughly investigated the problem upon first noticing it . The engineering firm employed by the Rio Grande said that their studies indicated the crown of the landslide was about 300 feet ( 90 m ) above the level of the tracks , and that the Rio Grande did not know the true size of the unstable area until the slide was in motion . A jury absolved the D & RGW of responsibility . The plaintiffs appealed the decision , and a second trial in 1993 resulted in a $ 1 @.@ 1 million award for the landowners ( equivalent to $ 2 million in 2016 ) . The D & RGW filed suit against the Utah Railway over sharing the costs from the landslide . The Utah Railway had an ownership interest in the line , based on a track @-@ sharing agreement .
= = = = Economic effects = = = =
The landslide closed the main railroad for three months , and U.S. Route 6 and U.S. Route 89 for eight months , during which time the communities of eastern and southeastern Utah were cut off from the rest of the state . Security for the isolated part of Utah County was temporarily assigned to the Utah Highway Patrol .
The economic effects of the closure of these transportation arteries were felt throughout the western United States ; the closure devastated rural Utah . The operations of coal mines , uranium mines , turkey farms , animal feed companies , gypsum mines , and cement and clay factories were severely impacted . At least two trucking firms and one oil @-@ producing firm suspended or ceased operations . Southeastern Utah 's tourism industry suffered without access for visitors from the north and west . Some people who lived and worked on opposite sides of the landslide area suddenly had commutes exceeding 100 miles ( 160 km ) . The highway patrol temporarily closed a weigh station at Peerless ( a location along the US @-@ 6 corridor near Helper ) and built a temporary weigh station near Salina ( along I @-@ 70 about 90 miles ( 140 km ) south of Thistle ) , which saw a sudden increase in truck traffic . The highway patrol estimated the temporary facilities inspected 57 @,@ 000 trucks and made 80 arrests .
The direct cost of the landslide was estimated at $ 200 million ( equivalent to $ 475 million in 2016 ) . However , some estimates of the total cost reached as high as $ 400 million ( equivalent to $ 950 million in 2016 ) . The D & RGW estimated the slide cost them $ 80 million in lost revenue ( equivalent to $ 190 million in 2016 ) , averaging $ 1 million for each day that the tracks were out @-@ of @-@ service . This figure included $ 19 million in payments to the Union Pacific for the use of their lines . The United States Geological Survey and the state of Utah have called the Thistle landslide the most costly ever in the United States .
= = = = Railroad = = = =
To expedite construction , the railroad had crews in Utah focused on grading the new path and boring a 3 @,@ 000 @-@ foot ( 910 m ) tunnel , while crews in Colorado built track segments that were transported to site . On July 4 , 1983 , at 3 : 05 p.m. , safety inspectors declared the line ready for operation . At 3 : 12 p.m. , the centralized traffic control signals gave a green light to the first train to pass through the Thistle area since the slide began , an eastbound freight train coming from the Southern Pacific Railroad at Ogden , destined for Herington , Kansas . Although the line 's re @-@ opening on Independence Day was coincidental , the first train became part of the local holiday celebrations . The first passenger train to use the new alignment was the California Zephyr , on July 16 .
Debates ensued over the fate of the Marysvale branch line . The mines at the end of the line had long closed ; the last train to traverse the entire length of the line passed through in 1970 . Still , farmers and industry in the Sevier and Sanpete Valleys generated enough traffic that the line broke even most years . However , this line was severely damaged , with several washed @-@ out bridges and railroad tracks draping over the sides of newly created cliffs . The railroad determined that at best it would take years to recover the cost of rebuilding the line .
The residents of Richfield pressured the Rio Grande to use the portion of the line that was still intact and build a connection to an existing Union Pacific line near Nephi , roughly parallel to State Route 28 . However , the railroad determined that including land acquisition , the cost would be comparable to rebuilding the old route . In addition , the Rio Grande would have to pay trackage rights to the Union Pacific for the connection from Nephi , which would further erode profits on a line that was barely profitable . In the end , the Rio Grande sold the line to a scrap dealer who dismantled it . A 2002 study placed the cost of rebuilding the modified routing of the Marysvale branch line at $ 80 million ( equivalent to $ 105 million in 2016 ) .
= = = = Highways = = = =
The new alignment of US @-@ 6 was opened on December 30 , 1983 . The dedication was planned for the next day , but lines of cars formed at the barricades as soon as news broke that the highway was complete . Some were residents anxious to see the area or visit relatives they had not seen since the slide ; others were truck drivers frustrated by long detours . The Highway Patrol requested the ceremony be canceled and the highway opened early , as they were unable to disperse the crowds .
When the first traffic flowed , crews had not finished some final tasks , such as painting stripes . Motorists saw a relocation with several mountain cuts built high up the canyon wall , with a view of the slide and former lake . The roadbed was not expected to last , as weather conditions had been unfavorable when the asphalt was laid . Two mountain cuts were unstable , requiring several months of work before they could be left unattended . During this time , the state stationed two full @-@ time watches at the cuts , who would close the road while falling rocks were cleared . The cut through Billies Mountain was described by the construction crews as a new , man @-@ made mountain pass .
The pending completion of the again @-@ rebuilt US @-@ 6 , with properly laid asphalt and stable rock cuts , was announced in November 1984 , 18 months after the closure of the original alignment . Starting in 1993 , the Utah Department of Transportation began discussions with former Thistle residents to build a memorial to the town . The department maintains a view area overlooking the townsite along US @-@ 6 .
= = Geology and climate = =
The landslide area near Thistle is a paleovalley formed in a depression in an area of bedrock known as the Charleston – Nebo thrust plate . The rock in this plate dates from the Permian and Pennsylvanian to the Jurassic periods , but the plate appears to have formed elsewhere and moved to the modern Thistle area during the Late Cretaceous epoch . The layers of sedimentary rock above the thrust plate are younger , dating to the Cretaceous and Tertiary periods . The rock debris in the landslide itself comes from the North Horn and Ankareh formations .
The area around Thistle has always been prone to landslides . Pre @-@ historic landslides created the more gentle slopes that made the area usable as a transportation corridor across the Wasatch Mountains . Minor landslides have been frequently observed , and continue to occur . The largest recorded landslides are the 1983 slide which destroyed the town , and a smaller one in 1998 .
The climate at downstream Spanish Fork is classified as arid with four distinct seasons . Temperatures range from an average high of 92 ° F ( 33 ° C ) in July and an average low of 20 ° F ( − 7 ° C ) in January . Except for the spring months , precipitation averages less than 2 inches ( 5 @.@ 1 cm ) per month .
= The Cham @-@ Cham =
" The Cham @-@ Cham " is the 25th episode of Thunderbirds , a British 1960s Supermarionation television series co @-@ created by Gerry and Sylvia Anderson . The penultimate instalment of series one , it first aired on 24 March 1966 on ATV Midlands . Alan Pattillo both wrote and directed the episode , which opens with a United States Air Force ( USAF ) aircraft being shot down during the radio transmission of a popular instrumental music track . International Rescue suspects sabotage , and Lady Penelope , Tin @-@ Tin and Parker are dispatched to investigate the band 's current tour venue — a hotel in the Swiss Alps . There , it is discovered that the attacks are being co @-@ ordinated with the aid of a " Cham @-@ Cham " , an advanced computer sensitive to microtones and ultrasonic harmonics .
Filmed in late 1965 , " The Cham @-@ Cham " inspired innovation in AP Films ' use of puppet characters ; towards the end of the episode , the Penelope character performs a carefully choreographed cabaret dance , despite of the difficulties inherent in producing movement from the marionettes . Additionally , the episode marks the first occasion in any Supermarionation series that characters are seen skiing . Scripted to incorporate themes of espionage and show business , the filming of " The Cham @-@ Cham " entailed the collaboration of singer Ken Barrie , who wrote the lyrics to series composer Barry Gray 's Latin rhythm " Dangerous Game " .
The episode has attracted positive critical reception , with the production design and the soundtrack singled out for particular praise . Sylvia Anderson values " The Cham @-@ Cham " for its " charm " , as well as its visualisation of the Paradise Peaks resort , but considers the plot " far @-@ fetched " ; Stephen La Rivière compliments the episode for its technical accomplishments , in addition to its writing . Cultural historian Nicholas J. Cull comments on the undertones of some of the episode 's characterisations in the context of the Cold War . " The Cham @-@ Cham " was adapted for audio in the 1960s .
= = Plot = =
A succession of RTL2 cargo aircraft running missile shipments have been shot down by enemy fighters shortly after take @-@ off from Matthews Field USAF Base . On Tracy Island , Alan ( voiced by Matt Zimmerman ) points out that all the attacks have coincided with a live performance of " Dangerous Game " from the hit band Cass Carnaby Five , broadcast on Radio Maxwell ; with Brains ( David Graham ) , he examines a recording of the latest transmission to determine whether the tune contains a hidden code inserted to disrupt the RTL2 flights .
Meanwhile , Jeff ( Peter Dyneley ) dispatches Tin @-@ Tin ( Christine Finn ) and Lady Penelope ( Sylvia Anderson ) — the latter posing as a singer , " Wanda Lamour " — undercover to Paradise Peaks , a deluxe Swiss Alps hotel that is currently playing host to Carnaby and his group . Parker ( Graham ) secures a job at the bar . Carnaby 's manager is the mysterious Mr Olsen , who regularly makes last @-@ minute changes to the arrangement of " Dangerous Game " before the band perform on @-@ air . Ski @-@ ing down the mountain to Olsen 's private lodge , Penelope and Tin @-@ Tin film him working at an unidentified computer , which is decrypting musical notation into a typed message revealing the date and time of the next RTL2 flight .
Realising that he has had uninvited guests , Olsen contacts his associate — Banino , a waiter — with orders to dispose of the International Rescue agents . Parker overhears the telephone conversation and thwarts Banino 's attempt to assassinate Penelope and Tin @-@ Tin using a sniper rifle , tumbling down the mountainside with his adversary ( and forming a giant snowball in the process ) until Banino is knocked unconscious . On Tracy Island , Brains identifies the device in Penelope and Tin @-@ Tin 's film as an ultrasonically @-@ sensitive supercomputer known as a " Cham @-@ Cham " . Jeff contacts Washington , D.C. to report IR 's findings , but the Matthews Field Commander refuses to postpone the upcoming missile run .
That evening , the Cass Carnaby Five start to perform Olsen 's latest arrangement of " Dangerous Game " . It seems that the next flight of the RTL2 is doomed until Penelope , in the guise of Wanda Lamour , steps out onto the stage to sing a lyrical version of Brains ' own composition . Accepting without question the new coordinates encoded in Radio Maxwell 's transmission , the airbase that launched the previous attacks misdirects its own fighters , which quickly find themselves in the airspace above Matthews Field . Landing at the scene in Thunderbird 1 , Scott ( Shane Rimmer ) alerts the Commander and USAF interceptors are scrambled to shoot down the enemy .
Fearing Olsen 's next move , Jeff dispatches Virgil ( David Holliday ) and Alan to fly Tin @-@ Tin , Penelope and Parker back from the Alps in Thunderbird 2 . The IR agents depart from Paradise Peaks in the hotel 's cable car , only to find themselves speeding uncontrollably down the mountainside when Olsen sabotages the terminus . With Thunderbird 2 's electromagnetic grabs unable to connect with the car chassis , Parker climbs onto the roof to hook the wires with the end of Penelope 's umbrella and attach them himself . When the braking force of Virgil and Alan 's retro @-@ rockets throws the butler into the air , he uses the umbrella to parachute back down . All are treated to a private piano recital of " Dangerous Game " from Cass before leaving Paradise Peaks .
= = Production = =
The penultimate episode to be filmed for series one , " The Cham @-@ Cham " was written by Alan Pattillo , who attempted to imitate classic Hollywood musicals with his script 's show business plot and the exotic setting of the Paradise Peaks resort . As an in @-@ joke , Pattillo named Penelope 's alias , Wanda Lamour , after one of the Thunderbirds puppet operators , Wanda Brown . Production was completed in November and December 1965 .
Since convincing walking movements had always been difficult to accomplish with the unevenly weighted Supermarionation puppets , the common practice at AP Films Studios was to allow walking to be implied , rather than seen , by having the hand of a puppeteer move a marionette 's legs using a " bobbing motion " . The scene in which Lady Penelope sings Brains ' lyrical version of " Dangerous Game " required the puppet to waltz through the Paradise Peaks ballroom set , necessitating that Brown move the character 's legs out of shot while fellow operator Christine Glanville controlled the upper body from the overhead gantry .
Gerry Anderson remembered that AP Films had never attempted to film ski @-@ ing sequences previously , but judged the scenes of Penelope and Tin @-@ Tin travelling to Olsen 's lodge to be suitably realistic . Anderson himself conceived the " ski thrusters " that the agents use to power their ascent up the mountainside while returning to Paradise Peaks . Praising production designer Bob Bell 's visuals , he opined that the episode " gave our art and design departments a chance to show what they could really do , and they didn 't let us down . "
Series composer Barry Gray devised a Latin rhythm track for the centrepiece of the episode 's soundtrack : " Dangerous Game " . Although singer Ken Barrie was commissioned to sing the lyrics to the tune , the production staff ultimately substituted Gray 's alternative instrumental version whenever the Cass Carnaby Five are seen to be playing . For the scene featuring Penelope 's rendition , Sylvia Anderson based her singing voice on that of Marlene Dietrich . An incidental music track composed for the Supercar episode " Amazonian Adventure " , titled " Happy Flying " , accompanies the shots of Penelope and Tin @-@ Tin ski @-@ ing to Olsen 's lodge .
As with " Attack of the Alligators ! " , the episode that had been filmed immediately prior , the technical complexity of " The Cham @-@ Cham " resulting in the production finishing nearly a week past the deadline and considerably overspending its budget . To compensate for wasted time and costs , the Thunderbirds scriptwriters re @-@ wrote the series one finale as a clip show , " Security Hazard " , which would make extensive use of flashback footage to limit the requirement for new scenes .
= = Reception = =
Sylvia Anderson considers " The Cham @-@ Cham " to be one of the best episodes of Thunderbirds , and a rival to " Attack of the Alligators ! " in terms of quality . On her website , she comments : " Even though the plot is far @-@ fetched , it has charm and , because of the lovely Swiss mountain setting , has credibility . " Simon Archer and Marcus Hearn , writers of What Made Thunderbirds Go ! The Authorised Biography of Gerry Anderson , describe " The Cham @-@ Cham " as " perhaps the most lavish @-@ looking episode of the series " , citing Lady Penelope 's deep @-@ cover cabaret performance and the skiing sequences as examples of the instalment 's " unforgettable images " . Tom Fox of Starburst magazine is broadly complimentary , awarding the episode a score of 4 out of 5 . He comments positively on the production design and the Thunderbird 2 rescue , both of which – in his view – help to " make up " for the plot , which is judged to be " tenuous at best " . While expressing puzzlement at Brains and Penelope 's tactics for the diversion of the enemy fighters , like Archer and Hearn he praises the entertainment value of Parker 's unusual descent by umbrella .
Fox 's reception to " Dangerous Game " is similarly positive . Reviewing the CD release of the original Thunderbirds soundtrack , Morag Reavley of BBC Online describes Anderson 's rendition as " slinky , sexy and slightly off @-@ key , like a hung @-@ over Zsa Zsa Gabor " . For Heather Phares of Allmusic , the tune is a highlight of the album : while the " Latin Rhythm Instrumental " " [ reflects ] the ' 60s ' ongoing fascination with exotica and Latin pop " , the lyrical version " could be a kissing cousin to seductive spy themes like ' Goldfinger ' . " Stephen La Rivière , writer of Filmed in Supermarionation : A History of the Future , praises the technical proficiency of the production staff , characterising the skiing and dancing scenes as " [ flying ] in the face of what puppets can and can 't do . " He sums up the episode as " a glorious example of Thunderbirds at its best , combining all the elements that made the show so popular : the characters , the adventure , the rescues and , of course , the humour . " Expanding on his last point , La Rivière emphasises the family appeal of the episode 's comedy , arguing that the subtlety of Parker 's occasional double entendres is counter @-@ acted by his slapstick moments , such as the innovative use of Penelope 's umbrella ( described as " doing a ' Mary Poppins ' " ) .
Historian Nicholas J. Cull interprets " The Cham @-@ Cham " as a product of its Cold War context , noting the " Central / Eastern European accents " of the hostile airbase personnel . The episode achieved ratings of 2 @.@ 82 million viewers when it was repeated on BBC2 in 1992 .
= = Adaptation = =
An audio adaptation of " The Cham @-@ Cham " , narrated by voice actor David Graham in character as Parker , is included on the 1960s Century 21 mini @-@ LP Lady Penelope .
= XCOM : Enemy Unknown =
XCOM : Enemy Unknown is a turn @-@ based tactical video game developed by Firaxis Games and published by 2K Games . The game is a " reimagined " remake of the 1994 cult classic strategy game UFO : Enemy Unknown ( also known as X @-@ COM : UFO Defense ) and a reboot of MicroProse 's 1990s X @-@ COM series .
XCOM : Enemy Unknown was released in North America , Europe , and Australia for Microsoft Windows , PlayStation 3 , and Xbox 360 in October 2012 . An " Elite Edition " , containing all previously released downloadable content , was released as a Mac OS X exclusive by Feral Interactive in April 2013 . In June 2014 , Feral released both XCOM : Enemy Unknown and its expansion pack XCOM : Enemy Within for Linux . A port for iOS was released in June 2013 and an Android conversion was released in May 2014 . An expansion pack , titled XCOM : Enemy Within , was released in November 2013 . A bundle containing both Enemy Unknown and Enemy Within was launched on the PlayStation Store for PlayStation Vita in March 2016 under the title XCOM : Enemy Unknown Plus .
Set in the near future during an alien invasion of Earth , the game puts the player in control of an elite multinational paramilitary organization called XCOM and is tasked with defending the Earth . The player commands troops in the field in a series of turn @-@ based tactical missions ; between missions , the player directs the research and development of new technologies from recovered alien technology and captured prisoners , expands XCOM 's base of operations , manages XCOM 's finances , and monitors and responds to alien activity .
XCOM : Enemy Unknown was critically acclaimed , with several reviewers commenting on the game 's difficulty , replayability , and addictiveness . A number of publications , including GameSpy , GameTrailers and Giant Bomb , named it Game of the Year . A sequel to the game , titled XCOM 2 , was released on February 5 , 2016 for Microsoft Windows , OS X , and Linux .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting = = =
The game 's campaign begins in the spring of 2015 , as a global alien invasion begins . Prior to the start of the game , a group of countries called the Council of Nations has banded together to create XCOM ( short for Extraterrestrial Combat Unit ) , the most elite military and scientific organization in human history , tasked with defending them from the alien attack . The player assumes the role of the commander of XCOM , and proceeds to engage in a war against an extraterrestrial enemy with overwhelming technological superiority .
= = = Story = = =
After success with shooting down alien scout ships and securing the crash sites from surviving alien crews , as well as interdicting alien attempts to abduct human civilians for unknown purposes , XCOM manages to also obtain the corpses of various different alien troops . Autopsies reveal that all these types have been genetically and / or cybernetically altered , which seems to indicate they are merely foot @-@ soldiers for unseen leaders . XCOM 's head of research , Dr. Vahlen , requests that a live alien be captured for interrogation . This also involves developing a specialized weapon capable of capturing a live alien , and constructing a facility in XCOM 's subterranean base capable of safely holding a live alien prisoner .
Capturing one of the alien troops and conducting the interrogation reveals vague information about another type of alien called the Outsiders , artificially @-@ created crystalline beings encountered aboard UFOs , that appear to serve as pilots and navigators . Dr. Vahlen then requests that XCOM capture an Outsider for study . Upon capturing one of these , the examination reveals that the Outsiders ' exotic crystalline structures behave in a manner similar to antennas , receiving a signal broadcast from a location buried underground on Earth . XCOM dispatches a team to investigate the signal ; it is found to be coming from a base that the aliens have secretly established on Earth , where experiments are performed on abducted humans .
XCOM develops a method for gaining entry to the alien base and assaults it . During the mission , the alien serving as the base commander is discovered to have psychic abilities , but is nevertheless defeated by the soldiers . The commander 's psychic communication device is recovered and reverse engineered . Tapping into the aliens ' communications reveals a previously hidden , stealth " Overseer " UFO making rounds across the Earth . When the UFO is shot down , it is found to hold an alien species that had not been previously encountered , as well as a strange psionic artifact . The newly discovered species , called Ethereals , possess powerful psionic abilities .
Once the Overseer ship is shot down and the psionic artifact recovered , the massive enemy " Temple Ship " reveals itself in low Earth orbit and attacks the Earth , causing earthquakes even as far away as XCOM HQ . The reverse @-@ engineering efforts enable XCOM to unlock and develop latent psionic powers that are present in certain human beings , thus enhancing their human soldiers . Out of these psychic human soldiers , the most powerful becomes the Volunteer , using the psionic artifact recovered from the Overseer UFO to tap into the aliens ' psychic communication " hive " , an experience that also increases his or her psionic strength . This allows them to attack and board the Temple Ship to seek out the Uber Ethereal , the leader of the alien invasion .
During the final battle aboard the ship , the Uber Ethereal reveals that , because of their own failure to improve their own race further , they have been testing and experimenting on other species throughout the universe in an attempt to identify a race worthy of being " Uplifted " , searching for a race that is strong in both mind and body ; the various species of alien troops that the player has encountered have all been failures in the Ethereals ' experiments . By allowing humans to obtain their technology a few steps at a time , the Ethereals allowed humans to evolve to a fuller potential , and believe that humanity may be the culmination of their search , to find the perfect species to move on and prepare for " what lies ahead " , a vaguely worded destiny that they do not describe further .
After slaying the Uber Ethereal , the Temple Ship begins to collapse into a black hole , which would destroy the Earth due to its close proximity . While the psionically gifted Volunteer urges the other XCOM soldiers to rush back to their transport and escape the doomed ship , the Volunteer stays behind , using the psychic gift to take control of the ship and fly it further away from the planet , finally causing it to self @-@ destruct and save Earth , though at cost of [ what was thought to be ] the Volunteer 's own life . In 2014 , Jake Solomon , lead designer of XCOM , revealed that the Volunteer in fact did not die , and instead disappeared before the temple ship explodes .
= = Gameplay = =
Much like its predecessor , XCOM : Enemy Unknown casts the player as the commander of an elite military organization . As commander , the player directs their soldiers in turn @-@ based combat missions against alien enemies . Between missions , the player directs the organization 's research and engineering divisions in creating new technologies and improving XCOM 's base of operations , and manages the organization 's finances .
The turn @-@ based ground combat uses a top @-@ down 3D perspective . The player controls a squad of between one and six human soldiers or robotic units as they hunt the aliens on the map and attempt to complete other objectives dependent on the mission . Map layouts are not randomly generated , but enemy placement is . Fog of war hides the aliens and their actions from view until the player 's soldiers are in range and have line of sight on them , and enemies normally do not act at all until the squad initially comes within line of sight . Soldiers can carry items and perform special abilities ; use of these items and abilities is controlled through a toolbar on the head @-@ up display ( HUD ) . A few examples of abilities include firing on enemies automatically after they emerge , launching explosives , and healing allies .
Soldiers can take cover behind walls and objects in the environment to gain a measure of protection . Units can use suppressive fire to disadvantage enemies , and use active camouflage to maneuver around opponents . Cutscenes and dynamic camera movements emphasise particularly exciting gameplay moments , such as kill sequences and use of special abilities . The game includes some tactical role @-@ playing elements , whereby the player 's soldiers can gain new abilities as they survive more battles .
The game 's strategy element occurs between missions . XCOM 's underground headquarters is presented in a view dubbed the " ant farm " . From this view , the player manages construction , manufacturing and research projects underway , and directs how the scientists and engineers use resources recovered from missions and received from XCOM 's sponsors . A holographic view of the Earth called the " Geoscape " allows the player to keep track of the situation around the world , ordering aircraft to intercept UFOs and dispatching soldiers to engage aliens on the ground .
This also influences the panic level of XCOM 's member nations . Responding to situations in certain areas decreases panic , and ignoring them results in a rise in panic and potential for the nation to pull out of XCOM . The " ant farm " also allows the player to observe the team of soldiers relaxing or exercising at the base 's gym . A memorial wall to soldiers killed in action is also viewable . Passive bonuses are provided depending on which continent the player chooses for a base location . The player can better detect alien activity by launching satellites and positioning them over territories of interest .
The game can be played on higher difficulty levels : Classic ( in a reference to the original game ) and Impossible , each with the option to enable the " Ironman " option ( which limits players to a single save file ) separately for each . Jake Solomon , lead developer , stated on numerous occasions that he believes that the " truest XCOM experience " is playing without the ability to reload saved games . On the higher difficulty levels , the random nature of battles , where soldiers under the player 's command can permanently die from one enemy attack , the against @-@ all @-@ odds nature of combat against the unknown and technologically superior enemy , and the requirement to sacrifice some resources – including soldiers and even entire countries – for the greater good combine to create a bleak atmosphere where the player feels the weight of command .
The game also features a multiplayer mode for one @-@ on @-@ one tactical battles . Players spend a predefined points budget on assembling a squad of up to six humans , aliens , or a mixture of both . Human units are customizable in terms of weaponry , armor and gadgets . A simplified version of the single @-@ player perk system is also present . Alien units may not be customized but possess the abilities of corresponding aliens types in the single @-@ player mode of the game .
Psionic combat from the original 1994 game is retained , but some gameplay features of the original have been removed or adapted . The time units system , the always @-@ visible grid map and the inventory system of the original have been removed . The initial mission phase of disembarking from the transport has also been removed – missions now begin with troops deployed outside the craft . Unlike in the 1994 game , only one XCOM base exists , the location of which is chosen at the beginning of the game .
Although there are some differences in the interface between platforms , unlike other games such as Firaxis ' Civilization Revolution , the content is not simplified for the console versions . The PC version features a mouse @-@ driven UI and " the ability for modability " .
= = Development = =
The game went into development in early 2008 as a " very , very big budget " project with about 50 – 60 team members led by Jake Solomon . Its prototype was a straightforward remake of the original 1994 game UFO : Enemy Unknown with all the classic gameplay features . The game subsequently went through many revisions , and features were added , tested or removed to create the final result .
XCOM : Enemy Unknown was developed independently of 2K Marin 's XCOM ( later rebranded as The Bureau : XCOM Declassified ) , and although the two games are set in entirely different universes , the developers of both games were in contact with one another , As in the expansion Enemy Within , after researching Meld it says Dr. Vahlen discovered some records from the 60s which shows that maybe they were in the same universe . Enemy Unknown was also the first title developed by Firaxis Games not to feature the name of Sid Meier , who served as the director of creative development but was not directly involved in the game 's development day to day . The designers also made an internal board game to help get the " feel " of the game right .
The interface team was split into halves to develop separate GUIs for the PC and console releases . All members of the development team played and finished the original Enemy Unknown game – they were required to do so if they had not already when they joined the team . Roland Rizzo , who has been working with the X @-@ COM series since the beginning , became the audio lead for the game and was tasked with reimagining and updating John Broomhall 's famous original music score . Michael McCann , composer for Deus Ex : Human Revolution , was also involved in creating the game 's musical score . The Civilization series ' art director Greg Foertsch was given the task of reimagining the look of X @-@ COM , including redesigning the classic alien species . The aim was to have the characters resemble action figures , and the result was a stylized , bright , flat @-@ textured look .
= = Release = =
XCOM : Enemy Unknown was first revealed on January 5 , 2012 by Game Informer . A playable demo of the game was available at Electronic Entertainment Expo ( E3 ) in June 2012 . Pre @-@ order bonuses included the " Classic X @-@ COM Soldier " ( a haircut for the player 's male soldier based on the model for troops in the original 1994 X @-@ COM ) and the option to customize the aesthetic design of soldiers ' armor . Those pre @-@ ordering the PC version on Steam also received bonus items for Valve 's Team Fortress 2 and a free copy of Firaxis ' 2010 strategy game Civilization V. The game 's playable demo version was released on September 24 , 2012 for Steam , on October 9 for the Xbox Live ( available for the Gold subscribers of the Xbox Marketplace ) and on October 10 for the PlayStation Network .
Eight custom promotional XCOM : Enemy Unknown arcade cabinets were produced in August 2011 by 2K Games and Bespoke Arcades . The machines were used to run tournaments of the game at various exhibitions including i47 , London MCM Expo , Play Expo and Eurogamer Expo with the machines being awarded as prizes .
XCOM : Enemy Unknown was released in stores on October 9 , 2012 for North American consumers and on October 12 , 2012 for Australian and European consumers . The game was released for digital distribution via Steam on October 9 , 2012 . On PC , two editions were released : a normal edition and a special edition which includes a variety of unique items , including an art book , a fold @-@ out poster of the XCOM headquarters , an XCOM insignia patch , and a collection of digital bonus assets such as desktop wallpapers , soundtrack and more .
An " Elite Edition " , containing all previously released DLC , was announced as a Mac OS X exclusive by Feral Interactive on February 26 , 2013 and was released on April 25 , 2013 . An iOS port , scheduled to be released in the summer of 2013 , was announced during a PAX East panel on March 23 , 2013 . The game was released on June 20 , 2013 at the App Store for $ 19 @.@ 99 , at the time one of the most expensive iOS games ever released .
The game was available digitally between June 16 and June 30 , 2016 on the Xbox 360 as part of Xbox Live 's Games with Gold .
= = XCOM : Enemy Within = =
An expansion pack , XCOM : Enemy Within was announced to be released on November 15 , 2013 . Like the numerous expansions of the Civilization series the pack retains the core storyline but adds a broad variety of content , including new weapons , special missions and the ability to enhance soldiers via genetic engineering or cybernetic implants . Both options consume an elusive substance called " Meld " that can be obtained during battles .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
XCOM : Enemy Unknown greatly impressed the public and media at E3 2012 , where it won a number of awards from a variety of gaming publications , such as the title of " Best Strategy Game " from GameSpy , Game Informer , IGN , and Machinima . The game also won the titles " Best PC Game " and " Best Strategy Game " in the 2012 E3 Game Critics Awards .
A pre @-@ release version of XCOM : Enemy Unknown received highly positive previews by , among others , PlayStation Official Magazine , Official Xbox Magazine and Rock , Paper , Shotgun . The full version of the game also received a high praise from critics . Adam Biessener of Game Informer called it " a singular achievement that every gamer deserves to experience . " Ian Dransfield of PLAY called the game " a phenomenal reimagining of a classic title and an instant classic in its own right . " It was also described as " a hallmark of excellence " by Destructoid and " an exemplary turn @-@ based strategy game " by Joystiq .
Dan Stapleton of GameSpy wrote : " I consider the 1994 turn @-@ based tactical masterpiece X @-@ COM : UFO Defense to be the single best videogame ever made . Compared directly to that impossibly high standard , Firaxis ' 2012 remake , XCOM : Enemy Unknown , does remarkably well . " GamesTM called it " a worthy reboot of the franchise , easily the most addictive game this year , and one of our favourite Firaxis games ever , " with the final verdict of it being " fresh , yet authentic – a stunning reboot . " Josh Harmon of Electronic Gaming Monthly ( EGM ) stated that " to say that XCOM : Enemy Unknown is a phenomenal remake would be selling Firaxis ’ monumental accomplishment short . The developer hasn ’ t just managed to capture the spirit of the original ; they ’ ve also tweaked , trimmed , and innovated enough to deliver the freshest , most engaging strategy game in recent memory , if not ever . "
Eurogamer 's review by Rich Stanton described XCOM : Enemy Unknown as " a winner " and " a fantastic game " that " brings back and revitalises a classic . " Alex Rubens of G4 called it " an exceptionally solid return for the series , and one that every turn @-@ based tactics fan should experience , " adding that " even if you never played the original , XCOM : Enemy Unknown is turn @-@ based tactics and management at its finest , and a perfect introduction to the genre . "
David Houghton of Game Revolution said that despite its flaws , the game " feels like the revival of not just a brand , but a genre . " Polygon 's Russ Pitts criticized the " weird dichotomy " of the game 's strategy component , but praised the tactical gameplay , calling it " one of the best and most artfully designed strategy games in recent memory . " Edwin Evans @-@ Thirlwell of Official Xbox Magazine stated that it " isn 't just Xbox 360 's finest strategy experience – it 's also a strategy game which changes how you think about strategy games . "
The game 's difficulty received both praise and concern . G4 's review noted that " the extreme difficulty of the game might not be welcomed by all players " and Official Xbox Magazine described the game as " reliably unforgiving " . According to EGM , " XCOM hates you . XCOM wants you dead . And XCOM will see you dead , over and over again . " Game Informer called it " one of the most challenging , intense gaming experiences of this generation . " PLAY 's review stated , " dying is back in fashion . "
Several reviews also commented on how addictive the game can be for the player . David Houghton of PlayStation Official Magazine called XCOM " one of the most unique and endlessly compulsive games of the year so far . " Erik Kain of Forbes called it " one of the most addictive games I ’ ve ever played " that " falls somewhere between chocolate and crack on the scale of addictive substances . " Allistair Pinsof of Destructoid , in pointing out how easily one could be absorbed in the game , told readers to " take the act of me wiping XCOM from my hard drive as high praise . It speaks volumes on how addictive and replayable XCOM is . "
In a retrospective article about the original from 1994 , Alec Meer of Eurogamer compared both games , coming to conclusion that " X @-@ COM and XCOM are completely different games , both ingenious and both flawed in their own ways . " According to Chris Schilling of VideoGamer.com , " Enemy Unknown is respectful of Julian Gollop 's 1994 turn @-@ based strategy classic , but it 's not reverential . " Charlie Hall of Ars Technica wrote that " in the end , this is not the X @-@ Com that everyone was expecting . It ’ s more . It ’ s better . If you ’ re merely looking for a highly competent re @-@ skin of the original X @-@ Com , keep your eyes peeled for the upcoming Xenonauts . " Gollop himself said :
" I think Firaxis did a terrific job with the new XCOM . They have made a very console friendly and accessible game , but it still has a lot of strategic and tactical depth . The character progression is done very well , and the tactical combat system is great . I would have done things differently for sure . I was a bit disappointed that the Geoscape is basically irrelevant , with no strategy involved about positioning of bases , detection ranges , base attacks and so on . It is also a shame that there is no random map generation . The development of the alien menace seems to be driven by specific events , such as the first alien base assault , rather than the aliens own development agenda as in the original X @-@ Com . "
= = = Awards = = =
Multiple publications including Giant Bomb , Kotaku , MTV and GameTrailers gave XCOM : Enemy Unknown their overall Game of the Year award for 2012 . GameSpy also gave XCOM its Game of the Year award ( " Achievements : Game of the Year , High Tension , Making Turn @-@ Based Cool Again " ) , commenting that " few games can deliver the thrill of victory and the agony of defeat in the way that XCOM does . "
XCOM : Enemy Unknown was chosen by the 2012 Spike TV Video Game Awards as a nominee in the category Best PC Game . At the 16th Annual D.I.C.E. Awards , it was nominated for three awards , including Game of the Year , and ended up winning two for 2012 's Strategy / Simulation Game of the Year and Outstanding Achievement in Gameplay Engineering . Awarding the game its title of Strategy Game of the Year , PC Gamer wrote it can be " forging player memories that ’ ll live as long as you play and care about games . "
= = Sequel = =
A sequel to XCOM : Enemy Unknown , XCOM 2 , was released on February 5 , 2016 . It was developed by Firaxis Games and was released on Microsoft Windows , OS X and Linux . At release it was a PC only game . The game takes place 20 years after the events of Enemy Unknown , with the aliens having taken over the human race . It is implied that the events of XCOM : Enemy Unknown were mostly tactical simulations being run inside the Commander 's brain after his capture by the aliens following a very early defeat of the XCOM Project . The player controls a small resistance movement fighting against the alien conquerors .
= Wah @-@ Wah ( song ) =
" Wah @-@ Wah " is a song by English musician George Harrison , released on his 1970 triple album All Things Must Pass . Harrison wrote the song following his temporary departure from the Beatles in January 1969 , during the troubled Get Back sessions that resulted in their Let It Be album and film . The lyrics reflect his frustration with the atmosphere in the group at that time – namely , Paul McCartney 's over @-@ assertiveness and criticism of his guitar playing , John Lennon 's lack of engagement with the project and dismissal of Harrison as a songwriter , and Yoko Ono 's constant involvement in the band 's activities . Music critics and biographers recognise the song as Harrison 's statement of personal and artistic freedom from the Beatles . Its creation contrasted sharply with his rewarding collaborations outside the group in the months before the Get Back project , particularly with Bob Dylan and the Band in upstate New York .
Recorded shortly after the Beatles ' break @-@ up in 1970 , " Wah @-@ Wah " was the first track taped for All Things Must Pass . The recording features a dense production treatment from Phil Spector and backing from a large cast of musicians including Eric Clapton , Ringo Starr , Billy Preston , Bobby Keys and the band Badfinger . On release , Rolling Stone magazine described it as " a grand cacophony of sound in which horns sound like guitars and vice versa " . While several reviewers find the heavy production appropriate for the song , Harrison considered the recording overproduced and the sound too cluttered .
" Wah @-@ Wah " was the first song Harrison played live as a solo artist when he performed it as his opener for the Western @-@ music portion of the Concert for Bangladesh , in August 1971 . Viewed by some commentators as superior to the studio recording , this version re @-@ created Spector 's Wall of Sound treatment in a live setting , using many of the participants from the 1970 album sessions . At the Concert for George in November 2002 , a year after Harrison 's death , " Wah @-@ Wah " was performed by an all @-@ star band that included Clapton , Jeff Lynne , Starr and McCartney . Ocean Colour Scene , Buffalo Tom , Beck and the Tedeschi Trucks Band are among the other artists who have covered the song .
= = Background = =
= = = October – December 1968 US visit = = =
When discussing the song " Wah @-@ Wah " and George Harrison 's temporary departure from the Beatles in January 1969 , several commentators note the importance of his recent two @-@ month visit to America , which followed the completion of the band 's 1968 double album The Beatles , commonly known as the White Album . In Los Angeles , where he was producing a Jackie Lomax solo album for the Beatles ' Apple record label , Harrison directed top session players such as Hal Blaine and Larry Knechtel , and met two American musicians with whom he would soon collaborate in London , Delaney Bramlett and Leon Russell . Later in the US trip , Harrison stayed in upstate New York , where he established a musical bond with Bob Dylan and thrived among what author Simon Leng calls the " group ethic and camaraderie " of the Band . Throughout this period , Harrison continued to bloom as a songwriter , having contributed four songs to The Beatles that , in the words of author Nicholas Schaffner , " firmly established him as a contender " beside bandmates John Lennon and Paul McCartney . In addition , he had recently co @-@ written Cream 's single " Badge " with Eric Clapton , as well as collaborating with Dylan in Bearsville .
= = = January 1969 at Twickenham Film Studios = = =
Harrison later recalled his two months in the United States as having been " such a good time " , yet " the moment I got back with the Beatles [ for their Get Back film project ] , it was just too difficult " . These difficulties included having to endure McCartney 's habit of dictating how the others should play their instruments and Lennon 's increasing withdrawal from the band and emotional dependence on his ever @-@ present partner , Yoko Ono . The couple had recently descended into heroin addiction , leaving Lennon , in author Peter Doggett 's words , " emotionally removed and artistically bankrupt " . In their study of the Get Back project , Doug Sulpy and Ray Schweighardt write that , as another frustration for Harrison , Lennon and McCartney regularly overlooked his compositions , even when they were " far better than their own " .
On 6 January 1969 , the band 's third day at Twickenham Film Studios , in south @-@ west London , an argument was captured on film where McCartney criticised Harrison 's guitar playing on the song " Two of Us " . A resigned Harrison told him : " I 'll play what you want me to play , or I won 't play at all if you don 't want me to play . " With the sessions being recorded by film director Michael Lindsay @-@ Hogg , tapes reveal Beatles associates Neil Aspinall and George Martin sympathising with Harrison 's position , recognising that McCartney and Lennon " don 't offer him enough freedom within their compositions " . Ringo Starr , who had quit the band briefly during the White Album sessions , partly as a result of McCartney 's hectoring of his drumming , recalled of Harrison 's refusal to be " dominated " by McCartney any longer : " Paul [ typically ] wanted to point out the solo to George , who would say , ' Look , I 'm a guitarist . I 'll play the solo . ' And he always did , he always played fine solos . "
Over the first three days at Twickenham , Harrison had presented new compositions such as " All Things Must Pass " , " Let It Down " and " Hear Me Lord " for consideration ; these and other " numerous beautiful songs " , music journalist Martin O 'Gorman writes , " received derision and disinterest from Lennon or heavy @-@ handed interference from McCartney " . On 8 January , Harrison debuted " I Me Mine " , a song inspired by the bickering and negativity within the band . It was met with ridicule by Lennon and an argument ensued between the two musicians , during which Lennon dismissed Harrison 's abilities as a songwriter . According to Sulpy and Schweighardt , Lennon 's resentment was most likely a reaction to Harrison 's productivity throughout the sessions , since he himself was " unable to write a decent new song " . In addition , Harrison had been alone in voicing his objections to Ono 's presence , telling the couple how , in Lennon 's later recollection , " Dylan and a few people said she 's got a lousy name in New York " .
On Friday , 10 January , a more severe argument took place in which Harrison berated Lennon for contributing nothing positive to the rehearsals . During the lunch break , Harrison walked out of the Beatles , saying that the others should advertise in the NME for his replacement . He then drove to his home , Kinfauns , in Surrey , and wrote " Wah @-@ Wah " that same afternoon . Despite the animosity between himself and Lennon on the day he quit the group , Harrison later confirmed a suggestion made by music journalist Timothy White that , just like Lennon 's " How Do You Sleep ? " and " Crippled Inside " , the song was a " swipe " at McCartney .
= = = Harrison 's return to the Beatles = = =
Harrison 's diary records that Lennon and Ono " diverted " him at home over breakfast the following morning , but even after a subsequent band meeting at Starr 's house , author Barry Miles writes , their " feud " remained " intractable " . At the meeting , much to Harrison 's annoyance , Lennon once more chose to have Ono speak on his behalf . Harrison then went to his parents ' home in Warrington for a few days before imposing terms for his return to the band – namely , that McCartney 's plans for a live concert be abandoned and the project be relocated to the Beatles ' own Apple Studio , at London 's Savile Row . Commentators have remarked on a change in Harrison 's standing within the band as a result of his walkout , and later in 1969 , Lennon and McCartney would be speaking admiringly of Harrison 's growth as a songwriter . In an article for Mojo magazine 's July 2001 " Solo Beatles Special " , John Harris wrote that although Harrison " nominally " remained a Beatle , he was " serving out his notice " after 10 January 1969 .
= = Composition = =
In his autobiography , I , Me , Mine , Harrison explains that the song title was a reference to " a ' headache ' as well as a footpedal " , the wah @-@ wah pedal being a guitar effect that he favoured for much of the early Get Back sessions . The message of the song , according to Harrison , was : " you 're giving me a bloody headache . " Leng identifies " Wah @-@ Wah " as being directed at the " artifice " and " pretense " surrounding the Beatles .
The song is based around an electric guitar riff that Leng describes as " snarling " . Written in the key of E , the tune incorporates chord changes that musicologist Wilfrid Mellers once admired as " audacious " ; musically , Harrison biographer Elliot Huntley suggests , the composition mirrors the " intense atmosphere " at Twickenham in January 1969 . Referring to the released recording , author Ian Inglis views " Wah @-@ Wah " as a hard rock song where the " forceful rhythm " conveys " the momentum of [ Harrison 's ] anger " .
Like " Run of the Mill " , which Harrison also wrote in early 1969 , the lyrics touch on the failure of friendships within the band , which in the case of Harrison , McCartney and Lennon dated back to school years . Harrison later spoke of their familiarity with one another resulting in McCartney , especially , failing to recognise his artistic growth ; in I , Me , Mine , he refers to " Wah @-@ Wah " as reflecting " that concept of how everybody sees and treats everybody else , allowing no consideration for the fact that we are changing all the time " .
The second verse reflects Harrison 's frustration at being viewed by Lennon and McCartney as subservient to their ambitions , just as his 1968 composition " Not Guilty " had found Harrison defending himself for supposedly leading his fellow Beatles " astray " to the Maharishi 's meditation retreat in India . In " Wah @-@ Wah " , he states sarcastically :
You 've made me such a big star
Being there at the right time
Cheaper than a dime ...
Over the song 's two middle eights , Harrison laments that his bandmates never take the time to notice his sorrow or " hear me sighing " .
Religious academic Joshua Greene has written of Harrison being " too sure of his life 's higher purpose " by January 1969 , through his dedication to Hindu spirituality , to continue devoting time to the group 's " petty squabbles " . In the song 's final verse , Harrison provides what AllMusic critic Bill Janovitz terms a " simple , spiritual sentiment " , which serves as a statement of his independence from the Beatles :
Now I don 't need no wah @-@ wah
And I know how sweet life can be
If I keep myself free …
" Wah @-@ Wah " was never offered to the Beatles once Harrison joined the proceedings at Apple Studio . The choice of Harrison songs that would end up on the Let It Be album in May 1970 – " I Me Mine " and " For You Blue " – has led some authors to speculate that he deliberately withdrew his higher @-@ quality compositions rather than risk having them played without the attention they deserved . Leng lists " Wah @-@ Wah " among a number of solo Beatles songs that are " self @-@ referential " in their lyrical theme and serve as episodes in what he calls " the Beatles soap opera " . Harrison 's bitterness at the restrictions imposed on him during the Beatles years resurfaced explicitly in " Who Can See It " , a song written in 1972 .
= = Recording = =
McCartney 's refusal to have the release of his eponymous first solo album delayed until after Let It Be led to him announcing his departure from the band on 9 April 1970 , and to Harrison finally deciding to make an album of his many unused songs from the Beatles ' later years . He subsequently described the process of recording his songs with outside musicians as " a breath of fresh air " . Shortly before starting work on the album , Harrison gave a radio interview to Village Voice reporter Howard Smith , and explained that , although he had some ideological differences with Lennon , his objection to any possible Beatles reunion was based solely on his musical differences with McCartney .
In the same 1970 radio interview , Harrison announced that he would be co @-@ producing the album with Phil Spector , whose work on the Let It Be album had recently enraged McCartney . " Wah @-@ Wah " was the first song taped for All Things Must Pass , recording for which began at Abbey Road Studios in late May that year . In keeping with Spector 's signature production style , a large group of musicians took part in the sessions . According to Leng and author Bruce Spizer , the musicians on the track were : Harrison and Eric Clapton on electric guitars , three members of Badfinger on acoustic rhythm guitars , Billy Preston and Gary Wright on keyboards , the former Delaney & Bonnie horn section of Jim Price and Bobby Keys , bassist Klaus Voormann , Starr on drums , and Badfinger 's Mike Gibbins playing tambourine . While Leng consulted Voormann , Badfinger 's Joey Molland and orchestral arranger John Barham for his chapter discussing the recording of All Things Must Pass , Bobby Whitlock , another former sideman with Delaney & Bonnie , has stated that he played electric piano on " Wah @-@ Wah " . Whitlock recalls that , having arrived at the session late due to traffic , and finding that the other musicians were all playing on the downbeat on the song , he was left to play alone in the obvious " open spot " – on the upbeat .
Speaking in 2000 about this first session , Harrison said that the music sounded " really nice " in the room , " with all these nice acoustics and piano , and no echo on anything " , but he was shocked during the playback when he heard how Spector had recorded the track . In Leng 's words , Spector " [ unleashed ] his full armory of reverb @-@ flooded production values " on " Wah @-@ Wah " . Harrison dismissed the result as " horrible " , and recalled that when Clapton said he liked the way it sounded , he replied , " Well , you can have it on your album , then . " Although Harrison said " I grew to like it " , he subsequently reverted to his original opinion that the song , like much of All Things Must Pass , was overproduced . Overdubs on many of the album 's basic tracks were carried out at either Abbey Road or Trident Studios , without Spector 's assistance , and completed by 12 August . After receiving Harrison 's initial mixes , Spector wrote back with suggestions for each song ; in the case of " Wah @-@ Wah " , these included the addition of a saxophone solo by Keys , and backing vocals . As well as overdubbing his slide guitar solos , Harrison sang all the various vocal parts , crediting himself as " the George O 'Hara @-@ Smith Singers " on the album sleeve .
The recording begins with Harrison 's guitar riff , which is then joined by Clapton 's guitar , played through a wah @-@ wah pedal . Leng suggests that the musical arrangement was influenced by the Delaney & Bonnie song " Comin ' Home " , following Clapton and Harrison 's guest roles on the band 's European tour in December 1969 . " Wah @-@ Wah " also features prominent percussion , including uncredited maracas and congas , and , in Leng 's description , a " rollicking horn chart " from Price that helps define the middle @-@ eight sections . Adding to the musical tension , Janovitz notes , Harrison sings high in his range throughout , " almost drowned out " by Spector 's Wall of Sound , which sees keyboards , horns and the many guitar parts competing for space in the mix . The song fades out on the single @-@ chord main riff , accompanied by the sound of a car engine changing gear .
= = Release = =
Apple Records issued All Things Must Pass on 27 November 1970 with " Wah @-@ Wah " sequenced as the third track , between " My Sweet Lord " and " Isn 't It a Pity " . Despite its unusually high retail price , as one of rock music 's first studio triple LP sets , the album was a significant commercial success worldwide , and comfortably outperformed Lennon and McCartney 's respective solo releases over 1970 – 71 . Music journalist Anthony DeCurtis later wrote of the album representing " [ the ] bracing air of creative liberation " for Harrison .
Like " Isn 't It a Pity " , the song " All Things Must Pass " , and Barry Feinstein 's cover photo of Harrison surrounded by four comical @-@ looking garden gnomes , " Wah @-@ Wah " was recognised as a comment by Harrison on his Beatle past . In February 1971 , he , Lennon and Starr united in the British high court to challenge McCartney 's suit to dissolve the band 's legal partnership , all three of them submitting affidavits that mentioned their difficult experiences of working with him , particularly during the Get Back sessions . In the context of this post @-@ breakup unity , " Wah @
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her 240 @-@ millimeter guns was increased which extended their range to 18 @,@ 000 meters ( 20 @,@ 000 yd ) .
= = Career and construction = =
The ship was named after Honoré Riqueti , comte de Mirabeau , an early leader of the French Revolution . Construction of Mirabeau began on 8 May 1906 by the Arsenal de Lorient and the ship was laid down on 4 May 1908 . She was launched on 28 October 1909 and was completed on 1 August 1911 . Mirabeau , together with four of her sisters , participated in a large naval review by the President of France , Armand Fallières , off Cap Brun on 4 September 1911 . The ship was assigned to the Second Division of the First Squadron ( escadre ) of the Mediterranean Fleet when she was commissioned . The ship participated in combined fleet maneuvers between Provence and Tunisia in May – June 1913 and the subsequent naval review conducted by the President of the Council , Raymond Poincaré , on 7 June 1913 . Afterwards , Mirabeau joined her squadron in its tour of the Eastern Mediterranean in October – December 1913 , making port visits in Egypt , Syria , and Greece , and participated in the grand fleet exercise in the Western Mediterranean in May 1914 .
= = = World War I = = =
In August 1914 , the ship was being refitted at Toulon . During 1915 – 16 , the ship participated in the distant blockade of the Straits of Otranto while based in Corfu , Malta , and Bizerte . In November 1916 , she transported landing parties from the other ships of her division to Athens . In the Noemvriana , on 1 December 1916 , those landing parties , formed into a provisional battalion , participated in the Allied attempt to ensure Greek acquiescence to Allied operations in Macedonia . Greek resistance to the Allied action ended after Mirabeau fired four rounds from her main armament into the city , one of which landed near the Royal Palace . Afterwards , she spent 1917 based at Corfu or at Mudros to prevent the German battlecruiser SMS Goeben from breaking out into the Mediterranean . In April 1918 , Mirabeau accompanied her sisters Diderot and Vergniaud to Mudros where they remained for the rest of the war .
= = = Postwar = = =
After the Armistice of Mudros was signed on 30 October between the Allies and the Ottoman Empire , the ship participated in the early stage of the occupation of Constantinople from 12 November to 18 December . At the very end of the year , she was deployed to the Black Sea to support White Russian forces in Sevastopol and deter Soviet forces who were advancing on the city during the Russian Civil War . Mirabeau ran aground during a snowstorm on 18 February 1919 off the Crimean coast . She could not be refloated until her forward 305 @-@ millimeter ( 12 in ) gun turret , its barbette and her forward belt armor was removed . The ship was towed to Toulon by the battleship Justice in April . Mirabeau was subsequently used as an accommodation hulk until she was condemned on 27 October 1921 . She was later scrapped in 1928 .
= 1999 Baltimore Orioles – Cuban national baseball team exhibition series =
The 1999 Baltimore Orioles – Cuban national baseball team exhibition series consisted of two exhibition games played between the Baltimore Orioles of Major League Baseball ( MLB ) and the Cuban national baseball team on March 28 and May 3 , 1999 . The first game took place in Havana , while the second was held in Baltimore . This series marked the first time that the Cuban national team had faced a squad composed solely of major league players and the first time an MLB team played in Cuba since 1959 .
Fidel Castro overthrew American ally Fulgencio Batista in the Cuban Revolution and established a Communist government in 1959 . Castro broke off diplomatic relations with the United States . The United States instituted an embargo against Cuba in an attempt to weaken Castro 's regime . MLB stopped holding exhibitions in Cuba .
In the 1990s , Orioles ' owner Peter Angelos lobbied the United States Government to gain permission to hold this series for three years . Various politicians , including members of the United States House of Representatives , opposed the idea and attempted to block the series . Eventually , Angelos secured the approval in 1999 , after a change in United States foreign policy to Cuba under President Bill Clinton , which eased travel restrictions and increased cultural exchange .
The Orioles won the first game , which was held in Havana , by a score of 3 – 2 in extra innings . The Cuban national team defeated the Orioles 12 – 6 in the second game , which was held in Baltimore . The series introduced José Contreras to the American baseball audience ; Contreras defected from Cuba in 2002 to pitch in MLB . The United States and Cuba now compete with each other and other nations in the World Baseball Classic .
= = Background = =
The Cuban Revolution led to the overthrow of Fulgencio Batista , an ally of the United States , in 1959 . Fidel Castro severed Cuba 's formerly strong ties with the United States . The United States soon instituted a embargo against Cuba , which has made it illegal for United States corporations to enter into business with Cuba . The Baltimore Orioles , who were slated to hold an 1960 exhibition series against the Cincinnati Reds in Havana , moved the games to Miami , Florida .
No Major League Baseball ( MLB ) team had played in Cuba since March 21 , 1959 . Castro made attempts to lure American baseball teams back to Cuba to no avail . In the 1970s , George McGovern , a United States Senator , pushed the idea of an exchange of MLB and college basketball teams as a way to bridge the impasse between the two governments , similar to the ping @-@ pong diplomacy that aided US @-@ China relations ; however , this was blocked by the United States Department of State .
In the 1980s , Scott Armstrong attempted to convince Edward Bennett Williams , then the owner of the Baltimore Orioles , to play a game of Cuban All @-@ Stars against his Orioles . Williams declined , as he had a position on an advisory board in the Reagan Administration , which opposed having any business with Cuba . Armstrong discussed the idea with MLB Commissioner Bart Giamatti and MLB Players Association ( MLBPA ) chair Donald Fehr . Though Giamatti was interested , he died before he could pursue the idea . Fehr visited Cuba during the 1994 @-@ 95 MLB strike , but could not secure an antitrust exemption .
In 1996 , Peter Angelos , the new owner of the Orioles , met with Armstrong and Saul Landau , who convinced him to pursue an exhibition series between his Orioles and the Cuban national baseball team . Angelos petitioned the United States Government to permit a series . United States Representative Ileana Ros @-@ Lehtinen wrote to the State Department , asking that the series be prevented . The United States Department of the Treasury denied Angelos ' request on the grounds that American money may not be spent in Cuba under the Trading with the Enemy Act of 1917 .
In January 1999 , President Bill Clinton eased travel restrictions and increased cultural exchange between the United States and Cuba , leading Angelos to again seek permission to play an exhibition game in Cuba . Angelos met with Sandy Berger , Clinton 's National Security Advisor , to discuss a potential exhibition . Bud Selig , the MLB Commissioner , allowed for the exploration of the series , though it still required the approval of MLB owners and the MLBPA . The MLBPA insisted on a second game to be held in the United States . A contingent of United States Representatives , including Ros @-@ Lehtinen , Robert Menendez , Dan Burton , Lincoln Diaz @-@ Balart , and Rick Lazio , lobbied Fehr to try to block the series .
Ongoing negotiations through March yielded an agreement on March 7 , 1999 , over the objections of the State Department . The proceeds of the series were a major sticking point in negotiations , as it violated the United States embargo against Cuba . Instead of going to the Cuban Government , it was agreed that proceeds would fund baseball programs in Cuba .
The series created a good deal of criticism , especially among the Cuban American community . MLB umpire Rich Garcia , who is of Cuban descent , opposed the series . MLB umpires filed a grievance against MLB attempting to block them from being sent to umpire the game in Cuba , and refused to officiate the game in Baltimore . Rafael Palmeiro , an Oriole player of Cuban descent , also opposed the series and did not make the trip to Cuba . The Cuban American National Foundation protested the series .
= = Games = =
= = = Game one = = =
Game one took place at Estadio Latinoamericano in Havana , Cuba , on March 28 , 1999 . Tickets were distributed by invitation only . Angelos , Selig , and Castro sat together in box seats . One hundred schoolchildren from the Baltimore and Washington , D.C. area also traveled to Cuba on a plane chartered by Angelos . Before the game , players and coaches on both teams engated in a flag ceremony . Castro greeted the Orioles on the field , and gave his Cuban team a pep talk . Cuban baseball legend Conrado Marrero threw out the first pitch .
Orioles ' starting pitcher Scott Erickson allowed one run on five hits in seven innings pitched . Cuban starter José Ibar allowed a home run to Charles Johnson and was relieved in the third inning by José Contreras . Contreras pitched eight innings without allowing a run . Orioles ' manager Dave Miller brought in his closer , Mike Timlin , in the eighth inning . This backfired , as Omar Linares tied the game for Cuba with a run batted in single .
Tied after nine innings , the game went into extra innings . Cuba had two runners on base in the 10th inning , but Mike Fetters retired Cuba without allowing a run . The Orioles won the game when Harold Baines hit a single off of Pedro Luis Lazo that scored Will Clark with the go @-@ ahead run in the top of the 11th inning . Jesse Orosco recorded the final three outs in the bottom of the 11th , as the Orioles won by a score of 3 – 2 .
Line score
Box score
= = = Game two = = =
The second game was held at Oriole Park at Camden Yards in Baltimore on May 3 , 1999 , in front of 47 @,@ 940 fans . By May 3 , the Orioles had a 7 – 17 win @-@ loss record in the 1999 MLB season . The Cuban national team , meanwhile , was stronger than during the first game , as the 1998 – 99 Cuban National Series had concluded and players who were not available for the first game of the exhibition joined the Cuban team . A 300 @-@ person delegation accompanied the Cuban team , including members of the Cuban media , students , and retired players . MLB requested the Federal Aviation Administration clear the airspace above Camden Yards for the game , in response to an attempt by a Miami @-@ based pilot and veteran of the Bay of Pigs invasion , to drop anti @-@ Castro leaflets over Estadio Latinoamericano during the first game .
The start of the game was delayed by rain for 56 minutes . The game was further interrupted by protesters , one of whom ran onto the field during the fifth inning and had to be thrown to the ground by César Valdez , a Cuban umpire . Contreras started the game for Cuba , and he allowed a two @-@ run double by Baines in the first inning . Orioles ' starting pitcher Scott Kamieniecki , who was on the MLB disabled list at the time , allowed four runs in the second inning to give Cuba the lead .
Norge Luis Vera entered the game for Cuba in the third inning and pitched 6 2 ⁄ 3 innings in relief without allowing a hit , retiring 20 of the first 22 batters he faced . His hitless streak ended when he allowed a home run to Delino DeShields in the ninth inning . Gabe Molina , who had made his MLB debut on May 1 , allowed Cuba to score five runs in the ninth inning , including a three @-@ run home run hit by Andy Morales . The Cuban national team defeated the Orioles 12 – 6 .
Danel Castro batted 4 @-@ for @-@ 5 for Cuba , including a two run batted in ( RBI ) triple , and scored four runs . Calvin Pickering , a rookie first baseman for the Orioles who had been promoted from the minor leagues the day prior , committed three errors .
Linescore
Box score
= = Aftermath = =
Rigoberto Herrera , a member of the Cuban national team who had retired and accompanied the team from Cuba as a guest , defected to the United States during the visit . Though six retired players overslept the day after the game in Baltimore and missed their flight back to Cuba , no other members of the delegation defected .
To discourage defections during the exhibition in Baltimore , Cuba maintained strict security around their young players , not allowing sports agents to speak with them . Though no active Cuban players defected during the trip to Baltimore , members of the Cuban national team did defect in the years following the series . Andy Morales defected in 2000 . Contreras , who was considered Cuba 's best pitcher , gained international fame after the series and defected from Cuba in 2002 . Nelson Díaz , a Cuban umpire who officiated the game in Baltimore , defected from Cuba to the United States in 2009 .
MLB and the Major League Umpires Association engaged in a dispute regarding the amount of pay owed to umpires for officiating the game that took place in Baltimore . This was one factor that led to the mass resignation of MLB umpires that took place on September 2 , 1999 .
In 2000 , Syd Thrift , the Orioles ' general manager , told The Washington Times that the team had a practice of not signing players who had defected from Cuba , which he attributed to Angelos ' desire to avoid doing " anything that could be interpreted as being disrespectful or ... encouraging players to defect " . Investigations by Major League Baseball and the United States Department of Justice did not find evidence that the absence of Cuban players on the Orioles ' roster or in its minor league system was due to discrimination .
The Cuban national team next played in the United States during the 2006 World Baseball Classic ( WBC ) . President George W. Bush attempted to prevent the Cuban team from participating in the tournament , but other nations promised to withdraw if Cuba was barred . The next American team to travel to Cuba were the Tampa Bay Rays , who will play an exhibition against the Cuban national team in March 2016 .
= History of Gibraltar =
The history of Gibraltar , a small peninsula on the southern Iberian coast near the entrance of the Mediterranean Sea , spans over 2 @,@ 900 years . The peninsula has evolved from a place of reverence in ancient times into " one of the most densely fortified and fought @-@ over places in Europe " , as one historian has put it . Gibraltar 's location has given it an outsized significance in the history of Europe and its fortified town , established in medieval times , has hosted garrisons that sustained numerous sieges and battles over the centuries .
Gibraltar was first inhabited over 50 @,@ 000 years ago by Neanderthals and may have been one of their last places of habitation before they died out around 24 @,@ 000 years ago . Gibraltar 's recorded history began around 950 BC with the Phoenicians , who lived nearby . The Carthaginians and Romans later worshipped Hercules in shrines said to have been built on the Rock of Gibraltar , which they called Mons Calpe , the " Hollow Mountain " , and which they regarded as one of the twin Pillars of Hercules .
Gibraltar became part of the Visigothic Kingdom of Hispania following the collapse of the Roman Empire and came under Muslim Moorish rule in 711 AD . It was permanently settled for the first time by the Moors and was renamed Jebel Tariq – the Mount of Tariq , later corrupted into Gibraltar . The Christian Kingdom of Castile annexed it in 1309 , lost it again to the Moors in 1333 and finally regained it in 1462 . Gibraltar became part of the unified Kingdom of Spain and remained under Spanish rule until 1704 . It was captured during the War of the Spanish Succession by an Anglo @-@ Dutch fleet in the name of Charles VI of Austria , the Habsburg contender to the Spanish throne . At the war 's end , Spain ceded the territory to Britain under the terms of the Treaty of Utrecht of 1713 .
Spain tried to regain control of Gibraltar , which Britain had declared a Crown colony , through military , diplomatic and economic pressure . Gibraltar was besieged and heavily bombarded during three wars between Britain and Spain but the attacks were repulsed on each occasion . By the end of the last siege , in the late 18th century , Gibraltar had faced fourteen sieges in 500 years . In the years after Trafalgar , Gibraltar became a major base in the Peninsular War . The colony grew rapidly during the 19th and early 20th centuries , becoming one of Britain 's most important possessions in the Mediterranean . It was a key stopping point for vessels en route to India via the Suez Canal . A large British naval base was constructed there at great expense at the end of the 19th century and became the backbone of Gibraltar 's economy .
British control of Gibraltar enabled the Allies to control the entrance to the Mediterranean during the Second World War . It was attacked on several occasions by German , Italian and Vichy French forces , though without causing much damage . The Spanish dictator General Francisco Franco declined to join a Nazi plan to occupy Gibraltar but revived Spain 's claim to the territory after the war . As the territorial dispute intensified , Spain closed its border with Gibraltar between 1969 and 1985 and communications links were severed . Spain 's position was supported by Latin American countries but was rejected by Britain and the Gibraltarians themselves , who vigorously asserted their right to self @-@ determination . Discussions of Gibraltar 's status have continued between Britain and Spain but have not reached any conclusion .
Since 1985 , Gibraltar has undergone major changes as a result of reductions in Britain 's overseas defence commitments . Most British forces have left the territory , which is no longer seen as a place of major military importance . Its economy is now based on tourism , financial services , shipping and Internet gambling . Gibraltar is largely self @-@ governed , with its own parliament and government , though the UK maintains responsibility for defence and foreign policy . Its economic success has made it one of the wealthiest areas of the European Union .
= = Geographical background = =
The history of Gibraltar has been driven by its strategic position near the entrance of the Mediterranean Sea . It is a narrow peninsula at the eastern side of the Bay of Gibraltar , 6 kilometres ( 4 mi ) from the city of Algeciras . Gibraltar is on the far south coast of Spain at one of the narrowest points in the Mediterranean , only 24 kilometres ( 15 mi ) from the coast of Morocco in North Africa . Its position on the bay makes it an advantageous natural anchorage for ships . As one writer has put it , " whoever controls Gibraltar also controls the movement of ships into and out of the Mediterranean . In terms of military and naval power , few places have a more strategic location than Gibraltar . "
The territory 's area measures only 6 @.@ 7 square kilometres ( 2 @.@ 6 sq mi ) . Most of the land area is occupied by the steeply sloping Rock of Gibraltar which reaches a height of 426 metres ( 1 @,@ 398 ft ) . The town of Gibraltar lies at the base of the Rock on the west side of the peninsula . A narrow , low @-@ lying isthmus connects the peninsula to the Spanish mainland . The North Face of the Rock is a nearly vertical cliff 396 metres ( 1 @,@ 299 ft ) high overlooking the isthmus ; the only land access to the town is via a coastal strip about 350 metres ( 1 @,@ 150 ft ) wide , which was considerably narrower before the reclamation of land from the sea during the 20th century .
Gibraltar 's geography has thus given it considerable natural defensive advantages . It is virtually impossible to scale the eastern or northern sides of the Rock , which are either vertical or nearly so . To the south , the relatively flat area around Europa Point is surrounded by cliffs which are up to 30 metres ( 98 ft ) high . The western side is the only practicable area for a landing , but even here the steep slopes on which the town is built work to the advantage of a defender . These factors have given it an enormous military significance over the centuries .
= = Prehistory and ancient history = =
Gibraltar 's appearance in prehistory was very different . Whereas today it is surrounded by sea , the water level was much lower in prehistoric times , when the polar ice caps were larger . The current peninsula was surrounded by a fertile coastal plain , with marshes and sand dunes supporting an abundant variety of animals and plants .
Neanderthals are known to have lived in caves around the Rock of Gibraltar ; in 1848 the first known adult Neanderthal skull , and only the second Neanderthal fossil ever found , was excavated at Forbes ' Quarry on the north face of the Rock . Had the skull been recognised for what it was , the species might have been named Gibraltarians rather than Neanderthals . The date of the skull is unclear but it has been attributed to around the start of the last glacial period about 50 @,@ 000 years ago .
More Neanderthal remains have been found elsewhere on the Rock at Devil 's Tower and in Ibex , Vanguard and Gorham 's Caves on the east side of Gibraltar . Excavations in Gorham 's Cave have found evidence of Neanderthal occupation dated as recently as 28 @,@ 000 – 24 @,@ 000 years ago , well after they were believed to have died out elsewhere in Europe . The caves of Gibraltar continued to be used by Homo sapiens after the final extinction of the Neanderthals . Stone tools , ancient hearths and animal bones dating from around 40 @,@ 000 years ago to about 5 @,@ 000 years ago have been found in deposits left in Gorham 's Cave . Numerous potsherds dating from the Neolithic period have been found in Gibraltar 's caves , mostly of types typical of the Almerian culture found elsewhere in Andalusia , especially around the town of Almería , from which it takes its name . There is little evidence of habitation in the Bronze Age , when people had largely abandoned the tradition of living in caves .
During ancient times , Gibraltar was regarded by the peoples of the Mediterranean as a place of religious and symbolic importance . The Phoenicians were present for several centuries , apparently using Gorham 's Cave as a shrine to the genius loci of the place , as did the Carthaginians and Romans after them . Excavations in the cave have shown that pottery , jewellery and Egyptian scarabs were left as offerings to the gods , probably in the hope of securing safe passage through the dangerous waters of the Strait of Gibraltar .
The Rock was revered by the Greeks and Romans as one of the two Pillars of Hercules , created by the demigod during his tenth labour when he smashed through a mountain separating the Atlantic and the Mediterranean . According to a Phocaean Greek traveller who visited in the sixth century BC , there were temples and altars to Hercules on the Rock where passing travellers made sacrifices . The Spanish later symbolised the importance of the Pillars of Hercules with a heraldic device consisting of a pair of columns with a scroll wrapped around them – a symbol that became the $ sign and the related Portuguese cifrão ( ) .
To the Ancient Romans , Gibraltar was known as Mons Calpe , a name perhaps derived from the Phoenician word kalph , " hollowed out " , presumably in reference to the many limestone caves in the Rock . It was well @-@ known to ancient geographers , but there is no known archaeological evidence of permanent settlements from the ancient period . According to the Roman writer Avienus , the ancient Greek traveller Euctemon recorded that
thirty stadia separate [ the Pillars of Hercules ] ; [ Euctemon ] says that they bristle with woods all over and are always unwelcoming to seamen . Indeed he says that on those are both temples and altars to Hercules . He says that strangers sail there by boat to make offerings to the gods and depart hot foot thinking it wrong to linger ...
There were more mundane reasons not to settle , as Gibraltar had many disadvantages that were to hinder later settlers . It lacked easily accessible fresh water , fertile soil or a safe natural anchorage on the shoreline . Avienus cited the " shallow draft and dense mud of the shore " as reasons not to land there . Its geographical location , which later became its key strategic asset , was not a significant factor during the Classical period as the entrance to the Mediterranean was not contested by the states of the day .
For these reasons the ancients instead settled at the head of the bay in what is today known as the Campo ( hinterland ) of Gibraltar . The town of Carteia , near the location of the modern Spanish town of San Roque , was founded by the Phoenicians around 950 BC on the site of an early settlement of the native Turdetani people . The Carthaginians took control of the town by 228 BC and it was captured by the Romans in 206 BC . It subsequently became Pompey 's western base in his campaign of 67 BC against the pirates that menaced the Mediterranean Sea at the time . Carteia appears to have been abandoned after the Vandals sacked it in 409 AD during their march through Roman Hispania to Africa . The region subsequently fell under the rule of the Christianised Visigoths .
= = Moorish rule ( 711 – 1309 , 1333 – 1462 ) = =
By 681 the armies of the Umayyad Caliphate had expanded from their original homeland of Arabia to conquer North Africa , the Middle East and large parts of West Asia , bringing Islam in their wake and converting local peoples to the new religion . The Berbers of North Africa , called Moors by the Christians , thereby became Muslims . The Strait of Gibraltar became the frontier between Muslim North Africa and Christian Hispania and thus gained a new strategic significance . Hispania descended into civil war in the 8th century as rival Visigothic factions fought for control of the throne . This gave the Moors the opportunity to invade Hispania and pursue a course of dividing @-@ and @-@ conquering the Christian factions .
Following a raid in 710 , a predominately Berber army under the command of Tariq ibn Ziyad crossed from North Africa in April 711 and landed somewhere in the vicinity of Gibraltar ( though most likely not in the bay or at the Rock itself ) . Although Tariq 's expedition was an outstanding success and led to the Islamic conquest of most of the Iberian peninsula , he ended his career in disgrace after falling out with the Arab general Musa bin Nusayr . His conquest nonetheless left a long @-@ lasting legacy for Gibraltar : Mons Calpe was renamed Jebel Tariq , the Mount of Tariq , subsequently corrupted into Gibraltar .
Gibraltar was fortified for the first time in 1160 by the Almohad Sultan Abd al @-@ Mu 'min in response to the coastal threat posed by the Christian kings of Aragon and Castile . Gibraltar was renamed Jebel al @-@ Fath ( the Mount of Victory ) , though this name did not persist , and a fortified town named Medinat al @-@ Fath ( the City of Victory ) was laid out on the upper slopes of the Rock . It is unclear how much of Medinat al @-@ Fath was actually built , as the surviving archaeological remains are scanty .
In the late thirteen and early fourteenth centuries Castile fought with the Marinids of Morocco and the Nasrids of Granada for control of the Strait of Gibraltar . This conflict ( Spanish : la Cuestión del Estrecho ) is a major chapter in the history of the Christian reconquest of Spain . Although no documentary account of Gibraltar is available for the period following the creation of Madinat al @-@ Fath , there are reasons to believe that a small fortified town existed in Gibraltar , and that its existence was the direct consequence of the fall of Tarifa in 1292 . After the capture of the city , it was expected that the Castilian king Sancho IV would lay siege to Algeciras ( though in the event , he did not do so ) to hinder the Marinids ' communications with the Iberian peninsula . The threatening presence of a Christian stronghold to the west would have made it necessary to set up a garrison to the east of Algeciras . That way , Gibraltar would protect the rearguard of Algeciras and provided a fallback position if the town fell . At the same time , the heights of the Rock of Gibraltar provided an excellent vantage point for monitoring the activities of the Christian fleets in the Straits .
It was not until 1309 when Gibraltar 's defences were put to the test for the first time in the First Siege of Gibraltar . That year Ferdinand IV of Castile and James II of Aragon joined forces to attack the Muslim Emirate of Granada , targeting Almería in the east and Algeciras , across the bay from Gibraltar , in the west . In July 1309 the Castilians laid siege to both Algeciras and Gibraltar . By this time the latter had a modest population of around 1 @,@ 200 people , a castle and rudimentary fortifications . They proved unequal to the task of keeping out the Castilians and Gibraltar 's Nasrid defenders surrendered after a month . Ferdinand gave up the siege of Algeciras the following February but held on to Gibraltar , expelling the Moors and repopulating it with Christians . A keep and dockyard were built on his orders to secure Castile 's hold on the peninsula . Ferdinand also issued a letters patent granting privileges to the inhabitants to encourage people to settle , as it was initially not regarded as a particularly hospitable place to live .
In 1315 the Nasrid Moors of Granada attempted to recapture Gibraltar but abandoned a brief siege when a Castilian relief force appeared . Eighteen years later , the Nasrid Sultan of Granada , Muhammed and the Marinid Sultan of Fez , Abu al @-@ Hasan Ali ibn Othman , united to besiege Gibraltar with a large army and naval force . This time the king of Castile , Alfonso XI , was unable to raise a relief force for several months because of the threat of rebellions within his kingdom . The relief force eventually arrived in June 1333 but found that the starving inhabitants of Gibraltar had already surrendered to the Moors of Fez . The Castilians now found themselves having to besiege an entrenched enemy , but they were unable to break through the Moorish defences and , faced with a stalemate , the two sides agreed to disengage in exchange for mutual concessions and a four @-@ year truce .
Abu al @-@ Hasan refortified Gibraltar with what the Arab chroniclers called " strong walls as a halo surrounds a crescent moon " in anticipation of renewed war , which duly broke out in 1339 . However , his forces suffered a disastrous defeat at the Battle of Río Salado in October 1340 and fell back to Algeciras . The Castilians besieged the city for two years and eventually forced its surrender , though Gibraltar remained in Moorish hands . The peninsula 's defences had been greatly improved by Abu al @-@ Hasan 's construction of new walls , towers , magazines and a citadel , making its capture a much more difficult endeavour . Alfonso XI once again laid siege in 1349 following the death of Abu al @-@ Hasan but was thwarted by the arrival of the Black Death in 1350 , which killed many of his soldiers and claimed his own life .
Gibraltar remained in Moorish hands until 1462 but was disputed between the Nasrids of Granada and Marinids of Fez . In 1374 the latter handed the peninsula to the former , apparently in payment for Granadan military support in suppressing rebellions in Morocco . Gibraltar 's garrison rebelled against the Nasrids in 1410 but a Granadan army retook the place the following year after a brief siege . Gibraltar was subsequently used by the Granadans as the base for raids into Christian territory , prompting Enrique de Guzmán , second Count of Niebla , to lay siege in 1436 . The attempt ended in disaster ; the attack was repelled with heavy casualties and Enrique himself was drowned while trying to escape by sea . His body was recovered by the Moors , decapitated and hung on the walls of Gibraltar for the next twenty @-@ two years .
Moorish rule over Gibraltar came to an end in August 1462 when a small Castilian force under the command of Alonso de Arcos , the governor of Tarifa , launched a surprise attack . The Castilians mounted their attack while Gibraltar 's senior commanders and townspeople were away paying homage to the new sultan of Granada . After a short assault which inflicted heavy losses on the defenders , the garrison surrendered to Enrique de Guzmán 's son Juan Alonso , now the first Duke of Medina Sidonia . The Moorish inhabitants were once again expelled en masse , to be replaced by Christians .
= = Castilian and Spanish rule ( 1462 – 1704 ) = =
Shortly after Gibraltar 's recapture , King Henry IV of Castile declared it Crown property and reinstituted the special privileges which his predecessor had granted during the previous period of Christian rule . Four years after visiting Gibraltar in 1463 , he was overthrown by the Spanish nobility and clergy . His half @-@ brother Alfonso was declared king and rewarded Medina Sidonia for his support with the lordship of Gibraltar . The existing governor , a loyalist of the deposed Henry IV , refused to surrender Gibraltar to Medina Sidonia . After a fifteen @-@ month siege from April 1466 to July 1467 , Medina Sidonia took control of the town . He died the following year but his son Enrique was confirmed as lord of Gibraltar by the reinstated Henry IV in 1469 . In 1474 the new Duke of Medina Sidonia sold Gibraltar to a group of 3150 Jewish conversos from Cordova and Seville led by Pedro de Herrera in exchange for maintaining the garrison of the town for two years , after which time the 4 @,@ 350 conversos were evicted by the Duke , returning to their hometowns or moving on to other parts of Spain and possibly the still independent Kingdom of Granada . His status was further enhanced by Isabella I of Castile in 1478 with the granting of the Marquisate of Gibraltar .
On 2 January 1492 , after five years of war , the Moorish emirate in Spain came to an end with the Catholic Monarchs ' capture of Granada . The Jews of Gibraltar were , like those elsewhere in the kingdom forced to choose between conversion to Catholicism or exile , by order of the monarchs in March that year . Gibraltar was used by Medina Sidonia as a base for the Spanish capture of Melilla in North Africa in 1497 . Two years later , the majority Muslim population of Granada was ordered to convert to Christianity . Although the vast majority remained in Spain as part of its sizeable Morisco population , some of its aristocracy chose exile , a few passing to North Africa through the town of Gibraltar .
Gibraltar became Crown property again in 1501 at the order of Isabella and the following year it received a new set of royal arms , which is still used by modern Gibraltar , replacing those of Medina Sidonia . In the Royal Warrant accompanying the arms , Isabella highlighted Gibraltar 's importance as " the key between these our kingdoms in the Eastern and Western Seas [ the Mediterranean and Atlantic ] " . The metaphor was represented on the royal arms by a golden key hanging from the front gate of a battlemented fortress . The warrant charged all future Spanish monarchs to " hold and retain the said City for themselves and in their own possession ; and that no alienation of it , nor any part of it , nor its jurisdiction ... shall ever be made from the Crown of Castile . "
At this point in history , " Gibraltar " meant not just the peninsula but the entire surrounding area including the land on which the towns of La Línea de la Concepción , San Roque , Los Barrios and Algeciras now stand . To the east , Gibraltar was bounded by the Guadiaro River , and its northern boundaries lay in the vicinity of Castellar de la Frontera , Jimena de la Frontera , Alcalá de los Gazules , Medina @-@ Sidonia and Tarifa . From the 16th century , the modern meaning of the name came to be adopted – specifically referring only to the town of Gibraltar and the peninsula on which it stands .
Under Spanish Crown rule , the town of Gibraltar fell into severe decline . The end of Muslim rule in Spain and the Christian capture of the southern ports considerably decreased the peninsula 's strategic value . It derived some minor economic value from tuna @-@ fishing and wine @-@ producing industries but its usefulness as a fortress was now limited . It was effectively reduced to the status of an unremarkable stronghold on a rocky promontory and Marbella replaced it as the principal Spanish port in the region .
Gibraltar 's inhospitable terrain made it an unpopular place to live . To boost the population , convicts from the kingdom of Granada were offered the possibility of serving their sentence in the Gibraltar garrison as an alternative to prison . Despite its apparent unattractiveness , Juan Alfonso de Guzmán , third Duke of Medina Sidonia , nonetheless sought to regain control of the town . In September 1506 , following Isabella 's death , he laid siege in the expectation that the gates would quickly be opened to his forces . This did not happen , and after a fruitless four @-@ month blockade he gave up the attempt . Gibraltar received the title of " Most Loyal " from the Spanish crown in recognition of its faithfulness .
= = = Barbary pirate raids and wars with other European powers = = =
Despite continuing external threats Gibraltar was neglected by the Spanish crown and its fortifications fell into disrepair . Barbary pirates from North Africa took advantage of the weak defences in September 1540 by mounting a major raid in which hundreds of Gibraltar 's residents were taken as hostages or slaves . The Shrine of Our Lady of Europe was sacked and all its valuables were stolen . Many of the captives were subsequently released when a Spanish fleet commanded by Bernardino de Mendoza intercepted the pirate ships near Alborán as they were bringing ransomed hostages back to Gibraltar . The Spanish crown belatedly responded to Gibraltar 's vulnerability by building the Charles V Wall to control the southern flank of the Rock and commissioning the Italian engineer Giovanni Battista Calvi to strengthen other parts of the fortifications .
The seas around Gibraltar continued to be dangerous for decades to come as Barbary pirate raids continued ; although a small squadron of Spanish galleys was based at the port to counter pirate raids , it proved to be of limited effectiveness and many inhabitants were abducted and sold into slavery by the pirates . The problem worsened significantly after 1606 , as a result of the Expulsion of the Moriscoss – Spanish Muslims who had converted to Christianity . Many of those permanently expelled settled in North Africa , some passing through Gibraltar and joining the fleets of the Ottoman Empire and the Morisco @-@ founded Republics of Salé and Bou Regreg raiding as far afield as England .
The threat of the Barbary pirates was soon joined by that of Spain 's enemies in northern Europe . On 5 May 1607 , during the Eighty Years ' War , a Dutch fleet under Admiral Jacob van Heemskerk ambushed a Spanish fleet at anchor in the Bay of Gibraltar . The Dutch won an overwhelming victory in the Battle of Gibraltar , losing no ships and very few men while the entire Spanish fleet was destroyed with the loss of 3 @,@ 000 men . The Spanish and Dutch declared a temporary truce in 1609 ( the Twelve Years ' Truce ) and resumed hostilities in 1621 , when a joint Dutch and Danish fleet arrived in the Strait to attack Spanish shipping . This time the Spanish succeeded in capturing and sinking a number of the attackers ' ships in the Battle of Gibraltar , driving away the rest .
An English military presence was briefly established at Gibraltar for the first time in 1620 . The Spanish granted permission for the English fleet to use Gibraltar 's port as a base for operations against the Barbary pirates , who were raiding the British and Irish coasts . Some in England had ambitions to turn the fleet against Spain rather than the Barbary coast . However , James I successfully resisted Parliamentary pressure to declare war on Spain and the fleet returned to England . After Charles I ascended the throne in 1625 , a second English fleet was sent to the region with instructions to " take or spoil a town " on the Spanish coast . Gibraltar was one of the proposed targets on the basis that it was small , could easily be garrisoned , supplied and defended , and was in a highly strategic location . The English fleet instead attacked Cadiz in the belief that its sacking would be more immediately profitable , but the raid turned into a fiasco . The landing force looted the town 's wine stores and was evacuated after four days of mass drunkenness without anything useful having been achieved .
The presence of Spain 's enemies in the Straits prompted the Spanish king Philip IV to order Gibraltar 's defences to be strengthened . A new mole and gun platforms were built , though the latter 's usefulness was limited due to a lack of gunners . The town was an unsanitary , crowded place , which probably contributed to the outbreak in 1649 of an epidemic – reportedly plague but possibly typhoid – which killed a quarter of the population . English fleets returned to Gibraltar in 1651 – 52 and again in 1654 – 55 as temporary allies of the Spanish against French and Dutch shipping in the Straits .
In 1654 , Oliver Cromwell decided to turn on Spain ( which had been the first state to recognise the Commonwealth of England ) and seize the island of Hispaniola to make it a base for English expansion in the Caribbean . To do so , two fleets were fitted out : one set out to America and another to the western Mediterranean with the ostensible objective of fighting the Barbary pirates . The fleet in the Caribbean failed to seize Hispaniola but took over Jamaica instead in May 1655 . The fleet in the Mediterranean sailed off Cadiz trying to intercept the Spanish treasure fleet with no success . With the arrival of the winter , the fleet went back to England . However , Spain did not declare war on England until February 1656 . Shortly after , a fleet of 49 English warships manned by 10 @,@ 000 sailors and soldiers sailed through the Straits and reconnoitred Gibraltar . Although they lacked a viable landing force and took no action , Oliver Cromwell expressed interest in its capture : " if possessed and made tenable by us , would it not be both an advantage to our trade , and an annoyance to the Spaniards , and enable us [ to ] ... ease our own charge ? " In 1693 , during the Nine Years ' War , in which Spain and England were allies , the remnants of an English @-@ Dutch escort squadron under the command of Admiral Sir George Rooke took refuge at Gibraltar , pursued by the French , after losing the Battle of Lagos Bay . Eleven years later , Rooke was to return to Gibraltar to capture it .
= = = War of the Spanish Succession ( 1701 – 14 ) = = =
In November 1700 , Charles II of Spain died childless . The dispute over who should succeed him – the Bourbon Prince Philip of Anjou , grandson of Louis XIV of France , or the Habsburg Archduke Charles of Austria – soon plunged Europe into a major war . Louis XIV supported Philip . England , the Netherlands , Austria , Portugal , Savoy and some of the German states supported Charles , fearing that Philip 's accession would result in French domination of Europe and the Americas . In accordance with Charles II 's will , Philip was proclaimed king as Philip V of Spain and allied his new kingdom with France . The following February , the War of the Spanish Succession broke out when French forces arrived in the Spanish Netherlands and expelled the Dutch from the barrier towns . In May 1702 , England 's Queen Anne formally declared war on France .
Spain thus became a target for the Anglo @-@ Dutch @-@ Austrian alliance . The confederates ' campaign was pursued by land and by sea . The main land offensive was pursued in the Low Countries by the Duke of Marlborough , while naval forces under the command of Admiral Sir George Rooke harassed French and Spanish shipping in the Atlantic . In 1703 , Marlborough devised a plan under which his forces would launch a surprise attack against the French and their Bavarian allies in the Danube basin while Rooke carried out a diversionary naval offensive in the Mediterranean . Rooke was instructed to attack French or Spanish coastal towns , though the choice of target was left to his discretion .
When Rooke arrived in the region several targets were considered . An attempt to incite the inhabitants of Barcelona to revolt against Philip V failed , and a plan to assault the French naval base at Toulon was abandoned , and an earlier attempt to take Cadiz had failed . Casting around for an easier target , Rooke decided to attack Gibraltar for three principal reasons : it was poorly garrisoned and fortified , it would be of major strategic value to the war effort , and its capture might encourage the inhabitants of southern Spain to reject Philip .
The attack was launched on 1 August 1704 as a combined operation between the naval force under Rooke 's command and a force of Dutch and English marines under the command of Prince George of Hesse @-@ Darmstadt and Captain Edward Whitaker of HMS Dorsetshire . After a heavy naval bombardment on 2 August , the marines launched a pincer attack on the town , advancing south from the isthmus and north from Europa Point . Gibraltar 's defenders were well stocked with food and ammunition but were heavily outnumbered and outgunned . The Spanish position was untenable and on the morning of 4 August , the governor , Diego de Salinas , agreed to surrender .
The terms of surrender made it clear that Gibraltar had been taken in the name of Charles III of Spain , described in the terms as " legitimate Lord and King " . The inhabitants and garrison of Gibraltar were promised freedom of religion and the maintenance of existing rights if they wished to stay , on condition that they swore an oath of loyalty to Charles as King of Spain . As had happened two years previously in the raid on Cadiz , the discipline of the landing forces soon broke down . There were numerous incidents of rape , all Catholic churches but one ( the Parish Church of St. Mary the Crowned , now the Cathedral ) were desecrated or converted into military storehouses , and religious symbols such as the statue of Our Lady of Europe were damaged and destroyed . Angry Spanish inhabitants took violent reprisals against the occupiers . English and Dutch soldiers and sailors were attacked and killed , and their bodies were thrown into wells and cesspits .
When the Spanish garrison marched out on 7 August almost all of the inhabitants , some 4 @,@ 000 people in total , evacuated the town . They had reason to believe that their exile would not last long , as fortresses and towns changed hands frequently at the time . Many settled nearby in the ruins of Algeciras or around an old hermitage at the head of the bay in the expectation of a prompt return . They took with them the records of the city council including Gibraltar 's banner and royal warrant . In time the refugee settlement at the hermitage developed into the town of San Roque . It was regarded by the Spanish , as Philip V put it in 1706 , as being the " City of Gibraltar resident in its Campo " . A small population of around seventy neutral Genoese people stayed behind in Gibraltar .
The Grand Alliance 's control of Gibraltar was challenged on 24 August when a French fleet entered the Straits . In the subsequent Battle of Vélez @-@ Málaga , both sides sustained heavy crew casualties but lost no ships , enabling each side to claim the engagement as a victory . The French withdrew to Toulon without attempting to assault Gibraltar . In early September a Franco @-@ Spanish army arrived outside Gibraltar and prepared for a siege which they commenced on 9 October . Around 7 @,@ 000 French and Spanish soldiers , aided by refugees from Gibraltar , were pitted against a force of 2 @,@ 000 defenders consisting of English and Dutch marines and Spanish soldiers and miquelets loyal to Charles .
The defenders were aided from late October by a naval squadron under Admiral Sir John Leake . A further 2 @,@ 200 English and Dutch reinforcements arrived by sea with fresh supplies of food and ammunition in December 1704 . With morale falling in the Franco @-@ Spanish camp amid desertions and sickness , Louis XIV despatched Marshal de Tessé to take command in February 1705 . A Franco @-@ Spanish assault was beaten back with heavy casualties and on 31 March , de Tessé gave up the siege , complaining of a " want of method and planning " .
During the War of Spanish Succession , Gibraltar was governed by the British commandant as a possession of Duke Charles of Austria as Charles III of Spain . The British commandant , Major General John Shrimpton , was appointed by Charles as Gibraltar 's governor in 1705 on the advice of Queen Anne . The Queen subsequently declared Gibraltar a free port at the insistence of the Sultan of Morocco , though she had no formal authority to do so . Shrimpton was replaced in 1707 by Colonel Roger Elliott , who was replaced in turn by Brigadier Thomas Stanwix in 1711 ; this time the appointments were made directly by London with no claim of authority from Charles . Stanwix was ordered to expel all foreign troops from Gibraltar to secure its status as an exclusively British possession but failed to evict the Dutch , apparently not considering them " foreign " .
The War of the Spanish Succession was finally settled in 1713 by a series of treaties and agreements . Under the Treaty of Utrecht , which was signed on 13 July 1713 and brought together a number of sub @-@ treaties and agreements , Philip V was accepted by Britain and Austria as King of Spain in exchange for guarantees that the crowns of France and Spain would not be unified . Various territorial exchanges were agreed : although Philip V retained the Spanish overseas empire , he ceded the Southern Netherlands , Naples , Milan , and Sardinia to Austria ; Sicily and some Milanese lands to Savoy ; and Gibraltar and Minorca to Great Britain . In addition he granted the British the exclusive right to non @-@ Spanish slave trading in Spanish America for thirty years , the so @-@ called asiento . With regard to Gibraltar ( Article X ) , the town , fortifications and port ( but not the hinterland ) were ceded to Britain " for ever , without any exception or impediment whatsoever . " The treaty also stipulated that if Britain was ever to dispose of Gibraltar it would first have to offer the territory to Spain .
= = British rule ( 1713 – present ) = =
= = = Consolidation and sieges = = =
Despite its later importance to Britain , Gibraltar was initially seen by the British Government as more of a bargaining counter than a strategic asset . Its defences continued to be neglected , its garrisoning was an unwelcome expense , and Spanish pressure threatened Britain 's vital overseas trade . On seven separate occasions between 1713 and 1728 the British Government proposed to exchange Gibraltar for concessions from Spain , but on each occasion the proposals were vetoed by the British Parliament following public protests .
Spain 's loss of Gibraltar and Menorca was resented by the Spanish public and monarchy alike . In 1717 Spanish forces retook Sardinia and in 1718 Sicily , both of which had been ceded to Austria under the Treaty of Utrecht . The effective Spanish repudiation of the treaty prompted the British initially to propose handing back Gibraltar in exchange for a peace agreement and , when that failed , to declare war on Spain . The Spanish gains were quickly reversed , a Spanish expedition to Scotland in 1719 supporting the Jacobites was defeated and peace was eventually restored by the Treaty of The Hague .
In January 1727 , Spain declared the nullification of the Treaty of Utrecht 's provisions relating to Gibraltar on the grounds that Britain had violated its terms by extending Gibraltar 's fortifications beyond the permitted limits , allowing Jews and Moors to live there , failing to protect Catholics and harming Spain 's revenues by allowing smuggling . Spanish forces began a siege and bombardment of Gibraltar the following month , causing severe damage through intensive cannon fire . The defenders withstood the threat and were reinforced and resupplied by a British naval force . Bad weather and supply problems caused the Spanish to call off the siege at the end of June .
Britain 's hold on Gibraltar was reconfirmed in 1729 by the Treaty of Seville , which satisfied neither side ; the Spanish had wanted Gibraltar returned , while the British disliked the continuation of the restrictions imposed by the Treaty of Utrecht . Spain responded the following year by constructing a line of fortifications across the upper end of the peninsula , cutting off Gibraltar from its hinterland . The fortifications , known to the British as the Spanish Lines , and to Spain as La Línea de Contravalación ( the Lines of Contravallation ) , were later to give their name to the modern town of La Línea de la Concepción . Gibraltar was effectively blockaded by land but was able to rely on trade with Morocco for food and other supplies .
Gibraltar 's civilian population increased steadily through the century to form a disparate mixture of Britons , Genoese , Jews , Spaniards and Portuguese . By 1754 there were 1 @,@ 733 civilians in addition to 3 @,@ 000 garrison soldiers and their 1 @,@ 426 family members , bringing the total population to 6 @,@ 159 . The civilian population increased to 3 @,@ 201 by 1777 , including 519 Britons , 1 @,@ 819 Roman Catholics ( meaning Spanish , Portuguese , Genoese etc . ) and 863 Jews . Each group had its own distinctive niche in the fortress . The Spanish historian López de Alaya , writing in 1782 , characterised their roles thus :
The richest mercantile houses are English ... The Jews , for the most part , are shop keepers and brokers ... They have a synagogue and openly practice the ceremonies of their religion , notwithstanding the terms of the Treaty of Utrecht ... The Genoese are traders , but the greater part of them are fishermen , traders and gardeners .
Life for the ordinary soldiers of the garrison was tedious and harsh , with corporal punishment administered for even the most trivial offences . Suicide and desertions were common due to boredom , shortages of food and the poor living conditions . At Middle Hill Battery , guards had to be posted to prevent soldiers from deserting by lowering themselves on ropes down the cliff face .
The fortifications of Gibraltar were modernised and upgraded in the 1770s with the construction of new batteries , bastions and curtain walls . The driving force behind this programme was the highly experienced Colonel ( later Major General ) William Green , who was to play a key role a few years later as chief engineer of Gibraltar . He was joined in 1776 by Lieutenant General George Augustus Elliott , a veteran of earlier wars against France and Spain who took over the governorship of Gibraltar at a key moment .
Britain 's successes in the Seven Years ' War had left it with expensive commitments in the Americas that had to be paid for and had catalysed the formation of an anti @-@ British coalition in Europe . The British Government 's attempt to levy new taxes on the Thirteen Colonies of British America led to the outbreak of the American War of Independence in 1776 . Spain declared war on Britain and started the Anglo @-@ Spanish War and then tried to recover Gibraltar with French aid .
The Great Siege of Gibraltar lasted from 24 June 1779 to 7 February 1783 and remains one of the longest sieges endured by the British Armed Forces , as well as being one of the longest continuous sieges in history . A combined Spanish and French fleets blockaded Gibraltar from the sea , while on the land side an enormous army was engaged in constructing forts , redoubts , entrenchments , and batteries from which to attack Gibraltar . The Spanish committed increasing number of troops and ships to the siege , postponing the planned invasion of England by the Armada of 1779 . The first relief of the siege came in the spring of 1780 when Admiral George Rodney captured a Spanish convoy off Cape Finesterre and defeated a Spanish fleet at the Battle of Cape St. Vincent , delivering reinforcements of 1 @,@ 052 men and an abundance of supplies .
The British defenders continued to resist every attempt to capture Gibraltar by assault but supplies again began to run low . On 12 April 1781 Vice Admiral George Darby 's squadron of 29 ships of the line escorting 100 store ships from England laden for Gibraltar entered the bay . The Spanish fleet was unable to intercept Darby 's relief . The Spanish frustrated by this failure began a barrage of the town causing great panic and terror among the civilian population . Deliberate targeting of civilians was unprecedented at the time and was to continue for 2 years obliterating any architectural heritage from the Spanish period . Unable to starve the garrison out the French and Spanish attempted further attacks by land and sea , the night before the Grand Attack on 27 November 1781 , the British garrison filed silently out of their defence works and made a surprise sortie routing the besieging infantry in their trenches and postponed the grand assault on The Rock for some time .
On 13 September 1782 the Bourbon allies launched their great attack ; 5190 fighting men , both French and Spanish , aboard ten of the newly engineered ' floating batteries ' with 138 heavy guns , as well as 18 ships of the line , 40 Spanish gunboats and 20 bomb @-@ vessels with a total of 30 @,@ 000 sailors and marines . They were supported by 86 land guns and 35 @,@ 000 Spanish and French troops ( 7 @,@ 000 – 8 @,@ 000 French ) on land intending to assault the fortifications once they had been demolished . The 138 guns opened fire from floating batteries in the Bay and the 86 guns on the land side , directed on the fortifications after weeks of preparatory artillery fire . But the garrison replied with red @-@ hot shot to set fire to and sink the attacker 's floating batteries and warships in the Bay . The British destroyed three of the floating batteries , which blew up as the ' red @-@ hot shot ' did its job . The other seven batteries were scuttled by the Spanish . In addition 719 men on board the ships ( many of whom drowned ) were casualties .
In Britain the Admiralty considered plans for a major relief of Gibraltar , opting to send a larger , but slower fleet , rather than a smaller faster one . In September 1782 a large fleet left Spithead under Richard Howe , arriving off Cape St. Vincent on 9 October . The following evening a gale blew up , scattering the Spanish and French fleet allowing Howe to sail unopposed into Gibraltar . A total of 34 ships of the line escorted 31 transport ships which delivered supplies , food , and ammunition . The fleet also brought the 25th , 59th , and 97th regiments of foot bringing the total number of the garrison to over 7 @,@ 000 Howe then sailed out and fought an indecisive battle with the combined allied fleet before withdrawing to Britain in line with his orders .
The siege was continued for some months longer , but in the spring of 1783 a preliminary peace agreement brought the cessation of hostilities . Finally , in February 1783 the siege was lifted . The outcome of the Great Siege made it politically impossible for the British government to again consider trading away Gibraltar , even though King George III warned that it would be the source " of another war , or at least of a constant lurking enmity " and expressed his wish " if possible to be rid of Gibraltar ... I shall not think peace complete if we do not get rid of Gibraltar . " General Eliott and the garrison were lauded for their heroism , and the tenacity of their defence of Gibraltar acquired , as one writer puts it , " a sort of cult status " . The British public acquired " an emotional , albeit irrational , attachment to the place . " The reputed impregnability of Gibraltar gave rise to the expression , which is still current today , of something being as " strong as the Rock of Gibraltar " .
= = = Gibraltar as a colony = = =
Following the Great Siege , the civilian population of Gibraltar – which had fallen to under a thousand – expanded rapidly as the territory became both a place of economic opportunity and a refuge from the Napoleonic Wars . Britain 's loss of North American colonies in 1776 led to much of her trade being redirected to new markets in India and the East Indies . The favoured route to the east was via Egypt , even before the Suez Canal had been built , and Gibraltar was the first British port reached by ships heading there . The new maritime traffic gave Gibraltar a greatly increased role as a trading port . At the same time , it was a haven in the western Mediterranean from the disruption of the Napoleonic Wars . Many of the new immigrants were Genoese people who had fled Napoleon 's annexation of the old Republic of Genoa . By 1813 nearly a third of the population consisted of Genoese and Italians . Portuguese made up another 20 per cent , Spaniards 16 @.@ 5 per cent , Jews 15 @.@ 5 per cent , British 13 per cent and Minorcans 4 per cent . The young Benjamin Disraeli described the inhabitants of Gibraltar as a mixture of " Moors with costumes as radiant as a rainbow or Eastern melodrama , Jews with gaberdines and skull @-@ caps , Genoese , Highlanders and Spanish . " The inhabitants had a clear pecking order , with British officers at the top and Jews at the bottom . The American naval officer Alexander Slidell Mackenzie , writing in 1829 , described the market traders and shoppers in what is now John Mackintosh Square :
The high handed hauteur of his majesty 's officer , as he lounges at a corner in utter scorn of the busy crew of bargainers ; the supple cit [ izen ] who bows breast low to him in hope of a nod of condescension ... ; a rough skipper , accustomed to bang and bully and be a little king upon his own quarter @-@ deck ; the sullen demeanour of the turbaned Moor , who sits crosslegged at a shady corner ... ; the filthy , slipshod , abject Jew , who sells slippers or oranges , or serves officers , merchants , sailors , or Moors , as a beast of burden ...
Gibraltar was an unhealthy place to live due to its poor sanitation and living conditions . It was repeatedly ravaged by epidemics of yellow fever and cholera , which killed thousands of the inhabitants and members of the garrison . An epidemic in the second half of 1804 killed more than a third of the entire population , civilian and military . Lord Nelson wrote the following March that he hoped that Gibraltar " will escape the dreadful scourge of last autumn , and I hope that General Fox has burnt down all the small houses at the back of the Town ; and perhaps if half the Town went with them , it would be better for the Rock . "
During the wars against Napoleonic France , Gibraltar served first as a Royal Navy base from which blockades of the ports of Cadiz , Cartagena and Toulon were mounted , then as a gateway for British forces and supplies in the Peninsular War between 1807 and 1814 . In July 1801 a French and Spanish naval force fought the two Battles of Algeciras off Gibraltar , which ended in disaster for the Spanish when two of their largest warships each mistook the other for the enemy , engaged each other , collided , caught fire and exploded , killing nearly 2 @,@ 000 Spanish sailors . Two years later Gibraltar served as a base for Lord Nelson in his efforts to bring the French Admiral Pierre @-@ Charles Villeneuve to battle , which culminated in the Battle of Trafalgar in which Nelson was killed and Villeneuve captured . Nelson sailed to Gibraltar in June 1803 to launch the Trafalgar Campaign and oversee the blockades against France and Spain , though he spent little time ashore . On 28 October 1805 , a week after the Battle of Trafalgar , the badly damaged HMS Victory returned to Gibraltar with Nelson 's body aboard ; Admiral Collingwood 's dispatch to General Fox , announcing the victory and Nelson 's death , was printed in the pages of the Gibraltar Chronicle . It thus became the first newspaper in the world to report the victory at Trafalgar , two weeks ahead of The Times .
In the years after Trafalgar , Gibraltar became a major supply base for supporting the Spanish uprising against Napoleon . The French invasion of Spain in 1808 prompted Gibraltar 's British garrison to cross the border and destroy the ring of Spanish fortresses around the bay , as well as the old Spanish fortified lines on the isthmus , to deny the French the ability to besiege Gibraltar or control the bay from shore batteries . French forces reached as far as San Roque , just north of Gibraltar , but did not attempt to target Gibraltar itself as they believed that it was impregnable . The French besieged Tarifa , further down the coast , in 1811 – 12 but gave up after a month . Gibraltar faced no further military threat for a century .
After peace returned , Gibraltar underwent major changes during the reformist governorship of General Sir George Don , who took up his position in 1814 . The damage caused by the Great Siege had long since been repaired , but Gibraltar was still essentially a medieval town in its layout and narrow streets . A lack of proper drainage had been a major contributing factor in the epidemics that had frequently ravaged the fortress . Don implemented improved sanitation and drainage as well as introducing street lighting , rebuilding St Bernard 's Hospital to serve the civilian population and initiating the construction of the Cathedral of the Holy Trinity to serve Gibraltar 's Protestant civilians . For the first time , civilians began to have a say in the running of Gibraltar . An Exchange and Commercial Library was founded in 1817 , with the Exchange Committee initially focused on furthering the interests of merchants based in the fortress . The Committee evolved into a local civilian voice in government , although it had no real powers . A City Council was established in 1821 , and in 1830 Gibraltar became a Crown colony . In the same year , the Gibraltar Police Force was established , modelled on London 's pioneering Metropolitan Police Service , and a Supreme Court was set up to try civil , criminal and mixed cases .
The economic importance of Gibraltar changed following the invention of steamships ; the first one to reach Gibraltar 's harbour arrived there in 1823 . The advent of steamships caused a major shift in trade patterns in the Mediterranean . Transshipment , which had previously been Gibraltar 's principal economic mainstay , was largely replaced by the much less lucrative work of servicing visiting steamships through coaling , victualling and ferrying of goods . Although Gibraltar became a key coaling station where British steamships refuelled on the way to Alexandria or Cape Horn , the economic changes resulted in a prolonged depression that lasted until near the end of the century . The demand for labour for coaling was such that Gibraltar instituted the practice of relying on large numbers of imported Spanish workers . A shanty town sprang up on the site of the old Spanish fortifications just across the border , which became the workers ' town of La Línea de la Concepción . The poor economy meant that Gibraltar 's population barely changed between 1830 and 1880 , but it was still relatively more prosperous than the severely impoverished south of Spain . As a consequence , La Línea 's population doubled over the same period and then doubled again in the following 20 years .
Visiting Gibraltar in the mid @-@ 19th century , the English writer Richard Ford wrote in his Handbook for Travellers in Spain that " the differences of nations and costumes are very curious : a motley masquerade is held in this halfway house between Europe , Asia , and Africa , where every man appears in his own dress and speaks his own language . Civilization and barbarism clash here indeed ... or the Rock , like Algeria , is a refuge for destitute scamps , and is the asylum for people of all nations who expatriate themselves for their country 's good . " He described the town 's Main Street as " the antithesis of a Spanish town " , lined with " innumerable pot – houses " which made it a " den of gin and intemperance ; every thing and body is in motion ; there is no quiet , no repose ; all is hurry and scurry , for time is money and Mammon is the god of Gib , as the name is vulgarized ... The entire commerce of the Peninsula seems condensed into this microcosmus , where all creeds and nations meet , and most of them adepts at the one grand game of beggar my neighbour . "
Relations with Spain during the 19th century were generally amicable . Regular British soldiers were forbidden to cross the border but officers could cross freely into Spain , as could the inhabitants of Gibraltar , some of whom had second houses in the town of San Roque about 10 kilometres ( 6 mi ) away . The garrison introduced the very British activity of fox hunting in the form of the Royal Calpe Hunt , started in 1812 , which saw British officers and local Spanish gentry pursuing foxes across the Campo de Gibraltar . A major bone of contention during this period was the issue of smuggling across the border . The problem arose after Spain imposed tariffs on foreign manufactured goods in a bid to protect Spain 's own fledgling industrial enterprises . Tobacco was also heavily taxed , providing one of the government 's principal sources of revenue . The inevitable result was that Gibraltar , where cheap tobacco and goods were readily available , became a centre of intensive smuggling activity . The depressed state of the economy caused smuggling to become a mainstay of Gibraltar 's trade ; the mid @-@ 19th @-@ century Irish traveller Martin Haverty described Gibraltar as " the grand smuggling depot for Spain " . General Sir Robert Gardiner , who served as Governor between 1848 and 1855 , described the daily scene in a letter to British Prime Minister Lord Palmerston :
From the first early opening of the gates there is to be seen a stream of Spanish men , women and children , horses and a few caleches , passing into the town where they remain moving about from shop to shop until about noon . The human beings enter the Garrison in their natural sizes , but quit it swathed and swelled out with our cotton manufactures , and padded with tobacco , while the carriages and beasts , which come light and springy into the place , quit it scarcely able to drag or bear their burdens . The Spanish authorities bear part in this traffic , by receiving a bribe from every individual passing the Lines , their persons and their purposes being thoroughly known to them . Some of these people take hardware goods , as well as cotton and tobacco , into Spain .
The problem was eventually reduced by imposing duties on imported goods , which made them much less attractive to smugglers and raised funds to make much @-@ needed improvements to sanitation . Despite the improvements made earlier in the century , living conditions in Gibraltar were still dire . A Colonel Sayer , who was garrisoned at Gibraltar in the 1860s , described the town as " composed of small and crowded dwellings , ill ventilated , badly drained and crammed with human beings . Upwards of 15 @,@ 000 persons are confined within a space covering a square mile [ 2 @.@ 5 km2 ] . " Although there were sewers , a lack of water made them virtually useless in summer and the poorer inhabitants were sometimes unable to afford enough water even to wash themselves . One doctor commented that " the open street is much more desirable than many of the lodgings of the lower orders of Gibraltar . " The establishment of a Board of Sanitary Commissioners in 1865 and work on new drainage , sewerage and water supply systems prevented further major epidemics . A system of underground reservoirs capable of containing 5 million gallons ( 22 @.@ 7 million litres ) of water was constructed within the Rock of Gibraltar . Other municipal services arrived as well – a gas works in 1857 , a telegraph link by 1870 and electricity by 1897 . Gibraltar also developed a high @-@ quality school system , with as many as 42 schools by 1860 .
By the end of the 19th century , the " Gibraltarians " were given an official identity for the first time . It was only in the 1830s that Gibraltar @-@ born residents began to outnumber foreign @-@ born , but by 1891 nearly 75 % of the population of 19 @,@ 011 people were Gibraltar @-@ born . The emergence of the Gibraltarians as a distinct group owed much to the pressure on housing in the territory and the need to control the numbers of the civilian population , as Gibraltar was still first and foremost a military fortress . Two Orders in Council of 1873 and 1885 stipulated that no child of alien parent could be born in Gibraltar , no foreigners could claim a right of residence and that only Gibraltar @-@ born inhabitants were entitled to reside there ; everyone else needed permits , unless they were employees of the British Crown . In addition to the 14 @,@ 244 Gibraltarians , there were also 711 British people , 695 Maltese and 960 from other British dominions . There were 1 @,@ 869 Spaniards ( of whom 1 @,@ 341 were female ) with smaller numbers of Portuguese , Italians , French and Moroccans .
= = = Gibraltar at war and peace = = =
By the end of the 19th century and beginning of the 20th , Gibraltar 's future as a British colony was in serious doubt . Its economic value was diminishing , as a new generation of steamships with a much longer range no longer needed to stop there to refuel en route to more distant ports . Its military value was also increasingly in question due to advances in military technology . New long @-@ range guns firing high @-@ explosive shells could easily reach Gibraltar from across the bay or in the Spanish hinterland , while the development of torpedoes meant that ships at anchor in the bay were also vulnerable . The garrison could hold out for a long time , but if the Spanish coast was held by an enemy , Gibraltar could not be resupplied in the fashion that had saved it in the Great Siege 120 years earlier .
A Spanish proposal to swap Gibraltar for Ceuta on the other side of the Strait was considered but was eventually rejected . It was ultimately decided that Gibraltar 's strategic position as a naval base outweighed its potential vulnerability from the landward side . From 1889 , the Royal Navy was greatly expanded and both Gibraltar and Malta were equipped with new , torpedo @-@ proof harbours and expanded , modernised dockyards . The works at Gibraltar were carried out by some 2 @,@ 200 men at the huge cost of £ 5 million ( £ 485 @,@ 968 @,@ 723 in 2013 prices ) . Under the reforming leadership of First Sea Lord Admiral John " Jacky " Fisher , Gibraltar became the base for the Atlantic Fleet . In the British public 's imagination , Gibraltar was seen as " a symbol of British naval power [ and ] a symbol of the empire which has been built and , more than the British lion or even John Bull himself , has come to represent Britain 's power and prestige across the world . "
The value of the naval base was soon apparent when the First World War broke out in August 1914 . Only a few minutes after the declaration of war went into effect at midnight on 3 / 4 August , a German liner was captured by a torpedo boat from Gibraltar , followed by three more enemy ships the following day . Although Gibraltar was well away from the main battlefields of the war – Spain remained neutral and the Mediterranean was not contested as it was in the Second World War – it played an important role in the Allied fight against the German U @-@ boat campaign . The naval base was heavily used by Allied warships for resupplying and repairs . The Bay of Gibraltar was also used as a forming @-@ up point for Allied convoys , while German U @-@ boats stalked the Strait looking for targets . On two occasions , Gibraltar 's guns unsuccessfully fired on two U @-@ boats travelling through the Strait . Anti @-@ submarine warfare was in its infancy and it proved impossible to prevent U @-@ boats operating through the Strait . Only two days before the end of the war , on 9 November 1918 , SM UB @-@ 50 torpedoed and sank the British battleship HMS Britannia off Cape Trafalgar to the west of Gibraltar .
The restoration of peace inevitably meant a reduction in military expenditure , but this was more than offset by a large increase in liner and cruise ship traffic to Gibraltar . British liners travelling to and from India and South Africa customarily stopped there , as did French , Italian and Greek liners travelling to and from America . Oil bunkering became a major industry alongside coaling . An airfield was established in 1933 on the isthmus linking Gibraltar to Spain . Civil society was reformed as well ; in 1921 an Executive Council and an elected City Council were established to advise the governor , in the first step towards self @-@ government of the territory .
The outbreak of the Spanish Civil War in July 1936 presented Gibraltar with major security concerns , as it was initially on the front lines of the conflict . The ultimately successful rebellion led by General Francisco Franco broke out across the Strait in Morocco , and the Spanish Republican government sought on several occasions to regain control of the Nationalist @-@ controlled area around Algeciras . Although Gibraltar was not directly affected by the fighting , the war caused significant disruption . An undetermined number of Spanish refugees , perhaps as many as 10 @,@ 000 persons , fled to Gibraltar , resulting in severe overcrowding . A Non @-@ Intervention Patrol was mounted by the Royal Navy , operating from Gibraltar , to prevent foreign military aid reaching the belligerents in Spain . In May 1937 , one of the ships involved in the patrol , the destroyer HMS Hunter , hit a Nationalist mine and had to be towed back to Gibraltar with eight of her crew dead . The Spanish Civil War had a deep impact on Gibraltarian society . On one hand , the British authorities , the Anglican and Catholic churches and the Gibraltarian moneyed class supported the Nationalists in the War , while the working class sided with the Republicans . With Europe sliding towards a general war , the British Government decided to strengthen Gibraltar 's defences and upgrade the naval base to accommodate the latest generation of battleships and aircraft carriers . A Gibraltar Defence Force ( now the Royal Gibraltar Regiment ) was established in March 1939 to assist with home defence .
= = = Second World War = = =
The outbreak of the Second World War in September 1939 did not initially cause much disruption in Gibraltar , as Spain and Italy were neutral at the time . The situation changed drastically after April 1940 when Germany invaded France , with Italy joining the invasion in June 1940 . The British Government feared that Spain would also enter the war and it was decided to evacuate the entire civilian population of Gibraltar in May 1940 . Most went to the United Kingdom and others to Madeira and Jamaica , while some made their own way to Tangier and Spain . An intensive programme of tunnelling and refortification was undertaken ; over 50 kilometres ( 30 mi ) of tunnels were dug in the Rock , and anti @-@ aircraft batteries were installed in numerous locations in the territory . A new and powerful naval group called Force H was established at Gibraltar to control the entrance to the Mediterranean and support Allied forces in North Africa , the Mediterranean and the Atlantic . The airfield , which was now designated RAF North Front , was also extended using soil from the tunnelling works so that it could accommodate bomber aircraft being ferried to North Africa . The garrison was greatly expanded , reaching a peak of 17 @,@ 000 in 1943 with another 20 @,@ 000 sailors and airmen accommodated in Gibraltar at the same time .
During the Battle of the Atlantic , Gibraltar played a key role . The Ocean Convoy System adopted by Britain after the fall of France in June 1940 ran on two routes – an east – west route between the UK and North America , and a north – south route between the UK , Gibraltar and Freetown in British @-@ ruled Sierra Leone . Even before the war , Gibraltar had been designated as one of the main assembly points for convoys heading inbound to Europe . From late 1942 , Gibraltar was the destination of the Central Atlantic convoy route between the United States and the Mediterranean in support of Allied operations in North Africa , Sicily , Italy and elsewhere in the region . A huge number of Allied troops and ships travelled this route ; between November 1942 and August 1945 , 11 @,@ 119 ships travelled in 189 convoys between Gibraltar and the United States and vice versa , and between December 1942 and March 1945 , 536 @,@ 134 troops were transported from the United States to Gibraltar .
Gibraltar was directly attacked , both overtly and covertly , on several occasions during the war . Vichy French aircraft carried out bombing attacks in 1940 after the surprise attack of their fleet by the royal navy and there were sporadic raids from Italian and German long @-@ range aircraft , though the damage caused was not significant . Franco 's position changed subtly from one of neutrality to " non @-@ belligerence " , which in practice meant allowing the Axis powers to operate covertly against Gibraltar from Spanish territory . Despite Franco 's willingness to overlook German and Italian activities in and around the Bay of Gibraltar , he decided not to join Hitler 's planned Operation Felix to seize the territory . A major factor influencing his decision was the vulnerability of Spain 's food supplies , as the country was unable to feed itself after the destruction of the Civil War . It relied on grain imports from the Americas , which would certainly have been cut off had Franco gone to war with the Allies . Hitler eventually abandoned Felix to pursue other priorities such as the invasions of Yugoslavia and the Soviet Union .
German and Italian spies kept a constant watch on Gibraltar and sought to carry out sabotage operations , sometimes successfully . The Italians repeatedly carried out raids on Gibraltar 's harbour using human torpedoes and divers operating from the Spanish shore , damaging a number of merchant ships and sinking one . Three Spaniards being run as spies and saboteurs by the German Abwehr were caught in Gibraltar in 1942 – 43 and hanged . The threat to Gibraltar was greatly reduced after the collapse of Italy in September 1943 .
= = = Post @-@ war Gibraltar = = =
Although Gibraltar 's civilian inhabitants had started to return as early as April 1944 , the last evacuees did not arrive back home until as late as February 1951 . The immediate problem after VJ Day was a lack of shipping , as all available vessels were needed to bring troops home , but the longer @-@ term problem was a lack of civilian housing . The garrison was relocated to the southern end of the peninsula to free up space and military accommodation was temporarily reused to house the returning civilians . A programme to build housing projects was implemented , though progress was slow due to shortages of building materials . By 1969 , over 2 @,@ 500 flats had either been built or were under construction .
In the war 's aftermath , Gibraltar took decisive steps towards implementing civilian self @-@ governance over most issues of public policy . The Association for the Advancement of Civil Rights ( AACR ) , led by Gibraltarian lawyer Joshua Hassan , won all of the seats in the first post @-@ war City Council elections in 1945 . Women were given the right to vote in 1947 , and in 1950 a Legislative Council was established . A two @-@ party system had emerged by 1955 with the creation of the Commonwealth Party as a rival to the AACR . That same year Hassan became the first Mayor of Gibraltar . The Governor still retained overall authority and could overrule the Legislative Council . This inevitably caused tension and controversy if the Governor and Legislative Council disagreed , but in 1964 the British Government agreed to confine the powers of the Governor to matters of defence , security and foreign relations . A new constitution was decided on in 1968 and promulgated in 1969 , merging the City Council and Legislative Council into a single House of Assembly ( known as the Gibraltar Parliament since 2006 ) with 15 elected members , two non @-@ elected officials and a speaker . The old title of " Colony of Gibraltar " was dropped and the territory was renamed as the City of Gibraltar .
Gibraltar 's post @-@ war relationship with Spain was marred by an intensification of the long @-@ running dispute over the territory 's sovereignty . Although Spain had not attempted to use military force to regain Gibraltar since 1783 , the question of sovereignty was still present . Disputes over smuggling and the sea frontier between Gibraltar and Spain had repeatedly caused diplomatic tensions during the 19th century . The neutral zone between Spain and Gibraltar had also been a cause of disputes during the 19th and 20th centuries . This originally had been an undemarcated strip of sand on the isthmus between the British and Spanish lines of fortifications , about 1 kilometre ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) wide – the distance of a cannon shot in 1704 . Over the years , however , Britain took control of most of the neutral zone , much of which is now occupied by Gibraltar 's airport . This expansion provoked repeated protests from Spain .
Spain 's push to regain sovereignty over Gibraltar was fuelled by the decolonisation agenda of the United Nations , which had been initiated in 1946 . In that year , Britain had listed Gibraltar among other " Overseas Dependent Territories " in conjunction with the drive towards decolonisation , but it was not appreciated at the time that Gibraltar was in a unique position ; due to the terms of the Treaty of Utrecht , it could only be British or Spanish and could not gain independence . Franco 's government calculated that Britain would be willing to give up an expensive possession that no longer had a great deal of military value , but this turned out to be a fundamental misjudgement . The British government followed a policy of allowing its colonies to become self @-@ governing entities before giving them the option of independence . Almost all took it , choosing to become independent republics . That option was not available to Gibraltar under the terms of the Treaty of Utrecht , which required that if Britain ever relinquished control it was to be handed back to Spain . The Gibraltarians strongly opposed this and organised a referendum in September 1967 in which 12 @,@ 138 voters opted to remain with Britain and only 44 supported union with Spain . Spain dismissed the outcome of the referendum , calling the city 's inhabitants " pseudo @-@ Gibraltarians " and stating that the " real " Gibraltarians were the descendants of the Spanish inhabitants who had resettled elsewhere in the region over 250 years earlier .
The dispute initially took the form of symbolic protests and a campaign by Spanish diplomats and the state @-@ controlled media . From 1954 , Spain imposed increasingly stringent restrictions on trade and the movements of vehicles and people across the border with Gibraltar . Further restrictions were imposed in 1964 , and in 1966 the frontier was closed to vehicles . In 1969 , after the passing of the Gibraltar Constitution Order , to which Spain strongly objected , the frontier was closed completely and Gibraltar 's telecommunications links through Spain were cut .
The Spanish decision had major consequences not only for the political relationship between Spain and the United Kingdom , but for the people of Gibraltar , many of whom had relatives or homes in Spain . As one of the Gibraltarians who suffered the closure of the frontier explains :
The saddest sight was seeing people behind the wire fences on both sides of the land frontier yelling at the top of their voices across the wide dividing space to enquire about the state of relatives , as telephone communications had been cut by the Spaniards . Local housewives with Spanish relatives in the Campo area kept their radios tuned to the nearby Spanish stations for news of family members who were gravely ill .
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from the prison ship HMS Maidstone by swimming to freedom , resulting in them being dubbed the " Magnificent Seven " . On 31 October 1973 , three leading IRA members , including former Chief of Staff Seamus Twomey , escaped from Mountjoy Prison in Dublin when a hijacked helicopter landed in the exercise yard of the prison . Irish band The Wolfe Tones wrote a song celebrating the escape called The Helicopter Song , which topped the Irish popular music charts . 19 IRA members escaped from Portlaoise Jail on 18 August 1974 after overpowering guards and using gelignite to blast through gates , and 33 prisoners attempted to escape from Long Kesh on 6 November 1974 after digging a tunnel . IRA member Hugh Coney was shot dead by a sentry , 29 other prisoners were captured within a few yards of the prison , and the remaining three were back in custody within 24 hours . In March 1975 , ten prisoners escaped from the courthouse in Newry while on trial for attempting to escape from Long Kesh . The escapees included Larry Marley , who would later be one of the masterminds behind the 1983 escape . ( Marley was shot dead by loyalists in 1987 . ) On 10 June 1981 , eight IRA members on remand , including Angelo Fusco , Paul Magee and Joe Doherty , escaped from Crumlin Road Jail . The prisoners took prison officers hostage using three handguns that had been smuggled into the prison , took their uniforms and shot their way out of the prison .
= = 1983 escape = =
HM Prison Maze was considered one of the most escape @-@ proof prisons in Europe . In addition to 15 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) fences , each H @-@ Block was encompassed by an 18 @-@ foot ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) concrete wall topped with barbed wire , and all gates on the complex were made of solid steel and electronically operated . Prisoners had been planning the escape for several months . Bobby Storey and Gerry Kelly had started working as orderlies in H7 , which allowed them to identify weaknesses in the security systems , and six handguns had been smuggled into the prison . Shortly after 2 : 30 pm on 25 September , prisoners seized control of H7 by simultaneously taking the prison officers hostage at gunpoint in order to prevent them from triggering an alarm . One officer was stabbed with a craft knife , and another was knocked down by a blow to the back of the head . One officer who attempted to prevent the escape was shot in the head by Gerry Kelly , but survived . By 2 : 50 pm the prisoners were in control of H7 without an alarm being raised . A dozen prisoners also took uniforms from the officers , and the officers were also forced to hand over their car keys and details of where their cars were , for possible later use during the escape . A rearguard was left behind to watch over hostages and keep the alarm from being raised until they believed the escapees were clear of the prison , when they returned to their cells . At 3 : 25 pm , a lorry delivering food supplies arrived at the entrance to H7 , whereupon Brendan McFarlane and other prisoners took the occupants hostage at gunpoint and took them inside H7 . The lorry driver was told the lorry was being used in the escape , and he was instructed what route to take and how to react if challenged . Storey told the driver , " This man [ Gerry Kelly ] is doing 30 years and he will shoot you without hesitation if he has to . He has nothing to lose . "
At 3 : 50 pm the prisoners left H7 , and the driver and a prison orderly were taken back to the lorry , and the driver 's foot tied to the clutch . 37 prisoners climbed into the back of the lorry , while Kelly lay on the floor of the cab with a gun pointed at the driver , who was also told the cab had been booby trapped with a hand grenade . At nearly 4 : 00 pm the lorry drove towards the main gate of the prison , where the prisoners intended to take over the gatehouse . Ten prisoners dressed in guards ' uniforms and armed with guns and chisels dismounted from the lorry and entered the gatehouse , where they took the officers hostage . At 4 : 05 pm the officers began to resist , and an officer pressed an alarm button . When other staff responded via an intercom , a senior officer said while being held at gunpoint that the alarm had been triggered accidentally . By this time the prisoners were struggling to maintain control in the gatehouse due to the number of hostages . Officers arriving for work were entering the gatehouse from outside the prison , and each was ordered at gunpoint to join the other hostages . Officer James Ferris ran from the gatehouse towards the pedestrian gate attempting to raise the alarm , pursued by Dermot Finucane . Ferris had already been stabbed three times in the chest , and before he could raise the alarm he collapsed .
Finucane continued to the pedestrian gate where he stabbed the officer controlling the gate , and two officers who had just entered the prison . This incident was seen by a soldier on duty in a watch tower , who reported to the British Army operations room that he had seen prison officers fighting . The operations room telephoned the prison 's Emergency Control Room ( ECR ) , which replied that everything was all right and that an alarm had been accidentally triggered earlier . At 4 : 12 pm the alarm was raised when an officer in the gatehouse pushed the prisoner holding him hostage out of the room and telephoned the ECR . However , this was not done soon enough to prevent the escape . After several attempts the prisoners had opened the main gate , and were waiting for the prisoners still in the gatehouse to rejoin them in the lorry . At this time two prison officers blocked the exit with their cars , forcing the prisoners to abandon the lorry and make their way to the outer fence which was 25 yards away . Four prisoners attacked one of the officers and hijacked his car , which they drove towards the external gate . They crashed into a car near the gate and abandoned the car . Two escaped through the gate , one was captured exiting the car , and another was captured after being chased by a soldier . At the main gate , a prison officer was shot in the leg while chasing the only two prisoners who had not yet reached the outer fence . The prisoner who fired the shot was captured after being shot and wounded by a soldier in a watch tower , and the other prisoner was captured after falling . The other prisoners escaped over the fence , and by 4 : 18 pm the main gate was closed and the prison secured , after 35 prisoners had breached the prison perimeter . The escape was the biggest in both British and Irish history , and the biggest in Europe since World War II .
Outside the prison the IRA had planned a logistical support operation involving 100 armed members , but due to a miscalculation of five minutes the prisoners found no transport waiting for them and were forced to flee across fields or hijack vehicles .
The British Army and Royal Ulster Constabulary immediately activated a contingency plan and by 4 : 25 pm a cordon of vehicle check points were in place around the prison , and others were later in place in strategic positions across Northern Ireland , resulting in the recapture of one prisoner at 11 : 00 pm . Twenty prison officers were injured during the escape , thirteen were kicked and beaten , four stabbed , and two shot . One prison warder , James Ferris , who had been stabbed , died after suffering a heart attack during the escape .
= = Reaction = =
The escape was a propaganda coup and morale boost for the IRA , with Irish republicans dubbing it the " Great Escape " . Leading unionist politician Ian Paisley called on Nicholas Scott , the Parliamentary Under @-@ Secretary of State for Northern Ireland , to resign . The British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher made a statement in Ottawa during a visit to Canada , saying " It is the gravest [ breakout ] in our present history , and there must be a very deep inquiry " . The day after the escape , Secretary of State for Northern Ireland James Prior announced an inquiry would be headed by Her Majesty 's Chief Inspector of Prisons , James Hennessy . The Hennessy Report was published on 26 January 1984 placing most of the blame for the escape on prison staff , and made a series of recommendations to improve security at the prison . The report also placed blame with the designers of the prison , the Northern Ireland Office and successive prison governors who had failed to improve security . Prior announced that the prison 's governor had resigned , and that there would be no ministerial resignations as a result of the report 's findings . Four days after the Hennessy Report was published , then Minister for Prisons Nicholas Scott dismissed allegations from the Prison Governors Association and the Prison Officers Association that the escape was due to political interference in the running of the prison .
On 25 October 1984 , nineteen prisoners appeared in court on charges relating to the death of prison officer James Ferris , sixteen charged with his murder . A pathologist determined that the stab wounds Ferris suffered would not have killed a healthy man . The judge acquitted all sixteen as he could not correlate the stabbing to the heart attack .
= = Escapees = =
Fifteen escapees were captured on the day , including four who were discovered hiding underwater in a river near the prison using reeds to breathe . Four more escapees were captured over the next two days , including Hugh Corey and Patrick McIntyre who were captured following a two @-@ hour siege at an isolated farmhouse . Out of the remaining 19 escapees , 18 ended up in the republican stronghold of South Armagh where two members of the IRA 's South Armagh Brigade were in charge of transporting them to safehouses , and given the option of either returning to active service in the IRA 's armed campaign or a job and new identity in the United States .
Escapee Kieran Fleming drowned in the Bannagh River near Kesh in December 1984 , while attempting to escape from an ambush by the Special Air Service ( SAS ) in which fellow IRA member Antoine Mac Giolla Bhrighde was killed . Gerard McDonnell was captured in Glasgow in June 1985 along with four other IRA members , including Brighton bomber Patrick Magee , and convicted of conspiring to cause sixteen explosions across England . Séamus McElwaine was killed by the SAS in Roslea in April 1986 , and Kelly and McFarlane were returned to prison in December 1986 after being extradited from the Netherlands where they had been arrested in January 1986 , leaving twelve escapees still on the run . Pádraig McKearney was killed by the SAS along with seven other members of the IRA 's East Tyrone Brigade in Loughgall in May 1987 , the IRA 's biggest single loss of life since the 1920s . In November 1987 Paul Kane and one of the masterminds of the escape , Dermot Finucane – a brother of Belfast solicitor Pat Finucane , who would be shot dead by the legal Ulster Defence Association in 1989 – were arrested in Granard , County Longford on extradition warrants issued by the British authorities . Robert Russell was extradited back to Northern Ireland in August 1988 after being captured in Dublin in 1984 , and Paul Kane followed in April 1989 . In March 1990 the Supreme Court of Ireland in Dublin blocked the extradition of James Pius Clarke and Dermot Finucane on the grounds they " would be probable targets for ill @-@ treatment by prison staff " if they were returned to prison in Northern Ireland .
Kevin Barry Artt , Pól Brennan , James Smyth and Terrence Kirby , collectively known as the " H @-@ Block 4 " , were arrested in the United States between 1992 and 1994 and fought lengthy legal battles against extradition . Smyth was extradited back to Northern Ireland in 1996 and returned to prison , before being released in 1998 . Pól Brennan , who had married a US citizen , was detained and removed from the United States to the Republic of Ireland on either 20 or 21 August 2009 . Tony Kelly was arrested in Letterkenny , County Donegal in October 1997 but was not extradited . In 2000 the British government announced that the extradition requests for Brennan , Artt and Kirby were being withdrawn as part of the Good Friday Agreement . The men officially remain fugitives , but in 2003 Her Majesty 's Prison Service said they were not being " actively pursued " . Dermot McNally , who had been living in the Republic of Ireland and was tracked down in 1996 , and Dermot Finucane , received an amnesty in January 2002 , allowing them to return to Northern Ireland if they wished to . However , Tony McAllister was not granted a similar amnesty . As of 2008 , two escapees , Gerard Fryers and Séamus Campbell , had not been traced since the escape . Up to 800 republicans held a party at a hotel in Letterkenny in September 2003 to celebrate the 20th anniversary of the escape , which was described by Ulster Unionist Party MP Jeffrey Donaldson as " insensitive , inappropriate and totally unnecessary " .
= = Subsequent escape attempts = =
On 10 August 1984 loyalist prisoner Benjamin Redfern , a member of the Ulster Defence Association , attempted to escape from HM Prison Maze by hiding in the back of a refuse lorry , but died after being caught in the crushing mechanism . On 7 July 1991 , IRA prisoners Nessan Quinlivan and Pearse McAuley escaped from HM Prison Brixton , where they were being held on remand . They escaped using a gun that had been smuggled into the prison , wounding a motorist as they fled . On 9 September 1994 six prisoners including an armed robber , Danny McNamee and four IRA members including Paul Magee , escaped from HM Prison Whitemoor . The prisoners , in possession of two guns that had been smuggled into the prison , scaled the prison walls using knotted sheets . A guard was shot and wounded during the escape , and the prisoners were captured after being chased across fields by guards and the police . In March 1997 a 40 @-@ foot ( 12 m ) tunnel was discovered in H7 at the Maze Prison . The tunnel was fitted with electric lights , and was 80 feet ( 24 m ) from the outside wall , having already breached the block 's perimeter wall . On 10 December 1997 IRA prisoner Liam Averill , serving a life sentence after being convicted of the murder of two Protestants , escaped from the Maze dressed as a woman . Averill mingled with a group of prisoners ' families attending a Christmas party , and escaped on the coach taking the families out of the prison . He was never apprehended .
= Platypus =
The platypus ( Ornithorhynchus anatinus ) , also known as the duck @-@ billed platypus , is a semiaquatic egg @-@ laying mammal endemic to eastern Australia , including Tasmania . Together with the four species of echidna , it is one of the five extant species of monotremes , the only mammals that lay eggs instead of giving birth . The animal is the sole living representative of its family ( Ornithorhynchidae ) and genus ( Ornithorhynchus ) , though a number of related species have been found in the fossil record .
The unusual appearance of this egg @-@ laying , duck @-@ billed , beaver @-@ tailed , otter @-@ footed mammal baffled European naturalists when they first encountered it , with some considering it an elaborate hoax . It is one of the few venomous mammals , the male platypus having a spur on the hind foot that delivers a venom capable of causing severe pain to humans . The unique features of the platypus make it an important subject in the study of evolutionary biology and a recognisable and iconic symbol of Australia ; it has appeared as a mascot at national events and is featured on the reverse of its 20 @-@ cent coin . The platypus is the animal emblem of the state of New South Wales .
Until the early 20th century , it was hunted for its fur , but it is now protected throughout its range . Although captive breeding programs have had only limited success and the platypus is vulnerable to the effects of pollution , it is not under any immediate threat .
= = Taxonomy and etymology = =
When the platypus was first encountered by Europeans in 1798 , a pelt and sketch were sent back to Great Britain by Captain John Hunter , the second Governor of New South Wales . British scientists ' initial hunch was that the attributes were a hoax . George Shaw , who produced the first description of the animal in the Naturalist 's Miscellany in 1799 , stated it was impossible not to entertain doubts as to its genuine nature , and Robert Knox believed it might have been produced by some Asian taxidermist . It was thought that somebody had sewn a duck 's beak onto the body of a beaver @-@ like animal . Shaw even took a pair of scissors to the dried skin to check for stitches .
The common name " platypus " is the latinisation of the Greek word πλατύπους ( platupous ) , " flat @-@ footed " , from πλατύς ( platus ) , " broad , wide , flat " and πούς ( pous ) , " foot " . Shaw assigned the species the Linnaean name Platypus anatinus when he initially described it , but the genus term was quickly discovered to already be in use as the name of the wood @-@ boring ambrosia beetle genus Platypus . It was independently described as Ornithorhynchus paradoxus by Johann Blumenbach in 1800 ( from a specimen given to him by Sir Joseph Banks ) and following the rules of priority of nomenclature , it was later officially recognised as Ornithorhynchus anatinus . The scientific name Ornithorhynchus anatinus is derived from ορνιθόρυγχος ( ornithorhynkhos ) , which literally means " bird snout " in Greek ; and anatinus , which means " duck @-@ like " in Latin .
There is no universally agreed plural of " platypus " in the English language . Scientists generally use " platypuses " or simply " platypus " . Colloquially , the term " platypi " is also used for the plural , although this is technically incorrect and a form of pseudo @-@ Latin ; the correct Greek plural would be " platypodes " . Early British settlers called it by many names , such as " watermole " , " duckbill " , and " duckmole " . The name platypus is often prefixed with the adjective " duck @-@ billed " to form duck @-@ billed platypus , which distinguishes the modern platypus from the extinct Riversleigh platypuses .
= = Description = =
In David Collins 's account of the new colony 1788 – 1801 , he describes coming across " an amphibious , mole like " animal . His account includes a drawing of the animal .
The body and the broad , flat tail of the platypus are covered with dense , brown fur that traps a layer of insulating air to keep the animal warm . The fur is waterproof , and the texture is akin to that of a mole . The platypus uses its tail for storage of fat reserves ( an adaptation also found in animals such as the Tasmanian devil and fat @-@ tailed sheep ) . It has webbed feet and a large , rubbery duck @-@ like snout . The webbing is more significant on the front feet and is folded back when walking on land . Unlike a bird 's beak ( in which the upper and lower parts separate to reveal the mouth ) , the snout of the platypus is a sensory organ with the mouth on the underside . The nostrils are located on the dorsal surface of the snout , while the eyes and ears are located in a groove set just back from it ; this groove is closed when swimming . Platypuses have been heard to emit a low growl when disturbed and a range of other vocalisations have been reported in captive specimens .
Weight varies considerably from 0 @.@ 7 to 2 @.@ 4 kg ( 1 @.@ 5 to 5 @.@ 3 lb ) , with males being larger than females ; males average 50 cm ( 20 in ) in total length , while females average 43 cm ( 17 in ) , with substantial variation in average size from one region to another , and this pattern does not seem to follow any particular climatic rule and may be due to other environmental factors , such as predation and human encroachment .
The platypus has an average body temperature of about 32 ° C ( 90 ° F ) rather than the 37 ° C ( 99 ° F ) typical of placental mammals . Research suggests this has been a gradual adaptation to harsh environmental conditions on the part of the small number of surviving monotreme species rather than a historical characteristic of monotremes .
Modern platypus young have three teeth in each of the maxillae ( one premolar and two molars ) and dentaries ( three molars ) , which they lose before or just after leaving the breeding burrow ; adults have heavily keratinised pads in their place . The first upper and third lower cheek teeth of platypus nestlings are small , each having one principal cusp , while the other teeth have two main cusps . The platypus jaw is constructed differently from that of other mammals , and the jaw @-@ opening muscle is different . As in all true mammals , the tiny bones that conduct sound in the middle ear are fully incorporated into the skull , rather than lying in the jaw as in cynodonts and other premammalian synapsids . However , the external opening of the ear still lies at the base of the jaw . The platypus has extra bones in the shoulder girdle , including an interclavicle , which is not found in other mammals . As in many other aquatic and semiaquatic vertebrates , the bones show osteosclerosis , increasing their density to provide ballast . It has a reptilian gait , with the legs on the sides of the body , rather than underneath . When on land , it engages in knuckle @-@ walking on its front feet , to protect the webbing between the toes .
= = = Venom = = =
While both male and female platypuses are born with ankle spurs , only the male 's spurs deliver venom , composed largely of defensin @-@ like proteins ( DLPs ) , three of which are unique to the platypus . The DLPs are produced by the immune system of the platypus . The function of defensins is to cause lysis in pathogenic bacteria and viruses , but in platypuses they also are formed into venom for defense . Although powerful enough to kill smaller animals such as dogs , the venom is not lethal to humans , but the pain is so excruciating that the victim may be incapacitated . Oedema rapidly develops around the wound and gradually spreads throughout the affected limb . Information obtained from case histories and anecdotal evidence indicates the pain develops into a long @-@ lasting hyperalgesia ( a heightened sensitivity to pain ) that persists for days or even months . Venom is produced in the crural glands of the male , which are kidney @-@ shaped alveolar glands connected by a thin @-@ walled duct to a calcaneus spur on each hind limb . The female platypus , in common with echidnas , has rudimentary spur buds that do not develop ( dropping off before the end of their first year ) and lack functional crural glands .
The venom appears to have a different function from those produced by nonmammalian species ; its effects are not life @-@ threatening to humans , but nevertheless powerful enough to seriously impair the victim . Since only males produce venom and production rises during the breeding season , it may be used as an offensive weapon to assert dominance during this period .
Similar spurs are found on many archaic mammal groups , indicating that this is an ancient characteristic for mammals as a whole , and not exclusive to the platypus or other monotremes .
= = = Electrolocation = = =
Monotremes ( for the other species , see Echidna ) are the only mammals ( apart from at least one species of dolphin ) known to have a sense of electroreception : they locate their prey in part by detecting electric fields generated by muscular contractions . The platypus ' electroreception is the most sensitive of any monotreme .
The electroreceptors are located in rostrocaudal rows in the skin of the bill , while mechanoreceptors ( which detect touch ) are uniformly distributed across the bill . The electrosensory area of the cerebral cortex is contained within the tactile somatosensory area , and some cortical cells receive input from both electroreceptors and mechanoreceptors , suggesting a close association between the tactile and electric senses . Both electroreceptors and mechanoreceptors in the bill dominate the somatotopic map of the platypus brain , in the same way human hands dominate the Penfield homunculus map .
The platypus can determine the direction of an electric source , perhaps by comparing differences in signal strength across the sheet of electroreceptors . This would explain the characteristic side @-@ to @-@ side motion of the animal 's head while hunting . The cortical convergence of electrosensory and tactile inputs suggests a mechanism that determines the distance of prey that , when they move , emit both electrical signals and mechanical pressure pulses . The platypus uses the difference between arrival times of the two signals to sense distance .
The platypus feeds by neither sight nor smell , closing its eyes , ears , and nose each time it dives . Rather , when it digs in the bottom of streams with its bill , its electroreceptors detect tiny electric currents generated by muscular contractions of its prey , so enabling it to distinguish between animate and inanimate objects , which continuously stimulate its mechanoreceptors . Experiments have shown the platypus will even react to an " artificial shrimp " if a small electric current is passed through it .
= = = Eyes = = =
In recent studies it has been suggested that the eyes of the platypus are more similar to those of Pacific hagfish or Northern Hemisphere lampreys than to those of most tetrapods . The eyes also contain double cones , which most mammals do not have .
Although the platypus ' eyes are small and not used under water , several features indicate that vision played an important role in its ancestors . The corneal surface and the adjacent surface of the lens is flat while the posterior surface of the lens is steeply curved , similar to the eyes of other aquatic mammals such as otters and sea @-@ lions . A temporal ( ear side ) concentration of retinal ganglion cells , important for binocular vision , indicates a role in predation , while the accompanying visual acuity is insufficient for such activities . Furthermore , this limited acuity is matched by a low cortical magnification , a small lateral geniculate nucleus and a large optic tectum , suggesting that the visual midbrain plays a more important role than the visual cortex like in some rodents . These features suggest that the platypus has adapted to an aquatic and nocturnal lifestyle , developing its electrosensory system at the cost of its visual system ; an evolutionary process paralleled by the small number of electroreceptors in the short @-@ beaked echidna , who dwells in dry environments , whilst the long @-@ beaked echidna , who lives in moist environments , is intermediate between the other two monotremes .
= = Ecology and behaviour = =
The platypus is semiaquatic , inhabiting small streams and rivers over an extensive range from the cold highlands of Tasmania and the Australian Alps to the tropical rainforests of coastal Queensland as far north as the base of the Cape York Peninsula . Inland , its distribution is not well known ; it is extinct in South Australia ( apart from an introduced population on Kangaroo Island ) and is no longer found in the main part of the Murray @-@ Darling Basin , possibly due to the declining water quality brought about by extensive land clearing and irrigation schemes . Along the coastal river systems , its distribution is unpredictable ; it appears to be absent from some relatively healthy rivers , and yet maintains a presence in others , for example , the lower Maribyrnong , that are quite degraded .
In captivity , platypuses have survived to 17 years of age , and wild specimens have been recaptured when 11 years old . Mortality rates for adults in the wild appear to be low . Natural predators include snakes , water rats , goannas , hawks , owls , and eagles . Low platypus numbers in northern Australia are possibly due to predation by crocodiles . The introduction of red foxes in 1845 for hunting may have had some impact on its numbers on the mainland . The platypus is generally regarded as nocturnal and crepuscular , but individuals are also active during the day , particularly when the sky is overcast . Its habitat bridges rivers and the riparian zone for both a food supply of prey species , and banks where it can dig resting and nesting burrows . It may have a range of up to 7 km ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) , with a male 's home range overlapping those of three or four females .
The platypus is an excellent swimmer and spends much of its time in the water foraging for food . When swimming , it can be distinguished from other Australian mammals by the absence of visible ears . Uniquely among mammals , it propels itself when swimming by an alternate rowing motion of the front feet ; although all four feet of the platypus are webbed , the hind feet ( which are held against the body ) do not assist in propulsion , but are used for steering in combination with the tail . The species is endothermic , maintaining its body temperature at about 32 ° C ( 90 ° F ) , lower than most mammals , even while foraging for hours in water below 5 ° C ( 41 ° F ) .
Dives normally last around 30 seconds , but can last longer , although few exceed the estimated aerobic limit of 40 seconds . Recovery at the surface between dives commonly takes from 10 to 20 seconds .
When not in the water , the platypus retires to a short , straight resting burrow of oval cross @-@ section , nearly always in the riverbank not far above water level , and often hidden under a protective tangle of roots .
The average sleep time of a platypus is said to be as long as 14 hours per day , possibly because it eats crustaceans , which provide a high level of calories .
= = = Diet = = =
The platypus is a carnivore : it feeds on annelid worms , insect larvae , freshwater shrimp , and freshwater yabby that it digs out of the riverbed with its snout or catches while swimming . It uses cheek @-@ pouches to carry prey to the surface , where it is eaten . The platypus needs to eat about 20 % of its own weight each day , which requires it to spend an average of 12 hours daily looking for food .
= = = Reproduction = = =
When the platypus was first encountered by European naturalists , they were divided over whether the female laid eggs . This was not confirmed until 1884 , when W. H. Caldwell was sent to Australia , where , after extensive searching assisted by a team of 150 Aborigines , he managed to discover a few eggs . Mindful of the high cost per word , Caldwell famously but tersely wired London , " Monotremes oviparous , ovum meroblastic . " That is , monotremes lay eggs , and the eggs are similar to those of reptiles in that only part of the egg divides as it develops .
The species exhibits a single breeding season ; mating occurs between June and October , with some local variation taking place between different populations across its range . Historical observation , mark @-@ and @-@ recapture studies , and preliminary investigations of population genetics indicate the possibility of both resident and transient members of populations , and suggest a polygynous mating system . Females are thought likely to become sexually mature in their second year , with breeding confirmed still to take place in animals over nine years old .
Outside the mating season , the platypus lives in a simple ground burrow , the entrance of which is about 30 cm ( 12 in ) above the water level . After mating , the female constructs a deeper , more elaborate burrow up to 20 m ( 66 ft ) long and blocked at intervals with plugs ( which may act as a safeguard against rising waters or predators , or as a method of regulating humidity and temperature ) . The male takes no part in caring for its young , and retreats to his year @-@ long burrow . The female softens the ground in the burrow with dead , folded , wet leaves , and she fills the nest at the end of the tunnel with fallen leaves and reeds for bedding material . This material is dragged to the nest by tucking it underneath her curled tail .
The female platypus has a pair of ovaries , but only the left one is functional . The platypus ' genes are a possible evolutionary link between the mammalian XY and bird / reptile ZW sex @-@ determination systems because one of the platypus ' five X chromosomes contains the DMRT1 gene , which birds possess on their Z chromosome . It lays one to three ( usually two ) small , leathery eggs ( similar to those of reptiles ) , about 11 mm ( 0 @.@ 43 in ) in diameter and slightly rounder than bird eggs . The eggs develop in utero for about 28 days , with only about 10 days of external incubation ( in contrast to a chicken egg , which spends about one day in tract and 21 days externally ) . After laying her eggs , the female curls around them . The incubation period is divided into three phases . In the first phase , the embryo has no functional organs and relies on the yolk sac for sustenance . The yolk is absorbed by the developing young . During the second phase , the digits develop , and in the last phase , the egg tooth appears .
Most mammal zygotes go though holoblastic cleavage , meaning that following fertilization the ovum is split due to cell divisions into multiple , divisible daughter cells . This is in comparison to meroplastic division in birds and platypuses , which causes the ovum to split but not completely . This causes the cells at the edge of the yolk to be cytoplasmically continuous with the egg ’ s cytoplasm . This allows the yolk , which contains the embryo , to exchange waste and nutrients with the cytoplasm .
The newly hatched young are vulnerable , blind , and hairless , and are fed by the mother 's milk . Although possessing mammary glands , the platypus lacks teats . Instead , milk is released through pores in the skin . The milk pools in grooves on her abdomen , allowing the young to lap it up . After they hatch , the offspring are suckled for three to four months . During incubation and weaning , the mother initially leaves the burrow only for short periods , to forage . When doing so , she creates a number of thin soil plugs along the length of the burrow , possibly to protect the young from predators ; pushing past these on her return forces water from her fur and allows the burrow to remain dry . After about five weeks , the mother begins to spend more time away from her young and , at around four months , the young emerge from the burrow . A platypus is born with teeth , but these drop out at a very early age , leaving the horny plates it uses to grind food .
= = Evolution = =
The platypus and other monotremes were very poorly understood , and some of the 19th century myths that grew up around them — for example , that the monotremes were " inferior " or quasireptilian — still endure . In 1947 , William King Gregory theorised that placental mammals and marsupials may have diverged earlier , and a subsequent branching divided the monotremes and marsupials , but later research and fossil discoveries have suggested this is incorrect . In fact , modern monotremes are the survivors of an early branching of the mammal tree , and a later branching is thought to have led to the marsupial and placental groups . Molecular clock and fossil dating suggest platypuses split from echidnas around 19 – 48 million years ago .
The oldest discovered fossil of the modern platypus dates back to about 100 @,@ 000 years ago , during the Quaternary period . The extinct monotremes Teinolophos and Steropodon were closely related to the modern platypus . The fossilised Steropodon was discovered in New South Wales and is composed of an opalised lower jawbone with three molar teeth ( whereas the adult contemporary platypus is toothless ) . The molar teeth were initially thought to be tribosphenic , which would have supported a variation of Gregory 's theory , but later research has suggested , while they have three cusps , they evolved under a separate process . The fossil is thought to be about 110 million years old , which means the platypus @-@ like animal was alive during the Cretaceous period , making it the oldest mammal fossil found in Australia . Monotrematum sudamericanum , another fossil relative of the platypus , has been found in Argentina , indicating monotremes were present in the supercontinent of Gondwana when the continents of South America and Australia were joined via Antarctica ( up to about 167 million years ago ) . A fossilized tooth of a giant platypus species , Obdurodon tharalkooschild , was dated 5 – 15 million years ago . Judging by the tooth , the animal measured 1 @.@ 3 meters long , making it the largest platypus on record .
Because of the early divergence from the therian mammals and the low numbers of extant monotreme species , the platypus is a frequent subject of research in evolutionary biology . In 2004 , researchers at the Australian National University discovered the platypus has ten sex chromosomes , compared with two ( XY ) in most other mammals ( for instance , a male platypus is always XYXYXYXYXY ) , The platypuses sex chromosomes have been found to have great homology to the bird Z chromosome . The platypus genome also has both reptilian and mammalian genes associated with egg fertilisation . Though the platypus lacks the mammalian sex @-@ determining gene SRY , a study found that the mechanism of sex determination is the AMH gene on the oldest Y chromosome . A draft version of the platypus genome sequence was published in Nature on 8 May 2008 , revealing both reptilian and mammalian elements , as well as two genes found previously only in birds , amphibians , and fish . More than 80 % of the platypus ' genes are common to the other mammals whose genomes have been sequenced .
= = Conservation status = =
Except for its loss from the state of South Australia , the platypus occupies the same general distribution as it did prior to European settlement of Australia . However , local changes and fragmentation of distribution due to human modification of its habitat are documented . Its current and historical abundance , however , are less well @-@ known and it has probably declined in numbers , although still being considered as common over most of its current range . The species was extensively hunted for its fur until the early years of the 20th century and , although protected throughout Australia since 1905 , until about 1950 it was still at risk of drowning in the nets of inland fisheries . The platypus does not appear to be in immediate danger of extinction , because conservation measures have been successful , but it could be affected by habitat disruption caused by dams , irrigation , pollution , netting , and trapping . The IUCN lists the platypus on its Red List as least concern .
Platypuses generally suffer from few diseases in the wild ; however , public concern in Tasmania is widespread about the potential impacts of a disease caused by the fungus Mucor amphibiorum . The disease ( termed mucormycosis ) affects only Tasmanian platypuses , and has not been observed in platypuses in mainland Australia . Affected platypuses can develop skin lesions or ulcers on various parts of their bodies , including their backs , tails , and legs . Mucormycosis can kill platypuses , death arising from secondary infection and by affecting the animals ' ability to maintain body temperature and forage efficiently . The Biodiversity Conservation Branch at the Department of Primary Industries and Water are collaborating with NRM north and University of Tasmania researchers to determine the impacts of the disease on Tasmanian platypuses , as well as the mechanism of transmission and current spread of the disease .
Much of the world was introduced to the platypus in 1939 when National Geographic Magazine published an article on the platypus and the efforts to study and raise it in captivity . The latter is a difficult task , and only a few young have been successfully raised since , notably at Healesville Sanctuary in Victoria . The leading figure in these efforts was David Fleay , who established a platypusary — a simulated stream in a tank — at the Healesville Sanctuary , where breeding was successful in 1943 . In 1972 , he found a dead baby of about 50 days old , which had presumably been born in captivity , at his wildlife park at Burleigh Heads on the Gold Coast , Queensland . Healesville repeated its success in 1998 and again in 2000 with a similar stream tank . Taronga Zoo in Sydney bred twins in 2003 , and breeding was again successful there in 2006 .
= = = Platypus in wildlife sanctuaries = = =
The platypus is kept , for conservation purposes , in special aquariums at the following Australian wildlife sanctuaries :
= = = = Queensland = = = =
David Fleay Wildlife Park , Gold Coast , Queensland .
Lone Pine Koala Sanctuary , Fig Tree Pocket , Brisbane , Queensland .
Walkabout Creek Wildlife Centre , The Gap , Brisbane , Queensland .
The Australian Platypus Park at Tarzali Lakes , Millaa Millaa , Queensland
= = = = New South Wales = = = =
Taronga Zoo , Sydney , New South Wales
Sydney Aquarium , Sydney , New South Wales
Australian Reptile Park , Foster , New South Wales
= = = = Victoria = = = =
Healesville Sanctuary , near Melbourne , Victoria , where the platypus was first bred in captivity by naturalist David Fleay in 1943 . The first platypus " born " in captivity was named " Corrie " and was quite popular with the public . In 1955 , three months before a new " platypussary " ( after " aviary " ) was opened , she unfortunately escaped from her pen into the nearby Badger Creek and apparently was never recovered .
= = = = International = = = =
As of 2013 , there is no platypus in captivity outside of Australia . Three attempts were made to bring the animals to the Bronx Zoo , in 1922 , 1947 , and 1958 ; of these , only two of the three animals introduced in 1947 lived longer than eighteen months .
= = Cultural references = =
The platypus has been featured in the Dreamtime stories of indigenous Australians , who believed the animal was a hybrid of a duck and a water rat . According to one story , the major animal groups , the land animals , water animals and birds , all competed for the platypus to join their respective groups , but the platypus ultimately decided to not join any of them , feeling that he did not need to be part of a group to be special .
The platypus has been used several times as a mascot : " Syd " the platypus was one of the three mascots chosen for the Sydney 2000 Olympics along with an echidna and a kookaburra , " Expo Oz " the platypus was the mascot for World Expo 88 , which was held in Brisbane in 1988 , and Hexley the platypus is the mascot for Apple Computer 's BSD @-@ based Darwin operating system , Mac OS X.
The platypus has also been featured in songs , such as Green Day 's " Platypus ( I Hate You ) " and Mr. Bungle 's " Platypus " . It is the subject of a children 's poem by Banjo Paterson .
The platypus has frequently appeared in Australian postage stamps and coins . The earliest appearance is the 9d Australian stamp from 1937 . The platypus re @-@ appeared in the 1960 – 64 Australian Native Animal Series . Souvenir sheet of " from " Laos and Equatorial Guinea has also featured the animal . The platypus has appeared on a 1987 36 cent stamp and an Australian 1996 95 cent stamp . The 2006 Australian Bush Babies stamp series features a $ 4.65AUD stamp of a young platypus . A 5 cent stamp also produced in 2006 features the platypus also . Since the introduction of decimal currency to Australia in 1966 , the embossed image of a platypus , designed and sculpted by Stuart Devlin , has appeared on the reverse ( tails ) side of the 20 @-@ cent coin , making it a most notable depiction of the animal .
= Kenny Roberts =
Kenneth Leroy Roberts ( born December 31 , 1951 in Modesto , California ) is an American former professional motorcycle racer and racing team owner . In 1978 , he became the first American to win a Grand Prix motorcycle racing world championship . He was also a two @-@ time winner of the A.M.A. Grand National Championship . Roberts is one of only four riders in American Motorcyclist Association ( AMA ) racing history to win the AMA Grand Slam , representing Grand National wins at a mile , half @-@ mile , short @-@ track , TT Steeplechase and road race events .
Roberts left his mark on Grand Prix motorcycle racing as a world championship winning rider , an advocate for increased safety standards in racing , and as a racing team owner and a motorcycle engine and chassis constructor . His dirt track @-@ based riding style changed the way Grand Prix motorcycles were ridden . Roberts ' proposal to create a rival motorcycle championship in 1979 broke the Fédération Internationale de Motocyclisme ( FIM ) hegemony and increased the political clout of Grand Prix racers , which subsequently led to improved safety standards and a new era of professionalism in the sport . In 2000 , Roberts was named a Grand Prix Legend by the FIM .
= = Early life = =
Kenny Roberts ' parents were Alice and Melton " Buster " Roberts . As a child growing up in the rural agriculture area just off highway 132 near the West side vineyards of E & J Gallo Winery of Modesto , Roberts was originally interested in horseback riding . He rode his first motorcycle at the age of 12 when a friend dared him to ride a mini bike . Roberts accepted the challenge and the experience thrilled him . He built his own motorcycle by attaching his father 's lawn mower engine to a bicycle frame . Roberts began his career in dirt track racing after attending a local race in Modesto and deciding that he wanted to compete himself . His father purchased a Tohatsu bike for him , but once it proved itself uncompetitive as a race bike , he moved up to a more powerful Hodaka motorcycle .
Roberts showed a natural talent for dirt track racing and began winning local races . In 1968 , his race results drew the attention of a local Suzuki dealer Bud Aksland , who offered to sponsor Roberts aboard a Suzuki motorcycle . He made the decision to drop out of high school before his senior year to pursue a career in motorcycle racing . Roberts was allowed to compete professionally when he turned 18 , and on the day after his eighteenth birthday , he entered his first professional race at San Francisco 's Cow Palace , finishing in fourth place .
= = Racing history = =
= = = A.M.A. Grand National Championship = = =
Realizing that Roberts needed more help if his racing career was going to progress , Aksland introduced Roberts to airline pilot and amateur motorcycle racer Jim Doyle , who would become Roberts ' personal manager . In 1971 , Doyle and Roberts approached Triumph 's American distributor to ask about the possibility of a sponsored ride , but were told that Roberts was too small for one of their bikes . They then turned to the American Yamaha importer 's team , who agreed to make Roberts a factory sponsored rider at the age of 19 . Yamaha asked the head of their American racing program , former 250 cc world champion Kel Carruthers to help guide Roberts ' racing career . It marked the beginning of a long and productive relationship between the two men . Carruthers ended his riding career after the 1973 season to concentrate full @-@ time on managing Roberts ' and Yamaha 's efforts in the A.M.A. Grand National Championship , a series which encompassed events in four distinctive dirt track disciplines plus road racing .
In 1971 , Roberts won the AMA Rookie of the Year Award . In his first professional race as an expert class rider in 1972 , Roberts rode to victory at the Grand National short @-@ track race in the Houston Astrodome . Roberts made a name for himself that year by battling the dominant Harley @-@ Davidson factory dirt track team aboard an underpowered Yamaha XS 650 motorcycle , making up for his lack of horsepower with sheer determination . He finished the season ranked fourth in the country . In 1973 , in just his second season as an expert , Roberts won the national championship , amassing a record 2 @,@ 014 points in the 25 @-@ race series .
While Roberts had a natural talent for riding motorcycles on dirt surfaces , on paved road circuits , the motorcycle felt unsettled beneath him while negotiating a turn . After observing Finnish rider Jarno Saarinen win the 1973 Daytona 200 using a riding style where he shifted his body weight towards the inside of a turn , Roberts tried the technique and found that it helped settle the motorcycle . He adopted the cornering style and exaggerated the body shift to a greater extent than Saarinen had by extending his knee out until it skimmed the track surface . With his new riding technique , Roberts began to excel in road race events . Yamaha motorcycles performed very well in road racing , where the Yamaha TZ750 was the dominant motorcycle of the era .
In the 1974 Daytona 200 , after early leader Gary Nixon retired , Roberts battled for the lead with former 500 cc world champion , Giacomo Agostini before an overheated engine forced him to settle for second place . In April 1974 , Roberts ventured to Europe for the first time to compete in the prestigious Imola 200 road race for 750 cc motorcycles . He made a positive impression competing against the best road racers in the world , once again finishing second to Agostini . He then traveled to England with a team of American riders to compete against a British riding team in the 1974 Transatlantic Match races . The conventional wisdom at the time was that American riders , who competed mostly in dirt track races , could not race on asphalt at the same level as the British riders , who specialized in road racing events . Roberts dispelled any such notions by winning three of the six races and finishing second in the remaining three races . Roberts was the top individual points scorer in the event with 93 points , five more than Barry Sheene , the top British rider .
Roberts returned to compete in the 1974 Grand National championship and won his first national road race at Road Atlanta on June 2 , 1974 . On August 18 , Roberts won the Peoria TT race to complete a Grand Slam with victories in each of the five different events on the Grand National calendar . He claimed his second consecutive Grand National championship , winning six races and surpassing his 1973 points record by scoring 2 @,@ 286 points in the 23 race series , collecting points in all 23 races . Roberts also entered his first world championship road racing event , winning the pole position before finishing third in the 1974 250 cc Dutch TT .
Roberts continued his road racing successes in 1975 , winning three out of four races in the 1975 Transatlantic Match races . After having won the national championship in 1974 , Roberts faced an increasingly difficult battle in dirt track races as , Harley @-@ Davidson continued to improve their XR @-@ 750 dirt tracker while Yamaha struggled to maintain the pace . Roberts made up for his bike 's lack of power with an almost fearless , determined riding style . He battled Harley @-@ Davidson factory rider Gary Scott throughout the 1975 season but mechanical breakdowns hampered his title defense . He had been leading the Daytona 200 when mechanical problems yielded the victory to his Yamaha teammate Gene Romero . At the Ascot TT , Roberts battled from 17th place to take the lead before a broken sprocket ended his race . Roberts ' fearless riding style was highlighted at the Indy Mile Grand National . In a desperate effort to keep Scott within reach in the points chase , Yamaha wedged a Yamaha TZ750 two @-@ stroke road racing engine inside a dirt track frame . On a bike that was considered unrideable due to its excessive horsepower , Roberts came from behind on the two @-@ stroke , and overtook the factory Harley @-@ Davidson duo of Corky Keener and Jay Springsteen on the last lap for one of the most famous wins in American dirt track racing history . Afterward , Roberts was famously quoted as saying , " They don 't pay me enough to ride that thing " . Despite accomplishing another Grand Slam , this time in only one season , Roberts lost his crown , finishing second to Gary Scott in the 1975 national championship .
Although Roberts won four Grand Nationals in 1976 , he continued to experience mechanical misfortunes as well as a horsepower deficit to the Harley @-@ Davidson motorcycles in the mile and half @-@ mile dirt track events . He had been leading the Daytona 200 once again when tire troubles forced him to make a lengthy pit stop , and Johnny Cecotto went on to win the race . He dropped to third in the national championship as Jay Springsteen claimed the title for the Harley @-@ Davidson team . He returned to England in April 1977 , winning four out of six races at the 1977 Transatlantic Match races . Roberts then travelled to Italy where he raced in the Imola 200 , leaving no doubt he was capable of competing at the international level by winning both legs and setting a new track record . He returned to the United States to compete in the Grand National championship where he won five of the six road races that made up the pavement portion of the series . In the road race event at Sears Point , Roberts started the race at the back of the pack and passed the entire field within four laps to win the race . Despite being in contention for much of the season , Roberts was unable to win any of the dirt track events and eventually finished the year in fourth place .
= = = First American world champion = = =
When it became apparent that Yamaha could not develop a dirt track motorcycle capable of competing with the dominant Harley @-@ Davidson dirt track team , the American Yamaha importer , Yamaha USA , offered to send Roberts to Europe in 1978 to compete in the World Championship Grand Prix road racing series , along with Kel Carruthers to act as his mentor and crew chief . Roberts also secured the financial backing of the Goodyear tire company . The team planned to compete in the 250 cc world championship as well as the Formula 750 series in order to have more practice time to learn the tracks , but their main focus would be on the 500 cc class , considered the premier class at the time . His main competition in the 500 cc world championship would come from Suzuki rider Barry Sheene , winner of the two previous titles . Roberts said that he was initially indifferent about competing in Europe , but when he read that Sheene had labeled him as , " no threat " , he made up his mind to compete . Few observers gave Roberts any chance of winning the championship , citing the reasoning that it would take him at least one season to learn the European circuits .
The motorcycle technology of the late 1970s featured engines with power in excess of what the frames and tires of the day could accommodate . Roberts ' riding style , bred on the dirt tracks of America , revolutionized road racing . Prior to his arrival in Europe , riders focused on attaining high entry speeds into corners , leaving braking until the last possible moment then , carving graceful arcs through the corners with both wheels in line . Roberts did just the opposite , braking early then , quickly applying the throttle which resulted in the rear tire breaking traction and spinning . The resulting tire spin caused the motorcycle to buck and shake as it continually lost then regained traction , creating a brutal , violent riding style that no one had ever seen before on the racetracks of Europe . His riding style was reminiscent of dirt track riding , where sliding the rear tire to one side is used as a method to steer the motorcycle around a corner . Because of his early application of the throttle , he was able to attain top speed faster than his competitors .
The 1978 season started with Roberts winning the Daytona 200 in a dominating fashion . After several near misses forced him to retire while leading the event , Roberts lapped the entire field en route to his first Daytona victory . He then won a rain @-@ shortened Imola 200 race and was the second highest individual scorer behind Pat Hennen at the 1978 Transatlantic Match races . The 1978 world championship chase did not start well for Roberts at the season @-@ opening round in Venezuela .
Although Roberts won the 250 cc Grand Prix , Sheene claimed the victory in the 500 cc Venezuelan Grand Prix while Roberts ' Yamaha suffered a mechanical failure on the starting line . In the second round at the Spanish Grand Prix , Roberts was leading the race by eight seconds when his throttle stuck , forcing him to settle for second place behind fellow American Pat Hennen . Roberts then won his first @-@ ever 500 cc Grand Prix with a win in Austria , quickly followed by two more victories in France and Italy , along with two second @-@ place finishes in the Netherlands and Belgium . At the 1978 Swedish Grand Prix , Roberts crashed during practice for the 250 cc race , sustaining a concussion and a thumb injury . Shaken up by the accident , he could do no better than seventh place in the 500 cc race . Sheene had come down with a debilitating virus at the Venezuelan round , but a string of podium finishes and a victory at the Swedish Grand Prix combined with Roberts ' failure to score any points in the Finnish Grand Prix , allowed him to close the points gap .
The two championship contenders arrived in England for the British Grand Prix with only three points separating them . The race ended in controversy when torrential rains during the race , along with pit stops for tire changes by both Roberts and Sheene , created confusion among official scorers . Eventually , Roberts was declared the winner with Sheene being awarded third place behind privateer Steve Manship , who did not stop for a tire change . In the final race of the season at the daunting , 14 @.@ 2 miles ( 22 @.@ 9 km ) long Nürburgring racetrack in Germany , Roberts finished in third place , ahead of Sheene in fourth place to claim the first world championship for an American rider in Grand Prix road racing history . He also scored four victories to finish second behind Johnny Cecotto in the Formula 750 world championship , and won two races to finish fourth in the 250 cc world championship .
= = = The rebel leader = = =
The 1979 season began disastrously for Roberts when he suffered career @-@ threatening back injuries and a ruptured spleen in a pre @-@ season crash while testing a motorcycle in Japan . His injuries caused him to miss the season opening Grand Prix in Venezuela , but he completed an impressive recovery by winning the second round in Austria , followed by a second place in Germany , and another victory in Italy . Controversy again surrounded Roberts at the Spanish Grand Prix when Spanish race organisers , knowing that Roberts had to race to maintain his points lead , refused to pay him starting money as guaranteed by FIM regulations . An angered Roberts proceeded to win the race , and then refused to accept the winner 's trophy . The FIM initially suspended the championship points leader for his actions , but the suspension was later reduced to probation .
Further controversy ensued at the Belgian Grand Prix at the Spa circuit . The circuit had been paved just days before the race , creating a track that many of the racers felt was unsafe due to diesel fuel seeping to the surface . Roberts and the new championship points leader , Virginio Ferrari , instigated a riders ' revolt and refused to race . Once again , the FIM responded by suspending Roberts and Ferrari . The FIM later reduced this to another probation . The event highlighted the animosity between Roberts and the FIM concerning track safety . Roberts further irritated the FIM when he began talking to the press about forming a rival racing series to compete against the FIM 's monopoly .
The series then moved on to Britain , where Roberts would be involved in one of the closest races in Grand Prix history . Roberts ' battle with Sheene at the 1979 British Grand Prix at Silverstone has been cited as one of the greatest races of the 1970s . Minutes before the start of the race , Roberts ' Yamaha blew a seal and sprayed the bike with oil . His crew managed to replace the seal in time , but Roberts went to the starting line with his gloves coated with oil , causing his hand to slip on the throttle during the race . The race began with Roberts , Sheene and Dutch rider Wil Hartog breaking away from the rest of the field of riders . Hartog eventually fell behind as Roberts and Sheene continued to battle for the lead . The event featured numerous lead changes throughout the 28 lap race , with Roberts winning ahead of Sheene by a narrow margin of just three @-@ tenths of a second . A third @-@ place finish in the season @-@ ending French Grand Prix , along with a crash by his main championship rival Ferrari , secured his second consecutive world championship .
In December 1979 , Roberts made good on his threats when he , along with the other top world championship riders , released a letter to the press announcing their intention to break away from the FIM and create a rival race series called the World Series . When Roberts first arrived on the Grand Prix scene , motorcycle racers were competing for as little prize money as $ 200 , at venues such as Imatra in Finland that featured railroad crossings and hay bales wrapped around telephone poles . In 1956 , the reigning 500 cc world champion , Geoff Duke and thirteen other riders were given six @-@ month suspensions for merely threatening to strike . Roberts adopted a confrontational , sometimes belligerent stance with race promoters , challenging the previously accepted poor treatment that motorcycle racers of the day were accustomed to receiving . Although the competing series failed to take off due to difficulties in securing enough venues , it forced the FIM to take the riders ' demands seriously and make changes regarding their safety . During the 1979 FIM Congress , new rules were passed increasing prize money substantially and in subsequent years , stricter safety regulations were imposed on race organizers .
= = = A third world championship = = =
In February 1980 , Roberts made a remarkable return to the American Grand National Championship for two races at the season opening Houston TT and short @-@ track events held in the Houston Astrodome over two evenings . After more than a year away from dirt track competitions , Roberts won the Houston TT race to tie Bart Markel 's career record of 28 Grand National victories . He followed that the next evening with a third place in the Houston short @-@ track national . Returning to England once again for the 1980 Transatlantic Match races , Roberts was once again the top individual points scorer as he led the American team to victory over the British .
For the 1980 Grand Prix season , the Yamaha factory made the Yamaha USA team of Roberts and Carruthers the de facto factory racing team . The season got underway two months late due to cancellation of Austrian and Venezuelan rounds . Barry Sheene had been replaced by Randy Mamola as the top Suzuki rider as , Sheene had been dissatisfied with the Suzuki 's efforts and had turned to a privateer Yamaha team . Roberts won the first three races as the Suzuki team appeared to be in disarray , but by the third race , the Suzukis of Mamola and Marco Lucchinelli were making things more difficult for Roberts . Roberts ' Yamaha suffered a deflating front tire and a faulty rear shock absorber in the Netherlands forcing him to pull out of the race , but his main championship rivals also suffered setbacks with Cecotto , Ferrari and Hartog all missing races due to injuries and Sheene suffering mechanical breakdowns . Suzuki riders went on to win the last four races , but Roberts had built up a sufficient point lead to hold on and clinch his third consecutive 500 cc world championship .
= = = A reversal of fortune = = =
In 1981 , Yamaha introduced a new square @-@ four cylinder bike , similar to Suzuki 's RG500 . Roberts raced to a second @-@ place finish behind Marco Luchinelli at the non @-@ championship Imola 200 race . Roberts ' bike had a suspension failure in the Grand Prix season opener at Austria , but he rebounded to win the next two races in Germany and Italy . Roberts ' title hopes suffered a setback at the Dutch TT at Assen when his Yamaha 's front brake pads were installed incorrectly causing his front wheel to lock up on the starting line , ending his race before it had started . He came back to score a second place behind Lucchinelli in Belgium , but was once again struck by misfortune when a bad case of food poisoning forced him to miss the San Marino Grand Prix . He then narrowly lost the British Grand Prix to Jack Middelburg by three @-@ tenths of a second before ending his season with a seventh place in Finland and a retirement in Sweden . Suzuki team riders Mamola and Lucchinelli battled to the final race of the season before the Italian claimed the championship with a total of five Grand Prix victories , with Mamola finishing in second and Roberts in third place .
Roberts switched to Dunlop tires for the 1982 season , as Goodyear pulled out of motorcycle racing . New competition had arrived as Honda entered their new two @-@ stroke NS500 ridden by defending champion Lucchinelli , former 350 cc world champion , Takazumi Katayama and newcomer Freddie Spencer . Roberts won the season @-@ opening round in Argentina on the old square @-@ four Yamaha , but then switched to the new OW61 YZR500 V4 engined bike . He came in third at the Austrian Grand Prix then , sat out the French Grand Prix at Nogaro as he and the other top riders boycotted the race over unsafe track conditions . Roberts then won the Spanish Grand Prix at Jarama ahead of Sheene , and scored a second place behind Suzuki rider Franco Uncini in the Netherlands . In a portent of things to come , Roberts was leading the Belgian Grand Prix when his Dunlop tires lost their grip and he had to settle for fourth place as Spencer went on to win his first Grand Prix for Honda . Roberts then injured his knee and finger at the British Grand Prix and had to miss the Swedish round , but by then the world championship had been claimed by Uncini with a total of five victories while Roberts fell to fourth place . By the end of the 1982 season , Roberts had won sixteen 500 cc Grand Prix races , more than double that of any of his contemporaries .
= = = Roberts versus Spencer = = =
Roberts announced that the 1983 season would be his final year in Grand Prix competition . Yamaha team manager Giacomo Agostini had been unable to agree on a contract with rider Graeme Crosby , so AMA Superbike champion Eddie Lawson was brought in as Roberts ' new teammate . The 1983 battle for the championship between Roberts and Honda 's Spencer would be considered one of the greatest seasons in motorcycle Grand Prix history , along with the 1967 500 cc duel between Mike Hailwood and Giacomo Agostini . Roberts began the season with his YZR500 having problems with overheating and rear suspension , while Spencer started strongly , winning the first three races and five out of the first seven . Roberts was leading the second race in France , when his Yamaha split an expansion chamber causing it to lose power as Spencer won , with Roberts falling to fourth place . In Round 3 at Monza , Roberts crashed while leading Spencer three laps from the finish . Roberts came back to win the German Grand Prix , but then finished second to Spencer in Spain in a race Spencer called one of the toughest of his career . Things began to go Roberts ' way at the Austrian Grand Prix as Roberts won while Spencer 's Honda suffered a crankshaft failure . In the Yugoslavian Grand Prix , Roberts ' Yamaha failed to start immediately , while Spencer charged to an early lead , leaving Roberts to fight through the field to finish in fourth place . Roberts then went on a three @-@ race winning streak with victories in the Netherlands , Belgium and England , while Spencer stayed close with a third place and two second @-@ place finishes .
The championship then moved to the penultimate round at the Swedish Grand Prix with Spencer holding a two @-@ point lead over Roberts . Roberts led Spencer going into the last lap of the race . Heading down the back straight , Spencer placed his Honda right behind Roberts ' Yamaha as they reached the second to the last corner , a ninety degree right @-@ hander . As both riders applied their brakes , Spencer came out of Roberts ' slipstream and managed to get inside of the Yamaha . As they exited the corner , both riders ran wide off the track and into the dirt . Spencer was able to get back on the track and back on the power first , crossing the finish line just ahead of Roberts for a crucial victory . Roberts considered Spencer 's pass to be foolish and dangerous , and exchanged angry words with him on the podium . Roberts would have to win the final round at the San Marino Grand Prix with Spencer finishing no better than third place in order for Roberts to win his fourth world championship . In a fitting end to a great career , Roberts won his last @-@ ever Grand Prix race , however Spencer was able to secure second place to claim the world championship . The two riders dominated the season with each claiming six victories in the 12 race series .
Roberts continued to ride in selected events in 1984 . In March , he battled Spencer to win his second consecutive Daytona 200 and third win overall . In July , Roberts won the first leg of the Laguna Seca 200 , then finished second to Randy Mamola in the second leg , as Mamola was declared the winner based on aggregate times . In September 1985 , he appeared at the Springfield Mile Grand National dirt track race riding a Mert Lawwill @-@ prepared Harley @-@ Davidson XR750 , but failed to make the final .
In July 1985 , Roberts won the pole position at the prestigious Suzuka 8 Hours endurance race , held in Japan . Teamed with Tadahiko Taira , the duo were leading the race until the final hour , when mechanical problems dropped them back to seventeenth place . Roberts returned to compete in the 1986 Suzuka 8 Hours , this time teaming up with American Mike Baldwin . He qualified second behind Wayne Gardner , but failed to finish the race .
= = = Career statistics = = =
In a 13 @-@ year professional racing career , Roberts won two Grand National Championships and three 500 cc world championships including 32 Grand Nationals and 24 Grand Prix road races . He also won the Daytona 200 three times and was a six @-@ time winner of the Laguna Seca 200 . He was the second AMA rider after Dick Mann to accomplish the Grand Slam of winning all five events of the Grand National Championship .
= = Race team manager and owner = =
After his Grand Prix racing career ended in 1983 , Roberts briefly considered an auto racing career before deciding to field a Grand Prix team . In 1984 , he entered a team into the 250 cc world championship with riders Wayne Rainey and Alan Carter using Yamaha bikes . In 1986 he moved up to the 500 cc world championship with riders Randy Mamola and Mike Baldwin . After returning to the United States to compete in the AMA Superbike championship , Wayne Rainey re @-@ joined the team in 1988 , finishing in third place in his inaugural 500 cc season then , improving to second place behind Eddie Lawson in 1989 . In 1990 , Roberts secured the financial support of the Marlboro cigarette company , and his team became the official Yamaha factory racing team . Rainey and John Kocinski won the 500 cc and 250 cc world championships in 1990 , making Roberts the most successful team manager in Grand Prix racing at the time . Rainey went on to win three consecutive 500 cc world championships for Roberts ' team . After Rainey was left paralyzed in a crash at the 1993 Italian Grand Prix , the Roberts team continued racing with Luca Cadalora as their main rider , but struggled during a period dominated by Honda and their rider , Mick Doohan .
In 1997 , Roberts stunned the racing world when he left Yamaha after more than 25 years to start his own motorcycle company . Roberts had grown weary of battling over the direction he felt the Yamaha team needed to pursue . Basing his new company in England to take advantage of the Formula 1 industry , Roberts built a three @-@ cylinder , two @-@ stroke engine with the engineering assistance of Tom Walkinshaw Racing . He decided to take advantage of rules allowing lighter weights for three @-@ cylinder motorcycles after observing the agility and handling advantage of Spencer 's Honda NS500 during the 1983 season . Unfortunately , by the time the motorcycle had been developed , tire technology had improved to the point where any advantage over four @-@ cylinder bikes had been negated . The motorcycle did manage to win a pole position with rider Jeremy McWilliams taking the top qualifying position at the 2002 Australian Grand Prix against the new breed of 990 cc four @-@ stroke MotoGP motorcycles .
With the introduction of the MotoGP class in 2002 , Roberts ' team developed a five @-@ cylinder bike called the KR5 . The team was originally well @-@ funded by Proton of Malaysia , but by the middle of the 2004 season , it became apparent that the Roberts team was not able to field an engine capable of competing with the dominant Japanese factories . Roberts turned to the KTM factory to provide engines for the 2005 season , however after ten races KTM abruptly withdrew their support on the eve of the Czech Republic Grand Prix , forcing the team to miss several races . Honda stepped in to help Roberts ' team for the 2006 season by providing five @-@ cylinder engines , as Robert 's son , Kenny Roberts , Jr . , rode the Team Roberts KR211V bike to a sixth place in the championship including two podium results . The 2007 season saw the introduction of a new MotoGP engine formula using 800 cc four @-@ stroke engines . Roberts would once again secure engines from Honda for the Team Roberts KR212V race bike , but the results were not as hoped , and funding for the team faded . After the 2007 season , Roberts pulled out of MotoGP competition due to the lack of sponsorship .
= = Legacy = =
Roberts ' riding style in which he forced the motorcycle 's rear wheel to break traction to steer around a corner , essentially riding on paved surfaces as if they were dirt tracks , changed the way Grand Prix motorcycles were ridden . From 1983 to 1999 , every 500 cc world championship was won by a rider with a dirt track racing background . Roberts ' cornering method of hanging off the motorcycles with his knee extended forced him to use duct tape as knee pads , and eventually led to the introduction of purpose @-@ built knee pucks used by all motorcycle road racers today . His battles with the Grand Prix establishment eventually led to the adoption of stricter safety standards for Grand Prix race organizers . He was one of the first riders to challenge the FIM over the way they treated competitors and helped improve prize money as well as the professionalism of the sport . It was not until Roberts planned his rival race series in 1980 that the FIM was forced to change the way in which they dealt with motorcycle racers .
Throughout his career , Roberts has been a strong proponent of raising the image of motorcycle racing among the general public . During his riding career , he made a point of returning to the United States during the mid @-@ season break in the Grand Prix calendar to race in the Laguna Seca 200 as a way to increase the profile of the event in order for it to gain Grand Prix status . The race eventually attained Grand Prix status in 1988 and in 1993 , Roberts took on the role of promoter , providing financial backing for the 1993 United States Grand Prix . In the 1990s when Grand Prix racing faced diminishing numbers of competitors due to increasing costs , Roberts demanded that Yamaha provide engines to privateer teams in order to bolster the number of racers .
Roberts ' son , Kenny Roberts , Jr . , won the 2000 500 cc World Championship , making them the only father and son duo to have won the title . Ironically , Roberts has stated that he considers himself a dirt tracker at heart and only took up road racing because it was necessary to do so if a rider was going to compete for the Grand National championship . He also said that he would have preferred to remain in the United States to compete in the Grand National championship if Yamaha or another manufacturer had been able to construct a dirt track racer capable of competing with Harley @-@ Davidson .
= = Honors = =
Inducted into the Motorsports Hall of Fame of America in 1990 .
Inducted into the International Motorsports Hall of Fame in 1992 .
Inducted into the AMA Motorcycle Hall of Fame in 1998 .
The FIM named him a Grand Prix " Legend " in 2000 .
= = Motorcycle Grand Prix results = =
( key ) ( Races in bold indicate pole position ; races in italics indicate fastest lap )
= White House FBI files controversy =
The White House FBI files controversy of the Clinton Administration , often referred to as Filegate , arose in June 1996 around improper access in 1993 and 1994 to Federal Bureau of Investigation security @-@ clearance documents . Craig Livingstone , director of the White House 's Office of Personnel Security , improperly requested , and received from the FBI , background reports concerning several hundred individuals without asking permission . The revelations provoked a strong political and press reaction because many of the files covered White House employees from previous Republican administrations , including top presidential advisors . Under criticism , Livingstone resigned from his position . Allegations were made that senior White House figures , including First Lady Hillary Rodham Clinton , may have requested and read the files for political purposes , and that the First Lady had authorized the hiring of the underqualified Livingstone .
The matter was investigated by the House Government Reform and Oversight Committee , the Senate Judiciary Committee , and the Whitewater Independent Counsel . In 1998 , Independent Counsel Kenneth Starr exonerated President Bill Clinton and First Lady Hillary Rodham Clinton of any involvement in the matter . In 2000 Independent Counsel Robert Ray issued his final report on Filegate , stating that there was no credible evidence of any criminal activity by any individual in the matter and no credible evidence that senior White House figures or the First Lady had requested the files or had acted improperly or testified improperly regarding Livingstone 's hiring . A separate lawsuit on the matter brought by Judicial Watch , a conservative watchdog group , lingered on for years and was dismissed by a federal judge in 2010 .
= = Improper use of files issue = =
" Filegate " began on June 5 , 1996 , when Republican Pennsylvania Congressman William F. Clinger , Jr . , chair of the House Committee on Government Reform and Oversight , announced that the committee had found , during their ongoing " Travelgate " investigations , that FBI background reports on Travelgate figure Billy Dale had been delivered to the White House . The following day , the White House delivered to the committee hundreds of other such files related to White House employees of the Reagan Administration and George H. W. Bush Administration , for which Craig Livingstone , director of the White House 's Office of Personnel Security , had improperly requested and received background reports from the FBI in 1993 and 1994 , without asking permission of the subject individuals . Estimates ranged from 400 to 700 to 900 unauthorized file disclosures . The incident caused an intense burst of criticism because many of the files covered White House employees from previous Republican administrations , including top figures such as James Baker , Brent Scowcroft , and Marlin Fitzwater .
Initial White House explanations for what had happened varied , but generally characterized it as a series of mistakes made without bad intent and offered apologies to those affected . President Clinton said that , " It appears to have been a completely honest bureaucratic snafu . " However his Republican opponent in the ongoing 1996 presidential election , Senator Bob Dole , compared it to the enemies list kept by the Nixon administration . Republicans made other charges , including that the White House was trying to dig up damaging information about Republicans in general and that the file transfer was motivated by a desire to slander Dale and other White House Travel Office officials , thereby justifying their dismissal .
On June 18 , 1996 , Attorney General Janet Reno asked the FBI to look into it ; FBI Director Louis Freeh acknowledged that both the FBI and especially the White House had committed " egregious violations of privacy " ( in some cases the background reports contained information about extramarital affairs , trangressions with the law , and medical issues ) . On June 21 Reno decided it was a conflict of interest for the U.S. Department of Justice to further investigate the matter , and thus recommended that it be folded into the overall umbrella of the Whitewater investigations , under charge of Independent Counsel Kenneth Starr . In any case , Starr had already begun looking into it .
On June 26 , 1996 , Clinger 's Government Reform and Oversight Committee held hearings on the matter . Livingstone , who announced his resignation at the start of his testimony that day , and his assistant , Anthony Marceca , insisted during the committee 's hearings that the mishandled files were a result of a bureaucratic mixup and that no improper motivations were behind it . They said that when the George H. W. Bush administrative staff left the White House in January 1993 , they had taken all the files of the Office of Personnel Security with them for use in the Bush Library , as they were permitted to do under law . The OPS staff were trying to rebuild these records to include those of permanent White House employees who remained to work in the Clinton administration ; Marceca , a civilian investigator for the Army , had been hired for this task . In doing so , they received an outdated list from the Secret Service of White House employees , which included many names who were no longer employees . This list was then given to the FBI and the personnel background files returned as a result . Lisa Wetzl , another assistant , testified that she discovered the mistake in mid @-@ 1994 and destroyed the request list .
Also called to testify were former White House counsel Bernard Nussbaum and former associate counsel William Kennedy III . Livingstone , Nussbaum , and Kennedy all offered apologies to those whose files had been obtained . On September 24 , 1996 , the Government Reform and Oversight Committee approved , on party lines , an interim report on the affair , blasting the Clinton Administration for a " cavalier approach " towards sensitive security procedures and saving that further investigation was necessary to determine if the events surrounding the files handling were " a blunder , the result of colossal incompetence , or whether they are established to be more serious or even criminal . " The Committee does not seem to have ever issued a final report .
The Senate Judiciary Committee was also involved in investigating the matter , holding hearings beginning June 29 , 1996 , and focussing on allegations that White House was engaged in a " dirty tricks " operation reminiscent of the Nixon administration . Looking into accusations that senior White House officials or First Lady Hillary Rodham Clinton may have inappropriately perused the files , in October 1996 Republican committee chair Orrin Hatch requested that the FBI do a fingerprint analysis of them . On November 3 , 1996 , the FBI informed the committee that no fingerprints of either the First Lady or any other named senior official were on the files .
= = Who hired Livingstone issue = =
A secondary question of the Filegate controversy revolved around what the Office of Personnel Security was , who had authorized the hiring of Livingstone , and whether he was qualified for the job . The Office was not responsible for actual White House security , as that was the charge of the United States Secret Service , nor did it perform background checks on potential White House employees , a task done by the FBI , nor did it keep the regular personnel files of employees , which were held in a different office within the White House . Rather , its role was to keep track of who was employed by the White House , make sure their security clearances were up to date , and give security briefings to new hires . Nevertheless , Livingstone seemed to lack qualifications for even this position ; he had worked on a number of Democratic Party campaigns and transitions , including being an advance man for the Clinton @-@ Gore 1992 campaign , and his only prior job in the " security " field was that of a local bar bouncer at a Washington , D.C. , night club . ( At the congressional hearings , Livingstone objected to " false and unfair caricatures of who I am . [ ... ] I have worked hard for little or no pay in political campaigns for candidates who I felt would make this country a better place to live . " In later years Livingstone would continue to maintain on the Internet that he had been qualified for the position , that the First Lady had signed off on hiring him , and that his character had been maligned by the general media . ) Clinton opponents stated that Livingstone had the highest level of security clearances in the U.S. government . White House officials could not explain why Livingstone was hired , nor who had hired him .
An FBI document suggested that Livingstone had been given his position because First Lady Hillary Rodham Clinton was a friend of Livingstone 's mother and recommended him . Hillary Clinton stated that while she was once photographed with the mother in a large group , she did not know her . Hillary Clinton was briefly deposed at the White House by the Independent Counsel regarding this matter on January 14 , 1998 . ( That same day , the same Office of the Independent Counsel staff were listening to taped conversations of Linda Tripp and Monica Lewinsky ; the Lewinsky scandal was soon to break . ) In 1999 , Clinton gave a sworn statement that she had nothing to do with Livingstone 's hiring . Livingstone also stated under oath there was no truth to the supposed hiring relationship . Hillary Clinton would later refer to the whole files matter as a " pseudoscandal " .
= = Official findings = =
On November 19 , 1998 , Independent Counsel Starr testified before the House Judiciary Committee in connection with the Impeachment of Bill Clinton over charges related to the Lewinsky scandal . Here , for the first time , Starr exonerated both President Clinton and the First Lady of complicity in the FBI files matter , saying " while there are outstanding issues that we are attempting to resolve with respect to one individual [ we ] found no evidence that anyone higher [ than Livingstone or Marceca ] was in any way involved in ordering the files from the FBI . Second , we have found no evidence that information contained in the files of former officials was used for an improper purpose . " ( Starr also chose this occasion to clear President Clinton in the Travelgate matter , and to say that he had not committed impeachable wrongdoing in the Whitewater matter ; Democrats on the committee immediately criticized Starr for withholding all these findings until after the 1998 Congressional elections . )
In March 2000 , Independent Counsel Robert Ray , Starr 's successor , issued the office 's final report on the matter , as part of a concerted effort to wrap up all Whitewater @-@ related cases before the end of Bill Clinton 's term . Ray determined that there was no credible evidence of any criminal activity by any individual in the matter . It attributed the improper collection of the files by Marceca due to his having an outdated Secret Service list of White House passes , as Marceca had originally claimed . It stated that even though Marceca 's statements were sometimes " contradictory and misleading " , they were " sufficiently transparent " and there was insufficient evidence to prove that Anthony Marceca had made false statements to Congress during his testimony . The report ascribed the FBI files matter to " a failure of process at many levels , " saying that the Secret Service had provided critically erroneous data , and that this was compounded by the White House 's informal process of requesting sensitive information by " inexperienced , untrained , and unsupervised personnel with backgrounds as political operatives . "
Based on an investigation that included the prior fingerprint analysis , the report further stated that :
there was no substantial and credible evidence that any senior White House official , or First Lady Hillary Rodham Clinton , was involved in seeking confidential Federal Bureau of Investigation background reports of former White House staff from prior administrations of President Bush and President Reagan .
Ray 's report also concluded that there was no credible evidence that Bernard Nussbaum testified falsely about not having discussed Livingstone 's hiring with the First Lady , and found as well that there was no personal relationship between the First Lady and Livingstone that had formed the basis for his hiring .
= = Judicial Watch lawsuit = =
Separately from the Independent Counsel investigation , Judicial Watch , a conservative watchdog group , engaged in long @-@ running litigation over the White House personnel file controversy . Judicial Watch 's Cara Leslie Alexander et al. vs. Federal Bureau of Investigation et al. class action lawsuit , filed on behalf of several members of the Reagan and George H. W. Bush Administrations , alleged that Livingstone , along with Anthony Marceca and William Kennedy , obtained the files and then rifled through them . Judicial Watch founder and Clintons antagonist suprême Larry Klayman attracted enough attention with the case to have the recurring Larry Claypool character modeled after him on the television series The West Wing . As late as January 2000 , Judicial Watch was filing affidavits in the United States District Court for the District of Columbia under Judge Royce C. Lamberth related to the case . In their $ 90 million lawsuit , they claimed that the First Lady did , despite her denials , know Livingstone – indeed , that Livingstone had bragged to associates he was very close to both the president and his wife – and that Clinton had personally hired him for the security job . ( White House defenders pointed out that Livingstone had a long history of exaggerating his importance and connections . ) Judicial Watch also said they had five sources who claimed Livingstone had been hired by and worked under the First Lady , and also discovered some photographs of Livingstone in the vicinity of the First Lady ( but not talking with him ) . In December 2002 Judicial Watch obtained a ruling from Judge Lamberth that recently uncovered White House e @-@ mails be searched for possible evidence in the lawsuit . Klayman said , " Hillary Clinton was the mastermind of Filegate . She will not escape justice . " Klayman and Judicial Watch had a severe falling out in 2003 , however , and several years went by with little or nothing happening in the lawsuit .
On March 9 , 2010 , Judge Lamberth dismissed the case . The judge asserted that the plaintiffs , despite years of opportunity , had failed to provide any evidence that the affair was a grand conspiracy rather than a bureaucratic mistake , and said that " this court is left to conclude that with the lawsuit , to quote Gertrude Stein , ' there 's no there there . ' " Nussbaum , one of the defendants , derisively said " No kidding " when informed of the dismissal . Media reports concluded that , fourteen years after the initial events were set in motion , Filegate was finally over . In May 2010 , Judicial Watch filed an appeal of the dismissal with the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit , but the Court of Appeals affirmed the dismissal on November 14 , 2011 , finally bringing the case to an end .
= Canada =
Canada ( / ˈkænədə / ; French : [ ka.na.da ] ) is a country in the northern half of North America . Its ten provinces and three territories extend from the Atlantic to the Pacific and northward into the Arctic Ocean , covering 9 @.@ 98 million square kilometres ( 3 @.@ 85 million square miles ) , making it the world 's second @-@ largest country by total area and the fourth @-@ largest country by land area . Canada 's border with the United States is the world 's longest land border . Canada is sparsely populated , the majority of its land territory being dominated by forest and tundra and the Rocky Mountains ; about four @-@ fifths of the country 's population of 35 million people live near the southern border . The majority of Canada has a cold or severely cold winter climate , but southerly areas are warm in summer .
Canada has been inhabited for millennia by various Aboriginal peoples . Beginning in the 15th and 16th centuries , British and French claims were made on the area , with the colony of Canada first being established by the French in 1537 . As a consequence of various conflicts , the United Kingdom gained and lost territories within British North America until it was left , in the late 18th century , with what mostly geographically comprises Canada today . Pursuant to the British North America Act , on July 1 , 1867 , the colonies of Canada , New Brunswick , and Nova Scotia joined to form the semi @-@ autonomous federal Dominion of Canada . This began an accretion of provinces and territories to the mostly self @-@ governing Dominion to the present ten provinces and three territories forming modern Canada .
In 1931 , Canada achieved near total independence from the United Kingdom with the Statute of Westminster 1931 , and full sovereignty was attained when the Canada Act 1982 removed the last remaining ties of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom . Canada is a federal parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy , with Queen Elizabeth II being the head of state . The country is officially bilingual at the federal level . It is one of the world 's most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations , the product of large @-@ scale immigration from many other countries . Its advanced economy is the eleventh largest in the world , relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources and well @-@ developed international trade networks . Canada 's long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its economy and culture .
Canada is a developed country and has the tenth highest nominal per capita income globally as well as the ninth highest ranking in the Human Development Index . It ranks among the highest in international measurements of government transparency , civil liberties , quality of life , economic freedom , and education . Canada is a Commonwealth Realm member of the Commonwealth of Nations , a member of the Francophonie , and part of several major international and intergovernmental institutions or groupings including the United Nations , the North Atlantic Treaty Organization , the G8 , the Group of Ten , the G20 , the North American Free Trade Agreement and the Asia @-@ Pacific Economic Cooperation forum .
= = Etymology = =
While a variety of theories have been postulated for the etymological origins of Canada , the name is now accepted as coming from the St. Lawrence Iroquoian word kanata , meaning " village " or " settlement " . In 1535 , indigenous inhabitants of the present @-@ day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona . Cartier later used the word Canada to refer not only to that particular village , but the entire area subject to Donnacona ( the chief at Stadacona ) ; by 1545 , European books and maps had begun referring to this small region along the St Lawrence River as Canada .
From the 16th to the early 18th century " Canada " referred to the part of New France that lay along the St. Lawrence River . In 1791 , the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada collectively named The Canadas ; until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841 . Upon Confederation in 1867 , Canada was adopted as the legal name for the new country , and the word Dominion was conferred as the country 's title . The transition away from the use of Dominion was formally reflected in 1982 with the passage of the Canada Act , which refers only to Canada . Later that year , the national holiday was renamed from Dominion Day to Canada Day . The term Dominion is also used to distinguish the federal government from the provinces , though after the Second World War the term federal had replaced dominion .
= = History = =
= = = Aboriginal peoples = = =
Aboriginal peoples in present @-@ day Canada include the First Nations , Inuit , and Métis , the latter being a mixed @-@ blood people who originated in the mid @-@ 17th @-@ century when First Nations and Inuit people married European settlers . The first inhabitants of North America migrated from Siberia by way of the Bering land bridge and arrived at least 15 @,@ 000 years ago , though increasing evidence suggests an even earlier arrival . The Paleo @-@ Indian archeological sites at Old Crow Flats and Bluefish Caves are two of the oldest sites of human habitation in Canada . The characteristics of Canadian Aboriginal societies included permanent settlements , agriculture , complex societal hierarchies , and trading networks . Some of these cultures had collapsed by the time European explorers arrived in the late 15th and early 16th centuries and have only been discovered through archeological investigations .
The aboriginal population at the time of the first European settlements is estimated to have been between 200 @,@ 000 and two million , with a figure of 500 @,@ 000 accepted by Canada 's Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples . As a consequence of contact with European diseases , Canada 's aboriginal peoples suffered from repeated outbreaks of newly introduced infectious diseases , such as influenza , measles , and smallpox ( to which they had no natural immunity ) , resulting in a forty to eighty percent population decrease in the centuries after the European arrival .
Although not without conflict , European Canadians ' early interactions with First Nations and Inuit populations were relatively peaceful . The Crown and Aboriginal peoples began interactions during the European colonialization period , though , the Inuit , in general , had more limited interaction with European settlers . From the late 18th century , European Canadians encouraged Aboriginals to assimilate into their own culture . These attempts reached a climax in the late 19th and early 20th centuries with forced integration and relocations . A period of redress is underway , which started with the appointment of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada by the Canadian government .
= = = European colonization = = =
The first known attempt at European colonization began when Norsemen settled briefly at L 'Anse aux Meadows in Newfoundland around 1000 AD . No further European exploration occurred until 1497 , when Italian seafarer John Cabot explored and claimed Canada 's Atlantic coast in the name of King Henry VII of England . Then Basque and Portuguese mariners established seasonal whaling and fishing outposts along the Atlantic coast in the early 16th century . In 1534 , French explorer Jacques Cartier explored the Saint Lawrence River , where , on July 24 , he planted a 10 @-@ metre ( 33 ft ) cross bearing the words " Long Live the King of France " and took possession of the territory ( known as the colony of Canada ) in the name of King Francis I. In general the settlements appear to have been short @-@ lived , possibly due to the similarity of outputs producible in Scandinavia and northern Canada and the problems of navigating trade routes at that time .
In 1583 , Sir Humphrey Gilbert , by the royal prerogative of Queen Elizabeth I , founded St. John 's , Newfoundland , as the first North American English colony . French explorer Samuel de Champlain arrived in 1603 and established the first permanent European settlements at Port Royal ( in 1605 ) and Quebec City ( in 1608 ) . Among the colonists of New France , Canadiens extensively settled the Saint Lawrence River valley and Acadians settled the present @-@ day Maritimes , while fur traders and Catholic missionaries explored the Great Lakes , Hudson Bay , and the Mississippi watershed to Louisiana . The Beaver Wars broke out in the mid @-@ 17th @-@ century over control of the North American fur trade .
The English established additional colonies in Cupids and Ferryland , Newfoundland , beginning in 1610 . The Thirteen Colonies to the south were founded soon after . A series of four wars erupted in colonial North America between 1689 and 1763 ; the later wars of the period constituted the North American theatre of the Seven Years ' War . Mainland Nova Scotia came under British rule with the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht and the 1763 Treaty of Paris ceded Canada and most of New France to Britain after the Seven Years ' War .
The Royal Proclamation of 1763 created the Province of Quebec out of New France , and annexed Cape Breton Island to Nova Scotia . St. John 's Island ( now Prince Edward Island ) became a separate colony in 1769 . To avert conflict in Quebec , the British parliament passed the Quebec Act of 1774 , expanding Quebec 's territory to the Great Lakes and Ohio Valley . It re @-@ established the French language , Catholic faith , and French civil law there . This angered many residents of the Thirteen Colonies , fuelling anti @-@ British sentiment in the years prior to the 1775 outbreak of the American Revolution .
The 1783 Treaty of Paris recognized American independence and ceded the newly added territories south ( but not north ) of the Great Lakes to the new United States . New Brunswick was split from Nova Scotia as part of a reorganization of Loyalist settlements in the Maritimes . To accommodate English @-@ speaking Loyalists in Quebec , the Constitutional Act of 1791 divided the province into French @-@ speaking Lower Canada ( later Quebec ) and English @-@ speaking Upper Canada ( later Ontario ) , granting each its own elected legislative assembly .
The Canadas were the main front in the War of 1812 between the United States and Britain . Peace came in 1815 ; no boundaries were changed . Immigration now resumed at a higher level , with over 960 @,@ 000 arrivals from Britain 1815 @-@ 50 . New arrivals included Irish refugees escaping the Great Irish Famine as well as Gaelic @-@ speaking Scots displaced by the Highland Clearances . Infectious diseases killed between 25 and 33 per cent of Europeans who immigrated to Canada before 1891 .
The desire for responsible government resulted in the abortive Rebellions of 1837 . The Durham Report subsequently recommended responsible government and the assimilation of French Canadians into English culture . The Act of Union 1840 merged the Canadas into a united Province of Canada and responsible government was established for all provinces of British North America by 1849 . The signing of the Oregon Treaty by Britain and the United States in 1846 ended the Oregon boundary dispute , extending the border westward along the 49th parallel . This paved the way for British colonies on Vancouver Island ( 1849 ) and in British Columbia ( 1858 ) .
= = = Confederation and expansion = = =
Following several constitutional conferences , the 1867 Constitution Act officially proclaimed Canadian Confederation on July 1 , 1867 , initially with four provinces : Ontario , Quebec , Nova Scotia , and New Brunswick . Canada assumed control of Rupert 's Land and the North @-@ Western Territory to form the Northwest Territories , where the Métis ' grievances ignited the Red River Rebellion and the creation of the province of Manitoba in July 1870 . British Columbia and Vancouver Island ( which had been united in 1866 ) joined the confederation in 1871 , while Prince Edward Island joined in 1873 .
The Canadian parliament passed a bill introduced by the Conservative Cabinet that established a National Policy of tariffs to protect the nascent Canadian manufacturing industries . To open the West , parliament also approved sponsoring the construction of three transcontinental railways ( including the Canadian Pacific Railway ) , opening the prairies to settlement with the Dominion Lands Act , and establishing the North @-@ West Mounted Police to assert its authority over this territory . In 1898 , during the Klondike Gold Rush in the Northwest Territories , parliament created the Yukon Territory . The Cabinet of Liberal Prime Minister Wilfrid Laurier fostered continental European immigrants settling the prairies and Alberta and Saskatchewan became provinces in 1905 .
= = = Early 20th century = = =
Because Britain still maintained control of Canada 's foreign affairs under the Confederation Act , its declaration of war in 1914 automatically brought Canada into World War I. Volunteers sent to the Western Front later became part of the Canadian Corps , which played a substantial role in the Battle of Vimy Ridge and other major engagements of the war . Out of approximately 625 @,@ 000 Canadians who served in World War I , some 60 @,@ 000 were killed and another 172 @,@ 000 were wounded . The Conscription Crisis of 1917 erupted when the Unionist Cabinet 's proposal to augment the military 's dwindling number of active members with conscription was met with vehement objections from French @-@ speaking Quebecers . The Military Service Act brought in compulsory military service , though , it , coupled with disputes over French language schools outside Quebec , deeply alienated Francophone Canadians and temporarily split the Liberal Party . In 1919 , Canada joined the League of Nations independently of Britain , and the 1931 Statute of Westminster affirmed Canada 's independence .
The Great Depression in Canada during the early 1930s saw an economic downturn , leading to hardship across the country . In response to the downturn , the Co @-@ operative Commonwealth Federation ( CCF ) in Saskatchewan introduced many elements of a welfare state ( as pioneered by Tommy Douglas ) in the 1940s and 1950s . On the advice of Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King , war with Germany was declared effective 10 September 1939 by King George VI , seven days after the United Kingdom . The delay underscored Canada 's independence .
The first Canadian Army units arrived in Britain in December 1939 . In all , over a million Canadians served in the armed forces during World War II and approximately 42 @,@ 000 were killed and another 55 @,@ 000 were wounded . Canadian troops played important roles in many key battles of the war , including the failed 1942 Dieppe Raid , the Allied invasion of Italy , the Normandy landings , the Battle of Normandy , and the Battle of the Scheldt in 1944 . Canada provided asylum for the Dutch monarchy while that country was occupied and is credited by the Netherlands for major contributions to its liberation from Nazi Germany . The Canadian economy boomed during the war as its industries manufactured military materiel for Canada , Britain , China , and the Soviet Union . Despite another Conscription Crisis in Quebec in 1944 , Canada finished the war with a large army and strong economy .
= = = Modern times = = =
The financial crisis of the great depression had led the Dominion of Newfoundland to relinquish responsible government in 1934 and become a crown colony ruled by a British governor . After two bitter referendums , Newfoundlanders voted to join Canada in 1949 as a province .
Canada 's post @-@ war economic growth , combined with the policies of successive Liberal governments , led to the emergence of a new Canadian identity , marked by the adoption of the current Maple Leaf Flag in 1965 , the implementation of official bilingualism ( English and French ) in 1969 , and the institution of official multiculturalism in 1971 . Socially democratic programs were also instituted , such as Medicare , the Canada Pension Plan , and Canada Student Loans , though provincial governments , particularly Quebec and Alberta , opposed many of these as incursions into their jurisdictions . Finally , another series of constitutional conferences resulted in the 1982 patriation of Canada 's constitution from the United Kingdom , concurrent with the creation of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms . In 1999 , Nunavut became Canada 's third territory after a series of negotiations with the federal government .
At the same time , Quebec underwent profound social and economic changes through the Quiet Revolution of the 1960s , giving birth to a modern nationalist movement . The radical Front de libération du Québec ( FLQ ) ignited the October Crisis with a series of bombings and kidnappings in 1970 and the sovereignist Parti Québécois was elected in 1976 , organizing an unsuccessful referendum on sovereignty @-@ association in 1980 . Attempts to accommodate Quebec nationalism constitutionally through the Meech Lake Accord failed in 1990 . This led to the formation of the Bloc Québécois in Quebec and the invigoration of the Reform Party of Canada in the West . A second referendum followed in 1995 , in which sovereignty was rejected by a slimmer margin of 50 @.@ 6 to 49 @.@ 4 percent . In 1997 , the Supreme Court ruled that unilateral secession by a province would be unconstitutional and the Clarity Act was passed by parliament , outlining the terms of a negotiated departure from Confederation .
In addition to the issues of Quebec sovereignty , a number of crises shook Canadian society in the late 1980s and early 1990s . These included the explosion of Air India Flight 182 in 1985 , the largest mass murder in Canadian history ; the École Polytechnique massacre in 1989 , a university shooting targeting female students ; and the Oka Crisis of 1990 , the first of a number of violent confrontations between the government and Aboriginal groups . Canada also joined the Gulf War in 1990 as part of a US @-@ led coalition force and was active in several peacekeeping missions in the 1990s , including the UNPROFOR mission in the former Yugoslavia .
Canada sent troops to Afghanistan in 2001 , but declined to join the US @-@ led invasion of Iraq in 2003 . In 2009 , Canada 's economy suffered in the worldwide Great Recession , but it has since largely rebounded . In 2011 , Canadian forces participated in the NATO @-@ led intervention into the Libyan civil war , and also became involved in battling the Islamic State insurgency in Iraq in the mid @-@ 2010s .
= = Geography and climate = =
Canada occupies much of the continent of North America , sharing land borders with the contiguous United States to the south , and the US state of Alaska to the northwest . Canada stretches from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west ; to the north lies the Arctic Ocean . Greenland is to the northeast . By total area ( including its waters ) , Canada is the second @-@ largest country in the world , after Russia . By land area alone , however , Canada ranks fourth , the difference being due to it having the worlds largest proportion of fresh water lakes .
Since 1925 , Canada has claimed the portion of the Arctic between 60 ° and 141 ° W longitude , but this claim is not universally recognized . Canada is home to the world 's northernmost settlement , Canadian Forces Station Alert , on the northern tip of Ellesmere Island – latitude 82 @.@ 5 ° N – which lies 817 kilometres ( 508 mi ) from the North Pole . Much of the Canadian Arctic is covered by ice and permafrost . Canada has the longest coastline in the world , with a total length of 243 @,@ 042 kilometres ( 151 @,@ 019 mi ) ; additionally , its border with the United States is the world 's longest land border , stretching 8 @,@ 891 kilometres ( 5 @,@ 525 mi ) .
Since the end of the last glacial period , Canada has consisted of eight distinct forest regions , including extensive boreal forest on the Canadian Shield . Canada has over 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 lakes ( 563 greater than 100 km2 ( 39 sq mi ) ) , more than any other country , containing much of the world 's fresh water . There are also fresh @-@ water glaciers in the Canadian Rockies and the Coast Mountains .
Canada is geologically active , having many earthquakes and potentially active volcanoes , notably Mount Meager , Mount Garibaldi , Mount Cayley , and the Mount Edziza volcanic complex . The volcanic eruption of the Tseax Cone in 1775 was among Canada 's worst natural disasters , killing 2 @,@ 000 Nisga 'a people and destroying their village in the Nass River valley of northern British Columbia . The eruption produced a 22 @.@ 5 @-@ kilometre ( 14 @.@ 0 mi ) lava flow , and , according to Nisga 'a legend , blocked the flow of the Nass River . Canada 's population density , at 3 @.@ 3 inhabitants per square kilometre ( 8 @.@ 5 / sq mi ) , is among the lowest in the world . The most densely populated part of the country is the Quebec City – Windsor Corridor , situated in Southern Quebec and Southern Ontario along the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River .
Average winter and summer high temperatures across Canada vary from region to region . Winters can be harsh in many parts of the country , particularly in the interior and Prairie provinces , which experience a continental climate , where daily average temperatures are near − 15 ° C ( 5 ° F ) , but can drop below − 40 ° C ( − 40 ° F ) with severe wind chills . In noncoastal regions , snow can cover the ground for almost six months of the year , while in parts of the north snow can persist year @-@ round . Coastal British Columbia has a temperate climate , with a mild and rainy winter . On the east and west coasts , average high temperatures are generally in the low 20s ° C ( 70s ° F ) , while between the coasts , the average summer high temperature ranges from 25 to 30 ° C ( 77 to 86 ° F ) , with temperatures in some interior locations occasionally exceeding 40 ° C ( 104 ° F ) .
= = Government and politics = =
Canada has a parliamentary system within the context of a constitutional monarchy , the monarchy of Canada being the foundation of the executive , legislative , and judicial branches . The sovereign is Queen Elizabeth II , who is also monarch of 15 other Commonwealth countries and each of Canada 's 10 provinces . As such , the Queen 's representative , the Governor General of Canada ( at present David Johnston ) , carries out most of the federal royal duties in Canada .
The direct participation of the royal and viceroyal figures in areas of governance is limited . In practice , their use of the executive powers is directed by the Cabinet , a committee of ministers of the Crown responsible to the elected House of Commons and chosen and headed by the Prime Minister of Canada ( at present Justin Trudeau ) , the head of government . The governor general or monarch may , though , in certain crisis situations exercise their power without ministerial advice . To ensure the stability of government , the governor general will usually appoint as prime minister the person who is the current leader of the political party that can obtain the confidence of a plurality in the House of Commons . The Prime Minister 's Office ( PMO ) is thus one of the most powerful institutions in government , initiating most legislation for parliamentary approval and selecting for appointment by the Crown , besides the aforementioned , the governor general , lieutenant governors , senators , federal court judges , and heads of Crown corporations and government agencies . The leader of the party with the second @-@ most seats usually becomes the Leader of Her Majesty 's Loyal Opposition and is part of an adversarial parliamentary system intended to keep the government in check .
Each of the 338 members of parliament in the House of Commons is elected by simple plurality in an electoral district or riding . General elections must be called by the governor general , either on the advice of the prime minister , within four years of the previous election , or if the government loses a confidence vote in the House . The 105 members of the Senate , whose seats are apportioned on a regional basis , serve until age 75 . Five parties had representatives elected to the federal parliament in the 2015 election : the Liberal Party of Canada , the Conservative Party of Canada ( governing party and soon to be Official Opposition ) , the New Democratic Party , the Bloc Québécois , and the Green Party of Canada . The list of historical parties with elected representation is substantial .
Canada 's federal structure divides government responsibilities between the federal government and the ten provinces . Provincial legislatures are unicameral and operate in parliamentary fashion similar to the House of Commons . Canada 's three territories also have legislatures , but these are not sovereign and have fewer constitutional responsibilities than the provinces . The territorial legislatures also differ structurally from their provincial counterparts .
The Bank of Canada is the central bank of the country . In addition , the Minister of Finance and Minister of Industry utilize the Statistics Canada agency for financial planning and economic policy development . The Bank of Canada is the sole authority authorized to issue currency in the form of Canadian bank notes . The bank does not issue Canadian coins ; they are issued by the Royal Canadian Mint .
= = = Law = = =
The Constitution of Canada is the supreme law of the country , and consists of written text and unwritten conventions . The Constitution Act , 1867 ( known as the British North America Act prior to 1982 ) , affirmed governance based on parliamentary precedent and divided powers between the federal and provincial governments . The Statute of Westminster 1931 granted full autonomy and the Constitution Act , 1982 , ended all legislative ties to the UK , as well as adding a constitutional amending formula and the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms . The Charter guarantees basic rights and freedoms that usually cannot be over @-@ ridden by any government — though a notwithstanding clause allows the federal parliament and provincial legislatures to override certain sections of the Charter for a period of five years .
The Indian Act , various treaties and case laws were established to mediate relations between Europeans and native peoples . Most notably , a series of eleven treaties known as the Numbered Treaties were signed between Aboriginals in Canada and the reigning Monarch of Canada between 1871 and 1921 . These treaties are agreements with the Canadian Crown @-@ in @-@ Council , administered by Canadian Aboriginal law , and overseen by the Minister of Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development . The role of the treaties and the rights they support were reaffirmed by Section Thirty @-@ five of the Constitution Act , 1982 . These rights may include provision of services , such as health care , and exemption from taxation . The legal and policy framework within which Canada and First Nations operate was further formalized in 2005 , through the First Nations – Federal Crown Political Accord .
Canada 's judiciary plays an important role in interpreting laws and has the power to strike down Acts of Parliament that violate the constitution . The Supreme Court of Canada is the highest court and final arbiter and has been led since 2000 by the Chief Justice Beverley McLachlin ( the first female Chief Justice ) . Its nine members are appointed by the governor general on the advice of the prime minister and minister of justice . All judges at the superior and appellate levels are appointed after consultation with nongovernmental legal bodies . The federal Cabinet also appoints justices to superior courts in the provincial and territorial jurisdictions .
Common law prevails everywhere except in Quebec , where civil law predominates . Criminal law is solely a federal responsibility and is uniform throughout Canada . Law enforcement , including criminal courts , is officially a provincial responsibility , conducted by provincial and municipal police forces . However , in most rural areas and some urban areas , policing responsibilities are contracted to the federal Royal Canadian Mounted Police .
= = = Foreign relations and military = = =
Canada is recognized as a middle power for its role in international affairs with a tendency to pursue multilateral solutions . Canada 's foreign policy based on international peacekeeping and security is carried out through coalitions and international organizations , and through the work of numerous federal institutions . Canada 's peacekeeping role during the 20th century has played a major role in its global image . The strategy of the Canadian government 's foreign aid policy reflects an emphasis to meet the Millennium Development Goals , while also providing assistance in response to foreign humanitarian crises .
Canada was a founding member of the United Nations and has membership in the World Trade Organization , the G20 and the Organisation for Economic Co @-@ operation and Development ( OECD ) . Canada is also a member of various other international and regional organizations and forums for economic and cultural affairs . Canada acceded to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights in 1976 . Canada joined the Organization of American States ( OAS ) in 1990 and hosted the OAS General Assembly in 2000 and the 3rd Summit of the Americas in 2001 . Canada seeks to expand its ties to Pacific Rim economies through membership in the Asia @-@ Pacific Economic Cooperation forum ( APEC ) .
Canada and the United States share the world 's longest undefended border , co @-@ operate on military campaigns and exercises , and are each other 's largest trading partner . Canada nevertheless has an independent foreign policy , most notably maintaining full relations with Cuba since , and declining to officially participate in the 2003 invasion of Iraq . Canada also maintains historic ties to the United Kingdom and France and to other former British and French colonies through Canada 's membership in the Commonwealth of Nations and the Francophonie . Canada is noted for having a positive relationship with the Netherlands , owing , in part , to its contribution to the Dutch liberation during World War II .
Canada 's strong attachment to the British Empire and Commonwealth led to major participation in British military efforts in the Second Boer War , World War I and World War II . Since then , Canada has been an advocate for multilateralism , making efforts to resolve global issues in collaboration with other nations . During the Cold War , Canada was a major contributor to UN forces in the Korean War and founded the North American Aerospace Defense Command ( NORAD ) in co @-@ operation with the United States to defend against potential aerial attacks from the Soviet Union .
During the Suez Crisis of 1956 , future Prime Minister Lester B. Pearson eased tensions by proposing the inception of the United Nations Peacekeeping Force , for which he was awarded the 1957 Nobel Peace Prize . As this was the first UN peacekeeping mission , Pearson is often credited as the inventor of the concept . Canada has since served in over 50 peacekeeping missions , including every UN peacekeeping effort until 1989 , and has since maintained forces in international missions in Rwanda , the former Yugoslavia , and elsewhere ; Canada has sometimes faced controversy over its involvement in foreign countries , notably in the 1993 Somalia Affair .
In 2001 , Canada deployed troops to Afghanistan as part of the US stabilization force and the UN @-@ authorized , NATO @-@ led International Security Assistance Force . In February 2007 , Canada , Italy , the United Kingdom , Norway , and Russia announced their joint commitment to a $ 1 @.@ 5 @-@ billion project to help develop vaccines for developing nations , and called on other countries to join them . In August 2007 , Canada 's territorial claims in the Arctic were challenged after a Russian underwater expedition to the North Pole ; Canada has considered that area to be sovereign territory since 1925 .
Canada currently employs a professional , volunteer military force of 92 @,@ 000 active personnel and approximately 51 @,@ 000 reserve personnel . The unified Canadian Forces ( CF ) comprise the Canadian Army , Royal Canadian Navy , and Royal Canadian Air Force . In 2013 , Canada 's military expenditure totalled approximately C $ 19 billion , or around 1 % of the country 's GDP .
= = = Provinces and territories = = =
Canada is a federation composed of ten provinces and three territories . In turn , these may be grouped into four main regions : Western Canada , Central Canada , Atlantic Canada , and Northern Canada ( Eastern Canada refers to Central Canada and Atlantic Canada together ) . Provinces have more autonomy than territories , having responsibility for social programs such as health care , education , and welfare . Together , the provinces collect more revenue than the federal government , an almost unique structure among federations in the world . Using its spending powers , the federal government can initiate national policies in provincial areas , such as the Canada Health Act ; the provinces can opt out of these , but rarely do so in practice . Equalization payments are made by the federal government to ensure that reasonably uniform standards of services and taxation are kept between the richer and poorer provinces .
= = Economy = =
Canada is the world 's eleventh @-@ largest economy as of 2015 , with a nominal GDP of approximately US $ 1 @.@ 79 trillion . It is a member of the Organisation for Economic Co @-@ operation and Development ( OECD ) and the Group of Eight ( G8 ) , and is one of the world 's top ten trading nations , with a highly globalized economy . Canada is a mixed economy , ranking above the US and most western European nations on the Heritage Foundation 's index of economic freedom , and experiencing a relatively low level of income disparity . The country 's average household disposable income per capita is over US $ 23 @,@ 900 , higher than the OECD average . Furthermore , the Toronto Stock Exchange is the seventh largest stock exchange in the world by market capitalization , listing over 1 @,@ 500 companies with a combined market capitalization of over US $ 2 trillion as of 2015 .
In 2014 , Canada 's exports totalled over C $ 528 billion , while its imported goods were worth over $ 523 billion , of which approximately $ 349 billion originated from the United States , $ 49 billion from the European Union , and $ 35 billion from China . The country 's 2014 trade surplus totalled C $ 5 @.@ 1 billion , compared with a C $ 46 @.@ 9 billion surplus in 2008 .
Since the early 20th century , the growth of Canada 's manufacturing , mining , and service sectors has transformed the nation from a largely rural economy to an urbanized , industrial one . Like many other developed nations , the Canadian economy is dominated by the service industry , which employs about three @-@ quarters of the country 's workforce . However , Canada is unusual among developed countries in the importance of its primary sector , in which the forestry and petroleum industries are two of the most prominent components .
Canada is one of the few developed nations that are net exporters of energy . Atlantic Canada possesses vast offshore deposits of natural gas , and Alberta also hosts large oil and gas resources . The vastness of the Athabasca oil sands and other assets results in Canada having a 13 % share of global oil reserves , comprising the world 's third @-@ largest share after Venezuela and Saudi Arabia . Canada is additionally one of the world 's largest suppliers of agricultural products ; the Canadian Prairies are one of the most important global producers of wheat , canola , and other grains . Canada 's Ministry of Natural Resources provides statistics regarding its major exports ; the country is a leading exporter of zinc , uranium , gold , nickel , aluminum , steel , iron ore , coking coal and lead . Many towns in northern Canada , where agriculture is difficult , are sustainable because of nearby mines or sources of timber . Canada also has a sizeable manufacturing sector centred in southern Ontario and Quebec , with automobiles and aeronautics representing particularly important industries .
Canada 's economic integration with the United States has increased significantly since World War II . The Automotive Products Trade Agreement of 1965 opened Canada 's borders to trade in the automobile manufacturing industry . In the 1970s , concerns over energy self @-@ sufficiency and foreign ownership in the manufacturing sectors prompted Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau 's Liberal government to enact the National Energy Program ( NEP ) and the Foreign Investment Review Agency ( FIRA ) . In the 1980s , Prime Minister Brian Mulroney 's Progressive Conservatives abolished the NEP and changed the name of FIRA to Investment Canada , to encourage foreign investment . The Canada – United States Free Trade Agreement ( FTA ) of 1988 eliminated tariffs between the two countries , while the North American Free Trade Agreement ( NAFTA ) expanded the free @-@ trade zone to include Mexico in 1994 . In the mid @-@ 1990s , Jean Chrétien 's Liberal government began to post annual budgetary surpluses , and steadily paid down the national debt .
The global financial crisis of 2008 caused a major recession , which led to a significant rise in unemployment in Canada . By October 2009 , Canada 's national unemployment rate had reached 8 @.@ 6 percent , with provincial unemployment rates varying from a low of 5 @.@ 8 percent in Manitoba to a high of 17 percent in Newfoundland and Labrador . Between October 2008 and October 2010 , the Canadian labour market lost 162 @,@ 000 full @-@ time jobs and a total of 224 @,@ 000 permanent jobs . Canada 's federal debt was estimated to total $ 566 @.@ 7 billion for the fiscal year 2010 – 11 , up from $ 463 @.@ 7 billion in 2008 – 09 . In addition , Canada 's net foreign debt rose by $ 41 billion to $ 194 billion in the first quarter of 2010 . However , Canada 's regulated banking sector ( comparatively conservative among G8 nations ) , the federal government 's pre @-@ crisis budgetary surpluses , and its long @-@ term policies of lowering the national debt , resulted in a less severe recession compared to other G8 nations . As of 2015 , the Canadian economy has largely stabilized and has seen a modest return to growth , although the country remains troubled by volatile oil prices , sensitivity to the Eurozone crisis and higher @-@ than @-@ normal unemployment rates . The federal government and many Canadian industries have also started to expand trade with emerging Asian markets , in an attempt to diversify exports ; Asia is now Canada 's second @-@ largest export market after the United States . Widely debated oil pipeline proposals , in particular , are hoped to increase exports of Canadian oil reserves to China .
= = = Science and technology = = =
In 2012 , Canada spent approximately C $ 31 @.@ 3 billion on domestic research and development , of which around $ 7 billion was provided by the federal and provincial governments . As of 2015 , the country has produced thirteen Nobel laureates in physics , chemistry , and medicine , and was ranked fourth worldwide for scientific research quality in a major 2012 survey of international scientists . It is furthermore home to the headquarters of a number of global technology firms . Canada has one of the highest levels of Internet access in the world , with over 33 million users , equivalent to around 94 percent of its total 2014 population .
The Canadian Space Agency operates a highly active space program , conducting deep @-@ space , planetary , and aviation research , and developing rockets and satellites . Canada was the third country to launch a satellite into space after the USSR and the United States , with the 1962 Alouette 1 launch . In 1984 , Marc Garneau became Canada 's first male astronaut . Canada is a participant in the International Space Station ( ISS ) , and is a pioneer in space robotics , having constructed the Canadarm , Canadarm2 and Dextre robotic manipulators for the ISS and NASA 's Space Shuttle . Since the 1960s , Canada 's aerospace industry has designed and built numerous marques of satellite , including Radarsat @-@ 1 and 2 , ISIS and MOST . Canada has also produced one of the world 's most successful and widely used sounding rockets , the Black Brant ; over 1 @,@ 000 Black Brants have been launched since the rocket 's introduction in 1961 .
= = Demographics = =
The 2011 Canadian census counted a total population of 33 @,@ 476 @,@ 688 , an increase of around 5 @.@ 9 percent over the 2006 figure . By December 2012 , Statistics Canada reported a population of over 35 million , signifying the fastest growth rate of any G8 nation . Between 1990 and 2008 , the population increased by 5 @.@ 6 million , equivalent to 20 @.@ 4 percent overall growth . The main drivers of population growth are immigration and , to a lesser extent , natural growth . Canada has one of the highest per @-@ capita immigration rates in the world , driven mainly by economic policy and , to a lesser extent family reunification . The Canadian public as @-@ well as the major political parties support the current level of immigration . In 2010 , a record 280 @,@ 636 people immigrated to Canada . The Canadian government anticipated between 280 @,@ 000 and 305 @,@ 000 new permanent residents in 2016 , a similar number of immigrants as in recent years . New immigrants settle mostly in major urban areas such as Toronto , Montreal and Vancouver . Canada also accepts large numbers of refugees , accounting for over 10 percent of annual global refugee resettlements .
About four @-@ fifths of the population lives within 150 kilometres ( 93 mi ) of the contiguous United States border . Approximately 50 percent of Canadians live in urban areas concentrated along the Quebec City – Windsor Corridor , with an additional 30 percent living along the British Columbia Lower Mainland , and the Calgary – Edmonton Corridor in Alberta . Canada spans latitudinally from the 83rd parallel north to the 41st parallel north , and approximately 95 % of the population is found below the 55th parallel north . In common with many other developed countries , Canada is experiencing a demographic shift towards an older population , with more retirees and fewer people of working age . In 2006 , the average age was 39 @.@ 5 years ; by 2011 , it had risen to approximately 39 @.@ 9 years . As of 2013 , the average life expectancy for Canadians is 81 years . The majority of Canadians ( 69 @.@ 9 % ) live in family households , 26 @.@ 8 % report living alone , and those living with unrelated persons reported at 3 @.@ 7 % . The average size of a household in 2006 was 2 @.@ 5 people .
= = = Education = = =
According to a 2012 report by the Organisation for Economic Co @-@ operation and Development ( OECD ) , Canada is the most educated country in the world ; the country ranks first worldwide in the number of adults having tertiary education , with 51 percent of Canadian adults having attained at least an undergraduate college or university degree . Canada spends about 5 @.@ 3 % of its GDP on education . The country invests heavily in tertiary education ( more than 20 000 USD per student ) . As of 2014 , 89 percent of adults aged 25 to 64 have earned the equivalent of a high @-@ school degree , compared to an OECD average of 75 percent .
Since the adoption of section 23 of the Constitution Act , 1982 , education in both English and French has been available in most places across Canada . Canadian provinces and territories are
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agricultural products such as oranges , avocados , dairy products and fish , and others based on world trends have been introduced over the years , and chefs trained abroad have brought in elements of other international cuisines .
= = History = =
= = = Origins = = =
Israel ’ s culinary traditions comprise foods and cooking methods that span three thousand years of history . Over that time , these traditions have been shaped by influences from Asia , Africa and Europe , and religious and ethnic influences have resulted in a culinary melting pot . Biblical and archaeological records provide insight into the culinary life of the region as far back as 968 BCE , in the days of the kings of ancient Israel .
During the Second Temple period ( 516 BCE to 70 CE ) , Hellenistic and Roman culture heavily influenced cuisine , particularly of the priests and aristocracy of Jerusalem . Elaborate meals were served that included piquant entrées and alcoholic drinks , fish , meat , pickled and fresh vegetables , olives , and tart or sweet fruits .
The food of the ancient Israelites was based on several products that still play important roles in modern Israeli cuisine . These were known as the seven species : olives , figs , dates , pomegranates , wheat , barley and grapes . The diet , based on locally grown produce , was enhanced by imported spices , readily available due to the country ’ s position at the crossroads of east @-@ west trade routes .
After the destruction of the Second Temple and the exile of the majority of Jews from the land of Israel , Jewish cuisine continued to develop in the many countries where Jewish communities have existed since Late Antiquity , influenced by the economics , agriculture , and culinary traditions of those countries .
= = = Old Yishuv = = =
The Jewish community that lived in Ottoman Syria prior to Zionist immigration that began in 1881 was known as the Old Yishuv . The cooking style of the community was Sephardi cuisine , which developed among the Jews of Spain before their expulsion in 1492 , and in the areas to which they migrated thereafter , particularly the Balkans and Ottoman Empire . Sephardim also established communities in the Old Yishuv . Particularly in Jerusalem , they continued to develop their culinary style , influenced by Ottoman cuisine , creating a style that became known as Jerusalem Sephardi cuisine . This cuisine included pies like sambousak , pastels and burekas , vegetable gratins and stuffed vegetables , and rice and bulgur pilafs , which are now considered to be Jerusalem classics .
Groups of Hasidic Jews from Eastern Europe began establishing communities in the late 18th century , and brought with them their traditional Ashkenazi cuisine , developing , however , distinct local variations , notably a peppery , caramelized noodle pudding known as kugel yerushalmi .
Beginning with the First Aliyah in 1881 , Jews began immigrating to the area from Eastern Europe in larger numbers , particularly from Poland and Russia . These Zionist pioneers were motivated both ideologically and by the Mediterranean climate to reject the Ashkenazi cooking styles they had grown up with , and adapt by using local produce , especially vegetables such as zucchini , peppers , eggplant , artichoke and chickpeas . The first Hebrew cookbook , written by Erna Meyer , and published in the early 1930s by the Palestine Federation of the Women 's International Zionist Organization ( WIZO ) , exhorted cooks to use Mediterranean herbs and Middle Eastern spices and local vegetables in their cooking . The bread , olives , cheese and raw vegetables they adopted became the basis for the kibbutz breakfast , which in more abundant forms is served in Israeli hotels , and in various forms in most Israeli homes today .
= = = Early years of the State = = =
The State of Israel faced enormous military and economic challenges in its early years , and the period from 1948 to 1958 was a time of food rationing and austerity , known as tzena . In this decade , over one million Jewish immigrants , mainly from Arab countries , but also including European Holocaust survivors , inundated the new state . They arrived when only basic foods were available and ethnic dishes had to be modified with a range of mock or simulated foods , such as chopped “ liver ” from eggplant , and turkey as a substitute for veal schnitzel for Ashkenazim , kubbeh made from frozen fish instead of ground meat for Iraqi Jews , and turkey in place of the lamb kebabs of the Mizrahi Jews . These adaptations remain as a legacy of that time .
Substitutes , such as the wheat @-@ based rice substitute , ptitim , were introduced , and versatile vegetables such as eggplant were used as alternatives to meat . Additional flavor and nutrition was provided from inexpensive canned tomato paste and puree , hummus , tahina , and mayonnaise in tubes . Meat was scarce , and it was not until the late 1950s that herds of beef cattle were introduced into the agricultural economy .
Khubeza , a local variety of the mallow plant , became an important food source during the War of Independence . During the siege of Jerusalem , when convoys of food could not reach the city , Jerusalemites went out to the fields to pick khubeza leaves , which are high in iron and vitamins . The Jerusalem radio station , Kol Hamagen , broadcast instructions for cooking it that were picked up in Jordan convinced the Arabs that the Jews were dying of starvation and victory was at hand . In the past decade , food writers in Israel have encouraged the population to prepare khubeza on Israel Independence Day . Local chefs have begun to serve khubeza and other wild plants gathered from the fields in upscale restaurants . The dish from the Independence war is called Ktzitzot Khubeza and still eaten by Israelis today .
= = = Impact of immigration = = =
Immigrants to Israel have incorporated elements of the cuisines of the cultures and countries whence they came . During approximately fifty years before 1948 , there were successive waves of Jewish immigration , which brought with them a whole range of foods and cooking styles . Immigrants arriving from central Europe brought foods such as schnitzel and strudels , while Russian Jews brought borsht and herring dishes , such as schmaltz herring and vorschmack ( gehakte herring ) .
Ashkenazi dishes include chicken soup , schnitzel , lox , chopped liver , gefilte fish , knishes , kishka and kugel . The first Israeli patisseries were opened by Ashkenazi Jews , who popularized cakes and pastries from central and Eastern Europe , such as yeast cakes ( babka ) , nut spirals ( schnecken ) , chocolate rolls and layered pastries .
After 1948 , the greatest impact came from the large migration of Jews from Turkey , Iraq , Kurdistan and Yemen , and Mizrahi Jews from North Africa , particularly Morocco . Typically , the staff of army kitchens , schools , hospitals , hotels and restaurant kitchens has consisted of Mizrahi , Kurdish and Yemenite Jews , and this has had an influence on the cooking fashions and ingredients of the country .
Mizrahi cuisine , the cuisine of Jews from North Africa , features grilled meats , sweet and savory puff pastries , rice dishes , stuffed vegetables , pita breads and salads , and shares many similarities with Arab cuisine . Other North African dishes popular in Israel include couscous , shakshouka , matbucha , carrot salad and chraime ( slices of fish cooked in a spicy tomato sauce ) . Sephardic dishes , with Balkan and Turkish influences incorporated in Israeli cuisine include burekas , yogurt and taramosalata . Yemenite Jewish foods include jachnun , malawach , skhug and kubane . Iraqi dishes popular in Israel include amba , various types of kubba , stuffed vegetables ( mhasha ) , kebab , sambusac , sabich and pickled vegetables ( hamutzim ) .
= = = Modern trends = = =
As Israeli agriculture developed and new kinds of fruits and vegetables appeared on the market , cooks and chefs began to experiment and devise new dishes with them .
They also began using " biblical " ingredients such as honey , figs , and pomegranates , and indigenous foods such as prickly pears ( tzabar ) and chickpeas . Since the late 1970s , there has been an increased interest in international cuisine , cooking with wine and herbs , and vegetarianism . A more sophisticated food culture in Israel began to develop when cookbooks , such as “ From the Kitchen with Love ” by Ruth Sirkis , published in 1974 , introduced international cooking trends , and together with the opening of restaurants serving cuisines such as Chinese , Italian and French , encouraged more dining out .
The 1980s were a formative decade : the increased optimism after the signing of the peace treaty with Egypt in 1979 , the economic recovery of the mid @-@ 1980s and the increasing travel abroad by average citizens were factors contributing to a greater interest in food and wine . In addition , high quality , locally produced ingredients became increasingly available . For example , privately owned dairies began to produce handmade cheeses from goat , sheep and cow ’ s milk , which quickly became very popular both among chefs and the general public . In 1983 , the Golan Heights Winery was the first of many new Israeli winemakers to help transform tastes with their production of world @-@ class , semi @-@ dry and dry wines . New attention was paid to the making of handmade breads and the production of high quality olive oil . The successful development of aquaculture ensured a steady supply of fresh fish , and the agricultural revolution in Israel led to an overwhelming choice and quality of fresh fruit , vegetables and herbs .
Ethnic heritage cooking , both Sephardic and Ashkenazi , has made a comeback with the growing acceptance of the heterogeneous society . Apart from home cooking , many ethnic foods are now available in street markets , supermarkets and restaurants , or are served at weddings and bar mitzvahs , and people increasingly eat foods from ethnic backgrounds other than their own . Overlap and combinations of foods from different ethnic groups is becoming standard as a multi @-@ ethnic food culture develops .
The 1990s saw an increasing interest in international cuisines . Sushi , in particular , has taken hold as a popular style for eating out and as an entrée for events . In restaurants , fusion cuisine , with the melding of classic cuisines such as French and Japanese with local ingredients has become widespread . In the 2000s , the trend of “ eating healthy ” with an emphasis on organic and whole grain foods has become prominent , and medical research has led many Israelis to re @-@ embrace the Mediterranean diet , with its touted health benefits .
= = Characteristics = =
Geography has a large influence on Israel cuisine , and foods common in the Mediterranean region , such as olives , wheat , chickpeas , dairy products , fish , and vegetables such as tomatoes , eggplants , and zucchini are prominent in Israeli cuisine . Fresh fruits and vegetables are plentiful in Israel and are cooked and served in many ways .
There are various climatic areas in Israel and areas it has settled that allow a variety of products to be grown . Citrus trees such as orange , lemon and grapefruit thrive on the coastal plain . Figs , pomegranates and olives also grow in the cooler hill areas . The subtropical climate near the Sea of Galilee and in the Jordan River Valley is suitable for mangoes , kiwis and bananas , while the temperate climate of the mountains of the Galilee and the Golan is suitable for grapes , apples and cherries .
Israeli eating customs also conform to the wider Mediterranean region , with lunch , rather than dinner , being the focal meal of a regular workday . “ Kibbutz foods ” have been adopted by many Israelis for their light evening meals as well as breakfasts , and may consist of various types of cheeses , both soft and hard , yogurt , labne and sour cream , vegetables and salads , olives , hard @-@ boiled eggs or omelets , pickled and smoked herring , a variety of breads , and fresh orange juice and coffee .
In addition , Jewish holidays influence the cuisine , with the preparation of traditional foods at holiday times , such as various types of challah ( braided bread ) for Shabbats and Festivals , jelly doughnuts ( sufganiyot ) for Hanukah , the hamantaschen pastry ( oznei haman ) for Purim , charoset , a type of fruit paste , for Passover , and dairy foods for Shavuot . The Shabbat dinner , eaten on Friday , and to a lesser extent the Shabbat lunch , is a significant meal in Israeli homes , together with holiday meals .
Although not all Jews in Israel keep kosher , the tradition of kashrut strongly influences the availability of certain foods and their preparation in homes , public institutions and many restaurants , including the separation of milk and meat and avoiding the use of non @-@ kosher foods , especially pork and shellfish . During Passover , bread and other leavened foods are prohibited to observant Jews and matza and leaven @-@ free foods are substituted .
= = Foods = =
Israel does not have a universally recognized national dish ; however , many consider it to be falafel , deep fried balls of seasoned , ground chickpeas . Street vendors throughout Israel sell falafel and it is a favorite " street food " . One book called the Israeli breakfast " the Jewish state 's contribution to world cuisine " .
= = = Salads and appetizers = = =
Vegetable salads are eaten with most meals , including the traditional Israeli breakfast , which will usually include eggs , bread , and dairy products such as yogurt or cottage cheese . For lunch and dinner , salad may be served a side dish . A light meal of salad ( " Salat " ) , hummus and French fries ( " Chips " ) served in a pita is referred to as hummuschipsalat .
Israeli salad is typically made with finely chopped tomatoes and cucumbers dressed in olive oil , lemon juice , salt and pepper . Variations include the addition of diced red or green bell peppers , grated carrot , finely shredded cabbage or lettuce , sliced radish , fennel , spring onions and chives , chopped parsley , or other herbs and spices such as mint , za 'atar and sumac . Although popularized by the kibbutzim , versions of this mixed salad were brought to Israel from various places . For example , Jews from India prepare it with finely chopped ginger and green chili peppers , North African Jews may add preserved lemon peel and cayenne pepper , and Bukharan Jews chop the vegetables extremely finely and use vinegar , without oil , in the dressing .
Tabbouleh is a Levantine vegetarian dish ( sometimes considered a salad ) traditionally made of tomatoes , finely chopped parsley , mint , bulgur and onion , and seasoned with olive oil , lemon juice , and salt . Some Israeli variations of the salad use pomegranate seeds instead of tomatoes .
Sabich salad is a variation of the well known Israeli dish Sabich , the ingredients of the salad are eggplant , boiled eggs / hard boiled eggs , tahini , Israeli salad , potato , parsley and amba .
Kubba is a dish made of rice / semolina / burghul ( cracked wheat ) , minced onions and finely ground lean beef , lamb or chicken . The best @-@ known variety is a torpedo @-@ shaped fried croquette stuffed with minced beef , chicken or lamb . It was brought to Israel by Jews of Iraqi , Kurdish and Syrian origin .
Sambusak is a semi @-@ circular pocket of dough filled with mashed chickpeas , fried onions and spices . There is another variety filled with meat , fried onions , parsley , spices and pine nuts , which is sometimes mixed with mashed chickpeas and breakfast version with feta or tzfat cheese and za 'atar . It can be fried and cooked .
Sigarim are soft minced meat with onions and spices or mashed patato filling wrapped in phyllo @-@ dough , and deep fried in oil or oven baked . They are commonly served at weddings and other celebrations ..
Roasted vegetables includes bell peppers , chili peppers , tomatoes , onions , eggplants and also sometimes potatoes and zucchini . Usually served with grilled meat
Hamusim are pickled vegetables made by soaking in water and salt ( and sometimes olive oil ) in a pot and withdrawing them from air . Ingredients can include : cucumber , cabbage , eggplant , carrot , turnip , radish , onion , caper , lemon , olives , cauliflower , tomatoes , chili pepper , bell pepper , garlic and beans .
A large variety of eggplant salads and dips are made with roasted eggplants . Baba ghanoush , called salat ḥatzilim in Israel , is made with tahina and other seasonings such as garlic , lemon juice , onions , herbs and spices . The eggplant is sometimes grilled over an open flame so that the pulp has a smoky taste . A particularly Israeli variation of the salad is made with mayonnaise called salat ḥatzilim b 'mayonnaise . Eggplant salads are also made with yogurt , or with feta cheese , chopped onion and tomato , or in the style of Romanian Jews , with roasted red pepper .
Tahina is often used as a dressing for falafel , serves as a cooking sauce for meat and fish , and forms the basis of sweets such as halva .
Hummus is a cornerstone of Israeli cuisine , and consumption in Israel has been compared by food critic Elena Ferretti to " peanut butter in America , Nutella in Europe or Vegemite in Australia " . Hummus in pita is a common lunch for schoolchildren , and is a popular addition to many meals . Supermarkets offer a variety of commercially prepared hummus , and some Israelis will go out of their way for fresh hummus prepared at a hummusia , an establishment devoted exclusively to selling hummus .
Salat avocado is an Israeli @-@ style avocado salad , with lemon juice and chopped scallions ( spring onions ) , was introduced by farmers who planted avocado trees on the coastal plain in the 1920s . Avocados have since become a winter delicacy and are cut into salads as well as being spread on bread .
A meze of fresh and cooked vegetable salads , pickled cucumbers and other vegetables , hummus , ful , tahini and amba dips , labneh cheese with olive oil , and ikra is served at festive meals and in restaurants . Salads include Turkish salad ( a piquant salad of finely chopped onions , tomatoes , herbs and spices ) , tabbouleh , carrot salad , marinated roasted red and green peppers , deep fried cauliflower florets , matbucha , torshi ( pickled vegetables ) and various eggplant salads .
Modern Israeli interpretations of the meze blend traditional and modern , pairing ordinary appetizers with unique combinations such as fennel and pistachio salad , beetroot and pomegranate salad , and celery and kashkaval cheese salad .
Stuffed vegetables , called memula ’ im , were originally designed to extend cheap ingredients into a meal . They are prepared by cooks in Israel from all ethnic backgrounds and are made with many varying flavors , such as spicy or sweet @-@ and @-@ sour , with ingredients such as bell peppers , chili peppers , figs , onion , artichoke bottoms , Swiss chard , beet , dried fruits , tomato , vine leaves , potatoes , mallow , eggplants and zucchini squash , and stuffing such as meat and rice in Balkan style , bulgur in Middle Eastern fashion , or with ptitim , a type of Israeli pasta . The Ottoman Turks introduced stuffed vine leaves in the 16th century and vine leaves are commonly stuffed with a combination of meat and rice , although other fillings , such as lentils , have evolved among the various communities . Artichoke bottoms stuffed with meat are famous as one the grand dishes of the Sephardi Jerusalem cuisine of the Old Yishuv . Stuffed dates and dried fruits served with rice and burgul dishes . Stuffed half zucchini is called by its Ladino name , Medias ; it was brought from Spain by Sephardic Jews in 1492 .
= = = Soups and dumplings = = =
A variety of soups are enjoyed , particularly in the winter . Chicken soup has been a mainstay of Jewish cuisine since medieval times and is popular in Israel . Classic chicken soup is prepared as a simple broth with a few vegetables , such as onion , carrot and celery , and herbs such as dill and parsley . More elaborate versions are prepared by Sephardim with orzo or rice , or the addition of lemon juice or herbs such as mint or coriander , while Ashkenazim may add noodles . An Israeli adaption of the traditional Ashkenazi soup pasta known as mandlen , called " shkedei marak " ( " soup almonds " ) in Israel , are commonly served with chicken soup .
Particularly on holidays , dumplings are served with the soup , such as the kneidlach ( matzah balls ) of the Ashkenazim or the gondi ( chickpea dumplings ) of Iranian Jews , or kubba , a family of dumplings brought to Israel by Middle Eastern Jews . Especially popular are kubba prepared from bulgur and stuffed with ground lamb and pine nuts , and the soft semolina or rice kubba cooked in soup , which Jews of Kurdish or Iraqi heritage habitually enjoy as a Friday lunchtime meal .
Lentil soup is prepared in many ways , with additions such as cilantro or meat . Other soups include the harira of the Moroccan Jews , which is a spicy soup of lamb ( or chicken ) , chickpeas , lentils and rice , and Yemenite bone marrow soup known as ftut , which is served on special occasions such as weddings , and is seasoned with the traditional hawaij spice mix .
White Bean soup in tomato sauce is common in Jerusalem because Sephardic Jews settled in the city after being expelled from Andalusia .
= = = Grains and pasta = = =
Rice is prepared in numerous ways in Israel , from simple steamed white rice to festive casseroles . It is also cooked with spices and served with almonds and pine nuts . " Green " rice , prepared with a variety of fresh chopped herbs , is a favored by Persian Jews . Another rice dish is prepared with thin noodles that are first fried and then boiled with the rice . Mujadara is a popular rice and lentil dish , adopted from Arab cuisine . Orez Shu 'it is a dish invented in Jerusalem by Sephardic Jews , it is made of white beans cooked in a tomato stew and served on white rice it is eaten widely in Jerusalem region .
Couscous was brought to Israel by Jews from North Africa . It is still prepared in some restaurants or by traditional cooks by passing semolina through a sieve several times and then cooking it over an aromatic broth in a special steamer pot called a couscoussière . Generally , " instant " couscous is widely used for home cooking . Couscous is used in salads , main courses and even some desserts . As a main course , chicken or lamb , or the vegetables cooked in a soup flavored with saffron or turmeric are served on the steamed couscous .
Ptitim are an Israeli pasta which now come in many shapes , including pearls , loops , stars and hearts , but were originally shaped like grains of rice , as they originated in the early days of the State of Israel as a wheat @-@ based substitute for rice , when rice , a staple of the Mizrahi Jews , was scarce . Israel 's first prime minister , David Ben @-@ Gurion , is reputed to have asked the Osem company to devise this substitute , and it was thus nicknamed " Ben @-@ Gurion 's rice " . Ptitim can be boiled like pasta , or prepared pilaf @-@ style by sautéing and then boiling in water or stock , or baking them in a casserole . Like other pasta , they can be flavored in many ways with spices , herbs and sauces . Once considered primarily a food for children , ptitim are now prepared in restaurants both in Israel and internationally .
Burgul is a kind of dried cracked wheat , served sometimes instead of rice .
= = = Fish = = =
Fresh fish is readily available , caught off Israel 's coastal areas of the Mediterranean and the Red Sea , or in the Sea of Galilee , or raised in ponds in the wake of advances in fish farming in Israel . Fresh fish is served whole , in the Mediterranean style , grilled , or fried , dressed only with freshly squeezed lemon juice . Trout ( called forel ) , gilthead seabream ( called denisse ) , St. Peter 's fish ( known as ' musht ' ) and other fresh fish are prepared this way . Fish are also eaten baked , with or without vegetables , or fried whole or in slices , or grilled over coals , and served with different sauces .
Fish are also braised , as in a dish called hraime , in which fish such as grouper ( better known in Israel by its Arabic name lokus ) or halibut is prepared in a sauce with hot pepper and other spices for Rosh Hashanah , Passover and the Sabbath by North African Jews . Everyday versions are prepared with cheaper kinds of fish and are served in market eateries , public kitchens and at home for weekday meals .
Fish , traditionally carp , but now other firm white fish too , are minced and shaped into loaves or balls and cooked in fish broth , such as the gefilte fish of the Ashkenazi Jews , who also brought pickled herring from Eastern Europe . Herring is often served at the kiddush that follows synagogue services on Shabbat , especially in Ashkenazi communities . In the Russian immigrant community it may be served as a light meal with boiled potatoes , sour cream , dark breads and schnapps or vodka .
Fish Kufta is usually fried with spices , herbs and onions ( sometimes also pine nuts ) and served with tahini or yogurt sauce . Boiled Fish Kufta is cooked in a tomato , tahini or yogurt sauce .
Tilapia baked with tahini sauce and topped with olive oil , coriander , mint , basil and pine nuts ( and sometimes also with fried onions ) is a specialty of Tiberias .
= = = Poultry and meat = = =
Chicken is the most widely eaten meat in Israel , followed by turkey . Chicken is prepared in a multitude of ways , from simple oven @-@ roasted chicken to elaborate casseroles with rich sauces such as date syrup , tomato sauce , etc . Examples include chicken casserole with couscous , inspired by Moroccan Jewish cooking , chicken with olives , a Mediterranean classic , and chicken albondigas ( meat balls ) in tomato sauce , from Jerusalem Sephardi cuisine . Albondigas are also prepared from ground meat . , similar to albogindas is the more popular Kufta which is made of minced meat , herbs and spices and cooked with tomato sauce , date syrup , pomegranate syrup or tamarind syrup with vegetables or beans .
Grilled and barbecued meat are common in Israeli cuisine . The country has many small eateries specializing in beef and lamb kebab , shish taouk , merguez and shashlik . Outdoor barbecuing , known as mangal or al ha @-@ esh ( on the fire ) is a beloved Israeli pastime . In modern times , Israel Independence Day is frequently celebrated with a picnic or barbecue in parks and forests around the country . Skewered Goose Liver is a dish from southern Tel Aviv . It is grilled with salt and black pepper and sometimes with spices like cumin or baharat spice mix .
Chicken or lamb baked in the oven is very common with potatoes , and sometimes fried onions as well .
Turkey schnitzel is an Israeli adaptation of veal schnitzel , and is an example of the transformations common in Israeli cooking . The schnitzel was brought to Israel by Jews from Central Europe , but before and during the early years of the State of Israel veal was unobtainable and chicken or turkey was an inexpensive and tasty substitute . Furthermore , a Wiener schnitzel is cooked in both butter and oil , but in Israel only oil is used , because of kashrut . Today , most cooks buy schnitzel already breaded and serve it with hummus , tahina , and other salads for a quick main meal . Other immigrant groups have added variations from their own backgrounds ; Yemenite Jews , for example , flavor it with hawaij . In addition , vegetarian versions have become popular and the Israeli food company , Tiv ′ ol , was the first to produce a vegetarian schnitzel from a soya meat @-@ substitute .
Various types of sausage are part of Sephardi and Mizrahi cuisine in Israel . Jews from Tunisia make a sausage , called osban , with a filling of ground meat or liver , rice , chopped spinach , and a blend of herbs and spices . Jews from Syria make smaller sausages , called gheh , with a different spice blend while Jews from Iraq make the sausages , called mumbar , with chopped meat and liver , rice , and their traditional mix of spices .
Moussaka is an oven @-@ baked layer dish ground meat and eggplant casserole that , unlike its Levantine rivals , is served hot .
Meat stews ( chicken , lamb and beef ) are cooked with spices , pine nuts herbs like parsley , mint and oregano , onion , tomato sauce or tahini or juices such as pomegranate molasses , pomegranate juice , pomegranate wine , grape wine , arak , date molasses and tamarind . Peas , chickpeas , white beans , cowpeas or green beans are sometimes also added .
Stuffed chicken in Israel is usually stuffed with rice , meat ( lamb or beef ) , parsley , dried fruits like dates , apricots or raisins , spices like cinnamon , nutmeg or allspice ; sometimes herbs like thyme and oregano ( not the dried ones ) are added on the top of the chicken to give it a flavor and than it is baked in the oven .
= = = Dairy products = = =
Many fresh , high quality dairy products are available , such as cottage cheese , white cheeses , yogurts including leben and eshel , yellow cheeses , and salt @-@ brined cheeses typical of the Mediterranean region .
Dairy farming has been a major sector of Israeli agriculture since the founding of the state , and the yield of local milk cows is amongst the highest in the world . Initially , the moshavim ( farming cooperatives ) and kibbutzim produced mainly soft white cheese as it was inexpensive and nutritious . It became an important staple in the years of austerity and gained a popularity that it enjoys until today .
Soft white cheese , gvina levana , is often referred to by its fat content , such as 5 % or 9 % . It is eaten plain , or mixed with fruit or vegetables , spread on bread or crackers and used in a variety of pies and pastries .
Labneh is a yogurt @-@ based white cheese common throughout the Balkans and the Middle East . It is sold plain , with za 'atar , or in olive oil . It is often eaten for breakfast with other cheeses and bread . In the north of the country , Labneh balls preserved in olive oil are more common than in the central and the southern parts . Adding spices like za 'atar , dried oregano or sumac and herbs like thyme , mint or scallions is common when preserving the Labneh balls . It is especially common to eat them during breakfast because meat is usually not eaten in the morning .
Tzfat cheese , a white cheese in brine , similar to feta , was first produced by the Meiri dairy in Safed in 1837 and is still produced there by descendants of the original cheese makers . The Meiri dairy also became famous for its production of the Balkan @-@ style brinza cheese , which became known as Bulgarian cheese due to its popularity in the early 1950s among Jewish immigrants from Bulgaria . Other dairies now also produce many varieties of these cheeses . Bulgarian yogurt , introduced to Israel by Bulgarian Jewish survivors of the Holocaust , is used to make a traditional yogurt and cucumber soup .
In the early 1980s , small privately owned dairies began to produce handmade cheeses from goat and sheep ’ s milk as well as cow ’ s milk , resembling traditional cheeses like those made in rural France , Spain and Italy . Many are made with organic milk . These are now also produced by kibbutzim and the national Tnuva dairy .
= = = Egg dishes = = =
Shakshuka , a dish of eggs poached in a spicy tomato sauce , is a national favorite , especially in the winter . It is traditionally served up in a cast iron pan with bread to mop up the sauce . Some variations of the dish are cooked with liberal use of ingredients such as eggplant , chili peppers , hot paprika , spinach , feta cheese or safed cheese .
Omelette is seasoned with onions , herbs such as dill seeds ( Shamir ) , spinach , parsley , mint , coriander and mallow with spices such as turmeric , cumin , sumac , cinnamon and cloves and with cheese such as Safed cheese and Feta cheese
Haminados is an egg that is baked after being boiled it is baked alongside stew or meals , when it is in hamin when it is mainly taken outside the stew at morning for breakfast , it is also sometimes replaces normal egg at sabich . It is also eaten as a breakfast alongside jachnun , grated tomatoes and skhug .
= = = Fruit = = =
Israel is one of the world 's leading fresh citrus producers and exporters , and more than forty types of fruit are grown in Israel , including citrus fruits such as oranges , grapefruit , tangerines and the pomelit , a hybrid of a grapefruit and a pomelo , developed in Israel . Fruits grown in Israel include avocados , bananas , apples , cherries , plums , lychees , nectarines , grapes , dates , strawberries , prickly pear ( tzabbar ) , persimmon , loquat ( shesek ) and pomegranates , and are eaten on a regular basis : Israelis consume an average of nearly 160 kilograms ( 350 lb ) of fruit per person a year .
Many unique varieties of mango are native to the country , most having been developed during the second half of the 20th century . New and improved mango varieties are still introduced to markets every few years . Arguably the most popular variety is the Maya type , which is small to medium in size , fragrant , colourful ( featuring 3 @-@ 4 colours ) and usually fiberless . The Israeli mango season begins in May , and the last of the fruit ripen as October draws near . Different varieties are present on markets at different months , with the Maya type seen between July and September . Mangos are frequently used in fusion dishes and for making Sorbet .
A lot of Israelis keep fruit trees in their yards , citrus ( especially orange and lemon ) being the most common . Mangos are also now popular as household trees . Mulberry trees are frequently seen in public gardens , and their fruit is popularly served alongside various desserts and as a juice .
Fruit is served as a snack or dessert alongside other items or by themselves . Fresh @-@ squeezed fruit juices are prepared at street kiosks , and sold bottled in supermarkets . Various fruits are added to chicken or meat dishes and fresh fruit salad and compote are often served at the end of the meal .
= = = Baked dishes , cookies , pastries , bourekas , Rugelach = = =
There is a strong tradition of home baking in Israel arising from the years when there were very few bakeries to meet demand . Many professional bakers came to Israel from Central Europe and founded local pastry shops and bakeries , often called konditoria , thus shaping local tastes and preferences . There is now a local style with a wide selection of cakes and pastries that includes influences from other cuisines and combines traditional European ingredients with Mediterranean and Middle Eastern ingredients , such as halva , phyllo dough , dates , and rose water .
Examples include citrus @-@ flavored semolina cakes , moistened with syrup and called basbousa , tishpishti or revani in Sephardic bakeries . The Ashkenazi babka has been adapted to include halva or chocolate spread , in addition to the old @-@ fashioned cinnamon . There are also many varieties of apple cake . Cookies made with crushed dates ( ma 'amoul ) are served with coffee or tea , as throughout the Middle East .
Jerusalem kugel ( kugel yerushalmi ) is an Israeli version of the traditional noodle pudding , kugel , made with caramelized sugar and spiced with black pepper . It was originally a specialty of the Ashkenazi Jews of the Old Yishuv . It is typically baked in a very low oven overnight and eaten after synagogue services on Sabbath morning .
Bourekas are savory pastries brought to Israel by Jews from Turkey , the Balkans and Salonika . They are made of a flaky dough in a variety of shapes , frequently topped with sesame seeds , and are filled with meat , chickpeas , cheese , spinach , potatoes or mushrooms . Bourekas are sold at kiosks , supermarkets and cafes , and are served at functions and celebrations , as well as being prepared by home cooks . They are often served as a light meal with hardboiled eggs and chopped vegetable salad .
Ashkenazi Jews from Vienna and Budapest brought sophisticated pastry making traditions to Israel . Sacher torte and Linzer torte are sold at professional bakeries , but cheesecake and strudel are also baked at home .
Jelly donuts ( sufganiyot ) , traditionally filled with red jelly ( jam ) , but also custard or dulce de leche , are eaten as Hanukkah treats .
Tahini cookies are an Israeli origin cookies made of tahini , flour , butter and sugar and usually topped with pine nuts .
= = = Breads and sandwiches = = =
In the Jewish communities of the Old Yishuv , bread was baked at home . Small commercial bakeries were set up in the mid @-@ 19th century . One of the earliest , Berman 's Bakery , was established in 1875 , and evolved from a cottage industry making home @-@ baked bread and cakes for Christian pilgrims .
Expert bakers who arrived among the immigrants from Eastern and Central Europe in the 1920s and 30s introduced handmade sourdough breads . From the 1950s , mass @-@ produced bread replaced these loaves and standard , government subsidized loaves known as leḥem aḥid became mostly available until the 1980s , when specialized bakeries again began producing rich sourdough breads in the European tradition , and breads in a Mediterranean style with accents such as olives , cheese , herbs or sun @-@ dried tomatoes . A large variety of breads is now available from bakeries and cafes .
Challah bread is widely purchased or prepared for the Shabbat . Challah is typically an egg @-@ enriched bread , often braided in the Ashkenazi tradition , or round for Rosh Hashana , the Jewish New Year .
The Shabbat and festival breads of the Yemenite Jews have become popular in Israel and can be bought frozen in supermarkets . Jachnun is very thinly rolled dough , brushed with oil or fat and baked overnight at a very low heat . It is traditionally served with a crushed or grated tomato dip , hard boiled eggs and skhug . Malawach is a thin circle of dough toasted in a frying pan . Kubaneh is a yeast dough baked overnight and traditionally served on Shabbat morning . Lahoh is a spongy , pancake @-@ like bread made of fermented flour and water , and fried in a pan . Jews from Ethiopia make a similar bread called injera from millet flour .
Pita bread is a double @-@ layered flat or pocket bread traditional in many Middle Eastern and Mediterranean cuisines . It is baked plain , or with a topping of sesame or nigella seeds or za 'atar . Pita is used in multiple ways , such as stuffed with falafel , salads or various meats as a snack or fast food meal ; packed with schnitzel , salad and French fries for lunch ; filled with chocolate spread as a snack for schoolchildren ; or broken into pieces for scooping up hummus , eggplant and other dips . A lafa is larger , soft flatbread that is rolled up with a falafel or shawarma filling . Various ethnic groups continue to bake traditional flat breads . Jews from the former Soviet republic of Georgia make the flatbread , lavash .
= = = Confections , sweets and snack foods = = =
Baklava is a nut @-@ filled phyllo pastry sweetened with syrup served at celebrations in Jewish communities who originated in the Middle East . It is also often served in restaurants as dessert , along with small cups of Turkish coffee .
Kadaif is a pastry made from long thin noodle threads filled with walnuts or pistachios and sweetened with syrup ; it is served alongside baklava .
Halva is a sweet , made from tehina and sugar , and is popular in Israel . It is used to make original desserts like halva parfait .
Ma 'amoul are small shortbread pastries filled with dates , pistachios or walnuts ( or occasionally almonds , figs , or other fillings ) .
Ozne Haman is a sweet yeast dough filled with crushed nuts , raisins , dried apricots , dates , halva or strawberry jam then oven baked . It is a specialty of Purim . The triangular shape may have been influenced by old illustrations of Haman , in which he wore a three @-@ cornered hat
Sunflower seeds , called garinim ( literally , seeds ) , are eaten everywhere , on outings , at stadiums and at home . They are usually purchased unshelled and are cracked open with the teeth . They can be bought freshly roasted from shops and market stalls that specialize in nuts and seeds as well as packaged in supermarkets , along with the also well @-@ liked pumpkin and watermelon seeds , pistachios , and sugar @-@ coated peanuts .
Bamba is a soft , peanut @-@ flavored snack food that is a favorite of children , and Bissli is a crunchy snack made of deep @-@ fried dry pasta , sold in various flavors , including BBQ , pizza , falafel and onion .
Malabi is a creamy pudding originating from Turkey prepared with milk or almond milk ( for a kosher version ) and cornstarch . It is sold as a street food from carts or stalls , in disposable cups with thick sweet syrup and various crunchy toppings such as chopped pistachios or coconut . Its popularity has resulted in supermarkets selling it in plastic packages and restaurants serving richer and more sophisticated versions using various toppings and garnishes such as berries and fruit . Sahlab is a similar dessert made from the powdered tubers of orchids and milk .
Watermelon with Feta cheese salad is a popular dessert , sometimes mint is added to the salad .
Krembo is a chocolate @-@ coated marshmallow treat sold only in the winter , and is a very popular alternative to ice cream . It comes wrapped in colorful aluminum foil , and consists of a round biscuit base covered with a dollop of marshmallow cream coated in chocolate .
Milky is a popular dairy pudding that comes in chocolate , vanilla and mocha flavors with a layer of whipped cream on top .
= = = Sauces and condiments = = =
Chili @-@ based hot sauces are prominent in Israeli food , and are based on green or red chili peppers . They are served with appetizers , felafel , casseroles and grilled meats , and are blended with hummus and tahina . Although originating primarily from North African and Yemenite immigrants , these hot sauces are now widely consumed .
Skhug is a spicy chili pepper sauce brought to Israel by Yemenite Jews , and has become one of Israel 's most popular condiments . It is added to falafel and hummus and is also spread over fish , and to white cheese , eggs , salami or avocado sandwiches for extra heat and spice .
Other hot sauces made from chili peppers and garlic are the Tunisian harissa , and the filfel chuma of the Libyan Jewish community in Israel .
Amba is a pickled mango sauce , introduced by Iraqi Jews , and commonly used a condiment with shawarma , kebabs , meorav yerushalmi and falafel and vegetable salads .
Concentrated juices made of grape , carob pomegranate and date are common in different regions , they are used at stews , soups or as a topping for desserts such as malabi and rice pudding .
Almond syrup flavored with rose water or orange blossom water is a common flavor for desserts and sometimes added to cocktails such as arak .
= = = Drinks = = =
There is a strong coffee @-@ drinking culture in Israel . Coffee is prepared as instant ( nes ) , iced , latte ( hafuḥ ) , Italian @-@ style espresso , or Turkish coffee , which is sometimes flavored with cardamom ( hel ) . Jewish writers , artists , and musicians from Germany and Austria who immigrated to Israel before the Second World War introduced the model of the Viennese coffee house with its traditional décor , relaxed atmosphere , coffee and pastries .
Cafés are found everywhere in urban areas and function as meeting places for socializing and conducting business . Almost all serve baked goods and sandwiches and many also serve light meals . There are both chains and locally owned neighborhood cafés . Most have outdoor seating to take advantage of Israel 's Mediterranean climate . Tel Aviv is particularly well known for its café culture .
Tea is also a widely consumed beverage and is served at cafés and drunk at home . Tea is prepared in many ways , from plain brewed Russian and Turkish @-@ style black tea with sugar , to tea with lemon or milk , and , available as a common option in most establishments , Middle Eastern @-@ style with mint ( nana ) . Tea ith Rose water is also common .
Limonana , a type of lemonade made from freshly @-@ squeezed lemons and mint , was invented in Israel in the early 1990s and has become a summer staple throughout the Middle East .
Rimonana is similar to Limonana , made of Pomegranate juice and mint .
Sahlab is a drinkable pudding once made of the powdered bulb of the orchid plant but today usually made with cornstarch . It is usually sold in markets or by street vendors , especially in the winter . It is topped with cinnamon and chopped pistachios .
Malt beer , known as black beer ( בִירָה שְחוֹרָה , bira shḥora ) , is a non @-@ alcoholic beverage produced in Israel since pre @-@ state times . Goldstar and Maccabi are Israeli beers . Recently , some small boutique breweries began brewing new brands of beer , such as Dancing Camel , Negev , and Can 'an .
Arak , is a Levantine alcoholic spirit ( ~ 40 – 63 % Alc . Vol . / ~ 80 – 126 proof ) from the anis drinks family , common in Israel and throughout the Middle East . It is a clear , colorless , unsweetened anise @-@ flavored distilled alcoholic drink ( also labeled as an Apéritif ) . It is often served neat or mixed with ice and water , which creates a reaction turning the liquor a milky @-@ white colour . It is sometimes also mixed with grapefruit juice to create a cocktail known as ' Arak eshkoliyyot ' , literally ' Arak grapefruit ' .
Other spirits , brandies , liquors can be found across the country in many villages and towns .
= = = Wine = = =
The vast majority of Israelis drink wine in moderation , and almost always at meals or social occasions . Israelis drink about 6 @.@ 5 liters of wine per person per year , which is low compared to other wine @-@ drinking Mediterranean countries , but the per capita amount has been increasing since the 1980s as Israeli production of high @-@ quality wine grows to meet demand , especially of semi @-@ dry and dry wines . In addition to Israeli wines , an increasing number of wines are imported from France , Italy , Australia , the United States , Chile and Argentina .
Most of the wine produced and consumed from the 1880s was sweet , kosher wine when the Carmel Winery was established , until the 1980s , when more dry or semi @-@ dry wines began to be produced and consumed after the introduction of the Golan Heights Winery ’ s first vintage . The winery was the first to focus on planting and making wines from Cabernet Sauvignon , Merlot , Sauvignon blanc , Chardonnay , Pinot noir , white Riesling and Gewürztraminer . These wines are kosher and have won silver and gold medals in international competitions . Israeli wine is now produced by hundreds of wineries , ranging in size from small boutique wineries in the villages to large companies producing over ten million bottles per year , which are also exported worldwide .
Wine made of fruits other than grapes such as fig , cherry , pomegranate , carob and date are also common in the country .
= = = Non @-@ kosher foods = = =
Foods variously prohibited in Jewish dietary laws ( Kashrut ) and in Muslim dietary laws ( Halal ) may also be included in pluralistic Israel 's diverse cuisine . Although partly legally restricted , pork and shell @-@ fish are available at all the non @-@ kosher restaurants ( which are the majority ) and stores all over the country which are widely spread , including by the Maadaney Mizra , Tiv Ta 'am and Maadanei Mania supermarket chains . A modern Hebrew euphemism for pork is " white meat " . Despite Jewish and Muslim religious restrictions on the consumption of pork , pigmeat consumption per capita was 2 @.@ 7 kg in 2009 . A 2008 survey reported that about half of Israeli Jews do not always observe kashrut . Israel 's anomalous equanimity toward its religious dietary restrictions may be reflected by the fact that some of the Hebrew cookbooks of Yisrael Aharoni are published in two versions : kosher and non @-@ kosher editions .
= = Eating out = =
= = = Street foods = = =
In Israel , as in many other Middle Eastern countries , " street food " is a kind of fast food that is sometimes literally eaten while standing in the street , while in some cases there are places to sit down . The following are some foods that are usually eaten in this way :
Falafel are fried balls or patties of spiced , mashed chickpeas or fava beans and are a common Middle Eastern street food that have become identified with Israeli cuisine . Falafel is most often served in a pita , with pickles , tahina , hummus , cut vegetable salad and often , harif , a hot sauce , the type used depending on the origin of the falafel maker . Variations include green falafel , which include parsley and coriander , red falafel made with filfel chuma , yellow falafel made with turmeric , and falafel coated with sesame seeds .
Shawarma , ( from çevirme , meaning " rotating " in Turkish ) is usually made in Israel with turkey , with lamb fat added . The shawarma meat is sliced and marinated and then roasted on a huge rotating skewer . The cooked meat is shaved off and stuffed into a pita , plainly with hummus and tahina , or with additional trimmings such as fresh or fried onion rings , French fries , salads and pickles . More upscale restaurant versions are served on an open flat bread , a lafa , with steak strips , flame roasted eggplant and salads .
Shakshouka , originally a workman ’ s breakfast popularized by North African Jews in Israel , is made simply of fried eggs in spicy tomato sauce , with other vegetable ingredients or sausage optional . Shakshouka is typically served in the same frying pan in which it is cooked , with thick slices of white bread to mop up the sauce , and a side of salad . Modern variations include a milder version made with spinach and feta without tomato sauce , and hot chili shakshouka , a version that includes both sweet and hot peppers and coriander .
Jerusalem mixed grill , or me 'urav Yerushalmi , consists of mixed grill of chicken giblets and lamb with onion , garlic and spices . It is one of Jerusalem ’ s most popular and profitable street foods . Although the origin of the dish is in Jerusalem , it is today common in all of the cities and towns in Israel .
Jerusalem bagels , unlike the round , boiled and baked bagels popularized by Ashkenazi Jews , are long and oblong @-@ shaped , made from bread dough , covered in za ’ atar or sesame seeds , and are soft , chewy and sweet . They have become a favorite snack for football match crowds , and are also served in hotels as well as at home .
Malabi is a creamy pudding originating from Turkey prepared with milk or cream and cornstarch . It is sold as a street food from carts or stalls , in disposable cups with thick sweet syrup and various crunchy toppings such as chopped pistachios or coconut . Its popularity has resulted in supermarkets selling it in plastic packages and restaurants serving richer and more sophisticated versions using various toppings and garnishes such as berries and fruit . Sahlab is a similar dessert made from the powdered tubers of orchids and milk .
Sabikh is a traditional sandwich that Mizrahi Jews introduced to Israel and is sold at kiosks throughout the country , but especially in Ramat @-@ Gan , where it was first introduced . Sabiḥ is a pita filled with fried eggplant , hardboiled egg , salad , tehina and pickles .
Tunisian sandwich is usually made from a baguette with various fillings that may include tuna , egg , pickled lemon , salad , and fried hot green pepper .
= = = Places to eat = = =
There are thousands of restaurants , casual eateries , cafés and bars in Israel , offering a wide array of choices in food and culinary styles . Places to eat out that are distinctly Israeli include the following :
Falafel stands or kiosks are common in every neighborhood . Falafel vendors compete to stand apart from their competitors and this leads to the offering of additional special extras like chips , deep fried eggplant , salads and pickles for the price of a single portion of falafel .
Hummusia is an establishment that offers mainly hummus with a limited selection of extras such as tahina , hardboiled egg , falafel , onion , pickles , lemon and garlic sauce and pita or taboon bread .
Misada Mizrahit ( literally " Eastern restaurant " ) refers to Mizrahi Jewish , middle eastern or Arabic restaurants . These popular and relatively inexpensive establishments often offer a selection of meze salads followed by grilled meat with a side of french fries and a simple dessert such as chocolate mousse for dessert .
Steakiyot are meat grills selling sit down and take away chicken , turkey or lamb as steak , shishlik , kebab and even Jerusalem mixed grill , all in pita or in taboon bread .
= = Holiday cuisine = =
= = = Sabbath = = =
Friday night ( eve of Sabbath ) dinners are usually family and socially oriented meals . Along with family favorites , and varying to some extent according to ethnic background , traditional dishes are served , such as challah bread , chicken soup , salads , chicken or meat dishes , and cakes or fruits for dessert .
Shabbat lunch is also an important social meal . Since antiquity , Jewish communities all over the world devised meat casseroles that begin cooking before the lighting of candles that marks the commencement of the Sabbath on Friday night , so as to comply with the religious regulations for observing the Sabbath . In modern Israel , this filling dish , in many variations , is still eaten on the Sabbath day , not only in religiously observant households , and is also served in some restaurants during the week .
The basic ingredients are meat and beans or rice simmered overnight on a hotplate or blech , or placed in a slow oven . Ashkenazi cholent usually contains meat , potatoes , barley and beans , and sometimes kishke , and seasonings such as pepper and paprika . Sephardi hamin contains chicken or meat , rice , beans , garlic , sweet or regular potatoes , seasonings such as turmeric and cinnamon , and whole eggs in the shell known as haminados . Moroccan Jews prepare variations known as dafina or skhina ( or s ′ hina ) with meat , onion , marrow bones , potatoes , chickpeas , wheat berries , eggs and spices such as turmeric , cumin , paprika and pepper . Iraqi Jews prepare tebit , using chicken and rice .
For desserts or informal gatherings on Shabbat , home bakers still bake a wide variety of cakes on Fridays to be enjoyed on the Sabbath , or purchased from bakeries or stores , cakes such as sponge cake , citrus semolina cake , cinnamon or chocolate babkas , and fruit and nut cakes .
= = = Rosh Hashanah = = =
Rosh Hashana , the Jewish New Year , is widely celebrated with festive family meals and symbolic foods . Sweetness is the main theme and the Rosh Hashana dinners typically begin with apples dipped in honey , and end with honey cake . The challah is usually round , often studded with raisins and drizzled with honey , and other symbolic fruits and vegetables are eaten as an entree , such as pomegranates , carrots , leeks and beets . Fish dishes , symbolizing abundance , are served ; for example , gefilte fish is traditional for Ashkenazim , while Moroccan Jews prepare the spicy fish dish , chraime . Honey cake ( lekach ) is often served as dessert , accompanied by tea or coffee . Dishes cooked with pomegranate juice are common during this period .
= = = Hanukkah = = =
The holiday of Hanukkah is marked by the consumption of traditional Hanukkah foods fried in oil in commemoration of the miracle in which a small quantity of oil sufficient for one day lasted eight days .
The two most popular Hannukah foods are potato pancakes , levivot , also known by the Yiddish latkes ; and jelly doughnuts , known as sufganiyot in Hebrew , pontshkes ( in Yiddish ) or bimuelos ( in Ladino ) , as these are deep @-@ fried in oil . Hannukah pancakes are made from a variety of ingredients , from the traditional potato or cheese , to more modern innovations , among them corn , spinach , zucchini and sweet potato .
Bakeries in Israel have popularized many new types of fillings for sufganiyot besides the standard strawberry jelly filling , and these include chocolate , vanilla or cappuccino cream , and others . In recent years downsized , " mini " sufganiyot have also appeared due to concerns about calories .
= = = Tu Bishvat = = =
Tu Bishvat is a minor Jewish holiday , usually sometime in late January or early February , that marks the " New Year of the Trees " . Customs include planting trees and eating dried fruits and nuts , especially figs , dates , raisins , carob , and almonds .
Many Israelis , both religious and secular , celebrate with a kabbalistic @-@ inspired Tu Bishvat seder that includes a feast of fruits and four cups of wine according to the ceremony presented in special haggadot modeled on the Haggadah of Passover for this purpose .
= = = Purim = = =
The festival of Purim celebrates the deliverance of the Jewish people from the plot of Haman to annihilate them in the ancient Persian Achaemenid Empire , as described in the Book of Esther . It is a day of rejoicing and merriment , on which children , and many adults , wear costumes . It is customary to eat a festive meal , seudat Purim , in the late afternoon , often with wine as the prominent beverage , in keeping with the atmosphere of merry @-@ making .
Many people prepare packages of food that they give to neighbors , friends , family , and colleagues on Purim . These are called mishloach manot ( " sending of portions " ) , and often include wine and baked goods , fruit and nuts , and sweets .
The food most associated with Purim is called ozne haman ( " Haman 's ears " ) . These are three @-@ cornered pastries filled most often with poppy seed , but also other fruit fillings . The triangular shape may have been influenced by old illustrations of Haman , in which he wore a three @-@ cornered hat .
= = = Passover = = =
The week @-@ long holiday of Passover in the spring commemorates the Exodus from Egypt , and in Israel is usually a time for visiting friends and relatives , travelling , and on the first night of Passover , the traditional ritual dinner , known as the Seder . Foods containing ḥametz – leaven or yeast – may not be eaten during Passover . This means bread , pastries and certain fermented beverages , such as beer , cannot be consumed . Ashkenazim also do not eat legumes , known as kitniyot . Over the centuries , Jewish cooks have developed dishes using alternative ingredients and this characterizes Passover food in Israel today .
Chicken soup with matza dumplings ( kneidlach ) is often a starter for the Seder meal among Israelis of all the ethnic backgrounds . Spring vegetables , such as asparagus and artichokes often accompany the meal .
Restaurants in Israel have come up with creative alternatives to ḥametz ingredients to create pasta , hamburger buns , pizza , and other fast foods in kosher @-@ for @-@ Passover versions by using potato starch and other non @-@ standard ingredients .
After Passover , the celebration of Mimouna takes place , a tradition brought to Israel by the Jewish communities of North Africa . In the evening , a feast of fruit , confectionery and pastries is set out for neighbors and visitors to enjoy . Most notably , the first leaven after Passover , a thin crepe called a mofletta , eaten with honey , syrup or jam , is served . The occasion is celebrated the following day by outdoor picnics at which salads and barbecued meat feature prominently .
= = = Shavuot = = =
In the early summer , the Jewish harvest festival of Shavuot is celebrated . Shavuot marks the peak of the new grain harvest and the ripening of the first fruits , and is a time when milk was historically most abundant . To celebrate this holiday , many types of dairy foods are eaten . These include cheeses and yogurts , cheese @-@ based pies and quiches called pashtidot , cheese blintzes , and cheesecake prepared with soft white cheese ( gvina levana ) or cream cheese .
= Chariot racing =
Chariot racing ( Greek : ἁρματοδρομία harmatodromia , Latin : ludi circenses ) was one of the most popular ancient Greek , Roman , and Byzantine sports . Chariot racing was dangerous to both drivers and horses as they often suffered serious injury and even death , but these dangers added to the excitement and interest for spectators . Chariot races could be watched by women , who were barred from watching many other sports . In the Roman form of chariot racing , teams represented different groups of financial backers and sometimes competed for the services of particularly skilled drivers . As in modern sports like soccer , spectators generally chose to support a single team , identifying themselves strongly with its fortunes , and violence sometimes broke out between rival factions . The rivalries were sometimes politicized , when teams became associated with competing social or religious ideas . This helps explain why Roman and later Byzantine emperors took control of the teams and appointed many officials to oversee them .
The sport faded in importance after the fall of Rome in the West , surviving only for a time in the Byzantine Empire , where the traditional Roman factions continued to play a prominent role for some time , gaining influence in political matters . Their rivalry culminated in the Nika riots , which marked the gradual decline of the sport .
= = Ancient Greece = =
= = = Early chariot racing = = =
It is unknown exactly when chariot racing began , but it may have been as old as chariots themselves . It is known from artistic evidence on pottery that the sport existed in the Mycenaean world , but the first literary reference to a chariot race is one described by Homer , at the funeral games of Patroclus . The participants in this race were Diomedes , Eumelus , Antilochus , Menelaus , and Meriones . The race , which was one lap around the stump of a tree , was won by Diomedes , who received a slave woman and a cauldron as his prize . A chariot race also was said to be the event that founded the Olympic Games ; according to one legend , mentioned by Pindar , King Oenomaus challenged suitors for his daughter Hippodamia to a race , but was defeated by Pelops , who founded the Games in honour of his victory .
= = = Olympic Games = = =
In the ancient Olympic Games , as well as the other Panhellenic Games , there were both four @-@ horse ( tethrippon , Greek : τέθριππον ) and two @-@ horse ( synoris , Greek : συνωρὶς ) chariot races , which were essentially the same aside from the number of horses . The chariot racing event was first added to the Olympics in 680 BC with the games expanding from a one @-@ day to a two @-@ day event to accommodate the new event ( but was not , in reality , the founding event ) . The chariot race was not so prestigious as the foot race of 195 meters ( stadion , Greek : στάδιον ) , but it was more important than other equestrian events such as racing on horseback , which were dropped from the Olympic Games very early on .
The races themselves were held in the hippodrome , which held both chariot races and riding races . The single horse race was known as the " keles " ( keles , Greek : κέλης ) . The hippodrome was situated at the south @-@ east corner of the sanctuary of Olympia , on the large flat area south of the stadium and ran almost parallel to the latter . Until recently , its exact location was unknown , since it is buried by several meters of sedimentary material from the Alfeios River . In 2008 , however , Annie Muller and staff of the German Archeological Institute used radar to locate a large , rectangular structure similar to Pausanias 's description . Pausanias , who visited Olympia in the second century AD , describes the monument as a large , elongated , flat space , approximately 780 meters long and 320 meters wide ( four stadia long and one stadefour plethra wide ) . The elongated racecourse was divided longitudinally into two tracks by a stone or wooden barrier , the embolon . All the horses or chariots ran on one track toward the east , then turned around the embolon and headed back west . Distances varied according to the event . The racecourse was surrounded by natural ( to the north ) and artificial ( to the south and east ) banks for the spectators ; a special place was reserved for the judges on the west side of the north bank .
The race was begun by a procession into the hippodrome , while a herald announced the names of the drivers and owners . The tethrippon consisted of twelve laps around the hippodrome , with sharp turns around the posts at either end . Various mechanical devices were used , including the starting gates ( hyspleges , Greek : ὕσπληγγες ; singular : hysplex , Greek : ὕσπληγξ ) which were lowered to start the race . According to Pausanias , these were invented by the architect Cleoitas , and staggered so that the chariots on the outside began the race earlier than those on the inside . The race did not begin properly until the final gate was opened , at which point each chariot would be more or less lined up alongside each other , although the ones that had started on the outside would have been traveling faster than the ones in the middle . Other mechanical devices known as the " eagle " and the " dolphin " were raised to signify that the race had begun , and were lowered as the race went on to signify the number of laps remaining . These were probably bronze carvings of those animals , set up on posts at the starting line .
In most cases , the owner and the driver of the chariot were different persons . In 416 BC , the Athenian general Alcibiades had seven chariots in the race , and came in first , second , and fourth ; obviously , he could not have been racing all seven chariots himself . Philip II of Macedon also won an Olympic chariot race in an attempt to prove he was not a barbarian , although if he had driven the chariot himself he would likely have been considered even lower than a barbarian . The poet Pindar did praise the courage of Herodotes of Thebes , however , for driving his own chariot . This rule also meant that women could win the race through ownership , despite the fact that women were not allowed to participate in or even watch the Games . This happened rarely , but a notable example is the Spartan Cynisca , daughter of Archidamus II , who won the chariot race twice . Chariot racing was a way for Greeks to demonstrate their prosperity at the games . The case of Alcibiades indicates also that chariot racing was an alternative route to public exposure and fame for the wealthy .
The charioteer was usually a family member of the owner of the chariot or , in most cases , a slave or a hired professional . Driving a racing chariot required unusual strength , skill , and courage . Yet , we know the names of very few charioteers , and victory songs and statues regularly contrive to leave them out of account . Unlike the other Olympic events , charioteers did not perform in the nude , probably for safety reasons because of the dust kicked up by the horses and chariots , and the likelihood of bloody crashes . Racers wore a sleeved garment called a xystis . It fell to the ankles and was fastened high at the waist with a plain belt . Two straps that crossed high at the upper back prevented the xystis from " ballooning " during the race .
The chariots themselves were modified war chariots , essentially wooden carts with two wheels and an open back , although chariots were by this time no longer used in battle . The charioteer 's feet were held in place , but the cart rested on the axle , so the ride was bumpy . The most exciting part of the chariot race , at least for the spectators , was the turns at the ends of the hippodrome . These turns were very dangerous and often deadly . If a chariot had not already been knocked over by an opponent before the turn , it might be overturned or crushed ( along with the horses and driver ) by the other chariots as they went around the post . Deliberately running into an opponent to cause him to crash was technically illegal , but nothing could be done about it ( at Patroclus ' funeral games , Antilochus in fact causes Menelaus to crash in this way , ) and crashes were likely to happen by accident anyway .
= = = Other festivals = = =
As a result of the rise of the Greek cities of the classic period , other great festivals emerged in Asia Minor , Magna Graecia , and the mainland providing the opportunity for athletes to gain fame and riches . Apart from the Olympics , the best respected were the Isthmian Games in Corinth , the Nemean Games , the Pythian Games in Delphi , and the Panathenaic Games in Athens , where the winner of the four @-@ horse chariot race was given 140 amphorae of olive oil ( much sought after and precious in ancient times ) . Prizes at other competitions included corn in Eleusis , bronze shields in Argos , and silver vessels in Marathon . Another form of chariot racing at the Panathenaic Games was known as the apobatai , in which the contestant wore armor and periodically leapt off a moving chariot and ran alongside it before leaping back on again . In these races , there was a second charioteer ( a " rein @-@ holder " ) while the apobates jumped out ; in the catalogues with the winners both the names of the apobates and of the rein @-@ holder are mentioned . Images of this contest show warriors , armed with helmets and shields , perched on the back of their racing chariots . Some scholars believe that the event preserved traditions of Homeric warfare .
= = Roman era = =
The Romans probably borrowed chariot racing from the Etruscans as well as the racing tracks , who themselves borrowed it from the Greeks , but the Romans were also influenced directly by the Greeks . According to Roman legend , chariot racing was used by Romulus just after he founded Rome in 753 BC as a way of distracting the Sabine men . Romulus sent out invitations to the neighbouring towns to celebrate the festival of the Consualia , which included both horse races and chariot races . Whilst the Sabines were enjoying the spectacle , Romulus and his men seized and carried off the Sabine women , who became wives of the Romans . Chariot races were a part of several Roman religious festivals , and on these occasions were preceded by a parade ( pompa circensis ) that featured the charioteers , music , costumed dancers , and images of the gods . While the entertainment value of chariot races tended to overshadow any sacred purpose , in late antiquity the Church Fathers still saw them as a traditional " pagan " practice , and advised Christians not to participate .
In ancient Rome , chariot races commonly took place in a circus . The main centre of chariot racing was the Circus Maximus in the valley between Palatine Hill and Aventine Hill , which could seat 250 @,@ 000 people . It was the earliest circus in the city of Rome . The Circus was supposed to date to the city 's earliest times , but it was rebuilt by Julius Caesar around 50 BC so that it had a length of about 650 metres ( 2 @,@ 130 ft ) and a width of about 125 metres ( 410 ft ) . One end of the track was more open than the other , as this was where the chariots lined up to begin the race . The Romans used a series of gates known as carceres , an equivalent to the Greek hysplex . These were staggered in the same way as the hysplex , but they were slightly different because Roman racing tracks also had a median ( the spina ) in the centre of the track . The carceres took up the angled end of the track , and the chariots were loaded into spring @-@ loaded gates . When the chariots were ready , the emperor ( or whoever was hosting the races , if they were not in Rome ) dropped a cloth known as a mappa , signalling the beginning of the race . The gates would spring open , creating a perfectly fair beginning for all participants .
Once the race had begun , the chariots could move in front of each other in an attempt to cause their opponents to crash into the spinae ( singular spina ) . On the top of the spinae stood small tables or frames supported on pillars , and also small pieces of marble in the shape of eggs or dolphins . The spina eventually became very elaborate , with statues and obelisks and other forms of art , but the multiplication of the adornments of the spina had one unfortunate result : They became so numerous that they obstructed the view of spectators on lower seats . At either end of the spina was a meta , or turning point , in the form of large gilded columns . Spectacular crashes took place there , as in the Greek races , in which the chariot was destroyed and the charioteer and horses incapacitated were known as naufragia , also the Latin word for shipwrecks .
The race itself was much like its Greek counterpart , although there were usually 24 races every day that , during the fourth century , took place on 66 days each year . However , a race consisted of only 7 laps ( and later 5 laps , so that there could be even more races per day ) , instead of the 12 laps of the Greek race . The Roman style was also more money @-@ oriented ; racers were professionals and there was widespread betting among spectators . There were four @-@ horse chariots ( quadrigae ) and two @-@ horse chariots ( bigae ) , but the four @-@ horse races were more important . In rare cases , if a driver wanted to show off his skill , he could use up to 10 horses , although this was extremely impractical .
The technique and clothing of Roman charioteers differed significantly from those used by the Greeks . Roman drivers wrapped the reins round their waist , while the Greeks held the reins in their hands . Because of this , the Romans could not let go of the reins in a crash , so they would be dragged around the circus until they were killed or they freed themselves . In order to cut the reins and keep from being dragged in case of accident , they carried a falx , a curved knife . They also wore helmets and other protective gear . In any given race , there might be a number of teams put up by each faction , who would cooperate to maximize their chances of victory by ganging up on opponents , forcing them out of the preferred inside track or making them lose concentration and expose themselves to accident and injury . Spectators could also play a part as there is evidence they threw lead " curse " amulets studded with nails at teams opposing their favourite .
Another important difference was that the charioteers themselves , the aurigae , were considered to be the winners , although they were usually also slaves ( as in the Greek world ) . They received a wreath of laurel leaves , and probably some money ; if they won enough races they could buy their freedom . Drivers could become celebrities throughout the Empire simply by surviving , as the life expectancy of a charioteer was not very high . One such celebrity driver was Scorpus , who won over 2000 races before being killed in a collision at the meta when he was about 27 years old . The most famous of all was Gaius Appuleius Diocles who won 1 @,@ 462 out of 4 @,@ 257 races . When Diocles retired at the age of 42 after a 24 @-@ year career his winnings reportedly totalled 35 @,@ 863 @,@ 120 sesterces ( $ US 15 billion ) , making him the highest paid sports star in history . The horses , too , could become celebrities , but their life expectancy was also low . The Romans kept detailed statistics of the names , breeds , and pedigrees of famous horses .
Seats in the Circus were free for the poor , who by the time of the Empire had little else to do , as they were no longer involved in political or military affairs as they had been in the Republic . The wealthy could pay for shaded seats where they had a better view , and they probably also spent much of their times betting on the races . The circus was the only place where the emperor showed himself before a populace assembled in vast numbers , and where the latter could manifest their affection or anger . The imperial box , called the pulvinar in the Circus Maximus , was directly connected to the imperial palace .
The driver 's clothing was color @-@ coded in accordance with his faction , which would help distant spectators to keep track of the race 's progress . According to Tertullian , there were originally just two factions , White and Red , sacred to winter and summer respectively . As fully developed , there were four factions , the Red , White , Green , and Blue . Each team could have up to three chariots each in a race . Members of the same team often collaborated with each other against the other teams , for example to force them to crash into the spina ( a legal and encouraged tactic ) . Drivers could switch teams , much like athletes can be traded to different teams today .
By 77 BC , the rivalry between the Red and the Whites was already developed , when a funeral for a Red driver involved a Red supporter throwing himself on the funeral pyre . No writer of the time , however , refers to these as factions such as came into existence later , with the factions being official organizations . Writing near the beginning of the third century , he wrote that the Reds were dedicated to Mars , the Whites to the Zephyrs , the Greens to Mother Earth or spring , and the Blues to the sky and sea or autumn . Domitian created two new factions , the Purples and Golds , which disappeared soon after he died . The Blues and the Greens gradually became the most prestigious factions , supported by emperor and populace alike . Numerous occasions occurred when a Blue vs. Green clash would break out during a race . Indeed , Reds and Whites are only rarely mentioned in the surviving literature , although their continued activity is documented in inscriptions and in curse @-@ tablets .
= = Byzantine era = =
Like many other aspects of the Roman world , chariot racing continued in the Byzantine Empire , although the Byzantines did not keep as many records and statistics as the Romans did . In place of the detailed inscriptions of Roman racing statistics , several short epigrams in verse were composed celebrating some of the more famous Byzantine Charioteers . The six charioteers about whom these laudatory verses were written were Anastasius , Julianus of Tyre , Faustinus , his son , Constantinus , Uranius , and Porphyrius . Although Anastasius 's single epigram reveals almost nothing about him , Porphyrius is much better known , having thirty @-@ four known poems dedicated to him .
Constantine I ( r . 306 – 337 ) preferred chariot racing to gladiatorial combat , which he considered a vestige of paganism . However , the end of gladiatorial games in the Empire may have been more the result of the difficulty and expense that came with procuring gladiators to fight in the games , than the influence of Christianity in Byzantium . The Olympic Games were eventually ended by Emperor Theodosius I ( r . 379 – 395 ) in 393 , perhaps in a move to suppress paganism and promote Christianity , but chariot racing remained popular . The fact that chariot racing became linked to the imperial majesty meant that the Church did not prevent it , although gradually prominent Christian writers , such as Tertullian , began attacking the sport . Despite the influence of Christianity in the Byzantine Empire , venationes , bloody wild @-@ beast hunts , continued as a form of popular entertainment during the early days of the Empire as part of the extra entertainment that went along with chariot racing . Eventually , Emperor Leo ( r . 457 – 474 ) banned public entertainments on Sundays in 469 , showing that the hunts did not have imperial support , and the venationes were banned completely by Emperor Anastasius ( r . 491 – 518 ) in 498 . Anastasius was praised for this action by some sources , but their concern seems to be more for the danger the hunts could put humans in rather than for objections to the brutality or moral objections . There continued to be burnings and mutilations of humans who committed crimes or were enemies of the state in the hippodrome throughout the Byzantine Empire , as well as victory celebrations and imperial coronations .
The chariot races were important in the Byzantine Empire , as in the Roman Empire , as a way to reinforce social class and political power , including the might of the Byzantine emperor , and were often put on for political or religious reasons . In addition , chariot races were sometimes held in celebration of an emperor 's birthday . An explicit parallel was drawn between the victorious charioteers and the victorious emperor . The factions addressed their victors by chanting " Rejoice ... your Lords have conquered " while the charioteer took a victory lap , further indicating the parallel between the charioteer 's victory and the emperor 's victory . Indeed , reliefs of Porphyrius , the famous Byzantine charioteer , show him in a victor 's pose being acclaimed by partisans , which is clearly modeled on the images on the base of Emperor Theodosius 's obelisk . The races could also be used to symbolically make religious statements , such as when a charioteer , whose mother was named Mary , fell off his chariot and got back on and the crowd described it as " The son of Mary has fallen and risen again and is victorious . "
The Hippodrome of Constantinople ( really a Roman circus , not the open space that the original Greek hippodromes were ) was connected to the emperor 's palace and the Church of Hagia Sophia , allowing spectators to view the emperor as they had in Rome . Citizens used their proximity to the emperor in the circuses and theatres to express public opinion , like their dissatisfaction with the Emperor 's arrant policy . It has been argued that the people became so powerful that the emperors had no choice but to grant them more legal rights . However , contrary to this traditional view , it appears , based on more recent historical research , that the Byzantine emperors treated the protests and petitions of their citizens in the circuses with greater contempt and were more dismissive of them than their Roman predecessors . Justinian I ( r . 527 – 565 ) , for instance , seems to have been dismissive of the Greens ' petitions and to have never negotiated with them at all .
There is not much evidence that the chariot races were subject to bribes or other forms of cheating in the Roman Empire . In the Byzantine Empire , there seems to have been more cheating ; Justinian I 's reformed legal code prohibits drivers from placing curses on their opponents , but otherwise there does not seem to have been any mechanical tampering or bribery . Wearing the colours of one 's team became an important aspect of Byzantine dress .
Chariot racing in the Byzantine Empire also included the Roman racing clubs , which continued to play a prominent role in these public exhibitions . By this time , the Blues ( Vénetoi ) and the Greens ( Prásinoi ) had come to overshadow the other two factions of the Whites ( Leukoí ) and Reds ( Roúsioi ) , while still maintaining the paired alliances , although these were now fixed as Blue and White vs. Green and Red . These circus factions were no longer the private businesses they were during the Roman Empire . Instead , the races began to be given regular , public funding , putting them under imperial control . Running the chariot races at public expense was probably a cost @-@ cutting and labor @-@ reducing measure , making it easier to channel the proper funds into the racing organizations . The Emperor himself belonged to one of the four factions , and supported the interests of either the Blues or the Greens .
Adopting the color of their favorite charioteers was a way fans showed their loyalty to that particular racer or faction . Many of the young men in the fan clubs , or factions , adopted extravagant clothing and hairstyles , such as billowing sleeves , " Hunnic " hair @-@ styles , and " Persian " facial hair . There is evidence that these young men were the faction members most prone to violence and extreme factional rivalry . Some scholars have tried to argue that the factional rivalry and violence was a result of opposing religious or political views , but more likely the young men simply identified strongly with their faction for group solidarity . The factional violence was probably engaged in similarly to the violence of modern football or soccer fans . The games themselves were the usual focus of the factional violence , even when it was taken to the streets . Although fans who went to the hippodrome cheered on their favorite charioteers , their loyalty appears to be to the color for which the charioteer drove more than for the individual driver . Charioteers could change faction allegiance and race for different colors during their careers , but the fans didn 't change their allegiance to their color .
The Blues and the Greens were now more than simply sports teams . They gained influence in military , political , and theological matters , although the hypothesis that the Greens tended towards Monophysitism and the Blues represented Orthodoxy is disputed . It is now widely believed that neither of the factions had any consistent religious bias or allegiance , in spite of the fact that they operated in an environment fraught with religious controversy . According to some scholars , the Blue @-@ Green rivalry contributed to the conditions that underlay the rise of Islam , while factional enmities were exploited by the Sassanid Empire in its conflicts with the Byzantines during the century preceding Islam 's advent .
The Blue @-@ Green rivalry often erupted into gang warfare , and street violence had been on the rise in the reign of Justin I ( r . 518 – 527 ) , who took measures to restore order , when the gangs murdered a citizen in the Hagia Sophia . Riots culminated in the Nika riots of 532 AD during the reign of Justinian , which began when the two main factions united and attempted unsuccessfully to overthrow the emperor .
Chariot racing seems to have declined in the course of the seventh century , with the losses the Empire suffered at the hands of the Arabs and the decline of the population and economy . The Blues and Greens , deprived of any political power , were relegated to a purely ceremonial role . After the Nika riots , the factions grew less violent as their importance in imperial ceremony increased . In particular , the iconoclast emperor Constantine V ( r . 741 – 775 ) courted the factions for their support in his campaigns against the monks . They aided the emperor
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coast of North Carolina . A rapidly approaching trough caused Amy to turn sharply eastward before the storm took a general northeastward track . On July 2 , the storm reached its peak intensity with winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) and a barometric pressure of 981 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 97 inHg ) . During most of the storm 's existence , Amy featured many subtropical characteristics but was not classified as such due to the proximity to land . By July 4 , the system moved southeast of Newfoundland before becoming extratropical .
The main effects from Amy were rough seas , reaching up to 15 ft ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) in height , that were felt from North Carolina to New Jersey , inflicting minor coastal flooding and beach erosion . On June 30 , a schooner carrying four people capsized off the North Carolina coastline , resulting in the death of the father of the other three crew members . They remained at sea for roughly 15 days before being rescued by a Greek merchant ship .
= = Meteorological history = =
Tropical Storm Amy originated from a weak trough on June 24 accompanied by scattered showers and thunderstorms over Florida . The system tracked westward in response to an upper @-@ tropospheric low over Georgia . By June 26 , a surface circulation developed north of the Bahamas and satellite imagery showed a significant increase in convective activity and the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) classified the system as a tropical depression early on June 27 . On June 28 , the system attained tropical storm @-@ status while tracking north @-@ northeast off the coast of North Carolina .
By June 29 , a trough , moving through the westerlies , rapidly approached the storm , causing the newly designated Amy to turn sharply toward the east . Strong wind shear disorganized the system slightly , leading to Amy featuring subtropical characteristics . By the evening , the strongest winds were not located around the center , but were instead situated between 60 and 90 mi ( 95 and 140 km ) from the center . Convection became displaced from the center of circulation but the storm continued to intensify . Over the following several days , Amy tracked generally northeastward but underwent eastward jogs in response to rapidly moving troughs to the north .
Amy neared hurricane intensity several times , beginning on June 30 as maximum winds increased to 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) ; however , the storm was unable to acquire enough tropical features , and remained predominately subtropical . Gale @-@ force winds at this time extended roughly 125 mi ( 210 km ) out from the center to the north and east . Despite being subtropical at this point , the NHC decided against renaming it due to Amy 's proximity to land . On July 2 , a barometric pressure of 981 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 97 inHg ) was recorded , the lowest in relation to Amy . The following day , another trough caused the storm to accelerate northeastward . On July 4 , Amy passed roughly 170 mi ( 270 km ) southeast of Cape Race , Newfoundland before becoming an extratropical cyclone .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Rough seas from the storm resulted in minor coastal flooding and beach erosion in North Carolina . Small craft advisories were issued along the Virginia and North Carolina coastlines as waves up to 15 ft ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) affected the region . Several beaches were closed due to the rough conditions . By July 2 , the small craft advisories were discontinued as Amy tracked away from land . Tides up to 4 ft ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) in Virginia resulted in some beach erosion and coastal flooding due to the prolonged duration of the event . Although no warnings were issued , boaters in Newfoundland were advised to closely monitor the storm . In Hampton , Virginia , a funnel cloud spawned by a squall line associated with Amy formed just offshore .
As a tropical depression , Amy produced scattered rainfall in Florida , peaking around 3 in ( 76 mm ) near the Georgia border . Along the North Carolina coast , heavy rain fell as the center of Amy tracked nearby . Many coastal areas recorded more than 3 in ( 76 mm ) with a peak amount of 5 @.@ 87 in ( 149 mm ) falling in Belhaven , North Carolina .
Offshore , a schooner carrying four people capsized in rough seas roughly 250 mi ( 400 km ) east of Cape Hatteras , North Carolina on June 30 . The four crew were a father and his three kids . A diabetic , the 30 @-@ year @-@ old father searched for his insulin pen in the capsized ship ; however , for the fifteen days they were stranded , he was unable to find it . During the event , he slipped into a coma and later died on July 4 , leaving his kids on the boat . On July 14 , the three kids were rescued by the Ellinora , a Greek merchant ship .
= Everybody ( Madonna song ) =
" Everybody " is the debut single by American singer Madonna from her eponymous debut studio album Madonna ( 1983 ) . It was released on October 6 , 1982 by Sire Records as her debut single . Madonna had recorded a demo of the song with Steve Bray . She urged DJ Mark Kamins , who played at her dance club , to play it . He was impressed by the song and took her to Sire Records , who signed her for a two @-@ song deal . However , after the recording of the two singles was over , Sire executive Michael Rosenblatt was not impressed with the production of the other song and decided to release only " Everybody " .
By incorporating R & B infused beats in the music and not including her image on the cover artwork , marketing for the song gave the impression of Madonna as a black artist . That impression did not last long as Madonna would later convince Sire executives to shoot a music video for the song . The low @-@ budget video directed by Ed Steinberg showed Madonna and her friends in a club singing and dancing to the song . The video helped to further promote the song and Madonna as an artist .
Critically , " Everybody " did not receive any acclaim and failed to enter the official Billboard Hot 100 chart . It did , however , appear on the dance charts . The song helped Madonna achieve her first appearance in a dance magazine . She has performed " Everybody " live a number of times . It was first performed during The Virgin Tour , then as the final song of The Girlie Show World Tour , later on The MDNA Tour and most recently on the Rebel Heart Tour . The song was included in a remixed form on Madonna 's 1987 remix album , You Can Dance , and on the deluxe edition of her 2009 compilation album , Celebration .
= = Background and recording = =
In 1982 , the 24 @-@ year @-@ old Madonna was living in New York and trying to set up her music career . She was joined by her boyfriend from Detroit , Steve Bray , who became the drummer of her band , The Breakfast Club , which generally played hard @-@ rock music . After that , however , they abandoned playing songs in the hard @-@ rock genre and got signed by a music management company called Gotham Records with the plan of pursuing a new musical direction . They decided to pursue the funk genre but the record company was not happy with their musical abilities , hence they were dropped , and Madonna and Bray left the band . Meanwhile , Madonna had written and developed some songs on her own . She carried rough tapes of three of the songs , namely " Everybody " , " Ain 't No Big Deal " and " Burning Up " . At that time , she frequented the Danceteria nightclub in New York . It was there that Madonna convinced the DJ Mark Kamins to play " Everybody " for the crowd , and the song received a positive reaction . Kamins offered to get her a record deal with the understanding that he would produce the single . Kamins presented Madonna to his boss , Chris Blackwell who was the owner of Island Records , but Blackwell rejected her . Madonna finally went to Sire Records in 1982 . Michael Rosenblatt , who worked at the artists and repertoire department of Sire , commented that ,
" Madonna is great . She will do anything to be a star , and that 's exactly what I look for in an artist : total co @-@ operation ... With Madonna , I knew I had someone hot and co @-@ operative , so I planned to build her career with singles , rather than just put an album right away and run the risk of disaster . "
Rosenblatt offered Madonna $ 5 @,@ 000 in advance plus $ 1 @,@ 000 in royalties for each song she wrote . Madonna was ultimately signed for two 12 inch singles by the President of Sire , Seymour Stein , who was impressed by her singing , after listening to " Everybody " at a hospital in Lenox Hill where he was admitted . The 12 inch version of " Everybody " was produced by Mark Kamins at Bob Blank 's Blank Tapes Studio in NYC . Kamins was romantically involved with Madonna at that time . He took over the production work from Steve Bray . The new recording ran 5 : 56 on one side and 9 : 23 for the dub version on the flipside . Madonna and Kamins had to record the single at their own cost . Arthur Baker , friend of Mark Kamins , guided him through the role of a music producer and provided him with studio musician Fred Zarr who performed his keyboard wizardry on the track . Zarr became one of the common musical threads on the album by eventually performing on every track . Due to the restrained budget , the recording was a hefty affair as Madonna could not understand Kamins ' directions and Kamins himself faced problems directing . Hence the A @-@ side " Ain 't No Big Deal " did not become as successful as everyone expected . Rosenblatt wanted to release " Everybody " with " Ain 't No Big Deal " on the other side , but later changed his mind and put " Everybody " on both sides of the vinyl record after hearing the recorded version of " Ain 't No Big Deal " .
= = Release and composition = =
" Everybody " was commercially released as Madonna 's first single in October 6 , 1982 , and came with a Lou Beach @-@ designed sleeve depicting a hip hop – style NYC street scene . Because of the ambiguous nature of the record sleeve and the R & B groove of the song , Madonna was widely believed to be a black artist when the single was released . According to Matthew Lindsay of The Quietus , it was ironic that the record sleeve did not depict Madonna on the cover , being that she would become , as he described , " the face of the 80s . "
" Everybody " starts with a heavily synthesized and spoken introduction with Madonna taking a loud intake of breath . Madonna displayed her bubblegum pop voice in the song , which was doubletracked . The song is written in the key of A minor with the melody of the song beginning in G and rising to the second scale degree on the syllable ' bo ' of ' everybody ' , thus highlighting the chorus which follows in the chord progression of G – A – B – A. " Everybody " incorporated R & B infused beats . Sire Records marketed the soulful nature of the dance song for the black audience and Madonna was promoted as an African @-@ American artist , thereby fitting the record into a radio playlist where the song might chart . In New York , the song was played on 92 KTU which had an African @-@ American audience . For the cover of the single , Sire Records portrayed a hip @-@ hop collage of downtown New York , rather than a portrait shot of Madonna , further perpetuating the notion that Madonna was African @-@ American .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Author Rikky Rooksby , in his book The Complete Guide to the Music of Madonna , noted that the song closed the Madonna album on a flat note . He called the music artificial , repetitive and uninspired . Don Shewey from Rolling Stone commented that " At first , it [ " Everybody " ] doesn 't sound like much at all . Then you notice its one distinguishing feature , a girlish hiccup that the singer uses over and over until it 's irritating as hell . Finally , you get hooked , and you start looking forward to that silly little catch in her voice . " Author J. Randy Taraborrelli in his biography on Madonna commented that the song was a rhythmic call to party . Author Santiago Fouz @-@ Hernández in his book Madonna 's Drowned Worlds , complimented the chorus of the song , saying that " Everybody " and " Music " are the two Madonna singles which define her artistic credo - that music has the power to overcome divisions of race , gender , and sexuality . Matthew Lindsay of The Quietus praised the song , calling it " spectacular " and " hard to resist . " Lindsay added " with its breathy spoken word passages and invitation to dance , Madonna 's debut single was a template that would be revisited throughout her career . " In 2012 Louis Virtel of The Backlot listed " Everybody " at number two on his list of " 100 Greatest Madonna Songs , " commenting that the song is an example of Madonna 's undeniable talents . Virtel goes on to say through the song Madonna shows she is " a commander , the Baryshnikov of pop chutzpah , and a rightful disco empress . "
= = = Commercial performance = = =
The 12 @-@ inch single of " Everybody " failed to break into the Billboard Hot 100 in the United States . It peaked at seven on Billboard 's Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart on December 25 , 1982 . However the song moved quickly up the dance charts , and was Madonna 's first single to chart on the Billboard Hot Dance / Club Play Chart , peaking at number three . One of the first radio stations to embrace the song was WKTU , which reported it as a new " Playlist Top Add On " in the December 11 , 1982 , issue of Billboard , reflecting their station 's playlist for the week ending November 30 , 1982 . Since its release , the single has sold around 250 @,@ 000 copies . The song helped Madonna achieve a first magazine cover photograph . In the December issue of Dance Music Report magazine , Madonna and another band Jekyll and Hyde were nominated for awards in the sales category of a reader 's poll . It was Madonna 's picture that appeared on the cover .
= = Music video = =
Sire Records had marketed the " Everybody " single as if Madonna was a black artist . This misconception was cleared by the release of the music video for the song . Regarding the importance of shooting a music video for the song , Madonna commented that , " If I didn 't have a video , I don 't think all the kids in the Midwest would know about me . It takes the place of touring . Everybody sees them everywhere . That really has a lot to do with the success of my album . " She invited Sire Records executives , including Stein and Rosenblatt , to the New York nightclub Danceteria . She performed " Everybody " on the dancefloor , wearing a top hat and tails . On the night of the performance , Madonna 's friend Haoui Montaug introduced her to the 300 strong audience . Cheered by them , Madonna and her dancers performed their choreographed dance moves , later described as a ' disco act backed by avant @-@ garde dancers . ' Seeing the performance , they also realised that Madonna appeared visually stunning . They ordered an in @-@ house video of " Everybody " to be sent to the clubs around the country which used dance videos .
Rosenblatt contacted Ed Steinberg , who ran the Rock America video company and asked him if he could spare a few hours to make a music video for " Everybody " with Madonna on stage at her next performance in Danceteria . The idea was to play the video as promotion across the United States so that people will come to recognize an image of Madonna and her performance . Rosenblatt offered Steinberg $ 1 @,@ 000 for the in @-@ house production video , when artists like Duran Duran and Michael Jackson were spending six figure sums on videos . They finally agreed on $ 1 @,@ 500 . With the low @-@ budget , the video was directed by Steinberg . Steinberg suggested shooting the video on location at the Paradise Garage , a downtown gay disco , instead of filming a live performance . Madonna 's friend Debi Mazar did the makeup and joined her other backup dancers , namely Erika Belle and Bags Rilez . Mazar brought a few of her friends to act as a disco crowd in the video , including African @-@ American graffiti artist Michael Stewart . Steinberg was impressed by Madonna 's professionalism on the set and he helped to send copies of the tape to nightclubs across America which used dance music videos for their entertainment . This promotion helped the song to grow from being a dance hit in New York to a nationwide hit .
The video starts with Madonna and her two backup dancers dancing in a club while lights blink in the background . The shots continue while interspersing close @-@ up shots of Madonna dancing while wearing a coat and junk jewelry . Author Douglas Kellner in his book Media Culture : Cultural Studies , Identity , and Politics Between the Modern and the Postmodern noted that already with her first video , Madonna was deploying fashion , sexuality and the construction of an individual image to present herself both as an alluring sex object and as a transgressor of established norms . The band Fab Five Freddy reminisce that with the video Madonna " is attracting those who were more street , more savvy , more flavorful . "
= = Live performances = =
In order to promote " Everybody , " Madonna performed the track with backup dancers at Haoui Montaug 's " No Entiendes " – a roving cabaret revue . In The Virgin Tour of 1985 , Madonna wore a blue see @-@ through crop @-@ top which revealed her black bra , a purple skirt , lacy leggings and a brightly patterned jacket . She also wore crucifixes in her hair , and on her ears and neck . As the performance of " Into the Groove " ended , Madonna took the microphone and danced around the stage while singing " Everybody " . The performance was included in the home video release titled Madonna Live : The Virgin Tour . Madonna sampled " Everybody " ' s line , " Dance and sing , get up and do your thing " during the opening bars of " Express Yourself " for the Blond Ambition World Tour .
For The Girlie Show World Tour ( 1993 ) , " Everybody " was performed as the closing song of the tour . Madonna wore pale shorts and a simple yellow and green V @-@ necked shirt , which she hitched up into a bra revealing top . The performance started off after " Justify My Love " . The beginning contained the chorus from " Everybody Is a Star " originally by Sly & The Family Stone . As the song progressed , musical excerpts of " Dance to the Music " , " After the Dance " and " It Takes Two " were included . Jon Pareles from The New York Times complimented the performance , saying " the show 's finale is downright wholesome , with the troupe in denim and white tops , inviting the audience to dance to ' Everybody ' . It 's just a good @-@ time song @-@ and @-@ dance revue , not a provocation . "
Madonna played the song during the Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival while promoting her tenth studio album Confessions on a Dance Floor ( 2005 ) . She performed the song wearing a tank top and high boots , with a silver glitter band around her hair . It was also performed at London 's Koko Club . Madonna was dressed in an all @-@ purple ensemble of jacket , velvet pedal pushers and knee @-@ high boots . Before performing " Everybody " , she announced that , " I feel like I 'm really out of shape right now , I don 't like falling off horses , so I 'm going to do one more song . "
On October 6 , 2012 , Madonna performed " Everybody " during The MDNA Tour in San Jose to celebrate the single 's 30th anniversary . She said , " Today is a very special day for me . It is the 30th anniversary of the release of my first @-@ ever single . I remember the amazing feeling I had when I heard the song on the radio the first time . " Aidin Vaziri from San Francisco Chronicle commented that " Three decades later , the simple synth @-@ pop lift and naive R & B melody still felt amazing . It was an off @-@ script moment that inadvertently became the highlight of the show . "
In 2015 , " Everybody " was included in the set list of the first few dates of the Rebel Heart Tour , performed in a flamenco @-@ style medley with " Dress You Up " , " Into the Groove " and " Lucky Star " . During the sequence the singer dressed by in a Latin and gypsy inspired dress , created by Alessandro Michele for Gucci consisting off a shawl , flamenco hat , lace , skirts and jacquard bodysuit .
= = Track listing and formats = =
Notes : UK 7 " and 12 " versions included a remix by Rusty Egan and Steve Short at Trident Studios Reduction Suite , which was only ever released in the UK .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Madonna – vocals , writer
Mark Kamins – producer
Butch Jones – synthesizer , engineering
Reggie Lucas – guitars , drum programming
Fred Zarr – synthesizer , electric and acoustic piano
Dean Gant – electric and acoustic piano
Bobby Malach – tenor saxophone
Ed Walsh – synthesizer
Gwen Guthrie – background vocals
Brenda White – background vocals
Chrissy Faith – background vocals
Christine Sauers - art direction , design
Lou Beach - artwork
Credits adapted from the album liner notes and the single liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= Delaware Route 141 =
Delaware Route 141 ( DE 141 ) is a state highway that serves as a western bypass of Wilmington , Delaware . Its southern terminus is at DE 9 and DE 273 in New Castle and its northern terminus is an interchange with U.S. Route 202 ( US 202 ) and DE 261 in Fairfax . The route heads north from DE 9 / DE 273 on four @-@ lane divided Basin Road , becoming concurrent with US 202 at an interchange with US 13 / US 40 and passes to the east of Wilmington Airport . The highway becomes a freeway and reaches an interchange with Interstate 95 ( I @-@ 95 ) and I @-@ 295 , at which point US 202 splits from DE 141 . The DE 141 freeway continues north through Newport to Prices Corner . Here , the freeway segment ends and DE 141 continues northeast as a surface road , with another brief freeway segment in Greenville . The route heads east across the Brandywine Creek on the Tyler McConnell Bridge and continues to US 202 / DE 261 .
What is now DE 141 between New Castle and Newport was originally designated as part of DE 41 in the 1930s . DE 141 was designated as a surface bypass of Wilmington between New Castle and US 202 north of Wilmington in the 1950s , running concurrent with DE 41 south of Newport . DE 41 was removed from DE 141 by 1971 . In the 1960s , DE 141 was proposed to be upgraded to a freeway . Construction on the freeway segments between Newport and Prices Corner and in Greenville began in the 1970s and was completed around 1980 . In the 1990s , several improvements were planned for DE 141 north of Prices Corner , including grade separation at Rockland Road completed in 1997 and relocation of the northern terminus to its current location at an interchange finished in 2007 .
= = Route description = =
= = = Basin Road = = =
DE 141 begins at an intersection with DE 9 and DE 273 west of New Castle , where the road continues south as part of DE 9 . From the southern terminus , DE 141 heads northwest on Basin Road , a four @-@ lane divided highway . The road passes to the east of William Penn High School and continues past suburban homes and businesses . The route reaches a cloverleaf interchange with US 13 / US 40 east of the Wilmington Airport , at which point US 202 begins .
From here , US 202 runs concurrently with DE 141 , with the two routes heading between Wilmington Airport to the west and residential neighborhoods in Wilmington Manor to the east . The road passes between the Delaware Air National Guard 's New Castle Air National Guard Base to the west and commercial establishments to the east , coming to an intersection with the northern terminus of DE 37 . Past this intersection , the median of US 202 / DE 141 widens as the road intersects Airport Road .
= = = Newport Freeway = = =
After intersecting Airport Road , US 202 / DE 141 becomes a freeway . The road comes to an interchange with I @-@ 95 and the southern terminus of I @-@ 295 , at which point US 202 splits from DE 141 by continuing north along I @-@ 95 . Past this interchange , DE 141 widens to six lanes and has a southbound exit and entrance for South James Street and Old Airport Road before the median narrows . The freeway comes to a viaduct that crosses the Christina River into Newport , where it passes near industrial areas and crosses over Amtrak 's Northeast Corridor railroad line .
In Newport , the route has an interchange with DE 4 , at which point it narrows to four lanes and curves northwest with Newport Gap Pike serving as a frontage road on both sides . The freeway widens back to six lanes and heads into a below @-@ grade alignment that cuts through residential neighborhoods , leaving Newport . DE 141 reaches an interchange with DE 62 in the community of Belvedere , where the Newport Gap Pike frontage road ends and the freeway narrows to four lanes . Following this interchange , the six @-@ lane freeway rises to ground level and passes to the west of the former Wilmington Assembly plant used by General Motors before coming to a bridge over CSX 's Philadelphia Subdivision railroad line . The road runs near business areas and comes to an interchange with DE 2 in Prices Corner .
= = = DE 2 to US 202 = = =
After the DE 2 interchange , the freeway section of DE 141 ends and the route continues northeast on at @-@ grade Centre Road , a four @-@ lane divided highway . The road passes through suburban residential neighborhoods and reaches an intersection with DE 34 . Following this intersection , the route heads north between the Ferris School to the west and DuPont 's Chestnut Run Plaza research facility to the east . DE 141 curves to the northeast and comes to an intersection with DE 48 / DE 100 . Here , DE 100 joins DE 141 and the road runs through industrial areas , curving north and becoming a freeway past the Barley Mill Road intersection . The freeway curves northeast and passes under an East Penn Railroad line before coming to a partial cloverleaf interchange with DE 52 in Greenville . Past this interchange , the road curves east and the freeway ends , with DE 100 splitting from DE 141 at an at @-@ grade intersection by heading north on Montchanin Road .
Past this intersection , DE 141 continues east as four @-@ lane divided Barley Mill Road , entering into wooded areas . The route becomes a two @-@ lane undivided road as it passes to the south of the Hagley Museum and Library before crossing over the Brandywine Creek valley on the Tyler McConnell Bridge . Past the bridge , DE 141 turns northeast onto four @-@ lane undivided Powder Mill Road , forming the northwestern boundary of the DuPont Experimental Station . The road widens into a divided highway and runs between the Nemours Mansion and Gardens to the east and the DuPont Country Club to the northwest . The route passes to the west of the A.I. duPont Children 's Hospital before coming to a bridge over Rockland Road . DE 141 makes a sharp curve to the southeast and comes to an intersection where Powder Mill Road splits to the east and Children 's Drive heads southwest to provide access to Rockland Road and the children 's hospital . The route continues southeast as it runs to the south of AstraZeneca 's North American headquarters . DE 141 curves east , heading to the north of Alapocas Run State Park , and comes to its northern terminus at an interchange with US 202 in Fairfax , where the road continues northeast as DE 261 .
In 2011 , DE 141 had an annual average daily traffic count ranging from a high of 68 @,@ 304 vehicles at the DE 4 interchange to a low of 14 @,@ 639 vehicles at the University Avenue intersection between DE 9 / DE 273 and US 13 / US 40 . The entire length of DE 141 is part of the National Highway System .
= = History = =
By 1920 , what would become DE 141 existed as an unimproved county road . The road between Prices Corner and Greenville was paved by 1924 . A year later , the road between New Castle and Newport was upgraded to a state highway . Plans were underway in 1927 to replace the outdated swing bridge over the Christina River in Newport . Contracts for this project were awarded the following year . The replacement bridge over the Christina River , a bascule bridge , opened on December 1 , 1929 . In 1927 , plans were made to replace the grade crossing at the Pennsylvania Railroad line ( now Amtrak 's Northeast Corridor ) in Newport with an underpass under the tracks . Work on this underpass began in 1929 . The crossing under the Pennsylvania Railroad was finished and opened to traffic in June 1930 . What is now DE 141 between New Castle and Newport was designated as part of DE 41 by 1936 , which continued northwest from Newport toward Hockessin and the Pennsylvania border . Also by this time , Powder Mill Road was paved .
DE 141 was designated to run from DE 273 in New Castle to US 202 north of Wilmington by 1952 , following DE 41 on Basin Road and James Street between New Castle and Newport , Centerville Road between Newport and Prices Corner , and Centre Road , Barley Mill Road , and Powder Mill Road between Prices Corner and US 202 . In 1954 , plans were made to replace the intersection with US 13 / US 40 in Basin Corner with a modified cloverleaf interchange in an effort to reduce traffic congestion . Construction on the interchange began in September of that year . The interchange between US 13 / US 40 and DE 41 / DE 141 was completed in 1956 . Work was underway in 1954 to widen DE 141 to four lanes along Centerville and Centre roads from Boxwood Road near Prices Corner north to DE 48 ; this project was completed in 1955 . The new northbound lanes of DE 41 / DE 141 through the I @-@ 95 interchange opened in November 1962 , at which point construction on the southbound lanes began . The southbound lanes of DE 41 / DE 141 opened in June 1964 , enabling directional flow of DE 41 / DE 141 through the interchange . DE 41 was removed from its concurrency with DE 141 by 1971 .
In 1965 , a $ 20 million ( $ 150 million today ) freeway was proposed along the DE 141 corridor between Newport and US 202 north of Wilmington , providing a bypass to the west of Wilmington . By 1971 , the DE 141 freeway from Newport to Prices Corner was under design and the reconstruction of the route north of DE 48 began . The same year , a contract was awarded for construction of a grade separation of the Reading Railroad ( now the East Penn Railroad ) in Greenville . In 1973 , work started to upgrade DE 141 between the Christina River in Newport and the Brandywine Creek near Greenville . A contract was awarded to construct the DE 141 freeway through Newport in 1974 . The construction of interchanges in Prices Corner and at DE 52 were included in the Bond Bill in 1976 . The DE 141 freeway from Newport to Prices Corner and in Greenville was completed by 1981 . In 1984 , US 202 was rerouted to follow DE 141 between US 13 / US 40 and I @-@ 95 . DE 100 was rerouted to follow DE 141 between DE 48 and Montchanin Road by 1990 .
In 1992 , an environmental assessment was approved for improving DE 141 between DE 2 and US 202 . Among the improvements called for were a six @-@ lane bridge over the Brandywine Creek replacing the existing two @-@ lane bridge , a new bridge over Rockland Road , and a new interchange with US 202 and DE 261 . Later in the year , the proposed bridge over the Brandywine Creek was scaled back to four lanes . In 1994 , plans for the bridge over the Brandywine Creek and the US 202 interchange were placed on hold . Meanwhile , the bridge over Rockland Road was completed in 1997 , with DE 141 being realigned between Rockland Road and US 202 and the intersection with Children 's Drive improved . In the 2000s , the Blue Ball Construction Project relocated the northern terminus of DE 141 to an interchange with US 202 and DE 261 a short distance to the south of where Powder Mill Road intersects US 202 . The project took place between 2002 and 2007 and cost $ 123 million . In 2007 , construction began to upgrade the portion of DE 141 between DE 2 and DE 34 from a four @-@ lane undivided road into a four @-@ lane divided highway . Completion of the project was scheduled for 2010 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in New Castle County .
= Hey You ( Madonna song ) =
" Hey You " is a charity song written by American singer Madonna who co @-@ produced it with Pharrell Williams . The song was released as part of the Live Earth campaign and was free to download from websites like MSN . It was released digitally as well as on the CD and DVD of the Live Earth concerts on December 4 , 2007 . Musically it is a stripped @-@ down , folksy ballad with straightforward , anthem @-@ like lyrics talking about how to save the world from destruction . The song received generally mixed reviews , with one group of reviewers commenting that the modest message of the song was uninspiring while others called the song sweet and commended Madonna 's commitment to charity .
" Hey You " was initially released as a free download for a period of seven days before being made available as a regular digital single . Once it had been released as a regular digital single , it entered the lower reaches of the sales charts of a few countries including the United Kingdom , Canada , Sweden and Switzerland . Madonna only performed the song once at the Live Earth concert , London , where she was joined by a choir of school children who provided backing vocals to her singing while the backdrops displayed images relevant to the song 's message , like natural devastations , different cultures and political leaders .
= = Background = =
" Hey You " was written by Madonna , who also co @-@ produced it along with Pharrell Williams in honor of the 2007 Live Earth concert in London . It was inspired by the climate change campaign . It became Madonna 's first released material to be written entirely by herself since " Gambler " ( 1985 ) . Live Earth was a music event that brought together more than hundred headlining artists in a series of concerts , two billion people and launched a mass movement to combat climate crisis . The concerts took place in cities like New York , London , Sydney , Tokyo , Shanghai , Rio de Janeiro etc . It marked the beginning of a multi @-@ year campaign led by The Alliance for Climate Protection to move individuals , corporations and governments to take action . The song was made available to be downloaded in MP3 and WMA formats on MSN 's Live Earth website . Microsoft pledged to donate $ 0 @.@ 25 per download to the " Alliance for Global Climate Change " society for the first million downloads of the track . Live Earth founder Kevin Wall said in a statement , " We are thrilled that Madonna donated her art to Live Earth and is a part of this movement for us . "
= = Composition = =
" Hey You " is a stripped @-@ down , straightforward mid @-@ tempo ballad with influences of folk in it and features lyrics like " Hey you / Don 't you give up / It 's not so bad / There 's still a chance for us . " The lyric conveys the message that purifying your own soul can open the way , by which one can change the mind of others . According to The New York Times , the lyrics have straightforward , anthem @-@ like meaning with lines like " You can change someone else / Then you have saved someone else / But you must first love yourself . " Daryl Davis from Blogcritics felt that " Hey You " is about making the world a better place . The song begins with the sound of acoustic guitars , leading to an instrumental chorus , which according to Davis , is " simple and touching " .
= = Critical reception = =
Sarah Hall from E ! Online called the song to be unlikely inspiring to the listeners to hit the dance floor . Jon Pareles from The New York Times , while reviewing the Live Earth concert in London , said that the song and its lyrics like " Don ’ t you give up / it ’ s not so bad " are not exactly eloquent . While reviewing Madonna 's album Hard Candy , he commented that " Hey You " failed to be the equivalent of Madonna 's cover version of John Lennon 's song " Imagine " . He also noted that " [ t ] he song came and went , raising some corporate donations " . Alessandra Stanley from The New York Times commented that the song had a modest message with lines like " Don 't you give up / it 's not so bad / there 's still a chance for us . "
Michael Hirschorn from The Atlantic Monthly said that the song was proof that Madonna 's heart was in the right place . Responses from the Madonna fansites were also mixed with some fans decrying the track 's message as overly sentimental and the lyrics as weak , while others defended the song as " sweet " and " not that bad , " while commending the singer 's commitment to charity . Daryl D from Blogcritics felt that " even if the lyrics are slightly clichéd , Madonna gives her best vocal performance since the Evita years and adds feeling when the lyrics falter .... The production on this record is outstanding . It also proves that Madonna brings more to the table on her own records than her critics give her credit for because this sounds absolutely nothing like a song Pharrell Williams would produce . The acoustic guitars at the beginning lead to an instrumental chorus that is simple and touching . "
= = Chart performance = =
" Hey You " was promoted through the official Live Earth website and the July 7 , 2007 concert in London . There was no physical single released . However , it managed to chart in countries like Canada , Sweden and Switzerland in its second week of release based purely on paid downloads . In Canada the song entered for one week on the Canadian Hot 100 chart at position fifty @-@ seven and was present for one week only . In Switzerland , it entered the chart at number 60 , but fell down to number 91 the next week . The song started climbing up again and ultimately reached a peak of number 55 on the chart issue dated September 2 , 2007 . " Hey You " was present on the chart for a total of seven weeks . It debuted on the Swedish Singles Chart at number 58 and reached a peak of 57 , being present on the chart for three weeks . The song was also able to chart at the lower positions of the UK Singles Chart , at number 187 based on downloads . In the Czech Republic , it reached the top ten and peaked at number nine on the airplay charts . " Hey You " also entered on the Digital charts of Italy , reaching a peak of number 36 in its fourth week . In the United States , the song sold 3 @,@ 000 digital downloads after it was made non @-@ free on iTunes Store . The song was not eligible to chart on the Hot Digital Songs since both Billboard and Nielsen SoundScan do not allow free downloads to chart .
= = Live performance = =
On May 17 , 2007 , Warner Bros. Records announced Madonna as one of the seventeen headliners performing at Wembley Stadium for the London stop of the Live Earth concerts . It is still the only venue where Madonna has performed the song . Madonna 's set list was the last performance of the London leg before the concert moved to New York City . " Hey You " was the first of the set list which consisted of a total of four songs . It was also used as the bridging music between the bands performing at Wembley . The performance started with the symbolic turning @-@ off of lights of the stadium which plunged it into darkness except for the lights on the stage and that from the cameras . Actor Terence Stamp who compered the show , declared " Let ’ s not be endarkened by this , let 's be enlighteened by this . Let it be the beginning of an adventure ! " Madonna came out on the stage wearing a black satin leotard accompanied by a long line of children in school uniform . The children were compared to the Hogwarts school choir from the Harry Potter series by The New York Times . Madonna started singing the song while holding the amplifier in her hand . The backdrop imitated the song 's message by displaying a procession of images of environmental devastations like fires , nuclear power plants , suffering animals — which altered with images of visionary leaders like Nelson Mandela , Aung San Suu Kyi , Mahatma Gandhi , and current political leaders like George W. Bush , Gordon Brown and Nicolas Sarkozy . The video progressed to display the image of underdressed but nonetheless festive African children tossing a globe into the air , where it resolved into an image of the Earth as seen from space . The idea of the video was to transpose the images of the world leaders with natural disasters . The lyrics of the song were also projected as supertitles . Backing vocals were provided by the children . The performance ended with Madonna and the kids coming in front of the stage and saluting the crowd . This backdrop was created by Johan Söderberg and Marcus Lindkvist to support Live Earth . The performance saw an increase in Madonna 's digital and album sales . HMV reported that sales of Madonna 's 1990 greatest hits compilation The Immaculate Collection doubled up than that from the previous week of the performance . Also , there was an increase in the downloads of " Hey You " from the retailers .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Madonna – writer , producer
Mirwais Ahmadzaï – guitar
Pharrell Williams – producer , guitar , keyboards
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= Guadalcanal Campaign =
The Guadalcanal Campaign , also known as the Battle of Guadalcanal and code @-@ named Operation Watchtower , originally applying only to an operation to take the island of Tulagi , by Allied forces , was a military campaign fought between 7 August 1942 and 9 February 1943 on and around the island of Guadalcanal in the Pacific theater of World War II . It was the first major offensive by Allied forces against the Empire of Japan .
On 7 August 1942 , Allied forces , predominantly United States ( US ) Marines , landed on the islands of Guadalcanal , Tulagi , and Florida in the southern Solomon Islands , with the objective of denying their use by the Japanese to threaten Allied supply and communication routes between the US , Australia , and New Zealand . The Allies also intended to use Guadalcanal and Tulagi as bases to support a campaign to eventually capture or neutralize the major Japanese base at Rabaul on New Britain . The Allies overwhelmed the outnumbered Japanese defenders , who had occupied the islands since May 1942 , and captured Tulagi and Florida , as well as an airfield ( later named Henderson Field ) that was under construction on Guadalcanal . Powerful American naval forces supported the landings .
Surprised by the Allied offensive , the Japanese made several attempts between August and November to retake Henderson Field . Three major land battles , seven large naval battles ( five nighttime surface actions and two carrier battles ) , and continual , almost daily , aerial battles culminated in the decisive Naval Battle of Guadalcanal in early November , in which the last Japanese attempt to bombard Henderson Field from the sea and land with enough troops to retake it , was defeated . In December , the Japanese abandoned their efforts to retake Guadalcanal and evacuated their remaining forces by 7 February 1943 , in the face of an offensive by the US Army 's XIV Corps .
The Guadalcanal campaign was a significant strategic combined arms Allied victory in the Pacific theater . The Japanese had reached the peak of their conquests in the Pacific . The victories at Milne Bay , Buna @-@ Gona , and Guadalcanal marked the Allied transition from defensive operations to the strategic initiative in the theater , leading to offensive operations such as the Solomon Islands , New Guinea , and Central Pacific campaigns , that eventually resulted in Japan 's eventual surrender and the end of World War II .
= = Background = =
= = = Strategic considerations = = =
On 7 December 1941 , Japanese forces attacked the United States Pacific Fleet at Pearl Harbor , Hawaii . The attack crippled much of the U.S. battleship fleet and precipitated an open and formal state of war between the two nations . The initial goals of Japanese leaders were to neutralize the US Navy , seize possessions rich in natural resources , and establish strategic military bases to defend Japan 's empire in the Pacific Ocean and Asia . To further those goals , Japanese forces captured the Philippines , Thailand , Malaya , Singapore , Burma , the Dutch East Indies , Wake Island , Gilbert Islands , New Britain and Guam . Joining the U.S. in the war against Japan were the rest of the Allied powers , several of whom , including the United Kingdom , Australia and the Netherlands had also been attacked by Japan .
Two attempts by the Japanese to continue their strategic initiative and offensively extend their outer defensive perimeter in the south and central Pacific to where they could threaten Australia and Hawaii or the US West Coast were thwarted at the naval battles of Coral Sea and Midway respectively . Coral Sea was a tactical stalemate , but a strategic Allied victory which became clear only much later . Midway was not only the Allies ' first clear major victory against the Japanese , it significantly reduced the offensive capability of Japan 's carrier forces , but did not change their offensive mindset for several crucial months in which they compounded mistakes by moving ahead with brash , even brazen decisions , such as the attempt to assault Port Moresby over the Kokoda trail . Up to this point , the Allies had been on the defensive in the Pacific but these strategic victories provided them an opportunity to seize the initiative from Japan .
The Allies chose the Solomon Islands ( a protectorate of the United Kingdom ) , specifically the southern Solomon Islands of Guadalcanal , Tulagi and Florida Island , as the first target , designated Task One , codenamed Pestilence , with three specific objectives . Originally the objectives were the occupation of the Santa Cruz Islands , codenamed Huddle , Tulagi , codenamed Watchtower , and " adjacent positions " . Guadalcanal ( Code name Cactus ) , eventually the focus of the operation , was not even mentioned in the early directive and only later took on the operation name Watchtower .
The Imperial Japanese Navy ( IJN ) had occupied Tulagi in May 1942 and had constructed a seaplane base nearby . Allied concern grew when , in early July 1942 , the IJN began constructing a large airfield at Lunga Point on nearby Guadalcanal — from such a base Japanese long @-@ range bombers would threaten the sea lines of communication from the West Coast of the Americas to the populous East Coast of Australia . By August 1942 , the Japanese had about 900 naval troops on Tulagi and nearby islands and 2 @,@ 800 personnel ( 2 @,@ 200 being Korean forced laborers & trustees as well as Japanese construction specialists ) on Guadalcanal . These bases would protect Japan 's major base at Rabaul , threaten Allied supply and communication lines and establish a staging area for a planned offensive against Fiji , New Caledonia and Samoa ( Operation FS ) . The Japanese planned to deploy 45 fighters and 60 bombers to Guadalcanal . In the overall strategy for 1942 these aircraft could provide air cover for Japanese naval forces advancing farther into the South Pacific .
The Allied plan to invade the southern Solomons was conceived by U.S. Admiral Ernest King , Commander in Chief , United States Fleet . He proposed the offensive to deny the use of the islands by the Japanese as bases to threaten the supply routes between the United States and Australia and to use them as starting points . With US President Franklin D. Roosevelt 's tacit consent , King also advocated the invasion of Guadalcanal . Because the United States supported Great Britain 's proposal that priority be given to defeating Germany before Japan , the Pacific theater had to compete for personnel and resources with the European theater .
An early obstacle was desire by both the Army and Roosevelt to initiate action in Europe . In addition there was an issue of command in which Tulagi lay in the area under command of General Douglas MacArthur while the Santa Cruz Islands lay in Admiral Chester W. Nimitz 's Pacific Ocean Area which would also supply almost all offensive forces that would prepare and be supplied and covered from that area . Both were overcome and Chief of Staff of the U. S. Army , General George C. Marshall gave the operation full support , even if MacArthur 's command could not lend support , and the Navy had to take full responsibility . As a result , and in order to preserve unity of command , the boundary between MacArthur 's Southwest Pacific Area and Nimitz 's Pacific Ocean Area was shifted 60 miles ( 97 km ) to 360 miles ( 580 km ) to the west effective 1 August 1942 .
The CJCS ordered for 1942 – 43 Pacific objectives : that Guadalcanal would be carried out in conjunction with an Allied offensive in New Guinea under Douglas MacArthur , to capture the Admiralty Islands and the Bismarck Archipelago , including the major Japanese base at Rabaul . The directive held that the eventual goal was the American reconquest of the Philippines . The U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff created the South Pacific theater , with Vice Admiral Robert L. Ghormley taking command on 19 June 1942 , to direct the offensive in the Solomons . Admiral Chester Nimitz , based at Pearl Harbor , was designated as overall Allied commander in chief for Pacific forces .
= = = Task force = = =
In preparation for the offensive in the Pacific in May 1942 , U.S. Marine Major General Alexander Vandegrift was ordered to move his 1st Marine Division from the United States to New Zealand . Other Allied land , naval and air force units were sent to establish or reinforce bases in Fiji , Samoa , New Hebrides and New Caledonia . Espiritu Santo , New Hebrides , was selected as the headquarters and main base for the offensive , codenamed Operation Watchtower , with the commencement date set for 7 August 1942 .
At first , the Allied offensive was planned just for Tulagi and the Santa Cruz Islands , omitting Guadalcanal . After Allied reconnaissance discovered the Japanese airfield construction efforts on Guadalcanal , its capture was added to the plan and the Santa Cruz operation was ( eventually ) dropped . The Japanese were aware , via signals intelligence , of the large @-@ scale movement of Allied forces in the South Pacific area but concluded that the Allies were reinforcing Australia and perhaps Port Moresby in New Guinea .
The Watchtower force , numbering 75 warships and transports ( of vessels from the U.S. and Australia ) , assembled near Fiji on 26 July 1942 and engaged in one rehearsal landing prior to leaving for Guadalcanal on 31 July . The commander of the Allied expeditionary force was U.S. Vice Admiral Frank Fletcher ( whose flag was on the aircraft carrier USS Saratoga ) . Commanding the amphibious forces was U.S. Rear Admiral Richmond K. Turner . Vandegrift led the 16 @,@ 000 Allied ( primarily U.S. Marine ) infantry earmarked for the landings .
The troops sent to Guadalcanal were fresh from military training and armed with bolt action M1903 Springfield rifles and a meager 10 @-@ day supply of ammunition . Because of the need to get them into battle quickly , the operation planners had reduced their supplies from a 90 @-@ days to only 60 days . The men of the 1st Marine Division began referring to the coming battle as " Operation Shoestring " .
= = Events = =
= = = Landings = = =
Bad weather allowed the Allied expeditionary force to arrive unseen by the Japanese on the night of 6 August and the morning of 7 August , taking the defenders by surprise . This is sometimes called the Midnight Raid on Guadalcanal . Japanese patrol aircraft from Tulagi had searched the area the Allied invasion fleet was moving through , but missed seeing the Allied ships due to severe storms and heavy clouds . The landing force split into two groups , with one group assaulting Guadalcanal , and the other Tulagi , Florida , and nearby islands . Allied warships bombarded the invasion beaches while U.S. carrier aircraft bombed Japanese positions on the target islands and destroyed 15 Japanese seaplanes at their base near Tulagi .
Tulagi and two nearby small islands , Gavutu and Tanambogo , were assaulted by 3 @,@ 000 U.S. Marines . The 886 IJN personnel manning the naval and seaplane bases on the three islands fiercely resisted the Marine attacks . With some difficulty , the Marines secured all three islands ; Tulagi on 8 August , and Gavutu and Tanambogo by 9 August . The Japanese defenders were killed almost to the last man , while the Marines suffered 122 killed .
In contrast to Tulagi , Gavutu , and Tanambogo , the landings on Guadalcanal encountered much less resistance . At 09 : 10 on 7 August , Vandegrift and 11 @,@ 000 U.S. Marines came ashore on Guadalcanal between Koli Point and Lunga Point . Advancing towards Lunga Point , they encountered little resistance and secured the airfield by 16 : 00 on 8 August . The Japanese naval construction units and combat troops , under the command of Captain Kanae Monzen , panicked by the warship bombardment and aerial bombing , had abandoned the airfield area and fled about 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) west to the Matanikau River and Point Cruz area , leaving behind food , supplies , intact construction equipment and vehicles , and 13 dead .
During the landing operations on 7 and 8 August , Japanese naval aircraft based at Rabaul , under the command of Sadayoshi Yamada , attacked the Allied amphibious forces several times , setting afire the transport USS George F. Elliot ( which sank two days later ) and heavily damaging the destroyer USS Jarvis . In the air attacks over the two days , the Japanese lost 36 aircraft , while the U.S. lost 19 , both in combat and to accident , including 14 carrier fighters .
After these clashes , Fletcher was concerned about the losses to his carrier fighter aircraft strength , anxious about the threat to his carriers from further Japanese air attacks , and worried about his ships ' fuel levels . Fletcher withdrew from the Solomon Islands area with his carrier task forces the evening of 8 August . As a result of the loss of carrier @-@ based air cover , Turner decided to withdraw his ships from Guadalcanal , even though less than half of the supplies and heavy equipment needed by the troops ashore had been unloaded . Turner planned , however , to unload as many supplies as possible on Guadalcanal and Tulagi throughout the night of 8 August and then depart with his ships early on 9 August .
= = = Battle of Savo Island = = =
That night , as the transports unloaded , two groups of screening Allied cruisers and destroyers , under the command of British Rear Admiral Victor Crutchley VC , were surprised and defeated by a Japanese force of seven cruisers and one destroyer from the 8th Fleet based at Rabaul and Kavieng and commanded by Japanese Vice Admiral Gunichi Mikawa . In the Battle of Savo Island one Australian and three American cruisers were sunk and one American cruiser and two destroyers were damaged . The Japanese suffered moderate damage to one cruiser . Mikawa , who was unaware Fletcher was preparing to withdraw with the U.S. carriers , immediately retired to Rabaul without attempting to attack the transports . Mikawa was concerned about daylight U.S. carrier air attacks if he remained in the area . Bereft of his carrier air cover , Turner decided to withdraw his remaining naval forces by the evening of 9 August and in so doing left the Marines ashore without much of the heavy equipment , provisions and troops still aboard the transports . Mikawa 's decision not to attempt to destroy the Allied transport ships when he had the opportunity proved to be a crucial strategic mistake .
= = = Initial operations = = =
The 11 @,@ 000 Marines on Guadalcanal initially concentrated on forming a loose defensive perimeter around Lunga Point and the airfield , moving the landed supplies within the perimeter and finishing the airfield . In four days of intense effort , the supplies were moved from the landing beach into dispersed dumps within the perimeter . Work began on the airfield immediately , mainly using captured Japanese equipment . On 12 August the airfield was named Henderson Field after Lofton R. Henderson , a Marine aviator who was killed during the Battle of Midway . By 18 August the airfield was ready for operation . Five days worth of food had been landed from the transports , which , along with captured Japanese provisions , gave the Marines a total of 14 days worth of food . To conserve supplies , the troops were limited to two meals per day .
Allied troops encountered a severe strain of dysentery soon after the landings , with one in five Marines afflicted by mid @-@ August . Tropical diseases would affect the fighting strengths of both sides throughout the campaign . Although some of the Korean construction workers surrendered to the Marines , most of the remaining Japanese and Korean personnel gathered just west of the Lunga perimeter on the west bank of the Matanikau River and subsisted mainly on coconuts . A Japanese naval outpost was also located at Taivu Point , about 35 kilometres ( 22 mi ) east of the Lunga perimeter . On 8 August , a Japanese destroyer from Rabaul delivered 113 naval reinforcement troops to the Matanikau position .
= = = The Goettge Patrol = = =
On the evening of 12 August , a 25 @-@ man U.S. Marine patrol , led by Division D @-@ 2 Lieutenant Colonel Frank Goettge and primarily consisting of intelligence personnel , landed by boat west of the Lunga perimeter , between Point Cruz and the Matanikau River , on a reconnaissance mission with a secondary objective of contacting a group of Japanese troops that U.S. forces believed might be willing to surrender . Soon after the patrol landed , a nearby platoon of Japanese naval troops attacked and almost completely wiped out the Marine patrol .
In response , on 19 August , Vandegrift sent three companies of the U.S. 5th Marine Regiment to attack the Japanese troop concentration west of the Matanikau . One company attacked across the sandbar at the mouth of the Matanikau river while another crossed the river 1 @,@ 000 metres ( 1 @,@ 100 yd ) inland and attacked the Japanese forces located in Matanikau village . The third landed by boat further west and attacked Kokumbuna village . After briefly occupying the two villages , the three Marine companies returned to the Lunga perimeter , having killed about 65 Japanese soldiers while losing four Marines . This action , sometimes referred to as the " First Battle of the Matanikau " , was the first of several major actions around the Matanikau River during the campaign .
On 20 August , the escort carrier USS Long Island delivered two squadrons of Marine aircraft to Henderson Field , one a squadron of 19 Grumman F4F Wildcats and the other a squadron of 12 Douglas SBD Dauntlesses . The aircraft at Henderson became known as the " Cactus Air Force " ( CAF ) after the Allied codename for Guadalcanal . The Marine fighters went into action the next day on the first of the almost @-@ daily Japanese bomber air raids . On 22 August five U.S. Army Bell P @-@ 400 Airacobras and their pilots arrived at Henderson Field .
= = = Battle of the Tenaru = = =
In response to the Allied landings on Guadalcanal , the Japanese Imperial General Headquarters assigned the Imperial Japanese Army 's ( IJA ) 17th Army , a corps @-@ sized command based at Rabaul and under the command of Lieutenant General Harukichi Hyakutake , the task of retaking Guadalcanal . The army was to be supported by Japanese naval units , including the Combined Fleet under the command of Isoroku Yamamoto , which was headquartered at Truk . The 17th Army , at that time heavily involved in the Japanese campaign in New Guinea , had only a few units available . Of these , the 35th Infantry Brigade under Major General Kiyotake Kawaguchi was at Palau , the 4th ( Aoba ) Infantry Regiment was in the Philippines and the 28th ( Ichiki ) Infantry Regiment , under the command of Colonel Kiyonao Ichiki , was on board transport ships near Guam . The different units began to move towards Guadalcanal via Truk and Rabaul immediately , but Ichiki 's regiment , being the closest , arrived in the area first . A " First Element " of Ichiki 's unit , consisting of about 917 soldiers , landed from destroyers at Taivu Point , east of the Lunga perimeter , after midnight on 19 August , then made a 9 @-@ mile ( 14 km ) night march west toward the Marine perimeter .
Underestimating the strength of Allied forces on Guadalcanal , Ichiki 's unit conducted a nighttime frontal assault on Marine positions at Alligator Creek ( often called the " Ilu River " on U.S. Marine maps ) on the east side of the Lunga perimeter in the early morning hours of 21 August . Ichiki 's assault was defeated with heavy Japanese losses in what became known as the Battle of the Tenaru . After daybreak , the Marine units counterattacked Ichiki 's surviving troops , killing many more of them . The dead included Ichiki , though it has been claimed that he committed seppuku after realizing the magnitude of his defeat , rather than dying in combat . In total , all but 128 of the original 917 members of the Ichiki Regiment 's First Element were killed in the battle . The survivors returned to Taivu Point , notified 17th Army headquarters of their defeat and awaited further reinforcements and orders from Rabaul .
= = = Battle of the Eastern Solomons = = =
As the Tenaru battle was ending , more Japanese reinforcements were already on their way . Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto put together a very powerful expeditionary force . Their aim was to destroy any American fleet units in the area , and then eliminate Henderson Field . This force sortied from Truk on 23 August . Simultaneously , several other reinforcement , support , and bombardment groups sortied from both Truk and Rabaul . Three slow transports departed from Truk on 16 August carrying the remaining 1 @,@ 400 soldiers from Ichiki 's ( 28th ) Infantry Regiment plus 500 naval marines from the 5th Yokosuka Special Naval Landing Force . The transports were guarded by 13 warships commanded by Japanese Rear Admiral Raizo Tanaka , who planned to land the troops on Guadalcanal on 24 August . To cover the landings of these troops and provide support for the operation to retake Henderson Field from Allied forces , Yamamoto directed Chuichi Nagumo to sortie with a carrier force from Truk on 21 August and head towards the southern Solomon Islands . Nagumo 's force included three carriers and 30 other warships .
Simultaneously , three U.S. carrier task forces under Fletcher approached Guadalcanal to counter the Japanese offensive efforts . The American forces only had two carriers , which were the Saratoga and Enterprise , and their 176 aircraft to meet the two Japanese fleet carriers Shokaku and Zuikaku and the light carrier Ryujo . The Japanese had 177 aircraft . On 24 and 25 August , the two carrier forces fought the Battle of the Eastern Solomons , which resulted in both fleets retreating from the area after taking some damage , with the Japanese losing one light aircraft carrier . Yamamoto next sent the light carrier named Ryujo on a bait role ahead of the rest of the fleet , and sending its planes to attack Guadalcanal . This drew attention from the American pilots . Meanwhile , the aircraft from the two fleet carriers would next charge in to attack the Americans . The bait carrier Ryujo was overwhelmed . It was hit by several 1 @,@ 000 pound bombs then subsequently was hit by an aerial torpedo . The ship was then abandoned and eventually sank that same night . Tanaka 's convoy , after suffering heavy damage during the battle from an air attack by CAF aircraft from Henderson Field , including the sinking of one of the transports , was forced to divert to the Shortland Islands in the northern Solomons in order to transfer the surviving troops to destroyers for later delivery to Guadalcanal . The Japanese had launched an air raid on Guadalcanal , causing chaos and havoc , while American Marine aircraft had engaged Tanaka 's convoy which was headed by the flagship Jintsu near Taivu Point . A Japanese transport was sunk . The older destroyer Mutsuki was so badly damaged that it had to be scuttled . Several other warships were damaged including Tanaka 's own Jintsu . At this point , Tanaka withdrew and rescheduled the supply run for the night of 28 August via the destroyers . Meanwhile , the American carrier Wasp positioned itself east of Guadalcanal expecting Japanese movement there . However , there was none to be found . Strategically , the Japanese had an opportunity here for a decisive victory . However , they failed to achieve it . They allowed the Americans to step away with a view of victory . In addition , the reinforcement of Henderson Field of Guadalcanal by Enterprise 's aircraft established a precedent . This made daylight supply runs to Guadalcanal impossible for Japanese shipments . Only weeks before this , the Japanese had total control of the sea in this particular region ; now they were forced to make supply runs only under the cover of darkness .
= = = Air battles over Henderson Field and strengthening of the Lunga defenses = = =
Throughout August , small numbers of U.S. aircraft and their crews continued to arrive at Guadalcanal . By the end of August , 64 aircraft of various types were stationed at Henderson Field . On 3 September , the commander of 1st Marine Aircraft Wing , U.S. Marine Brigadier General Roy S. Geiger , arrived with his staff and took command of all air operations at Henderson Field . Air battles between the Allied aircraft at Henderson and Japanese bombers and fighters from Rabaul continued almost daily . Between 26 August and 5 September , the U.S. lost about 15 aircraft while the Japanese lost approximately 19 aircraft . More than half of the downed U.S. aircrews were rescued while most of the Japanese aircrews were never recovered . The eight @-@ hour round trip flight from Rabaul to Guadalcanal , about 1 @,@ 120 miles ( 1 @,@ 800 km ) total , seriously hampered Japanese efforts to establish air superiority over Henderson Field . Australian coastwatchers on Bougainville and New Georgia islands were often able to provide Allied forces on Guadalcanal with advance notice of inbound Japanese air strikes , allowing the U.S. fighters time to take off and position themselves to attack the Japanese bombers and fighters as they approached the island . Thus , the Japanese air forces were slowly losing a war of attrition in the skies above Guadalcanal .
During this time , Vandegrift continued to direct efforts to strengthen and improve the defenses of the Lunga perimeter . Between 21 August and 3 September , he relocated three Marine battalions , including the 1st Raider Battalion , under Merritt A. Edson ( Edson 's Raiders ) , and the 1st Parachute Battalion from Tulagi and Gavutu to Guadalcanal . These units added about 1 @,@ 500 troops to Vandegrift 's original 11 @,@ 000 men defending Henderson Field . The 1st Parachute Battalion , which had suffered heavy casualties in the Battle of Tulagi and Gavutu @-@ Tanambogo in August , was placed under Edson 's command .
The other relocated battalion , the 1st Battalion , 5th Marine Regiment ( 1 / 5 ) , was landed by boat west of the Matanikau near Kokumbuna village on 27 August with the mission of attacking Japanese units in the area , much as in the first Matanikau action of 19 August . In this case , however , the Marines were impeded by difficult terrain , hot sun , and well @-@ emplaced Japanese defenses . The next morning , the Marines found that the Japanese defenders had departed during the night , so the Marines returned to the Lunga perimeter by boat . Losses in this action were 20 Japanese and 3 Marines killed .
Small Allied naval convoys arrived at Guadalcanal on 23 August , 29 August , 1 September , and 8 September to provide the Marines at Lunga with more food , ammunition , aircraft fuel , and aircraft technicians . The convoy on 1 September also brought 392 construction engineers to maintain and improve Henderson Field .
= = = Tokyo Express = = =
By 23 August , Kawaguchi 's 35th Infantry Brigade reached Truk and was loaded onto slow transport ships for the rest of the trip to Guadalcanal . The damage done to Tanaka 's convoy during the Battle of the Eastern Solomons caused the Japanese to reconsider trying to deliver more troops to Guadalcanal by slow transport . Instead , the ships carrying Kawaguchi 's soldiers were sent to Rabaul . From there , the Japanese planned to deliver Kawaguchi 's men to Guadalcanal by destroyers staging through a Japanese naval base in the Shortland Islands . The Japanese destroyers were usually able to make round trips down " The Slot " ( New Georgia Sound ) to Guadalcanal and back in a single night throughout the campaign , minimizing their exposure to Allied air attack . The runs became known as the " Tokyo Express " to Allied forces and were labeled " Rat Transportation " by the Japanese . Delivering the troops in this manner , however , prevented most of the heavy equipment and supplies , such as heavy artillery , vehicles , and much food and ammunition , from being transported to Guadalcanal with them . In addition , this activity tied up destroyers the IJN desperately needed for commerce defense . Either inability or unwillingness prevented Allied naval commanders from challenging Japanese naval forces at night , so the Japanese controlled the seas around the Solomon Islands during nighttime . However , any Japanese ship remaining during daylight hours within range of the aircraft at Henderson Field , about 200 miles ( 320 km ) , was in great danger from air attack . This tactical situation existed for the next several months of the campaign .
Between 29 August and 4 September , various Japanese light cruisers , destroyers , and patrol boats were able to land almost 5 @,@ 000 troops at Taivu Point , including most of the 35th Infantry Brigade , much of the Aoba ( 4th ) Regiment , and the rest of Ichiki 's regiment . General Kawaguchi , who landed at Taivu Point on 31 August Express run , was placed in command of all Japanese forces on Guadalcanal . A barge convoy took another 1 @,@ 000 soldiers of Kawaguchi 's brigade , under the command of Colonel Akinosuke Oka , to Kamimbo , west of the Lunga perimeter .
= = = Battle of Edson 's Ridge = = =
On 7 September , Kawaguchi issued his attack plan to " rout and annihilate the enemy in the vicinity of the Guadalcanal Island airfield . " Kawaguchi 's attack plan called for his forces , split into three divisions , to approach the Lunga perimeter inland , culminating with a surprise night attack . Oka 's forces would attack the perimeter from the west while Ichiki 's Second Echelon , now renamed the Kuma Battalion , would attack from the east . The main attack would be by Kawaguchi 's " Center Body " , numbering 3 @,@ 000 men in three battalions , from the jungle south of the Lunga perimeter . By 7 September , most of Kawaguchi 's troops had departed Taivu to begin marching towards Lunga Point along the coastline . About 250 Japanese troops remained behind to guard the brigade 's supply base at Taivu .
Meanwhile , native scouts under the direction of Martin Clemens , a coastwatcher officer in the Solomon Islands Protectorate Defense Force and the British district officer for Guadalcanal , brought reports to the U.S. Marines of Japanese troops at Taivu near the village of Tasimboko . Edson planned a raid on the Japanese troop concentration at Taivu . On 8 September , after being dropped @-@ off near Taivu by boat , Edson 's men captured Tasimboko as the Japanese defenders retreated into the jungle . In Tasimboko , Edson 's troops discovered Kawaguchi 's main supply depot , including large stockpiles of food , ammunition , medical supplies , and a powerful shortwave radio . After destroying everything in sight , except for some documents and equipment carried back with them , the Marines returned to the Lunga perimeter . The mounds of supplies along with intelligence gathered from the captured documents informed the Marines that at least 3 @,@ 000 Japanese troops were on the island and apparently planning an attack .
Edson , along with Colonel Gerald C. Thomas , Vandegrift 's operations officer , correctly believed that the Japanese attack would come at a narrow , grassy , 1 @,@ 000 yards ( 910 m ) -long , coral ridge that ran parallel to the Lunga River located just south of Henderson Field . The ridge , called Lunga Ridge , offered a natural avenue of approach to the airfield , commanded the surrounding area and , at that time , was almost undefended . On 11 September , the 840 men of Edson 's battalion were deployed onto and around the ridge .
On the night of 12 September , Kawaguchi 's 1st Battalion attacked the Raiders between the Lunga River and ridge , forcing one Marine company to fall back to the ridge before the Japanese halted their attack for the night . The next night Kawaguchi faced Edson 's 830 Raiders with 3 @,@ 000 troops of his brigade plus an assortment of light artillery . The Japanese attack began just after nightfall with Kawaguchi 's 1st battalion assaulting Edson 's right flank just to the west of the ridge . After breaking through the Marine lines the battalion 's assault was eventually stopped by Marine units guarding the northern part of the ridge .
Two companies from Kawaguchi 's 2nd Battalion charged up the southern edge of the ridge and pushed Edson 's troops back to Hill 123 on the center part of the ridge . Throughout the night Marines at this position supported by artillery defeated wave after wave of frontal Japanese attacks , some of which resulted in hand @-@ to @-@ hand fighting . Japanese units that infiltrated past the ridge to the edge of the airfield were also repulsed . Attacks by the Kuma battalion and Oka 's unit at other locations on the Lunga perimeter were also defeated . On 14 September Kawaguchi led the survivors of his shattered brigade on a five @-@ day march west to the Matanikau Valley to join with Oka 's unit . In total Kawaguchi 's forces lost about 850 killed and the Marines 104 .
On 15 September Hyakutake at Rabaul learned of Kawaguchi 's defeat and forwarded the news to Imperial General Headquarters in Japan . In an emergency session the top Japanese IJA and IJN command staffs concluded that , " Guadalcanal might develop into the decisive battle of the war . " The results of the battle now began to have a telling strategic impact on Japanese operations in other areas of the Pacific . Hyakutake realized that in order to send sufficient troops and matériel to defeat the Allied forces on Guadalcanal he could not at the same time support the major ongoing Japanese offensive on the Kokoda Track in New Guinea . Hyakutake , with the concurrence of General Headquarters , ordered his troops on New Guinea who were within 30 miles ( 48 km ) of their objective of Port Moresby to withdraw until the " Guadalcanal matter " was resolved . Hyakutake prepared to send more troops to Guadalcanal for another attempt to recapture Henderson Field .
= = = Reinforcement = = =
As the Japanese regrouped west of the Matanikau , the U.S. forces concentrated on shoring up and strengthening their Lunga defenses . On 14 September Vandegrift moved another battalion , the 3rd Battalion , 2nd Marine Regiment ( 3 / 2 ) , from Tulagi to Guadalcanal . On 18 September an Allied naval convoy delivered 4 @,@ 157 men from the 3rd Provisional Marine Brigade ( the 7th Marine Regiment plus a battalion from the 11th Marine Regiment and some additional support units ) , 137 vehicles , tents , aviation fuel , ammunition , rations and engineering equipment to Guadalcanal . These crucial reinforcements allowed Vandegrift , beginning on 19 September , to establish an unbroken line of defense around the Lunga perimeter . While covering this convoy the aircraft carrier USS Wasp was sunk by the Japanese submarine I @-@ 19 southeast of Guadalcanal , temporarily leaving only one Allied aircraft carrier ( USS Hornet ) in operation in the South Pacific area . Vandegrift also made some changes in the senior leadership of his combat units , transferring off the island several officers who did not meet his performance standards and promoting junior officers who had proven themselves to take their places . One of these was the recently promoted Colonel Merritt Edson who was placed in command of the 5th Marine Regiment .
A lull occurred in the air war over Guadalcanal , with no Japanese air raids occurring between 14 and 27 September due to bad weather , during which both sides reinforced their respective air units . The Japanese delivered 85 fighters and bombers to their air units at Rabaul while the U.S. brought 23 fighters and attack aircraft to Henderson Field . On 20 September the Japanese counted 117 total aircraft at Rabaul while the Allies tallied 71 aircraft at Henderson Field . The air war resumed with a Japanese air raid on Guadalcanal on 27 September which was contested by U.S. Navy and Marine fighters from Henderson Field .
The Japanese immediately began to prepare for their next attempt to recapture Henderson Field . The 3rd Battalion , 4th ( Aoba ) Infantry Regiment had landed at Kamimbo Bay on the western end of Guadalcanal on 11 September , too late to join Kawaguchi 's attack . By now , though , the battalion had joined Oka 's forces near the Matanikau . Tokyo Express runs by destroyers on 14 , 20 , 21 and 24 September brought food and ammunition as well as 280 men from the 1st Battalion , Aoba Regiment , to Kamimbo on Guadalcanal . Meanwhile , the Japanese 2nd and 38th Infantry Divisions were transported from the Dutch East Indies to Rabaul beginning on 13 September . The Japanese planned to transport a total of 17 @,@ 500 troops from these two divisions to Guadalcanal to take part in the next major attack on the Lunga Perimeter set for 20 October 1942 .
= = = Actions along the Matanikau = = =
Vandegrift and his staff were aware that Kawaguchi 's troops had retreated to the area west of the Matanikau and that numerous groups of Japanese stragglers were scattered throughout the area between the Lunga Perimeter and the Matanikau River . Vandegrift , therefore , decided to conduct another series of small unit operations around the Matanikau Valley . The purpose of these operations was to mop up the scattered groups of Japanese troops east of the Matanikau and to keep the main body of Japanese soldiers off @-@ balance to prevent them from consolidating their positions so close to the main Marine defenses at Lunga Point .
The first U.S. Marine operation conducted between 23 and 27 September by elements of three U.S. Marine battalions , an attack on Japanese forces west of the Matanikau , was repulsed by Kawaguchi 's troops under Akinosuke Oka 's local command . During the action three Marine companies were surrounded by Japanese forces near Point Cruz west of the Matanikau , took heavy losses , and barely escaped with assistance from the destroyer USS Monssen and landing craft manned by U.S. Coast Guard personnel .
In the second action between 6 and 9 October a larger force of Marines successfully crossed the Matanikau River , attacked newly landed Japanese forces from the 2nd Infantry Division under the command of generals Masao Maruyama and Yumio Nasu , and inflicted heavy losses on the Japanese 4th Infantry Regiment . The second action forced the Japanese to retreat from their positions east of the Matanikau and hindered Japanese preparations for their planned major offensive on the U.S. Lunga defenses .
Between 9 and 11 October the U.S. 1st Battalion 2nd Marines raided two small Japanese outposts about 30 miles ( 48 km ) east of the Lunga perimeter at Gurabusu and Koilotumaria near Aola Bay . The raids killed 35 Japanese at a cost of 17 Marines and three U.S. Navy personnel killed .
= = = Battle of Cape Esperance = = =
Throughout the last week of September and the first week of October , Tokyo Express runs delivered troops from the Japanese 2nd Infantry Division to Guadalcanal . The Japanese Navy promised to support the Army 's planned offensive by not only delivering the necessary troops , equipment , and supplies to the island , but by stepping @-@ up air attacks on Henderson Field and sending warships to bombard the airfield .
In the meantime , Millard F. Harmon , commander of United States Army forces in the South Pacific , convinced Ghormley that U.S. Marine forces on Guadalcanal needed to be reinforced immediately if the Allies were to successfully defend the island from the next , expected Japanese offensive . Thus , on 8 October , the 2 @,@ 837 men of the 164th Infantry Regiment from the U.S. Army 's Americal Division boarded ships at New Caledonia for the trip to Guadalcanal with a projected arrival date of 13 October . To protect the transports carrying the 164th to Guadalcanal , Ghormley ordered Task Force 64 , consisting of four cruisers and five destroyers under U.S. Rear Admiral Norman Scott , to intercept and combat any Japanese ships that approached Guadalcanal and threatened the arrival of the transport convoy .
Mikawa 's 8th Fleet staff scheduled a large and important Express run for the night of 11 October . Two seaplane tenders and six destroyers were to deliver 728 soldiers plus artillery and ammunition to Guadalcanal . At the same time but in a separate operation three heavy cruisers and two destroyers under the command of Rear Admiral Aritomo Gotō were to bombard Henderson Field with special explosive shells with the object of destroying the CAF and the airfield 's facilities . Because U.S. Navy warships had yet to attempt to interdict any Tokyo Express missions to Guadalcanal , the Japanese were not expecting any opposition from Allied naval surface forces that night .
Just before midnight , Scott 's warships detected Gotō 's force on radar near the entrance to the strait between Savo Island and Guadalcanal . Scott 's force was in a position to cross the T of Gotō 's unsuspecting formation . Opening fire , Scott 's warships sank one of Gotō 's cruisers and one of his destroyers , heavily damaged another cruiser , mortally wounded Gotō , and forced the rest of Gotō 's warships to abandon the bombardment mission and retreat . During the exchange of gunfire , one of Scott 's destroyers was sunk and one cruiser and another destroyer were heavily damaged . In the meantime , the Japanese supply convoy successfully completed unloading at Guadalcanal and began its return journey without being discovered by Scott 's force . Later on the morning of 12 October , four Japanese destroyers from the supply convoy turned back to assist Gotō 's retreating , damaged warships . Air attacks by CAF aircraft from Henderson Field sank two of these destroyers later that day . The convoy of U.S. Army troops reached Guadalcanal as scheduled the next day and successfully delivered its cargo and passengers to the island .
= = = Henderson Field = = =
= = = = Battleship bombardment = = = =
Despite the U.S. victory off Cape Esperance , the Japanese continued with plans and preparations for their large offensive scheduled for later in October . The Japanese decided to risk a one @-@ time departure from their usual practice of only using fast warships to deliver their men and materiel to the island . On 13 October , a convoy comprising six cargo ships with eight screening destroyers departed the Shortland Islands for Guadalcanal . The convoy carried 4 @,@ 500 troops from the 16th and 230th Infantry Regiments , some naval marines , two batteries of heavy artillery , and one company of tanks .
To protect the approaching convoy from attack by CAF aircraft , Yamamoto sent two battleships from Truk to bombard Henderson Field . At 01 : 33 on 14 October , Kongō and Haruna , escorted by one light cruiser and nine destroyers , reached Guadalcanal and opened fire on Henderson Field from a distance of 16 @,@ 000 metres ( 17 @,@ 500 yd ) . Over the next one hour and 23 minutes , the two battleships fired 973 14 @-@ inch ( 356 mm ) shells into the Lunga perimeter , most of them falling in and around the 2 @,@ 200 metres ( 2 @,@ 400 yd ) square area of the airfield . Many of the shells were fragmentation shells , specifically designed to destroy land targets . The bombardment heavily damaged both runways , burned almost all of the available aviation fuel , destroyed 48 of the CAF 's 90 aircraft , and killed 41 men , including six CAF pilots . The battleship force immediately returned to Truk .
In spite of the heavy damage , Henderson personnel were able to restore one of the runways to operational condition within a few hours . Seventeen SBDs and 20 Wildcats at Espiritu Santo were quickly flown to Henderson and U.S. Army and Marine transport aircraft began to shuttle aviation gasoline from Espiritu Santo to Guadalcanal . Now aware of the approach of the large Japanese reinforcement convoy , the U.S. desperately sought some way to interdict the convoy before it could reach Guadalcanal . Using fuel drained from destroyed aircraft and from a cache in the nearby jungle , the CAF attacked the convoy twice on the 14th , but caused no damage .
The Japanese convoy reached Tassafaronga on Guadalcanal at midnight on 14 October and began unloading . Throughout the day of 15 October , a string of CAF aircraft from Henderson bombed and strafed the unloading convoy , destroying three of the cargo ships . The remainder of the convoy departed that night , having unloaded all of the troops and about two @-@ thirds of the supplies and equipment . Several Japanese heavy cruisers also bombarded Henderson on the nights of 14 and 15 October , destroying a few additional CAF aircraft , but failing to cause significant further damage to the airfield .
= = = = Battle for Henderson Field = = = =
Between 1 and 17 October , the Japanese delivered 15 @,@ 000 troops to Guadalcanal , giving Hyakutake 20 @,@ 000 total troops to employ for his planned offensive . Because of the loss of their positions on the east side of the Matanikau , the Japanese decided that an attack on the U.S. defenses along the coast would be prohibitively difficult . Therefore , Hyakutake decided that the main thrust of his planned attack would be from south of Henderson Field . His 2nd Division ( augmented by troops from the 38th Division ) , under Lieutenant General Masao Maruyama and comprising 7 @,@ 000 soldiers in three infantry regiments of three battalions each was ordered to march through the jungle and attack the American defences from the south near the east bank of the Lunga River . The date of the attack was set for 22 October , then changed to 23 October . To distract the Americans from the planned attack from the south , Hyakutake 's heavy artillery plus five battalions of infantry ( about 2 @,@ 900 men ) under Major General Tadashi Sumiyoshi were to attack the American defenses from the west along the coastal corridor . The Japanese estimated that there were 10 @,@ 000 American troops on the island , when in fact there were about 23 @,@ 000 .
On 12 October , a company of Japanese engineers began to break a trail , called the " Maruyama Road " , from the Matanikau towards the southern portion of the U.S. Lunga perimeter . The 15 miles ( 24 km ) long trail traversed some of the most difficult terrain on Guadalcanal , including numerous rivers and streams , deep , muddy ravines , steep ridges , and dense jungle . Between 16 and 18 October , the 2nd Division began their march along the Maruyama Road .
By 23 October , Maruyama 's forces still struggled through the jungle to reach the American lines . That evening , after learning that his forces had yet to reach their attack positions , Hyakutake postponed the attack to 19 : 00 on 24 October . The Americans remained completely unaware of the approach of Maruyama 's forces .
Sumiyoshi was informed by Hyakutake 's staff of the postponement of the offensive to 24 October , but was unable to contact his troops to inform them of the delay . Thus , at dusk on 23 October , two battalions of the 4th Infantry Regiment and the nine tanks of the 1st Independent Tank Company launched attacks on the U.S. Marine defenses at the mouth of the Matanikau . U.S. Marine artillery , cannon , and small arms fire repulsed the attacks , destroying all the tanks and killing many of the Japanese soldiers while suffering only light casualties .
Finally , late on 24 October Maruyama 's forces reached the U.S. Lunga perimeter . Over two consecutive nights Maruyama 's forces conducted numerous , unsuccessful frontal assaults on positions defended by troops of the 1st Battalion , 7th Marines under Lieutenant Colonel Chesty Puller and the U.S. Army 's 3rd Battalion , 164th Infantry Regiment , commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Robert Hall . U.S. Marine and Army units armed with rifles , machine guns , mortars , artillery , including direct canister fire from 37 mm anti @-@ tank guns " wrought terrible carnage " on the Japanese . A few small groups of Japanese broke through the American defenses , but were all hunted down and killed over the next several days . More than 1 @,@ 500 of Maruyama 's troops were killed in the attacks while the Americans lost about 60 killed . Over the same two days American aircraft from Henderson Field defended against attacks by Japanese aircraft and ships , destroying 14 aircraft and sinking a light cruiser .
Further Japanese attacks near the Matanikau on 26 October were also repulsed with heavy losses for the Japanese . As a result , by 08 : 00 on 26 October , Hyakutake called off any further attacks and ordered his forces to retreat . About half of Maruyama 's survivors were ordered to retreat back to the upper Matanikau Valley while the 230th Infantry Regiment under Colonel Toshinari Shōji was told to head for Koli Point , east of the Lunga perimeter . Leading elements of the 2nd Division reached the 17th Army headquarters area at Kokumbona , west of the Matanikau on 4 November . The same day , Shoji 's unit reached Koli Point and made camp . Decimated by battle deaths , combat injuries , malnutrition , and tropical diseases , the 2nd Division was incapable of further offensive action and fought as a defensive force along the coast for the rest of the campaign . In total the Japanese lost 2 @,@ 200 – 3 @,@ 000 troops in the battle while the Americans lost around 80 killed .
= = = Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands = = =
At the same time that Hyakutake 's troops were attacking the Lunga perimeter , Japanese aircraft carriers and other large warships under the overall direction of Isoroku Yamamoto moved into a position near the southern Solomon Islands . From this location , the Japanese naval forces hoped to engage and decisively defeat any Allied ( primarily U.S. ) naval forces , especially carrier forces , that responded to Hyakutake 's ground offensive . Allied naval carrier forces in the area , now under the overall command of William Halsey , Jr . , also hoped to meet the Japanese naval forces in battle . Nimitz had replaced Ghormley with Halsey on 18 October after concluding that Ghormley had become too pessimistic and myopic to effectively continue leading Allied forces in the South Pacific area .
The two opposing carrier forces confronted each other on the morning of 26 October , in what became known as the Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands . After an exchange of carrier air attacks , Allied surface ships were forced to retreat from the battle area with the loss of one carrier sunk ( Hornet ) and another ( Enterprise ) heavily damaged . The participating Japanese carrier forces , however , also retired because of high aircraft and aircrew losses and significant damage to two carriers . Although an apparent tactical victory for the Japanese in terms of ships sunk and damaged , the loss by the Japanese of many irreplaceable , veteran aircrews provided a long @-@ term strategic advantage for the Allies , whose aircrew losses in the battle were relatively low . The Japanese carriers played no further significant role in the campaign .
= = = November land actions = = =
In order to exploit the victory in the Battle for Henderson Field , Vandegrift sent six Marine battalions , later joined by one U.S. Army battalion , on an offensive west of the Matanikau . The operation was commanded by Merritt Edson and its goal was to capture Kokumbona , headquarters of the 17th Army , west of Point Cruz . Defending the Point Cruz area were Japanese army troops from the 4th Infantry Regiment commanded by Nomasu Nakaguma . The 4th Infantry was severely understrength because of battle damage , tropical disease , and malnutrition .
The American offensive began on 1 November and , after some difficulty , succeeded in destroying Japanese forces defending the Point Cruz area by 3 November , including rear echelon troops sent to reinforce Nakaguma 's battered regiment . The Americans appeared to be on the verge of breaking through the Japanese defenses and capturing Kokumbona . At this time , however , other American forces discovered and engaged newly landed Japanese troops near Koli Point on the eastern side of the Lunga perimeter . To counter this new threat , Vandegrift temporarily halted the Matanikau offensive on 4 November . The Americans suffered 71 and the Japanese around 400 killed in the offensive .
At Koli Point early in the morning 3 November , five Japanese destroyers delivered 300 army troops to support Shōji and his troops who were en route to Koli Point after the Battle for Henderson Field . Having learned of the planned landing , Vandegrift sent a battalion of Marines under Herman H. Hanneken to intercept the Japanese at Koli . Soon after landing , the Japanese soldiers encountered and drove Hanneken 's battalion back towards the Lunga perimeter . In response , Vandegrift ordered Puller 's Marine battalion plus two of the 164th infantry battalions , along with Hanneken 's battalion , to move towards Koli Point to attack the Japanese forces there .
As the American troops began to move , Shōji and his soldiers began to arrive at Koli Point . Beginning on 8 November , the American troops attempted to encircle Shōji 's forces at Gavaga Creek near Koli Point . Meanwhile , Hyakutake ordered Shōji to abandon his positions at Koli and rejoin Japanese forces at Kokumbona in the Matanikau area . A gap existed by way of a swampy creek in the southern side of the American lines . Between 9 and 11 November , Shōji and between 2 @,@ 000 and 3 @,@ 000 of his men escaped into the jungle to the south . On 12 November , the Americans completely overran and killed all the remaining Japanese soldiers left in the pocket . The Americans counted the bodies of 450 – 475 Japanese dead in the Koli Point area and captured most of Shōji 's heavy weapons and provisions . The American forces suffered 40 killed and 120 wounded in the operation .
Meanwhile , on 4 November , two companies from the 2nd Marine Raider Battalion , commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Evans Carlson landed by boat at Aola Bay , 40 miles ( 64 km ) east of Lunga Point . Carlson 's raiders , along with troops from the U.S. Army 's 147th Infantry Regiment , were to provide security for 500 Seabees as they attempted to construct an airfield at that location . Halsey , acting on a recommendation by Turner , had approved the Aola Bay airfield construction effort . The Aola airfield construction effort was later abandoned at the end of November because of unsuitable terrain .
On 5 November , Vandegrift ordered Carlson to take his raiders , march overland from Aola , and attack any of Shōji 's forces that had escaped from Koli Point . With the rest of the companies from his battalion , which arrived a few days later , Carlson and his troops set off on a 29 @-@ day patrol from Aola to the Lunga perimeter . During the patrol , the raiders fought several battles with Shōji 's retreating forces , killing almost 500 of them , while suffering 16 killed themselves . In addition to the losses sustained from attacks by Carlson 's raiders , tropical diseases and a lack of food felled many more of Shōji 's men . By the time Shōji 's forces reached the Lunga River in mid @-@ November , about halfway to the Matanikau , only 1 @,@ 300 men remained with the main body . When Shōji reached the 17th Army positions west of the Matanikau , only 700 to 800 survivors were still with him . Most of the survivors from Shōji 's force joined other Japanese units defending the Mount Austen and upper Matanikau River area .
Tokyo Express runs on 5 , 7 and 9 November , delivered additional troops from the Japanese 38th Infantry Division , including most of the 228th Infantry Regiment to Guadalcanal . These fresh troops were quickly emplaced in the Point Cruz and Matanikau area and helped successfully resist further attacks by American forces on 10 and 18 November . The Americans and Japanese remained facing each other along a line just west of Point Cruz for the next six weeks .
= = = Naval Battle of Guadalcanal = = =
After the defeat in the Battle for Henderson Field , the IJA planned to try again to retake the airfield in November 1942 , but further reinforcements were needed before the operation could proceed . The IJA requested assistance from Yamamoto to deliver the needed reinforcements to the island and to support the next offensive . Yamamoto provided 11 large transport ships to carry the remaining 7 @,@ 000 troops from the 38th Infantry Division , their ammunition , food , and heavy equipment from Rabaul to Guadalcanal . He also provided a warship support force that included two battleships . The two battleships , Hiei and Kirishima , equipped with special fragmentation shells , were to bombard Henderson Field on the night of 12 – 13 November and destroy it and the aircraft stationed there in order to allow the slow , heavy transports to reach Guadalcanal and unload safely the next day . The warship force was commanded from Hiei by recently promoted Vice Admiral Hiroaki Abe .
In early November , Allied intelligence learned that the Japanese were preparing again to try to retake Henderson Field . Therefore , the U.S. sent Task Force 67 , a large reinforcement and resupply convoy carrying Marine replacements , two U.S. Army infantry battalions , and ammunition and food , commanded by Turner , to Guadalcanal on 11 November . The supply ships were protected by two task groups , commanded by Rear Admirals Daniel J. Callaghan and Norman Scott , and aircraft from Henderson Field . The ships were attacked several times on 11 and 12 November by Japanese aircraft from Rabaul staging through an air base at Buin , Bougainville , but most were unloaded without serious damage .
U.S. reconnaissance aircraft spotted the approach of Abe 's bombardment force and passed a warning to the Allied command . Thus warned , Turner detached all usable combat ships under Callaghan to protect the troops ashore from the expected Japanese naval attack and troop landing and ordered the supply ships at Guadalcanal to depart by early evening 12 November . Callaghan 's force comprised two heavy cruisers , three light cruisers , and eight destroyers .
Around 01 : 30 on 13 November , Callaghan 's force intercepted Abe 's bombardment group between Guadalcanal and Savo Island . In addition to the two battleships , Abe 's force included one light cruiser and 11 destroyers . In the pitch darkness , the two warship forces intermingled before opening fire at unusually close quarters . In the resulting mêlée , Abe 's warships sank or severely damaged all but one cruiser and one destroyer in Callaghan 's force and both Callaghan and Scott were killed . Two Japanese destroyers were sunk and another destroyer and Hiei heavily damaged . In spite of his defeat of Callaghan 's force , Abe ordered his warships to retire without bombarding Henderson Field . Hiei sank later that day after repeated air attacks by CAF aircraft and aircraft from the U.S. carrier Enterprise . Because of Abe 's failure to neutralize Henderson Field , Yamamoto ordered the troop transport convoy , under the command of Raizo Tanaka and located near the Shortland Islands , to wait an additional day before heading towards Guadalcanal . Yamamoto ordered Nobutake Kondō to assemble another bombardment force using warships from Truk and Abe 's force to attack Henderson Field on 15 November .
In the meantime , around 02 : 00 on 14 November , a cruiser and destroyer force under Gunichi Mikawa from Rabaul conducted an unopposed bombardment of Henderson Field . The bombardment caused some damage but failed to put the airfield or most of its aircraft out of operation . As Mikawa 's force retired towards Rabaul , Tanaka 's transport convoy , trusting that Henderson Field was now destroyed or heavily damaged , began its run down the slot towards Guadalcanal . Throughout the day of 14 November , aircraft from Henderson Field and Enterprise attacked Mikawa 's and Tanaka 's ships , sinking one heavy cruiser and seven of the transports . Most of the troops were rescued from the transports by Tanaka 's escorting destroyers and returned to the Shortlands . After dark , Tanaka and the remaining four transports continued towards Guadalcanal as Kondo 's force approached to bombard Henderson Field .
In order to intercept Kondo 's force , Halsey , who was low on undamaged ships , detached two battleships , Washington and South Dakota , and four destroyers from the Enterprise task force . The U.S. force , under the command of Willis A. Lee aboard Washington , reached Guadalcanal and Savo Island just before midnight on 14 November , shortly before Kondo 's bombardment force arrived . Kondo 's force consisted of Kirishima plus two heavy cruisers , two light cruisers , and nine destroyers . After the two forces made contact , Kondo 's force quickly sank three of the U.S. destroyers and heavily damaged the fourth . The Japanese warships then sighted , opened fire , and damaged South Dakota . As Kondo 's warships concentrated on South Dakota , Washington approached the Japanese ships unobserved and opened fire on Kirishima , smashing into the Japanese battleship repeatedly with both main and secondary battery shells , and causing fatal damage . After fruitlessly chasing Washington towards the Russell Islands , Kondo ordered his warships to retire without bombarding Henderson Field . One of Kondo 's destroyers was also sunk during the engagement .
As Kondo 's ships retired , the four Japanese transports beached themselves near Tassafaronga on Guadalcanal at 04 : 00 and quickly began unloading . At 05 : 55 , U.S. aircraft and artillery began attacking the beached transports , destroying all four transports along with most of the supplies that they carried . Only 2 @,@ 000 – 3 @,@ 000 of the army troops made it ashore . Because of the failure to deliver most of the troops and supplies , the Japanese were forced to cancel their planned November offensive on Henderson Field making the results of the battle a significant strategic victory for the Allies and marking the beginning of the end of Japanese attempts to retake Henderson Field .
On 26 November , Japanese Lieutenant General Hitoshi Imamura took command of the newly formed Eighth Area Army at Rabaul . The new command encompassed both Hyakutake 's 17th Army and the 18th Army in New Guinea . One of Imamura 's first priorities upon assuming command was the continuation of the attempts to retake Henderson Field and Guadalcanal . The Allied offensive at Buna in New Guinea , however , changed Imamura 's priorities . Because the Allied attempt to take Buna was considered a more severe threat to Rabaul , Imamura postponed further major reinforcement efforts to Guadalcanal to concentrate on the situation in New Guinea .
= = = Battle of Tassafaronga = = =
The Japanese continued to experience problems in delivering sufficient supplies to sustain their troops on Guadalcanal . Attempts to use only submarines the last two weeks in November failed to provide sufficient food for Hyakutake 's forces . A separate attempt to establish bases in the central Solomons to facilitate barge convoys to Guadalcanal also failed because of destructive Allied air attacks . On 26 November , the 17th Army notified Imamura that it faced a food crisis . Some front @-@ line units had not been resupplied for six days and even the rear @-@ area troops were on one @-@ third rations . The situation forced the Japanese to return to using destroyers to deliver the necessary supplies .
Eighth Fleet personnel devised a plan to help reduce the exposure of destroyers delivering supplies to Guadalcanal . Large oil or gas drums were cleaned and filled with medical supplies and food , with enough air space to provide buoyancy , and strung together with rope . When the destroyers arrived at Guadalcanal they would make a sharp turn and the drums would be cut loose and a swimmer or boat from shore could pick up the buoyed end of a rope and return it to the beach , where the soldiers could haul in the supplies .
The Eighth Fleet 's Guadalcanal Reinforcement Unit ( the Tokyo Express ) , then commanded by Raizo Tanaka , was tasked by Mikawa with making the first of five scheduled runs to Tassafaronga on Guadalcanal using the drum method on the night of 30 November . Tanaka 's unit was centered on eight destroyers , with six destroyers assigned to carry between 200 and 240 drums of supplies apiece . Notified by intelligence sources of the Japanese supply attempt , Halsey ordered the newly formed Task Force 67 , comprising four cruisers and four destroyers under the command of U.S. Rear Admiral Carleton H. Wright , to intercept Tanaka 's force off Guadalcanal . Two additional destroyers joined Wright 's force en route to Guadalcanal from Espiritu Santo during the day of 30 November .
At 22 : 40 on 30 November , Tanaka 's force arrived off Guadalcanal and prepared to unload the supply barrels . Meanwhile , Wright 's warships were approaching through Ironbottom Sound from the opposite direction . Wright 's destroyers detected Tanaka 's force on radar and the destroyer commander requested permission to attack with torpedoes . Wright waited four minutes before giving permission , allowing Tanaka 's force to escape from an optimum firing setup . All of the American torpedoes missed their targets . At the same time , Wright 's cruisers opened fire , quickly hitting and destroying one of the Japanese guard destroyers . The rest of Tanaka 's warships abandoned the supply mission , increased speed , turned , and launched a total of 44 torpedoes in the direction of Wright 's cruisers .
The Japanese torpedoes hit and sank the U.S. cruiser Northampton and heavily damaged the cruisers Minneapolis , New Orleans , and Pensacola . The rest of Tanaka 's destroyers escaped without damage , but failed to deliver any of the provisions to Guadalcanal .
By 7 December 1942 , Hyakutake 's forces were losing about 50 men each day from malnutrition , disease , and Allied ground or air attacks . Further attempts by Tanaka 's destroyer forces to deliver provisions on 3 December 7 December , and 11 December , failed to alleviate the crisis , and one of Tanaka 's destroyers was sunk by a U.S. PT boat torpedo .
= = = Japanese decision to withdraw = = =
On 12 December , the Japanese Navy proposed that Guadalcanal be abandoned . At the same time , several army staff officers at the Imperial General Headquarters ( IGH ) also suggested that further efforts to retake Guadalcanal would be impossible . A delegation , led by IJA Colonel Joichiro Sanada , chief of the IGH 's operations section , visited Rabaul on 19 December and consulted Imamura and his staff . Upon the delegation 's return to Tokyo , Sanada recommended that Guadalcanal be abandoned . The IGH 's top leaders agreed with Sanada 's recommendation on 26 December and ordered their staffs to begin drafting plans for a withdrawal from Guadalcanal , establishment of a new defense line in the central Solomons , and a shifting of priorities and resources to the campaign in New Guinea .
On 28 December , General Hajime Sugiyama and Admiral Osami Nagano personally informed Emperor Hirohito of the decision to withdraw from Guadalcanal . On 31 December , the Emperor formally endorsed the decision . The Japanese secretly began to prepare for the evacuation , called Operation Ke , scheduled to begin during the latter part of January 1943 .
= = = Battle of Mount Austen , the Galloping Horse , and the Sea Horse = = =
By December , the weary 1st Marine Division was withdrawn for recuperation , and over the course of the next month the U.S. XIV Corps took over operations on the island . This corps consisted of the 2nd Marine Division and the U.S. Army 's 25th Infantry and 23rd " Americal " Divisions . U.S. Army Major General Alexander Patch replaced Vandegrift as commander of Allied forces on Guadalcanal , which by January totaled just over 50 @,@ 000 men .
On 18 December , Allied ( mainly U.S. Army ) forces began attacking Japanese positions on Mount Austen . A strong Japanese fortified position , called the Gifu , stymied the attacks and the Americans were forced to temporarily halt their offensive on 4 January .
The Allies renewed the offensive on 10 January , reattacking the Japanese on Mount Austen as well as on two nearby ridges called the Seahorse and the Galloping Horse . After some difficulty , the Allies captured all three by 23 January . At the same time , U.S. Marines advanced along the north coast of the island , making significant gains . The Americans lost about 250 killed in the operation while the Japanese suffered around 3 @,@ 000 killed – about 12 to 1 in the Americans ' favor .
= = = Ke evacuation = = =
On 14 January , a Tokyo Express run delivered a battalion of troops to act as a rear guard for the Ke evacuation . A staff officer from Rabaul accompanied the troops to notify Hyakutake of the decision to withdraw . At the same time , Japanese warships and aircraft moved into position around the Rabaul and Bougainville areas in preparation to execute the withdrawal operation . Allied intelligence detected the Japanese movements , but misinterpreted them as preparations for another attempt to retake Henderson Field and Guadalcanal .
Patch , wary of what he thought to be an imminent Japanese offensive , committed only a relatively small portion of his troops to continue a slow @-@ moving offensive against Hyakutake 's forces . On 29 January , Halsey , acting on the same intelligence , sent a resupply convoy to Guadalcanal screened by a cruiser task force . Sighting the cruisers , Japanese naval torpedo bombers attacked that same evening and heavily damaged the cruiser Chicago . The next day , more torpedo aircraft attacked and sank Chicago . Halsey ordered the remainder of the task force to return to base and directed the rest of his naval forces to take station in the Coral Sea , south of Guadalcanal , to be ready to counter the perceived Japanese offensive .
In the meantime , the Japanese 17th Army withdrew to the west coast of Guadalcanal while rear guard units checked the American offensive . On the night of 1 February , a force of 20 destroyers from Mikawa 's 8th Fleet under Shintaro Hashimoto successfully extracted 4 @,@ 935 soldiers , mainly from the 38th Division , from the island . The Japanese and Americans each lost a destroyer from air and naval attacks related to the evacuation mission .
On the nights of 4 and 7 February , Hashimoto and his destroyers completed the evacuation of most of the remaining Japanese forces from Guadalcanal . Apart from some air attacks , Allied forces , still anticipating a large Japanese offensive , did not attempt to interdict Hashimoto 's evacuation runs . In total , the Japanese successfully evacuated 10 @,@ 652 men from Guadalcanal . On 9 February , Patch realized that the Japanese were gone and declared Guadalcanal secure for Allied forces , ending the campaign .
= = Aftermath = =
After the Japanese withdrawal , Guadalcanal and Tulagi were developed into major bases supporting the Allied advance further up the Solomon Islands chain . In addition to Henderson Field , two additional fighter runways were constructed at Lunga Point and a bomber airfield was built at Koli Point . Extensive naval port and logistics facilities were established at Guadalcanal , Tulagi , and Florida . The anchorage around Tulagi became an important advanced base for Allied warships and transport ships supporting the Solomon Islands campaign . Major ground units were staged through large encampments and barracks on Guadalcanal before deployment further up the Solomons .
After Guadalcanal the Japanese were clearly on the defensive in the Pacific . The constant pressure to reinforce Guadalcanal had weakened Japanese efforts in other theaters , contributing to a successful Australian and American counteroffensive in New Guinea which culminated in the capture of the key bases of Buna and Gona in early 1943 . The Allies had gained a strategic initiative which they never relinquished . In June , the Allies launched Operation Cartwheel , which , after modification in August 1943 , formalized the strategy of isolating Rabaul and cutting its sea lines of communication . The subsequent successful neutralization of Rabaul and the forces centered there facilitated the South West Pacific campaign under General Douglas MacArthur and Central Pacific island hopping campaign under Admiral Chester Nimitz , with both efforts successfully advancing toward Japan . The remaining Japanese defenses in the South Pacific area were then either destroyed or bypassed by Allied forces as the war progressed to its ultimate conclusion .
= = Significance = =
= = = Resources = = =
The Battle of Guadalcanal was one of the first prolonged campaigns in the Pacific , alongside the related and concurrent Solomon Islands campaign . Both campaigns were battles that strained the logistical capabilities of the combatant nations involved . For the U.S. , this need prompted the development of effective combat air transport for the first time . A failure to achieve air superiority forced Japan to rely on reinforcement by barges , destroyers , and submarines , with very uneven results . Early in the campaign , the Americans were hindered by a lack of resources , as they suffered heavy losses in cruisers and carriers , with replacements from ramped @-@ up shipbuilding programs still months away from materializing .
The U.S. Navy suffered such high personnel losses during the campaign that it refused to publicly release total casualty figures for years . However , as the campaign continued , and the American public became more and more aware of the plight and perceived heroism of the American forces on Guadalcanal , more forces were dispatched to the area . This spelled trouble for Japan as its military @-@ industrial complex was unable to match the output of American industry and manpower . Thus , as the campaign wore on the Japanese were losing irreplaceable units while the Americans were rapidly replacing and even augmenting their forces .
The Guadalcanal campaign was costly to Japan strategically and in material losses and manpower . Roughly 30 @,@ 000 personnel , including 25 @,@ 000 experienced ground troops , died during the campaign . As many as three @-@ quarters of the deaths were from non @-@ combat causes such as starvation and various tropical diseases . The drain on resources directly contributed to Japan 's failure to achieve its objectives in the New Guinea campaign . Japan also lost control of the southern Solomons and the ability to interdict Allied shipping to Australia . Japan 's major base at Rabaul was now further directly threatened by Allied air power . Most importantly , scarce Japanese land , air , and naval forces had disappeared forever into the Guadalcanal jungle and surrounding sea . The Japanese could not replace the aircraft and ships destroyed and sunk in this campaign , as well as their highly trained and veteran crews , especially the naval aircrews , nearly as quickly as the Allies .
= = = Strategic = = =
After the victory at the Battle of Midway , America was able to establish naval parity in the Pacific . However , this fact alone did not change the direction of the war . It was only after the Allied victories in Guadalcanal and New Guinea that the Japanese offensive thrust was ended and the strategic initiative passed to the Allies , as it proved , permanently . The Guadalcanal Campaign ended all Japanese expansion attempts and placed the Allies in a position of clear supremacy . It thus can be argued that this Allied victory was the first step in a long string of successes that eventually led to the surrender of Japan and the occupation of the Japanese home islands .
The " Europe first " policy of the United States had initially only allowed for defensive actions against Japanese expansion , in order to focus resources on defeating Germany . However , Admiral King 's argument for the Guadalcanal invasion , as well as its successful implementation , convinced President Franklin D. Roosevelt that the Pacific Theater could be pursued offensively as well . By the end of 1942 , it was clear that Japan had lost the Guadalcanal campaign , a serious blow to Japan 's strategic plans for defense of their empire and an unanticipated defeat at the hands of the Americans .
Perhaps as important as the military victory for the Allies was the psychological victory . On a level playing field , the Allies had beaten Japan 's best land , air , and naval forces . After Guadalcanal , Allied personnel regarded the Japanese military with much less fear and awe than previously . In addition , the Allies viewed the eventual outcome of the Pacific War with greatly increased optimism .
Beyond Kawaguchi , several Japanese political and military leaders , including Naoki Hoshino , Osami Nagano , and Torashirō Kawabe , stated shortly after the war that Guadalcanal was the decisive turning point in the conflict . Said Kawabe , " As for the turning point [ of the war ] , when the positive action ceased or even became negative , it was , I feel , at Guadalcanal . "
= = Media , accounts and film = =
The Guadalcanal Campaign was the subject of large amount of high quality news reporting , due to it being the first major US combat operation of the war news agencies sent some of their most talented writers . Richard Tregaskis who wrote for International News Service gained fame with the publication of his bestselling Guadalcanal Diary in 1943 . Hanson Baldwin , a Navy correspondent , filed stories for the New York Times and won a Pulitzer Prize for his coverage of the early days of WWII . Tom Yarbrough wrote for the Associated Press , Bob Miller for the United Press , John Hersey for Time and Life , Ira Wolfert for the North American Newspaper Alliance ( his series of articles about the November 1942 Naval Battle of Guadalcanal won him the Pulitzer Prize ) , Sergeant James Hurlbut for the Marine Corps , and Mack Morriss for Yank magazine . Commander Vandegrift placed few restrictions on the reporters who were generally allowed to go wherever they wanted and write what they wanted .
Other books and films about the campaign include :
Tales of the South Pacific ( book )
Guadalcanal Diary ( film )
Pride of the Marines ( film )
The Thin Red Line ( novel )
The Pacific , Episode 1 , Guadalcanal / Leckie and Episode 2 , Basilone ( TV miniseries )
The Gallant Hours ( film )
Helmet for My Pillow ( book )
The Thin Red Line ( novel )
The Thin Red Line ( 1964 film )
The Thin Red Line ( 1998 film )
Dogfights Season 1 , Ep . No. 4 – Guadalcanal ( TV series )
Shootout ! Season 1 , Guadalcanal ( TV series )
The Lost Evidence Episode 20 ( TV series )
Battle 360 ° , Episodes 3 through 5 ( TV series )
= = = Books = = =
= = = Web = = =
= = Further information = =
= = = Books = = =
= = = Web = = =
= = = Audio / visual = = =
= Four Times of the Day =
Four Times of the Day is a series of four paintings by English artist William Hogarth . Completed in 1736 , they were reproduced as a series of four engravings published in 1738 . They are humorous depictions of life in the streets of London , the vagaries of fashion , and the interactions between the rich and poor . Unlike many of Hogarth 's other series , such as A Harlot 's Progress , A Rake 's Progress , Industry and Idleness , and The Four Stages of Cruelty , it does not depict the story of an individual , but instead focuses on the society of the city . Hogarth intended the series to be humorous rather than instructional ; the pictures do not offer a judgment on whether the rich or poor are more deserving of the viewer 's sympathies : while the upper and middle classes tend to provide the focus for each scene , there are fewer of the moral comparisons seen in some of his other works .
The four pictures depict scenes of daily life in various locations in London as the day progresses . Morning shows a prudish spinster making her way to church in Covent Garden past the revellers of the previous night ; Noon shows two cultures on opposite sides of the street in St Giles ; Evening depicts a dyer 's family returning hot and bothered from a trip to Sadler 's Wells ; and Night shows disreputable goings @-@ on around a drunken freemason staggering home near Charing Cross .
= = Background = =
Four Times of the Day was the first set of prints that Hogarth published after his two great successes , A Harlot 's Progress ( 1732 ) and A Rake 's Progress ( 1735 ) . It was among the first of his prints to be published after the Engraving Copyright Act 1734 ( which Hogarth had helped push through Parliament ) ; A Rake 's Progress had taken early advantage of the protection afforded by the new law . Unlike Harlot and Rake , the four prints in Times of the Day do not form a consecutive narrative , and none of the characters appears in more than one scene . Hogarth conceived of the series as " representing in a humorous manner , morning , noon , evening and night " .
Hogarth took his inspiration for the series from the classical satires of Horace and Juvenal , via their Augustan counterparts , particularly John Gay 's " Trivia
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6 , 7 " single , 1983 ) ( UK Indie – No. 1 )
" Whodunnit ? " ( 121984 / 4 , 7 " single , 1983 , pressed in " shit @-@ coloured vinyl " ) ( UK Indie – No. 2 )
" You 're Already Dead " / " Nagasaki is Yesterday 's Dog @-@ End " / " Don 't Get Caught " ( 1984 , 7 " single , 1984 )
= = = Other = = =
Penny Rimbaud Reads From ' Christ 's Reality Asylum ' ( Cat No. 10C , C90 cassette , 1992 )
Acts of Love – Fifty Songs to my Other Self by Penny Rimbaud with Paul Ellis , Eve Libertine and Steve Ignorant ( Cat No. 1984 / 4 , LP and book , 1984 . Reissued as CD and book as Exitstencilisms Cat No . EXT001 2012 )
EXIT The Mystic Trumpeter – Live at the Roundhouse 1972 , The ICES Tapes ( pre Crass material featuring Penny Rimbaud , Gee Vaucher , John Loder and others ) ( Exit Stencil Music Cat No . EXMO2 , CD and book , 2013 )
= = = Live recordings = = =
Christ : The Bootleg ( recorded live in Nottingham , 1984 , released 1989 on Allied Records )
You 'll Ruin It For Everyone ( recorded live in Perth , Scotland , 1981 , released 1993 on Pomona Records )
= = = Videos = = =
Crass
Christ : The Movie ( a series of short films by Mick Duffield that were shown at Crass performances , VHS , released 1990 )
Semi @-@ Detached ( video collages by Gee Vaucher , 1978 – 84 , VHS , 2001 )
Crass : There Is No Authority But Yourself ( documentary by Alexander Oey , 2006 ) documenting the history of Crass and Dial House .
Crass Agenda
In the Beginning Was the WORD – Live DVD recorded at the Progress Bar , Tufnell Park , London , 18 November 2004
= German cruiser Emden =
Emden was a light cruiser built by the Reichsmarine in the early 1920s . She was the only ship of her class and was the first large warship built in Germany after the end of World War I. She was built at the Reichsmarinewerft in Wilhelmshaven ; her keel was laid in December 1921 and her completed hull was launched in January 1925 . Emden was commissioned into the German fleet in October 1925 . Her design was heavily informed by the restrictions of the Treaty of Versailles and the dictates of the Allied disarmament commission . She was armed with a main battery of surplus 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) guns left over from World War I , mounted in single gun turrets , as mandated by the Allied powers . She had a top speed of 29 knots ( 54 km / h ; 33 mph ) .
Emden spent the majority of her career as a training ship ; in the inter @-@ war period , she conducted several world cruises to train naval cadets . At the outbreak of war , she laid minefields off the German coast and was damaged by a British bomber that crashed into her . She participated in the invasion of Norway in April 1940 , and then resumed training duties in the Baltic Sea . These lasted with minor interruptions until September 1944 , when she was deployed to Norway to serve as the flagship of the minelaying forces there . In January 1945 , she carried the disinterred remains of Paul von Hindenburg from East Prussia to Pillau , to prevent his remains from falling into the hands of the advancing Soviet Army . While undergoing repairs in Kiel , Emden was badly damaged by British bombers and later run aground outside the harbor and was blown up . The wreck was ultimately broken up in 1949 .
= = Design = =
According to Article 181 of the Treaty of Versailles , the treaty that ended World War I , the German Navy was permitted only six light cruisers . Article 190 limited new cruiser designs to 6 @,@ 000 long tons ( 6 @,@ 100 t ) and prohibited new construction until the vessel to be replaced was at least twenty years old . Design work on the first new light cruiser , ordered as " Ersatz Niobe " , began in 1921 . The ship was intended for long @-@ range overseas service , so the designers placed emphasis on a large cruising radius and capacious crew accommodation spaces . The designers wanted to use a main battery of eight 15 @-@ centimeter ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) guns in four dual mounts , but the Allied powers insisted on single gun turrets . This arrangement placed four guns amidships , which reduced the power of her broadside , as only six guns could fire on either side , as opposed to eight .
The ship was based on cruiser designs from late in World War I , primarily due to personnel shortages in the design staff and the closure of the Navy 's experimental institute . Nevertheless , the ship incorporated major advances over the earlier designs , including large @-@ scale use of welding in her construction and a significantly more efficient propulsion system that gave her a cruising radius fifty percent larger than that of the older ships . Emden was laid down at the Reichsmarinewerft in Wilhelmshaven on 8 December 1921 and launched on 7 January 1925 . She was commissioned into the fleet nine months later , on 15 October 1925 .
= = = General characteristics = = =
Emden was 150 @.@ 5 meters ( 494 ft ) long at the waterline and 155 @.@ 1 m ( 509 ft ) long overall . She had a beam of 14 @.@ 2 m ( 47 ft ) and a designed draft of 5 @.@ 3 m ( 17 ft ) ; at standard load , the draft was 5 @.@ 15 m ( 16 @.@ 9 ft ) , and at combat load the draft increased to 5 @.@ 93 m ( 19 @.@ 5 ft ) . Her designed displacement was 5 @,@ 960 long tons ( 6 @,@ 060 t ) , with 5 @,@ 300 long tons ( 5 @,@ 400 t ) standard and 6 @,@ 990 long tons ( 7 @,@ 100 t ) combat displacements . Her hull was constructed with longitudinal steel frames and incorporated seventeen watertight compartments and a double bottom that extended for 56 percent of the length of the keel . She had a waterline armored belt that was 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick ; her armored deck was 20 to 40 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 to 1 @.@ 57 in ) thick , and her conning tower had 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick sides .
The ship had a standard crew of nineteen officers and 464 enlisted men . While serving on cadet training cruises , her crew numbered twenty @-@ nine officers and 445 enlisted , with 162 cadets . After 1940 , her standard crew was increased to twenty @-@ six officers and 556 enlisted , and after being reduced to a training ship , her crew numbered thirty officers and 653 enlisted men . Emden carried six boats . The German Navy regarded the ship as a good sea boat , with slight lee helm and gentle motion in a swell . The cruiser was maneuverable , but was slow going into a turn . Steering was controlled by a single large rudder . She lost speed only slightly in a head sea , but lost up to sixty percent in hard turns . She had a metacentric height of .79 m ( 2 ft 7 in ) .
= = = Machinery = = =
Emden was powered by two sets of Brown , Boverie & Co. geared steam turbines ; they drove a pair of three @-@ bladed screws that were 3 @.@ 75 m ( 12 @.@ 3 ft ) in diameter . Steam was provided by four coal @-@ fired Marine @-@ type boilers and six oil @-@ fired Marine boilers divided into four boiler rooms . The engines were rated at 46 @,@ 500 shaft horsepower ( 34 @,@ 700 kW ) and a top speed of 29 knots ( 54 km / h ; 33 mph ) . On speed trials , her engines reached 45 @,@ 900 shp ( 34 @,@ 200 kW ) and a maximum of 29 @.@ 4 knots ( 54 @.@ 4 km / h ; 33 @.@ 8 mph ) . The ship was designed to carry 300 metric tons ( 295 long tons ) of coal , though additional space could accommodate up to 875 metric tons ( 861 long tons ) . Oil capacity was 200 metric tons ( 197 long tons ) as designed , and up to 1 @,@ 170 metric tons ( 1 @,@ 150 long tons ) in additional fuel bunkers . This gave the ship a cruising radius of 6 @,@ 700 nautical miles ( 12 @,@ 400 km ; 7 @,@ 700 mi ) at 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . At 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) , her range fell to 5 @,@ 200 nmi ( 9 @,@ 600 km ; 6 @,@ 000 mi ) . Electrical power was supplied by two systems of three generators each , with a total combined output of 420 kilowatts ( 560 hp ) at 220 Volts .
= = = Armament = = =
The ship 's main battery was to have been eight 15 cm SK L / 55 guns in twin turrets , but the Allied disarmament authority refused to permit this armament . Instead , she was equipped with existing stocks of 15 cm SK L / 45 guns in single turrets . The guns were C / 16 models ; they fired a 45 kg ( 99 lb ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 835 meters per second ( 2 @,@ 740 ft / s ) . They could elevate to 40 degrees and had a maximum range of 17 @,@ 600 m ( 57 @,@ 700 ft ) . The eight guns were supplied with a total of 960 rounds of ammunition . Emden was also equipped with two 8 @.@ 8 cm SK L / 45 anti @-@ aircraft guns , and a third was later added . These guns had between 900 and 1 @,@ 200 rounds of ammunition in total . As designed , she was to have carried eight deck @-@ mounted 50 cm ( 20 in ) torpedo tubes in dual launchers , but only four tubes were fitted as built . In 1934 , these were replaced with more powerful 53 @.@ 3 cm ( 21 @.@ 0 in ) tubes . The ship carried twelve torpedoes .
In 1938 , the ship 's anti @-@ aircraft battery was strengthened . She received two and later four 3 @.@ 7 cm SK C / 30 guns and up to eighteen 2 cm Flak guns . The capacity to carry 120 mines was also added . In 1942 , two of the four torpedo launchers were removed , and she was rearmed with a new model of 15 cm gun . This gun was the Tbts KC / 36 model , and was designed for use on destroyers . It fired a slightly smaller 40 kg ( 88 lb ) shell at a higher muzzle velocity — 875 m / s ( 2 @,@ 870 ft / s ) . The gun could elevate to 47 degrees for a maximum range of 23 @,@ 500 m ( 77 @,@ 100 ft ) . By 1945 , the ship 's anti @-@ aircraft battery consisted of nine 3 @.@ 7 cm guns and six 2 cm guns .
= = Service history = =
After her commissioning in 1925 , Emden was used as a training ship for naval cadets . She made a series of world cruises to show the flag in the pre @-@ war period and trained large numbers of cadets . In 1925 – 1926 , a series of modifications were made to the ship , including increasing the height of the second funnel and the installation of a flying bridge at the base of the battle mast , which was shortened by 7 m ( 23 ft ) . Lothar von Arnauld de la Perière commanded the ship from September 1928 until October 1930 . In April 1933 , her coal @-@ fired boilers were replaced with more efficient oil @-@ fired boilers . The next year , another series of modifications was made , including reducing the main mast and funnels in height and the installation of a small crane on the starboard side of the main mast . In September 1934 , Karl Dönitz , the future commander of the Kriegsmarine , took command of the ship and remained in the position until September 1935 . Emden went into dock for further modifications in 1936 ; the ship 's masts were again reworked , and the third 8 @.@ 8 cm anti @-@ aircraft gun was added . Leopold Bürkner commanded the Emden from 30 July 1937 to 15 June 1938 .
After the outbreak of World War II in September 1939 , a degaussing coil was installed just above the waterline to protect the ship from magnetic mines . Her first wartime operation saw her participating in laying a minefield off the German coast in the North Sea on 3 September . She conducted the operation with the other light cruisers Nürnberg , Leipzig , Köln , and Königsberg and sixteen destroyers . After laying her first set of mines , she returned to Wilhelmshaven to restock her mines . While moored in the harbor , she was attacked by British bombers on 4 September ; German anti @-@ aircraft gunners shot down four of the five Blenheim bombers , one of which inadvertently crashed into the ship . Twenty @-@ nine men were killed or wounded in the crash .
Emden next participated in the invasion of Norway ( Operation Weserübung ) . She was part of the ill @-@ fated Kriegsschiffgruppe 5 , tasked with seizing Oslo . The group 's flagship , the heavy cruiser Blücher , was sunk by the Oscarsborg coastal fortress inside Oslofjord and the heavy cruiser Lützow was damaged when the squadron attempted to steam up the fjord into Oslo harbor to land troops . After the loss of Blücher , Emden and the heavy cruiser Lützow disembarked their troops further down the fjord . After the ground troops had occupied Oslo , Emden entered the port serving as a joint communications center to coordinate Kriegsmarine , Wehrmacht , and Luftwaffe operations . After the conquest of Norway was complete , Emden returned to Germany and served as a training ship . This lasted until September 1941 .
In September 1941 , Emden was assigned to an operation in the Gulf of Riga to provide gunfire support to German troops . On the 16th , she was operating off Dagö with Leipzig and three torpedo boats ; the ships came under fire from Soviet coastal batteries , but were undamaged . A group of four Soviet torpedo boats also made an unsuccessful attack on the German squadron . Emden was then assigned to the Baltic Fleet , centered on the newly commissioned battleship Tirpitz ; the Baltic Fleet was tasked with preventing the Soviet Navy from breaking out of the Baltic . Emden and Leipzig were the core of the southern group , which was based in Libau . The fleet remained on station only briefly , and by 29 September , the ships were recalled to Gotenhafen .
After returning to Germany , Emden was assigned to training duties once again . She continued in this role until June 1942 , by which time a major overhaul was in order . The refit was completed in Wilhelmshaven , after which Emden returned to training cadets . In September 1944 , she was deployed to Norway , where she served as the flagship of the minelaying forces there . While in Norway , she participated in several minelaying operations through October , when she was transferred to convoy escort duty ; her primary task was to protect convoys in and out of Oslo . This lasted until December , when she ran aground in the Oslofjord off the island of Flateguri . Her guns were removed while repairs were partially effected in the Schichau @-@ Werke . Before departing East Prussia , she took on the remains of Paul von Hindenburg and his wife to carry them to mainland Germany . They had been disinterred to prevent them from falling into the hands of the advancing Soviet Army . The repair work on the ship was not yet completed , and so she was towed to Pillau , where the Hindenburgs ' remains were taken off . Emden 's engines were put back in working order , though she was incapable of reaching top speed , and her guns were reinstalled .
Emden departed Pillau on 1 February , bound for Kiel . She arrived on 7 February 1945 and was taken into the Deutsche Werke dockyard to complete the necessary repairs . British bombers attacked the ship twice and damaged her badly . The ship was listing heavily , and so on 14 April , she was towed out into Heikendorfer Bay and run aground . The Germans then blew her up on 3 May to prevent the Allies from capturing the ship . The wreck was ultimately broken up for scrap in 1949 . Her bow ornament is currently on display in the Deutsches Museum in Munich .
= July 18 , 1998 Albanian – Yugoslav border clashes =
On July 18 , 1998 a Yugoslav Army ( VJ ) border patrol ambushed over 200 Kosovo Liberation Army ( KLA ) insurgents and foreign mujahideen just west of Dečani , on the frontier between Albania and Yugoslavia . The ambush resulted in the deaths of four KLA fighters and 18 mujahideen ( mostly citizens of Saudi Arabia ) . Another six KLA fighters were arrested by the Yugoslav authorities and charged with illegal entry and gunrunning . The VJ reported seizing a significant amount of arms and ammunition that the militants had been smuggling . One Yugoslav border guard was seriously wounded in the clash . According to Israeli historian Shaul Shay , the ambush represented the first clash of the Kosovo War between the VJ and foreign mujahideen . Human Rights Watch advisor Fred C. Abrahams suggests it is possible that the mujahideen were deliberately led into a trap by the KLA as part of a plan to reduce the influence of Islamic extremists within the KLA 's ranks .
Later in the day , 19 KLA fighters were wounded when the VJ shelled an arms smuggling route near the site of the ambush . They were evacuated by Albanian border guards and airlifted to receive treatment in the country 's capital , Tirana . Albanian officials later alleged that two of the mortar rounds fired by Yugoslav troops had landed inside Albania , sparking further tension between the two countries . That afternoon , KLA militants attacked a Yugoslav border patrol , wounding another soldier .
= = Background = =
Following World War II , Kosovo was given the status of an autonomous province within the Socialist Republic of Serbia , one of six constitutional republics of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia . After the death of Yugoslavia 's long @-@ time leader Josip Broz Tito in 1980 , Yugoslavia 's political system began to unravel . In 1989 , Belgrade used a series of political maneuvers known as the " anti @-@ bureaucratic revolution " to revoke Kosovo 's autonomy . Kosovo , a province predominantly inhabited by ethnic Albanians , is of great historical and cultural significance to Serbs , who formed a majority there before the mid @-@ 19th century but by 1990 represented only about ten percent of the population . Alarmed by their dwindling numbers , the province 's Serbs began to fear that they were being " squeezed out " by the Albanians , and ethnic tensions worsened . Once Kosovo 's autonomy was abolished , a minority government run by Serbs and Montenegrins was appointed by Serbian President Slobodan Milošević to oversee the province , enforced by thousands of heavily armed paramilitaries from Serbia @-@ proper . Albanian culture was systematically repressed and hundreds of thousands of Albanians working in state @-@ owned companies lost their jobs . In 1991 – 92 , the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia disintegrated following the secession of former constituent republics Slovenia , Croatia , Macedonia and Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina . In 1992 , amidst the breakup of Yugoslavia and the Yugoslav Wars , the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia , a Serb @-@ controlled federation consisting of Serbia ( including Kosovo ) and Montenegro , was proclaimed .
In 1996 , a group of Albanian nationalists calling themselves the Kosovo Liberation Army ( KLA ) began attacking the Serb @-@ dominated Yugoslav Army ( Serbo @-@ Croatian : Vojska Jugoslavije ; VJ ) and the Serbian Ministry of Internal Affairs ( Serbo @-@ Croatian : Ministarstvo unutrašnjih poslova ; MUP ) in Kosovo . Their goal was to separate the province from the rest of Yugoslavia . At first , the KLA carried out hit @-@ and @-@ run attacks ( 31 in 1996 , 55 in 1997 , and 66 in January and February 1998 alone ) . It gained popularity among young Kosovo Albanians , many of whom rejected the non @-@ violent resistance to Yugoslav authorities advocated by the politician Ibrahim Rugova and favoured a more aggressive approach . The organization received a significant boost in 1997 , when an armed uprising in neighbouring Albania led to thousands of weapons from the Albanian Army 's depots being looted . Many of these weapons ended up in the hands of the KLA , which already had substantial resources due its involvement in the trafficking of drugs , weapons and people , as well as through donations from the Albanian diaspora . Cross @-@ border arms smuggling flourished ; the unit charged with securing the Yugoslav border was the 549th Motorized Brigade , under the command of General Božidar Delić .
The KLA 's popularity skyrocketed after the VJ and MUP attacked the compound of KLA leader Adem Jashari in March 1998 , killing him , his closest associates and most of his family . The attack prompted thousands of young Kosovo Albanians to join the ranks of the KLA , fueling the Kosovar uprising that eventually erupted in the spring of 1998 .
= = Timeline = =
= = = Prelude = = =
In the summer of 1998 , a number of senior U.S. intelligence officials met with the leaders of the KLA , and Central Intelligence Agency ( CIA ) agents arrived in northern Albania to monitor the fighting in Kosovo and assist in training rebel fighters . In exchange for American military , financial and intelligence support , KLA leaders promised not to carry out any actions outside Kosovo , not to continue participating in the drug trade , and not to accept help from Islamic radicals . Thus , the KLA ordered the 36 foreign Islamist fighters ( or mujahideen ) fighting in their ranks to leave Kosovo . Though few Kosovo Albanians sympathized with the Islamists , some argued that the KLA should have accepted assistance from any source , fundamentalist or otherwise . When KLA commanders ordered the mujahideen to leave , they refused , and disagreements arose within the KLA ranks as what was to be done with them .
Serb sources assert that the first mujahideen began arriving in Kosovo in the spring of 1998 , mainly from Bosnia and Herzegovina . By that summer , about 240 mujahideen were present in Kosovo and northern Albania . Most of these were ethnic Albanians , but the group also included several dozen Arabs from the Middle East and North Africa . According to the diary of the ambushed KLA group 's leader , Ali Rabiçi , the mujahideen involved in the July 18 ambush had initially gathered in Munich before taking a ferry from Bari to the Albanian port city of Durrës . Once in Albania , the mujahideen were escorted to the frontier towns of Tropojë and Bajram Curri by their KLA handlers , where they rendezvoused with Rabiçi 's men .
= = = Clashes = = =
In the early morning hours of Saturday , July 18 , 1998 , 24 mujahideen fighters and 200 KLA militants left their base in northern Albania and departed for Kosovo . They were carrying a large quantity of arms and ammunition , which significantly impeded their movement and obliged them to move slowly across the Albanian – Yugoslav frontier . One hypothesis is that they were heading to reinforce KLA fighters battling for the town of Orahovac . At 02 : 00 , the column was ambushed by Yugoslav border guards near Mount Đeravica , about 6 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 7 mi ) from the Albanian border , just west of Dečani . The clashes reportedly lasted until about 07 : 00 . According to Human Rights Watch observer Fred C. Abrahams , a total of 22 militants were killed in the clash ( 18 mujahideen and four KLA ) . Rabiçi was among those killed , and documents recording the KLA and mujahideen 's journey were recovered off his corpse by Yugoslav authorities . Sixteen of the mujahideen were citizens of Saudi Arabia and one was a citizen of Yemen . Six were carrying forged Macedonian passports under ethnic Albanian pseudonyms . According to Israeli historian Shaul Shay , the incident represented the first skirmish between the VJ and foreign mujahideen during the Kosovo War . It is unclear if the ambush came as a result of Yugoslav vigilance or if the KLA deliberately led the mujahideen into a trap with the goal of eliminating them and thus limiting the influence of Islamic extremists within the KLA 's ranks . Survivors told monitors from the Organization for Security and Co @-@ operation in Europe that KLA fighters had led the mujahideen into a trap and fled . A Yugoslav lance corporal was seriously wounded in the exchange .
Most of the surviving militants either retreated to Albania or went into hiding along the border . As they fled , they dropped large quantities of Chinese @-@ made weapons and munitions , which were subsequently seized by Yugoslav authorities . Six militants , all citizens of Albania , were captured . They were charged with illegally crossing the border and gunrunning . Yugoslav officials stated that more than 10 tonnes ( 9 @.@ 8 long tons ; 11 short tons ) of weapons and ammunition , including about 300 rifles , 60 machine guns , ten recoilless guns and a number of mortars had been confiscated . Later that day , the VJ shelled a known arms trafficking route near the site of the ambush , wounding 19 KLA fighters . The militants were rescued by Albanian border guards and airlifted by helicopter to receive treatment in a Tirana hospital . At 13 : 30 , two militants opened fire on a Yugoslav border patrol within 300 metres ( 980 ft ) of the Albanian frontier . The border patrol returned fire , and the militants fled to Albania . One Yugoslav soldier was slightly wounded .
= = Aftermath = =
Tim Judah , a journalist specializing in the Balkans , described the ambush as a " catastrophic disaster " for the KLA . Albania 's deputy Minister of Interior Affairs , Ilir Çano , claimed two Yugoslav mortars had landed inside Albania . " These ... incidents could have very dangerous consequences , " he warned . Albanian officials indicated that the mortars did not cause any injuries . Albania lodged a formal protest and demanded an explanation from the Yugoslav authorities . Yugoslav officials denied shelling the border and accused the Albanian authorities of turning a blind eye to KLA arms smuggling in northern Albania . Albanian Foreign Minister Paskal Milo stated that Albania " expresses its fraternal solidarity and supports the just struggle of Albanians in Kosovo . " The Albanian Government released a statement describing the ambush as a " Serb provocation " and calling on the international community to " stop , by any means , the fascist aggression Belgrade is inflicting on the Albanian population of Kosovo . " In turn , Yugoslav officials accused Albania of sending 300 soldiers to fight alongside the KLA in Kosovo , citing the testimony of captured KLA personnel . Albanian officials denied having troops in the province .
The United States warned Yugoslavia not to shell Albanian territory . State Department spokesman James Rubin told reporters that the alleged shelling was likely an attempt to prevent the insurgents from re @-@ entering Kosovo . " If true , the shelling represents an unacceptable violation of Albanian territory . " He continued . " Belgrade must understand that such shelling runs the risk of further escalating the current conflict . " Rubin said that the U.S. was opposed to the creation of a pan @-@ Albanian state , and emphasized that calls for its establishment were a " very dangerous development that could affect the stability of the region . " Russian officials accused KLA fighters of stoking the clashes , and called for peace talks between the militants and Yugoslav authorities . On July 19 , Albanian officials requested that Greece — an important trading partner for Albania and traditional ally of Serbia — mediate to end the fighting . Greek Foreign Minister Theodoros Pangalos issued a condemnation , saying " these senseless acts of violence must stop . " The European Union condemned the militant incursion , as well as the alleged cross @-@ border shelling .
= = = Endnotes = = =
= Rebecca Clarke ( composer ) =
Rebecca Clarke ( 27 August 1886 – 13 October 1979 ) was an English classical composer and violist best known for her chamber music featuring the viola . She was born in Harrow and studied at the Royal Academy of Music and Royal College of Music in London , later becoming one of the first female professional orchestral players . Stranded in the United States at the outbreak of World War II , she settled permanently in New York City and married composer and pianist James Friskin in 1944 . Clarke died at her home in New York at the age of 93 .
Although Clarke wrote little , due in part to her ideas about the role of a female composer , her work was recognised for its compositional skill . Most of her works have yet to be published ( or have only recently been published ) , and were largely forgotten after she stopped composing . Scholarship and interest in her compositions revived in 1976 . The Rebecca Clarke Society was established in 2000 to promote the study and performance of her music .
= = Early life = =
Clarke was born in Harrow , England , to Joseph Thacher Clarke , an American , and his German wife , Agnes Paulina Marie Amalie Helferich . Her father was interested in music , and had her take up the violin at age nine . She began her studies at the Royal Academy of Music in 1903 , but was withdrawn by her father in 1905 after teacher Percy Hilder Miles proposed to her ( he later left her his Stradivarius violin in his will ) . She made the first of many visits to the United States shortly after leaving the Royal Academy . She then attended the Royal College of Music from 1907 to 1910 , becoming one of Sir Charles Villiers Stanford 's first female composition students . At Stanford 's urging she shifted her focus from the violin to the viola , just as the latter was coming to be seen as a legitimate solo instrument . She studied with Lionel Tertis , who was considered by some the greatest violist of the day . In 1910 she composed a setting of Chinese poetry , called " Tears " , in collaboration with a group of fellow students at RCM . She also sang under the direction of Ralph Vaughan Williams in a student ensemble organized by Clarke to study and perform Palestrina 's music .
Following her criticism of his extra @-@ marital affairs , Clarke 's father turned her out of the house and cut off her funds . She had to leave the Royal College in 1910 and supported herself through her viola playing . Clarke became one of the first female professional orchestral musicians when she was selected by Sir Henry Wood to play in the Queen 's Hall Orchestra in 1912 . In 1916 she moved to the United States to continue her performing career . A short , lyrical piece for viola and piano entitled Morpheus , composed under the pseudonym of " Anthony Trent " , was premiered at her 1918 joint recital with cellist May Muklé in New York City . Reviewers praised the " Trent " , largely ignoring the works credited to Clarke premiered in the same recital . Her compositional career peaked in a brief period , beginning with the viola sonata she entered in a 1919 competition sponsored by Elizabeth Sprague Coolidge , Clarke 's neighbour and a patron of the arts . In a field of 72 entrants , Clarke 's sonata tied for first place with a composition by Ernest Bloch . Coolidge later declared Bloch the winner . Reporters speculated that " Rebecca Clarke " was only a pseudonym for Bloch himself , or at least that it could not have been Clarke who wrote these pieces , as the idea that a woman could write such a work was socially inconceivable . The sonata was well received and had its first performance at the Berkshire music festival in 1919 . In 1921 Clarke again made an impressive showing in Coolidge 's composition competition with her piano trio , though again failed to take the prize . A 1923 rhapsody for cello and piano followed , sponsored by Coolidge , making Clarke the only female recipient of Coolidge 's patronage . These three works represent the height of Clarke 's compositional career .
= = Later life and marriage = =
Clarke , in 1924 , embarked upon a career as a solo and ensemble performer in London , after first completing a world tour in 1922 – 23 . In 1927 she helped form the English Ensemble , a piano quartet that included herself , Marjorie Hayward , Kathleen Long and May Mukle . She also performed on several recordings in the 1920s and 1930s , and participated in BBC music broadcasts . Her compositional output greatly decreased during this period . However , she continued to perform , participating in the Paris Colonial Exhibition in 1931 as part of the English Ensemble . Between 1927 and 1933 she was romantically involved with the British baritone , John Goss , who was eight years her junior and married at the time . He had premiered several of her mature songs , two of which were dedicated to him , " June Twilight " and " The Seal Man " . Her " Tiger , Tiger " , finished at the time the relationship was ending , proved to be her last composition for solo voice until the early 1940s .
At the outbreak of World War II , Clarke was in the US visiting her two brothers , and was unable to obtain a visa to return to Britain . She lived for a while with her brothers ' families and then in 1942 took a position as a governess for a family in Connecticut . She composed 10 works between 1939 and 1942 , including her Passacaglia on an Old English Tune . She had first met her husband , James Friskin ( a composer , concert pianist and founding member of the Juilliard School faculty ) , when they were both students at the Royal College of Music . They renewed their friendship after a chance meeting on a Manhattan street in 1944 and married in September of that year when both were in their late 50s . According to musicologist Liane Curtis , Friskin was " a man who gave [ Clarke ] a sense of deep satisfaction and equilibrium . "
Clarke has been described by Stephen Banfield as the most distinguished British female composer of the inter @-@ war generation . However , her later output was sporadic . She suffered from dysthymia , a chronic form of depression ; the lack of encouragement — sometimes outright discouragement — she received for her work also made her reluctant to compose . Clarke did not consider herself able to balance her personal life and the demands of composition : " I can 't do it unless it 's the first thing I think of every morning when I wake and the last thing I think of every night before I go to sleep . " After her marriage , she stopped composing , despite the encouragement of her husband , although she continued working on arrangements until shortly before her death . She also stopped performing .
Clarke sold the Stradivarius she had been bequeathed , and established the May Muklé prize at the Royal Academy . The prize is still awarded annually to an outstanding cellist . After her husband 's death in 1967 , Clarke began writing a memoir , entitled I Had a Father Too ( or the Mustard Spoon ) ; it was completed in 1973 but never published . In it she describes her early life , marked by frequent beatings from her father and strained family relations which affected her perceptions of her proper place in life . Clarke died in 1979 at her home in New York City at the age of 93 , and was cremated .
= = Music = =
A large portion of Clarke 's music features the viola , as she was a professional performer for many years . Much of her output was written for herself and the all @-@ female chamber ensembles she played in , including the Norah Clench Quartet , the English Ensemble , and the d 'Aranyi Sisters . She also toured worldwide , particularly with cellist May Muklé . Her works were strongly influenced by several trends in 20th century classical music . Clarke also knew many leading composers of the day , including Bloch and Ravel , with whom her work has been compared .
The impressionism of Debussy is often mentioned in connection with Clarke 's work , particularly its lush textures and modernistic harmonies . The Viola Sonata ( published in the same year as the Bloch and the Hindemith Viola Sonata ) is an example of this , with its pentatonic opening theme , thick harmonies , emotionally intense nature , and dense , rhythmically complex texture . The Sonata remains a part of standard repertoire for the viola . Morpheus , composed a year earlier , was her first expansive work , after over a decade of songs and miniatures . The Rhapsody that Coolidge sponsored is Clarke 's most ambitious work : it is roughly 23 minutes long , with complex musical ideas and ambiguous tonalities contributing to the varying moods of the piece . In contrast , " Midsummer Moon " , written the following year , is a light miniature , with a flutter @-@ like solo violin line .
In addition to her chamber music for strings , Clarke wrote many songs . Nearly all of Clarke 's early pieces are for solo voice and piano . Her 1933 " Tiger , Tiger " , a setting of Blake 's poem " The Tyger " , is dark and brooding , almost expressionist . She worked on it for five years to the exclusion of other works during her tumultuous relationship with John Goss and revised it in 1972 . Most of her songs , however , are lighter in nature . Her earliest works were parlour songs , and she went on to build up a body of work drawn primarily from classic texts by Yeats , Masefield , and A.E. Housman .
During 1939 to 1942 , the last prolific period near the end of her compositional career , her style became more clear and contrapuntal , with emphasis on motivic elements and tonal structures , the hallmarks of neoclassicism . Dumka ( 1941 ) , a recently published work for violin , viola , and piano , reflects the Eastern European folk styles of Bartók and Martinů . The " Passacaglia on an Old English Tune " , also from 1941 and premiered by Clarke herself , is based on a theme attributed to Thomas Tallis which appears throughout the work . The piece is modal in flavor , mainly in the Dorian mode but venturing into the seldom @-@ heard Phrygian mode . The piece is dedicated to " BB " , ostensibly Clarke 's niece Magdalen ; scholars speculate that the dedication is more likely referring to Benjamin Britten , who organised a concert commemorating the death of Clarke 's friend and major influence Frank Bridge . The Prelude , Allegro , and Pastorale , also composed in 1941 , is another neoclassically @-@ influenced piece , written for clarinet and viola ( originally for her brother and sister @-@ in @-@ law ) .
Clarke composed no large scale works such as symphonies . Her total output of compositions comprises 52 songs , 11 choral works , 21 chamber pieces , the Piano Trio , and the Viola Sonata . Her work was all but forgotten for a long period of time , but interest in it was revived in 1976 following a radio broadcast in celebration of her ninetieth birthday . Over half of Clarke 's compositions remain unpublished and in the personal possession of her heirs , along with most of her writings . However , in the early 2000s more of her works were printed and recorded . Examples of recent publications include two string quartets and Morpheus , published in 2002 .
Modern reception of Clarke 's work has been generally positive . A 1981 review of her Viola Sonata called it a " thoughtful , well constructed piece " from a relatively obscure composer ; a 1985 review noted its " emotional intensity and use of dark tone colours " . Andrew Achenbach , in his review of a Helen Callus recording of several Clarke works , referred to Morpheus as " striking " and " languorous " . Laurence Vittes noted that Clarke 's " Lullaby " was " exceedingly sweet and tender " . A 1987 review concluded that " it seems astonishing that such splendidly written and deeply moving music should have lain in obscurity all these years " .
The Viola Sonata was the subject of BBC Radio 3 's Building a Library survey on 17 October 2015 . The top recommendation , chosen by Helen Wallace , was by Tabea Zimmermann ( viola ) and Kirill Gerstein ( piano ) .
= = Rebecca Clarke Society = =
The Rebecca Clarke Society was established in September 2000 to promote performance , scholarship , and awareness of the works of Rebecca Clarke . Founded by musicologists Liane Curtis and Jessie Ann Owens and based in the Women 's Studies Research Center at Brandeis University , the Society has promoted recording and scholarship of Clarke 's work , including several world premiere performances , recordings of unpublished material , and numerous journal publications .
The Society made available previously unpublished compositions from Clarke 's estate . " Binnorie " , a twelve @-@ minute song based on Celtic folklore , was discovered in 1997 , and not premiered until 2001 . Over 25 previously unknown works have been published since the establishment of the Society . Several of Clarke 's chamber works , including the expansive Rhapsody for cello and piano , and Cortège , her only piano work , were first recorded in 2000 on the Dutton label , using material from the Clarke estate . In 2002 , the Society organised and sponsored the world premieres of the 1907 and 1909 violin sonatas .
The head of the Rebecca Clarke Society , Liane Curtis , is the editor of A Rebecca Clarke Reader , originally published by Indiana University Press in 2004 . The book was withdrawn from circulation by the publisher following complaints from the current manager of Clarke 's estate about the quotation of unpublished examples from Clarke 's writings . However , the Reader has since been reissued by the Rebecca Clarke Society itself .
= = Selected works = =
For a complete listing , see List of compositions by Rebecca Clarke .
Chamber music
2 Pieces : Lullaby and Grotesque for viola ( or violin ) and cello ( ca . 1916 )
Morpheus for viola and piano ( 1917 – 1918 )
Sonata for viola ( or cello ) and piano ( 1919 )
Piano Trio ( 1921 )
Rhapsody for cello and piano ( 1923 )
Passacaglia on an Old English Tune for viola ( or cello ) and piano ( ? 1940 – 1941 )
Prelude , Allegro and Pastorale for viola and clarinet ( 1941 )
Vocal
Shiv and the Grasshopper for voice and piano ( 1904 ) ; words from The Jungle Book by Rudyard Kipling
Shy One for voice and piano ( 1912 ) ; words by William Butler Yeats
He That Dwelleth in the Secret Place ( Psalm 91 ) for soloists and mixed chorus ( 1921 )
The Seal Man for voice and piano ( 1922 ) ; words by John Masefield
The Aspidistra for voice and piano ( 1929 ) ; words by Claude Flight
The Tiger for voice and piano ( 1929 – 1933 ) ; words by William Blake
God Made a Tree for voice and piano ( 1954 ) ; words by Katherine Kendall
Choral
Music , When Soft Voices Die for mixed chorus ( 1907 ) ; words by Percy Bysshe Shelley
= 2007 24 Hours of Le Mans =
The 2007 24 Hours of Le Mans was the 75th Grand Prix of Endurance , and took place at the Circuit de la Sarthe , Le Mans , France from 16 – 17 June 2007 . Four classes of cars raced together , with each class having honors for its highest finishers . The faster LMP1 and LMP2 classes were for custom @-@ built Le Mans Prototypes ( LMP ) , and the slower GT1 and GT2 classes were for modified grand tourer ( GT ) road cars .
The LMP1 class saw the first competition between the new diesel engined Peugeot 908 HDi FAP prototype and the diesel Audi R10 TDI , the 2006 Le Mans winner ; the Audi once again achieved an overall victory . There was heavy attrition in the LMP2 class , in which only two competitors finished the race . In the GT1 class , Aston Martin achieved its first win over the Corvette since returning to the event in 2005 . The GT2 class was a battle between Ferrari and Porsche , won by Porsche . The race was attended by over 250 @,@ 000 spectators .
= = Track changes = =
Between the 2006 and 2007 races , the Circuit de la Sarthe was upgraded , most obviously by the reprofiling of the Tertre Rouge corner . The new corner was moved inward , to create a long flowing curve instead of the single point apex it had been previously , shortening the lap distance by 21 meters to a revised 13 @.@ 629 km . A new pedestrian tunnel – below the Mulsanne Straight , immediately after Tertre Rouge – was also built . The work had been planned to be carried out before the 2006 event , but it was delayed because of budgetary concerns .
Nine new garages were built at the end of the pit lane , replacing the four temporary garages that had been built a few years earlier . The additional garages allowed the ACO to increase the number of entries it could grant from 50 to 55 . The paddock behind the garages was also re @-@ organized with more facilities added for spectators , including more shops , new landscaping , and the Audi Tower monument .
The public roads from the Indianapolis corner to the Porsche Curves were re @-@ surfaced . Run @-@ off areas at the Dunlop Chicane , Tertre Rouge , Indianapolis , and Ford Chicanes were also partially asphalted in order to avoid gravel being brought back onto the circuit by cars which had gone off course . This also increased safety by allowing the cars to slow themselves more efficiently using their brakes and tyres on tarmac .
= = Rule changes = =
Several months before the event , the ACO announced rule changes for all Le Mans @-@ based series ( American Le Mans Series , Le Mans Series , and Japan Le Mans Challenge ) , effective in 2007 for all four classes :
LMP1s with diesel engines had their fuel tank capacity decreased from 90 litres to 81 litres . LMP1s with petrol engines kept their 90 litre tanks .
LMP2 , GT1 , and GT2 class cars had to be fitted with 5 % smaller air restrictors than they had run in 2006 , in order to decrease power .
GT1 and GT2 classes were allowed to run ethanol and other alternative fuels if approved by the ACO .
The International Motor Sports Association ( IMSA ) initially decided to not abide by the LMP2 restrictor change for the American Le Mans Series , although that decision was reversed following Le Mans . SERO decided not to fully conform to the new ACO regulations in the Japan Le Mans Challenge until 2008 .
The ACO also announced rule changes specific to Le Mans :
The number of invited entries was increased from 50 to 55 , with this number to be increased in subsequent years .
All entries had to run Shell fuel in either diesel or petrol form .
The temperature inside closed @-@ cockpit cars was not to exceed 32 ° C in cars with air conditioning or 10 ° C above the ambient air temperature in cars without . The ACO would monitor cockpit temperature , and stop any car in which those limits were exceeded .
Noise level regulation was revised : the noise emitted from the car had to be less than 113 dB ( measurement taken at 15 meters from the edge of the track ) .
Older LMP900 and LMP675 class prototypes were not allowed to be entered . Only newer LMP1 and LMP2 class cars were allowed to compete .
It was also decided that the race would start at 3 : 00 pm local time , one hour earlier than the normal 4 : 00 pm , to allow French spectators more time to vote in the 17 June French legislative election .
= = Entries = =
= = = Automatic invitations = = =
Teams earned automatic invitations to the event from the ACO for winning certain races and championships in their respective classes . Teams were limited to no more than two entries . If a team had already earned its two entries , additional invitations were extended to the next best @-@ performing competitor . Cars running outside of the ACO 's rules were also skipped and the invitation given to the next competitor .
On 13 December 2006 , the ACO released its official list of automatic entries from the multiple Le Mans backed series and races . On 22 December , the ACO announced that it would add four more automatic entries , this time chosen from the 2006 FIA GT Championship season 's team champions and runners @-@ up in each class , as part of an agreement between the ACO and FIA GT 's SRO organisation .
All other teams had to apply to the ACO for an invitation . The ACO then decided on the remainder of the entry list based on each team 's recent performances , as well as its originality in chassis and engine design .
= = = = List of automatic entries = = = =
On 19 January 2007 , the ACO announced that 24 of the 28 teams had accepted their automatic entries before the deadline . Penske Racing turned down both of its invitations , and Ray Mallock , Ltd. rejected its second entry because of a lack of funding . Vitaphone Racing Team rejected its invitation because its Maserati MC12 did not comply with the ACO 's GT1 rules , although the team later attempted to gain entry in another class through application .
= = = Official entry list = = =
On 27 February 2007 , the ACO published the official entry list , which included the full 55 entries and 8 reserves .
Although drivers were not listed , Tom Kristensen 's injury in the opening round of the 2007 Deutsche Tourenwagen Masters season made his participation in the race questionable . As the driver with the most wins at Le Mans , he was intended to be part of Audi 's factory team . Fellow Audi DTM driver Mattias Ekström was nominated as his possible replacement by Audi . However , on 11 June 2007 Kristensen was cleared by doctors to race , leaving Ekström 's services unneeded .
= = = = Reserve entries = = = =
A total of eight reserve entries were listed by the ACO in its initial published list . Reserves were added to the entry list when a competitor already on the list withdrew . The ACO determined the order in which reserve entries were considered for addition to the entry list .
Two cars officially withdrew from the entry list in April , with their places taken by the following reserve entries :
On 3 April 2007 , Rollcentre Racing announced that its LMP2 Radical @-@ Judd entry had been withdrawn due to the car being purchased by Embassy Racing . The PSI Experience Chevrolet Corvette C6.R took its place on the entry list .
On 11 April 2007 , Petersen / White Lightning announced that its GT2 Ferrari entry had withdrawn due to financial strain for the team , leaving it to concentrate solely on the American Le Mans Series . The G.P.C. Sport Ferrari F430 took its place on the entry list .
JMB Racing also withdrew its entry from the reserve list due to its drivers reaching an agreement with AF Corse to run in its entry instead .
= = Test session = =
The official test session for Le Mans was held on 3 June , and was the only practice session that was not part of qualifying timing . A total of eight hours of track time was allowed for teams to find their set @-@ ups and for rookie drivers to get in their required ten laps to learn the circuit .
The sessions were led by Sébastien Bourdais , with his Peugeot 908 HDi FAP setting a lap time of 3 : 26 @.@ 707 , a second and a half ahead of two trailing Audis . Pescarolo Sport had the fastest gasoline @-@ powered car in fourth . In the LMP2 class , the pair of Barazi @-@ Epsilon entries led with identical times of 3 : 39 @.@ 016 ; ASM Team Racing for Portugal trailed the pair in class .
In GT1 , the No. 63 Corvette recorded the fastest time of the day with a 3 : 49 @.@ 207 , followed by the No. 007 Aston Martin and the second factory Corvette . GT2 was dominated by Porsche , with the top three positions being taken by the new 997s . IMSA Performance Matmut led with a 4 : 01 @.@ 598 , while Autorlando and Flying Lizard followed behind . The Risi Competizione entry was the fastest Ferrari , in fourth place .
Although there were various small incidents , three major accidents led to a red flag for the session . The No. 13 Courage Compétition entry , driven by Guillaume Moreau , went off at the Porsche Curves during the second hour . The car could not return to the test session due a bent chassis caused by the heavy impact . The second red flag involved the No. 24 Noël del Bello entry going off the track at the same location in the hands of Vitaly Petrov , becoming briefly airborne after contact with the concrete wall . In the final incident , almost in the last hour of the session , the No. 10 Arena Motorsports Zytek also went off at the Porsche Curves , and briefly caught fire .
The damage to the Arena Zytek led to the car being withdrawn during scrutineering a week and a half later , just before the actual race . The team decided that it was not able to repair the damage in time for the car to pass scrutineering .
= = Qualifying = =
Qualifying was held on 13 – 14 June , with two two @-@ hour sessions each night ; one run at dusk , the other in darkness . New drivers were again required to run a set number of laps to learn the circuit and be allowed to race : three in daylight and three at night . The best overall time from all four sessions determined the starting grid .
= = = Wednesday = = =
The first qualifying session began under the threat of rain , so most of the teams tried to set a good lap time before the conditions deteriorated . The Audis and Peugeots swapped the overall pole position several times , and at the end of the session the No. 1 Audi was fastest overall with a time of 3 @.@ 28 @.@ 301 . The No. 33 Barazi @-@ Epsilon Zytek led LMP2 , after an earlier misfiring problem had been repaired . Oreca 's Saleens were the fastest two GT1 cars , while Ferrari and Porsche were close to one another in GT2 . The session was red flagged about halfway through because of an accident in which the No. 53 JLOC Lamborghini Murciélago , driven by Marco Apicella , hit the wall at the first Mulsanne chicane . The No. 25 Ray Mallock Ltd . Lola and No. 81 LNT Panoz were the only cars not to set a lap time before the session briefly returned to green as rain began . The ACO extended the session by fifteen minutes to compensate for the earlier red flag .
The second session started several minutes late due to the damp conditions from the earlier rain . A red flag briefly came out for the No. 5 Swiss Spirit Lola a few minutes after the session began due to the car being stopped at the side of the track . Although the track was drying , it was not until the last half hour that teams were able to improve on their first session times . The No. 2 Audi and No. 8 Peugeot swapped the pole position multiple times before the session ended with the No. 8 Peugeot claiming the top position on the final lap of the session with a time of 3 : 26 @.@ 344 . In GT1 the No. 008 Larbre Aston Martin took the class lead on the final lap with a 3 : 50 @.@ 761 . The LMP2 and GT2 classes saw very little improvement ; the class leading teams remained the same .
It was later announced by the ACO that JLOC Isao Noritake would be allowed to use another Lamborghini Murciélago R @-@ GT chassis , borrowed from the French DAMS team , but Marco Apicella was not allowed to drive in the race due to the head injuries he sustained in his accident during qualifying , leaving the team with two drivers .
= = = Thursday = = =
The first session on Thursday began in heavy rain . Although some cars attempted to carry out wet weather testing , the conditions forced all the teams back to their garages . Once the rain began to slacken off cars returned to the track , but the rain continued throughout the entire session . No one was able to improve on their qualifying times from the previous day .
The rain continued throughout the second session , so most teams concentrated on their wet weather setups in preparation for a wet race . About halfway through the session the No. 7 Peugeot in the hands of Marc Gené missed the turn at Arnage and hit a tire barrier . The car was unable to return to the pits and was taken behind the wall by the marshals . This was soon followed by the No. 73 Luc Alphand Corvette missing the same turn as well , but it continued on without significant damage . The No. 70 PSI Corvette had a minor accident in the last five minutes of the session , bringing out the only red flag of the day and ending all of qualifying .
Audi led the wet sessions with a 4 : 01 @.@ 257 time for the No. 1 car , followed by the No. 3 Audi and No. 8 Peugeot within a second . No. 33 Barazi @-@ Epsilon again led the times for the second day in LMP2 , while the No. 54 Oreca Saleen continued to show strong pace with the fastest time in GT1 . The No. 93 Autorlando Sport Porsche was the fastest GT2 class entry in the rain .
= = = Qualifying times = = =
Class leaders and the fastest lap time on each day are in bold . No cars set a faster time on the second day .
= = Race = =
= = = Start = = =
The race began at 3 : 00 pm local time ( GMT + 1 ) , with the track still damp following a wet morning warm @-@ up . Sébastien Bourdais 's Peugeot 908 HDi FAP led the field into the Dunlop Chicane , which he overshot , handing the lead to the No. 2 Audi R10 TDI . The three Audis took over the lead during the opening hour , before pit stops began .
The rebuilt Lamborghini of JLOC Isao Noritake was the first retirement of the race when the gearbox failed on the Mulsanne during its second lap of the race . Shortly after the first hour of the race had been completed , heavy rain resulted in the safety car being brought out again .
Soon after the field was released , the safety car was once again required after an accident in which Mike Rockenfeller spun his No. 3 Audi R10 TDI on the exit from Tertre Rouge , hitting the safety barriers on the Mulsannes Straight backwards . While crews fixed the barrier , Rockenfeller attempted to repair his Audi , but he was finally forced to retire . This caution period also saw an early retirement for the No. 64 Corvette when a part of its drivetrain broke while following the safety car . Oliver Gavin attempted to return to the pits using battery power but was stopped by the marshals , forcing him to abandon the car . The race eventually continued after nearly an hour under caution .
= = = Night = = =
As dusk began to fall on the drying track , the No. 8 Peugeot suffered from rear wheel hub failures which required two lengthy visits to the garage .
This allowed the No. 1 Audi to take over second place . Jacques Villeneuve 's No. 7 Peugeot also lost time , which dropped it to two laps behind the No. 2 Audi . The No. 1 Audi had its own brief moment when the No. 63 Corvette clipped the Audi 's rear end . The Corvette was forced to take evasive action through the Dunlop Chicane 's gravel trap , and the Audi required replacement rear bodywork on its next pit stop .
A third safety car period was caused by the Creation Autosportif entry , which ran into the tire barriers at the Porsche Curves and needed to be extracted . The Creation returned to the pits but eventually retired . The Kruse Motorsport entry also suffered problems when it briefly stopped at the pit entrance during the caution period , blocking other cars attempting to make their own pit stops . The Kruse entry eventually succeeded in getting to its garage .
As the night continued and the race neared its halfway point , many cars suffered mechanical failures , putting them out of the race . They included a large number of the LMP2 class cars such as Team ASM and Ray Mallock Ltd . , both of which had led the class at one point . In GT1 , the two factory Aston Martins led the lone remaining factory Corvette by one lap , while the No. 97 Risi Competizione Ferrari had a two @-@ lap lead in the GT2 class .
= = = Morning = = =
In the early hours , fluids were spilled on the track by the leader in GT2 , the Risi Competizione Ferrari . This caused numerous competitors to spin , and required the Ferrari to undergo major front @-@ end repairs , resulting in the car falling several laps behind .
The biggest problem of the morning though occurred shortly before the completion of the 17th hour , when the race @-@ leading No. 2 Audi of Rinaldo Capello lost a left rear wheel at high speed at the Indianapolis corner . Unable to control the car he went straight on into a tire barrier . Although Capello attempted to get the car back to the pits , it was too badly damaged to be drivable . Television footage had recorded the No. 2 Audi being dropped off its airjacks before the left rear wheel was attached on the prior pit stop , but Audi claimed that this was likely not the cause of the wheel coming off at speed .
With two Audis out , this left the lone No. 1 Audi to take over the race lead , with the two Peugeots four and six laps behind respectively . Just before to the No. 2 Audi 's accident , the GT1 @-@ leading Aston Martin had also come off the track , damaging its front splitter . The necessary repairs led to the car spending eight minutes in the garage , dropping it to fourth in class . The lone factory Corvette gained a place to take over second in class . Scuderia Ecosse 's Ferrari briefly took over the GT2 lead after Risi 's problems , but it too broke down on the track , handing the lead to the IMSA Performance Matmut Porsche . Binnie Motorsport 's entry had a sizable lead in its class , having not suffered the many problems its LMP2 competitors had .
= = = Finish = = =
After having held off for most of the race , the rain began to fall once more during the final three hours . This caused numerous incidents , including the No. 93 Autorlando Porsche missing a Mulsanne chicane and plowing through a temporary tire barrier . The No. 7 Peugeot made an unscheduled garage stop and retired one lap after re @-@ entering the race , claiming oil pressure problems .
The rain eventually became heavier , making the conditions treacherous and bringing the safety car back out . This put a temporary stop to the battle between Aston Martin and Corvette for first and second place in the GT1 class . The second place Corvette had been quicker in the wet conditions , but it was not allowed to further close on the Aston Martin during the safety period . After problems for both of the Barazi @-@ Epsilon LMP2s , Binnie Motorsports brought its class leading LMP2 car to the garage to ensure that the car was prepared for the weather and could hold on to the lead until the finish .
After over an hour behind the safety car , the field was released to race one last time with only twelve minutes remaining . With no close contests between the competitors , the field continued to run at less than racing pace , in preparation for the finish . The No. 8 Peugeot of Sébastien Bourdais briefly went into the pits , before returning to the track . To ensure that the Peugeot finished the race , and did not break down before crossing the finishing line behind the winner , Bourdais stopped at the Ford Chicanes on the final lap . Once the No. 1 Audi had gone past to take the checkered flag , Bourdais restarted the Peugeot and finished as well . The No. 16 Pescarolo finished the race in third , the highest placed petrol car .
The No. 009 Aston Martin took the GT1 class win by a single lap over the Corvette , earning Aston Martin its first victory since its overall win in 1959 . The No. 76 IMSA Performance Matmut Porsche was the GT2 winner , with a six lap margin of victory . Only two cars finished in the LMP2 class . The No. 31 Binnie Motorsports Lola took the victory in spite of finishing 18th overall . Of the 54 starters , only 29 cars finished the race . The GT1 class cars proved themselves to be the most reliable , losing only two competitors over the 24 hours .
= = = Official results = = =
Class winners are marked in bold . Cars finishing the race but not completing 75 % of the winner 's distance are listed as Not Classified ( NC ) .
= = = = Statistics = = = =
Fastest Lap – No. 2 Audi Sport North America – 3 : 27 @.@ 176
Distance – 5029 @.@ 101 km
Average Speed – 209 @.@ 152 km / h
Highest Trap Speed – qualifying : Audi R10 TDI – 344 km / h , race : Audi R10 TDI and Peugeot 908 HDi – 351 km / h
= Action of 24 March 1811 =
The Action of 24 March 1811 was a minor naval engagement of the Napoleonic Wars , fought as part of the Royal Navy blockade of the French English Channel ports . By 1811 , Royal Navy control of the French coast was so entrenched that French ships were unable to travel safely even in French territorial waters . In late 1810 , French frigates Elisa and Amazone sailed from Le Havre to join with a larger squadron at Cherbourg , but were intercepted by a British frigate squadron and forced to shelter at Saint @-@ Vaast @-@ la @-@ Hougue . There they came under sustained attack and Elisa was destroyed , Amazone successfully slipping back to Le Havre under cover of darkness . To prevent Amazone from escaping once more , the British blockade squadron was reinforced .
On the evening of 23 March 1811 , Amazone left Le Havre once more , sailing west towards Cherbourg through the night . Escaping the ships watching Le Havre , Amazone was sighted at dawn on 24 March weathering Cape Barfleur by ship of the line HMS Berwick , which pursued the French frigate into a bay 1 nautical mile ( 1 @.@ 9 km ) west of the Phare de Gatteville lighthouse . There Berwick , reinforced by a squadron of smaller ships , attacked Amazone but was unable to approach through the rocks and shoals of the coast . Plans were made overnight to attack the frigate with ship 's boats , but on the following day the French Captain Bernard @-@ Louis Rosseau set his ship on fire to prevent its capture .
= = Action = =
By the autumn of 1810 the Napoleonic Wars had lasted for seven years and the French Navy , over the course of the conflict , had been successively driven from the Atlantic until every French port was watched by a Royal Navy close blockade , ready to attack any French ship which emerged from harbour . In 1809 , the main French fleet at Brest had attempted to break out into open water , only to be driven back and defeated at the Battle of Basque Roads . Much of the French effort at sea subsequently fell on commerce raiders , including privateers and frigate squadrons , often operating from smaller harbours such as those on the Northern coast of France in the English Channel . The two principal raiding ports were Cherbourg and Le Havre in Normandy , each of which maintained squadrons . In 1810 , Cherbourg 's anchorage held two ships of the line and a large , newly built frigate Iphigénie , while the frigates Elisa and Amazone were stationed at Le Havre .
Both ports were watched closely by a blockade squadron detached from the Channel Fleet , including ships of the line off Cherbourg and two frigates , HMS Diana and HMS Niobe , off Le Havre . On 12 November 1810 Elisa and Amazone attempted to break out of Le Havre and join with the squadron at Cherbourg , slipping past the blockade in the darkness . Spotted in the early hours of 13 November , the frigates managed to anchor at the well @-@ defended harbour of Saint @-@ Vaast @-@ la @-@ Hougue , where on 15 November they were attacked by the combined blockade forces from Cherbourg and Le Havre . Although the attack was beaten back , Elisa was too badly damaged to continue the mission and on 27 November Amazone successfully returned to Le Havre without encountering the British forces . Elisa was subsequently driven onshore and destroyed by the British squadron .
= = = Amazone 's journey = = =
Amazone , commanded by Captain Bernard @-@ Louis Rosseau , attempted to sail to Cherbourg again on 23 March 1811 . On this occasion Rosseau successfully evaded the blockade of Le Havre and by dawn on 24 March was weathering the point of Cape Barfleur . As the frigate passed the Phare de Gatteville lighthouse , only a few miles from her destination , she was spotted by a British ship of the line recently sailed from the British fleet anchorage at St Helens , the 74 @-@ gun HMS Berwick under Captain James Macnamara , then sailing approximately 12 nautical miles ( 22 km ) offshore . Macnamara took Berwick in pursuit , seeking to cut off Rosseau 's advance , and the French captain managed to evade Berwick by taking shelter in a small bay 1 nautical mile ( 1 @.@ 9 km ) west of the lighthouse .
Navigation through the rocks of the bay had been difficult , and as she entered the bay Amazone 's rudder had been torn away , rendering the ship unmanoeuverable . With Amazone trapped , Macnamara called up the rest of the Cherbourg squadron , the frigate HMS Amelia under Captain Frederick Paul Irby and the brig @-@ sloops HMS Goshawk under Commander James Lilburn and HMS Hawk under Commander Henry Bourchier . This force was required to remain a substantial distance offshore as the rocky coastline posed a considerable danger to the British ships . Macnamara 's plan was to wait for high tide and then bring the squadron closer inshore to bombard the French frigate into surrender . As they waited , the squadron was joined by Niobe from the Le Havre under Captain John Wentworth Loring . At 16 : 00 the tides were optimal for the attack and Niobe , Amelia and Berwick sailed into the bay . However , Rosseau had situated Amazone in a strong position , protected from close attack by rocks and shoals and in consequence the British ships could only fire as they wore around , resulting in scattered and inaccurate fire . As they advanced , the British ships came under fire from Amazone , which killed one sailor on Berwick and killed one and wounded another on Amelia , while the British fire had no effect on the French ship . At 18 : 00 , Macnamara withdrew his ships from the bay , all three vessels having suffered considerable damage to their rigging and sails from Amazone 's shot .
= = = Aftermath = = =
Macnamara considered plans to use ship 's boats to attack Amazone directly , but resolved to attempt to enter the bay again on the morning of 25 March . As dawn broke however it became apparent that Rosseau had abandoned his damaged ship with his crew , setting the frigate on fire as he departed . By the end of the day Amazone had been burnt to the waterline and destroyed . Macnamara 's squadron returned to their blockade duties off Cherbourg . The remaining frigate in the region , Iphigénie , did eventually succeed in breaking out of Cherbourg , but was intercepted and captured in the Atlantic during a raiding mission in January 1814 .
= B movie =
A B movie is a low @-@ budget commercial motion picture that is not an arthouse film . In its original usage , during the Golden Age of Hollywood , the term more precisely identified a film intended for distribution as the less @-@ publicized , bottom half of a double feature . Although the U.S. production of movies intended as second features largely ceased by the end of the 1950s , the term B movie continued to be used in the broader sense it maintains today . In its post – Golden Age usage , there is ambiguity on both sides of the definition : on the one hand , the primary interest of many inexpensive exploitation films is prurient ; on the other , many B movies display a high degree of craft and aesthetic ingenuity .
In either usage , most B movies represent a particular genre — the Western was a Golden Age B movie staple , while low @-@ budget science @-@ fiction and horror films became more popular in the 1950s . Early B movies were often part of series in which the star repeatedly played the same character . Almost always shorter than the top @-@ billed films they were paired with , many had running times of 70 minutes or less . The term connoted a general perception that B movies were inferior to the more handsomely budgeted headliners ; individual B films were often ignored by critics .
Latter @-@ day B movies still sometimes inspire multiple sequels , but series are less common . As the average running time of top @-@ of @-@ the @-@ line films increased , so did that of B pictures . In its current usage , the term has somewhat contradictory connotations : it may signal an opinion that a certain movie is ( a ) a genre film with minimal artistic ambitions or ( b ) a lively , energetic film uninhibited by the constraints imposed on more expensive projects and unburdened by the conventions of putatively " serious " independent film . The term is also now used loosely to refer to some higher @-@ budgeted , mainstream films with exploitation @-@ style content , usually in genres traditionally associated with the B movie .
From their beginnings to the present day , B movies have provided opportunities both for those coming up in the profession and others whose careers are waning . Celebrated filmmakers such as Anthony Mann and Jonathan Demme learned their craft in B movies . They are where actors such as John Wayne and Jack Nicholson first became established , and they have provided work for former A movie actors , such as Vincent Price and Karen Black . Some actors , such as Béla Lugosi , Eddie Constantine and Pam Grier , worked in B movies for most of their careers . The term B actor is sometimes used to refer to a performer who finds work primarily or exclusively in B pictures .
= = History = =
In 1927 – 28 , at the end of the silent era , the production cost of an average feature from a major Hollywood studio ranged from $ 190 @,@ 000 at Fox to $ 275 @,@ 000 at Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer . That average reflected both " specials " that might cost as much as $ 1 million and films made quickly for around $ 50 @,@ 000 . These cheaper films ( not yet called B movies ) allowed the studios to derive maximum value from facilities and contracted staff in between a studio 's more important productions , while also breaking in new personnel . Studios in the minor leagues of the industry , such as Columbia Pictures and Film Booking Offices of America ( FBO ) , focused on exactly those sort of cheap productions . Their movies , with relatively short running times , targeted theaters that had to economize on rental and operating costs , particularly small @-@ town and urban neighborhood venues , or " nabes " . Even smaller production houses , known as Poverty Row studios , made films whose costs might run as low as $ 3 @,@ 000 , seeking a profit through whatever bookings they could pick up in the gaps left by the larger concerns .
With the widespread arrival of sound film in American theaters in 1929 , many independent exhibitors began dropping the then @-@ dominant presentation model , which involved live acts and a broad variety of shorts before a single featured film . A new programming scheme developed that would soon become standard practice : a newsreel , a short and / or serial , and a cartoon , followed by a double feature . The second feature , which actually screened before the main event , cost the exhibitor less per minute than the equivalent running time in shorts . The majors ' " clearance " rules favoring their affiliated theaters prevented the independents ' timely access to top @-@ quality films ; the second feature allowed them to promote quantity instead . The additional movie also gave the program " balance " — the practice of pairing different sorts of features suggested to potential customers that they could count on something of interest no matter what specifically was on the bill . The low @-@ budget picture of the 1920s thus evolved into the second feature , the B movie , of Hollywood 's Golden Age .
= = = Golden Age of Hollywood = = =
= = = = 1930s = = = =
The major studios , at first resistant to the double feature , soon adapted . All established B units to provide films for the expanding second @-@ feature market . Block booking became standard practice : to get access to a studio 's attractive A pictures , many theaters were obliged to rent the company 's entire output for a season . With the B films rented at a flat fee ( rather than the box office percentage basis of A films ) , rates could be set virtually guaranteeing the profitability of every B movie . The parallel practice of blind bidding largely freed the majors from worrying about their Bs ' quality — even when booking in less than seasonal blocks , exhibitors had to buy most pictures sight unseen . The five largest studios — Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer , Paramount Pictures , Fox Film Corporation ( 20th Century Fox as of 1935 ) , Warner Bros. , and RKO Radio Pictures ( descendant of FBO ) — also belonged to companies with sizable theater chains , further securing the bottom line .
Poverty Row studios , from modest outfits like Mascot Pictures , Tiffany Pictures , and Sono Art @-@ World Wide Pictures down to shoestring operations , made exclusively B movies , serials , and other shorts , and also distributed totally independent productions and imported films . In no position to directly block book , they mostly sold regional distribution exclusivity to " states rights " firms , which in turn peddled blocks of movies to exhibitors , typically six or more pictures featuring the same star ( a relative status on Poverty Row ) . Two " major @-@ minors " — Universal Studios and rising Columbia Pictures — had production lines roughly similar to , though somewhat better endowed than , the top Poverty Row studios . In contrast to the Big Five majors , Universal and Columbia had few or no theaters , though they did have top @-@ rank film distribution exchanges .
In the standard Golden Age model , the industry 's top product , the A films , premiered at a small number of select first @-@ run houses in major cities . Double features were not the rule at these prestigious venues . As described by historian Edward Jay Epstein , " During these first runs , films got their reviews , garnered publicity , and generated the word of mouth that served as the principal form of advertising . " Then it was off to the subsequent @-@ run market where the double feature prevailed . At the larger local venues controlled by the majors , movies might turn over on a weekly basis . At the thousands of smaller , independent theaters , programs often changed two or three times a week . To meet the constant demand for new B product , the low end of Poverty Row turned out a stream of micro @-@ budget movies rarely much more than sixty minutes long ; these were known as " quickies " for their tight production schedules — as short as four days . As Brian Taves describes , " Many of the poorest theaters , such as the ' grind houses ' in the larger cities , screened a continuous program emphasizing action with no specific schedule , sometimes offering six quickies for a nickel in an all @-@ night show that changed daily . " Many small theaters never saw a big @-@ studio A film , getting their movies from the states rights concerns that handled almost exclusively Poverty Row product . Millions of Americans went to their local theaters as a matter of course : for an A picture , along with the trailers , or screen previews , that presaged its arrival , " [ t ] he new film 's title on the marquee and the listings for it in the local newspaper constituted all the advertising most movies got " , writes Epstein . Aside from at the theater itself , B films might not be advertised at all .
The introduction of sound had driven costs higher : by 1930 , the average U.S. feature film cost $ 375 @,@ 000 to produce . A broad range of motion pictures occupied the B category . The leading studios made not only clear @-@ cut A and B films , but also movies classifiable as " programmers " ( also known as " in @-@ betweeners " or " intermediates " ) . As Taves describes , " Depending on the prestige of the theater and the other material on the double bill , a programmer could show up at the top or bottom of the marquee . " On Poverty Row , many Bs were made on budgets that would have barely covered petty cash on a major 's A film , with costs at the bottom of the industry running as low as $ 5 @,@ 000 . By the mid @-@ 1930s , the double feature was the dominant U.S. exhibition model , and the majors responded . In 1935 , B movie production at Warner Bros. was raised from 12 to 50 percent of studio output . The unit was headed by Bryan Foy , known as the " Keeper of the Bs . " At Fox , which also shifted half of its production line into B territory , Sol M. Wurtzel was similarly in charge of more than twenty movies a year during the late 1930s .
A number of the top Poverty Row firms consolidated : Sono Art joined another company to create Monogram Pictures early in the decade . In 1935 , Monogram , Mascot , and several smaller studios merged to establish Republic Pictures . The former heads of Monogram soon sold off their Republic shares and set up a new Monogram production house . Into the 1950s , most Republic and Monogram product was roughly on par with the low end of the majors ' output . Less sturdy Poverty Row concerns — with a penchant for grand sobriquets like Conquest , Empire , Imperial , and Peerless — continued to churn out dirt @-@ cheap quickies . Joel Finler has analyzed the average length of feature releases in 1938 , indicating the studios ' relative emphasis on B production ( United Artists produced little , focusing on the distribution of prestigious films from independent outfits ; Grand National , active 1936 – 40 , occupied an analogous niche on Poverty Row , releasing mostly independent productions ) :
Taves estimates that half of the films produced by the eight majors in the 1930s were B movies . Calculating in the three hundred or so films made annually by the many Poverty Row firms , approximately 75 percent of Hollywood movies from the decade , more than four thousand pictures , are classifiable as Bs .
The Western was by far the predominant B genre in both the 1930s and , to a lesser degree , the 1940s . Film historian Jon Tuska has argued that " the ' B ' product of the Thirties — the Universal films with [ Tom ] Mix , [ Ken ] Maynard , and [ Buck ] Jones , the Columbia features with Buck Jones and Tim McCoy , the RKO George O 'Brien series , the Republic Westerns with John Wayne and the Three Mesquiteers ... achieved a uniquely American perfection of the well @-@ made story . " At the far end of the industry , Poverty Row 's Ajax put out oaters starring Harry Carey , then in his fifties . The Weiss outfit had the Range Rider series , the American Rough Rider series , and the Morton of the Mounted " northwest action thrillers . " One low @-@ budget oater of the era , made totally outside the studio system , profited from an outrageous concept : a Western with an all @-@ midget cast , The Terror of Tiny Town ( 1938 ) was such a success in its independent bookings that Columbia picked it up for distribution .
Series of various genres , featuring recurrent , title @-@ worthy characters or name actors in familiar roles , were particularly popular during the first decade of sound film . Fox 's many B series , for instance , included Charlie Chan mysteries , Ritz Brothers comedies , and musicals with child star Jane Withers . These series films are not to be confused with the short , cliffhanger @-@ structured serials that sometimes appeared on the same program . As with serials , however , many series were intended to attract young people — a theater that twin @-@ billed part @-@ time might run a " balanced " or entirely youth @-@ oriented double feature as a matinee and then a single film for a more mature audience at night . In the words of one industry report , afternoon moviegoers , " composed largely of housewives and children , want quantity for their money while the evening crowds want ' something good and not too much of it . ' " Series films are often unquestioningly consigned to the B movie category , but even here there is ambiguity : at MGM , for example , popular series like the Andy Hardy chronicles had leading stars and budgets that would have been A @-@ level at some of the lesser majors . For many series , even a lesser major 's standard B budget was far out of reach : Poverty Row 's Consolidated Pictures featured Tarzan , the Police Dog in a series with the proud name of Melodramatic Dog Features .
= = = = 1940s = = = =
By 1940 , the average production cost of an American feature was $ 400 @,@ 000 , a negligible increase over ten years . A number of small Hollywood companies had folded around the turn of the decade , including the ambitious Grand National , but a new firm , Producers Releasing Corporation ( PRC ) , emerged as third in the Poverty Row hierarchy behind Republic and Monogram . The double feature , never universal , was still the prevailing exhibition model : in 1941 , 50 percent of theaters were double @-@ billing exclusively , and others employed the policy part @-@ time . In the early 1940s , legal pressure forced the studios to replace seasonal block booking with packages generally limited to five pictures . Restrictions were also placed on the majors ' ability to enforce blind bidding . These were crucial factors in the progressive shift by most of the Big Five over to A @-@ film production , making the smaller studios even more important as B movie suppliers . Genre pictures made at very low cost remained the backbone of Poverty Row , with even Republic 's and Monogram 's budgets rarely climbing over $ 200 @,@ 000 . Many smaller Poverty Row firms folded as the eight majors , with their proprietary distribution exchanges , now commanded about 95 percent of U.S. and Canadian box office receipts . In 1946 , independent producer David O. Selznick brought his bloated @-@ budget spectacle Duel in the Sun to market with heavy nationwide promotion and wide release . The distribution strategy was a major success , despite what was widely perceived as the movie 's poor quality . The Duel release anticipated practices that fueled the B movie industry in the late 1950s ; when the top Hollywood studios made them standard two decades after that , the B movie would be hard hit .
Considerations beside cost made the line between A and B movies ambiguous . Films shot on B @-@ level budgets were occasionally marketed as A pictures or emerged as sleeper hits : One of 1943 's biggest films was Hitler 's Children , an RKO thriller made for a fraction over $ 200 @,@ 000 . It earned more than $ 3 million in rentals , industry language for a distributor 's share of gross box office receipts . Particularly in the realm of film noir , A pictures sometimes echoed visual styles generally associated with cheaper films . Programmers , with their flexible exhibition role , were ambiguous by definition . As late as 1948 , the double feature remained a popular exhibition mode — it was standard policy at 25 percent of theaters and used part @-@ time at an additional 36 percent . The leading Poverty Row firms began to broaden their scope : In 1947 , Monogram established a subsidiary , Allied Artists , to develop and distribute relatively expensive films , mostly from independent producers . Around the same time , Republic launched a similar effort under the " Premiere " rubric . In 1947 as well , PRC was subsumed by Eagle @-@ Lion , a British company seeking entry to the American market . Warners ' former Keeper of the Bs , Brian Foy , was installed as production chief .
In the 1940s , RKO stood out among the industry 's Big Five for its focus on B pictures . From a latter @-@ day perspective , the most famous of the major studios ' Golden Age B units is Val Lewton 's horror unit at RKO . Lewton produced such moody , mysterious films as Cat People ( 1942 ) , I Walked with a Zombie ( 1943 ) , and The Body Snatcher ( 1945 ) , directed by Jacques Tourneur , Robert Wise , and others who would become renowned only later in their careers or entirely in retrospect . The movie now widely described as the first classic film noir — Stranger on the Third Floor ( 1940 ) , a 64 @-@ minute B — was produced at RKO , which would release many additional melodramatic thrillers in a similarly stylish vein . The other major studios also turned out a considerable number of movies now identified as noir during the 1940s . Though many of the best @-@ known film noirs were A @-@ level productions , most 1940s pictures in the mode were either of the ambiguous programmer type or destined straight for the bottom of the bill . In the decades since , these cheap entertainments , generally dismissed at the time , have become some of the most treasured products of Hollywood 's Golden Age .
In one sample year , 1947 , RKO produced along with several noir programmers and A pictures , two straight B noirs : Desperate and The Devil Thumbs a Ride . Ten B noirs that year came from Poverty Row 's big three — Republic , Monogram , and PRC / Eagle @-@ Lion — and one came from tiny Screen Guild . Three majors beside RKO contributed a total of five more . Along with these eighteen unambiguous B noirs , an additional dozen or so noir programmers came out of Hollywood . Still , most of the majors ' low @-@ budget production remained the sort now largely ignored . RKO 's representative output included the Mexican Spitfire and Lum and Abner comedy series , thrillers featuring the Saint and the Falcon , Westerns starring Tim Holt , and Tarzan movies with Johnny Weissmuller . Jean Hersholt played Dr. Christian in six films between 1939 and 1941 . The Courageous Dr. Christian ( 1940 ) was a standard entry : " In the course of an hour or so of screen time , the saintly physician managed to cure an epidemic of spinal meningitis , demonstrate benevolence towards the disenfranchised , set an example for wayward youth , and calm the passions of an amorous old maid . "
Down in Poverty Row , low budgets led to less palliative fare . Republic aspired to major @-@ league respectability while making many cheap and modestly budgeted Westerns , but there was not much from the bigger studios that compared with Monogram " exploitation pictures " like juvenile delinquency exposé Where Are Your Children ? ( 1943 ) and the prison film Women in Bondage ( 1943 ) . In 1947 , PRC 's The Devil on Wheels brought together teenagers , hot rods , and death . The little studio had its own house auteur : with his own crew and relatively free rein , director Edgar G. Ulmer was known as " the Capra of PRC " . Ulmer made films of every generic stripe : His Girls in Chains was released in May 1943 , six months before Women in Bondage ; by the end of the year , Ulmer had also made the teen @-@ themed musical Jive Junction as well as Isle of Forgotten Sins , a South Seas adventure set around a brothel .
= = = Transition in the 1950s = = =
In 1948 , a Supreme Court ruling in a federal antitrust suit against the majors outlawed block booking and led to the Big Five divesting their theater chains . With audiences draining away to television and studios scaling back production schedules , the classic double feature vanished from many American theaters during the 1950s . The major studios promoted the benefits of recycling , offering former headlining movies as second features in the place of traditional B films . With television airing many classic Westerns as well as producing its own original Western series , the cinematic market for B oaters in particular was drying up . After barely inching forward in the 1930s , the average U.S. feature production cost had essentially doubled over the 1940s , reaching $ 1 million by the turn of the decade — a 93 percent rise after adjusting for inflation .
The first prominent victim of the changing market was Eagle @-@ Lion , which released its last films in 1951 . By 1953 , the old Monogram brand had disappeared , the company having adopted the identity of its higher @-@ end subsidiary , Allied Artists . The following year , Allied released Hollywood 's last B series Westerns . Non @-@ series B Westerns continued to appear for a few more years , but Republic Pictures , long associated with cheap sagebrush sagas , was out of the filmmaking business by decade 's end . In other genres , Universal kept its Ma and Pa Kettle series going through 1957 , while Allied Artists stuck with the Bowery Boys until 1958 . RKO , weakened by years of mismanagement , exited the movie industry in 1957 . Hollywood 's A product was getting longer — the top ten box @-@ office releases of 1940 had averaged 112 @.@ 5 minutes ; the average length of 1955 's top ten was 123 @.@ 4 . In their modest way , the Bs were following suit . The age of the hour @-@ long feature film was past ; 70 minutes was now roughly the minimum . While the Golden Age – style second feature was dying , B movie was still used to refer to any low @-@ budget genre film featuring relatively unheralded performers ( sometimes referred to as B actors ) . The term retained its earlier suggestion that such movies relied on formulaic plots , " stock " character types , and simplistic action or unsophisticated comedy . At the same time , the realm of the B movie was becoming increasingly fertile territory for experimentation , both serious and outlandish .
Ida Lupino , well known as an actress , established herself as Hollywood 's sole female director of the era . In short , low @-@ budget pictures made for her production company , The Filmakers , Lupino explored virtually taboo subjects such as rape in 1950 's Outrage and 1953 's self @-@ explanatory The Bigamist . Her most famous directorial effort , The Hitch @-@ Hiker , a 1953 RKO release , is the only example of film noir 's classic period directed by a woman . That year , RKO put out another historically notable film made at low cost : Split Second , which concludes in a nuclear test range , is perhaps the first " atomic noir " . The most famous such movie , the independently produced Kiss Me Deadly ( 1955 ) , typifies the persistently murky middle ground between the A and B picture , as Richard Maltby describes : a " programmer capable of occupying either half of a neighbourhood theatre 's double @-@ bill , [ it was ] budgeted at approximately $ 400 @,@ 000 . [ Its ] distributor , United Artists , released around twenty @-@ five programmers with production budgets between $ 100 @,@ 000 and $ 400 @,@ 000 in 1955 . " The film 's length , 106 minutes , is A level , but its star , Ralph Meeker , had previously appeared in only one major film . Its source is pure pulp , one of Mickey Spillane 's Mike Hammer novels , but Robert Aldrich 's direction is self @-@ consciously aestheticized . The result is a brutal genre picture that also evokes contemporary anxieties about what was often spoken of simply as the Bomb .
The fear of nuclear war with the Soviet Union , along with less expressible qualms about radioactive fallout from America 's own atomic tests , energized many of the era 's genre films . Science fiction , horror , and various hybrids of the two were now of central economic importance to the low @-@ budget end of the business . Most down @-@ market films of the type — like many of those produced by William Alland at Universal ( e.g. , Creature from the Black Lagoon [ 1954 ] ) and Sam Katzman at Columbia ( e.g. , It Came from Beneath the Sea [ 1955 ] ) — provided little more than thrills , though their special effects could be impressive . But these were genres whose fantastic nature could also be used as cover for mordant cultural observations often difficult to make in mainstream movies . Director Don Siegel 's Invasion of the Body Snatchers ( 1956 ) , released by Allied Artists , treats conformist pressures and the evil of banality in haunting , allegorical fashion . The Amazing Colossal Man ( 1957 ) , directed by Bert I. Gordon , is both a monster movie that happens to depict the horrific effects of radiation exposure and " a ferocious cold @-@ war fable [ that ] spins Korea , the army 's obsessive secrecy , and America 's post @-@ war growth into one fantastic whole . "
The Amazing Colossal Man was released by a new company whose name was much bigger than its budgets . American International Pictures ( AIP ) , founded in 1956 by James H. Nicholson and Samuel Z. Arkoff in a reorganization of their American Releasing Corporation ( ARC ) , soon became the leading U.S. studio devoted entirely to B @-@ cost productions . American International helped keep the original @-@ release double bill alive through paired packages of its films : these movies were low @-@ budget , but instead of a flat rate , they were rented out on a percentage basis , like A films . The success of I Was a Teenage Werewolf ( 1957 ) thus brought AIP a large return — made for about $ 100 @,@ 000 , it grossed more than $ 2 million . As the film 's title suggests , the studio relied on both fantastic genre subjects and new , teen @-@ oriented angles . When Hot Rod Gang ( 1958 ) turned a profit , hot rod horror was given a try : Ghost of Dragstrip Hollow ( 1959 ) . David Cook credits AIP with leading the way " in demographic exploitation , target marketing , and saturation booking , all of which would become standard procedure for the majors in planning and releasing their mass @-@ market ' event ' films " by the late 1970s . In terms of content , the majors were already there , with " J.D. " movies such as Warner Bros. ' Untamed Youth ( 1957 ) and MGM 's High School Confidential ( 1958 ) , both starring Mamie Van Doren .
In 1954 , a young filmmaker named Roger Corman received his first screen credits as writer and associate producer of Allied Artists ' Highway Dragnet . Corman soon independently produced his first movie , Monster from the Ocean Floor , on a $ 12 @,@ 000 budget and a six @-@ day shooting schedule . Among the six films he worked on in 1955 , Corman produced and directed the first official ARC release , Apache Woman , and Day the World Ended , half of Arkoff and Nicholson 's first twin @-@ bill package . Corman would go on to direct over fifty feature films through 1990 . As of 2007 , he remained active as a producer , with more than 350 movies to his credit . Often referred to as the " King of the Bs " , Corman has said that " to my way of thinking , I never made a ' B ' movie in my life " , as the traditional B movie was dying out when he began making pictures . He prefers to describe his metier as " low @-@ budget exploitation films " . In later years Corman , both with AIP and as head of his own companies , would help launch the careers of Francis Ford Coppola , Jonathan Demme , Robert Towne , and Robert De Niro , among many others .
In the late 1950s , William Castle became known as the great innovator of the B movie publicity gimmick . Audiences of Macabre ( 1958 ) , an $ 86 @,@ 000 production distributed by Allied Artists , were invited to take out insurance policies to cover potential death from fright . The 1959 creature feature The Tingler featured Castle 's most famous gimmick , Percepto : at the film 's climax , buzzers attached to select theater seats would unexpectedly rattle a few audience members , prompting either appropriate screams or even more appropriate laughter . With such films , Castle " combine [ d ] the saturation advertising campaign perfected by Columbia and Universal in their Sam Katzman and William Alland packages with centralized and standardized publicity stunts and gimmicks that had previously been the purview of the local exhibitor . "
The postwar drive @-@ in theater boom was vital to the expanding independent B movie industry . In January 1945 , there were 96 drive @-@ ins in the United States ; a decade later , there were more than 3 @,@ 700 . Unpretentious pictures with simple , familiar plots and reliable shock effects were ideally suited for auto @-@ based film viewing , with all its attendant distractions . The phenomenon of the drive @-@ in movie became one of the defining symbols of American popular culture in the 1950s . At the same time , many local television stations began showing B genre films in late @-@ night slots , popularizing the notion of the midnight movie .
Increasingly , American @-@ made genre films were joined by foreign movies acquired at low cost and , where necessary , dubbed for the U.S. market . In 1956 , distributor Joseph E. Levine financed the shooting of new footage with American actor Raymond Burr that was edited into the Japanese sci @-@ fi horror film Godzilla . The British Hammer Film Productions made the successful The Curse of Frankenstein ( 1957 ) and Dracula ( 1958 ) , major influences on future horror film style . In 1959 , Levine 's Embassy Pictures bought the worldwide rights to Hercules , a cheaply made Italian movie starring American @-@ born bodybuilder Steve Reeves . On top of a $ 125 @,@ 000 purchase price , Levine then spent $ 1 @.@ 5 million on advertising and publicity , a virtually unprecedented amount . The New York Times was nonplussed , claiming that the movie would have drawn " little more than yawns in the film market ... had it not been [ launched ] throughout the country with a deafening barrage of publicity . " Levine counted on first @-@ weekend box office for his profits , booking the film " into as many cinemas as he could for a week 's run , then withdrawing it before poor word @-@ of @-@ mouth withdrew it for him . " Hercules opened at a remarkable 600 theaters , and the strategy was a smashing success : the film earned $ 4 @.@ 7 million in domestic rentals . Just as valuable to the bottom line , it was even more successful overseas . Within a few decades , Hollywood would be dominated by both movies and an exploitation philosophy very like Levine 's .
= = = Golden age of exploitation = = =
= = = = 1960s = = = =
Despite all the transformations in the industry , by 1961 the average production cost of an American feature film was still only $ 2 million — after adjusting for inflation , less than 10 percent more than it had been in 1950 . The traditional twin bill of B film preceding and balancing a subsequent @-@ run A film had largely disappeared from American theaters . The AIP @-@ style dual genre package was the new model . In July 1960 , the latest Joseph E. Levine sword @-@ and @-@ sandals import , Hercules Unchained , opened at neighborhood theaters in New York . A suspense film , Terror Is a Man , ran as a " co @-@ feature " with a now familiar sort of exploitation gimmick : " The dénouement helpfully includes a ' warning bell ' so the sensitive can ' close their eyes . ' " That year , Roger Corman took AIP down a new road : " When they asked me to make two ten @-@ day black @-@ and @-@ white horror films to play as a double feature , I convinced them instead to finance one horror film in color . " The resulting House of Usher typifies the continuing ambiguities of B picture classification . It was clearly an A film by the standards of both director and studio , with the longest shooting schedule and biggest budget Corman had ever enjoyed . But it is generally seen as a B movie : the schedule was still a mere fifteen days , the budget just $ 200 @,@ 000 ( one @-@ tenth the industry average ) , and its 85 @-@ minute running time close to an old thumbnail definition of the B : " Any movie that runs less than 80 minutes . "
With the loosening of industry censorship constraints , the 1960s saw a major expansion in the commercial viability of a variety of B movie subgenres that became known collectively as exploitation films . The combination of intensive and gimmick @-@ laden publicity with movies featuring vulgar subject matter and often outrageous imagery dated back decades — the term had originally defined truly fringe productions , made at the lowest depths of Poverty Row or entirely outside the Hollywood system . Many graphically depicted the wages of sin in the context of promoting prudent lifestyle choices , particularly " sexual hygiene " . Audiences might see explicit footage of anything from a live birth to a ritual circumcision . Such films were not generally booked as part of movie theaters ' regular schedules but rather presented as special events by traveling roadshow promoters ( they might also appear as fodder for " grindhouses " , which typically had no regular schedule at all ) . The most famous of those promoters , Kroger Babb , was in the vanguard of marketing low @-@ budget , sensationalistic films with a " 100 % saturation campaign " , inundating the target audience with ads in almost any imaginable medium . In the era of the traditional double feature , no one would have characterized these graphic exploitation films as " B movies " . With the majors having exited traditional B production and exploitation @-@ style promotion becoming standard practice at the lower end of the industry , " exploitation " became a way to refer to the entire field of low @-@ budget genre films . The 1960s would see exploitation @-@ style themes and imagery become increasingly central to the realm of the B.
Exploitation movies in the original sense continued to appear : 1961 's Damaged Goods , a cautionary tale about a young lady whose boyfriend 's promiscuity leads to venereal disease , comes complete with enormous , grotesque closeups of VD 's physical effects . At the same time , the concept of fringe exploitation was merging with a related , similarly venerable tradition : " nudie " films featuring nudist @-@ camp footage or striptease artists like Bettie Page had simply been the softcore pornography of previous decades . As far back as 1933 , This Nude World was " Guaranteed the Most Educational Film Ever Produced ! " In the late 1950s , as more of the old grindhouse theaters devoted themselves specifically to " adult " product , a few filmmakers began making nudies with greater attention to plot . Best known was Russ Meyer , who released his first successful narrative nudie , the comic Immoral Mr. Teas , in 1959 . Five years later , Meyer came out with his breakthrough film , Lorna , which combined sex , violence , and a dramatic storyline . Faster , Pussycat ! Kill ! Kill ! ( 1965 ) , made for about $ 45 @,@ 000 , would ultimately become the most famous of Meyer 's so @-@ called sexploitation pictures . Crafted for constant titillation but containing no nudity , it was aimed at the same " passion pit " drive @-@ in circuit that screened AIP teen movies with wink @-@ wink titles like Beach Blanket Bingo ( 1965 ) and How to Stuff a Wild Bikini ( 1966 ) , starring Annette Funicello and Frankie Avalon . Roger Corman 's The Trip ( 1967 ) for American International , written by veteran AIP / Corman actor Jack Nicholson , never shows a fully bared , unpainted breast , but flirts with nudity throughout . The Meyer and Corman lines were drawing closer .
One of the most influential films of the era , on Bs and beyond , was Paramount 's Psycho . Its $ 8 @.@ 5 million in earnings against a production cost of $ 800 @,@ 000 made it the most profitable movie of 1960 . Its mainstream distribution without the Production Code seal of approval helped weaken U.S. film censorship . And , as William Paul notes , this move into the horror genre by respected director Alfred Hitchcock was made , " significantly , with the lowest @-@ budgeted film of his American career and the least glamorous stars . [ Its ] greatest initial impact ... was on schlock horror movies ( notably those from second @-@ tier director William Castle ) , each of which tried to bill itself as scarier than Psycho . " Castle 's first film in the Psycho vein was Homicidal ( 1961 ) , an early step in the development of the slasher subgenre that would take off in the late 1970s . Blood Feast ( 1963 ) , a movie about human dismemberment and culinary preparation made for approximately $ 24 @,@ 000 by experienced nudie @-@ maker Herschell Gordon Lewis , established a new , more immediately successful subgenre , the gore or splatter film . Lewis 's business partner David F. Friedman drummed up publicity by distributing vomit bags to theatergoers — the sort of gimmick Castle had mastered — and arranging for an injunction against the film in Sarasota , Florida — the sort of problem exploitation films had long run up against , except Friedman had planned it . This new breed of gross @-@ out movie typified the emerging sense of " exploitation " — the progressive adoption of traditional exploitation and nudie elements into horror , into other classic B genres , and into the low @-@ budget film industry as a whole . Imports of Hammer Film 's increasingly explicit horror movies and Italian gialli , highly stylized pictures mixing sexploitation and ultraviolence , would fuel this trend .
The Production Code was officially scrapped in 1968 , to be replaced by the first version of the modern rating system . That year , two horror films came out that heralded directions American cinema would take in the next decade , with major consequences for the B movie . One was a high @-@ budget Paramount production , directed by the celebrated Roman Polanski . Produced by B horror veteran William Castle , Rosemary 's Baby was the first upscale Hollywood picture in the genre in three decades . It was a critical success and the year 's seventh @-@ biggest hit . The other was George A. Romero 's Night of the Living Dead , produced on weekends in and around Pittsburgh for $ 114 @,@ 000 . Building on the achievement of B genre predecessors like Invasion of the Body Snatchers in its subtextual exploration of social and political issues , it doubled as a highly effective thriller and an incisive allegory for both the Vietnam War and domestic racial conflicts . Its greatest influence , though , derived from its clever subversion of genre clichés and the connection made between its exploitation @-@ style imagery , low @-@ cost , truly independent means of production , and high profitability . With the Code gone and the X rating established , major studio A films like Midnight Cowboy could now show " adult " imagery , while the market for increasingly hardcore pornography exploded . In this transformed commercial context , work like Russ Meyer 's gained a new legitimacy . In 1969 , for the first time a Meyer film , Finders Keepers , Lovers Weepers ! , was reviewed in The New York Times . Soon , Corman would be putting out nudity @-@ filled sexploitation pictures such as Private Duty Nurses ( 1971 ) and Women in Cages ( 1971 ) .
In May 1969 , the most important exploitation movie of the era premiered at the Cannes Film Festival . Much of Easy Rider 's significance owes to the fact that it was produced for a respectable , if still modest , budget and released by a major studio . The project was first taken by one of its cocreators , Peter Fonda , to American International . Fonda had become AIP 's top star in the Corman @-@ directed The Wild Angels ( 1966 ) , a biker movie , and The Trip , as in LSD . The idea Fonda pitched would combine those two proven themes . AIP was intrigued but balked at giving his collaborator , Dennis Hopper , also a studio alumnus , free directorial rein . Eventually they arranged a financing and distribution deal with Columbia , as two more graduates of the Corman / AIP exploitation mill joined the project : Jack Nicholson and cinematographer László Kovács . The film ( which incorporated another favorite exploitation theme , the redneck menace , as well as a fair amount of nudity ) was brought in at a cost of $ 501 @,@ 000 . It earned $ 19 @.@ 1 million in rentals . In the words of historians Seth Cagin and Philip Dray , Easy Rider became " the seminal film that provided the bridge between all the repressed tendencies represented by schlock / kitsch / hack since the dawn of Hollywood and the mainstream cinema of the seventies . "
= = = = 1970s = = = =
In the late 1960s and early 1970s , a new generation of low @-@ budget film companies emerged that drew from all the different lines of exploitation as well as the sci @-@ fi and teen themes that had
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been a mainstay since the 1950s . Operations such as Roger Corman 's New World Pictures , Cannon Films , and New Line Cinema brought exploitation films to mainstream theaters around the country . The major studios ' top product was continuing to inflate in running time — in 1970 , the ten biggest earners averaged 140 @.@ 1 minutes . The Bs were keeping pace . In 1955 , Corman had a producorial hand in five movies averaging 74 @.@ 8 minutes . He played a similar part in five films originally released in 1970 , two for AIP and three for his own New World : the average length was 89 @.@ 8 minutes . These films could turn a tidy profit . The first New World release , the biker movie Angels Die Hard , cost $ 117 @,@ 000 to produce and took in more than $ 2 million at the box office .
The biggest studio in the low @-@ budget field remained a leader in exploitation 's growth . In 1973 , American International gave a shot to young director Brian De Palma . Reviewing Sisters , Pauline Kael observed that its " limp technique doesn 't seem to matter to the people who want their gratuitous gore . ... [ H ] e can 't get two people talking in order to make a simple expository point without its sounding like the drabbest Republic picture of 1938 . " Many examples of the so @-@ called blaxploitation genre , featuring stereotype @-@ filled stories revolving around drugs , violent crime , and prostitution , were the product of AIP . One of blaxploitation 's biggest stars was Pam Grier , who began her film career with a bit part in Russ Meyer 's Beyond the Valley of the Dolls ( 1970 ) . Several New World pictures followed , including The Big Doll House ( 1971 ) and The Big Bird Cage ( 1972 ) , both directed by Jack Hill . Hill also directed her best @-@ known performances , in two AIP blaxploitation films : Coffy ( 1973 ) and Foxy Brown ( 1974 ) .
Blaxploitation was the first exploitation genre in which the major studios were central . Indeed , the United Artists release Cotton Comes to Harlem ( 1970 ) , directed by Ossie Davis , is seen as the first significant film of the type . But the movie that truly ignited the blaxploitation phenomenon was completely independent : Sweet Sweetback 's Baadasssss Song ( 1971 ) is also perhaps the most outrageous example of the form : wildly experimental , borderline pornographic , and essentially a manifesto for a black American revolution . Melvin Van Peebles wrote , co @-@ produced , directed , starred in , edited , and composed the music for the film , which was completed with a loan from Bill Cosby . Its distributor was small Cinemation Industries , then best known for releasing dubbed versions of the Italian Mondo Cane " shockumentaries " and the Swedish skin flick Fanny Hill , as well as for its one in @-@ house production , The Man from O.R.G.Y. ( 1970 ) . These sorts of films played in the " grindhouses " of the day — many of them not outright porno theaters , but rather venues for all manner of exploitation cinema . The days of six quickies for a nickel were gone , but a continuity of spirit was evident .
In 1970 , a low @-@ budget crime drama shot in 16 mm by first @-@ time American director Barbara Loden won the international critics ' prize at the Venice Film Festival . Wanda is both a seminal event in the independent film movement and a classic B picture . The crime @-@ based plot and often seedy settings would have suited a straightforward exploitation film or an old @-@ school B noir . The $ 115 @,@ 000 production , for which Loden spent six years raising money , was praised by Vincent Canby for " the absolute accuracy of its effects , the decency of its point of view and ... purity of technique . " Like Romero and Van Peebles , other filmmakers of the era made pictures that combined the gut @-@ level entertainment of exploitation with biting social commentary . The first three features directed by Larry Cohen , Bone ( 1972 ) , Black Caesar ( 1973 ) , and Hell Up in Harlem ( 1973 ) , were all nominally blaxploitation movies , but Cohen used them as vehicles for a satirical examination of race relations and the wages of dog @-@ eat @-@ dog capitalism . The gory horror film Deathdream ( 1974 ) , directed by Bob Clark , is also an agonized protest of the war in Vietnam . Canadian filmmaker David Cronenberg made serious @-@ minded low @-@ budget horror films whose implications are not so much ideological as psychological and existential : Shivers ( 1975 ) , Rabid ( 1977 ) , The Brood ( 1979 ) . An Easy Rider with conceptual rigor , the movie that most clearly presaged the way in which exploitation content and artistic treatment would be combined in modestly budgeted films of later years was United Artists ' biker @-@ themed Electra Glide in Blue ( 1973 ) , directed by James William Guercio . The New York Times reviewer thought little of it : " Under different intentions , it might have made a decent grade @-@ C Roger Corman bike movie — though Corman has generally used more interesting directors than Guercio . "
In the early 1970s , the growing practice of screening nonmainstream motion pictures as late shows , with the goal of building a cult film audience , brought the midnight movie concept home to the cinema , now in a countercultural setting — something like a drive @-@ in movie for the hip . One of the first films adopted by the new circuit in 1971 was the three @-@ year @-@ old Night of the Living Dead . The midnight movie success of low @-@ budget pictures made entirely outside the studio system , like John Waters 's Pink Flamingos ( 1972 ) , with its campy spin on exploitation , spurred the development of the independent film movement . The Rocky Horror Picture Show ( 1975 ) , an inexpensive film from 20th Century @-@ Fox that spoofed all manner of classic B picture clichés , became an unparalleled hit when it was relaunched as a late show feature the year after its initial , unprofitable release . Even as Rocky Horror generated its own subcultural phenomenon , it contributed to the mainstreaming of the theatrical midnight movie .
Asian martial arts films began appearing as imports regularly during the 1970s . These " kung fu " films as they were often called , whatever martial art they featured , were popularized in the United States by the Hong Kong – produced movies of Bruce Lee and marketed to the same audience targeted by AIP and New World . Horror continued to attract young , independent American directors . As Roger Ebert explained in one 1974 review , " Horror and exploitation films almost always turn a profit if they 're brought in at the right price . So they provide a good starting place for ambitious would @-@ be filmmakers who can 't get more conventional projects off the ground . " The movie under consideration was The Texas Chain Saw Massacre . Made by Tobe Hooper for less than $ 300 @,@ 000 , it became one of the most influential horror films of the 1970s . John Carpenter 's Halloween ( 1978 ) , produced on a $ 320 @,@ 000 budget , grossed over $ 80 million worldwide and effectively established the slasher flick as horror 's primary mode for the next decade . Just as Hooper had learned from Romero 's work , Halloween , in turn , largely followed the model of Black Christmas ( 1974 ) , directed by Deathdream 's Bob Clark .
On television , the parallels between the weekly series that became the mainstay of prime @-@ time programming and the Hollywood series films of an earlier day had long been clear . In the 1970s , original feature @-@ length programming increasingly began to echo the B movie as well . As production of TV movies expanded with the introduction of the ABC Movie of the Week in 1969 , soon followed by the dedication of other network slots to original features , time and financial factors shifted the medium progressively into B picture territory . Television films inspired by recent scandals — such as The Ordeal of Patty Hearst , which premiered a month after her release from prison in 1979 — harkened all the way back to the 1920s and such movies as Human Wreckage and When Love Grows Cold , FBO pictures made swiftly in the wake of celebrity misfortunes . Many 1970s TV films — such as The California Kid ( 1974 ) , starring Martin Sheen — were action @-@ oriented genre pictures of a type familiar from contemporary cinematic B production . Nightmare in Badham County ( 1976 ) headed straight into the realm of road @-@ tripping @-@ girls @-@ in @-@ redneck @-@ bondage exploitation .
The reverberations of Easy Rider could be felt in such pictures , as well as in a host of theatrical exploitation films . But its greatest influence on the fate of the B movie was less direct — by 1973 , the major studios were catching on to the commercial potential of genres once largely consigned to the bargain basement . Rosemary 's Baby had been a big hit , but it had little in common with the exploitation style . Warner Bros. ' The Exorcist demonstrated that a heavily promoted horror film could be an absolute blockbuster : it was the biggest movie of the year and by far the highest @-@ earning horror movie yet made . In William Paul 's description , it is also " the film that really established gross @-@ out as a mode of expression for mainstream cinema . ... [ P ] ast exploitation films managed to exploit their cruelties by virtue of their marginality . The Exorcist made cruelty respectable . By the end of the decade , the exploitation booking strategy of opening films simultaneously in hundreds to thousands of theaters became standard industry practice . " Writer @-@ director George Lucas 's American Graffiti , a Universal production , did something similar . Described by Paul as " essentially an American @-@ International teenybopper pic with a lot more spit and polish " , it was 1973 's third biggest film and , likewise , by far the highest @-@ earning teen @-@ themed movie yet made . Even more historically significant movies with B themes and A @-@ level financial backing would follow in their wake .
= = = Decline = = =
= = = = 1980s = = = =
Most of the B movie production houses founded during the exploitation era collapsed or were subsumed by larger companies as the field 's financial situation changed in the early 1980s . Even a comparatively cheap , efficiently made genre picture intended for theatrical release began to cost millions of dollars , as the major movie studios steadily moved into the production of expensive genre movies , raising audience expectations for spectacular action sequences and realistic special effects . Intimations of the trend were evident as early as Airport ( 1970 ) and especially in the mega @-@ schlock of The Poseidon Adventure ( 1972 ) , Earthquake ( 1973 ) , and The Towering Inferno ( 1974 ) . Their disaster plots and dialogue were B @-@ grade at best ; from an industry perspective , however , these were pictures firmly rooted in a tradition of star @-@ stuffed extravaganzas . The Exorcist had demonstrated the drawing power of big @-@ budget , effects @-@ laden horror . But the tidal shift in the majors ' focus owed largely to the enormous success of three films : Steven Spielberg 's creature feature Jaws ( 1975 ) and George Lucas 's space opera Star Wars ( 1977 ) had each , in turn , become the highest @-@ grossing film in motion picture history . Superman , released in December 1978 , had proved that a studio could spend $ 55 million on a movie about a children 's comic book character and turn a big profit — it was the top box @-@ office hit of 1979 . Blockbuster fantasy spectacles like the original 1933 King Kong had once been exceptional ; in the new Hollywood , increasingly under the sway of multi @-@ industrial conglomerates , they would rule .
It had taken a decade and half , from 1961 to 1976 , for the production cost of the average Hollywood feature to double from $ 2 million to $ 4 million — a decline if adjusted for inflation . In just four years it more than doubled again , hitting $ 8 @.@ 5 million in 1980 ( a constant @-@ dollar increase of about 25 percent ) . Even as the U.S. inflation rate eased , the average expense of moviemaking would continue to soar . With the majors now routinely saturation booking in over a thousand theaters , it was becoming increasingly difficult for smaller outfits to secure the exhibition commitments needed to turn a profit . Double features were now literally history — almost impossible to find except at revival houses . One of the first leading casualties of the new economic regime was venerable B studio Allied Artists , which declared bankruptcy in April 1979 . In the late 1970s , AIP had turned to producing relatively expensive films like the very successful Amityville Horror and the disastrous Meteor in 1979 . The studio was sold off and dissolved as a moviemaking concern by the end of 1980 .
Despite the mounting financial pressures , distribution obstacles , and overall risk , many genre movies from small studios and independent filmmakers were still reaching theaters . Horror was the strongest low @-@ budget genre of the time , particularly in the slasher mode as with The Slumber Party Massacre ( 1982 ) , written by feminist author Rita Mae Brown . The film was produced for New World on a budget of $ 250 @,@ 000 . At the beginning of 1983 , Corman sold New World ; New Horizons , later Concorde – New Horizons , became his primary company . In 1984 , New Horizons released a critically applauded movie set amid the punk scene written and directed by Penelope Spheeris . The New York Times review concluded : " Suburbia is a good genre film . "
Larry Cohen continued to twist genre conventions in pictures such as Q ( aka Q : The Winged Serpent ; 1982 ) , described by critic Chris Petit as " the kind of movie that used to be indispensable to the market : an imaginative , popular , low @-@ budget picture that makes the most of its limited resources , and in which people get on with the job instead of standing around talking about it . " In 1981 , New Line put out Polyester , a John Waters movie with a small budget and an old @-@ school exploitation gimmick : Odorama . That October The Book of the Dead , a gore @-@ filled yet stylish horror movie made for less than $ 400 @,@ 000 , debuted in Detroit . Its writer , director , and co @-@ executive producer , Sam Raimi , was a week shy of his twenty @-@ second birthday ; star and co @-@ executive producer Bruce Campbell was twenty @-@ three . It was picked up for distribution by New Line , retitled The Evil Dead , and became a hit . In the words of one newspaper critic , it was a " shoestring tour de force . "
One of the most successful 1980s B studios was a survivor from the heyday of the exploitation era , Troma Pictures , founded in 1974 . Troma 's most characteristic productions , including Class of Nuke ' Em High ( 1986 ) , Redneck Zombies ( 1986 ) , and Surf Nazis Must Die ( 1987 ) , take exploitation for an absurdist spin . Troma 's best @-@ known production is The Toxic Avenger ( 1985 ) ; its hideous hero , affectionately known as Toxie , was featured in several sequels and a TV cartoon series . One of the few successful B studio startups of the decade was Rome @-@ based Empire Pictures , whose first production , Ghoulies , reached theaters in 1985 . The video rental market was becoming central to B film economics : Empire 's financial model relied on seeing a profit not from theatrical rentals , but only later , at the video store . A number of Concorde – New Horizon releases went this route as well , appearing only briefly in theaters , if at all . The growth of the cable television industry also helped support the low @-@ budget film industry , as many B movies quickly wound up as " filler " material for 24 @-@ hour cable channels or were made expressly for that purpose .
= = = = 1990s = = = =
By 1990 , the cost of the average U.S. film had passed $ 25 million . Of the nine films released that year to gross more than $ 100 million at the U.S. box office , two would have been strictly B movie material before the late 1970s : Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles and Dick Tracy . Three more — the science @-@ fiction thriller Total Recall , the action @-@ filled detective thriller Die Hard 2 , and the year 's biggest hit , the slapstick kiddie comedy Home Alone — were also far closer to the traditional arena of the Bs than to classic A @-@ list subject matter . The growing popularity of home video and access to unedited movies on cable and satellite television along with real estate pressures were making survival more difficult for the sort of small or non @-@ chain theaters that were the primary home of independently produced genre films . Drive @-@ in screens were rapidly disappearing from the American landscape .
Surviving B movie operations adapted in different ways . Releases from Troma now frequently went straight to video . New Line , in its first decade , had been almost exclusively a distributor of low @-@ budget independent and foreign genre pictures . With the smash success of exploitation veteran Wes Craven 's original Nightmare on Elm Street ( 1984 ) , whose nearly $ 2 million cost it had directly backed , the company began moving steadily into higher @-@ budget genre productions . In 1994 , New Line was sold to the Turner Broadcasting System ; it was soon being run as a midsized studio with a broad range of product alongside Warner Bros. within the Time Warner conglomerate . The following year , Showtime launched Roger Corman Presents , a series of thirteen straight @-@ to @-@ cable movies produced by Concorde – New Horizons . A New York Times reviewer found that the initial installment qualified as " vintage Corman ... spiked with everything from bared female breasts to a mind @-@ blowing quote from Thomas Mann 's Death in Venice . "
At the same time as exhibition venues for B films vanished , the independent film movement was burgeoning ; among the results were various crossovers between the low @-@ budget genre movie and the " sophisticated " arthouse picture . Director Abel Ferrara , who built a reputation with violent B movies such as The Driller Killer ( 1979 ) and Ms. 45 ( 1981 ) , made two works in the early nineties that marry exploitation @-@ worthy depictions of sex , drugs , and general sleaze to complex examinations of honor and redemption : King of New York ( 1990 ) was backed by a group of mostly small production companies and the cost of Bad Lieutenant ( 1992 ) , $ 1 @.@ 8 million , was financed totally independently . Larry Fessenden 's micro @-@ budget monster movies , such as No Telling ( 1991 ) and Habit ( 1997 ) , reframe classic genre subjects — Frankenstein and vampirism , respectively — to explore issues of contemporary relevance . The budget of David Cronenberg 's Crash ( 1996 ) , $ 10 million , was not comfortably A @-@ grade , but it was hardly B @-@ level either . The film 's imagery was another matter : " On its scandalizing surface , David Cronenberg 's Crash suggests exploitation at its most disturbingly sick " , wrote critic Janet Maslin . Financed , like King of New York , by a consortium of production companies , it was picked up for U.S. distribution by Fine Line Features . This result mirrored the film 's scrambling of definitions : Fine Line was a subsidiary of New Line , recently merged into the Time Warner empire — specifically , it was the old exploitation distributor 's arthouse division . Pulp Fiction ( 1994 ) , directed by Quentin Tarantino on a $ 8 @.@ 5 million budget , became a hugely influential hit by crossing multiple lines , as James Mottram describes : " With its art house narrative structure , B @-@ movie subject matter and Hollywood cast , the film is the axis for three distinct cinematic traditions to intersect . "
= = = Transition in the 2000s = = =
By the turn of the millennium , the average production cost of an American feature had already spent three years above the $ 50 million mark . In 2005 , the top ten movies at the U.S. box office included three adaptations of children 's fantasy novels , one extending and another initiating a series ( " Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire " , " The Chronicles of Narnia : The Lion , The Witch and the Wardrobe " ) , a child @-@ targeted cartoon ( " Madagascar " ) , a comic book adaptation ( " Batman Begins " ) , a sci @-@ fi series installment ( " Star Wars : Episode III – Revenge of the Sith " ) , a sci @-@ fi remake ( " War of the Worlds ( 2005 film ) " ) , and a King Kong remake . It was a slow year for Corman : he produced just one movie , which had no American theatrical release , true of most of the pictures he had been involved in over the preceding decade . As big @-@ budget Hollywood movies further usurped traditional low @-@ rent genres , the ongoing viability of the familiar brand of B movie was in grave doubt . New York Times critic A. O. Scott warned of the impending " extinction " of " the cheesy , campy , guilty pleasures " of the B picture , as " the schlock of the past has evolved into star @-@ driven , heavily publicized , expensive mediocrities " .
On the other hand , recent industry trends suggest the reemergence of something like the traditional A @-@ B split in major studio production , though with fewer " programmers " bridging the gap . According to a 2006 report by industry analyst Alfonso Marone , " The average budget for a Hollywood movie is currently around $ 60 m , rising to $ 100 m when the cost of marketing for domestic launch ( USA only ) is factored into the equation . However , we are now witnessing a polarisation of film budgets into two tiers : large productions ( $ 120 – 150 m ) and niche features ( $ 5 – 20m ) . ... Fewer $ 30 – 70 m releases are expected . " Fox launched a new subsidiary in 2006 , Fox Atomic , to concentrate on teen @-@ oriented genre films . The economic model was deliberately low @-@ rent , at least by major studio standards . According to a Variety report , " Fox Atomic is staying at or below the $ 10 million mark for many of its movies . It 's also encouraging filmmakers to shoot digitally — a cheaper process that results in a grittier , teen @-@ friendly look . And forget about stars . Of Atomic 's nine announced films , not one has a big name " . The newfangled B movie division was shut down in 2009 .
As the Variety report suggests , recent technological advances greatly facilitate the production of truly low @-@ budget motion pictures . Although there have always been economical means with which to shoot movies , including Super 8 and 16 mm film , as well as video cameras recording onto analog videotape , these mediums could not rival the image quality of 35 mm film . The development of digital cameras and postproduction methods now allow even low @-@ budget filmmakers to produce films with excellent , and not necessarily " grittier " , image quality and editing effects . As Marone observes , " the equipment budget ( camera , support ) required for shooting digital is approximately 1 / 10 that for film , significantly lowering the production budget for independent features . At the same time , [ since the early 2000s ] , the quality of digital filmmaking has improved dramatically . " Independent filmmakers , whether working in a genre or arthouse mode , continue to find it difficult to gain access to distribution channels , though so @-@ called digital end @-@ to @-@ end methods of distribution offer new opportunities . In a similar way , Internet sites such as YouTube have opened up entirely new avenues for the presentation of low @-@ budget motion pictures .
= = Associated terms = =
The terms C movie and the more common Z movie describe progressively lower grades of the B movie category . The terms drive @-@ in movie and midnight movie , which emerged in association with specific historical phenomena , are now often used as synonyms for B movie .
= = = C movie = = =
The C movie is the grade of motion picture at the low end of the B movie , or — in some taxonomies — simply below it . In the 1980s , with the growth of cable television , the C grade began to be applied with increasing frequency to low @-@ quality genre films used as filler programming for that market . The " C " in the term then does double duty , referring not only to quality that is lower than " B " but also to the initial c of cable . Helping to popularize the notion of the C movie was the TV series Mystery Science Theater 3000 ( 1988 – 99 ) , which ran on national cable channels ( first Comedy Central , then the Sci Fi Channel ) after its first year . Updating a concept introduced by TV hostess Vampira over three decades before , MST3K presented cheap , low @-@ grade movies , primarily science fiction of the 1950s and 1960s , along with running voiceover commentary highlighting the films ' shortcomings . Director Ed Wood has been called " the master of the ' C @-@ movie ' " in this sense , although Z movie ( see below ) is perhaps even more applicable to his work . The rapid expansion of niche cable and satellite outlets such as Sci Fi ( with its Sci Fi Pictures ) and HBO 's genre channels in the 1990s and 2000s has meant a market for contemporary C pictures , many of them " direct to cable " movies — small budget genre films never released in theaters .
= = = Z movie = = =
The term Z movie ( or grade @-@ Z movie ) is used by some to characterize low @-@ budget pictures with quality standards well below those of most B and even so @-@ called C movies . Most films referred to as Z movies are made on very small budgets by operations on the fringes of the commercial film industry . The micro @-@ budget " quickies " of 1930s fly @-@ by @-@ night Poverty Row production houses may be thought of as Z movies avant la lettre . The films of director Ed Wood , such as Glen or Glenda ( 1953 ) and Plan 9 from Outer Space ( 1959 ) — frequently cited as one of the worst pictures ever made — exemplify the classic grade @-@ Z movie . Latter @-@ day Zs are often characterized by violent , gory or sexual content and a minimum of artistic interest ; much of which is destined for the subscription TV equivalent of the grindhouse .
= = = Psychotronic movie = = =
Psychotronic movie is a term coined by film critic Michael J. Weldon — referred to by a fellow critic as " the historian of marginal movies " — to denote the sort of low @-@ budget genre pictures that are generally disdained or ignored entirely by the critical establishment . Weldon 's immediate source for the term was the Chicago cult film The Psychotronic Man ( 1980 ) , whose title character is a barber who develops the ability to kill using psychic energy . According to Weldon , " My original idea with that word is that it 's a two @-@ part word . ' Psycho ' stands for the horror movies , and ' tronic ' stands for the science fiction movies . I very quickly expanded the meaning of the word to include any kind of exploitation or B @-@ movie . " The term , popularized beginning in the 1980s with publications of Weldon 's such as The Psychotronic Encyclopedia of Film and Psychotronic Video magazine , has subsequently been adopted by other critics and fans . Use of the term tends to emphasize a focus on and affection for those B movies that lend themselves to appreciation as camp .
= = = Interviews of B movie professionals = = =
The Astounding B @-@ Monster Archive
Badmovies.org Interviews
Rogue Cinema
Search My Trash
= Fuck the Millennium =
" Fuck the Millennium " , sometimes spelled " * * * K the Millennium " , is an electronic protest song that was released as a single in 1997 by 2K ( Bill Drummond and Jimmy Cauty , better known as The KLF and The Justified Ancients of Mu Mu ) . Based upon The KLF 's acid house track " What Time Is Love ? " , it was promoted as a comeback single and released to mark the tenth anniversary of Drummond and Cauty 's first collaborations ; however , it was also in part intended to mock the notion of the comeback . It remains the only commercial release by the duo since The KLF 's 1992 retirement . The single reached # 28 in the UK Singles Chart in October 1997 .
Drummond and Cauty 's campaign to " fuck the millennium " also involved an appearance by 2K at London 's Barbican Arts Centre and a number of outlandish proposals to ' commemorate ' the millennium under the moniker " K2 Plant Hire " . These activities were intended to culminate in the construction of " The People 's Pyramid " , a 150 @-@ foot ( 46 m ) -high structure built from recycled bricks , but the pyramid was never built .
= = Context = =
From 1987 to 1992 , Bill Drummond and Jimmy Cauty released music under names including The Justified Ancients of Mu Mu ( The JAMs ) and The KLF . Following a run of five consecutive UK top @-@ five singles , The KLF executed a high @-@ profile retirement from the music business and deleted their entire back catalogue , declaring that " For the foreseeable future , there will be no further record releases from any past , present or future name attached to our activities . " Drummond and Cauty 's subsequent art project , the K Foundation , disposed of The KLF 's earnings , including by burning one million pounds of it , money which was originally provisionally earmarked by the duo for millennial celebrations . Bill Drummond : " Originally we were going to invest the whole lot in some capital growth fund and spend it all on one big event , maybe at the millennium " .
In the four years following The KLF 's retirement , Drummond and Cauty 's musical output consisted only of a limited edition single released in Israel and Palestine ( " K Cera Cera " ) , and a contribution to The Help Album ( " The Magnificent " ) .
In 1997 , British artist Jeremy Deller pioneered the Acid Brass concept , collaborating with the Williams Fairey Brass Band to interpret and perform classic acid house tracks as brass arrangements . Deller was described by one source as a prankster , a notion frequently applied to Drummond and Cauty themselves . In February 1997 , Drummond was contacted by his former Big in Japan bandmate Jayne Casey , who was helping to organise an arts festival in Liverpool and had noticed that Acid Brass ' repertoire included The KLF 's " What Time Is Love ? " . Drummond attended the festival performance and heard " What Time Is Love ? " performed as the encore , during which he telephoned Cauty . Cauty and Drummond together attended a 19 April Acid Brass performance at the Queen Elizabeth Hall , London . Collaborative work ensued between Drummond , Cauty , and Deller , in which the Acid Brass rendition of their track was incorporated into a composition designed to mark the tenth anniversary of Drummond and Cauty 's first work .
A comeback of The KLF was implied by two black @-@ and @-@ white full @-@ page adverts placed in the 21 August 1997 issue of Time Out . The first proclaimed " They 're Back . The Creators of Trance . The Lords of Ambient . The Kings of Stadium House . The Godfathers of Techno Metal . The Greatest Rave Band In The World . Ever ! 2K . For 23 minutes Only " . The second stated " ' Jeremy Deller presents ' 1997 What The Fuck 's Going On ' " , a reference to The JAMs ' debut album 1987 ( What the Fuck Is Going On ? ) . It continued , " Jimmy Cauty and Bill Drummond invite you to a 23 minute performance during which the next 840 days of our lives will be discussed " . The Independent looked forward to the event , saying that " It was just a matter of time before Jimmy Cauty and Bill Drummond hatched another prank and put a grin back on the face of pop music . " " You just ache for them to be No. 1 again .... " , they said , but " One hopes they are not about to shoot themselves in the foot " because " the idea walks the tightrope between lunacy and brilliance .... the pop world 's countdown to the millennium surely starts here " .
= = Performance = =
" 1997 ( What The Fuck 's Going On ? ) " was performed by 2K as a one @-@ off event at London 's Barbican Arts Centre on 17 September 1997 with Acid Brass , the Liverpool Dockers , the Viking Society , and Drummond 's creative associates Mark Manning and Gimpo , who appeared , respectively , as " an axe @-@ wielding " salvationist " in a vicar 's collar and gold lame suit , and a shop steward character in a white coat with a megaphone " . The performance began with a screening of This Brick , a short 35mm film of a brick made from the ashes of the K Foundation 's million @-@ pound bonfire . Following an introduction by Factory Records founder Tony Wilson , Drummond and Cauty were then unveiled as pyjama @-@ clad , wheelchair @-@ using pensioners with grey hair and , strapped to their foreheads , prominent horns that had been used regularly in The KLF 's promotional videos . Drummond was also seen plucking feathers from a dead swan . According to a press release issued by Mute / Blast First ( Acid Brass ' and 2K 's record label ) , " Two elderly gentlemen , reeking of Dettol , caused havoc in their motorised wheelchairs . These old reprobates , bearing a grandfatherly resemblance to messrs Cauty and Drummond , claimed to have just been asked along . " The duo wheeled around the stage to the sound of Acid Brass ' " What Time Is Love ? " . They were supported variously by a male choir 's rendition of " K Cera Cera " , joined by opera singer Sally Bradshaw ; the Viking Society in costume as lifeboatmen ; and the politically topical Liverpool Dockers chanting " Fuck the Millennium " . Following the performance , every audience member received a " Fuck the Millennium " T @-@ shirt , poster , and bumper sticker in a carrier bag .
In a comprehensive assessment , The Observer rationalised the spectacle : " They did what they always do : too many things at the same time . Their points are lost along with the plot . So , just to explain : ... Bill and Jimmy were dressed as old men as a comment on elderly pop groups making a comeback . The brass band playing house music tunes was organised by Jeremy Deller as a comment on class culture ( working @-@ class band playing working @-@ class music ) . The dockers were asked along because their cause is important . " The Guardian called the performance " a glorious , jaw @-@ dropping mess " , and The Times commented that " the strongest point in its favour was its brevity " . Select said , " There was no press furore the next morning — merely the anticlimactic aftertaste left by 40 @-@ year @-@ old men miming to a seven @-@ year @-@ old song .... 2K was unquestionably a failure . "
= = Composition = =
A single , " Fuck the Millennium " was subsequently released , a studio @-@ based recording falsely promoted as an edited version of the Barbican performance . Comparing the single with the live performance , The Times said that " On CD , things become more orthodox , though no less entertaining , comprising an acid brass version of their classic , What Time Is Love ? and a young man shouting rude words . "
The unedited studio recording of " Fuck the Millennium " is a 14 @-@ minute composition , a protest song based around The KLF 's house music track " What Time Is Love ? " , drawing additionally on musical refrains and concepts from throughout Drummond and Cauty 's canon . The track contains three main segued parts : a house section led by the brass band Acid Brass , a choral rendition of the English hymn " Eternal Father , Strong to Save " , and a rhythmically hardened remix of " What Time Is Love ? ( Pure Trance Original ) " . The lead vocals before and after the hymn consist mainly of angry chants , with hundreds of instances of the word " fuck " . Apart from a small number of chord changes during the segues , " Fuck the Millennium " contains no new music . However , the lyrics and brass arrangement are not found elsewhere in Drummond and Cauty 's output .
The track is opened by Gimpo screaming " It 's 1997 : what the fuck is going on ? " . There follows a brass band version of " What Time Is Love ? ( Pure Trance Original ) " , with a house rhythm added , along with samples from The JAMs ' 1987 recordings " All You Need Is Love " , " Don 't Take Five ( Take What You Want ) " , " Whitney Joins The JAMs " and " Burn the Bastards " . Drummond leads a crowd of Liverpool Dockers in angry chants : " Fuck the millennium ! We want it now ! " .
Among the voices singing the three verses of the hymn are keyboardist Nick Coler , Drummond and Cauty , multiple recordings of whom are overlain to simulate a congregation . Mark Manning evangelically narrates its lyrics , and between verses , Gimpo screams for " Bill ! " ( Drummond ) and " Jimmy ! " ( Cauty ) — the only instance throughout their music that either of them is referred to without a pseudonym .
A Select journalist enthused about the track in the context of the duo 's wider catalogue : " As soon as it starts you immediately remember the excitement that comes from hearing a KLF record for the first time . The original ambient house melody kicks in – and it hasn 't dated a day . The chorus is given an extra kick by Acid Brass ' massed ranks of horns and trumpets .... It is quite brilliant . "
= = K2 Plant Hire = =
Around the time of the single 's release , further full @-@ page adverts appeared in the national press , this time asking readers " * * * k The Millennium : Yes / No ? " , with a telephone number — the " Millennium Crisis Line " — provided for voting : " If you want to fuck the millennium , press ' 1' . If not , press ' 2' . " The adverts were placed under the pseudonym K2 Plant Hire Ltd . , who duly claimed that 18 @,@ 436 ( 89 % ) of respondents wished to fuck the millennium . Thus , on 31 October 1997 , K2 Plant Hire announced " The People 's Pyramid " , an estimated 150 @-@ foot ( 46 m ) -high structure built from as many house bricks as there were British 20th century births ( estimated by the duo as 87 million ) , with no cost to the taxpayer . According to Melody Maker , a statement posted on K2 Plant Hire 's website " pointedly contrast [ ed ] the intended virtues of their People 's Pyramid with the drawbacks of the officially sponsored Millennium Dome " . The Guardian noted drily that the idea " would appear to be far @-@ fetched even by their own standards " and " Planning permission might pose a problem . " The Pyramid was never built .
K2 Plant Hire also contributed a short story , written by Drummond , to editor Sarah Champion 's anthology Disco 2000 . Entitled " ' Let 's Grind ' or ' How K2 Plant Hire Went To Work ' " , the 1997 story is a fictional account of K2 Plant Hire 's plan to demolish Stonehenge on the eve of the millennium . Also in 1997 , Drummond and Cauty reportedly used K2 Plant Hire 's remaining funds to bid for purchase of the Rollright Stones ancient monument . Psychogeographer Stewart Home alleged that despite K2 Plant Hire 's bid being the highest , the owners of the monument refused to trade with the duo .
= = Themes = =
Drummond and Cauty 's works were both highly self @-@ referential and rife with references to The Illuminatus ! Trilogy esoteric novel , from which The JAMs took their name . Their last work , as 2K and K2 Plant Hire , continued many of these themes . Their subversive attitude was exhibited in their attempt to undermine the pop comeback . They defaced a wall of the National Theatre the day after the Barbican performance : the graffiti " 1997 : What the fuck 's going on ? " referenced their similar graffiti of ten years earlier on the same wall of the arts establishment . The unusual show at the Barbican was typical of their previous confusing and humorous costumed appearances ; moreover , the horns strapped to their foreheads were previously used in The KLF 's cowl costumes . The advertising campaigns before and after the single 's release resumed Drummond and Cauty 's characteristic promotional tactic of cryptic , monochrome full @-@ page adverts placed in UK national newspapers and music press .
The duo 's tenth anniversary was prominently implied by the adverts and graffiti , and " Fuck the Millennium " contains many samples from their earliest works . The KLF 's " What Time Is Love ? " — a breakthrough track for Drummond and Cauty on two occasions — is also used extensively : " Fuck the Millennium " contains the entirety of " What Time Is Love ? ( Pure Trance Original ) " , as well as samples used in " What Time Is Love ? ( Live at Trancentral ) " .
Seafaring was a recurring element of Drummond and Cauty 's output , in lyrics from Who Killed The JAMs ? , The White Room and " America : What Time Is Love ? " , and in imagery used to illustrate The KLF 's retirement press notice . Prior to entering the music business , Drummond had worked as a trawlerman . Samples of evangelists also feature in several KLF Communications recordings : the album Chill Out and the B @-@ sides " What Time Is Love ? ( Virtual Reality Mix ) " and " America No More " . " Fuck the Millennium " was a studio track promoted as a live recording and featuring sampled crowd noise , as were The KLF 's self @-@ named " Stadium House Trilogy " of singles . The use of an English hymn is central to The JAMs ' " It 's Grim up North " . All of The KLF 's chart singles either refer or allude to time , a theme continued by " Fuck the Millennium " .
2K 's lifespan was billed as the duration of the Barbican performance , 23 minutes . The number is given numerological significance in The Illuminatus ! Trilogy . The " Fuck the Millennium " sleevenotes state that " The Justified Ancients of Mu Mu appear courtesy of The Five " , a reference to the five Illuminati leaders of the novels . Drummond and Cauty took The JAMs ' name from the fictional cult in Illuminatus ! , wherein the fictional JAMs are long @-@ standing enemies of the Illuminati . K2 Plant Hire 's " The People 's Pyramid " recalled Drummond and Cauty 's " Pyramid Blaster " logo ( a ghetto blaster suspended in front of a pyramid ) , itself a reference to the all @-@ seeing eye icon used in Illuminatus ! .
Although the references to Illuminatus ! and themselves were in keeping with Drummond and Cauty 's tradition , this was also in part intended to be a self @-@ parodying dredge of The KLF 's " myth " . Drummond 's opinions of the " rock ' n ' roll comeback " were recorded by him at the time and aired in 2000 : " The history of rock ' n ' roll has been littered with pathetic comebacks .... No comeback has ever worked . The motivation behind the comeback has never and will never be the same as when the group or artist first crawled out of their sub @-@ cult .... If there was fresh original talent , it is now tired and tested , only capable of flicking the nostalgia switch . " Designing 2K 's parody of the comeback , Drummond wrote that he and Cauty were " getting totally into the institution of The Comeback , drawing on the sad , pathetic nature of the whole thing , the desperation of all concerned to exploit whatever they can from the myth ... " .
= = After the event = =
Contemporary press reaction to 2K and their Barbican performance was mixed but mostly negative . Since then , however , The Observer have held up the Barbican show as the model of a pop performance . " At one unfortunately memorable Stereophonics gig ... " , the paper said , " the extent of Richard Jones ' showmanship was to play his bass while standing on a rug .... this is hardly the pyjama @-@ clad KLF , horns strapped to their heads , whizzing around the Barbican in wheelchairs with Zodiac Mindwarp in a pulpit and hundreds of sacked Liverpool dockers yelling " Fuck the millennium ! " at the tops of their voices ... " Likewise , a 1999 feature on Drummond and Cauty in The Irish Times reported their millennium activities with some warmth . " As a critique of the sponsor @-@ saturated multi @-@ million pound Millennium Dome , " the editorial ran , " the ' people 's pyramid ' is unsurpassed . "
Recounting the exploits of 2K , and the press reaction , in his book 45 ( published in the millennium year , 2000 ) , Drummond said :
= = Formats and track listings = =
" Fuck the Millennium " was given an international single release on 13 October 1997 . The record was not a success in comparison to The KLF 's earlier chart @-@ topping endeavours , peaking at a moderate # 28 in the UK Singles Chart .
All formats contained at least one version of 2K 's " Fuck the Millennium " and one of Acid Brass ' " What Time Is Love ? " . The formats and track listings are tabulated below :
Key
m – " * * * K the Millennium " ( radio edit ) ( 4 : 18 )
c – " * * * K the Millennium " ( censored radio edit ) ( 4 : 18 )
M – " * * * K the Millennium " ( 13 : 57 )
K – " Acid Brass / What Time Is Love ( Version K ) " ( 4 : 33 )
P – " Acid Brass / What Time Is Love ( Version P – Royal Oak Mix ) " ( 5 : 28 ) ( remixed by Pan Sonic )
O – " Acid Brass / What Time Is Love ( Original Version ) " ( 4 : 39 )
= = Personnel = =
" Fuck the Millennium " and " What Time Is Love ? " were written and produced by Bill Drummond and Jimmy Cauty .
Jeremy Deller – Acid Brass concept
The Williams Fairey Brass Band – Acid Brass performance of " What Time Is Love ? " , conducted by Brian Hurdley .
Jimmy Cauty , Nick Coler and Bill Drummond – The National Retired Life Boat Men 's Choral Society , conducted and arranged by Nick Coler
Chike – credited for samples " Ancients of Mu Mu " and " Don 't take five , take what you want to take " , originally from 1987 ( What the Fuck Is Going On ? )
Alan Goodrick – spoken contributions
Donald Johnson – live drumming
Mark Manning – " Reverend Bitumen Hoarfrost " ' s evangelical narration
Rodney Newton – Acid Brass arrangement of The KLF 's " What Time Is Love ? "
Mark " Spike " Stent – mixing
= Paiyaa =
Paiyaa ( English : Boy ) is a 2010 Tamil @-@ language romantic road action film written , produced and directed by N. Linguswamy . It stars Karthi and Tamannaah , with Milind Soman , Sonia Deepti and Jagan appearing in supporting roles . The film follows the journey of two strangers – a jobless carefree man , living in Bangalore , and a woman with whom he has fallen in love . Upon the woman 's request , he drives her to Mumbai , while a group of gangsters follow them , planning to kidnap the woman . Meanwhile , the man also has a past in the city and he goes there to sort it out .
The film , produced by N. Subash Chandra Bose under the banner of Thirupathi Brothers and distributed by Dhayanidhi Alagiri 's Cloud Nine Movies , features a film score and soundtrack composed by Yuvan Shankar Raja , cinematography by Madhi and editing by Anthony Gonsalves . Following a lengthy pre @-@ production phase , during which the film underwent major changes in its main cast and its technical crew , it began shooting in December 2008 at various locations throughout South India , most notably in Karnataka , Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra . The film was released on 2 April 2010 to predominantly positive reviews and was commercially successful . A Telugu dubbed version of the film titled Awara was released on 21 May in Andhra Pradesh and also received positive response and it was also dubbed in Hindi as Bhaai - Ek Gangster .
Paiyaa was remade in Bengali in 2012 as Jaaneman , starring Soham Chakraborty and Koel Mallick , and in Kannada in 2014 as Ajith , with Chiranjeevi Sarja playing the male lead .
= = Plot = =
Shiva ( Karthi ) is a young , carefree , unemployed man staying in Bangalore . He has a loyal group of friends including his best friend , a young woman named Priya ( Sonia Deepti ) with whom he shares his feelings . His friends are determined to get him a job . One day he sees a young , beautiful woman named Charulatha ( Tamannaah ) , who is also looking for a job . Shiva is immediately attracted to her . He subsequently spots Charulatha on various occasions and follows her , but loses sight of her each time . He even misses a job interview Priya has arranged for him .
Later , as Shiva waits at the railway station to pick up a friend and owner of the Mitsubishi Lancer Shiva and his friends use , he is confronted by a tense Charulatha , accompanied by her uncle . They assume that Shiva is a cab driver and ask him to take them to Chennai . An excited Shiva accepts the offer and takes them . While stopping to refuel the car , Charulatha suddenly requests Shiva to drive on , leaving her uncle behind ; Shiva does as she wishes and takes off . She first asks Shiva to drop her at the airport but she misses the flight and later at a railway station , she is unable to go by train , so she asks Shiva if he will take her to Mumbai by car .
Shiva instantly agrees and drives her to Mumbai . Shiva tries to get into a conversation with Charulatha . She initially refuses to talk , but eventually gives in and tells him about her background . It comes to light that Charulatha 's mother , who had always supported her daughter , died after a violent altercation with her father ; since then her father has tried to force Charulatha to marry an unknown man of his choice . Not willing to bow to her father 's wishes , she had escaped from home , but was later found by her father 's business partner , Jayaraman , her supposed uncle . He was about to take her to register the marriage arranged by her father when Charulatha tried to escape , leaving him behind at the filling station . Now she wants to head to Mumbai to stay at her grandmother 's home .
However , she is being followed by a gang , led by a furious Telugu @-@ speaking lady . Shiva manages to lose the pursuers and decides to change the route to avoid the gang , but encounters a second gang . He realises that this gang is not following Charulatha , but himself , as they are the henchmen of a Mumbai @-@ based gangster Baali ( Milind Soman ) . He recalls an incident that happened some years ago in Mumbai , when he stayed there at his friend Poochi 's ( Jagan ) house . He had beaten one of Baali 's men , who had attacked him , and later Baali himself , not knowing about him and his reputation in the city , and returned to Bangalore . Both gangs are following the couple to achieve their own ends . After reaching Mumbai and experiencing a series of events , they end up at Poochi 's house . Poochi finds out where the grandmother lives and Shiva brings Charulatha there . Shiva , unable to bear the thought that the journey is complete , leaves silently only to find Charulatha on the road . After hesitating , she reveals that her relatives had spoken ill about her parents , which prompted her leave , not wanting to push the matter further . While in a state of doubt , they are attacked by Baali 's gang , who have teamed up with Jayaraman .
Shiva saves Charulatha from the clutches of the goons by single @-@ handedly overpowering them . While on their way back to Bangalore , his friends arrive . Priya , whom Shiva has called often , tells Charulatha of his feelings for her . Charulatha reciprocates Shiva 's love , as she too has fallen for him during the journey , thus both unite .
= = Cast = =
Karthi as Shiva , a carefree man living in Bangalore . He falls in love with Charulatha and drives her to Mumbai , freeing her from the clutches of her uncle and his men .
Tamannaah as Charulatha . She also lives in Bangalore after fleeing from a forced marriage arranged by her father .
Milind Soman as Baali , a gangster based in Mumbai . He plans to kill Shiva , who had humiliated him during his first trip to Mumbai , but the plan backfires , and his men are beaten up after repeated attempts to confront Shiva .
Sonia Deepti as Priya , Shiva 's best friend . She cares a lot about Shiva and works to find him a job . Shiva shares his feelings only with Priya .
Jagan as Poochi , a young simpleton and friend of Shiva , who lives in Mumbai . He becomes frightened after seeing Shiva beat up Baali 's men and immediately drives him out of the city . He also changes his looks to avoid any more involvement in their gang .
Darshan Jariwala as Charulatha 's uncle . He is seen in a small role where he scolds Charulatha for coming to their home .
Arpit Ranka as Baali 's henchman
Jasper as head goon
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
In September 2007 , while working on Bheema , a film starring Vikram , Linguswamy announced that Karthi would star in his next venture to be launched in January 2008 . He said that he had written a story " suitable for Karthi " , further adding that it would be " an action oriented film " . The following month , sources suggested that he was planning a bilingual project , filming simultaneously in Tamil and Telugu with Karthi and Ram Charan Teja , respectively . However , in early November , reports claimed that Vishal would portray the protagonist after Linguswamy had considered Jayam Ravi for the lead character . The reports proved to be false and Karthi was confirmed as the lead actor of the film .
The film failed to begin production in January 2008 , with sources reporting in March that Linguswamy was still working on the script . The film was yet to be titled . It was to feature the main crew members of Bheema , including music director Harris Jayaraj , cinematographer R. D. Rajasekhar and editor Anthony . Linguswamy later announced the film with an entirely new crew ; Yuvan Shankar Raja replaced Jayaraj as the film 's music composer , and Madhi was selected as the cinematographer , after Rajasekhar had opted out of the project as he was busy working on Jaggubhai . Linguswamy chose Priya Manikandan , wife of cinematographer Manikandan , as the chief costume designer , for whom Paiyaa would be her first film project . Linguswamy further revealed that the film would be produced by his home production studio Thirupathi Brothers and denied that it was a remake of a Telugu film . Lingusamy disclosed later that he had written two scripts , out of which Karthi eventually chose Paiyaa , because he wanted to do an " urban love story " after two successive roles as a ruffian . Initially titled as Kuthirai , it was later renamed as Paiyaa , which was considered a tentative , working title only . Karthi said he was " ... dying to start shooting for Paiyaa " and to " ... wear good clothes ... and he accepted the film because he " ... desperately wanted to play a cool dude on screen .
The filming was supposed to begin in August 2009 . However , due to the slow progress of Karthi 's ongoing project , Aayirathil Oruvan , Paiyaa was postponed several times , since Karthi needed to maintain the continuity of his looks for his role in Aayirathil Oruvan . Its producer Ravindran complained at the Tamil Film Producers Council that Karthi was trying to change his look and move on to Paiyaa before finishing his commitments , which forced Linguswamy to readjust the schedules . The shooting finally began in December 2008 . The film 's music was released in November 2009 along with the trailer . In late 2009 , after finishing the filming of Paiyaa , Lingusamy disclosed his plans of remaking the film in Telugu and Hindi as well . Later , as Yuganikki Okkadu , the Telugu dubbed version of Karthi 's Aayirathil Oruvan , emerged as successful in Andhra Pradesh , the team instead decided to dub and release the film in Telugu to cash in on Karthi 's new @-@ found popularity in the state . The Telugu version was titled Awara and its audio was released in March 2010 ; Awara was released simultaneously with the Tamil version . In March 2010 , the film 's distribution rights were acquired by Dhayanidhi Alagiri 's Cloud Nine Movies . This film is also dubbed version in Hindi as " Aakhri Baazi "
= = = Casting = = =
In July 2008 , actress Nayantara was signed for the female lead role in Paiyaa for a record salary of ₹ 1 crore . Speaking about the issue , the director admitted that she was one of his favourite actress and he liked her performance in Yaaradi Nee Mohini . He also quoted : " The way her career graph shot up is intriguing . Unlike others her career progressed in reverse gear . She paired up with the superstar during the early years of her career and started accepting roles with heroes of next generation . " She also expressed her interest to work in the project . However , plans were made to trim the film 's budget due to the economic recession , and discussions were held with Nayantara to reduce her salary . The talks resulted in failure and Nayantara left the project in December 2008 . Later , she was accused of cheating the director by refusing to return an advance of ₹ 15 lakh she had taken before commencement , after walking out of the film . The director filed a complaint with the Tamil Film Producers Council , which decided to ban the actress . Subsequently Trisha was reported to have won the role , before Tamannaah was finalised as the female lead , who was signed for ₹ 80 lakh . Later in December 2008 , Milind Soman , who had last appeared in Pachaikili Muthucharam , was signed up for the main antagonist 's role , a Mumbai @-@ based don , with other minor antagonists numbering up to 18 .
= = = Filming = = =
After Karthi had completed his film Aayirathil Oruvan , the principal photography for Paiyaa began on 24 December 2008 at a highway near Bangalore . Shooting carried on in and around Bangalore in the following weeks . The film 's main portions were extensively shot across some major highways , where the story plays , whilst the climax was filmed in Mumbai , where the journey would also end . The filming also took place in Tamil Nadu , Puducherry , Kerala and Andhra Pradesh .
In May 2009 , a street fight was filmed near the Chembarambakkam Lake in Chennai . Later that month , a song ( " Suthudhe Suthudhe Boomi " ) , choreographed by Sabeena Khan , was shot at Prasad Studios in Chennai , where a set had been erected by art director Rajeevan . The song was said to have featured computer graphics and visual effects with which forests and mountain ranges were created . In June 2009 , after nearly six months of shooting , more than sixty @-@ five percent of the project was completed , with a song and the climax sequences being the remaining parts to be filmed . A twenty @-@ five @-@ day schedule was to be held in Mumbai and Pune , but the shooting got halted in July due to heavy rains . In October 2009 , the final action scenes of the climax involving Karthi and Milind Soman were filmed in Mumbai and its suburbs in a ten @-@ day schedule , following which a rain song ( " Adada Mazhaida " ) , featuring Karthi and Tamannaah , was shot at the Athirappilly waterfalls in Kerala .
= = Soundtrack = =
The soundtrack for Paiyaa was scored by Yuvan Shankar Raja , collaborating with Linguswamy again after Sandakozhi ( 2005 ) . The audio launch function was held on 22 November 2009 at the Satyam Cinemas , which was attended by many prominent film personalities ; director Shankar released the soundtrack . The album originally features five songs with vocals by singers Karthik , Benny Dayal , Haricharan , Rahul Nambiar and composer Yuvan Shankar Raja himself . Three songs were reportedly composed and recorded in Singapore . The lyrics were provided by Na . Muthukumar . The album received highly positive reviews and responses from critics and audiences alike and the songs were considered to have played an important role for the film 's success .
= = Release = =
The satellite rights of the film were sold to Kalaignar TV . The film was initially scheduled for a late 2009 release , but was pushed to 14 January 2010 coinciding with the Tamil harvest festival Thai Pongal . Karthi 's second film Aayirathil Oruvan , which was in production for nearly three years , was also planned to release on the same day . According to the Tamil Film Producers Council , two films starring the same actor could not be released on the same day , so Aayirathil Oruvan was given priority , whilst Paiyaa was postponed for 30 days . The release was postponed again for some reasons , before finally hitting the screens on 2 April 2010 . The film had its premiere at the Sathyam Cinemas , Chennai .
= = = Box office = = =
Paiyaa got a solo release on 2 April 2010 , coinciding with Good Friday . It earned ₹ 71 lakh in the opening weekend across Chennai with an average occupancy of 90 % . The film grossed ₹ 3 crore in the first three days and was declared a commercial success within a few days . In the United Kingdom the film was distributed by B4U and was released across six screens , grossing £ 21 @,@ 021 in the opening weekend , opening at the 23rd place . Furthermore , in Malaysia , the film opened across 34 screens and collected $ 349 @,@ 368 after the second week . In Tamil Nadu , it netted ₹ 13 crore from 300 screens in two weeks .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Upon release , the film generally received positive reviews , with most critics calling the film " summer entertainer " and lauding its technical aspects . Sify described the film as a " road movie laced with mass elements and extraordinary songs " , adding that it is a " jolly good ride " . The reviewer praised the " loveable lead pair " for their " credible performance , which makes up for the plot holes " . He said that technically the film was Linguswamy 's his best , with Mathi 's " eye @-@ catching camera work " , Antony 's " crisp editing " , Rajeevan 's " exotic set designs " , and praised composer Yuvan Shankar Raja , whose " foot @-@ tapping " songs " scorch just like the desert sun " and were all " rocking " , while his background score was a " perfect co @-@ ordination with the narration " . A reviewer from the Times of India , Bhama Devi Ravi , gave the film 3 out of 5 stars , writing that " the story is not earth @-@ shatteringly new , but what pulls you into the movie is the different spin that Lingusamy gives to the familiar story " . She praised the lead pair 's performance , particularly Karthi , who " comes up with an enjoyable performance " , as well as the film 's technical values , describing the camera work as " mind @-@ blowing " , Brinda Sarathy 's dialogues as " thoroughly enjoyable " and Yuvan Shankar Raja 's songs as " a real treat " . Indiaglitz described the film as a " racy action adventure " and " undeniably an entertainer this summer " , writing that Linguswamy has brought out " a classy entertainer " and Karthi and Tamannaah 's performances are " absolutely great " . Regarding the technical crew , the reviewer cited that the camera work was " immaculate " , while editor Anthony and stunt coordinator Kanal Kannan had done " an incredible and marvellous job " . The music , in particular , was described as " the greatest strength of the movie " and his background score as " excellent " .
Behindwoods gave the film 2 @.@ 5 out of 5 stars , describing the film as " a stylish , light hearted family entertainer for the summer " and a " Pacy road show with a few humps on a straight run " . It too , like the other reviewers , cited that Karthi had brought out an " enjoyable performance " , whilst describing Yuvan Shankar Raja as " the major backbone of Paiya " . Moreover , he cited that Brinda Sarathy 's dialogues " evoke laughter " , the car chasing sequence is " absolutely brilliant " , the cinematographer " needs plaudits " and the " crisp editing " by Anthony as a " major plus point . " In contrast , Rediff 's Pavithra Srinivasan cited that there was " [ n ] othing entertaining about Paiyya " and that film was worth a watch only for Karthi 's screen presence , " pretty " Tamannaah and Yuvan 's songs , despite giving 2 @.@ 5 out of 5 stars . She criticised Linguswamy 's script as the film 's " biggest minus " , adding that the film " starts out so very promisingly " , describing the first half was " racy , peppy and enthusiastic , only to fizzle out with no appreciable sequences in the second half . "
= = = Accolades = = =
= Jutsu ( Naruto ) =
In the manga and anime series Naruto , by Masashi Kishimoto , a jutsu ( 術 , lit . " technique " or " skill " ) refers to the abilities that a ninja can use . The series occurs in a fictional universe in which different countries fight for power using ninja soldiers . The Naruto storyline follows a group of young ninja from the village of Konohagakure ( Hidden Leaf Village ) . In this series , ninja use jutsu by manipulating a form of energy known as chakra , a combination of the physical and mental energies into either of the other two main jutsus .
Series creator Masashi Kishimoto developed the concept of jutsu to explain the supernatural feats ninja perform in the series , and also to provide an original image of ninja in manga . The incorporation of jutsu into the series has received both praise and criticism from several anime and manga publications . T.H.E.M. Anime Reviews asserted that jutsu were the primary focus of Naruto and the source of its " highest accolades , " but criticized the overly repetitive use of certain jutsu in fight scenes . Anime News Network agreed with this sentiment , calling the fights " repetitive to a fault , " but praised the visual presentation of jutsu in both the anime and manga .
= = Concept and development = =
Masashi Kishimoto developed the concept of jutsu in order to explain the superhuman feats that ninja performed in the Naruto series . He intended the design for the ninja in Naruto to dispel preconceived notions about ninja popularized by other manga and to bring an original take to the presentation of ninja in manga . The use of hand seals substitutes for the incantations for magic found in other sources , and was based on the motions of ninja in various role @-@ playing games . The hand seals are based upon the characters of the Chinese zodiac , which is a longstanding tradition in Japan , and Kishimoto used them specifically to draw upon that tradition .
Although the concept of chakra appears in Indian mythology , in Buddhism and in other belief systems , in an interview , Kishimoto claimed that none of these influences were the basis for his use of chakra in Naruto . He further asserted that it was a term to apply a concrete definition to ninjas ' ability to use jutsu in Naruto , and was comparable to the Force in Star Wars or to magic points in role @-@ playing games .
= = Chakra = =
Chakra ( チャクラ , chakura ) is the basic energy source necessary for ninja in Naruto to perform most jutsu . Millennia ago , humans were originally born without Chakra until a young woman named Kaguya Ōtsutsuki stole the fruit of the Shinju and ate it to obtain the power of Chakra to end a war in her time . Her son , the Sage of the Six Paths , was born with ability to produce Chakra by combining the physical energy ( 身体エネルギー , shintai enerugī ) , drawn from the trillions of cells that make up the human body , and the mental energy ( 精神エネルギー , seishin enerugī ) , gained through experience and meditation . Once created , chakra moves throughout the body in a manner similar to the circulatory system and is delivered to one of 361 chakra release points . By performing a sequence composed of any of twelve different hand seals , chakra can then be manipulated to create supernatural effects , such as walking on water . The method of Chakra production is passed on to the Sage 's various descendants , both direct and indirect , along with other ninja .
During Part II of the series the concept of nature transformation ( 性質変化 , seishitsu henka ) , altering the quality of chakra , is introduced . Nature manipulation allows ninja , following certain training , to convert their chakra into one of five elements : earth , water , fire , wind , and lightning . Each element is stronger and weaker than another element ; for example , fire is weak against water , but can easily counter and even gets stronger when used against a wind @-@ based jutsu . Most ninja have a natural affinity for one of the five elements , allowing them to use jutsu of that type with greater ease . Ninja with an affinity for fire , for instance , will be able to breathe fire much sooner than they will be able to manipulate water .
Skilled ninja can learn how to use other elements ; ninja of the Jonin rank typically are able to manipulate at least two elements . Kakashi Hatake has been shown using all 5 different elements in the Naruto series . Although these ninja can use their different elements separately with little effort , combining the two elements is impossible for ninja who do not have a genetic predisposition for it . Ninja with one of these genetic abilities can mix two specific elements to create an entirely new one . Haku , an antagonist introduced at the start of the series , can mix water and wind to create ice . Wood Style , a combination of earth and water unique to the First Hokage , Danzo and Yamato , which allows the user to produce wood . There is also the Yin @-@ Yang Style and its splintered forms , Yin Style and Yang Style , that only few master and can counter the other chakra natures .
= = = Eight Gates = = =
The Eight Gates ( 八門 , Hachimon , English anime : " The Eight Inner Gates " ) are eight specific points along the chakra circulatory system that limit the overall flow of chakra within a person 's body , which enables the body from expiring too soon . Ninja devised the Eight Gates Released Formation ( 八門遁甲の陣 , Hachimon Tonkō no Jin , English TV " Eight Inner Gates Formation " ) to surpass their own physical limits at the cost of various levels of damage to their own bodies . Each additional gate grants the user new levels of strength with additional injuries ; by opening all eight gates the user will become invincible in battle , but their body will be so damaged in the process that they will die afterwards . Having learned the release technique from his father , Might Guy taught Rock Lee to open his first five gates during Part I of the series , which , according to Kakashi Hatake is a very remarkable feat as he himself can only open the first gate . Guy himself can go further by activating all the way to the eighth gate during Part II , although he states that activating it would kill him . In the Naruto Shippūden 2 : Bonds movie , the villain Shinnō mentions opening the eight gates when gaining the " perfect body " from his dark chakra transformation .
Gate of Opening ( 開門 , Kaimon ) : Located in the brain , the gate removes the brain 's restraints on the muscles to use 100 % of their strength and makes them stronger .
Gate of Healing ( 休門 , Kyūmon , English TV " Gate of Rest " ) : Located in the brain , it forcibly increases one 's physical strength and temporarily empowers the body .
Gate of Life ( 生門 , Seimon ) : Located on the spinal cord , its release causes the skin to turn red from increased blood flow .
Gate of Pain ( 傷門 , Shōmon ) : Located on the spinal cord , its release increases the user 's speed and power at the cost of potential tearing in muscle tissue .
Gate of Limit ( 杜門 , Tomon , English TV " Gate of Closing " ) : Located in the abdomen , its release further increases the user 's speed and power .
Gate of View ( 景門 , Keimon , English TV " Gate of Joy " ) : Located in the stomach , its release further increases the user 's speed and power to the point that bodies of water would converge around the user who to the enormous amounts of chakra being emitted . The technique associated with this gate is Asakujaku ( 朝孔雀 , Morning Peacock ) , kicking an opponent in the air to deliver a barrage of punches so fast that the air around the fist is set ablaze and a peacock @-@ like fan of flames is formed around the opponent .
Gate of Wonder ( 驚門 , Kyōmon , English TV " Gate of Shock " ) : Located below the stomach , its releases causes every pour of the user 's body to emit a turquoise @-@ colored sweat that instantly evaporates and gives the illusion of a chakra coating . Unfortunately , the side effects of opening the seventh gate are that the user 's muscle fibers become fragile to the point that anything can rip them to shreds . The technique associated with this gate is Hirudora ( 昼虎 , Daytime Tiger ) , a single punch that creates air pressure around the fist in the form of a tiger to land a death blow .
The Gate of Death ( 死門 , Shimon ) : Located at the heart , its release uses up all of the body 's energy while the sweat becomes a crimson color . With the heart pumping at maximum power , this gate makes the user the most powerful figure in a battle yet kills them shortly after . The two techniques associated with this gate are Sekizō ( 夕象 , Evening Elephant ) , a series of punches in which the shockwaves produced resemble giant elephant feet , and Yagai ( 夜ガイ , Night Guy ) , in which the user manifests a dragon @-@ shaped aura and performs a kick which obliterates the target .
= = Jutsu types = =
Jutsu are divided into three categories : ninjutsu , genjutsu and taijutsu . Ninjutsu also has two sub @-@ categories : sealing jutsu and cursed seal jutsu , both of which are used to create seals for various purposes . Senjutsu , a concept introduced in Part II of the series , uses three types of energy : the mental and physical energies of the shinobi and the energy of nature . By channeling the energy of nature , the senjutsu user can greatly increase the power of his or her other jutsu . Kekkei genkai abilities are genetically inherited traits that allow the user to perform unique techniques .
Jutsu are ranked in terms of how difficult they are to perform , an E @-@ rank denoting basic techniques and an S @-@ rank indicating jutsu that require years of practice to master . An S @-@ rank jutsu is not necessarily more effective than an E @-@ rank ability , as a jutsu 's effectiveness is largely based on individual skill . In addition to the six letter ranks , jutsu can also receive one of two informal ranks . " Secret " ( 秘伝 , hiden ) jutsu are passed down from generation to generation within a clan . These jutsu are not ranked because no one outside the clan knows how to perform them . " Forbidden techniques " ( 禁術 , kinjutsu ) , on the other hand , fall into one of the six main ranks , but are an exception because they are forbidden to learn or perform . A technique can be categorized as forbidden if it either causes great harm to the user , such as opening the Eight Gates or the execution of Naruto 's technique Wind Style : Rasenshuriken , or if the techniques are dark or sinister in nature , such as those used by Orochimaru .
= = = Ninjutsu = = =
Ninjutsu ( 忍術 , lit . " ninja techniques " ) is a vague term referring to almost any technique that uses chakra and allows the user to do something that they otherwise would be incapable of doing . The ninjutsu that most contemporary ninja use is successor to what was called Ninshu ( 忍宗 , Ninshū , lit . " ninja sect " ) , teachings created by the Sage of the Six Paths that allowed people to use chakra so they might connect with each other ; however , as time went by , people began to channel their chakra to their physical and spiritual energies instead , which weaponized the chakra into something they can inflict to others . Unlike genjutsu , which makes the opponent see illusions , the effects of ninjutsu are real . They vary greatly in purpose , with the simpler ninjutsu serving such tasks as transforming the user or allowing them to evade attacks . These techniques are often second @-@ nature for experienced ninja , who can use them at will . More complex ninjutsu manipulate one 's surroundings or utilize the elements , respectively serving such tasks as healing others or manipulating basic elements . Techniques that involve the manipulation of elements are called Nature Transformation . However , advanced elements can not be accessed by all ninja as advanced elements can only be used through the use of a kekkai genkai .
= = = Genjutsu = = =
Genjutsu ( 幻術 , lit . " illusion techniques " ) are techniques that use the chakra in the victim 's mind system to create illusions . The most commonly seen genjutsu in the series is the simple creation of phantasms – causing the targeted person ( s ) to hear , see , smell , taste or feel sensations that are not actually there in order to manipulate them . Most genjutsu affects the five senses , though other applications of genjutsu exist . Those under the influence of genjutsu usually freeze in place or lose consciousness , depending on how capable they are in recognizing and defending against it . Depending on the purpose of the genjutsu , one could be running or jumping while under the genjutsu ( as seen when Itachi uses genjutsu on Naruto in part II , when he used the Rasengan on Itachi , only to find out it had been genjutsu and he had used it on air ) . A genjutsu can be broken in one of three ways . The first is " genjutsu cancel " ( 幻術解 , genjutsu kai ) , a disruption of the victim 's chakra flow either by themselves or their allies . Pain that is not a result of the genjutsu , such as stabbing oneself , is a second method of countering genjutsu . Finally , if the caster of the genjutsu loses focus for whatever reason , the jutsu will end and the victim is freed .
= = = Taijutsu = = =
Taijutsu ( 体術 , lit . " body techniques " ) refers to any techniques involving the martial arts or the optimization of natural human abilities . Taijutsu is executed by directly accessing the user 's physical and mental energies . It relies on the stamina and strength gained through training . Because chakra does not need to be produced , taijutsu can typically be performed much faster than ninjutsu or genjutsu techniques . Rock Lee and his teacher Might Guy are examples of ninja who specialize in taijutsu .
= = = Kekkei genkai = = =
Kekkei genkai ( 血継限界 , lit . " bloodline trait " ) are abilities passed down genetically in ordinary clans . Most of these clans have developed special techniques that rely on their genetic abilities , as it gives them an advantage in battle that cannot be taught to or copied by opponents .
Kekkei genkai such as the Sharingan that work via the user 's eyes are called Dōjutsu ( 瞳術 , " eye techniques " ) . This particular type of jutsu was derived from Kaguya Ōtsutsuki , the mother of the Sage of the Six Paths and originator of the Three Great Dōjutsu , with both the Uchiha and Hyūga Clans her descendants . Other kekkei genkai such as Wood Style revolve around a simultaneous combination of two separate chakra elements to create an entirely new one . Kekkei Genkai have an advanced variation called Kekkei tōta ( 血継淘汰 , lit . " bloodline selection " ) . There is only one example of this variation : Particle Style , which involves the combination of fire , wind , and earth elements . An even more powerful variation is Kekkei mōra ( 血継網羅 , lit . " bloodline encompassing " ) , which combines all elements of nature , including Yin @-@ Yang Style . An example of kekkei mōra is Rinne Sharingan , an ancient dojutsu possessed by Kaguya Otsutsuki and the jinchuriki of Kaguya 's monstrous form , the Ten Tails .
= = = = Dojutsu = = = =
Dojutsu ( 瞳術 , lit . " eye techniques " ) is a form of kekkei genkai that utilizes the eyes . It grants the user with ocular abilities that may be ninjutsu , genjutsu , or something else . Because of the physical nature of eyes , dojutsu can be transplanted to another individual and still be functional , though if the user is not of the same family as the donor , they may have little control over when the dojutsu is activated or have their chakra taxed more than usual . In the Ninja World , there exists the " Three Great Dōjutsu " : the Byakugan that allows the user 360 degrees view within a certain distance and an individual 's chakra pathway system ; the Sharingan that allows the user to copy others ' jutsu and movements as well as a multitude of genjutsu and other abilities ; and the Rinnegan , the most " exalted " of the three that gives the user control over the Six Paths . There is also the Rinne Sharingan , the primeval form of the Sharingan and the Rinnegan , and the Tenseigan , a heightened form of Byakugan and very similar to the Rinnegan in power . There is only one individual who possesses all three of the Great Dojutsu : Kaguya Ōtsutsuki , who possesses both the Byakugan and the Rinne Sharingan .
= = = Fūinjutsu = = =
Sealing jutsu ( 封印術 , Fūin jutsu ) are techniques developed by the Sage of the Six Paths to seal something inside objects or living beings . The developing of new Sealing jutsus was continued by the Uzumaki Clan , a branch of Senju Clan who are descendants of the Sage , one of their works being one that seals Tailed Beasts into their Jinchuriki to be . The most common application of this is sealing weapons or other objects within scrolls to efficiently carry a large number of items . Sealing jutsu are also utilized to restrict access to things , such as chakra or entry to a building . The " Reaper Death Seal " is a unique sealing jutsu as the target 's soul is sealed with the Reaper , who is neither living nor an object .
= = = Senjutsu = = =
Senjutsu ( 仙術 , lit . " sage techniques " ) is a form of jutsu introduced during Part II of the series that is taught from summons who have obtained the title of Sage , two of which are the Great Toad Sage and the White Snake Sage . A user can achieve mastering Senjutsu by combining the user 's chakra with " natures energy " , a task that can only be completed by ninja with particularly large chakra reserves who learn to harmonize with nature by remaining perfectly still — anyone else who tries is quickly overwhelmed by this natural energy , as seen in the case of Jugo 's Clan rendered mentally unstable with fits of rage . For those who learn under the Great Toad Sage , the overdose of natural energy turns them into giant stone toad statues though the effects can be neutralized with the sage 's beating stick . Even if the user is able to use Senjutsu , they only have a certain amount of time before the natural energies are used up , as the user will still need to move around the battlefield and Senjutsu requires to user to remain still , although it can be bypassed by certain methods , such as summoning frog assistants or using shadow clones to help gather the energy . Those who master Senjutsu are able to enter a state called " Sage Mode " ( 仙人モード , Sennin mōdo ) where user adopts the physical features of his animal mentor . Because of the difficulty in maintaining the natural energy , only a few people have been able to properly master Senjutsu ; Naruto Uzumaki is stated to be the first Senjutsu user under the tutelage of the Great Toad Sage , Gamamaru , who has achieved such feat . Ninja who are able to use Senjutsu include Jiraiya , Minato Namikaze , Hashirama Senju , and Kabuto Yakushi are also able to use Senjutsu , seemingly without the aid of an animal mentor . Because the chakra utilized from the natural world , Senjutsu is an effective weapon against the Ten @-@ Tails and Yin @-@ Yang Style users .
= = Recurring jutsu = =
= = = Chidori = = =
The Chidori ( 千鳥 , lit . " One Thousand Birds " ) was created by Kakashi Hatake during his childhood , gaining its name when the channeling of strong lightning @-@ based chakra in one 's hand produces a sound reminiscent of chirping birds . Once enough lightning @-@ chakra has been collected , the user rushes at their target and thrusts the Chidori into it ; the speed of the attack and the amount of chakra used enable the user to penetrate most defenses easily . During Kakashi Gaiden , a short flashback to Kakashi 's childhood that divides Part I and II of the series , the Chidori is revealed to cause a tunnel vision effect because of the speeds at which the user moves , leaving them vulnerable to a counterattack . Because of this disability , only ninja with a Sharingan eye can use the Chidori effectively , as the Sharingan 's ability to notice even the slightest details counteracts the tunnel vision . As a result , Kakashi is able to teach the Chidori to Sasuke Uchiha during Part I.
Due to the large amounts of concentration and chakra needed to collect and control the lightning @-@ chakra , both Kakashi and Sasuke are initially limited to using Chidori only a few times a day . They are shown to have increased their limits in Part II , but to what extent is unclear . As the creator of the Chidori , Kakashi has reached a level of control great enough that he can split a bolt of lightning , resulting in his version being called the " Lightning Blade " ( 雷切 , Raikiri ) . Sasuke also reaches greater levels of control during Part II , which allows him to reshape the Chidori in his hand into solid form like a sword with more variations like Chidori Stream , Chidori Needles , or Chidori Spear .
= = = Summoning : Reanimation = = =
Summoning : Reanimation ( 口寄せ ・ 穢土転生 , Kuchiyose : Edo Tensei , Summoning : Impure World Reincarnation ) is a forbidden summoning jutsu that is used to revive the dead in a state of near @-@ life . The process of this jutsu is obtaining a genetic sample from the deceased , either through grave robbery or blood stains and salvaged organs . From there , a living person is then sacrificed for the deceased spirit to inhabit and serve as a slave to the user 's will . However , the Jutsu can only function if the deceased soul is within the realm of Pure Land and not elsewhere in the afterlife like in the stomach of the Reaper . Though it was the Tobirama Senju who invented the Reanimation Jutsu for the purpose of creating an indestructible army used in suicide attacks , the jutsu was later completed by Orochimaru when he used it against the Third Hokage , Hiruzen Sarutobi by reviving Tobirama Senju and Hashirama Senju . However , Kabuto perfected the jutsu to the point where he is able to revive dozens of ninja in one execution , needing to focus all his mental energy to fully control them . People revived through this process are almost invulnerable to even the most fatal attacks , as they will simply regenerate any damage taken ( although it takes some time for especially damaging ones like Rasengan and they can also be paralyzed by specific attacks , such as poison ) . Having already died , the resurrected expel any basic needs living people required ; they have unlimited chakra and power due to not needing to replenish them . In addition , they cannot be subjected to genjutsu jutsu that affect living things like the Infinite Tsukuyomi . The only effective means to destroy a ninja brought back is with Yin @-@ Yang Style techniques that damages the body beyond regeneration to the point of death .
Despite Kabuto claiming that the technique is flawless , it does have several flaws , including that the reanimated can choose to leave their vessels to drift back to the afterlife willingly . Those who are paralyzed , sealed , or subjected to certain genjutsu , such as Kotoamatsukami , cannot take further action to free themselves until the technique is canceled . Also , the reanimated can sever their link to the jutsu so they will remain among the living even after the jutsu is canceled , as shown by Madara Uchiha . Furthermore , if such a ninja who lost a body part while alive is brought back to true life with the Rinnegan 's Samsara of Heavenly Life Jutsu , the living equivalent of that ninja 's body part is absent .
= = = Advanced Chakra Nature Transformation = = =
The advanced Chakra Nature Transformation is a type of kekkei genkai which allows the users to manipulate elements other than the five basic chakra nature ; fire , water , wind , lightning , and earth . The combination is usually achieved through mixing two ( or three in the case of kekkei tōta ) separate elements to create an entirely new one ; thus the users are able to use the elements that composed the advanced element in addition to the kekkei genkai ( such as Yamato being able to use water and earth in addition to the wood ) . Due to the nature of kekkei genkai , ninja with no blood limit required to use the elements are unable to use them even when they had mastered the basic components of the element . Some advanced elements may be unique to one person in the clan , the most notable being the Wood Style , which is only present in Hashirama Senju . The known advanced chakra nature transformations are as follows :
Ice Style ( 氷遁 , Hyōton , Ice Release ) mixes water and wind elements to create ice . It is possessed by members of the Yuki clan , one of the once numerous clans with kekkei genkai in Kirigakure that has been exterminated to almost extinction during the Fourth Mizukage 's reign . The only known members of the clan are Haku and his mother , both of whom have died , leaving the technique 's existence uncertain .
Explosive Style ( 爆遁 , Bakuton , Explosion Release ) allows the users to imbue objects with explosive chakra to make them explode . It is possessed by members of the Iwagakure Explosion Corps , which include Gari and Akatsuki member Deidara , thus being one of kekkei genkai possessed by ninja without familial connection with each other . It is named long after its introduction , previously being thought to be a variation of Earth Style .
Magnet Style ( 磁遁 , Jiton , Magnet Release ) allows the manipulation of chakra to attract objects or magnetize an object through simple touch . Though present in the Hidden Sand Village , its tailed beast Shukaku able to manipulate sand , neither of the two users appear to be related . These two are the Third Kazekage , whose development of his Iron Sand fighting style from studying the One Tail led to his death by Sasori , and the Fourth Kazekage who mixed gold dust in his sand . The Fourth Kazekage 's son , Gaara , who was once the host of Shukaku , is able to manipulate sand as well even after the tailed beast has been extracted from him . Naruto gained use of this chakra nature after a fragment of Shukaku is transferred into his body . Toroi of Kumogakure possessed a variation of the technique which is used to magnetize objects through skin contact .
Corrosion / Lava Style ( 熔遁 / 溶遁 , Yōton , Lava Release ) mixes fire and earth elements for diverse purposes . This nature is possessed by Son Gōku , which manifests through both the Four Tails Jinchuriki Roshi and Naruto in the form of molten rock and lava . The Lava Style is also of the kekkei genkai possessed by ninja without familial connection with each other : seen in the Fifth Mizukage Mei Terumī , Kurotsuchi of Iwagakure whose lava takes form of quicklime , Dodai of Kumogakure whose variation is said to take the form of vulcanized rubber .
Inferno Style ( 炎遁 , Enton , Blaze Release ) , an advanced variation of Fire Style , allows manipulation of the virtually long @-@ lasting black flames of Amaterasu , regarded as the highest form of Fire Style techniques . Thus , it is only commanded by people who could cast Amaterasu , namely , Sasuke Uchiha and his brother , Itachi .
Gale / Storm Style ( 嵐遁 , Ranton , Storm Release ) mixes water and lightning elements to create energy beams which can be guided like water . It is possessed by Kumogakure ninja , most notably Darui . The third Shippūden film , Naruto Shippuden the Movie : The Will of Fire has a variation which allows manipulation of lightning clouds which are able to absorb chakra . The variation is possessed by Hiruko after stealing it from an unknown ninja .
Vapour Style ( 沸遁 , Futton , Boil Release ) mixes fire and water elements to create powerful corrosive gas . It is one of the two advanced chakra nature possessed by Mei Terumī .
Particle Style ( 塵遁 , Jinton , Dust Release ) mixes fire , wind , and earth elements to create an expanding three @-@ dimensional object capable of disintegrating anything it touches at molecular level . It is the only example of kekkei tōta , an advanced variation of kekkei genkai which mixes three elements instead of two . Two ninja are known to possess it : Ōnoki and Mū , both of which had no familial connection with each other .
Scorch Style ( 灼遁 , Shakuton , Scorch Release ) allows manipulation of chakra taking form of fire orbs capable of heating up water inside a person 's body until they evaporate , effectively mummifying them . The only ninja known to possess the technique is Pakura from Sunagakure , who had already died . However , the technique created from the combination of Naruto and Sasuke 's wind and fire elements , respectively , is also named a Scorch Style technique by Minato Namikaze , though it might be attributed to it being a combination of two elemental natures and not due to being a genetic attribute .
The anime adaptation and the film series have also introduced several new advanced chakra nature transformations . These types have never been revisited in the manga . Those are as follows :
Crystal Style ( 晶遁 , Shōton , Crystal Release ) allows the user to create crystals from moisture in the air as weapons , crystallize objects , or manipulate already available crystals . The only known user of this kekkei genkai is Guren , who appears in the anime @-@ only Three Tails Arc .
Quick Style ( 迅遁 , Jinton , Swift Release ) allows the user to move at instantaneous speed , making them unable to be hit by most Taijutsu attacks . It appears in the third Naruto Shippūden film Naruto Shippuden the Movie : The Will of Fire , possessed by Hiruko after stealing it from an unknown ninja .
Shade Style ( 冥遁 , Meiton , Dark Release ) allows the user to absorb , manipulate , and release enemy 's chakra through a pair of diamond marks in the user 's hand . It appears in the third Naruto Shippūden film Naruto Shippuden the Movie : The Will of Fire , possessed by Hiruko after stealing it from an unknown ninja .
Steel Style ( 鋼遁 , Kōton , Steel Release ) allows the user to transform the body into black steel , rendering it impenetrable . It appears in the third Naruto Shippūden film Naruto Shippuden the Movie : The Will of Fire , possessed by Hiruko after stealing it from an unknown ninja .
= = = = Wood Style = = = =
Wood Style ( 木遁 , Mokuton , lit . " Wood Release " ) is the kekkei genkai of Hashirama Senju . By combining earth and water @-@ based chakra , the user can produce trees or wooden objects from any surface . This allowed the First Hokage , Hashirama Senju , to create the foundation of Konohagakure . The objects created with the Wood Style vary in detail , ranging from a simple wall to a functioning copy of the user . During Part II , it was revealed that Yamato received the ability to use Wood Style techniques after being injected with Hashirama 's DNA by Orochimaru , though at a much lesser scale . A possibly unrelated technique , but unique to the First Hokage and Yamato , is the ability to suppress a tailed beast . This is accomplished by producing wooden poles from the ground that attach to the beast and force its chakra to recede . Similar to Yamato , Danzō Shimura also had Hashirama 's DNA injected into him by Orochimaru , granting him the ability to use Wood Style techniques , but only to a limited amount as Danzō can not have too much implanted as he would have been killed . Madara Uchiha is revealed to have successfully injected Hashirama 's DNA into him as well , becoming a genetic match to the Sage of the Six Paths and had used it to save his apprentice Obito Uchiha from dying . White Zetsu and those mutated from being assimilated by the Shinju also possess Wood Style , with Madara deceived into thinking that they are essentially artificial humans he created through Hashirama 's DNA . After Naruto and Sasuke 's final battle end with them losing their right and left arms respectively , Tsunade offers to use her grandfather 's cells containing the Wood Style to fit them with prosthetic arms ; while Naruto accepts , Sasuke declines the offer .
= = = = Spirit Transformation Technique = = = =
Spirit Transformation Technique ( 霊化の術 , Reika no Jutsu , Ghost Transformation Jutsu ) is the ability it allows the user 's soul to materialize and leave their body , makes them reminiscent of an " ikiryō " ( 生霊 , Literally meaning : living ghost ) , which is then able to take possession of a target , enabling them to freely manipulate the victim 's body at will or kill them . It can as well crossed a vast distance and also transfer chakra to them . The only known user of this technique is Dan Katō .
= = = Orochimaru 's cursed seals = = =
Orochimaru 's Cursed Seal Jutsu ( 呪印術 , Juinjutsu , lit . " Cursed Seal Technique " ) is a special seal Orochimaru uses to increase the power level of his subordinates and control them . Having met Jugo , Orochimaru 's research of the youth 's ability to freely transform parts of his body led him to Ryūchi Cave where he gained the ability to assume Sage Mode yet could not properly use it due to the frailty of his hosts . However , to compensate for the flaw , Orochimaru devised the Cursed Seals by infusing his Senjutsu Chakra into the enzymes he extracted from Jugo 's body . From there , Orochimaru proceeded to bestow his Cursed Seals to those he intended to use as his strong and loyal followers due to a part of his consciousness influencing them through the Cursed Seals . Among those given the Cursed Seal are Anko , the Sound Five , Kimimaro and Sasuke .
The process upon being branded is a painful experience for the person as the body would either accept the seal or reject it . Once one 's body accepts the seal , they can assume its First Level where the seal spreads from its point of application across the user 's body , increasing their chakra supply and their physical abilities in the process . When the seal is deactivated , the user is left exhausted , having expended all their energy during its use . The Second Level of the Cursed Seal is achieved by allowing the seal to engulf the users entire body , ultimately causing the person to transform into a personalized parody of Sage Mode with various strengths and weakness . The means to achieve the Second Level is by being given a drug and entering a state of lifelessness .
Having gained his Cursed Seal by Orochimaru 's bite to his neck during the Chunin Exams , all to prepare him as the ninja 's next vessel , Sasuke survives the ordeal and briefly used its power before Kakashi set up an additional seal to keep the Cursed Seal at bay . But after gaining the Second Level with the Sound Four 's aid , Sasuke began training under Orochimaru and manages to isolate the level two transformation to specific parts of his body within a few years ' time before Itachi removed the Cursed Seal from him . Anko also had hers removed during the Fourth Great Ninja War when Sasuke transferred the consciousness within it into a new body .
= = = Puppet Technique = = =
The Puppet Technique ( 傀儡の術 , Kugutsu no Jutsu , English manga : " Art of the Puppet Master " , English anime : " Puppet Master Jutsu " ) is a style of combat originating from the Ōtsutsuki clan . The village of Sunagakure that utilizes strings of chakra to control objects , typically puppets . The puppeteer connects one of their fingers to part of a puppet 's body with a chakra string , allowing them to remotely operate it in battle with the proper finger movements . Advanced puppeteers can control multiple puppets at once ; for instance , the Sunagakure ninja Chiyo can control ten puppets at once by having each finger control a different puppet . However , Sasori can control up to 100 different puppets , with the strings connected directly to his heart . He can do this because he turned himself into a puppet . Because they rely almost exclusively on the secret weapons and features of their puppets during battle , puppeteers are the most vulnerable component of this style , and go to lengths to remove themselves from combat . Puppets normally cannot use chakra ; the Akatsuki member Sasori creates puppets from human bodies , preserving the chakra and unique abilities the body originally had . Kankuro is the most commonly seen puppeteer in Naruto , and he adds additional puppets to his arsenal as the series progresses .
= = = Rasengan = = =
The Rasengan ( 螺旋丸 , lit . " Spiraling Sphere " , English manga : " Spiral Chakra Sphere " , Naruto : Uzumaki Chronicles : " Power Strike " ) is a jutsu that Minato Namikaze created after three years of hard development by observing the Tailed Beast Bomb . It is a spinning ball of compressed chakra formed in the user 's hand that tears and grinds with great force into whatever it comes into contact with . The Rasengan is introduced in the series when Jiraiya , Minato Namikaze 's teacher , teaches it to Naruto Uzumaki , Minato 's son , to take the boy further in his training . Because it is a difficult jutsu , Jiraiya teaches it to Naruto in three stages : spinning the chakra , giving it sufficient force , and forming the chakra into a compressed spherical shape . Naruto struggles with the final step , and creates an alternative method using a shadow clone to mold the shape of the attack while he provides the chakra and controls it .
During Part II of the series , new variants of the Rasengan are seen . Both Naruto and Jiraiya are shown capable of forming a larger , Giant Rasengan ( 大玉螺旋丸 , Oodama Rasengan , Great Ball Rasengan ) that is stronger than the standard version . Kakashi Hatake , Minato 's student , and Konohamaru Sarutobi , Naruto 's " apprentice " , are also revealed to have been taught how to use the Rasengan . Later in Part II , having developed the Rasenshuriken and perfecting it with sage chakra to use the technique without any self @-@ damage , Naruto uses the sage chakra to create an enhanced version of Rasengan , the Sage Art : Super Big Ball Rasengan ( 仙法 ・ 超大玉螺旋丸 , Senpō : Chō Oodama Rasengan ) . After Naruto gains control over Kurama 's chakra , in the form of the Nine @-@ Tails Chakra Mode , many new variations are introduced , such as the Planetary Rasengan ( 惑星螺旋丸 , Wakusei Rasengan ) , which places three regular Rasengan in synchronous orbit around a single Giant Rasengan similar to moons cycling a planet , the Rasen @-@ Rampage ( 螺旋乱丸 , Rasenrangan ) which creates multiple Rasengan using chakra arms to attack multiple targets , and the Rasen @-@ Absorption ( 螺旋吸丸 , Rasenkyūgan ) which uses the chakra arms to grab and smash his foes into a Giant Rasengan , creating the illusion of being " absorbed by Rasengan " . All of these variations can be multiplied through the use of shadow clones . After Naruto gains the chakra of the other Tailed Beast , Naruto invents other variations of the technique such as Shukaku 's Magnet Style for the Sage Art : Magnet Style Rasengan ( 仙法 ・ 磁遁螺旋丸 , Senpō : Jiton Rasengan ) .
The Naruto movies also introduce one @-@ time variations of the Rasengan : The Seven @-@ Coloured Rasengan ( 七色の螺旋丸 , Nanairo no Rasengan ) , the Gelel Rasengan ( ゲレル螺旋丸 , Gereru Rasengan ) , the Crescent Moon Rasengan ( 三日月螺旋丸 , Mikazuki Rasengan ) , the Tornado Rasengan ( 竜巻螺旋丸 , Tatsumaki Rasengan ) , the Guts Rasengan ( ど根性螺旋丸 , Dokonjō Rasengan ) , and the Supreme Ultimate Rasengan ( 太極螺旋丸 , Taikyoku Rasengan ) . These variations have never been revisited in either the manga or anime .
= = = = Rasenshuriken = = = =
Kakashi reveals to Naruto that Minato intended to combine the Rasengan with his elemental chakra but was unable to complete the technique . Naruto is able to complete his father 's work through the use of shadow clones . In order to perform it , Naruto requires the aid of two shadow clones ; he provides the chakra , one clone is responsible for the shape transformation , and the other provides the nature transformation . By manipulating the wind @-@ natured chakra of the Wind Release : Rasengan , Naruto was able to create four large points , causing the Rasengan to take on the appearance of a giant fūma shuriken , with the Rasengan in the center remaining a perfect sphere . The technique gives off a loud screech @-@ like noise during , and after formation .
The Rasenshuriken creates countless microscopic wind @-@ blades that severely damage the body on a cellular level . It produces so many individual strikes that even Kakashi Hatake is unable to count them all with his Sharingan . The wind @-@ blades sever all nerve channels in the body , leaving the target unable to move after being struck . They also attack the entire chakra circulatory system , which cannot be repaired by any form of medical ninjutsu whatsoever .
When Naruto first uses the Rasenshuriken against Kakuzu as a slashing weapon , it did cellular damage to Naruto 's arm with Tsunade labeling it a forbidden jutsu and comparing it to poison . But Naruto learns that sage mode heals things much quicker therefore he can use the Rasenshuriken as it will quickley heal his arm . The Rasenshuriken 's flaw is removed and the damage is greatly increased to the point of cutting through rocky mountains and momentarily stun beings like Kurama . After receiving Hagoromo 's yang chakra , Naruto is able to infuse his Rasenshuriken with the elemental chakra provided by the Tailed Beasts inside him : using Son Gōku 's Lava Style with the Rasenshuriken to create Sage Art : Lava Style Rasenshuriken ( 仙法 ・ 熔遁螺旋手裏剣 , Senpō : Yōton Rasenshuriken ) . Naruto can also create eight Shadow Clones to utilize all nine tailed beasts ' chakra in the Sage Art : Super Tailed Beast Rasenshuriken ( 仙法 ・ 超尾獣螺旋手裏剣 , Senpō : Chōbijū Rasenshuriken ) attack . In Naruto Shippuden : Ultimate Ninja Storm Revolution , there is a very powerful variation called Tailed Beast Planetary Rasenshuriken .
= = = Reaper Death Seal = = =
Reaper Death Seal ( 屍鬼封尽 , Shiki Fūjin , lit . " Dead Demon Consuming Seal " ) is a suicidal forbidden Sealing Jutsu where the user summons an entity called the Reaper ( 死神 , Shinigami ) behind him , thrusting its arm through the user 's stomach to grab the soul of the target and drag it into the user 's body . Once the sealing is completed , the Reaper would consume the souls of both the user and the sealed , sentencing them to be locked in combat within its stomach for all eternity . However , in cases where only part of the target 's soul is sealed , the corresponding body part is paralyzed and suffers from extremely painful necrosis . Only the Fourth and Third Hokage executed the Reaper Death Seal during their respective battles with Kurama and Orochimaru . In both cases , both Hokage were forced to only take a part of their opponents down with them : Minato taking the Yin aspect of Kurama while Hiruzen is forced take the part of Orochimaru 's soul within his arms in an attempt to ensure his former pupil would never perform a jutsu again . Later , in the Part II during the events of the Fourth Great Ninja War , Orochimaru uses an Uzumaki clan mask to summon the Reaper in a risky move , and breaks the Reaper Death Seal by cutting the demon 's stomach wide open . With the Reaper Death Seal undone , the souls of the previous four Hokage are reanimated while Orochimaru regains the part of his soul he lost years ago .
= = = Ninja Art : Mitotic Regeneration = = =
Ninja Art : Mitotic Regeneration ( 創造再生 , Sōzō Saisei , lit . " Creation Rebirth " ) is the absolute pinnacle of medical ninjutsu , created by Tsunade , who is regarded as the greatest medical ninja in the ninja world . The user must first store a substantial amount of chakra to form the Byakugo Seal ( 百豪の印 , Byakugō no In , lit . " Strength of a Hundred Seal " ) at the forehead . To activate the technique , the user releases the seal to forcibly release the stored chakra to the body . Through the input of the user , proteins hasten the creation of new cells through cell division , which regenerates any injuries sustained by the user . Thus , as long as the user have enough chakra , they are able to regenerate even the most fatal injuries , essentially making them " invincible " in combat . However , because body cells can only divide a number of times in life , the user is basically shortening their own lifespan by speeding up the process . Tsunade manages to counteract this to a certain extent through her long lifespan , thus she is able to live even after using the jutsu several times . The jutsu also has a variation , Mitotic Regeneration : One Hundred Healings ( 百豪の術 , Byakugō no Jutsu , lit . " Strength of a Hundred Technique " ) . Though it has the same effect as the original , the user does not need to input chakra to activate , thus injuries are automatically regenerated as the damages are done . Tsunade , for the longest time the only ninja who had mastered this technique , had made the rule that prohibits any medical ninja to directly participate in battles if they had not mastered this technique . Tsunade 's student , Sakura Haruno , is also able to use One Hundred Healings after having stored her chakra for three years to form the Byakugo Seal .
= = = Sexy Jutsu = = =
The Sexy Jutsu ( おいろけの術 , Oiroke no Jutsu , Disney XD dub version : " Cutie Jutsu " ) is a transformation jutsu that Naruto Uzumaki invented , transforming the user into
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wielder Tenseigan Chakra Mode , which in turn gives the user an increase in speed , power , strength , durability , and reflexes . It also grants its user Truth @-@ Seeking Balls , thus granting the user all five nature transformations and Yin – Yang Style .
The second concept is a huge energy vessel hidden in the world inside the Moon and protected by the Ōtsutsuki clan . It is a yellow sun @-@ like object with a double @-@ layered hexagonal pupil surrounded by orange flower @-@ like iris . The center of the core also contains Hamura 's Tenseigan . The object is stored within a spherical case attached to Hamura 's shrine . It can only be touched by someone who possesses " the undiluted chakra of Hamura " . The vessel is a highly powerful object as it supports the life of the hollow world by providing the artificial sun . It was also used in warfare by the feuding main and branch families of the Ǒtsutsuki clan . However , to support the vessel , all Ōtsutsuki clan members have to give up and combine their Byakugan within the vessel . This includes Toneri , the last surviving member of the clan .
= = = Sharingan = = =
The Sharingan ( 写輪眼 , lit . " Copy Wheel Eye " , English manga : " Mirror Wheel Eye " ) is a genetic attribute within the Uchiha Clan that is descended from Rinne Sharingan , an ancient dojutsu possessed by Kaguya Otsutsuki ; the Sharingan retains its red iris and sclera as well as three of its tomoe . The Sharingan first manifests in Kaguya 's grandson , Indra , who became the founding ancestor of the Uchiha Clan . It is not immediately present from birth , and first activates when the user experiences a strong sensation of despair that causes a special chakra to be released from the brain and alter the user 's eyes . Because of the psychological effects it can have in obtaining it and evolving it , many have referred to the Sharingan as the " Curse of Hatred " , including the Second Hokage . After awakening the Sharingan , the user may use it freely . When first acquired , the Sharingan may have one or two tomoe , acquiring more tomoe until it fully matures , having three tomoe in each eye . It is possible for the user to have a different number of tomoe in each eye . Kakashi Hatake possessed a single , transplanted Sharingan in his left eye that he received from his teammate , Obito Uchiha . Because he is not a member of the Uchiha clan , Kakashi 's Sharingan is always active and he expends chakra rapidly when using it , forcing him to withdraw in combat or sacrifice his life energy and needing extended rest after long battles . Members of the Uchiha clan expend a mild amount of chakra when using the Sharingan ; Akatsuki member Itachi Uchiha keeps his Sharingan activated constantly . Danzo Shimura has also been shown to have a transplanted Sharingan in his right eye , taken from Shisui Uchiha , and ten more in his right arm , obtained from Orochimaru 's experimentation on Shin Uchiha . Sasuke Uchiha is also frequently shown using his Sharingan , only retracting it when exhausted .
Over the course of its development , the Sharingan will grant the user three unique abilities : The first being its famous ability for the user to instantly memorize and replicate any opponent 's movement and attacks with perfect accuracy . The Sharingan 's second ability grants the user increased ocular perception , allowing them to read and predict the movements and actions of fast @-@ moving objects . This also allows the user to easily recognize genjutsu and different forms of chakra ( see chakra in different colors ) . Its final ability is a brand of scenarios that suggests actions and thoughts to the opponent , acting as an effective way to produce beyond genjutsu abilities or implant memories in another person .
Those who possess the Sharingan also have access to two of the most powerful genjutsu , Izanagi ( イザナギ ) and Izanami ( イザナミ ) . Both techniques work in reverse : Izanagi allows the user to " alter destiny " ; they may turn moments inflicted on them ( such as injury or death blow ) into mere illusions , though only for several seconds , while Izanami is used to " determine destiny " ; it traps the target in reliving a moment in an infinite loop until accepting the truth or remain still and eventually die . However , both techniques are labeled as forbidden jutsu , as they will permanently close the user 's Sharingan eye . Danzō Shimura implanted numerous Sharingan eyes onto his right arm , allowing him to use Izanagi more than once , with one of the eyes being sealed per use , through Shisui Uchiha 's Mangekyō Sharingan . However , Obito Uchiha claimed that the Izanagi jutsu is " perfected " and more effective when a person has both the Sharingan and the Senju 's power , meanwhile labeling Danzō 's Izanagi as " imperfect " , as he lacks complete control over Hashirama 's cells .
Due to the massacre of the Uchiha clan , at the start of the series , there are only four living people who possess the Sharingan : Sasuke Uchiha ; his brother , Itachi ; Obito Uchiha ; and Kakashi Hatake . Itachi had died prior to the Fourth Great Ninja War , in which Obito meets his demise while Kakashi has his Sharingan taken out in exchange for his normal eye . Years after the Great Ninja War , it is revealed that from one of Orochimaru 's test subjects who has a unique ability of accepting tissue and organ transplantation , Shin Uchiha , came multiple clones of children having cloned Sharingan , the surviving ones of whom are taken care of in Konoha 's orphanage . Additionally , Sasuke 's daughter , Sarada , also eventually awakens her own Sharingan .
= = = = Mangekyō Sharingan = = = =
The Mangekyō Sharingan ( 万華鏡写輪眼 , Mangekyō Sharingan , lit . " Kaleidoscope Copy Wheel Eye " ) is a heightened form of Sharingan introduced towards the end of Part I. At that time , the Mangekyō Sharingan is explained to be rare , even among the members of the Uchiha clan , and present only in those who have killed the person closest to them , be it their best friends , relatives , or significant others , either accidentally or intentionally . While Madara Uchiha is stated to be the first person to awaken the Mangekyō Sharingan , which resulted in a common tradition for members of the Uchiha clan to follow his example by killing their friends , an ability of the Mangekyō ( Susanoo ) had been used since the time of the first Sharingan user , Indra . Also when one of the eyes from the same eyeset awakens the Mangekyō , the other eye awakens the Mangekyō too , causing Obito to awaken it , even if the one who killed his best friend was Kakashi , who has his other eye . As explained late to the Part II , the event is the end result of the " Curse of Hatred " , in which the brain releases special chakra to the eyes so much that the Sharingan eventually transforms into Mangekyō Sharingan . At the cost of increased power , the Uchiha clan members who possess the Mangekyō Sharingan will start to lose their sanity , eventually descending to complete madness as they gain more power .
Unlike the regular Sharingan , which appears identical from user to user , the Mangekyō Sharingan 's tomoe seal differs between individuals . Its abilities were usually derived from the Japanese mythology , hence giving the interpretation that they are one of the divine and most powerful ninja techniques ever used . Also , the Mangekyō seems to grant different kind of abilities to each of its users , though some might share the same jutsu , as Sasuke and Itachi share the ability to perform Amaterasu , while all members have the potential to construct a Susanoo . Features of the Mangekyō Sharingan include Tsukuyomi and Amaterasu . When the user has mastered the full power of both of their eyes , regardless of what kind of Mangekyō abilities they have , the user gains the ability to create a construct of chakra called a Susanoo . Other Mangekyō abilities include Kamui and Kotoamatsukami ( 別天津神 ) , awakened in Shisui 's Mangekyō Sharingan , which granted him the ability to control other people 's minds without them knowing .
Once it has been gained , the Uchiha user suffers from ever @-@ deteriorating eyesight , a process that is aggravated by repeated use and culminates in blindness . One 's eyesight can be permanently restored by taking and transplanting the eyes of another Uchiha clan member , a process that results in the creation of an " Eternal " Mangekyō Sharingan ( 永遠の万華鏡写輪眼 , Eien no Mangekyō Sharingan ) . The tighter the blood ties are between the " donor " and the receiver , the better it is for compatibility , siblings for example . Not only does this process permanently restore one 's eyesight , with the exception of using Izanagi or Izanami , but it also gives the person even greater power . The Eternal Mangekyō Sharingan also seems to change form from the original , with what appears to be a fusion of the current owner 's Mangekyo with the previous owner 's . Madara was the first Uchiha to awaken the Eternal Mangekyō by taking his younger brother 's , Izuna , eyes to regain his sight , which gave him great power . After suffering from onset near @-@ total blindness from overuse of his ocular powers , Sasuke underwent the process himself with Itachi 's eyes , granting him all of Itachi 's ocular powers in addition to his own . However , the side effects of using the Mangekyō might not be applicable to all users , as Obito has been shown to use his Kamui ability nearly all the time and does not become exhausted or suffer from deteriorating eyesight from doing so . Mangekyō Sharingan can also evolve further to become Rinnegan , as in the case of Madara . However , he only managed to achieve that because he was the current reincarnation of one of the Sage of the Six Paths ' son , Indra , and had injected himself with the DNA of Hashirama ( the reincarnation of the Sage 's other son , Asura ) , which would grant the person with the Sage 's own power . The process also happens only near the end of the user 's natural lifespan . However , Sasuke awakened a Rinnegan unique to him in his left eye after receiving the Sage of the Six Paths ' Yin Chakra . His Rinnegan is a Six @-@ Tomoe variant . He has six tomoe on the first to rings of the Rinnegan . Although he awakened the Rinnegan , Sasuke can still access the powers of his Mangekyō Sharingan e.g. Amaterasu and Susano 'o . He also awakened a Perfect Susano 'o ( Complete Body 一 Susanoo ) that rivals Madara 's . His Susano 'o has wings that enable him to fly .
= = = = Tsukuyomi = = = =
Tsukuyomi ( 月読 ) is a genjutsu used by those of the Uchiha Clan who gained Mangekyō Sharingan , said to be the " Spiritual World and Darkness " ( 精神界と闇 , Seishinkai to Yami ) in opposition to Amaterasu . As one of the most powerful genjutsu , Tsukuyomi allows the user to trap his target in an illusionary realm where time is controlled by the user of this jutsu . In the case of those like Itachi , Tsukuyomi is used for the purpose of torturing an opponent at a psychological level . Besides added stress on the left eye unless it is an Eternal Mangekyō Sharingan , the Tsukuyomi can be negated by an opponent who is a blood relative of the user .
A more powerful variant of the Tsukuyomi is the Infinite Tsukuyomi ( 無限月読 , Mugen Tsukuyomi , lit . Infinite Moon Reader ) , cast on the moon to subjugate every living things caught in its light , which momentarily shines bright enough that night appears to be day . This results with those inflicted to be robbed of their free will while experiencing their deepest desires . However , the Infinite Tsukuyomi can only be cast by someone with the Rinne Sharingan , either someone like Kaguya Ōtsutsuki or a jincuriki to her Ten Tails form . People managing to avoid its light are not bound to the jutsu , as are people who are reincarnated with Summoning : Reanimation , as the jutsu only affects living things . During the events of Road to Ninja : Naruto the Movie , using the seven of the nine Tailed Beasts already in his possession , Obito developed a Limited Tsukuyomi ( 限定月読 , Gentei Tsukuyomi ) that he used on Naruto and Sakura . Unlike the Infinite Tsukuyomi , the Limited Tsukuyomi creates an alternate reality based on the targets ' inner thoughts .
= = = = Amaterasu = = = =
Amaterasu ( 天照 ) is the highest level of Fire Style jutsu exclusive to Itachi and Sasuke 's Mangekyō Sharingan , said to be the " Material World and Light " ( 物質界と光 , Busshitsukai to Hikari ) . It is the antipode of Tsukuyomi . Amaterasu produces black flames at the focal point of the user 's vision . Once created , it can continue burning for seven days and seven nights . The flames cannot be extinguished with water or any other normal methods ; only the user can put the flames out . Said to be " the fires from hell " and to burn as hot as the sun itself , Amaterasu burns virtually any material , including other flames until nothing but ash remains . However , the flames cannot burn through chakra or materials infused with chakra , as they fail to burn into Naruto 's Kurama chakra cloak or through Gaara 's chakra @-@ infused sand.This technique can also be sealed within the Sharingan of another person . Beyond mere offence , Amaterasu 's flames can be used as a deterrent , with users surrounding themselves in its flames to discourage physical attacks . For more advanced users , they can shape Amaterasu into more specialized configurations . Use of Amaterasu puts a great deal of strain on the user , usually causing their eyes to bleed . For all its lethal potential , Amaterasu burns fairly slowly , allowing targets to remove burning clothes before their body is caught ablaze or , if it is too late for that , remove the burning body parts before it spreads . Other defensive options are pushing the flames away , absorbing them , certain space – time ninjutsu , or being the host of the Ten Tails .
= = = = Susanoo = = = =
Susanoo ( 須佐能乎 ) is the final ability of the Mangekyō Sharingan , also known as the Tempestuous God of Valor ( 勇武の荒神 , Yūbu no Aragami ) . The ability is gained by awakening the full power of both of the user 's eyes , thus , unlike the other abilities , all Mangekyō Sharingan users have the potential to summon their own Susanoo . By performing this technique , the user constructs a being of chakra , called Susanoo , which provides defense and offense . Susanoo originally appears in a skeletal form before assuming a complete form , and a " final " version . Each one is unique to the summoner with the most striking difference being the color : Itachi 's Susanoo is orange ( red in the anime ) , Sasuke 's and Indra 's are both purple , and Madara 's and Kakashi 's are both blue . Each Susanoo is also different in power ; Sasuke 's incomplete version is easily melted by Mei 's Vapor Style , while Madara 's final version , which is titanic in size , is said to be comparable to a tailed beast in power . The user additionally can infuse their Susanoo with another chakra , including Sage chakra owned by Sasuke , or equip it with " garments " , such as the reflective Yata Mirror ( 八咫鏡 , Yata no Kagami ) and the powerful sealing object Sword of Totsuka ( 十拳剣 , Totsuka no Tsurugi ) , both used by Itachi .
= = = = Kamui = = = =
Kamui ( 神威 ) is an ability that is exclusive to Obito 's Mangekyo Sharingan , a space @-@ time ninjutsu that allows the user to transfer himself or anything into a pocket dimension . At the time , Obito could only use his right eye for close range while partially transporting himself between spaces to appear " intangible " for minutes . Through Obito 's left eye , Kakashi can create a long @-@ ranged portal that is primarily based on line of sight and can increase in size . As a result , Obito and Kakashi are unable to use Kamui against each other as their attack cancel each other out . Once Obito regained his left eye , his abilities are hasten to the point where he can use his eyes to create two distortions and then connect them to produce a wormhole from one location to another . However , as this ability has nothing to do with his pocket dimension , it places a significant strain on Obito .
= = = Rinnegan = = =
The Rinnegan ( 輪廻眼 , lit . " Saṃsāra Eye " ) is a unique eye technique and the third and most " exalted " of the Three Great Dōjutsu . The dōjutsu , along with Sharingan , is descended from Rinne Sharingan , retaining its ripple @-@ like pattern but with light purple iris and sclera . The first person to possess the dojutsu was Hagoromo Ōtsutsuki , whose mother , Kaguya , possessed its ancestor , the Rinne Sharingan . In addition to enabling the user to quickly master various jutsu , the user may also use all forms of chakra nature , including the Yin and Yang forms . Similar to Sharingan , the Rinnegan has its own exclusive abilities - the Six Paths ( 六道 , Rikudō ) , based on the Desire realm in Buddhist cosmology : the Animal Path ( 畜生道 , Chikushōdō ) that uses a variety of animal summons such as giant multi @-@ headed dogs ; the Asura Path ( 修羅道 , Shuradō ) with access to an arsenal of weapons ; the Human Path ( 人間道 , Ningendō ) which enables reading mind and ripping souls ; the chakra absorbing Preta Path ( 餓鬼道 , Gakidō ) ( this path can take chakra from ninjutsu , making Rinnegan users technically immune to them ) ; and the Naraka Path ( 地獄道 , Jigokudō ) that can summon the King of Hell ( 冥府の王 , Meifu no Ō ) .
The sixth aspect of the Six Paths , the Deva Path ( 天道 , Tendō ) , provides five known abilities based on gravitation . The first is Almighty Push ( 神羅天征 , Shinra Tensei , lit . " Heavenly Subjugation of the Omnipresent God " ) , which uses the user 's body as the epicenter of gravity and pushes away any technique of any force through gravity manipulation , though it has a five @-@ second limit after each use . It can be used for a large @-@ scale effect by placing a titanic gravity over a large area and blowing them ; in this case it can be used to destroy an entire village - at the cost of shortening the user 's lifespan and being unable to use it for several minutes . The second is Universal Pull ( 万象天引 , Bansho Ten 'in , lit . " Heavenly Attraction of All Creation " ) , a companion of Almighty Push and also manipulates gravity , but instead of pushing force , it pulls all things towards a center point . It also has the same five second limit , though it is unknown whether it can be used for a large @-@ scale effect . The third ability is Planetary Devastation ( 地爆天星 , Chibaku Tensei , lit . " Heavenly Body Bursts from the Earth " ) , which musters a large amount of user 's chakra to release a small black orb of energy with intense gravitational pull , enough to uproot trees and destroy mountains , that compacts any thing caught in its pull into an extraterrestrial body that serves to encase whoever is trapped within it . Hagoromo used this technique to seal the Gedo Statue with the moon created as a result . The fourth ability is Shattered Heaven ( 天碍震星 , Tengai Shinsei , lit . " Heavenly Obstacle Quaking Star " ) , which pulls down double meteors to the Earth . The fifth ability is Limbo : Hengoku ( 輪墓 ・ 辺獄 , Rinbo : Hengoku , lit . " Wheel Grave : Limbo " ) , which sends as many as five shadowed duplicates of the user to an invisible world known as the Limbo ( 輪墓 , Rinbo , lit . " Wheel Grave " ) . The shadow can attack in accordance with the user , capable of blowing all nine Tailed Beasts at once . It is normally undetectable by people without Rinnegan , however , Naruto is able to sense its presence after receiving some of Hagoromo 's power . Despite being invisible , the shadows can be bound , and if they expire , all damage they sustained are transferred to their user .
In conjunction to Six Paths , a Rinnegan gives its user access to a special path called the Outer Path ( 外道 , Gedō ) , which allows the user to control the aspect of life and death . Nagato used this Path to devise a means to animate six corpses , each with a sixth of his full power , that he can control them through first @-@ person view . The user can also use special chakra chains which can bind even Tailed Beasts . Lastly , the user may perform a technique called Outer Path : Samsara of Heavenly Life Jutsu ( 外道 ・ 輪廻天生の術 , Gedō : Rinne Tensei no Jutsu ) to fully resurrect the dead by offering their own lives . The Sage of the Six Paths possesses a unique technique not used by anyone else called the Creation of All Things ( 万物創造 , Banbutsu Sōzō ) which manipulates the Yin chakra to create physical forms out of nothingness , then bestows it with life force through the Yang chakra .
Due to the fact that it is not a genetic ability and thus is very rare , the Rinnegan has been regarded as some sort of legend with only the Sage of Six Paths known to acquire it . However , the reincarnations of Hagoromo 's sons , Indra and Asura , can potentially access Rinnegan by having the genes of both reincarnations , as in the case of Madara ( Indra 's reincarnation ) , who obtained the DNA of Hashirama ( Asura 's reincarnation ) , although he only awoke the Rinnegan near the end of his natural lifespan . This is considered a wrongful act by Hagoromo as he attempted to leave a message in the form of a stone tablet for Indra 's descendants to reconsider the act . The Rinnegan is shown to be transplantable , as Madara was able to implant his Rinnegan into the young Nagato , and Obito takes up Madara 's left Rinnegan to use it in conjunction with his Sharingan . After meeting with Hagoromo , Sasuke , who is the current reincarnation of Indra , awakens a Rinnegan in his left eye , which has an additional six tomoe on top of the ripple pattern , making it closer to the Rinne Sharingan in appearance . His Rinnegan allows him to perform Amenotejikara ( 天手力 , lit . " Heavenly Hand Power " ) , which can shift himself , others , and objects a set distance away from his original location . He can increase the range of this technique by instantaneously changing place with a remote space . Due to its speed , this technique has proven to be especially useful for launching surprise attacks against enemies within its range . While there is no prerequisite for using the technique , it does have a recharging period after each use . Once fully mastered it can even cross dimensions but requires a large amount of chakra and drains his dōjutsu of its power for an extended period of time .
= = = Rinne Sharingan = = =
The Rinne Sharingan ( 輪廻写輪眼 , lit . " Saṃsāra Copy Wheel Eye " ) is a kekkei mōra dojutsu exclusive to Kaguya and the Ten Tails . As the Rinnegan and Sharingan originated from it , possessing the abilities that both eyes possess , the Rinne Sharingan resembles a red Rinnegan with nine tomoe in the irides . The Rinne Sharigan first manifested through Kaguya Ōtsutsuki after eating the Shinju 's fruit , which in turn is present in her Ten Tails incarnation and those who become Jinchuriki of the Ten Tails . Besides the Infinite Tsukuyomi , the user of a Rinne Sharingan can use Amenominaka ( 天之御中 , lit . " Heavenly Governing Inside " ) to instantly teleport the user and anyone within a certain range to different dimensions . Those affected by it are caught completely off guard , as there seems to be no warning prior to its usage and have found themselves plunging into a river of lava and abruptly being encased within a block of ice . Having been sent to a different dimension , the presence of their chakra is completely erased in the normal world and cannot be sensed through traditional means . It has been compared to the creation of genjutsu due to the ability to instantly rewrite all aspects of the dimension ; however , it is noted to be very chakra taxing . There is also the Yomotsu Hirasaka ( 黄泉比良坂 , lit . " Underworld Comparing Skilled Hill " ) , a technique that allows the user to teleport themselves instantly through a dark portal , either partially or completely .
= = = Summoning Jutsu = = =
The Summoning Jutsu ( 口寄せの術 , Kuchiyose no Jutsu ) allows a ninja to summon anything to their side . One common use for Summoning Jutsus are calling in creatures to fight by the summoner 's side . Before such a summon can be performed , a ninja must first sign a contract with the creature in their own blood . Even after that they need only perform the proper hand @-@ seals and press their hand to the ground , offering an additional donation of blood while providing an appropriate amount of chakra to bring the creature to their location . The Summoning Jutsu has been used by a number of different characters during the series , each of whom summons a different type of creature : The most common summons being the toads of Mount Myoboku and snakes . Other summons include tortoises , hawks , dogs , slugs , puppets , and various other creatures . But as seen in Part II , the Summoning Jutsu can work both ways with a creature bringing its summoner to its location .
= = Reception = =
Shonen Jump has featured several popularity polls for jutsu in the series . In every official poll , Rasengan has ranked first , and Chidori has ranked second . These results were reversed in a similar poll in the first Naruto databook , in which Chidori was ranked first , and Rasengan second . In a top ten list of jutsu compiled by IGN 's Ramsey Isler , Rasengan was ranked first , and Chidori second . Several pieces of merchandise have been released featuring Naruto characters performing jutsu , including action figures and clothing .
Several publications for anime and manga have commented on the use of jutsu in the series . IGN called jutsu " one of the most entertaining parts of the Naruto franchise " , and noted that " the complicated but impressive @-@ looking hand gestures , the unique physical attributes , and the pure unadulterated destructive power of the ninjutsu are some of the things that make the series wildly popular " . T.H.E.M. Anime Reviews claimed that it was in " fight / action scenes that Naruto receives is highest accolades " , and praised the " invigorating and unique fighting styles / techniques [ that ] manage to continuously infuse action sets with life " . However , it criticized the " overemployment of certain special techniques " such as Naruto Uzumaki 's Shadow Clone Technique , noting that the fights became " bland and repetitive " over time . Anime News Network ( ANN ) considered the structure of battles " repetitive to a fault — a series of competing power @-@ ups followed by an elegiac coda " , but mollified by the series ' " winning formula : the villains are vile , the heroes sympathetic , and the stakes high " .
In a review of the eighth through tenth volumes of the manga , ANN lambasted the fact the fights were frequently " interrupted by long @-@ winded ( and sometimes redundant ) explanations of strategies and special techniques " , but praised the visual presentation of the fights , noting that " the fights are staged with a clear eye for geography , movement and the human form , and are bursting with so much visual energy that not even the flashbacks and tedious explanations can dampen them " . For the visuals in the anime , ANN made note of the fight between Naruto Uzumaki and Sasuke Uchiha in episodes 132 – 134 , noting the " impressiveness of the Sasuke fight 's visuals " , in which " Naruto clones explode from a lake like ninja @-@ shaped surface @-@ to @-@ air missiles and glowing energy limbs ambush enemies from underground and cling to rock faces like neon prehensile tails " . Although ANN praised the animators who " put all the love they could into the fight " , it criticized the slow plot pacing that led up to the fight , and the fight 's tedious structure .
= Chris Carter ( screenwriter ) =
Chris Carter ( born October 13 , 1957 ) is an American television and film producer , director and writer . Born in Bellflower , California , Carter graduated with a degree in journalism from California State University , Long Beach before spending thirteen years working for Surfing Magazine . After beginning his television career working on television films for Walt Disney Studios , Carter rose to fame in the early 1990s after creating the science fiction @-@ supernatural television series The X @-@ Files for the Fox network . The X @-@ Files earned high viewership ratings , and led to Carter 's being able to negotiate the creation of future series .
Carter went on to create three more series for the network — Millennium , a doomsday @-@ themed series which met with critical approval and low viewer numbers ; Harsh Realm , which was canceled after three episodes had aired ; and The Lone Gunmen , a spin @-@ off of The X @-@ Files which lasted for a single season . Carter 's film roles include writing both of The X @-@ Files ' cinematic spin @-@ offs — 1998 's successful The X @-@ Files and the poorly received 2008 follow @-@ up The X @-@ Files : I Want to Believe , the latter of which he also directed — while his television credits have earned him several accolades including eight Primetime Emmy Award nominations . The Amazon Studios television series The After was his most recent series .
= = Early life = =
Chris Carter was born on October 13 , 1957 in Bellflower , California . His father worked in the construction industry . Carter has described his childhood as " fairly normal " , and was fond of both Little League Baseball and surfing ; his surfing stance is goofy footed . He attended California State University , Long Beach in Long Beach , graduated with a journalism degree in 1979 . An avid surfer , he began writing for Surfing Magazine , a San Clemente @-@ based journal , eventually becoming its editor at the age of 28 . Carter would work for the magazine for thirteen years , and credits his tenure there for teaching him how to run a business . It was also at this time that Carter began taking an interest in pottery , making " hundreds of thousands of pieces " of dinnerware as a hobby . He has compared the process of making pottery to Zen meditations , although he has since thrown out most of his work .
= = Career = =
= = = Starting in television = = =
In 1983 , Carter began dating Dori Pierson , whom he had met through a cousin of hers who worked with him at Surfing Magazine . Pierson 's connections at Walt Disney Studios led to chairman Jeffrey Katzenberg hiring Carter on a standard contract . Carter began writing television films for the studio , penning The B.R.A.T. Patrol in 1986 and Meet the Munceys in 1988 . These scripts led to Carter being associated with contemporary youth comedy at the studio , and although he enjoyed the work he felt that his real strengths and interests lay in serious drama instead .
Carter met the then @-@ president of NBC , Brandon Tartikoff , at a company softball game in Brentwood , California . Tartikoff and Carter began talking between innings , and when Tartikoff eventually read some of Carter 's script work , he brought him over to write for the network . There , Carter developed a number of unproduced television pilots — Cameo By Night , featuring Sela Ward ; Brand New Life , which has been described as being similar to The Brady Bunch ; Copter Cop , a science fiction series that was hampered by Tartikoff 's injuries after a car accident ; and Cool Culture , influenced by Carter 's passion for surfing and experience with Surfing Magazine . During this time Carter would also work as a producer on Rags to Riches , a job he accepted in order to learn more about producing a series .
Peter Roth , at that time the president of Stephen J. Cannell Productions , obtained a copy of Carter 's pilot script for Cool Culture , and although the series was never picked up , Roth was interested in hiring Carter to work on the CBS series Palace Guard . However , Roth would soon leave CBS to work for Fox as the head of its television production wing . Carter was among the first wave of new staff hired by Roth in 1992 to develop material for the network , and he began work on a series based on his own childhood fondness for The Twilight Zone and Kolchak : The Night Stalker .
= = = The X @-@ Files and success = = =
Carter 's new series would take its stylistic inspiration from Kolchak , while thematically reflecting his experiences growing up during the Watergate scandal . Carter also drew inspiration from his friend John E. Mack 's survey of American beliefs in ufology , which indicated that three percent of the population believed they had been abducted by aliens . Roth warmed to the idea upon hearing of the influence of Kolchak , believing that vampires — one of the central antagonists of the original series — would be popular with audiences given the interest being shown in the upcoming film Interview with the Vampire : The Vampire Chronicles , although Carter insisted on an extraterrestrial @-@ focused series . However , Carter had never been interested in science fiction before this point , professing to have briefly read one novel each by Ursula K. Le Guin and Robert A. Heinlein . Basing his characters instead on those found in the English television series The Avengers , Carter took an eighteen @-@ page treatment for his new project — by now titled The X @-@ Files — to a pitch meeting at Fox , where it was soon rejected . With the help of Roth , Carter was able to arrange a second pitch meeting , at which the network reluctantly agreed to greenlight a pilot for the series .
After finding the series ' two starring leads in Gillian Anderson and David Duchovny , Carter was given a budget of $ 2 million to produce a pilot episode . The series aired on Friday nights on the Fox network , being broadcast in tandem with The Adventures of Brisco County , Jr. in what was perceived to be an unpopular timeslot . The series earned relatively impressive Nielsen ratings for its Friday timeslot , and was given a full twenty @-@ four episode order . The series ' popularity and critical acclaim built over the course of its second and third seasons , and saw it earning its first Golden Globe Award for Best Television Series – Drama and breaking the record for highest price paid by a network for rights to air re @-@ runs , fetching $ 600 @,@ 000 per episode from Fox 's sister network FX . After Carter 's initial three @-@ year signing for Fox had ended , the success of the series allowed him to negotiate a five @-@ year contract with several additional perks , including the guarantee of a feature film adaptation to be produced by the parent company 's film studio , and the greenlighting of Carter 's next television project . In March 2015 , it was confirmed that Carter is set to executive produce and write the screenplays for the revival of The X @-@ Files , which is set for a six @-@ episode event series .
= = = Millennium = = =
Carter began work on a new series , Millennium . The genesis of this new project stemmed from " Irresistible " , a second @-@ season episode of The X @-@ Files which Carter had written , which focused on a sexually motivated serial killer with none of that series ' usual supernatural trappings . Carter fleshed out the basis of the new show 's protagonist , Frank Black , and travelled to Seattle for inspiration for a new setting . Influence was also drawn from the works of Nostradamus , and the increasing popular interest in eschatology ahead of the coming millennium . The central role of Black was eventually filled by Lance Henriksen , and the series began airing in the Friday timeslot formerly occupied by The X @-@ Files . " Pilot " , the début episode , was heavily promoted by Fox , and brought in over a quarter of the total audience during its broadcast .
The series also attracted a high degree of critical appraisal , earning a People 's Choice Award for " Favorite New TV Dramatic Series " in its first year . At the beginning of the second season , Carter handed over control of the series to Glen Morgan and James Wong , with whom he had previously worked on both Millennium 's first season and several seasons of The X @-@ Files . Despite its promising start , however , ratings for Millennium after the pilot remained consistently low , and it was cancelled after three seasons .
= = = Feature films = = =
During the production of the fourth season of The X @-@ Files , work on the first feature film adaptation of the series began . Also titled The X @-@ Files , Carter initially began a treatment for the script over Christmas holidays in Hawaii in 1996 . Series producer Frank Spotnitz collaborated on the story outline at this time . Carter would later return to Hawaii for a ten @-@ day stint in 1997 to begin fleshing out the finished script . Carter appointed frequent series director Rob Bowman as director of the film , which went on to feature many of the series ' regular cast , including Duchovny , Anderson , Mitch Pileggi and William B. Davis .
The X @-@ Files premiered on June 19 , 1998 , eventually making a worldwide gross of $ 189 @,@ 176 @,@ 423 . The film currently holds a rating of 60 out of 100 on review aggregation website Metacritic , based on their weighted average of 23 reviews . Fellow review aggregation site Rotten Tomatoes rates the film 64 % , based on their analysis of 69 reviews .
Ten years after the success of the first film , and six years after The X @-@ Files final season had finished , Carter would both write and direct a second feature film , titled The X @-@ Files : I Want to Believe . Filmed in British Columbia , I Want To Believe was released on July 25 , 2008 ; eventually grossing $ 68 @,@ 369 @,@ 434 worldwide . The film was received poorly by critics , holding ratings of 32 and 47 on Rotten Tomatoes and Metacritic respectively .
= = = Other work = = =
Carter has made several brief cameo roles as an actor — first appearing in The X @-@ Files ' " Anasazi " as a FBI agent ; before portraying a member of a film audience in " Hollywood A.D. " , a later episode of the same series . Carter also made a brief appearance in " Three Men and a Smoking Diaper " , an episode of The Lone Gunmen .
In 1999 , Carter began adapting the comic book series Harsh Realm as a television show , also titled Harsh Realm . Carter 's friend and frequent collaborator Daniel Sackheim had optioned the comics for adaptation in 1996 . However , when the series first aired on October 8 , 1999 , the comics ' writers Andrew Paquette and James Hudnall were given no writing credits for the work ; the two then filed suit against Fox to be credited for their work . Harsh Realm received disappointing viewing figures , and was cancelled after only three episodes had been broadcast .
Two years later , Carter launched a spin @-@ off of The X @-@ Files titled The Lone Gunmen , a series centred on three minor characters from the former series . The Lone Gunmen was cancelled after thirteen episodes , later receiving a coda in the form of a crossover episode with The X @-@ Files . Carter has since been involved with writing and directing the as @-@ yet unreleased film Fencewalker , set to feature Natalie Dormer and Katie Cassidy . In 2011 , he began working to develop Unique , a police thriller television series ; the project was eventually dropped before completion .
Carter next began work on the Amazon Studios television series The After . The pilot episode was made available for viewing on February 6 , 2014 ; the series was green @-@ lit the following month , but finally cancelled on January 5 , 2015 , without another episode beyond the pilot being shot .
= = Accolades = =
Carter 's work has earned him several accolades over his career , including eight nominations at the Primetime Emmy Awards . Carter has also received award nominations for the Directors Guild of America Awards , the Edgar Awards , and the British Academy Television Awards .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Film = = =
= = = Television = = =
= Louise Lehzen =
Johanna Clara Louise Lehzen ( 3 October 1784 – 9 September 1870 ) , better known as Baroness Louise Lehzen , was the governess , and later adviser and companion to Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom .
Born to a Lutheran pastor in Hanover , in 1819 Lehzen entered into the household of the Duchess of Kent and her husband Prince Edward Augustus , Duke of Kent and Strathearn . Five years later , Lehzen became governess to their only child , Princess Victoria . Lehzen became strongly protective of the princess , who resided in a household dominated by the controlling Kensington System , implemented by the Duchess and her comptroller Sir John Conroy . " Dear , good Lehzen " soon came to supersede all others in Victoria 's eyes , including her own mother .
Victoria became second @-@ in @-@ line to the British throne in 1827 ; to prevent Victoria from being surrounded by commoners , King George IV named Lehzen a Baroness of the Kingdom of Hanover later that year . Lehzen encouraged the princess to become strong , informed , and independent from the Duchess and Conroy 's influence , causing friction between the two and Lehzen . Attempts to remove the governess , who had the support of George IV , his brother William IV , and Victoria 's uncle Leopold I of Belgium , were unsuccessful .
When Victoria became queen in 1837 , Lehzen served as a sort of unofficial private secretary , enjoying apartments adjacent to Victoria . The queen 's 1840 marriage to Prince Albert led to significant changes in the royal household . Albert and Lehzen detested each other , and after an illness of the Princess Royal in 1841 , Lehzen was quietly dismissed . Her close relationship to the queen came to an end , though the two continued to write letters to each other . Lehzen spent her last years in Hanover on a generous pension , dying in 1870 . Historian K.D. Reynolds writes that Lehzen was a major influence on Victoria 's character , in particular giving her the strength of will to survive her troubled childhood and young queenship .
= = Family and early life = =
Johanna Clara Louise Lehzen was born in Hanover on 3 October 1784 , the youngest of seven daughters and two sons of Lutheran pastor Joachim Friedrich Lehzen and his wife Melusine Palm . Forced by circumstances to work for her living since she was young , Lehzen was employed by the von Marenholtzs , an aristocratic German family , where she earned glowing references .
Based on these references , Lehzen became part of the household of Princess Victoria of Saxe @-@ Coburg @-@ Saalfeld in December 1819 , when she served as governess to twelve @-@ year @-@ old Princess Feodora of Leiningen , the daughter of the princess by her first husband , the Prince of Leiningen . Princess Victoria was married to the Prince Edward Augustus , Duke of Kent and Strathearn , who was , at the time , fourth in line for the British throne . Lehzen and the entire household were moved to England in 1817 so that the new Duchess of Kent 's child might be born there , strengthening the child 's claim to the throne . The baby was a girl , christened " Alexandrina Victoria " after her mother and her godfather , Alexander I of Russia ; she would grow up to be Queen Victoria .
= = Tutor to Princess Victoria = =
The Duke of Kent died quite suddenly in 1820 , followed quickly by his father , King George III . Victoria 's uncle , the Prince Regent , ascended the throne as George IV . Victoria was now third in line for the crown , after her uncles the Duke of York and the Duke of Clarence , both of whom were well past middle age and neither of whom had legitimate heirs . As the likely eventual heiress , Victoria had to be educated accordingly . Feodora was now 14 , and no longer required the services of a governess . After the dismissal of nursemaid Mrs. Brock , Lehzen – as she was always known in the household – took over five @-@ year @-@ old Victoria 's care in 1824 . The Duchess and her comptroller , John Conroy made the appointment not only because Lehzen was German ( rather than English ) , but also because they believed she was unlikely to operate independent of their wishes .
Twentieth century historian Christopher Hibbert describes Lehzen as " a handsome woman , despite her pointed nose and chin , clever , emotional , humourless . " At first fearing Lehzen 's stern manner , " dear , good Lehzen " soon came to occupy a place in Victoria 's heart that superseded all others , including her own mother , the Duchess of Kent . Lehzen encouraged the princess to distrust her mother and her mother 's friends , and to maintain her independence . The governess was uninterested in money and lacked ambition for herself , instead choosing to devote her time and energy to the princess . Victoria took to calling Lehzen " Mother " and " dearest Daisy " in private , writing Lehzen was " the most affectionate , devoted , attached , and disinterested friend I have . " As part of the controlling Kensington System devised by Conroy , after 1824 Victoria was to be accompanied by Lehzen at all times during the day ; consequently Lehzen was not allowed out to leave Victoria 's side until the Duchess dismissed her at nighttime , and was required to hold the princess ' hand when Victoria descended a staircase .
= = = Baroness Lehzen = = =
In 1827 , the Duke of York died , making the Duke of Clarence heir presumptive , and Victoria second @-@ in @-@ line to the throne . Conroy complained that the princess should not be surrounded with commoners , leading George IV to award them both titles ; Lehzen became a Baroness of the Kingdom of Hanover . George IV himself died in 1830 , and was duly succeeded by his brother the Duke of Clarence , who became King William IV . William formally recognised Victoria as his heiress @-@ presumptive . According to Lehzen , around this time the famous scene took place , in which Lehzen slipped a copy of the genealogy of the House of Hanover into one of the princess 's lesson books . After perusing it for some time , Victoria came to see that her father had been next in line after the king , and that Queen Adelaide had no surviving children . This was the first time Victoria came to realise the destiny that had been assumed by many since her birth ; that she would be the next British monarch . After a pause , Victoria is reported to have said " I will be good . " This story entered into folk legend for future English generations .
King William appointed his friend , the Duchess of Northumberland , as Victoria 's official governess in 1831 , but the role was mostly ceremonial , and the princess continued to depend on Lehzen . The Duchess was dismissed in 1837 by Victoria 's mother , the Duchess of Kent , for attempting to become more influential in Victoria 's education . During this time , Lehzen held no official position at court ; despite her recently acquired title , her commoner status continued to be a hindrance .
= = = Educating Victoria = = =
The wish of the Duchess and Conroy to keep Victoria dependent on their will was circumvented by Lehzen , who wanted her charge to become a strong , informed woman . As Victoria grew older , attempts were made by Conroy and the Duchess for Lehzen 's removal , or at least the lessening of her influence . Such tactics proved unsuccessful , as the princess became more devoted to Lehzen than before , as evident in her journals . Lehzen 's only true friend in the household , Baroness Spath , had been suddenly dismissed in 1828 on the orders of Conroy ; rumours abounded that the baroness witnessed " familiarities " between him and the Duchess . Members of George IV 's court speculated that Lehzen would be the next to leave , but she remained silent on the issue and preserved her position . In 1835 , the Duchess of Kent wrote her daughter a stern letter demanding that Victoria develop a more formal and less intimate relationship with Lehzen . The same year ( in which Victoria turned sixteen ) , plans to dismiss Lehzen fell apart after she devotedly nursed Victoria through a five @-@ week illness . Lehzen aided a weakened Victoria in her refusal to sign a document prepared for her by Conroy and the Duchess that would guarantee him a position when she became queen . During her tenure , Lehzen had the support of George IV , William IV , and another of Victoria 's uncles , Leopold I of Belgium , who all believed that she was vital to the princess ' health , happiness , and continued resistance to Conroy 's influence .
The education Victoria received from Lehzen was rudimentary but solid . Contrary to the prevailing attitudes of the time , Lehzen , tutor Dr. George Davys , and others successfully encouraged Victoria to enjoy acquiring knowledge . Davys was put in charge of the " solid department of her studies " , while Lehzen concentrated on the " more ornamental departments " , such as dancing . Gaining an " enlightened education " , the princess learned to speak French , German , Latin , and English , liked history and was taught economics , geography , mathematics , politics , art , and music . Lehzen was strict , but rewarded the princess when she was obedient . In another departure from the era , Lehzen employed little to no corporal punishment ; at least , there is no record of it in the household accounts .
= = Victoria in power = =
When Victoria ascended the throne in 1837 , Lehzen enjoyed a prominent position at the coronation , and remained at court . Lehzen was installed at Buckingham Palace as a sort of unofficial private secretary , served as chief liaison for the royal residences , and carried the household keys as a sign of her position ; her signature was required for all payments of tradesmen 's bills , for instance . At this point , it seems that Lehzen had totally replaced Victoria 's mother both in terms of influence and affection ; Lehzen 's apartments adjoined the queen 's , while the Duchess of Kent was installed in a suite of rooms far removed from Victoria 's . For the first few years of Victoria 's reign , especially before her marriage to Prince Albert of Saxe @-@ Coburg and Gotha in 1840 , Lehzen had a very strong influence on the queen 's outlook on both politics and personal matters , despite the fact that she did not overtly involve herself in state affairs . Even after the queen 's marriage , Lehzen retained the private doorway into the royal bedroom , a source of displeasure for Albert .
= = = Supplanted by Prince Albert = = =
The coming of Prince Albert led to significant changes in Victoria 's household . Lehzen had opposed Coburg ambitions of Victoria marrying Albert , believing the princess to be a " second Queen Elizabeth , virgin and independent of male influence . " Albert was well @-@ educated , and had just completed a tour of Europe , preceded by years at the University of Bonn . Victoria 's court dismayed his puritan German sensibilities . Lehzen and Albert soon developed a dislike for each other ; she sought to thwart Albert 's will in various ways and he found her personally repugnant and unworthy of befriending the queen , referring to her as " the hag " and a " crazy stupid intriguer " .
When Victoria 's first child , Victoria , Princess Royal , was born on 21 November 1840 , Victoria trusted Lehzen to make the arrangements for the nursery staff . Lehzen put the nursery in the hands of a Mrs. Southey , a Mrs. Roberts , and Sir James Clark , despite Albert 's objections that Clark was wholly unsuited to the post , having already discredited himself during the affair of Lady Flora Hastings a year previously . Eventually , the Princess Royal fell ill , but the incompetent Dr. Clark declared it a minor ailment , incorrectly prescribing her with calomel . In fact , the young Princess Victoria had become seriously ill . Albert , who was devoted to his first @-@ born , confronted Victoria on the incompetence of the staff selected by the Baroness . There was a quarrel , after which Albert declared that he would leave the affair in her queenly hands , and be it on her head if the child died . Soon after this argument , Victoria gave in to him and ultimately dismissed Lehzen , ostensibly for her health . To Albert , Lehzen was a servant who had attempted to rise above her place in life , and he wanted Victoria to rely on him alone .
Reports of the reasons behind Lehzen 's departure varied ; court diarist Charles Greville noted she was leaving " for her health ( as she says ) , to stay five or six months , but it is supposed never to return . " The Times however reported that she was simply visiting friends in Germany . After her departure , family adviser Baron Stockmar remarked of the affair that " it was not without great difficulty that the Prince succeeded in getting rid of [ Lehzen ] . She was foolish enough to contest his influence , and not to conform herself to the change in her position ... If she had done so , and conciliated the P [ rince ] , she might have remained in the Palace to the end of her life . "
= = Death and legacy = =
When Lehzen was dismissed from the court in 1842 she returned to her native Germany , living in Bückeburg near Hanover . She lived with her sister on the generous pension that Victoria sent her , and covered the walls of her house with portraits of the queen . Though her sister died several months later , the baroness continued to support financially her many nieces and nephews . Lehzen continued to regard Victoria with affection , and the queen wrote regularly to her former governess , weekly at first and later monthly at Lehzen 's request . When visiting relations in Germany , the queen came to visit her twice in private . The Baroness Lehzen died in Bückeburg on 9 September 1870 , where she is buried in Jetenburger cemetery . Queen Victoria ordered the erection of a memorial to her . After Lehzen 's death , Queen Victoria spoke of her gratitude for their relationship , but commented " after I came to the throne she got to be rather trying , and especially so after my marriage ... [ This was not ] from any evil intention , only from a mistaken idea of duty and affection for me . "
During her time at the English court , Lehzen attracted attention outside of the royal household for her close relationship with Victoria . She was criticised for her influence with the queen , particularly from those who disliked German influences at court . Pamphlets , many released by the Tory party , complained of the " stranger harboured in our country " and the " evil counsellors " surrounding Victoria . One in particular , published as the Warning Letter to Baroness Lehzen , declared that a " certain foreign lady pulled the wires of a diabolical conspiracy of which Lady Flora was to be the first victim , " a reference to the Flora Hastings affair . More positive , The Times once described her as having simply " held a highly and strictly confidential situation about the person of the Sovereign . " As a sign of the perceived political influence she possessed , in 1838 false rumours suggested that Lehzen had been " converted " to the Whig party , and that she had been offered " an urgent proposal of marriage " by Whig prime minister Viscount Melbourne . Despite all of this criticism , historian Gillian Gill describes how Lehzen was honest and frugal ; even after Victoria ascended the throne , she seems to have made no demands for money or rank , preferring instead to simply be in the queen 's company . Historian K.D. Reynolds adds that Lehzen was a major influence on Victoria 's character and moral development , in particular giving the queen the strength of will to survive her troubled childhood and young queenship . Not all of her influence was positive however ; Reynolds also speculates that the 1839 Bedchamber crisis stemmed partly from Victoria 's unwillingness to lose Lehzen .
Baroness Lehzen has been portrayed numerous times in film and television . She was played by Renée Stobrawa in the 1936 German film Mädchenjahre einer Königin , Greta Schröder in the films Victoria the Great and Sixty Glorious Years , Barbara Everest in 1941 's The Prime Minister , Magda Schneider in the 1954 television serial The Story of Vickie , Olga Fabian in an episode of Hallmark Hall of Fame , Patience Collier in Edward the Seventh , Diana Rigg in the 2001 television serial Victoria & Albert , and Jeanette Hain in the 2009 film The Young Victoria .
= Tomorrow Never Dies =
Tomorrow Never Dies ( 1997 ) is the eighteenth spy film in the James Bond series , and the second to star Pierce Brosnan as the fictional MI6 agent James Bond . Directed by Roger Spottiswoode , with the screenplay written by Bruce Feirstein , the film follows Bond as he attempts to stop Elliot Carver , a power @-@ mad media mogul , from engineering world events to initiate World War III .
The film was produced by Michael G. Wilson and Barbara Broccoli , and was the first James Bond film made after the death of producer Albert R. Broccoli , to whom the movie pays tribute in the end credits . Filming locations included France , Thailand , Germany , Mexico and the United Kingdom . Tomorrow Never Dies performed well at the box office and earned a Golden Globe nomination despite mixed reviews . While its performance at the domestic box office surpassed that of its predecessor , GoldenEye , it was the only Pierce Brosnan Bond film not to open at number one at the box office , as it opened the same day as Titanic , but instead at number two .
= = Plot = =
MI6 sends James Bond , agent 007 , into the field to spy on a terrorist arms bazaar on the Russian border . Despite M 's insistence to let 007 finish his reconnaissance , British Admiral Roebuck orders the frigate HMS Chester to launch a missile attack on the arms bazaar . Bond then discovers two nuclear torpedoes mounted on an L @-@ 39 Albatros , and as the missile is too far along to be aborted , 007 hijacks the L @-@ 39 and flies away seconds before the bazaar is destroyed .
The media baron Elliot Carver soon begins his plans to use an encoder stolen from the bazaar by his henchman , cyberterrorist Henry Gupta , to provoke war between China and the United Kingdom ; he hopes to replace the Chinese government with one that will give him exclusive broadcasting rights . Meaconing the GPS signal using the encoder , Gupta sends the British frigate HMS Devonshire off @-@ course into Chinese @-@ held waters in the South China Sea , where Carver 's stealth ship , commanded by Mr. Stamper , sinks it and steals one of its missiles , while shooting down a Chinese J @-@ 7 fighter jet and killing off the Devonshire 's survivors with Chinese weaponry . The British Minister of Defence orders Roebuck to deploy the British Fleet to recover the frigate , and possibly retaliate , while leaving M only 48 hours to investigate its sinking and avert a war .
M sends Bond to investigate Carver after he releases news articles about the crisis hours before MI @-@ 6 had learned of it . Bond travels to Hamburg and seduces Carver 's wife , Paris , who is also Bond 's ex @-@ girlfriend , to get information that would help him enter Carver 's newspaper headquarters . He also knocks out three of Stamper 's men and cuts Carver off the air while he is giving a speech during the inaugural broadcast of his satellite network . After Bond steals back the GPS encoder , Carver orders Paris and Bond killed . Paris is murdered by Carver 's personal assassin Dr. Kaufman , but Bond kills Kaufman and escapes , protecting the encoder . Bond learns that the encoder had been tampered with , and goes to the South China Sea to investigate the wreck ( which was actually in Vietnamese waters ) . He and Wai Lin , a Chinese agent on the same case , explore the sunken ship and discover one of its cruise missiles missing , but are captured by Stamper and taken to the CMGN tower in Ho Chi Minh City . They soon escape and decide to collaborate on the investigation .
The two contact the Royal Navy and the People 's Liberation Army Air Force to explain Carver 's scheme ; Carver plans to use the stolen missile to destroy the Chinese government , and allow a Chinese general to step in and stop war between Britain and China , although not before both sides destroy each other at sea . They find Carver 's stealth ship , which had been built with stolen stealth material , in Ha Long Bay , and board it to prevent him from firing the stolen British cruise missile at Beijing . During the attempt , Wai Lin is captured , forcing Bond to devise a second plan . Bond captures Gupta to use as his own hostage , but Carver kills Gupta , claiming he has " outlived his contract . " Bond detonates an explosive which damages the ship , causing it to be visible to radar to both Chinese and British navies , who had just been warned of the plot , and thus making it vulnerable to a subsequent Royal Navy attack by HMS Bedford . While Wai Lin disables the engines , and is captured by Stamper , Bond attempts to halt the missile . After killing Carver with his own sea drill , Bond attempts to destroy the warhead with detonators , but Stamper appears and attacks him after sending Wai Lin into the waters to drown . Bond traps Stamper in the missile firing mechanism and dives to save Wai Lin as the missile explodes , destroying the ship and killing Stamper . Later , Bond and Wai Lin share a romantic moment amidst the wreckage as the Bedford searches for them .
= = Cast = =
Pierce Brosnan as James Bond , MI6 agent 007 .
Michelle Yeoh as Colonel Wai Lin , a skilled Chinese spy and Bond 's ally .
Jonathan Pryce as Elliot Carver , a psychopathic media mogul who plans to provoke global war to boost sales and ratings of his news divisions .
Teri Hatcher as Paris Carver , a former girlfriend of Bond who is now Carver 's trophy wife .
Götz Otto as Richard Stamper , Carver 's henchman , who is skilled in the art of Chakra torture .
Ricky Jay as Henry Gupta , an American " Techno @-@ terrorist " in the employ of Carver . Bruce Feirstein said he named this character after a Gupta Bakery , which he passed on the way to the studios .
Joe Don Baker as Jack Wade , CIA liaison , reprising his role from GoldenEye .
Vincent Schiavelli as Dr. Kaufman , a professional assassin used by Elliot Carver .
Judi Dench as M , reprising her role from GoldenEye .
Desmond Llewelyn in his penultimate appearance as Q.
Samantha Bond as Miss Moneypenny .
Daphne Deckers as PR person of Carver Media Group Network .
Geoffrey Palmer as Admiral Roebuck , M 's contentious military contact .
Colin Salmon as Charles Robinson , M 's Deputy Chief of Staff .
Julian Fellowes as the British Minister of Defence , who orders Admiral Roebuck to send the fleet to the China Sea . He is the successor to Sir Frederick Gray ( Geoffrey Keen ) .
Cecilie Thomsen as Professor Inga Bergstrom .
Gerard Butler gets one line as a crewman aboard the Devonshire .
Hugh Bonneville as Air Warfare Officer – HMS Bedford .
= = Production = =
Following the success of GoldenEye in reviving the Bond series , there was pressure to recreate that success in the film 's follow @-@ up production . This pressure came from MGM along with its new owner , billionaire Kirk Kerkorian , both of whom wished for the film 's release to coincide with their public stock offering . Co @-@ producer Michael G. Wilson also expressed concern regarding the public 's expectations subsequent to the success of GoldenEye , commenting : " You realize that there 's a huge audience and I guess you don 't want to come out with a film that 's going to somehow disappoint them . " This was the first Bond film to be made after the death of Albert R. Broccoli , who had previously been involved with the series ' production since its beginning . The rush to complete the film drove the budget to $ 110 million . The producers were unable to convince Martin Campbell , the director of GoldenEye , to return ; his agent said that " Martin just didn 't want to do two Bond films in a row . " Instead , Roger Spottiswoode was chosen in September 1996 . Spottiswoode said he had previously offered to direct a Bond film while Timothy Dalton was still in the leading role .
= = = Writing = = =
As had been the case with several previous films in the series , an entirely original story was required as there remained no Ian Fleming novels or stories to adapt . The scriptwriting process was finished very late due to lengthy disputes .
Initial writers on the project included John Cork , Richard Smith , and novelist Donald E. Westlake . In 1995 Westlake wrote two story treatments in collaboration with Wilson , both of which featured a villain who plans to destroy Hong Kong with explosives on the eve of the city 's July 1997 transfer of sovereignty to China . Director Roger Spottiswoode said that in January 1997 MGM had a script that was also focused on the Hong Kong handover ; however , this plot could not be used for a film opening at the end of the year , so they had to start " almost from scratch at T @-@ minus zero ! "
Bruce Feirstein , who had worked on GoldenEye , penned the initial script . Feirstein claimed that his inspiration was his own experience working with journalism , stating that he aimed to " write something that was grounded in a nightmare of reality . " Feirstein 's script was then passed to Spottiswoode who reworked it . He gathered seven Hollywood screenwriters in London to brainstorm , eventually choosing Nicholas Meyer to perform rewrites . The script was also worked on by Dan Petrie , Jr. and David Campbell Wilson before Feirstein , who retained the sole writing credit , was brought in for a final polish . While many reviewers compared Elliot Carver to Rupert Murdoch , Feirstein based the character on Robert Maxwell . There is a reference to the mogul 's death when M instructs Moneypenny to issue a press release stating that Carver died “ falling overboard on his yacht . "
Wilson stated , " We didn 't have a script that was ready to shoot on the first day of filming " , while Pierce Brosnan said , " We had a script that was not functioning in certain areas . " The Daily Mail reported on arguments between Spottiswoode and the producers with the former favouring the Petrie version , but the latter reinstating Feirstein to rewrite it two weeks before filming was due to begin . They also said that Jonathan Pryce and Teri Hatcher were unhappy with their new roles , causing further re @-@ scripting .
The title was inspired by the Beatles ' song " Tomorrow Never Knows " . The eventual title came about by accident : one of the potential titles was Tomorrow Never Lies ( referring to the Tomorrow newspaper in the plot ) and this was faxed to MGM . But through an error this became Tomorrow Never Dies , a title which MGM found so attractive that they insisted on using . The title was the first not to have any relation to Fleming 's life or work .
= = = Casting = = =
Teri Hatcher was three months pregnant when shooting started , although her publicist stated the pregnancy did not affect the production schedule . Hatcher later regretted playing Paris Carver , saying " It 's such an artificial kind of character to be playing that you don 't get any special satisfaction from it . " Actress Sela Ward auditioned for the role , but lost out , reportedly being told the producers wanted her , but ten years younger . Hatcher was seven years Ward 's junior . According to Brosnan , Monica Bellucci also screen tested for the role but as Brosnan remarked , " the fools said no . " Daphne Deckers , who portrays the PR Lady , also confirms that she saw Belluci the same day she herself auditioned . Bellucci would later go on to play a role in the 24th Bond film , Spectre .
The role of Elliot Carver was initially offered to Anthony Hopkins ( who also had been offered a role in GoldenEye ) , but he declined in favor of The Mask of Zorro .
Natasha Henstridge was rumoured as cast in the lead Bond Girl role , but eventually , Yeoh was confirmed in that role . Brosnan was impressed , describing her as a " wonderful actress " who was " serious and committed about her work " . She reportedly wanted to perform her own stunts , but was prevented because director Spottiswoode ruled it too dangerous and prohibited by insurance restrictions .
When Götz Otto was called in for casting , he was given twenty seconds to introduce himself ; his hair had recently been cropped short for a TV role . Saying , " I 'm big , I 'm bad , and I 'm German " , he did it in five .
= = = Filming = = =
Second unit filming began on 18 January 1997 with Vic Armstrong directing ; they filmed the pre @-@ credits sequence at Peyresourde Airport in the French Pyrenees , and moved on to Portsmouth to film the scenes where the Royal Navy prepares to engage the Chinese . The main unit began filming on 1 April . They were unable to use the Leavesden Film Studios , which they had constructed from an abandoned Rolls @-@ Royce factory for GoldenEye , as George Lucas was using it for Star Wars : Episode I – The Phantom Menace , so instead they constructed sound stages in another derelict industrial site nearby . They also used the 007 Stage at Pinewood Studios . The scene at the " U.S. Air Base in the South China Sea " where Bond hands over the GPS encoder was actually filmed in the area known as Blue Section at RAF Lakenheath . The sea landing used the vast tank built for Titanic in Rosarito , Baja California , Mexico . The MH @-@ 53J in the film was from the US Air Force 's 352d Special Operations Group at RAF Mildenhall . Some scenes were planned to be filmed on location in Ho Chi Minh City , Vietnam , and the production had been granted a visa . This was later rescinded , two months after planning had begun , forcing filming to move to Bangkok , Thailand . Bond spokesman Gordon Arnell claimed the Vietnamese were unhappy with crew and equipment needed for pyrotechnics , with a Vietnamese official saying it was due to " many complicated reasons " . Two locations from previous Bond films were used : Brosnan and Hatcher 's love scene was filmed at Stoke Park , which had been featured in Goldfinger , and the bay where they search for Carver 's stealth boat is Phang Nga Bay , Thailand , previously used for The Man with the Golden Gun .
Spottiswoode tried to innovate in the action scenes . Since the director felt that after the tank chase in GoldenEye he could not use a bigger vehicle , a scene with Bond and Wai Lin on a BMW motorcycle was created . Another innovation was the remote @-@ controlled car , which had no visible driver – an effect achieved by adapting a BMW 750i to put the steering wheel on the back seat . The car chase sequence with the 750i took three weeks to film , with Brent Cross car park being used to simulate Hamburg – although the final leap was filmed on location . A stunt involving setting fire to three vehicles produced more smoke than anticipated , causing a member of the public to call the fire brigade . The upwards camera angle filming the HALO jump created the illusion of having the stuntman opening its parachute close to the water .
During filming , there were reports of disputes on set . The Daily Mail reported that Spottiswoode and Feirstein were no longer on speaking terms and that crew members had threatened to resign , with one saying " All the happiness and teamwork which is the hallmark of Bond has disappeared completely . " This was denied by Brosnan who claimed " It was nothing more than good old creative argy @-@ bargy " , with Spottiswoode saying " It has all been made up ... Nothing important really went wrong . " Spottiswoode did not return to direct the next film ; he said the producers asked him , but he was too tired . Apparently , Brosnan and Hatcher feuded briefly during filming due to her arriving late onto the set one day . The matter was quickly resolved though and Brosnan apologised to Hatcher after realising she was pregnant and was late for that reason .
Tomorrow Never Dies marked the first appearance of the Walther P99 as Bond 's pistol . It replaced the Walther PPK that the character had carried in every Eon Bond film since Dr. No in 1962 , with the exception of Moonraker in which Bond was not seen with a pistol . Walther wanted to debut its new firearm in a Bond film , which had been one of its most visible endorsers . Previously the P5 was introduced in Octopussy . Bond would use the P99 until Daniel Craig reverted to the PPK as 007 in Quantum of Solace in 2008 .
= = = Music = = =
Barbara Broccoli chose David Arnold to score Tomorrow Never Dies on a recommendation from prolific James Bond films composer John Barry . Arnold had come to Barry 's attention through his successful cover interpretations in Shaken and Stirred : The David Arnold James Bond Project , which featured major artists performing the former James Bond title songs in new arrangements . Arnold said that his score aimed for " a classic sound but [ with ] a modern approach " , combining techno music with a recognisably Barry @-@ inspired ' classic Bond ' sound – notably Arnold borrowed from Barry 's score for From Russia with Love . The score was done across a period of six months , with Arnold writing music and revising previous pieces as he received edited footage of the film . The music for the indoor car chase sequence was co @-@ written with the band Propellerheads , who had worked with Arnold on Shaken and Stirred . The soundtrack was well received by critics with Christian Clemmensen of Filmtracks describing it as " an excellent tribute to the entire series of Bond score " .
At first , the theme song was to be written by Arnold himself , with the help of lyricist Don Black and singer @-@ songwriter David McAlmont , who recorded the demo . However , MGM wanted a more popular artist , and invited various singers to write songs before one was picked through a competitive process . There were around twelve submissions , including songs from Swan Lee , Pulp , Saint Etienne , Marc Almond , and Sheryl Crow . Crow 's song was chosen for the main titles . Arnold 's composition , " Surrender " , performed by k.d. lang , was still used for the end titles , and features the same prominent melodic motif as the film 's score . This was the fourth Bond film to have different opening and closing songs . Moby created a remake of The James Bond Theme to be used for the movie . Two different versions of the soundtrack album were released , the first featuring only music from the first half of the film , and the second rectifying this but cutting several tracks , including the songs , to make room for the missing score tracks . Pulp 's effort was re @-@ titled as " Tomorrow Never Lies " and appeared as a b @-@ side on their single " Help The Aged " .
= = Release and reception = =
The film had a World Charity Premiere at The Odeon Leicester Square , on 9 December 1997 ; this was followed by an after premiere party at Bedford Square , home of original Ian Fleming publisher , Jonathan Cape . The film went on general release in the UK and Iceland on 12 December and in most other countries during the following week . It opened
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ball sloughs away , revealing a pre @-@ formed hole ( ostiole ) in the endoperidium , through which the spores can escape . In young puffballs , the internal contents , the gleba , is white and firm , but turns brown and powdery as the spores mature . The gleba contains minute chambers that are lined with hymenium ( the fertile , spore @-@ bearing tissue ) ; the chambers collapse when the spores mature . Mature puffballs release their powdery spores through the ostiole when they are compressed by touch or falling raindrops . A study of the spore release mechanism in L. pyriforme using high @-@ speed schlieren photography determined that raindrops of 1 mm diameter or greater , including rain drips from nearby trees , were sufficient to cause spore discharge . The puffed spores are ejected from the ostiole at a velocity of about 100 cm / second to form a centimeter @-@ tall cloud one @-@ hundredth of a second after impact . A single puff like this can release over a million spores .
The spores are spherical , thick @-@ walled , covered with minute spines , and measure 3 @.@ 5 – 4 @.@ 5 μm in diameter . The capillitia ( threadlike filaments in the gleba in which spores are embedded ) are yellow @-@ brown to brownish in color , lack septae , and measure 3 – 7 @.@ 5 μm in diameter . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are club @-@ shaped , four @-@ spored , and measure 7 – 9 by 4 – 5 μm . The basidia bear four slender sterigmata of unequal length ranging from 5 – 10 μm long . The surface spines are made of chains of pseudoparenchymatous hyphae ( resembling the parenchyma of higher plants ) , in which the individual hyphal cells are spherical to elliptical in shape , thick @-@ walled ( up to 1 μm ) , and measure 13 – 40 by 9 – 35 μm . These hyphae do not have clamp connections .
= = = Edibility = = =
Lycoperdon perlatum is considered to be a good edible mushroom when young , when the gleba is still homogeneous and white . They have been referred to as " poor man 's sweetbread " due to their texture and flavor . The fruit bodies can be eaten after slicing and frying in batter or egg and breadcrumbs , or used in soups as a substitute for dumplings . As early as 1861 , Elias Fries recommended them dried and served with salt , pepper , and oil . The puffballs become inedible as they mature : the gleba becomes yellow @-@ tinged then finally develops into a mass of powdery olive @-@ green spores . L. perlatum is one of several edible species sold in markets in the Mexican states of Puebla and Tlaxcala . The fruit bodies are appealing to other animals as well : the northern flying squirrel ( Glaucomys sabrinus ) includes the puffball in their diet of non @-@ truffle fungi , while the " puffball beetle " Caenocara subglobosum uses the fruit body for shelter and breeding . Nutritional analysis indicates that the puffballs are a good source of protein , carbohydrates , fats , and several micronutrients . The predominant fatty acids in the puffball are linoleic acid ( 37 % of the total fatty acids ) , oleic acid ( 24 % ) , palmitic acid ( 14 @.@ 5 % ) , and stearic acid ( 6 @.@ 4 % ) .
The immature ' buttons ' or ' eggs ' of deadly Amanita species can be confused with puffballs . This can be avoided by slicing fruit bodies vertically and inspecting them for the internal developing structures of a mushroom . Additionally , Amanitas will generally not have " jewels " or a bumpy external surface .
The spores are ornamented with many sharp microscopic spines and can cause severe irritation of the lung ( lycoperdonosis ) when inhaled . This condition has been reported to afflict dogs that play or run where puffballs are present .
= = Similar species = =
There are several other puffball species with which L. perlatum might be confused . L. nettyanum , found in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States , is covered in granular patches , but these granules adhere more strongly to the surface than those of L. perlatum . L. pyriforme lacks prominent spines on the surface , and grows on rotting wood — although if growing on buried wood , it may appear to be terrestrial . The widely distributed and common L. umbrinum has spines that do not leave scars when rubbed off , a gleba that varies in color from dark brown to purple @-@ brown at maturity , and a purple @-@ tinged base . The small and rare species L. muscorum grows in deep moss . L. peckii can be distinguished from L. pyriforme by the lavender @-@ tinged spines it has when young . L. rimulatum has purplish spores , and an almost completely smooth exoperidium . L. excipuliforme is larger and grayer , and , in mature individuals , the upper portion of its fruit body breaks down completely to release its spores . In the field , L. marginatum is distinguished from L. perlatum by the way in which the spines are shed from the exoperidium in irregular sheets .
= = Ecology and distribution = =
A saprobic species , Lycoperdon perlatum grows solitarily , scattered , or in groups or clusters on the ground . It can also grow in fairy rings . Typical habitats include woods , grassy areas , and along roads . It has been reported from Pinus patula plantations in Tamil Nadu , India . The puffball sometimes confuses golfers because of its resemblance to a golf ball when viewed from a distance .
A widespread species with an almost cosmopolitan distribution , it has been reported from Africa ( Kenya , Rwanda , Tanzania ) , Asia ( China , Himalayas , Japan , southern India ) , Australia , Europe , New Zealand , and South America ( Brazil ) . It has been collected from subarctic areas of Greenland , and subalpine regions in Iceland . In North America , where it is considered the most common puffball species , it ranges from Alaska to Mexico , although it is less common in Central America . The species is popular on postage stamps , and has been depicted on stamps from Guinea , Paraguay , Romania , Sierra Leone , and Sweden .
The puffball bioaccumulates heavy metals present in the soil , and can be used as a bioindicator of soil pollution by heavy metals and selenium . In one 1977 study , samples collected from grassy areas near the side of an interstate highway in Connecticut were shown to have high concentrations of cadmium and lead . L. perlatum biomass has been shown experimentally to remove mercury ions from aqueous solutions , and is being investigated for potential use as a low @-@ cost , renewable , biosorptive material in the treatment of water and wastewater containing mercury .
= = Chemistry = =
Several steroid derivatives have been isolated and identified from fruit bodies of L. perlatum , including ( S ) -23 @-@ hydroxylanostrol , ergosterol α @-@ endoperoxide , ergosterol 9 @,@ 11 @-@ dehydroendoperoxide and ( 23E ) -lanosta @-@ 8 @,@ 23 @-@ dien @-@ 3β , 25 @-@ diol . The compounds 3 @-@ octanone , 1 @-@ octen @-@ 3 @-@ ol , and ( Z ) -3 @-@ octen @-@ 1 @-@ ol are the predominant components of the volatile chemicals that give the puffball its odor and flavor . Extracts of the puffball contain relatively high levels of antimicrobial activity against the human pathogenic bacteria Bacillus subtilis , Staphylococcus aureus , Escherichia coli , and Pseudomonas aeruginosa , with an efficiency comparable to that of the antibiotic ampicillin . These results corroborate an earlier study that additionally reported antibacterial activity against Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium , Streptococcus pyogenes , and Mycobacterium smegmatis . Extracts of the puffball have also been reported to have antifungal activity against Candida albicans , C. tropicalis , Aspergillus fumigatus , Alternaria solani , Botrytis cinerea , and Verticillium dahliae . A 2009 study found L. perlatum puffballs to contain the phenolic compound cinnamic acid at a concentration of about 14 milligrams per kilogram of mushroom . The fruit bodies contain the pigment melanin .
The amino acid lycoperdic acid ( chemical name 3- ( 5 ( S ) -carboxy @-@ 2 @-@ oxotetrahydrofuran @-@ 5 ( S ) -yl ) -2 ( S ) -alanine ) was isolated from the puffball , and reported in a 1978 publication . Based on the structural similarity of the new amino acid with ( S ) -glutamic acid , ( S ) - ( + ) -lycoperdic acid is expected to have antagonistic or agonistic activity for the glutamate receptor in the mammalian central nervous system . Methods to synthesize the compounds were reported in 1992 , 1995 , and 2002 .
= Roberto Luongo =
Roberto Luongo ( / luːˈɒŋɡoʊ / ; born April 4 , 1979 ) is a Canadian professional ice hockey goaltender for the Florida Panthers of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . Born in Montreal , Quebec , he is of Italian and Irish ancestry . He employs the butterfly style of goaltending and has previously played in the NHL for the New York Islanders and the Vancouver Canucks . Luongo is a two @-@ time NHL Second All @-@ Star ( 2004 and 2007 ) and a winner of the William M. Jennings Trophy for backstopping his team to the lowest goals @-@ against average in the league ( 2011 ; with backup Cory Schneider ) . He has additionally been a finalist for the Vezina Trophy as the league 's best goaltender ( 2004 , 2007 and 2011 ) , the Lester B. Pearson Award as the top player voted by his peers ( 2004 and 2007 ) and the Hart Memorial Trophy as the league 's most valuable player ( 2007 ) .
Prior to his NHL career , Luongo played in the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League ( QMJHL ) for the Val @-@ d 'Or Foreurs and the Acadie @-@ Bathurst Titan , winning back @-@ to @-@ back President 's Cups and establishing the league 's all @-@ time playoff records in games played and wins . Following his second QMJHL season , Luongo was selected fourth overall by the Islanders in the 1997 NHL Entry Draft . After splitting his professional rookie season between the Islanders and their American Hockey League ( AHL ) affiliate , the Lowell Lock Monsters in 1999 – 2000 , he was traded to the Panthers . In five seasons with Florida , Luongo established team records for most all @-@ time games played , wins and shutouts . During the 2006 off @-@ season , he was traded to the Canucks after failed contract negotiations with the Panthers . Following his second year with the Canucks , he became the first NHL goaltender to serve as a team captain since Bill Durnan in the 1947 – 48 season . Luongo served in that capacity for two seasons before resigning from the position in September 2010 . In the subsequent 2010 – 11 season , he helped the Canucks to Game 7 of the Stanley Cup Finals and lost to the Boston Bruins . During his tenure with Vancouver , Luongo has become the team 's all @-@ time wins and shutouts leader .
Internationally , Luongo has competed for Team Canada in numerous tournaments . As a junior , he won a silver medal at the 1999 World Junior Championships , while being named Best Goaltender in his second tournament appearance . Luongo has won two gold medals at the 2003 and 2004 World Championships and a silver in the 2005 World Championships . He also won the 2004 World Cup championship and appeared in the 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin as a backup to Martin Brodeur in both instances . He succeeded Brodeur as Canada 's starting goaltender during the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver , winning a gold medal . On January 7 , 2014 , he was named to the 2014 Canadian Olympic Hockey Team , where he won his 2nd Olympic gold medal in a largely backup role to Carey Price .
= = Early life = =
Luongo was born to Pasqualina and Antonio Luongo in Montreal , Quebec . His father is an Italian immigrant , born in Santa Paolina , Avellino . He worked in the construction and delivery of furniture , while Luongo 's mother , an Irish @-@ Canadian worked in marketing with Air Canada . Antonio and Pasqualina married in Montreal after Antonio emigrated there in 1976 .
Luongo has two younger brothers , Leo and Fabio , who were also aspiring goaltenders . Fabio made it the further out of the two , playing Junior A in the British Columbia Hockey League ( BCHL ) with the Williams Lake Timberwolves in 2004 – 05 before succumbing to injuries . He has since become a Junior AAA coach , while Leo is a goaltending coach with HC Lugano . Luongo and his family lived in St. Leonard , Quebec , a borough north of Montreal with a strong Italian community , just four blocks away from Martin Brodeur , who became the goaltender for the New Jersey Devils six years before Luongo entered the NHL . Luongo is fluent in English , French and Italian . His father spoke Italian and his mother spoke English with a little French at home .
Luongo graduated from Antoine de St @-@ Exupéry in Montreal , a Francophone high school , in 1996 . He began playing organized hockey at the age of eight as a forward . His father taught all his sons soccer and Luongo played until he was 14 , at which point he decided to concentrate on hockey . Although he initially had the desire to play in net , his parents wanted him to develop his skating first . Several years later , after Luongo was cut from a peewee team , he made the switch to goaltender . At 11 years old , his team 's usual goaltender did not show up and after begging his mother , still hesitant about Luongo playing the position , he went in net and posted a shutout . In August 2009 , the arena in which Luongo played his minor hockey in St. Leonard was named after him as the Roberto Luongo Arena . It is the second arena in the community to be named after an NHL goalie after the Martin Brodeur Arena was renamed as such in 2000 .
By 15 , Luongo was playing midget with Montreal @-@ Bourassa , the same team that produced NHL Quebecer goalies Brodeur and Félix Potvin . Luongo has credited Hall of Fame goaltender Grant Fuhr as his inspiration growing up , citing an admiration for his " spectacular glove saves " . He had the opportunity to first meet Fuhr before a game against the Calgary Flames during his rookie season with the Islanders .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Junior career ( 1995 – 99 ) = = =
The Val @-@ d 'Or Foreurs made Luongo the highest drafted goaltender in QMJHL history at second overall in 1995 . He began his junior career in the 1995 – 96 season with Val @-@ d 'Or and posted six wins in 23 games played . As the team 's starting goaltender the following season in 1996 – 97 , he improved to a team @-@ record 32 wins and was awarded the Mike Bossy Trophy as the league 's best professional prospect . After his performance at the 1997 CHL Top Prospects Game , opposing coach Don Cherry likened Luongo to Montreal Canadiens ' Hockey Hall of Famer Ken Dryden , while NHL Central Scouting Bureau director Frank Bonello heralded him as a " franchise goalie " .
At the 1997 NHL Entry Draft , Luongo was selected in the first round , fourth overall , by the New York Islanders . The pick originally belonged to the Toronto Maple Leafs but was traded to the Islanders in exchange for Wendel Clark , Mathieu Schneider and D. J. Smith . At the time of the draft , Luongo was the highest picked goaltender in NHL history , surpassing Tom Barrasso and John Davidson 's fifth overall selections in 1983 and 1973 ( Luongo 's selection was later surpassed by Rick DiPietro 's first overall selection by the Islanders in 2000 ) .
Upon his draft , Luongo continued to play junior with the Foreurs in 1997 – 98 . He recorded 27 wins and a 3 @.@ 09 goals against average ( GAA ) . His seven shutouts tied Nick Sanza 's QMJHL record , set in 1974 – 75 ( Adam Russo later tied it as well in 2002 – 03 ) . Luongo went on to win 14 of 17 playoff appearances in the QMJHL playoffs to lead Val @-@ d 'Or to a President 's Cup championship and a Memorial Cup appearance . The Foreurs failed to win a game in the 1998 Memorial Cup tournament , however , and finished in last place .
Although the Islanders planned to have Luongo play in the NHL for the 1998 – 99 season , an inconsistent performance at training camp led to Luongo 's return to the QMJHL that season . Due to having failed to come to terms on a contract before October 1 , 1998 , Luongo was not allowed to be called up to the Islanders from junior over the course of the subsequent season . He started the season with Val @-@ d 'Or but was traded to the Acadie @-@ Bathurst Titan during the 1999 World Junior Championships for the remainder of the 1998 – 99 season . He went on to lead the Titan to his second consecutive President 's Cup championship with a 2 @.@ 74 GAA in 23 games . He finished his QMJHL playoff career with the all @-@ time league record in games played ( 56 ) , minutes played ( 3 @,@ 264 : 22 ) , wins ( 38 ) and shots faced ( 1 @,@ 808 ) . His and Memorial Cup appearance in 1999 . The Titan finished in last place , failing to win a game during the tournament .
= = = New York Islanders ( 1999 – 2000 ) = = =
After his performance at the 1999 World Junior Championships , Luongo was signed by the Islanders to a three @-@ year , $ 2 @.@ 775 million contract on January 8 , 1999 . The following season , he made his professional debut with the Lowell Lock Monsters , the Islanders ' American Hockey League ( AHL ) affiliate . Early in the season , Luongo was called up to the Islanders on November 22 , 1999 , after a shoulder injury to backup Wade Flaherty . He made his NHL debut six days later on November 28 , stopping 43 shots in a 2 – 1 win against the Boston Bruins . Luongo 's early performances solidified him as the Islanders ' starting goalie over veteran Félix Potvin . Nearly a month after Luongo 's debut in New York , Potvin was traded to the Vancouver Canucks on December 19 in exchange for backup goaltender Kevin Weekes . The next month , he recorded his first career NHL shutout in his eighth game , stopping 34 shots in a 3 – 0 victory over the Bruins on December 27 .
In January 2000 , Luongo was publicly criticized by Islanders general manager Mike Milbury for having gone looking for an apartment in New York on a game day before letting in seven goals to the Boston Bruins . Milbury told the media , " You can 't do that in the NHL . You have to prepare yourself . " Luongo defended himself by saying he did not divert from his usual game day routine by looking at just one apartment . Luongo finished the season with the Islanders , posting a 3 @.@ 25 GAA and .904 save percentage in 24 games .
In the off @-@ season , the Islanders selected goaltender Rick DiPietro with the first overall pick in the 2000 NHL Entry Draft . DiPietro 's selection supplanted Luongo as the highest @-@ drafted goaltender in NHL history and the Islanders ' goaltender of the future . Consequently , Milbury traded Luongo to the Florida Panthers along with centre Olli Jokinen for winger Mark Parrish and centre Oleg Kvasha that same day on June 24 , 2000 . The deal would later be seen to have disproportionately benefited the Panthers , as both Jokinen and Luongo would eventually develop into star players , in contrast to Parrish and Kvasha . Luongo expressed surprise at the trade , saying , " I didn 't expect it at all . One day they 're telling me I 'm the goalie of the future , and the next day I 'm gone . I didn 't really appreciate that . The good side is that [ the Panthers ] wanted me . "
= = = First stint with the Florida Panthers ( 2000 – 06 ) = = =
The Panthers organization expressed high praise for Luongo following the trade . General manager Bryan Murray characterized him as " a franchise guy " , while head coach Terry Murray added " He 's the guy teams have to have to win the Stanley Cup . " He entered his first training camp with the Panthers competing for the starting role with veteran goaltender Trevor Kidd ; coach Terry Murray opted to begin the season with Kidd due to his experience . Luongo made his first start with the Panthers on October 9 , 2000 , making 18 saves in a 4 – 2 loss to the Boston Bruins . Splitting the goaltending duties , Luongo went on to appear in 43 games , in comparison to Kidd 's 42 . He finished his 2000 – 01 rookie season ( Luongo qualified as a rookie because he had not played in at least 26 games the previous season with New York ) by notching a franchise record fifth shutout of the season in a 3 – 0 win against the New York Rangers on April 7 , 2001 . The total surpassed John Vanbiesbrouck 's four @-@ shutout mark , set in both the 1994 – 95 and 1997 – 98 seasons . He posted a 12 – 24 – 7 record with the struggling Panthers , who finished 12th in the Eastern Conference , while recording a 2 @.@ 44 GAA . His .920 save percentage was sixth in the league and second all @-@ time among rookie goaltenders , behind Manny Fernandez 's mark set the previous season .
Approaching his third NHL season , Luongo agreed on a four @-@ year contract extension with the Panthers on September 13 , 2001 . He was chosen to play in the inaugural NHL YoungStars Game in 2002 for Team Melrose , winning 13 – 7 over Team Fox . After appearing in 58 games in 2001 – 02 , Luongo suffered a torn ligament in his right ankle in a game against the Montreal Canadiens on March 20 , 2002 . Sidelined for the remainder of the season , he finished with a 16 – 33 – 4 record , a 2 @.@ 77 GAA and .915 save percentage . Luongo returned in 2002 – 03 to a heavier workload , playing a 65 @-@ game season . He had a franchise record @-@ setting shutout streak that lasted 144 : 51 minutes ; it was snapped on January 20 , 2003 , against the Montreal Canadiens . He also recorded his first 20 @-@ win season with a 20 – 34 – 7 record , 2 @.@ 71 GAA and .918 save percentage . The Panthers continued to struggle , however , finishing 13th in the East .
In his fourth season with the Panthers ( 2003 – 04 ) , Luongo emerged with his first Vezina Trophy and Lester B. Pearson Award nominations as the top goaltender and top player as selected by the players , respectively . Playing in 72 games , he set NHL marks for most saves and shots faced in a single season with 2 @,@ 303 and 2 @,@ 475 , respectively . Both marks were previously set by former Islanders teammate Félix Potvin in 1996 – 97 as a Toronto Maple Leaf . His resulting .931 save percentage was first among goalies with at least 50 starts and set a Panthers franchise record , breaking Vanbiesbrouck 's .924 mark , set in 1993 – 94 . His seven shutouts furthered his franchise record and was good for fifth in the league . At mid @-@ season , he was named to his first NHL All @-@ Star Game , held in February 2004 . Competing for the Eastern Conference , he won the Goaltenders Competition segment of the SkillsCompetition , allowing the fewest goals on goaltender @-@ related events . The following day , he played in the third period of the All @-@ Star Game and helped the East to a 6 – 4 win against the West . At the end of the season , he was named to the Second NHL All @-@ Star Team , but lost the Vezina Trophy to fellow Montreal @-@ native Martin Brodeur of the New Jersey Devils , while Martin St. Louis of the Tampa Bay Lightning won the Pearson Award . Despite Luongo 's success , however , the Panthers failed to qualify for the playoffs once more .
Due to the 2004 – 05 NHL lockout , Luongo was inactive , with the exception of two international tournaments , the 2004 World Cup and the 2005 World Championships . With the NHL set to resume in 2005 – 06 , Luongo was without a contract . After negotiations failed , the Panthers filed for arbitration on August 11 , 2005 . The process awarded Luongo a one @-@ year , $ 3 @.@ 2 million contract on August 25 .
On April 13 , 2006 , Luongo became the winningest Panthers goaltender of all @-@ time , passing Vanbiesbrouck , with his 107th win with the team – a 5 – 4 overtime victory against the Ottawa Senators . He went on to post 35 wins , breaking Vanbiesbrouck 's 27 @-@ win single @-@ season Panthers mark , set in 1996 – 97 . Set to become a free agent for the second consecutive off @-@ season , he could not come to an agreement with the Panthers , having formally turned down a five @-@ year , $ 30 million contract offer in January 2006 . It was also reported that among Luongo 's demands were that backup goaltender Jamie McLennan be re @-@ signed , his long @-@ time goaltending coach François Allaire be hired and that a public statement be released that he would not be traded until the no @-@ trade clause of his contract took effect .
= = = Vancouver Canucks ( 2006 – 2014 ) = = =
= = = = 2006 – 09 = = = =
Prior to the start of the 2006 – 07 season , Panthers general manager Mike Keenan traded Luongo to the Vancouver Canucks on June 23 , 2006 . He was packaged with defenceman Lukáš Krajíček and a sixth round draft pick ( Sergei Shirokov ) in exchange for forward Todd Bertuzzi , defenceman Bryan Allen and goaltender Alex Auld . Immediately following the deal , Vancouver signed Luongo to a four @-@ year , $ 27 million deal . He expressed surprise , claiming that he and the Panthers were very close to a deal the day before the trade .
Luongo 's arrival in Vancouver ended a seven @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year period of instability for Canucks netminding , with a total of 18 goaltenders having played for the club since Kirk McLean 's departure in 1998 . General manager Brian Burke had coined the term " goalie graveyard " during his tenure in Vancouver to describe the club 's goaltending fortunes .
Luongo recorded a 3 – 1 win against the Detroit Red Wings in his Canucks debut on October 5 , 2006 . Later in the month , he notched his first shutout with the Canucks , stopping 32 shots in a 5 – 0 win over the Chicago Blackhawks on October 25 . On January 9 , 2007 , Luongo was voted in as a starting goaltender for the first time in his career for the Western Conference All @-@ Stars . Six days after the announcement , he was hospitalized after taking a puck to the throat in practice . He spent the night in the intensive care unit for fears his windpipe would swell shut . Discharged from the hospital on game day , Luongo recorded a shutout that night against the Montreal Canadiens on January 16 , 2007 . During the 2007 NHL All @-@ Star Game in Dallas , Luongo was named the Skills Competition 's top goaltender and helped the West to a 12 – 9 win over the East . Late in the season , Luongo recorded his franchise record @-@ setting 39th win in a 2 – 1 overtime victory on March 9 . He surpassed Kirk McLean 's 38 @-@ win mark set in 1991 – 92 . He went on to finish with a career @-@ high 47 wins , one shy of league @-@ leader Martin Brodeur , who broke Bernie Parent 's thirty @-@ three @-@ year @-@ old NHL record of wins in a season . Luongo and Brodeur are considered , however , to have been given an advantage to Parent with the inauguration of the shootout that season by the NHL , allowing more games to be decided with wins , as opposed to ties .
In addition to his 47 wins , Luongo recorded a 2 @.@ 29 GAA ( which was at that time , a personal best ) and a team @-@ record .921 save percentage ( surpassing Dan Cloutier 's .914 save percentage in 2003 – 04 ; later broken by Cory Schneider 's .929 save percentage in 2010 – 11 ) . He won three team awards – the Cyclone Taylor Trophy as MVP , the Molson Cup as the player with the most three @-@ star selections , and the Most Exciting Player Award . Leading the Canucks to a Northwest Division title and what was then a franchise record of 105 points , the team was seeded third in the Western Conference . The 2007 playoffs marked Luongo 's first NHL post @-@ season appearance . Facing the Dallas Stars in the opening round , he almost set an NHL record for most saves in a playoff game in his post @-@ season debut . He stopped 72 shots , en route to a 5 – 4 quadruple overtime victory , one save shy of Kelly Hrudey 's 73 @-@ save mark set in 1987 . Luongo went on to win his first playoff series as the Canucks eliminated the Stars in seven games . They were , however , defeated in the second round by the eventual Stanley Cup champions , the Anaheim Ducks . Luongo put forth a losing 56 @-@ save performance in the deciding fifth game against the Ducks . After the game ended in regulation at a 1 – 1 tie , he missed the first three minutes of the first overtime period to what was first believed to be an equipment malfunction . However , after the series ended , it was revealed that Luongo , instead , had an untimely case of diarrhea . The Canucks lost the game 2 – 1 in the second overtime when Luongo took his eye off the puck to look at the referee , believing a penalty should have been issued to the Ducks on a play in which Canucks forward Jannik Hansen was hit by Ducks forward Rob Niedermayer . With Luongo not paying attention , Ducks defenceman Scott Niedermayer shot the puck from the point to score the series @-@ winning goal .
At the end of the season , Luongo was nominated for three major NHL awards : the Vezina Trophy , Lester B. Pearson Award and Hart Memorial Trophy as the league MVP . However , Luongo finished second in voting for all three awards , behind Brodeur for the Vezina and Sidney Crosby of the Pittsburgh Penguins for the Hart and Pearson .
Luongo kept pace statistically in 2007 – 08 with his previous season 's work and continued to set significant marks , including a three @-@ game shutout streak spanning 210 : 34 in late @-@ November ( breaking the Canucks ' previous franchise record of 184 : 20 set by Ken Lockett in 1975 ) . He was voted in as the 2008 NHL All @-@ Star Game 's Western Conference starting goalie for the second consecutive season , although he did not attend in order to be with his pregnant wife in Florida .
With the Canucks battling for the Northwest Division title all season long , a losing streak that saw Luongo win only one of his final eight starts caused the Canucks to miss the playoffs altogether . Nevertheless , he received his second consecutive team MVP and Molson Cup awards . He also finished seventh in Vezina Trophy balloting . At the Canucks ' end @-@ of @-@ season media address , Vigneault speculated whether Luongo 's heavy regular season workload , having started the team 's final 31 games , was a factor in the late @-@ season collapse . He finished the season with a 35 – 29 – 9 record , 2 @.@ 38 GAA and .917 save percentage .
On September 30 , 2008 , prior to the start of the 2008 – 09 season , Vancouver Canucks general manager Mike Gillis and head coach Alain Vigneault named Luongo the 12th captain in team history , replacing the departed Markus Näslund . The decision was unconventional , as league rules forbid goaltenders from being captains . As such , Luongo became only the seventh goaltender in NHL history to be named a captain , and the first since Bill Durnan captained the Montreal Canadiens in 1947 – 48 ( after whom the league implemented the rule ) . In order to account for the league rule , Luongo did not perform any of the on @-@ ice duties reserved for captains and did not wear the captain 's " C " on his jersey . Instead he incorporated it into the artwork on the front of one of his masks which he occasionally wore for the early months of the 2008 – 09 season . Canucks defenceman Willie Mitchell was designated to handle communications with on @-@ ice officials , while defenceman Mattias Öhlund was responsible for ceremonial faceoffs and other such formalities associated with captaincy . Centre Ryan Kesler was chosen along with Mitchell and Öhlund as the third alternate captain .
A month into the 2008 – 09 season , Luongo began a shutout streak that lasted three games against the Nashville Predators , Phoenix Coyotes , and the Minnesota Wild , akin to the feat he accomplished in the same month of November the previous year . His overall shutout streak was snapped at 242 : 36 minutes , in a 2 – 1 shootout loss against the Colorado Avalanche , surpassing the Canucks record he set the previous season . Later that month , on November 22 , Luongo left a game versus the Pittsburgh Penguins after suffering an adductor strain in his groin . Initially listed as week @-@ to @-@ week , he attempted what was considered an early comeback within two weeks of the injury , but suffered a setback during a team practice on December 10 , leaving early in discomfort . After missing 24 games , Luongo made his return on January 15 , 2009 , in a 4 – 1 loss to the Phoenix Coyotes . While injured , Luongo was chosen for the fourth time to the NHL All @-@ Star Game in 2009 as the lone Canucks representative . Despite speculation he would have to miss his second straight All @-@ Star Game , Luongo recovered in time and took part in a 12 – 11 shootout loss to the Eastern Conference . He finished the season with back @-@ to @-@ back shutouts in the final two games against the Los Angeles Kings and Colorado Avalanche to establish a new career @-@ high of nine shutouts on the season , breaking Dan Cloutier 's previous franchise single @-@ season shutout record of seven , set in 2001 – 02 .
Winning their second Northwest Division title in three years , Luongo and the Canucks returned to the playoffs after a one @-@ year absence . During the 2009 playoffs , he led the Canucks to a first round sweep of the St. Louis Blues . The Canucks then faced the Chicago Blackhawks in the second round , which Chicago ultimately won in six games . Luongo was heavily criticized following his performance in the sixth and deciding game , allowing seven goals in the 7 – 5 loss . In a post @-@ game interview , Luongo told reporters that he " let [ his ] teammates down " . Many in the Vancouver media were quick to suggest trading Luongo , arguing that his large salary could be better spent , while pointing to several successful teams with relatively low @-@ salary goalies . Nevertheless , Luongo was presented at the year @-@ end awards ceremony with the Scotiabank Fan Fav Award , a fan @-@ voted award in its inaugural year for the league 's favourite player . Also finishing fourth in Vezina Trophy voting , he missed out on his second nomination in three years by one vote , behind Niklas Bäckström of the Minnesota Wild , Steve Mason of the Columbus Blue Jackets and trophy @-@ winner Tim Thomas of the Boston Bruins .
= = = = 2009 – 11 = = = =
With one season left on his original four @-@ year deal with the Canucks , Luongo and agent Gilles Lupien began contract negotiations with general manager Mike Gillis in the 2009 off @-@ season . At the time of the 2009 NHL Entry Draft , ESPN reported that Luongo and the Canucks had agreed on a long @-@ term extension to be announced on July 1 . The report was , however , denied by both Lupien and Gillis . A little over a month later in early @-@ August , Gillis told Vancouver sports radio station TEAM 1040 in an interview that he was " philosophically " close to a deal with Luongo to be signed before the upcoming 2009 – 10 season . That same month , while at Team Canada 's summer camp for the 2010 Winter Olympics , Luongo set a September 13 deadline to sign a contract before the Canucks ' training camp began , explaining that he " will not be negotiating during the season ... [ not wanting ] that distraction " .
Several days later , on September 2 , the Canucks announced that they had signed Luongo to a 12 @-@ year contract extension worth $ 64 million for a $ 5 @.@ 33 million annual salary cap hit . The front @-@ loaded deal , which will expire by the time Luongo is 43 and includes a no @-@ trade clause , sees him make $ 10 million in 2010 – 11 , then approximately $ 6 @.@ 7 million annually through to 2017 – 18 , $ 3 @.@ 3 million and $ 1 @.@ 6 million the subsequent two seasons , before tailing off to $ 1 million for the final two years . The contract contains two additional clauses to circumvent the no @-@ trade clause that allow Luongo to facilitate a trade after the fifth year and for the Canucks to also facilitate a trade after the seventh year .
Nearly a month into the 2009 – 10 season , on October 25 , 2009 , Luongo recorded his 21st shutout as a Canuck ( 48th career ) in a 2 – 0 win against the Edmonton Oilers , surpassing Kirk McLean as the franchise shutouts leader . The following game against the Detroit Red Wings on October 27 , he suffered a rib injury that was revealed the following day to be a hairline fracture . Luongo originally injured his rib two games prior against the Toronto Maple Leafs on October 24 after taking a shot from Leafs forward Niklas Hagman in the chest . The injury was re @-@ aggravated during the Detroit game during a collision with Red Wings forward Todd Bertuzzi . He returned to the lineup on November 10 after missing six games . On January 7 , 2010 , Luongo recorded his 50th career shutout in a 4 – 0 win against the Phoenix Coyotes . Despite recording the second 40 @-@ win season of his career , Luongo finished with his worst statistical season as a Canuck , heavily affected by a poor second @-@ half . Pulled seven times in 68 appearances , he recorded a 2 @.@ 57 GAA and a .913 save percentage . In the subsequent 2010 playoffs , the Canucks defeated the Los Angeles Kings in six games only to be defeated by the Chicago Blackhawks for the second year in a row . In similar fashion to the previous year , Luongo struggled in the second round series against Chicago , allowing 21 goals in six games , including 5 in the deciding sixth game . He finished the playoffs with a 3 @.@ 22 GAA and .895 save percentage .
In the off @-@ season , it was speculated by many in the media whether Luongo should remain Vancouver 's captain , citing the added pressure of the goaltending position . After the Canucks ' 3 – 1 series deficit in the second round , Luongo ceased to make himself available for pre @-@ game interviews – a customary practice for goaltenders , but not for captains . When asked after the Canucks ' elimination whether he thought he should remain team captain , he told reporters he did not think it was an issue . However , Gillis , who appointed him captain two seasons prior , asserted it was a topic to be addressed in the off @-@ season . On September 13 , 2010 , Luongo confirmed he was stepping down , stating that " Serv [ ing ] as captain ... in a Canadian city for a team with such passionate fans is a privilege and an experience I will always take pride in . I will continue to be a leader on this team and support my teammates the same way I always have while focusing on our ultimate goal . " Centre Henrik Sedin , who won the Hart Trophy for the 2009 – 10 season , was named Luongo 's successor in a pre @-@ game ceremony to the Canucks ' season @-@ opener .
Also in the off @-@ season , Gillis fired Luongo 's goaltending coach Ian Clark and hired Roland Melanson in his place . Luongo had been a personal friend of Clark 's and publicly stated being surprised and disappointed with the switch . The decision to hire Melanson was largely precipitated on his willingness to work with Luongo on a full @-@ time basis – something Clark was unable to do . Despite the coaching change at the club level , Luongo retained Clark as his personal coach for his summer training . He began working with Melanson leading up to the 2010 – 11 season and employed several changes in his playing style , which included playing deeper into his crease instead of challenging shooters .
During the 2010 pre @-@ season , Luongo sustained a groin injury , but recovered in time for the regular season . Midway through the campaign , Luongo was named the NHL 's Second Star of the Month for December 2010 . He posted an 11 – 1 – 2 record with a 2 @.@ 07 GAA , a .922 save percentage and one shutout . During the month , he started a 21 @-@ game regulation unbeaten streak that lasted until a loss against the St. Louis Blues on February 14 , 2011 . Luongo 's record in that span was 16 wins and 5 overtime or shootout losses . Later in the campaign , he recorded his 300th career win against the Los Angeles Kings on March 5 , 2011 . He became the 6th @-@ youngest goaltender to reach the milestone and the 25th overall . The 2010 – 11 season constituted a decreased workload for Luongo , as he appeared in 60 games . Team management had asserted at the beginning of the campaign that rookie backup Cory Schneider would be given the opportunity to play in 20 to 25 games . Luongo finished the season with a league @-@ leading 38 wins , along with 22 losses ( 15 in regulation and 7 in overtime or a shootout ) . His career @-@ high 2 @.@ 11 GAA ranked second in the league , behind Tim Thomas ' 2 @.@ 00 , and set a Canucks record , surpassing Dan Cloutier 's 2 @.@ 27 GAA , set in 2003 – 04 . While his .928 save percentage improved upon his team @-@ record setting .921 in 2006 – 07 , it was bettered by one @-@ hundredth of a point by Schneider . Together , Luongo and Schneider won the William M. Jennings Trophy for leading the Canucks to the lowest GAA in the league ; their combined 2 @.@ 20 GAA was one @-@ tenth better than the Boston Bruins 's second @-@ place goaltending tandem of Tim Thomas and Tuukka Rask . Luongo helped the Canucks to their first Presidents ' Trophy in team history with an NHL @-@ best and franchise @-@ record 54 wins and 117 points . His efforts in the regular season earned him his third career Vezina Trophy nomination , alongside the Boston Bruins ' Tim Thomas and the Nashville Predators ' Pekka Rinne .
= = = = 2011 playoffs = = = =
Entering the 2011 playoffs as the first seed in the West , the Canucks were matched against the Blackhawks for the third straight year . After opening the series with three straight wins , the Canucks lost the next three , forcing a seventh game . After he was pulled in favour of Schneider during Games 4 and 5 – having allowed six and four goals , respectively – Luongo started Game 6 on the bench . During the third period , Schneider suffered an injury , forcing Luongo to finish the game . He made 12 saves in relief of Schneider before Blackhawks forward Ben Smith scored in overtime . Although Schneider was available to play for Game 7 , Vigneault chose to start Luongo . He made 31 saves in the deciding game , helping the Canucks to a 2 – 1 overtime win . His efforts included a cross @-@ ice save on a one @-@ timer from forward Patrick Sharp during a Blackhawks powerplay early on in the extra period . Going head @-@ to @-@ head against fellow Vezina Trophy nominee Pekka Rinne and the Nashville Predators in round two , Luongo kept Nashville to 11 goals over 6 games to help the Canucks advance . He maintained his performance in the Conference Finals against the San Jose Sharks , allowing 13 goals over 5 contests , including 54 saves in the fifth and deciding match , a game that went to double overtime . Luongo 's efforts helped the Canucks reach the Stanley Cup Finals for the first time in 17 years . He opened the series against the Boston Bruins stopping all 36 shots in a 1 – 0 win for his third shutout of the post @-@ season . As the series shifted to Boston 's TD Garden with a two @-@ games @-@ to @-@ none Canucks lead , Luongo surrendered eight goals in Game 3 . The following contest , he was pulled for the third time in the playoffs after allowing 4 goals on 20 shots . Amidst heavy scrutiny from the media and Canucks fans , Luongo recovered for Game 5 , stopping all 31 Bruins shots in a 1 – 0 win . It was his 15th win and 4th shutout of the post @-@ season , tying both of Kirk McLean 's single @-@ year playoff team records , previously set in 1994 . With an opportunity to clinch the Stanley Cup in Game 6 , however , he was pulled again after allowing three goals in less than three minutes in the first period ; the game ended in a 5 – 2 loss . Starting for the deciding seventh game , he allowed 3 goals on 20 shots , including one shorthanded goal , as the Canucks lost 4 – 0 .
= = = = 2011 – 2014 = = = =
Nearly a month @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half into the 2011 – 12 season , Luongo suffered an upper @-@ body injury that sidelined him for two games . The nature of the injury was unspecified , but was believed to have occurred during a game against the Islanders on November 13 , 2011 , when he appeared to be in discomfort . Prior to the injury , Luongo was struggling to perform with statistics near the bottom of the league . Upon recovering , Schneider 's play relegated Luongo to backup status for five games . By December , he resumed as the team 's starter with improved performance . The following month , Luongo reached a pair of milestones . On January 4 , 2012 , he became the 23rd goalie in league history to play in his 700th game , a contest in which he recorded a 3 – 0 shutout against the Wild . With his 212th victory as a Canuck on January 21 ( a 4 – 3 win against the Sharks ) , he surpassed Kirk McLean as the winningest goalie in team history . Luongo accomplished the feat in 364 games , 152 less than McLean . Appearing in 55 games in 2011 – 12 , Luongo recorded 31 wins , 14 losses and 8 overtime or shootout losses . He had a 2 @.@ 41 GAA , .919 save percentage and five shutouts . His efforts helped the Canucks to a second consecutive Presidents ' Trophy for the regular season .
Facing the eighth @-@ seeded Los Angeles Kings in the opening round of the 2012 Stanley Cup playoffs , Luongo started the first two games and played well but his team lost both . Vigneault opted to start Schneider for the rest of the series , in order to give the Canucks some momentum , and Luongo remained on the bench for the remainder of the series as the Kings won four games to one . Dressing as a backup for the Canucks ' final three playoff games led many in the media to believe that Luongo would be traded in the off @-@ season , in favour of Schneider , who recorded better regular season and playoff statistics than him in 2011 – 12 . Asked about his role with the Canucks following the defeat , Luongo told reporters that he would waive his no @-@ trade clause if management asked him to . In June 2012 , Schneider was signed to a three @-@ year $ 12 million contract , which made Luongo expendable , but general manager Mike Gillis ' efforts to trade Luongo were unsuccessful due to his $ 64 million ( U.S. ) , 12 @-@ year contract .
In the lockout @-@ shortened 2012 – 13 NHL season , both goaltenders split the playing duties although Schneider was the number one goalie . Luongo handled his demotion with class and remained supportive of Schneider , soon calling the Canucks " Cory 's team . " Head coach Alain Vigneault said " Cory is our MVP and one of reasons why we got into playoffs . I 've got a lot of faith in him and that 's why we 're going with him " . In the opening playoff round facing the San Jose Sharks , as Schneider had been injured near the end of the regular season , Luongo started the first two games and played well but his team lost both . Luongo came off the bench in game three after Schneider was pulled in the third period . Luongo was the backup in game four as the Canucks lost in overtime , ending his team 's postseason in four straight games . Luongo put his penthouse up for sale , as it was accepted that he had played his final game as a Canuck . Although he had nine years left on a 12 @-@ year , $ 64 @-@ million contract , which represented a $ 5 @.@ 33 million salary cap hit , general manager Mike Gillis remained confident of making a deal in the summer .
Surprisingly , Schneider was traded to the New Jersey Devils on June 30 , 2013 , reinstating Luongo in the starting position for the 2013 – 14 NHL season . John Tortorella , who had replaced Alain Vigneault as Canucks head coach after the conclusion of the 2012 @-@ 13 season , chose rookie Eddie Läck to start in goal instead of Luongo in the Heritage Classic against the Ottawa Senators at BC Place . Tortorella 's decision was unpopular with the crowd as they booed Läck , while Luongo was also unhappy as he had been looking forward to that game all season .
= = = Second stint with the Panthers ( 2014 – present ) = = =
On March 4 , 2014 , a day before the NHL trade deadline , Luongo was traded back to the Florida Panthers along with prospect Steven Anthony in exchange for goaltender Jacob Markström and centre Shawn Matthias . The Canucks retain part of Luongo 's salary . Luongo is seen as key to helping build the Panthers into a strong contender .
The Panthers won their division during the 2015 – 16 season and returned to the playoffs for the second time in 16 years , due in part to Luongo 's strong play . On March 14 , 2016 Luongo was announced as the starter for the Panthers first game of the 2016 Stanley Cup playoffs , taking place the same night .
= = International career = =
Luongo made his international debut at the 1995 World U @-@ 17 Hockey Challenge in Moncton , New Brunswick , with Team Québec , winning bronze . Three years later , he was named to the Canadian national junior team for the 1998 World Junior Championships in Finland . He played backup to Victoriaville Tigres goaltender Mathieu Garon , going winless in three appearances with a 3 @.@ 70 GAA , as Canada finished in eighth place . Luongo became the starting goaltender the following year at the 1999 World Junior Championships in Winnipeg , Manitoba , appearing in seven of Canada 's eight games . He recorded a shutout in the first game of the tournament against the Czech Republic , making 36 saves in a 0 – 0 tie . He went on to help Team Canada to the gold medal game against Russia , but lost in overtime , surrendering a goal to Artem Chubarov . With a 1 @.@ 92 GAA and two shutouts , Luongo was given Best Goaltender and All @-@ Star Team honours .
Luongo first appeared with the Canadian men 's team at the 2001 World Championships in Germany . He played backup to Fred Brathwaite of the Calgary Flames before injuring his finger during the first game of the qualification round against Switzerland on May 4 , 2001 . Luongo returned home to Florida , as Vancouver Canucks goaltender Dan Cloutier replaced him , ending his tournament debut with a 1 @.@ 44 GAA in two games . Canada finished in fifth place .
During his next appearance at the 2003 World Championships in Finland , Luongo began the tournament as backup to the Phoenix Coyotes ' Sean Burke . He earned wins against Latvia in the preliminaries and Switzerland in the qualifying round . During the semifinals against the Czech Republic , Luongo replaced Burke after he left the game with a lower @-@ body injury eight minutes into the second period . Luongo allowed four goals in relief , but earned the win as Canada defeated the Czechs 8 – 4 . With Burke still out for the gold medal game , Luongo made 49 saves against Sweden in a 3 – 2 overtime win . Despite Luongo 's medal round efforts , Burke was named the Best Goaltender for the tournament , as he played in the majority of Team Canada 's games . The gold @-@ medal winning 2003 team was later named the Canadian Press national sports team of the year on January 2 , 2004 .
Luongo made his third appearance at the World Championships in 2004 in the Czech Republic . He played in seven games as the starting goaltender , recording a 2 @.@ 32 GAA and one shutout , as Canada captured its second straight gold medal at the tournament , beating Sweden 5 – 3 in the final . Several months later , Luongo competed for Team Canada in the 2004 World Cup as backup to Martin Brodeur of the New Jersey Devils . It marked Luongo 's first international tournament in which all NHL players were eligible , as the annual World Championships conflict with the Stanley Cup playoffs . He had another opportunity to step in for the starting goalie when Brodeur pulled himself out prior to the semi @-@ final game against the Czech Republic due to a sprained wrist . Filling in for Brodeur , Luongo made 37 of 40 stops in a 4 – 3 overtime victory to put Team Canada into the finals against Finland . Brodeur returned for the championship game to backstop Team Canada to a 3 – 2 win .
Luongo appeared in his fourth World Championships in 2005 . Due to the 2004 – 05 NHL lockout , all NHL players were available for the tournament in Austria , and Luongo played backup to Brodeur . He appeared in two games , including a shutout win against Slovenia in the round @-@ robin . Luongo earned a silver medal as Team Canada was shut out by the Czech Republic 3 – 0 in the final .
Luongo was named to his first Winter Olympics in 2006 . The tournament was held in Turin , Italy , his country of cultural origin . He again played behind Brodeur and appeared in two games . He made his Olympic debut in the second game of the round @-@ robin with a 5 – 1 win against Germany . His second appearance of the tournament was a loss to Finland , also in the round @-@ robin . Team Canada had entered the tournament as the defending gold medal champions from the 2002 Winter Olympics , but were eliminated facing Russia in the quarter @-@ finals and finished in seventh place .
Leading up to the 2010 Winter Olympics , to be held in Luongo 's NHL hometown of Vancouver , Luongo and Brodeur were considered locks to be named to the national team heading into the summer orientation camp in August 2009 and speculation began as to who would be appointed the starting position . On December 31 , 2009 , Luongo was selected to Team Canada , along with Brodeur and Marc @-@ Andre Fleury of the Pittsburgh Penguins as the three goaltenders . Luongo was given the start for the first game against Norway . He recorded his first Olympic shutout , making 15 saves in an 8 – 0 win to open the tournament . After Brodeur surrendered four goals in a 5 – 3 loss to the United States in their final preliminary game , Luongo replaced him as the starting goalie . He helped Canada to four consecutive single @-@ elimination game wins against Germany , Russia , Slovakia and the United States to capture the gold medal . During the semifinal against Slovakia , Luongo made a game @-@ saving stop against Canucks teammate Pavol Demitra with nine seconds to go in regulation . With Slovakia 's goaltender pulled and down by a goal , the puck bounced to Demitra by the side of the net . Out of position , Luongo managed to get his glove on the puck , deflecting it away from the net and preserving the win . In the subsequent gold medal game , Luongo made 34 saves in Canada 's overtime win against the United States .
The following month , Luongo carried the torch into Robson Square in Downtown Vancouver for the 2010 Paralympics on March 11 , 2010 .
Four years later , Luongo was selected to Team Canada for his third straight Olympics . Heading into the Sochi Games as the incumbent starter , there was much debate among the media as to whether he or Montreal Canadiens goaltender Carey Price would play most of Canada 's games . With head coach Mike Babcock electing Price , Luongo received one start in the tournament , a round robin game against Austria , in which he recorded a 6 @-@ 0 shutout . As a backup , earned his second Olympic gold medal , as Canada went on to defeat Sweden in the final 3 @-@ 0 .
= = Playing style = =
Luongo plays in the butterfly style of goaltending , dropping to his knees with his skates pointing outwards and his pads meeting in the middle in order to cover the bottom portion of the net . Due to the style of play , groin injuries are common for butterfly goalies . Luongo suffered one during the 2008 – 09 season and missed 24 games .
An athletic goaltender , Luongo is known for having quick reflexes , particularly with his glove . One of Luongo 's early goaltending coaches , François Allaire , has remembered Luongo to have had the " best catching glove [ he 'd ] ever seen in a kid " when he first came to his goaltending school in Sainte @-@ Thérèse @-@ de @-@ Gaspé , Québec , at the age of 14 . Allaire is known to be a strong proponent of the butterfly style . At 6 feet and 3 inches , Luongo is able to cover a lot of net with his size . Observers also note the strong concentration , competitiveness and mental aspects of his game . On the other hand , his puck @-@ handling skills have been described as a weakness .
His style began to be directed during his midget years with Allaire and Montreal @-@ Bourassa goaltending coach Mario Baril . Luongo sent tapes of his play to Allaire during his rookie season in the QMJHL and his former goaltending coach advised him to be more aggressive and come out of the net more to cut off angles and challenge shooters . Later in his NHL career , the Canucks hired a new goaltending coach , Roland Melanson , prior to the 2010 – 11 season . Working with Melanson , Luongo began playing deeper in his crease against Allaire 's original advice , allowing him to maintain positioning for rebounds . The following season , Melanson further tweaked Luongo 's style , encouraging him to extend and elevate his glove after his hand 's usual low positioning was interpreted to have become a weakness .
Vancouver Canucks head coach Alain Vigneault has said that Luongo plays best with more playing time over the length of the season . Throughout his career , he has garnered lots of playing time , including four consecutive 70 @-@ game seasons from 2003 – 04 to 2007 – 08 between the Florida Panthers and Canucks . He has been known to suffer from slow starts to the season , usually in the first month of October . In his first three Octobers with the Canucks , Luongo posted a combined 10 – 13 – 0 record and a .899 save percentage – numbers that are well below his career pace .
Luongo is also known for his leadership qualities . He received the Mark Messier Leadership Award in his first season with the Canucks for the month of March 2007 . Prior to his third season with Vancouver , he was named Markus Näslund 's successor as team captain and the first goaltender to be named a captain in 59 years . Teammate Mattias Öhlund , who served as alternate captain to Luongo for one season , described him as a vocal leader , while Luongo has also identified that quality in himself . General manager Mike Gillis described his commitment level as " unprecedented " , adding that " he 'd be a great example for our younger guys " , at the time of the captaincy announcement . He served in that capacity for two seasons before stepping down prior to the 2010 – 11 season .
= = Personal life = =
While playing with the Florida Panthers , Luongo met his wife , Gina Cerbone , at a team hangout called the Pizza Time Trattoria . Gina is the daughter of the Italian restaurant owner , Umberto Cerbone , who is originally from Naples , while Gina 's mother is from Palermo . Luongo proposed to Gina under the Bridge of Sighs in Venice in 2004 . They lived in Broward County , Florida , during his tenure with the Panthers . However within a month of moving into a new home in Florida , Luongo was traded to Vancouver . They subsequently moved into the Vancouver neighbourhood of Yaletown , while spending Luongo 's off @-@ seasons in Fort Lauderdale , Florida . Their first child , Gabriella , was born on March 27 , 2008 . Luongo had been chosen as a starting goaltender for the 2008 NHL All @-@ Star Game , but he chose not to attend in order to be with Gina , who was pregnant with Gabriella at the time and had returned to Florida . On December 27 , 2010 , Gina gave birth to the couple 's second child , Gianni Antonio .
Luongo is involved with several charities . Like many Canucks players , he spent time with Canuck Place , a children 's hospice in Vancouver . He also sponsored a spectator 's box in Rogers Arena that is reserved for underprivileged children to attend Canucks games . At the end of games in which he was named one of the three stars , he was known to give away his goalie stick to a fan in the crowd . In the summer of 2009 , he hosted the Roberto Luongo Golf Open to benefit Montreal Children 's Hospital , Sainte @-@ Justine Hospital , and a seniors centre network in Saint @-@ Léonard .
In addition to being an avid golfer , Luongo also enjoys playing poker .
In September 2011 , Luongo was inducted into the Italian Walk of Fame in Toronto , Ontario .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season = = =
= = = Playoffs = = =
= = = International = = =
= = Awards and achievements = =
= = Records = =
= = = Val @-@ d 'Or Foreurs = = =
Most wins in a season – 32 in 1996 – 97
= = = QMJHL = = =
Most shutouts in a season – 7 in 1997 – 98 ( tied with Nick Sanza , 1974 – 75 ; Adam Russo , 2002 – 03 ; Kevin Poulin , 2009 – 10 )
Most wins in a single playoffs – 16 in 1999 ( tied with Michel Morisette , 1982 ; Eric Fichaud , 1994 ; Eric Lafrance , 2003 ; Jonathan Bernier , 2007 ; Ryan Mior , 2008 ; Nicola Riopel , 2010 )
Most games played all @-@ time , playoffs – 56 from 1995 – 99 ( surpassed Marc Denis , 43 games played , 1994 – 97 )
Most minutes played all @-@ time , playoffs – 3 @,@ 264 : 22 from 1995 – 99 ( surpassed Marc Denis , 2 @,@ 518 : 07 , 1994 – 97 )
Most wins all @-@ time , playoffs – 38 from 1995 – 99 ( surpassed Robert Desjardins , 30 , 1984 – 87 )
Most shots faced all @-@ time , playoffs – 1 @,@ 808 from 1995 – 99 ( surpassed Manny Fernandez , 1 @,@ 351 , 1991 – 94 )
= = = NHL = = =
Most saves in a single season – 2 @,@ 303 in 2003 – 04 ( surpassed Félix Potvin , 2 @,@ 214 in 1996 – 97 )
Most shots faced in a single season – 2 @,@ 488 in 2005 – 06 ( surpassed himself , 2 @,@ 475 in 2003 – 04 )
Most shots faced in a single playoff game – 76 on April 11 , 2007
Most home games played in a single season – 41 in 2006 – 07
Most regular season overtime wins , all @-@ time – 49 ( as of 2008 – 09 )
= = = Florida Panthers = = =
Longest shutout streak – 144 : 51 minutes in 2002 – 03
Most shutouts in a season – 7 in 2003 – 04 ( surpassed himself , six shutouts in 2002 – 03 ; tied with Tomáš Vokoun , 2009 – 10 )
Most wins in a season – 35 in 2005 – 06 ( surpassed John Vanbiesbrouck , 27 wins in 1996 – 97 )
Most games played in a season – 75 in 2005 – 06 ( surpassed himself , 72 games played in 2003 – 04 )
Most games played all @-@ time – 318
Most wins all @-@ time – 108 ( surpassed John Vanbiesbrouck , 106 wins )
Most shutouts all @-@ time – 26 ( surpassed John Vanbiesbrouck , 13 shutouts )
= = = Vancouver Canucks = = =
Most saves in a single game – 72 on April 11 , 2007
Longest shutout streak – 242 : 36 minutes ( 2008 – 09 ) ( surpassed himself , 184 : 20 minutes in 2007 – 08 )
Most wins in a season – 47 in 2006 – 07 ( surpassed Kirk McLean , 38 in 1991 – 92 )
Most games played in a season – 75 in 2006 – 07 ( surpassed Gary Smith , 72 in 1974 – 75 )
Most shutouts in a season – 9 in 2008 – 09 ( surpassed Dan Cloutier – 7 in 2001 – 02 )
Lowest GAA in a season - 2 @.@ 11 in 2010 – 11 ( surpassed Dan Cloutier – 2 @.@ 27 in 2003 – 04 )
Most shutouts all @-@ time – 33 ( surpassed Kirk McLean , 20 )
Most wins all @-@ time - 224 ( after end of 2011 @-@ 2012 season ; surpassed Kirk McLean , 211 )
= = Transactions = =
June 21 , 1997 – Selected by the New York Islanders in the first round , fourth overall , in the 1997 NHL Entry Draft .
January 8 , 1999 – Signed by the New York Islanders to a three @-@ year , $ 2 @.@ 775 million contract .
June 24 , 2001 – Traded to the Florida Panthers along with Olli Jokinen in exchange for Mark Parrish and Oleg Kvasha .
August 25 , 2005 – Granted a one @-@ year , $ 3 @.@ 2 million contract with the Florida Panthers by arbitration .
June 23 , 2006 – Traded to the Vancouver Canucks along with Lukáš Krajíček and a sixth @-@ round selection in the 2006 NHL Entry Draft ( Sergei Shirokov ) in exchange for Todd Bertuzzi , Bryan Allen , and Alex Auld .
June 29 , 2006 – Signed a four @-@ year , $ 27 million contract with the Vancouver Canucks .
September 2 , 2009 – Signed a 12 @-@ year , $ 64 million contract extension with the Vancouver Canucks .
March 4 , 2014 - Traded back to the Florida Panthers along with Steven Anthony in exchange for goalie Jacob Markstrom and forward Shawn Matthias .
= Battle of Corydon =
The Battle of Corydon was a minor engagement that took place July 9 , 1863 , just south of Corydon , which had been the original capital of Indiana until 1825 , and was the county seat of Harrison County . The attack occurred during Morgan 's Raid in the American Civil War as a force of 2 @,@ 500 cavalry invaded the North in support of the Tullahoma Campaign . It was the only pitched battle of the Civil War that occurred in Indiana , and no battle has occurred within Indiana since .
As news of an impending raid spread across the state , Governor Oliver P. Morton called out the state 's militia force , the Indiana Legion , to defend against the threat . Unaware of the size of the invading army , four companies of the 6th and 8th Regiments of the Legion , totaling about one hundred men , attempted to prevent the Confederates from crossing the Ohio River into Indiana , but were overcome by superior artillery fire , killing two of the defenders . The units retreated northward where they met with the main body of the 6th Regiment under the command of Col. Lewis Jordan . Along with the townspeople , they constructed breastworks that formed a defensive line south of Corydon . Despite promises of reinforcements from regional Legion commanders in New Albany , only about 450 men ( consisting almost entirely of locals ) were defending the town .
As the raiders approached from the south , the advance elements formed a battle line and launched a frontal attack and an unsuccessful flanking movement against the east side of the Legion 's works . Reinforcements and artillery soon arrived with the main body of Confederate troops , giving the attackers a strong numerical superiority . With the support of the artillery , a pincer movement caused the Legion to abandon their position to avoid being surrounded . A large part of the Legion were captured as they attempted to escape from the town , while Col. Jordon and others regrouped downtown . Confederates then seized the Legion 's commissary supplies on the edge of town , and fired two warning shots into the downtown from their artillery , convincing Jordan that continued resistance was futile and leading him to surrender his force and Corydon . Although the short battle cost the cavalry twice as many casualties as the outnumbered militia units , the battle resulted in a Confederate victory , which enabled Brig. Gen. John Hunt Morgan to secure supplies and money before continuing his raid through Indiana and into Ohio . The delay , however , proved critical in helping the pursuing Union army overtake and later capture Morgan and his forces .
= = Prelude = =
Following the 1862 Newburgh Raid into Indiana , the federal government had put a regiment of regular cavalry troops in south central Indiana for defensive purposes . After patrolling the border for several months , no new raids materialized , and they were withdrawn in March 1863 , leaving only the local militia for defense .
= = = Advance through Kentucky = = =
On June 23 , 1863 , Brig. Gen. John Hunt Morgan led a cavalry division consisting of two brigades , totaling nearly 2 @,@ 500 men , and two batteries of artillery , northward from Tennessee in the Confederacy . His movements began as a ride into Kentucky to disrupt the communications of the Union Army of the Cumberland in support of Gen. Braxton Bragg 's Army of Tennessee during the Tullahoma Campaign . Bragg had ordered Morgan to attack any settlements of his choosing in Kentucky , but not to cross the Ohio River into Union territory . Bragg was worried about Morgan getting too far from the main army and being unable to come to his aid should it be needed . Morgan was already planning to disregard the orders and had sent scouts beyond the river before leaving Tennessee . Crossing the Cumberland River at Burkesville , Kentucky , Morgan 's column advanced to the Green River , where it was deflected by a Union regiment at Tebbs Bend on July 4 . Morgan surprised and captured the garrison of Lebanon , and then rode northward via Springfield , Bardstown and Garnettsville .
Morgan had his men tap the Union telegraph lines and send conflicting reports about his strength and destination . Most Union officials believed his target was Louisville , Kentucky . Not taking any chances , Governor of Indiana Oliver P. Morton telegraphed orders calling out all of the state 's militia , the Indiana Legion , south of the National Road .
In the afternoon of July 7 an advance force of Confederates entered Brandenburg , Kentucky , where they rendezvoused with Capt. Thomas Hines , who assumed command . Hines had led a reconnaissance mission into Indiana in search of Confederate sympathizers to support Morgan 's coming raid . He did not find the support he was looking for , and had been pursued by elements of the 6th and 8th Regiment of the Indiana Legion who killed three of his men and captured several others before the remainder escaped back into Kentucky . Since then he had been waiting in the Brandenburg area for Morgan to arrive . The Ohio River was swollen from recent rain , making any hope of fording it impossible and requiring that the Confederates secure boats to ferry their men across . Under Hines ' guidance , the Confederates set an ambush to capture the steamship John T. McCombs as it landed in Brandenburg to deliver the mail . The one ship would not be enough to allow the Confederate division to quickly cross the river , so to capture another boat the McCombs was used to simulate a distress call to lure in the fast sidewheel steamer Alice Dean . As the unsuspecting ship moved alongside the McCombs , the Confederates on board sprung out , lashed the two ships together , and boarded the Alice Dean . Taking the two ships back to shore , they released the crew and passengers just as Morgan arrived with the main body of the army . Some of the passengers escaped the town and sent message to commanders in Louisville of the Confederate occupation of Brandenburg .
= = = Battle of Brandenburg Crossing = = =
Indiana militia leaders learned of Morgan 's capture of Brandenburg , ten miles south of Corydon , and his intent to cross into Indiana in a dispatch from Regular Army commanders in Louisville . All the roads Morgan would likely take northward intersected at Corydon . Emergency requests for reinforcements were sent out from the town in all directions . New Albany leaders sent word promising to send a thousand men . Other companies around Harrison County immediately began to gather and advance to Corydon . Three companies of the 6th Regiment Indiana Legion based in Mauckport and totaling about one hundred men moved to Morvin 's Landing , the north bank of the river opposite Brandenburg , to contest the crossing . A thirty @-@ man company of the 8th Regiment of the Indiana Legion based in Leavenworth and under the command of Capt. G.W. Lyon , was transported to Morvin 's landing by the Lady Pike during the night . They brought with them their town 's ceremonial 8 @-@ pound cannon which they deployed and camouflaged on a small bluff in front of an abandoned log cabin .
On the morning of July 8 , Lyon opened fire on the Alice Dean , intending to destroy or disable the steamers . The men had only ever fired the cannon at celebratory events and were unsure how to aim it properly . Two shots were fired , with the second one hitting the upper deck of the McCombs , passing through the ship and landing near a group of men on the shore , wounding a Confederate . Just as the shelling began Provost Marshal John Timberlake arrived on the scene from Corydon with a small company of reinforcements and assumed command . Timberlake , who was a colonel in the regular army , believed Morgan 's force was small , and decided to spare the steamships and instead shell the massed cavalry . Before the cannon could be re @-@ aimed , the superior Confederate artillery was set up and returned fire from their significantly higher position on the opposite side of the river . The dense morning fog in the valley obliged the Confederates to guess at their target . Their first shot landed short of the Legion 's position , and the second shot landed behind them and leveled the cabin . The Legion defenders set off a third shot that had already been loaded into their cannon , and fled into a nearby forest . As they moved up the ridge and into the woods , they became visible to the Confederate artillery who began to shell the forest . One shot struck a log where two of the defenders had stopped to rest . They were mortally wounded while the rest fled into the forest as the Confederates continued to shell the landing .
With the resistance seemingly at an end , Morgan began crossing his troops in the captured steamers . The first company to land moved up the ridge on the north shore and engaged the Legion defenders in a skirmish . Union commanders in Louisville had sent out requests for naval support in preventing Morgan 's crossing when they first received reports from Brandenburg . The tinclad Springfield , armed with six 24 @-@ pound howitzers , was at New Albany and was dispatched down @-@ river and arrived on the scene just after Morgan had begun to ferry his force across the river . The Springfield opened fire on Morgan 's two steamers who retreated back under the covering fire of the Confederate artillery . The ship began shelling both the north and south shores of the river , firing at least fifty shells into Brandenburg , damaging several buildings and killing three horses . Morgan 's forces took cover in nearby forests while the armed steamer and the artillery on the shore dueled for about an hour . Once the Springfield ran out of ammunition she withdrew , allowing Morgan to resume the crossing .
After about half of his army had been ferried into Indiana , the Union gunboat USS Elk and an armed private ship , the Grey Eagle , arrived on the scene . The Elk fired a shot into the deck of the Alice Dean as it tried to escape to the shoreline . Both of the Union ships were wooden , and as the Confederate artillery opened fire , they quickly retreated upriver towards Louisville to avoid being destroyed . The crossing resumed again . In total , it took seventeen hours for Morgan to ferry his now 2 @,@ 000 men and supplies across the river . By listening in on the telegraph , he learned that Brig. Gen. Edward H. Hobson with a force of 4 @,@ 000 cavalry was advancing on his position from the south . The lead elements of the Union force arrived in Brandenburg at about 8 : 00 pm , where the Confederate rearguard was able to delay their advance long enough for Morgan 's artillery to be carried across the river . On the last trip across , most of the rearguard was able to escape , but several were left behind and captured .
Once the Confederates had crossed the river , the Alice Dean was set ablaze and sunk in the river between Morvin 's landing and Mauckport to deny the Union pursuers use of the vessel and to block the landing , making their crossing more difficult . Morgan ordered the McCombs to be burnt , but Col. Duke countermanded the order because of his friendship with its captain . He was allowed to return with his ship to Louisville unharmed . Gen. Hobson and the main body of the Union cavalry arrived in Brandenburg at about 10 : 15 pm , just as the Alice Dean went under the water . He set up his artillery and fired several shots at the Confederates who jeered at him from the opposite side of the river ; they quickly withdrew out of range of his guns . The lead elements of the cavalry had already set out northward following the Legion forces who withdrew gradually and fought delaying skirmishes along the Mauckport road to slow the cavalry 's advance towards Corydon .
= = Battle = =
= = = Skirmishes = = =
During the evening , elements of Morgan 's army had advanced to within five miles ( 8 km ) of Corydon . The four Legion companies that had attempted to prevent the crossing had been reinforced by four additional companies from Corydon , one from Elizabeth , and one from New Amsterdam , making the force about four @-@ hundred strong . They lured a company of unsuspecting Confederates into an ambush where they were surrounded ; sixteen were captured and taken to the Corydon jail . The invaders also successfully captured about thirty defenders in several skirmishes . They were rounded up and held in a school house near Laconia . After Morgan crossed the river he addressed the prisoners and told them that if they would promise to go home and not return to arms , he would allow them to leave and keep their guns . They all agreed and were released .
That night Morgan 's men camped at Frakes ' Mill just north of Mauckport . They found the area deserted , as all the civilians had fled their homes . In the house where Morgan stayed , the table was set with supper which he and his men ate before resting for the night . Morgan 's men tapped the telegraph lines again and began sending false reports that they were headed for New Albany . The disinformation dissuaded New Albany 's Legion leaders from sending the large number of reinforcements to Corydon that they had been organizing . The next morning the Confederates resumed their march northward . As they passed up a county road , a shot was fired killing a soldier . The scouts opened fired on a nearby house from which they assumed the shot had come , killing a Lutheran minister and wounding his son .
Corydon was the county seat of Harrison County and the former capital of Indiana . The town and immediate countryside had about one thousand inhabitants . The townspeople had been working all night building a breastwork of criss @-@ crossed logs on a high ridge just south of the town . A pair of Confederate spies had already infiltrated Corydon and reported their findings back to Morgan . As the works were completed , the Legion fell back to the town to take up position behind them . Many older men in the town joined in the defense , swelling their numbers to about 450 . Despite the emergency calls for reinforcements to the regional Legion commanders in New Albany , none of their men arrived before the battle began
= = = The attack = = =
The Legion 's barricade was between four and five feet high ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) and stretched 2 @,@ 500 feet ( 760 m ) from the Amsterdam Road on the far western wing to the Laconia Road on the far eastern wing and straddled the Mauckport Road in the center . The 6th Regiment of the Indiana Legion was commanded by the elderly Col. Lewis Jordan , a veteran of the War of 1812 . Maj. McGrain , a lieutenant in the Regular Army and recently returning from the war front , was given command of the west wing . Capt. George Lahue , a veteran of the Mexican @-@ American War , was in command of the east wing . Although the commanders were battle hardened , most of the men behind the works had never seen battle . The western wing was heavily wooded , but the slope of the ground prevented the defenders or the attackers from seeing each other until they were within close range . The eastern wing of the works was in a mostly open field and afforded little natural cover to the attackers , while the defenders were protected from gunfire behind their works .
At 11 : 30 a.m. on July 9 , the 3rd Regiment Kentucky Cavalry , the advance element of the Confederate forces under the command of Col. " Stovepipe " Johnson , was sighted moving north along the Mauckport Road towards Corydon . Col. Johnson believed that the artillery could have quickly dispersed the four hundred farmers @-@ turned @-@ soldiers , but Morgan was worried about any delay because during the night the Union forces had begun crossing the river in his rear . Morgan 's main body with the artillery was still en route , and he decided that the Legion should be engaged by the advance forces .
By about noon , the Confederates had formed an attack line and were in position to advance on the works . Because of the forest on the west side of the Mauckport Road , a company of men dismounted and attacked the works head on . They were repulsed three times , but the Legion suffered a casualty during the second wave . Simultaneously , the Confederates launched a flanking maneuver on the eastern wing of the defensive works . The initial flanking attempt was prevented because of the superior weapons held by the thirty Legion soldiers on that wing . They were equipped with Henry rifles capable of firing fourteen rounds before reloading , and were able to keep the Confederates pinned down in the open field for about twenty minutes .
Shortly after the third repulse of the Confederates on the western wing , the 2nd Kentucky and 9th Tennessee regiments arrived from the Mauckport Road and joined the battle , giving the attackers a numerical superiority . At about 12 : 40 p.m. , Capt. Byrnes arrived with the Confederate artillery and used his two ten @-@ pound Parrott rifle cannons to pin down the defenders in the works . In the meantime , Morgan was leading his main body of troops far around the eastern edge of the defenses and up the Plank Road , threatening the town directly and bypassing the defenses entirely . As they moved onto the Corydon Pike , they shot and robbed a toll gate keeper who refused to throw down his gun .
= = = Legion rout = = =
Using the cannons and one infantry battalion to prevent the defenders from maneuvering , Col. Richard Morgan , the general 's brother , launched a pincer movement in an attempt to surround the Legion units . With the artillery bearing down on the works , the 2nd Kentucky and 9th Tennessee began to flank the Union defense on the east and west sides respectively . Col. Lewis ordered a retreat to prevent the army from being captured . With their superior numbers , the Confederates were able to move around both ends of the Legion 's works and quickly turned the retreat into a rout . The second part of the engagement was over in about twenty @-@ five minutes ; in total the battle lasted about one hour . As the Legion fled into the town , many threw their guns into the Indian Creek to prevent them from being captured by the enemy . About one hundred men attempted to escape by the Corydon Pike , unaware that the main Confederate force was advancing up it , and were captured .
A large part of the Legion force , including Col. Jordon , retreated into the downtown . On the western edge of the town , a company of Confederates seized the Legion 's commissary . Morgan took command of the heights south of the town and fired two warning shells from his artillery into Corydon , one landing very near Cedar Glade , now a historic site that keeps a marker at the location where the shot landed . Col. Jordan realized that continued resistance was useless and did not " desire to see the unnecessary loss of life " , and promptly surrendered the town by running up a white flag in the town square . The Legion 's cavalry and the infantrymen who had mounts were able to escape into the countryside , but almost all of the remaining infantry was captured .
Accounts vary as to the number of casualties , but the most reliable evidence suggests that Jordan lost four killed , ten to twelve wounded , and 355 captured — about 100 escaped . After the battle , Morgan counted eleven dead and forty wounded among the raiders , plus one killed while advancing on the town . Additionally , three civilians were killed .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Plundering of Corydon = = =
Morgan led his division into Corydon . As the county commissioner exited the courthouse carrying a rifle he was shot dead , becoming the final casualty of the day . Morgan paroled the Legion as if they had been regular soldiers ; their weapons and ammunition were seized or destroyed , and they were required to promise not return to arms for a period of time . The prisoners in the county jail were freed , including the Confederates who had been captured the previous day . The cavalrymen spent the afternoon plundering stores and collecting ransom money ; Morgan threatened to torch three local mills , and demanded each of them pay $ 1 @,@ 000 to prevent their destruction . The owners negotiated the rate down to $ 500 . The county treasurer paid $ 690 to spare the courthouse from being burnt , and two leading stores paid $ 600 each . His men robbed the townspeople freely , stealing items ranging from ice @-@ skates and bonnets to guns and horses . The total amount taken by ransom and plunder was estimated at $ 26 @,@ 450 ( $ 460 @,@ 873 in 2009 chained dollars ) . The value of most of the stolen goods and property destruction was later reimbursed , mostly by the state government .
Morgan ate lunch at the Kintner House Inn where he read a newspaper and learned of the Confederate defeat at Gettysburg and the fall of Vicksburg . The news caused him to realize his army was in serious danger ; his hosts later said that upon his reading the paper that he was " noticeably crestfallen " . Morgan had intended to meet up with the Confederate army in Pennsylvania , but with their forces in retreat this was impossible and began to plan for a safe return across the Ohio River . He had his telegrapher tap the telegraph lines and send false messages indicating he was heading for Indianapolis to free Confederate prisoners of war held at Camp Morton . The Confederate dead were buried in unmarked graves on a farm on the western edge of town . Morgan 's wounded were left in the town and were taken into a local Presbyterian church , where they were cared for . The wounded men were paroled after Union troops arrived . Two were taken to the Union army hospital in Jeffersonville , and remained in the town until they were well enough to return home and await their exchange .
= = = Continued raid = = =
Shortly after looting the town , detachments of raiders left Corydon and continued their raid , scouring the countryside for fresh horses and food . An African American from Corydon was forced to serve as their guide ; he led them for two days before escaping and returning home . By about 6 : 00 pm Morgan and the main body had resumed their march northward , foraging in northern Harrison County before camping a few miles from Corydon , near New Salisbury . They left Harrison County early the next morning heading north .
As soon as he learned of the defeat at Corydon , Governor Morton sent a series of telegrams to Maj. Gen. Ambrose Burnside , commander of the Army of the Ohio , first requesting then demanding the return of two Indiana regiments recently sent to the defense of Louisville , Kentucky . Burnside refused but did order his cavalry to join in the pursuit of Morgan . As Corydon had until recently been capital of Indiana , the defeat was symbolic . The July 10 headline of the Indianapolis Gazetteer screamed " Former Capitol Corydon Ravaged By Morgan 's Raiders ; Two Hoosiers Dead . "
More than 150 @,@ 000 men turned out to join Legion units during the next week and began pursuing on Morgan 's cavalrymen . Gen. Hobson and his men arrived in Corydon on July 10 , after crossing the Ohio River from Kentucky . Although a Confederate victory , the Battle of Corydon had delayed Morgan by six crucial hours , allowing the pursuing Union army to begin closing the gap . Union cavalry numbering six thousand men were soon only a few miles behind him . Morgan briefly continued north and raided Salem . He then turned his east to Ohio as his raid turned into flight to escape . He was thwarted at the Battle of Buffington Island , where he tried to cross the Ohio River to safety . Only about 250 of his men were across the river , when Union gunboats brought his attempt to an end . Morgan was later captured at the Battle of Salineville , the furthest north regular Confederates ever reached .
Other raids and small skirmishes took place in Indiana during the war , but the Battle of Corydon was the only pitched battle fought in the state . It remains the last military conflict to have occurred in Indiana . In 1976 the site was preserved as the Corydon Battle Site memorial park and was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on July 9 , 1979 . Today it is part of the John Hunt Morgan Heritage Trail . The battle has been re @-@ enacted each year since 1980 .
= = Reenactment gallery = =
= Northrop N @-@ 3PB =
The Northrop N @-@ 3PB Nomad was a single @-@ engined American floatplane of the 1940s . Northrop developed the N @-@ 3PB as an export model based on the earlier Northrop A @-@ 17 design . A total of 24 were purchased by Norway , but were not delivered until after the Fall of Norway during the Second World War . Exiled Norwegian forces used them from 1941 , operating from Iceland , for convoy escort , anti @-@ submarine patrols , and training purposes from " Little Norway " in Canada . Within two years of delivery , the design was effectively obsolete in its combat role , and the remaining N @-@ 3PBs were replaced by larger aircraft in 1943 .
= = Design and development = =
Following increased international tension surrounding the German annexation of the Sudetenland in 1938 , the Norwegian parliament granted extraordinary appropriations to modernize the Norwegian Armed Forces . The Royal Norwegian Navy Air Service ( RNNAS ) and the Norwegian Army Air Service were prioritized for funds from the NOK 50 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 Norwegian Neutrality Fund . The RNNAS ' share of the funds were designated to buy 12 Heinkel He 115 torpedo bombers and 24 reconnaissance aircraft , as well as several new naval air stations . The Dornier Do 22 , Northrop 8 @-@ A , Northrop 2GP and Vultee V @-@ 11 GB were considered and proposals retrieved . The commission quickly decided the Vultee V @-@ 11 GB was the best aircraft to satisfy both air services ' needs . On the part of the Royal Norwegian Air Service , the requirements were for a reconnaissance aircraft with a range of 1 @,@ 500 km , a top speed of no less than 320 km / h and a payload of a 900 kg torpedo or the equivalent in bombs .
On 30 December 1939 , Norway sent a purchasing commission to the United States , consisting of a Royal Norwegian Navy Air Service contingent headed by Cmdr. Kristian Østby , and a Norwegian Army Air Service contingent led by Birger F. Motzfeldt . The goal of the commission was to inspect the Vultee V @-@ 11 , which would serve as a new common reconnaissance bomber for the two air services . Amongst the requirements the commission hoped to fill was replacing the Royal Norwegian Navy Air Service 's M.F.11 biplane patrol aircraft . Once in the US , the commission found that Vultee would not be able to deliver the V @-@ 11 within a reasonable amount of time so another aircraft had to be found . Motzfeldt quickly found that the Douglas 8A @-@ 5N would satisfy the NOAAS ' requirements . As the Douglas 8A @-@ 5N could not be fitted with floats , Østby continued to look for an aircraft suitable for the RNNAS . After visits to many of the aviation companies in February 1940 , Østby determined that only one manufacturer had both a design and available production capacity , Northrop Aircraft Incorporated . The commission ordered 24 floatplanes based on the Model 8 @-@ A , renamed the N @-@ 3PB , " off the drawing board " ( literally , the aircraft being ordered prior to the type having flown ) from Northrop on 8 March 1940 , at a total cost of NOK 6 @,@ 550 @,@ 000 to meet this requirement . Half the amount was paid shortly before the German invasion of Norway on 9 April 1940 .
The Model 8 @-@ A , the export model of the Northrop Attack Bomber series was never intended to serve as the basis of a floatplane and had to be redesigned to meet the requirements of the Norwegian order . The new N @-@ 3PB was the first product of Northrop Aircraft , which had reformed in 1939 , and was a low @-@ winged cantilever monoplane fitted with twin floats . First intended for a lower powered engine , the N @-@ 3PB was ultimately powered by a Wright Cyclone radial engine , of the same type specified for the Douglas 8A @-@ 5N bombers and Curtiss Hawk 75A @-@ 8s ordered by Norway at the same time , simplifying the eventual maintenance and operation requirements for the entire Norwegian military aircraft fleets .
With the Norwegian operation requirements drawn up for a coastal reconnaissance floatplane , a series of modifications were requested to the original design . The changes included a redesign of the float structure to accommodate either a torpedo or bomb load carried under the center fuselage to supplement five underwing bomb racks . Additional armament changes led to a combination of six machine guns replacing the four machine gun ( two fixed forward , two flexible rear @-@ mounted 7 @.@ 9 mm ) / one cannon ( forward facing , fixed 20 mm ) arrangement that was in the initial design . Provision for a rear under @-@ fuselage gun was also made . Further equipment requirements including fitting a rear fuselage @-@ mounted camera as well as changes to instrumentation and radio equipment .
Before Northrop could complete any aircraft , Norway was invaded by Germany . The invasion and occupation of Norway necessitated that the armament of the N @-@ 3PB , originally to be installed in Norway , had to be changed . Initial specifications listed one Oerlikon 20 mm cannon in each wing , as well as two 7 @.@ 9 mm Fabrique Nationale machine guns each in both fuselage and rear gunner stations . Owing to the lack of availability of the originally specified armament , Norwegian @-@ manufactured Colt heavy machine guns were substituted with four Colt MG53A .50 cal. machine guns in the wings and two .30 cal . Colt MG40s mounted in dorsal and ventral positions of the gunner 's rear cockpit .
= = Operational history = =
= = = Delivery = = =
Northrop 's Chief Test Pilot Vance Breese flew the first N @-@ 3PB ( c / n 301 ) on 22 December 1940 from Lake Elsinore , California . The flight test and customer acceptance trials were successfully completed using the first production aircraft . Due to the use of the more powerful Cyclone engine , all performance estimates were exceeded and flight characteristics including maneouverability were considered " excellent . " All 24 aircraft were delivered to the exiled Royal Norwegian Navy Air Service by the end of March 1941 .
= = = Training = = =
In late February 1941 , six production N @-@ 3PBs were flown to RCAF Station Patricia Bay , Vancouver Island in Canada , one of the Canadian winter bases of the Flyvåpnenes Treningsleir ( FTL ) Norwegian training bases known as " Little Norway " . The N @-@ 3PB 's service as an advanced trainer in Canada in the " Little Norway " summer base at Island Harbour , Toronto and winter bases along the western coast of Canada , was relatively brief and ended when it was determined that pilot and air crew graduates were to be integrated into RAF squadrons . Arrangements were made later in 1941 for the advanced flight training of Norwegian pilots to be carried out in RAF and Royal Canadian Air Force schools on types that better fit the transition to combat flying . Consequently , the three surviving N @-@ 3PBs were stored until shipped to Iceland in March 1942 on the steamer Delta .
= = = Combat use = = =
The remaining 18 N @-@ 3PBs were used to equip No. 330 ( Norwegian ) Squadron RAF in Reykjavík , Iceland . The N @-@ 3PBs sent to Iceland were all shipped across the Atlantic in crates on board the Norwegian steamer Fjordheim , the voyage from New York to Reykjavik taking 13 days to complete . Part of the reason for deploying the N @-@ 3PBs to Iceland were to avoid having the unusual aircraft operating over the United Kingdom , with the involved risk of friendly fire incidents .
No. 330 ( N ) Squadron was declared operational on 25 April 1941 ; the N @-@ 3PBs were erected in a seaplane hangar at Reykjavik , with the first aircraft flying by 2 June 1941 . The squadron flew antisubmarine and convoy escort patrols from 23 June 1941 , with flights based at Reykjavík , Akureyri and Budareyi . While the squadron 's N @-@ 3PBs carried out eight attacks on German U @-@ boats , including one on U @-@ 570 after it had surrendered to the British , no U @-@ boats were sunk . On a number of occasions in 1942 , the N @-@ 3PBs clashed with Focke @-@ Wulf Fw 200 long range reconnaissance bombers and Blohm & Voss BV 138 flying boats , being credited with at least one damaged . On 10 October 1942 , a " Northrop " from Budareyi was involved in a friendly fire incident , attacking a British Lockheed Hudson . The incident ended without any of the aircraft involved being hit .
In an effort to publicize the N @-@ 3PB operations , the British Air Ministry circulated a report that two Norwegian @-@ flown aircraft had been involved in the attack on the German battleship Bismarck on 21 – 22 May 1941 , but it was merely an example of wartime propaganda . Despite many aviation historians disputing the claim , it still appears in current accounts of the sinking of the Bismarck . No. 330 ( N ) was formed on 25 April 1941 and received its first of 18 N @-@ 3PBs on 19 May , two days before the attack on the Bismark but didn 't fly until 2 June 1941 and their first official operational flight wasn 't until 23 June 1941 . No. 330 ( N ) Squadron began supplementing the N @-@ 3PBs with Consolidated Catalina flying boats in 1942 , and both the Catalina and the N @-@ 3PB began to be displaced in February 1943 by the arrival of the more capable Short Sunderland . Flying boats allowed for longer patrols to be carried out , and had superior seakeeping qualities to the N @-@ 3PB . The surviving N @-@ 3PBs continued to operate alongside the Catalinas , flying fighter patrol , escort and antisubmarine operations off Iceland 's east coast until early 1943 . Throughout the transition to other types , the squadron 's C @-@ Flight maintained an " all @-@ Northrop " unit , predominately involved in secondary roles including army cooperation , transport , air @-@ sea rescue , ice reconnaissance and ambulance roles . In early 1943 , No. 330 ( N ) ' s crews relocated to Oban , Scotland , aboard the troop ship Leinster . Two of the remaining N @-@ 3PBs flew to Oban . The eight aircraft left behind on Iceland were scrapped in Reykjavik between December 1942 – April 1943 .
Throughout its combat service from 23 June 1941 – 30 March 1943 , No. 330 ( N ) ' s N @-@ 3PBs carried out 1 @,@ 1011 operational sorties , totalling 3 @,@ 512 hours flying time . Although the eight attacks they carried out on U @-@ boats proved inconclusive , N @-@ 3PB escort patrols and antisubmarine sweeps were an important part of the Allied effort in keeping the North Atlantic sea lanes open . After the end of the type 's combat service on Iceland , the Norwegian naval authorities considered basing two N @-@ 3PBs on Svalbard , an Arctic archipelago previously known as Spitzbergen . A German naval raid on 8 September 1943 resulted in the deployment being cancelled .
= = Accidents and incidents = =
During flight training at " Little Norway " , there were several accidents resulting in the death of students and instructors . The FTL lost three N @-@ 3PBs in Canada in fatal crashes , two in British Columbia when the harbour in Toronto was frozen , at RCAF Jericho Beach Flying Boat Station near Vancouver and Patricia Bay , Vancouver Island , along with the aircraft involved in the ferry boat accident at Island Harbour .
On 20 June 1941 , while taking off , a N @-@ 3PB collided with the ferry Sam McBride in Port Race , Toronto Harbour , killing both the student pilot and instructor . The Toronto Star newspaper wrote that it was " a matter of time before one of the Norwegian aircraft crashes in the city itself . " This fear , along with it being impractical to have flight training in the same place as the current civil aviation operations , precipitated a move to a new camp in Muskoka , Ontario . At the new location , both elementary and advanced level training could take place , while advanced flight training continued at Toronto Island Airport .
No. 330 ( N ) Squadron also had notable accidents and fatalities , including its first operational loss when a N @-@ 3PB on a navigational training flight disappeared over the North Atlantic on 30 July 1941 . Attrition through accidents gradually reduced the squadron 's operational fleet ; N @-@ 3PB ( c / n 311 ) was damaged beyond repair on 16 September 1942 when depth charges accidentally released and detonated while the aircraft was moored at Budareyi . A total of 11 of the " Northrops " were lost with 12 casualties , including the squadron commander Cmdr. Hans Bugge and his crew who failed to return from an antisubmarine sweep on 25 August 1942 . Despite an intensive search , no trace of the aircraft or crew was ever found .
= = Survivors = =
After the war , two surviving N @-@ 3PBs ( c / n 306 , 322 ) aircraft were flown to Norway , sold for salvage , with c / n 306 being scrapped in 1949 and c / n 322 scrapped in 1956 .
After a search through records , Ragnar R. Ragnarsson , then vice president of the Icelandic Aviation Historical Society pinpointed the crash site of N @-@ 3PB ( c / n 320 [ " U " ] ) . In 1979 , the N @-@ 3PB wreck was recovered from the Þjórsá River in Iceland . Due to bad weather over Iceland 's east coast , the N @-@ 3PB flown by Lt. W.W. Bulukin , operating from Budareyri and transiting to Reykjavik , made a forced landing on 21 April 1943 . After being stuck in the silt , it gradually sunk to the river 's bottom .
US Navy divers began its initial recovery , later aided by a team of volunteer divers from Great Britain , Iceland , Norway and the United States , bringing up the remains that were sent to the Northrop Aircraft Corporation in Hawthorne , California . Restoration was completed by a 300 strong volunteer group , including 14 retired ex @-@ Northrop employees who had been involved in the original N @-@ 3PB production line . The complex restoration required the construction of replacement parts primarily by templating many damaged or corroded original aircraft components in order to create a complete airframe . This only surviving aircraft is currently on exhibition as part of Norwegian Armed Forces Aircraft Collection at Gardermoen , Norway .
= = Military operators = =
Norway
Royal Norwegian Navy Air Service
No. 330 ( N ) Squadron RAF
The Flyvåpnenes Treningsleir ( FTL ) , " Little Norway " Training Unit
= = Specifications ( N @-@ 3PB ) = =
Data from War Planes of the Second World War : Volume Six Floatplanes , The Encyclopedia of Weapons of World War II
General characteristics
Crew : Three ( pilot , navigator / bombardier and wireless operator / rear gunner )
Length : 36 ft 0 in ( 10 @.@ 98 m )
Wingspan : 48 ft 11 in ( 14 @.@ 91 m )
Height : 12 ft 0 in ( 3 @.@ 66 m )
Wing area : 376 @.@ 8 ft ² ( 35 @.@ 0 m ² )
Empty weight : 6 @,@ 190 lb ( 2 @,@ 814 kg )
Loaded weight : 8 @,@ 500 lb ( 3 @,@ 864 kg )
Max. takeoff weight : 10 @,@ 600 lb ( 4 @,@ 818 kg )
Powerplant : 1 × Wright GR @-@ 1820 @-@ G205A 9 @-@ cylinder air @-@ cooled radial engine , 1 @,@ 200 hp ( 825 kW )
Performance
Maximum speed : 223 knots ( 257 mph , 414 km / h ) at sea level
Cruise speed : 160 knots ( 184 mph , 296 km / h )
Range : 870 nm ( 1 @,@ 000 mi , 1 @,@ 610 km )
Service ceiling : 24 @,@ 000 ft ( 7 @,@ 320 m )
Climb to 15 @,@ 000 ft ( 4 @,@ 570 m ) : 14 @.@ 4 min
Armament
Guns : 4 × fixed forward firing .50 in machine guns
2 × .30 in machine guns ( dorsal and ventral positions )
Bombs : 1 × 2 @,@ 000 lb torpedo or equivalent weight of bombs or depth charges
= Liverpool Scottish =
The Liverpool Scottish , known diminutively as " the Scottish " , is a unit of the British Army , part of the Army Reserve ( formerly the Territorial Army ) , raised in 1900 as an infantry battalion of the King 's ( Liverpool Regiment ) . The Liverpool Scottish became affiliated to the Queen 's Own Cameron Highlanders in the 1920s and formally transferred to the regiment in 1937 with its identity preserved . Reflecting the Territorial Army 's decline in size since the late 1940s , the battalion was reduced to a company in 1967 , then to a platoon of " A " ( King 's ) Company , King 's and Cheshire Regiment in 1999 . In 2006 , the company was incorporated into the 4th Battalion , Duke of Lancaster 's Regiment ( King 's , Lancashire and Border ) .
Service in the First World War was extensive and the Liverpool Scottish was one of the first territorial battalions to arrive on the Western Front when it deployed in November 1914 . Approximately 1 @,@ 000 of more than 10 @,@ 000 men who served with the Scottish died during the war . The first major battle of the Scottish during the war was on 16 June 1915 in what is officially known as " The First Action at Bellewaarde " , which was designed to pin down German reserves while other Allied forces were engaged elsewhere . The action is known to the Liverpool Scottish as the " Battle of Hooge " . Hooge being a village a few miles East of Ypres in Belgium .
The unit 's most acclaimed soldier during the war was Captain Noel Godfrey Chavasse , who was awarded two Victoria Crosses while attached from the Royal Army Medical Corps . Sergeant Albert Baybut , Chavasse 's Medical Orderly , is technically the most highly decorated soldier in the history of Liverpool Scottish due to Chavasse 's parent unit actually being the Royal Army Medical Corps ( RAMC ) . Baybut would receive a Distinguished Conduct Medal , and Bar , together with the Military Medal for his actions alongside Chavasse during World War I. Chavasse remains one of only three people to have been awarded the VC twice , and the only recipient from the Liverpool Scottish .
Although expanded to two battalions during the Second World War , the Liverpool Scottish did not serve abroad as intact battalions . Instead , contingents were supplied to other battalions and the Army Commandos . With the commandos , the Liverpool Scottish actively served in operations in Europe , including the Norwegian Campaign and the St Nazaire Raid .
= = 1900 – 1914 = =
There had been a previous attempt to raise a formation of Scots in Liverpool . Heightened tension with France in the late 1850s had provided the impetus for the emergence of the Volunteer movement . Three " Scottish " companies ( one " Highland " and two " Lowland " ) were formed as the 19th ( Liverpool Scottish ) Lancashire Volunteer Rifle Corps , composed predominantly of the middle class . Disputes between members over the use of kilts and the colour of their tartan culminated in the 19th 's fragmentation . By 1861 , four companies of Liverpool Scottish existed within the 19th and 79th Corps . Neither corps survived : the 19th was subsumed by the Liverpool Volunteer Rifle Brigade while the 79th disbanded in 1863 .
The Second Boer War catalysed a renewed interest in establishing a unit composed of Scottish Liverpudlians . On 30 April 1900 , the 8th ( Scottish ) Volunteer Battalion was formed within the King 's ( Liverpool Regiment ) , with headquarters later being located at 22 Highgate Street , Edge Hill . The Liverpool Scottish became one of four battalions in English infantry regiments to explicitly associate with the Irish and Scottish communities - the other battalions were the London Scottish , Liverpool Irish and London Irish Rifles .
Traditional highland attire adopted for the battalion 's dress uniform included the Clan Forbes pattern tartan and the glengarry headdress . A former major in the 2nd Volunteer Battalion , Christopher Forbes Bell , was appointed commanding officer and officially assumed command on 24 October . Bell was succeeded in command by Andrew Laurie Macfie in 1902 .
In common with other volunteer battalions , the Liverpool Scottish organised a detachment for overseas service in South Africa during the Second Boer War . The contingent of
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22 volunteers under Lieutenant John Watson was dispatched in 1902 and attached to the 4th Service Company of the 1st Gordon Highlanders . The battalion had already suffered its first fatality after Lieutenant J.A. Bingham succumbed to wounds incurred at Klip River while serving with the Imperial Yeomanry in February 1902 . They had only limited duties , primarily occupying blockhouses , as the conflict was reaching its conclusion . Nevertheless , the British Army recognised the battalion 's contribution with the reward of a battle honour : " South Africa 1902 " .
The Liverpool Scottish acquired purpose @-@ built accommodation for its headquarters in 1904 at Fraser Street , in Liverpool City Centre , which the battalion maintained until 1967 . The construction of the building was partially subsidised by public donation ( some £ 4 @,@ 000 ) but its cost required additional funds generated through a three @-@ day " bazaar " hosted at St George 's Hall .
The Liverpool Scottish became the King 's 10th Battalion in 1908 when Secretary of State for War Richard Haldane 's reforms established the Territorial Force , which grouped the volunteers and yeomanry into 14 county @-@ administered divisions and 14 mounted brigades . By 1914 , the 10th ( Liverpool Scottish ) would be subordinate to the South Lancashire Brigade , West Lancashire Division .
= = First World War = =
= = = 1914 – 1915 = = =
When war was declared in August 1914 , the Liverpool Scottish mobilised and moved to Scotland under the command of Lieutenant @-@ Colonel William Nicholl . Duplicate battalions were formed in Liverpool from personnel unable to volunteer for overseas service . The second @-@ line battalion , designated as the 2 / 10th to distinguish it from the original , was organised in October , the third @-@ line in May 1915 . They became responsible for the training of recruits and provision of drafts for overseas service . The 2 / 10th , raised and organised by Captain ( later Lieutenant @-@ Colonel ) Adam Fairrie , was committed to the Western Front in 1917 . The third @-@ line remained in Britain for the duration of the war .
Considered by contemporaries to be socially élite and reasonably well @-@ trained compared to other territorial units , the 1 / 10th volunteered for overseas service and became the seventh territorial battalion to be dispatched to the Western Front . The battalion took passage aboard the SS Maidan at Southampton on 1 November 1914 , completing its disembarkation at Le Havre on the morning of the third with the Queen 's Westminster Rifles . The battalion 's original strength - those who qualified for the 1914 Star - became known as the " Maidaners " in reference to the vessel .
Assigned to the 9th Brigade , 3rd Division , the Liverpool Scottish occupied trenches in the Kemmel area , five miles south of Ypres . The 1 / 10th suffered its first fatality on 29 November : Captain Arthur Twentyman , killed while attempting to return to British lines . The combination of severe winter and trench warfare soon depleted the strength of the Liverpool Scottish . From an establishment of 26 officers and 829 men recorded in November , the battalion had dwindled to 370 able @-@ bodied men by January 1915 . Within weeks of the battalion 's arrival , Major Blair , Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Nicholl 's successor , was replaced by J.R. Davidson due to ill @-@ health . Davidson would command the battalion , albeit interrupted by wounds sustained during the Somme Offensive , until 1917 , when he returned to Liverpool to become the city 's Chief Engineer .
Obsolete equipment and organisational differences with the regular army became some of the earliest challenges that the battalion and other territorials contended with in France . The Scottish employed the long version of the Lee – Enfield ( MLE ) rifle , which had been superseded by the SMLE ( Short Magazine Lee – Enfield ) in the Regular Army . Unsuited to newer ammunition and the conditions of the Western Front , the 10th 's MLEs began to be phased out by the SMLE in early 1915 — a process that would not be entirely complete until 1916 . Structurally different from their regular counterparts , territorial battalions were reorganised early in the war to conform with the regulars . Unlike the Regular Army , which had adopted a four @-@ company system in 1913 , territorial battalions were still organised into eight companies . When the system was extended to the Liverpool Scottish , the battalion designated its consolidated companies " V " , " X , " Y " , and " Z " . This contrasted with the more conventional " A " to " D " or " 1 " to " 4 " — considered by the battalion to be potentially confusing .
The battalion 's first major engagement happened on 16 June 1915 , at Hooge , 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) east of Ypres . The 9th Brigade , with the 7th Brigade in support , was chosen to conduct a three @-@ phased attack with the ultimate intention being to reach trenches on the south @-@ western edge of Bellewaarde Lake . Situated behind German lines was Bellewaarde Ridge , a tactically @-@ important feature that overlooked British positions . At 0415 , the first wave of troops moved on their objective and quickly secured the first @-@ line trenches , which continued to be shelled by British artillery . The Liverpool Scottish and 1st Lincolnshire Regiment , forming the second wave , then left their trenches to pass through the first wave of attackers and reach the German second @-@ line . Although the advance was relatively unopposed , " V " Company encountered resistance on its front from machine @-@ gun fire . After briefly suspending its advance , the company , reinforced by " Z " , charged the opposing positions and took about 40 prisoners .
On capturing the second @-@ line , elements of the Liverpool Scottish decided to consolidate the shallow trenches that afforded little protection . The battle had quickly degenerated into a disorganised and chaotic affair , with British battalions losing cohesion and becoming mixed up with each other . An intensive German barrage decimated the occupants of the second @-@ line trenches , while the 10th 's temporary commanding officer , Lieutenant @-@ Colonel E.G. Thin , was wounded by gunfire . The remainder of the Liverpool Scottish continued onto the third @-@ line with portions of the Royal Scots Fusiliers and 1st Northumberland Fusiliers .
Consolidating the third @-@ line proved difficult under relentless bombardment and determined opposition from the uncaptured right of the trench system . Some of the Liverpool Scottish nevertheless impulsively carried on beyond the third @-@ line , towards a position called Dead Man 's Bottom and probable death . The battalion 's left flank became compromised in the afternoon by the retreat of the surviving Northumberland Fusiliers . The Liverpool Scottish eventually retreated first to the second @-@ line , then to the more viable entrechments of the former German frontline . The battle persisted into the night , and abortive attempts were made by the Germans to retake the first @-@ line trenches . For about 1 @,@ 000 yards ( 3 @,@ 000 ft ) of gained territory , the Liverpool Scottish had suffered heavy casualties : 79 killed , 212 wounded , and 109 missing from a pre @-@ battle strength of 542 officers and other ranks . A memorial to this battle was erected in the area in 2000 . An experienced Company @-@ Quartermaster Sergeant , R.A. Scott Macfie , described the aftermath at camp in a letter to his father :
= = = 1916 – 1917 = = =
The West Lancashire Division reformed in January 1916 as the 55th , under the command of Major @-@ General Hugh Jeudwine . Many of the division 's original constituent battalions returned and the Liverpool Scottish joined the 166th Brigade . Before being committed to the Somme Offensive in July 1916 , the 55th had concentrated in the Amiens area . The Liverpool Scottish moved to the Somme in mid @-@ July and relieved the 18th King 's near Montauban on the 31st . After spending six days under constant artillery fire undertaking auxiliary duties in the vicinity of Bernafay and Trônes Woods , the Liverpool Scottish moved to Mansel Copse in preparation for an assault on Guillemont . The village had already been subjected to two attacks since the opening battles of the Somme . At 0420 on 8 August , brigades from the 2nd and 55th divisions began a concerted effort to take Guillemont . The operation failed with resultingly heavy losses . Despite that , the Liverpool Irish and part of the 1st King 's managed to enter Guillemont , but became isolated . More than 700 men from the two battalions were killed , wounded , or missing , many becoming prisoners of war .
Amid reports that the Liverpool Irish were holding out in Guillemont , orders were issued for the 55th Division to renew the attack the next day . Resuming the battle on the night of the 8th had been considered before the decision to attack in the early hours of the 9th . The Liverpool Scottish , which had been in reserve on the 8th , was to advance along a front of 400 yards ( 1 @,@ 200 ft ) with the 1 / 5th Loyals on its left flank , penetrate the German frontline , and establish itself on Guillemont 's eastern boundary . In the prelude to the battle , the Liverpool Scottish waited behind lines , constantly moving to avoid sporadic German bombardment . Further difficulties arose for the battalion when it attempted to navigate to its starting positions through unfamiliar territory , compounded at one stage by the absence of guides . While the battalion reached its destination at 0400 , just 20 minutes before the attack was to begin , the Loyals did not arrive until an hour later . Final orders were received late , giving Colonel Davidson only minutes to brief his company commanders .
A five @-@ minute artillery bombardment preceded " Zero " hour , which provoked an immediate counter @-@ barrage . At 0420 , the Liverpool Scottish went over the top from the same positions that the 164th Brigade had the previous day . The barrage enveloped the Liverpool Scottish in no man 's land , which , combined with machine @-@ gun fire , stifled the battalion 's progress . Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Davidson personally rallied his battalion , seeking to regain momentum , but was wounded during the repulsed attack . Two further attempts by the remnants of the battalion to reach the frontline yielded no success . Few had entered the German trenches , the majority having been obstructed by uncut barbed wire . Of the 20 officers and about 600 other ranks engaged at Guillemont , 74 had been killed , 174 were wounded , and 32 were unaccounted for . Most of the missing would later be confirmed killed . Another attempt was made days later by the 1 / 9th King 's . The village would not be captured until September . Among the wounded was Captain Noel Godfrey Chavasse , attached to the Liverpool Scottish from the Royal Army Medical Corps , who was awarded the Victoria Cross . He became the battalion 's first and only recipient , and had previously been awarded the Military Cross for his conduct at Hooges .
In the subsequent battles of Ginchy and Morval , the 1 / 10th was engaged in a purely supporting role : trench networks were constructed and improved near Delville Wood , and the dead collected and buried . A party of two officers and 100 other ranks was attached to the Third West Lancashire Field Ambulance during the Battle of Morval . After bivouacking at Pont Rémy , the battalion transferred with its division to the relatively quiet Ypres Salient in October . The routine of alternating between the front line , being in support , and in reserve preoccupied the battalion until the Third Battle of Ypres in July 1917 . Casualties were nevertheless sustained by the battalion during this period , invariably as a result of shelling and sniping .
The battalion was subsequently returned to the Ypres salient , positioned at Wieltje . On 31 July 1917 , a new offensive around Ypres was launched to try to penetrate the German lines , advance to the Belgian coast and capture German submarine bases . The Liverpool Scottish experienced some of the heaviest resistance in 166th Brigade 's area , taking heavy losses around the fortified farms . The battalion remained in some captured German trenches until it was relieved on 3 August . Captain Chavasse died of wounds the next day having again tended to wounded soldiers . His actions earned him a posthumous Bar to his Victoria Cross , one of only three men to be so decorated , and the sole double recipient of the First World War .
In September , the Scottish moved south to Epehy , thirteen miles south of Cambrai , where its division took part in the Battle of Cambrai in November .
= = = 1918 = = =
On 21 March 1918 , the Central Powers launched their expected Spring Offensive ( Operation Michael ) , signifying the beginning of Germany 's final attempt to achieve a decisive victory before significant American forces arrived on the Western Front . By the 25th , substantial gains in territory had been made in the direction of Amiens . Although prepared for a possible attack , the Liverpool Scottish and the 55th Division did not participate in the desperate Allied defence until the next phase of the offensive , Operation Georgette .
Begun on 9 April , Operation Georgette shifted the focus to the devastated town of Ypres , in Flanders . The bombardment preceding the attack was of considerable scale and included phosgene gas shells , causing severe casualties among the Liverpool Scottish .
The Liverpool Scottish was involved in the defence of the Givenchy sector during the Battle of Estaires , sustaining such losses that they absorbed the 2 / 10th Battalion that had landed in France in February 1917 . After the Spring Offensive was halted , the Western Front entered its final phase — a series of Allied drives from August to November known as the Hundred Days Offensive . The Liverpool Scottish fought one of its last actions of the war , at La Bassée Canal , in October .
The final month of the war offered little respite to the battalion . In the days leading up to the Armistice of 11 November 1918 , the Liverpool Scottish helped to secure numerous villages without opposition and crossed the River Scheldt on 9 November . On the day of the Armistice , the Liverpool Scottish was situated at Villers @-@ Notre @-@ Dame . With the 165th and 166th brigades , the battalion had been readied to assault German positions obstructing passage into the town of Ath . Such a prospect was averted , however , when the 2 / 5th Lancashire Fusiliers attacked and seized one of the bridges before it could be demolished .
= = Interbellum and Second World War = =
Following reconstitution into the Territorial Army in 1920 , the Liverpool Scottish formalised its relationship with the Queen 's Own Cameron Highlanders and transferred in 1937 to become the regiment 's second territorial battalion . In comparison to the densely urbanised region that the King 's Regiment encompassed in north @-@ west England , the Cameron Highlanders area of recruitment in the Highlands was sparsely populated . Although it had its numerical designation omitted , the battalion 's identity was preserved and headquarters at Fraser Street , Liverpool were retained . During a royal visit to Liverpool in 1938 , George VI presented the battalion with new colours at Everton Football Club 's Goodison Park stadium .
After the Territorial Army began to expand following a Government announcement in March 1939 , the Liverpool Scottish formed a second battalion . Mobilisation was later authorised , but both battalions would remain in Britain for the duration of the Second World War . The 2nd Battalion converted to artillery in 1942 as the 89th Anti @-@ Tank Regiment , Royal Artillery and served with the 55th ( West Lancashire ) Infantry Division . In addition , the Liverpool Scottish supplied drafts to other units , principally to the Cameron Highlanders , and formed contingents for the embryonic " Independent Companies " that became the Army " Commandos " .
The Liverpool Scottish contributed a troop to the composite No. 4 Independent Company , which also contained troops from the King 's Regiment and South Lancashires , collectively under the command of Major J.R. Paterson — an officer from the Scottish . Formed on 21 April 1940 , at Sizewell , the company soon after embarked aboard the Ulster Prince , bound for Norway to join the Allied campaign against Germany . After landing in early May , No. 4 Company relieved a French force and occupied positions near Mosjoen . The company , in conjunction with others , operated under the aegis of Scisserforce , commanded by Brigadier Colin Gubbins . When a German landing cut off Mosjoen from the north on 11 May , No. 4 Company had to be evacuated by a Norwegian steamer and transported to Sandnessjøen , then to Bodø with No. 5 Company .
By the 24th , Allied troops had established a line of defence near the town of Pothus to facilitate the defence of Bodø against Germany 's northern advance . While his forces were engaged in battle , Brigadier Gubbins was informed that the British Government had decided to evacuate northern Norway . The withdrawal of Allied forces commenced on 29 May , with Nos. 1 and 4 Companies being embarked on two destroyers carrying other passengers , including administrative personnel and wounded .
After returning to Britain , the Liverpool Scottish troop obtained approval from the Government to readopt the kilt as an integral part of its Battle Dress . The Commando units and the independent companies consolidated later in the year into " Special Service " battalions , administered by a single brigade . For various reason , the system proved unpopular and in 1941 the battalions were sub @-@ divided , reverting to distinct Commando units . The 1st Special Service Battalion , which had absorbed No. 4 Company , became Nos. 1 and 2 Commando - the latter included a number of the Liverpool Scottish , designated as 5 Troop .
In March 1942 , the troop participated with 2 Commando in the raid on St Nazaire , codenamed Operation Chariot . Conceived to neutralise the western French port as an Atlantic sanctuary for the battleship Tirpitz , Operation Chariot involved 611 men , the antiquated lend @-@ lease destroyer Campbeltown , and numerous small craft . The Campbeltown was converted into a platform designed to deliver 9 @,@ 600 pounds ( 4 @,@ 400 kg ) of explosives , and her appearance was reconfigured to resemble a German destroyer .
= = Post @-@ war = =
The 1st Scottish deployed to the garrison of Gibraltar in 1945 . Conversion to motorised infantry occurred in 1947 ; however , the battalion soon reverted to a standard infantry role . Economic constraints and alignment towards nuclear weapons and other military technology necessitated the reorganisation and rationalisation of the Territorial Army in the 1960s . Most battalions were reduced to cadre @-@ strength or disbanded . Although the Liverpool Scottish avoided extinction , the battalion disbanded and reconstituted into two separate units , one of infantry and one of artillery : " V " Company , 51st Highland Volunteers , and " G " Troop of " R " ( King 's ) Company , The West Lancashire Regiment , RA . Both maintained their headquarters at Forbes House , Score Lane , in Childwall , Liverpool . While the troop disbanded with " R " Battery in 1969 , the company remained an integral component of the 51st Highland until 1992 .
During company exercises in Cyprus in 1974 , Greek Cypriots seeking enosis with Greece deposed the island 's government - an action illicitly supported by the Greek Junta and followed by the Turkish invasion . Unable to intervene in the ethnic conflict , the Liverpool Scottish were eventually evacuated from Akamas , through Greek @-@ controlled territory , to the British base at Akrotiri . Post @-@ Cold War restructuring incorporated " V " Company into the 5th / 8th ( Volunteer ) Battalion of the King 's Regiment , successor to the King 's Regiment ( Liverpool ) . Further reorganisation in 1999 reduced the Scottish to a platoon of A ( King 's ) Company , King 's and Cheshire Regiment . The platoon relocated to Townsend Avenue , Norris Green , where territorial infantry in Liverpool are concentrated .
In 2006 , the King 's Regiment amalgamated with two others to become the Duke of Lancaster 's Regiment . The regiment 's 4th Battalion was formed by the integration of the Lancastrian and Cumbrian Volunteers with the King 's companies of the King 's and Cheshire Regiment . The Liverpool Scottish Platoon remained a part of the retitled " A " ( Ladysmith ) Company . Individuals from the platoon have been attached to other units deployed on operational tours in Bosnia , Afghanistan , and Iraq .
= = Commanding officers = =
= The Chaser APEC pranks =
The Chaser APEC pranks were a series of comic stunts that targeted the Asia @-@ Pacific Economic Cooperation ( APEC ) Leaders Summit ( 2 – 9 September 2007 ) , in Sydney , Australia . They were coordinated and performed by the Australian satire group The Chaser for the television series The Chaser 's War on Everything . The most prominent prank was the breach of an APEC restricted zone in the heart of Sydney central business district on 6 September . Julian Morrow directed a fake Canadian motorcade , which was allowed through the restricted zone by police and not detected until Chas Licciardello alighted , dressed as Osama bin Laden .
Although pranks that involved public locations , figures , and organisations were always a feature of the series , the APEC pranks yielded unprecedented local and international publicity , both positive and negative . Some team members faced charges for breaching the APEC zone , but these were dropped because police had allowed their entry into the restricted zone . Other less controversial and less publicised stunts were also shown on The Chaser 's War on Everything , with ratings peaking at almost three million Australian viewers for the APEC wrap @-@ up episode .
= = Background = =
= = = APEC = = =
APEC Australia 2007 comprised a series of political meetings between representatives of the 21 member governments of the Asia @-@ Pacific Economic Cooperation . This culminated in a week @-@ long summit meeting : Leaders Week , 2 to 9 September , when heads of the member governments gathered in Sydney . The significance of the APEC summit called for stringent and expensive security arrangements . The Protective Security Coordination Centre , of the National Security and Criminal Justice Group from the Australian Attorney @-@ General 's Department , oversaw security planning through the APEC 2007 Security Branch , formed expressly for the APEC meetings . In order to secure and monitor the summit , the New South Wales Police Force instituted the APEC Police Security Command . Many public roads in Sydney were closed , as leaders , officials , and personnel travelled in motorcades around the city centre . Figures released by the state government at a Senate committee hearing show that security measures at APEC cost $ 170 million .
= = = The Chaser = = =
The Chaser group 's founding members were Charles Firth , Dominic Knight , Craig Reucassel , and Julian Morrow . In 1999 they started The Chaser , a fortnightly satirical newspaper . Chas Licciardello , Andrew Hansen , and Chris Taylor later joined the group ; and in 2006 , after various ventures in radio , stage , and television , this line @-@ up created The Chaser 's War on Everything , its most successful program , which screened on the Australian Broadcasting Corporation ( ABC ) station ABC1 . By its second season in 2007 , the show had forged a reputation for ambush @-@ style stunts and deliberate controversy .
The group had been warned about the dangers of irresponsible behaviour during the Sydney lockdown for the APEC summit . According to New South Wales Police Minister David Campbell , the police understood that " parody and satire are entertaining and fun " , but The Chaser must understand the " seriousness of this matter [ APEC ] and take caution " . A later police statement reiterated that producers of The Chaser 's War on Everything had been warned about the " ramifications of stunts during APEC " .
The Chaser was unfazed by police warnings . Before the summit , Julian Morrow commented on radio that " the eyes of the world and the eyes of Al @-@ Qaeda are on us " . Morrow hinted that their challenge was to perform a stunt that would " make Osama bin Laden feel a little incompetent " .
= = Breach of APEC restricted zone = =
On 6 September 2007 , eight members of the team ( including five runners dressed as bodyguards ) and three hired chauffeurs manned a fake Canadian motorcade consisting of two motorcycles , two black four @-@ wheel drive vehicles , and a black sedan . The group — including Chas Licciardello dressed as Osama bin Laden , and Julian Morrow — drove the motorcade through the Sydney central business district and breached the APEC security zone . The premise of the stunt was that bin Laden should have been invited to the summit as a world leader , to discuss the War on Terror , with another motive being to test the event 's security . The stunt was approved by ABC lawyers under the assumption that the motorcade would be stopped at the first security checkpoint and denied entry .
In the following episode of The Chaser 's War on Everything , the team emphasised that their only realistic attempt to disguise the vehicles was the use of a Canadian flag . Taylor later said that there was " no particular reason we chose Canada , we just thought they 'd be a country who the cops wouldn 't scrutinise too closely , and who feasibly would only have three cars in their motorcade — as opposed to the 20 or so gas guzzlers that Bush has brought with him " . There were many deliberate indications that the motorcade was not genuine , particularly on the fake credentials used by the team ; members ' security passes were printed with JOKE , Insecurity , and It 's pretty obvious this isn 't a real pass all clearly visible , while the APEC 2007 Official Vehicle stickers included both the name of the series and the text This dude likes trees and poetry and certain types of carnivorous plants excite him . In addition , some of the runners were holding camcorders and one of the motorcyclists was wearing jeans , both highly unusual for an official motorcade .
At 11 @.@ 30 am ( AEDT ) , the motorcade began its journey towards the " ring of steel " , a fenced area at the intersection of Bent and Macquarie Streets . The vehicle ( or vehicles ) stopped for a red light and the police became aware of the motorcade 's presence , but waved them towards the checkpoint . The convoy travelled through the first checkpoint without inspection and proceeded in a northerly direction to a second security checkpoint in the prohibited " red zone " , just before Bridge Street . Both motorcyclists had by now separated from the motorcade , which was waved through the second checkpoint by police officers . It travelled further into the restricted area before stopping outside the InterContinental Hotel .
Morrow ordered the motorcade to turn around at the Bridge Street intersection because he realised that they had proceeded further than expected , and because the police officers were not going to stop them . After partially turning the motorcade , Licciardello alighted onto the street and complained , in character as bin Laden , about not being invited to the APEC Summit . At this point , the police requested Morrow 's identity . After inspecting his fake pass , officers realised that Morrow was from The Chaser and took all eleven members of the motorcade into custody . Surprisingly , as pointed out by the team on their television show , the officers initially ignored Licciardello ( Osama Bin Laden ) and only arrested Morrow .
The arrested cast and crew were immediately taken to Surry Hills Police Station , where they were questioned and charged with entering a prohibited area under the APEC Meeting ( Police Powers ) Act 2007 . All were released on bail to appear in court on 4 October 2007 . Under the new legislation , the crew members would each face a maximum penalty of six months ' imprisonment if they were convicted or up to two years if they were in possession of a " prohibited item " .
= = Aftermath = =
Following the breach of the APEC restricted area , the actions of The Chaser became the subject of intense debate among sections of the media , senior police officers , and government ministers .
= = = Public response = = =
Despite strong condemnation from some officials , the stunt was mostly well received by the public . A Sydney correspondent for the British Broadcasting Corporation reported that the Chaser team had become " folk heroes " after the prank , while 87 % of the 28 @,@ 451 respondents to a Sydney Morning Herald internet poll found the stunt " funny " .
However , the ABC received more than 250 complaints , outweighing the 177 positive submissions . A spokesperson for the national broadcaster said that the results were misleading because people who enjoyed the show typically do not make comments . Around the country , around 80 % of callers to talkback radio were supportive ; and one third of all calls regarding APEC mentioned the stunt .
= = = Political reactions = = =
There were many critics among politicians and officials . Representatives of the police force in Sydney were among the most severe , and New South Wales Police Commissioner Andrew Scipione , the head of APEC 's lead security agency , was angered because the comedians could have been shot by police snipers , who were " clearly ... there because they mean business . They 're not there for show . " In response , Licciardello expressed his faith in the snipers ' professional ability : " They are highly trained , competent people and they 're not going to shoot people if they 're in an Osama bin Laden costume if they clearly don 't pose a threat " .
Many politicians , mostly from the Labor government of New South Wales , reacted to the security breach with concern and unease . Police Minister David Andrew Campbell expressed disappointment and concern over the stunt , arguing that there were " 21 world leaders arriving in the city at the one time and it needs to be taken seriously " . Then New South Wales Premier Morris Iemma said that while he was a fan of the show , those involved would have to face the full force of the law . The then Federal Opposition Leader Kevin Rudd , also from the Labor Party , voiced similar concerns , saying that " I 'm a fan of The Chaser ... but I think these guys have crossed the line . "
Alexander Downer , the Minister for Foreign Affairs in Australia 's Coalition government , was amused when asked to comment on the incident . He said the arrests proved that the security system had functioned properly , adding that " whatever you think of the humour of The Chaser ... they were clearly not going to harm anybody in a physical way " . The incident also generated debate during Question Time in the Senate .
= = = International recognition = = =
The APEC security breach captured international attention and acclaim . A local newspaper in Canada saw the humorous side , despite the pranksters posing as Canadian officials . In the United States media reviews were mixed . Newsreaders from American networks such as the Fox News Channel , National Broadcasting Company , and CBS Broadcasting either " raised their eyebrows " or " had smiles on their faces over the stunt " . After the high ratings for the episode and international recognition derived from the stunt , the program began screening in countries such as Israel , South Korea , and New Zealand ; and other countries , especially in the Middle East , began negotiating with the ABC . The stunt was named the Best Television Moment at the 2008 MTV Australia Awards . Australian scholar Niall Lucy analyses the prank 's political significance as an important act of deconstruction in his book Pomo Oz : Fear and Loathing Downunder .
= = = Current affairs = = =
On 6 September 2007 , the tabloid current affairs program Today Tonight from the Seven Network aired a story headed " Dangerous Fools " , specifically devoted to the APEC stunt . Host Anna Coren asserted that The Chaser were wasting taxpayers ' money , and will " need more of those funds [ in legal costs to the government @-@ funded ABC ] to defend their actions in court " . Coren claimed that the ABC chiefs were too arrogant to reply to the program 's inquiries . A media commentator interviewed in the report condemned the APEC stunt as " over the top " , and said he could not see the humour of it . A security expert presented his view , saying that there was a serious risk of injury , not just to the crew members , but to onlookers outside the security zone , even though the breach was discovered by police officers well inside the prohibited area .
Today Tonight 's broadcast criticised The Chaser 's approach to the APEC event , describing the stunt as " [ stretching ] the boundaries yet again " . The program quoted Morrow 's radio comments about wanting " a stunt that can really hit the headlines across the world " as evidence of irresponsibility . The show also presented Craig Reucassel from The Chaser , responding to questions and claiming that the comedians were " hardly sorry " for their actions . Ironically , the report was made by Dave " Sluggo " Richardson , notorious for his hoax story " In Barcelona Tonight " ; but Richardson , unlike The Chaser crew , had not gone through roadblocks in his stunt .
The rival Nine Network 's current affairs program A Current Affair also aired a report . A Nine cameraman had seen the stunt unfold , and managed to capture it on tape . The report revolved around the incompetence of the police and security personnel , in contrast to Today Tonight 's criticism of The Chaser 's actions , and spoke of the group executing " their grandest gag yet " , bringing together " the world 's most powerful man and the world 's most wanted , in the same place , at the same time " , referring to US president Bush and terrorist bin Laden .
= = = Legal action = = =
After their arrest and questioning by police , all eleven participants in the stunt ( eight production members of The Chaser 's War on Everything and three hired drivers ) were charged with " entering a restricted area without special justification " under the APEC Meeting ( Police Powers ) Act 2007 . All eleven were granted bail , on the condition that they refrain from entering any of the APEC secured areas , and ordered to appear at the Downing Centre Local Court on 4 October 2007 . Those charged were Esteban Alegria , Nathan Earl , Giles Hardie , Lauren Howard , Mark Kordi , Chas Licciardello , Geoffrey Lye , Alexander Morrow , Julian Morrow , Rodrigo Pena , and Benson Simpson . After numerous adjournments , all charges were dropped by the New South Wales Director of Public Prosecutions ( DPP ) on 28 April 2008 .
It was decided that the police , failing to notice that the presented security badges were fake , had given " tacit " permission for the group to enter the restricted zone . Further , the actions of the police on the scene , who themselves may have been unaware of where , exactly , the legally restricted area began , caused the Chaser team to proceed much further into the heart of the security zone than they had intended to or realised . This meant their breach of the law had happened largely due to an exculpating mistake of fact on the part of Morrow , who intended to end the stunt before crossing into restricted territory , but who received no explicit indications as to where that territory began − and was indeed waved farther into it by the police . The ABC welcomed this development ; Morrow commented : " I think it 's just great that justice hasn 't been done " . The police remained unapologetic .
The DPP argued that it was never the intention of The Chaser to breach security and that they were allowed into the restricted area only because of the mistakes of the police . The laws enacted for the summit meant that entry into the restricted zone needed justification , which could include police permission . The DPP stated that by waving The Chaser through , they had granted permission to be in the restricted zone . A further defence was available : all members charged , except Morrow , could argue that they were present for work @-@ related purposes , and part of their employment was to be with Morrow , who was directing the stunt .
= = = Show ratings = = =
With all the hype and media attention directed at this stunt , the following episode of The Chaser 's War on Everything on 12 September 2007 , initially intended to be called The Chaser 's War on APEC , was the program 's highest @-@ rating ever . In Australia there was a total of 2 @.@ 981 million viewers : 2 @.@ 245 million viewers in the capital cities , and 736 @,@ 000 regional viewers . This stunning success made it the most watched ABC1 television program since 2000 , and broke the show 's own record of 1 @.@ 491 million viewers in capital cities , set by the preceding episode .
The 12 September episode was downloaded one million times from the ABC 's website , and in late February 2008 it was nominated for the Rose d 'Or international television award for comedy , on behalf of The Chaser 's War on Everything . The stunt depicted was nominated for the " TV moment award " at the 2008 MTV Australia Video Music Awards , and Nine Network 's show 20 to 1 Pranks and Pranksters ranked it first in its list of " greatest pranks in Australian history " .
= = = The Chaser 's response = = =
After the successful breach of APEC security , the comedians expressed their bewilderment at the incompetence of the security forces . Morrow and Reucassel went on radio to augment the initial reactions they had aired on the 12 September episode of The Chaser 's War on Everything . Morrow pointed out that while they did extensive planning for the stunt , the one thing they " didn 't plan for was success " ; the participants were confused by the unexpected permission to enter the area , and unsure how to proceed ; they clearly sensed danger , but the atmosphere was actually very quiet and subdued .
Licciardello stated that they did not know they had entered the red zone , and " we had the advice of our lawyers ring in our ears ; ' Do NOT go into the red zone . You can go into the green zone if they let you , but DO NOT go into the red zone . ' " He said that they " were absolutely sure we would never get past the first checkpoint . It was panic stations when we realised " , adding that it was a " stupid gag that backfired " . Morrow said that the purpose of the stunt was " an attempt to satirise in a silly way the very heavy security and the spin surrounding that security , it was a test of the old adage that if you want to get in somewhere the best way is right through the front door . I didn 't want the stunt to happen in a way that resulted in people getting arrested . If we 've made a mistake and crossed into the green zone , I 'm very regretful about that . " He said the only reason they impersonated bin Laden was because they needed a joke to get out of the stunt that they always assumed would never have passed security .
= = Other stunts = =
In addition to The Chaser 's major APEC security breach , the team performed stunts at the APEC Summit that received far less coverage in the media .
= = = Pantomime horse at APEC protests = = =
On 5 September 2007 , Chris Taylor , mounted on a pantomime horse , confronted police officers , who were on foot , and asked them if they needed any reinforcements against APEC protesters . When his offer was refused , Taylor took the horse for a stroll anyway , and was met by amused onlookers and media personnel . He was later asked by police officers to remove his clothing for examination , since it resembled a police uniform ; but no charges of impersonating police were laid . The reference was to the horse flu outbreak , which forced police officers to face APEC protesters on foot . This stunt aired on the 12 September 2007 episode .
= = = Canadian cardboard motorcade = = =
On 7 September 2007 , following the security breach on the previous day , Taylor , Reucassel , Dominic Knight and their film crew were detained and questioned over a follow @-@ up stunt . This incident involved running near and attempting to enter the APEC protected zone dressed in cardboard cars mounted with Canadian flags , a reference to the flags ' earlier use to disguise the successful breach by the real motorcade . Police had no choice but to release all members involved in this stunt , as they were outside the prohibited area . This stunt also aired on the 12 September episode .
= = = Clothing for APEC photo = = =
Shortly before 5 September 2007 , Reucassel approached several APEC security personnel and offered a selection of clothing , inspired by the traditional official photograph of all the attending leaders wearing matching outfits . This stunt aired on the 5 September 2007 episode .
= = = Assassination of Hu Jintao = = =
Shortly before 12 September 2007 , as part of Chinese President Hu Jintao 's visit to Australia , Reucassel went to the Chinese Consulate and asked for them to prepay the bullets he was going to use to assassinate Hu , in reference to China 's policy of requiring the family of the condemned prisoner to pay for bullets used in their relative 's execution . This stunt aired on the 12 September 2007 episode .
= = = APEC security checks = = =
Shortly before 5 September 2007 , Licciardello , who was dressed as a police officer , performed random security checks and procedures on members of the public to demonstrate the glorification of the tough APEC security measures . These procedures included random frisking , taking hair samples , telling tram riders in Melbourne to stand and turn their heads , and erecting secure areas in public toilets and near escalators . When Licciardello was approached by real security officers , he said that all of these measures were " classified " . This stunt aired on the 5 September 2007 episode .
= = = Radio prank call = = =
On 10 September 2007 , Licciardello rang a talkback radio station pretending to be someone else , and complained about the stunt , claiming that it was stupid and anyone involved at the ABC , including Kerry O 'Brien , should be jailed for ten years . This stunt aired on the 12 September 2007 episode , and Licciardello said he wished he had made the call on the evening of the security breach because talkback radio discussion would not have already died down .
= = = RSL attempted entry = = =
Sometime between 6 and 12 September 2007 , Licciardello and Morrow tried to enter a Returned and Services League ( RSL ) building using the same fake passes that had gained them entry to the restricted area . The manager did not let them enter , which was proof , according to the team , that " RSLs are harder to get into than APEC " . This stunt aired on the 12 September 2007 episode . However , in the DVD commentary of the episode , The Chaser stated that they were actually let into many RSL buildings with the fake passes . They claimed that acting as if one is meant to be present is usually enough .
= = = Rival fireworks show = = =
On 8 September 2007 , Chaser members Taylor and Andrew Hansen launched a competing fireworks display to coincide with the official APEC fireworks display , which was only to be viewed by the APEC officials . The two displays were close to each other , with the official fireworks launched at the Sydney Harbour Bridge , while the rival fireworks were fired from Woolwich . The team lit up a large screen with the text Screw APEC . This stunt aired on the 12 September 2007 episode ; and in the DVD commentary on the episode Morrow said the display was hard to orchestrate and not cheap .
= = = Animals at Taronga Zoo = = =
Shortly before 5 September 2007 , Reucassel , equipped with suitable costumes , went into Taronga Zoo and impersonated real Australian native animals , in reference to the temporary relocation of some animals for private viewing by spouses of APEC leaders . This stunt aired on the 5 September 2007 episode .
= = = Proposed nautical red zone breach = = =
A planned stunt that was never executed was an attempt to breach the nautical red zone . Morrow and Licciardello were to perform it after the motorcade stunt on 6 September 2007 ; but it never went ahead , since they were detained by police after the surprising success of the earlier stunt . The plan was to breach APEC nautical security in " funny " boats , such as a gondola . Licciardello also stated on an episode of ' Rove Live ' that there was to be an attempt to breach APEC security " by lilo . "
= Star Trek II : The Wrath of Khan =
Star Trek II : The Wrath of Khan is a 1982 American science fiction film released by Paramount Pictures . It is the second film based on Star Trek , and is a sequel to Star Trek : The Motion Picture ( 1979 ) . The plot features Admiral James T. Kirk ( William Shatner ) and the crew of the starship USS Enterprise facing off against the genetically engineered tyrant Khan Noonien Singh ( Ricardo Montalbán ) , a character who first appeared in the 1967 Star Trek television series episode " Space Seed " . When Khan escapes from a 15 @-@ year exile to exact revenge on Kirk , the crew of the Enterprise must stop him from acquiring a powerful terraforming device named Genesis . The film concludes with the death of Spock ( Leonard Nimoy ) , beginning a story arc that continues with the 1984 film Star Trek III : The Search for Spock and concludes with 1986 's Star Trek IV : The Voyage Home .
After the lackluster critical and commercial response to The Motion Picture , series creator Gene Roddenberry was forced out of the sequel 's production . Executive producer Harve Bennett wrote the film 's original outline , which Jack B. Sowards developed into a full script . Director Nicholas Meyer completed the final script in 12 days , without accepting a writing credit . Meyer 's approach evoked the swashbuckling atmosphere of the original series , and the theme was reinforced by James Horner 's musical score . Nimoy had not intended to have a role in The Motion Picture 's sequel , but was enticed back on the promise that his character would be given a dramatic death scene . Negative test audience reaction to Spock 's death led to significant revisions of the ending over Meyer 's objections . The production used various cost @-@ cutting techniques to keep within budget , including utilizing miniatures from past projects and re @-@ using sets , effects footage and costumes from the previous movie . Among the film 's technical achievements is it being the first feature film to contain a complete sequence created entirely with computer @-@ generated graphics .
The Wrath of Khan was released in North America on June 4 , 1982 . It was a box office success , earning US $ 97 million worldwide and setting a world record for first @-@ day box office gross . Critical reaction to the film was positive ; reviewers highlighted Khan , the film 's pacing , and the character interactions as strong elements . Negative reaction focused on weak special effects and some of the acting . The Wrath of Khan is considered by some to be the best film of the Star Trek series , and is credited with renewing substantial interest in the franchise .
= = Plot = =
In the year 2285 , Admiral James T. Kirk oversees a simulator session of Captain Spock 's trainees . In the simulation , Lieutenant Saavik commands the starship USS Enterprise on a rescue mission to save the crew of the damaged ship Kobayashi Maru . When the Enterprise enters the Klingon Neutral Zone to reach the ship it is attacked by Klingon cruisers and critically damaged . The simulation is a no @-@ win scenario designed to test the character of Starfleet officers . Later , Dr. McCoy joins Kirk on his birthday ; seeing Kirk in low spirits , the doctor advises Kirk to get a new command and not grow old behind a desk .
Meanwhile , the USS Reliant is on a mission to search for a lifeless planet for testing of the Genesis Device , a technology designed to reorganize matter to create habitable worlds for colonization . Reliant officers Commander Pavel Chekov and Captain Clark Terrell beam down to the surface of a possible candidate planet , which they believe to be Ceti Alpha VI ; once there , they are captured by genetically engineered tyrant Khan Noonien Singh . The Enterprise discovered Khan 's ship adrift in space 15 years previously ; Kirk exiled Khan and his fellow supermen from 20th @-@ century Earth to Ceti Alpha V after they attempted to take over the Enterprise . After they were marooned , Ceti Alpha VI exploded , shifting the orbit of Ceti Alpha V and destroying its ecosystem . Khan blames Kirk for the death of his wife and plans revenge . He implants Chekov and Terrell with indigenous creatures that enter the ears of their victims and render them susceptible to mind control , and uses the officers to capture the Reliant . Learning of Genesis , Khan attacks space station Regula I where the device is being developed by Kirk 's former lover , Dr. Carol Marcus , and their son , David .
The Enterprise embarks on a three @-@ week training voyage . Kirk assumes command after the ship receives a distress call from Regula I. En route , the Enterprise is ambushed and crippled by the Reliant , leading to the deaths and injuries of many trainees . Khan hails the Enterprise and offers to spare Kirk 's crew if they relinquish all material related to Genesis . Kirk stalls for time and uses the Reliant 's prefix code to remotely lower its shields , allowing the Enterprise to counter @-@ attack . Khan is forced to retreat and effect repairs , while the Enterprise limps to Regula I. Kirk , McCoy , and Saavik beam to the station and find Terrell and Chekov alive , along with slaughtered members of Marcus 's team . They soon find Carol and David hiding deep inside the planetoid of Regula . Khan , having used Terrell and Chekov as spies , orders them to kill Kirk ; Terrell resists the eel 's influence and kills himself while Chekov collapses as the eel leaves his body . Khan then transports Genesis aboard the Reliant . Though Khan believes his foe stranded on Regula I , Kirk and Spock use a coded message to arrange a rendezvous . Kirk directs the Enterprise into the nearby Mutara Nebula ; static discharges inside the nebula render shields useless and compromise targeting systems , making the Enterprise and the Reliant evenly matched . Spock notes however that Khan 's tactics are two @-@ dimensional , indicating inexperience in space combat , which Kirk then exploits to critically disable the Reliant .
Mortally wounded , Khan activates Genesis , which will reorganize all matter in the nebula including the Enterprise . Though Kirk 's crew detects the activation of Genesis and attempts to move out of range , they will not be able to escape the nebula in time due to the ship 's damaged warp drive . Spock goes to the engine room to restore the warp drive . When McCoy tries to prevent Spock 's entry , as exposure to the high levels of radiation would be fatal , Spock incapacitates the doctor with a Vulcan nerve pinch and performs a mind meld , telling him to " remember " . Spock successfully restores power to the warp drive and the Enterprise escapes the explosion , though at the cost of his life . The explosion of Genesis causes the gas in the nebula to reform into a new planet , capable of sustaining life .
After being alerted by McCoy , Kirk arrives in the engine room and discovers Spock dying of radiation poisoning . The two share a meaningful exchange in which Spock urges Kirk not to grieve , as his decision to sacrifice his own life to save those of the ship 's crew is a logical one , before succumbing to his injuries . A space burial is held in the Enterprise 's torpedo room and Spock 's coffin is shot into orbit around the new planet . The crew leaves to pick up the Reliant 's marooned crew from Ceti Alpha V. Spock 's coffin , having soft @-@ landed , rests on the Genesis planet 's surface .
= = Cast = =
William Shatner as James T. Kirk
A Starfleet Admiral and former commanding officer of the Enterprise . Kirk and Khan never confront each other face @-@ to @-@ face during the film . All of their interactions are over a viewscreen or through communicators and their scenes were filmed four months apart , although a draft script had Khan defeating Kirk in a swordfight . Meyer described Shatner as an actor who was naturally protective of his character and himself , and who performed better over multiple takes .
Ricardo Montalbán as Khan Noonien Singh
A genetically enhanced superhuman who used his strength and intellect to briefly rule much of Earth in the 1990s . Montalbán said that he believed all good villains do villainous things , but think that they are acting for the " right " reasons ; in this way , Khan uses his anger at the death of his wife to justify his pursuit of Kirk . The film was close to production approval when it occurred to the producers that no one had asked Montalbán whether he was interested in appearing in the film despite his character having been in the scripts for more than a year . Montalbán was unsure whether he could plausibly play Khan again after many years , especially given his current role of Mr. Roarke on Fantasy Island . Contrary to speculation that Montalbán used a prosthetic chest , no artificial devices were added to emphasize Montalbán 's muscular physique , since even in his 60s and despite an increasingly painful back injury , stemming from being thrown off a horse in the 1950s , Montalbán had a vigorous workout routine . Montalbán enjoyed making the film , and counted the role as a career highlight . His major complaint was that he was never face @-@ to @-@ face with Shatner for a scene . " I had to do my lines with the script girl , who , as you might imagine , sounded nothing like Bill [ Shatner ] , " he explained .
Leonard Nimoy as Captain Spock
Nimoy had not intended to have a role in The Motion Picture 's sequel , but was enticed back on the promise that his character would be given a dramatic death scene . Nimoy felt it was logical that as Wrath of Khan would be the final Star Trek film , having Spock " go out in a blaze of glory " would be an appropriate way to end the character .
DeForest Kelley as Leonard McCoy
The Enterprise 's chief medical officer and a close friend of Kirk and Spock . Kelley was dissatisfied with an earlier version of the script to the point that he considered not taking part . Kelley noted his character spoke many of the film 's lighter lines , and felt that this role was essential in bringing a lighter side to the onscreen drama .
Walter Koenig as Pavel Chekov
The Reliant 's first officer and a former Enterprise crewmember . During filming , Kelley noted that Chekov never met Khan in " Space Seed " ( Koenig had not yet joined the cast ) , and thus Khan recognizing Chekov on Ceti Alpha did not make sense . Star Trek books have tried to rationalize this discrepancy ; in the film 's novelization by Vonda N. McIntyre , Chekov is " an ensign assigned to the night watch " during " Space Seed " and met Khan in an off @-@ screen scene . The non @-@ canonical novel To Reign in Hell : The Exile of Khan Noonien Singh explains the error by having Chekov escort Khan to the surface of Ceti Alpha after the events of the television episode . The real cause of the error was a simple oversight by the filmmakers . Meyer defended the mistake by noting that Arthur Conan Doyle made similar oversights in his Sherlock Holmes stories . Chekov 's screaming while being infested by the Ceti eel led Koenig to jokingly dub the film Star Trek II : Chekov Screams Again , in reference to a similar screaming scene in The Motion Picture . Paul Winfield plays Reliant captain Clark Terrell ; Meyer had seen Winfield 's work in films such as Sounder and wanted to direct him . Meyer thought in retrospect that the Ceti eel scenes might have been corny , but felt that Winfield 's performance helped add gravity .
Other members of the Enterprise crew include chief engineer Montgomery Scott ( James Doohan ) , helmsman Hikaru Sulu ( George Takei ) , and communications officer Uhura ( Nichelle Nichols ) . Nichols and Gene Roddenberry took issue with elements of the film , including the naval references and militaristic uniforms . Nichols also defended Roddenberry when the producers believed he was the source of script leaks . Takei had simply not wanted to reprise his role until Shatner persuaded him to return . Kelley felt that McCoy speaking his catchphrase " he 's dead , Jim " during Spock 's death scene would ruin the moment 's seriousness , so Doohan delivers the line " he 's dead already " to Kirk . Scott loses his young nephew following Khan 's attacks on the Enterprise . The cadet , played by Ike Eisenmann , had many of his lines cut from the original theatrical release , including a scene where it is explained he is Scott 's relative . These scenes were reintroduced when ABC aired The Wrath of Khan on television in 1985 , and in the director 's edition , making Scott 's grief at the crewman 's death more understandable .
Other characters include Kirstie Alley as Saavik , Spock 's protege and a Starfleet commander @-@ in @-@ training aboard the Enterprise . The movie was Alley 's first feature film role . Saavik cries during Spock 's funeral . Meyer said that during filming someone asked him , " ' Are you going to let her do that ? ' And I said , ' Yeah , ' and they said , ' But Vulcans don 't cry , ' and I said , ' Well , that 's what makes this such an interesting Vulcan . ' " The character 's emotional outbursts can be partly explained by the fact that Saavik was described as of mixed Vulcan @-@ Romulan heritage in the script , though no indication is given on film . Alley was so fond of her Vulcan ears that she would take them home with her at the end of each day . Bibi Besch plays Carol Marcus , the lead scientist working on Project Genesis , and the mother of Kirk 's son , David ( played by Merritt Butrick ) . Meyer was looking for an actress who looked beautiful enough that it was plausible a womanizer such as Kirk would fall for her , yet who could also project a sense of intelligence . Meyer liked that Butrick 's hair was blond like Besch 's and curly like Shatner 's , making him a plausible son of the two . John Winston reprises his series role as Kyle , the Enterprise transporter chief .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
After the release of The Motion Picture , executive producer Gene Roddenberry wrote his own sequel . In his plot , the crew of the Enterprise travel back in time to set right a corrupted time line after Klingons use the Guardian of Forever to prevent the assassination of John F. Kennedy . This was rejected by Paramount executives , who blamed the poor performance and large budget ( $ 46 million ) of the first movie on its plodding pace and the constant rewrites Roddenberry demanded . As a consequence , Roddenberry was removed from the production and , according to Shatner , " kicked upstairs " to the ceremonial position of executive consultant . Harve Bennett , a new Paramount television producer , was made producer for the next Star Trek film . According to Bennett , he was called in front of a group including Jeffrey Katzenberg and Michael Eisner and asked if he thought he could make a better film than The Motion Picture , which Bennett confessed he found " really boring " . When Bennett replied in the affirmative , Charles Bluhdorn asked , " Can you make it for less than forty @-@ five @-@ fucking @-@ million @-@ dollars ? " Bennett replied that " Where I come from , I can make five movies for that . "
Bennett realized he faced a serious challenge in developing the new Star Trek movie , partly due to his never having seen the television show . To compensate , Bennett watched all the original episodes . This immersion convinced Bennett that what the first movie lacked was a real villain ; after seeing the episode " Space Seed " , he decided that the character of Khan Noonien Singh was the perfect enemy for the new film . Before the script was settled upon , Bennett gathered his production staff . He selected Robert Sallin , a director of television commercials and a college friend , to produce the film . Sallin 's job would be to produce Star Trek II quickly and cheaply . Bennett also hired Michael Minor as art director to shape the direction of the film .
Bennett wrote his first film treatment in November 1980 . In his version , entitled The War of the Generations , Kirk investigates a rebellion on a distant world and discovers that his son is the leader of the rebels . Khan is the mastermind behind the plot , and Kirk and son join forces to defeat the tyrant . Bennett then hired Jack B. Sowards , an avid Star Trek fan , to turn his outline into a film @-@ able script . Sowards wrote an initial script before a writer 's strike in 1981 . Sowards ' draft , The Omega Syndrome , involved the theft of the Federation 's ultimate weapon , the " Omega system " . Sowards was concerned that his weapon was too negative , and Bennett wanted something more uplifting " and as fundamental in the 23rd century as recombinant DNA is in our time " , Minor recalled . Minor suggested to Bennett that the device be turned into a terraforming tool instead . At the story conference the next day , Bennett hugged Minor and declared that he had saved Star Trek . In recognition of the Biblical power of the weapon , Sowards renamed the " Omega system " to the " Genesis Device " .
By April 1981 , Sowards had produced a draft that moved Spock 's death to later in the story , because of fan dissatisfaction to the event after the script was leaked . Spock had originally died in the first act , in a shocking demise that Bennett compared to Janet Leigh 's early death in Psycho . This draft had a twelve @-@ page face @-@ to @-@ face confrontation between Kirk and Khan . Sowards ' draft also introduced a male character named Saavik . As pre @-@ production began , Samuel A. Peeples , writer of the Star Trek episode " Where No Man Has Gone Before " , was invited to offer his own script . Peeples ' draft replaced Khan with two new villains named Sojin and Moray ; the alien beings are so powerful they almost destroy Earth by mistake . This script was considered inadequate ; the aliens resembled too closely the villains on a typical TOS episode . Deadlines loomed for special effects production to begin ( which required detailed storyboards based on a completed script ) , and by this point there was no finished script to use .
Karen Moore , a Paramount executive , suggested to Bennett that Nicholas Meyer , writer of The Seven @-@ Per @-@ Cent Solution and director of Time After Time , could help resolve the screenplay issues . Meyer had also never seen an episode of Star Trek . He had the idea of making a list consisting of everything that the creative team had liked from the preceding drafts — " it could be a character , it could be a scene , it could be a plot , it could be a subplot , [ ... ] it could be a line of dialogue " — so that he could use that list as the basis of a new screenplay made from all the best aspects of the previous ones . To offset fan expectation that Spock would die , Meyer had the character " killed " in the Kobayashi Maru simulator in the opening scene . The effects company required a completed script in just 12 days . Meyer wrote the screenplay uncredited and for no pay before the deadline , surprising the actors and producers , and rapidly produced subsequent rewrites as necessary . One draft , for example , had a baby in Khan 's group , who is killed with the others in the Genesis detonation . Meyer later said :
The chief contribution I brought to ' Star Trek II ' was a healthy disrespect ... ' Star Trek ' was human allegory in a space format . That was both its strength and , ultimately , its weakness . I tried through irreverence to make them more human and a little less wooden . I didn 't insist that Captain Kirk go to the bathroom , but did ' Star Trek ' have to be so sanctified ?
Meyer described his script as " ' Hornblower ' in outer space " , utilizing nautical references and a swashbuckling atmosphere . ( Hornblower was an inspiration to Roddenberry and Shatner when making the show , although Meyer was unaware of this . ) Sallin was impressed with Meyer 's vision for the film : " His ideas brought dimension that broadened the scope of the material as we were working on it . " Gene Roddenberry disagreed with the script 's naval texture and Khan 's Captain Ahab undertones , but was mostly ignored by the creative team .
= = = Design = = =
Meyer attempted to change the look of Star Trek to match the nautical atmosphere he envisioned and stay within budget . The Enterprise , for example , was given a ship 's bell , boatswain 's call , and more blinking lights and signage . To save money on set design , production designer Joseph Jennings used existing elements from The Motion Picture that had been left standing after filming was completed . Sixty @-@ five percent of the film was shot on the same set ; the bridge of the Reliant and the " bridge simulator " from the opening scene were redresses of the Enterprise 's bridge . The Klingon bridge from The Motion Picture was redressed as the transporter and torpedo rooms . The filmmakers stretched The Wrath of Khan 's budget by reusing models and footage from the first Star Trek film , including footage of the Enterprise in spacedock . The original ship miniatures were used where possible , or modified to stand in as new constructions . The orbital office complex from The Motion Picture was inverted and retouched to become the Regula I space station . Elements of the cancelled Star Trek : Phase II television show , such as bulkheads , railings , and sets , were cannibalized and reused . A major concern for the designers was that the Reliant should be easily distinguishable from the Enterprise . The ship 's design was flipped after Bennett accidentally opened and approved the preliminary Reliant designs upside @-@ down .
Designer Robert Fletcher was brought in to redesign existing costumes and create new ones . Fletcher decided on a scheme of " corrupt colors " , using materials with colors slightly off from the pure color . " They 're not colors you see today , so in a subtle way their [ sic ] indicate another time . " Meyer did not like the Starfleet uniforms from either the television series or The Motion Picture and wanted them changed , but for budgetary reasons they could not be discarded entirely . Dye tests of the fabric showed that the old uniforms took three colors well : blue @-@ gray , gold , and dark red . Fletcher decided to use the dark red due to the strong contrast it provided with the background . The resulting naval @-@ inspired designs would be used in Star Trek films until 1996 's First Contact . The first versions of the uniforms had stiff black collars , but Sallin suggested changing it to a turtleneck , using a form of vertical quilting called trapunto . The method creates a bas @-@ relief effect to the material by stuffing the outlined areas with soft thread shot via air pressure through a hollow needle . By the time of The Wrath of Khan 's production , the machines and needles needed to produce trapunto were rare , and Fletcher was only able to find one needle for the wardrobe department . The crew was so worried about losing or breaking the needle that one of the department 's workers took it home with him as a security measure , leading Fletcher to think it had been stolen .
For Khan and his followers , Fletcher created a strong contrast with the highly organized Starfleet uniforms ; his idea was that the exiles ' costumes were made out of whatever they could find . Fletcher said , " My intention with Khan was to express the fact that they had been marooned on that planet with no technical infrastructure , so they had to cannibalize from the spaceship whatever they used or wore . Therefore , I tried to make it look as if they had dressed themselves out of pieces of upholstery and electrical equipment that composed the ship . " Khan 's costume was designed with an open chest to show Ricardo Montalbán 's physique . Fletcher also designed smocks for the Regula I scientists , and civilian clothes for Kirk and McCoy that were designed to look practical and comfortable .
Meyer had a " No Smoking " sign added to the Enterprise 's bridge , which he recalled " Everyone had a fit over [ ... ] I said ' Why have they stopped smoking in the future ? They 've been smoking for four hundred years , you think it 's going to stop in the next two ? " The sign appeared in the first shot of the film , but was removed for all others appearing in the final cut of the film .
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography began on November 9 , 1981 , and ended on January 29 , 1982 . The Wrath of Khan was more action @-@ oriented than its predecessor , but less costly to make . The project was supervised by Paramount 's television unit rather than its theatrical division . Bennett , a respected television veteran , made The Wrath of Khan on a budget of $ 11 million — far less than The Motion Picture 's $ 46 million . The budget was initially lower at $ 8 @.@ 5 million , but it rose when the producers were impressed by the first two weeks of footage . Meyer used camera and set tricks to spare the construction of large and expensive sets . For a scene taking place at Starfleet Academy , a forced perspective was created by placing scenery close to the camera to give the sense the set was larger than it really was . To present the illusion that the Enterprise 's elevators moved between decks , corridor pieces were wheeled out of sight to change the hall configuration while the lift doors were closed . Background equipment such as computer terminals were rented when possible instead of purchased outright . Some designed props , such as a redesigned phaser and communicator , were vetoed by Paramount executives in favor of existing materials from The Motion Picture .
The Enterprise was refurbished for its space shots , with its shiny exterior dulled down and extra detail added to the frame . Compared to the newly built Reliant , the Enterprise was hated by the effects artists and cameramen ; it took eight people to mount the model , and a forklift truck to move it . The Reliant , meanwhile , was lighter and had less complex internal wiring . The ships were filmed on a blue screen with special film that does not register the color ; the resulting shots could be added to effects shots or other footage . Any reflection of blue on the ship 's hull would appear as a hole on the film ; the gaps had to be patched frame by frame for the final film . The same camera used to film Star Wars , the Dykstraflex , was used for shots of the Enterprise and other ships .
The barren desert surface of Ceti Alpha V was simulated on stage 8 , the largest sound stage at Paramount 's studio . The set was elevated 25 feet off the ground and covered in wooden mats , over which tons of colored sand and powder were dumped . A cyclorama was painted and wrapped around the set , while massive industrial fans created a sandstorm . The filming was uncomfortable for actors and crew alike . The spandex environmental suits Koenig and Winfield wore were unventilated , and the actors had to signal by microphone when they needed air . Filming equipment was wrapped in plastic to prevent mechanical troubles and everyone on set wore boots , masks , and coveralls as protection from flying sand .
Spock 's death was shot over three days , during which no visitors were allowed on set . Spock 's death was to be irrevocable , but Nimoy had such a positive experience during filming that he asked if he could add a way for Spock to return in a later film . The mind meld sequence was initially filmed without Kelley 's prior knowledge of what was going on . Shatner disagreed with having a clear glass separation between Spock and Kirk during the death scene ; he instead wanted a translucent divider allowing viewers to see only Spock 's silhouette , but his objection was overruled . During Spock 's funeral sequence Meyer wanted the camera to track the torpedo that served as Spock 's coffin as it was placed in a long trough and slid into the launcher . The camera crew thought the entire set would have to be rebuilt to accommodate the shot , but Sallin suggested putting a dolly into the trough and controlling it from above with an offset arm . Scott 's rendition of " Amazing Grace " on the bagpipes was James Doohan 's idea . Kathleen Nicholson Graham recorded the bagpipes music at Paramount Studio with the orchestra .
Spock 's death in the film was widely reported during production . " Trekkies " wrote letters to protest , one paid for trade press advertisements urging Paramount to change the plot , and Nimoy even received death threats . Test audiences reacted badly to Spock 's death and the film 's ending 's dark tone , so it was made more uplifting by Bennett . The scene of Spock 's casket on the planet and Nimoy 's closing monologue were added ; Meyer objected , but did not stand in the way of the modifications . Nimoy did not know about the scene until he saw the film , but before it opened , the media reassured fans that " Spock will live " again . Due to time constraints , the casket scene was filmed in an overgrown corner of San Francisco 's Golden Gate Park , using smoke machines to add a primal atmosphere . The shoot lasted from midday to evening , as the team was well aware there would be no time for reshoots .
Special consideration was given during filming to allow for integration of the planned special effects . Television monitors standing in for computer displays were specially calibrated so that their refresh rate did not result in banding on film . Due to a loss of resolution and quality resulting from rephotographing an element in an optical printer , live action sequences for effects were shot in 65mm or VistaVision formats to compensate . When the larger prints were reduced through an anamorphic lens on the printer , the result was a Panavision composite .
= = = Effects = = =
With a short timeframe to complete The Wrath of Khan 's special effects sequences , effects supervisor Jim Veilleux , Meyer , Jennings , Sallin , and Minor worked to transform the written ideas for the script into concrete storyboards and visuals . The detailed sequences were essential to keep the film 's effects from spiraling out of control and driving up costs , as had occurred with The Motion Picture . Each special and optical effect , and the duration of the sequences , was listed . By the end of six weeks , the producers determined the basic look and construction of nearly all the effects ; the resulting shots were combined with film footage five months later . Industrial Light & Magic ( ILM ) produced many of the effects , and created the new models ; the Reliant was the first non @-@ Constitution @-@ class Federation starship seen in the series . Originally , the Reliant was supposed to be a Constitution @-@ class starship identical to the Enterprise , but it was felt audiences would have difficulty distinguishing between the two ships . As the script called for the Reliant and Enterprise to inflict significant damage on each other , ILM developed techniques to illustrate the damage without physically harming the models . Rather than move the models on a bluescreen during shooting , the VistaVision camera was panned and tracked to give the illusion of movement . Damage to the Enterprise was cosmetic , and simulated with pieces of aluminum that were colored or peeled off . Phaser damage was created using stop motion . The script called for large @-@ scale damage to the Reliant , so larger versions of the ship 's model were created to be blown up .
The battle in the nebula was a difficult sequence to accomplish without the aid of computer @-@ generated models . The swirling nebula was created by injecting a latex rubber and ammonia mixture into a cloud tank filled with fresh and salt water . All the footage was shot at two frames per second to give the illusion of faster movement . The vibrant abstract colors of the nebula were simulated by lighting the tank using colored gels . Additional light effects such as auroras were created by the ILM animation department . Using matte work , the ships were physically stuck on a background plate to complete the shot . The destruction of the Reliant 's engine nacelle was created by superimposing shots of the engine blowing apart and explosions over the model .
The scene in which Terrell kills Jedda , a Regula scientist , by vaporizing him with a phaser was filmed in two takes . Winfield and the related actors first played out the scene ; this footage became the background plate . A blue screen was wheeled onto the set and actor John Vargas , the recipient of the phaser blast , acted out his response to being hit with the energy weapon . A phaser beam element was placed on top of the background plate , and Vargas ' shots were optically dissolved into an airbrushed disintegration effect which matched Vargas ' position in every frame .
The Ceti eel shots used several models , overseen by visual effects supervisor Ken Ralston , who had just finished creature design for Return of the Jedi . He tied a string to the eels to inch the models across the actors ' faces before they entered the ear canal . The scene of a more mature eel 's leaving Chekov 's ear was simulated by threading a microfilament through the floor of the set up to Koenig 's ear . The scene was filmed with three variations , which Ralston described as " a dry shot , one with some blood , and the Fangoria shot , with a lot of gore . " Footage of a giant model of Koenig 's ear was discarded from the theatrical release due to the visceral reaction it elicited in test audiences .
Additional optical effects were provided by Visual Concept Engineering ( VCE ) , a small effects company headed by Peter Kuran ; Kuran had previously worked at ILM and left after finishing The Empire Strikes Back . VCE provided effects including phaser beams , the Enterprise reactor , additional sand on Ceti Alpha V , and an updated transporter effect . Meyer and the production staff were adamant about not using freeze frames for the transporter , as had been done in the original television series . Scenes were shot so that conversations would continue while characters were in mid @-@ transport , although much of the matte work VCE created was discarded when the production decided not to have as much action during transports .
The Wrath of Khan was one of the first films to extensively use electronic images and computer graphics to speed production of shots . Computer graphics company Evans & Sutherland produced the vector graphics displays aboard the Enterprise and the fields of stars used in the opening credits . Among ILM 's technical achievements was cinema 's first entirely computer @-@ generated sequence : the demonstration of the effects of the Genesis Device on a barren planet . The first concept for the shot took the form of a laboratory demonstration , where a rock would be placed in a chamber and turned into a flower . Veilleux suggested the sequence 's scope be expanded to show the Genesis effect taking over a planet . While Paramount appreciated the more dramatic presentation , they also wanted the simulation to be more impressive than traditional animation . Having seen research done by Lucasfilm 's Computer Graphics group , Veilleux offered them the task . The graphics team paid attention to detail for the sixty @-@ second sequence ; one artist ensured that the stars visible in the background matched those visible from a real star light @-@ years from Earth . The animators hoped it would serve as a " commercial " for the studio 's talents . The studio would later branch off from Lucasfilm to form Pixar .
= = = Music = = =
Jerry Goldsmith had composed the music for The Motion Picture , but was not an option for The Wrath of Khan given the reduced budget ; Meyer 's composer for Time After Time , Miklós Rózsa , was likewise prohibitively expensive . Bennett and Meyer wanted the music for the film to go in a different direction , but had not decided on a composer by the time filming began . Meyer initially hoped to hire an associate named John Morgan , but Morgan lacked film experience , which would have troubled the studio .
Paramount 's vice @-@ president of music Joel Sill took a liking to a 28 @-@ year @-@ old composer named James Horner , feeling that his demo tapes stood out from generic film music . Horner was introduced to Bennett , Meyer and Salin . Horner said that " [ The producers ] did not want the kind of score they had gotten before . They did not want a John Williams score , per se . They wanted something different , more modern . " When asked about how he landed the assignment , the composer replied that " the producers loved my work for Wolfen , and had heard my music for several other projects , and I think , so far as I 've been told , they liked my versatility very much . I wanted the assignment , and I met with them , we all got along well , they were impressed with my music , and that 's how it happened . " Horner agreed with the producers ' expectations and agreed to begin work in mid @-@ January 1982 .
In keeping with the nautical tone , Meyer wanted music evocative of seafaring and swashbuckling , and the director and composer worked together closely , becoming friends in the process . As a classical music fan , Meyer was able to describe the effects and sounds he wanted in the music . While Horner 's style was described as " echoing both the bombastic and elegiac elements of John Williams ' Star Wars and Goldsmith 's original Star Trek ( The Motion Picture ) scores , " Horner was expressly told to not use any of Goldsmith 's score . Instead Horner adapted the opening fanfare of Alexander Courage 's Star Trek television theme . " The fanfare draws you in immediately — you know you 're going to get a good movie , " Horner said .
In comparison to the flowing main theme , Khan 's leitmotif was designed as a percussive texture that could be overlaid with other music and emphasized the character 's insanity . The seven @-@ note brass theme was echoplexed to emphasize the character 's ruminations about the past while on Ceti Alpha V , but does not play fully until Reliant 's attack on the Enterprise . Many elements drew from Horner 's previous work ( a rhythm that accompanies Khan 's theme during the surprise attack borrows from an attack theme from Wolfen , in turn influenced by Goldsmith 's score for Alien ) . Musical moments from the original television series are also heard during investigation of the Regula space station and elsewhere .
To Horner , the " stuff underneath " the main story was what needed to be addressed by the score ; in The Wrath of Khan , this was the relationship between Kirk and Spock . The main theme serves as Kirk 's theme , with a mellower section following that is the theme for the Starship Enterprise . Horner also wrote a motif for Spock , to emphasize the character 's depth : " By putting a theme over Spock , it warms him and he becomes three @-@ dimensional rather than a collection of schticks . " The difference in the short , French horn @-@ based cues for the villain and longer melodies for the heroes helped to differentiate characters and ships during the battle sequences .
The soundtrack was Horner 's first major film score , and was written in four and a half weeks . The resulting 72 minutes of music was then performed by a 91 @-@ piece orchestra . Recording sessions for the score began on April 12 , 1982 at the Warner Bros. lot , The Burbank Studios and continued until April 15 . A pickup session was held on April 30 to record music for the Mutara nebula battle , while another session held on May 3 was used to cover the recently changed epilogue . Horner used synthesizers for ancillary effects ; at the time , science fiction films such as E.T. the Extra @-@ Terrestrial and The Thing were eschewing the synthesizer in favor of more traditional orchestras . Craig Huxley performed his invented instrument — the Blaster Beam — during recording , as well as composing and performing electronic music for the Genesis Project video . While most of the film was " locked in " by the time Horner had begun composing music , he had to change musical cue orchestration after the integration of special effects caused changes in scene durations .
= = Themes = =
The Wrath of Khan features several recurring themes , including death , resurrection , and growing old . Upon writing his script , Meyer hit upon a link between Spock 's death and the age of the characters . " This was going to be a story in which Spock died , so it was going to be a story about death , and it was only a short hop , skip , and a jump to realize that it was going to be about old age and friendship , " Meyer said . " I don 't think that any of [ the other preliminary ] scripts were about old age , friendship , and death . " In keeping with the theme of death and rebirth symbolized by Spock 's sacrifice and the Genesis Device , Meyer wanted to call the film The Undiscovered Country , in reference to Prince Hamlet 's description of death in William Shakespeare 's Hamlet , but the title was changed during editing without his knowledge . Meyer disliked Wrath of Khan , but it was chosen because the preferred Vengeance of Khan conflicted with Lucasfilm 's forthcoming Revenge of the Jedi ( renamed Return of the Jedi late in production ) .
The Wrath of Khan follows in a long tradition of films in which the adventurer or explorer must undergo a figurative or literal death to start anew . Spock is Kirk 's doppelgänger and together they represent a bifurcated hero , with the two characters representing dueling halves of the human condition . Spock represents the supernatural ideal of a completely logical and infallible person , while Kirk represents the impassioned and human reality , prone to error and at odds with himself . Spock 's sacrifice at the end of the film allows for Kirk 's spiritual rebirth in the tradition of the death @-@ rebirth cycle . After commenting earlier that he feels old and worn out , Kirk states in the final scene that " I feel young . " The Kobayashi Maru test forces its participants to confront an unwinnable situation which serves as a test of character , but Kirk reveals that he won the test by cheating ; Saavik responds that Kirk has never faced death . Spock 's own solution to the no @-@ win scenario , that of self @-@ sacrifice , forces Kirk to confront death after continually cheating it , and to grow as a character . Sight and sound reinforce the themes of death and aging , as well as the promise of rebirth ; Spock is the first character seen and his voice is the last heard , and his coffin follows the same trajectory towards the new planet as the Genesis Device does in a video lecture earlier in the film . The principle of sacrificing the needs of the one for those of the many was translated to modern triage via the ' Spock principle ' .
Meyer added elements to reinforce the aging of the characters . Kirk 's unhappiness about his birthday is compounded by McCoy 's gift of reading glasses . The script stated that Kirk was 49 , but Shatner was unsure about being specific about Kirk 's age . Bennett remembers that Shatner was hesitant about portraying a middle @-@ aged version of himself , and believed that with proper makeup he could continue playing a younger Kirk . Bennett convinced Shatner that he could age gracefully like Spencer Tracy ; the producer did not know that Shatner had worked with Tracy on Judgment at Nuremberg ( 1961 ) , and was fond of the actor . Meyer made sure to emphasize Kirk 's parallel to Sherlock Holmes in that both characters waste away in the absence of their stimuli ; new cases , in Holmes ' case , and starship adventures in Kirk 's .
Khan 's pursuit of Kirk is central to the film 's theme of vengeance , and The Wrath of Khan deliberately borrows heavily from Herman Melville 's Moby @-@ Dick . To make the parallels clear to viewers , Meyer added a visible copy of Moby @-@ Dick to Khan 's dwelling . Khan liberally paraphrases Ahab , with " I 'll chase him round the moons of Nibia and round the Antares maelstrom and round perdition 's flames before I give him up ! " . Khan also quotes Ahab 's tirade at the end of the novel verbatim with his final lines : " to the last I grapple with thee ; from Hell 's heart I stab at thee ; for hate 's sake , I spit my last breath at thee . " Kirk represents both the restless elements of Ishmael as well as the titular white whale of Melville 's novel ; Khan 's blind pursuit of Kirk mirrors Captain Ahab 's obsession with Moby @-@ Dick . Both Khan and Ahab pursue their quarry against the better judgment of their crew , and end up killing themselves in an effort to take their foe with them . University of Northern Colorado professor Jane Wall Hinds argues that the themes of The Wrath of Khan clash with the optimistic and transcendentalist perspectives of the original series and The Next Generation . Moby Dick 's themes of vengeance would later heavily influence Star Trek : First Contact .
= = Reception = =
= = = Release = = =
The Wrath of Khan opened on June 4 , 1982 in 1 @,@ 621 theaters in the United States . It made $ 14 @,@ 347 @,@ 221 in its opening weekend , at the time the largest opening weekend gross in history . It went on to earn $ 78 @,@ 912 @,@ 963 in the US , becoming the sixth highest @-@ grossing film of 1982 . It made $ 97 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 worldwide . Although the total gross of The Wrath of Khan was less than that of The Motion Picture , it was more profitable due to its lower production cost . The film 's novelization , written by Vonda N. McIntyre , stayed on the New York Times paperback bestsellers list for more than three weeks . Unlike the previous film , Wrath of Khan was not promoted with a toy line , although Playmates Toys created Khan and Saavik figures in the 1990s , and in 2007 Art Asylum crafted a full series of action figures to mark the film 's 25th anniversary . In 2009 IDW Publishing released a comic adaptation of the film , and Film Score Monthly released an expanded score .
= = = Critical response = = =
Critical response was positive . Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that 88 % of selected critics have given the film a positive review based on a sample of 49 . After the lukewarm reaction to the first film , fan response to The Wrath of Khan was highly positive . The film 's success was credited with renewing interest in the franchise . Mark Bernardin of Entertainment Weekly went further , calling The Wrath of Khan " the film that , by most accounts , saved Star Trek as we know it " ; it is now considered one of the best films in the series .
The film 's pacing was praised by reviewers in The New York Times and The Washington Post as being much swifter than its predecessor and closer to that of the television series . Janet Maslin of The New York Times credited the film with a stronger story than The Motion Picture and stated the sequel was everything the first film should have been . Variety agreed that The Wrath of Khan was closer to the original spirit of Star Trek than its predecessor . Strong character interaction was cited as a strong feature of the film , as was Montalbán 's portrayal of Khan . In 2016 , Playboy ranked the film number four on its list of 15 Sequels That Are Way Better Than The Originals .
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times and Derek Adams of Time Out complained about what were seen as tepid battle sequences , and perceived melodrama . While Ebert and TV Guide felt that Spock 's death was dramatic and well @-@ handled , The Washington Post 's Gary Arnold stated Spock 's death " feels like an unnecessary twist , and the filmmakers are obviously well @-@ prepared to fudge in case the public demands another sequel . " Negative reviews of the film also focused on the acting , and Empire singled out the " dodgy coiffures " and " Santa Claus tunics " as elements of the film that had not aged well .
The Wrath of Khan won two Saturn Awards in 1982 , for best actor ( Shatner ) and best direction ( Meyer ) . The film was also nominated in the " best dramatic presentation " category for the 1983 Hugo Awards , but lost to Blade Runner . The Wrath of Khan has influenced later movies : Meyer 's rejected title for the film , The Undiscovered Country , was finally put to use when Meyer directed the sixth film , which retained the nautical influences . Director Bryan Singer cited the film as an influence on X2 and his abandoned sequel to Superman Returns . The film is also a favorite of director J. J. Abrams , producer Damon Lindelof and writers Roberto Orci and Alex Kurtzman , the creative team behind the franchise relaunch film Star Trek .
American Film Institute recognition :
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Thrills - Nominated
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Heroes and Villains :
Khan Noonien Singh - Nominated Villain
AFI 's 10 Top 10 - Nominated Science Fiction Film
= = Home media = =
Paramount released The Wrath of Khan on VHS and Beta in 1983 . The studio sold the VHS for $ 39 @.@ 95 , $ 40 below contemporary movie cassette prices . It needed to sell 60 @,@ 000 tapes to make the film as profitable as other tapes , but sold 120 @,@ 000 . The successful experiment was credited with instigating more competitive VHS pricing , an increase in the adoption of increasingly cheaper VHS players , and an industry @-@ wide move away from rentals to sales as the bulk of videotape revenue .
Paramount released The Wrath of Khan on DVD in 2000 ; no special features were included on the disc . Montalbán drew hundreds of fans of the film to Universal City , California where he signed copies of the DVD to commemorate its release . In August 2002 , the film was re @-@ released in a highly anticipated two @-@ disc " Director 's Edition " format . In addition to remastered picture quality and 5 @.@ 1 Dolby surround sound , the DVD set included director commentary , cast interviews , storyboards and the theatrical trailer . The expanded cut of the film was given a Hollywood premiere before the release of the DVD . Meyer stated that he didn 't believe directors ' cuts of films were necessarily better than the original but that the re @-@ release gave him a chance to add elements that had been removed from the theatrical release by Paramount . The four hours of bonus content and expanded director 's cut were favorably received .
The film 's original theatrical cut was released on Blu @-@ ray Disc in May 2009 to coincide with the new Star Trek feature , along with the other five films featuring the original crew in Star Trek : Original Motion Picture Collection . Of all six original films , Wrath of Khan was the only one to be remastered in 1080p high @-@ definition from the original negative . Nicholas Meyer stated that the Wrath of Khan negative " was in terrible shape , " which is why it needed extensive restoration . All six films in the set have new 7 @.@ 1 Dolby TrueHD audio . The disc also features a new commentary track by director Nicholas Meyer and Star Trek : Enterprise showrunner Manny Coto . On April 24 , 2016 , Paramount Pictures announced the Director 's Edition of the film would be released for Blu @-@ ray Disc on June 7 , 2016 .
= Number 13 @-@ class battleship =
The Number 13 @-@ class battleship was a planned class of four fast battleships to be built for the Imperial Japanese Navy ( IJN ) during the 1920s . The ships never received any names , being known only as Numbers 13 – 16 . They were intended to reinforce Japan 's " eight @-@ eight fleet " of eight battleships and eight battlecruisers after the United States announced a major naval construction program in 1919 . The Number 13 class was designed to be superior to all other existing battleships , planned or building . After the signing of the Washington Naval Treaty in 1922 , they were cancelled in November 1923 before construction could begin .
= = Design and background = =
By 1918 , the Navy had gained approval for an " eight @-@ six " fleet , all ships under eight years old . However , having four large battleships and four battlecruisers on order put an enormous financial strain on Japan , which was spending about a third of its national budget on the Navy . Despite this , the IJN gained approval of the " eight @-@ eight @-@ eight " plan in 1920 after American President Woodrow Wilson announced plans in 1919 to re @-@ initiate the 1916 plan for ten additional battleships and six battlecruisers . The Japanese response required the construction of eight additional fast battleships in the Kii and the Number 13 classes .
When designing the latter class , the Japanese followed the doctrine that they had used since the First Sino @-@ Japanese War of 1894 – 95 of compensating for quantitative inferiority with qualitative superiority . In the words of naval historian Siegfried Breyer , " had [ the ships ] been completed , they would have been the world 's largest and most powerful battleships . Their gun calibre alone would have caused a new and more intensive naval arms race . From an engineering aspect they were more than ten years ahead of their time because they anticipated the characteristics of the fully developed , fast battleship . " Naval architects William Garzke and Robert Dulin concur saying , " These ships would have completely outclassed any European battleship " .
The Number 13 class was designed by Captain Yuzuru Hiraga , the naval architect responsible for most of the previous Japanese capital ships . The ships were based on his previous Kii @-@ class battleship and Amagi @-@ class battlecruiser designs , enlarged to take 457 @-@ millimeter ( 18 @.@ 0 in ) guns .
= = = Description = = =
The ships had a length of 259 @.@ 1 meters ( 850 ft 1 in ) between perpendiculars and 274 @.@ 4 meters ( 900 ft 3 in ) overall . They had a beam of 30 @.@ 8 meters ( 101 ft 1 in ) and a draft of 9 @.@ 8 meters ( 32 ft 2 in ) . The normal displacement of the battleships was 47 @,@ 500 metric tons ( 46 @,@ 700 long tons ) .
The class was intended to be equipped with four Gijutsu @-@ Hombu geared steam turbines , each of which drove one propeller shaft . The turbines were designed to produce a total of 150 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 110 @,@ 000 kW ) , using steam provided by 22 Kampon oil @-@ fired water @-@ tube boilers , to reach a maximum speed of 30 knots ( 56 km / h ; 35 mph ) .
The primary armament of the Number 13 class was eight 45 @-@ caliber 457 @-@ millimeter guns in four twin @-@ gun turrets , two each fore and aft of the superstructure . No examples of this gun were ever built , but it was planned to fire a 1 @,@ 550 @-@ kilogram ( 3 @,@ 420 lb ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 800 meters per second ( 2 @,@ 600 ft / s ) . The secondary battery consisted of 16 single 50 @-@ caliber 14 @-@ centimeter guns was mounted in casemates in the superstructure . The manually operated guns had a maximum range of 19 @,@ 750 meters ( 21 @,@ 600 yd ) at an elevation of + 35 ° and fired at a rate up to 10 rounds per minute . The ships ' anti @-@ aircraft defenses consisted of either four or eight single 45 @-@ caliber 12 @-@ centimeter 10th Year Type anti @-@ aircraft guns mounted around the single funnel . Each of these guns had a maximum elevation of + 75 ° and a maximum rate of fire of 10 – 11 rounds per minute . They could fire a 20 @.@ 41 @-@ kilogram ( 45 @.@ 0 lb ) projectile with a muzzle velocity of 825 – 830 m / s ( 2 @,@ 710 – 2 @,@ 720 ft / s ) to a maximum height of 10 @,@ 000 meters ( 32 @,@ 808 ft ) . The Number 13 class was also designed with eight 61 @-@ centimeter ( 24 in ) above @-@ water torpedo tubes , four on each broadside .
The waterline armor belt was intended have a maximum thickness of 330 millimeters ( 13 in ) and , like the Kii class , it was angled 15 ° outwards at the top to increase its ability to resist penetration at short range . The deck armor would have had a total thickness of 127 millimeters ( 5 in ) .
= = Construction = =
After the end of World War I , the United Kingdom , the United States and the Empire of Japan all announced large capital ship building programs , incorporating design lessons from the war . These ships would have been much larger and more expensive than earlier vessels and President Warren G. Harding called a conference at Washington , D. C. in late 1921 to forestall a very expensive arms race . The attendees at the conference agreed to limit capital ship construction for the next decade and scrapped large numbers of existing ships as well as many ships still under construction . Japan suspended the Number 13 class while the conference was in progress before any ship was laid down and formally cancelled them on 19 November 1923 . As construction of the ships was scheduled to begin in 1922 , and completed by 1927 , they were already allocated to specific shipyards :
Number 13 : Yokosuka Naval Arsenal ; Yokosuka
Number 14 : Kure Naval Arsenal ; Kure
Number 15 : Mitsubishi ; Nagasaki
Number 16 : Kawasaki ; Kobe
= Rhys Lawson =
Rhys Lawson is a fictional character from the Australian soap opera Neighbours , played by Ben Barber . The actor 's casting was announced on 18 May 2011 and he began filming his first scenes the week before opposite established cast members Alan Fletcher ( Karl Kennedy ) and Jackie Woodburne ( Susan Kennedy ) . Barber said he loved his character and was looking forward to what was ahead . He made his debut screen appearance on 13 July 2011 . In November 2012 , it was announced that Barber would be leaving Neighbours and Rhys made his last screen appearance on 20 March 2013 .
Before his arrival on screen , Barber described Rhys as being determined and focused , while Daniel Kilkelly of Digital Spy said his arrival would cause a stir . Rhys is ambitious , persuasive and manipulative . His profile on the official Neighbours website states that he believes Erinsborough is " a bit of a backwater " , while he is more of a city guy . Rhys is an enthusiastic young doctor and often riles his colleague , Karl , in his quest to become a surgeon . He wants to succeed and can justify why he does certain things , which hurt other people . Rhys is good at separating his work life from his home life and he knows how to have a good time . Barber revealed that Rhys does have a sensitive side and he can mean well .
One of the character 's earliest storylines saw him becoming caught up in Karl and Susan Kennedy 's marital problems , while treating their friend , Jim Dolan ( Scott Parmeter ) . Rhys was with Jim when he died and he remained affected by his death for a long time . Rhys had a one @-@ night stand with Kate Ramsay ( Ashleigh Brewer ) , which left Kate feeling awkward around him . Rhys became determined to join the hospital 's surgical training programme and was devastated when he missed out on a place . Rhys then romantically pursued Erin Salisbury ( Elise Jansen ) and through his manipulative behaviour he forced her to quit the programme . Exploration of the character 's backstory began after his mother was introduced and Barber believed this would allow the audience to see why Rhys has become who he is .
= = Casting = =
On 18 May 2011 , it was announced Barber had joined the cast of Neighbours as Rhys Lawson . His casting announcement came as the show lost regular cast member Scott McGregor ( Mark Brennan ) . Barber was appearing in a small guest role in fellow Australian soap opera Home and Away when he was given the role of Rhys . He began filming his first scenes for Neighbours opposite Alan Fletcher ( Karl Kennedy ) and Jackie Woodburne ( Susan Kennedy ) the week before his casting announcement . Of appearing in Neighbours , the actor told Matt Neal of The Warrnambool Standard " I catch myself and have a moment where I realise that I 'm working with actors I watched on TV growing up . My first scenes were with Alan and Jackie . It was great to have them there to help out and show me how it 's done . I was in safe hands . " Barber revealed he loved his character and was looking forward to what was ahead . He made his first on screen appearance as Rhys in July 2011 .
= = Development = =
= = = Characterisation = = =
" Rhys is a real city guy , and thinks Erinsborough is a bit of a backwater . He is career focused , driven and determined to be a surgeon — and he doesn 't care who he has to tread on to get there . "
Shortly after his casting was announced , Barber told a reporter for the Herald Sun that he loved his character and said his determination and focus would get him into trouble . Daniel Kilkelly of Digital Spy said Rhys 's arrival would cause a stir in Erinsborough and may not go down well with some of the local residents . Barber also called Rhys ambitious and said that while he is not a villain , he is not an entirely good guy either . The actor explained " He rides that line and that 's a lot of fun to play . There are a lot of different dynamics . He can be very persuasive , bordering on manipulative , but he has a sensitive side as well , which is coming out gradually . " Barber told a writer for Inside Soap that Rhys is good at separating his work life from his home life , and can easily switch from one to the other . Barber quipped that Rhys knows how to have a good time , while the official Neighbours website said he considers himself " a bit of a ladies ' man " . A Herald Sun reporter said Rhys would " rile " his colleague , Karl Kennedy . Alan Fletcher , who plays Karl , revealed that his character and Rhys would share many scenes . Fletcher explained that it can be " somewhat galling " for Karl to be faced with Rhys , who is an enthusiastic young doctor . The actor added " So expect some fun confrontation but also cleverly the writers have explored what Rhys and Karl might have in common . "
When asked what advice he would give to his character , Barber said " Unfortunately , I don 't think he would listen to me in the first place , but if he could give me the time of day , I would say lighten up on the control because you ’ re never going to have it . " Speaking to Channel 5 , Barber revealed Rhys would not do a lot to redeem himself in the new year , but viewers would get learn more about his back story , which could explain his dark side . During a 2012 interview with Kilkelly , Barber said his character is good at getting what he wants , saying " I think at the end of the day , he just wants to win and he has this ability to justify why he does things , and if people are hurt in the process , it 's their fault . His vision is the one that is most important . " Barber said that deep down , Rhys is sensitive and he means well . When asked about the reaction Rhys has received from viewers , Barber believed they liked the character as he is unpredictable and manipulative . He added that the viewers are interested in seeing what Rhys does next . When asked how he felt about playing a bad boy by DNA 's Matthew Myers , Barber revealed that he loved it , saying " It 's always exciting getting the scripts because I never know which way they are going to turn or who I 'm going to be turning on ! " The actor quipped that he is always wondering which character he is going to manipulate or " screw over " next and added " But at the core of things Rhys has a heart of gold . "
= = = Family = = =
Rhys ' mother , Elaine ( Sancia Robinson ) , was introduced in November 2011 . Barber revealed in his interview with Kilkelly that their backstory would be explored and stated that it would explain " a lot more about why Rhys is the way he is " . He added that there would be " a big revelation " about Elaine coming up . Elaine suffers from a degenerative spinal condition and has to use a wheelchair . Rhys was forced to care for her when his father ran out on them both . Rhys tries to keep his life on Ramsay Street separate from his family , so when Elaine asks him if she can spend Easter with him , he makes up excuses as to why she cannot visit him . Barber revealed to an Inside Soap writer that Elaine realises Rhys is lying to her and she starts to wonder if he is ashamed to be seen with her . Rhys ' actions when his housemates arrive appear to confirm his mother 's suspicions . While they wonder who Elaine is , he makes up an excuse . Barber explained " Rhys pretends he 's visiting one of his patients . Elaine is really hurt and embarrassed when he comes out with that . He realises , and feels terrible . "
Rhys tries to make things up to Elaine by taking her to the hospital to meet his colleagues , but when she questions his motives for " going public " and admitting who she is , Rhys has to look at himself and his attitude towards her . In a May 2012 interview with Inside Soap 's Jason Herbison , Barber said he liked the fact that Rhys ' mother had been introduced and that he had the chance to learn more about his character 's background . He expressed his wish of having Rhys ' father introduced in the future , saying " Rhys doesn 't have a good relationship with him , as his dad abandoned the family when he was younger . It would certainly create a lot of interesting dilemmas " .
= = = Early storylines = = =
One of Rhys ' first storylines saw him caught up in Karl and Susan Kennedy 's marital problems . Rhys is the attending physician to Jim Dolan ( Scott Parmeter ) , a man befriended by Susan . At first , Rhys is not aware that Karl and Susan are going through a difficult time in their marriage as he is " solely concerned " with Jim 's well being . Rhys is annoyed by Susan 's interference with his patient and Barber told a columnist for Inside Soap " He wants him to have chemotherapy , but Karl tells Susan it will only prolong Jim 's suffering , not save his life . Susan tells that to Jim , which Rhys doesn 't like . " Karl later takes over as Jim 's physician and Rhys steps back and watches the situation unfold . Rhys is with Jim when he dies and a writer for the official Neighbours website said it is an event that will stay with him for a long time .
Rhys has a one @-@ night stand with Kate Ramsay ( Ashleigh Brewer ) not long after his introduction . Rhys meets Kate in the local bar and they have a " big night out " ; the following morning Kate wakes up in Rhys ' apartment . Brewer told a writer for Inside Soap " You don 't actually see the lead @-@ up – one minute she meets Rhys in a bar , the next minute we see that they 've already slept together ! " Kate feels awkward about the situation , but it is made worse when she is unable to remember Rhys ' name . When Kate and Rhys meet again , they have different attitudes to their one @-@ night stand . Brewer said Rhys is " a bit of a player " , so it is not a big deal to him . He does not have any expectations of Kate , but she is uncomfortable with it and tries to cover her tracks . In November 2011 , Brewer said it would be interesting to revisit the relationship between Rhys and Kate . Barber also thought it would be interesting to see where the characters could go together . The actor added that " sparks fly " when Rhys is around Kate , as he knows how to " press her buttons " .
= = = Surgical program = = =
Rhys becomes determined to join the hospital surgical program led by the head of surgery , Martin Chambers ( John Wood ) . When Karl makes a potentially dangerous mistake on a prescription form , Rhys covers for him , but makes it clear he wants something in return . Knowing Karl plays golf with Martin , Rhys asks to join their game so he can try and impress the surgeon . Despite being warned that Martin does not like to talk shop during his golf games , Rhys reveals that he has been following his career and Martin is impressed . Barber explained to a writer for Inside Soap " And Karl has no choice but to agree that Rhys is a good doctor . It 's a bit awkward , because Karl doesn 't like the way Rhys operates — so to speak ! " Martin grants Rhys an interview for a place on the surgical program ; however he forgets everything he knows and makes a fool of himself due to being hungover . Rhys misses out on a place on the program and Barber told Daniel Kilkelly of Digital Spy that he is feeling " devastated and desperate . " Barber described the position as the Holy Grail for Rhys and because of a stupid act , he has lost it .
Shortly after missing out on the program , Rhys finds himself performing surgery on Chris Pappas ( James Mason ) . Rhys initially treats Chris at the hospital after he is attacked at work by an unknown assailant . Chris refuses to stay for any further medical treatment and later collapses with a punctured lung . Barber said that as soon as Rhys sees Chris 's X @-@ rays , he " goes beyond the call of duty " to find him . The actor explained " When he finds him on the floor , he knows exactly what 's happened , but he isn 't sure how long he 's been unconscious for . For all he knows , Chris could be dead within the minute — so he goes straight into emergency mode . " In a bid to save Chris 's life , Rhys performs an emergency procedure to get him breathing again using a screwdriver and a piece of piping . Rhys should not be conducting any type of surgery as he is not a qualified surgeon , but he does not think of the consequences . All About Soap 's Laura Morgan said Rhys ' " quick thinking " pays off and Chris starts breathing again , but at the hospital Karl warns him he will be held accountable if Chris does not pull through .
Rhys tries unsuccessfully to get Robbie O 'Brien ( Shaun Goss ) to quit the surgical program . He then turns his attention to Erin Salisbury ( Elise Jansen ) and plots to take her spot on the program instead . He pursues Erin romantically and tries to distract her away from her work , so she will be kicked off the program and he can take her place . Barber said the scheme sees Rhys at his manipulative best , he realises Erin is vulnerable and he strikes . Jansen told a writer for TV Week that Erin is a bit reluctant to accept when Rhys asks her out . She thinks that someone like Rhys would not normally be interested in her , but she is flattered by the attention . Jansen added Erin is unaware it is all an act . Kate realises what Rhys is doing and interferes with his plan . Barber explained that Kate 's feelings about the matter means nothing to Rhys as his sole objective is to get into the program . He does not mind that Kate is appalled at Erin becoming a casualty of his scheme .
Rhys forces Erin to miss a class and Barber revealed that Rhys feels no guilt about what he has done . He quipped " His plan is falling into place perfectly . You 'll see that Kate later tries to tell Erin what Rhys is up to . But the guy is a charmer and is able to make Erin believe that Kate is the one with the problem . " Rhys manages to convince Erin that Kate is a jealous ex @-@ girlfriend and that he does not want her place on the program . Rhys charms Erin " into his bed " , but he is put out when she calls time on their relationship to focus on her studies . Rhys later learns Erin has turned up late for surgery and during dinner together , he spills wine on Erin 's top . When she turns up at the hospital , she smells of alcohol . Rhys then implies to Karl that she has a drinking problem . Barber explained " Rhys just has to plant the seed of doubt , fake some concern for his colleague , and rumour and innuendo does the rest ... " Erin quits the program , giving Rhys the chance to successfully apply for her place .
= = = Vanessa Villante = = =
When Vanessa Villante ( Alin Sumarwata ) moves into Ramsay Street , she immediately catches Rhys ' eye . He later treats her when she is admitted to hospital with severe morning sickness . Rhys believes the father of her child , Lucas Fitzgerald ( Scott Major ) , is not " pulling his weight " and he starts looking out for her . Rhys helps Vanessa lift some heavy boxes and she offers to show him how to bake a cake to say thank you . A columinst for All About Soap observed " While Vanessa sees it as mates having fun , it 's clear Rhys has got it bad ! " Rhys later returns to spend more time with Vanessa , which unnerves Lucas . Herbison commented that Rhys may have met his match in Vanessa , while Barber said her feistiness appeals to him . He stated " He finds her attractive , and she takes the mickey out of him - that 's good for Rhys . He needs to be knocked off his pedestal ! Vanessa also exposes a rare vulnerability in Rhys , so there 's a risk he could get hurt and lash out in other ways . "
The actor further explained that Rhys is not put off by the fact she is carrying another man 's child , he is attracted to her because of her " fire and passion " . Barber added " She also doesn 't play games and she says what she thinks . Rhys loves that about Vanessa and sees her as someone he can trust , which is rare for him . " Vanessa and Rhys eventually give into their attraction for one another and share a kiss in Harold 's Store . Barber commented that his character enjoys making the first move , so he is the one who goes in for the kiss . The actor also thought it would be interesting to see his character in a relationship . TV Week 's Andrew Mercado observed that Rhys should prepare for a bumpy road ahead , with Vanessa living under the same roof as Lucas . Rhys and Vanessa take their relationship to the next level in a consultation room at Erinsborough Hospital . However , they are shocked when Karl walks in on them .
When Rhys is offered the chance to apply for a three @-@ month work placement in Japan , he decides to apply and then convince Vanessa to go with him . Barber revealed " He puts himself and his heart on the line like he 's never done before . At first , Vanessa says no - and he 's devastated . He 's in a really vulnerable place and he doesn 't take her knockback well . Rhys has been a bit of a ladies man all his life and he 's never really committed to someone before Vanessa . She 's a pretty special girl as far as Rhys is concerned . " Rhys becomes determined not to give up and he is " thrilled " when Vanessa changes her mind . Barber teased that it is possible viewers could see the last of Rhys and Vanessa for a while , adding " There are definitely interesting times ahead ! "
= = = Departure = = =
On 26 November 2012 , Erin Miller from TV Week announced that Barber would be leaving Neighbours , along with two other cast members . Executive producer Richard Jasek stated " All the characters departing will leave a legacy on Ramsay Street which is testament to the extraordinary talents of the actors playing them . Communities are constantly changing and Neighbours is reflective of this . " Miller believed Barber was keen to look for new projects elsewhere . The actor filmed his final scenes in December and it was later revealed that his character would be killed off . While attending Sonya Mitchell ( Eve Morey ) and Toadfish Rebecchi 's ( Ryan Moloney ) wedding reception , Rhys becomes trapped inside a collapsed marquee , following a gas explosion . He appears to be unharmed and Barber explained " Rhys survives and comes to and manages to free himself from the wreckage . He seems relatively okay and unscathed . " Rhys goes to the hospital as a precaution but , despite being told not to by Karl , discharges himself . Barber said that because Rhys is headstrong , he thinks he is fine , but then he collapses outside the hospital and dies . TV Week 's Thomas Mitchell commented that Rhys 's death is heartbreaking , especially as he was planning to reconcile with his father . Rhys made his last screen appearance on 20 March 2013 .
= = Storylines = =
Rhys meets with Jim Dolan for his first round of chemotherapy and assures him it is a simple procedure . He learns Karl and Susan Kennedy have been giving Jim advice about his treatment and he asks them to stop . A few days later , Jim informs Rhys that he wants to stop the chemotherapy . Rhys meets Kate Ramsay at the local bar and they have a one @-@ night stand . During his rounds , Rhys checks on Jim and stays with him as he dies . Affected by Jim 's death , Rhys goes to the gym looking for distraction and he befriends Kyle Canning ( Chris Milligan ) . Rhys flirts with Jade Mitchell ( Gemma Pranita ) , but she rebuffs his advances . Jade later asks for Rhys ' help in getting her housemate , Michelle Tran ( HaiHa Le ) , to move out . Nurse Danielle Paquette ( Georgia Bolton ) questions Karl and Rhys about a mistake on an unsigned prescription form and Rhys covers for Karl . He then asks Karl if he can join his golf game with Martin Chambers , the head of surgery . Kyle invites Rhys to move in with him and Jade and he accepts . Kyle defends Rhys when he flirts with Steve Barnes ' ( Nicholas Gunn ) girlfriend , but he refuses to listen when Rhys tells him to walk away . Steve punches Kyle , who becomes angry with Rhys for leaving him . Rhys apologises and hires a cleaner for the house to make it up to Kyle .
In a bid to impress Martin and his colleagues , Rhys purchases a barbecue and invites them over for dinner . He is granted an interview with the surgical board to join their training program at the hospital . Following a night out with Dane Canning ( Luke Pegler ) , Rhys gets a hangover and is horrified to learn his interview has been moved to an earlier time . Rhys struggles to answer the panel 's questions and he is not invited to join the program . He later visits his mother , Elaine , at her hospice , where he tells her he has joined the program . Rhys treats Chris Pappas ( James Mason ) after he is attacked , but fails to get him to stay for his X @-@ rays . Aidan Foster ( Bobby Morley ) spots that Chris has a broken rib , which is pressing on his lung and Rhys finds him collapsed on the floor of Fitzgerald Motors . Rhys performs an emergency decompression on his lung and saves his life . Rhys asks senior surgeon Jessica Girdwood ( Glenda Linscott ) to reconsider letting him join the surgical program , but she declines . Rhys tries unsuccessfully to get Robbie O 'Brien to quit the program and he turns his attentions to Erin Salisbury . He pretends to be romantically interested in her and tries to distract her from her studies .
Kate tells Erin about Rhys ' plan , but he convinces Erin that Kate is a jealous ex @-@ girlfriend who is lying . Erin believes him and they have dinner together . Rhys pours wine on her shirt sleeve and at the hospital , he implies to Karl that Erin has a drinking problem . She quits the surgical program and Rhys asks Jessica if he can take her place . Karl realises he has been used and Rhys takes him to visit Elaine , to try to make him understand what getting on the program means to him . Elaine reveals she has spinal degeneration and Karl remarks that Rhys cannot help her . Rhys explains that he wants to help the next person to develop the condition . Rhys sits an exam on the material he has missed and Jessica allows him join the surgical program . Rhys makes a bet with Kate that he can seduce Jade , but when he goes to kiss her , Jade rejects him . Rhys ' mother asks if she can visit him and Rhys tells her he is working over Easter . When they run into Jade and Kyle , Rhys does not introduce them to Elaine and she accuses him of being ashamed of her . Rhys then takes Elaine to meet Martin , who reveals he failed his surgical program interview . Elaine accuses him of lying to her and being like his father . Rhys denies this and Elaine tells him to fix things with the people he has hurt .
Rhys treats Susan when she has an MS relapse and he tries to make sure she is prepared in case her condition becomes worse . He later looks after Vanessa Villante ( Alin Sumarwata ) when she is brought in with severe morning sickness . Vanessa learns Rhys has been talking about her with his friends and she tells him to stay out of her business . Rhys later helps Vanessa carry some boxes and he spends the day baking a cake with her . He buys her a new mixer and Vanessa invites him to dinner . Rhys gives the cake to Elaine and when he tells her about Vanessa , she warns him to think about what he is doing before letting it go any further . Rhys thinks about cancelling on Vanessa , but he later arrives with dessert . Rhys asks Vanessa to bid on him at a charity bachelor auction , so he can raise more money than Karl . Vanessa wins and she chooses a couples massage for them to enjoy together . Rhys learns Susan has befriended Elaine and he angrily tells her to stay away from his mother . Vanessa witnesses the scene and becomes cold towards him . Rhys apologises to Susan and opens up to Vanessa about why he did it .
Rhys goes along to a cookery class that Vanessa is teaching and flirts with Tiffany Giles ( Shaye Hopkins ) to make Vanessa jealous . She invites him to dinner and he suffers an allergic reaction to the food . Vanessa and Rhys almost kiss , but are interrupted by Lucas . The following day , Rhys goes to Harold 's Store and kisses Vanessa . Rhys opens up to her about his father and they arrange a date . When Troy Miller ( Dieter Brummer ) is brought into the hospital , he tells Rhys that Jade attacked him . Rhys reports this to the police and when Jade finds out , she asks him to leave the house . Rhys applies for a three @-@ month study tour in Japan and asks Vanessa to come with him . Rhys ' mother later gives him a ring so that he can propose to Vanessa . Shortly before leaving for Japan , Rhys comes across a car accident involving the street 's teenagers . He rings the emergency services , before assessing their injures . Rhys cuts his hand on a piece of wreckage , which forces him to cancel the trip to Japan . He later learns that he has only a five per cent chance of making a full recovery . Following an EMG , Rhys learns that there has been no improvement to his hand . After altering the report to say that his nerves are healing , Rhys is invited to assist Jessica in surgery .
Vanessa learns that Rhys altered his test results and he begs her to keep his secret . Jessica later asks Rhys to retake the EMG and informs him that his nerves will never improve to the standard required for a surgeon . Realising Vanessa spoke to Jessica , Rhys breaks up with her . When Rhys learns that Vanessa is marrying Lucas , he urges her not to go through with it . Rhys attends the wedding and Vanessa struggles with her vows and leaves the church . Rhys then visits Vanessa and she berates him for ignoring her , before telling him she does not want his love . Both Elaine and Kate encourage Rhys to fight for Vanessa and he tries apologising to her . When Vanessa goes into labour , Rhys takes her to the hospital and stays by her side while her son is born . He tells her that he has never stopped loving her and when he proposes , Vanessa accepts . However , when Rhys discovers that her son , Patrick ( Lucas MacFarlane ) has ebstein 's anomaly , Vanessa calls off the engagement to focus her attention on him . Rhys sets up a fund raising webpage for Patrick and sells his car to kick start the donations . He decides not to tell Vanessa , but she learns from Lucas that it was him and she tries to return Rhys ' money .
Rhys gives his mother her ring back and she realises that he still loves Vanessa . Rhys receives a letter from his father , Eddie ( Ned Manning ) , but refuses to open it . Eddie calls the house , but Rhys is short with him . While Rhys is choosing whether to see his father or not , Elaine gives him all the letters he ever wrote to him and tells him to read them first . Rhys later decides to see his father . During Sonya and Toadie 's wedding reception , a gas bottle explodes destroying the marquee . Rhys is initially trapped inside , but he manages to pull himself out . He suffers some minor injuries and broken ribs . Elaine comes to see him at the hospital and she tells him that she supports his decision to see his father . Rhys discharges himself , against Karl 's wishes . He then collapses in the car park and dies from an undetected blood clot .
= = Reception = =
For his portrayal of Rhys , Barber was included on the long list for the 2012 Most Popular New Talent Logie Award . Writers for TV Week branded Rhys a " handsome doc " and a " selfish surgeon @-@ to @-@ be . " A writer for the Daily Record said Rhys was " deserving of a slap " for taking advantage of Karl 's mistake with a prescription . The writer also called Rhys a " chancer . " When Rhys tries to impress Martin , television critic Dianne Butler quipped " And I see John Wood 's in the show . He 's a golf @-@ playing doctor [ ... ] whose leg is being humped by Rhys Lawson tonight . Rhys puts on a barbecue to try to oil his way into a surgical @-@ training program , only there 's a rat under the plate when he lifts the lid to put on the snapper . Vintage Neighbours . " Larissa Dubecki of The Sydney Morning Herald thought Rhys was " dastardly " , while the Herald Sun 's Cameron Adams called him " creepy " for cyber stalking Erin . Adams later wrote " dodgy doctor " Rhys was threatening Paul Robinson 's ( Stefan Dennis ) status as the Erinsborough bad boy .
Laura Morgan of All About Soap said that Rhys sank " to an all @-@ time low " when he tried to sabotage Erin 's career and that he thoroughly deserved a slap from her . Morgan branded the character " ruthless Rhys " and stated that he was " a creep " and " a devious doc " . A columnist for TV Choice also thought the character was ruthless and sneaky . They added that Rhys played dirty when he spread rumours about Erin having a drink problem . But thought they had seen a " twinge of conscience " in him after Erin quit . In February 2012 , Channel 5 ran a poll asking viewers " Who 's Ramsay Street 's biggest Mr Nasty ? " out of Rhys and Paul Robinson . Rhys received 33 @.@ 51 % of the vote . A writer for the channel branded the characters the " show 's two resident villains . " Jason Herbison of Inside Soap commented " Since taking up his position at Erinsborough Hospital last year , Rhys has proven to be both a career @-@ driven doctor and a shameless womaniser ! " A Daily Record soap opera columnist observed that Rhys had gone " ga @-@ ga " for Vanessa . A Huddersfield Daily Examiner reporter decided that Rhys was just a " grumpy medic " .
= Cyclone Narelle =
Severe Tropical Cyclone Narelle was a Category 4 cyclone in early January 2013 that brought light rains to areas in South Australia suffering from a drought and heat wave . On 4 January , a tropical low developed within a monsoon trough over the Timor Sea . Over the following several days , the system gradually tracked westward and intensified , being classified Tropical Cyclone Narelle on 8 January . Turning southward into a region of low wind shear , Narelle intensified into a severe tropical cyclone on 9 January . Over the following two days , the cyclone 's structure fluctuated , temporarily featuring an eye , before it maintained its organisation and intensified further on 11 January . The storm attained its peak intensity later on 11 January as a Category 4 cyclone with winds of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) . The following day , Narelle passed approximately 330 km ( 205 mi ) northwest of Exmouth as it moved on a south @-@ southwesterly course . The system steadily weakened and ultimately fell below tropical cyclone strength on 15 January well to the west of Geraldton .
Early in the storm 's existence , Narelle brought strong winds , heavy rain , and high winds to many areas in Indonesia . More than 10 @,@ 000 homes were flooded and many others were damaged by thunderstorms . A total of 14 people were killed by the storm , and 17 others were listed as missing . In Western Australia , scattered strong thunderstorms caused minor damage and produced a possible tornado .
= = Meteorological history = =
On 4 January , a weak area of low pressure developed within a monsoon trough near Timor . The following day , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) began monitoring the system for possible development into a tropical cyclone . Traveling westward , the system was forecast to intensify as it moved into an area highly favouring tropical cyclogenesis with very warm waters ( with sea surface temperatures of 30 to 31 ° C ( 86 to 88 ° F ) ) and low wind shear . Additionally , a nearby anticyclone provided good outflow for the system . Over the following two days , deep convection gradually built around the low and on 7 January , the Tropical Cyclone Warning Centre ( TCWC ) in Darwin designated the system as Tropical Low 05U , at which time the storm was situated roughly 135 km ( 85 mi ) south @-@ southeast of Sumba , Indonesia . By this time , the system was tracking west @-@ southwestward around a subtropical ridge , which would dictate the track of the storm for the remainder of its existence . Later on 7 January , the JTWC issued a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert for the system , indicating that further development of the low into a significant tropical cyclone was anticipated . Just seven hours after this , the JTWC classified the system as a tropical storm and began issuing advisories .
Through the morning of 8 January , weak wind shear hindered development of the system . After enough convection wrapped around the centre of circulation , the Australian Bureau of Meteorology classified the low as Tropical Cyclone Narelle , the second named storm in the western region during the 2012 – 13 season . Shortly thereafter , intensification quickened as a central dense overcast formed and prominent banding features consolidated . Following the development of an eye early on 9 January , the Bureau of Meteorology upgraded Narelle to a severe tropical cyclone , with winds estimated at 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) . Over the following day , Narelle 's intensity leveled out as it encountered moderate wind shear . Once the shear relaxed , the system resumed strengthening . With conditions more favourable , Narelle redeveloped an eye and its outflow improved . Late on 11 January , Narelle is estimated to have attained its peak intensity with winds of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) and a barometric pressure of 930 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 46 inHg ) . Operationally , the storm was believed to have been slightly stronger , peaking as a Category 5 cyclone on the Australian scale . It was not until a post @-@ storm assessment that the Bureau of Meteorology found Narelle to have been a weaker system at its peak . At the same time , the JTWC assessed the storm to have attained one @-@ minute sustained winds of 215 km / h ( 130 mph ) , ranking it as a Category 4 @-@ equivalent cyclone on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane scale .
Hours after Narelle reached peak intensity , increasing wind shear caused the storm 's eyewall to erode and the outflow to become somewhat restricted . By the afternoon of 12 January , the storm 's structure had significantly degraded , with the eye no longer apparent and a marked decrease in cold cloud tops . Later that day , the cyclone made its closest approach to Western Australia , passing approximately 330 km ( 205 mi ) northwest of Exmouth . Despite shear eventually lightening up , the storm 's southerly course brought it over cooler waters , preventing restrengthening . Most of the deep convection shifted to the western side of Narelle 's circulation , though its centre remained well defined . By the evening of 13 January , the storm had weakened below severe tropical cyclone strength . Rapid weakening ensued on 14 January , as the effects of cooler waters and dry air caused the deep convection to dissociate into an area of shallow stratocumulus clouds . Narelle failed to redevelop deep convection and weakened below tropical cyclone status early on 15 January , prompting the Bureau of Meteorology to issue its final bulletin on the cyclone . The system was last observed about 500 km ( 310 mi ) west of Geraldton , where it continued southward away from Australia .
= = Preparations and impact = =
= = = Indonesia = = =
On 9 January , the MV Emeline cargo vessel sank off the coast of Selayar Islands . Of the 17 crewmen , 6 were rescued and 11 others remained missing as of 16 January . Another vessel , the MV Angle , became stranded near West Lombok Regency . By 10 January , Narelle brought strong winds , heavy rains , and rough seas to the province of Bali in Indonesia . Residents and tourists were warned of waves up to 5 m ( 16 ft ) . Ferry service between Bali , West Nusa Tenggara , and Java was suspended , isolating residents in Nusa Penida , Nusa Lembongan , and Nusa Ceningan . Winds from the storm downed many trees and caused severe damage to structures across Bali , especially in the capital city of Denpasar . In Selemadeg Village , one person died after a tree fell on her . Trees and billboards were downed across Jakarta , and three homes were damaged . Flooding in the region closed several roads , leading to traffic delays more than 6 km ( 3 @.@ 7 mi ) long . In Banten , heavy rains caused four major rivers in the province to overflow their banks , leading to flooding in 33 districts . A total of 10 @,@ 470 homes across the province were inundated , and four people were killed . In all , 14 people were killed and 6 others were listed as missing .
= = = Western Australia = = =
After Narelle moved into TCWC Perth 's area of responsibility on 9 January , a cyclone watch was issued for areas between Whim Creek and Coral Bay . A blue alert , the Department of Fire and Emergency Services ( DFES ) lowest level of readiness , was also issued for areas between Mardie and Whim Creek . The following day , the watch was upgraded to a cyclone warning for all areas and a new watch was issued to the west , encompassing areas as far as Cape Cuvier . The watch was further extended early on 11 January to include areas between Cape Cuvier and Carnarvon . As the storm continued on a more westward path than initially anticipated , the warning area was gradually decreased , with areas east of Roebourne receiving the all clear later on 11 January . The watch area , however , continued to expand and encompassed areas as far east as Denham . As the storm made its closet approach to Western Australia on 13 January , the watches and warnings area were gradually discontinued , with all advisories being discontinued that afternoon .
By 11 January , the Apache Corporation began evacuating all non @-@ essential personnel from oil rigs in the path of the storm . The Rio Tinto Group shut down iron exports at its Dampier and Cape Lambert ports due to rough seas . Across the Pilbara region , the State Emergency Service advised residents to secure loose objects and ensure their emergency kits were stocked . Incident management teams were also established to help people in the wake of the storm . Additionally , urban search and rescue equipment was set up in Karratha . Horizon Power dispatched additional linemen to the most at @-@ risk areas in Narelle 's path to speed up power restoration in the wake of the storm . In Carnarvon , mango producers picked as much of their fruit as possible before the storm arrived in order to minimize losses .
Along the coast of Western Australia , between Onslow and Busselton , minor storm tides were reported , with a peak rise of 1 @.@ 1 m ( 3 @.@ 6 ft ) in Onslow . This caused flooding in low @-@ lying areas , though no damage was reported in relation to it . In North West Australia , especially around Exmouth , the storm brought gusty winds that downed a few trees and produced as much as 76 mm ( 3 in ) of rain . Between 15 and 16 January , the remnants of the storm brought widespread moisture to southern areas of Western Australia , especially the wheatbelt region , leading to scattered showers and thunderstorms . A total of 39 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) of rain fell in Ravensthorpe , with 22 mm ( 0 @.@ 87 in ) falling in a ten @-@ minute span . A strong storm in Karlgarin produced winds up to 90 km / h ( 56 mph ) that tore the roofs off eight buildings . Losses in the town exceeded A $ 70 @,@ 000 ( US $ 74 @,@ 000 ) . Winds in Lake Grace gusted up to 87 km / h ( 54 mph ) . According to Horizon Power , there was no loss of electricity across Western Australia . A potential tornado touched down near Capel , downing trees along a 400 m ( 1 @,@ 300 ft ) wide swath . In Perth , the storm brought unusually warm , moist air , keeping temperatures from dropping below 27 @.@ 3 ° C ( 81 @.@ 1 ° F ) , making it the warmest January night in 24 years .
= = = Elsewhere = = =
While still off the coast of Western Australia , moisture from Narelle brought scattered rains to South Australia . The heaviest totals were measured in Lameroo at 12 @.@ 8 mm ( 0 @.@ 50 in ) . In many areas , this ended a 28 day dry spell and brought relief amid a severe heat wave . Grape growers in Adelaide Hills also benefited from the rain and cooler temperatures . On 18 January , a French sailor had to abandon his yacht off the coast of Tasmania after its mast broke due to rough weather caused by the remnants of Narelle .
= Rjukan Line =
The Rjukan Line ( Norwegian : Rjukanbanen ) , at first called the Vestfjorddal Line , was a 16 @-@ kilometre ( 10 mi ) Norwegian railway line running through Vestfjorddalen between Mæl and Rjukan in Telemark . The railway 's main purpose was to transport chemicals from Norsk Hydro 's plant at Rjukan to the port at Skien , in addition to passenger transport . At Mæl the wagons
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were shipped 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) on the Tinnsjø railway ferry to Tinnoset where they connected to the Tinnos Line . The Rjukan Line and the ferries were operated by Norsk Transport , a subsidiary of Norsk Hydro .
Construction of the line started in 1907 , and it opened two years later . It became the second Norwegian railway to be electrified in 1911 . It experienced heavy growth , and had fifteen electric locomotives in use . During World War II it was the scene of the Norwegian heavy water sabotage . After the 1960s production declined , and the railway was closed in 1991 . It was kept as a heritage railway .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
The Telemark power @-@ based industry started in 1902 when Sam Eyde , along with Norwegian and Swedish investors , bought Rjukan Falls — establishing A / S Rjukanfos on 30 April 1903 . The same year , on 13 February , Eyde and Kristian Birkeland had met and started working on refining the electric arc to produce an electric flame ; allowing Eyde to complete his process of converting air and electricity into fertilizer . On 19 December 1903 Det Norske Kvælstofkompagni was founded , followed by Det Norske Aktieselskap for Eletrokemisk Industri ( today Elkem ) in 1904 ; both were in part owned by the Wallenberg family , Stockholms Enskilda Bank and Banque de Paris et des Pays @-@ Bas .
The test plant in Notodden started operation on 2 May 1905 as the first in the world to produce synthetic potassium nitrate . On 2 December 1905 Norsk Hydro @-@ Elektrisk Kvælstofaktieselskab ( now Norsk Hydro ) was founded , and plans to start a new plant in Rjukan were initialized ; moving closer to the source of power would improve efficiency and not make it possible for the newly independent Government of Norway to hinder construction of hydroelectric power by foreign investors — a major political issue at the time . Rjukanfos applied for permission to build a power line from Rjukan to Notodden , but on 18 June 1907 the Norwegian Parliament did not accept the application , despite an offer from Eyde that the state would receive escheat after eighty years , in part because the state would have to guarantee NOK 18 million for the project .
In the mean time the issue of a pure industrial versus a general purpose railway line had stirred local protests , since Norsk Hydro had indicated they were not interested in building a railway to serve the general public . At the time it was common that lines built primarily for single @-@ company freight transport would involve the subsidized operation of passenger and general cargo trains , at the expense of the railway owner . Heavy local protests were transmitted to parliament in 1906 , but by the next year an agreement was made for the construction of a general purpose line . On 13 April 1907 Norsk Hydro and the German group Badische Anilin- und Soda @-@ Fabrik ( today BASF ) made an agreement for the creation of the factory at Rjukan , Rjukan Salpeterfabrik , and at the same time created Norsk Transportaktieselskap — both companies were owned as 50 / 50 joint ventures . Norsk Transport received a concession to build — with necessary expropriations and operate a railway for thirty years on 17 July 1907 . The companies had a stock equity of NOK 34 million .
= = = Construction = = =
By the time the concession was given construction of the railway had already started . At the most 2 @,@ 000 workers were involved in the construction of the plant , Rjukanbanen and the Tinnos Line . This was in addition to the Svelgfoss Power Station and a new potassium nitrate factory in Notodden . During the construction one worker lost his life in a landslide , while two survived the accident . Housing was provided in simple barracks , and few laborers came with family . Prostitution and the sale of illegal liquor during the prohibition flourished ; the lack of proper law enforcement making Vestfjorddalen known as a lawless valley .
Rjukanbanen was built with a maximum gradient of 1 @.@ 5 % . In addition to the line to the plant , a branch line went to the hydroelectric power station at Vemork ; completed in 1908 it would only be used for service technicians to the power station and had a gradient of 5 @.@ 7 % . Construction in Vestfjorddalen was led by Sigurd Kloumann .
During May 1908 the workers were not being paid regularly enough , and took to a strike on 6 June ; 2 @,@ 120 men were at the most in strike . As a consequence Norsk Hydro became a member of Confederation of Norwegian Enterprise ( NAF ) . Negotiations were conducted in August , but failed — not until Minister of Labour Nils Claus Ihlen meddled and Sam Eyde pulled Norsk Hydro out of NAF and reduced his demands did the strike end , on 6 October .
Laying of the tracks started during the fall of 1908 , and on 18 February 1909 the first train from Notodden to Vestfjorddalen ran . The official opening of the line from Notodden to Rjukan occurred on 9 August , performed by King Haakon VII — despite the mayor of Tinn referring to the monarch as " the Swidish King Oscar II " .
The line was initially operated by steam locomotives , however the cost of steam power was large ; and on 7 June 1910 a contract with Allgemeine Elektricitäts @-@ Gesellschaft ( today AEG ) of Berlin was signed to provide overhead wires and five electric locomotives . The Rjukan Line became the second electrified railway in Norway , after the Thamshavn Line , and the first that would be connected to the main railway network . The first electric locomotive was taken into operation on 30 November 1911 . Because only some of the locomotives were delivered , steam locomotive had to help with the service . Because of insufficient safety routines there were several fatalities among employees , and not until 1922 was sufficient policy initiated .
= = = Ships = = =
In 1907 the first ferry , an unmotorized barge named Tinnsjø was completed ; the steam ship Skarsfos was used to haul it between the two railways . The first self @-@ propelled ferry was SF Rjukanfos , a 338 gross tonne ferry launched in 1909 . She got a major overhaul in 1915 after the sister ship SF Hydro at 494 gross tonnes was launched the same year . The third steamship was SF Ammonia at 929 gross tonnes . Lake Tinn freezes in winter , and all the ships had to be built as icebreakers . The ferries transported the wagons and passengers 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) across Lake Tinn ; until 1936 Norsk Transport had to compete with a passenger steamship service , but after their closing the railway ferries were responsible for all passenger traffic on the lake , which also helped boost passenger traffic on the trains .
= = = The first years = = =
The first potassium nitrate was transported on 8 December 1911 , and two years later the plants were making a profit . Transported cargo increased from 110 @,@ 000 tonnes per year to 250 @,@ 000 tonnes in 1915 , after the plant had been expanded , and up to 345 @,@ 000 tonnes in 1917 . The small hamlet of Rjukan had turned into a town , and in 1920 there were 11 @,@ 651 people in Tinn . The 1920 were a tough time , and cargo decreased , but in 1929 the electric arc technology was replaced by the ammonia method , with the main product being potassium nitrate . During the 1930s other products came into production , including hydrogen and other gases , and from 1934 as the first plant in the world mass @-@ produced heavy water .
Passenger transport was of two types ; trains that corresponded with the ferries and connected with trains at Tinnoset , and commuter trains transporting workers to the plants at Rjukan . The commuter trains were initiated in 1913 , and Norsk Hydro started building housing at Ingolfsland and Tveito , and both Ingolfsland and Miland got their own stops , and from 1919 stations . The two kilometers ( one mile ) commuter train from Rjukan to Ingofsland took five minutes ; a month pass cost NOK 2 @.@ 50 for employees and their families . There were seventeen departures in each direction per week , timed to fit with the working times at the plant . This increased to 58 in 1916 , when a new stop at Tveito was opened .
The passenger transport to Mæl was performed by connecting passenger wagons to the freight trains . Up to ten trains were operated each direction each day , and up to five would correspond with the ferry ; at Tinnoset trains would operate to Skien , and connection at Hjuksebø allowed for transport to Oslo Vestbanestasjon . In 1928 Norsk Transport and NSB agreed to operate a weekly night train service from Rjukan to Oslo ; the service lasted until 1933 . During the 1930s NSB and Norsk Hydro initiated an attempt to attract tourists to Rjukan , through discounted direct trains from Oslo , Drammen and Skien . They were taken up again after the war , and remained until 1969 .
= = = World War II = = =
The German occupation of Norway ( 1940 – 1945 ) during World War II made Rjukanbanen the area for a massive struggle in between the Norwegian resistance movement and the Third Reich . In February 1940 , before the occupation , the entire Vestfjorddalen and the docks closed for foreigners . On 4 May 1940 German troops reached Rjukan , a month after the invasion of Norway had started . The ferries were camouflaged and by January 1941 lack of coal resulted in the steamships being fired by wood .
One of the by @-@ products at Rjukan was the production of heavy water — a key component in nuclear weapons , and necessary for the Germany designs as a moderator . The hydrogen plant at Vemork was the first mass producer of heavy water , and in 1939 IG Farben , who owned 25 % of Norsk Hydro at the time , asked to import five liters of heavy water , but was denied due to lack of an export license . In 1939 – 40 production at Vemork was 20 kilograms , by 1942 production had increased to five kilograms per day .
The first attempt from the resistance was Operation Grouse in October 1942 , but failed and caught by the Germans ; as a consequence passenger transport after 7 April 1942 from Ingolfsland Station to Rjukan was only permitted for soldiers , police , workers at the plant and schoolchildren . All filled ammonia wagons were stored indoors in a tunnel with heavy guarding . On 16 November 1943 the United States Air Force bombed the hydrogen plant ; the attack killed 21 civilians but failed to touch the plant itself , located underneath seven stories of reinforced concrete . The secondary targets of the attack were the station at Rjukan , the industrial tracks and the track to Vemork . The attack caused great damage to the railway with locomotives No.7 and 8 , eight cargo wagons and seven passenger wagons suffering damage . Total costs for the bombings were NOK 245 @,@ 611 , most of it related to rolling stock .
The Germans decided to cancel production of heavy water at Rjukan , and move the remains of the potassium hydroxide — from which the heavy water was distilled — was to be transported to Germany . The resistance movement was aware of this plan , and considered blowing up the train at various places , but instead chose to target the ferry SF Hydro . The night before the shipment went the saboteurs entered the ship and placed a bomb in the hull , timed so the ferry would blow at the deepest point of the lake , but at the same time close to land to help save the civilians on board . The attack was successful , the ship sank to 430 metres ( 1 @,@ 410 ft ) depth with 47 people on board , including eight German soldiers , a crew of seven and the cargo of heavy water . 29 people survived .
= = = Climax = = =
After the end of the war Norsk Hydro had a strong liquidity , while the Green Revolution and increased industrialization of agriculture in Europe boomed the demand for the products ; from 1945 to 1955 production increased eightfold . The increased transport was a heavy burden on the two steamships , and in 1953 Norsk Transport ordered MF Storegut , a diesel powered ship of 1119 gross tonnes . She was launched on 25 May 1956 , and the two older ferries were put to reserve duty in the meantime . A number of upgrades were made to the line , and the two locomotives 9 and 10 were bought in 1958 . This was followed by the three diesel locomotives 20 , 21 and 22 from Henschel . In 1966 two NSB El 1 locomotives were bought , and the voltage on the line increased from 10 to 15 kV .
In 1957 five round trips had to be made each day , while the trains made nine round trips from Rjukan to Mæl . Rjukan station handled 100 wagons , with 800 tonnes potassium nitrate and 400 tonnes ammonia ; by 1962 723 @,@ 482 tonnes were transported on Rjukanbanen , 14 % of the transported amount of NSB ( excluding the ore trains on Ofotbanen ) . In total 30 million tonnes on 1 @,@ 5 million carloads were transported from 1911 to 1991 .
= = = Decline = = =
Norsk Hydro announced in 1963 a savings plan for its four plants in Norway ; Chief Executive Officer Rolf Østbye made it clear that new technology in the production of ammonia would force the closure of the plant at Rjukan , and replace it with a petroleum @-@ based process at Herøya . The Rjukan situation , as it was named in the press , became a source of conflict between the local community and Norsk Hydro ; initially 250 jobs were to be moved to Herøya , but in 1964 Norsk Hydro applied for permission to build a power line from Rjukan to Herøya — what would become the death sentence for the Rjukan Line . Permission for the construction of the power line was granted in 1968 . Production of fertilizer was moved to Herøya and Glomfjord , and Rjukan transferred to production of kalkammonsalpeter in 1963 and ammonium nitrate in 1964 .
During the 1960s a series of cost reductions were introduced on the line , after major reorganizations between 1965 and 1970 ; the last commuter train for the workers to the plants went on 25 May 1968 , while on 31 May 1970 the last passenger train in connection with the ferries went on Rjukanbanen , being replaced with bus . In 1972 Norsk Transport applied to terminate passenger transport with the railway ferry , since they were operating trips with only passengers and no cargo . The application was declined by the Norwegian Ministry of Transport and Communications , but in 1978 they permitted that the Saturday afternoon and Sunday departures be terminated — these were not used to transport freight trains . By the mid eighties passenger numbers had fallen dramatically , and in 1985 the department gave in and permitted the termination of passenger services with Storegut and Ammonia .
The plan had been producing a deficit since 1982 . Norsk Hydro made an agreement with the authorities where they would create 350 new permanent jobs , create a business fund and donate NOK 60 million for the construction of a new road , Route 37 along Lake Tinn . In 1988 Norsk Hydro terminated the ammonia production , and in 1991 they also closed down the production ammonium nitrate and potassium nitrate , along with the Rjukan Line . Within a few years the number of Norsk Hydro employees in Rjukan had been reduced from 1 @,@ 760 to 530 people ; 24 of these were employed by Norsk Transport operating the railway and railway ferries . All the employees were either retired or moved to other areas of Norsk Hydro 's enterprise .
The last train ran on 4 July 1991 , four days after the plant closed . Without production at the plants there was no need for the railway ; it would be more economical to transport the few last products by truck . The final hauled several wagons down to the coast for scrapping . The closing of the Rjukan Line also terminated operations on the Tinnos Line , where passenger traffic had remained until 1991 .
= = Rolling stock = =
= = Reuse as a heritage line = =
After the closing in 1991 the foundation Stiftelsen Rjukanbanen was established to ensure that the railway remained in an operational condition , and kept the two railway ferries and some of the rolling stock in operational condition . Norsk Transport retained for a period maintenance of the Rjukan Line , while the Tinnos Line remained part of the rail network maintained by the Norwegian National Rail Administration . The foundation operated ad @-@ hoc charter services on both the Tinnos Line and the Rjukan Line , as well as with both railway ferries . By 2004 the foundation had run out of money , and closed down .
In 2006 the Norwegian Directorate for Cultural Heritage announced they would be working to preserve the railways and ferries , and in 2008 it became clear that the directorate was working with an application for the Rjukan Line , the Tinnos Line and the ferries to be included in a UNESCO World Heritage Site along with the closed plants in Rjukan and Odda .
= Tomorrow Never Knows =
" Tomorrow Never Knows " is the final track of the Beatles ' 1966 studio album Revolver but the first to be recorded . Credited as a Lennon – McCartney song , it was written primarily by John Lennon .
The song has a vocal put through a Leslie speaker cabinet ( which was normally used as a loudspeaker for a Hammond organ ) . Tape loops prepared by the Beatles were mixed in and out of the Indian @-@ inspired modal backing underpinned by Ringo Starr 's constant but non @-@ standard drum pattern .
It is considered one of the greatest songs of its time , with Pitchfork Media placing it at number 19 on its list of " The 200 Greatest Songs of the 1960s " and Rolling Stone Magazine placing it at number 18 on its list of the 100 greatest Beatles songs .
= = Inspiration = =
John Lennon wrote the song in January 1966 , with lyrics adapted from the book The Psychedelic Experience : A Manual Based on the Tibetan Book of the Dead by Timothy Leary , Richard Alpert , and Ralph Metzner , which was in turn adapted from the Tibetan Book of the Dead . Although Peter Brown believed that Lennon 's source for the lyrics was the Tibetan Book of the Dead itself , which , he said , Lennon had read whilst consuming LSD , George Harrison later stated that the idea for the lyrics came from Leary , Alpert , and Metzner 's book ; Paul McCartney confirmed this , stating that when he and Lennon visited the newly opened Indica bookshop , Lennon had been looking for a copy of The Portable Nietzsche and found a copy of The Psychedelic Experience that contained the lines : " Whenever in doubt , turn off your mind , relax , float downstream " .
Lennon bought the book , went home , took LSD , and followed the instructions exactly as stated in the book . The book held that the " ego death " experienced under the influence of LSD and other psychedelic drugs is essentially similar to the dying process and requires similar guidance . This is a state of being known by eastern mystics and masters as samādhi ( a state of being totally aware of the present moment ; a one @-@ pointedness of mind . ) .
= = Title = =
The title never actually appears in the song 's lyrics . In an interview Lennon revealed that , like " A Hard Day 's Night " , it was taken from one of Ringo Starr 's malapropisms . The piece was originally titled " Mark I " . " The Void " is cited as another working title but according to Mark Lewisohn ( and Bob Spitz ) this is untrue , although the books The Love You Make : An Insider 's Story of the Beatles and The Beatles A to Z both cite " The Void " as the original title .
When the Beatles returned to London after their first visit to America in early 1964 they were interviewed by David Coleman of BBC Television . The interview included the following exchange :
Interviewer : " Now , Ringo , I hear you were manhandled at the Embassy Ball . Is this right ? "
Ringo : " Not really . Someone just cut a bit of my hair , you see . "
Interviewer : " Let 's have a look . You seem to have got plenty left . "
Ringo : ( turns head ) " Can you see the difference ? It 's longer , this side . "
Interviewer : " What happened exactly ? "
Ringo : " I don 't know . I was just talking , having an interview ( exaggerated voice ) . Just like I am NOW ! "
( John and Paul begin lifting locks of his hair , pretending to cut it )
Ringo : " I was talking away and I looked ' round , and there was about 400 people just smiling . So , you know – what can you say ? "
John : " What can you say ? "
Ringo : " Tomorrow never knows . "
( John laughs )
= = Musical structure = =
McCartney remembered that even though the song 's harmony was mainly restricted to the chord of C , Martin accepted it as it was and said it was " rather interesting " . The song 's harmonic structure is derived from Indian music and is based upon a high volume C drone played by Harrison on a tamboura . The " chord " over the drone is generally C major , but some changes to B flat major result from vocal modulations , as well as orchestral and guitar tape loops . The song has been called the first pop song that attempted to dispense with chord changes altogether . Here , the Beatles ' harmonic ingenuity is nonetheless displayed in the upper harmonies – " Turn off your mind " , for example , is suitably a run of unvarying E melody notes , before " relax " involves an E @-@ G melody note shift and " float downstream " an E @-@ C @-@ G descent . " It is not dying " involves a run of three G melody notes that rise on " dying " to a B ♭ , creating a ♭ VII / I ( B ♭ / C ) ' slash ' polychord . This is a prominent device in Beatles songs such as " All My Loving " , " Help ! " , " A Hard Day 's Night " , " Norwegian Wood ( This Bird Has Flown ) " , " Hey Jude " , " Dear Prudence " , " Revolution " and " Get Back " .
= = Recording = =
Lennon first played the song to Brian Epstein , George Martin and the other Beatles at Epstein 's house at 24 Chapel Street , Belgravia .
The 19 @-@ year @-@ old Geoff Emerick was promoted to replace Norman Smith as engineer on the first session for the Revolver album . This started at 8 pm on 6 April 1966 , in Studio Three at Abbey Road . Lennon told producer Martin that he wanted to sound like a hundred chanting Tibetan monks , which left Martin the difficult task of trying to find the effect by using the basic equipment they had . The effect was achieved by using a Leslie speaker . When the concept was explained to Lennon , he inquired if the same effect could be achieved by hanging him upside down and spinning him around a microphone while he sang into it . Emerick made a connector to break into the electronic circuitry of the cabinet and then re @-@ recorded the vocal as it came out of the revolving speaker .
As Lennon hated doing a second take to double his vocals , Ken Townsend , the studio 's technical manager , developed an alternative form of double @-@ tracking called artificial double tracking ( ADT ) system , taking the signal from the sync head of one tape machine and delaying it slightly through a second tape machine . The two tape machines used were not driven by mains electricity , but from a separate generator which put out a particular frequency , the same for both , thereby keeping them locked together . By altering the speed and frequencies , he could create various effects , which the Beatles used throughout the recording of Revolver . Lennon 's vocal is double @-@ tracked on the first three verses of the song : the effect of the Leslie cabinet can be heard after the ( backwards ) guitar solo .
The track included the highly compressed drums that the Beatles currently favoured , with reverse cymbals , reverse guitar , processed vocals , looped tape effects , a sitar and a tambura drone . The use of these ¼ -inch audio tape loops resulted primarily from McCartney 's admiration for Stockhausen 's Gesang der Jünglinge . By disabling the erase head of a tape recorder and then spooling a continuous loop of tape through the machine while recording , the tape would constantly overdub itself , creating a saturation effect , a technique also used in musique concrète . The tape could also be induced to go faster and slower . McCartney encouraged the other Beatles to use the same effects and create their own loops . After experimentation on their own , the various Beatles supplied a total of " 30 or so " tape loops to Martin , who selected 16 for use on the song . Each loop was about six seconds long .
The tape loops were played on BTR3 tape machines located in various studios of the Abbey Road building and controlled by EMI technicians in Studio Two at Abbey Road on 7 April . Each machine was monitored by one technician , who had to hold a pencil within each loop to maintain tension . The four Beatles controlled the faders of the mixing console while Martin varied the stereo panning and Emerick watched the meters . Eight of the tapes were used at one time , changed halfway through the song . The tapes were made ( like most of the other loops ) by superimposition and acceleration . According to Martin , the finished mix of the tape loops could not be repeated because of the complex and random way in which they were laid over the music .
Five tape loops are audible in the finished version of the song . Isolating the loops reveals that they contained :
A " laughing " voice , played at double @-@ speed ( the " seagull " sound )
An orchestral chord of B flat major ( from a Sibelius symphony ) ( 0 : 19 )
A fast electric guitar phrase in C major , reversed and played at double @-@ speed ( 0 : 22 )
Another guitar phrase with heavy tape echo , with a B flat chord provided either by guitar , organ or possibly a Mellotron Mk II ( 0 : 38 )
A sitar @-@ like descending scalar phrase played on an electric guitar , reversed and played at double @-@ speed ( 0 : 56 )
The Beatles further experimented with tape loops in " Carnival of Light " , an as @-@ yet @-@ unreleased piece recorded during the Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band sessions , and in " Revolution 9 " , released on The Beatles . Also , on the same album , is Blackbird , where the tweeting birds are actually tape loops .
The opening chord fades in gradually on the stereo version while the mono version features a more sudden fade @-@ in . The mono and stereo versions also have the tape @-@ loop track faded in at slightly different times and different volumes ( in general , the loops are louder on the mono mix ) . On the stereo version a little feedback comes in after the guitar solo , exactly halfway through the song , but is edited out of the mono mix .
Lennon was later quoted as saying that " I should have tried to get my original idea , the monks singing . I realise now that 's what I wanted . " Take one of the recording was released on the Anthology 2 album .
= = Interpretation = =
Harrison questioned whether Lennon fully understood the meaning of the song 's lyrics :
You can hear ( and I am sure most Beatles fans have ) " Tomorrow Never Knows " a lot and not know really what it is about . Basically it is saying what meditation is all about . The goal of meditation is to go beyond ( that is , transcend ) waking , sleeping and dreaming . So the song starts out by saying , " Turn off your mind , relax and float downstream , it is not dying . "
Then it says , " Lay down all thoughts , surrender to the void – it is shining . That you may see the meaning of within – it is being . " From birth to death all we ever do is think : we have one thought , we have another thought , another thought , another thought . Even when you are asleep you are having dreams , so there is never a time from birth to death when the mind isn 't always active with thoughts . But you can turn off your mind , and go to the part which Maharishi described as : " Where was your last thought before you thought it ? "
The whole point is that we are the song . The self is coming from a state of pure awareness , from the state of being . All the rest that comes about in the outward manifestation of the physical world ( including all the fluctuations which end up as thoughts and actions ) is just clutter . The true nature of each soul is pure consciousness . So the song is really about transcending and about the quality of the transcendent .
I am not too sure if John actually fully understood what he was saying . He knew he was onto something when he saw those words and turned them into a song . But to have experienced what the lyrics in that song are actually about ? I don 't know if he fully understood it .
= = Personnel = =
John Lennon – double @-@ tracked vocal , Hammond organ and tape loops
Paul McCartney – bass , backwards guitar solo and tape loops
George Harrison – sitar , tamboura , and tape loops
Ringo Starr – drums , tambourine and tape loops
George Martin – piano , producer
Geoff Emerick – engineer
Personnel per Ian MacDonald
= = Love remix = =
In 2006 , Martin and his son , Giles Martin , remixed 80 minutes of Beatles music for the Las Vegas stage performance Love , a joint venture between Cirque du Soleil and the Beatles ' Apple Corps Ltd . On the Love album , the rhythm to " Tomorrow Never Knows " was mixed with the vocals and melody from " Within You Without You " , creating a different version of the two songs . The soundtrack album from the show was released in 2006 . The Love remix is one of the main songs in The Beatles : Rock Band .
= = In popular culture = =
= = = In music = = =
DJ Spooky said of the track in 2011 :
" Tomorrow Never Knows " is one of those songs that 's in the DNA of so much going on these days that it 's hard to know where to start . Its tape collage alone makes it one of the first tracks to use sampling really successfully . I also think that Brian Eno 's idea of the studio @-@ as @-@ instrument comes from this kind of recording .
= = = = Cover versions = = = =
The song has been covered by numerous musicians :
A 1968 cover by Jimi Hendrix is included on the 1980 posthumous bootleg Woke Up This Morning and Found Myself Dead .
The Pink Fairies played extended versions of the song at many 1970s pop festivals .
On 3 September 1976 a live , full @-@ scale rearrangement was recorded by the band 801 , with personnel including Phil Manzanera and Brian Eno .
Phil Collins covered the song , as a tribute to the recent death of John Lennon , on his 1981 album Face Value , ending with an a cappella snippet of " Over the Rainbow " .
Monsoon covered it on a 1982 single , included on their album Third Eye .
The Mission recorded their version in 1986 for the " Severina " single . It was later included on the singles compilation The First Chapter .
The Chameleons also recorded a version , included as a bonus track on their 1986 album Strange Times .
Danielle Dax covered the song on her 1990 album Blast The Human Flower .
Jad Fair and Daniel Johnston covered the song on their 1989 album It 's Spooky , adding a twist to the lyrics after the final verse when Johnston enters shouting :
" No ! No ! Ladies and gentlemen , do not surrender to the void ! The darkness surrounds you – don 't relax ! You 'll never get out of that pit ! No ! No ! It isn 't love – the demons will enter ! No ! No ! No ! "
Listed in setlists as " TNK " , The Grateful Dead performed the song 12 times in the 1990s , always segueing out of The Who 's " Baba O 'Riley " . Subsequently , former Grateful Dead members Phil Lesh , Bob Weir , and Vince Welnick have played the song in their post @-@ Dead projects .
Michael Hedges covered the song on his 1996 album Oracle .
Cowboy Mouth covered the song as the opening track of their 2003 album Uh @-@ Oh .
Funk metal band Living Colour covered the song on their 2003 album Collideøscope .
Psychedelic rock band Violeta de Outono covered the song on their 1987 eponymous debut .
Reggae group The Wailing Souls included a version on their 1998 all @-@ cover album Psychedelic Souls .
Portland band Helio Sequence covered the song on their 2000 album Com Plex .
David Lee Roth covered the song on his 2003 album Diamond Dave , listed in the track list as " That Beatles Tune " .
Parody band Beatallica recorded a mashup of " Tomorrow Never Knows " and Metallica 's " The Day That Never Comes " entitled " Tomorrow Never Comes " , on their 2009 album Masterful Mystery Tour .
Herbie Hancock recorded a cover of " Tomorrow Never Knows " for his 2010 album The Imagine Project featuring Dave Matthews on vocals . Also , Matthews often performs an excerpt of " Tomorrow Never Knows " during live versions of his band 's song " Minarets " .
The Luka State recorded a cover as a b @-@ side to the single " The Believer " taken from their debut mini album The Price of Education .
Yogi recorded a cover of the song on his 2003 album Salve
Our Lady Peace recorded a cover of " Tomorrow Never Knows " for the 1996 film The Craft
A cover by Carla Azar and Alison Mosshart is featured in the 2011 motion picture Sucker Punch
Gov 't Mule covers the song frequently live , often played with " She Said , She Said "
Ride performed a cover version during their 2015 reunion tour in North America
Oasis performed a cover version for a television performance in 1995 , featuring Johnny Marr on guitar
= = = = Other references = = = =
The song is referenced in the lyric to the 1995 Oasis song " Morning Glory " : " Tomorrow never knows what it doesn 't know too soon " .
The Chemical Brothers refer to " Tomorrow Never Knows " as their " manifesto " ; their 1996 track " Setting Sun " is a direct tribute to it .
Chilean psychedelic band The Holydrug Couple references the drum beat on " Counting Sailboats " off their 2013 album Noctuary .
= = = In television = = =
The song was featured during the final scene of the 2012 Mad Men episode " Lady Lazarus . " Don Draper 's wife Megan gives him a copy of Revolver , calling his attention to a specific track and suggesting , " Start with this one " . Draper , an advertising executive , is struggling to understand youth culture , but after contemplating the song for a few puzzled moments , he shuts it off . The song also played over the closing credits . The rights to the song cost the producers about $ 250 @,@ 000 , " about five times as much as the typical cost of licensing a song for TV " .
= Voivode of Transylvania =
The Voivode of Transylvania ( German : Vojwode von Siebenbürgen , Hungarian : erdélyi vajda , Latin : voivoda Transsylvaniae , Romanian : voievodul Transilvaniei ) was the highest @-@ ranking official in Transylvania within the Kingdom of Hungary from the 12th century to the 16th century . Appointed by the monarchs , the voivodes – themselves also the heads or ispáns of Fehér County – were the superiors of the ispáns of all the other counties in the province .
They had wide @-@ ranging administrative , military and judicial powers , but their jurisdiction never covered the whole province . The Saxon and Székely communities – organized into their own districts or " seats " from the 13th century – were independent of the voivodes . The kings also exempted some Transylvanian towns and villages from their authority over the centuries . Even so , the voivodeship of Transylvania " was the largest single administrative entity " in the entire kingdom in the 15th century . Voivodes enjoyed income from the royal estates attached to their office , but the right to " grant lands , collect taxes and tolls , or coin money " was reserved for the monarchs . Although Roland Borsa , Ladislaus Kán and some other voivodes rebelled against the sovereign , most remained faithful royal officials .
Because of the gradual disintegration of the medieval Kingdom of Hungary in the 16th century , the last voivodes of Transylvania , who came from the Báthory family , ceased to be high @-@ ranking officials . Instead they were the heads of state , although under Ottoman suzerainty , of a new principality emerging in the eastern territories of the kingdom . Accordingly , Stephen Báthory , the voivode elected by the Diet of the new realm , officially abandoned the title of voivode and adopted that of prince in 1576 , upon his election as King of Poland .
= = Origins = =
The origin of the office is unclear . The title voivode is of Slavic origin with a meaning of " commander , lieutenant " . Although Emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos wrote of the voivodes or chieftains of the Hungarian tribes around 950 , he seems to have adopted the term used by a Slavic interpreter .
The border position of Transylvania led to the formation of the voivodeship , since the monarchs could not maintain direct control over this remote region . Thus the voivodes were never autonomous , but remained provincial officials . The voivodes were heads of Fehér County from 1201 , which may indicate that their position had its origin in the office of that county 's ispán .
Two royal charters issued in 1111 and 1113 mention one Mercurius " princeps Ultrasilvanus " , but he may have been only an important landowner in Transylvania without holding any specific office . The title voivode was first documented in 1199 , but a certain Leustachius voivode living some years earlier was mentioned by a document from 1230 . In addition to voivode , royal charters used the titles banus , dux and herzog for the same office in the next decades , showing that the terminology remained uncertain until the second half of the 13th century .
= = Functions = =
= = = Jurisdiction = = =
The territories under the jurisdiction of the voivodes are known as Voivodeship of Transylvania or Voivodate of Transylvania ( Hungarian : erdélyi vajdaság , Romanian : Voievodatul Transilvaniei ) . Voivodes were the chiefs of the ispáns of the Transylvanian counties . Although the counties in Transylvania were first attested from the 1170s , earlier references to fortresses at their seats and archaeological finds suggest that a system of counties existed in the 11th century . For instance , Torda County was first mentioned in a charter of 1227 , but a royal castle at Torda ( Turda ) had already been documented in 1097 , and three burials coin @-@ dated to the reign of Stephen I of Hungary ( 1000 or 1001 – 1038 ) were unearthed in the same fortress .
The ispáns of the Transylvanian counties of Doboka , Hunyad , Kolozs , Küküllő and Torda were not listed among the witnesses of royal charters from the beginning of the 13th century , hinting that their direct connection to the monarchs had by that time been interrupted . Thereafter they were employed by the voivode who appointed and dismissed them at will . Only the heads of Szolnok County remained directly connected to the monarchs for a longer period , until their office was united with the voivodeship in the 1260s . Similarly , the voivodes were simultaneously the ispáns of the nearby Arad County between 1321 and 1412 .
The kings exempted some communities from the jurisdiction of the voivodes . The Diploma Andreanum , a royal charter of 1224 , placed the territory of the Saxons between Broos ( Szászváros , Orăștie ) and Barót ( Baraolt ) under the authority of the Count of Hermannstadt ( Nagyszeben , Sibiu ) , who was appointed by and directly subordinate to the monarchs . Likewise , a special royal official , the Count of the Székelys , administered the Székely community from around 1228 . In the latter case , the two offices were united by custom in 1462 : from then on each voivode was also appointed Count of the Székelys .
Following the Mongol invasion of 1241 and 1242 , King Béla IV of Hungary exempted the inhabitants of Bilak ( Mărişelu ) , Gyalu ( Gilău ) , Gyulafehérvár ( Alba Iulia ) , Harina ( Herina ) , Tasnád ( Tășnad ) and Zilah ( Zalău ) . King Charles I of Hungary granted immunity to the Saxon communities of Birthälm ( Berethalom , Biertan ) , Kleinschelken ( Kisselyk , Şeica Mică ) , and Mediasch ( Medgyes , Mediaș ) in 1315 , but the same monarch annulled other communities ' similar privileges in 1324 . Altrodenau ( Radna , Rodna ) and Bistritz ( Beszterce , Bistrița ) received immunity in 1366 .
= = = Honour of the voivodes = = =
The office of voivode was one of the most important royal honours in the kingdom . All income from lands attached to the Transylvanian royal castles was collected for the voivodes . They enjoyed the income from fines , but royal revenues from taxes , tolls and mines remained the kings ' due .
During most of the 14th century , the voivodes held the castles at Bánffyhunyad ( Huedin ) , Boroskrakkó ( Cricău ) , Csicsóújfalu ( Ciceu @-@ Mihăieşti ) , Déva ( Deva ) , Hátszeg ( Hațeg ) , Kőhalom ( Rupea ) , Küküllővár ( Cetatea de Baltă ) , Léta ( Lita ) , Nagy @-@ Talmács ( Tălmaciu ) , Torja ( Turia ) and Újvár ( Gogan Varolea ) , together with their lands . Additionally , the voivodes enjoyed the revenues of royal estates in Transylvania . For instance , the estates at Bonchida ( Bonțida ) and Vajdahunyad ( Hunedoara ) were attached to them for decades . However , the monarchs started to grant their castles and estates to noblemen , to the bishops of Transylvania or to the Saxon community after 1387 . Consequently , Küküllővár and the lands pertaining to it remained the last piece of the " voivodal domain " in the 1450s .
The inhabitants of the Transylvanian counties were compelled to accommodate the voivodes and their officials . The " guest settlers " at Boroskrakkó , Magyarigen ( Ighiu ) and Romosz ( Romos ) were the first to be released from this duty in 1206 . In Alvinc ( Vinţu de Jos ) and Borberek ( Vurpăr ) , the obligation itself was not abolished , but limited to two occasions a year . Finally King Charles I exempted all Transylvanian noblemen and their serfs from this irksome duty in 1324 .
The voivodes who preferred to stay in the royal court seldom resided in their province , but were represented by their deputies . The earliest record of a vicar of a voivode dates from 1221 . Later the title " vice @-@ voivode " , first documented in 1278 , came into general use . In addition to vice @-@ voivodes and ispáns of the Transylvanian counties , the voivodes appointed the castellans of the royal fortresses . They tended to choose from among the noblemen serving in their own retinue , which ensured that their followers received a fair share of their revenues . Accordingly , when a king dismissed a voivode , his men were also replaced with his successor 's men .
= = = Judicial functions = = =
Along with the palatine , the judge royal and the ban , the voivode was one of the Kingdom 's highest judges . In this capacity , he was authorized to issue " credible " charters . The earliest preserved charter dates to 1248 . The voivodes or their vice @-@ voivodes always heard disputes together with local noblemen who knew local customs . Initially , the voivodes and their deputies held their courts at Marosszentimre ( Sântimbru ) , but they heard disputes at their own abodes from the 14th century . Voivodes rarely headed their courts after the 1340s and were rather represented by their deputies .
Although limiting his own jurisdiction , in 1342 voivode Thomas Szécsényi recognized the right of Transylvanian noblemen to judge legal cases of peasants owning parcels in their estates , " with the exception of three cases , such as robbery , highway robbery , and violent trespass " . This concession was confirmed in 1365 by King Louis I of Hungary . Furthermore , the monarchs granted jus gladii ( the right to the application of capital punishment ) to more and more nobles in the course of the same century .
According to customary law , noblemen could not be sued outside the province until the 15th century . King Louis I even prohibited all prelates and noblemen who owned lands in Transylvania from bringing legal proceedings of lesser importance concerning these estates to the royal court . Nevertheless , legal actions between Transylvanians and the inhabitants of other parts of the kingdom remained outside the jurisdiction of the voivodes . Litigants could appeal to the royal court against the decision of the voivode from the 14th century , but the voivode often remained involved in the proceedings . Legislation prescribed that appeals against decisions of the voivodes were to be addressed to the judge royal only from 1444 .
" General assemblies " convoked and presided over by the principal judges of the realm became important judicial institutions in the last decade of the 13th century . General assemblies for the representatives of the Transylvanian counties were presided over by the voivode or the vice @-@ voivode . The first such assembly was held on June 8 , 1288 . They became important legal institutions from 1322 . Thereafter they were held on a regular basis , at least once a year at Keresztes ( Cristiş ) near Torda .
With the authority of the monarch , the voivodes occasionally also invited the representatives of the Saxon and Székely communities to the counties ' general meetings . This contributed to the development of legal connections among the future " Three Nations of Transylvania " . The threat from the peasants ' revolt of 1437 gave rise to the first joint meeting of the Hungarian noblemen and the representatives of the Saxons and the Székelys , which was convoked without a former royal authorization by the vice @-@ voivode . Romanian cneazes were only once , in 1355 , invited to the general assembly . Otherwise , the vice @-@ voivodes organized separate meetings for them .
= = = Military functions = = =
The etymology of the title ( " commander " ) suggests that voivodes had significant military duties . They were the supreme leader of the troops recruited in the counties under their jurisdiction . Although law obliged noblemen to fight in the king 's army , Transylvanian nobles fought under the command of the voivode . Furthermore , the voivodes had their own private retinue , formed primarily by armed noblemen . Their right to raise an army under their own flag was confirmed by legislation in 1498 .
Military functions are attested , for instance , by Pousa , the voivode at the time of the Mongol invasion who fell in battle on March 31 , 1241 . Voivode Lawrence of the Aba clan fought in the royal army in a war against Austria in 1246 . A Mongol army attacking the southern regions of Transylvania was defeated by voivode Ernye of the Ákos clan in 1260 . Roland Borsa fought against the invading Mongols in 1285 .
Voivode Nicholas Csáki failed to repel an Ottoman invasion of Transylvania in 1420 . In contrast , John Hunyadi , voivode between 1441 and 1446 , defeated a major Ottoman army at Gyulafehérvár in 1442 . His successor Stephen Báthory likewise won a resounding victory at Breadfield ( Hungarian : Kenyérmező , Romanian : Câmpul Pâinii ) on October 13 , 1479 . By contrast , John Zápolya ( Szapolyai ) , the last voivode before the battle of Mohács on August 29 , 1526 did not arrive to the battlefield in time , summoned too late . The battle ended with the Ottomans ' annihilation of the royal army . King Louis II of Hungary was also killed on the battlefield .
= = Monarchs and their voivodes = =
= = = Appointment and dismissal = = =
The voivodes had power concentrated in their hands , impelling the monarchs to replace them frequently : forty @-@ three voivodes ruled between 1199 and 1288 . Monarchs usually refrained from appointing as voivode noblemen who owned Transylvanian estates . Michael of the Kacsics clan was the first voivode to receive a land grant in the province , around 1210 . However , these originally uninhabited lands along the upper courses of the river Mureș ( Maros ) were confiscated in 1228 .
The era beginning with 1288 was characterized by longer periods in office . Roland Borsa survived 10 years , while his successor , Ladislaus Kán , lasted 20 years . This apparent stability was the consequence of the weakening of central government under the last two kings of the Árpád dynasty , Ladislaus IV ( 1272 – 1290 ) and Andrew III ( 1290 – 1301 ) . Royal power was only restored in the reign of Charles I ( 1308 – 1342 ) who one by one defeated the rebellious noblemen throughout his kingdom .
In Transylvania , he was assisted by Thomas Szécsényi , the voivode between 1320 and 1342 . Ioan @-@ Aurel Pop characterizes the following period as including " voidvodal dynasties " : five members of the Lackfi family ( father and four sons ) were successively appointed between 1356 and 1376 . Likewise , Nicholas Csáki ( 1415 to 1426 ) was succeeded by his son Ladislaus . The pair preferred to entrust their vice @-@ voivode Roland Lépes to represent them , instead of visiting the province . From the middle of the 15th century it was not unusual for two or even three noblemen to hold the office at the same time . For instance , John Hunyadi was appointed together with Nicholas Újlaki in 1441 by King Wladislas I.
= = = Cooperation and conflicts = = =
The Mongols comprehensively plundered the eastern territories of the Kingdom of Hungary , including Transylvania , during both their invasion in 1241 and their withdrawal the following year . The consolidation of the province was the main task of Lawrence of the Aba clan , who was appointed by Béla IV and held the office for 10 years from 1242 . One of his successors , also appointed by Béla IV , banus Ernye of the Ákos clan , was dismissed in 1260 by the king 's son , Stephen who had just taken over Transylvania with the title of duke . The duke 's action showed emerging tensions between father and son , rather than conflicts between the duke and the banus .
The first years of the reign of the minor Ladislaus IV were characterized by armed conflicts between parties of the leading noble families . Although Roland Borsa , voivode in 1282 and between 1284 and 1294 , was initially among the nobles assisting the king in consolidating royal power , he himself became the source of new conflicts . First he prevented the canons of the Gyulafehérvár Chapter from collecting their income in 1289 . Next he unlawfully compelled noblemen and Saxon landowners in Transylvania to accommodate him and his retinue . Later Borsa fought the bishop of Várad ( Oradea ) and even resisted King Andrew III who besieged him in the fortress of Adorján ( Adrian ) at Szalárd ( Sălard ) for three months in 1294 .
Borsa 's successor Ladislaus Kán went even further by usurping royal prerogative during his voivodeship between 1294 and 1315 . He arbitrarily assumed the titles of count of Bistritz , Hermannstadt and the Székelys to expand his authority over Saxon and Székely communities exempted from voivodal authority . He set up a tax @-@ collecting body , seemingly covering the entire province . He captured Otto of Bavaria , a claimant to the Hungarian throne and seized the Holy Crown of Hungary from him in the first half of 1307 . He handed the royal diadem to King Charles I in 1310 , but continued to rule Transylvania de facto independently until his death in 1315 . His son of the same name declared himself voivode , a title even used by the monarch when referring to him in a charter of August 12 , 1315 . Dózsa Debreceni , the voivode King Charles I appointed in 1318 , defeated some rebellious minor lords , but royal authority in Transylvania was only restored by Thomas Szécsényi in the 1320s .
The next rebellion against royal power in Transylvania broke out in 1467 . Irritated by a new tax that King Matthias Corvinus had just introduced , representatives of the Three Nations concluded an alliance against the monarch and declared the three incumbent voivodes ( the brothers Counts John and Sigismund Szentgyörgyi and Berthold Ellerbach ) their leaders . The king put down the revolt in a week , but did not sentence the three voivodes , because their active role in the revolt was never proven .
= = End of the office = =
The barons did not find a compromise candidate to succeed King Louis II who perished in the battle of Mohács in 1526 . First the voivode , John Szapolyai was proclaimed king by a group of nobles , but the opposing party also elected its own king , Ferdinand I , a scion of the Habsburg family , by the end of the year .
King John I accepted Ottoman suzerainty in 1529 , but in the Treaty of Nagyvárad of 1538 he conceded the right of the Habsburgs to succeed him after his death . At that point his voivodes , Stephen Majláth and Emeric Balassa , decided to separate Transylvania from the kingdom in order to save the province from an Ottoman invasion . Although other leading Transylvanian noblemen soon joined them , King John I overcame their rebellion in some weeks .
Following John 's death , Ottoman troops occupied the central parts of the Kingdom of Hungary in 1541 . Sultan Suleiman I permitted the king 's widow , Queen Isabella , to retain the territories east of the river Tisza ( Tisa ) , including Transylvania , in the name of her infant son , John Sigismund . George Martinuzzi , bishop of Várad , soon started to reorganize the government in the name of the dowager queen and her son . The Ottomans assisted the bishop by capturing his opponent , Stephen Majláth , although the sultan had earlier confirmed the latter 's position as voivode . An assembly of the Three Nations elected George Martinuzzi as governor on behalf of the infant king in 1542 .
The office of voivode was vacant until September 1549 , when Ferdinand ( who had not given up the idea of reuniting the territories of the entire kingdom ) appointed Martinuzzi to this post . However , Isabella and his son only left their realm in 1551 . Thereafter , Transylvania was again under the rule of voivodes appointed by the monarch , ending with István Dobó . He administered the province until 1556 , when Isabella and John Sigismund returned .
John Sigismund ceased to style himself king of Hungary after the Treaty of Speyer of 1570 , under which he adopted the title of " Prince of Transylvania and Lord of parts of the Kingdom of Hungary " . His successor Stephen Báthory ( who was elected ruler by the assembly of the Three Nations ) revived the title of voivode , initially for himself . He adopted the title of " prince of Transylvania " when he was elected king of Poland in 1576 . At the same time , he conferred the title voivode on his brother Christopher in 1576 . Christopher Báthory was followed in 1581 by his minor son Sigismund who continued to style himself voivode until the death of his uncle , Stephen Báthory in 1586 . Sigismund Báthory 's title of prince was acknowledged in 1595 by Emperor Rudolph ( also king of Hungary ) .
= = List of voivodes = =
= = = Twelfth century = = =
= = = Thirteenth century = = =
= = = Fourteenth century = = =
= = = Fifteenth century = = =
= = = Sixteenth century = = =
= Interstate 74 in Iowa =
Interstate 74 ( I @-@ 74 ) is the central freeway through the Iowa Quad Cities . It roughly divides Davenport to the west and Bettendorf to the east . The Interstate Highway begins at an interchange with Interstate 80 ( I @-@ 80 ) at the northeastern edge of Davenport and continues into Illinois at the Mississippi River by crossing the I @-@ 74 Bridge . The freeway was built in stages during the late 1960s and early 1970s .
The northern half of the interstate was built atop farmland in northeastern Davenport , while the southern half was built near the existing U.S. Route 6 ( US 6 ) corridor through Bettendorf . After the approaches to the Iowa @-@ Illinois Memorial Bridge were rebuilt for interstate traffic , it was completed and opened to traffic on November 26 , 1974 .
The Iowa and Illinois departments of transportation are planning a major reconstruction project along I @-@ 74 . The 7 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 11 km ) corridor will be widened from four lanes to six . A new river crossing will be built to replace the aging bridges . Eastbound motorists on I @-@ 80 wishing to use I @-@ 74 east of the Quad Cities are suggested to use I @-@ 80 east around town for this reason .
= = Route description = =
I @-@ 74 begins at a trumpet interchange with I @-@ 80 on the northern edge of Davenport where it heads to the south . From I @-@ 80 to the East 67th Street overpass , the freeway is surrounded by farmland on either side . South of the overpass , it passes a residential area to the east and a commercial area to the west . The East 53rd Street exit provides access to shopping centers on both sides of the interstate .
Continuing south between East 53rd Street and Spruce Hills Drive , I @-@ 74 goes through an area of sparse development . What businesses there are have frontages on either Elmore Avenue to the west or Utica Ridge Road to the east ; the backs of these businesses abut the freeway . At the Spruce Hills Drive exit , U.S. Route 6 ( US 6 ) joins from the west . Nearly 1 ⁄ 3 mile ( 0 @.@ 54 km ) to the west , Spruce Hills Drive becomes Kimberly Road , which carries US 6 through Davenport until it intersects I @-@ 280 on the western edge of the Quad Cities .
South of Spruce Hills Drive , I @-@ 74 runs parallel to the eastern leg of Kimberly Road , which turned south at its intersection with Spruce Hills Drive . The freeway curves slightly to the southeast and enters Bettendorf . It crosses Duck Creek and meets Middle Road at a diamond interchange .
As I @-@ 74 and US 6 head down a hill towards the Mississippi River , a series of exit and entrance ramps connect the freeway to US 67 , which runs northbound along State Street and southbound along Grant Street . The interstate passes over US 67 and railroad tracks belonging to the Dakota , Minnesota and Eastern Railroad on an elevated highway , which serves as the approach to the Interstate 74 Bridge over the Mississippi River . Despite the singular name , the crossing is actually two twin bridges which each carry one direction of traffic to and from Moline , Illinois .
= = History = =
I @-@ 74 was part of the original plans for building Iowa 's interstate system . It would form the Iowa leg of a planned freeway from the Quad Cities to Cincinnati , Ohio . Its route through the Quad Cities closely resembles the path drawn up in the mid @-@ 1950s .
In the Iowa Quad Cities , I @-@ 74 opened in three segments beginning on August 30 , 1968 . On that day , the northernmost 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) , from I @-@ 80 to US 6 , opened to traffic . The new freeway was built atop farmland west of Utica Ridge Road in the northeastern part of Davenport . The next section was built adjacent to the north – south portion of Kimberly Road , which then carried US 6 through Bettendorf . The segment ended where the interstate lined up with the older street . The eastbound exit and westbound entrance ramps at Kimberly Road now provide access to and from US 67 . The middle section opened in 1971 .
Another three years passed before the freeway was completed and opened to traffic . The twin spans of the I @-@ 74 Bridge had to be retrofitted to connect to the interstate . The Iowa @-@ bound bridge was built as a Works Progress Administration project in 1934 – 35 and the Illinois @-@ bound bridge was 24 years later . Prior to interstate construction , the I @-@ 74 Bridge terminated at State Street , the northbound lanes of US 67 , in Bettendorf . To prevent traffic bottlenecks , traffic was prohibited from making left turns onto and off of the bridges . As a result , loop ramps diverted traffic onto Gilbert Street , one block south of State Street , which curved back to State Street at both ends thus allowing traffic to make the necessary left turns .
Construction of the interstate meant eliminating the at @-@ grade intersections with State and Grant streets . I @-@ 74 was built as elevated highway from the bridges to a new overpass at Kimberly Road . The connections were completed and opened to traffic on November 26 , 1974 .
= = Future = =
The Iowa and Illinois departments of transportation are in the planning stages to build a new bridge to replace the aging I @-@ 74 Bridge . The Iowa @-@ bound bridge opened in 1935 ; the Illinois bridge in 1958 . In addition to replacing the bridges , the scope of the bi @-@ state coalition 's plan includes updating 7 miles ( 11 km ) of I @-@ 74 mainline and interchanges from 53rd Street in Davenport to the Avenue of the Cities in Moline .
In 2005 , the Iowa and Illinois DOTs identified the traffic needs of the corridor and found they would be satisfied by a true @-@ arch , tied @-@ arch , or cable @-@ stayed bridge . After public input and consideration of construction costs and aesthetics , the departments of transportation , in August 2006 , recommended building two twin , true arch , basket handle bridges . U.S. Senator Mark Kirk of Illinois has suggested charging a toll upon motorists who use the new bridges to help pay for their construction . However , a 1998 study , which researched all river crossing options to replace the bridges , deemed new tolls were not viable .
In addition to the new river crossing , the mainline of I @-@ 74 between 53rd Street in Davenport and the Avenue of the Cities in Moline will be widened from a four @-@ lane freeway to six lanes . Additional lanes will be picked up and dropped in selected locations . In downtown Bettendorf , the connection to US 67 will be simplified . US 67 traffic will be routed in both directions along Grant Street . State and Grant streets are currently a one @-@ way couplet through Bettendorf . A network of ramps and city streets form the interchange as it is now . A full @-@ access interchange will be built in its place at Grant Street .
Construction along the corridor has already been completed at the 53rd Street interchange . A partial cloverleaf interchange was being added in each direction to allow traffic to enter I @-@ 74 without making left turns at its intersection with 53rd Street . This phase of construction ended around December 2012 .
= = Exit list = =
= Claud Schuster , 1st Baron Schuster =
Claud Schuster , 1st Baron Schuster GCB CVO KC ( 22 August 1869 – 28 June 1956 ) was a British barrister and civil servant noted for his long tenure as Permanent Secretary to the Lord Chancellor 's Office . Born to a Mancunian business family , Schuster was educated at St. George 's School , Ascot and Winchester College before matriculating at New College , Oxford in 1888 to study history . After graduation he joined the Inner Temple with the aim of becoming a barrister , and was called to the Bar in 1895 . Practising in Liverpool , Schuster was not noted as a particularly successful barrister , and he joined Her Majesty 's Civil Service in 1899 as secretary to the Chief Commissioner of the Local Government Act Commission .
After serving as secretary to several more commissions , he was made Permanent Secretary to the Lord Chancellor 's Office in 1915 . Schuster served in this position for 29 years under ten different Lord Chancellors , and with the contacts obtained thanks to his long tenure and his work outside the Office he became " one of the most influential Permanent Secretaries of the 20th century " . His influence over decisions within the Lord Chancellor 's Office and greater Civil Service led to criticism and suspicions that he was a " power behind the throne " , which culminated in a verbal attack by the Lord Chief Justice Lord Hewart in 1934 during a session of the House of Lords . Schuster retired in 1944 and was made Baron Schuster , of Cerne , in the County of Dorset . Despite being officially retired he continued to work in government circles , such as with the Allied Commission for Austria and by using his seat in the House of Lords as a way to directly criticise legislation .
= = Early life and education = =
Schuster was born on 22 August 1869 to Frederick Schuster , a manager of the Manchester firm of merchants Schuster , Fulder and Company , and his wife Sophia Wood , the daughter of a Lieutenant Colonel in the Indian Army . The family described themselves as " Unitarian " but were descended from Jews who had converted to Christianity in the mid @-@ 1850s and included other notable people such as Sir Arthur Schuster , Sir Felix Schuster , and later Sir George Schuster . From the age of seven he was educated at St. George 's School , Ascot , one of the most expensive preparatory schools in the country but one known for harsh treatment ; it was standard for the headmaster to flog pupils until they bled and force other students and staff to listen to their screams . During the school holidays he accompanied his father to Switzerland , where he developed a lifelong love of mountaineering and skiing . He was president of the Alpine Club from 1938 to 1940 .
When he was fourteen he was sent to Winchester College , which was known as both the most academic of the main public schools and also for its discomfort . Schuster 's time at St George 's had prepared him for discomfort , however , and he was noted as being very proud of attending the school . While at Winchester Schuster played Winchester College football and was occasionally involved in debates ; he was not , however , noted as a particularly exceptional pupil . He matriculated at New College , Oxford in 1888 and graduated with a second @-@ class degree in history in 1892 ; again he was not noted as a particularly outstanding student , which was attributed to the time he spent enjoying himself rather than studying . Despite his lack of academic brilliance he was invited to present the Romanes Lecture in 1949 , an honour normally only given to the most eminent alumni of Oxford . After graduation he applied to become a Fellow of All Souls College , Oxford but was rejected .
= = Bar work and career change = =
After his failure to become a Fellow of All Souls , Schuster joined the Inner Temple and was called to the bar in 1895 . He practised in Liverpool and , though he was not noted as a particularly successful barrister , he became Circuit Junior of the Northern Circuit Bar in late 1895 , an important position . By this point Schuster was married and required a steady income to support his family , something which the bar was not providing . With his love of the English language and the knowledge that he was " good with paper " Schuster decided to join Civil Service , with the intention of becoming a Permanent Secretary .
Schuster entered the Civil Service in 1899 and as a qualified lawyer was exempt from the required examinations , something that marked him as " different " from other civil service employees with whom he worked . His first post was as secretary to the Chief Commissioner of the Local Government Act Commission , which produced a report leading to the creation of the London County Council . After this he worked as a secretary to the Great Northern Railway and then for the workers ' union at London & Smith 's Bank Ltd . After his job at the union he was noticed by Robert Morant who employed him as a temporary legal assistant to the Board of Education on the understanding that the job would become permanent , which it did in 1907 . In 1911 he was promoted to Principal Assistant Secretary , and after Morant was appointed to the English Commission under the National Insurance Act 1911 Schuster followed him by being appointed Chief Registrar of the Friendly Societies , which granted him a place on the Societies ' committee .
In February 1912 he gave up his position as Chief Registrar to become Secretary ( and then legal adviser ) to the English Insurance Commission , with the newspapers of the time reporting that he had had " three promotions in two months " , a consequence of his high standing with Morant . During this period he was also involved in drafting education bills with Arthur Thring . The commission was " a galaxy of future Whitehall stars " , and contained many individuals who would later become noted civil servants in their own right , including Morant , Schuster , John Anderson , Warren Fisher and John Bradbury . The contacts Schuster made during his time on the committee were instrumental in advancing his career ; as a lawyer rather than a dedicated civil servant he was considered an outsider , and the links he made – particularly the friendships he struck up with Fisher and Anderson – helped allay this to some extent .
He was knighted in 1913 for his services on various committees .
= = Permanent Secretary to the Lord Chancellor 's Office = =
In 1915 Sir Kenneth Muir Mackenzie , who had served as Permanent Secretary to the Lord Chancellor 's Office , was close to retirement . The current Lord Chancellor Lord Haldane believed that the duties of a Lord Chancellor were too much for one man , and should be divided between a Lord Chancellor and a Minister of Justice . As such he looked for a Permanent Secretary who was a qualified lawyer and who could help him set up a Ministry of Justice after the war , appointing Schuster in early 1915 . The two did not work together , however , until Haldane became Lord Chancellor for a second time in 1924 ; he was forced to resign several months before Schuster started work on 2 July 1915 after being accused of pro @-@ German sympathies .
= = = Lords Buckmaster and Findlay ( 1915 – 1916 , 1916 – 1919 ) = = =
The first Lord Chancellor under whom Schuster served was Lord Buckmaster , who was appointed on 27 May 1915 . Although most senior government offices at this time were held by wealthy aristocrats , the office of Lord Chancellor stood out as most of the appointees were lawyers from the middle class . Buckmaster was considered " the most plebeian of Lord Chancellors " , as he was the son of a farmer and schoolteacher who later became a Justice of the Peace . Schuster became Permanent Secretary in July , a month after Buckmaster took his post , and immediately tried to make an impression on the workings of the office by modernising it ; under the previous Permanent Secretary – who abhorred time @-@ saving mechanisms – shorthand had been forbidden , and the office had owned only one typewriter . Buckmaster and Schuster had similar outlooks on World War I , with both their sons serving on the Western Front ; Schuster almost certainly helped write the 1915 memorandum Buckmaster circulated to the Westminster Cabinet arguing that forces should be concentrated on the Western Front rather than spread out in an attempt to assault other areas .
H. H. Asquith resigned as Prime Minister in December 1916 , and as a member of Asquith 's cabinet Buckmaster followed him . He was replaced by Lord Finlay who was appointed on 12 December . Aged 74 when he was appointed , Finlay was the oldest person to be made Lord Chancellor other than Lord Campbell , who was 80 when he was appointed in 1859 , and his age showed , with his decisions being slow and cautious . Luckily the job of the Lord Chancellor during the last two years of World War I was limited to maintaining the system rather than instituting any changes , and his tenure was uneventful . During this period Schuster was very influential in judicial appointments , phrasing his reports in such a way that Finlay could only logically accept one candidate . Although Finlay was not a member of the cabinet ( it was a War Cabinet , with limited representation of ministers ) which limited his political influence to some extent , he was close friends with Lord Haldane and through Haldane Schuster made contacts with up and coming politicians such as Sir Alan Sykes and Jimmy Thomas ; the group was described as " the future Labour Cabinet " . During Findlay 's tenure as Lord Chancellor the question of a Ministry of Justice again came up ; while the Law Society was in favour of such a department the Bar Council along with Schuster was opposed to any changes in the status quo , and as the person who prepared a report on the matter for the Lord Chancellor Schuster did his best to express his disapproval of any changes . For his continued work in the Civil Service Schuster was made a Commander of the Royal Victorian Order in 1918 . A year later he was made a King 's Counsel : an odd honour for a man who no longer worked as a barrister .
= = = Lord Birkenhead ( 1919 – 1922 ) = = =
Finlay had been appointed on the conditions that he would not claim a pension ( it was war @-@ time , and there were already four retired Lord Chancellors claiming £ 5000 per year pensions ) and that he would resign when required . Despite this he was surprised when he was dismissed after the 1919 general election , first hearing about it when it was mentioned in the newspapers . His replacement Lord Birkenhead was appointed on 14 January 1919 , and was a controversial choice ; he was only 46 when appointed and was unpopular with large sections of the Bar as a result ; George V himself wrote to the Prime Minister before Birkenhead was appointed and said that " His Majesty does not feel sure that [ Birkenhead ] has established such a reputation in men 's minds as to ensure that the country will welcome him to the second highest position which can be occupied by a subject of the Crown " . Birkenhead and Schuster established a strong partnership , and Schuster played a part in instituting Birkenhead 's legal reforms , particularly those relating to the law of real property .
Real property law in the English and Welsh legal system had evolved from feudalism , and was an immensely complex system understood by only a small number of lawyers . In particular peculiarities meant that land owned by beneficiaries could be sold without the agreement of all the beneficiaries involved , something partially rectified by the Settled Land Act 1882 and the Land Transfer Act 1897 . Despite these statutes reform in this area was still needed , and Lord Haldane presented reform bills to parliament in 1913 , 1914 and 1915 with no real progress thanks to the opposition of the Law Society . In March 1917 a Reconstruction Subcommittee under Sir Leslie Scott was created to consider land policy after the First World War , and Schuster ( who had devilled for Scott when working as a barrister in Liverpool ) was appointed as a member . The subcommittee decided that the law should be changed to merge real and personal property law , and that outdated aspects of land law such as copyholds and gavelkind should be eliminated . When Birkenhead became Lord Chancellor in 1919 he inherited the problem of English property law , and immediately instructed Schuster to prepare the department for forcing a bill through Parliament on the matter .
Although there was general agreement that property law should be reformed the process was made more difficult by the various vested interests involved ; the Law Society , for example , was opposed to the changes because it would reduce the fees dedicated property solicitors could earn by making it possible for more solicitors to understand that area of law and become involved . After intense negotiation Schuster and the Law Society representative agreed that a " period of probation " lasting three years would be included in the bill , which Charles Brickdale the Chief Registrar of HM Land Registry considered " a very good bargain " . When the bill finally got to the House of Commons it met additional opposition from Members of Parliament who were also members of the Law Society and Bar Council , as well as Lord Cave who later became Lord Chancellor . After further negotiations the bill was passed on 8 June 1922 , with Birkenhead taking the credit , and it became the Law of Property Act 1922 .
Schuster also assisted Birkenhead in his attempts to reform the administration of the court system , particularly in his preparation of the Supreme Court ( Consolidation ) Act 1925 . A committee was also set up to look into the reform of the Supreme Court , the County Courts and the Probate Services , divided into a subcommittee for each institution . Schuster served as a member of the committee , with his primary goal being to end the patronage and nepotism that filled the judicial system . Although the Supreme Court was resistant the committee did succeed in making some changes , such as introducing mandatory retirement ages for masters and clerks ; they were unable , however , to end the patronage . Schuster also attempted to reform the County Courts by increasing their jurisdiction , and a Committee on County Court Procedure ( known as the Swift Committee after its chairman Rigby Swift ) was set up in 1920 , with Sch
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a 2 – 3 record and a 5 @.@ 27 ERA in five starts , the Diamondbacks optioned Corbin to Reno on May 22 , as Daniel Hudson was set to return to the Diamondbacks from the disabled list . Hudson suffered an elbow injury in June , and the Diamondbacks recalled Corbin as a long reliever , while moving Collmenter into the rotation . The Diamondbacks again optioned Corbin to Reno in July so that he could continue to work as a starting pitcher when they activated Saunders off of the disabled list . The Diamondbacks recalled Corbin on August 1 , displacing Collmenter in the rotation . In 107 innings with the Diamondbacks , Corbin pitched to a 6 – 8 record and 4 @.@ 54 ERA .
During the 2012 – 13 offseason , Corbin gained 10 pounds ( 4 @.@ 5 kg ) and added 2 miles per hour ( 3 @.@ 2 km / h ) to his fastball . Corbin made the Diamondbacks ' Opening Day roster out of spring training in 2013 , pitching in the starting rotation . He won the National League ( NL ) Pitcher of the Month Award for May 2013 , after he pitched to a 5 – 0 record and 1 @.@ 53 ERA in five games started . Corbin was named an All @-@ Star , as he had an 11 – 1 record with a 2 @.@ 35 ERA , which was the third best in the NL at the All @-@ Star break . Corbin was the eighth youngest player named an All @-@ Star . In the 2013 MLB All @-@ Star Game , Corbin received the loss after allowing the game 's first run in the fourth inning . He finished the season with a 3 @.@ 41 ERA .
During spring training in 2014 , Diamondbacks manager Kirk Gibson decided that Corbin would start on Opening Day . However , Corbin felt arm tightness during a spring training start . An MRI revealed damage to his ulnar collateral ligament of the elbow . He underwent Tommy John surgery , and missed the entire 2014 season . The Diamondbacks placed Corbin on the 15 @-@ day disabled list on March 30 , and transferred him to the 60 @-@ day disabled list on April 4 , in order to open a roster spot for Roger Kieschnick , who they claimed off waivers .
Corbin returned to the Diamondbacks on July 4 , 2015 .
= = Scouting report = =
Corbin is listed at 6 feet 3 inches ( 1 @.@ 91 m ) and 170 pounds ( 77 kg ) . His pitching repertoire contains a fastball that averages 92 miles per hour ( 148 km / h ) , occasionally topping out at 95 miles and hour . His secondary pitches include a changeup , which he throws between 81 miles per hour ( 130 km / h ) and 82 miles per hour ( 132 km / h ) and a slider , which he throws between 78 miles per hour ( 126 km / h ) and 79 miles per hour ( 127 km / h ) , and considered his best pitch coming out of college .
Corbin improved his changeup after pitching in Instructional League during the 2009 – 10 offseason , which led Corbin to consider it a better pitch than his slider . However , Todd Helton , after striking out twice against Corbin early in the 2013 season , dubbed Corbin 's slider " the best I 've ever seen . " In 2011 , he developed a knuckle curve , which he believes contributed to his consecutive scoreless innings streak .
= = Personal life = =
Teammate Paul Goldschmidt describes Corbin as " humble " about his success . With his signing bonus , Corbin bought a used car instead of a new one . He lived in his parents ' basement during the 2012 – 13 winter and officiates youth basketball games during the offseason .
Corbin has three siblings . His sister plays for the basketball team at C @-@ NS . Corbin met his girlfriend when they were classmates at C @-@ NS .
= Eric Harrison ( RAAF officer ) =
Eric Harrison ( 10 August 1886 – 5 September 1945 ) was an Australian aviator who made the country 's first military flight , and helped lay the groundwork for the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) . Born in Victoria , he was a flying instructor in Britain when , in 1912 , he answered the Australian Defence Department 's call for pilots to form an aviation school . Along with Henry Petre , he established Australia 's first air base at Point Cook , Victoria , and its inaugural training unit , the Central Flying School ( CFS ) , before making his historic flight in March 1914 . Following the outbreak of World War I , when Petre went on active service with the Mesopotamian Half Flight , Harrison took charge of instructing student pilots of the Australian Flying Corps at CFS .
Harrison transferred to the RAAF as one of its founding members in 1921 , and spent much of the inter @-@ war period in technical services and air accident investigation . Promoted to group captain in 1935 , he retired from the Air Force three years later when his post of Director of Aeronautical Inspection was transferred to the public service . He continued to serve in the same capacity as a civilian until his sudden death from heart disease at the age of fifty @-@ nine , just after the end of World War II . Harrison 's technical abilities and association with military flying from its earliest days in Australia earned him the title of " Father of the RAAF " for many years , until the mantle was assumed by Air Marshal Sir Richard Williams .
= = Early career = =
Born on 10 August 1886 at Clinkers Hill near Castlemaine , Victoria , Harrison was the son of printer and stationer Joseph Harrison , and his English @-@ born wife Ann . He attended Castlemaine Grammar School before starting work as a motor mechanic . Keen to fly from the first time he saw an aeroplane , he travelled to Britain in March 1911 and trained as a pilot at the Bristol School on Salisbury Plain . Six months later , having accumulated some thirty minutes ' flight time , he qualified for his Royal Aero Club Aviator 's Certificate , becoming only the third Australian to do so . Gaining employment as an instructor for Bristol , he taught flying on behalf of the company in Spain and Italy , as well as in Halberstadt , Germany , where he became aware first @-@ hand of that country 's militarism ; some of the students he trained and examined later served as pilots in the Luftstreitkräfte during World War I.
In December 1911 , the Australian Defence Department advertised in the United Kingdom for " two competent mechanists and aviators " to establish a flying corps and training school . Henry Petre , a former solicitor employed by Handley Page , and H.R. Busteed , then Bristol 's chief test pilot , successfully applied . Petre was commissioned as a lieutenant in the Australian Military Forces on 6 August 1912 , but Busteed withdrew his application in October and Harrison took his place , gaining his commission on 16 December . While his new salary of £ 400 was little improvement on what he was earning in Britain , Harrison was happy to have an excuse to return home .
Petre selected Point Cook , Victoria , to become the site for the Army 's proposed Central Flying School ( CFS ) in March 1913 ; meanwhile Harrison remained in Britain temporarily , ordering the facility 's complement of aircraft including two Deperdussin monoplanes , two Royal Aircraft Factory B.E.2 biplanes , and a Bristol Boxkite for initial training . By January 1914 , the pair had established the school with themselves as instructors , augmented by four mechanics and three other staff . Harrison made Australia 's first military flight in the Boxkite on Sunday , 1 March 1914 , followed by a second in the same aircraft with Petre as passenger , then a third by himself in a Deperdussin . On 29 June , Harrison married Kathleen Prendergast , daughter of future Premier of Victoria George Prendergast , at St Mary 's Catholic Church in West Melbourne .
= = World War I = =
Its coterie of personnel by now being referred to as the Australian Flying Corps ( AFC ) , CFS commenced its first course on 17 August 1914 , two weeks after the outbreak of World War I. Its students included Captain Thomas White and Lieutenant Richard Williams , with Harrison providing initial training to solo standard and Petre advanced instruction . In September , Harrison was given command of a flying unit that accompanied the Australian Naval and Military Expeditionary Force to Rabaul in German New Guinea . With little in the way of enemy resistance , however , the aircraft were never assembled in country and he had to return without leading the first Australian airmen into combat , a distinction that instead went to Petre as commander of the Mesopotamian Half Flight the following year .
With Petre on active duty , Harrison took on the main responsibility for providing basic flying training to the pilots of the first three squadrons to be formed in Australia for overseas service . Many of his students would go on to play a prominent role in the future Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) , including Bill Anderson , Harry Cobby , Adrian Cole , Frank McNamara , Lawrence Wackett , and Henry Wrigley . Having graduated twenty @-@ four new pilots by the end of 1915 , Harrison was able to establish the first AFC squadron , designated No. 67 ( Australian ) Squadron , Royal Flying Corps ; it was however commonly known as No. 1 Squadron AFC from its inception , and officially so from 1 January 1918 . The unit departed for Egypt in March 1916 under the command of Lieutenant Colonel E.H. Reynolds . Nos. 3 and 4 Squadrons AFC were formed at Point Cook in late 1916 to operate in France following advanced training in England . In addition to his instructional and administrative duties , Harrison put his mechanical abilities to use initiating the building of aero engines in Australia and maintaining the CFS 's complement of airframes ; according to Wackett , only Harrison had the skill to keep the obsolescent machines in the air . He was appointed officer @-@ in @-@ charge of CFS in June 1917 with the temporary rank of major ; this was made permanent in September 1918 . The CFS was disbanded at Point Cook on 31 December 1919 .
= = Interbellum and World War II = =
Harrison began a long association with engineering and air safety when he was posted to Britain for secondment to the Aeronautical Inspection Directorate following the end of World War I. He transferred as a flight lieutenant ( honorary squadron leader ) to the newly formed Australian Air Force in March 1921 , becoming one of its twenty @-@ one founding officers ; the prefix " Royal " was added to the service 's name in August that year . Dissatisfied with his RAAF rank considering his leading position in the pre @-@ war Central Flying School , Harrison appealed for greater seniority . As a result , he was appointed Air Liaison Officer to the Air Ministry in London , with promotion to the substantive rank of squadron leader . Returning to Australia in 1925 , he was appointed Assistant Director of Technical Services in 1927 , and soon after helped form the RAAF 's Air Accident Investigation Committee . The following year he became Director of Aeronautical Inspection , receiving promotion to wing commander on 1 July 1928 . Harrison 's position took him throughout the country , inspecting equipment and investigating the causes of air crashes . Promoted group captain on 1 January 1935 , he took charge of the Federal government 's resources committee for aircraft , aero engines , and motor transport , one of a number of subcommittees on the Defence Resources Board set up to investigate and report on the readiness of Australian industry to provide munitions for defence in the event of international conflict .
In 1937 , Harrison returned to Britain for further study of accident investigation methods , as well as aircraft production . His position as Director of Aeronautical Inspection was civilianised on 12 March 1938 , which saw him retired from the RAAF but continuing in his role . He was a member of the court of inquiry into the crash on 25 October of the Douglas DC @-@ 2 airliner Kyeema , which overshot Essendon airport in low cloud , killing all fourteen passengers and four crew members . The inquiry 's report singled out Major Melville Langslow , Finance Member on both the Civil Aviation Board and the RAAF Air Board , for criticism over cost @-@ cutting measures that had held up trials of safety beacons designed for such eventualities . According to Air Force historian Chris Coulthard @-@ Clark , when Langslow was appointed Secretary at the Department of Air in November the following year , he went out of his way to " make life difficult " for Harrison , causing " bitterness and friction within the department " , and necessitating the Chief of the Air Staff , Air Vice Marshal Stanley Goble , to take steps to shield the safety inspector from the new Secretary 's ire .
Harrison held the position of Director of Aeronautical Inspection throughout World War II , his staff numbering more than 1 @,@ 200 by 1945 . A reorganisation of the directorate in 1940 had permitted qualified civilian engineers to be recruited for work that required increasing technical expertise , without them having to join the Air Force . In July the same year , Harrison proposed the construction of a series of test houses to help decentralise chemical , mechanical and metrological testing of materials used in the manufacture of munitions that previously had to go through either the Munitions Supply Laboratories or the National Standards Laboratory . The result was a major improvement in the speed of testing and , according to the official history of Australia in the war , " a fuller use of the country 's scientific and technical manpower " . Harrison 's daughter Greta joined the Women 's Auxiliary Australian Air Force , and by the end of the war was ranked flight officer .
= = Legacy = =
On 5 September 1945 , just as the war had ended , Harrison died suddenly of hypertensive cerebrovascular disease at his home in the Melbourne suburb of Brighton ; he was survived by his wife and daughter , and cremated . The Minister for Air , Arthur Drakeford , commented that " all members of the service , and , indeed , all Australians interested in aviation , must feel his loss as the snapping of one of the last links with the pioneer days of flying " . One of the original Deperdussins that Harrison ordered and helped assemble for the Central Flying School in 1914 later went on display at the Australian War Memorial in Canberra .
Despite his accomplishments in overseeing the training of every student pilot who served in the Australian Flying Corps during World War I , Eric Harrison received no decorations or other official recognition , prompting Group Captain Mark Lax , at the 1999 RAAF History Conference , to describe him as " perhaps the unluckiest of the entire AFC ... an unsung hero " . He was , however , generally considered to be the " Father of the RAAF " until the title eventually settled on Air Marshal Sir Richard Williams . Harrison 's early technical expertise , long association with Australian military aviation as a founder member of the AFC and the RAAF , and " more assertive " personality tended to overshadow the contributions of Henry Petre , whom historian Douglas Gillison considered " equally entitled " to such an accolade . Reviewing the contributions of Petre and Harrison in his volume of The Australian Centenary History of Defence in 2001 , Alan Stephens concluded that " perhaps any judgement would not only be moot but also gratuitous , as by circumstance and achievement both men properly belong in the pantheon of the RAAF " .
= Anna May Wong =
Anna May Wong ( January 3 , 1905 – February 3 , 1961 ) was the first Chinese American movie star , and also the first Asian American actress to gain international recognition . Her long and varied career spanned silent film , sound film , television , stage and radio .
Born in Los Angeles to second @-@ generation Chinese @-@ American parents , Wong became infatuated with the movies and began acting in films at an early age . During the silent film era , she acted in The Toll of the Sea ( 1922 ) , one of the first movies made in color and Douglas Fairbanks ' The Thief of Bagdad ( 1924 ) . Wong became a fashion icon and had achieved international stardom in 1924 . Frustrated by the stereotypical supporting roles she reluctantly played in Hollywood , Wong left for Europe in the late 1920s , where she starred in several notable plays and films , among them Piccadilly ( 1929 ) . She spent the first half of the 1930s traveling between the United States and Europe for film and stage work . Wong was featured in films of the early sound era , such as Daughter of the Dragon ( 1931 ) and Daughter of Shanghai ( 1937 ) and with Marlene Dietrich in Josef von Sternberg 's Shanghai Express ( 1932 ) .
In 1935 Wong was dealt the most severe disappointment of her career , when Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer refused to consider her for the leading role of the Chinese character O @-@ Lan in the film version of Pearl S. Buck 's The Good Earth , choosing instead the German actress Luise Rainer to play the leading role . Wong spent the next year touring China , visiting her family 's ancestral village and studying Chinese culture . In the late 1930s , she starred in several B movies for Paramount Pictures , portraying Chinese Americans in a positive light . She paid less attention to her film career during World War II , when she devoted her time and money to helping the Chinese cause against Japan . Wong returned to the public eye in the 1950s in several television appearances .
In 1951 , Ms. Wong made history with her TV show The Gallery of Madame Liu @-@ Tsong , the first ever U.S. television show starring an Asian American series lead .
She had been planning to return to film in Flower Drum Song when she died in 1961 , at the age of 56 .
For decades after her death , Wong was remembered principally for the stereotypical " Dragon Lady " and demure " Butterfly " roles that she was often given . Her life and career were re @-@ evaluated in the years around the centennial of her birth , in three major literary works and film retrospectives . Interest in her life story continues and another biography , Shining Star : The Anna May Wong Story , was published in 2009 .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Anna May Wong was born Wong Liu Tsong ( meaning " yellow willow frost " respectively , though " yellow " being her family name can be considered functionless here semantically ) on January 3 , 1905 , on Flower Street in Los Angeles , one block north of Chinatown , in an integrated community of Chinese , Irish , German and Japanese residents . She was the second of seven children born to Wong Sam Sing , owner of the Sam Kee Laundry in Los Angeles , and his second wife Lee Gon Toy .
Anna May Wong 's parents were second @-@ generation Chinese Americans ; her maternal and paternal grandparents had resided in the U.S. since at least 1855 . Her paternal grandfather , A Wong Wong , was a merchant who owned two stores in Michigan Hills , a gold @-@ mining area in Placer County . He had come from Chang On , a village near Taishan , Guangdong Province , China in 1853 . Anna May 's father spent his youth traveling between the U.S. and China , where he married his first wife and fathered a son in 1890 . He returned to the U.S. in the late 1890s and in 1901 , while continuing to support his family in China , he married a second wife , Anna May 's mother . Anna May 's older sister Lew Ying ( Lulu ) was born in late 1902 , and Anna May was born in 1905 , followed by five more children .
In 1910 , the family moved to a neighborhood on Figueroa Street where they were the only Chinese on their block , living alongside mostly Mexican and Eastern European families . The two hills separating their new home from Chinatown helped Wong to assimilate into American culture . She attended public school with her older sister at first , but then moved to a Presbyterian Chinese school when the girls became the target of racial taunts from other students . Classes were taught in English , but Wong attended a Chinese language school afternoons and on Saturdays .
About that same time , U.S. motion picture production began to relocate from the east coast to the Los Angeles area . Movies were shot constantly in and around Wong 's neighborhood . She began going to Nickelodeon movie theaters and quickly became obsessed with the " flickers " , missing school and using lunch money to attend the cinema . Her father was not happy with her interest in films , feeling that it interfered with her studies , but Wong decided to pursue a film career regardless . At the age of nine , she constantly begged filmmakers to give her roles , earning herself the nickname " C.C.C. " or " Curious Chinese Child " . By the age of 11 , Wong had come up with her stage name of Anna May Wong , formed by joining both her English and family names .
= = = Early career = = =
Wong was working at Hollywood 's Ville de Paris department store when Metro Pictures needed 300 female extras to appear in Alla Nazimova 's film The Red Lantern ( 1919 ) . Without her father 's knowledge , a friend of his with movie connections helped Anna May land an uncredited role as an extra carrying a lantern .
She worked steadily for the next two years as an extra in various movies , including Priscilla Dean and Colleen Moore pictures . While still a student , Wong came down with an illness identified as St. Vitus 's Dance which caused her to miss months of school . She was on the verge of emotional collapse when her father took her to a practitioner of traditional Chinese medicine . The treatments proved successful , though Wong later claimed this had more to do with her dislike of the methods . Other Chinese thought such as Confucianism and particularly Taoism and the teachings of Laozi had a strong influence on Wong 's personal philosophy throughout her life . The family 's religious life also included Christian thought , in the form of Presbyterianism and as an adult she was a Christian Scientist for some time .
Finding it difficult to keep up with both her schoolwork and her passion , she dropped out of Los Angeles High School in 1921 to pursue a full @-@ time acting career . Reflecting on her decision , Wong told Motion Picture Magazine in 1931 : " I was so young when I began that I knew I still had youth if I failed , so I determined to give myself 10 years to succeed as an actress . "
In 1921 , Wong received her first screen credit for Bits of Life , the first anthology film , in which she played the wife of Lon Chaney 's character , Toy Ling , in a segment entitled " Hop " . She later recalled it fondly as the only time she played the role of a mother ; her appearance earned her a cover photo in the British magazine Picture Show .
At the age of 17 she played her first leading role , in the early Metro two @-@ color Technicolor movie The Toll of the Sea . Written by Frances Marion , the story was based loosely on Madama Butterfly . Variety magazine singled Wong out for praise , noting her " extraordinarily fine " acting . The New York Times commented , " Miss Wong stirs in the spectator all the sympathy her part calls for and she never repels one by an excess of theatrical ' feeling ' . She has a difficult role , a role that is botched nine times out of ten , but hers is the tenth performance . Completely unconscious of the camera , with a fine sense of proportion and remarkable pantomimic accuracy ... She should be seen again and often on the screen . "
Despite such reviews , Hollywood proved reluctant to create starring roles for Wong ; her ethnicity prevented U.S. filmmakers from seeing her as a leading lady . David Schwartz , the chief curator of the Museum of the Moving Image , notes , " She built up a level of stardom in Hollywood , but Hollywood didn 't know what to do with her . " She spent the next few years in supporting roles providing " exotic atmosphere " , for instance playing a concubine in Tod Browning 's Drifting ( 1923 ) . Film producers capitalized on Wong 's growing fame but they relegated her to supporting roles . Still optimistic about a film career , in 1923 Wong said : " Pictures are fine and I 'm getting along all right , but it 's not so bad to have the laundry back of you , so you can wait and take good parts and be independent when you 're climbing . "
= = = Stardom = = =
At the age of 19 , Anna May Wong was cast in a supporting role as a scheming Mongol slave in the Douglas Fairbanks picture The Thief of Bagdad ( 1924 ) . Playing a stereotypical " Dragon Lady " role , her brief appearances on @-@ screen caught the attention of audiences and critics alike . The film grossed more than $ 2 million and helped introduce Wong to the public . Around this time , Wong had an affair with director Tod Browning . It was a romance largely known of at the time : it was an interracial relationship and Wong was underage .
After this second prominent role , Wong moved out of the family home into her own apartment . Conscious that Americans viewed her as " foreign born " even though she was born and raised in California , Wong began cultivating a flapper image . In March 1924 , planning to make films about Chinese myths , she signed a deal creating Anna May Wong Productions ; when her business partner was found to be engaging in dishonest practices , Wong brought a lawsuit against him and the company was dissolved .
It soon became evident that Wong 's career would continue to be limited by American anti @-@ miscegenation laws , which prevented her from sharing an on @-@ screen kiss with any person of another race , even if the character was Asian , but being portrayed by a white actor . The only leading Asian man in U.S. films in the silent era was Sessue Hayakawa . Unless Asian leading men could be found , Wong could not be a leading lady .
Wong continued to be offered exotic supporting roles , playing indigenous native girls in two 1924 films . Filmed on location in the Territory of Alaska she portrayed an Eskimo in The Alaskan . She returned to Los Angeles to perform the part of Princess Tiger Lily in Peter Pan . Both films were shot by cinematographer James Wong Howe but Peter Pan was more successful ; the hit of the Christmas season . The next year , Wong was singled out for critical praise in a manipulative Oriental vamp role in the film Forty Winks . Despite such favorable reviews , she became increasingly disappointed with her casting and began to seek other roads to success . In early 1925 she joined a group of serial stars on a tour of the vaudeville circuits ; when the tour proved to be a failure , Wong and the rest of the group returned to Hollywood .
In 1926 , Wong put the first rivet into the structure of Grauman 's Chinese Theatre when she joined Norma Talmadge for its groundbreaking ceremony , although she was not invited to leave her hand- and foot @-@ prints in cement .
In the same year Wong starred in The Silk Bouquet . Re @-@ titled The Dragon Horse in 1927 , the film was one of the first U.S. films to be produced with Chinese backing , provided by San Francisco 's Chinese Six Companies . The story was set in China during the Ming Dynasty and featured Asian actors playing the Asian roles .
Wong continued to be assigned supporting roles . Hollywood 's Asian female characters tended toward two stereotypical poles : the naïve and self @-@ sacrificing " Butterfly " and the sly and deceitful " Dragon Lady " . In Old San Francisco ( 1927 ) , directed by Alan Crosland for Warner Brothers , Wong played a " Dragon Lady " , a gangster 's daughter . In Mr. Wu ( 1927 ) she played a supporting role as increasing censorship against mixed race onscreen couples cost her the lead . In The Crimson City , released the following year , this happened again .
= = = Move to Europe = = =
Tired of being both typecast and being passed over for lead Asian character roles in favor of non @-@ Asian actresses , Wong left Hollywood in 1928 for Europe . Interviewed by Doris Mackie for Film Weekly in 1933 , Wong complained about her Hollywood roles : " I was so tired of the parts I had to play . " She commented : " There seems little for me in Hollywood , because , rather than real Chinese , producers prefer Hungarians , Mexicans , American Indians for Chinese roles . "
In Europe , Wong became a sensation , starring in notable films such as Schmutziges Geld ( aka Song and Show Life , 1928 ) and Großstadtschmetterling ( Pavement Butterfly ) . Of the German critics ' response to Song , The New York Times reported that Wong was " acclaimed not only as an actress of transcendent talent but as a great beauty " . The article noted that Germans passed over Wong 's American background : " Berlin critics , who were unanimous in praise of both the star and the production , neglect to mention that Anna May is of American birth . They mention only her Chinese origins . " In Vienna , she played the title role in the operetta Tschun Tschi in fluent German . An Austrian critic wrote , " Fräulein Wong had the audience perfectly in her power and the unobtrusive tragedy of her acting was deeply moving , carrying off the difficult German @-@ speaking part very successfully . "
While in Germany , Wong became an inseparable friend of the director Leni Riefenstahl . Her close friendships with several women throughout her life , including Marlene Dietrich and Cecil Cunningham , led to rumors of lesbianism which damaged her public reputation . These rumors , in particular of her supposed relationship with Dietrich , embarrassed Wong 's family who in any case had long been opposed to her acting career , at that time not considered to be an entirely respectable profession .
London producer Basil Dean bought the play A Circle of Chalk for Wong to appear in with the young Laurence Olivier , her first stage performance in the UK . Criticism of her California accent , described by one critic as a " Yankee squeak " , led to Wong seeking vocal tutoring at Cambridge University , where she acquired a British accent . Composer Constant Lambert , infatuated with the actress after having seen her in films , attended the play on its opening night and subsequently composed Eight Poems of Li Po , dedicated to her .
Wong made her last silent film , Piccadilly , in 1929 , the first of five English films in which she had a starring role . The film caused a sensation in the UK . Gilda Gray was the top @-@ billed actress , but Variety commented that Wong " outshines the star " and that " from the moment Miss Wong dances in the kitchen 's rear , she steals ' Piccadilly ' from Miss Gray . " Though the film presented Wong in her most sensual role in a British film , once again she was not permitted to kiss her Caucasian love interest and a controversial planned scene involving a kiss was cut before the film was released . Forgotten for decades after its release , Piccadilly was later restored by the British Film Institute . Time magazine 's Richard Corliss calls Piccadilly Wong 's best film , and The Guardian reports that the rediscovery of this film and Wong 's performance in it has been responsible for a restoration of the actress ' reputation .
While in London , Wong was romantically linked with writer and broadcasting executive Eric Maschwitz , who wrote the lyrics to These Foolish Things ( Remind Me Of You ) as an evocation of his longing for her after they parted . Wong 's first talkie was The Flame of Love ( 1930 ) , which she recorded in French , English and German . Though Wong 's performance – particularly her handling of the three languages – was lauded , all three versions of the film received negative reviews .
= = = Return to Hollywood = = =
During the 1930s , American studios were looking for fresh European talent . Ironically , Wong caught their eye and she was offered a contract with Paramount Studios in 1930 . Enticed by the promise of lead roles and top billing , she returned to the United States . The prestige and training she had gained during her years in Europe led to a starring role on Broadway in On the Spot , a drama that ran for 167 performances and which she would later film as Dangerous to Know . When the play 's director wanted Wong to use stereotypical Japanese mannerisms , derived from Madame Butterfly , in her performance of a Chinese character , Wong refused . She instead used her knowledge of Chinese style and gestures to imbue the character with a greater degree of authenticity . Following her return to Hollywood in 1930 , Wong repeatedly turned to the stage and cabaret for a creative outlet .
In November 1930 , Anna May 's mother was run over and killed by an automobile in front of the Figueroa Street house . The family remained at the house until 1934 , when Wong 's father returned to his hometown in China with Anna May 's younger brothers and sister . Anna May had been paying for the education of her younger siblings , who put their education to work after they relocated to China . Before the family left , Wong 's father wrote a brief article for Xinning , a magazine for overseas Taishanese , in which he expressed his pride in his famous daughter .
With the promise of appearing in a Josef von Sternberg film , Wong accepted another stereotypical role – the title character of Fu Manchu 's vengeful daughter in Daughter of the Dragon ( 1931 ) . This was the last stereotypically " evil Chinese " role Wong played , and also her one starring appearance alongside the only other well @-@ known Asian actor of the era , Sessue Hayakawa . Though she was given the starring role , this status was not reflected in her paycheck : she was paid $ 6 @,@ 000 , while Hayakawa received $ 10 @,@ 000 and Warner Oland , who is only in the film for 23 minutes , was paid $ 12 @,@ 000 .
Wong began using her newfound celebrity to make political statements : late in 1931 , for example , she wrote a harsh criticism of the Mukden Incident and Japan 's subsequent invasion of Manchuria . She also became more outspoken in her advocacy for Chinese American causes and for better film roles . In a 1933 interview for Film Weekly entitled " I Protest " , Wong criticized the negative stereotyping in Daughter of the Dragon , saying , " Why is it that the screen Chinese is always the villain ? And so crude a villain – murderous , treacherous , a snake in the grass ! We are not like that . How could we be , with a civilization that is so many times older than the West ? "
Wong appeared alongside Marlene Dietrich as a self @-@ sacrificing courtesan in Sternberg 's Shanghai Express . Her sexually charged scenes with Dietrich have been noted by many commentators and fed rumors about the relationship between the two stars . Though contemporary reviews focused on Dietrich 's acting and Sternberg 's direction , film historians today judge that Wong 's performance upstaged that of Dietrich .
The Chinese press had long given Wong 's career very mixed reviews , and were less than favorable to her performance in Shanghai Express . A Chinese newspaper ran the headline : " Paramount Utilizes Anna May Wong to Produce Picture to Disgrace China " and continued , " Although she is deficient in artistic portrayal , she has done more than enough to disgrace the Chinese race . " Critics in China believed that Wong 's on @-@ screen sexuality spread negative stereotypes of Chinese women . The most virulent criticism came from the Nationalist government , but China 's intellectuals and liberals were not always so opposed to Wong , as demonstrated when Peking University awarded the actress an honorary doctorate in 1932 . Contemporary sources reported that this was probably the only time that an actor had been so honored .
In both America and Europe , Wong had been seen as a fashion icon for over a decade . In 1934 , the Mayfair Mannequin Society of New York voted her " The World 's best @-@ dressed woman " and in 1938 Look magazine named her " The World 's most beautiful Chinese girl " .
= = = Atlantic crossings = = =
After her success in Europe and prominent role in Shanghai Express , Wong 's Hollywood career returned to its old pattern . Because of the Hays Code 's anti @-@ miscegenation rules , she was passed over for the leading female role in The Son @-@ Daughter in favor of Helen Hayes . Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer deemed her " too Chinese to play a Chinese " in the film , and the Hays Office would not have allowed her to perform romantic scenes since the film 's male lead , Ramón Novarro , was not Asian . Wong was scheduled to play the role of a mistress to a corrupt Chinese general in Frank Capra 's The Bitter Tea of General Yen ( 1933 ) , but the role went instead to Toshia Mori .
Again disappointed with Hollywood , Wong returned to Britain , where she stayed for nearly three years . In addition to appearing in four films she toured Scotland and Ireland as part of a vaudeville show . She also appeared in the King George Silver Jubilee program in 1935 . Her film Java Head ( 1934 ) , though generally considered a minor effort , was the only film in which Wong kissed the lead male character , her white husband in the film . Wong 's biographer , Graham Russell Hodges , commented that this may be why the film remained one of Wong 's personal favorites . While in London , Wong met Mei Lanfang , one of the most famous stars of the Beijing Opera . She had long been interested in Chinese opera and Mei offered to instruct Wong if she ever visited China .
In the 1930s , the popularity of Pearl Buck 's novels , especially The Good Earth , as well as growing American sympathy for China in its struggles with Japanese Imperialism , opened up opportunities for more positive Chinese roles in U.S. films . Wong returned to the U.S. in June 1935 with the goal of obtaining the role of O @-@ lan , the lead female character in MGM 's film version of The Good Earth . Since its publication in 1931 , Wong had made known her desire to play O @-@ lan in a film version of the book ; and as early as 1933 , Los Angeles newspapers were touting Wong as the best choice for the part . Nevertheless , the studio apparently never seriously considered Wong for the role because Paul Muni , an actor of European descent , was to play O @-@ lan 's husband , Wang Lung . The Chinese government also advised the studio against casting Wong in the role . The Chinese advisor to MGM commented : " whenever she appears in a movie , the newspapers print her picture with the caption ' Anna May again loses face for China ' " .
According to Wong , she was instead offered the part of Lotus , a deceitful song girl who helps to destroy the family and seduces the family 's oldest son . Wong refused the role , telling MGM head of production Irving Thalberg , " If you let me play O @-@ lan , I will be very glad . But you 're asking me – with Chinese blood – to do the only unsympathetic role in the picture featuring an all @-@ American cast portraying Chinese characters . " The role Wong hoped for went to Luise Rainer , who won the Best Actress Oscar for her performance . Wong 's sister , Mary Liu Heung Wong , appeared in the film in the role of the Little Bride . MGM 's refusal to consider Wong for this most high @-@ profile of Chinese characters in U.S. film is remembered today as " one of the most notorious cases of casting discrimination in the 1930s " .
= = = Tour of China = = =
After the major disappointment of losing the role in The Good Earth , Wong announced plans for a year @-@ long tour of China , to visit her father and his family in Taishan . Wong 's father had returned to his hometown in China with her younger brothers and sister in 1934 . Aside from Mei Lanfang 's offer to teach her , she wanted to learn more about the Chinese theater and through English translations to better perform some Chinese plays before international audiences . She told the San Francisco Chronicle on her departure , " ... for a year , I shall study the land of my fathers . Perhaps upon my arrival , I shall feel like an outsider . Perhaps instead , I shall find my past life assuming a dreamlike quality of unreality . "
Embarking in January 1936 , she chronicled her experiences in a series of articles printed in U.S. newspapers such as the New York Herald Tribune , the Los Angeles Examiner , the Los Angeles Times , and Photoplay . In a stopover in Tokyo on the way to Shanghai , local reporters , ever curious about her romantic life , asked if she had marriage plans , to which Wong replied , " No , I am wedded to my art . " The following day , however , Japanese newspapers reported that Wong was married to a wealthy Cantonese man named Art .
During her travels in China , Wong continued to be strongly criticized by the Nationalist government and the film community . She had difficulty communicating in many areas of China because she was raised with the Taishan dialect rather than Mandarin . She later commented that some of the varieties of Chinese sounded " as strange to me as Gaelic . I thus had the strange experience of talking to my own people through an interpreter . "
The toll of international celebrity on Wong 's personal life manifested itself in bouts of depression and sudden anger , as well as excessive smoking and drinking . Feeling irritable when she disembarked in Hong Kong , Wong was uncharacteristically rude to the awaiting crowd , which then quickly turned hostile . One person shouted : " Down with Huang Liu Tsong – the stooge that disgraces China . Don 't let her go ashore . " Wong began crying and a stampede ensued . After she left for a short trip to the Philippines , the situation cooled and Wong joined her family in Hong Kong . With her father and her siblings , Wong visited his family and his first wife at the family 's ancestral home near Taishan . Conflicting reports claim that she was either warmly welcomed or met with hostility by the villagers . She spent over 10 days in the family 's village and some time in neighboring villages before continuing her tour of China . After returning to Hollywood , Wong reflected on her year in China and her career in Hollywood : " I am convinced that I could never play in the Chinese Theatre . I have no feeling for it . It 's a pretty sad situation to be rejected by Chinese because I 'm ' too American ' and by American producers because they prefer other races to act Chinese parts . " Wong 's father returned to Los Angeles in 1938 .
= = = Late 1930s = = =
To complete her contract with Paramount Pictures , Wong made a string of B movies in the late 1930s . Often dismissed by critics , the films gave Wong non @-@ stereotypical roles which were publicized in the Chinese @-@ American press for their positive images . These smaller @-@ budgeted films could be bolder than the higher @-@ profile releases and Wong used this to her advantage to portray successful , professional , Chinese @-@ American characters . Competent and proud of their Chinese heritage , these roles worked against the prevailing U.S. film portrayals of Chinese Americans . In contrast to the usual official Chinese condemnation of Wong 's film roles , the Chinese consul to Los Angeles gave his approval to the final scripts of two of these films , Daughter of Shanghai ( 1937 ) and King of Chinatown ( 1939 ) .
In Daughter of Shanghai , Wong played the Asian @-@ American female lead in a role that was rewritten for her as the heroine of the story , actively setting the plot into motion rather than the more passive character originally planned . The script was so carefully tailored for Wong that at one point it was titled , Anna May Wong Story . Of this film , Wong told Hollywood Magazine , " I like my part in this picture better than any I 've had before ... because this picture gives Chinese a break – we have sympathetic parts for a change ! To me that means a great deal . " The New York Times gave the film a generally positive review , commenting of its B @-@ movie origins , " An unusually competent cast saves the film from the worst consequences of certain inevitable banalities . [ The cast ] ... combine with effective sets to reduce the natural odds against any pictures in the Daughter of Shanghai tradition . " In October 1937 , the press carried rumors that Wong had plans to marry her male co @-@ star in this film , childhood friend and Korean @-@ American actor Philip Ahn . Wong replied , " It would be like marrying my brother . "
Bosley Crowther was not so kind to Dangerous to Know ( 1938 ) , which he called a " second @-@ rate melodrama , hardly worthy of the talents of its generally capable cast " . In King of Chinatown Wong played a surgeon who sacrifices a high @-@ paying promotion in order to devote her energies to helping the Chinese fight the Japanese invasion . The New York Times ' Frank Nugent gave the film a negative review . Though he commented positively on its advocacy of the Chinese in their fight against Japan , he wrote , " ... Paramount should have spared us and its cast ... the necessity of being bothered with such folderol " .
Paramount also employed Wong as a tutor to other actors , such as Dorothy Lamour in her role as a Eurasian in Disputed Passage . Wong performed on radio several times , including a 1939 role as " Peony " in Pearl Buck 's The Patriot on Orson Welles ' The Campbell Playhouse . Wong 's cabaret act , which included songs in Cantonese , French , English , German , Danish , Swedish , and other languages , took her from the U.S. to Europe and Australia through the 1930s and 1940s .
In 1938 , having auctioned off her movie costumes and donated the money to Chinese aid , the Chinese Benevolent Association of California honored Wong for her work in support of Chinese refugees . The proceeds from the preface that she wrote in 1942 to a cookbook titled New Chinese Recipes , one of the first Chinese cookbooks , were also dedicated to United China Relief . Between 1939 and 1942 , she made few films , instead engaging in events and appearances in support of the Chinese struggle against Japan .
Being sick of the negative typecasting that had enveloped her throughout her American career , Anna May Wong visited Australia for over 3 months in 1939 . There she was the star attraction in a vaudeville show titled ' Highlights from Hollywood ' at the Tivoli Theatre in Melbourne .
= = = Later years = = =
Wong starred in Lady from Chungking ( 1942 ) and Bombs over Burma ( 1943 ) , both anti @-@ Japanese propaganda made by the poverty row studio Producers Releasing Corporation . She donated her salary for both films to United China Relief . The Lady from Chungking differed from the usual Hollywood war film in that the Chinese were portrayed as heroes rather than as victims rescued by Americans . Even after American characters are captured by the Japanese , the primary goal of the heroes is not to free the Americans , but to prevent the Japanese from entering the city of Chongqing ( Chungking ) . Also , in an interesting twist , the Chinese characters are portrayed by Chinese @-@ American actors , while the Japanese villains – normally played by Chinese @-@ American actors – are acted by European Americans . The film ends with Wong making a speech for the birth of a " new China " . The Hollywood Reporter and Variety both gave Wong 's performance in The Lady from Chungking positive reviews , but commented negatively on the film 's plot .
Later in life , Wong invested in real estate and owned a number of properties in Hollywood . She converted her home on San Vincente Boulevard in Santa Monica into four apartments which she called " Moongate Apartments " . She served as the apartment house manager from the late 1940s until 1956 , when she moved in with her brother Richard on 21st Place in Santa Monica .
In 1949 , Wong 's father died in Los Angeles at the age of 91 . After a six @-@ year absence , Wong returned to film the same year with a small role in a B movie called Impact . From August 27 to November 21 , 1951 , Wong starred in a detective series that was written specifically for her , the DuMont Television Network series The Gallery of Madame Liu @-@ Tsong , in which she played the title role which used her birth name . Wong 's character was a dealer in Chinese art whose career involved her in detective work and international intrigue . The ten half @-@ hour episodes aired during prime time , from 9 : 00 to 9 : 30 p.m. Although there were plans for a second season , DuMont canceled the show in 1952 . No copies of the show or its scripts are known to exist . After the completion of the series , Wong 's health began to deteriorate . In late 1953 she suffered an internal hemorrhage , which her brother attributed to the onset of menopause , her continued heavy drinking , and financial worries .
In 1956 , Wong hosted one of the first U.S. documentaries on China narrated entirely by a Chinese American . Broadcast on the ABC travel series Bold Journey , the program consisted of film footage from her 1936 trip to China . Wong also did guest spots on television series such as Adventures in Paradise , The Barbara Stanwyck Show , and The Life and Legend of Wyatt Earp .
For her contribution to the film industry , Anna May Wong received a star at 1708 Vine Street on the inauguration of the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 1960 . She is also depicted larger @-@ than @-@ life as one of the four supporting pillars of the " Gateway to Hollywood " sculpture located on the southeast corner of Hollywood Boulevard and La Brea Avenue , with the actresses Dolores del Río ( Hispanic American ) , Dorothy Dandridge ( African American ) and Mae West .
In 1960 , Wong returned to film in Portrait in Black , starring Lana Turner . She still found herself stereotyped , with one press release explaining her long absence from films with a supposed proverb , which was claimed to have been passed down to Wong by her father : " Don 't be photographed too much or you 'll lose your soul " , a quote that would be inserted into many of her obituaries .
= = = Death = = =
She was scheduled to play the role of Madame Liang in the film production of Rodgers and Hammerstein 's Flower Drum Song , but was unable to take the role due to failing health . On February 3 , 1961 , at the age of 56 , Wong died of a heart attack as she slept at home in Santa Monica , two days after her final screen performance on the television show The Barbara Stanwyck Show . Her cremated remains were interred in her mother 's grave at Rosedale Cemetery in Los Angeles . The headstone is marked with her mother 's Anglicized name on top , and the Chinese names of Anna May ( on the right ) and her sister Mary ( on the left ) along the sides . She was survived by her 3 daughters : Shila ( May 31 , 1927 – August 9 , 1963 ) ; Wanda ( February 17 , 1929 – March 26 , 1996 ) ; and Leah ( December 2 , 1931 – April 13 , 2001 ) .
= = Legacy = =
Wong 's image and career have left a legacy . Through her films , public appearances and prominent magazine features , she helped to humanize Asian Americans to white audiences during a period of overt racism and discrimination . Asian Americans , especially the Chinese , had been viewed as perpetually foreign in U.S. society but Wong 's films and public image established her as an Asian @-@ American citizen at a time when laws discriminated against Asian immigration and citizenship . Wong 's hybrid image dispelled contemporary notions that the East and West were inherently different .
Among Wong 's films , only Shanghai Express retained critical attention in the U.S. in the decades after her death . In Europe and especially England , her films appeared occasionally at festivals . Wong remained popular with the gay community who often claimed her as one of their own and for whom her marginalization by the mainstream became a symbol . Although the Chinese Nationalist criticism of her portrayals of the " Dragon Lady " and " Butterfly " stereotypes lingered , Wong herself was forgotten in China . Nevertheless , the importance of Wong 's legacy within the Asian @-@ American film community can be seen in the Anna May Wong Award of Excellence , which is given yearly at the Asian @-@ American Arts Awards ; the annual award given out by the Asian Fashion Designers was also named after Wong in 1973 .
For decades following her death , Wong 's image remained as a symbol in literature as well as in film . In the 1971 poem " The Death of Anna May Wong " , Jessica Hagedorn saw Wong 's career as one of " tragic glamour " and portrayed the actress as a " fragile maternal presence , an Asian @-@ American woman who managed to ' birth ' however ambivalently , Asian @-@ American screen women in the jazz age " . Wong 's character in Shanghai Express was the subject of John Yau 's 1989 poem " No One Ever Tried to Kiss Anna May Wong " , which interprets the actress ' career as a series of tragic romances . In David Cronenberg 's 1993 film version of David Henry Hwang 's 1986 play , M. Butterfly , Wong 's image was used briefly as a symbol of a " tragic diva " . Her life was the subject of China Doll , The Imagined Life of an American Actress , an award @-@ winning fictional play written by Elizabeth Wong in 1995 .
As the centennial of Wong 's birth approached , a re @-@ examination of her life and career took shape ; three major works on the actress appeared and comprehensive retrospectives of her films were held at both the Museum of Modern Art and the American Museum of the Moving Image in New York City . Anthony Chan 's 2003 biography , Perpetually Cool : The Many Lives of Anna May Wong ( 1905 – 1961 ) , was the first major work on Wong and was written , Chan says , " from a uniquely Asian @-@ American perspective and sensibility " . In 2004 , Philip Leibfried and Chei Mi Lane 's exhaustive examination of Wong 's career , Anna May Wong : A Complete Guide to Her Film , Stage , Radio and Television Work was published , as well as a second full @-@ length biography , Anna May Wong : From Laundryman 's Daughter to Hollywood Legend by Graham Russell Hodges . Though Anna May Wong 's life , career and legacy reflect many complex issues which remain decades after her death , Anthony Chan points out that her place in Asian @-@ American cinematic history , as its first female star , is permanent .
= = Partial filmography = =
The Red Lantern ( 1919 ) debut – uncredited
Bits of Life ( 1921 )
The Toll of the Sea ( 1922 ) as Lotus Flower
The Thief of Bagdad ( 1924 ) as a Mongol Slave
A Trip to Chinatown ( 1926 ) as Ohati
Old San Francisco ( 1927 )
Piccadilly ( 1929 ) as Shosho
Elstree Calling ( 1930 ) as Herself
Daughter of the Dragon ( 1931 ) as Princess Ling Moy
Shanghai Express ( 1932 ) as Hui Fei
A Study in Scarlet ( 1933 )
Limehouse Blues ( 1934 ) as Tu Tuan
Dangerous to Know ( 1938 ) as Lan Ying
Island of Lost Men ( 1939 ) as Kim Ling
King of Chinatown ( 1939 ) as Dr. Mary Ling
Lady from Chungking ( 1942 ) as Kwan Mei
Bombs Over Burma ( 1943 ) as Lin Ying
Impact ( 1949 ) as Su Lin
Portrait in Black ( 1960 ) as Tawny
= Roman Catholicism in Nepal =
The Roman Catholic Church in Nepal is part of the worldwide Roman Catholic Church , under the spiritual leadership of the Pope in Rome . As of 2011 there are over 10 @,@ 000 Catholics in Nepal , organized into one Catholic jurisdiction known as an apostolic vicariate .
Catholicism was first propagated in Nepal during the 18th century , though from 1810 to 1950 no missionaries were allowed in Nepal . Since 1951 , missionaries have again been allowed , though conversion to Christianity is still illegal . In 1983 a mission sui iuris covering Nepal was created , and in 1996 it was raised to an Apostolic Prefecture . The 1990 Nepali constitution did not guarantee religious freedom for Christians , but as of May 2006 Nepal has been declared a secular state . The interim constitution , finalized in 2007 , guarantees some religious freedom but prohibits people from trying to convert others . On February 10 , 2007 , Benedict XVI elevated the prefecture of Nepal to the rank of a vicariate and appointed Anthony Francis Sharma as the first vicar and first Nepalese bishop of the Catholic Church .
= = History = =
= = = Origins = = =
The history of Catholicism in Nepal begins with its inclusion in the diocese of Funchal , Portugal , and in 1533 as part of the diocese of Goa . From then on until 1983 , it was a part of many different Indian dioceses . Apart from a short visit of Jesuit fathers Albert d 'Orville and Johann Gruber who spent the month of January 1662 in Kathmandu , missionaries settled in Nepal proper in 1715 , when Capuchin fathers entered the Kathmandu Valley at the invitation of the Malla Kings . Father Sharma Anthony Francis , who has headed the Catholic mission and then prefecture since 1983 , has stated , " The priests were given full authority to preach Christianity and even build a church , called Our Lady 's Assumption , somewhere in Lalitpur District " . Assumption was built in 1760 , and another church called Annunciation of Our Lady was built in Bhaktapur . After the unification of Nepal by Prithvi Narayan Shah into a Hindu kingdom , the priests were asked to leave for fear they were British spies . In 1769 the priests and many Nepalese Christians left for India and settled in Chuhari , Northern Bihar , where they have remained . One Catholic priest did remain until his death in 1810 . After that , there was no Christian presence until 1950 . On May 19 , 1893 , the whole of Nepal was added to the Prefecture of Bettiah , India . It was then a part of the Patna , India apostolic vicariate from 1919 until the establishment of the mission covering only Nepal in 1983 . With the introduction of democracy in 1951 , Jesuit missionaries started educational institutions but were not allowed to evangelize . Saint Xavier 's School was established in 1951 .
= = = Mission Sui Iuris 1983 @-@ 1996 = = =
The Catholic Mission was established in 1983 with territory taken from Patna diocese in India and entrusted to the care of the Jesuits . The Apostolic Vicar , Anthony Sharma , spent Easter day in 1986 in a police station for preaching to non @-@ Christian relatives of some of the faithful attending church with them . Conversion to Christianity was forbidden by law , and was reiterated by the 1990 constitution that created a multi @-@ party democracy . Since 1990 , the law had not been enforced . In 1992 the Church of the Assumption , a new church built with its name hearkening back to the original Assumption church , was officially recognized . In 1996 the Mission was elevated to the rank of Apostolic Prefecture .
= = = Apostolic Prefecture 1996 @-@ 2007 = = =
Before King Gyanendra was stripped of his powers by the Sansad ( Nepalese parliament ) , there had been hope of official recognition by the state since the king was educated at a Catholic school ( St Joseph ' College , Darjeeling ) and was a pupil of the current Apostoli Vicar , Nepalese Jesuit Father Anthony Sharma .
In May 2006 , church leaders welcomed the parliamentary declaration that Nepal is now a " secular state , " a change from what had been the only officially Hindu country in the world . The first open air Christian musical program was hosted to celebrate the beginning of religious freedom for the first time in Nepal 's history . A convent was inaugurated along with a training center in western Nepal in June 2006 , a first for western Nepal . Six Nepalese youths went to World Youth Day 2005 in Cologne , Germany despite having a difficult time obtaining visas from German officials . In a display of inter @-@ religious cooperation , the Olympic torch was brought to the top of the sacred mountain of Makalu , having been blessed by both Pope Benedict XVI and the Dalai Lama .
On February 10 , 2007 , Pope Benedict XVI raised the status of the missionary jurisdiction to an apostolic vicariate . While remaining exempt ( directly subject to the Holy See , not part of any ecclesiastical province ) , the pre @-@ diocesan jurisdiction for Nepal is since entitled to a titular bishop .
= = = Apostolic Vicariate 2007 - Present = = =
At Nepal 's first Catholic church , the Church of the Assumption in Kathmandu , there are English masses said on Sundays . Catholic Relief Services conducts many programs in the country , including counteracting the trade in women and children and aiding those affected by floods and landslides . Caritas Nepal , in partnership with Caritas Australia , helped train 12 @,@ 000 Nepalese farmers to optimize their small land holdings . In 2007 , Nepal adopted an interim constitution . It guarantees each citizen the " right to profess , practise and preserve his / her own religion as handed down to him / her from ancient times " . However , it expressly forbids people to convert others to their religion . In 2009 three missions on the border with China were opened , and land was being acquired for more churches and for Catholic schools . A delegation was not sent to World Youth Day in 2008 or 2011 , but a group of 15 youths did attend with help from the Neo @-@ Cathecumenical Way . Population estimates from 2011 show the number of Catholics exceeding 10 @,@ 000 . In 2011 the Nepal legislature proposed a series of laws making the changing of religions a crime Catholic groups and individuals raised the issue of Nepal 's anti @-@ conversion laws to the United Nations Human Rights Council during the January 2011 review cycle . The Church in Nepal provides assistance to the 35 @,@ 000 Bhutanese refugees in eastern Nepal .
= = Diplomatic relations = =
At the ambassadorial level , Nepal has exchanged diplomatic representations with the Vatican . The Holy See traditionally vests the office of Apostolic nuncio to Nepal in the Apostolic nunciature to India .
= = Persecution = =
Maoist rebels have targeted Catholic institutions in recent years , such as their torching of two Catholic schools in 2002 in the Gurkha region . A mission in Eastern Nepal was subject to attack by Maoist insurgents in 2003 , destroying a residence , clinic , chapel , kindergarten and kitchens . In July 2007 , Father John Prakash , rector of the Salesian School , was murdered by people thought to be connected to the Nepal Defence Army During Maoist attempts to call a national school strike , they attacked a small Catholic school in mid @-@ western Nepal with a bomb . In May 2009 a group called the Nepal Defence Army bombed Assumption Church in Kathmandu during a prayer service , killing three people . The church was also blackmailed for money in August 2012 by someone claiming to be a member of the group .
= Battle of Blandford =
The Battle of Blandford ( or Blanford ) , also called the Battle of Petersburg , took place near Petersburg , Virginia on 25 April 1781 , late in the American War of Independence . Roughly 2 @,@ 300 British regulars under the command of Brigadier General William Phillips defeated about 1 @,@ 000 militia under Major General Baron von Steuben .
The introduction of a British troop presence led by turncoat general Benedict Arnold into Virginia in early 1781 prompted an increase in militia activity to counter the British force . The militia were , however , poorly trained and equipped , and were unable to prevent Arnold from moving freely . Arnold was reinforced in March 1781 by additional troops led by General Phillips , who targeted Petersburg in a raiding expedition . Militia forces led by von Steuben and Peter Muhlenberg decided to make a stand at Blandford , then a separate community .
When the battle was joined , the outnumbered militia provided remarkably stiff resistance to the British advance , and executed a disciplined retreat across the Appomattox River , avoiding a flanking attempt led by John Graves Simcoe . They eventually retreated to Richmond , where they joined forces with Continental Army troops led by the Marquis de Lafayette . The British continued raiding , and eventually joined forces with Charles Cornwallis 's army from North Carolina .
= = Background = =
By December 1780 , the American Revolutionary War 's North American main theaters had reached a critical point . The Continental Army had suffered major defeats earlier in the year , with its southern armies either captured or dispersed in the loss of Charleston and the Battle of Camden in the south , while the armies of George Washington and the British commander @-@ in @-@ chief for North America , Sir Henry Clinton watched each other around New York City in the north . The national currency was virtually worthless , public support for the war , about to enter its sixth year , was waning , and army troops were becoming mutinous over pay and conditions . In the Americans ' favor , Loyalist recruiting had been checked with a severe blow at Kings Mountain in October .
To counter the British threat in the south , Washington sent Major General Nathanael Greene , one of his best strategists , to rebuild the American army in North Carolina after the defeat at Camden . Charles Cornwallis , leading the British troops in the south , wanted to deal with him and gain control over the state .
= = = Arnold sent to Virginia = = =
At Cornwallis 's request for a diversion in Virginia to draw attention and resources from Greene , General Clinton in December 1780 despatched Brigadier General Benedict Arnold ( who had changed sides the previous September ) with 1 @,@ 600 men to Virginia . Arnold 's instructions were to destroy Continental Army supplies and storage depots in that state , which had largely avoided military conflict before 1780 , and then to establish a base for future operations at Portsmouth . On the afternoon of 4 January , Arnold sailed up the James River and landed his force at Westover , Virginia . Moving rapidly with an overnight forced march , he raided Richmond , the state capital , the next day . After another day of raiding , he returned to his boats and sailed to Portsmouth , which he then proceeded to fortify . The land approaches to this base were guarded by Virginia militia under the command of Brigadier General Peter Muhlenberg , but these were inexperienced as well as relatively small in number , and could not prevent the movement of British troops by ship on the readily navigable rivers in the area .
Arnold 's arrival prompted General Washington to mobilize land and naval forces to challenge him . Washington sent the Marquis de Lafayette with a Continental Army detachment to Virginia in February , and asked the French admiral at Newport , Rhode Island , Charles René Dominique Sochet , Chevalier Destouches , to send a naval force with addition troops to support Lafayette . When a storm in late January caused damage to the Royal Navy fleet watching Newport , Destouches slipped a ship of the line and two frigates out of Newport while Lafayette marched south . When these arrived near Portsmouth , Arnold withdrew his ships , which were lighter vessels with shallow drafts , up the Elizabeth River , and the French fleet , with its deeper drafts , was unable to follow . The French returned to Newport , but the effort , and further urging by Washington , prompted Destouches to sally out of Newport on 8 March with his entire fleet , seven ships of the line and a recently captured frigate , with 1 @,@ 200 French troops aboard . When Clinton and Admiral Marriot Arbuthnot learned of this two days later , they immediately mobilized supporting resources . Arbuthnot sailed with eight ships of the line that very day , and , in naval action on 16 March , successfully prevented Destouches from entering Chesapeake Bay . Arbuthnot 's fleet was followed by transports carrying 2 @,@ 000 British Army troops under the command of General William Phillips . When Phillips and his troops were landed at Portsmouth on 26 March , Phillips , with seniority over Arnold , took command of the forces there .
= = = Raiding by Phillips = = =
Phillips then advanced again against the largely undefended countryside . A militia force under Major General Baron von Steuben tried to check their progress and protect Richmond and Petersburg . Von Steuben could discern that , though the British might attack Richmond as before , they definitely considered Petersburg a prime objective , since it served as a military depot for both state and Continental forces . By 23 April , the British force had sailed up the James River to Westover ; it landed there to drive off about 500 militia , and reports to von Steuben claimed the force to number between 2 @,@ 500 and 3 @,@ 000 .
On 24 April , as the afternoon progressed , about 1 @,@ 000 of General Muhlenberg 's Virginia militia marched into Petersburg . Other militia units were also gathering . Lafayette 's force was still several days away , and another Continental Army force under General Anthony Wayne was even further off . Von Steuben and Muhlenberg , who had been avoiding conflict with the British due to their weak numbers and inexperienced troops , decided that it was time to make some sort of stand . The militia had not had any sort of victory since the British arrived in Virginia , and morale was quite low . After a council of war , they decided to establish a line in Blandford , then a separate town east of Petersburg and now a neighborhood within the city . When the time came , the colonists could retreat across the Appomattox River over the Pocahontas Bridge . That evening General von Steuben ordered Muhlenberg 's corps to the north side of the Appomattox onto the peninsula known as Pocahontas Island and onto the elevated ground overlooking the river . Then , during the moonless night , von Steuben and Muhlenberg moved their forces south of the river into Blandford .
= = Battle = =
Shortly before sunset on 24 April , Phillips landed a force of 2 @,@ 500 British and Hessian soldiers at City Point ( now Hopewell ) , 12 miles ( 19 km ) east of Petersburg . As morning dawned the next day , four regiments of Muhlenberg 's Virginia militia infantry formed two lines of defense and awaited the British force . The first line was composed of the regiments of Thomas Merriweather and John Dick , with Merriweather 's anchoring the left of the line at the river , and Dick 's the right , extending into the hills south of Blandford . The second line , which was to form the main line of defense after the first one fell back , consisted of Ralph Faulkner 's regiment on the left , and John Slaughter 's on the right . The line extended along what is today Madison Street in Petersburg , from a causeway and bridge across the Lieutenant Run , a creek separating Petersburg and Blandford . The line was positioned to maximize the exposure of British troops to gunfire as they approached . Von Steuben also placed one regiment on the north shore of the Appomattox River to guarding against the possibility that the British landed on that side of the river . He also positioned a small reserve force at the southern end of the Pocahontas Bridge , and Muhlenberg sent a company of Slaughter 's men down the north bank to provide advance warning as the British approached .
The British set out around 10 that morning , marching along the River Road toward Petersburg . Phillips ' command consisted of the 78th and 80th Regiments of Foot , John Graves Simcoe 's corps of Loyalist Queen 's Rangers , Arnold 's American Legion , a force of Hessian jägers , and two battalions of light infantry . Phillips had originally planned a circuitous route in order to go after military stores at the Prince George County courthouse , but reconnaissance reported these had already been removed by the Americans , so Phillips marched directly for Petersburg . Eleven lightly armed gunboats accompanied the force up the Appomattox , carrying men and supplies .
The battle was preceded by an exchange of fire between the British gunboats and the American advance reconnaissance . Around 2 : 00 pm Phillips halted his column , then about one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) from the American lines , and organized his forces for battle . On his right , Colonel Robert Abercrombie was to lead a battalion of light infantry and the company of 50 jägers along the river to drive the American left back to the Pocahontas Bridge . Lieutenant Colonel Thomas Dundas was to lead the 78th and 80th Foot to attempt a flanking maneuver against the American right , and Phillips held the second light infantry battalion and the Loyalist units of Simcoe and Arnold in reserve . He also held in reserve the four small guns the expedition had brought .
As the British forces advanced on the American line , Phillips and Abercrombie noticed that one enterprising company of Virginia militia had established a position on a hill that provided them with an excellent opportunity to enfilade the British line . Abercrombie sent the jägers to flush them out . The lines then closed , and the action became general . The first line of militia put up stiffer resistance than the British anticipated . The British artillery , and the strength of numbers that threatened to flank their position convinced the first militia line to retreat to the second after half an hour of resistance . Phillips also detached Simcoe and his rangers on a lengthy and roundabout flanking maneuver intended to prevent the Americans from retreating across the Pocahontas Bridge . While Simcoe moved , Phillips made two assaults on the second militia line , both of which were repulsed . It was not until the British artillery was in position to rake the American line more than an hour later that von Steuben finally ordered the retreat . The Americans were eventually able to make an orderly retreat across the bridge , covered by the men placed on the high ground above the far side of the bridge . The last companies across took up the bridge planking as they went , in order to delay pursuit ( an act which later earned them the praise of contemporaries such as Thomas Jefferson , General Nathanael Greene , and others ) .
Pausing on the heights near Violet Bank ( in present @-@ day Colonial Heights ) , the Americans engaged in an artillery duel with the British forces on the opposite bank , with further losses on both sides . After being replenished with a supply of rum , the weary militia then continued its northward retreat , reaching Chesterfield Courthouse the following day — just as the British force was crossing the Appomattox , destroying three more bridges behind them .
= = Aftermath = =
Phillips ' and Arnold 's pursuit of the retreating American militia continued to Manchester , just across the river from Richmond , which they reached on 29 April . However , they were unable to enter Richmond , as Lafayette had marched rapidly and occupied the city first . After destroying tobacco warehouses throughout Chesterfield County , the British sailed back down the James to Westover , while Lafayette advanced as far as Pocahontas . At Westover on 7 May , Phillips received orders to return to Petersburg and await Lord Cornwallis , who was moving north from Wilmington , North Carolina . Upon reaching Petersburg on 9 May , Phillips was greeted by a bombardment from Lafayette 's artillery positioned north of the river in what is now Colonial Heights . General Phillips contracted typhoid fever and died on 13 May , leaving Arnold temporarily in command of the British force .
Cornwallis reached Petersburg on 20 May , bringing the British force up to 5 @,@ 300 men . Shortly after , additional British reinforcements arrived from New York , raising his force to over 7 @,@ 000 men . Cornwallis ordered Arnold back to New York , and then fruitlessly chased Lafayette for a time through central Virginia before making his way back to Williamsburg . Cornwallis was eventually ordered to fortify Yorktown , where Lafayette , joined early in September by a French force from the West Indies , blockaded the land routes while the French fleet prevented the arrival of British relief fleets . With the arrival of George Washington and the Franco @-@ American army from the north , Cornwallis was besieged , and surrendered his army on 17 October 1781 .
Petersburg was once again a center of military activity during the American Civil War , when it was besieged for nine months in 1864 and 1865 . The role of Petersburg in this later conflict dominates commemorations of its military history . However , since 1992 , the city of Petersburg has sponsored an annual reenactment of this battle .
= Sonestown Covered Bridge =
The Sonestown Covered Bridge is a Burr arch truss covered bridge over Muncy Creek in Davidson Township , Sullivan County , in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania . Built c . 1850 , the bridge is 110 feet ( 34 m ) long , and was placed on the National Register of Historic Places ( NRHP ) in 1980 . The bridge is named for the nearby unincorporated village of Sonestown in Davidson Township , and is also known as the Davidson Covered Bridge . It was built to provide access to a gristmill , which operated until the early 20th century .
Pennsylvania had the first covered bridge in the United States and the most such bridges in the 19th , 20th , and 21st centuries . In most places in the state they were a transition between stone and metal bridges , with the roof and sides protecting the wooden structure from weather . The Sonestown bridge is a Burr arch truss type , with a load @-@ bearing arch sandwiching multiple vertical king posts , for strength and rigidity . The bridge construction is cruder than the other two surviving covered bridges in Sullivan County , with each Burr arch formed from six straight beams set at angles instead of a smooth curve .
The bridge was repaired c . 1969 , and after flood damage in 1996 , 2005 , and 2013 . It was also restored in 2001 . Despite the repairs and restoration , as of 2012 the bridge structure 's sufficiency rating on the National Bridge Inventory was only 19 @.@ 0 percent and its condition was deemed " Structurally deficient " ( the bridge was also closed in 2012 , awaiting repair ) . It is the shortest covered bridge in the county and as of 2015 is still in use , with average daily traffic of 50 vehicles in 2010 .
= = Overview = =
The covered bridge crosses Muncy Creek in Davidson Township on Champion Hill Road ( Township Road 310 ) , just east of U.S. Route 220 . The village of Sonestown is 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) north of the bridge on Route 220 and has given the Sonestown Covered Bridge its name . The bridge is also 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) east of the village of Muncy Valley along Route 220 . Its official name on the NRHP is Sonestown Covered Bridge . It is also known as the Davidson Covered Bridge , for its township . Sullivan County is located in north central Pennsylvania , about 123 miles ( 198 km ) northwest of Philadelphia and 195 miles ( 314 km ) east @-@ northeast of Pittsburgh .
The area that became Davidson Township was first settled in 1806 and was incorporated as a township in 1833 . Within the township , George Sones built a sawmill and founded the unincorporated village of Sonestown in 1843 . All of these events occurred before Sullivan County was formed from part of Lycoming County on March 14 , 1847 . The bridge was built in 1850 , and in the late 19th century Sonestown " boomed like crazy " as the lumber industry grew in Sullivan County . The village was then home to a plant that manufactured the staves for making barrels . It had a clothespin factory from 1903 to 1929 but lost almost all industry by the 1930s . As of 1996 , Sonestown had a population of about 200 , most of whom commuted to work in Muncy , Montoursville , and Williamsport . In 1996 the village had a few stores , an inn with a restaurant , and attracted tourists and hunters .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
The first covered bridge in the United States was built in 1800 over the Schuylkill River in Philadelphia . According to Susan M. Zacher , author of The Covered Bridges of Pennsylvania : A Guide , the first covered bridges of the Burr arch truss design were also built in the state . Pennsylvania is estimated to have once had at least 1 @,@ 500 covered bridges and is believed to have had the most in the country between 1830 and 1875 . In 2001 , Pennsylvania had more surviving historic covered bridges than any other state , with 221 remaining in 40 of its 67 counties .
Covered bridges were a transition between stone and metal bridges , the latter made of cast @-@ iron or steel . In 19th @-@ century Pennsylvania , lumber was an abundant resource for bridge construction , but wood did not last long when exposed to the elements . The roof and enclosed sides of covered bridges protected the structural elements , allowing some of these bridges to survive for well over a century . A Burr arch truss consists of a load @-@ bearing arch sandwiching multiple king posts , resulting in a stronger and more rigid structure than one made of either element alone . Although there were 30 covered bridges in Sullivan County in 1890 , only five were left by 1954 , and as of 2015 only three remain : Forksville , Hillsgrove , and Sonestown .
= = = Construction and description = = =
All three Sullivan County covered bridges were built in or c . 1850 with Burr arch trusses . At the time of its construction , the Sonestown bridge was the fifth covered bridge in Sullivan County . The bridge crossed Muncy Creek to provide access to Johnny Hazen 's gristmill , which was also built in 1850 . Although most sources do not list the builder of the Sonestown bridge , two newspaper articles on the remaining Sullivan County covered bridges reported that Sadler Rodgers had designed or possibly built it as well . Rogers , a native of Forksville , built both the Forksville and Hillsgrove bridges in 1850 , when he was 18 years old .
On July 24 , 1980 , the Sonestown bridge was listed on the NRHP in a Multiple Property Submission of seven Covered Bridges of Bradford , Sullivan and Lycoming Counties . The Sonestown bridge is also on the 2012 National Bridge Inventory ( NBI ) , which lists the covered bridge as 110 feet ( 33 @.@ 5 m ) long , with a roadway 13 feet 6 inches ( 4 @.@ 11 m ) wide , and a maximum load of 5 @.@ 0 short tons ( 4 @.@ 5 t ) . However , the maximum load posted beside the bridge itself is only 3 @.@ 0 short tons ( 2 @.@ 7 t ) . According to the NRHP , the bridge 's " road surface width " is 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) , which is only sufficient for a single lane of traffic .
According to the NRHP form , the Sonestown bridge " is of lighter construction than similar bridges in south @-@ eastern Pennsylvania " . The covered bridge rests on abutments of stone and mortar , which have been reinforced with concrete . The portals are flanked by wing walls below the level of the road ; these extend out from the abutments at an angle and " retain the soil of the approach embankment " .
The bridge deck is made of wide boards laid perpendicular to the axis of the bridge , with two runners on top of the deck which run the length of the bridge . The Burr arches which support the bridge are cruder than those in the other two Sullivan County covered bridges ; they are not smooth " continuous arcs , but several straight segments joined at an angle " . The top of the Burr arch on the south ( downstream ) side of the bridge is noticeably lower than the top of the arch on the north ( upstream ) side .
Vertical boards cover the sides and portals of the bridge and are painted red . The bridge has a small window in the center of each side ( it had no windows before the 2013 restoration ) , and openings between the eaves and the siding which run the length of the bridge on both sides . The gable roof is covered with wooden shake shingles . A sign listing the vertical clearance as 10 feet 0 inches ( 3 @.@ 05 m ) is posted above each portal . The bridge has no steel reinforcements .
Attitudes towards covered bridges in Sullivan County changed considerably in the last half of the 20th century . Two of the five bridges that remained in 1954 were razed by 1970 , when the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation considered tearing down the Forksville bridge ( but renovated it because of its historic nature and appeal to tourists ) . The Hillsgrove Covered Bridge was added to the NRHP in 1973 , and the two other bridges were added in 1980 . The Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission requires its approval for renovation work on NRHP bridges in the state , and forbids the destruction of these bridges .
= = = Use and restoration = = =
In the 19th century the Sonestown Covered Bridge survived major floods on March 1 , 1865 and June 1 , 1889 , that destroyed other bridges in the West Branch Susquehanna River valley . The latter flood was caused by the same storm system that caused the Johnstown Flood , which killed over 2 @,@ 200 people . In 1885 , the Williamsport and North Branch Railroad line along Muncy Creek reached Sonestown , passing just east of the bridge . The railroad carried lumber , coal , and passengers until it closed in 1938 .
The covered bridge was built to provide access to a gristmill , and the 1915 state highway map of Sullivan County shows a mill just downstream of the bridge on the east bank of Muncy Creek . The 1941 map ( using data from 1939 ) no longer shows a water @-@ powered mill there , although it does show two buildings on the east bank of the creek , with one just upstream and one just downstream of the bridge . Both of these buildings had disappeared by 1999 . The NRHP form states that the bridge had been recently repaired in 1969 , and that additional maintenance work was needed . The repairs done at that time included replacing some of the siding panels , reinforcing the abutments with concrete , and " very minor addition of steel to the truss structure " .
In January 1996 , there was major flooding throughout Pennsylvania . A blizzard from January 6 – 8 produced up to 40 inches ( 100 cm ) of snow , which was followed on January 19 – 21 by more than 3 inches ( 76 mm ) of rain with temperatures as high as 62 ° F ( 17 ° C ) and winds up to 38 miles per hour ( 61 km / h ) . The rain and snowmelt caused flooding throughout Pennsylvania , and ice jams made the flooding worse on many streams . In neighboring Lycoming County , flooding on Lycoming Creek in and near Williamsport killed six and caused millions of dollars in damage , and an ice jam on Plunketts Creek destroyed a mid @-@ 19th century stone arch bridge which was also on the NRHP .
The pressure of the flood on the Sonestown Covered Bridge moved the center of the structure almost 1 foot ( 0 @.@ 30 m ) downstream . This and other major damage closed the bridge from January until late December , 1996 . It was one of 69 publicly owned bridges in Pennsylvania destroyed or closed by the flooding . Sullivan County owns the bridge and paid for its repair , which was mandated by the state since it is listed on the NRHP . The original bid was for $ 93 @,@ 000 , and the repair was done by Lycoming Supply Inc. of Williamsport for $ 89 @,@ 000 over 60 days between mid @-@ November and Christmas . The bridge 's closure caused a 5 @-@ mile ( 8 km ) detour for those who normally used the bridge to reach their homes and businesses .
Even after the repair was completed , vehicles that were heavier or larger than the bridge ’ s original limits could not use it . Since beer trucks could not cross it , deliveries to the American Legion Post southeast of the bridge were made with a hand cart instead . On November 12 , 2000 , a new " Veterans Memorial Bridge " just downstream of the covered bridge was dedicated . The new bridge is also part of Champion Hill Road ( Township Road 310 ) , and allows all vehicles to cross Muncy Creek .
According to NBI data , the covered bridge was restored in 2001 . In September 2004 , flooding from Hurricane Ivan followed by heavy rains in April 2005 made a hole in one of the covered bridge 's abutments and weakened a structural support . Repair work took six weeks and was done by mid @-@ August 2005 . August of that same year saw placement of riprap and fill in the creek to further protect the abutments , with the work done by Rexer 's Drilling and Concrete of Dushore for $ 9 @,@ 250 . Erosion in September 2004 had destroyed a house 200 feet ( 61 m ) upstream of the bridge , so the Sullivan County Commissioners planned additional work to stabilize the creek bed and prevent further erosion damage . The work , on private property and requiring permission from the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection , was done in the summer of 2006 .
The NRHP form describes the bridge 's condition as " fair " in 1969 and " good " in 1980 . Zacher 's 1994 book and the Evans 2001 book also listed it as in " good " condition . Despite this and the repairs and restoration , the 2006 Federal Highway Administration National Bridge Inventory found the sufficiency rating of the bridge structure to be only 18 @.@ 6 percent . It found that the bridge 's foundations were stable for scour conditions ( the potential for the stream washing them out ) , but that the railing " does not meet currently acceptable standards " . Its overall condition was deemed " basically intolerable requiring high priority of corrective action " , with an estimated cost to improve the bridge of $ 108 @,@ 000 .
In 1996 there was a tradition of decorating and lighting the Sonestown bridge for Christmas . The average daily traffic on the bridge was 50 vehicles in 2006 . As of 2016 , it was still used and was the only remaining covered bridge over Muncy Creek , although the Muncy Creek watershed also had the Lairdsville Covered Bridge , which spanned Little Muncy Creek in Lycoming County . According to Zacher , the " Sullivan County bridges , because of their settings , are some of the most attractive in the state " .
The bridge was damaged when Muncy Creek flooded from over 12 inches ( 300 mm ) of rainfall caused by Tropical Storm Lee on September 7 , 2011 .
= = Dimensions = =
The following table is a comparison of published measurements of length , width and load recorded in different sources using different methods , as well as the name or names cited . The NBI measures bridge length between the " backwalls of abutments " or the pavement grooves at the opposite ends of the bridge . It defines the roadway width as " the most restrictive minimum distance between curbs or rails " . The NRHP form was prepared by the Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission ( PHMC ) , which surveyed county engineers , historical and covered bridge societies , and others for all the covered bridges in the commonwealth . The Evans visited every covered bridge in Pennsylvania in 2001 and measured each bridge 's length ( portal to portal ) and width ( at the portal ) for their book . The data in Zacher 's book was based on a 1991 survey of all covered bridges in Pennsylvania by the PHMC and the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation , aided by local government and private agencies . The article uses primarily the NBI and NRHP data , as they are national programs .
= Lauryn Hill =
Lauryn Hill ( born May 26 , 1975 ) is an American singer , songwriter , rapper , record producer , and actress . She is best known for being a member of the Fugees and for her critically acclaimed solo album The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill , which won numerous awards , broke several sales records and was listed by Rolling Stone as one of the greatest albums of all time .
Raised mostly in South Orange , New Jersey , Hill began singing with her music @-@ oriented family during her childhood . She enjoyed success as an actress at an early age , with her older brother Graham Hill , appearing in a recurring role on the television soap opera As the World Turns and starring in the 1993 film Sister Act 2 : Back in the Habit . In high school , Hill was approached by Pras Michel to start a band , which his cousin , Wyclef Jean , soon joined . They renamed themselves the Fugees and released the albums Blunted on Reality ( 1994 ) and the Grammy Award @-@ winning The Score ( 1996 ) . In the latter record , which sold six million copies in the United States , Hill rose to prominence with her African @-@ American and Caribbean music influences , her rapping and singing , and her rendition of the hit " Killing Me Softly " . Hill 's tumultuous romantic relationship with Jean led to the split of the band in 1997 , after which she began to focus on solo projects .
The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill ( 1998 ) remains Hill 's only solo studio album . It received massive critical acclaim , showcasing a representation of life and relationships and locating a contemporary womanist voice within the neo soul genre . The album debuted at number one on the U.S. Billboard 200 and has sold approximately eight million copies there . It included the singles " Doo Wop ( That Thing ) " ( also a number one ) , " Ex @-@ Factor " , and " Everything Is Everything " . At the 41st Grammy Awards , the record earned her five awards , including Album of the Year and Best New Artist . During this time she won numerous other awards and became a common sight on the cover of magazines .
Soon afterward , Hill dropped out of the public eye , dissatisfied with the music industry and suffering with the pressures of fame . Her last full @-@ length recording , the new @-@ material live album MTV Unplugged No. 2 @.@ 0 ( 2002 ) , sharply divided critics and sold poorly compared to her first album and work with the Fugees . Hill 's subsequent activity , which includes the release of a few songs and occasional festival appearances , has been sporadic and erratic . Her behavior has sometimes caused
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audience dissatisfaction ; a reunion with her former group did not last long . Her music , as well as a series of public statements she has issued , have become critical of pop culture and societal institutions . Hill has six children , five of whom are with Rohan Marley , son of reggae legend Bob Marley . In 2012 , she pleaded guilty to tax evasion for failure to pay federal income taxes , and in 2013 , served a three @-@ month prison sentence .
= = Life and career = =
= = = 1975 – 93 : Early life and career beginnings = = =
Lauryn Hill was born on May 26 , 1975 , in East Orange , New Jersey to English teacher Valerie Hill and computer and management consultant Mal Hill . She has one older brother named Malaney ( born 1972 ) . Her Baptist family moved to New York and Newark for short periods until settling in South Orange , New Jersey . She had a middle @-@ class upbringing , knowing both many white Jewish families and many black ones . Future actor Zach Braff lived in the neighborhood , and she attended his Bar Mitzvah .
Hill has said of her musically oriented family : " there were so many records , so much music constantly being played . My mother played piano , my father sang , and we were always surrounded in music . " Her father sang in local nightclubs and at weddings . While growing up , Hill frequently listened to Curtis Mayfield , Stevie Wonder , Aretha Franklin , and Gladys Knight ; years later she recalled playing Marvin Gaye 's What 's Going On repeatedly until she fell asleep to it .
In middle school , Hill performed " The Star @-@ Spangled Banner " before a basketball game . Due to its popularity , subsequent games featured a recording of her rendition . In 1988 , Hill appeared as an Amateur Night contestant on It 's Showtime at the Apollo . She sang her own version of the Smokey Robinson track " Who 's Lovin ' You ? " , garnering an initially harsh reaction from the crowd . She persevered , though she later cried off @-@ stage .
Hill attended Columbia High School , where she was a member of the track team , a cheerleader and was a classmate of Zach Braff . She also took violin lessons , went to dance class , and founded the school 's gospel choir . Academically , she took advanced placement classes and received primarily ' A ' grades . School officials recognized her as a leader among the student body . Later recalling her education , Hill commented , " I had a love for – I don 't know if it was necessarily for academics , more than it just was for achieving , period . If it was academics , if it was sports , if it was music , if it was dance , whatever it was , I was always driven to do a lot in whatever field or whatever area I was focusing on at the moment . "
While a freshman in high school , through mutual friends , Prakazrel " Pras " Michel approached Hill about a music group he was creating . Hill and Pras began under the name Tranzlator Crew , chosen because they wanted to rhyme in different languages . Another female vocalist was soon replaced by Michel 's cousin , multi @-@ instrumentalist Wyclef Jean . The group began performing in local showcases and high school talent shows . Hill was initially only a singer , but then learned to rap too ; instead of modeling herself on female rappers like Salt @-@ n @-@ Pepa and MC Lyte , she preferred male rappers like Ice Cube and developed her flow from listening to them . Hill later said , " I remember doing my homework in the bathroom stalls of hip @-@ hop clubs . "
Hill took acting lessons in Manhattan while growing up . She began her acting career in 1991 , appearing with Jean in Club XII , MC Lyte 's Off @-@ Broadway hip @-@ hop rendering of Shakespeare 's Twelfth Night . While the play was not a success , an agent noticed her . Later that year , Hill began appearing on the soap opera As the World Turns in a recurring role as troubled teenager Kira Johnson . She subsequently co @-@ starred alongside Whoopi Goldberg in the 1993 release Sister Act 2 : Back in the Habit , playing Rita Louise Watson , an inner @-@ city Catholic school teenager with a surly , rebellious attitude . In it , she performed the songs " His Eye Is on the Sparrow " ( a duet with Tanya Blount ) and " Joyful , Joyful " . Director Bill Duke credited Hill with improvising a rap in a scene : " None of that was scripted . That was all Lauryn . She was amazing . " Critic Roger Ebert called her " the girl with the big joyful voice " , although he thought her talent was wasted , while Rolling Stone said she " performed marvelously against type ... in the otherwise perfunctory [ film ] . " Hill also appeared in Steven Soderbergh 's 1993 motion picture King of the Hill , in a minor but pivotal role as a 1930s gum @-@ popping elevator operator . Soderbergh biographer Jason Wood described her as supplying one of the warmest scenes in the film . Hill graduated from Columbia High School in 1993 .
= = = 1994 – 96 : The Fugees = = =
Pras , Hill and Jean renamed their group the Fugees , a derivative of the word " refugee " , which was a derogatory term for Haitian Americans . Hill began a romantic relationship with Jean . The Fugees , who signed a contract with Columbia / Ruffhouse Records in 1993 , became known for their genre blending , particularly of reggae , rock and soul , which was first experimented on their debut album , Blunted on Reality , released in 1994 . It reached number 62 on the Billboard Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums chart but overall sold poorly and was met by poor critical notices due to being a ( management @-@ forced ) attempt at gangsta rap attitudes . Although the album made little impact , Hill 's rapping on " Some Seek Stardom " was seen as a highlight . Within the group , she was frequently referred to by the nickname " L. Boogie " . Hill 's image and artistry , as well as her full , rich , raspy alto voice , placed her at the forefront of the band , with some fans urging her to begin a solo career .
The Fugees ' second album , The Score ( 1996 ) , peaked at number one on the U.S. Billboard 200 and stayed in the top ten of that chart for over half a year . It sold about six million copies in the United States and more than 17 million copies worldwide . In the 1996 Pazz & Jop Critics Poll , The Score came second in the list of best albums and three of its tracks placed within the top twenty best singles . It won the Grammy Award for Best Rap Album , and was later included on Rolling Stone 's list of the 500 greatest albums of all time . Almost all of the writing and producing for it was done by Jean . The Score garnered praise for being a strong alternative to the gangsta idiom , and Hill stated , " We 're trying to do something positive with the music because it seems like only the negative is rising to the top these days . It only takes a drop of purity to clean a cesspool . "
Singles from The Score included " Fu @-@ Gee @-@ La " and " Ready or Not " , which highlighted Hill 's singing and rapping abilities , and " No Woman , No Cry " . Her rendition of " Killing Me Softly " became her breakout hit . Buttressed by what Rolling Stone publications later called Hill 's " evocative " vocal line and her " amazing pipes " , the track became pervasive on pop , R & B , hip hop , and adult contemporary radio formats . It won the Grammy Award for Best R & B Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals . On the album , Hill combined African @-@ American music and Caribbean music influences with socially conscious lyrics . Newsweek mentioned Hill 's " irresistibly cute looks " and proclaimed her " the most powerful new voice in rap . "
At 21 years old , the now @-@ famous Hill was still living at home with her parents . She had been enrolled at Columbia University during this period , and considered majoring in history as she became a sophomore , but left after about a year of total studies once sales of The Score went into the millions . In 1996 , Hill responded to a false rumor on The Howard Stern Show that she had made a racist comment on MTV , saying " How can I possibly be a racist ? My music is universal music . And I believe in God . If I believe in God , then I have to love all of God 's creations . There can be no segregation . "
In 1996 , Hill founded the Refugee Project , a non @-@ profit outreach organization that sought to transform the attitudes and behavior of at @-@ risk urban youth . Part of this was Camp Hill , which offered stays in the Catskill Mountains for such youngsters ; another was production of an annual Halloween haunted house in East Orange . Hill also raised money for Haitian refugees , supported clean water well @-@ building projects in Kenya and Uganda , and staged a rap concert in Harlem to promote voter registration . A 1997 benefit event for the Refugee Project introduced a Board of Trustees for the organization that included Sean Combs , Mariah Carey , Busta Rhymes , Spike Lee , and others as members .
In 1997 , the Fugees split to work on solo projects , which Jean later blamed on his tumultuous relationship with Hill and the fact he married his wife Claudinette while still involved with Hill . Meanwhile , in the summer of 1996 Hill had met Rohan Marley , a son of the late reggae legend Bob Marley and a former University of Miami football player . Hill subsequently began a relationship with him , while still also involved with Jean . Hill became pregnant , and in August 1997 , Marley and Hill 's first child , Zion David , was born . The couple lived in Hill 's childhood house in South Orange after she bought her parents a new house down the street .
Hill had a cameo appearance in the 1997 film Hav Plenty . In 1998 , Hill took up another small but important role in the film Restaurant ; Entertainment Weekly praised her portrayal of the protagonist 's pregnant former girlfriend as bringing vigor to the film .
= = = 1997 – 99 : The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill = = =
Hill recorded her solo record The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill from late 1997 through June 1998 at Tuff Gong Studios in Jamaica . The title was inspired by The Mis @-@ Education of the Negro book by Carter G. Woodson and The Education of Sonny Carson , a film and autobiographical novel . The album featured contributions from D 'Angelo , Carlos Santana , Mary J. Blige and the then @-@ unknown John Legend . Wyclef Jean initially did not support Hill recording a solo album , but eventually offered his production help ; Hill turned him down . Several songs on the album concerned her frustration with The Fugees ; " I Used to Love Him " dealt with the breakdown of the relationship between Hill and Wyclef Jean . Other songs such as " To Zion " spoke about her decision to have her first baby , even though many at the time encouraged her to have an abortion so to not interfere with her blossoming career . Indeed , Hill 's pregnancy revived her from a period of writer 's block .
In terms of production , Hill collaborated with a group of musicians known as New Ark , consisting of Vada Nobles , Rasheem Pugh , Tejumold Newton , and Johari Newton . Hill later said that she wanted to " write songs that lyrically move me and have the integrity of reggae and the knock of hip @-@ hop and the instrumentation of classic soul " and that the production on the album was intended to make the music sound raw and not computer @-@ aided . Hill spoke of pressure from her label to emulate Prince , wherein all tracks would be credited as written and produced by the artist with little outside help . She also wanted to be appreciated as an auteur as much as Jean had within the Fugees . ( She also saw a feminist cause : " But step out and try and control things and there are doubts . This is a very sexist industry . They 'll never throw the ' genius ' title to a sister . " ) While recording the album , when Hill was asked about providing contracts or documentation to the musicians , she replied , " We all love each other . This ain 't about documents . This is blessed . "
Released on August 25 , 1998 , the album received rave reviews from contemporary music critics , and was the most acclaimed album of 1998 . Critics lauded the album 's blending of the R & B , doo @-@ wop , pop , hip @-@ hop , and reggae genres and its honest representation of a woman 's life and relationships . David Browne , writing in Entertainment Weekly , called it " an album of often @-@ astonishing power , strength , and feeling " , and praised Hill for " easily flowing from singing to rapping , evoking the past while forging a future of her own " . Robert Christgau quipped , " PC record of the year — songs soft , singing ordinary , rapping skilled , rhymes up and down , skits de trop , production subtle and terrific " . It sold over 423 @,@ 000 copies in its first week ( boosted by advance radio play of two non @-@ label @-@ sanctioned singles , " Lost Ones " and " Can 't Take My Eyes Off You " ) and topped the Billboard 200 for four weeks and the Billboard R & B Albums chart for six weeks . It went on to sell about 8 million copies in the U.S. and 12 million copies worldwide . During 1998 and 1999 , Hill earned $ 25 million from record sales and touring . Hill , along with Blige , Missy Elliott , Meshell Ndegeocello , Erykah Badu , and others , found a feminist voice with the neo soul genre .
The first single released from the album was " Lost Ones " , which reached number 27 in Spring 1998 . The second was " Doo Wop ( That Thing ) " , which debuted at number one on the Billboard Hot 100 chart . It exemplified Hill 's appeal , combining feelings of self @-@ empowerment with self @-@ defense . Other charted singles from the album were " Ex @-@ Factor " , " Everything Is Everything " and " To Zion " . In the 1998 Pazz & Jop Critics Poll , Miseducation came second in the list of best albums and " Doo Wop ( That Thing ) " second in best singles .
In November 1998 , Marley and Hill 's second child , Selah Louise , was born . Of being a young mother of two , Hill said , " It 's not an easy situation at all . You have to really pray and be honest with yourself . "
In the run @-@ up to the 1999 Grammy Awards , Hill became the first woman to be nominated in ten categories in a single year . In addition to Miseducation works , the nominations included her rendition of " Can 't Take My Eyes Off You " for the 1997 film Conspiracy Theory , which had appeared on Billboard charts , and Hill 's writing and producing of " A Rose Is Still a Rose " , which became a late @-@ in @-@ career hit for Aretha Franklin . She appeared on several magazine covers , including Time , Esquire , Rolling Stone , Teen People and The New York Times Fashion Magazine . During the ceremony , Hill broke another record by becoming the first woman to win five times in one night , taking home the awards for Album of the Year , Best R & B Album , Best R & B Song , Best Female R & B Vocal Performance , and Best New Artist . During an acceptance speech , she said , " This is crazy . This is hip @-@ hop ! " Hill had brought forth a new , mainstream acceptance of the genre and led to Hill becoming known as one of the Queens of Hip Hop .
In February 1999 , Hill received four awards at the 30th Annual NAACP Image Awards . In May 1999 , she became the youngest woman ever named to Ebony magazine 's 100 + Most Influential Black Americans list ; in November of that year , the same publication named her as one of " 10 For Tomorrow " in the " Ebony 2000 : Special Millennium Issue " . In May 1999 , she made People magazine 's 50 Most Beautiful People list . The publication , which has called her " model @-@ gorgeous " , praised the 5 @-@ foot @-@ 4 @-@ inch ( 1 @.@ 63 m ) Hill for her idiosyncratic sense of personal style . In June 1999 , she received an Essence Award , but her acceptance speech , where she said there was no contradiction in religious love and servitude and " [ being ] who you are , as fly and as hot and as whatever , " drew reaction from those in the public who thought she was not a good role model as a young , unwed mother of two . This was a repetition of criticism she had received after the birth of her first child , and she had said that she and Marley would soon be married . In early 2000 , Hill was one of many artists and producers to share the Grammy Award for Album of the Year for Santana 's 1999 multi @-@ million selling Supernatural , which she had written , produced , and rapped on the track " Do You Like the Way " for ( a rumination on the direction the world was headed , it also featured the singing of CeeLo Green and the signature guitar runs of Carlos Santana ) . She was also nominated for Best R & B Song for " All That I Can Say " , which she had written and produced for Mary J. Blige . Also , her concocted duet with Bob Marley on " Turn Your Lights Down Low " for the 1999 remix tribute album Chant Down Babylon additionally appeared in the 1999 film The Best Man and later received a Grammy nomination for Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals .
In November 1998 , New Ark filed a fifty @-@ page lawsuit against Hill , her management , also her record label , claiming that Hill " used their songs and production skills , but failed to properly credit them for the work " on Miseducation . The musicians claimed to be the primary songwriters on two tracks , and major contributors on several others , though Gordon Williams , a prominent recorder , engineer , and mixer on Miseducation , described the album as a " powerfully personal effort by Hill " and said " It was definitely her vision . " Hill responded that New Ark had been appropriately credited and now were seeking to take advantage of her success . New Ark requested partial writing credits on most of the tracks on the album as well as monetary reimbursement . After many delays , depositions took place during the latter part of 2000 . In part , the case illustrated the difficult boundaries between songwriting and all other aspects that went into contemporary arranging , sampling , and recording . The suit would eventually be settled out of court in February 2001 , with Hill paying New Ark a reported $ 5 million . A friend of Hill 's later said of the suit , " That was the beginning of a chain effect that would turn everything a little crazy . "
= = = 2000 – 03 : Self @-@ imposed exile and MTV Unplugged No. 2 @.@ 0 = = =
Hill began writing a screenplay about the life of Bob Marley , in which she planned to act as his wife Rita . She also began producing a romantic comedy about soul food with a working title of Sauce , and accepted a starring role in the film adaptation of Toni Morrison 's novel Beloved ; she later dropped out of both projects due to pregnancy . She also reportedly turned down roles in Charlie 's Angels ( the part that went to Lucy Liu ) , The Bourne Identity , The Mexican , The Matrix Reloaded and The Matrix Revolutions .
During 2000 , Hill dropped out of the public eye . The pressures of fame began to overwhelm her . She disliked not being able to go out of her house to do simple errands without having to worry about her physical appearance . She fired her management team and began attending Bible study classes five days a week ; she also stopped doing interviews , watching television and listening to music . She started associating with a " spiritual advisor " named Brother Anthony . Some familiar with Hill believe Anthony more resembled a cult leader than a spiritual advisor , and thought his guidance probably inspired much of Hill 's more controversial public behavior .
She later described this period of her life to Essence saying " People need to understand that the Lauryn Hill they were exposed to in the beginning was all that was allowed in that arena at that time … I had to step away when I realized that for the sake of the machine , I was being way too compromised . I felt uncomfortable about having to smile in someone 's face when I really didn 't like them or even know them well enough to like them . " She also spoke about her emotional crisis , saying , " For two or three years I was away from all social interaction . It was a very introspective time because I had to confront my fears and master every demonic thought about inferiority , about insecurity or the fear of being black , young and gifted in this western culture . " She went on to say that she had to fight to retain her identity , and was forced " to deal with folks who weren 't happy about that . "
In July 2001 , while pregnant with her third child , Hill unveiled her new material to a small crowd , for a taping of an MTV Unplugged special . An album of the concert , titled MTV Unplugged No. 2 @.@ 0 , was released in May 2002 and featured only her singing and playing an acoustic guitar . Unlike the near @-@ unanimous praise of Miseducation , 2 @.@ 0 sharply divided critics . AllMusic gave the album 4 out of 5 stars , saying that the recording " is the unfinished , unflinching presentation of ideas and of a person . It may not be a proper follow @-@ up to her first album , but it is fascinating . " Rolling Stone called the album " a public breakdown " and Robert Hilburn of the Los Angeles Times said the album 's title opened Hill up for jokes that she had become unhinged . NME wrote that " Unplugged 2 @.@ 0 is a sparse and often gruelling listen , but there is enough genius shading these rough sketches to suggest that all might not yet be lost . " With the mixed reviews and no significant radio airplay , 2 @.@ 0 debuted at number three on the Billboard 200 , but then quickly fell down the charts and ended up selling less than 500 @,@ 000 copies in the U.S. Neither the album nor its songs placed in the 2002 Pazz & Jop Critics Poll . Her song " Mystery of Iniquity " was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Female Rap Solo Performance and used as an interpolation by hip @-@ hop producer / songwriter Kanye West for his single " All Falls Down " , as sung by Syleena Johnson .
Around 2001 , Marley and Hill 's third child , Joshua Omaru , was born . He was followed a year later by their fourth , John Nesta . While Hill sometimes had spoken of Marley as her husband , they never married , and along the way she was informed that Marley had been previously married at a young age . Furthermore , according to a 2003 Rolling Stone report , he had never secured a divorce ; but Marley later disputed this and made public to a blog a 1996 divorce document from Haiti . The two had been living in a high @-@ end Miami hotel , but around 2003 she moved out into her own place in that city . Hill later said that she and Marley " have had long periods of separation over the years " . Hill slowly worked on a new album and it was reported that by 2003 , Columbia Records had spent more than $ 2 @.@ 5 million funding it , including installing a recording studio in the singer 's Miami apartment and flying different musicians around the country .
By 2002 , Hill had shut down her non @-@ profit Refugee Project . She said , " I had a nonprofit organization and I had to shut all that down . You know , smiling with big checks , obligatory things , not having things come from a place of passion . That 's slavery . Everything we do should be a result of our gratitude for what God has done for us . It should be passionate . "
In December 2003 , Hill , during a performance in Vatican City , spoke of the " corruption , exploitation , and abuses " in reference to the molestation of boys by Catholic priests in the United States and the cover @-@ up of offenses by Catholic Church officials . High @-@ ranking church officials were in attendance , but Pope John Paul II was not present . The Catholic League called Hill " pathologically miserable " and claimed her career was " in decline " . The following day , several reporters suggested that Hill 's comments at the Vatican may have been influenced by her spiritual advisor , Brother Anthony .
= = = 2004 – 09 : Sporadic touring and recording = = =
In 2004 , Hill contributed a new song , " The Passion " , to The Passion of the Christ : Songs . A remix version with John Legend of his " So High " ended up receiving a Grammy Award nomination for Best R & B Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals . Around this time , Hill began selling a pay @-@ per @-@ view music video of the song " Social Drugs " through her website . Those who purchase the $ 15 video would only be able to view it three times before it expired . In addition to the video , Hill began selling autographed posters and Polaroids through her website , with some items listed at upwards of $ 500 .
For the first time since 1997 , the Fugees performed in September 2004 at Dave Chappelle 's Block Party in the Bedford @-@ Stuyvesant neighborhood of Brooklyn . The concert featured Hill 's nearly a cappella rendition of " Killing Me Softly " . The event was recorded by director Michel Gondry and was released on March 3 , 2006 , to universal acclaim . The Fugees also appeared at BET Awards 2005 during June 2005 , where they opened the show with a 12 @-@ minute set . One track , " Take It Easy " , was leaked online and thereafter was released as an Internet single in late September . It peaked at number forty on the Billboard R & B Chart . In 2005 , she told USA Today , " If I make music now , it will only be to provide information to my own children . If other people benefit from it , then so be it . " When asked how she now felt about the songs on 2 @.@ 0 , she stated " a lot of the songs were transitional . The music was about how I was feeling at the time , even though I was documenting my distress as well as my bursts of joy . "
The Fugees embarked on a European tour in late 2005 . Old tensions between Hill and the other members of the group soon resurfaced , and the reunion ended before an album could be recorded ; Jean and Michel both blamed Hill for the split . Hill reportedly demanded to be addressed by everyone , including her bandmates , as " Ms. Hill " ; she also considered changing her moniker to " Empress " . Hill 's tardiness was also cited as a contributing factor .
Hill began touring on her own , although to mixed reviews ; often arriving late to concerts ( sometimes by over two hours ) , performing unpopular reconfigurations of her songs and sporting an exaggerated appearance . On some occasions , fans have booed her and left early . In June 2007 , Sony Records said Hill had been recording through the past decade , had accumulated considerable unreleased material and had re @-@ entered the studio with the goal of making a new album . Later that same year , an album titled Ms. Hill , which featured cuts from Miseducation , various soundtracks contributions and other " unreleased " songs , was released . It features guest appearances from D 'Angelo , Rah Digga and John Forté . Also in June 2007 , Hill released a new song , " Lose Myself " , on the soundtrack to the film Surf 's Up .
In early 2008 , Marley and Hill 's fifth child , Sarah , was born . The couple was not living together , although Marley considered them " spiritually together " even while listing himself as single on social media . Hill later said that she and Marley " have [ had ] a long and complex history about which many inaccuracies have been reported since the beginning " and that they both valued their privacy . By August 2008 , Hill was living with her mother and children in her hometown of South Orange , New Jersey .
Reports in mid @-@ 2008 claimed that Columbia Records then believed Hill to be on hiatus . Marley disputed these claims , telling an interviewer that Hill has enough material for several albums : " She writes music in the bathroom , on toilet paper , on the wall . She writes it in the mirror if the mirror smokes up . She writes constantly . This woman does not sleep " . One of the few public appearances Hill made in 2008 was at a Martha Stewart book @-@ signing in New Jersey , perplexing some in the press . In April 2009 , it was reported that Hill would engage in a 10 @-@ day tour of European summer festivals during mid @-@ July of that year . She performed two shows for the tour and passed out on stage during the start of her second performance and left the stage . She refused to give refunds to angry consumers for the show . On June 10 , Hill 's management informed the promoters of the Stockholm Jazz Festival , which she was scheduled to headline , that she would not be performing due to unspecified " health reasons . " Shortly afterward , the rest of the tour was canceled as well .
= = = 2010 – present : Further activities and imprisonment = = =
In January 2010 , Hill returned to the live stage and performed in stops across New Zealand and Australia on the Raggamuffin Music Festival . Many of the songs that Hill had performed and recorded over the past six years were included on an April 2010 unofficial compilation album titled Khulami Phase . The album also features a range of other material found on the Ms. Hill compilation . Hill appeared at the Harmony Festival in Santa Rosa , California , in June 2010 , her first live American performance in several years . An unreleased song called " Repercussions " was leaked via the Internet in late July 2010 , debuting at number 94 on Billboard 's Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs ( and peaked at number 83 the following week ) , making it her first Billboard chart appearance as a lead artist since 1999 .
Hill joined the Rock the Bells hip @-@ hop festival series in the U.S. during August 2010 , and as part of that year 's theme of rendering classic albums , she performed The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill in its entirety for the first time . She increased the tempo and urgency from the original recording , but at times had difficulty in communicating with her band . Hill continued touring , including a set at the 6th Annual Jazz in the Gardens , in Miami Gardens , Florida in December . In Spring 2011 , Hill performed at the Coachella Valley Music Festival , New Orleans Jazz Fest , and at The Cosmopolitan of Las Vegas . In July 2011 , Hill gave birth to her sixth child , Micah , her first not with Rohan Marley ; the father remains publicly unknown .
In February 2012 , Hill performed a new song titled " Fearless Vampire Killer " , during a sold @-@ out performance at the Warner Theater in Washington , D.C. In late 2012 , Hill toured with rapper Nas ; her portion of the tour , titled Black Rage , is named after her song , released October 30 . Hill has described the song as being " about the derivative effects of racial inequity and abuse " and " a juxtaposition to the statement ' life is good , ' which she believes can only be so when these long standing issues are addressed and resolved . "
In June 2012 , Hill was charged with three counts of tax evasion for not paying federal taxes on $ 1 @.@ 8 million of income earned between 2005 and 2007 . During this time she had toured as a musical artist , earned royalties from both her records and from films she had appeared in , and had owned and been in charge of multiple corporations . In a long post to her Tumblr , Hill said that she had gone " underground " and had rejected pop culture 's " climate of hostility , false entitlement , manipulation , racial prejudice , sexism and ageism . " She added that , " When I was working consistently without being affected by the interferences mentioned above , I filed and paid my taxes . This only stopped when it was necessary to withdraw from society , in order to guarantee the safety and well @-@ being of myself and my family . " On June 29 , 2012 , Hill appeared in the United States District Court for the District of New Jersey in Newark and pleaded guilty to the charges ; her attorney said she would make restitution for the back taxes she owed . By April 22 , 2013 , Hill had paid back only $ 50 @,@ 000 of the $ 554 @,@ 000 she owed immediately ; U.S. Magistrate Judge Madeline Cox Arleo criticized Hill , saying " This is not someone who stands before the court penniless . This is a criminal matter . Actions speak louder than words , and there has been no effort here to pay these taxes . " Hill also faced possible eviction from her rented home in South Orange as well as a civil lawsuit from the town for running a business , that being holding recording sessions , out of a home without a zoning permit .
On May 4 , 2013 , Hill released her first official single in over a decade , " Neurotic Society ( Compulsory Mix ) " . She later published a message on her Tumblr describing how she was " required to release [ it ] immediately , by virtue of the impending legal deadline . " The release received some criticism for lyrics that appeared to tie societal decay to certain LGBT social movements . Hill responded that the song was not targeted at any particular group but was instead focused on anyone hiding behind neurotic behavior . Following a deal with Sony Music , which involves Hill creating a new record label within the company , Hill was said to be scheduled to release her first album in fifteen years during 2013 ( that did not happen ) .
On May 6 , 2013 , Hill was sentenced by Judge Arleo to serve three months in prison for tax evasion and three months house arrest afterwards as part of a year of supervised probation . She had faced a possible sentence of as long as 36 months , and the sentence given took into account her lack of a prior criminal record and her six minor @-@ aged children . By this point Hill had fully paid back $ 970 @,@ 000 in back taxes and penalties she owed , which also took into account an additional $ 500 @,@ 000 that Hill had in unreported income for 2008 and 2009 . In the courtroom , Hill said that she had lived " very modestly " considering how much money she had made for others , and that " I am a child of former slaves who had a system imposed on them . I had an economic system imposed on me . " Hill reported to the minimum @-@ security Federal Correctional Institution , Danbury on July 8 , 2013 , to begin serving her sentence .
Hill was released from prison on October 4 , 2013 , a few days early for good behavior , and began her home confinement and probationary periods . She put out a single called " Consumerism " that she had finished , via verbal and e @-@ mailed instructions , while incarcerated . Judge Arleo allowed her to postpone part of her confinement in order to tour in late 2013 under strict conditions .
During 2014 , Hill was heard as the narrator of Concerning Violence , an award @-@ winning Swedish documentary on the African liberation struggles of the 1960s and 1970s . She also continued to draw media attention for her erratic behavior , appearing late twice in the same day for sets at Voodoo Fest in November 2014 .
In May 2015 , Hill canceled her scheduled concert outside Tel Aviv in Israel following a social media campaign from activists promoting the Boycott , Divestment and Sanctions campaign . She said she had wanted to also perform a show in Ramallah in the West Bank but logistical problems had proved too great . Hill stated : " It is very important to me that my presence or message not be misconstrued , or a source of alienation to either my Israeli or my Palestinian fans . "
Hill contributed her voice to the soundtrack for What Happened , Miss Simone ? , a 2015 documentary about the life of Nina Simone , an American singer , pianist , and civil rights activist . Hill was originally supposed to record only two songs for the record , but ended up recording six . She also served as a producer on the comp alongside Robert Glasper . Hill said of her connection to Simone : " Because I fed on this music ... I believed I always had a right to have a voice . Her example is clearly a form of sustenance to a generation needing to find theirs . What a gift . " NPR critically praised Hill 's performance on the soundtrack , stating : " This album mainly showcases Lauryn Hill 's breadth and dexterity . Not formally marketed as Hill 's comeback album , her six tracks here make this her most comprehensive set of studio recordings since The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill in 1998 . "
In April 2016 , Hill hosted and headlined what was billed as the inaugural Diaspora Calling ! festival at the Kings Theatre in Brooklyn . The festival 's purpose was to showcase the efforts of musicians and artists from around the African diaspora . But the following month , Hill was 2 hours and 20 minutes late for her show at Chastain Amphitheater | Chastain Park Amphitheatre in Atlanta . Moments after the less than 40 minute show ended , she said her driver had gotten lost and she could not help that . Less than 48 hours later , after a large backlash from her fans on Twitter , she took to her Facebook page and claimed she was two hours late for concert because of need to ' align her energies.'
= = Discography = =
The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill ( 1998 )
= = Filmography = =
= United States Senate Democratic primary election in Pennsylvania , 2010 =
The Democratic primary for the 2010 United States Senate election in Pennsylvania took place on May 18 , 2010 , when Congressman Joe Sestak defeated incumbent Arlen Specter , which led to the end of Specter 's five @-@ term Senatorial career . Just prior to the start of the primary campaign , after serving in the Senate as a Republican for 29 years , Specter had switched to the Democratic Party in anticipation of a difficult primary challenge by Pat Toomey ; Sestak was ultimately defeated by Toomey in the general election . Political observers and journalists described the race between Specter and Sestak as one of the bitterest and most watched of all the 2010 primary elections .
Although Sestak was initially urged to run by the Democratic establishment , Specter gained wide support from Democrats after he switched parties . Major political figures like President Barack Obama and Pennsylvania Governor Ed Rendell later tried to sway Sestak from continuing the race , fearing he would damage Specter 's chances in the general election . Former President Bill Clinton offered Sestak a position in the Obama administration if he withdrew his candidacy , an offer Republicans would later criticize . Sestak refused to drop out and criticized Specter 's party switch as an opportunistic move aimed solely at self @-@ preservation . Nevertheless , Sestak struggled to overcome problems stemming from low name recognition and Specter 's support from such individuals as Joe Biden and Harry Reid , and organizations like the AFL @-@ CIO and Pennsylvania Democratic Committee .
Specter led Sestak by more than 20 percentage points for most of the race , but this lead narrowed significantly in the final month of the campaign , when Sestak concentrated his funds and efforts on television commercials questioning Specter 's Democratic credentials . Specter grew more critical of Sestak as the race progressed , attacking his House attendance record , accusing him of failing to pay his staffers minimum wage and alleging he was demoted while serving in the U.S. Navy for creating a poor command climate . Political observers said Sestak 's commercials played a major part in his victory , and that a national swing in momentum toward Republicans and against incumbents ultimately harmed Specter 's chances .
= = Background = =
= = = Chris Matthews speculation = = =
Beginning in April 2008 , the media reported growing speculation that Chris Matthews , news commentator and host of MSNBC 's Hardball with Chris Matthews , might run in the 2010 Democratic primary for the United States Senate Pennsylvania seat then occupied by the Republican Arlen Specter . In an interview with The New York Times Magazine , Matthews said that he believed Specter had been in the Senate for too long , but that running for Senate would mean giving up a career he loved . Mark Leibovich , author of the article , wrote , " Matthews has been particularly obsessed with Pennsylvania of late , devoting hours on and off the air to the state 's upcoming Democratic primary , staying in close contact with the state 's party apparatus " . Speculation was further fueled by Matthews ' appearance on an April 14 episode of The Colbert Report . Host Stephen Colbert asked Matthews about the rumors and prodded him to make a public announcement , to which Matthews replied , " Did you ever want to be something your whole life ? ... When you grow up , some kids want to be a fireman . I want to be a Senator . But I have to deal with these things as they come . " Matthews declined to directly answer questions about his possible candidacy when pressed by the media , but did not deny the possibility .
The subject of Matthews ' possible candidacy was raised at an October dinner fundraiser for presidential candidate Barack Obama held by Robert Wolf , president of UBS 's investment bank . Discussing the dinner later , Matthews told The New York Times , " People have asked me about it . I 've never told anyone that I 'm running . " On November 28 , The Patriot @-@ News of Harrisburg reported that Matthews met that week with Pennsylvania Democratic Party Chairman T.J. Rooney and Executive Director Mary Isenhour to discuss possibly running against Specter . Isenhour told the paper Matthews had not formed a campaign committee or begun raising money , and she did not believe he had yet come to a firm decision , adding , " He 's got a really good job with MSNBC . I think he 's going to put some thought into it before he jumps in . " The same day as that Patriot @-@ News report , the political blog FiveThirtyEight.com reported that Matthews had already met with potential campaign staff , something Matthews claimed was " absolutely not true " .
The increased speculation led some , like former spokesman for Hillary Rodham Clinton 's 2008 presidential campaign Phil Singer , to criticize Matthews for openly weighing a political campaign bid while working as a news broadcaster . Singer believed Matthews should resign or be suspended from the network until a decision was made . Speculation grew as Matthews spent much of 2008 attending meetings with Pennsylvania representatives and major Democratic fundraisers . Matthews discussed a possible campaign with Pennsylvania Governor Ed Rendell , and poll numbers for a theoretical race showed him only three percentage points behind Specter . However , the speculation came to an end on January 7 , 2009 , when Matthews told his Hardball staff he was not going to run for Senate . Such media outlets as The New York Times and The Washington Post suggested Matthews ' alleged consideration was a tactic to ensure a higher salary during negotiations with MSNBC to renew his contract , which was set to expire in June 2009 .
= = = Arlen Specter party switch = = =
As early as 2008 , the five @-@ term Republican Pennsylvania Senator Arlen Specter made clear his plans to seek re @-@ election . Specter had narrowly avoided a primary defeat against conservative challenger Pat Toomey during his 2004 Senate race , and he was expected to face an even greater challenge from Toomey in 2010 , particularly since the conservative faction of the Pennsylvania Republican Party had vowed to defeat Specter in the upcoming primary . Some high @-@ profile Democrats , including Vice President Joe Biden and Governor Rendell , began encouraging Specter to join the Democratic Party by publicly offering to help Specter raise money if he switched . A March 2009 Quinnipiac University Polling Institute poll found Specter trailing Toomey 41 percent to 27 percent among Republican primary voters , in large part due to voter angst over Specter 's support for the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 , which was supported by President Obama . Since the Pennsylvania primaries are closed , the poll noted that Specter could not be assisted by support from moderates or Democrats . Clay F. Richards , assistant director of the Quinnipiac University Polling Institute , said of the poll results , " Pennsylvania Republicans are so unhappy with Sen. Specter ’ s vote for President Barack Obama 's Stimulus Package and so @-@ called pork barrel spending that they are voting for a former Congressman they hardly know . "
The same month as the March poll , an article in The Hill quoted Specter as stating he was considering leaving the Republican party to run for re @-@ election as an Independent candidate . Specter later denied the validity of those claims , announcing on March 18 , " To eliminate any doubt , I am a Republican , and I am running for reelection in 2010 as a Republican on the Republican ticket . " However , on April 28 , 2009 , Specter announced he was leaving the Republican Party and becoming a Democrat because he disagreed with the increasingly conservative direction the Republican Party was heading in and found his personal philosophy was now better aligned with the Democrats . Although Specter said that he primarily based his decision on principle , he also admitted it was partially due to his poor chances at winning the Republican primary : " I have traveled the state and surveyed the sentiments of the Republican Party in Pennsylvania and public opinion polls , observed other public opinion polls and have found that the prospects for winning a Republican primary are bleak . "
Prior to switching parties , Specter was promised by Senate Majority Leader Harry Reid that he would keep his seniority on the Senate if he joined the Democratic Party . The arrangement displeased some Senate Democrats , and , on May 3 , the Senate voted to strip him of his seniority despite Reid 's promise . This temporarily made Specter the most junior Democrat in the Senate and severely limited his influence as a legislator . Nevertheless , Specter 's decision was praised by many major Democrats , including Reid and President Barack Obama , who promised to campaign for him . Republicans , however , criticized the decision , accusing Specter of betraying his principles and party to preserve his political career . Michael Steele , chairman of the Republican National Committee , said Specter " flipped the bird " to the party and that Specter made the decision based solely because he knew he would lose the election . Senator John Cornyn , chairman of the National Republican Senatorial Committee and a past supporter of Specter , said the decision " represents the height of political self @-@ preservation " . Specter defended his position by arguing the Republican Party had strayed too far from the vision of President Ronald Reagan , adding , " I am not prepared to have my 29 @-@ year record in the United States Senate decided by the Pennsylvania Republican primary electorate . "
= = = Joe Sestak declares candidacy = = =
Second @-@ term U.S Representative Joe Sestak , a former U.S. Navy admiral , began privately discussing the possibility of seeking the Democratic nomination with his family in December 2008 . Senator Bob Menendez , chairman of the Democratic Senatorial Campaign Committee , approached Sestak in April 2009 and asked him to run , but Sestak claimed he was not initially interested . Nevertheless , media speculation about Sestak 's possible campaign began as early as mid @-@ April 2009 , and intensified the day Specter changed political parties . While most Democrats embraced the long @-@ time Senator , Sestak issued a statement criticizing Specter 's decision , declaring it an opportunist move that should have been made in consultation with Pennsylvanians rather than the Senate Democratic leadership and the Washington political establishment . Menendez approached Sestak again , this time asking him not to run against Specter , but Sestak did not agree to back down . Later , when asked by Fox News , Sestak insisted he had not decided whether he would run for the office , but declined to immediately endorse Specter and said he had to " wait and see " . During a May 3 appearance on CNN 's State of the Union with John King , Sestak questioned whether Specter was really a genuine Democrat , adding , " I think Arlen has to tell us not that it was too hard to run against someone . ... What I need to know is , what is he running for ? "
Sestak insisted he would not make a final decision for several months . On May 4 , he met with Andy Stern , president of the Service Employees International Union , which fueled speculation that he was seeking labor support for a campaign . Meanwhile , Joe Torsella , the former president of the National Constitution Center , had planned on running for the Democratic nomination and initially announced Specter 's party change would not affect his decision to run . However , Torsella announced on May 14 he was dropping out of the race because Specter 's decision changed the political landscape , and he wanted to avoid a campaign that " would probably be negative , personal , and more about Senator Specter 's past than our common future " . It had been reported that Governor Rendell , for whom Torsella previously worked as an aide , pushed for Torsella to step aside so Specter could run unopposed , but Torsella 's staff denied those claims . Despite Torsella 's departure , Sestak continued to consider entering the race and began gaining support from the Democratic party 's more liberal factions like the Progressive Change Campaign Committee , which began a " Draft Sestak " campaign fund . Sestak became further encouraged to run after taking a tour of all 67 Pennsylvania counties to meet with party leaders and discuss such issues as jobs , the economy and health care . Sestak said that the leaders voiced serious concerns to him about the direction of the country and , although his lack of name recognition was a problem , Sestak said many of the people he encountered voiced support for him .
On May 27 , the website Talking Points Memo posted a handwritten letter by Sestak to candidates declaring his intent to run for Senate . Sestak did not dispute the authenticity of the letter , but told the press he wanted to discuss the matter with his family before making a formal decision . Sestak told media outlets he realized President Obama wished him not to run against Specter , but that he felt the choice should be with the voters of Pennsylvania rather than the president . Governor Rendell overtly tried to convince him not to run , believing it would damage Sestak 's own political future , plus cost the Democratic Party both Sestak 's House seat and possibly damage Specter 's general election chances . Nevertheless , Sestak formally declared his candidacy for the Democratic nomination on August 4 , 2009 , in a speech before a Veterans of Foreign Wars hall in his native Delaware County . Shortly after the announcement , Toomey issued a statement welcoming Sestak to the race , describing him as " a consistent liberal who really believes in his values " , as compared to Specter , who he called " a career political opportunist who believes in nothing but his own re @-@ election " .
= = Candidates = =
Joe Sestak , U.S. Congressman
Arlen Specter , Incumbent U.S. Senator
Pennsylvania Rep. William C. Kortz and retired manufacturer Joseph Vodvarka also ran in the Democratic primary , but neither remained for the duration of the race . Kortz , who was little known outside the western Pennsylvania area , dropped out of the race on January 14 , 2010 after raising only $ 20 @,@ 000 of the $ 2 million he sought to raise for his campaign . Vodvarka , an Allegheny County man who had been mostly overlooked throughout the race , was formally removed from the ballot in mid @-@ April 2010 after it was revealed he failed to garner the minimum amount of signatures for a nominating petition .
= = Campaign = =
= = = Early months = = =
Both candidates started the campaign well @-@ funded . Sestak had more than $ 3 million available from his House fund to use toward starting a Senate campaign , and raised an additional $ 1 million by June 30 , 2009 , which brought his total to about $ 4 @.@ 2 million . Sestak called it the largest campaign war @-@ chest of any Senate challenger . Specter , however , was ahead with $ 6 @.@ 7 million in campaign funding as of March 31 . Sestak also faced challenges arising from his low name recognition and Specter 's support among high @-@ profile members of the Democratic establishment , like Obama and Biden . Specter spent the early months of his campaign trying to reestablish and strengthen his Democratic credentials , seeking union support and making speeches highlighting his support of positions supported by the party , such as the economic stimulus package , reforming health care , increasing the minimum wage , protecting abortion rights and supporting stem cell research . In a June 2009 speech to Pennsylvania Democratic Committee members in Pittsburgh , Specter said , " I 'm again a Democrat and I 'm pleased and proud to be a Democrat . " Commentators observed that Sestak 's involvement in the race would test Specter 's loyalty to the Democratic party and likely force him to make more liberal votes in the Senate .
Even before Sestak formally declared his candidacy on August 4 , 2009 , Specter and Sestak began exchanging criticisms about each other that were so heated , The New York Times writer Janie Lorber suggested " the contest will become one of the more vicious for next year 's midterm elections " . Sestak repeatedly said Specter was not a " real Democrat " and continued to assert Specter 's switch was based on self @-@ preservation rather than principles . Specter called Sestak a " flagrant hypocrite " for questioning Specter 's loyalty to the Democratic Party , citing the fact that Sestak himself was registered as an Independent until he became a Democrat in 2006 , just before he ran for Congress . Sestak claimed that was because he was serving in the military and wished to be nonpartisan , but Specter called that a " lame excuse for avoiding party affiliation ... undercut by his documented disinterest in the political process " , pointing out that records indicated Sestak voted in only 12 out of 35 elections from 1971 to 2005 . A day after Sestak formally entered the race , Specter described Sestak 's recent 67 @-@ county tour as a " taxpayer @-@ financed self @-@ promotion tour around the state " . Specter 's campaign also accused Sestak of neglecting his duties in the House and missing more than 100 votes in the last year , which Specter called the worst attendance record for any Pennsylvania Congressman . Sestak responded to the latter point that most of the missed votes were procedural in nature , and were missed because of the statewide tour and because he visited his father , who was dying at the time . Sestak accused Specter of launching a " GOP negative style campaign " , which Specter denied .
= = = Toomey and Obama get involved = = =
Specter and Sestak participated in an August 14 panel discussion hosted by Netroots Nation , which included questions from online viewers consisting mainly of liberal and progressive bloggers and advocates . Media reports suggested Specter faced tougher questions from the crowd , with many questioning whether they could trust him based on his switching parties . Specter dismissed suggestions that his recent Democratic votes were politically motivated by the primary , and cited his support of the Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act and Children 's Health Insurance Reauthorization Act as proof of his Democratic credentials . Sestak argued a change in leadership was necessary and that his military background as a United States Navy admiral gave him the necessary experience . Sestak also pointed out that Specter worked with former Senator Bob Dole to defeat President Bill Clinton 's health care plan in 1993 . When some in the crowd brought up how Senator Chuck Grassley , a past ally of Specter 's , was arguing that Obama 's health care plan would lead to " death panels " , Specter said that Grassley was wrong and that he would call him about the matter . When some in the crowd chanted , " Call him now ! " , Specter took several audience members backstage and left a phone message for Grassley as they watched . Salon.com said based on the stunt , " Specter may have won the day , if not the battle " . However , a straw poll of 250 online activists attending the event showed Sestak was preferred to Specter by a vote of 46 percent to 10 percent .
Later , following an e @-@ mail exchange with the expected Republican challenger Toomey about health care , Sestak proposed an unorthodox joint town hall with Toomey about the issue , which was held September 2 at Muhlenberg College in Allentown . Specter was not invited to participate , and political pollster G. Terry Madonna of Franklin & Marshall College described it as an " informal pact " between Sestak and Toomey to weaken their joint rival , something the two men denied . Commentators suggested Toomey was willing to help Sestak at this stage of the race because he preferred Sestak as a general election opponent over Specter , who could possibly draw Republican and Independent voters from Toomey . Also in September , Obama appeared in a 30 @-@ second television ad for Specter , praising him for his support of the President 's economic recovery initiatives . A September poll by Franklin & Marshall College found Specter maintained a 37 percent to 11 percent lead over Sestak , but also that 54 percent of people felt a change was needed as opposed to 34 percent who felt Specter deserved a sixth term . That poll also found 73 percent felt they did not know enough about Sestak to form an opinion , which pollster Madonna said indicated the race would be focused more on Specter 's incumbency and record than about Sestak or Toomey .
On September 15 , Obama attended a Philadelphia fundraising dinner for Specter , an unusually public declaration of support so early in the primary season , when the President has the option of remaining neutral until the final outcome becomes clearer . Governor Rendell said that Obama and Biden felt obligated to strongly support Specter because they so strongly lobbied him to switch parties . Philadelphia Mayor Michael Nutter and radio personality Michael Smerconish also spoke on Specter 's behalf . Senate Majority Leader Reid took the unusual steps of scheduling no Senate votes that day so both Specter and Pennsylvania Senator Bob Casey , Jr. could attend the fundraiser . That move drew criticism from Republicans , as well as from Sestak , who felt Specter was skirting his Senate responsibilities , yet hypocritically criticizing Sestak at the same time for missing more than 100 votes in the U.S. House . The event was expected to raise about $ 2 @.@ 5 million , which was to be split between Specter 's campaign and the Democratic Senatorial Campaign Committee . After the fundraiser , Obama and Specter traveled via Air Force One to Pittsburgh to address labor activists at the AFL @-@ CIO convention . There , Specter assured the audience he would support the Employee Free Choice Act , a proposed bill that would make union formation easier , which Specter had previously opposed as a Republican .
= = = Specter maintains lead = = =
As the primary entered into October , Specter continued to criticize Sestak on his record of missed votes in Congress . He claimed Sestak missed 122 in the past year , or nearly 17 percent of his total votes , whereas Specter missed four . In a letter , Specter told Sestak he should drop out of the campaign and start voting on a more consistent basis , or resign from the House " so he can cease to be a burden to the taxpayers " . Around the same time , Sestak launched a website called " The Real Specter " , which highlighted the right @-@ leaning votes Specter made and alliances he held during his 29 years as a Republican in the senate . Specter continued to maintain a significant lead against Sestak of 19 percentage points , according to a Quinnipiac University poll released that month . But Sestak pointed out that the gap was 32 points in July , and cited the poll as proof that he was gaining ground in the race . Also that month , new reports indicated Toomey was growing in popularity and , in one poll , was actually ahead of Specter , with 43 percent of respondents saying they would vote for him compared to 42 percent for Specter . This was attributed by some to the challenge presented by Sestak and the declining popularity of Obama , whose approval rating had dropped from 56 percent in July to 49 percent in October .
On October 14 , Specter reported he had raised $ 1 @.@ 8 million during the previous three @-@ month period , bringing his total to about $ 8 @.@ 7 million . The Senator said that he was aided in large part by his September 15 fundraiser hosted by Obama . In that same period , Sestak raised only $ 758 @,@ 000 , about a quarter million dollars lower than the previous quarter , making his total allocation about $ 4 @.@ 7 million . Sestak continued working hard to overcome his name recognition problem , seldom turning down interview requests and asking his staff to work six 12 @-@ hour days a week . As a result , Sestak saw a large amount of turnover in his staff , going through nearly half a dozen press secretaries and several chiefs of staff . Sestak called on Specter participate in six debates , one for each media market in Pennsylvania , but Specter only agreed to participate in one because that was the amount of debates he participated in as a Republican . On December 7 , Sestak was endorsed by Congressman Barney Frank , who said that he was impressed by Sestak 's leadership on economic and military issues , as well as his positions against the military 's " don 't ask , don 't tell " policy and the Defense of Marriage Act . The endorsement was important to Sestak because it was the first time a prominent member of Congress broke with the Democratic establishment to back him over Specter . Frank also said of Specter 's switching parties , " I have to say I don 't think it did our profession any good for someone to announce that he switched parties purely so he could survive . "
New polls in January indicated voter support was growing for Toomey , who now held a projected nine percentage point lead over Specter and an eight @-@ point lead over Sestak . Specter continued to lead against Sestak in the Democratic primary poll , this time by a 21 @-@ point margin . Some political scientists believed Toomey 's gain over Specter could be attributed to voter distrust of establishment candidates and growing dissatisfaction with the health care proposal pending in Congress . However , some Democratic leaders felt Sestak 's challenge to Specter was having a detrimental effect not only to Specter , but to the Democratic party in general and their prospects for ultimately winning the general election . This feeling was enhanced by the growing national support for the Republican party , and especially by the unexpected victory of the Tea Party @-@ backed Republican Scott Brown in a special election for a traditionally Democratic Massachusetts Senate seat . Specter acknowledged to The New York Times that the national political mood might work against him in the primary , but insisted he was not discouraged and expressed confidence in his ability to survive .
= = = Race grows more heated = = =
The primary continued to grow more heated in February 2010 . On February 5 , the two candidates held their first face @-@ to @-@ face debate , and used the 30 @-@ minute forum to strongly criticize each other , with Sestak continuing to associate Specter with failed Republican policies and Specter arguing his opponent was more focused on criticizing him than debating policy . Sestak continued to attack Specter for switching parties , asking , " Is the best the Democrats can do someone who has been on the other side , with respect , for 50 years , and cast 2 @,@ 000 votes with President Bush ? " Likewise , Specter once again criticized Sestak 's missed votes in Congress , which he said would have been enough to earn Sestak a court @-@ martial for going AWOL in his former Naval career . Sestak also criticized Specter for voting in favor of the Iraq War , and Specter in turn condemned Sestak for supporting Obama 's proposed troop increase for the War in Afghanistan , which Specter opposed . The next day , the Pennsylvania Democratic Committee voted to endorse Specter over Sestak , with 77 percent of voters supporting the incumbent Senator , or 229 votes compared to Sestak 's 72 . Sestak criticized the committee for its decision , but also argued it solidified his own position as a political outsider independent from the mainstream Washington establishment . Media outlets said the vote indicated Specter had convinced most important figures in the state party that he was not simply a crossover politician .
Later in February , Specter accused Sestak of mistreating his employees and disobeying state and federal minimum wage laws by severely underpaying his House staff . Citing Federal Election Commission reports , Specter claimed ten of Sestak 's sixteen campaign staffers were making less than minimum wage and that they were so underpaid they were eligible for food stamps . He also noted that Sestak 's three highest @-@ paid staffers were members of his family , including his brother Richard Sestak , who worked as campaign manager . T.J. Rooney , a Specter supporter , wrote a letter to Sestak expressing concern about the potential violation of minimum wage laws , which read : " It is inconceivable to me that our standard bearer wouldn ’ t be paying his workers the minimum wage " . Sestak responded by acknowledging his staff could make more money elsewhere , but said " they choose to work hard and make some sacrifices because they know how important it is to elect someone to the United States Senate who shares their principles " .
= = = Specter maintains momentum = = =
As the primary race entered into March , Specter appeared to be maintaining his momentum , with polls indicating he not only led Sestak by 24 percentage points , but had recaptured a projected lead against Toomey in the general election by a margin of 49 to 42 percent . Pollsters indicated Specter was still benefiting greatly from his strong name recognition , whereas Sestak and Toomey remained relatively little @-@ known . Peter Brown , assistant director of the Quinnipiac University Polling Institute , said , " There remains no evidence that his primary challenger , Congressman Joe Sestak , has made much progress as we get within three months of the May primary . " However , Time writer Karen Tumulty noted that while " thus far , Sestak has failed to meet expectations " , the poll also indicated some weaknesses for Specter . Namely , more than half of the surveyed Pennsylvanians did not feel he deserved another term , and among Democrats who knew the candidates well enough to form an opinion of both , Sestak led Specter 54 percent to 37 percent . On March 16 , Governor Rendell restated his past support of Specter and said of Sestak , " He has , in my mind , no chance to win . "
On March 30 , Specter won the backing of the AFL @-@ CIO , which was considered one of the most important endorsements in the primary race . It was one of several major labor endorsements Specter had received , including the state Service Employees International Union and the Pennsylvania State Education Association , which represented 200 @,@ 000 state teachers . Representatives from the AFL @-@ CIO cited Specter 's backing of President Obama 's stimulus package as a major factor in their decision . Sestak criticized the union federation 's decision , pointing out he had a 100 percent rating from the national AFL @-@ CIO while Specter had a 61 percent rating . He also attacked Specter for previously backing President George W. Bush 's economic policies and said , " Pennsylvania workers need a Senator they can count on to be there when they need him , not only when he needs them during an election . " The Philadelphia Inquirer writer Thomas Fitzgerald called the endorsement " a powerful affirmation of how smoothly Specter has managed his political transition to the Democratic Party since leaving the Republican Party less than a year ago " .
On April 11 , Sestak held a debate with Toomey in Philadelphia without Specter present , which media observers described as an explicit criticism of Specter for refusing to hold more than one debate with Sestak . During that debate , Sestak strongly attacked Toomey 's voting record in what The Morning Call reporter Colby Itkowitz described as " an obvious effort to show Democrats that he could hold his own in a general election matchup " . At the end of the debate , Toomey voiced respect for Sestak and described him as a more principled man than Specter , who he criticized for not participating in more debates . Later that month , when the Senate candidates publicly released their quarterly campaign finance reports on April 15 , it was revealed Toomey raised more in the first three months of 2010 than either Democratic candidate , adding $ 2 @.@ 3 million to his total $ 4 @.@ 1 million war chest compared to Specter adding $ 1 @.@ 1 million to his total $ 9 @.@ 1 million fund . Political analysts attributed this to the national swing in momentum toward Republicans , and said that it could indicate the Republicans would be victorious in many Senate races , including in Pennsylvania . Sestak raised $ 442 @,@ 000 in the three @-@ month period , down from his previous quarter , which Specter 's campaign said proved Democratic donors had rejected his candidacy . Specter 's fundraising advantage was significant because it allowed him to start early in running political campaign commercials .
= = = Television advertisements = = =
Starting in April , both Specter and Sestak launched television advertisements that were particularly critical of each other . Sestak , who had been saving most of his roughly $ 5 million campaign funds until the final month of the primary race , unveiled a 60 @-@ second spot that highlighted his Navy career and described the role his daughter 's experience as a brain cancer survivor played in his decision to enter politics . The commercial did not discuss Specter by name but made several implicit references to him , such as Sestak 's statements that " too many politicians are concerned about keeping their jobs instead of helping people " and " if we want real change in Washington , we can 't keep sending the same career politicians to represent us " . Specter launched several commercials , most focusing on his plans to promote job growth . One advertisement , however , focused entirely on attacking Sestak , highlighting not only his voting attendance record – labeling him " No Show Joe " – but also his Navy service . The commercial stated Sestak was " relieved of duty in the Navy for creating a poor command climate " , a reference to Sestak 's 2005 transfer from a senior Pentagon planning post to a lesser position , which effectively ended his naval career .
The Navy Times had previously reported the transfer resulted from Sestak forcing subordinates to work unreasonable hours , although Sestak himself disputed that accusation and attributed the transfer to the fact that the new top officer , Admiral Michael Mullen , simply wanted to appoint his own team . Sestak called on Specter to stop broadcasting the commercial , accusing the Senator of " Republican @-@ style " negative campaign tactics , which he compared to those used against Senator John Kerry by the Swift Vets and POWs for Truth during the 2004 presidential election . Sestak said in a statement , " It 's time to tell Arlen Specter : Democrats don 't ' swift boat ' . We 're better than that . " A group of veterans gathered in Philadelphia to echo Sestak 's call that the commercial should be removed , with retired U.S. Air Force Lieutenant General Robert E. Kelley announcing , " We 're all here because we 're enraged at the fact that someone , anyone , in the United States today would question someone who has 30 years of service . " Specter 's campaign replied they would not remove the commercial because it was accurate , and instead called on Sestak to remove his own advertisement , claiming it violated United States Department of Defense guidelines because it used military images , references and jargon without a disclaimer that it was not endorsed by the department .
= = = Sestak gains in closing weeks = = =
Sestak and Specter held their first and only televised debate on May 1 at Philadelphia 's Fox affiliate , during which the two candidates bitterly attacked each other 's character and honesty . The two began arguing even before the hour @-@ long debate formally began , when Sestak objected to Specter 's use of notes and said that the rules did not allow them . The debate organizer ruled the notes were allowed . Specter criticized Sestak for campaign advertisements that accused the Senator of lying about Sestak 's record . Specter said , " Nobody has ever called me a liar , " and demanded an apology , to which Sestak did not respond . Specter also repeatedly asked Sestak to publicly release his military records , to which Sestak again refused to respond . Sestak accused Specter of using Republican @-@ style tactics in the vein of Karl Rove , former adviser to George W. Bush , and said Specter 's attacks were meant to mask his record of supporting Bush 's failed economic policies . Specter insisted the questions raised about Sestak 's naval record were legitimate because much of Sestak 's campaign was based on his military background , adding , " It goes to his ability to get things done , to get along with people . He 's all peaches and cream on television . " Specter criticized Sestak for supporting the troop build @-@ up in Afghanistan , while Sestak noted that Specter voted against a ban on assault weapons in the 1990s . The Philadelphia Inquirer noted the debate was " every bit as contentious as their Democratic Senate primary struggle has become in its closing days " .
With only two weeks remaining before the primary , a Quinnipiac University poll released May 4 showed Specter 's lead against Sestak had significantly narrowed , dropping from 53 @-@ 32 percent in the previous month to 47 @-@ 39 percent . A daily tracking poll by Muhlenberg College showed the race as even closer , with Specter supported by 46 percent of likely voters surveyed , and Sestak trailing only four points at 42 percent . The Quinnipiac poll indicated the strongest factor in these changes was that Sestak was gaining better name recognition due to his television commercials . According to the poll , 43 percent of respondents now had a favorable view of him , compared to only 33 percent in March . The day after the poll was released , Sestak unveiled a new television advertisement strongly critical of Specter , highlighting the incumbent Senator 's Republican history and showing images of him with George W. Bush and Republican vice presidential candidate Sarah Palin . The commercial featured a clip of Specter saying , " My change in party will enable me to be reelected " and ended with a narrator saying , " Arlen Specter switched parties to save one job : his , not yours . " The same week the advertisement ran , T.J. Rooney said in an interview with Politico that a Sestak primary victory would be " cataclysmic " for the party in the general election , and warned Democratic voters , " If we want to keep this seat in Democratic hands , the only person capable of delivering that victory is Arlen Specter . "
Specter received several high @-@ profile endorsements during the final weeks leading up to the primary . Senator John Kerry , who had been an early supporter of Sestak 's 2006 House campaign , endorsed Specter in the Senate race , calling him " fighter and a friend , and I am proud to vouch for his character " . The Philadelphia Inquirer called Sestak " a worthy opponent " and said that his determination made the race especially competitive , but ultimately embraced Specter , whose overall career record the newspaper said was " a good choice for Democrats " . The Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette also endorsed Specter , focusing more on the fact that Specter stood the best chance of defeating Toomey in a general election challenge . The Pittsburgh Tribune @-@ Review , however , endorsed Sestak , calling him " incredibly intelligent , thoughtful and articular " while condemning Specter as a " self @-@ serving political ferret " for switching parties . Actor Michael J. Fox , who suffers from Parkinson 's disease , appeared in a television advertisement for Specter , praising the Senator for his long @-@ standing support of stem cell research . Fox said , " In the fight against disease , you can look back or move forward . Arlen Specter is moving forward . " President Obama sent e @-@ mail messages to his Organizing for America supporters encouraging them to vote for Specter , However , despite his long position of support for Specter , Obama did not fly to Pennsylvania to actively campaign for the Senator during the campaign 's final days .
As the campaign entered its final week , polls showed Specter and Sestak at a dead heat , with different surveys reporting contradictory findings over which candidate maintained a slight edge . A Quinnipiac University poll found Specter leading 44 @-@ 42 percent , with fourteen percent undecided , whereas a Franklin & Marshall poll found Sestak ahead 38 @-@ 36 percent , with about a quarter of voters undecided . In both cases , the lead fell within the survey 's margin of error . G. Terry Madonna , director of the Franklin & Marshall poll , said that Sestak improved because his television commercials were resonating with voters on three fronts : the arguments that Specter switched parties for solely political reasons , that he consistently voted for Republican policies and that he had been in office too long .
= = Polling = =
= = Results = =
Sestak won the May 18 primary with 53 @.@ 8 percent of the vote , or 568 @,@ 563 of the votes cast , compared to 46 @.@ 2 percent and 487 @,@ 217 votes for Specter . The defeat led to the end of Specter 's nearly 30 @-@ year Senate career , the longest of any Pennsylvania Senator in history . Afterward , Sestak declared , " This is what democracy should look like : a win for the people over the establishment . It should come as no surprise to anyone that people want a change . " Specter conceded defeat and said , " It 's been a great privilege to serve the people of Pennsylvania . It 's been a great privilege to be in the United States Senate . " Commentators suggested Specter 's defeat signaled an electorate unsatisfied with the establishment in both major parties , and indicated that the backing of prominent politicians had little effect on voters during this political age . Sestak 's victory was seen as a minor embarrassment for Obama , who strongly and publicly advocated for Specter during the race . Several news outlets reflected that Sestak 's television advertisements condemning Specter as a hypocrite and opportunist were especially effective and may have been the primary factor in his victory . The Washington Post said the Pennsylvania race drew more attention than any other primary election in 2010 due to Specter 's longevity and his switch to the Democratic party .
Toomey went on to defeat Sestak in the general election , winning by a margin of 51 to 49 percent .
= = Clinton job offer to Sestak = =
During a February 2010 television interview , Sestak said that in July 2009 he was offered a job in President Obama 's administration if he dropped out of the race . During a February 18 taping of Larry Kane : Voice of Reason , a Philadelphia @-@ area local news show , host Larry Kane asked Sestak whether such an offer had been made , to which Sestak responded , " Yes " , without elaborating beyond that it was a high @-@ ranking assignment and that he did not plan to take it . In subsequent press inquiries , Sestak repeatedly stood by his original statement . When asked about the matter by The Washington Post , he said , " There has been some indirect means in which they were trying to offer things if I got out . " Likewise , during an appearance on the Fox News Channel , he said , " I was asked a direct question yesterday and I answered it honestly . There 's nothing more to go into . I 'm in this race now . " Over the next month , White House officials did not answer multiple press inquiries about whether Sestak 's claims were true . On March 16 , White House Press Secretary Robert Gibbs said he had reviewed the matter and found conversations that had been held with Sestak were " not problematic . "
In March , Congressman Darrell Issa , the ranking Republican on the House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform , sent a letter to White House Counsel Robert Bauer stating if Sestak 's claim was true , the Obama administration may have violated a federal statue that makes it illegal for a government employee to use his authority to interfere with a Senate election . Interest in the alleged job offer reignited after Sestak defeated Specter in the primary on May 18 . Seven Republicans from the Senate Judiciary Committee wrote to Attorney General Eric Holder seeking a review of the legal implications of the offer . Around this time , Sestak continued to maintain that a job offer was made , but he downplayed the importance of the incident and defended Obama 's integrity . On May 28 , the White House formally responded to the allegations and acknowledged White House Chief of Staff Rahm Emanuel enlisted former President Bill Clinton to offer Sestak a seat on a presidential advisory board or another executive board if Sestak dropped his candidacy . If Sestak accepted , he would have been allowed to remain in the House while serving in the unpaid position .
Bauer said that nobody in the administration itself directly discussed the offer with Sestak , and he does not believe there was anything improper , illegal or unethical about the conduct . Republicans in Congress disagreed , arguing the action contradicted claims Obama made during his presidential campaign about ethical conduct and transparency in government . Darrell Issa , in particular , felt it was an impeachable offense and referred to it as " Obama 's Watergate " . Nevertheless , the matter gradually became less of a focus during the primary election , where other topics like spending and the economy took the spotlight . With Issa poised to become chairman of the House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform following the Republican Party recapturing the house during the 2010 midterm elections , it was widely expected he would launch an official investigation into the job offer based on his prior critical comments about the matter . However , on November 5 , Issa announced he would not pursue an investigation . Some politicians and members of the media said that the job offer made to Sestak was neither illegal nor abhorrent , and that such deals are regularly made by politicians of all levels . Chris Cillizza of The Washington Post felt the matter only appeared to be a scandal because the White House badly mishandled the response , and Chicago Tribune writer John Kass wrote , " Offering a spot to an ambitious young politician to protect an old servile weakling isn 't new . Presidents do it , governors do it . Big @-@ city mayors really know how to do it . "
= Bruce Willis =
Walter Bruce Willis ( born March 19 , 1955 ) is an American actor , producer , and singer . His career began on the Off @-@ Broadway stage and then in television in the 1980s , most notably as David Addison in Moonlighting ( 1985 – 1989 ) . He is known for his role of John McClane in the Die Hard series . He has appeared in over 60 films , including Color of Night ( 1994 ) , Pulp Fiction ( 1994 ) , 12 Monkeys ( 1995 ) , The Fifth Element ( 1997 ) , Armageddon ( 1998 ) , The Sixth Sense ( 1999 ) , Unbreakable ( 2000 ) , Sin City ( 2005 ) , Red ( 2010 ) , The Expendables 2 ( 2012 ) , and Looper ( 2012 ) .
Willis married actress Demi Moore in 1987 , and they had three daughters , including Rumer , before their divorce in 2000 . Since 2009 , he has been married to model Emma Heming , with whom he has two daughters .
= = Early life = =
Willis was born Walter Bruce Willis on March 19 , 1955 in the town of Idar @-@ Oberstein , West Germany . His father , David Willis ( 1929 @-@ 2009 ) , was an American soldier . His mother , Marlene , was German , born in Kassel . Willis is the oldest of four children : he has a sister , Florence , and a brother , David . His brother Robert died of pancreatic cancer in 2001 , aged 42 .
After being discharged from the military in 1957 , Willis 's father took his family back to Carneys Point Township , New Jersey . Willis has described himself as having come from a " long line of blue collar people " . His mother worked in a bank and his father was a welder , master mechanic , and factory worker . Willis attended Penns Grove High School in his hometown , where he encountered issues with a stutter . He was nicknamed " Buck @-@ Buck " by his schoolmates . Finding it easy to express himself on stage and losing his stutter in the process , Willis began performing on stage ; his high school activities were marked by such things as the drama club and being student council president .
After high school , Willis took a job as a security guard at the Salem Nuclear Power Plant and transported work crews at the DuPont Chambers Works factory in Deepwater , New Jersey . After working as a private investigator ( a role he would play in the television series Moonlighting and the 1991 film The Last Boy Scout ) , Willis turned to acting . He enrolled in the Drama Program at Montclair State University , where he was cast in the class production of Cat on a Hot Tin Roof . Willis left school in his junior year and moved to New York City , where in the early 1980s he supported himself as a bartender at the West 19th Street art bar Kamikaze .
= = Career = =
= = = 1980s = = =
Willis left New York City and headed to California to audition for several television shows . In 1984 , he appeared in an episode of the TV series Miami Vice , titled " No Exit " . In 1985 , he was the guest actor in the first episode of the 1980s revival of The Twilight Zone , " Shatterday " . He auditioned for the role of David Addison Jr. of the television series Moonlighting ( 1985 – 89 ) , competing against 3 @,@ 000 other actors for the position . The starring role , opposite Cybill Shepherd , helped to establish him as a comedic actor , with the show lasting five seasons winning him an Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series and a Golden Globe Award for Best Actor - Television Series Musical or Comedy . During the height of the show 's success , beverage maker Seagram hired Willis as the pitchman for their Golden Wine Cooler products . The advertising campaign paid the rising star between $ 5 – 7 million over two years . In spite of that , Willis chose not to renew his contract with the company when he decided to stop drinking alcohol in 1988 .
Willis had his first lead role in a feature film in the 1987 Blake Edwards film Blind Date , with Kim Basinger and John Larroquette . Edwards cast him again to play the real @-@ life cowboy actor Tom Mix in Sunset ( 1988 ) . However , it was his then @-@ unexpected turn in the film Die Hard ( 1988 ) as John McClane that catapulted him to movie star and action hero status . He performed most of his own stunts in the film , and the film grossed $ 138 @,@ 708 @,@ 852 worldwide . Following his success with Die Hard , he had a leading role in the drama In Country as Vietnam veteran Emmett Smith and also provided the voice for a talking baby in Look Who 's Talking , as well as its sequel Look Who 's Talking Too .
In the late 1980s , Willis enjoyed moderate success as a recording artist , recording an album of pop @-@ blues titled The Return of Bruno , which included the hit single " Respect Yourself " , promoted by a Spinal Tap – like rockumentary parody featuring scenes of him performing at famous events including Woodstock . He released a version of the Drifters song " Under the Boardwalk " as a follow @-@ up , which got to No. 2 in the UK Top 40 , though was less successful in the U.S. Willis returned to the recording studio several times afterward . ( See Discography below . )
= = = 1990s = = =
Having acquired major personal success and pop culture influence playing John McClane in Die Hard , Willis reprised his role in the sequels Die Hard 2 ( 1990 ) and Die Hard with a Vengeance ( 1995 ) . These first three installments in the Die Hard series grossed over US $ 700 million internationally and propelled Willis to the first rank of Hollywood action stars .
In the early 1990s , Willis 's career suffered a moderate slump , as he starred in flops such as The Bonfire of the Vanities ( 1990 ) , Striking Distance ( 1993 ) and a film he co @-@ wrote , Hudson Hawk ( 1991 ) , among others . He starred in a leading role in the highly sexualized erotic thriller , Color of Night ( 1994 ) : another box office failure , it was savaged by critics but did well in the home video market and became one of the Top 20 most @-@ rented films in the United States in 1995 .
In 1994 , he had a supporting role in Quentin Tarantino 's acclaimed Pulp Fiction , which gave a new boost to his career . In 1996 , he was the executive producer and star of the cartoon Bruno the Kid which featured a CGI representation of himself . He went on to play the lead roles in Twelve Monkeys ( 1995 ) and The Fifth Element ( 1997 ) . However , by the end of the 1990s , his career had fallen into another slump with critically panned films , like The Jackal , Mercury Rising , and Breakfast of Champions , saved only by the success of the Michael Bay @-@ directed Armageddon which was the highest grossing film of 1998 worldwide . The same year his voice and likeness were featured in the PlayStation video game Apocalypse . In 1999 , Willis then went on to the starring role in M. Night Shyamalan 's film , The Sixth Sense . The film was both a commercial and critical success and helped to increase interest in his acting career .
= = = 2000s = = =
In 2000 , Willis won an Emmy for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Series for his work on Friends ( in which he played the father of Ross Geller 's much @-@ younger girlfriend ) . He was also nominated for a 2001 American Comedy Award ( in the Funniest Male Guest Appearance in a TV Series category ) for his work on Friends . Also in 2000 , Willis played Jimmy " The Tulip " Tudeski in The Whole Nine Yards alongside Matthew Perry . Willis was originally cast as Terry Benedict in Ocean 's Eleven ( 2001 ) but dropped out to work on recording an album . In Ocean 's Twelve ( 2004 ) , he makes a cameo appearance as himself . In 2005 , he appeared in the film adaptation of Sin City . In 2007 , he appeared in the Planet Terror half of the double feature Grindhouse as the villain , a mutant soldier . This marked Willis 's second collaboration with director Robert Rodriguez , following Sin City .
Willis has appeared on the Late Show with David Letterman several times throughout his career . He filled in for an ill David Letterman on his show February 26 , 2003 , when he was supposed to be a guest . On many of his appearances on the show , Willis stages elaborate jokes , such as wearing a day @-@ glo orange suit in honor of the Central Park gates , having one side of his face made up with simulated buckshot wounds after the Harry Whittington shooting , or trying to break a record ( parody of David Blaine ) of staying underwater for only twenty seconds .
On April 12 , 2007 , he appeared again , this time wearing a Sanjaya Malakar wig . On his June 25 , 2007 , appearance , he wore a mini @-@ turban on his head to accompany a joke about his own fictional documentary titled An Unappealing Hunch ( a wordplay on An Inconvenient Truth ) . Willis also appeared in Japanese Subaru Legacy television commercials . Tying in with this , Subaru did a limited run of Legacys , badged " Subaru Legacy Touring Bruce " , in honor of Willis .
Willis has appeared in four films with Samuel L. Jackson ( National Lampoon 's Loaded Weapon 1 , Pulp Fiction , Die Hard with a Vengeance , and Unbreakable ) and both actors were slated to work together in Black Water Transit , before dropping out . Willis also worked with his eldest daughter , Rumer , in the 2005 film Hostage . In 2007 , he appeared in the thriller Perfect Stranger , opposite Halle Berry , the crime / drama film Alpha Dog , opposite Sharon Stone , and reprised his role as John McClane in Live Free or Die Hard . Subsequently , he appeared in the films What Just Happened and Surrogates , based on the comic book of the same name .
Willis was slated to play U.S. Army general William R. Peers in director Oliver Stone 's Pinkville , a drama about the investigation of the 1968 My Lai Massacre . However , due to the 2007 Writers Guild of America strike , the film was cancelled . Willis appeared on the 2008 Blues Traveler album North Hollywood Shootout , giving a spoken word performance over an instrumental blues rock jam on the track " Free Willis ( Ruminations from Behind Uncle Bob 's Machine Shop ) " . In early 2009 , he appeared in an advertising campaign to publicize the insurance company Norwich Union 's change of name to Aviva .
= = = 2010s = = =
Willis starred with Tracy Morgan in the comedy Cop Out , directed by Kevin Smith and about two police detectives investigating the theft of a baseball card . The film was released in February 2010 . Willis appeared in the music video for the song " Stylo " by Gorillaz . Also in 2010 , he appeared in a cameo with former Planet Hollywood co @-@ owners and ' 80s action stars Sylvester Stallone and Arnold Schwarzenegger in the film The Expendables . Willis played the role of generic bald man " Mr. Church " . This was the first time these three legendary action stars appeared on screen together . Although the scene featuring the three was short , it was one of the most highly anticipated scenes in the film . The trio filmed their scene in an empty church on October 24 , 2009 . Willis next starred in RED , an adaptation of the comic book mini @-@ series of the same name , in which he portrayed Frank Moses . The film was released on October 15 , 2010 .
Willis starred alongside Bill Murray , Edward Norton , and Frances McDormand in Moonrise Kingdom ( 2012 ) . Filming took place in Rhode Island under the direction of Wes Anderson , in 2011 . Willis returned , in an expanded role , in The Expendables 2 ( 2012 ) . He appeared alongside Joseph Gordon @-@ Levitt in the sci @-@ fi action film , Looper ( 2012 ) , as the older version of Gordon @-@ Levitt 's character , Joe .
Willis teamed up with 50 Cent in a film directed by David Barrett called Fire with Fire , starring opposite Josh Duhamel and Rosario Dawson , about a fireman who must save the love of his life . Willis also joined Vince Vaughn and Catherine Zeta @-@ Jones in Lay the Favorite , directed by Stephen Frears , about a Las Vegas cocktail waitress who becomes an elite professional gambler . The two films were distributed by Lionsgate Entertainment .
Willis reprised his most famous role , John McClane , for a fifth time , starring in A Good Day to Die Hard , which was released on February 14 , 2013 . In an interview , Willis said , " I have a warm spot in my heart for Die Hard ..... it 's just the sheer novelty of being able to play the same character over 25 years and still be asked back is fun . It 's much more challenging to have to do a film again and try to compete with myself , which is what I do in Die Hard . I try to improve my work every time . "
On October 12 , 2013 , Willis hosted Saturday Night Live with Katy Perry as a musical guest .
Willis will star in the movie adaptation of the video game Kane & Lynch : Dead Men , named Kane & Lynch .
In 2015 , Willis made his Broadway debut in William Goldman 's adaptation of Stephen King 's novel Misery opposite Laurie Metcalf at the Broadhurst Theatre .
= = Business activities = =
Films featuring Willis have grossed between US $ 2 @.@ 64 billion and $ 3 @.@ 05 billion at the North American box offices , making him in 2010 the eighth highest @-@ grossing actor in a leading role and 12th @-@ highest including supporting roles . He is a two @-@ time Emmy Award winner , two @-@ time Golden Globe Award winner , and has been nominated for a Saturn Award four times .
Willis owns property in Los Angeles and in Penns Grove , New Jersey ; rents apartments at Trump Tower and in Riverside South , Manhattan , both in New York City ; has a home in Malibu , California ; a ranch in Montana ; a beach home on Parrot Cay in Turks and Caicos ; and multiple properties in Sun Valley , Idaho .
In 2000 , Willis , with his business partner Arnold Rifkin , started a motion picture production company called Cheyenne Enterprises . He left the company to be run solely by Rifkin in 2007 after Live Free or Die Hard . He also owns several small businesses in Hailey , Idaho , including The Mint Bar and The Liberty Theater and is a co @-@ founder of Planet Hollywood , with actors Arnold Schwarzenegger and Sylvester Stallone . In 2009 Willis signed a contract to become the international face of Belvedere SA 's Sobieski Vodka in exchange for 3 @.@ 3 % ownership in the company .
= = Personal life = =
Willis ' acting role models are Gary Cooper , Robert De Niro , Steve McQueen and John Wayne . Willis is left handed .
= = = Relationships and children = = =
At the premiere for the film Stakeout , Willis met actress Demi Moore . They married on November 21 , 1987 , and had three daughters : Rumer Willis ( born August 16 , 1988 ) , Scout ( born July 20 , 1991 ) , and Tallulah ( born 1994 ) . They announced their separation on June 24 , 1998 , and filed for divorce on October 18 , 2000 . Regarding the divorce , Willis stated , " I felt I had failed as a father and a husband by not being able to make it work . " He credited actor Will Smith for helping him cope with the situation . Willis has maintained a close relationship with both Moore and her third husband , actor Ashton Kutcher , and attended their wedding .
Willis was engaged to actress Brooke Burns until they broke up in 2004 after ten months together . He married model Emma Heming in Turks and Caicos on March 21 , 2009 ; guests included his three daughters , Demi Moore , and Ashton Kutcher . The ceremony was not legally binding , so the couple wed again in a civil ceremony in Beverly Hills , six days later . The couple has two daughters : Mabel Ray Willis ( b . 2012 ) and Evelyn Penn Willis ( b . 2014 ) .
= = = Religious views = = =
Willis was , at one point , Lutheran ( specifically Lutheran Church – Missouri Synod ) , but no longer practices . In a July 1998 interview with George magazine , he stated :
Organized religions in general , in my opinion , are dying forms . ... They were all very important when we didn 't know why the sun moved , why weather changed , why hurricanes occurred , or volcanoes happened . ... Modern religion is the end trail of modern mythology . But there are people who interpret the Bible literally . Literally ! I choose not to believe that 's the way . And that 's what makes America cool , you know ?
= = Political views = =
In 1988 , Willis and then @-@ wife Demi Moore campaigned for Massachusetts Governor Michael Dukakis 's Presidential bid . Four years later , he supported President George H. W. Bush for reelection and was an outspoken critic of Bill Clinton . However , in 1996 , he declined to endorse Clinton 's Republican opponent Bob Dole , because Dole had criticized Demi Moore for her role in the film Striptease . Willis was an invited speaker at the 2000 Republican National Convention , and supported George W. Bush that year . He did not make any contributions or public endorsements in the 2008 presidential campaign . In several June 2007 interviews , he declared that he maintains some Republican ideologies .
In 2006 , he said that the United States should intervene more into Colombia , in order to end the drug trafficking . In several interviews Willis has said that he supports large salaries for teachers and police officers , and said he is disappointed in the United States foster care system as well as treatment of Native Americans . Willis also stated that he is a supporter of gun rights , stating , " Everyone has a right to bear arms . If you take guns away from legal gun owners , then the only people who have guns are the bad guys . "
In February 2006 , Willis appeared in Manhattan to talk about his film 16 Blocks with reporters . One reporter attempted to ask Willis about his opinion on the current government , but was interrupted by Willis in mid @-@ sentence : " I 'm sick of answering this fucking question . I 'm a Republican only as far as I want a smaller government , I want less government intrusion . I want them to stop shitting on my money and your money and tax dollars that we give 50 percent of every year . I want them to be fiscally responsible and I want these goddamn lobbyists out of Washington . Do that and I 'll say I 'm a Republican . I hate the government , OK ? I 'm apolitical . Write that down . I 'm not a Republican . "
Willis ' name was in an advertisement in the Los Angeles Times on August 17 , 2006 , that condemned Hamas and Hezbollah and supported Israel in the 2006 Israel @-@ Lebanon war .
= = Military interests = =
Throughout his film career , Willis has depicted several military characters in films such as The Siege , Hart 's War , Tears of the Sun , Grindhouse and G.I. Joe : Retaliation . Growing up in a military family , Willis has publicly sold Girl Scout cookies for the United States armed forces . In 2002 , Willis 's then 8 @-@ year @-@ old daughter , Tallulah , suggested that he purchase Girl Scout cookies to send to troops . Willis purchased 12 @,@ 000 boxes of cookies , and they were distributed to sailors aboard USS John F. Kennedy and other troops stationed throughout the Middle East at the time .
In 2003 , Willis visited Iraq as part of the USO tour , singing to the troops with his band , The Accelerators . Willis considered joining the military to help fight the second Iraq war , but was deterred by his age . It was believed he offered $ 1 million to any noncombatant who turns in terrorist leaders Osama bin Laden , Ayman al @-@ Zawahiri , or Abu Musab al @-@ Zarqawi ; in the June 2007 issue of Vanity Fair , however , he clarified that the statement was made hypothetically and not meant to be taken literally . Willis has also criticized the media for its coverage of the war , complaining that the press were more likely to focus on the negative aspects of the war :
I went to Iraq because what I saw when I was over there was soldiers — young kids for the most part — helping people in Iraq ; helping getting the power turned back on , helping get hospitals open , helping get the water turned back on and you don 't hear any of that on the news . You hear , ' X number of people were killed today , ' which I think does a huge disservice . It 's like spitting on these young men and women who are over there fighting to help this country .
Willis stated in 2005 that he wanted to " make a pro @-@ war film in which American soldiers will be depicted as brave fighters for freedom and democracy . " The film would follow members of Deuce Four , the 1st Battalion , 24th Infantry , who spent considerable time in Mosul and were decorated heavily for it . The film is to be based on the writings of blogger Michael Yon , a former United States Army Special Forces soldier who was embedded with Deuce Four and sent regular dispatches about their activities . Willis described the plot of the film as " these guys who do what they are asked for very little money to defend and fight for what they consider to be freedom . "
= = Cultural references = =
In 1996 , Roger Director , a writer and producer from Moonlighting , wrote a roman à clef on Willis titled A Place to Fall . Cybill Shepherd wrote in her 2000 autobiography , Cybill Disobedience , that Willis was angry at Director , because the character was written as a " neurotic , petulant actor . " In 1998 , Willis participated in Apocalypse , a PlayStation video game . The game was originally announced to feature Willis as a sidekick , not as the main character . The company reworked the game using Willis 's likeness and voice and changed the game to use him as the main character . In Quebec , Canada , Willis ' voice has been overdubbed in French , in 28 of his films , by Jean @-@ Luc Montminy .
= = Filmography = =
= = Discography = =
Solo albums
1987 : The Return of Bruno ( Motown , OCLC 15508727 )
1989 : If It Don 't Kill You , It Just Makes You Stronger ( Motown / Pgd , OCLC 21322754 )
2001 : Classic Bruce Willis : The Universal Masters Collection ( Polygram Int 'l , OCLC 71124889 )
Compilations / Guest appearances
1986 : Moonlighting soundtrack ; track " Good Lovin ' "
1991 : Hudson Hawk soundtrack ; tracks " Swinging on a Star " and " Side by Side " , both duets with Danny Aiello
2003 : Rugrats Go Wild soundtrack ; " Big Bad Cat " with Chrissie Hynde and " Lust for Life "
2008 : North Hollywood Shootout , Blues Traveler ; track " Free Willis ( Ruminations from Behind Uncle Bob 's Machine Shop ) "
= = Awards and honors = =
Willis has won a variety of awards and has received various honors throughout his career in television and film .
1986 / 87 : Emmy ( Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series ) and Golden Globe ( Best Performance by an Actor in a TV @-@ Series – Comedy / Musical ) Awards for Moonlighting ( also received four nominations for the show )
1986 : Nominated for a Golden Globe for Best Supporting Actor for In Country
1994 : Maxim magazine ranked his sex scene in Color of Night the # 1 sex scene in film history
1998 : Golden Raspberry Award ( Worst Actor ) for Armageddon , Mercury Rising and The Siege
2000 : Blockbuster Entertainment Award ( " Favorite Actor – Suspense " ) and the People 's Choice Award ( " Favorite Motion Picture Star in a Drama " ) for The Sixth Sense ( also nominated for the Saturn Award for Best Actor and received two nominations for the MTV Movie Awards for " Best Male Performance " and " Best On @-@ Screen Duo " )
2000 : Emmy for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Series for Friends
2002 : The Hasty Pudding Man of the Year award from Harvard 's Hasty Pudding Theatricals – given to performers who give a lasting and impressive contribution to the world of entertainment
2002 : Appointed as national spokesman for Children in Foster Care by President George W. Bush ; Willis wrote online : " I saw Foster Care as a way for me to serve my country in a system by which shining a little bit of light could benefit a great deal by helping kids who were literally wards of the government . "
2006 : Honored by French government for his contributions to the film industry ; appointed an Officer of the French Order of Arts and Letters in a ceremony in Paris ; the French Prime Minister stated , " This is France 's way of paying tribute to an actor who epitomizes the strength of American cinema , the power of the emotions that he invites us to share on the world 's screens and the sturdy personalities of his legendary characters . "
2006 : Honored with a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame on October 16 ; located at 6915 Hollywood Boulevard and it was the 2,321st star awarded in its history ; at the reception , he stated , " I used to come down here and look at these stars and I could never quite figure out what you were supposed to do to get one ... time has passed and now here I am doing this , and I 'm still excited . I 'm still excited to be an actor . "
2011 : Inducted into the New Jersey Hall of Fame
2013 : Promoted to the dignity of Commander of the Order of Arts and Letters on February 11 by French Minister of Culture Aurélie Filippetti
= Shirehampton railway station =
Shirehampton railway station is on the Severn Beach Line and serves the district of Shirehampton in Bristol , England . It is 7 @.@ 6 miles ( 12 @.@ 2 km ) from Bristol Temple Meads . Its three letter station code is SHH . The station has a single platform which serves trains in both directions . As of 2015 it is managed by Great Western Railway , which is the third franchise to be responsible for the station since privatisation in 1997 . They provide all train services at the station , mainly a train every forty minutes in each direction between Bristol Temple Meads and Avonmouth .
The station was opened in 1865 as the headquarters of the Bristol Port Railway and Pier , a railway which ran along the River Avon from Hotwells to a pier at Avonmouth , and was linked to the national network in 1877 . The station had a single platform to begin with , but was rebuilt with a second in 1903 , as well as a signal box and a goods yard . By the 1930s the station had ten staff .
The Severn Beach Line declined over the latter half of the twentieth century , with passenger numbers falling significantly . Goods services at Shirehampton ended in 1965 , and all staff were withdrawn in 1967 . The second platform and signal box were taken out of use in 1970 , with the station buildings sold off and later destroyed by fire . Services had decreased to ten per day each direction by 2005 , but have since increased to twenty @-@ four trains per day .
= = Description = =
The station is located in the Shirehampton district of Bristol , a primarily residential area on the north bank of the River Avon near the Severn Estuary . The A4 Bristol Portway is just to the north of the station , with a commercial vehicle hire depot in between . The railway crosses Station Road directly to the west of the station , and is bridged by Hung Road slightly to the east . The station is on the Severn Beach Line from Bristol Temple Meads to Severn Beach , 7 miles 50 chains ( 12 @.@ 3 km ) from Temple Meads and 5 miles 73 chains ( 9 @.@ 5 km ) from Severn Beach . It is the seventh station from Temple Meads . The next station towards Temple Meads is Sea Mills ; the next station towards Severn Beach is Avonmouth .
The station is on an east @-@ west alignment , curving towards the north . There is a single 140 @-@ yard ( 130 m ) -long platform which serves trains in both directions , situated on the north side of the track . The station 's southern platform was abandoned in 1970 and is overgrown . The station is only accessible via a footpath from the car park on Station Road , which is just off the A4 Portway .
Timetable information is provided at the station ; help points show next train information and allow users to contact railway staff . There is no ticket office or other means for buying or collecting tickets . There is a car park with 10 spaces on Station Road , as well as stands for four bicycles . The nearest bus stops are on the A4 Portway .
The line through Shirehampton has a speed limit of 30 miles per hour ( 48 km / h ) for locomotive @-@ hauled trains and 35 miles per hour ( 56 km / h ) for diesel multiple units . The line , which is not electrified , handles less than 5 million train tonnes per year , has a loading gauge of W6 and a route availability of 7 . In the 2012 / 13 financial year , approximately 50 @,@ 000 passengers used Shirehampton station , making it the 1,915th busiest station in the country and the eleventh busiest within the Bristol unitary authority area , busier only than St Andrews Road . This was an increase of 34 % from the 2002 – 03 financial year , and reflected a general rise in usage of the Severn Beach Line .
= = Services = =
Services at Shirehampton are all operated by Great Western Railway , using mainly Class 150 Sprinter units . On Monday to Friday there are 25 trains per day in each direction : three trains run every two hours between Bristol Temple Meads and Avonmouth , with one extended to St Andrew 's Road and Severn Beach , giving a service at Sea Mills of one train in each direction every 40 minutes . Most services start at Bristol , but one evening service to Avonmouth begins at Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare . On Saturdays there is a similar level of service , at 24 trains per day . Sunday sees a roughly hourly service to and from Bristol , ten trains per day , with only two services extending to Severn Beach , except during the May – September timetable period when all services are extended . The first and last Sunday trains towards Bristol are extended to Taunton via Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare , and there are similar workings in the other direction .
Most trains from Shirehampton call at all stations , but some services omit Lawrence Hill . The typical journey time to Bristol Temple Meads is roughly 30 minutes , and 15 minutes to Severn Beach . In 2012 , the single fare to Clifton Down or Severn Beach was £ 1 @.@ 50 , and £ 3 return for the whole line .
= = History = =
= = = Construction and initial operations = = =
The station was opened on 6 March 1865 when services began on the Bristol Port Railway and Pier ( BPRP ) , a self @-@ contained railway which ran along the north bank of the River Avon to a deep water pier on the Severn Estuary at Avonmouth . The route was 4 ft 8 1 ⁄ 2 in ( 1 @,@ 435 mm ) standard gauge single track , with Shirehampton initially the second station along the line , 3 miles 51 chains ( 5 @.@ 9 km ) from the southern terminus at Hotwells . Shirehampton was the BPRP 's headquarters , and was the site where construction of the railway began – the first sod being turned on 19 February 1863 by the Mayoress of Bristol , Mrs Sholto Vere Hare .
The original station was situated at a passing loop , with a single platform on the north side of the line . The building , which is noted as having been architecturally superior to other stations on the line , contained a booking office , porters ' rooms , and an office for the line superintendent . The platform was covered along its entire length . A single @-@ road engine shed was sited at the east end of the station from 1875 , but burnt down in 1900 . The initial service was six trains per day in each direction , however trains did not stop at Shirehampton on Sundays due to opposition from a local church , but this practice ended in May the same year following complaints from other residents and businesses .
= = = Connection to the national network = = =
The BPRP ran in to trouble by 1871 when the terminal pier at Avonmouth became difficult to use due to a build @-@ up of silt . With no prospect of a proper dock being funded without a connection to the national rail network , the Clifton Extension Railway ( CER ) was approved . This was a joint venture by the BPRP , Great Western Railway and Midland Railway which ran from Sneyd Park Junction , south of Sea Mills , via Clifton Down , to join up with the national network at Narroways Hill Junction . The link opened in 1877 , but initially only for goods trains . The route from Sneyd Park Junction to Clifton Down was subsequently cleared for passenger use on 3 August 1878 , but the Midland and Great Western Railways did not think the BPRP track was in a suitable condition and so refused to run any passenger trains beyond Clifton Down . Services along the BPRP however increased to eight trains per day in each direction from 1877 , and then to ten each way by 1887 . From 1 September 1885 , when passenger services along the link finally started , the Great Western offered six trains per day each direction between Avonmouth and Bristol Temple Meads . Fearing competition , the BPRP did not allow passengers to use GWR services between its stations . The Midland Railway did not run any passenger services beyond Clifton Down , apart from a one @-@ month trial service in September 1885 . Despite the increased traffic the BPRP suffered financially , and was taken over by the CER in 1890 .
In 1893 the platform was lengthened to 235 feet ( 72 m ) at a cost of £ 235 , and a station master 's house built . A second track was laid along the line in 1903 , and a new platform built on the south side of the line , coming in to use on 16 May . The station was remodelled at the same time , adding comfortable waiting rooms . The new platform had a waiting room and 20 @-@ lever signal box built on it , with an open footbridge to connect the two platforms . A small goods yard and coal sidings were added behind the northern platform , accessible from the east . The yard was subsequently extended in 1921 by Nott Brodie & Co Ltd to handle traffic from construction of the Bristol Portway . By 1910 there were 17 trains from Bristol to Avonmouth and 15 back , increasing to 21 and 19 respectively by 1920 .
During the First World War , an Army Remount Service depot was located nearby , with Shirehampton station handling the goods traffic , with up to 60 wagons per day inbound , mostly containing hay and sawdust for the horses . Twelve wagons of manure were dispatched each day , some to Cadbury Road on the Weston , Clevedon and Portishead Light Railway .
After the war , construction of the Bristol Portway along the Avon Gorge necessitated the closure of the line from Sneyd Park Junction to Hotwells , with trains along it ceasing on 3 July 1922 . By this point there were nine trains per day from Hotwells , and eight return . To compensate for the loss of service , the Great Western provided an additional four trains daily towards Bristol and six toward Avonmouth . In 1923 , grouping resulted in the Midland Railway being absorbed into the London , Midland and Scottish Railway ( LMS ) , and the line continued in a joint arrangement between the Great Western and the LMS . At this point Shirehampton station employed a station master , three clerks and four porters ; throughout the 1930s there were an average of ten staff . From 1928 many services to Avonmouth were extended to Severn Beach . By 1947 , just before the railways were nationalised , there were 33 services each direction between Avonmouth and Temple Meads , with 18 on Sundays . Some trains made circular trips to and from Temple Meads via Clifton Down and Henbury or Pilning .
= = = British Rail and privatisation = = =
When the railways were nationalised in 1948 , services at Shirehampton came under the aegis of the Western Region of British Railways . Staff levels decreased by 1958 to two clerks , two leading porters , one porter , and a stationmaster who was also responsible for Sea Mills railway station . Service levels had decreased slightly by 1955 to 28 towards Avonmouth and 29 towards Bristol , but the services were at regular intervals . Passenger numbers however dropped sharply in 1961 as the result of a fare increase , and so in 1962 a new reduced timetable was enacted , which lost more passengers . A year later in 1963 , the Beeching report suggested the complete withdrawal of services along the line , but ultimately only those beyond Severn Beach or via Henbury were withdrawn . Goods services from the station ended on 29 November 1965 , and from 17 July 1967 all staffing was withdrawn from stations along the line , including Shirehampton , with tickets issued by the train guard . An 800 @-@ ton oil storage tank was built in the station yard in 1967 , with deliveries continuing until the mid @-@ eighties . By 2005 the yard had been redeveloped and was occupied by a commercial vehicle hire company . The general reduction in passenger traffic , as well as the transfer of Avonmouth goods traffic to the Henbury Loop Line , allowed the removal of the second track from 19 October 1970 , with all services using the original , northern platform . The signal box was taken out of service at the same time , and the buildings on the remaining platform sold off before being destroyed by a fire in the 1990s . The station master 's house is now a private dwelling , with the garden containing a small brick building with a chimney surviving from the station buildings . By 1974 , service had reduced to 19 trains per day in each direction , with no Sunday services beyond Avonmouth .
British Rail was split into business @-@ led sectors in the 1980s , at which time operations at Shirehampton passed to Regional Railways . At this time , all trains ran to Severn Beach , but the service pattern was irregular . This changed in 1995 when an hourly timetable was introduced for peak times , but northbound services were terminated at Avonmouth .
When the railway was privatised in 1997 , local services were franchised to Wales & West , which was succeeded by Wessex Trains , an arm of National Express , in 2001 . Following action by Friends of Severn Beach Railway ( FOSBR ) and a string of protests , services had increased to 10 per day in each direction by 2005 , with Bristol City Council providing a subsidy to Wessex Trains . The Wessex franchise was amalgamated with the Great Western franchise into the Greater Western franchise from 2006 , and responsibility passed to First Great Western , a subsidiary company of FirstGroup , rebranded as Great Western Railway in 2015 . A minimum service requirement was written into the franchise agreement , ensuring an hourly service along the line , and this has since been increased to three trains every two hours ( 24 trains per day ) . Sunday services to Severn Beach were restored in 2010 .
= = Future = =
First Great Western declined a contractual option to continue the Greater Western passenger franchise ( of which services at Shirehampton are a part ) beyond 2013 , citing a desire for a longer @-@ term contract due to the impending upgrade to the Great Western Main Line . The franchise was put out to tender , but the process was halted and later scrapped due to the fallout from the collapse of the InterCity West Coast franchise competition . A two @-@ year franchise extension until September 2015 was agreed in October 2013 , and subsequently extended until March 2019 .
With the coming upgrade to the Great Western Main Line , the main line from London to Bristol is due to be electrified by 2016 . However , the electrification will not extend beyond the main lines , so Shirehampton will continue to be served by diesel trains , with the current " Sprinter " units expected to be replaced by Class 165 and 166 " Turbo " units . Stephen Williams , former MP for Bristol West ; and the group Friends of Suburban Bristol Railways supports the electrification being extended to the Severn Beach Line .
Improved services at Shirehampton are called for as part of the Greater Bristol Metro scheme , a rail transport plan which aims to enhance transport capacity in the Bristol area . There is an aspiration for half @-@ hourly services , with trains towards Bristol terminating alternately at Portishead and Bath Spa , however due to the large sections of the Severn Beach Line which are single @-@ track and to the congested main line from Temple Meads , such frequency is not currently feasible . The scheme was given the go @-@ ahead in July 2012 as part of the City Deal , whereby local councils would be given greater control over money by the government . There are also calls for the reopening of the Henbury Loop Line , which could allow a direct service from Shirehampton to Bristol Parkway via Avonmouth . Plans for a loop were rejected by the West of England Joint Transport Board , however Bristol City Councillors voted to send the decision back to the board for further discussion .
= Prairie Avenue =
Prairie Avenue is a north – south thoroughfare on the South Side of Chicago , which historically extended from 16th Street in the Near South Side community area of Chicago in Cook County , Illinois , United States , to the city 's southern limits and beyond . The street has a rich history from its origins as a major trail for horseback riders and carriages . During the last three decades of the 19th century , a six @-@ block section of the street served as the residence of many of Chicago 's elite families and an additional four @-@ block section was also known for grand homes . The upper six @-@ block section includes part of the historic Prairie Avenue District , which was declared a Chicago Landmark and added to the National Register of Historic Places .
Several of Chicago 's most important historical figures have lived on the street . This is especially true of the period of recovery from the Great Chicago Fire of 1871 when many of the most important families in the city moved to the street . Residents of the street have influenced the evolution of the city and have played prominent national and international roles . They have influenced the political history , the architecture , the culture , the economy , as well as the law and government of Chicago . The street has over time been influenced by the demographics of Chicago .
The importance of the street has declined , but it still has landmark buildings and is the backbone of a historic district . Preservation battles regarding various properties on the street have been notable with one having been chronicled on the front page of The New York Times . In the early 21st century , the street was redeveloped to host valuable and important condominiums . Recently , developments have extended the street north to accommodate new high @-@ rise condominiums , such as One Museum Park , along Roosevelt Road ( 12th Street ) . The redevelopment has extended the street so that it has prominent buildings bordering Grant Park with Prairie Avenue addresses .
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leian Library holding a third . The fourth copy of the 1225 exemplification was held by the museum of the Public Record Office and is now held by The National Archives . The Society of Antiquaries also holds a draft of the 1215 charter ( discovered in 2013 in a late 13th century register from Peterborough Abbey ) , a copy of the 1225 third re @-@ issue ( within an early 14th century collection of statutes ) and a roll copy of the 1225 reissue .
Only two exemplifications of Magna Carta are held outside England , both from 1297 . One of these was purchased in 1952 by the Australian Government for £ 12 @,@ 500 from King 's School , Bruton , England . This copy is now on display in the Members ' Hall of Parliament House , Canberra . The second was originally held by the Brudenell family , earls of Cardigan , before they sold it in 1984 to the Perot Foundation in the U.S.A. , which in 2007 sold it to U.S. businessman David Rubenstein for US $ 21 @.@ 3 million . Rubenstein commented " I have always believed that this was an important document to our country , even though it wasn 't drafted in our country . I think it was the basis for the Declaration of Independence and the basis for the Constitution " . This exemplification is now on permanent loan to the National Archives in Washington , D.C. Only two other 1297 exemplifications survive , one of which is held in the UK 's National Archives .
Seven copies of the 1300 exemplification by Edward I survive , in Faversham , Oriel College , Oxford , the Bodleian Library , Durham Cathedral , Westminster Abbey , the City of London ( held in the archives at the London Guildhall ) and Sandwich ( held in the Kent County Council archives ) . The Sandwich copy was rediscovered in early 2015 in a Victorian scrapbook in the town archives of Sandwich , Kent , one of the Cinque Ports . In the case of the Sandwich and Oriel College exemplifications , the copies of the Charter of the Forest originally issued with them also survive .
= = = Clauses = = =
Most of the 1215 charter and later versions sought to govern the feudal rights of the Crown over the barons . Under the Angevin kings , and in particular during John 's reign , the rights of the King had frequently been used inconsistently , often in an attempt to maximise the royal income from the barons . Feudal relief was one way that a king could demand money , and clauses 2 and 3 fixed the fees payable when an heir inherited an estate or when a minor came of age and took possession of his lands . Scutage was a form of medieval taxation ; all knights and nobles owed military service to the Crown in return for their lands , which theoretically belonged to the King , but many preferred to avoid this service and offer money instead ; the Crown often used the cash to pay for mercenaries . The rate of scutage that should be payable , and the circumstances under which it was appropriate for the King to demand it , was uncertain and controversial ; clauses 12 and 14 addressed the management of the process .
The English judicial system had altered considerably over the previous century , with the royal judges playing a larger role in delivering justice across the country . John had used his royal discretion to extort large sums of money from the barons , effectively taking payment to offer justice in particular cases , and the role of the Crown in delivering justice had become politically sensitive among the barons . Clauses 39 and 40 demanded due process be applied in the royal justice system , while clause 45 required that the King appoint knowledgeable royal officials to the relevant roles . Although these clauses did not have any special significance in the original charter , this part of Magna Carta became singled out as particularly important in later centuries . In the United States , for example , the Supreme Court of California interpreted clause 45 in 1974 as establishing a requirement in common law that a defendant faced with the potential of incarceration be entitled to a trial overseen by a legally trained judge .
Royal forests were economically important in medieval England and were both protected and exploited by the Crown , supplying the King with hunting grounds , raw materials , and money . They were subject to special royal jurisdiction and the resulting forest law was , according to the historian Richard Huscroft , " harsh and arbitrary , a matter purely for the King 's will " . The size of the forests had expanded under the Angevin kings , an unpopular development .
The 1215 charter had several clauses relating to the royal forests ; clauses 47 and 48 promised to deforest the lands added to the forests under John and investigate the use of royal rights in this area , but notably did not address the forestation of the previous kings , while clause 53 promised some form of redress for those affected by the recent changes , and clause 44 promised some relief from the operation of the forest courts . Neither Magna Carta nor the subsequent Charter of the Forest proved entirely satisfactory as a way of managing the political tensions around the operation of the royal forests .
Some of the clauses addressed wider economic issues . The concerns of the barons over the treatment of their debts to Jewish moneylenders , who occupied a special position in medieval England and were by tradition under the King 's protection , were addressed by clauses 10 and 11 . The charter concluded this section with the phrase " debts owing to other than Jews shall be dealt with likewise " , so it is debatable to what extent the Jews were being singled out by these clauses . Some issues were relatively specific , such as clause 33 which ordered the removal of all fishing weirs — an important and growing source of revenue at the time — from England 's rivers .
The role of the English Church had been a matter for great debate in the years prior to the 1215 charter . The Norman and Angevin kings had traditionally exercised a great deal of power over the church within their territories . From the 1040s onwards successive popes had emphasised the importance of the church being governed more effectively from Rome , and had established an independent judicial system and hierarchical chain of authority . After the 1140s , these principles had been largely accepted within the English church , even if accompanied by an element of concern about centralising authority in Rome .
These changes brought the customary rights of lay rulers such as John over ecclesiastical appointments into question . As described above , John had come to a compromise with Pope Innocent III in exchange for his political support for the King , and clause 1 of Magna Carta prominently displayed this arrangement , promising the freedoms and liberties of the church . The importance of this clause may also reflect the role of Archbishop Langton in the negotiations : Langton had taken a strong line on this issue during his career .
= = = = Clauses in detail = = = =
= = = = Clauses remaining in English law = = = =
Only three clauses of Magna Carta still remain on statute in England and Wales . These clauses concern 1 ) the freedom of the English Church , 2 ) the " ancient liberties " of the City of London ( clause 13 in the 1215 charter , clause 9 in the 1297 statute ) , and 3 ) a right to due legal process ( clauses 39 and 40 in the 1215 charter , clause 29 in the 1297 statute ) . In detail , these clauses ( using the numbering system from the 1297 statute ) state that :
I. FIRST , We have granted to God , and by this our present Charter have confirmed , for Us and our Heirs for ever , that the Church of England shall be free , and shall have all her whole Rights and Liberties inviolable . We have granted also , and given to all the Freemen of our Realm , for Us and our Heirs for ever , these Liberties under @-@ written , to have and to hold to them and their Heirs , of Us and our Heirs for ever .
IX . THE City of London shall have all the old Liberties and Customs which it hath been used to have . Moreover We will and grant , that all other Cities , Boroughs , Towns , and the Barons of the Five Ports , as with all other Ports , shall have all their Liberties and free Customs .
XXIX . NO Freeman shall be taken or imprisoned , or be disseised of his Freehold , or Liberties , or free Customs , or be outlawed , or exiled , or any other wise destroyed ; nor will We not pass upon him , nor condemn him , but by lawful judgment of his Peers , or by the Law of the land . We will sell to no man , we will not deny or defer to any man either Justice or Right .
= = Usage of the definite article and spelling = =
Magna Carta was given its name in Latin , a language which has no direct , consistent correlate of the English definite article " the " . As a result , the usual academic convention is to refer to the document in English without the article as " Magna Carta " rather than " the Magna Carta " . Nonetheless , " the Magna Carta " is frequently used in both academic and non @-@ academic speech .
Especially in the past , the name of the document has also been spelled as " Magna Charta " , but the pronunciation was the same . " Magna Charta " is still an acceptable variant spelling recorded in many dictionaries due to continued use in some reputable sources . From the 13th to the 17th centuries , only the spelling " Magna Carta " was used . The spelling " Magna Charta " began to be used in the 18th century but never became more common despite also being used by some reputable writers .
= Restoration of the Everglades =
The restoration of the Everglades is an ongoing effort to remedy damage inflicted on the environment of southern Florida during the 20th century . It is the most expensive and comprehensive environmental repair attempt in history . The degradation of the Everglades became an issue in the United States in the early 1970s after a proposal to construct a jetport in the Big Cypress Swamp . Studies indicated the airport would have destroyed the ecosystem in South Florida and Everglades National Park . After decades of destructive practices , both state and federal agencies are looking for ways to balance the needs of the natural environment in South Florida with urban and agricultural centers that have recently and rapidly grown in and near the Everglades .
In response to floods caused by hurricanes in 1947 , the Central and Southern Florida Flood Control Project ( C & SF ) was established to construct flood control devices in the Everglades . The C & SF built 1 @,@ 400 miles ( 2 @,@ 300 km ) of canals and levees between the 1950s and 1971 throughout South Florida . Their last venture was the C @-@ 38 canal , which straightened the Kissimmee River and caused catastrophic damage to animal habitats , adversely affecting water quality in the region . The canal became the first C & SF project to revert when the 22 @-@ mile ( 35 km ) canal began to be backfilled , or refilled with the material excavated from it , in the 1980s .
When high levels of phosphorus and mercury were discovered in the waterways in 1986 , water quality became a focus for water management agencies . Costly and lengthy court battles were waged between various government entities to determine who was responsible for monitoring and enforcing water quality standards . Governor Lawton Chiles proposed a bill that determined which agencies would have that responsibility , and set deadlines for pollutant levels to decrease in water . Initially the bill was criticized by conservation groups for not being strict enough on polluters , but the Everglades Forever Act was passed in 1994 . Since then , the South Florida Water Management District ( SFWMD ) and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers have surpassed expectations for achieving lower phosphorus levels .
A commission appointed by Governor Chiles published a report in 1995 stating that South Florida was unable to sustain its growth , and the deterioration of the environment was negatively affecting daily life for residents in South Florida . The environmental decline was predicted to harm tourism and commercial interests if no actions were taken to halt current trends . Results of an eight @-@ year study that evaluated the C & SF were submitted to the United States Congress in 1999 . The report warned that if no action was taken the region would rapidly deteriorate . A strategy called the Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan ( CERP ) was enacted to restore portions of the Everglades , Lake Okeechobee , the Caloosahatchee River , and Florida Bay to undo the damage of the past 50 years . It would take 30 years and cost $ 7 @.@ 8 billion to complete . Though the plan was passed into law in 2000 , it has been compromised by politics and funding problems .
= = Background = =
The Everglades are part of a very large watershed that begins in the vicinity of Orlando . The Okeechobee River drains into Lake Okeechobee , a 730 @-@ square @-@ mile ( 1 @,@ 900 km2 ) lake with an average depth of 9 feet ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) . During the wet season when the lake exceeds its capacity , the water leaves the lake in a very wide and shallow river , approximately 100 miles ( 160 km ) long and 60 miles ( 97 km ) wide . This wide and shallow flow is known as sheetflow . The land gradually slopes toward Florida Bay , the historical destination of most of the water leaving the Everglades . Before drainage attempts , the Everglades comprised 4 @,@ 000 square miles ( 10 @,@ 000 km2 ) , taking up a third of the Florida peninsula .
Since the early 19th century the Everglades have been a subject of interest for agricultural development . The first attempt to drain the Everglades occurred in 1882 when a Pennsylvania land developer named Hamilton Disston constructed the first canals . Though these attempts were largely unsuccessful , Disston 's purchase of land spurred tourism and real estate development of the state . The political motivations of Governor Napoleon Bonaparte Broward resulted in more successful attempts at canal construction between 1906 and 1920 . Recently reclaimed wetlands were used for cultivating sugarcane and vegetables , while urban development began in the Everglades .
The 1926 Miami Hurricane and the 1928 Okeechobee Hurricane caused widespread devastation and flooding which prompted the Army Corps of Engineers to construct a dike around Lake Okeechobee . The four @-@ story wall cut off water from the Everglades . Floods from hurricanes in 1947 motivated the U.S. Congress to establish the Central and Southern Florida Flood Control Project ( C & SF ) , responsible for constructing 1 @,@ 400 miles ( 2 @,@ 300 km ) of canals and levees , hundreds of pumping stations and other water control devices . The C & SF established Water Conservation Areas ( WCAs ) in 37 % of the original Everglades , which acted as reservoirs providing excess water to the South Florida metropolitan area , or flushing it into the Atlantic Ocean or the Gulf of Mexico . The C & SF also established the Everglades Agricultural Area ( EAA ) , which grows the majority of sugarcane crops in the United States . When the EAA was first established , it encompassed approximately 27 % of the original Everglades .
By the 1960s , urban development and agricultural use had decreased the size of the Everglades considerably . The remaining 25 % of the Everglades in its original state is protected in Everglades National Park , but the park was established before the C & SF , and it depended upon the actions of the C & SF to release water . As Miami and other metropolitan areas began to intrude on the Everglades in the 1960s , political battles took place between park management and the C & SF when insufficient water in the park threw ecosystems into chaos . Fertilizers used in the EAA began to alter soil and hydrology in Everglades National Park , causing the proliferation of exotic plant species . However , a proposition to build a massive jetport in the Big Cypress Swamp in 1969 focused attention on the degraded natural systems in the Everglades . For the first time , the Everglades became a subject of environmental conservation .
= = Everglades as a priority = =
Environmental protection became a national priority in the 1970s . Time magazine declared it the Issue of the Year in January 1971 , reporting that it was rated as Americans ' " most serious problem confronting their community — well ahead of crime , drugs and poor schools " . When South Florida experienced a severe drought from 1970 to 1975 , with Miami receiving only 33 inches ( 840 mm ) of rain in 1971 — 22 inches ( 560 mm ) less than average — media attention focused on the Everglades . With the assistance of governor 's aide Nathaniel Reed and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service biologist Arthur R. Marshall , politicians began to take action . Governor Reubin Askew implemented the Land Conservation Act in 1972 , allowing the state to use voter @-@ approved bonds of $ 240 million to purchase land considered to be environmentally unique and irreplaceable . Since then , Florida has purchased more land for public use than any other state . In 1972 President Richard Nixon declared the Big Cypress Swamp — the intended location for the Miami jetport in 1969 — to be federally protected . Big Cypress National Preserve was established in 1974 , and Fakahatchee Strand State Preserve was created the same year .
In 1976 , Everglades National Park was declared an International Biosphere Reserve by UNESCO , which also listed the park as a World Heritage Site in 1979 . The Ramsar Convention designated the Everglades a Wetland of International Importance in 1987 . Only three locations on earth which have appeared on all three lists : Everglades National Park , Lake Ichkeul in Tunisia , and Srebarna Lake in Bulgaria .
= = = Kissimmee River = = =
In the 1960s , the C & SF came under increased scrutiny from government overseers and conservation groups . Critics maintained its size was comparable to the Tennessee Valley Authority 's dam @-@ building projects during the Great Depression , and that the construction had run into the billions of dollars without any apparent resolution or plan . The projects of the C & SF have been characterized as part of " crisis and response " cycles that " ignored the consequence for the full system , assumed certainty of the future , and succeeded in solving the momentary crisis , but set in motion conditions that exaggerate future crises " . The last project , to build a canal to straighten the winding floodplain of the Kissimmee River that had historically fed Lake Okeechobee which in turn fed the Everglades , began in 1962 . Marjory Stoneman Douglas later wrote that the C & SF projects were " interrelated stupidity " , crowned by the C @-@ 38 canal . Designed to replace a meandering 90 @-@ mile ( 140 km ) river with a 52 @-@ mile ( 84 km ) channel , the canal was completed in 1971 and cost $ 29 million . It supplanted approximately 45 @,@ 000 acres ( 180 km2 ) of marshland with retention ponds , dams , and vegetation . Loss of habitat has caused the region to experience a drastic decrease of waterfowl , wading birds , and game fish . The reclaimed floodplains were taken over by agriculture , bringing fertilizers and insecticides that washed into Lake Okeechobee . Even before the canal was finished , conservation organizations and sport fishing and hunting groups were calling for the restoration of the Kissimmee River .
Arthur R. Marshall led the efforts to undo the damage . According to Douglas , Marshall was successful in portraying the Everglades from the Kissimmee Chain of Lakes to Florida Bay — including the atmosphere , climate , and limestone — as a single organism . Rather than remaining the preserve of conservation organizations , the cause of restoring the Everglades became a priority for politicians . Douglas observed , " Marshall accomplished the extraordinary magic of taking the Everglades out of the bleeding @-@ hearts category forever " . At the insistent urging of Marshall , newly elected Governor Bob Graham announced the formation of the " Save Our Everglades " campaign in 1983 , and in 1985 Graham lifted the first shovel of backfill for a portion of the C @-@ 38 canal . Within a year the area was covered with water returning to its original state . Graham declared that by the year 2000 , the Everglades would resemble its predrainage state as much as possible . The Kissimmee River Restoration Project was approved by Congress in the Water Resources Development Act of 1992 . The project was estimated to cost $ 578 million to convert only 22 miles ( 35 km ) of the canal ; the cost was designed to be divided between the state of Florida and the U.S. government , with the state being responsible for purchasing land to be restored . A project manager for the Army Corps of Engineers explained in 2002 , " What we 're doing on this scale is going to be taken to a larger scale when we do the restoration of the Everglades " . The entire project is estimated to be completed by 2011 .
= = Water quality = =
Attention to water quality was focused in South Florida in 1986 when a widespread algal bloom occurred in one @-@ fifth of Lake Okeechobee . The bloom was discovered to be the result of fertilizers from the Everglades Agricultural Area . Although laws stated in 1979 that the chemicals used in the EAA should not be deposited into the lake , they were flushed into the canals that fed the Everglades Water Conservation Areas , and eventually pumped into the lake . Microbiologists discovered that , although phosphorus assists plant growth , it destroys periphyton , one of the basic building blocks of marl in the Everglades . Marl is one of two types of Everglades soil , along with peat ; it is found where parts of the Everglades are flooded for shorter periods of time as layers of periphyton dry . Most of the phosphorus compounds also rid peat of dissolved oxygen and promote algae growth , causing native invertebrates to die , and sawgrass to be replaced with invasive cattails that grow too tall and thick for birds and alligators to nest in . Tested water showed 500 parts per billion ( ppb ) of phosphorus near sugarcane fields . State legislation in 1987 mandated a 40 % reduction of phosphorus by 1992 .
Attempts to correct phosphorus levels in the Everglades met with resistance . The sugarcane industry , dominated by two companies named U.S. Sugar and Flo @-@ Sun , was responsible for more than half of the crop in the EAA . They were well represented in state and federal governments by lobbyists who enthusiastically protected their interests . According to the Audubon Society , the sugar industry , nicknamed " Big Sugar " , donated more money to political parties and candidates than General Motors . The sugar industry attempted to block government @-@ funded studies of polluted water , and when the federal prosecutor in Miami faulted the sugar industry in legal action to protect Everglades National Park , Big Sugar tried to get the lawsuit withdrawn and the prosecutor fired . A costly legal battle ensued from 1988 to 1992 between the State of Florida , the U.S. government , and the sugar industry to resolve who was responsible for water quality standards , the maintenance of Everglades National Park and the Arthur R. Marshall Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge .
A different concern about water quality arose when mercury was discovered in fish during the 1980s . Because mercury is damaging to humans , warnings were posted for fishermen that cautioned against eating fish caught in South Florida , and scientists became alarmed when a Florida panther was found dead near Shark River Slough with mercury levels high enough to be fatal to humans . When mercury is ingested it adversely affects the central nervous system , and can cause brain damage and birth defects . Studies of mercury levels found that it is bioaccumulated through the food chain : animals that are lower on the chain have decreased amounts , but as larger animals eat them , the amount of mercury is multiplied . The dead panther 's diet consisted of small animals , including raccoons and young alligators . The source of the mercury was found to be waste incinerators and fossil fuel power plants that expelled the element in the atmosphere , which precipitated with rain , or in the dry season , dust . Naturally occurring bacteria in the Everglades that function to reduce sulfur also transform mercury deposits into methylmercury . This process was more dramatic in areas where flooding was not as prevalent . Because of requirements that reduced power plant and incinerator emissions , the levels of mercury found in larger animals decreased as well : approximately a 60 % decrease in fish and a 70 % decrease in birds , though some levels still remain a health concern for people .
= = = Everglades Forever Act = = =
In an attempt to resolve the political quagmire over water quality , Governor Lawton Chiles introduced a bill in 1994 to clean up water within the EAA that was being released to the lower Everglades . The bill stated that the " Everglades ecosystem must be restored both in terms of water quality and water quantity and must be preserved and protected in a manner that is long term and comprehensive " . It ensured the Florida Department of Environmental Protection ( DEP ) and the South Florida Water Management District ( SFWMD ) would be responsible for researching water quality , enforcing water supply improvement , controlling exotic species , and collecting taxes , with the aim of decreasing the levels of phosphorus in the region . It allowed for purchase of land where pollutants would be sent to " treat and improve the quality of waters coming from the EAA " .
Critics of the bill argued that the deadline for meeting the standards was unnecessarily delayed until 2006 — a period of 12 years — to enforce better water quality . They also maintained that it did not force sugarcane farmers , who were the primary polluters , to pay enough of the costs , and increased the threshold of what was an acceptable amount of phosphorus in water from 10 ppb to 50 ppb . Governor Chiles initially named it the Marjory Stoneman Douglas Act , but Douglas was so unimpressed with the action it took against polluters that she wrote to Chiles and demanded her name be stricken from it . Despite criticism , the Florida legislature passed the Act in 1994 . The SFWMD stated that its actions have exceeded expectations earlier than anticipated , by creating Stormwater Treatment Areas ( STA ) within the EAA that contain a calcium @-@ based substance such as lime rock layered between peat , and filled with calcareous periphyton . Early tests by the Army Corps of Engineers revealed this method reduced phosphorus levels from 80 ppb to 10 ppb . The STAs are intended to treat water until the phosphorus levels are low enough to be released into the Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge or other WCAs .
= = Wildlife concerns = =
The intrusion of urban areas into wilderness has had a substantial impact on wildlife , and several species of animals are considered endangered in the Everglades region . One animal that has benefited from endangered species protection is the American Alligator ( Alligator mississippiensis ) , whose holes give refuge to other animals , often allowing many species to survive during times of drought . Once abundant in the Everglades , the alligator was listed as an endangered species in 1967 , but a combined effort by federal and state organizations and the banning of alligator hunting allowed it to rebound ; it was pronounced fully recovered in 1987 and is no longer an endangered species . However , alligators ' territories and average body masses have been found to be generally smaller than in the past , and because populations have been reduced , their role during droughts has become limited .
The American Crocodile ( Crocodylus acutus ) is also native to the region and has been designated as endangered since 1975 . Unlike their relatives the alligators , crocodiles tend to thrive in brackish or salt @-@ water habitats such as estuarine or marine coasts . Their most significant threat is disturbance by people . Too much contact with humans causes females to abandon their nests , and males in particular are often victims of vehicle collisions while roaming over large territories and attempting to cross U.S. 1 and Card Sound Road in the Florida Keys . There are an estimated 500 to 1 @,@ 000 crocodiles in southern Florida .
The most critically endangered of any animal in the Everglades region is the Florida panther ( Puma concolor coryi ) , a species that once lived throughout the southeastern United States : there were only 25 – 30 in the wild in 1995 . The panther is most threatened by urban encroachment , because males require approximately 200 square miles ( 520 km2 ) for breeding territory . A male and two to five females may live within that range . When habitat is lost , panthers will fight over territory . After vehicle collisions , the second most frequent cause of death for panthers is intra @-@ species aggression . In the 1990s urban expansion crowded panthers from southwestern Florida as Naples and Ft . Myers began to expand into the western Everglades and Big Cypress Swamp . Agencies such as the Army Corps of Engineers and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service were responsible for maintaining the Clean Water Act and the Endangered Species Act , yet still approved 99 % of all permits to build in wetlands and panther territory . A limited genetic pool is also a danger . Biologists introduced eight female Texas cougars ( Puma concolor ) in 1995 to diversify genes , and there are between 80 and 120 panthers in the wild as of 2008 .
Perhaps the most dramatic loss of any group of animals has been to wading birds . Their numbers were estimated by eyewitness accounts to be approximately 2 @.@ 5 million in the late 19th century . However , snowy egrets ( Egretta thula ) , roseate spoonbills ( Platalea ajaja ) , and reddish egrets ( Egretta rufescens ) were hunted to the brink of extinction for the colorful feathers used in women 's hats . After about 1920 when the fashion passed , their numbers returned in the 1930s , but over the next 50 years actions by the C & SF further disturbed populations . When the canals were constructed , natural water flow was restricted from the mangrove forests near the coast of Florida Bay . From one wet season to the next , fish were unable to reach traditional locations to repopulate when water was withheld by the C & SF . Birds were forced to fly farther from their nests to forage for food . By the 1970s , bird numbers had decreased 90 % . Many of the birds moved to smaller colonies in the WCAs to be closer to a food source , making them more difficult to count . Yet they remain significantly fewer in number than before the canals were constructed .
= = = Invasive species = = =
Around 6 million people moved to South Florida between 1940 and 1965 . With a thousand people moving to Miami each week , urban development quadrupled . As the human population grew rapidly , the problem of exotic plant and animal species also grew . Many species of plants were brought into South Florida from Asia , Central America , or Australia as decorative landscaping . Exotic animals imported by the pet trade have escaped or been released . Biological controls that keep invasive species smaller in size and fewer in number in their native lands often do not exist in the Everglades , and they compete with the embattled native species for food and space . Of imported plant species , melaleuca trees ( Melaleuca quinquenervia ) have caused the most problems . Melaleucas grow on average 100 feet ( 30 m ) in the Everglades , as opposed to 25 to 60 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 to 18 @.@ 3 m ) in their native Australia . They were brought to southern Florida as windbreaks and deliberately seeded in marsh areas because they absorb vast amounts of water . In a region that is regularly shaped by fire , melaleucas are fire @-@ resistant and their seeds are more efficiently spread by fire . They are too dense for wading birds with large wingspans to nest in , and they choke out native vegetation . Costs of controlling melaleucas topped $ 2 million in 1998 for Everglades National Park . In Big Cypress National Preserve , melaleucas covered 186 square miles ( 480 km2 ) at their most pervasive in the 1990s .
Brazilian pepper ( Schinus terebinthifolius ) was brought to Southern Florida as an ornamental shrub and was dispersed by the droppings of birds and other animals that ate its bright red berries . It thrives on abandoned agricultural land growing in forests too dense for wading birds to nest in , similar to melaleucas . It grows rapidly especially after hurricanes and has invaded pineland forests . Following Hurricane Andrew , scientists and volunteers cleared damaged pinelands of Brazilian pepper so the native trees would be able to return to their natural state .
The species that is causing the most impediment to restoration is the Old World climbing fern ( Lygodium microphyllum ) , introduced in 1965 . The fern grows rapidly and thickly on the ground , making passage for land animals such as black bears and panthers problematic . The ferns also grow as vines into taller portions of trees , and fires climb the ferns in " fire ladders " to scorch portions of the trees that are not naturally resistant to fire .
Several animal species have been introduced to Everglades waterways . Many tropical fish are released , the most detrimental being the blue tilapia ( Oreochromis aureus ) , which builds large nests in shallow waters . Tilapia also consume vegetation which would normally be used by young native fishes for cover and protection .
Reptiles have a particular affinity for the South Florida ecosystem . Virtually all lizards appearing in the Everglades have been introduced , such as the brown anole ( Anolis sagrei ) and the tropical house gecko ( Hemidactylus mabouia ) . The herbivorous green iguana ( Iguana iguana ) can reproduce rapidly in wilderness habitats . However , the reptile that has earned media attention for its size and potential to harm children and domestic pets is the Burmese python ( Python bivittatus ) , which has spread quickly throughout the area . The python can grow up to 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) long and competes with alligators for the top of the food chain .
Though exotic birds such as parrots and parakeets are also found in the Everglades , their impact is negligible . Conversely , perhaps the animal that causes the most damage to native wildlife is the domestic or feral cat . Across the U.S. , cats are responsible for approximately a billion bird deaths annually . They are estimated to number 640 per square mile ; cats living in suburban areas have devastating effects on migratory birds and marsh rabbits .
= = = Homestead Air Force Base = = =
Hurricane Andrew struck Miami in 1992 , with catastrophic damage to Homestead Air Force Base in Homestead . A plan to rejuvenate the property in 1993 and convert it into a commercial airport was met with enthusiasm from local municipal and commercial entities hoping to recoup $ 480 million and 11 @,@ 000 jobs lost in the local community by the destruction and subsequent closing of the base . On March 31 , 1994 , the base was designated as a reserve base , functioning only part @-@ time . A cursory environmental study performed by the Air Force was deemed insufficient by local conservation groups , who threatened to sue in order to halt the acquisition when estimates of 650 flights a day were projected . Groups had previously been alarmed in 1990 by the inclusion of Homestead Air Force Base on a list of the U.S. Government 's most polluted properties . Their concerns also included noise , and the inevitable collisions with birds using the mangrove forests as rookeries . The Air Force base is located between Everglades National Park and Biscayne National Park , giving it the potential to cause harm to both . In 2000 , Secretary of the Interior Bruce Babbitt and the director of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency expressed their opposition to the project , despite other Clinton Administration agencies previously working to ensure the base would be turned over to local agencies quickly and smoothly as " a model of base disposal " . Although attempts were made to make the base more environmentally friendly , in 2001 local commercial interests promoting the airport lost federal support .
= = Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan = =
= = = Sustainable South Florida = = =
Despite the successes of the Everglades Forever Act and the decreases in mercury levels , the focus intensified on the Everglades in the 1990s as quality of life in the South Florida metropolitan areas diminished . It was becoming clear that urban populations were consuming increasingly unsustainable levels of natural resources . A report entitled " The Governor 's Commission for a Sustainable South Florida " , submitted to Lawton Chiles in 1995 , identified the problems the state and municipal governments were facing . The report remarked that the degradation of the natural quality of the Everglades , Florida Bay , and other bodies of water in South Florida would cause a significant decrease in tourism ( 12 @,@ 000 jobs and $ 200 million annually ) and income from compromised commercial fishing ( 3 @,@ 300 jobs and $ 52 million annually ) . The report noted that past abuses and neglect of the environment had brought the region to " a precipitous juncture " where the inhabitants of South Florida faced health hazards in polluted air and water ; furthermore , crowded and unsafe urban conditions hurt the reputation of the state . It noted that though the population had increased by 90 % over the previous two decades , registered vehicles had increased by 166 % . On the quality and availability of water , the report stated , " [ The ] frequent water shortages ... create the irony of a natural system dying of thirst in a subtropical environment with over 53 inches of rain per year " .
Restoration of the Everglades , however , briefly became a bipartisan cause in national politics . A controversial penny @-@ a @-@ pound ( 2 cent / kg ) tax on sugar was proposed to fund some of the necessary changes to be made to help decrease phosphorus and make other improvements to water . State voters were asked to support the tax , and environmentalists paid $ 15 million to encourage the issue . Sugar lobbyists responded with $ 24 million in advertising to discourage it and succeeded ; it became the most expensive ballot issue in state history . How restoration might be funded became a political battleground and seemed to stall without resolution . However , in the 1996 election year , Republican senator Bob Dole proposed that Congress give the State of Florida $ 200 million to acquire land for the Everglades . Democratic Vice President Al Gore promised the federal government would purchase 100 @,@ 000 acres ( 400 km2 ) of land in the EAA to turn it over for restoration . Politicking reduced the number to 50 @,@ 000 acres ( 200 km2 ) , but both Dole 's and Gore 's gestures were approved by Congress .
= = = Central and South Florida Project Restudy = = =
As part of the Water Resources Development Act of 1992 , Congress authorized an evaluation of the effectiveness of the Central and Southern Florida Flood Control Project . A report known as the " Restudy " , written by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and the South Florida Water Management District , was submitted to Congress in 1999 . It cited indicators of harm to the system : a 50 % reduction in the original Everglades , diminished water storage , harmful timing of water release , an 85 to 90 % decrease in wading bird populations over the past 50 years , and the decline of output from commercial fisheries . Bodies of water including Lake Okeechobee , the Caloosahatchee River , St. Lucie estuary , Lake Worth Lagoon , Biscayne Bay , Florida Bay , and the Everglades reflected drastic water level changes , hypersalinity , and dramatic changes in marine and freshwater ecosystems . The Restudy noted the overall decline in water quality over the past 50 years was caused by loss of wetlands that act as filters for polluted water . It predicted that without intervention the entire South Florida ecosystem would deteriorate . Canals took roughly 170 billion US gallons ( 640 Gl ) of water to the Atlantic Ocean or Gulf of Mexico daily , so there was no opportunity for water storage , yet flooding was still a problem . Without changes to the current system , the Restudy predicted water restrictions would be necessary every other year , and annually in some locations . It also warned that revising some portions of the project without dedicating efforts to an overall comprehensive plan would be insufficient and probably detrimental .
After evaluating ten plans , the Restudy recommended a comprehensive strategy that would cost $ 7 @.@ 8 billion over 20 years . The plan advised taking the following actions :
Create surface water storage reservoirs to capture 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 acre feet ( 1 @.@ 9 km3 ) of water in several locations taking up 181 @,@ 300 acres ( 734 km2 ) .
Create water preserve areas between Miami @-@ Dade and Palm Beach and the eastern Everglades to treat runoff water .
Manage Lake Okeechobee as an ecological resource to avoid the drastic rise and fall of water levels in the lake that are harmful to aquatic plant and animal life and disturb the lake sediments .
Improve water deliveries to estuaries to reduce the rapid discharge of excess water to the Caloosahatchee and St. Lucie estuaries that upset nutrient balances and cause lesions on fish . Stormwater discharge would be sent instead to reservoirs .
Increase underground water storage to hold 16 billion US gallons ( 61 Gl ) a day in wells , or reservoirs in the Floridan Aquifer , to be used later in dry periods , in a method called Aquifer Storage and Recovery ( ASR ) .
Construct treatment wetlands as Stormwater Treatment Areas throughout 35 @,@ 600 acres ( 144 km2 ) , that would decrease the amount of pollutants in the environment .
Improve water deliveries to the Everglades by increasing them at a rate of approximately 26 % into Shark River Slough .
Remove barriers to sheetflow by destroying or removing 240 miles ( 390 km ) of canals and levees , specifically removing the Miami Canal and reconstructing the Tamiami Trail from a highway to culverts and bridges to allow sheetflow to return to a more natural rate of water flow into Everglades National Park .
Store water in quarries and reuse wastewater by employing existing quarries to supply the South Florida metropolitan area as well as Florida Bay and the Everglades . Construct two wastewater treatment plants capable of discharging 22 billion US gallons ( 83 Gl ) a day to recharge the Biscayne Aquifer .
The implementation of all of the advised actions , the report stated , would " result in the recovery of healthy , sustainable ecosystems throughout south Florida " . The report admitted that it did not have all the answers , though no plan could . However , it predicted that it would restore the " essential defining features of the pre @-@ drainage wetlands over large portions of the remaining system " , that populations of all animals would increase , and animal distribution patterns would return to their natural states . Critics expressed concern over some unused technology ; scientists were unsure if the quarries would hold as much water as was being suggested , and whether the water would harbor harmful bacteria from the quarries . Overtaxing the aquifers was another concern — it was not a technique that had been previously attempted .
Though it was optimistic , the Restudy noted ,
It is important to understand that the ' restored ' Everglades of the future will be different from any version of the Everglades that has existed in the past . While it certainly will be vastly superior to the current ecosystem , it will not completely match the pre @-@ drainage system . This is not possible , in light of the irreversible physical changes that have made ( sic ) to the ecosystem . It will be an Everglades that is smaller and somewhat differently arranged than the historic ecosystem . But it will be a successfully restored Everglades , because it will have recovered those hydrological and biological patterns which defined the original Everglades , and which made it unique among the world ’ s wetland systems . It will become a place that kindles the wildness and richness of the former Everglades .
The report was the result of many cooperating agencies that often had conflicting goals . An initial draft was submitted to Everglades National Park management who asserted not enough water would be released to the park quickly enough — that the priority went to delivering water to urban areas . When they threatened to refuse to support it , the plan was rewritten to provide more water to the park . However , the Miccosukee Indians have a reservation in between the park and water control devices , and they threatened to sue to ensure their tribal lands and a $ 50 million casino would not be flooded . Other special interests were also concerned that businesses and residents would take second priority after nature . The Everglades , however , proved to be a bipartisan cause . The Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan ( CERP ) was authorized by the Water Resources Development Act of 2000 and signed into law by President Bill Clinton on December 11 , 2000 . It approved the immediate use of $ 1 @.@ 3 billion for implementation to be split by the federal government and other sources .
= = = Implementation = = =
The State of Florida reports that it has spent more than $ 2 billion on the various projects since CERP was signed . More than 36 @,@ 000 acres ( 150 km2 ) of Stormwater Treatment Areas ( STA ) have been constructed to filter 2 @,@ 500 short tons ( 2 @,@ 300 t ) of phosphorus from Everglades waters . An STA covering 17 @,@ 000 acres ( 69 km2 ) was constructed in 2004 , making it the largest manmade wetland in the world . Fifty @-@ five percent of the land necessary for restoration , totaling 210 @,@ 167 acres ( 850 @.@ 5 km2 ) , has been purchased by the State of Florida . A plan named " Acceler8 " , to hasten the construction and funding of the project , was put into place , spurring the start of six of eight construction projects , including that of three large reservoirs .
Despite the bipartisan goodwill and declarations of the importance of the Everglades , the region still remains in danger . Political maneuvering continues to impede CERP : sugar lobbyists promoted a bill in the Florida legislature in 2003 that increased the acceptable amount of phosphorus in Everglades waterways from 10 ppb to 15 ppb and extended the deadline for the mandated decrease by 20 years . A compromise of 2016 was eventually reached . Environmental organizations express concern that attempts to speed up some of the construction through Acceler8 are politically motivated ; the six projects Acceler8 focuses on do not provide more water to natural areas in desperate need of it , but rather to projects in populated areas bordering the Everglades , suggesting that water is being diverted to make room for more people in an already overtaxed environment . Though Congress promised half the funds for restoration , after the War in Iraq began and two of CERP 's major supporters in Congress retired , the federal role in CERP was left unfulfilled . According to a story in The New York Times , state officials say the restoration is lost in a maze of " federal bureaucracy , a victim of ' analysis paralysis ' " . In 2007 , the release of $ 2 billion for Everglades restoration was approved by Congress , overriding President George W. Bush 's veto of the entire Water Development Project the money was a part of . Bush 's rare veto went against the wishes of Florida Republicans , including his brother , Governor Jeb Bush . A lack of subsequent action by the Congress prompted Governor Charlie Crist to travel to Washington D.C. in February 2008 and inquire about the promised funds . By June 2008 , the federal government had spent only $ 400 million of the $ 7 @.@ 8 billion legislated . Carl Hiaasen characterized George W. Bush 's attitude toward the environment as " long @-@ standing indifference " in June 2008 , exemplified when Bush stated he would not intervene to change the Environmental Protection Agency 's ( EPA ) policy allowing the release of water polluted with fertilizers and phosphorus into the Everglades .
= = = Reassessment of CERP = = =
Florida still receives a thousand new residents daily and lands slated for restoration and wetland recovery are often bought and sold before the state has a chance to bid on them . The competitive pricing of real estate also drives it beyond the purchasing ability of the state . Because the State of Florida is assisting with purchasing lands and funding construction , some of the programs under CERP are vulnerable to state budget cuts . In June 2008 Governor Crist announced that the State of Florida will buy U.S. Sugar for $ 1 @.@ 7 billion . The idea came when sugar lobbyists were trying to persuade Crist to relax restriction of U.S. Sugar 's practice of pumping phosphorus @-@ laden water into the Everglades . According to one of the lobbyists who characterized it as a " duh moment " , Crist said , " If sugar is polluting the Everglades , and we 're paying to clean the Everglades , why don 't we just get rid of sugar ? " The largest producer of cane sugar in the U.S. will continue operations for six years , and when ownership transfers to Florida , 187 @,@ 000 acres ( 760 km2 ) of the Everglades will remain undeveloped to allow it to be restored to its pre @-@ drainage state .
In September 2008 the National Research Council ( NRC ) , a nonprofit agency providing science and policy advice to the federal government , submitted a report on the progress of CERP . The report noted " scant progress " in restoration because of problems in budgeting , planning , and bureaucracy . The NRC report called the Everglades one of the " world 's treasured ecosystems " that is being further endangered by lack of progress : " Ongoing delay in Everglades restoration has not only postponed improvements — it has allowed ecological decline to continue " . It cited the shrinking tree islands , and the negative population growth of the endangered Rostrhamus sociabilis or Everglades snail kite , and Ammodramus maritimus mirabilis , the Cape Sable seaside sparrow . The lack of water reaching Everglades National Park was characterized as " one of the most discouraging stories " in implementation of the plan . The NRC recommended improving planning on the state and federal levels , evaluating each CERP project annually , and further acquisition of land for restoration . Everglades restoration was earmarked $ 96 million in federal funds as part of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 with the intention of providing civil service and construction jobs while simultaneously implementing the legislated repair projects .
In January 2010 , work began on the C @-@ 111 canal , built in the 1960s to drain irrigated farmland , to reconstruct it to keep from diverting water from Everglades National Park . Two other projects focusing on restoration were also scheduled to start in 2010 . Governor Crist announced the same month that $ 50 million would be earmarked for Everglades restoration . In April of the same year , a federal district court judge sharply criticized both state and federal failures to meet deadlines , describing the cleanup efforts as being slowed by " glacial delay " and government neglect of environmental law enforcement " incomprehensible " .
= Urnula craterium =
Urnula craterium is a species of cup fungus in the family Sarcosomataceae . It is parasitic on oak and various other hardwood species ; it is also saprobic , as the fruit bodies develop on dead wood after it has fallen to the ground . Appearing in early spring , its distinctive goblet @-@ shaped and dark @-@ colored fruit bodies have earned it the common names devil 's urn and the gray urn . The distribution of U. craterium includes eastern North America , Europe , and Asia . It produces bioactive compounds that can inhibit the growth of other fungi . The asexual ( imperfect ) , or conidial stage of U. craterium is a plant pathogen known as Conoplea globosa , which causes a canker disease of oak and several other hardwood tree species .
= = History and taxonomy = =
Urnula craterium was first described in 1822 by American botanist Lewis David de Schweinitz as Peziza craterium , based on a specimen found in North Carolina . The species first appeared in the scientific literature under its current name when Elias Magnus Fries described the new genus Urnula in 1849 , and set Peziza craterium as the type species . In 1896 , German mycologist Heinrich Rehm removed the species from Urnula – transferring it to the genus Geopyxis – and replaced the type species with Urnula terrestris , a peripherally related species . This restructuring resulted in a taxomically untenable situation in which the genus Urnula consisted of a single species with ambiguous resemblance to the original species ( described by Fries ) upon which the genus was based . According to Elsie Kupfer , who had written Rehm to clarify the rationale for his decision :
Urnula craterium was placed with its related species under Geopyxis , because Geopyxis was established by Persoon before Urnula by Fries ; and that in order to retain the genus Urnula , under which Saccardo had placed Podophacidium terrestre of Niessl , he ( Rehm ) restricted the genus to this latter fungus .
As Kupfer explains , Rehm did not justify why he believed Urnula craterium should be allied to Geopyxis , or why Podophacidium terrestre should be considered an Urnula . Kupfer 's macro- and microscopic analysis of tissues from these and related genera clearly showed the inconsistency in Rehm 's taxonomical choices , and that Urnula craterium represented an entirely different genus not related to Geopyxis ; Fries 's naming was restored .
The genus name means " little urn " ; the specific epithet is derived from the Latin cratera , referring to a type of bowl used in antiquity to mix wine with water . It is commonly known as the devil 's urn and the gray urn .
= = Description = =
The fruit bodies begin from dense , black mycelium on the surface of oak branches in contact with the ground . Starting out as rolls of cylindrical tissue 1 or more centimeters long and 3 – 4 mm wide , they expand slowly over the winter , and grow rapidly in the spring when the weather becomes warmer .
The goblet @-@ shaped fruit body ( technically an ascocarp ) is 3 – 4 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 – 1 @.@ 6 in ) in diameter and 4 – 6 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 2 @.@ 4 in ) deep ; initially it is closed , but opens as it matures , leaving a ragged or smooth inrolled margin around a round opening . The flesh of the ascocarp walls is tough and initially gelatinous , later becoming leathery . The exterior of the ascocarp is brownish black to black , with a velvety surface , while the interior spore @-@ bearing surface , the hymenium , is brownish black in color , usually somewhat paler than the outside . The outer surface may be partially covered with small flakelike patches of tissue . When viewed with a magnifying glass , the " hairs " ( fungal hyphae ) making up the outer velvety surface are variable in length , and are thick @-@ walled , blunt , and appear to wind from side to side ( flexuous ) . The ascocarp is connected to a stalk that is typically 3 – 4 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 – 1 @.@ 6 in ) long by 0 @.@ 4 – 0 @.@ 8 cm ( 0 @.@ 2 – 0 @.@ 3 in ) thick , with black mycelia at its base .
= = = Microscopic features = = =
The spores are ellipsoid or sausage @-@ shaped ( allantoid ) , smooth , and thin @-@ walled . They are non @-@ amyloid ( not taking up iodine stain ) , and hyaline ( translucent ) , with dimensions of 22 – 37 by 10 – 15 µm . The spore @-@ bearing cells , the asci are eight @-@ spored , cylindrical , and measure 600 by 15 – 17 µm . They are operculate , analogous to having a flip @-@ top lid mechanism to release the spores . Interspersed among the asci are thin , filamentous , branched paraphyses that extend beyond the tops of the asci .
Viewed with a microscope , the wall of the apothecium is made of three tissue layers of roughly equal thickness . The first layer of tissue is black , leathery and compact , and covered with a fine layer of brownish @-@ black hairs ( a tomentum ) ; the second layer consists of loosely interlaced brown hyphae suspended in a gelatinous matrix . The third layer is the fertile , spore @-@ bearing surface , the brownish @-@ black hymenium .
= = = Imperfect state = = =
The life cycle of Urnula craterium allows for both an imperfect ( making asexual spores , or conidia ) or perfect ( making sexual spores ) form ; as has often happened in fungal taxonomy , the imperfect form was given a different name , because the relationship between the perfect and imperfect forms of the same species was not then known . The imperfect stage of Urnula craterium is the plant pathogenic species Conoplea globosa , known to cause a canker disease ( Strumella canker ) of oak and several other hardwoods .
= = = Edibility = = =
This species is often listed in field guides as inedible , or not recommended for consumption due to its tough texture . Michael Kuo , in his 2007 book on edible mushrooms , lists the taste as " mediocre " , and comments " the devil 's urn is not as bad as I thought it was going to be . It 's not good , mind you , but it would be possible to eat it with a forced smile if your Aunt Wanda served it to you . "
= = = Similar species = = =
The cup fungus Plectania melastoma is also black , but it is smaller and the cup not as deep .
= = Spore development = =
The spores of U. craterium have a rapid and high percentage of germination . Germination requires only 1 @.@ 5 hours , a relatively short time compared to another inoperculate species in the same family , Sarcoscypha coccinea , which requires 48 hours . Furthermore , germination is possible under a wide temperature range , from 5 ° C ( 41 ° F ) to 35 ° C ( 95 ° F ) , and wide soil pH range ; the quality and quantity of light does not affect germination , although prolonged exposure to light does reduce germination efficiency .
= = Ecology , habitat and distribution = =
Urnula craterium grows singly or clustered together , usually attached to sticks and branches ( especially oak ) that are partially buried in the ground . The teleomorph state is saprobic , and decomposes hardwood ; the anamorph state is parasitic , and causes a canker of various hardwoods , including oaks , hickories , basswood and beech . The is often found in deciduous forests , although it is sometimes inconspicuous due to its dark color , and because it may be partially covered with leaf litter . One of the first fleshy fungi to appear from March to May , U. craterium has been dubbed a " harbinger of spring " , and is sometimes encountered under melting snow .
The distribution of U. craterium includes eastern North America , Europe ( including the Czech Republic , Finland , Spain , ) Japan , and China . It is red @-@ listed as critically endangered in the Czech Republic .
= = Bioactive compounds = =
Urnula craterium , when grown in liquid culture , produces bioactive chemicals that inhibit the growth of other fungi that are pathogenic to aspen ; specifically , these chemical are antagonistic to aspen blue @-@ stain fungi Ophiostoma crassivaginatum and O. piliferum , as well as the wood @-@ decay fungus Phellinus tremulae . Chemicals produced by U. craterium include pestalotin , 5 @,@ 6 @-@ dehydropestalotin , 4 @-@ methoxy @-@ 3 @,@ 5 @-@ dimethyl @-@ pyran @-@ 2 @-@ one , and ( 4S ) -3,4 @-@ dihydro @-@ 4 @,@ 8 @-@ dihydroxy @-@ 1 ( 2H ) -napthalenone . However , none of these isolated compounds inhibits the aspen pathogens in vitro , suggesting the true nature of the antifungal mechanism in the devil 's urn has not yet been resolved .
= Phineas and Ferb 's Quantum Boogaloo =
" Phineas and Ferb 's Quantum Boogaloo " is the fourteenth episode of the second season of the animated television series Phineas and Ferb , and the 72nd overall episode of the series . It originally aired on Disney XD in the United States on September 21 , 2009 . In the episode , Phineas and his stepbrother Ferb travel into the future and have their time machine stolen by their older sister Candace , now an adult , who travels back in time to get her brothers in trouble during one of their outlandish schemes . In doing so , however , she sets off a chain reaction leading to a dystopian future ruled by the evil Dr. Doofenshmirtz .
" Phineas and Ferb 's Quantum Boogaloo , " written by Scott Peterson and directed by Zac Moncrief , was rated TV @-@ G in the United States . The episode was conceived as a means of expanding the time machine plot that was introduced previously in the episode " It 's About Time . " Dan Povenmire and Jeff " Swampy " Marsh , co @-@ founders of Phineas and Ferb , centralized plot elements to satirize time travel films , such as The Time Machine ( 1960 ) and the Back to the Future trilogy ( 1985 @-@ 1990 ) . Multiple scenes in the episode were meant to be rather confusing and difficult to understand in order to interest viewers so they would watch the episode multiple times , trying to learn something new each time .
The episode received generally positive reviews from television critics . In its original broadcast , it ranked fourth in the key demographics Boys 6 @-@ 14 , Kids 6 @-@ 11 and Boys 6 @-@ 11 , totaling 599 @,@ 000 viewers , an 88 percent increase from that of the previous year 's ratings in the timeslot . When it premiered on Disney Channel , it was the thirteenth highest @-@ ranked cable program for the entire week . It guest starred actors Jennifer Stone , Moises Arias , Noah Munck , and Jennifer Grey , along with the band Bowling for Soup , who appeared as themselves playing an extended version of the series ' theme song , " Today is Gonna Be a Great Day , " which was also included on the official Phineas and Ferb soundtrack which was released on September 22 , 2009 .
= = Plot summary = =
Phineas and his stepbrother Ferb learn from their friend Baljeet that a tool they need for their latest project has yet to be invented . They and their friend Isabella borrow the time machine on display at the local museum to travel twenty years into the future . Once they arrive , Isabella stays behind with the time machine while the boys enter their sister Candace 's backyard , where her sons Fred and Xavier are sitting under a tree doing nothing . The boys convince their future nephews to be active and in return are given the tool they need . As they leave , Candace spots them and it brings back upsetting memories of never being able to bust the boys . She takes her mother Linda to the museum where the boys leave , right before Linda can see them .
Professor Onassis , who invented the time machine in the 1800s , arrives in the original version of the machine soon after and future Candace steals it . She travels back to the day the boys built the rollercoaster in their backyard and succeeds in getting her mother to see them , finally fulfilling her dream of busting them . However , in doing so , she accidentally leads Perry , their pet platypus who is secretly a suave secret agent , to be injured while stopping an evil magnet mechanism . As a result , Perry 's nemesis , Dr. Doofenshmirtz , comes out unharmed from the effects of the now @-@ destroyed machine . Over time , everything is altered and the world becomes childproof for fear of a repeat of Phineas and Ferb 's dangerous activities . Doofenshmirtz eventually gains the upper hand , effectively becoming emperor of the world . He claims to be a nice Emperor , though , since he can remember everyone 's name ( though this is considerably easier than it seems , since one of his rules is that everyone has to be named Joe ) . Also , because of Doofenshmirtz gaining the upper hand , the Agency is now forced into a oath to obey him , resulting a demoralized Perry to fail more on his missions against Doofenshmirtz . After arriving in the dystopia future Doofenshmirtz rules , Candace returns to the day of the rollercoaster to stop herself from interfering like before , stopping the dystopia from occurring .
The time machine gets destroyed so the two Candaces go to the backyard to convince the boys to fix the current time machine in the museum and take them back , creating a paradox and as a result , the Candace from the bleak future ( wearing a white lab coat as seen in the picture above ) ceases to exist . The boys then fix the machine . Isabella says to Ferb that a rollercoaster ride and time travel was a bonus . The present Candace tags along with her future self , Phineas , Ferb , and Isabella as they travel to the future ( while Candace " finally " busting them in the process , but the future Linda is not angry at the boys , saying she doesn 't have jurisdiction to bust the boys anymore ) . As Candace and the boys talk to the future Linda , Isabella sparks an idea and travels back in time . During the credits , it reveals Isabella obtained the tool and gave it to the boys before they even time traveled in the first place , thus , canceling out all the events that happened earlier in the episode and also causing all the characters involved in the future to cease existence ( also erasing the " busting " present Candace caused , thus possibly causing a time loop ) . In " Summer Belongs To You " , Phineas mentions time traveling twice and Isabella comments that Phineas has travelled through time " twice " , but because of the events in the credits of Quantum Boogaloo , no @-@ one - including Isabella should actually know about the time @-@ travelling .
During this episode , it is implied that Isabella marries either Phineas or Ferb , though none of the characters remember this . It is also implied that Phineas wins at least one Nobel Prize as the future Linda says the future Phineas is " in Switzerland for the Awards Ceremony . " Ferb is likely President of the United States as he is stated to be " at Camp David " , a resort specially made for Presidents since Eisenhower , although his British birth would ordinarily prevent this .
= = Production = =
" Phineas and Ferb 's Quantum Boogaloo " was written by Scott Peterson and directed by Zac Moncrief . Phineas and Ferb had previously produced an episode in season one 's " It 's About Time " which featured a time machine . Co @-@ founder Dan Povenmire stated that he enjoyed the outcome of said episode . The writers purposely left the time machine available for the boys ' use at the end of the episode so that they could reuse it in a later episode . Eventually , they conceived a plot where " Phineas and Ferb go into the future and actually see Candace as an adult ( which ) drags up all kinds of memories of not being able to bust them . "
The scenes in which Candace travels back to the Phineas and Ferb building a roller coaster are taken from the pilot episode , " Rollercoaster . " Including the scenes was " great fun " for Povenmire and fellow co @-@ founder Jeff " Swampy " Marsh , who decided early on that using it would have " future Candace go back to the rollercoaster [ sic ] . Then whatever she did would affect the future , in this case give Doofenshmirtz the upper hand and effectively change history . " The inclusion was inspired by the Star Trek : Deep Space Nine episode " Trials and Tribble @-@ ations , " in which the Deep Space 9 crew travel back in time to the Star Trek episode " The Trouble With Tribbles . " The novel approach was viewed by Marsh as " a great way to interweave a story . "
The crew spent a long amount of time plotting out the episode in a room , using sticky notes , in order to make sure it played out sensibly and was clearly understandable to viewers . The production staff based a lot of the usage of time travel in " Phineas and Ferb 's Quantum Boogaloo " on those from the Back to the Future trilogy ( 1985 @-@ 1990 ) and H. G. Wells ' The Time Machine ( 1960 ) . The goal of the crew was to make sure everything stayed strong to a certain logical standpoint , which led to several surreal conversations , including several paradoxes involving time travel . The crew members sought to venture into elements that seemed complicated , as their children viewers were deemed intelligent enough to understand such elements . The hopes of the production staff was to make the episode one that they could watch multiple times and notice something new with each viewing .
Since Doofenshmirtz and Perry 's actions tend to affect those of the boys , the choice to have future Candace 's interference in the past greatly affect those of Doofenshmirtz and Perry 's was considered the logical choice . Povenmire explained , " They affect each other in ways that we never fully understand , but if you throw off that little balance of power of their [ respective ] activities , all hell could break loose . " The song Doofenshmirtz sings , entitled " It 's Been a Charmed Life , " was well @-@ praised by the production crew , who felt that it was considerably well @-@ handled . The song centralized the irony surrounding Doofenshmirtz having everything go well for him , a theme completely different from that which is generally touched upon in the series .
The scene where Candace mentions that her best friend Stacy Hirano had become the president of Uruguay was originally written as a throwaway joke for the episode . During an e @-@ mail exchange between the crew , some crew members were curious about the line and Povenmire came up with an entire back story , in which Stacy meets the prince of the country , moves there and , after changing several laws , becomes eligible for the presidency . The staff enjoyed the idea and wrote it down as a possible plot for a future episode .
" Phineas and Ferb 's Quantum Boogaloo " featured multiple guest appearances . Actress Jennifer Stone guest starred as Amanda , Candace 's future daughter . Stone researched actress Ashley Tisdale 's performance as Candace on YouTube to better grasp the attention needed on the voice role . Stone recorded her lines a long time before the final animation came in and was feeling impatient about how the end results would come out . Moises Arias , who is , according to Stone , " like [ her ] little brother , " voiced Candace 's future son , Fred . Actress Jennifer Grey also appeared as a librarian . Grey 's character in Ferris Bueller 's Day Off was the inspiration for Candace and the actress had previously portrayed Doofenshmirtz 's professor in " Oil on Candace . "
" Phineas and Ferb 's Quantum Boogaloo " originally broadcast on September 21 , 2009 , on Disney XD . Like all episodes of Phineas and Ferb , it carried a TV @-@ G parental guidance rating . The song " Today is Gonna Be a Great Day " is available on the official Phineas and Ferb soundtrack , which was released on September 22 , 2009 , a day after the episode 's broadcast .
= = Cultural references = =
" Phineas and Ferb 's Quantum Boogaloo " serves as a satire on time travel films , particularly the Back to the Future film series and H. G. Wells ' The Time Machine . Candace stealing the time machine to change something in the past , thus creating a dystopian future , mirrors the scene in Back to the Future Part II ( 1989 ) , in which Biff Tannen steals a time machine and causes a dark and chaotic future in the process . In the future , the American pop @-@ punk band Bowling for Soup appears and performs an extended version of the series ' theme song . The band members were designed to look twenty years older and having gained weight .
= = Reception = =
" Phineas and Ferb 's Quantum Boogaloo " ranked fourth in its timeslot , in the demographics Boys 6 – 14 , Kids 6 – 11 and Boys 6 – 11 . It averaged 599 @,@ 000 total viewers , an 88 percent increase over the previous year 's record for the timeslot . In Kids 6 – 14 , it outranked previous year 's records by 152 percent . In Boys 6 – 14 , it claimed over a 121 percent increase , in Boys 6 – 11 , it garnered an over 116 percent increase , and in Boys 9 @-@ 14 , an over 138 percent registered increase . When the episode aired on Disney Channel for the first time , it was watched by 2 @.@ 7 million American households and 3 @.@ 9 million individual viewers , placing it at number 13 in cable network ratings for the entire week .
The episode received generally positive reviews from television critics . Matt Blum of Wired called it " probably the geekiest episode of the show so far " . Blum praised the joke about Stacy becoming the president of Uruguay and called Doofenshmirtz 's song " It 's Been a Charmed Life " " heavy irony . " Paige Wiser of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times considered the episode one of September 21 's television highlights , writing that she " could not be more excited . " News OK listed the episode on its " Top 55 TV Programs for Sept . 20 @-@ 26 , 2009 " , and all three guest stars appeared on its list of " Top 30 Guest Stars on TV Shows airing Sept . 20 @-@ 26 , 2009 " . Povenmire considered the episode one of his favorites of the series .
= = = General = = =
Marsh , Jeff " Swampy " ( 2009 @-@ 09 @-@ 18 ) . Phineas and Ferb : A Sci @-@ Fi Episode , a Soundtrack Album , and an Interview ! ( Audio ) . Wired .
Blum , Matt ( 2009 @-@ 09 @-@ 18 ) . Phineas and Ferb : A Sci @-@ Fi Episode , a Soundtrack Album , and an Interview ! ( Audio ) . Wired .
= = = Specific = = =
= Everyone Nose ( All the Girls Standing in the Line for the Bathroom ) =
" Everyone Nose ( All the Girls Standing in the Line for the Bathroom ) " is a song by American band N.E.R.D. It is the lead single from their third studio album Seeing Sounds and was released on May 13 , 2008 . Lyrically , the song delves into the issue of woman socially snorting cocaine in bathrooms . The song was accompanied by music video , which was directed by Diane Martel . A video for the remix of the song featuring Kanye West , Lupe Fiasco , and Pusha T of Clipse was also filmed and directed by Hype Williams .
" Everyone Nose " received generally favorable reviews from music critics . N.E.R.D promoted the song through numerous tours and festivals . The song failed to chart in the United States , but peaked at number 17 on the Japan Hot 100 Singles and at number 41 on the UK Singles Chart .
= = Composition = =
" Everyone Nose " was written by Pharrell Williams and Chad Hugo , who also produced the song as The Neptunes . The title of the song derives from the subject of women snorting cocaine socially in bathrooms . N.E.R.D attestd that , " when the girls go in the bathroom , they 're powdering their faces with that other white stuff " . Andrew Coleman , the band 's engineer , explained the song 's bridge , saying it is the " breakdown " of the girl : " you can imagine a girl who is totally coked out of her mind dancing and sweating . "
In midst of working with Missy Elliott , Williams was shown a video of people dancing to Baltimore house music . He " lost his mind , the way these people were dancing and these crazy beats " , which inspired the beat for " Everyone Nose " . The song begins with a Roland 5080 acoustic bass guitar and continues with drums provided by a Triton Extreme . He went on to say that , " Timbaland is scratching in there , too . The big Latin section is again , all Pharrell — all the same instruments ; he just flipped the programming . That is the Latin club explosion part , mostly programmed beats with some buckets . "
= = Remix = =
N.E.R.D produced a remix featuring Kanye West , Lupe Fiasco , and Pusha T , which was available as an iTunes and Zune Marketplace bonus track with the purchase of Seeing Sounds . When asked why the song was remixed , Hugo replied with , " We wanted something with more of a straight @-@ ahead , club @-@ bumping beat , just a different take on it . We like to remix , dismantle , take apart shit and put it back together . It 's just like a Rubik 's Cube : When you can 't solve it , you just break it and you put it back together . " Williams added , " We think that ' Everyone Nose ' in its current form already hits a certain demographic a certain way , so I just wanted to go and do something different . "
= = Critical reception = =
Christian Hoard of Rolling Stone claimed that the song would be " destined to go down as [ one ] of 2008 's most interesting hip @-@ hop cuts . " Addi Stewart of Now magazine said the song " is straight groovy , baby ! " Many praised the beat ; Nick Levine of Digital Spy said , " It 's a triumph of beats over melody , but few would deny that those beats sound pretty good as they 're dropping . " The Daily Mirror described the beat as " nicely buffeted electropop " , noting its " trickily timed beats , synthesised horns and playful vocal jousting " . Scott Lowe of IGN said the song featured an " intriguing jazzy beat layered over pounding bass " . Others panned the song 's sound and lyrics , saying Williams " lampoons partygoing cokeheads by sounding like Baha Men after five too many rails " and that the lyrics were " about as shallow and trite as an inflatable kiddy swimming pool , but less fun " .
The remix has also garnered positive reviews ; Lowe noted that " Kanye West , Lupe Fiasco , and Pusha T make an appearance on a somewhat more enjoyable remixed version of [ the song ] " , which added a " nice outside perspective to the otherwise tiresome track " . Tom Breihan of The Village Voice called the remix " pretty great " compared to the " horrible hammering " of the original song . He criticized West 's lyrics , saying he was " back to talking about girls on his verse again [ … ] without any of the humane warmth he used to sometimes bring . " The song was number 32 on Rolling Stone 's list of the 100 Best Songs of 2008 .
In response to the positive reception from listeners , Williams said , " We love the reaction that we get [ from that song ] . They know what we 're talking about . " Shay Haley , a member of the band , went on saying , " Me , personally , I 'm shocked it 's being embraced the way it is . I feel like it sticks out like a sore thumb in comparison to what you hear every day on the radio … It 's just our personal observation of what we 've seen over the past couple of years , so we felt like making a party record out of it . "
= = Live performances = =
N.E.R.D promoted the song by performing it in several tours and festivals , including the Austin City Limits Music Festival and the Diesel Bash . Toby Green of The Guardian attended a concert at The Roundhouse in London and gave the performance four out of five stars , saying " Pharrell 's knack is connecting with the crowd . Many bands tell the audience they want to party with them , but N.E.R.D seem to mean it . "
= = Music video = =
Williams contacted the T.A.G. ad agency to record an interactive video to create an " integrated campaign " in order to " hype " the single . The music video for " Everyone Nose " was directed by Diane Martel and co @-@ directed by T.A.G , in collaboration with photo website Last Night 's Party . It was filmed at a nightclub in Madison , New York , with 100 guests as an " orgiastic party " video , in addition to cameos by Kanye West , Lindsay Lohan , and Samantha Ronson . During the filming of the music video , a fight broke out on set , which threatened to halt recording of the video . The outbreak resulted in one person being sent to a nearby hospital for medical treatment . N.E.R.D , West , and Lohan were not on set at the time of the altercation . Due to the lack of security and believing their safety was compromised , members of the trade union " threatened to walk off the set " before being persuaded to stay .
A large dancing nose and nude strippers were set to appear in the video , but were censored with " removed by request " slates . Because the lyrics dealt with cocaine , MTV initially did not air " Everyone Nose " . MTV softened after their website was visited 5 @,@ 000 times , and they played a censored version of the music video without the URL . Rebecca Skinner of HSI Productions criticized MTV , saying , " All artists want their videos to be seen on as many platforms as possible . However MTV is not what [ it ] used to be — yet another reason why the online component to this is important . "
A music video for the remix of " Everyone Nose " featuring Kanye West , Lupe Fiasco , and Pusha T was filmed in July and was directed by Hype Williams . It features video game graphics from the 1980s . Williams explained that , " We just want to have fun with the project . In a day and age where the record industry is what it is , I 'm lucky enough to be on a label that understands and they 'll just let us have fun . "
= = Track listing = =
Digital single
" Everyone Nose ( All the Girls Standing in the Line for the Bathroom ) " – 3 : 49
United Kingdom CD single
" Everyone Nose ( All the Girls Standing in the Line for the Bathroom ) " – 3 : 27
" Spaz " – 3 : 50
Remix single
" Everyone Nose ( Remix ) " ( Clean ) feat . Kanye West , Lupe Fiasco and Pusha T – 3 : 53
" Everyone Nose ( Remix ) " ( Instrumental ) – 3 : 49
" Everyone Nose ( Remix ) " feat . Kanye West , Lupe Fiasco and Pusha T – 3 : 53
= = Charts = =
= Pink Floyd =
Pink Floyd were an English rock band formed in London . They achieved international acclaim with their progressive and psychedelic music . Distinguished by their use of philosophical lyrics , sonic experimentation , extended compositions and elaborate live shows , they are one of the most commercially successful and influential groups in the history of popular music .
Pink Floyd were founded in 1965 by students Syd Barrett on guitar , Nick Mason on drums , Roger Waters on bass , and Richard Wright on keyboards . They gained popularity performing in London 's underground music scene during the late 1960s , and under Barrett 's leadership released two charting singles and a successful debut album , The Piper at the Gates of Dawn ( 1967 ) . Guitarist David Gilmour joined in December 1967 ; Barrett left in April 1968 due to deteriorating mental health . Waters became the band 's primary lyricist and eventually their dominant songwriter , devising the concepts behind their albums The Dark Side of the Moon ( 1973 ) , Wish You Were Here ( 1975 ) , Animals ( 1977 ) , The Wall ( 1979 ) and The Final Cut ( 1983 ) . The Dark Side of the Moon and The Wall became two of the best @-@ selling albums of all time .
Following creative tensions , Wright left Pink Floyd in 1979 , followed by Waters in 1985 . Gilmour and Mason continued as Pink Floyd ; Wright rejoined them as a session musician and , later , a band member . The three produced two more albums , A Momentary Lapse of Reason ( 1987 ) and The Division Bell ( 1994 ) , and toured until 1994 . After nearly two decades of acrimony , Pink Floyd reunited with Waters in 2005 for a performance at the global awareness event Live 8 , but Gilmour and Waters have since stated they have no plans to reunite as a band again . Barrett died in 2006 and Wright in 2008 . The final Pink Floyd studio album , The Endless River ( 2014 ) , was recorded without Waters and largely based on unreleased material from 1993 – 94 .
Pink Floyd were inducted into the US Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1996 , and the UK Music Hall of Fame in 2005 . By 2013 , the band had sold more than 250 million records worldwide , including 75 million certified units in the United States .
= = 1963 – 67 : Early years = =
= = = Formation = = =
Roger Waters met Nick Mason while they were both studying architecture at the London Polytechnic at Regent Street . They first played music together in a group formed by Keith Noble and Clive Metcalfe with Noble 's sister Sheilagh . Richard Wright , a fellow architecture student , joined later that year , and the group became a sextet named Sigma 6 . Waters played lead guitar , Mason drums , and Wright rhythm guitar ( since there was rarely an available keyboard ) . The band performed at private functions and rehearsed in a tearoom in the basement of the Regent Street Polytechnic . They performed songs by the Searchers and material written by their manager and songwriter , fellow student Ken Chapman .
In September 1963 , Waters and Mason moved into a flat at 39 Stanhope Gardens near Crouch End in London , owned by Mike Leonard , a part @-@ time tutor at the nearby Hornsey College of Art and the Regent Street Polytechnic . Mason moved out after the 1964 academic year , and guitarist Bob Klose moved in during September 1964 , prompting Waters ' switch to bass . Sigma 6 went through several names , including the Meggadeaths , the Abdabs and the Screaming Abdabs , Leonard 's Lodgers , and the Spectrum Five , before settling on the Tea Set . In 1964 , as Metcalfe and Noble left to form their own band , guitarist Syd Barrett joined Klose and Waters at Stanhope Gardens . Barrett , two years younger , had moved to London in 1962 to study at the Camberwell College of Arts . Waters and Barrett were childhood friends ; Waters had often visited Barrett and watched him play guitar at Barrett 's mother 's house . Mason said about Barrett : " In a period when everyone was being cool in a very adolescent , self @-@ conscious way , Syd was unfashionably outgoing ; my enduring memory of our first encounter is the fact that he bothered to come up and introduce himself to me . "
Noble and Metcalfe left the Tea Set in late 1963 , and Klose introduced the band to singer Chris Dennis , a technician with the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) . In December 1964 , they secured their first recording time , at a studio in West Hampstead , through one of Wright 's friends , who let them use some down time free . Wright , who was taking a break from his studies , did not participate in the session . When the RAF assigned Dennis a post in Bahrain in early 1965 , Barrett became the band 's frontman . Later that year , they became the resident band at the Countdown Club near Kensington High Street in London , where from late night until early morning they played three sets of 90 minutes each . During this period , spurred by the group 's need to extend their sets to minimise song repetition , the band realised that " songs could be extended with lengthy solos " , wrote Mason . After pressure from his parents and advice from his college tutors , Klose quit the band in mid @-@ 1965 and Barrett took over lead guitar . The group first referred to themselves as the Pink Floyd Sound in late 1965 . Barrett created the name on the spur of the moment when he discovered that another band , also called the Tea Set , were to perform at one of their gigs . The name is derived from the given names of two blues musicians whose Piedmont blues records Barrett had in his collection , Pink Anderson and Floyd Council .
By 1966 , the group 's repertoire consisted mainly of rhythm and blues songs and they had begun to receive paid bookings , including a performance at the Marquee Club in March 1966 , where Peter Jenner , a lecturer at the London School of Economics , noticed them . Jenner was impressed by the sonic effects Barrett and Wright created , and with his business partner and friend Andrew King became their manager . The pair had little experience in the music industry and used King 's inheritance to set up Blackhill Enterprises , purchasing about £ 1 @,@ 000 worth of new instruments and equipment for the band . It was around this time that Jenner suggested they drop the " Sound " part of their band name , thus becoming the Pink Floyd . Under Jenner and King 's guidance , the group became part of London 's underground music scene , playing at venues including All Saints Hall and the Marquee . While performing at the Countdown Club , the band had experimented with long instrumental excursions , and they began to expand them with rudimentary but effective light shows , projected by coloured slides and domestic lights . Jenner and King 's social connections helped gain the band prominent coverage in the Financial Times and an article in the Sunday Times which stated : " At the launching of the new magazine IT the other night a pop group called the Pink Floyd played throbbing music while a series of bizarre coloured shapes flashed on a huge screen behind them ... apparently very psychedelic . "
In 1966 , the band strengthened their business relationship with Blackhill Enterprises , becoming equal partners with Jenner and King and the band members each holding a one @-@ sixth share . By late 1966 , their set included fewer R & B standards and more Barrett originals , many of which would be included on their first album . While they had significantly increased the frequency of their performances , the band were still not widely accepted . Following a performance at a Catholic youth club , the owner refused to pay them , claiming that their performance was not music . When their management filed suit in a small claims court against the owner of the youth organisation , a local magistrate upheld the owner 's decision . The band was much better received at the UFO Club in London , where they began to build a fan base . Barrett 's performances were enthusiastic , " leaping around ... madness ... improvisation ... [ inspired ] to get past his limitations and into areas that were ... very interesting . Which none of the others could do " , wrote biographer Nicholas Schaffner .
= = = Signing with EMI = = =
In 1967 , Pink Floyd began to attract the attention of the mainstream music industry . While in negotiations with record companies , IT co @-@ founder and UFO club manager Joe Boyd and Pink Floyd 's booking agent Bryan Morrison arranged and funded a recording session at Sound Techniques in West Hampstead . Three days later , Pink Floyd signed with EMI , receiving a £ 5 @,@ 000 advance . EMI released the band 's first single , " Arnold Layne " , with the B @-@ side " Candy and a Currant Bun " , on 10 March 1967 on its Columbia label . Both tracks were recorded on 29 January 1967 . " Arnold Layne " ' s references to cross @-@ dressing led to a ban by several radio stations ; however , creative manipulation by the retailers who supplied sales figures to the music business meant that the single peaked in the UK at number 20 .
EMI @-@ Columbia released Pink Floyd 's second single , " See Emily Play " , on 16 June 1967 . It fared slightly better than " Arnold Layne " , peaking at number 6 in the UK . The band performed on the BBC 's Look of the Week , where Waters and Barrett , erudite and engaging , faced tough questioning from Hans Keller . They appeared on the BBC 's Top of the Pops , a popular programme that controversially required artists to mime their singing and playing . Though Pink Floyd returned for two more performances , by the third , Barrett had begun to unravel , and it was around this time that the band first noticed significant changes in his behaviour . By early 1967 , he was regularly using LSD , and Mason described him as " completely distanced from everything going on " .
= = = The Piper at the Gates of Dawn = = =
Morrison and EMI producer Norman Smith negotiated Pink Floyd 's first recording contract , and as part of the deal , the band agreed to record their first album at EMI Studios in London . Mason recalled that the sessions were trouble @-@ free . Smith disagreed , stating that Barrett was unresponsive to his suggestions and constructive criticism . EMI @-@ Columbia released The Piper at the Gates of Dawn in August 1967 . The album peaked at number 6 , spending 14 weeks on the UK charts . One month later , it was released under the Tower Records label . Pink Floyd continued to draw large crowds at the UFO Club ; however , Barrett 's mental breakdown was by then causing serious concern . The group initially hoped that his erratic behaviour would be a passing phase , but some were less optimistic , including Jenner and his assistant , June Child , who commented : " I found [ Barrett ] in the dressing room and he was so ... gone . Roger Waters and I got him on his feet , [ and ] we got him out to the stage ... The band started to play and Syd just stood there . He had his guitar around his neck and his arms just hanging down " .
Forced to cancel Pink Floyd 's appearance at the prestigious National Jazz and Blues Festival , as well as several other shows , King informed the music press that Barrett was suffering from nervous exhaustion . Waters arranged a meeting with psychiatrist R. D. Laing , and though Waters personally drove Barrett to the appointment , Barrett refused to come out of the car . A stay in Formentera with Sam Hutt , a doctor well established in the underground music scene , led to no visible improvement . The band followed a few concert dates in Europe during September with their first tour of the US in October . As the US tour went on , Barrett 's condition grew steadily worse . During appearances on the Dick Clark and Pat Boone shows in November , Barrett confounded his hosts by not responding to questions and staring off into space . He refused to move his lips when it came time to mime " See Emily Play " on Boone 's show . After these embarrassing episodes , King ended their US visit and immediately sent them home to London . Soon after their return , they supported Jimi Hendrix during a tour of England ; however , Barrett 's depression worsened as the tour continued , reaching a crisis point in December , when the band responded by adding a new member to their line @-@ up .
= = 1967 – 78 : Transition and international success = =
= = = Gilmour replaces Barrett = = =
In December 1967 , the group added guitarist David Gilmour as the fifth member of Pink Floyd . Gilmour already knew Barrett , having studied with him at Cambridge Tech in the early 1960s . The two had performed at lunchtimes together with guitars and harmonicas , and later hitch @-@ hiked and busked their way around the south of France . In 1965 , while a member of Joker 's Wild , Gilmour had watched the Tea Set . Morrison 's assistant , Steve O 'Rourke , set Gilmour up in a room at O 'Rourke 's house with a salary of £ 30 per week , and in January 1968 , Blackhill Enterprises announced Gilmour as the band 's newest member ; the second guitarist and its fifth member , the band intending to continue with Barrett as a nonperforming songwriter . Jenner commented : " The idea was that Dave would ... cover for [ Barrett 's ] eccentricities and when that got to be not workable , Syd was just going to write . Just to try to keep him involved " . In an expression of his frustration , Barrett , who was expected to write additional hit singles to follow up " Arnold Layne " and " See Emily Play " , instead introduced " Have You Got It Yet ? " to the band , intentionally changing the structure on each performance so as to make the song impossible to follow and learn . In a January 1968 photo @-@ shoot of the five @-@ man Pink Floyd , the photographs show Barrett looking detached from the others , staring into the distance .
Working with Barrett eventually proved too difficult , and matters came to a head in January while en route to a performance in Southampton when a band member asked if they should collect Barrett . According to Gilmour , the answer was " Nah , let 's not bother " , signalling the end of Barrett 's tenure with Pink Floyd . Waters later admitted , " He was our friend , but most of the time we now wanted to strangle him " . In early March 1968 , Pink Floyd met with business partners Jenner and King to discuss the band 's future ; Barrett agreed to leave .
Jenner and King believed Barrett to be the creative genius of the band , and decided to represent him and end their relationship with Pink Floyd . Morrison then sold his business to NEMS Enterprises , and O 'Rourke became the band 's personal manager . Blackhill announced Barrett 's departure on 6 April 1968 . After Barrett 's departure , the burden of lyrical composition and creative direction fell mostly on Waters . Initially , Gilmour mimed to Barrett 's voice on the group 's European TV appearances ; however , while playing on the university circuit , they avoided Barrett songs in favour of Waters and Wright material such as " It Would Be So Nice " and " Careful with That Axe , Eugene " .
= = = A Saucerful of Secrets = = =
In 1968 , Pink Floyd returned to Abbey Road Studios to record their second album , A Saucerful of Secrets . The album included Barrett 's final contribution to their discography , " Jugband Blues " . Waters began to develop his own songwriting , contributing " Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun " , " Let There Be More Light " and " Corporal Clegg " . Wright composed " See @-@ Saw " and " Remember a Day " . Smith encouraged them to self @-@ produce their music , and they recorded demos of new material at their houses . With Smith 's instruction at Abbey Road , they learned how to use the recording studio to realise their artistic vision . However , Smith remained unconvinced by their music , and when Mason struggled to perform his drum part on " Remember a Day " , Smith stepped in as his replacement . Wright recalled Smith 's attitude about the sessions , " Norman gave up on the second album ... he was forever saying things like , ' You can 't do twenty minutes of this ridiculous noise ' " . As neither Waters nor Mason could read music , to illustrate the structure of the album 's title track , they invented their own system of notation . Gilmour later described their method as looking " like an architectural diagram " .
Released in June 1968 , the album featured a psychedelic cover designed by Storm Thorgerson and Aubrey Powell of Hipgnosis . The first of several Pink Floyd album covers designed by Hipgnosis , it was the second time that EMI permitted one of their groups to contract designers for an album jacket . The release peaked at number 9 , spending 11 weeks on the UK chart . Record Mirror gave the album an overall favourable review , but urged listeners to " forget it as background music to a party " . John Peel described a live performance of the title track as " like a religious experience " , while NME described the song as " long and boring ... [ with ] little to warrant its monotonous direction " . On the day after the album 's UK release , Pink Floyd performed at the first ever free concert in Hyde Park . In July 1968 , they returned to the US for a second visit . Accompanied by the Soft Machine and the Who , it marked Pink Floyd 's first significant tour . In December of that year , they released " Point Me at the Sky " ; no more successful than the two singles they had released since " See Emily Play " , it would be the band 's last until their 1973 release , " Money " .
= = = Ummagumma , Atom Heart Mother , and Meddle = = =
Ummagumma represented a departure from their previous work . Released as a double @-@ LP on EMI 's Harvest label , the first two sides contained live performances recorded at Manchester College of Commerce and Mothers , a club in Birmingham . The second LP contained a single experimental contribution from each band member . Ummagumma received positive reviews upon its release , in November 1969 . The album peaked at number 5 , spending 21 weeks on the UK chart .
In October 1970 , Pink Floyd released Atom Heart Mother . An early version premièred in France in January , but disagreements over the mix prompted the hiring of Ron Geesin to work out the sound issues . Geesin worked to improve the score , but with little creative input from the band , production was troublesome . Geesin eventually completed the project with the aid of John Alldis , who was the director of the choir hired to perform on the record . Smith earned an executive producer credit , and the album marked his final official contribution to the band 's discography . Gilmour said it was " A neat way of saying that he didn 't ... do anything " . Waters was critical of Atom Heart Mother , claiming that he would prefer if it were " thrown into the dustbin and never listened to by anyone ever again " . Gilmour was equally dismissive of the album and once described it as " a load of rubbish " , stating : " I think we were scraping the barrel a bit at that period " . Pink Floyd 's first number 1 album , Atom Heart Mother was hugely successful in Britain , spending 18 weeks on the UK chart . It premièred at the Bath Festival on 27 June 1970 .
Pink Floyd toured extensively across America and Europe in 1970 . In 1971 , Pink Floyd took second place in a reader 's poll , in Melody Maker , and for the first time were making a profit . Mason and Wright became fathers and bought homes in London while Gilmour , still single , moved to a 19th @-@ century farm in Essex . Waters installed a home recording studio at his house in Islington in a converted toolshed at the back of his garden .
In January 1971 , upon their return from touring Atom Heart Mother , Pink Floyd began working on new material . Lacking a central theme , they attempted several unproductive experiments ; engineer John Leckie described the sessions as often beginning in the afternoon and ending early the next morning , " during which time nothing would get [ accomplished ] . There was no record company contact whatsoever , except when their label manager would show up now and again with a couple of bottles of wine and a couple of joints " . The band spent long periods working on basic sounds , or a guitar riff . They also spent several days at Air Studios , attempting to create music using a variety of household objects , a project which would be revisited between The Dark Side of the Moon and Wish You Were Here .
Released in October 1971 , " Meddle not only confirms lead guitarist David Gilmour 's emergence as a real shaping force with the group , it states forcefully and accurately that the group is well into the growth track again " , wrote Jean @-@ Charles Costa of Rolling Stone . NME called Meddle " an exceptionally good album " , singling out " Echoes " as the " Zenith which the Floyd have been striving for " . However , Melody Maker 's Michael Watts found it underwhelming , calling the album " a soundtrack to a non @-@ existent movie " , and shrugging off Pink Floyd as " so much sound and fury , signifying nothing " . Meddle is a transitional album between the Barrett @-@ influenced group of the late 1960s and the emerging Pink Floyd . The LP peaked at number 3 , spending 82 weeks on the UK chart .
= = = The Dark Side of the Moon = = =
Pink Floyd recorded The Dark Side of the Moon between May 1972 and January 1973 , with EMI staff engineer Alan Parsons at Abbey Road . The title is an allusion to lunacy rather than astronomy . The band had composed and refined the material on Dark Side while touring the UK , Japan , North America and Europe . Producer Chris Thomas assisted Parsons . Hipgnosis designed the album 's packaging , which included George Hardie 's iconic refracting prism design on the cover . Thorgerson 's Dark Side album cover features a beam of white light , representing unity , passing through a prism , which represents society . The resulting refracted beam of coloured light symbolises unity diffracted , leaving an absence of unity . Waters is the sole author of the album 's lyrics .
Released in March 1973 , the LP became an instant chart success in the UK and throughout Western Europe , earning an enthusiastic response from critics . Each member of Pink Floyd except Wright boycotted the press release of The Dark Side of the Moon because a quadraphonic mix had not yet been completed , and they felt presenting the album through a poor @-@ quality stereo PA system was insufficient . Melody Maker 's Roy Hollingworth described side one as " utterly confused ... [ and ] difficult to follow " , but praised side two , writing : " The songs , the sounds ... [ and ] the rhythms were solid ... [ the ] saxophone hit the air , the band rocked and rolled " . Rolling Stone 's Loyd Grossman described it as " a fine album with a textural and conceptual richness that not only invites , but demands involvement . "
Throughout March 1973 , The Dark Side of the Moon featured as part of Pink Floyd 's US tour . The album is one of the most commercially successful rock albums of all time ; a US number 1 , it remained on the Billboard chart for more than fourteen years , selling more than 45 million copies worldwide . In Britain , the album peaked at number 2 , spending 364 weeks on the UK chart . Dark Side is the world 's second best @-@ selling album , and the twenty @-@ first best @-@ selling album of all time in the US . The success of the album brought enormous wealth to the members of Pink Floyd . Waters and Wright bought large country houses while Mason became a collector of expensive cars . Disenchanted with their US record company , Capitol Records , Pink Floyd and O 'Rourke negotiated a new contract with Columbia Records , who gave them a reported advance of $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 , which is worth approximately $ 5 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 today . In Europe , they continued to be represented by Harvest Records .
= = = Wish You Were Here = = =
After a tour of the UK performing Dark Side , Pink Floyd returned to the studio in January 1975 and began work on their ninth studio album , Wish You Were Here . Parsons declined an offer to continue working with them , becoming successful in his own right with the Alan Parsons Project , and so the band turned to Brian Humphries . Initially , they found it difficult to compose new material ; the success of The Dark Side of the Moon had left Pink Floyd physically and emotionally drained . Wright later described these early sessions as " falling within a difficult period " and Waters found them " tortuous " . Gilmour was more interested in improving the band 's existing material . Mason 's failing marriage left him in a general malaise and with a sense of apathy , both of which interfered with his drumming .
Despite the lack of creative direction , Waters began to visualise a new concept after several weeks . During 1974 , Pink Floyd had sketched out three original compositions and had performed them at a series of concerts in Europe . These compositions became the starting point for a new album whose opening four @-@ note guitar phrase , composed purely by chance by Gilmour , reminded Waters of Barrett . The songs provided a fitting summary of the rise and fall of their former bandmate . Waters commented : " Because I wanted to get as close as possible to what I felt ... [ that ] indefinable , inevitable melancholy about the disappearance of Syd . "
While Pink Floyd were working on the album , Barrett made an impromptu visit to the studio , during which Thorgerson recalled that he " sat round and talked for a bit , but he wasn 't really there . " He had changed significantly in appearance , so much so that the band did not initially recognise him . Waters was reportedly deeply upset by the experience . Most of Wish You Were Here premiered on 5 July 1975 , at an open @-@ air music festival at Knebworth . Released in September , it reached number one in both the UK and the US .
= = = Animals = = =
In 1975 , Pink Floyd bought a three @-@ storey group of church halls at 35 Britannia Row in Islington and began converting the building into a recording studio and storage space . In 1976 , they recorded their tenth album , Animals , in their newly finished 24 @-@ track studio . The concept of Animals originated with Waters , loosely based on George Orwell 's political fable , Animal Farm . The album 's lyrics described different classes of society as dogs , pigs , and sheep . Hipgnosis received credit for the packaging of Animals ; however , Waters designed the final concept , choosing an image of the ageing Battersea Power Station , over which they superimposed an image of a pig .
The division of royalties was a source of conflict between band members , who earned royalties on a per @-@ song basis . Although Gilmour was largely responsible for " Dogs " , which took up almost the entire first side of the album , he received less than Waters , who contributed the much shorter two @-@ part " Pigs on the Wing " . Wright commented : " It was partly my fault because I didn 't push my material ... but Dave did have something to offer , and only managed to get a couple of things on there . " Mason recalled : " Roger was in full flow with the ideas , but he was really keeping Dave down , and frustrating him deliberately . " Gilmour , distracted by the birth of his first child , contributed little else toward the album . Similarly , neither Mason nor Wright contributed much toward Animals ; Wright had marital problems , and his relationship with Waters was also suffering . Animals is the first Pink Floyd album that does not include a writing credit for Wright , who commented : " Animals ... wasn 't a fun record to make ... this was when Roger really started to believe that he was the sole writer for the band ... that it was only because of him that [ we ] were still going ... when he started to develop his ego trips , the person he would have his conflicts with would be me . "
Released in January 1977 , the album peaked on the UK chart at number two , and the US chart at number three . NME described the album as " one of the most extreme , relentless , harrowing and downright iconoclastic hunks of music " , and Melody Maker 's Karl Dallas called it " [ an ] uncomfortable taste of reality in a medium that has become in recent years , increasingly soporific " .
Pink Floyd performed much of the album 's material during their " In the Flesh " tour . It was the band 's first experience playing large stadiums , whose size caused unease in the band . Waters began arriving at each venue alone , departing immediately after the performance . On one occasion , Wright flew back to England , threatening to leave the band . At the Montreal Olympic Stadium , a group of noisy and enthusiastic fans in the front row of the audience irritated Waters so much that he spat at one of them . The end of the tour marked a low point for Gilmour , who felt that the band achieved the success they had sought , with nothing left for them to accomplish .
= = 1978 – 85 : Waters @-@ led era = =
= = = The Wall = = =
In July 1978 , amid a financial crisis caused by negligent investments , Waters presented the group with two original ideas for their next album . The first was a 90 @-@ minute demo with the working title Bricks in the Wall , and the other would later become Waters ' first solo album , The Pros and Cons of Hitch Hiking . Although both Mason and Gilmour were initially cautious , they chose the former to be their next album . Bob Ezrin co @-@ produced , and he wrote a forty @-@ page script for the new album . Ezrin based the story on the central figure of Pink — a gestalt character inspired by Waters ' childhood experiences , the most notable of which was the death of his father in World War II . This first metaphorical brick led to more problems ; Pink would become drug @-@ addled and depressed by the music industry , eventually transforming into a megalomaniac , a development inspired partly by the decline of Syd Barrett . At the end of the album , the increasingly fascist audience would watch as Pink tore down the wall , once again becoming a regular and caring person .
During the recording of The Wall , Waters , Gilmour and Mason became increasingly dissatisfied with Wright 's lack of contribution to the album . Gilmour said that Wright " hadn 't contributed anything of any value whatsoever to the album — he did very , very little " and this was why he " got the boot " . According to Mason , " Rick 's contribution was to turn up and sit in on the sessions without doing anything , just ' being a producer ' . " Waters commented : " [ Wright ] was not prepared to cooperate in making the record ... [ and ] it was agreed by everybody ... either [ he ] can have a long battle or [ he ] can agree to ... finish making the album , keep [ his ] full share ... but at the end of it [ he would ] leave quietly . Rick agreed . "
The album was supported by " Another Brick in the Wall ( Part II ) " , Pink Floyd 's first single since " Money " , and topped the charts in the US and the UK . Released on 30 November 1979 , The Wall topped the Billboard chart in the US for fifteen weeks , reaching number three in the UK . The Wall ranks number three on the RIAA 's list of the all @-@ time Top 100 albums , with 23 million certified units sold in the US . The cover is one of their most minimalist designs , with a stark white brick wall , and no trademark or band name . It was also their first album cover since The Piper at the Gates of Dawn not designed by Hipgnosis .
Gerald Scarfe produced a series of animations for the subsequent live shows , The Wall Tour . He also commissioned the construction of large inflatable puppets representing characters from the storyline including the " Mother " , the " Ex @-@ wife " and the " Schoolmaster " . Pink Floyd used the puppets during their performances of the album . Relationships within the band were at an all @-@ time low ; their four Winnebagos parked in a circle , the doors facing away from the centre . Waters used his own vehicle to arrive at the venue and stayed in different hotels from the rest of the band . Wright returned as a paid musician and was the only one of the four to profit from the venture , which lost about $ 600 @,@ 000 .
The Wall concept also spawned a film , the original idea for which was to be a combination of live concert footage and animated scenes . However , the concert footage proved impractical to film . Alan Parker agreed to direct and took a different approach . The animated sequences would remain , but scenes would be acted by professional actors with no dialogue . Waters was screen @-@ tested , but quickly discarded and they asked Bob Geldof to accept the role of Pink . Geldof was initially dismissive , condemning The Wall 's storyline as " bollocks " . Eventually won over by the prospect of participation in a significant film and receiving a large payment for his work , Geldof agreed . Screened at the Cannes Film Festival in May 1982 , Pink Floyd – The Wall premièred in the UK in July 1982 .
= = = The Final Cut = = =
In 1982 , Waters suggested a new musical project with the working title Spare Bricks , originally conceived as the soundtrack album for Pink Floyd – The Wall . With the onset of the Falklands War , Waters changed direction and began writing new material . He saw Margaret Thatcher 's response to the invasion of the Falklands as jingoistic and unnecessary , and dedicated the album to his late father . Immediately arguments arose between Waters and Gilmour , who felt that the album should include all new material , rather than recycle songs passed over for The Wall . Waters felt that Gilmour had contributed little to the band 's lyrical repertoire . Michael Kamen , a contributor to the orchestral arrangements of The Wall , mediated between the two , also performing the role traditionally occupied by the then @-@ absent Wright . The tension within the band grew . Waters and Gilmour worked independently ; however , Gilmour began to feel the strain , sometimes barely maintaining his composure . After a final confrontation , Gilmour 's name disappeared from the credit list , reflecting what Waters felt was his lack of songwriting contributions .
Though Mason 's musical contributions were minimal , he stayed busy recording sound effects for an experimental Holophonic system to be used on the album . With marital problems of his own , he remained a distant figure . Pink Floyd did not use Thorgerson for the cover design , Waters choosing to design the cover himself . Released in March 1983 , The Final Cut went straight to number one in the UK and number six in the US . Waters wrote all the lyrics , as well as all the music on the album . Gilmour did not have any material ready for the album and asked Waters to delay the recording until he could write some songs , but Waters refused . Gilmour later commented : " I 'm certainly guilty at times of being lazy ... but he wasn 't right about wanting to put some duff tracks on The Final Cut . " Rolling Stone magazine gave the album five stars , with Kurt Loder calling it " a superlative achievement ... art rock 's crowning masterpiece " . Loder viewed The Final Cut as " essentially a Roger Waters solo album " .
= = = " A spent force " , Waters ' departure and legal battles = = =
Gilmour had recorded his second solo album , About Face , in 1984 , and he used it to express his feelings about a variety of topics , from the murder of John Lennon to his relationship with Waters . He later stated that he used the album to distance himself from Pink Floyd . Soon afterwards , Waters began touring his first solo album , The Pros and Cons of Hitch Hiking . Wright formed Zee with Dave Harris and recorded Identity , which went almost unnoticed upon its release . Mason released his second solo album , Profiles , in August 1985 .
Following the release of The Pros and Cons of Hitch Hiking , Waters publicly insisted that Pink Floyd would not reunite . He contacted O 'Rourke to discuss settling future royalty payments . O 'Rourke felt obliged to inform Mason and Gilmour , which angered Waters , who wanted to dismiss him as the band 's manager . He terminated his management contract with O 'Rourke and employed Peter Rudge to manage his affairs . Waters wrote to EMI and Columbia announcing he had left the band , and asked them to release him from his contractual obligations . Gilmour believed that Waters left to hasten the demise of Pink Floyd . Waters later stated that , by not making new albums , Pink Floyd would be in breach of contract — which would suggest that royalty payments would be suspended — and that the other band members had forced him from the group by threatening to sue him . He then went to the High Court in an effort to dissolve the band and prevent the use of the Pink Floyd name , declaring Pink Floyd " a spent force creatively . " When his lawyers discovered that the partnership had never been formally confirmed , Waters returned to the High Court in an attempt to obtain a veto over further use of the band 's name . Gilmour responded by issuing a carefully worded press release affirming that Pink Floyd would continue to exist . He later told The Sunday Times : " Roger is a dog in the manger and I 'm going to fight him " . In 2013 , Waters stated that he regretted the lawsuit , saying : " I was wrong . Of course I was . "
= = 1985 – 95 : Gilmour @-@ led era = =
= = = A Momentary Lapse of Reason = = =
In 1986 , Gilmour began recruiting musicians for what would become Pink Floyd 's first album without Waters , A Momentary Lapse of Reason . There were legal obstacles to Wright 's re @-@ admittance to the band ; however , after a meeting in Hampstead Pink Floyd invited Wright to participate in the coming sessions . Gilmour later stated that Wright 's presence " would make us stronger legally and musically " ; Pink Floyd employed him as a musician with weekly earnings of $ 11 @,@ 000 . Recording sessions for the album began on Gilmour 's houseboat , the Astoria , moored along the River Thames . Gilmour worked with several songwriters , including Eric Stewart and Roger McGough , eventually choosing Anthony Moore to write the album 's lyrics . Gilmour would later admit that the project was difficult without Waters ' creative direction . Mason , concerned that he was too out @-@ of @-@ practice to perform on the album , made use of session musicians to complete many of the drum parts . He instead busied himself with the album 's sound effects .
A Momentary Lapse of Reason was released in September 1987 . Storm Thorgerson , whose creative input was absent from The Wall and The Final Cut , designed the album cover . To drive home the point that Waters had left the band , they included a group photograph on the inside cover , the first since Meddle . The album went straight to number three in the UK and the US . Waters commented : " I think it 's facile , but a quite clever forgery ... The songs are poor in general ... [ and ] Gilmour 's lyrics are third @-@ rate . " Although Gilmour initially viewed the album as a return to the band 's top form , Wright disagreed , stating : " Roger 's criticisms are fair . It 's not a band album at all . " Q Magazine described the album as essentially a Gilmour solo effort .
Waters attempted to subvert the Momentary Lack of Reason tour by contacting promoters in the US and threatening to sue them if they used the Pink Floyd name . Gilmour and Mason funded the start @-@ up costs with Mason using his Ferrari 250 GTO as collateral . Early rehearsals for the upcoming tour were chaotic , with Mason and Wright entirely out of practice . Realising he had taken on too much work , Gilmour asked Bob Ezrin to assist them . As Pink Floyd toured throughout North America , Waters ' Radio K.A.O.S. tour was on occasion , close by , though in much smaller venues than those hosting his former band 's performances . Waters issued a writ for copyright fees for the band 's use of the flying pig . Pink Floyd responded by attaching a large set of male genitalia to its underside to distinguish it from Waters ' design . The parties reached a legal agreement on 23 December ; Mason and Gilmour retained the right to use the Pink Floyd name in perpetuity and Waters received exclusive rights to , among other things , The Wall .
= = = The Division Bell = = =
For several years Pink Floyd had busied themselves with personal pursuits , such as filming and competing in the La Carrera Panamericana and recording a soundtrack for a film based on the event . In January 1993 , they began working on a new album , returning to Britannia Row Studios , where for several days , Gilmour , Mason and Wright worked collaboratively , improvising material . After about two weeks , the band had enough ideas to begin creating songs . Ezrin returned to co @-@ produce the album and production moved to the Astoria , where from February to May 1993 , they worked on about 25 ideas .
Contractually , Wright was not a member of the band , and said " It came close to a point where I wasn 't going to do the album . " However , he earned five co @-@ writing credits on the album , his first on a Pink Floyd album since 1975 's Wish You Were Here . Another songwriter credited on the album was Gilmour 's future wife , Polly Samson . She helped him write several tracks , including , " High Hopes " , a collaborative arrangement which , though initially tense , " pulled the whole album together , " according to Ezrin . They hired Michael Kamen to arrange the album 's orchestral parts ; Dick Parry and Chris Thomas also returned . Writer Douglas Adams provided the album title and Thorgerson the cover artwork . Thorgerson drew inspiration for the album cover from the Moai monoliths of Easter Island ; two opposing faces forming an implied third face about which he commented : " the absent face — the ghost of Pink Floyd 's past , Syd and Roger " . Eager to avoid competing against other album releases , as had happened with A Momentary Lapse , Pink Floyd set a deadline of April 1994 , at which point they would resume touring . The album reached number 1 in both the UK and the US . It spent 51 weeks on the UK chart .
Pink Floyd spent more than two weeks rehearsing in a hangar at Norton Air Force Base in San Bernardino , California , before opening on 29 March 1994 , in Miami , with an almost identical road crew to that used for their Momentary Lapse of Reason tour . They played a variety of Pink Floyd favourites , and later changed their setlist to include The Dark Side of the Moon in its entirety . The tour ended on 29 October 1994 , with the final performance of the last Pink Floyd tour so far .
= = 2005 – 14 : Reunion , deaths , and final album = =
= = = Live 8 reunion = = =
On 2 July 2005 , Waters , Gilmour , Mason and Wright performed together as Pink Floyd for the first time in more than 24 years , at the Live 8 concert in London 's Hyde Park . Organiser Bob Geldof arranged the reunion , having called Mason earlier in the year to explore the possibility of their reuniting for the event . Geldof asked Gilmour , who turned down the offer , and then asked Mason to intercede on his behalf . Mason declined , but contacted Waters who was immediately enthusiastic . Waters then called Geldof to discuss the event , scheduled to take place in one month . About two weeks later Waters called Gilmour , their first conversation in two years , and the next day the latter agreed . Gilmour then contacted Wright who immediately agreed . In their statement to the press , they stressed the unimportance of the band 's problems in the context of the Live 8 event .
They planned their setlist at the Connaught Hotel in London , followed by three days of rehearsals at Black Island Studios . The sessions were problematic , with minor disagreements over the style and pace of the songs they were practising ; the running order decided on the eve of the event . At the beginning of their performance , Waters told the audience : " [ It is ] quite emotional , standing up here with these three guys after all these years , standing to be counted with the rest of you ... we 're doing this for everyone who 's not here , and particularly of course for Syd . " At the end , Gilmour thanked the audience and started to walk off the stage . Waters then called him back , and the band shared a group hug . Images of that hug were a favourite among Sunday newspapers after Live 8 . Waters commented on their almost twenty years of animosity : " I don 't think any of us came out of the years from 1985 with any credit ... It was a bad , negative time , and I regret my part in that negativity . "
Though Pink Floyd turned down a contract worth £ 136 million for a final tour , Waters did not rule out more performances , suggesting it ought to be for a charity event only . However , Gilmour told the Associated Press that a reunion would not happen , stating : " The [ Live 8 ] rehearsals convinced me [ that ] it wasn 't something I wanted to be doing a lot of ... There have been all sorts of farewell moments in people 's lives and careers which they have then rescinded , but I think I can fairly categorically say that there won 't be a tour or an album again that I take part in . It isn 't to do with animosity or anything like that . It 's just ... I 've been there , I 've done it . " In February 2006 , Gilmour was interviewed by Gino Castaldo from the Italian newspaper La Repubblica ; the resulting article declared : " Patience for fans in mourning . The news is official . Pink Floyd the brand is dissolved , finished , definitely deceased . " Asked about the future of Pink Floyd , Gilmour responded : " It 's over ... I 've had enough . I 'm 60 years old ... it is much more comfortable to work on my own . " Gilmour and Waters repeatedly said that they had no plans to reunite with the surviving former members .
= = = Deaths of Barrett and Wright = = =
Barrett died on 7 July 2006 , at his home in Cambridge , aged 60 . His family interred him at Cambridge Crematorium on 18 July 2006 ; no Pink Floyd members attended . After Barrett 's death , Wright commented : " The band are very naturally upset and sad to hear of Syd Barrett 's death . Syd was the guiding light of the early band line @-@ up and leaves a legacy which continues to inspire . " Although Barrett had faded into obscurity over the previous 35 years , the national
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press praised him for his contributions to music . On 10 May 2007 , Waters , Gilmour , Wright and Mason performed during a Barrett tribute concert at the Barbican Centre in London . Gilmour , Wright and Mason performed the Barrett compositions , " Bike " and " Arnold Layne " , and Waters performed a solo version of his song " Flickering Flame " .
Wright died of an undisclosed form of cancer on 15 September 2008 , aged 65 . His surviving former bandmates praised him for his influence on the sound of Pink Floyd .
= = = Further performances and re @-@ releases = = =
On 10 July 2010 , Waters and Gilmour performed together at a charity event for the Hoping Foundation . The event , which raised money for Palestinian children , took place at Kiddington Hall in Oxfordshire , England , where they played to an audience of approximately 200 . In return for Waters ' appearance at the event , Gilmour agreed to perform " Comfortably Numb " at one of Waters ' upcoming performances of The Wall . On 12 May 2011 , at The O2 Arena in London , Gilmour honoured his commitment to Waters . Gilmour sang the first and second chorus and played the two guitar solos . Near the end of the show , after the wall had fallen down , Waters said to the crowd : " So now we know tonight was the night when David did me the enormous honour of coming to play ' Comfortably Numb ' . So , please welcome David Gilmour ! ... By a strange and extraordinary , happy coincidence , there is another remnant of our old band here tonight . Please welcome Mr. Nick Mason to the stage ! " Gilmour and Mason , with respectively a mandolin and a tambourine , joined Waters and the rest of his band for " Outside the Wall " .
On 26 September 2011 , Pink Floyd and EMI launched an exhaustive re @-@ release campaign under the title Why Pink Floyd ... ? , reissuing the band 's back catalogue in newly remastered versions , including " Experience " and " Immersion " multi @-@ disc multi @-@ format editions . The albums were remastered by James Guthrie , co @-@ producer of The Wall . In November 2015 , Pink Floyd released a limited edition EP , 1965 : Their First Recordings , comprising six songs recorded prior to The Piper at the Gates of Dawn .
= = = The Endless River = = =
In 2012 , Gilmour and Mason decided to revisit recordings made with Wright , mainly during the Division Bell sessions , to create a new Pink Floyd album . They recruited session musicians to help record new parts and " generally harness studio technology " . Mason described the album as a tribute to Wright : " I think this record is a good way of recognising a lot of what he does and how his playing was at the heart of the Pink Floyd sound . Listening back to the sessions , it really brought home to me what a special player he was . " Waters was not involved .
Samson announced The Endless River in July 2014 on Twitter . Details were announced on Pink Floyd 's website on 7 July , describing it as " mainly ambient " and instrumental music . It was released 7 November 2014 ; it is the second Pink Floyd album distributed by Parlophone following the release of the 20th anniversary editions of The Division Bell earlier in 2014 . It became the most pre @-@ ordered album of all time on Amazon UK , and debuted at number one in several countries . The vinyl edition was the fastest @-@ selling UK vinyl release of 2014 and the fastest @-@ selling since 1997 . The album received mixed reviews .
Gilmour stated that The Endless River is Pink Floyd 's last album , saying : " I think we have successfully commandeered the best of what there is ... It 's a shame , but this is the end . " There was no tour to support the album , as Gilmour said it was " kind of impossible " without Wright . In August 2015 , Gilmour reiterated that Pink Floyd were " done " and that to reunite without Wright " would just be wrong " .
= = Musicianship = =
= = = Genres = = =
Considered one of the UK 's first psychedelic music groups , Pink Floyd began their career at the vanguard of London 's underground music scene . Some categorise their work from that era as a space rock . According to Rolling Stone : " By 1967 , they had developed an unmistakably psychedelic sound , performing long , loud suitelike compositions that touched on hard rock , blues , country , folk , and electronic music . " Released in 1968 , the song " Careful with That Axe , Eugene " helped galvanise their reputation as an art rock group . Critics also describe them as an acid rock band . By the late 1960s , the press had begun to label their music progressive rock . O 'Neill Surber comments on the music of Pink Floyd :
Rarely will you find Floyd dishing up catchy hooks , tunes short enough for air @-@ play , or predictable three @-@ chord blues progressions ; and never will you find them spending much time on the usual pop pablum of romance , partying , or self @-@ hype . Their sonic universe is expansive , intense , and challenging ... Where most other bands neatly fit the songs to the music , the two forming a sort of autonomous and seamless whole complete with memorable hooks , Pink Floyd tends to set lyrics within a broader soundscape that often seems to have a life of its own ... Pink Floyd employs extended , stand @-@ alone instrumentals which are never mere vehicles for showing off virtuoso but are planned and integral parts of the performance .
In 1968 , Wright commented on Pink Floyd 's sonic reputation : " It 's hard to see why we were cast as the first British psychedelic group . We never saw ourselves that way ... we realised that we were , after all , only playing for fun ... tied to no particular form of music , we could do whatever we wanted ... the emphasis ... [ is ] firmly on spontaneity and improvisation . " Waters gave a less enthusiastic assessment of the band 's early sound : " There wasn 't anything ' grand ' about it . We were laughable . We were useless . We couldn 't play at all so we had to do something stupid and ' experimental ' ... Syd was a genius , but I wouldn 't want to go back to playing " Interstellar Overdrive " for hours and hours . " Unconstrained by conventional pop formats , Pink Floyd were innovators of progressive rock during the 1970s and ambient music during the 1980s .
= = = Gilmour 's guitar work = = =
Critic Alan di Perna praised Gilmour 's guitar work as an integral element of Pink Floyd 's sound . Rolling Stone ranked Gilmour number 14 in their " 100 Greatest Guitarists of All Time " list and di Perna described him as the most important guitarist of the 1970s , calling him " the missing link between Hendrix and Van Halen . " In 2006 , Gilmour commented on his playing technique : " [ My ] fingers make a distinctive sound ... [ they ] aren 't very fast , but I think I am instantly recognisable ... The way I play melodies is connected to things like Hank Marvin and the Shadows " . Gilmour 's ability to use fewer notes than most to express himself without sacrificing strength or beauty drew a favourable comparison to jazz trumpeter Miles Davis .
In 2006 , Guitar World writer Jimmy Brown described Gilmour 's guitar style as " characterised by simple , huge @-@ sounding riffs ; gutsy , well @-@ paced solos ; and rich , ambient chordal textures . " According to Brown , Gilmour 's solos on " Money " , " Time " and " Comfortably Numb " " cut through the mix like a laser beam through fog . " Brown described the " Time " solo as " a masterpiece of phrasing and motivic development ... Gilmour paces himself throughout and builds upon his initial idea by leaping into the upper register with gut @-@ wrenching one @-@ and @-@ one @-@ half @-@ step ' over bends ' , soulful triplet arpeggios and a typically impeccable bar vibrato . " Brown described Gilmour 's sense of phrasing as intuitive , singling it out as perhaps his best asset as a lead guitarist . Gilmour explained how he achieved his signature tone : " I usually use a fuzz box , a delay and a bright EQ setting ... [ to get ] singing sustain ... you need to play loud — at or near the feedback threshold . It 's just so much more fun to play ... when bent notes slice right through you like a razor blade . "
= = = Sonic experimentation = = =
Throughout their career , Pink Floyd experimented with their sound . Their second single , " See Emily Play " premiered at the Queen Elizabeth Hall in London , on 12 May 1967 . During the performance , the group first used an early quadraphonic device called an Azimuth Co @-@ ordinator . The device enabled the controller , usually Wright , to manipulate the band 's amplified sound , combined with recorded tapes , projecting the sounds 270 degrees around a venue , achieving a sonic swirling effect . In 1972 , they purchased a custom @-@ built PA which featured an upgraded four @-@ channel , 360 @-@ degree system .
Waters experimented with the EMS Synthi A and VCS 3 synthesisers on Pink Floyd pieces such as " On the Run " , " Welcome to the Machine " , and " In the Flesh ? " . He used a Binson Echorec 2 echo effect on his bass @-@ guitar track for " One of These Days " .
Pink Floyd used innovative sound effects and state of the art audio recording technology during the recording of The Final Cut . Mason 's contributions to the album were almost entirely limited to work with the experimental Holophonic system , an audio processing technique used to simulate a three @-@ dimensional effect . The system used a conventional stereo tape to produce an effect that seemed to move the sound around the listener 's head when they were wearing headphones . The process enabled an engineer to simulate moving the sound to behind , above or beside the listener 's ears .
= = = Film scores = = =
Pink Floyd also composed several film scores , starting in 1968 , with The Committee . In 1969 , they recorded the score for Barbet Schroeder 's film More . The soundtrack proved beneficial ; not only did it pay well but , along with A Saucerful of Secrets , the material they created became part of their live shows for some time thereafter . While composing the soundtrack for director Michelangelo Antonioni 's film Zabriskie Point , the band stayed at a luxury hotel in Rome for almost a month . Waters claimed that , without Antonioni 's constant changes to the music , they would have completed the work in less than a week . Eventually he used only three of their recordings . One of the pieces turned down by Antonioni , called " The Violent Sequence " , later became " Us and Them " , included on 1973 's The Dark Side of the Moon . In 1971 , the band again worked with Schroeder on the film La Vallée , for which they released a soundtrack album called Obscured by Clouds . They composed the material in about a week at the Château d 'Hérouville near Paris , and upon its release , it became Pink Floyd 's first album to break into the top 50 on the US Billboard chart .
= = = Live performances = = =
Regarded as pioneers of live music performance and renowned for their lavish stage shows , Pink Floyd also set high standards in sound quality , making use of innovative sound effects and quadraphonic speaker systems . From their earliest days , they employed visual effects to accompany their psychedelic rock music while performing at venues such as the UFO Club in London . Their slide @-@ and @-@ light show was one of the first in British rock , and it helped them became popular among London 's underground .
To celebrate the launch of the London Free School 's magazine International Times in 1966 , they performed in front of 2 @,@ 000 people at the opening of the Roundhouse , attended by celebrities including Paul McCartney and Marianne Faithfull . In mid @-@ 1966 , road manager Peter Wynne @-@ Willson joined their road crew , and updated the band 's lighting rig with some innovative ideas including the use of polarisers , mirrors and stretched condoms . After their record deal with EMI , Pink Floyd purchased a Ford Transit van , then considered extravagant band transportation . On 29 April 1967 , they headlined an all @-@ night event called The 14 Hour Technicolour Dream at the Alexandra Palace , London . Pink Floyd arrived at the festival at around three o 'clock in the morning after a long journey by van and ferry from the Netherlands , taking the stage just as the sun was beginning to rise . In July 1969 , precipitated by their space @-@ related music and lyrics , they took part in the live BBC television coverage of the Apollo 11 moon landing , performing an instrumental piece which they called " Moonhead " .
In November 1974 , they employed for the first time the large circular screen that would become a staple of their live shows . In 1977 , they employed the use of a large inflatable floating pig named " Algie " . Filled with helium and propane , Algie , while floating above the audience , would explode with a loud noise during the In the Flesh Tour . The behaviour of the audience during the tour , as well as the large size of the venues , proved a strong influence on their concept album The Wall . The subsequent The Wall Tour featured a 40 feet ( 12 m ) high wall , built from cardboard bricks , constructed between the band and the audience . They projected animations onto the wall , while gaps allowed the audience to view various scenes from the story . They commissioned the creation of several giant inflatables to represent characters from the story . One striking feature of the tour was the performance of " Comfortably Numb " . While Waters sang his opening verse , in darkness , Gilmour waited for his cue on top of the wall . When it came , bright blue and white lights would suddenly reveal him . Gilmour stood on a flightcase on castors , an insecure setup supported from behind by a technician . A large hydraulic platform supported both Gilmour and the tech .
During the Division Bell Tour , an unknown person using the name Publius posted a message on an internet newsgroup inviting fans to solve a riddle supposedly concealed in the new album . White lights in front of the stage at the Pink Floyd concert in East Rutherford spelled out the words Enigma Publius . During a televised concert at Earls Court on 20 October 1994 , someone projected the word " enigma " in large letters on to the backdrop of the stage . Mason later acknowledged that their record company had instigated the Publius Enigma mystery , rather than the band .
= = Lyrical themes = =
Marked by Waters ' philosophical lyrics , Rolling Stone described Pink Floyd as " purveyors of a distinctively dark vision " . Author Jere O 'Neill Surber wrote : " their interests are truth and illusion , life and death , time and space , causality and chance , compassion and indifference . " Waters identified empathy as a central theme in the lyrics of Pink Floyd . Author George Reisch described Meddle 's psychedelic opus , " Echoes " , as " built around the core idea of genuine communication , sympathy , and collaboration with others . " Despite having been labelled " the gloomiest man in rock " , author Deena Weinstein described Waters as an existentialist , dismissing the unfavourable moniker as the result of misinterpretation by music critics .
= = = Disillusionment , absence , and non @-@ being = = =
Waters ' lyrics to Wish You Were Here 's " Have a Cigar " deal with a perceived lack of sincerity on the part of music industry representatives . The song illustrates a dysfunctional dynamic between the band and a record label executive who congratulates the group on their current sales success , implying that they are on the same team while revealing that he erroneously believes " Pink " is the name of one of the band members . According to author David Detmer , the album 's lyrics deal with the " dehumanizing aspects of the world of commerce " , a situation the artist must endure to reach their audience .
Absence as a lyrical theme is common in the music of Pink Floyd . Examples include the absence of Barrett after 1968 , and that of Waters ' father , who died during the Second World War . Waters ' lyrics also explored unrealised political goals and unsuccessful endeavours . Their film score , Obscured by Clouds , dealt with the loss of youthful exuberance that sometimes comes with agieng . Longtime Pink Floyd album cover designer , Storm Thorgerson , described the lyrics of Wish You Were Here : " The idea of presence withheld , of the ways that people pretend to be present while their minds are really elsewhere , and the devices and motivations employed psychologically by people to suppress the full force of their presence , eventually boiled down to a single theme , absence : The absence of a person , the absence of a feeling . " Waters commented : " it 's about none of us really being there ... [ it ] should have been called Wish We Were Here " .
O 'Neill Surber explored the lyrics of Pink Floyd and declared the issue of non @-@ being a common theme in their music . Waters invoked non @-@ being or non @-@ existence in The Wall , with the lyrics to " Comfortably Numb " : " I caught a fleeting glimpse , out of the corner of my eye . I turned to look , but it was gone , I cannot put my finger on it now , the child is grown , the dream is gone . " Barrett referred to non @-@ being in his final contribution to the band 's catalogue , " Jugband Blues " : " I 'm most obliged to you for making it clear that I 'm not here . "
= = = Exploitation and oppression = = =
Author Patrick Croskery described Animals as a unique blend of the " powerful sounds and suggestive themes " of Dark Side with The Wall 's portrayal of artistic alienation . He drew a parallel between the album 's political themes and that of Orwell 's Animal Farm . Animals begins with a thought experiment , which asks : " If you didn 't care what happened to me . And I didn 't care for you " , then develops a beast fable based on anthropomorphised characters using music to reflect the individual states of mind of each . The lyrics ultimately paint a picture of dystopia , the inevitable result of a world devoid of empathy and compassion , answering the question posed in the opening lines .
The album 's characters include the " Dogs " , representing fervent capitalists , the " Pigs " , symbolising political corruption , and the " Sheep " , who represent the exploited . Croskery described the " Sheep " as being in a " state of delusion created by a misleading cultural identity " , a false consciousness . The " Dog " , in his tireless pursuit of self @-@ interest and success , ends up depressed and alone with no one to trust , utterly lacking emotional satisfaction after a life of exploitation . Waters used Mary Whitehouse as an example of a " Pig " ; being someone who in his estimation , used the power of the government to impose her values on society . At the album 's conclusion , Waters returns to empathy with the lyrical statement : " You know that I care what happens to you . And I know that you care for me too . " However , he also acknowledges that the " Pigs " are a continuing threat and reveals that he is a " Dog " who requires shelter , suggesting the need for a balance between state , commerce and community , versus an ongoing battle between them .
= = = Alienation , war , and insanity = = =
O 'Neill Surber compared the lyrics of Dark Side 's " Brain Damage " with Karl Marx 's theory of self @-@ alienation ; " there 's someone in my head , but it 's not me . " The lyrics to Wish You Were Here 's " Welcome to the Machine " suggest what Marx called the alienation of the thing ; the song 's protagonist preoccupied with material possessions to the point that he becomes estranged from himself and others . Allusions to the alienation of man 's species being can be found in Animals ; the " Dog " reduced to living instinctively as a non @-@ human . The " Dogs " become alienated from themselves to the extent that they justify their lack of integrity as a " necessary and defensible " position in " a cutthroat world with no room for empathy or moral principle " wrote Detmer . Alienation from others is a consistent theme in the lyrics of Pink Floyd , and it is a core element of The Wall .
War , viewed as the most severe consequence of the manifestation of alienation from others , is also a core element of The Wall , and a recurring theme in the band 's music . Waters ' father died in combat during the Second World War , and his lyrics often alluded to the cost of war , including those from " Corporal Clegg " ( 1968 ) , " Free Four " ( 1972 ) , " Us and Them " ( 1973 ) , " When the Tigers Broke Free " and " The Fletcher Memorial Home " from The Final Cut ( 1983 ) , an album dedicated to his late father and subtitled A Requiem for the Postwar Dream . The themes and composition of The Wall express Waters ' upbringing in an English society depleted of men after the Second World War , a condition that negatively affected his personal relationships with women .
Waters ' lyrics to The Dark Side of the Moon dealt with the pressures of modern life and how those pressures can sometimes cause insanity . He viewed the album 's explication of mental illness as illuminating a universal condition . However , Waters also wanted the album to communicate positivity , calling it " an exhortation ... to embrace the positive and reject the negative . " Reisch described The Wall as " less about the experience of madness than the habits , institutions , and social structures that create or cause madness . " The Wall 's protagonist , Pink , is unable to deal with the circumstances of his life , and overcome by feelings of guilt , slowly closes himself off from the outside world inside a barrier of his own making . After he completes his estrangement from the world , Pink realises that he is " crazy , over the rainbow " . He then considers the possibility that his condition may be his own fault : " have I been guilty all this time ? " Realizing his greatest fear , Pink believes that he has let everyone down , his overbearing mother wisely choosing to smother him , the teachers rightly criticising his poetic aspirations , and his wife justified in leaving him . He then stands trial for " showing feelings of an almost human nature " , further exacerbating his alienation of species being . As with the writings of philosopher Michel Foucault , Waters ' lyrics suggest Pink 's insanity is a product of modern life , the elements of which , " custom , codependancies , and psychopathologies " , contribute to his angst , according to Reisch .
= = Recognition and influence = =
Pink Floyd are one of the most commercially successful and influential rock bands of all time . They have sold more than 250 million records worldwide , including 75 million certified units in the United States , and 37 @.@ 9 million albums sold in the US since 1993 . The Sunday Times Rich List , Music Millionaires 2013 ( UK ) , ranked Waters at number 12 with an estimated fortune of £ 150 million , Gilmour at number 27 with £ 85 million and Mason at number 37 with £ 50 million .
In 2004 , MSNBC ranked Pink Floyd number 8 on their list of " The 10 Best Rock Bands Ever " . Rolling Stone ranked them number 51 on their list of " The 100 Greatest Artists of All Time " . Q named Pink Floyd as the biggest band of all time . VH1 ranked them number 18 in the list of the " 100 Greatest Artists of All Time " . Colin Larkin ranked Pink Floyd number 3 in his list of the ' Top 50 Artists of All Time ' , a ranking based on the cumulative votes for each artist 's albums included in his All Time Top 1000 Albums .
Pink Floyd have won several awards , including a " Best Engineered Non @-@ Classical Album " Grammy in 1980 for The Wall , and a BAFTA award for " Best Original Song " in 1982 for " Another Brick in the Wall ( Part 2 ) " from The Wall film . In 1995 , they won a Grammy for best " Rock Instrumental Performance " for " Marooned " . In 2008 , King Carl XVI Gustaf of Sweden presented Pink Floyd with the Polar Music Prize for their contribution to modern music ; Waters and Mason attended the ceremony and accepted the award . They were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1996 , the UK Music Hall of Fame in 2005 , and the Hit Parade Hall of Fame in 2010 .
The music of Pink Floyd influenced numerous artists ; David Bowie called Barrett a significant inspiration , and The Edge of U2 bought his first delay pedal after hearing the opening guitar chords to " Dogs " from Animals . Other bands who cite Pink Floyd as an influence include Queen , Tool , Radiohead , Kraftwerk , Marillion , Queensrÿche , Nine Inch Nails , the Orb and the Smashing Pumpkins . Pink Floyd were an influence on the neo @-@ progressive rock subgenre which emerged in the 1980s . The English rock band Mostly Autumn " fuse the music of Genesis and Pink Floyd " in their sound .
Pink Floyd were also admirers of the Monty Python comedy group , and helped finance their 1975 film Monty Python and the Holy Grail .
= = Members = =
Roger Waters – co @-@ lead vocals , bass guitar , rhythm guitar , synthesizers ( 1965 – 1985 , 2005 )
David Gilmour – co @-@ lead vocals , lead and rhythm guitars , bass guitar , synthesizers , keyboards ( 1967 – 1995 , 2005 , 2014 )
Richard Wright – co @-@ lead vocals , keyboards , synthesizers , piano , rhythm guitar ( 1965 – 1979 , 1987 – 1995 , 2005 , died 2008 )
Nick Mason – drums , percussion , keyboards , piano ( 1965 – 1994 , 2005 , 2014 )
Syd Barrett – lead vocals , lead and rhythm guitar ( 1965 – 1968 , died 2006 )
= = Discography = =
Studio albums
The Piper at the Gates of Dawn ( 1967 )
A Saucerful of Secrets ( 1968 )
More ( 1969 )
Ummagumma ( 1969 )
Atom Heart Mother ( 1970 )
Meddle ( 1971 )
Obscured by Clouds ( 1972 )
The Dark Side of the Moon ( 1973 )
Wish You Were Here ( 1975 )
Animals ( 1977 )
The Wall ( 1979 )
The Final Cut ( 1983 )
A Momentary Lapse of Reason ( 1987 )
The Division Bell ( 1994 )
The Endless River ( 2014 )
= = Tours = =
Pink Floyd World Tour ( 1968 )
The Man and The Journey Tour ( 1969 )
Atom Heart Mother World Tour ( 1970 )
Meddle Tour ( 1971 )
Dark Side of the Moon Tour ( 1972 – 73 )
French Summer Tour ( 1974 )
British Winter Tour ( 1974 )
Wish You Were Here Tour ( 1975 )
In the Flesh Tour ( 1977 )
The Wall Tour ( 1980 – 81 )
A Momentary Lapse of Reason Tour ( 1987 – 90 )
The Division Bell Tour ( 1994 )
= 1973 – 74 Buffalo Braves season =
The 1973 – 74 Buffalo Braves season was the fourth season for the expansion Buffalo Braves franchise in the National Basketball Association and its Atlantic Division . It was the team 's second season under head coach Jack Ramsay . The team 's official home arena was Buffalo Memorial Auditorium .
Bob McAdoo , who finished second in the NBA MVP Award voting , led the league in scoring ; Ernie DiGregorio , who won the NBA Rookie of the Year Award , led the league in assists and free throw percentage , and every starter on the team was among the league 's top ten in at least one statistical category .
The team finished third in the Atlantic Division and fourth in the Eastern Conference . After three consecutive 60 @-@ loss seasons , the team made the NBA playoffs for the first time and became the youngest team to have ever done so in terms of average player age . They lost in the first round of the playoffs to the eventual champions , the Boston Celtics .
= = Draft picks = =
1973 NBA Draft
= = Roster = =
= = Regular season = =
McAdoo had an outstanding second season and led the league in scoring with 30 @.@ 6 ppg . The Braves led the league in team scoring ( 111 @.@ 60 ) but were last in team defense ( 111 @.@ 8 ) . They totaled 427 @,@ 270 in attendance in their 41 home games , ranking them 4th of 17 teams . The Braves played several home games at the Maple Leaf Gardens in Toronto , in order to expand their fan base into Canada . This season was the first of three consecutive scoring titles for McAdoo . McAdoo also posted 15 @.@ 1 rebounds per game and 3 @.@ 3 blocked shots per game , which were each third in the league . It was the most recent time that one player averaged both 30 points and 15 rebounds in the same NBA season . In addition to McAdoo , the Braves were led by Ernie DiGregorio , who became the second straight Brave ( following McAdoo ) to capture NBA Rookie of the Year honors by leading the league in assists with 8 @.@ 2 per game . 1974 NBA Rookie of the Year DiGregorio earned the first of two NBA free throw percentage championships ( 90 @.@ 2 % ) and led the NBA in assists ( 8 @.@ 2 ) . That season DiGregorio set the NBA single @-@ game rookie assists record ( 25 ) , which still stands as unbroken ( tied by Nate McMillan ) . Jim McMillan would finish fifth in the NBA in minutes played ( 3322 ) and tenth in free throw percentage ( 85 @.@ 8 % ) . He also finished second on the Braves in scoring ( 18 @.@ 6 ) . Heard went on to rank in the top ten in rebounds ( 11 @.@ 7 , 10th ) and blocked shots ( 2 @.@ 8 , 6th ) that season . Randy Smith , who was third on the team in scoring with a 15 @.@ 5 average , finished third in the league in steals ( 2 @.@ 5 / game ) .
October – November
In his October 9 , 1973 NBA debut against the Houston Rockets , Ernie DiGregorio had 14 assists . DiGregrorio had 17 points but it was a 25 @-@ foot basket with two seconds left in overtime by McAdoo , who had 31 points and 21 rebounds , that earned the Braves a 107 – 105 victory . An October 30 victory over the Seattle SuperSonics gave the Braves a half game lead over the Celtics in the Atlantic Division with a 6 – 4 record . The Braves only won one of their next nine games . It came on November 14 when McAdoo set the franchise single game rebound record with 28 against the Atlanta Hawks . That night , he also scored 31 points for the fourth game in a row . Two weeks later on November 28 , the Braves lost when Pete Maravich , who entered the game in the second quarter and posted 42 points off the bench , led the Atlanta Hawks over the Braves by 130 – 106 .
December – January
The Braves ' December 12 game against the Celtics was played in Providence , Rhode Island , making it a homecoming game for DiGregorio , the former Providence Friar . The Braves lost for the 20th consecutive time to the Celtics that night . Following a December 30 loss to the Los Angeles Lakers , the Braves fell to a 16 – 22 record at the end of 1973 but began the New Year with a season high seven @-@ game winning streak . Heard set a career high with 22 rebounds in game five of the streak on January 8 . The fifth game of the streak set a new franchise record for consecutive wins and gave the team 21 wins , which matched their total of the prior season . The resulting 23 – 22 record following the January 12 victory over the Capital Bullets gave them their first winning record since their 6 – 5 start . McAdoo , who would go on to finish second in the NBA Most Valuable Player Award balloting , represented the team in the January 15 , 1974 NBA All @-@ Star Game . By the end of the month the Braves had fallen back to a 26 – 29 record .
February – March
On February 1 , the Braves traded Kunnert and Wohl to the Rockets for Goukas and Marin . The team then went 10 – 5 in February . On February 27 , the Braves earned their first victory over the Boston Celtics after 22 defeats . By late February , the team had the top scoring offense in the league . They clinched their first playoff experience in a victory at a home game held at Toronto 's Maple Leaf Gardens against the Portland Trail Blazers as McAdoo again had 28 rebounds as well as 29 points . The clinching game on March 10 was the Braves 74th game . The team reached five games over .500 three times following their 40th , 41st and 42nd wins but lost the last three games of a five @-@ game western road trip to conclude the season at 42 – 40 . The team made the playoffs by finishing in 3rd place in the Atlantic Division .
= = = Season standings = = =
= = = Record vs. opponents = = =
= = = Season schedule = = =
Source : www.basketball @-@ reference.com
= = Playoffs = =
In the 1974 NBA Playoffs the Braves were matched up against the Boston Celtics . The Celtics had won 22 of 24 matches between the teams . However , the Braves had won the most recent two matches after 22 straight defeats , including 5 earlier that season . Through four games , the series was even at two games apiece . However the Celtics would pull away with two more wins to take the series in six games . With rookie DiGregorio and 2nd year McAdoo leading the way , the team became the youngest NBA playoff team ( 24 @.@ 42 , using data going back to 1952 ) based on average age weighted by minutes played . The 1977 – 78 Milwaukee Bucks ( 23 @.@ 82 ) would surpass this record . The Celtics went on to win the NBA championship in the 1974 NBA Finals .
In game 1 , the Braves lost a 17 @-@ point lead as Dave Cowens led a fourth quarter rally despite five personal fouls . In game 2 , the Braves evened the series 1 – 1 with a 115 – 105 victory despite balanced scoring by the Celtics who had three 20 @-@ point scorers : Jo Jo White had 27 , Don Nelson had 21 and John Havlicek had 20 . McAdoo had 23 and DiGregorio had 18 for Buffalo . The Braves led most of game 2 and held on for the victory . In game 3 , the Celtics scored 39 first quarter points on their way to a 120 – 107 victory . Havlicek had 43 points ( 26 in the first half ) , and Cowens added 23 ( 17 in the first half ) . The Braves recovered from an early fourth quarter 10 @-@ point deficit to win game 4 104 – 102 . The game had a frenetic final 15 seconds as McMillian lost the ball on a drive resulting in a game @-@ tying fast break by the Celtics . Then when a McAdoo shot rolled off the rim , McMillian tipped the ball in as time expired for the victory . The Braves had rallied from an 84 – 74 deficit to tie the score at 98 largely on the performance of McAdoo . In the game the lead changed hands 9 times , and the Braves outrebounded the Celtics 62 – 38 , including 20 – 3 offensive rebounds ( 11 by McMillian ) . The Celtics won game 5 by a 100 – 97 margin . Although McAdoo was held to 16 points on the night , the Braves led 89 – 85 with four minutes left . The Celtics won game 6 of the series when White sank two free throws after time expired in regulation play for a 106 – 104 victory . McAdoo had tied the score at 104 with 7 seconds left , but he fouled White at midcourt .
In the playoffs , Heard bettered his regular season 15 @.@ 3 points and 11 @.@ 7 rebounds averages with 16 @.@ 8 points and 14 @.@ 7 rebounds . Likewise , McAdoo contributed 31 @.@ 7 points and 13 @.@ 7 rebounds . McMillian contributed 14 @.@ 5 points and 8 @.@ 8 rebounds . Following the season the team lost Bob Kauffman to the New Orleans Jazz in the May 20 , 1974 NBA Expansion Draft .
= = = Playoff Schedule = = =
Source : www.basketball @-@ reference.com
= = Player stats = =
= = Awards and honors = =
Ernie DiGregorio , NBA Rookie of the Year
Ernie DiGregorio , led NBA in assists ( 663 )
Ernie DiGregorio , led NBA in free throw percentage
Bob McAdoo led the NBA in scoring .
Bob McAdoo All @-@ NBA Team ( 2nd team )
Bob McAdoo 1974 NBA All @-@ Star Game
= = Transactions = =
Prior to this season the Braves had lost 60 games or more each year and failed to make the NBA Playoffs . Over the course of the season , the team made a series of player transactions that were part of the résumé that earned Buffalo Braves General Manager Eddie Donovan the NBA Executive of the Year Award and put the team into the playoffs for the first time . Donovan 's season bolstered his reputation as a wheeler and dealer .
The Braves drafted four players in the 1973 NBA Draft who played for the team during the 1973 – 74 season : DiGregorio , Ken Charles , Mike Macaluso , and Jim Garvin . In addition , the team made two free agent signings . On September 11 , 1973 , the team signed Paul Ruffner . On September 17 , 1973 , the team waived Dick Garrett and Bill Hewitt . The other members of the 1972 – 73 team who were not traded or waived and did not play on the 1973 – 74 team were Howard Komives , Fred Hilton and Harold Fox . On November 24 , 1973 , the Braves waived Garvin . On November 27 , 1973 , the team signed Lee Winfield .
Prior to the 1973 – 74 NBA season , Gar Heard and Kevin Kunnert were traded from the Chicago Bulls to the Buffalo Braves for John Hummer , a 1974 NBA Draft 2nd round pick and a 1975 NBA Draft 2nd round pick . Also before the season , the Braves also traded Elmore Smith to the Los Angeles Lakers for Jim McMillian . The trade of Smith , who had been the team 's leading scorer and rebounder the prior year , was controversial at first . Other trades during the season included the February 1 , 1974 trade of Kunnert and Dave Wohl for Matt Goukas and 1973 NBA All @-@ Star Jack Marin .
= Para @-@ Nordic skiing classification =
Para @-@ Nordic skiing classification is the classification system for para @-@ Nordic skiing which includes the biathlon and cross country events . The classifications for Para @-@ Nordic skiing mirrors the classifications for Para @-@ Alpine skiing with some exceptions . A functional mobility and medical classification is in use , with skiers being divided into three groups : standing skiers , sit skiers and visually impaired skiers . International classification is governed by International Paralympic Committee , Nordic Skiing ( IPC @-@ NS ) . Other classification is handled by national bodies . Before the IPC @-@ NS took over classification , a number of organizations handled classification based on the type of disability .
The first classification system for the sport was developed in Scandinavia and was a medical system for skiers with amputations . At the time , other types of disability were not eligible for classification . In developing a system for use at the first Winter Paralympics , organisers wanted to get away from a medical classification system and use a functional system , but they ended up with a system based on equipment utilised by the skier instead . As the 1970s progressed , equipment improvements made it possible for skiers with spinal cord injuries to participate and a classification system developed for these skiers . By the 1990s , there were over ten Nordic skiing classes and a percentage system was developed to allow skiers with different disabilities inside one of three groups to compete against each other . The skiers time at the end of the race would be multiplied against a percentage to determine a time that allowed for fair cross classification comparisons . While the actual percentages change from time to time , this system to calculate a winner is still in use . Despite repeated efforts to move to a true functional mobility based classification dating back to the 1970s , medical assessment still took place during the classification process in the 2010s .
There are different events and equipment for different Para @-@ Nordic skiing classes . For sit @-@ skiers , they use sit @-@ skis with two skis , unlike Para @-@ Alpine Skiing where sit skiers use one ski . Blind skiers use a guide , with the position of the guide relative to the skier depending on the class of the skier . In the United States , Para @-@ Nordic skiing has events for people with intellectual disability that are run through Special Olympics . The classification process for blind Para @-@ Nordic skiing is handled internationally by the International Blind Sports Association and is a medical assessment . While National Paralympic Committees can classify their skiers for national competitions , this classification is subject to change at international competitions . These classifications have been used at the Winter Paralympics . Intellectual disability skiers were allowed to compete in full medal events at the 1998 Winter Paralympics but were subsequently removed because of cheating problems at the 2000 Summer Olympics .
= = Definition = =
Para @-@ Nordic skiing has two events , the biathlon and cross @-@ country skiing . The classifications for Para @-@ Nordic skiing at the same as classifications for Para @-@ Alpine skiing . Classifications are based on functional mobility . For amputees , this is based on their mobility with the use of an assistive device . Classification for competitors with cerebral palsy is difficult because the levels of spasticity can change as the race progresses . People with cerebral palsy in classifications from CP1 to CP8 are covered by skiing classifications . Skiers from CP5 to CP8 compete standing up with the use of equipment . Since 1995 , the classes area LW2 , LW3 , LW4 , LW5 / 7 , LW6 , LW8 , and LW9 . There are three sit @-@ ski classifications : LW10 , LW11 and LW12 , with LW10 being divided into LW10 and LW10.5 , and LW11 being divided into LW11 and LW11.5. The sport also has three classifications for blind skiers , B1 , B2 , and B3 . These are based solely on medical classification . Research done at the Central Institute on Employment Abilities of the Handicapped in Moscow has found differences in functional capabilities based on differences in visual acuity . This plays a significant role in skiing .
= = Governance = =
Para @-@ Nordic skiing is governed by the International Paralympic Committee , Nordic Skiing . The United States Deaf Ski and Snowboard Association is in charge of deaf classification for competitors in the United States . In the United States , the sport is governed by Disabled Sports USA for skiers with functional mobility , and governed by the United States Association of Blind Athletes ( USABA ) for skiers with vision impairment , while Special Olympics governs the sport and classification for people with intellectual disabilities . Disabled Sports USA developed its own classification system for sit skiing that is not used internationally . They use a three group classification system , with Group 1 skiers including T5 to T10 spinal cord injuries , Group 2 including all other skiers with disabilities below T10 and Group 3 including all spinal cord disabilities above T10 .
In the sport 's early history , the International Sports Organization for the Disabled ( ISOD ) , founded in 1964 , governed the sport . In 1980 , there were two governing bodies handling classification , ISOD and the International Stoke Mandeville Games Committee ( ISMGC ) , which later became the International Stoke Mandeville Games Federation ( ISMGF ) , and still later the International Stoke Mandeville Wheelchair Sports Federation ( ISMWSF ) . ISMGC was in charge of classification for athletes with spinal cord related disabilities . In 1981 , the International Blind Sports Federation ( IBSA ) was created , and took over governance for skiers with visual impairments . In 2003 , ISMWSF merged with ISOD , and changed its name to the International Wheelchair and Amputee Sports Federation ( IWAS ) in 2004 . While the Cerebral Palsy International Sports and Recreation Association ( CP @-@ ISRA ) has an interest in the sport because it is open to people with cerebral palsy , it is not governed by them . In 1983 , both the rules for this sport , and classification , was done by the CP @-@ ISRA . By 1984 , there were four organisations governing classification for the sport : ISOD , ISMGF , IBSA and CP @-@ ISRA .
= = Eligibility = =
Currently , people with physical disabilities and vision impairment are eligible for classification . In 1983 , Cerebral Palsy @-@ International Sports and Recreation Association ( CP @-@ ISRA ) set the eligibility rules for classification for this sport for people with cerebral palsy . They defined cerebral palsy as a non @-@ progressive brain legion that results in impairment . People with cerebral palsy or non @-@ progressive brain damage were eligible for classification by them . The organisation also dealt with classification for people with similar impairments . For their classification system , people with spina bifida were not eligible unless they also had evidence of upper motor neuron dysfunction , caused by associated hydrocephalus . People with cerebral palsy and epilepsy were eligible provided the condition did not interfere with their ability to compete . People who had strokes were eligible for classification following medical clearance . Competitors with multiple sclerosis , muscular dystrophy and arthrogryposis were not eligible for classification by CP @-@ ISRA , but were eligible for classification by International Sports Organisation for the Disabled for the Games of Les Autres .
= = History = =
Classification for winter sport started out as a medical one before moving to a functional system . The earliest classification systems for the sport were developed in Scandinavia . The original classification system was for people with amputations , with classification based on the type of amputation as determined by a medical expert . Other classes of disability were not eligible to be classified and compete early in the sport 's history .
Going into the first winter Paralympic Games , the 1976 Winter Paralympics , the organisers had a difference of opinion with Paralympic Games founder Ludwig Guttmann , because they wanted a functional classification , not medical classification system , from the onset . They largely succeeded , although the system that was developed in Örnsköldsvik , Sweden , that ended up being used was based on equipment utilised by the skier instead of a true functional classification system . During the 1970s , equipment was first being developed for skiers with spinal injuries and a classification system had yet to become fully developed for the sport .
In 1983 , classification for cerebral palsy competitors in this sport was done by the Cerebral Palsy @-@ International Sports and Recreation Association . The classification used the classification system designed for track events . In 1983 , there were five cerebral palsy classifications . During the 1980s , there were three sit @-@ ski classes and seven other classes . During the 1980s , while not formally part of the para @-@ skiing classification system , intellectual disability Nordic skiing classes did exist as part of the Special Olympics movement . The sport was one sports people with disabilities were more likely to play during the 1990s .
Prior to 1988 , the classification assessment process generally involved a medical exam to determine the classification . The change in winter disability sport classification towards a more formal functional classification system happened more quickly as a result of changes being made in wheelchair basketball classification that started in 1983 . Prior to the 1988 Games , sit skiing was not included on the Paralympic programme . Norway worked to change this by added sit skiing classifications to the World Championships in 1986 .
Functional classification testing was developed in 1989 for Nordic sit skiing , with the same system still being used for the 1998 Winter Paralympics . The tests included hand , arm and shoulder coordination , a sitting balance in the sagittal plane test , a stability sagittal plane test , a sitting balance test in the frontal planes , and a functional sitting ability test of the frontal and sagittal planes with an examination of sideways displacement .
By the 1990s , an integrated classification approach was tried in Nordic skiing had been developed using a percentage system that would allow for multiple classes to compete against each other in the same event using a formula to create a time finish that would enable fair comparisons for skiers of different functional ability . In 1997 / 19998 , this was defined as 84 % for LW10 , 93 % for LW11 and 100 % for LW12 . Their finishing time would then be multiplied against this percentage to determine where they finished . A variant of this system was still in place for the 2010 Winter Paralympics . The Canadian Paralympic Committee explains how this works with the following example : " Athlete A is classified as LW6 with a factor of 91 % finishes the race in 1 minute , their final race time is 54 @.@ 6 seconds . Athlete B is classified as LW5 with a factor of 79 % finishes the race in 1 minute and 2 seconds , their final race time is 48 @.@ 98 seconds . Athlete B wins . Therefore , the athlete who completed the race fastest may not be the winner and gold medalist . " For the 2008 to 2010 ski seasons , the following percentages were used :
The move from a medical classification to a functional classification system continued during the 1990s . There were conversations about whether or not less @-@ disabled wintersport athletes should be competing in disability winter sport and if they should instead be competing against able bodied competitors . At the same time , there were people including IPC first vice president Jens Bromann who entertained discussions about whether or not blind classifications should be combined into a single class like is done in some other disabilities sports . The debate about inclusion of competitors into able @-@ bodied competitions was seen by some disability sport advocates like Horst Strokhkendl as a hindrance to the development of an independent classification system not based on the rules for able @-@ bodied sport . These efforts ended by 1993 as the International Paralympic Committee tried to carve out its own identity and largely ceased efforts for inclusion of disability sport on the Olympic programme . Nonetheless , in 2006 , skiers with amputation still had a medical component to their classification assessment .
The International Sports Federation for Persons with Intellectual Disability was given the task of re @-@ evaluating the classification system for skiers with intellectual disabilities to prevent future abuses following the Spanish basketball team cheating scandal at the 2000 Summer Paralympics using a more reliable system that can be verified to classify competitors .
= = Sport = =
Skiers with physical disabilities may compete on the same team as people with vision impairment in team events . This is the case in cross country relay events , where there needs to be one sit skier , one standing skier and one vision impaired skier . At the 2010 Winter Paralympics , the men 's relay , named the 1 x 4 km + 2 x 5 km relay , a sit skier led off with a 4 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) leg , with the standing skier going second on a 5 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) leg and the vision impaired skier going last on a 5 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) leg . On the women 's side , the event is called the 3 x 2 @.@ 5 km event . Skiing in the same order , all three skiers ski 2 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 6 mi ) . Sit skiers sit in a chair with two skis attached to it . Classification percentages for national competitions are not necessarily the same ones used for international competitions .
In the biathlon , sit skiers and standing skiers shot at a target that had a bullseye 1 @.@ 5 centimetres ( 0 @.@ 59 in ) large while vision impairment classifications shot at a bullseye that was 2 @.@ 8 centimetres ( 1 @.@ 1 in ) large . Vision impaired skiers have a sound system that helps them sight for shooting portions in the biathlon . The guide for B1 skiers generally skis behind the skier in order to maximize the ability of the skier to hear the guide . The guide tells the skier things like when weight should be shifted , elements coming up on the course , and how to position themselves to maximize the diagonal run of the course . Guides for B2 and B3 skiers often position themselves differently as the skiers have some vision , which means the things a guide assists with will be different from what is required of a skier who has almost no sight .
= = Process = =
For skiers with a visual impairment , their classification is handled by the International Blind Sports Association . They are tested based on medical classification by an Ophthalmologist . In the 1990s , the classification assessment process for Nordic skiing had several components . One component was a test that looked at the ability of the skier to go up and down a hill . Another was a neurological test . In Canada , classification for blind skiers is handled by Canadian Blind Sports Association . Canadians seeking classification start the process by getting in touch with the organisation . Para @-@ Nordic skiing classification is handled by Canada Cross Country . For Australian competitors in this sport , the sport and classification is managed the national sport federation with support from the Australian Paralympic Committee . There are three types of classification available for Australian competitors : Provisional , national and international . The first is for club level competitions , the second for state and national competitions , and the third for international competitions . While a skier is first classified by their national Paralympic committee , their international classification may take place during their first World Cup event . A competitor may challenge their own classification or that of their fellow competitors .
= = At the Paralympic Games = =
The 1976 Winter Paralympics were the first time classifications other than spinal cord injury classifications competed at the Paralympic Games . At these Games , there were only two classifications for this sport . The 1976 Winter Paralympics were the first time classifications other than spinal cord injury classifications competed at the Paralympic Games . The only event open to a classification for people with spinal paralysis at the 1980 Winter Paralympics was the cross country event . It was one of only two events in the whole Games for people with spinal paralysis .
At the 1998 Winter Paralympics , skiers with intellectual disabilities were eligible to compete as full medal participants in the cross country event despite early initial opposition by the Nagano Organising Committee . The local organizers believed it would be too difficult to separate intellectual disability skiers into different classes . At the same time , there were few eligible skiers from Japan who would have been eligible to compete in these events .
At the 1992 Winter Paralympics , all disability types were eligible to participate , with classification being run through the International Paralympic Committee , with classification being done based on blind , amputee and sitting disability type . The biathlon was open to men with vision impairment classifications for the first time at the 1992 Games . At the 1992 Games , intellectual disability skiers competed in a demonstration event . At the 1992 Games , LW1 to LW9 competed in the short distances in a combined event , with LW 10 and 11 competing in their own short distance event . Blind skiers all skied the short distances in a combined event . The 10 km event was open to LW1 to LW9 , and H to D. The relay event was open to LW1 to LW9 in one event , and LWX and LWXI in another event , and blind skiing in a third event . The biathlon was open to women in blind classes for the first time at the 1994 Winter Paralympics .
Historically , Nordic skiing was the only skiing discipline open to competitors with intellectual disabilities , but their inclusion was suspended following the 2000 Summer Paralympics cheating scandal and they were not eligible to compete at the 2002 Winter Paralympics . At the 2002 Games , the cross country event had three groups of skiers : vision impaired , standing and sitting . In 2002 , for the Winter Paralympics , the Games Classifiers were Birgitta Blomquist , Anne Lannem and Ted Fay . The Games Classifiers for vision impairment classifications were Roman Tolmatschev , Johan Wirsching and Axel Bolsinger . Classifications for skiers with intellectual disabilities were not included at these Games because of cheating that took place at the Sydney Summer Paralympics two years earlier .
= = Future = =
Going forward , disability sport 's major classification body , the International Paralympic Committee , is working on improving classification to be more of an evidence @-@ based system as opposed to a performance @-@ based system so as not to punish elite athletes whose performance makes them appear in a higher class alongside competitors who train less .
= Mitch Henderson =
Mitchell G. " Mitch " Henderson ( born August 14 , 1975 ) is an American college basketball coach , currently serving as head coach for the Princeton Tigers men 's basketball team . Before taking the Princeton job in 2011 , he served as an assistant for the Northwestern Wildcats men 's basketball team for eleven seasons under Bill Carmody . He had been a member of three consecutive Ivy League champion Princeton teams as a player ( two of which went undefeated in conference , the first tying the school record with 19 consecutive wins and the second achieving 20 ) . He was a co @-@ captain of the second of these undefeated league champions along with Steve Goodrich .
= = Early life = =
Henderson was a twelve @-@ time varsity letter winner at Culver Military Academy in football , basketball and baseball . He had been drafted by the New York Yankees with the 24th pick of the 29th round , 815th overall in the 1994 Major League Baseball draft . In baseball , he was a pitcher . He was named the 1994 South Bend Tribune high school Male Athlete of the Year . He did not sign with the Yankees and retained his amateur status although he chose to pursue basketball rather than baseball in college .
As a basketball player , he was a four @-@ year starter at Princeton University , where he was captain of the Ivy League champion 1997 – 98 Princeton Tigers men 's basketball team as well as a member of the 1995 – 96 and 1996 – 97 conference champions . The latter two teams were undefeated in conference play . These two undefeated Ivy League seasons were coached by Carmody . The 1995 – 96 team was notable for its upset of the defending national champion UCLA Bruins in the 1996 NCAA Tournament .
The 1996 – 97 team finished the regular season on a school record 19 @-@ game winning streak . In the 1997 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament , against the fifth @-@ seeded California Golden Bears , the team lost 55 – 52 . Henderson had tied the score at 50 with 1 : 37 to play . Henderson was a 1997 honorable mention All @-@ Ivy League selection .
The 1997 – 98 team posted a 27 – 2 overall record , reached the top 10 in the national polls , and achieved a 14 – 0 conference record . The Tigers entered the 1998 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament on a 19 @-@ game winning streak and finished the season ranked eighth in the final USAToday / NABC Coaches Poll . He was a 1998 2nd team All @-@ Ivy League selection . In the 1998 tournament opening game for the fifth @-@ seeded Tigers , he scored 19 points to help them defeat the UNLV Runnin ' Rebels 69 – 57 , which marked the team 's 20th consecutive win — a school record .
He was briefly a member of the Atlanta Hawks of the National Basketball Association during the 1998 – 99 NBA season , but he did not appear in any regular season games . He also played professional basketball in Sligo , Ireland , from August 1998 to January 1999 .
= = Coaching career = =
Henderson served as an assistant to his former coach Carmody during Carmody 's first eleven seasons as the coach at Northwestern University . Carmody used Henderson , who commonly scrimmaged with the players , as part of a joke for a Sports Illustrated : " I don 't mind that Mitch is cagier and smarter than all those guys on the court . The thing that bothers me is that he 's faster than all of them . " During Henderson 's final three seasons at Northwestern , the team qualified for the National Invitation Tournament .
Henderson was selected to replace outgoing Princeton head coach Sydney Johnson . He inherited a 2010 – 11 team that narrowly lost to Kentucky in its opening game of the 2011 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament . The team returned its 2nd leading scorer and rebounder , Ian Hummer , who as a sophomore was a 2nd team All @-@ Ivy selection .
With a new head coach who is a first @-@ time head coach , the 2011 – 12 Tigers got off to a slow start with a 1 – 5 record , but won 18 of its final 24 games and started its conference schedule with a 2 – 3 record , but won 8 of its final 9 games . Eventually , Princeton earned its first home win against a ranked opponent since the 1976 – 77 team 's January 3 , 1977 victory over Notre Dame by defeating Harvard ( No. 21 Coaches / 25 AP ) on February 11 , 2012 . The win was also its first against a ranked opponent on any court since November 11 , 1997 , which is when the 1997 – 98 team opened its season with a victory over a ranked Texas team at Meadowlands Arena ( now named Izod Center ) in East Rutherford , New Jersey . Princeton also defeated eventual 2012 ACC Men 's Basketball Tournament Champion Florida State five weeks after Harvard did . The team qualified for the 2012 CBI Tournament and earned a first round 95 – 86 victory over Evansville . In the subsequent game against Pittsburgh , Princeton lost 82 – 61 to end the season .
The 2012 – 13 Tigers finished with a 17 – 11 ( 10 – 4 ) record and did not qualify for the post season . Princeton had entered the final weekend of the season with three games remaining and a half game lead over Harvard . The team got swept in its two weekend games while Harvard won both its games to clinch the 2012 – 13 Ivy League title .
The 2013 – 14 team lost in the second round of the 2nd Round CBI to finish with a 21 – 9 ( 8 – 6 ) record .
= = = Head coaching record = = =
= = Personal = =
Henderson earned his A.B. from Princeton in 1998 in economics and worked as a research associate for Lendx Corporation in San Francisco before beginning his coaching career . He was senior @-@ year roommates with James Mastaglio , who was a 1998 honorable mention All @-@ Ivy League selection .
= Pirates of the Caribbean : At World 's End =
Pirates of the Caribbean : At World 's End is a 2007 American epic fantasy swashbuckler film and the third installment of the Pirates of the Caribbean film series . The plot follows Will Turner ( Orlando Bloom ) , Elizabeth Swann ( Keira Knightley ) , Hector Barbossa ( Geoffrey Rush ) , and the crew of the Black Pearl rescuing Captain Jack Sparrow ( Johnny Depp ) from Davy Jones 's Locker , and then preparing to fight the East India Trading Company , led by Cutler Beckett ( Tom Hollander ) , who controls Davy Jones ( Bill Nighy ) and plans to extinguish piracy forever . It is the last film in the series to be directed by Gore Verbinski . It was filmed in two shoots during 2005 and 2006 , the former simultaneously with the preceding film , Dead Man 's Chest .
The film was released in English @-@ speaking countries on May 25 , 2007 , by Walt Disney Pictures . Critical reviews were mixed . The film was praised for its performances , musical score , action scenes , and special effects , but was criticized for its plot and running time . At World 's End was a box office hit , becoming the most successful film of 2007 , with over $ 960 million worldwide .
It was nominated for the Academy Award for Makeup and the Academy Award for Visual Effects , which it lost to La Vie en Rose and The Golden Compass , respectively . A fourth installment , On Stranger Tides , the first in the series to neither be directed by Verbinski nor star Bloom and Knightley , was released in cinemas on May 20 , 2011 .
With a production budget of $ 300 million , Pirates of the Caribbean : At World 's End was the most expensive film ever made at the time of its release , even after adjusting for inflation .
= = Plot = =
To control the oceans , Lord Cutler Beckett executes anyone associated with piracy by ordering Davy Jones to destroy all pirate ships in the seas . Condemned prisoners sing " Hoist the Colours " to compel the nine Pirate Lords to convene at Shipwreck Cove to hold the Brethren Court . Because Captain Jack Sparrow , one of the Pirate Lords , never named a successor , before being killed , Captain Barbossa , along with Will Turner , Elizabeth Swann , Tia Dalma , and the crew of the Black Pearl , plot to rescue Jack from Davy Jones 's Locker . Travelling to Singapore , the crew meet Captain Sao Feng who owns navigational charts to the Locker and quickly gains an unpredictable interest in Elizabeth . Beckett 's soldiers invade , but the crew escape . Feng and Turner make a deal to give Jack to Feng , so he in turn can use the Pearl to rescue his father Bootstrap Bill from the Flying Dutchman . The crew travels to the locker and rescues the marooned Jack . They find themselves trapped , encountering dead souls , including Elizabeth 's father Governor Swann . They learn the Dutchman must have a captain .
Returning to the living world , the Pearl is attacked by Sao Feng and Beckett 's men . Through a complex series of deals , Elizabeth is handed over to Feng who he believes is the goddess Calypso , while the rest of the crew make for Shipwreck Cove aboard the Pearl , though Jack later throws Will off the ship as part of the plan to seize control of the Dutchman . Sao Feng tells Elizabeth that the first Brethren Court bound Calypso in human form after she betrayed her lover , Davy Jones . He plans to release her to defeat Beckett . Davy Jones attacks Feng 's ship , but Feng appoints Elizabeth his successor as Pirate Lord before dying . Admiral Norrington frees Elizabeth and her new crew from the Dutchman , but is killed by a crazed Bootstrap Bill .
The Black Pearl arrives at Shipwreck Cove where Barbossa attempts to persuade the Brethren Court to release Calypso . Jack 's father Captain Teague and Keeper of the Pirate Code , informs the Court that only an elected Pirate King can decide . A vote is taken . To avoid a stalemate , Jack casts his vote for Elizabeth , making her King . Davy Jones visits Tia Dalma in the Pearl 's brig , revealing she is Calypso , and they promise to be together again .
The Brethren Court and Beckett 's fleets emerge for war . On a sandbank , Elizabeth , Jack , Barbossa , Beckett , Jones , and Will parley , trading Will for Jack , and Barbossa steals Jack 's piece of eight , all of which are owned by the Pirate Lords and required to free Calypso . Barbossa frees Calypso , but when Will reveals it was Jones who made it possible for the first Court to imprison her , Calypso vanishes and summons an enormous maelstrom .
The Pearl and the Dutchman battle in the maelstrom . Elizabeth and Will are wed by Barbossa before swinging over to the Dutchman to aid Jack . On board the Dutchman , Jones and Jack engage in a duel , with Jones gaining the upper hand . Jones stabs Will with a sword , but Jack and Elizabeth have Will stab Jones ' heart . Jones dies , and falls in the maelstrom , free for all eternity . Will succumbs to his injuries . Jack and Elizabeth escape the Dutchman as it is sucked into the maelstrom . As Beckett 's ship , the Endeavour , approaches to destroy the Pearl , the Dutchman rises , now captained by Will , and the crew free of Jones ' curse . Together , the two pirate ships destroy the Endeavour , with a stunned Beckett going down with the ship while his army retreats . With Will now bound to escort souls lost at sea to the next world for ten years , Will and Elizabeth consummate their marriage before he departs on the Dutchman .
Jack and Joshamee Gibbs discover Barbossa has stolen the Black Pearl again , but Jack planned ahead and cut out Sao Feng 's navigational charts , departing from Tortuga alone to track down the mythical Fountain of Youth to become immortal .
In a post @-@ credits scene , set ten years later , Elizabeth and her son watch from a sea cliff as Will returns aboard the Dutchman .
= = Cast = =
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Following The Curse of the Black Pearl 's success in 2003 , the cast and crew signed on for two sequels to be shot back @-@ to @-@ back . For the third film , director Gore Verbinski wanted to return the tone to that of a character piece after using the second film to keep the plot moving . Inspired by the real @-@ life confederation of pirates , Elliott and Rossio looked at historical figures and created fictional characters from them to expand the scope beyond the main cast . Finally embellishing their mythology , Calypso was introduced , going full circle to Barbossa 's mention of " heathen gods " that created the curse in the first film .
= = = Filming = = =
Parts of the third film were shot during location filming of Pirates of the Caribbean : Dead Man 's Chest , a long shoot which finished on March 1 , 2006 . During August 2005 , the Singapore sequence was shot . The set was built on Stage 12 of the Universal Studios backlot , and comprised 40 structures within an 80 by 130 @-@ foot ( 24 by 40 @-@ m ) tank that was 3 1 ⁄ 2 feet ( 1 @.@ 1 m ) deep . As 18th century Singapore is not a well @-@ documented era , the filmmakers chose to use an Expressionist style based on Chinese and Malaysian cities of the same period . The design of the city was also intended by Verbinski to parody spa culture , with fungi growing throughout the set . Continuing this natural feel , the floorboards of Sao Feng 's bathhouse had to be cut by hand , and real humidity was created by the combination of gallons of water and the lighting equipment on the set .
Filming resumed on August 3 , 2006 at the Bonneville Salt Flats in Utah and continued until early 2007 for 70 days off the California coast , as all the shooting required in the Caribbean had been conducted in 2005 . Davy Jones 's Locker was shot at Utah , and it was shot in a monochromatic way to represent its different feeling from the usual colorful environment of a pirate . The climactic battle was shot in a former air hangar at Palmdale , California , where the cast had to wear wetsuits underneath their costumes on angle @-@ tipped ships . The water @-@ drenched set was kept in freezing temperatures , to make sure bacteria did not come inside and infect the crew . A second unit shot at Niagara Falls . Industrial Light & Magic did 750 effects shots , while Digital Domain also took on 300 . They spent just five months finishing the special effects . The film posed numerous challenges in creating water @-@ based effects .
Filming finished on December 12 , 2006 in Molokai , and the first assembly cut was three hours . Twenty minutes were removed , not including end credits , though producer Jerry Bruckheimer maintained that the long running time was needed to make the final battle work in terms of build @-@ up .
= = = Music = = =
Hans Zimmer composed the score , as he did for the previous film , composing eight new motifs , including a new love theme for the At World 's End soundtrack . He scored scenes as the editors began work , so as to influence their choice of cutting to the music . Gore Verbinski helped on the score . He played the Ennio Morricone @-@ influenced guitar music in the parley scene between Barbossa , Sparrow , Elizabeth and Will , Davy Jones , and Cutler Beckett . He also co @-@ wrote the song " Hoist the Colours " with Zimmer .
= = Release = =
The world premiere of At World 's End was held on May 19 , 2007 at Disneyland , home of the ride that inspired the film and where the first two films in the trilogy debuted . Disneyland offered the general public a chance to attend the premiere through the sale of tickets , priced at $ 1 @,@ 500 per ticket , with proceeds going to the Make @-@ a @-@ Wish Foundation charity . Just a few weeks before the film 's release , Walt Disney Pictures decided to move the United States opening of At World 's End from screenings Friday , May 25 , 2007 to Thursday at 8 PM , May 24 , 2007 . The film opened in 4 @,@ 362 theaters domestically , beating Spider @-@ Man 3 's theater opening record by 110 ( this record was surpassed by The Dark Knight the following year ) .
= = = Marketing = = =
After a muted publicity campaign , the trailer finally debuted at ShoWest 2007 . It was shown on March 18 , 2007 at a special screening of Pirates of the Caribbean : The Curse of the Black Pearl named " Pirates Ultimate Fan Event " , and was then shown on March 19 during Dancing with the Stars , before it debuted online . Action figures by NECA were released in late April . Board games such as a Collector ’ s Edition Chess Set , a Monopoly Game , and a Pirates Dice Game ( Liar 's dice ) were also released . Master Replicas made sculptures of characters and replicas of jewellery and the Dead Man 's Chest . A video game with the same title as the film was released on May 22 , 2007 on Xbox 360 , PlayStation 3 , Wii , PSP , PlayStation 2 , PC , and Nintendo DS formats . The soundtrack and its remix were also released on May 22 .
= = = Censorship = = =
At least one nation 's official censors ordered scenes cut from the film . According to Xinhua , the state news agency of the People 's Republic of China , ten minutes of footage containing Chow Yun @-@ fat 's portrayal of Singaporean pirate Sao Feng were trimmed from versions of the film which may be shown in China . Chow is onscreen for twenty minutes in the uncensored theatrical release of the film . No official reason for the censorship was given , but unofficial sources within China have indicated that the character gave a negative and stereotypical portrayal of Chinese people .
= = = Home media = = =
The one @-@ disc and two @-@ disc re @-@ edited versions of the Region 2 DVD were released by Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment in the United Kingdom on November 19 , 2007 , on both standard DVD and Blu @-@ ray Disc formats . The film was released on DVD in Australia on November 21 , 2007 , and released on December 4 , 2007 in the United States and Canada . The 2 @-@ Disc Limited Edition DVD was in continuous circulation until it stopped on September 30 , 2008 . In contrast , the Blu @-@ ray Disc release , containing all of the features from the 2 @-@ Disc DVD version ( including some original scenes from the theatrical release , but excluding the writer 's commentary ) is still widely available . The initial Blu @-@ ray Disc release was misprinted on the back of the box as 1080i , although Disney confirmed it to be 1080p . Disney decided not to recall the misprinted units , but to fix the error on subsequent printings . DVD sales brought in $ 296 @,@ 043 @,@ 871 in revenue , marking the best @-@ selling DVD of 2007 , although it ranks second in terms of units sold ( 14 @,@ 505 @,@ 271 ) behind Transformers ( 16 @,@ 234 @,@ 195 ) . At World 's End had its television premiere in the UK on Boxing Day 2009 on BBC One at 19 : 30 , and was watched by 6 @.@ 06 million viewers .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
As with Dead Man 's Chest , At World 's End received mixed reviews . The most common criticism of the film from reviewers was that the plot was too convoluted for them to follow . At World 's End has a " Rotten " rating of 45 % on review aggregate website Rotten Tomatoes , with the site 's consensus saying that the film " provides the thrilling action scenes , but mixes in too many characters with too many incomprehensible plot threads . " It also has a score of 50 at Metacritic . Favorable reviewer Alex Billington noted , " This is just how the film industry works nowadays ; critics give bad opinions , the public usually has a differing opinion , and all is well in the world of Hollywood since the studios made their millions anyway . "
Drew McWeeny praised the film 's complexity as giving it repeat @-@ viewing value , and its conclusion as " perhaps the most canny move it makes . " Todd Gilchrist found the story too similar to other cinematic trilogies such as Star Wars , but praised the production values . Brian Lowry felt that " unlike last year 's bloated sequel , it at least possesses some semblance of a destination , making it slightly more coherent - if no less numbing during the protracted finale . " Total Film praised the performances but complained that the twists and exposition made it hard to care for the characters . Edward Douglas liked the film but had issues with its pacing , while Blake Wright criticized the Davy Jones 's Locker and Calypso segments . James Berardinelli found it the weakest of the trilogy as " the last hour offers adventure as rousing as anything provided in either of the previous installments ... which doesn 't account for the other 108 minutes of this gorged , self @-@ indulgent , and uneven production . " Peter Travers praised Richards and Rush but felt " there can indeed be too much of a good thing , " regarding Depp 's character . Travers later declared the movie to be one of the worst films of the year . Colm Andrew of the Manx Independent said the film was overall a disappointment and that " the final showdown ... is a non @-@ event and the repetitive swordplay and inane plot contrivances simply become boring by the end " . Richard Roeper gave a positive review , saying " Gore Verbinski and the stunt and special effects crews have created one of the most impressive blends of live @-@ action work and CGI wizardry ever put on film , " and believing it " rarely drags and is almost always entertaining . " He praised the performances of the actors as one of the best things about the film .
Chow Yun @-@ fat 's character stirred a great deal of controversy with the Chinese press . Perry Lam , of Hong Kong cultural magazine , Muse , found an offensive resemblance between Chow 's character and Fu Manchu : " Now Fu Manchu has returned after an absence of 27 years in the Hollywood cinema ; except that , in a nod to political correctness and marketing realities , he is no longer called Fu Manchu . "
= = = Box office = = =
Pirates of the Caribbean : At World 's End earned $ 309 @,@ 420 @,@ 425 in North America and $ 654 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in other countries , for a worldwide total of $ 963 @,@ 420 @,@ 425 . Worldwide , it is the 30th highest @-@ grossing film , the highest @-@ grossing film of 2007 , and the third highest @-@ grossing film in the Pirates of the Caribbean series . Compared to its predecessor , it grossed far less at the North American box office , but more outside North America . Still , its worldwide earnings are more than $ 100 million below Dead Man 's Chest 's . During its worldwide opening weekend , it grossed $ 344 @.@ 0 million , making it the seventh @-@ largest opening .
North America
At World 's End was released in a then @-@ record 4 @,@ 362 theaters in North America , and was shown on around 11 @,@ 500 screens , which is still an all @-@ time record . On its first three @-@ day weekend , it earned $ 114 @,@ 732 @,@ 820 . It set a Memorial Day 4 @-@ day weekend record ( $ 139 @,@ 802 @,@ 190 ) , which it still retains . This record was previously held by X @-@ Men : The Last Stand . Including Thursday night previews , as well , At World 's End earned $ 153 @,@ 042 @,@ 234 in 5 days , and is the fourth highest @-@ grossing film of 2007 . Among May 's Big Three ( Spider @-@ Man 3 , Shrek 3 and Pirates 3 ) , Pirates 3 grossed the least both during its opening weekend and in total earnings . However , this was mainly attributed to the fact that it was released third , after the other two films , so there was already too much competition . It is also the second highest @-@ grossing film in the Pirates series .
Outside North America
It is the eighteenth highest @-@ grossing film , the sixth @-@ largest film distributed by Disney , and the second highest @-@ grossing Pirates of the Caribbean film . During its opening weekend , it grossed an estimated $ 216 @.@ 0 million , which stands as the sixth biggest opening outside North America . It set opening @-@ weekend records in South Korea with $ 16 @.@ 7 million ( surpassed by Transformers : Dark of the Moon ) , Russia , and the CIS with $ 14 @.@ 0 million ( first surpassed by Samy luchshiy film ) , and Spain with $ 11 @.@ 9 million ( surpassed by The Impossible ) . It dominated for three consecutive weekends at the box office outside North America . By June 12 , 2007 , its 20th day of release , the film had grossed $ 500 million , breaking Spider @-@ Man 3 's record for reaching that amount the fastest . This record was first overtaken by Avatar ( 15 days to $ 500 million ) . Its highest @-@ grossing countries after North America are Japan , where it earned $ 91 @.@ 1 million , and became the last Hollywood film to earn more than 10 billion yen before Avatar , and the UK , Ireland , Malta ( $ 81 @.@ 4 million ) , and Germany ( $ 59 @.@ 4 million ) .
= = = Accolades = = =
At the 80th Academy Awards , Pirates of the Caribbean : At World 's End was nominated for two awards , Best Makeup and Best Visual Effects . However , it did not win either of the two , losing the former to La Vie en Rose and the latter to The Golden Compass .
At the 2008 MTV Movie Awards , the film was nominated for three awards , including one win : the Best Comedic Performance ( Johnny Depp ) . At the 34th People 's Choice Awards , it was nominated for five awards , including four wins : Favorite Movie , Favorite Threequel , Favorite Male Movie Star ( Johnny Depp ) and Favorite Female Action Star ( Keira Knightley ) . Also , at the Teen Choice Awards it won five awards , out of six nominations . Finally , at the 2008 Kids ' Choice Awards , it achieved three nominations but won only the Favorite Movie Actor award ( Johnny Depp ) .
= = Sequel = =
= Flushing – Main Street ( IRT Flushing Line ) =
Flushing – Main Street ( signed as Main Street on entrances and pillars , and Main St – Flushing on overhead signs ) is the northern terminal station on the IRT Flushing Line of the New York City Subway , located at Main Street and Roosevelt Avenue in the Downtown section of Flushing , Queens . It is served by the 7 at all times and the < 7 > train rush hours in the peak direction .
The Flushing – Main Street station was originally built as part of the Dual Contracts between the Interborough Rapid Transit Company ( IRT ) and the Brooklyn – Manhattan Transit Corporation ( BMT ) . It opened on January 21 , 1928 , completing the segment of the Flushing Line in Queens . Although plans existed for the line to be extended east of the station , such an extension was never built . The station was renovated in the 1990s .
The passenger count in 2015 for the station was 19 @,@ 082 @,@ 391 , making it the 12th busiest station system @-@ wide , the busiest station in Queens , and the busiest station outside of Manhattan .
= = History = =
The station was constructed under the Dual Contracts as part of an extension of the Flushing Line past 103rd Street – Corona Plaza . At the time of the line 's planning in the 1910s , Downtown Flushing was a quiet Dutch @-@ colonial @-@ style village ; what is now Roosevelt Avenue in the area was known as Amity Street , a major commercial thoroughfare in the neighborhood . It was decided to build the station underground due to local opposition to the disturbances , loss of property value , and the required widening of Amity Street that an elevated line would bring . Thus , it is one of only seven underground stations on the Flushing Line , one of three underground stations on the line in Queens , and the only underground station east of Queensboro Plaza . Construction of the station and the double @-@ deck bridge over the Flushing Creek began on April 21 , 1923 , with the station built via cut @-@ and @-@ cover methods . The bridge was completed in 1927 , and the station opened on January 21 , 1928 , over a decade after the line began operation .
Following the station 's opening , Downtown Flushing evolved into a major commercial and transit center , as development sprung around the section of Main Street near the station . On April 24 , 1939 , express trains began operating to and from the station , in conjunction with the reconstruction of the Willets Point station for the 1939 World 's Fair . Due to the high level of passenger use , beginning in 1940 local residents requested an additional exit at the east end of the station , and the widening of existing staircases . A new eastern entrance was added after World War II .
Between 1999 and 2000 , the station underwent a major renovation project that had been in the planning stages since the 1970s . The renovation added an elevator near the Lippmann Plaza exit that made the station compliant with the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 . The project also added new entrances and a large entrance hall near Lippmann Plaza at the far east end of the station , beyond the bumper blocks at the end of the tracks . Prior to 1999 , the tracks went past where the current bumper blocks are , to a dead @-@ end , as the line was planned to extend eastward .
The Flushing – Main Street station has been listed on the National Register of Historic Places since 2004 .
= = = Proposed extension of the line = = =
Under several expansion plans of the New York City Subway , including the Dual Contracts and the IND Second System , the Flushing Line would have been extended past Main Street , along and / or parallel to the right @-@ of @-@ way of the nearby Port Washington Branch of the Long Island Rail Road towards Bell Boulevard in Bayside . A spur line would have branched off north along 149th Street towards College Point .
= = Station layout = =
The station has three tracks and two relatively narrow island platforms , due to Roosevelt Avenue 's narrow width of approximately 50 feet ( 15 m ) . When peak @-@ direction express service operates , express trains will leave from the middle and southernmost tracks , Track M and Track 2 respectively , while local trains will leave from Track 1 . This system was instituted in November 1952 . Mosaic on the wall tiles read " MAIN STREET " ; small tiles along the platforms read " M " .
There are nine entrances at street level , leading to two separate fare control areas . The original street exit is in the middle of the platforms with a separate fare control mezzanine above the tracks , and the 24 @-@ hour station agent 's booth . Staircases lead up to all four corners of Main Street and Roosevelt Avenue . The new fare control area at Lippmann Plaza has an extremely high ceiling , approximately 40 feet ( 12 m ) below the street level . The mezzanine is at platform level , and provides an ADA @-@ compliant elevator , three unidirectional escalators , and a stairway to street level at Lippmann Plaza . New artwork titled Happy World was installed over the row of turnstiles in 1998 . The plaza , also known as Lippmann Arcade , is a pedestrian walkway that leads to a municipal parking lot and several bus stops on 39th Avenue .
At the west end of the station platforms are the offices and dispatch tower for the IRT Flushing Line . Train crews report to the offices , while the dispatch tower dispatches trains and controls the Flushing Line . West of the station , the line rises from the tunnel via a portal at College Point Boulevard , and onto the elevated bridge across Flushing Creek .
= = Bus service = =
In addition to connecting with the nearby Long Island Rail Road station of the same name , the station serves as one of the two busiest local bus @-@ subway interchanges in Queens ( along with Jamaica Center ) and the largest in North America , with over 20 bus routes running through or terminating in the area as of 2015 .
= = Attractions and points of interest = =
The station is located in Downtown Flushing , also known as Flushing Chinatown , one of New York City 's largest Asian enclaves .
Nearby points of interest include :
Flushing Town Hall , at Northern Boulevard and Linden Place .
St George 's Church , on Main Street near Roosevelt Avenue .
Flushing Main Post Office , on Main Street between Sanford and Maple Avenues .
Queens Library Flushing , at Main Street and Kissena Boulevard , the successor to the original Queens Library branch .
Lippmann Plaza , between 39th Avenue and Roosevelt Avenue east of Main Street . Named after longtime Flushing businessman Paul Lippmann .
= = Gallery = =
= Halo : Cryptum =
Halo : Cryptum is a military science fiction novel by Greg Bear , based on the Halo series of video games . The book was released in January 2011 and is the eighth Halo book ( the seventh novel ) and the first in the trilogy of novels focusing on the Forerunners , called The Forerunner Saga . Cryptum was released in hardcover , e @-@ book , and audiobook following 2009 's Halo : Evolutions , a collection of Halo short stories . It is succeeded by Primordium , published in January 2012 , and Silentium , in March 2013 . Bear was given little restriction on the story of the novel ; the Halo universe had not yet been explored in that time period .
Set approximately 100 @,@ 000 years before the events of Halo : Combat Evolved , the novel tells the story of a young Forerunner 's adventure on prehistoric Earth and across the galaxy . The protagonist , named Bornstellar , awakens an exiled warrior , the Didact , who recruits Bornstellar and his companions , reveals the history of Forerunner @-@ human war and the existence of Halo superweapons , giant rings with the potential to kill every conscious being in the galaxy . The group is captured by the Master Builder , the most powerful individual Forerunner and creator of the Halos , but he is arrested and Bornstellar is called to provide evidence at the Master Builder 's trial . Before the trial begins however , a rogue artificial intelligence attempts to use the Halos to commit genocide against the Forerunners , and Bornstellar escapes to the Ark .
Cryptum received mixed reviews ; some critics liked the Forerunner culture and suspense that Bear created , but others disliked the characters , found the plot too slow and concluded that the novel was suited only to existing fans of the Halo series . Cryptum appeared on multiple bestseller lists after promotion on Halo Waypoint , a website that serves as a hub for Halo @-@ related information .
= = Background = =
Greg Bear was 343 Industries ' first choice to write a trilogy of books based on the history of the Forerunners and another mysterious race known as the Precursors . Bear had been writing a book entitled Hull Zero Three when he was approached to be the trilogy 's author . At the first meeting with Bear regarding the book , he was told that it should be a " classic Greg Bear giant – in the vein of Eon , Anvil of the Stars and so on " , but inspired by Halo and its extended universe . The book and author were announced on April 6 , 2009 . 343 Industries ' General Manager , Bonnie Ross , stated that the back and forth with Bear made " the whole experience better " , and was preferable to assigning the author his task with no feedback . Halo franchise development director Frank O 'Connor stated , " The enigma of the Forerunners is really at the heart of the drama and mystery of the Halo universe ... in all the games and the books so far we 've only scratched the surface of the terrible events that engulfed the Forerunners and the Galaxy they protected 100 @,@ 000 years ago " . Although nothing was forced upon Bear in terms of story templates , he had numerous and comprehensive discussions about the history of the Halo universe and the major events of the Forerunner history had already been established through the information hidden in Halo 3 . O 'Connor said that the book is meant to have a " hard sci @-@ fi " feel with a " hint of space opera , in the mold of Banks , Reynolds and Bear himself . "
The book 's cover was designed by Sparth , an artist at 343 Industries known for his " futuristic vistas " . The artwork was taken directly from art made for Halo 4 . O 'Connor explained that the cover was intended to " capture the essence and scope of the book and more importantly , the Forerunner universe . " The art is supposed to convey " the sense of wonder that all our main protagonists feel at the scale and scope of Forerunner technology . "
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Setting = = =
Cryptum takes place approximately 100 @,@ 000 years before the present day in the Halo universe , telling the story of the Forerunners before their disappearance . It revolves around the journey of a young Forerunner , Bornstellar , and two humans , Chakas and Morning Riser , and how their lives change when they meet a Forerunner warrior , the Didact . The Forerunners are a type @-@ three civilization on the Kardashev scale ; they can build artificial planets and control stars . Forerunners are divided into classes by occupation , they are ( in order of rank ) : Builders , the architects of the Forerunners ' megastructures , Miners , Lifeworkers , experts in medicine and biology , and Warriors . Bornstellar 's family are politically important Builders and particularly wealthy , enabling them to own an entire planet . Warriors introduced in this book called Prometheans were later featured as antagonists in the video game Halo 4 .
In the Halo universe , humans had advanced to a comparable level of technology to the Forerunners but , after losing a war with them , all human technology was destroyed and their intelligence reduced , leaving them in a subsistence economy with measures to prevent redevelopment of electronics . Humans are aware of the other , space @-@ faring races , but their interactions are limited to visits from Forerunners as they do not have the technology to make contact themselves , they live in wooden buildings and have only primitive steam engines . The San 'Shyuum ( or Prophets as they are referred to in the Halo games ) were also defeated by the Forerunners but their technology was not destroyed ; they were instead confined to their home solar system and forbidden to manufacture weapons .
Much of the story takes place on Erde @-@ Tyrene , the Forerunner name for Earth , although characters also visit the San 'Shyuum homeworld , Bornstellar 's family 's planet and the Forerunner political centre , a planet @-@ sized space station .
= = = Characters = = =
The protagonist of Cryptum is a young Forerunner named " Bornstellar Makes Eternal Lasting " although he is more commonly referred to as just " Bornstellar " . He is from a long line of Builders , but he is disgruntled with the Forerunners ' status quo . Bornstellar 's curiosity leads him to prehistoric Earth where he meets the humans . Chakas is a human youngster of a species known as Chamanune , one of many varieties of the genus Homo . Morning Riser ( full name : Day @-@ Chaser Makes Paths Long @-@ stretch Morning Riser ) is a Florian ( Homo floresiensis ) about half the height of Chakas but of similar intelligence .
Bornstellar and the humans awaken the Didact , a Warrior class who was one of the commanders of Forerunner military in the Forerunner @-@ human war . He was exiled to stasis after coming into conflict with the Master Builder , the leader of the Forerunners . The Master Builder is responsible for the creation of the titular Halo superweapons . The Didact is married to the Librarian , one of the most powerful and influential Lifeworkers to have lived . She is a Lifeshaper , the highest rank a Lifeworker can achieve , and is responsible for indexing every species in the galaxy in the Ark .
= = = Plot summary = = =
The story starts as Bornstellar makes his way to " Erde @-@ Tyrene " where he meets the two humans Chakas and Morning Riser , who serve as his guides . Bornstellar is seeking Precursor artifacts , relics from an extinct but technologically superior civilization . The humans lead Bornstellar to a ring island where they find and activate the cryptum of the Didact . The cryptum preserves the Didact in an indefinite sleep . Bornstellar begins to suspect that the artificial intelligence in his suit of armour has conspired to bring him to the island , and that the humans held subconscious knowledge allowing them to aid in waking the Didact . After the Didact recovers from his slumber , he conscripts Bornstellar , Chakas , and Riser , taking them on a quest given by the Librarian who has provided them a state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art space ship , hidden for thousands of years beneath the island . Aboard the ship Bornstellar learns about the Forerunner war with humankind 10 @,@ 000 years prior . Forerunners went to war with humans and San ' Shyuum when their expansion began encroaching on Forerunner worlds . After their defeat the Librarian saved the human race from extinction and planted a genetic command known as a " geas " in them , the cause of Chakas and Riser 's subconscious knowledge . It is later revealed that the humans and San ' Shyuum were united against the Flood , a parasitic alien species that controls its host , and attacked only the Forerunner planets with Flood infestation .
The Didact and his makeshift crew travel to an ancient Precursor planet , Charum Hakkor , where humans had once also settled . The Didact is disturbed to find that many of the Precursor structures on the planet have fallen into ruin ; Precursor structures were thought to be completely indestructible . The Didact also discovers that a prisoner , ensconced in both Precursor and human containment methods , has escaped . They travel to the nearby planet of Faun Hakkor , another formerly human @-@ settled world , to find it stripped of all sentient life , its ecosystem in peril . The Didact sponsors Bornstellar 's first mutation , a vital part of Forerunner growth , imprinting himself upon Bornstellar . The Didact 's memories , tactics and experiences are shared with Bornstellar , giving him insight into the context of the Forerunner @-@ human war and the planets the crew had just visited .
When attempting to visit the San ' Shyuum home world , the four are captured by Builders , commanded by the Master Builder . The Didact and humans are held prisoner , but Bornstellar is returned to the care of his father because of his family 's status and power . On his family 's home world , he uses the time and peace to reflect on recent events , and allow the imprint of the Didact to fully assimilate into his thoughts . He overhears an argument between his father and another Builder , from which he learns that his father was one of the chief builders of the Halos . The Didact opposed the Builders ' decision to construct such a weapon , hence his exile . It is soon revealed that the Master Builder is being brought up on charges and that the Halo weapons had been recalled , but one of the rings had gone missing . Bornstellar is called to a Forerunner core planet to testify against the Master Builder , who has been put on trial for crimes against The Mantle , a Forerunner philosophy that values the preservation of life over all else . Just as the trial is about to begin , an AI , Mendicant Bias , betrays the Forerunners and intends to use the combined power of the Halos to begin wiping out the Forerunner race .
In the ensuing battle to save the planet , several Halos are able to escape , their own AIs enacting failsafe protocols . Bornstellar manages to escape with the help of a young council member and a guard . They escape through the same portal as the Halos but lose power and drift for an unknown amount of time before being recovered by Lifeworkers . The portal has carried them to the Ark , the massive structure that serves as a construction site for Halos and also a haven for the Librarian 's work . The trio are healed , and Bornstellar meets the Librarian , which brings up conflicting thoughts and feelings , due to his imprint from the Didact . She informs him that the Master Builder executed the Didact soon after Bornstellar was sent back to his family . With the news that the Didact is gone , Bornstellar resolves to take his place . The book ends with a narration from the Didact / Bornstellar , revealing that the escaped prisoner was the last Precursor , known as Timeless One . Through a conversation the Didact had long ago , it is learned that the Precursors created the Forerunners , only for the Forerunners to rise up and eradicate the Precursors , except this one , who now seeks revenge .
= = Release and reception = =
In the weeks before release , Tor Books released Chapter One for free , and Chapter Two was made available on the Halo Waypoint website . Tor also ran seven giveaways of the other Halo novels and action figures . An unabridged audio book , narrated by Holter Graham , was released alongside the print edition on January 4 , 2011 . Upon release Greg Bear did book signings attended by Frank O 'Connor . Following its release , Cryptum reached number 22 in the New York Times Best Seller List in the Hardcover Fiction category . It also spent five weeks on the Los Angeles Times Hardcover Fiction Bestseller list , reaching number 17 . Publishers Weekly noted that the book was a bestseller in the hardcovers category in early September 2011 at Borders .
Cryptum was met with varying reviews . Dr. Nigel Seel of sciencefiction.com called it tired , unoriginal and boring , saying , " It 's hard to care about the flimsy characters , the plot is wearily over familiar , the hero is passive throughout and overall , not enough happens . " He criticised the characters as stereotypical and the plot being far too slow , concluding , " This is one for the die @-@ hard Halo fans . " Hilary Williamson of Book Loons also considered Cryptum appealing only to Halo fans , but praised Graham 's narration . The author of Artistic Gaming 's review of Cryptum found it difficult to like the book 's characters due to the condescending tone of Bornstellar , also concluding that it is only suited to diehard fans . Portland Book Review 's Missy Wadkins felt differently . She thought the characters complex and found it comparable to an interesting history lesson . Her review further contrasted Dr. Seel 's by recommending it to all science fiction readers , not just Halo fans . Jason Hamilton of Story Hobby also praised the novel ; he complimented Bear 's creation of a completely different culture to humanity and his balance of providing the reader with enough information to maintain interest without letting on too much and ruining the suspense .
= Catalytic triad =
A catalytic triad refers to the three amino acid residues that function together at the centre of the active site of some hydrolase and transferase enzymes ( e.g. proteases , amidases , esterases , acylases , lipases and β @-@ lactamases ) . An Acid @-@ Base @-@ Nucleophile triad is a common motif for generating a nucleophilic residue for covalent catalysis . The residues form a charge @-@ relay network to polarise and activate the nucleophile , which attacks the substrate , forming a covalent intermediate which is then hydrolysed to regenerate free enzyme . The nucleophile is most commonly a serine or cysteine amino acid , but occasionally threonine . Because enzymes fold into complex three @-@ dimensional structures , the residues of a catalytic triad can be far from each other along the amino @-@ acid sequence ( primary structure ) , however , they are brought close together in the final fold .
As well as divergent evolution of function ( and even the triad 's nucleophile ) , catalytic triads show some of the best examples of convergent evolution . Chemical constraints on catalysis have led to the same catalytic solution independently evolving in at least 23 separate superfamilies . Their mechanism of action is consequently one of the best studied in biochemistry .
= = History = =
The enzymes trypsin and chymotrypsin were first purified in the 1930s . A serine in each of trypsin and chymotrypsin was identified as the catalytic nucleophile ( by diisopropyl fluorophosphate modification ) in the 1950s . The structure of chymotrypsin was solved by X @-@ ray crystallography in the 1960s , showing the orientation of the catalytic triad in the active site . Other proteases were sequenced and aligned to reveal a family of related proteases , now called the S1 family . Simultaneously , the structures of the evolutionarily unrelated papain and subtilisin proteases were found to contain analogous triads . The ' charge @-@ relay ' mechanism for the activation of the nucleophile by the other triad members was proposed in the late 1960s . As more protease structures were solved by X @-@ ray crystallography in the 1970s and 80s , homologous ( such as TEV protease ) and analogous ( such as papain ) triads were found . The MEROPS classification system in the 1990s and 2000s began classing proteases into structurally related enzyme superfamilies and so acts as a database of the convergent evolution of triads in over 20 superfamilies . Understanding how chemical constraints on evolution led to the convergence of so many enzyme families on the same triad geometries has developed in the 2010s . Of particular contention during the 1990s and early 2000s was the contribution of low @-@ barrier hydrogen bonding to catalysis ; however , current thinking is that ordinary hydrogen bonding is sufficient to explain the mechanism . The massive body of work on the charge @-@ relay , covalent catalysis used by catalytic triads has led to the mechanism being the best characterised in all of biochemistry .
= = Function = =
Enzymes that contain an catalytic triad use it for one of two reaction types : either to split a substrate ( hydrolases ) or to transfer one portion of a substrate over to a second substrate ( transferases ) . Triads are an inter @-@ dependent set of residues in the active site of an enzyme and act in concert with other residues ( e.g. binding site and oxyanion hole ) to achieve nucleophilic catalysis . These triad residues act together to make the nucleophile member highly reactive , generating a covalent intermediate with the substrate that is then resolved to complete catalysis .
= = = Mechanism = = =
Catalytic triads perform covalent catalysis using a residue as a nucleophile . The reactivity of the nucleophilic residue is increased by the functional groups of the other triad members . The nucleophile is polarised and oriented by the base , which is itself bound and stabilised by the acid .
Catalysis is performed in two stages . First , the activated nucleophile attacks the carbonyl carbon and forces the carbonyl oxygen to accept an electron , leading to a tetrahedral intermediate . The build @-@ up of negative charge on this intermediate is typically stabilized by an oxanion hole within the active site . The intermediate then collapses back to a carbonyl , ejecting the first half of the substrate , but leaving the second half still covalently bound to the enzyme as an acyl @-@ enzyme intermediate . The ejection of this first leaving group is often aided by donation of a proton by the base .
The second stage of catalysis is the resolution of the acyl @-@ enzyme intermediate by the attack of a second substrate . If this substrate is water then the result is hydrolysis ; if it is an organic molecule then the result is transfer of that molecule onto the first substrate . Attack by this second substrate forms a new tetrahedral intermediate , which resolves by ejecting the enzyme 's nucleophile , releasing the second product and regenerating free enzyme .
= = Identity of triad members = =
= = = Nucleophile = = =
The side @-@ chain of the nucleophilic residue performs covalent catalysis on the substrate . The lone pair of electrons present on the oxygen or sulphur attacks the electropositive carbonyl carbon . The 20 naturally occurring biological amino acids do not contain any sufficiently nucleophilic functional groups for many difficult catalytic reactions . Embedding the nucleophile in a triad increases its reactivity for efficient catalysis . The most commonly used nucleophiles are the hydroxyl ( OH ) of serine and the thiol / thiolate ion ( SH / S − ) of cysteine . Alternatively , threonine proteases use the secondary hydroxyl of threonine , however due to steric hindrance of the side chain 's extra methyl group such proteases use their N @-@ terminal amide as the base , rather than a separate amino acid .
Use of oxygen or sulphur as the nucleophilic atom causes minor differences in catalysis . Compared to oxygen , sulphur ’ s extra d orbital makes it larger ( by 0 @.@ 4 Å ) and softer , allows it to form longer bonds ( dC @-@ X and dX @-@ H by 1 @.@ 3 @-@ fold ) , and gives it a lower pKa ( by 5 units ) . Serine is therefore more dependent than cysteine on optimal orientation of the acid @-@ base triad members to reduce its pKa in order to achieve concerted deprotonation with catalysis . The low pKa of cysteine works to its disadvantage in the resolution of the first tetrahedral intermediate as unproductive reversal of the original nucleophilic attack is the more favourable breakdown product . The triad base is therefore preferentially oriented to protonate the leaving group amide to ensure that it is ejected to leave the enzyme sulphur covalently bound to the substrate N @-@ terminus . Finally , resolution of the acyl @-@ enzyme ( to release the substrate C @-@ terminus ) requires serine to be re @-@ protonated whereas cysteine can leave as S − . Sterically , the sulphur of cysteine also forms longer bonds and has a bulkier Van der Waals radius and if mutated to serine can be trapped in unproductive orientations in the active site .
= = = Base = = =
Since no natural amino acids are strongly nucleophilic , the base in a catalytic triad polarises and deprotonates the nucleophile to increase its reactivity . Additionally , it protonates the first product to aid leaving group departure .
The base is most commonly histidine since its pKa allows for effective base catalysis , hydrogen bonding to the acid residue , and deprotonation of the nucleophile residue. β @-@ lactamases such as TEM @-@ 1 use a lysine residue as the base . Because lysine 's pKa is so high ( pKa = 11 ) , a glutamate and several other residues act as the acid to stabilise its deprotonated state during the catalytic cycle . Threonine proteases use their N @-@ terminal amide as the base , since steric crowding by the catalytic threonine 's methyl prevents other residues from being close enough .
= = = Acid = = =
The acidic triad member forms a hydrogen bond with the basic residue . This aligns the basic residue by restricting its side @-@ chain rotation , and polarises it by stabilising its positive charge . Two amino acids have acidic side chains at physiological pH ( aspartate or glutamate ) and so are the most commonly used for this triad member . Cytomegalovirus protease uses a pair of histidines , one as the base , as usual , and one as the acid . The second histidine is not as effective an acid as the more common aspartate or glutamate , leading to a lower catalytic efficiency . In some enzymes , the acid member of the triad is less necessary and some act only as a dyad . For example , papain uses asparagine as its third triad member which orients the histidine base but does not act as an acid . Similarly , hepatitis A virus protease contains an ordered water in the position where an acid residue should be .
= = Examples of triads = =
= = = Ser @-@ His @-@ Asp = = =
The Serine @-@ Histidine @-@ Aspartate motif is one of the most thoroughly characterised catalytic motifs in biochemistry . The triad is exemplified by chymotrypsin , a model serine protease from the PA superfamily which uses its triad to hydrolyse protein backbones . The aspartate is hydrogen bonded to the histidine , increasing the pKa of its imidazole nitrogen from 7 to around 12 . This allows the histidine to act as a powerful general base and to activate the serine nucleophile . It also has an oxanion hole consisting of several backbone amides which stabilises charge build @-@ up on intermediates . The histidine base aids the first leaving group by donating a proton , and also activates the hydrolytic water substrate by abstracting a proton as the remaining OH − attacks the acyl @-@ enzyme intermediate .
The same triad has also convergently evolved in α / β hydrolases such as some lipases and esterases , however orientation of the triad members is reversed . Additionally , brain acetyl hydrolase ( which has the same fold as a small G @-@ protein ) has also been found to have this triad . The equivalent Serine @-@ Histidine @-@ Glutamate triad is used in acetylcholinesterase .
= = = Cys @-@ His @-@ Asp = = =
The second most studied triad is the Cysteine @-@ Histidine @-@ Aspartate motif . Several families of cysteine proteases use this triad set , for example TEV protease and papain . The triad acts similarly to serine protease triads , with a few notable differences . Due to cysteine 's low pKa , the importance of the Asp to catalysis varies and several cysteine proteases are effectively Cys @-@ His dyads ( e.g. hepatitis A virus protease ) , whilst in others the cysteine is already deprotonated before catalysis begins ( e.g. papain ) . This triad is also used by some amidases , such as N @-@ glycanase to hydrolyse non @-@ peptide C @-@ N bonds .
= = = Ser @-@ His @-@ His = = =
The triad of cytomegalovirus protease uses histidine as both the acid and base triad members . Removing the acid histidine results in only a 10 @-@ fold activity loss ( compared to > 10 @,@ 000 @-@ fold when aspartate is removed from chymotrypsin ) . This triad has been interpreted as a possible way of generating a less active enzyme to control cleavage rate .
= = = Ser @-@ Glu @-@ Asp = = =
An unusual triad is found in seldolisin proteases . The low pKa of the glutamate carboxylate group means that it only acts as a base in the triad at very low pH . The triad is hypothesised to be an adaptation to specific environments like acidic hot springs ( e.g. kumamolysin ) or cell lysosome ( e.g. tripeptidyl peptidase ) .
= = = Thr @-@ Nter , Ser @-@ Nter and Cys @-@ Nter = = =
Threonine proteases , such as the proteasome protease subunit and ornithine acyltransferases use the secondary hydroxyl of threonine in an manner analogous to the use of the serine primary hydroxyl . However , due to the steric interference of the extra methyl group of threonine , the base member of the triad is the N @-@ terminal amide which polarises an ordered water which , in turn , deprotonates the catalytic hydroxyl to increase its reactivity . Similarly , there exist equivalent ' serine only ' and ' cysteine only ' configurations such as penicillin acylase G and penicillin acylase V which are evolutionarily related to the proteasome proteases . Again , these use their N @-@ terminal amide as a base .
= = = Ser @-@ cisSer @-@ Lys = = =
This unusual triad occurs only in one superfamily of amidases . In this case , the lysine acts to polarise the middle serine . The middle serine then forms two strong hydrogen bonds to the nucleophilic serine to activate it ( one with the side chain hydroxyl and the other with the backbone amide ) . The middle serine is held in an unusual cis orientation to facilitate precise contacts with the other two triad residues . The triad is further unusual in that the lysine and cis @-@ serine both act as the base in activating the catalytic serine , but the same lysine also performs the role of the acid member as well as making key structural contacts .
= = Divergent evolution = =
The sophistication of the active site network causes residues involved in catalysis ( and residues in contact with these ) to be highly evolutionarily conserved . However , there are examples of divergent evolution in catalytic triads , both in the reaction catalysed , and the residues used in catalysis . The triad remains the core of the active site , but it is evolutionarily adapted to serve different functions .
= = = Reaction changes = = =
Catalytic triads perform covalent catalysis via an acyl @-@ enzyme intermediate . If this intermediate is resolved by water , the result is hydrolysis of the substrate . However , if the intermediate is resolved by attack by a second substrate , then the enzyme acts as a transferase . For example , attack by an acyl group results in an acyltransferase reaction . Several families of transferase enzymes have evolved from hydrolases by adaptation to exclude water and favour attack of a second substrate .
Additionally , an alternative transferase mechanism has been evolved by amidophosphoribosyltransferases , which has two active sites . In the first active site , a cysteine triad hydrolyses a glutamine substrate to release free ammonia . The ammonia then diffuses though an internal tunnel in the enzyme to the second active site , where it is transferred to a second substrate .
= = = Nucleophile changes = = =
Divergent evolution of active site residues is slow , due to strong chemical constraints . Nevertheless , some protease superfamilies have evolved from one nucleophile to another . This can be inferred when a superfamily ( with the same fold ) contains families that use different nucleophiles . Such nucleophile switches have occurred several times during evolutionary history , however the mechanisms by which this happen are still unclear .
Within protease superfamilies that contain a mixture of nucleophiles ( e.g. the PA clan ) , families are designated by their catalytic nucleophile ( C = cysteine proteases , S = serine proteases ) .
= = Convergent evolution = =
The enzymology of proteases provides some of the clearest known examples of convergent evolution . The same geometric arrangement of triad residues occurs in over 20 separate enzyme superfamilies . Each of these superfamilies is the result of convergent evolution for the same triad arrangement within a different structural fold . This is because there are limited productive ways to arrange three triad residues , the enzyme backbone and the substrate . These examples reflect the intrinsic chemical and physical constraints on enzymes , leading evolution to repeatedly and independently converge on equivalent solutions .
= = = Cysteine and serine hydrolases = = =
The same triad geometries been converged upon by serine proteases such as the chymotrypsin and subtilisin superfamilies . Similar convergent evolution has occurred with cysteine proteases such as viral C3 protease and papain superfamilies . These triads have converged to almost the same arrangement due to the mechanistic similarities in cysteine and serine proteolysis mechanisms .
Families of Cysteine proteases
Families of Serine proteases
= = = Threonine proteases = = =
Threonine proteases use the amino acid threonine as their catalytic nucleophile . Unlike cysteine and serine , threonine is a secondary hydroxyl ( i.e. has a methyl group ) . This methyl group greatly restricts the possible orientations of triad and substrate as the methyl clashes with either the enzyme backbone or histidine base . Consequently , the catalytic residue of a threonine protease is located at it N @-@ terminus .
Two evolutionarily independent enzyme superfamilies with different protein folds are known to use the N @-@ terminal residue as a nucleophile : Superfamily PB ( proteasomes using the Ntn fold ) and Superfamily PE ( acetyltransferases using the DOM fold ) This commonality of active site structure in completely different protein folds indicates that the active site evolved convergently in those superfamilies .
Families of threonine proteases
= Maryland Route 231 =
Maryland Route 231 ( MD 231 ) is a state highway in the U.S. state of Maryland . The state highway runs 16 @.@ 39 miles ( 26 @.@ 38 km ) from Olivers Shop Road near Hughesville east to MD 765 in Prince Frederick . MD 231 crosses the Patuxent River on the Benedict Bridge , which connects Benedict in eastern Charles County with Hallowing Point in central Calvert County . The highway directly connects MD 5 in Hughesville with MD 2 and MD 4 in Prince Frederick . MD 231 was constructed from Hughesville to Benedict and from Hollowing Point to Prince Frederick in the early 1920s . The portion of the state highway west of Hughesville was built in the early 1930s , about the same time ferry service began between Benedict and Hallowing Point . The Benedict Bridge was started in 1950 and was completed in 1952 ; the bridge remained the southernmost crossing of the Patuxent River for 25 years . The bridge was tolled from its opening until around 1955 . MD 231 was reconstructed between Hughesville and Prince Frederick in the mid- to late 1950s to better serve intercounty traffic .
= = Route description = =
MD 231 begins at an intersection with Olivers Shop Road in the hamlet of Burnt Store in eastern Charles County . Olivers Shop Road connects Dentsville to the south with Bryantown to the north . MD 231 heads east as two @-@ lane Burnt Store Road , crossing Gilbert Creek on its way to Hughesville . Within Hughesville , the state highway intersects MD 5 Business ( Old Leonardtown Road ) , where the highway 's name changes to Prince Frederick Road . East of the village center , MD 231 meets MD 5 ( Leonardtown Road ) at a dumbbell interchange . In the hamlet of Patuxent , the state highway intersects MD 381 ( Brandywine Road ) , which heads north into the southeastern corner of Prince George 's County .
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On September 28 against Illinois , he had a sack and made a notable lead block on the interception return of a fellow defensive back . In the October 12 victory over Penn State , he made a key defensive play that almost resulted in an interception as part of an overtime goal line stand to hold Penn State to a field goal . In the 23 – 21 victory over Purdue on October 19 , he recovered the final onside kick by Purdue . A collision on October 26 in a game with Iowa halted play for ten minutes while June received medical attention after leaving the game on a stretcher . At the time , he had movement in his extremities . He was hospitalized after the incident , but was released from the hospital the following morning . June was sidelined for the Michigan – Michigan State Paul Bunyan Trophy game against Michigan State on November 2 , but participated in two plays during the subsequent Michigan – Minnesota Little Brown Jug game against Minnesota on November 9 . June was healthy in time for the 2003 Outback Bowl against Florida , where he recorded a season @-@ high nine tackles . Over the course of the season , June had 36 tackles , 17 assists , four tackles for loss , and two sacks . He had 102 career tackles and 36 career assists , 10 tackles for loss , and six sacks .
June was selected as an honorable mention All @-@ Big Ten performer by both the coaches and the media , despite his late season injury . He was also selected to play in the 2003 Senior Bowl along with Hobson , B.J. Askew and Joppru . At the 2003 NFL Scouting Combine , June ran the slowest 40 @-@ yard dash ( 4 @.@ 68 seconds ) of all the free safeties . June was one of six Wolverines drafted in the 2003 NFL Draft and the first Michigan safety drafted since Corwin Brown in the 1993 NFL Draft .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Indianapolis Colts = = =
On April 27 , June was selected by the Indianapolis Colts in the sixth round ( 25th pick ) of the 2003 NFL Draft with the expectation that he would play weak side linebacker . Colts coach Tony Dungy had had previous success converting college safeties into linebackers . Colts President Bill Polian made the decision to draft him and have him converted . June agreed to a three @-@ year contract on July 23 with the Colts just before the voluntary rookie camp in advance of the full training camp . During the 2003 NFL season , June was one of only two 2003 Colts draft choices not to make a significant contribution . He sat out the first five games and played mostly on special teams the rest of the season . Nonetheless , June , who wore # 59 for the Colts , was on the roster for the 2003 – 04 NFL playoffs .
After losing to the New England Patriots in the American Football Conference Championship Game and losing Marcus Washington who joined the Washington Redskins , the Colts shuffled their linebacker lineup and June was listed as a starter when the Colts arrived at mini @-@ camp . At the 2004 Colts training camp , June competed with Keyon Whiteside for the starting weakside linebacker position . By the end of training camp , June was the starter , and 2004 rookie Gilbert Gardner was the backup . June made his debut as a starter in the opening game against the 2004 Super Bowl champion New England Patriots . That season , the Colts used a 4 @-@ 3 defense with a fourth linebacker on passing downs . In week 5 , June had a team @-@ high ten tackles and his first interception in a 35 – 14 victory over the Oakland Raiders . In week 15 , June returned an interception 71 yards to the four @-@ yard @-@ line where he stepped out of bounds with 59 seconds remaining in the game at the RCA Dome , the Colts ' home stadium . This prompted the fans to chant for Peyton Manning to enter the game to attempt to tie Dan Marino 's single @-@ season touchdown pass record . Since the Colts led the game 20 – 10 and had clinched the AFC South division , Manning took a knee instead . Coach Dungy 's scheme is designed so that the weakside linebacker is supposed to make the most tackles , and June was the Colts ' leading tackler by a wide margin that season . June started every game that season .
June 's 2004 season had been described as average , and he was considered likely to lose his starting assignment in a battle with Gardner and Kendyll Pope in 2005 . Pope was suspended for the season for violating the league 's substance abuse policy . June beat Gardner for the starting position , although some speculate that he won the job due to Gardner 's injury at the end of training camp . June recorded an interception that he ran back for a touchdown in the first game of the season against the Baltimore Ravens on Sunday Night Football . On October 9 , he recorded two interceptions and ran back one for a touchdown to help Indianapolis reach a 5 – 0 record with a 28 – 3 victory over the San Francisco 49ers . The following week on Monday Night Football , June recorded two more interceptions , one of which changed the momentum of the game because quarterback Marc Bulger was injured trying to chase June . Both interceptions led to touchdowns as the Colts beat the St. Louis Rams 17 – 0 . After six games , June was the NFL leader in interceptions , but he was diagnosed with a sports hernia . June 's fast start prompted talk of him breaking the all @-@ time NFL linebacker single @-@ season interception record of eight and being the first linebacker to lead the league since 1959 . In a game that was considered a bad performance by the Colts despite its victorious result , June had a season @-@ high fourteen tackles to help the Colts raise their record to 9 – 0 in a 31 – 17 victory over the Houston Texans . June sat out the December 11 game against the Jacksonville Jaguars , which resulted in the Colts raising their record to 13 – 0 , clinching their third straight AFC South title , a first @-@ round bye and home @-@ field advantage throughout the playoffs . There was great speculation about whether June and other injured players would rest up for the 2005 – 06 NFL playoffs or whether the team would attempt to post the first perfect 16 – 0 regular season . June was able to play , but the Colts lost their next game on December 18 to fall to 13 – 1 . After being named to the 2006 Pro Bowl during the following week , June was listed as inactive for the 15th game of the season and did not travel with the team to Seattle . He also sat out the final game of the season . After the conclusion of the regular season , June was selected as a first time Pro Bowl starter at linebacker . In the opening round of the playoffs , the Colts forced a fumble by Jerome Bettis that was nearly run back for a winning touchdown in the final minute of play , but Ben Roethlisberger made a game @-@ saving tackle on Nick Harper for the Pittsburgh Steelers 's 21 – 18 victory . Gary Brackett forced the fumble , although at least one source credited June with the tackle . June also had an interception and four solo tackles in the loss . June was named second @-@ team All @-@ Pro at outside linebacker . Despite missing three games due to injury , June finished third on the team with 109 tackles and led the team with 5 interceptions .
June had two surgeries to repair his hernia in February 2006 . He would have become an unrestricted free agent on March 3 , 2006 , but the Colts made him a $ 1 @.@ 55 million tender offer on March 2 . On April 24 , June signed a $ 1 @.@ 57 million one @-@ year contract despite his interest in a long @-@ term deal . June was arrested on June 13 for failing to appear in court on a driving while suspended charge in Boone County , Indiana . The arrest was described as the result of a miscommunication . When the 2006 Colts started training camp , June 's health caused the team to limit him to one practice session per day . June was sidelined during the final preseason game . In week 5 of the season , June recorded 9 tackles as the Colts improved to 5 – 0 prior to their bye week , and he followed it up with 15 tackles as they moved to 6 – 0 . June forced a fumble in the seventh game , and he intercepted two Tom Brady passes as the team improved to 8 – 0 in a 27 – 20 road victory over the New England Patriots . June led the team with nine tackles as they moved to 9 – 0 . Although June accepted responsibility for missed tackles after the team fell to 10 – 3 , he was ranked fifth in the NFL in tackles made . June recorded an interception as the 12 – 4 Colts finished the regular season with a 27 – 22 victory over the Miami Dolphins , and he finished the season ranked seventh in the NFL and first on the team in tackles made . During the 2006 – 07 NFL playoffs , he helped the Colts win Super Bowl XLI . June started every game for the Colts during the season and the playoffs . When the free agent signing period began on March 2 , June and several unrestricted free agents were left unsigned .
= = = Tampa Bay Buccaneers = = =
June was considered to be a fast linebacker and a specialized talent with a better likelihood of success in a defensive scheme that was built around speed rather than size . On March 17 , 2007 he signed with the Tampa Bay Buccaneers , who used the defensive scheme designed by Dungy . The New York Giants and Colts were also interested in signing June . The contract was believed to be a three @-@ year , $ 12 million agreement , but some later reports claim it was a four @-@ year , $ 17 million contract .
In Tampa , June joined a defense that had been among the top 10 in the league for a decade until the 2006 Buccaneers faltered with a 4 – 12 record . In 2006 , they fell from 1st to 17th in team defense . When June arrived it was fairly clear that Derrick Brooks would not be changing from his weakside linebacker position and that June would be moving to strongside linebacker . When he became a Buccaneer , he stood out for his dedication and enthusiasm . For example , when the Colts had their Super Bowl ring ceremony , June flew to Indianapolis and back without missing any Buccaneers practice time . As strongside linebacker he beat out Ryan Nece as the 2007 Buccaneers starter , although he was considered the heir apparent to 13 @-@ year veteran and 10 @-@ time Pro Bowler Brooks at the weakside position . June again wore the # 59 as a Buccaneer . Because of his weakside linebacker and safety experience , June was expected to remain in the game during passing situations unlike most strongside linebackers . June also expected defenses to run at him because at 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) , 227 pounds ( 103 kg ) he was small for an NFL strongside linebacker and one of the smallest linebackers in the NFL .
June recorded an interception and touchdown return in the Buccaneers ' third preseason game against the Miami Dolphins . In his first game as a Buccaneer , he did not play on many passing downs , which caused something of a controversy in the press after the opening 20 – 6 loss to the Seattle Seahawks . In the second game , on some passing downs June played in place of Brooks , who had never sat on the sidelines previously . Brooks , whose speed may have been slowed by father time , avoided the media after the game , but June and other teammates defended him . The press was much more amenable to having June play more and claimed that the defense was back up to its prior level of excellence with the change . Over the course of the 2007 season June and Brooks divided time at linebacker during nickel defense coverage .
June made his first interception during his second game as a Buccaneer . It led to a touchdown scoring drive during a 31 – 14 victory against the New Orleans Saints . In his third game , June made a key tackle for a 3 @-@ yard loss , which resulted in a subsequent missed field goal by the St. Louis Rams . After the fourth week the Bucs were 3 – 1 with the NFL 's fifth @-@ rated defense and June was the team 's third @-@ leading tackler as they headed into a week five showdown against June 's previous team , the 4 – 0 Indianapolis Colts . The Colts gained 400 yards on June and the Buccaneers in a 33 – 14 defeat on October 7 . After the sixth week the Bucs were 4 – 2 and June was eighth in the NFL and second on his team in assists . After June had a team @-@ high nine tackles and a forced fumble to lead them to a 6 – 4 record with a 31 – 7 victory over the Atlanta Falcons , he was arrested for driving under the influence ( DUI ) in Hillsborough County , Florida , which had the most DUI cases of any county in Florida . June was one of several Bucs to be charged with DUI that season , and charges were eventually dropped . In the Atlanta game , which gave the Bucs an undefeated 3 – 0 division record , June was involved in a controversial fumble – lateral play , which NFL officials said the referees ruled incorrectly on . Subsequently , the Bucs raised their record to 9 – 5 and clinched the NFC South Division . June and other star players were rested for large parts of the final two games , which the Bucs lost . Nonetheless , June was still injured in the final game of the season , and he was listed as inactive for the Bucs ' 2007 – 08 NFL playoffs matchup with the New York Giants , which the team lost . June finished his first season with the Bucs with 69 tackles and one interception . June was part of a defense that finished the season ranked second in the league .
June had offseason foot surgery in February 2008 . During the opening game of the season , Brooks suffered a hamstring injury and removed himself from the game in the third quarter , which fueled speculation during the following week that he would miss the first start of his fourteen @-@ year career and that June would start on the weakside . Brooks , however , made his 194th @-@ consecutive start the following week . In a story not published until four weeks later , Minnesota Vikings running back Adrian Peterson claims that June attempted to injure him in a November 16 game . June made his first interception of the season and second as a Buccaneer on a Drew Brees pass that was tipped by Ronde Barber in the twelfth game of the season as Tampa earned its fourth consecutive victory to improve its record to 9 – 3 on November 30 against the New Orleans Saints . After the Buccaneers lost their final four games to miss the playoffs , the Buccaneers replaced Jon Gruden and Bruce Allen with Raheem Morris and Mark Dominik as head coach and general manager . The team subsequently released five veteran players in a move that was said to be unrelated to the salary cap . June was released by the Buccaneers on February 25 , 2009 along with Derrick Brooks , Ike Hilliard , Warrick Dunn and Joey Galloway . The transaction avoided a $ 2 million roster bonus for June .
= = = Houston Texans = = =
June was signed by the Houston Texans on April 4 , 2009 to a one @-@ year contract worth $ 1 @.@ 5 million . He was expected to compete with Xavier Adibi and Zac Diles for the weakside linebacker position . However , on August 20 , June broke his forearm during morning practice , had surgery to insert a plate that afternoon and was expected to miss 6 – 8 weeks . June had previously missed some training camp time due to a knee injury . On August 28 , June was placed on season @-@ ending injured reserve due to his injured forearm . He was released with an injury settlement on September 3 , making him a free agent .
= = = Chicago Bears = = =
June signed with the Chicago Bears on December 1 , 2009 June was signed as a replacement for Lance Briggs who had a knee injury . He played on special teams on December 6 , against the St. Louis Rams , but was inactive the following week against the Green Bay Packers . He was waived on December 14 and replaced on the 53 @-@ man roster by practice squad member James Marten when Briggs returned to good health .
= = = Omaha Nighthawks = = =
June was signed by the Omaha Nighthawks of the United Football League on September 8 , 2010 . In June 2011 , the Nighthawks dropped several players with NFL experience , including June .
= = = NFL stats = = =
Key
GP : games played
COMB : combined tackles
TOTAL : total tackles
AST : assisted tackles
SACK : sacks
FF : forced fumbles
FR : fumble recoveries
FR YDS : fumble return yards
INT : interceptions
IR YDS : interception return yards
AVG IR : average interception return
LNG : longest interception return
TD : interceptions returned for touchdown
PD : passes defensed
= = Coaching = =
Cato June served as the Anacostia defensive coordinator for the 2011 season and took over as head coach of a team that had gone 1 – 17 over the prior to season as head coach for the 2012 season . In three season at Anacostia , June compiled a 12 – 23 record before accepting a position as head coach at Charles Herbert Flowers High School in Prince George 's County for the 2015 season . In April 2016 , June became the running backs coach and running backs coach and assistant recruiting coordinator at Howard University for Howard Bison football .
In July 2014 , the Detroit Lions announced that June would join their staff as one of four Bill Walsh Minority Fellowship Interns , but June coached Anacostia to a 4 – 8 record in 2014 .
= = Personal = =
The name Cato is of Nigerian origin and goes back for generations in his family . His great , great grandfather , Cato , was a runaway slave and the name had been passed along through eight previous generations . According to one source the name means " wise and cautious " .
June 's mother , Marjani , is a minister who spent nine months helping in New Orleans , Louisiana in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina . She disapproves of June 's tattoos . One of his tattoos reads " Big Time " for his high school and college nickname . He got his first tattoo of his college number 2 after he turned 18 while playing for Michigan .
75 @-@ year @-@ old Will June , his grandfather , became the oldest player to bowl consecutive perfect games on August 31 , 2010 .
In college , June and Hobson were roommates . They were known for having sessions of Madden NFL 2003 for PlayStation 2 in an apartment known as " The Stadium " , where competition among football team members often occurred . At Tampa , he had two @-@ time defending Madden Bowl champion Alex Smith as a teammate and June , who is known as a vocal player , voiced an interest in playing him . As a professional , June became an avid fantasy football owner , and he eventually started playing in a league only for NFL players . He was the champion of the 2008 NFL Players league . June enjoys workouts that consist of boxing .
During the 2005 season , June and Gary Brackett visited the three most successful Marion County , Indiana Vectren C5 food drive elementary schools . As part of a United Service Organizations event for Veterans Day 2008 , June , Smith , Phillip Buchanon , and Aqib Talib played video games with United States military personnel . During Super Bowl XLIII week in Tampa , June hosted a celebrity benefit for the June Family Foundation , which offers career insights to disadvantaged youths .
= Frederick Birks =
Frederick Birks , VC , MM ( 16 August 1894 – 21 September 1917 ) was a Welsh @-@ born Australian First World War soldier and recipient of the Victoria Cross , the highest decoration for gallantry " in the face of the enemy " that can be awarded to members of the British and Commonwealth forces . Born in Buckley , Flintshire , Birks served in the Royal Artillery for three years before emigrating to Australia in 1913 . After serving as a non @-@ commissioned officer during the landing at Gallipoli and the Battle of the Somme , Birks was commissioned as a second lieutenant on 4 May 1917 . On 20 September , while advancing in Glencorse Wood , Ypres , Birks , alongside a corporal , forced a garrison to surrender and captured sixteen men in another attack . His actions were later recognised with the Victoria Cross . The following day , Birks was killed by a shell while attempting to save some of his men .
= = Early life = =
Birks was born in Buckley , Flintshire , Wales , on 16 August 1894 to Samuel Birks , a groom , and his wife Mary , née Williams . The family lived at Garden Cottage , Lane End . The youngest of six siblings , Birks was five years old when his father died in a coal @-@ mining accident . He attended the local Anglican school ( St. Matthews ) in Buckley and was awarded a medal there for 11 years " without ever being absent or late " . He was known to be adventurous , being active in boxing and association football as well as the local Church Lads ' Brigade . Birks left school at fourteen , before entering the workforce as a labourer and steel rollerman in nearby Shotton . During 1910 , Birks is thought to have enlisted in the Royal Artillery , staying in the service for three years . On 29 August 1913 , Birks migrated to Australia with two friends Emrys Edward Jones and William Gray ( both from Buckley ) . They sailed from London on the SS Otway disembarking in Melbourne . He went on to work in Tasmania where he stayed with a Herbert Jones ( a friend of his brother ) , South Australia and Victoria as a labourer and later , a waiter . In late March 1914 , at the age of nineteen he started a relationship with sixteen @-@ year @-@ old Susan Gelven who lived in Largs Bay . Susan kept in contact with Birks throughout his service , although she apparently lost contact with him for some time in mid @-@ 1917 . He is known to have lived in Norwood , a suburb of Adelaide where he lodged with a Mrs E. Cornelius , and in Hobart .
= = First World War = =
Birks enlisted into the Australian Imperial Force on 18 August 1914 , a few weeks after the war started . He trained at a camp in Broadmedows , and was assigned to the 2nd Field Ambulance of the Royal Australian Army Medical Corps . The 2nd Field Ambulance boarded the HMAT A18 Wiltshire in Melbourne on 19 October 1914 , and set sail for Egypt . After stopping in Albany , the unit arrived in Egypt on 10 December .
= = = Gallipoli Campaign = = =
Birks ' unit was incorporated into the Mediterranean Expeditionary Force and was sent into action at the landing at Anzac Cove , providing medical support for the 2nd Infantry Brigade . The 2nd Brigade were also sent to Cape Helles , where they assisted in the attack on Krithia . During the battle , Birks was carrying wounded under heavy shell and rifle fire , in areas where stretchers were unable to reach . His " devotion to duty and good work " earned him his first Military Medal recommendation . On 26 June 1915 , Birks was wounded by shrapnel but returned to service the next day , remaining on Gallipoli until 9 September .
= = = France = = =
Birks unit was sent to Marseilles , France , as a part of the British Expeditionary Force . He was promoted to lance corporal on 21 April 1916 , and served as a stretcher bearer during the Battle of the Somme . On 26 July , Birks was engaged in duties at Pozières , as the Australian and British forces fought for supremacy of the village . Throughout the day , Birks " continually led his squad of stretcher bearers " through the village and Pozières Wood to the frontline , all the while being " exposed to heavy shell fire " . Commended for his " constant good services " , Birks was recommended for the Military Medal . The announcement of the decoration was promulgated in a supplement to the London Gazette on 14 November 1916 , and he was later presented with his Military Medal by Lieutenant General Sir William Birdwood .
Birks was promoted as a temporary wagon orderly corporal on 5 August 1916 , and the rank was made substantive five days later . After his unit moved away from the front line , Birks had an opportunity to return to Buckley . There , he visited his old school and gave them a Turkish flag that he has attained while in Gallipoli . Following his return to France , Birks was hospitalised for five days with pyrexia . He rejoined his unit on 14 February 1917 .
= = = Commissioning = = =
Birks took classes at the Australian 1st Division school in France , and was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the 6th Battalion on 4 May 1917 . He had served with the battalion earlier while a stretcher bearer , and began serving as an infantryman at Passchendaele . Passchendaele was characterised by the mud of the battlefield , and has been widely used as an example of attrition warfare — both the Commonwealth and German forces were suffering heavy casualties . When the Fifth Army was failing to make any appreciable headway , Field Marshal Sir Douglas Haig put General Herbert Plumer in command of the offensive .
= = = Victoria Cross = = =
Birks ' battalion were ordered to attack and capture the German line parallel to them , and the men moved towards their positions from Zillebeke on the night of 18 September , coming under some fire from gas shells . 19 September was incident @-@ free , with the battalion preparing to attack the next day , in what would become known as the Battle of Menin Road . Early in the morning of the 20th , a " light drizzle " fell over the battlefield and at 4am the Germans sent barrages in front of and behind the battalion 's position . At 5 : 40am , the battalion advanced .
The first resistance was met by Birks and a corporal , taking two machine @-@ gun positions as another group of officers rushed a strong post . They were attacked with bombs , and the corporal was seriously wounded . Birks continued on alone . Reaching the rear of the pillbox , he forced the occupants to surrender . Birks then led an attack a series of dugouts and pillboxes on the edge of Glencorse Wood , and fought against machine gun and bombs . He also assisted in the reorganisation and consolidation of Australian men who had drifted away from their unit .
The next day , 21 September , enemy shelling in response to the movement of Allied artillery had buried some men in Birks ' platoon . Birks attempted to dig out these men , " standing exposed " , but another shell aimed at the C Coy post killed Birks , and four others , before he could save them .
= = Legacy = =
For his actions at Ypres , Birks was subsequently awarded the Victoria Cross , the announcement of which was gazetted on 8 November 1917 . His citation read :
War Office , 8th November , 1917
His Majesty The KING has been graciously pleased to approve of the award of the Victoria Cross to the undermentioned Offices , Non @-@ commissioned Officers and Man : —
2nd Lt. Frederick Birks , Late Aust . Imp . Force .
For most conspicuous bravery in attack when accompanied by only a corporal , he rushed a strong point which was holding up the advance . The corporal was wounded by a bomb , but 2nd Lt. Birks went on by himself killed the remainder of the enemy occupying the position , and captured a machine gun .
Shortly afterwards he organised a small party and attacked another strong point which was occupied by about twenty @-@ five of the enemy , of whom many were killed and an officer and fifteen men captured .
During the consolidation this officer did magnificent work in reorganising parties of other units which had been disorganised during the operations .
By his wonderful coolness and personal bravery 2nd Lt. Birks kept his men in splendid spirits throughout . He was killed at his post by a shell whilst endeavouring to extricate some of his men who had been buried by a shell .
Birks ' grave is in the Perth Cemetery ( China Wall ) near Ypres . A memorial was constructed at his old school in Wales in 1921 , funded largely by contributions from local people . When the school was demolished the Memorial was moved to outside St. Matthews Church where it stands now . On Remembrance Sunday the local branch of the British Legion continues to place a wreath of poppies on the Memorial . A portrait of Fred is on display at the Australian War Memorial in Canberra , alongside his Victoria Cross . He is also remembered in the Museum in Ypres , Belgium ( Cloth Hall ) . His service during the war earned him the 1914 – 15 Star , British War Medal and Victory Medal .
= SMS Erzherzog Karl =
SMS Erzherzog Karl ( German : " His Majesty 's ship Archduke Karl " ) was a pre @-@ dreadnought battleship built by the Austro @-@ Hungarian navy in 1902 . The lead ship of the Erzherzog Karl class , she was launched on 3 October 1903 . They were assigned to the III Battleship Division .
For most of World War I , Erzherzog Karl remained in her home port of Pula , in present @-@ day Croatia , except for four engagements . In 1914 , she formed part of the Austro @-@ Hungarian flotilla sent to protect the escape of the German ships SMS Goeben and SMS Breslau from the British @-@ held Mediterranean ; she advanced as far as Brindisi before being recalled to her home port . Her sole combat engagement occurred in late May 1915 , when she participated in the bombardment of the Italian port city of Ancona . She also took part in suppressing a major mutiny among the crew members of several armored cruisers stationed in Cattaro between 1 – 3 February 1918 . She also attempted to break through the Otranto Barrage in June of that year , but had to retreat when the dreadnought SMS Szent István was sunk . After the war , Erzherzog Karl was awarded to the French as a war prize , but ran aground at Bizerte . She was scrapped in Italy in 1921 .
= = Design = =
Erzherzog Karl displaced 10 @,@ 472 long tons ( 10 @,@ 640 t ) . She was 414 feet 2 inches ( 126 @.@ 2 m ) long , had a beam of 71 feet 5 inches ( 21 @.@ 8 m ) and a draft of 24 feet 7 inches ( 7 @.@ 5 m ) . She was manned by 700 men . She and her sisters were the last and largest pre @-@ dreadnought class built by the Austro Hungarian Navy , surpassing the Habsburg class by approximately 2 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 968 long tons ) . The ships were propelled by two two @-@ shaft , four cylinder vertical triple expansion steam engines . On trials , they developed 18 @,@ 000 ihp ( 13 @,@ 423 kW ) , which propelled the ship at a speed of 20 @.@ 5 knots ( 38 @.@ 0 km / h ; 23 @.@ 6 mph ) . On trials , Erzherzog Karl 's engines managed to produce a knot more speed than was originally planned .
Erzherzog Karl carried a primary armament of four 24 @-@ centimeter ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) / 40 caliber guns in two twin turrets on the centerline . These guns were an Austro @-@ Hungarian replica of the British 24 cm / 40 ( 9 @.@ 4 " ) Krupp C / 94 , which was used on the Habsburgs . Her secondary armament consisted of twelve 19 @-@ centimeter ( 7 @.@ 5 in ) / 42 caliber guns , also made by Škoda , mounted in eight single casemates on either wing of the ship and two single midships turrets on the either wing of the ship . They could fire a 97 kilograms ( 214 lb ) armor @-@ piercing shell 20 @,@ 000 metres ( 22 @,@ 000 yd ) at maximum elevation with a muzzle velocity of 800 metres per second ( 2 @,@ 600 ft / s ) . The gun weighed 12 @.@ 1 tons and could fire three rounds per minute . The ships had a tertiary armament for protection against torpedo boats in the form of the 6 @.@ 6 centimetres ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) / 45 caliber gun , also manufactured by Škoda . Anti @-@ aircraft and airship protection was covered by the four 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) Vickers anti @-@ aircraft guns on the ship bought from Britain in 1910 and mounted onto Erzherzog Karl . Erzherzog Karl was also fitted with two above water 45 @-@ centimeter ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes , although they were rarely used .
= = Service history = =
At the outbreak of World War I , Erzherzog Karl was in the III division of the Austrian @-@ Hungarian battle @-@ fleet . She was mobilized on the eve of the war along with the remainder of the fleet to support the flight of SMS Goeben and SMS Breslau . The two German ships were attempting to break out of Messina , which was surrounded by British troops , and make their way to Turkey . The breakout succeeded . When the flotilla had advanced as far south as Brindisi in south eastern Italy , the Austro @-@ Hungarian ships were recalled . In company with other units of the Austro @-@ Hungarian navy , Erzherzog Karl took part in the bombardment of Ancona on 24 May 1915 . There she and her sisters expended 24 rounds of 240 mm armor @-@ piercing shells at signal and semaphore stations as well as 74 rounds of 190 mm shells aimed at Italian gun @-@ batteries and other port installations .
A major mutiny among crews of the armored cruisers stationed in Cattaro , including Sankt Georg and Kaiser Karl VI , began on 1 February 1918 . Two days later , the three Erzherzog Karl @-@ class ships arrived in the port and assisted with the suppression of the mutiny . Following the restoration of order in the naval base , the armored cruisers Sankt Georg and Kaiser Karl VI were decommissioned and Erzherzog Karl and her sisters were stationed in Cattaro in their place . For the morning of 11 June , Admiral Miklos Horthy planned a major assault on the Otranto Barrage ; the three Erzherzog Karls and the four Tegetthoff @-@ class battleships were to provide support for the Novara @-@ class cruisers . The plan was intended to replicate the success of the raid conducted one @-@ year earlier . Horthy 's plan was to destroy the blockading fleet by luring Allied ships to the cruisers and lighter ships , which were protected from the heavier guns of the battleships , including the guns of the Erzherzog Karl class . However , on the morning of 10 June , the dreadnought Szent István was torpedoed and sunk by an Italian torpedo boat . Horthy felt that the element of surprise had been compromised , and therefore called off the operation . This was to be the last military action the Erzherzog Karl @-@ class ships were to take part in and they spent the rest of their career at port in Pula .
Following the end of World War I in November 1918 , Erzherzog Karl was first taken over by Yugoslavia in 1919 , but was then ceded as a war reparation to France . Erzherzog Karl ran aground at Bizerte on her voyage to Toulon and was eventually broken up in situ .
= Jarome Iginla =
Jarome Arthur @-@ Leigh Adekunle Tig Junior Elvis Iginla ( / dʒəˈroʊm ᵻˈɡɪnlə / ; born July 1 , 1977 ) is a Canadian professional ice hockey player and an alternate captain for the Colorado Avalanche in the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . He was a longtime member and former captain of the Calgary Flames and also played for the Pittsburgh Penguins and Boston Bruins before joining the Avalanche in 2014 .
As a junior , Iginla was a member of two Memorial Cup winning teams with the Kamloops Blazers and was named the Western Hockey League ( WHL ) ' s Player of the Year in 1996 . He was selected 11th overall by the Dallas Stars in the 1995 NHL Entry Draft , but was traded to Calgary prior to making his NHL debut . He led the NHL in goals and points in 2001 – 02 , and won the Lester B. Pearson Award as its most valuable player as voted by the players . In 2003 – 04 , Iginla led the league in goals for the second time and captained the Flames to the Stanley Cup Finals , leading the playoffs in goals .
A six @-@ time NHL All @-@ Star , he is the Flames ' all @-@ time leader in goals , points , and games played , and is second in assists to Al MacInnis . Iginla scored 50 goals in a season on two occasions and is one of seven players in NHL history to score 30 goals in 11 consecutive seasons . He is one of 19 players in NHL history to score over 600 goals and has recorded over 1 @,@ 200 points in his career . He is a past winner of the Mark Messier Leadership Award and has been recognized by both the Flames and the league for his community work ; while a member of the Flames , Iginla donated $ 2 @,@ 000 to the children 's charity Kidsport for every goal he scores .
Internationally , Iginla has represented Canada on numerous occasions . He was a member of championship teams at the 1996 World Junior and 1997 World Championships as well as the 2004 World Cup of Hockey . He is a three @-@ time Olympian and two @-@ time gold medal winner , including at the 2002 Winter Olympics where he helped lead Canada to its first Olympic hockey championship in 50 years .
= = Early life = =
Iginla was born in Edmonton , Alberta , and raised in nearby St. Albert . His father , a lawyer , was originally from Nigeria and changed his first name from Adekunle to Elvis when he arrived in Canada . His surname means " Big tree " in Yoruba , his father 's native language . Iginla 's mother , Susan , is originally from Oregon , and has worked as a massage therapist and music teacher . Iginla grew up with his mother and grandparents after his parents divorced when he was a year old . While his mother is a Buddhist , he identifies himself as Christian , his father 's faith .
In addition to hockey , Iginla played baseball as a young man and was the catcher on the Canadian national junior team . He credits his grandfather for his hockey career , as with his mother working and father attending law school , he would not have had the opportunity to play sports at a high level if not for his grandfather 's support . Iginla grew up admiring other black hockey players , including Edmonton Oilers goaltender Grant Fuhr . Emulating Fuhr , Iginla played goaltender in his first two years of organized hockey before switching to the right wing . He played his entire minor hockey career in St. Albert , leading the Alberta Midget Hockey League in scoring as a 15 @-@ year @-@ old with 87 points for the St. Albert Midget Raiders in 1992 – 93 .
= = Junior career = =
Iginla played three years with the Kamloops Blazers of the Western Hockey League ( WHL ) . As a 16 @-@ year @-@ old in 1993 – 94 , he recorded six goals and 29 points in 48 regular season games before playing an additional 19 in the playoffs . The Blazers captured both the league title and the 1994 Memorial Cup , Canada 's national junior championship . In reference to the Blazers ' dominance of the league at the time ( they had won their third WHL title in five seasons ) , Iginla described the expectations of success as being similar to those placed on the Montreal Canadiens , the NHL 's most successful franchise : " When you put on a Blazers jersey , it 's like putting on the Canadiens ' . You 've got to perform . "
Iginla scored 33 goals and 71 points in 1994 – 95 , his first full WHL season . The Blazers repeated as league champions , earning a trip to the 1995 Memorial Cup . Iginla scored five goals in the tournament to lead the Blazers to a second consecutive national championship . He received the George Parsons Trophy as the most sportsmanlike player of the tournament .
The Dallas Stars selected Iginla with their first pick , 11th overall , in the 1995 NHL Entry Draft ; however , on December 20 , 1995 , they traded him to the Calgary Flames , along with Corey Millen , for the rights to forward Joe Nieuwendyk , then in a contract dispute with the Flames .
In his final season in Kamloops in 1995 – 96 , Iginla finished fourth in league scoring with 136 points , including 63 goals in 63 games played , and was awarded the Four Broncos Memorial Trophy as the league 's most outstanding player . The Blazers were upset in the Western Conference Final by the Spokane Chiefs , but Iginla still finished fourth in playoff scoring , recording 29 points in 16 games . His performance during the season earned him an invitation to play for Team Canada at the 1996 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships in Boston , where he led the tournament in scoring with 12 points and helped Canada to its fourth consecutive gold medal .
= = NHL career = =
Iginla made his NHL debut in the 1996 Stanley Cup playoffs , as he was signed to a contract and flown to Calgary immediately after his junior season ended in Kamloops . He appeared in two games for the Flames in their series against the Chicago Blackhawks . In doing so , he became the first 18 @-@ year @-@ old to play for the Flames since Dan Quinn in 1983 . In his first NHL game , Iginla assisted on a Theoren Fleury goal to record his first point ; he scored his first goal in his second game . He remained with the Flames , and played his first NHL season in 1996 – 97 . He earned a spot on that year 's NHL All @-@ Rookie Team and finished as the runner @-@ up to Bryan Berard in voting for the Calder Memorial Trophy as rookie of the year after leading all first @-@ year players in scoring with 50 points .
By his third season , 1998 – 99 , Iginla led the Flames in goals with 28 . His success complicated negotiations for a new contract , as he and the Flames struggled to agree on a new deal following the season . Hoping to help resolve the contract impasse , Iginla agreed to attend training camp without a contract and purchased his own insurance as the team would not have been responsible financially if he suffered an injury . He remained without a contract at the start of the 1999 – 2000 season and missed the first three games as a holdout before signing a three @-@ year deal worth US $ 4 @.@ 9 million , plus bonuses . He finished the year with career highs in goals ( 29 ) and points ( 63 ) . He then topped both marks in 2000 – 01 by recording 31 goals and 71 points .
After participating in Canada 's Olympic summer camp before the season , Iginla again set new personal highs in 2001 – 02 when he registered 52 goals and 96 points . This season elevated Iginla to superstar status . He earned the Art Ross and Maurice Richard trophies as the NHL 's leading point and goal scorer , respectively . He was also awarded the Lester B. Pearson Award as the league 's most valuable player as voted by his peers , and was a nominee for both the Hart Memorial Trophy and the King Clancy Memorial Trophy . The Hart Trophy voting proved to be controversial : Iginla tied Canadiens goaltender José Théodore in voting points , but received fewer first place votes than Théodore . However , one voter , rumoured to be from Quebec — Théodore and the Canadiens ' home province — inexplicably left Iginla off his ballot . As a result of the controversy that followed , the Professional Hockey Writers Association changed the rules on how its members voted for the award to prevent a recurrence .
There were fears Iginla would again hold out after his contract expired following the season . They were unfounded , however , as he signed a two @-@ year , $ 13 million deal before the season and was looked on to again lead the Flames offensively . Iginla fell back to 67 points in 2002 – 03 as injuries , including a lingering finger dislocation following a fight , diminished his play . His 35 goals were still enough to lead the Flames for the fourth time in five seasons . Despite his offensive contributions , the Flames missed the playoffs .
= = = Flames captaincy = = =
At the start of the 2003 – 04 season , Iginla was named the 18th captain in Flames franchise history , and 14th since the team moved to Calgary from Atlanta in 1980 . His predecessor as captain , Craig Conroy , cited Iginla 's experience and leadership for his decision to relinquish the captaincy . " He was a leader on that team and old enough to where he 'd been there a long time . It was time for him . He took us to the Stanley Cup Final that year so it worked out pretty well . " Iginla was reported to be the first black captain in NHL history , though former Blackhawks captain Dirk Graham , who is of African descent , has also been said to hold that honour .
Iginla responded to being named captain by capturing his second Rocket Richard Trophy , sharing the goal @-@ scoring title with Ilya Kovalchuk and Rick Nash with 41 goals . The Flames qualified for the 2004 Stanley Cup playoffs as the sixth seed , the team 's first playoff appearance in eight years . Iginla led all playoff scorers with 13 goals as he captained the Flames to their first Stanley Cup finals appearance in 15 years . The Flames were unable to defeat the Tampa Bay Lightning , however , falling to the Eastern Conference champions in seven games . A dejected Iginla sat in the Flames locker room after the final game and was met by his father , who told his son that " I 'm proud of you . All of Canada is proud of you . "
While he was hailed as the best player in the world following his performance in the playoffs , Iginla spent the 2004 – 05 NHL lockout focused on improving his game further . Following the lockout , he was named as one of six player representatives on the newly created NHL competition committee , with a mandate to suggest recommendations for ways to improve the game . He held this position until early 2008 .
On December 7 , 2006 , Iginla reached career milestones when he scored his 300th career goal and 600th career point against the Minnesota Wild . He was expected to play in the 2007 NHL All @-@ Star Game in Dallas ; however , he missed the game with a knee injury . The injury kept him out of 12 games in 2006 – 07 . He nevertheless scored 94 points , including a career @-@ high 55 assists .
The 2007 – 08 season saw Iginla post his second career 50 goal season , adding 48 assists for a career high 98 points , good for third overall in the league . He was voted to the starting line @-@ up of the 2008 NHL All @-@ Star Game along with teammate Dion Phaneuf , and was named captain of the Western All @-@ Star Team . He broke the Flames ' franchise record for games played when he played his 804th career game on November 29 , 2007 , against the Anaheim Ducks . He also broke Theoren Fleury 's franchise record for goals when he scored his 365th on March 10 , 2008 , against the St. Louis Blues . Iginla was nominated as a Hart Trophy finalist for league most valuable player for the third time , though he again did not win the award . During the season , he signed a five @-@ year contract extension with the Flames at $ 7 million per season .
Iginla continued his pursuit of Fleury 's franchise record of 830 points in 2008 – 09 . He recorded his 800th point with a first period assist against the Chicago Blackhawks on December 19 , 2008 . He ended 2008 with a career high five points in a New Year 's Eve game against the Edmonton Oilers . He had 14 previous four point games . In January , he was named to the 2009 NHL All @-@ Star Game in Montreal , his fifth such selection . Representing the Western Conference , Iginla scored his first career NHL All @-@ Star Game goal in a 12 – 11 shootout loss . He passed Fleury as the Flames ' all @-@ time scoring leader on March 1 , 2009 , by recording five points , including his 400th career goal , in an 8 – 6 loss to the Lightning . He finished the season with 35 goals and 89 points , but a disappointing playoff performance led to questions of whether he had been playing with an injury . Iginla quickly denied the rumour , admitted that he had not played with the level of consistency he expected and stated that he would spend the summer focused on improving his play in 2009 – 10 .
= = = Milestones = = =
The Flames struggled in 2009 – 10 , failing to qualify for the playoffs for the first time since 2003 . Iginla accepted responsibility for the team 's failure , admitting that finishing around 70 points for the season was " not enough " . The Flames ' declining fortunes and Iginla 's season led to increasing questions on whether he could be traded from the team he has played his entire NHL career with . Iginla , who would have to approve any trade the team attempts to make due to a no @-@ movement clause in his contract , expressed that he did not wish to leave Calgary , but would accommodate a trade if the Flames wished to do so . Former Flames ' general manager Craig Button argued against trading Iginla , blaming a lack of complementary players for both Iginla and Calgary 's failures : " There 's nothing easier in hockey than to be able to shut down one player . And the Calgary Flames , I would argue , have made it really easy for teams to shut down Jarome . " The Flames publicly stated that they had no plans to trade him .
Individually , Iginla reached 900 career points in a two @-@ goal , two @-@ assist effort against the Oilers on January 30 , 2010 . Six nights later , he played his 1,000th career game against the Florida Panthers . Iginla struggled offensively to begin the 2010 – 11 season , and with the Flames falling to the bottom of the standings , there was renewed speculation over his future in Calgary . Team management repeatedly reiterated that they were not interested in moving him to another team . Improving his game as the season wore on , Iginla reached another personal milestone , recording his 500th career assist on January 11 , 2011 , the same day he was named to play in his sixth All @-@ Star Game . He announced several days later that he had declined to play in the All @-@ Star Game as he wished to spend the time with his ailing grandmother .
Iginla scored his 30th goal of the season on a penalty shot against the Nashville Predators on March 6 , 2011 , and in doing so became the 10th player in NHL history to score at least 30 goals in ten consecutive seasons . A month later , he scored his 1,000th career point , notching the game @-@ winning goal against the St. Louis Blues in a 3 – 2 win on April 1 , 2011 .
Iginla scored his 500th goal on January 7 , 2012 , against Niklas Bäckström of the Minnesota Wild in a 3 – 1 victory . He was the 42nd player in league history to achieve the feat , and the 15th to do so with one organization . Midway through the 2011 – 12 season , Iginla was named an All @-@ Star for the seventh time in his career ( the sixth played ) , representing the Flames at the 2012 All @-@ Star Game .
Iginla scored his 30th goal of the 2011 – 12 season in a 3 – 2 win against goaltender Antti Niemi of the San Jose Sharks on March 13 , 2012 . He is the seventh player in league history to score 30 goals in 11 consecutive seasons .
= = = Pittsburgh and Boston = = =
Playing the final year of his contract in 2012 – 13 and with the team languishing near the bottom of the NHL standings , speculation about Iginla 's future in Calgary was again raised as the April 3 , 2013 , trade deadline neared . National media outlets reported that Iginla , who had a clause in his contract preventing the Flames from moving him to another team without his permission , had given the organization a list of four teams he would be willing to accept a trade with : the Chicago Blackhawks , Los Angeles Kings , Boston Bruins or Pittsburgh Penguins . The Bruins were considered the leading contender to acquire Iginla 's services , and after he was held out of the lineup of Calgary 's March 27 , 2013 , game against the Colorado Avalanche , it was reported that a trade between the two teams had been completed . Instead , Iginla 's 16 @-@ year career in Calgary ended when he was sent to the Penguins in exchange for Pittsburgh 's first round selection at the 2013 NHL Entry Draft and college prospects Kenny Agostino and Ben Hanowski . Iginla stated that playing with Sidney Crosby and Evgeni Malkin played a factor in his decision to move to the Penguins . The Bruins and Penguins met in the 2013 Eastern Conference Finals . Despite having the top scoring offense in the league , the Penguins lost the series without winning a game . Iginla , along with Crosby , Malkin , James Neal and Kris Letang , registered a combined 0 points in the series . Iginla was moved to the third line after a 6 – 1 Game 2 loss . Bruins forward Milan Lucic said after the series that Iginla 's spurning of Boston ignited the series sweep : " When a guy chooses another team over your team , it does light a little bit of a fire underneath you . "
As a free agent following the season , Iginla chose to go to Boston and signed a one @-@ year , $ 6 million contract with the Bruins . He required nine games before scoring his first goal as a Bruin , as part of a 2 – 1 win over the San Jose Sharks , but later settled in on Boston 's first line with Milan Lucic and David Krejčí . He made his first return to Calgary on December 10 , 2013 , where the fans greeted him with a long standing ovation prior to the game as the Flames played a video tribute . Following the contest , a 2 – 1 Bruins victory , Iginla was named the game 's third star and took two laps around the rink to more cheers from the crowd . He recorded his 600th career assist in a 3 – 1 victory over the Vancouver Canucks on February 4 , 2014 .
= = = Colorado Avalanche = = =
Salary cap constraints prevented the Bruins from re @-@ signing Iginla . Consequently , he left the team as a free agent and signed a three @-@ year , $ 16 million contract with the Colorado Avalanche . The Avalanche disappointed in 2014 – 15 ; by mid @-@ February , they stood in last place in the Central Division , though Iginla himself was among the team 's leading scorers . He led the team with 29 goals , however the Avalanche failed to qualify for the playoffs . On January 4 , 2016 , Iginla became the 19th player in NHL history to score 600 career goals . His milestone marker came in a 4 – 1 victory over the Los Angeles Kings .
= = International play = =
Iginla first represented Canada at the 1994 Nations Cup , an unsanctioned tournament for players under the age of 18 . He led Canada in scoring with five goals and nine points as it won the gold medal . Two years later , he joined the national junior team at the 1996 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships . He led the tournament in scoring with five goals and 12 points as Canada won its fourth consecutive gold medal . He was named an all @-@ star and the tournament 's top forward . One year later , Iginla played in his first tournament with the senior team , competing at the 1997 World Championships as a 19 @-@ year @-@ old , the youngest player on the team . He recorded two goals and three assists in 11 games as Canada won the gold medal .
A late invitation to join Team Canada 's summer camp in preparation for the 2002 Winter Olympics helped Iginla emerge as a star player . He was so surprised by the invite he initially thought one of his Calgary Flames teammates was playing a prank on him . He scored two goals in the gold medal game , a 5 – 2 victory over the United States , as Canada won its first Olympic gold medal in 50 years . With this win , Iginla became the first black man to win a gold medal at the Winter Olympics . Iginla also represented Canada at the 2004 World Cup of Hockey as an alternate captain , playing on a line with Joe Sakic and Mario Lemieux . Canada won the gold medal .
Iginla participated in his second Olympics and was an alternate captain at the 2006 Turin games , recording three points in six games . The Canadians were unable to defend their 2002 gold medal , losing to Russia in the quarter @-@ finals . Named an alternate captain once again for the 2010 team in Vancouver , he opened the tournament with a hat trick against Norway . He finished as the tournament leader with five goals , and assisted on Sidney Crosby 's overtime winning goal in the gold medal final against the United States .
= = Playing style = =
In his prime , Iginla was considered to be one of the NHL 's most prominent power forwards . Upon entering the league , he tried to emulate players like Brendan Shanahan and Keith Tkachuk , hoping to match their combination of finesse and physicality . He is one of the most consistent scorers in the league ; between 1998 and 2008 , only Jaromír Jágr scored more NHL goals than Iginla . Even so , scouting reports have argued that Iginla 's lack of speed makes it easier for opponents to isolate him and restrict his ability to move if his teammates rely on him too much to lead the offence .
The abuse he faced at the hands of opponents early in his NHL career prompted Iginla 's coaches to work at developing his physical play . While he was not enthusiastic about fighting , Iginla accepted then head coach Brian Sutter 's arguments that he needed to adopt a more aggressive style to improve as a player . Iginla is most effective when he has room to manoeuvre , and to create that space , he had to intimidate his opponents . The lessons Iginla learned have carried throughout his career . " You 've got a power forward who does it all , " said Craig Conroy . " I mean , he 'll fight , and hit , and score goals . Maybe it 's not the end @-@ to @-@ end rushes , but he does all those little things that win games and get things done . " His opponents also respect his play . Rob Blake said that while Iginla is not known for fancy play , " he 'll run you over . Or he 'll fight somebody . And then he 'll score a goal . He does pretty much everything you 'd want a guy to do . "
Iginla has recorded several Gordie Howe hat tricks – a fight , a goal and an assist in the same game – and as it is not an official statistic , The Hockey News estimated that as of 2012 , he was the active leader with nine . His fights , including one with Tampa Bay Lightning star Vincent Lecavalier in the 2004 Stanley Cup Finals , have had a motivating effect on his play and that of his teammates . Iginla has suffered injuries as a result of his fighting , including a broken hand from a 2003 fight with Bill Guerin of the Dallas Stars . His physical style of play also leads to a greater risk of persistent injuries and penalties .
He commands the respect of his peers , and has been known to stand up to the coaching staff to defend a fellow player . Former teammate and present Edmonton Oilers captain Andrew Ference — a former Bruins player himself , before Iginla 's arrival on the Boston team 's roster — once described following Iginla as like " following a friend . " Preferring to lead by example , Iginla is not regarded as a vocal captain . He likes to speak with players individually , and tries to ensure that all of his teammates are comfortable . He was named the recipient of the Mark Messier Leadership Award in 2009 .
= = Personal life = =
Iginla married his high school sweetheart , Kara , and the couple has three children : daughter Jade and sons Tij and Joe . They had been dating since they were in the eighth grade . He has two half @-@ brothers , Jason and Stephen , and two half @-@ sisters , Theresa and Elizabeth . Theresa played for the University of Saskatchewan Huskies women 's hockey team for two seasons from 2003 to 2005 . Jarome is an avid golfer and a regular participant in the Calgary Flames Celebrity Charity Golf Classic .
Iginla is well known for his kind @-@ hearted nature . Former Flames General manager Craig Button described Iginla as being grounded : " He doesn 't carry himself with any attitude or arrogance . He 's confident in his abilities . He 's self @-@ assured . He 's genuine . He 's a better person than he is a player , and we all know what kind of player he is . " In 2002 , while in Salt Lake City for the Winter Olympic Games , Iginla struck up a conversation with four Calgarians sitting next to his table , and found out they were sleeping in their car outside of the hotel . He excused himself from the conversation , and booked them accommodations at his own expense at the hotel his family was staying in .
Since 2002 , he has operated the Jarome Iginla Hockey School in Calgary as a non @-@ profit organization , donating proceeds to the Diabetes Research Association . In 2004 , he was awarded the NHL Foundation Player Award for his community service and the King Clancy Memorial Trophy in recognition of his humanitarian contributions . Iginla supports many charities . In 2000 , he began donating $ 1 @,@ 000 per goal he scored to KidSport , a figure he doubled to $ 2 @,@ 000 in 2005 . Between 2000 and 2013 , he donated more than $ 700 @,@ 000 from this initiative .
Iginla is a part owner of the Kamloops Blazers of the Western Hockey League , for whom he played during his junior hockey days . He purchased a minority share in the franchise , along with fellow NHL players Shane Doan , Mark Recchi and Darryl Sydor , in October 2007 . He is also an ambassador with the NHL Diversity program , which supports youth hockey organizations that offer economically disadvantaged kids the opportunity to play . Since 2008 , he has been a hockey spokesperson for Scotiabank , appearing in commercials and at events supporting its grassroots hockey programs , as well as for Samsung Canada .
Iginla was the cover athlete and spokesperson for the EA Sports video game NHL 2003 .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
Statistics as of end of 2015 @-@ 16 NHL season .
= = = International = = =
= = = All @-@ Star Games = = =
= = Awards and honours = =
= Gottes Zeit ist die allerbeste Zeit , BWV 106 =
Gottes Zeit ist die allerbeste Zeit ( God 's time is the very best time ) , BWV 106 , also known as Actus tragicus , is an early sacred cantata composed by Johann Sebastian Bach in Mühlhausen , intended for a funeral .
The earliest source for the composition is a copied manuscript dated 1768 , therefore the date of the composition is not certain . Research leads to a funeral of a former mayor of Mühlhausen on 16 September 1708 . The text is a carefully compiled juxtaposition of biblical texts , three quotations from the Old Testament and four from the New Testament , combined with funeral hymns , of which two are sung and one is quoted instrumentally , and some additions by an anonymous author . Bach scored the work for four vocal parts and a small ensemble of Baroque instruments , two recorders , two violas da gamba and continuo . The work is opened by an instrumental Sonatina , followed by through @-@ composed sections which have been assigned to three movements . The structure is symmetrical around a turning point , when the lower voices , who contemplate the Old Covenant , are overcome by a soprano calling for Jesus .
= = History = =
Although Bach 's manuscript is lost , the work is agreed to be one of the earliest Bach cantatas , probably composed during the year he spent in Mühlhausen 1707 / 1708 as organist of the Divi Blasii church , at the age of 22 . Various funerals known to have taken place at this time have been proposed as the occasion for the composition , for example that of his uncle Tobias Lämmerhirt from his mother 's family , who died in Erfurt on 10 August 1707 , and that of Adolph Strecker , a former mayor of Mühlhausen , whose funeral was 16 September 1708 .
The earliest surviving manuscript , in the hand of Christian Friedrich Penzel , was copied in 1768 after Bach 's death . It introduced the title Actus tragicus . The cantata was published in 1876 as part of the first complete edition of Bach 's works : the Bach @-@ Gesellschaft @-@ Ausgabe , edited by Wilhelm Rust .
= = Theme = =
The text consists of different Bible passages from the Old and New Testament , as well as individual verses of hymns by Martin Luther and Adam Reusner , which all together refer to finiteness , preparation for death and dying . There are two distinct parts to the cantata : the view of the Old Testament on death shown in the first part is confronted by that of the New Testament in the second part , leading to a symmetrical structure . The juxtaposition of texts from the Old and New Testament appeared before in the Christliche Betschule ( Christian school of prayer ) by Johann Olearius . Markus Rathey , professor at the Yale Institute of Sacred Music , argued in 2006 , that the sermon given at the funeral of Strecker is similar in ideas to the themes of the cantatas . It may be an indication that Bach composed the work for this occasion .
= = Structure and scoring = =
Bach scored the cantata for four vocal parts ( soprano ( S ) , alto ( A ) , tenor ( T ) , and bass ( B ) ) and a chamber ensemble of Baroque instruments : two alto recorders ( Fl ) , two violas da gamba ( Vg ) , basso continuo . The duration is given as 23 minutes .
The sections comprising the cantata are traditionally grouped into four movements . The musicologist Carol Traupman @-@ Carr notes : " Although movements are marked by tempo changes , occasionally key changes , meter changes , and double bar lines , Cantata 106 appears to be a continuous work . Bach helps create a more seamless effect by occasionally resolving the cadence of one section at the downbeat of another , thus blurring the beginnings and endings of traditional movements . " The keys and tempo markings are taken from the first publication . The keys in the Neue Bach @-@ Ausgabe and other more recent publications start in F major .
= = Music = =
= = = 1 = = =
In the opening sonatina , marked Molto adagio , two obbligato alto recorders mournfully echo each other over a sonorous background of viola da gambas and continuo .
= = = 2 = = =
The first vocal movement combines several aspects of getting ready to die , based mostly on texts from the Old Testament . Bach expresses their ideas in a variety of musical form and scoring . The movement opens ( 2a ) on a text in free poetry , " Gottes Zeit ist die allerbeste Zeit " ( God 's time is the best of all times ) . The chorus has no initial tempo marking , but has a fugal section marked Allegro , and the end is Adagio assai .
The thought from Psalm 90 ( 2b ) , " Ach , Herr , lehre uns bedenken , daß wir sterben müssen " ( Ah , Lord , teach us to consider that we must die ) is rendered as an arioso of the tenor , market Lento . The melodic line is broken by rests of reflection .
The warning to be prepared for death ( 2c ) from Isaiah , " Bestelle dein Haus ; denn du wirst sterben " ( Put your house in order ; for you will die ) , is performed as an aria by the bass , marked Vivace . Arpeggios of the recorder accompany the voice which has been described as " evocative of the command of God " .
Marked Andante , the movement concludes ( 2d ) with the central piece in the symmtrical composition . It presents a contrast : while the lower choral voices remind of the Old Covenant , " Es ist der alte Bund : Mensch , du mußt sterben ! " ( It is the ancient law : human , you must die ! ) , based on Jesus Sirach , the solo soprano turns to accepting death as a union with Jesus , singing three times " Ja , komm , Herr Jesu , komm ! " ( Yes , come , Lord Jesus ! ) . The personal decision is supported by the instrumental quotation in the recorders of Johann Leon 's hymn " Ich hab mein Sach Gott heimgestellt " ( I have brought my affairs home to God ) . The final call to Jesus closes the movement , leading to a long rest . The musicologist Wendy Heller writes :
Bach allows the confident soprano the final word , one that even silences the continuo ; the passage concludes with an ornamented cadential passage in semiquaver triplets that arrives with tentative optimism and a distinct lack of completion ...
= = = 3 = = =
The second vocal movement is a similar combination of ideas , now mostly from the New Testament . It quotes twice what Jesus said on the cross according to the Gospel of Luke . The first quotation ( 3a ) , " In deine Hände befehl ich meinen Geist " ( Into Your hands I commit my spirit ) , with an added explanation " du hast mich erlöset , Herr , du getreuer Gott " ( You have redeemed me , Lord , faithful God ) , from Psalm 31 , is rendered as an alto aria .
The second quotation ( 3b ) , " Heute wirst du mit mir im Paradies sein " ( Today you will be with Me in Paradise ) , is a bass arioso , supported by the Martin Luther 's hymn " Mit Fried und Freud ich fahr dahin " ( With peace and joy I depart ) , after the Nunc dimittis ( also following Luke ) , sung by the alto as a cantus firmus .
= = = 4 = = =
The work concludes with the closing seventh stanza of Adam Reusner 's hymn " In dich hab ich gehoffet , Herr " , " Glorie , Lob , Ehr und Herrlichkeit " ( Glory , praise , honor , and majesty ) , as a choral movement , but not a simple four @-@ part setting . Introduced by an instrumental passage recalling motifs from the Sonatina , the first lines of the hymn are set for four parts . The movement ends in a double fugue on Amen marked Allegro . The musicologist Julian notes that the fugal section became the " major focus of the piece " .
= = = Evaluation = = =
The cantata ranks among Bach 's most important works . The Bach scholar Alfred Dürr called the cantata " a work of genius such as even great masters seldom achieve ... The Actus tragicus belongs to the great musical literature of the world " .
= = Selected recordings = =
The cantata can be performed with only four singers , as in the recording by Joshua Rifkin , while other recordings feature a choir with multiple voices to a part . The following entries are taken from the listing by Aryeh Oron on the Bach @-@ Cantatas website . Choirs are roughly marked as large ( by red background ) or one voice per part ( OVPP ) ( by green background ) ; instrumental groups playing period instruments in historically informed performances are highlighted green under the header Instr ..
= Enrico Fermi =
Enrico Fermi ( Italian : [ enˈriːko ˈfermi ] ; 29 September 1901 – 28 November 1954 ) was an Italian physicist , who created the world 's first nuclear reactor , the Chicago Pile @-@ 1 . He has been called the " architect of the nuclear age " and the " architect of the atomic bomb " . He was one of the few physicists to excel both theoretically and experimentally . Fermi held several patents related to the use of nuclear power , and was awarded the 1938 Nobel Prize in Physics for his work on induced radioactivity by neutron bombardment and the discovery of transuranic elements . He made significant contributions to the development of quantum theory , nuclear and particle physics , and statistical mechanics .
Fermi 's first major contribution was to statistical mechanics . After Wolfgang Pauli announced his exclusion principle in 1925 , Fermi followed with a paper in which he applied the principle to an ideal gas , employing a statistical formulation now known as Fermi – Dirac statistics . Today , particles that obey the exclusion principle are called " fermions " . Later Pauli postulated the existence of an uncharged invisible particle emitted along with an electron during beta decay , to satisfy the law of conservation of energy . Fermi took up this idea , developing a model that incorporated the postulated particle , which he named the " neutrino " . His theory , later referred to as Fermi 's interaction and still later as weak interaction , described one of the four fundamental forces of nature . Through experiments inducing radioactivity with recently discovered neutrons , Fermi discovered that slow neutrons were more easily captured than fast ones , and developed the Fermi age equation to describe this . After bombarding thorium and uranium with slow neutrons , he concluded that he had created new elements ; although he was awarded the Nobel Prize for this discovery , the new elements were subsequently revealed to be fission products .
Fermi left Italy in 1938 to escape new Italian Racial Laws that affected his Jewish wife Laura Capon . He emigrated to the United States where he worked on the Manhattan Project during World War II . Fermi led the team that designed and built Chicago Pile @-@ 1 , which went critical on 2 December 1942 , demonstrating the first artificial self @-@ sustaining nuclear chain reaction . He was on hand when the X @-@ 10 Graphite Reactor at Oak Ridge , Tennessee , went critical in 1943 , and when the B Reactor at the Hanford Site did so the next year . At Los Alamos he headed F Division , part of which worked on Edward Teller 's thermonuclear " Super " bomb . He was present at the Trinity test on 16 July 1945 , where he used his Fermi method to estimate the bomb 's yield .
After the war , Fermi served under J. Robert Oppenheimer on the General Advisory Committee , which advised the Atomic Energy Commission on nuclear matters and policy . Following the detonation of the first Soviet fission bomb in August 1949 , he strongly opposed the development of a hydrogen bomb on both moral and technical grounds . He was among the scientists who testified on Oppenheimer 's behalf at the 1954 hearing that resulted in the denial of the latter 's security clearance . Fermi did important work in particle physics , especially related to pions and muons , and he speculated that cosmic rays arose through material being accelerated by magnetic fields in interstellar space . Many awards , concepts , and institutions are named after Fermi , including the Enrico Fermi Award , the Enrico Fermi Institute , the Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory , the Fermi Gamma @-@ ray Space Telescope , the Enrico Fermi Nuclear Generating Station , and the synthetic element fermium ( one of just over a dozen elements named after people ) .
= = Early life = =
Enrico Fermi was born in Rome , Italy , on 29 September 1901 . He was the third child of Alberto Fermi , a division head ( Capo Divisione ) in the Ministry of Railways , and Ida de Gattis , an elementary school teacher . His only sister , Maria , was two years older than he was , and his brother Giulio was a year older . After the two boys were sent to a rural community to be wet nursed , Enrico rejoined his family in Rome when he was two and a half . Although he was baptised a Roman Catholic in accordance with his grandparents ' wishes , his family was not particularly religious ; Enrico was an agnostic throughout his adult life . As a young boy he shared the same interests as his brother Giulio , building electric motors and playing with electrical and mechanical toys . Giulio died during the administration of an anesthetic for an operation on a throat abscess in 1915 .
One of Fermi 's first sources for his study of physics was a book he found at the local market at Campo de ' Fiori in Rome . Published in 1840 , the 900 @-@ page Elementorum physicae mathematicae , was written in Latin by Jesuit Father Andrea Caraffa , a professor at the Collegio Romano . It covered mathematics , classical mechanics , astronomy , optics , and acoustics , insofar as these disciplines were understood when the book was written . Fermi befriended another scientifically inclined student , Enrico Persico , and together the two worked on scientific projects such as building gyroscopes and trying to accurately measure the acceleration of Earth 's gravity . Fermi 's interest in physics was further encouraged by his father 's colleague Adolfo Amidei , who gave him several books on physics and mathematics , which he read and assimilated quickly .
= = Scuola Normale Superiore in Pisa = =
Fermi graduated from high school in July 1918 and , at Amidei 's urging , applied to the Scuola Normale Superiore in Pisa . Having lost one son , his parents were reluctant to let him move away from home for four years while attending the Sapienza University of Rome , but in the end they acquiesced . The school provided free lodging for students , but candidates had to take a difficult entrance exam that included an essay . The given theme was " Specific characteristics of Sounds " . The 17 @-@ year @-@ old Fermi chose to derive and solve the partial differential equation for a vibrating rod , applying Fourier analysis in the solution . The examiner , Professor Giuseppe Pittarelli from the Sapienza University of Rome , interviewed Fermi and praised that he would become an outstanding physicist in the future . Fermi achieved first place in the classification of the entrance exam .
During his years at the Scuola Normale Superiore , Fermi teamed up with a fellow student named Franco Rasetti with whom he would indulge in light @-@ hearted pranks and who would later become Fermi 's close friend and collaborator . In Pisa , Fermi was advised by the director of the physics laboratory , Luigi Puccianti , who acknowledged that there was little that he could teach Fermi , and frequently asked Fermi to teach him something instead . Fermi 's knowledge of quantum physics reached such a high level that Puccianti asked him to organize seminars on the topic . During this time Fermi learned tensor calculus , a mathematical technique invented by Gregorio Ricci and Tullio Levi @-@ Civita that was needed to demonstrate the principles of general relativity . Fermi initially chose mathematics as his major , but soon switched to physics . He remained largely self @-@ taught , studying general relativity , quantum mechanics , and atomic physics .
In September 1920 , Fermi was admitted to the Physics department . Since there were only three students in the department — Fermi , Rasetti , and Nello Carrara — Puccianti let them freely use the laboratory for whatever purposes they chose . Fermi decided that they should research X @-@ ray crystallography , and the three worked to produce a Laue photograph — an X @-@ ray photograph of a crystal . During 1921 , his third year at the university , Fermi published his first scientific works in the Italian journal Nuovo Cimento . The first was entitled " On the dynamics of a rigid system of electrical charges in translational motion " ( Sulla dinamica di un sistema rigido di cariche elettriche in moto traslatorio ) . A sign of things to come was that the mass was expressed as a tensor — a mathematical construct commonly used to describe something moving and changing in three @-@ dimensional space . In classical mechanics , mass is a scalar quantity , but in relativity it changes with velocity . The second paper was " On the electrostatics of a uniform gravitational field of electromagnetic charges and on the weight of electromagnetic charges " ( Sull 'elettrostatica di un campo gravitazionale uniforme e sul peso delle masse elettromagnetiche ) . Using general relativity , Fermi showed that a charge has a weight equal to U / c2 , where U was the electrostatic energy of the system , and c is the speed of light .
The first paper seemed to point out a contradiction between the electrodynamic theory and the relativistic one concerning the calculation of the electromagnetic masses , as the former predicted a value of 4 / 3 U / c2 . Fermi addressed this the next year in a paper " Concerning a contradiction between electrodynamic and the relativistic theory of electromagnetic mass " in which he showed that the apparent contradiction was a consequence of relativity . This paper was sufficiently well @-@ regarded that it was translated into German and published in the German scientific journal Physikalische Zeitschrift in 1922 . That year , Fermi submitted his article " On the phenomena occurring near a world line " ( Sopra i fenomeni che avvengono in vicinanza di una linea oraria ) to the Italian journal I Rendiconti dell 'Accademia dei Lincei . In this article he examined the Principle of Equivalence , and introduced the so @-@ called " Fermi coordinates " . He proved that on a world line close to the time line , space behaves as if it were a Euclidean space .
Fermi submitted his thesis , " A theorem on probability and some of its applications " ( Un teorema di calcolo delle probabilità ed alcune sue applicazioni ) , to the Scuola Normale Superiore in July 1922 , and received his laurea at the unusually young age of 20 . The thesis was on X @-@ ray diffraction images . Theoretical physics was not yet considered a discipline in Italy , and the only thesis that would have been accepted was one on experimental physics . For this reason , Italian physicists were slow in embracing the new ideas like relativity coming from Germany . Since Fermi was quite at home in the lab doing experimental work , this did not pose insurmountable problems for him .
While writing the appendix for the Italian edition of the book Fundamentals of Einstein Relativity by August Kopff in 1923 , Fermi was the first to point out that hidden inside the famous Einstein equation ( E = mc2 ) was an enormous amount of nuclear potential energy to be exploited . " It does not seem possible , at least in the near future " , he wrote , " to find a way to release these dreadful amounts of energy — which is all to the good because the first effect of an explosion of such a dreadful amount of energy would be to smash into smithereens the physicist who had the misfortune to find a way to do it . "
In 1924 Fermi was initiated to the Freemasonry in the Masonic Lodge " Adriano Lemmi " of the Grand Orient of Italy .
Fermi decided to travel abroad , and spent a semester studying under Max Born at the University of Göttingen , where he met Werner Heisenberg and Pascual Jordan . Fermi then studied in Leiden with Paul Ehrenfest from September to December 1924 on a fellowship from the Rockefeller Foundation obtained through the intercession of the mathematician Vito Volterra . Here Fermi met Hendrik Lorentz and Albert Einstein , and became good friends with Samuel Goudsmit and Jan Tinbergen . From January 1925 to late 1926 , Fermi taught mathematical physics and theoretical mechanics at the University of Florence , where he teamed up with Rasetti to conduct a series of experiments on the effects of magnetic fields on mercury vapour . He also participated in seminars at the Sapienza University of Rome , giving lectures on quantum mechanics and solid state physics . While giving lectures of new quantum mechanics based on remarkable accuracy of predictions of Schrödinger equation , the Italian physicist would often say , " It has no business to fit so well ! "
After Wolfgang Pauli announced his exclusion principle in 1925 , Fermi responded with a paper " On the quantisation of the perfect monoatomic gas " ( Sulla quantizzazione del gas perfetto monoatomico ) , in which he applied the exclusion principle to an ideal gas . The paper was especially notable for Fermi 's statistical formulation , which describes the distribution of particles in systems of many identical particles that obey the exclusion principle . This was independently developed soon after by the British physicist Paul Dirac , who also showed how it was related to the Bose – Einstein statistics . Accordingly , it is now known as Fermi – Dirac statistics . Following Dirac , particles that obey the exclusion principle are today called " fermions " , while those that do not are called " bosons " .
= = Professor in Rome = =
Professorships in Italy were granted by competition ( concorso ) for a vacant chair , the applicants being rated on their publications by a committee of professors . Fermi applied for a chair of mathematical physics at the University of Cagliari on Sardinia , but was narrowly passed over in favour of Giovanni Giorgi . In 1926 , at the age of 24 , he applied for a professorship at the Sapienza University of Rome . This was a new chair , one of the first three in theoretical physics in Italy , that had been created by the Minister of Education at the urging of Professor Orso Mario Corbino , who was the University 's professor of experimental physics , the Director of the Institute of Physics , and a member of Benito Mussolini 's cabinet . Corbino , who also chaired the selection committee , hoped that the new chair would raise the standard and reputation of physics in Italy . The committee chose Fermi ahead of Enrico Persico and Aldo Pontremoli , and Corbino helped Fermi recruit his team , which was soon joined by notable students such as Edoardo Amaldi , Bruno Pontecorvo , Ettore Majorana and Emilio Segrè , and by Franco Rasetti , whom Fermi had appointed as his assistant . They were soon nicknamed the " Via Panisperna boys " after the street where the Institute of Physics was located .
Fermi married Laura Capon , a science student at the University , on 19 July 1928 . They had two children : Nella , born in January 1931 , and Giulio , born in February 1936 . On 18 March 1929 , Fermi was appointed a member of the Royal Academy of Italy by Mussolini , and on 27 April he joined the Fascist Party . He later opposed Fascism when the 1938 racial laws were promulgated by Mussolini in order to bring Italian Fascism ideologically closer to German National Socialism . These laws threatened Laura , who was Jewish , and put many of Fermi 's research assistants out of work .
During their time in Rome , Fermi and his group made important contributions to many practical and theoretical aspects of physics . In 1928 , he published his Introduction to Atomic Physics ( Introduzione alla fisica atomica ) , which provided Italian university students with an up @-@ to @-@ date and accessible text . Fermi also conducted public lectures and wrote popular articles for scientists and teachers in order to spread knowledge of the new physics as widely as possible . Part of his teaching method was to gather his colleagues and graduate students together at the end of the day and go over a problem , often from his own research . A sign of success was that foreign students now began to come to Italy . The most notable of these was the German physicist Hans Bethe , who came to Rome as a Rockefeller Foundation fellow , and collaborated with Fermi on a 1932 paper " On the Interaction between Two Electrons " ( German : Über die Wechselwirkung von Zwei Elektronen ) .
At this time , physicists were puzzled by beta decay , in which an electron was emitted from the atomic nucleus . To satisfy the law of conservation of energy , Pauli postulated the existence of an invisible particle with no charge and little or no mass that was also emitted at the same time . Fermi took up this idea , which he developed in a tentative paper in 1933 , and then a longer paper the next year that incorporated the postulated particle , which Fermi called a " neutrino " . His theory , later referred to as Fermi 's interaction , and still later as the theory of the weak interaction , described one of the four fundamental forces of nature . The neutrino was detected after his death , and his interaction theory showed why it was so difficult to detect . When he submitted his paper to the British journal Nature , that journal 's editor turned it down because it contained speculations which were " too remote from physical reality to be of interest to readers " . Thus Fermi saw the theory published in Italian and German before it was published in English .
In the introduction to the 1968 English translation , physicist Fred L. Wilson noted that :
Fermi 's theory , aside from bolstering Pauli 's proposal of the neutrino , has a special significance in the history of modern physics . One must remember that only the naturally occurring β emitters were known at the time the theory was proposed . Later when positron decay was discovered , the process was easily incorporated within Fermi 's original framework . On the basis of his theory , the capture of an orbital electron by a nucleus was predicted and eventually observed . With time much experimental data has accumulated . Although peculiarities have been observed many times in β decay , Fermi 's theory always has been equal to the challenge .
The consequences of the Fermi theory are vast . For example , β spectroscopy was established as a powerful tool for the study of nuclear structure . But perhaps the most influential aspect of this work of Fermi is that his particular form of the β interaction established a pattern which has been appropriate for the study of other types of interactions . It was the first successful theory of the creation and annihilation of material particles . Previously , only photons had been known to be created and destroyed .
In January 1934 , Irène Joliot @-@ Curie and Frédéric Joliot announced that they had bombarded elements with alpha particles and induced radioactivity in them . By March , Fermi 's assistant Gian @-@ Carlo Wick had provided a theoretical explanation using Fermi 's theory of beta decay . Fermi decided to switch to experimental physics , using the neutron , which James Chadwick had discovered in 1932 . In March 1934 , Fermi wanted to see if he could induce radioactivity with Rasetti 's polonium @-@ beryllium neutron source . Neutrons had no electric charge , and so would not be deflected by the positively charged nucleus . This meant that they needed much less energy to penetrate the nucleus than charged particles , and so would not require a particle accelerator , which the Via Panisperna boys did not have .
Fermi had the idea to resort to replacing the polonium @-@ beryllium neutron source with a radon @-@ beryllium one , which he created by filling a glass bulb with beryllium powder , evacuating the air , and then adding 50 mCi of radon gas , supplied by Giulio Cesare Trabacchi . This created a much stronger neutron source , the effectiveness of which declined with the 3 @.@ 8 @-@ day half @-@ life of radon . He knew that this source would also emit gamma rays , but , on the basis of his theory , he believed that this would not affect the results of the experiment . He started by bombarding platinum , an element with a high atomic number that was readily available , without success . He turned to aluminium , which emitted an alpha particle and produced sodium , which then decayed into magnesium by beta particle emission . He tried lead , without success , and then fluorine in the form of calcium fluoride , which emitted an alpha particle and produced nitrogen , decaying into oxygen by beta particle emission . In all , he induced radioactivity in 22 different elements . Fermi rapidly reported the discovery of neutron @-@ induced radioactivity in the Italian journal La Ricerca Scientifica on 25 March 1934 .
The natural radioactivity of thorium and uranium made it hard to determine what was happening when these elements were bombarded with neutrons but , after correctly eliminating the presence of elements lighter than uranium but heavier than lead , Fermi concluded that they had created new elements , which he called hesperium and ausonium . The chemist Ida Noddack criticised this work , suggesting that some of the experiments could have produced lighter elements than lead rather than new , heavier elements . Her suggestion was not taken seriously at the time because her team had not carried out any experiments with uranium , and its claim to have discovered masurium ( technetium ) was disputed . At that time , fission was thought to be improbable if not impossible on theoretical grounds . While physicists expected elements with higher atomic numbers to form from neutron bombardment of lighter elements , nobody expected neutrons to have enough energy to split a heavier atom into two light element fragments in the manner that Noddack suggested .
The Via Panisperna boys also noticed some unexplained effects . The experiment seemed to work better on a wooden table than a marble table top . Fermi remembered that Joliot @-@ Curie and Chadwick had noted that paraffin wax was effective at slowing neutrons , so he decided to try that . When neutrons were passed through paraffin wax , they induced a hundred times as much radioactivity in silver compared with when it was bombarded without the paraffin . Fermi guessed that this was due to the hydrogen atoms in the paraffin . Those in wood similarly explained the difference between the wooden and the marble table tops . This was confirmed by repeating the effect with water . He concluded that collisions with hydrogen atoms slowed the neutrons . The lower the atomic number of the nucleus it collides with , the more energy a neutron loses per collision , and therefore the less collisions that are required to slow a neutron down by a given amount . Fermi realised that this induced more radioactivity because slow neutrons were more easily captured than fast ones . He developed a diffusion equation to describe this , which became known as the Fermi age equation .
In 1938 Fermi received the Nobel Prize in Physics at the age of 37 for his " demonstrations of the existence of new radioactive elements produced by neutron irradiation , and for his related discovery of nuclear reactions brought about by slow neutrons " . After Fermi received the prize in Stockholm , he did not return home to Italy , but rather continued on to New York City with his family in December 1938 , where they applied for permanent residency . The decision to move to America and become US citizens was primarily a result of the racial laws in Italy .
= = Manhattan Project = =
Fermi arrived in New York City on 2 January 1939 . He was immediately offered posts at five different universities , and accepted a post at Columbia University , where he had already given summer lectures in 1936 . He received the news that in December 1938 , the German chemists Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann had detected the element barium after bombarding uranium with neutrons , which Lise Meitner and her nephew Otto Frisch correctly interpreted as the result of nuclear fission . Frisch confirmed this experimentally on 13 January 1939 . The news of Meitner and Frisch 's interpretation of Hahn and Strassmann 's discovery crossed the Atlantic with Niels Bohr , who was to lecture at Princeton University . Isidor Isaac Rabi and Willis Lamb , two Columbia University physicists working at Princeton , found out about it and carried it back to Columbia . Rabi said he told Enrico Fermi , but Fermi later gave the credit to Lamb :
I remember very vividly the first month , January , 1939 , that I started working at the Pupin Laboratories because things began happening very fast . In that period , Niels Bohr was on a lecture engagement at the Princeton University and I remember one afternoon Willis Lamb came back very excited and said that Bohr had leaked out great news . The great news that had leaked out was the discovery of fission and at least the outline of its interpretation . Then , somewhat later that same month , there was a meeting in Washington where the possible importance of the newly discovered phenomenon of fission was first discussed in semi @-@ jocular earnest as a possible source of nuclear power .
Noddack was proven right after all . Fermi had dismissed the possibility of fission on the basis of his calculations , but he had not taken into account the binding energy that would appear when a nuclide with an odd number of neutrons absorbed an extra neutron . For Fermi , the news came as a profound embarrassment , as the transuranic elements that he had partly been awarded the Nobel Prize for discovering had not been transuranic elements at all , but fission products . He added a footnote to this effect to his Nobel Prize acceptance speech .
The scientists at Columbia decided that they should try to detect the energy released in the nuclear fission of uranium when bombarded by neutrons . On 25 January 1939 , in the basement of Pupin Hall at Columbia , an experimental team including Fermi conducted the first nuclear fission experiment in the United States . The other members of the team were Herbert L. Anderson , Eugene T. Booth , John R. Dunning , G. Norris Glasoe , and Francis G. Slack . The next day , the Fifth Washington Conference on Theoretical Physics began in Washington , D.C. under the joint auspices of George Washington University and the Carnegie Institution of Washington . There , the news on nuclear fission was spread even further , which fostered many more experimental demonstrations .
French scientists Hans von Halban , Lew Kowarski , and Frédéric Joliot @-@ Curie had demonstrated that uranium bombarded by neutrons emitted more neutrons than it absorbed , which implies chain reaction may be a possibility . Fermi and Anderson did so too a few weeks later . Leó Szilárd obtained 200 kilograms ( 440 lb ) of uranium oxide from Canadian radium producer Eldorado Gold Mines Limited , allowing Fermi and Anderson to conduct experiments with fission on a much larger scale . Fermi and Szilárd collaborated on a design of a device to achieve a self @-@ sustaining nuclear reaction — a nuclear reactor . Due to the rate of absorption of neutrons by the hydrogen in water , it was unlikely that a self @-@ sustaining reaction could be achieved with natural uranium and water as a neutron moderator . Fermi suggested , based on his work with neutrons , that the reaction could be achieved with uranium oxide blocks and graphite as a moderator instead of water . This would reduce the neutron capture rate , and in theory make a self @-@ sustaining chain reaction possible . Szilárd came up with a workable design : a pile of uranium oxide blocks interspersed with graphite bricks . Szilárd , Anderson , and Fermi published a paper on " Neutron Production in Uranium " . But their work habits and personalities were different , and Fermi had trouble working with Szilárd .
Fermi was among the first to warn military leaders about the potential impact of nuclear energy , giving a lecture on the subject at the Navy Department on 18 March 1939 . The response fell short of what he had hoped for , although the Navy agreed to provide $ 1 @,@ 500 towards further research at Columbia . Later that year , Szilárd , Eugene Wigner , and Edward Teller sent the famous letter signed by Einstein to U.S. President Roosevelt , warning that Nazi Germany was likely to build an atomic bomb . In response , Roosevelt formed the S @-@ 1 Uranium Committee to investigate the matter .
The S @-@ 1 Committee provided money for Fermi to buy graphite , and he built a pile of graphite bricks on the seventh floor of the Pupin Hall laboratory . By August 1941 , he had six tons of uranium oxide and thirty tons of graphite , which he used to build a still larger pile in Schermerhorn Hall at Columbia .
The S @-@ 1 Committee next met on 18 December 1941 , with the U.S. now engaged in World War II , making its work urgent . Most of the effort sponsored by the Committee had been directed at producing enriched uranium , but Committee member Arthur Compton determined that a feasible alternative was plutonium , which could be mass @-@ produced in nuclear reactors by the end of 1944 . He decided to concentrate the plutonium work at the University of Chicago . Fermi reluctantly moved , and his team became part of the new Metallurgical Laboratory there .
The possible results of a self @-@ sustaining nuclear reaction were unknown , so it seemed inadvisable to build the first nuclear reactor on the U. of C. campus in the middle of the city . Compton found a location in Argonne Woods Forest Preserve , about 20 miles ( 32 km ) from Chicago . Stone & Webster was contracted to develop the site , but the work was halted by an industrial dispute . Fermi then persuaded Compton that he could build the reactor in the squash court under the stands of the U of C 's Stagg Field . Construction of the pile began on 6 November 1942 , and Chicago Pile @-@ 1 went critical on 2 December . The shape of the pile was intended to be roughly spherical , but as work proceeded Fermi calculated that criticality could be achieved without finishing the entire pile as planned .
This experiment was a landmark in the quest for energy , and it was typical of Fermi 's approach . Every step was carefully planned , every calculation meticulously done . When the first self @-@ sustained nuclear chain reaction was achieved , Compton made a coded phone call to James B. Conant , the chairman of the National Defense Research Committee .
I picked up the phone and called Conant . He was reached at the President 's office at Harvard University . " Jim , " I said , " you 'll be interested to know that the Italian navigator has just landed in the new world . " Then , half apologetically , because I had led the S @-@ l Committee to believe that it would be another week or more before the pile could be completed , I added , " the earth was not as large as he had estimated , and he arrived at the new world sooner than he had expected . "
" Is that so , " was Conant 's excited response . " Were the natives friendly ? " " Everyone landed safe and happy . "
To continue the research where it would not pose a public health hazard , the reactor was disassembled and moved to the Argonne Woods site . There Fermi directed experiments on nuclear reactions , revelling in the opportunities provided by the reactor 's abundant production of free neutrons . The laboratory soon branched out from physics and engineering into using the reactor for biological and medical research . Initially , Argonne was run by Fermi as part of the University of Chicago , but it became a separate entity with Fermi as its director in May 1944 .
When the air @-@ cooled X @-@ 10 Graphite Reactor at Oak Ridge went critical on 4 November 1943 , Fermi was on hand just in case something went wrong . The technicians woke him early so that he could see it happen . Getting X @-@ 10 operational was another milestone in the plutonium project . It provided data on reactor design , training for DuPont staff in reactor operation , and produced the first small quantities of reactor @-@ bred plutonium . Fermi became an American citizen in July 1944 , the earliest date the law allowed .
In September 1944 , Fermi inserted the first uranium fuel slug into the B Reactor at the Hanford Site , the production reactor designed to breed plutonium in large quantities . Like X @-@ 10 , it had been designed by Fermi 's team at the Metallurgical Laboratory , and built by DuPont , but it was much larger , and was water @-@ cooled . Over the next few days , 838 tubes were loaded , and the reactor went critical . Shortly after midnight on 27 September , the operators began to withdraw the control rods to initiate production . At first all appeared to be well , but around 03 : 00 , the power level started to drop and by 06 : 30 the reactor had shut down completely . The Army and DuPont turned to Fermi 's team for answers . The cooling water was investigated to see if there was a leak or contamination . The next day the reactor suddenly started up again , only to shut down once more a few hours later . The problem was traced to neutron poisoning from xenon @-@ 135 , a fission product with a half @-@ life of 9 @.@ 2 hours . Fortunately , DuPont had deviated from the Metallurgical Laboratory 's original design in which the reactor had 1 @,@ 500 tubes arranged in a circle , and had added 504 tubes to fill in the corners . The scientists had originally considered this over @-@ engineering a waste of time and money , but Fermi realized that by loading all 2 @,@ 004 tubes , the reactor could reach the required power level and efficiently produce plutonium .
In mid @-@ 1944 , Robert Oppenheimer persuaded Fermi to join his Project Y at Los Alamos , New Mexico . Arriving in September , Fermi was appointed an associate director of the laboratory , with broad responsibility for nuclear and theoretical physics , and was placed in charge of F Division , which was named after him . F Division had four branches : F @-@ 1 Super and General Theory under Teller , which investigated the " Super " ( thermonuclear ) bomb ; F @-@ 2 Water Boiler under L. D. P. King , which looked after the " water boiler " aqueous homogeneous research reactor ; F @-@ 3 Super Experimentation under Egon Bretscher ; and F @-@ 4 Fission Studies under Anderson . Fermi observed the Trinity test on 16 July 1945 , and conducted an experiment to estimate the bomb 's yield by dropping strips of paper into the blast wave . He paced off how far they were blown by the explosion , and calculated the yield as ten kilotons of TNT ; the actual yield was about 18 @.@ 6 kilotons .
Along with Oppenheimer , Compton , and Ernest Lawrence , Fermi was part of the scientific panel that advised the Interim Committee on target selection . The panel agreed with the committee that atomic bombs would be used without warning against an industrial target . Like others at the Los Alamos Laboratory , Fermi found out about the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki from the public address system in the technical area . Fermi did not believe that atomic bombs would deter nations from starting wars , nor did he think that the time was ripe for world government . He therefore did not join the Association of Los Alamos Scientists .
= = Post @-@ war work = =
Fermi became the Charles H. Swift Distinguished Professor of Physics at the University of Chicago on 1 July 1945 , although he did not depart the Los Alamos Laboratory with his family until 31 December 1945 . He was elected a member of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences in 1945 . The Metallurgical Laboratory became the Argonne National Laboratory on 1 July 1946 , the first of the national laboratories established by the Manhattan Project . The short distance between Chicago and Argonne allowed Fermi to work at both places . At Argonne he continued experimental physics , investigating neutron scattering with Leona Marshall . He also discussed theoretical physics with Maria Mayer , helping her develop insights into spin – orbit coupling that would lead to her receiving the Nobel Prize .
The Manhattan Project was replaced by the Atomic Energy Commission ( AEC ) on 1 January 1947 . Fermi served on the AEC General Advisory Committee , an influential scientific committee chaired by Robert Oppenheimer . He also liked to spend a few weeks of each year at the Los Alamos National Laboratory , where he collaborated with Nicholas Metropolis , and with John von Neumann on Rayleigh – Taylor instability , the science of what occurs at the border between two fluids of different densities .
Following the detonation of the first Soviet fission bomb in August 1949 , Fermi , along with Isidor Rabi , wrote a strongly worded report for the committee , opposing the development of a hydrogen bomb on moral and technical grounds . Nonetheless , Fermi continued to participate in work on the hydrogen bomb at Los Alamos as a consultant . Along with Stanislaw Ulam , he calculated that not only would the amount of tritium needed for Teller 's model of a thermonuclear weapon be prohibitive , but a fusion reaction could still not be assured to propagate even with this large quantity of tritium . Fermi was among the scientists who testified on Oppenheimer 's behalf at the Oppenheimer security hearing in 1954 that resulted in denial of Oppenheimer 's security clearance .
In his later years , Fermi continued teaching at the University of Chicago . His PhD students in the post @-@ war period included Owen Chamberlain , Geoffrey Chew , Jerome Friedman , Marvin Goldberger , Tsung @-@ Dao Lee , Arthur Rosenfeld and Sam Treiman . Jack Steinberger was a graduate student . Fermi conducted important research in particle physics , especially related to pions and muons . He made the first predictions of pion @-@ nucleon resonance , relying on statistical methods , since he reasoned that exact answers were not required when the theory was wrong anyway . In a paper co @-@ authored with Chen Ning Yang , he speculated that pions might actually be composite particles . The idea was elaborated by Shoichi Sakata . It has since been supplanted by the quark model , in which the pion is made up of quarks , which completed Fermi 's model , and vindicated his approach .
Fermi wrote a paper " On the Origin of Cosmic Radiation " in which he proposed that cosmic rays arose through material being accelerated by magnetic fields in interstellar space , which led to a difference of opinion with Teller . Fermi examined the issues surrounding magnetic fields in the arms of a spiral galaxy . He mused about what is now referred to as the " Fermi paradox " : the contradiction between the presumed probability of the existence of extraterrestrial life and the fact that contact has not been made .
Toward the end of his life , Fermi questioned his faith in society at large to make wise choices about nuclear technology . He said :
Some of you may ask , what is the good of working so hard merely to collect a few facts which will bring no pleasure except to a few long @-@ haired professors who love to collect such things and will be of no use to anybody because only few specialists at best will be able to understand them ? In answer to such question [ s ] I may venture a fairly safe prediction .
History of science and technology has consistently taught us that scientific advances in basic understanding have sooner or later led to technical and industrial applications that have revolutionized our way of life . It seems to me improbable that this effort to get at the structure of matter should be an exception to this rule . What is less certain , and what we all fervently hope , is that man will soon grow sufficiently adult to make good use of the powers that he acquires over nature .
Fermi died at age 53 of stomach cancer in his home in Chicago , and was interred at Oak Woods Cemetery .
= = Impact and legacy = =
= = = Legacy = = =
Fermi received numerous awards in recognition of his achievements , including the Matteucci Medal in 1926 , the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1938 , the Hughes Medal in 1942 , the Franklin Medal in 1947 , and the Rumford Prize in 1953 . He was awarded the Medal for Merit in 1946 for his contribution to the Manhattan Project . Fermi was elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society ( FRS ) in 1950 . The Basilica of Santa Croce , Florence , known as the Temple of Italian Glories for its many graves of artists , scientists and prominent figures in Italian history , has a plaque commemorating Fermi . In 1999 , Time named Fermi on its list of the top 100 persons of the twentieth century . Fermi was widely regarded as an unusual case of a 20th @-@ century physicist who excelled both theoretically and experimentally . The historian of physics , C. P. Snow , wrote that " if Fermi had been born a few years earlier , one could well imagine him discovering Rutherford 's atomic nucleus , and then developing Bohr 's theory of the hydrogen atom . If this sounds like hyperbole , anything about Fermi is likely to sound like hyperbole " .
Fermi was known as an inspiring teacher , and was noted for his attention to detail , simplicity , and careful preparation of his lectures . Later , his lecture notes were transcribed into books . His papers and notebooks are today in the University of Chicago . Victor Weisskopf noted how Fermi " always managed to find the simplest and most direct approach , with the minimum of complication and sophistication . " Fermi 's ability and success stemmed as much from his appraisal of the art of the possible , as from his innate skill and intelligence . He disliked complicated theories , and while he had great mathematical ability , he would never use it when the job could be done much more simply . He was famous for getting quick and accurate answers to problems that would stump other people . Later on , his method of getting approximate and quick answers through back @-@ of @-@ the @-@ envelope calculations became informally known as the " Fermi method " , and is widely taught .
Fermi was fond of pointing out that Alessandro Volta , working in his laboratory , could have had no idea where the study of electricity would lead . Fermi is generally remembered for his work on nuclear power and nuclear weapons , especially the creation of the first nuclear reactor , and the development of the first atomic and hydrogen bombs . His scientific work has stood the test of time . This includes his theory of beta decay , his work with non @-@ linear systems , his discovery of the effects of slow neutrons , his study of pion @-@ nucleon collisions , and his Fermi – Dirac statistics . His speculation that a pion was not a fundamental particle pointed the way towards the study of quarks and leptons .
= = = Things named after Fermi = = =
Many things have been named in Fermi 's honour . These include the Fermilab particle accelerator and physics lab in Batavia , Illinois , which was renamed in his honour in 1974 , and the Fermi Gamma @-@ ray Space Telescope , which was named after him in 2008 , in recognition of his work on cosmic rays . Three nuclear reactor installations have been named after him : the Fermi 1 and Fermi 2 nuclear power plants in Newport , Michigan , the Enrico Fermi Nuclear Power Plant at Trino Vercellese in Italy , and the RA @-@ 1 Enrico Fermi research reactor in Argentina . A synthetic element isolated from the debris of the 1952 Ivy Mike nuclear test was named fermium , in honour of Fermi 's contributions to the scientific community . It follows the element einsteinium , which was discovered with it . Since 1956 , the United States Atomic Energy Commission has named its highest honour , the Fermi Award , after him . Recipients of the award include well @-@ known scientists like Otto Hahn , Robert Oppenheimer , Edward Teller and Hans Bethe .
= = Patents = =
US Patent 2206634 , " Process for the Production of Radioactive Substances " , issued July 1940
US Patent 2836554 , " Air Cooled Neutronic Reactor " , issued April 1950
US Patent 2524379 , " Neutron Velocity Selector " , issued October 1950
US Patent 2852461 , " Neutronic Reactor " , issued September 1953
US Patent 2708656 , " Neutronic Reactor " , issued May 1955
US Patent 2768134 , " Testing Material in a Neutronic Reactor " , issued October 1956
US Patent 2780595 , " Test Exponential Pile " , issued February 1957
US Patent 2798847 , " Method of Operating a Neutronic Reactor " , issued July 1957
US Patent 2807581 , " Neutronic Reactor " , issued September 1957
US Patent 2807727 , " Neutronic Reactor Shield " , issued September 1957
US Patent 2813070 , " Method of Sustaining a Neutronic Chain Reacting System " , issued November 1957
US Patent 2837477 , " Chain Reacting System " , issued June 1958
US Patent 2931762 , " Neutronic Reactor " , issued April 1960
US Patent 2969307 , " Method of Testing Thermal Neutron Fissionable Material for Purity " , issued January 1961
= Star Wars Jedi Knight : Jedi Academy =
Star Wars Jedi Knight : Jedi Academy is a 2003 first- and third @-@ person shooter action video game set in the Star Wars universe . It was developed by Raven Software and published by LucasArts in North America , by Activision in Europe and by CyberFront in Japan . The game was released for Microsoft Windows and OS X ( published by Aspyr ) in September 2003 and for Xbox ( developed by Vicarious Visions ) in November 2003 , and received positive reviews . In September 2009 , the game was re @-@ released with the other Star Wars : Jedi Knight games ( Star Wars : Dark Forces , Star Wars Jedi Knight : Dark Forces II , Star Wars Jedi Knight : Mysteries of the Sith and Star Wars Jedi Knight II : Jedi Outcast ) through Steam and Direct2Drive .
Jedi Academy is powered by the id Tech 3 game engine , the same engine used by Jedi Academy 's predecessor , Jedi Outcast . In a new feature to the series , the player can modify the character 's gender and appearance , and can construct a lightsaber by choosing the hilt style and blade color .
In single @-@ player mode , the player takes control of the character Jaden Korr , a student at the Jedi Academy under the tutelage of Kyle Katarn . The player must complete various missions assigned to them by Katarn and Luke Skywalker . There is also a multiplayer mode that allows players to play against other people over the internet or via a LAN .
= = Gameplay = =
As a first and third @-@ person shooter set in the Star Wars expanded universe , Jedi Academy puts the player into combat wielding a variety of firearms from that universe , as well as lightsabers and Force powers . The player can choose perspective for every weapon . The shooter aspects of the game are standard , including a variety of projectile and energy weapons and explosives . Players have a health meter and a shield meter , which are replenished separately .
In both single @-@ player and multiplayer , the player character is a Force @-@ user , who has access to a variety of Force powers in addition to their lightsaber ( s ) . Powers include Push , Pull , Jump , Heal , Lightning , and other abilities from the Star Wars universe . Force powers are categorized into core , Light ( defensive ) and Dark ( offensive ) , and each Force power has three ranks , with the power increasing in effectiveness with each rank . In both single @-@ player and multiplayer , players choose how to rank up their powers , adding a layer of customization . During gameplay , the player has a " Force meter " which is depleted when powers are used , and recharges when no powers are in use .
Jedi Academy places a heavy emphasis on lightsaber combat . The player can create a custom lightsaber by selecting a hilt and one of five blade colors . Later in the game , the player can choose to wield a single saber , one saber in each hand , or a " saber staff " similar to the double ended lightsaber Darth Maul used in The Phantom Menace which also adds a kicking ability unavailable with any other lightsaber . The different sabers each have unique styles and special moves . When using a single saber , the player can choose between three stances which affect the speed and power of attacks ; if using dual sabers , the player can switch off the second saber and use the " Fast " -style single @-@ saber stance , or if using a saber staff , the player can switch the staff into a single @-@ bladed saber that uses the " Medium " -style saber stance .
= = = Single @-@ player = = =
The player initially chooses the character 's species and gender , and begins the game with a single lightsaber . Midway through the game , the player can choose to use dual sabers or a saber staff if desired . The campaign alternates between linear plot driven missions and user @-@ selected missions . For user @-@ selected missions , the player is given a list of five missions , and chooses the order in which to complete them . The player is only required to complete four of the missions before advancing , although the option is available to complete all five . Between missions the player can choose one of their force skills to upgrade . This will increase the impact of that force power , so making the character more powerful as the game progresses . The game also introduces player @-@ controllable vehicles and vehicle @-@ based levels .
= = = Multiplayer = = =
In multiplayer mode , one can play online or via a local area network ( LAN ) with other players , as well as computer @-@ controlled bots . The player can create their avatar using a series of options , similar to the character creation in single @-@ player . Alternatively the player can choose to play as one of almost all of the characters from Jedi Outcast and Jedi Academy . Before a match begins , the server specifies the Force ranking to be used ; this controls how many points the players have to invest in different Force powers . Players can then customize their powers for the match . The server can also disable normal weapons to create a lightsaber @-@ only game . There are different multiplayer modes such as " Capture the flag " ( dominated by Alpha ) , " Power Duel " and " Siege " . Depending on the mode , players can play on their own or as part of a team . There are six multiplayer modes in total .
= = Plot = =
The player takes the role of Jaden Korr ( voiced by Philip Tanzini if male , and by Jennifer Hale if female ) . Jaden is a new student arriving at the Jedi Academy on Yavin IV , along with fellow student Rosh Penin ( Jason Marsden ) . On their way to the Academy , the students ' shuttle is shot down by an unknown enemy . As Jaden and Rosh make their way to the Academy on foot , they encounter stormtroopers and a Dark Jedi , whom Jaden defeats . Jaden then sees a woman using a staff to drain energy from the Jedi Temple , but he is detected and knocked unconscious by the beam . Awakening , Jaden is met by Kyle Katarn ( Jeff Bennett ) and Luke Skywalker ( Bob Bergen ) , who both express concern about the incident . Jaden and Rosh become apprenticed to Kyle ; however , in their first training session , Rosh 's over @-@ competitiveness endangers Jaden . Jaden is then dispatched on various peace @-@ keeping missions across the galaxy .
After completing several missions Jaden returns to the temple and overhears Rosh talking to another student , saying that he feels like the Jedi masters are trying to hold them back . Luke tells the assembled students that the Dark Jedi who attacked the Temple are members of a Sith cult called the Disciples of Ragnos . A member of the cult , a Twi 'lek named Alora ( Grey DeLisle ) , was able to infiltrate the Academy during the attack and stole Luke 's journal . This allowed the cult to find numerous places strong with the Force and drain the energy there . The students are sent out to investigate the locations in Luke 's journal . Jaden is sent to Hoth to investigate Echo Base , where he encounters Imperials and Alora . Jaden defeats her , and she flees . Returning to the Academy , Jaden finds that Rosh did not return from his mission to Byss .
After completing several more missions , Jaden accompanies Kyle in an investigation of Darth Vader 's fortress on Vjun . There , Jaden discovers that Rosh has joined the Disciples of Ragnos , having fallen to the dark side to avoid being killed . Jaden defeats Rosh ( who is accompanied by two surviving Reborn Dark Jedi from Jedi Outcast ) as Kyle arrives . At this point , the leader of the cult , who is revealed to be Tavion Axmis ( Kath Soucie ) arrives . She was the former apprentice of Kyle 's nemesis Desann from Jedi Outcast . Tavion has recovered the " Scepter of Ragnos " , which has the power to drain and release Force energy . Tavion disables Jaden and Kyle , causing the room to cave @-@ in as she escapes with Rosh . Kyle and Jaden narrowly escape and return to the Academy . Jaden is promoted to Jedi Knight , and constructs a new lightsaber . Luke comes to the conclusion that Tavion plans to restore the Sith to power by using the stolen Force energy to resurrect the ancient Sith Lord , Marka Ragnos ( Peter Lurie ) . As the Jedi prepare to battle Tavion and her followers on Korriban , Kyle informs Jaden that he has received a call for help from Rosh . Though skeptical , Jaden agrees to help . Fighting through a mining facility on Taspir III , Jaden is again confronted by Alora , who continues to taunt him as he chases her through the complex . Eventually , Jaden finds Rosh , who asks for help and claims to have seen the error of his ways . Gripped by anger , Jaden is goaded by Alora to kill Rosh and join Tavion . At this point , the player can choose to either let him live and thus stay on the light side or kill Rosh and turn to the dark side .
On the light path , Jaden spares Rosh and saves him from Alora , who cuts off Rosh 's left arm . Jaden Kills Alora and heads to the Tomb of Ragnos to confront Tavion , fighting his way through her followers with other students . Jaden defeats her ; however , she 's able to use the scepter to invoke Ragnos 's spirit who possesses her body . Jaden defeats Ragnos and destroys the Scepter , banishing Ragnos ' spirit back into its tomb . Back at the Academy Jaden sees Rosh , who has recovered , and is honored by Luke , Kyle and the rest of the order .
On the dark path , Jaden kills Rosh but refuses to join the Sith or help resurrect Marka Ragnos , instead killing Alora and heading to Korriban . Jaden leaves a trail of destruction behind him , killing Jedi and Sith alike before he confronts Tavion . Killing her , Jaden steals the Scepter only to be confronted by Kyle . Jaden defeats and apparently kills Kyle escaping with the scepter . Kyle is found to have survived the duel by Luke , and laments losing both Rosh and Jaden , vowing to hunt Jaden down . Luke , wishes Kyle good luck , and notes that although Jaden has turned to the dark side , there is always hope and Jaden may not be beyond redemption . Jaden is then seen on the bridge of a Star Destroyer beginning a campaign of conquest .
= = History = =
= = = Development = = =
After Jedi Outcast was completed , LucasArts immediately approached Raven Software to develop a sequel . Production began and Raven was given a one @-@ year development cycle . Like Jedi Outcast , Jedi Academy uses a heavily modified Quake III : Team Arena game engine , and the development team was made up of people who worked on Jedi Outcast , as well as Star Trek : Voyager – Elite Force .
An early decision made during development was whether or not to have Kyle Katarn as the playable character . This was due to the character already being a powerful Jedi Knight , and , as such , starting off with the force skills would affect the gameplay . To resolve this issue , Raven chose to make the playable character a student in the Jedi Academy . By using a completely new character , the developers were able to insert features that allowed the player to customize the character , including race and gender , as well as the lightsaber color , hilt , and type . The Kyle Katarn character was then made an instructor in the academy so as to remain integral to the plot , to ensure Jedi Academy built upon the existing Jedi Knight series storyline . Raven extended the customization further as the game progresses by allowing the player to choose specific force powers to train upon completion of missions . This was done with the intention of giving freedom to choose the way and style the game is played .
Another decision made early on was to include locations and aspects from the Star Wars movies . The designers wanted to use locations such as Tatooine ( seen in The Prequel Trilogy , A New Hope and Return of the Jedi ) and Hoth ( seen in The Empire Strikes Back ) , as well as the Rancor creature . To develop the map for Hoth , the designers obtained as much source material from Empire Strikes Back as possible so to create an authentic reproduction . Level Designer Justin Negrete says that Hoth was one of the most challenging areas to design . The general level design process started by planning out the level on paper . These ideas were then " fleshed out " to get the size and flow of the level . Once this had been done , features of the Quake III engine were used to add more detail such as lighting effects . The final stage of level design was adding aspects that improved the gameplay and fun of the level .
The mission based format of Jedi Academy was used by Raven to reduce the linearity of the game , allowing the player to progress through levels mostly in the order they desire . The reduction in linearity was also achieved by only requiring 80 % of levels to be completed before the plot can move on . Raven provided modding tools with Jedi Academy , but the company specified that such tools are unsupported by customer support , so to avoid receiving calls on the subject . Brett Tosti , a producer for LucasArts , stated that the customization of the player that is provided by the game out of the box will mean that people are less likely to need to create their own " skins " .
= = = Release = = =
The game was published and distributed within the United States by LucasArts . Activision took control of publishing and distributing the game in Europe . The game was released for Microsoft Windows and OS X ( published by Aspyr ) on September 17 , 2003 and for Xbox ( developed by Vicarious Visions ) in November 2003 , and received positive reviews .
In September 2009 , the game was re @-@ released with the other Star Wars : Jedi Knight games ( Star Wars : Dark Forces , Star Wars Jedi Knight : Dark Forces II , Star Wars Jedi Knight : Mysteries of the Sith and Star Wars Jedi Knight II : Jedi Outcast ) through the digital distributor Steam and Direct2Drive .
= = = Source @-@ code release = = =
Following Disney 's decision to close LucasArts on April 3 , 2013 , the developers at Raven Software released the source code for the game on SourceForge under GNU GPLv2 licensing . A few days after release , the source code disappeared from SourceForge without explanation . SourceForge later explained to media outlet Kotaku that Raven Software had requested its removal . Kotaku speculated this was due to the presence of licensed code , such as for the Bink Video format from Rad Game Tools , that was not intended to be made public .
= = Critical reception = =
Both the PC and Xbox versions of the game were well received . The PC version holds an aggregate score of 81 out of 100 on Metacritic , based on thirty @-@ five reviews , and 80 @.@ 18 % on GameRankings , based on fifty @-@ one reviews . The Xbox version holds aggregate scores of 76 out of 100 on Metacritic , based on thirty reviews , and 75 @.@ 22 % on GameRankings , based on forty @-@ five reviews .
= = = PC = = =
Positive reviews praised the fact that , unlike in Dark Forces II and Jedi Outcast , players could use a lightsaber from the beginning . Game Over Online scored the game 92 % and commented that " You start instantly with your lightsaber , rather than wading through six painfully bland FPS levels to get your lightsaber as you did in Jedi Outcast " . Critics lauded the lightsaber interface and player customization options . Ernie Halal of Gaming Age gave the game an A- , writing , " You choose not only the gender and race of your character , but also which powers and fighting styles to develop [ ... ] Third person adventure games rarely offer that much customization . "
Critics noted that , despite its age , the Quake III engine was used well . PC Gamer UK , who scored the game 70 out of 100 , wrote " the engine , which although hardly groundbreaking any more , perfectly evokes the glow of the lightsaber and the grimy , metallic backgrounds of the films . " Some critics did , however , note that the engine was starting to look dated .
The multiplayer , in particular the objective @-@ based Siege mode , was well received . The music , sound effects , and voice acting also received acclaim , although some critics found it odd that all aliens spoke English .
The story and level design received mixed reactions . Some critics commended the levels as varied ( both in terms of length and content ) . GameZone scored the game 9 out of 10 , writing " Some are a fast blast that can be beat in ten or so minutes . Others [ ... ] can take as long as hours [ ... ] The change of pace is very refreshing . " The story was described as " great " by GameZone and as " strong " by Gaming Age . IGN 's Steve Butts , however , disliked the plot , feeling that " Jedi Outcast was more satisfying in terms of involvement with the story . Jedi Academy dishes out more action sooner but fails to put it in as solid a context as the previous game . "
Game Over Online was critical of the mission structure , writing " This kind of free @-@ form mission assignment [ ... ] only serves to weaken the plotline . It also leads to a disjointedness to the missions [ ... ] it seems more like roaming than any actual story advancement . " GameSpot 's Craig Beers , however , praised the mission structure ; " Jedi Academy does an excellent job of balancing its missions . " IGN also defended the system ; " It 's nice that the game offers a series of fairly short , relatively unconnected missions at the start . It 's a great way to get your feet wet and ease you in to the environments and the saber fighting before the challenge level ramps up . "
The AI was criticized by PC Gamer UK as " laughable " ; " Every encounter you have is filled with people too stupid to realise that running away or taking some sort of cover would be the best option . [ Jedi Academy ] requires little to no skill to play through . " This opinion was echoed by GameSpot : " Stormtroopers usually just stand there shooting away at you [ ... ] Dark Jedi rush at you , even after watching four of their brethren plummet to a horrible death . Occasionally , you 'll see an enemy accidentally commit suicide by falling off a cliff or falling into lava , enemies will not even dive for cover or try and throw it back if you throw an uncooked thermal detonator at them . "
Despite his criticism of the AI , GameSpot 's Craig Beers scored the game 8 @.@ 4 out of 10 , writing " It manages to take all the fun parts from its predecessor and greatly expands them to create an engaging , new action game in its own right . " IGN 's Steve Butts scored the game 8 @.@ 8 out of 10 , giving it an " Editor 's Choice Award " and writing " If you like Star Wars and think flipping around chopping up Stormtroopers and flinging Dark Jedi off of conveniently placed precipices is fun , then this game is definitely for you . " Eurogamer 's Kristan Reed was less impressed , scoring the game 7 out of 10 , writing " The harsh reality is , for all the plentiful additions , there 's much work to be done before LucasArts can boast it has created the ultimate Star Wars FPS . Sure , it 's the best one yet , but with some often laughable AI and creaking tech underpinning it , the flaws are there for all to see . "
= = = Xbox = = =
Kevin Gifford of 1UP.com scored the Xbox version a B- . He lauded the addition of Xbox Live support and the ability to use a lightsaber from the opening , two of biggest criticisms of Jedi Outcast . However , he called the graphics " worryingly out of date by current Xbox standards " , saying that when playing in first @-@ person mode " the game looks more like a two @-@ year @-@ old PC shooter than a modern Star Wars game . " He concluded that " The Xbox Live games make Jedi Academy worth at least a rental to online players , but otherwise , this game 's worth it to Star Wars fans only . " Eurogamer 's Kristan Reed was also somewhat unimpressed , scoring the game 6 out of 10 and criticizing the controls ; " In common with the PC version , you still find yourself going into battle and fumbling furiously through cyclical menus while numerous baddies are busy blasting seven shades out of you . " She was also critical of the AI and the graphics , concluding
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run for public office , agreed to help , in the interest of ensuring a fair trial . Adams was joined by Josiah Quincy II after the latter was assured that the Sons of Liberty would not oppose his appointment , and by Robert Auchmuty , a Loyalist . They were assisted by Sampson Salter Blowers , whose chief duty was to investigate the jury pool , and Paul Revere , who drew a detailed map of the bodies to be used in the trial of the British soldiers held responsible . Massachusetts Solicitor General Samuel Quincy and private attorney Robert Treat Paine , hired by the town of Boston , handled the prosecution . Preston was tried separately in late October 1770 . He was acquitted after the jury was convinced that he had not ordered the troops to fire .
The trial of the eight soldiers opened on November 27 , 1770 . Adams told the jury to look beyond the fact the soldiers were British . He argued that if the soldiers were endangered by the mob , which he called " a motley rabble of saucy boys , negroes , and molattoes , Irish teagues and outlandish jack tarrs [ i.e. sailors ] " , they had the legal right to fight back , and so were innocent . If they were provoked but not endangered , he argued , they were at most guilty of manslaughter .
The jury agreed with Adams and acquitted six of the soldiers after two and one @-@ half hours deliberation . Two of the soldiers were found guilty of manslaughter because there was overwhelming evidence that they had fired directly into the crowd . The jury 's decisions suggest that they believed the soldiers had felt threatened by the crowd , but should have delayed firing . Patrick Carr , the fifth victim , corroborated this with deathbed testimony delivered to his doctor . The convicted soldiers were granted reduced sentences by invoking Benefit of clergy , which reduced their punishment from a death sentence to branding of the thumb in open court .
The four civilians were tried on December 13 . The principal prosecution witness , a servant of one of the accused , made claims that were easily rebutted by defense witnesses . In the face of this weak testimony , as well as waning public interest , the prosecution allegedly failed to press its case very hard . The civilians were all acquitted , and the servant was eventually convicted of perjury , whipped , and banished from the province .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Contribution to American Revolution = = =
The Boston Massacre is considered one of the most important events that turned colonial sentiment against King George III and British Parliamentary authority . John Adams wrote that the " foundation of American independence was laid " on March 5 , 1770 , and Samuel Adams and other Patriots used annual commemorations ( Massacre Day ) of the event to fulminate against British rule . Christopher Monk , the boy who was wounded in the attack and died in 1780 , was paraded before the crowds as a reminder of British hostility . Later events , such as the Boston Tea Party , further illustrated the crumbling relationship between Britain and its colonies . Although five years passed between the massacre and outright revolution , and direct connections between the massacre and the later war are ( according to historian Neil Langley York ) somewhat tenuous , it is widely perceived as a significant event leading to the violent rebellion that followed .
= = = Commemorations = = =
The massacre was remembered in 1858 in a celebration organized by William Cooper Nell , an African American abolitionist who saw the death of Crispus Attucks as an opportunity to demonstrate the role of African Americans in the Revolutionary War . Partly because of this activism , artwork commemorating the massacre was produced that changed the color of a victim 's skin to black ( which in Revere 's original engraving was white ) to emphasize Attucks ' claimed martyrdom . In 1888 , a monument was erected on the Boston Common to the men killed in the massacre , and the five victims , along with Christopher Seider , were reinterred in a prominent grave in the Granary Burying Ground .
The massacre is reenacted annually on March 5 under the auspices of the Bostonian Society . The Old State House , the massacre site , and the Granary Burying Ground are all part of Boston 's Freedom Trail , connecting sites important in the city 's revolutionary @-@ era history .
= Swabian War =
The Swabian War of 1499 ( Schwabenkrieg , also called Schweizerkrieg ( " Swiss War " ) in Germany and Engadiner Krieg [ " War of the Engadin " ] in Austria ) was the last major armed conflict between the Old Swiss Confederacy and the House of Habsburg . What had begun as a local conflict over the control of the Val Müstair and the Umbrail Pass in the Grisons soon got out of hand when both parties called upon their allies for help ; the Habsburgs demanding the support of the Swabian League , and the Federation of the Three Leagues of the Grisons turning to the Swiss Eidgenossenschaft . Hostilities quickly spread from the Grisons through the Rhine valley to Lake Constance and even to the Sundgau in southern Alsace , the westernmost part of Habsburg Further Austria .
Many battles were fought from January to July 1499 , and in all but a few minor skirmishes , the experienced Swiss soldiers defeated the Swabian and Habsburg armies . After their victories in the Burgundian Wars , the Swiss had battle tested troops and commanders . On the Swabian side , distrust between the knights and their foot soldiers , disagreements amongst the military leadership , and a general reluctance to fight a war that even the Swabian counts considered to be more in the interests of the powerful Habsburgs than in the interest of the Holy Roman Empire proved fatal handicaps . When his military high commander fell in the battle of Dornach , where the Swiss won a final decisive victory , king Maximilian I had no choice but to agree to a peace treaty signed on September 22 , 1499 in Basel . The treaty granted the Confederacy far @-@ reaching independence from the empire . Although the Eidgenossenschaft officially remained a part of the empire until the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648 , the peace of Basel exempted it from the imperial jurisdiction and imperial taxes and thus de facto acknowledged it as a separate political entity .
= = Background = =
One source of conflict was the ancient distrust , rivalry , and hostility between the Old Swiss Confederacy and the House of Habsburg , which had risen to the throne of the Holy Roman Emperor since 1438 . Since the late 13th century , the members of the Swiss Confederacy had gradually taken control of territories that once had belonged to the Habsburg realm . The Swiss had attained the status of imperial immediacy , being subject only to the emperor himself , and not to any intermediate Princes or liege lords . This status granted them a far @-@ reaching autonomy within the Holy Roman Empire , even more so as the emperor was a distant overlord . Before 1438 , the empire and the emperor had been an antipole to the Habsburg dukes for the Swiss . Previous emperors had repeatedly supported the confederates in their struggles against the Habsburgs , whom they saw as strong rivals . They had confirmed the Imperial immediacy of the Swiss on several occasions ; and the Swiss had succeeded in defending their privileged status against Habsburg dukes who had tried to regain their former territories .
= = = The Habsburgs in the Holy Roman Empire in the 15th century = = =
When Frederick III of Habsburg ascended to the throne , the Swiss suddenly faced a new situation in which they could no longer count on support from the empire . Worse yet , conflicts with the Habsburg dukes threatened to become conflicts with the empire itself . Under Frederick 's reign , this did not occur yet . Frederick had sided in 1442 against the confederacy in the Old Zürich War where he had supported the city of Zürich , and he also refused to reconfirm the imperial immediacy of the members of the Confederacy . But Frederick 's troubled reign did not leave room for military operations against the Swiss . In Austria , Frederick was in conflict first with his brother Albert and then faced the pressure of Matthias Corvinus , who even drove him from Vienna and forced Frederick 's court to assume an itinerant lifestyle .
In the empire , Frederick faced the opposition of the Bavarian Wittelsbach dynasty and of his cousin Sigismund , who was duke in Tyrol , Vorarlberg , and Further Austria then . Sigismund had been in conflict with the Swiss Confederacy , too . When he had been banned by Pope Pius II in a conflict over the nomination of a bishop in Tyrol , the Swiss had annexed the formerly Habsburg territories of the Thurgau . In 1468 , Sigismund clashed with the Swiss in the War of Waldshut , which he could end without significant territorial losses only by paying a large ransom , which he financed by pawning territories in the Sundgau and the Alsace to Charles the Bold of Burgundy in 1469 . Charles did not , however , help Sigismund against the Swiss , and so Sigismund bought back the territories in 1474 and concluded a peace treaty with the Confederacy , the Ewige Richtung , although the emperor never recognized it . In the following Burgundy Wars , the Swiss and Sigismund both fought against Charles the Bold .
In 1487 , Sigismund arranged the marriage of Frederick 's daughter Kunigunde to duke Albert IV of Bavaria against her father 's will , and he also signed away some of his territories in Tyrol and Further Austria to Albert IV . Frederick intervened by force : he founded the Swabian League in 1488 , an alliance of the Swabian cities , the Swabian knights of the League of St. George 's Shield and the counts of Württemberg and Tyrol and Vorarlberg . With their help , he forced the Wittelsbach house to return the territories signed over by Sigismund .
In 1490 , Sigismund was forced to abdicate and turn over all his territories to Frederick 's son Maximilian I. Maximilian had married Mary of Burgundy in 1477 after the death of Charles the Bold in the Burgundy Wars and thus inherited the Burgundian territories : Duchy and County of Burgundy and the Netherlands . He took over and expanded the Burgundian administration with a more centralized style of government , which in 1482 , caused the outbreak of a rebellion of the cities and counts , allied with Charles VIII of France , against Maximilian . The Duchy of Burgundy was also a French fiefdom and immediately claimed by Charles VIII . The first phase of this conflict would last until 1489 , keeping Maximilian occupied in the Low Countries . He even fell into the hands of his enemies and was held prisor for four months in Bruges in 1488 . He was freed only when his father sent an army under the command of duke Albert of Saxony to his rescue . Maximilian subsequently returned to Germany , leaving his cousin Albert as his representative . Albert would , in the following years , manage to assert the Habsburg hegemony in the Netherlands .
Maximilian had been elected King of the Romans in 1486 on his father 's initiative , and they had been ruling jointly since then . Upon the death of Frederick in 1493 , Maximilian also took over his father 's possessions and thus united the whole Habsburg territory in his hands . In the same year , the Peace of Senlis also marked the end of his wars against the French about his Burgundian possessions ; he kept the territories in the Netherlands and also the County of Burgundy , but had to cede the Duchy of Burgundy to the French king . Maximilian controlled thus territories that nearly encircled the Old Swiss Confederacy : Tyrol and Vorarlberg in the east , Further Austria in the north , and the County of Burgundy in the west .
= = = Swabia and the Swiss = = =
When asked by emperor Frederick to also join the Swabian League , the Eidgenossen flatly refused : they saw no reason to join an alliance designed to further Habsburg interests , and they were wary of this new , relatively closely knit and powerful alliance that had arisen on their northern frontier . Furthermore , they resented the strong aristocratic element in the Swabian League , so different from their own organization , which had grown over the last two hundred years liberating themselves from precisely such an aristocratic rule .
On the Swabian side , similar concerns existed . For the common people in Swabia , the independence and freedom of the Eidgenossen was a powerful and attractive role model . Many a baron in southern Swabia feared that his own subjects might revolt and seek adherence to the Swiss Confederacy . These fears were not entirely without foundation : the Swiss had begun to form alliances north of the Rhine river , concluding a first treaty with Schaffhausen in 1454 and then also treaties with cities as far away as Rottweil ( 1463 ) or Mulhouse ( 1466 ) .
The city of Constance and its bishop were caught in the middle between these two blocks : they held possessions in Swabia , but the city also still exercised the high justice over the Thurgau , where the Swiss had assumed the low justice since the annexation in 1460 . The foundation of the Swabian League prompted the Swiss city states of Zürich and Bern to propose accepting Constance into the Swiss Confederacy . The negotiations failed , though , due to the opposition of the founding cantons of the Confederacy and Uri in particular . The split jurisdiction over the Thurgau was the cause of many quarrels between the city and the Confederacy . In 1495 , one such disagreement was answered by a punitive expedition of soldiers of Uri and the city had to pay the sum of 3 @,@ 000 guilders to make them retreat and cease their plundering . ( The Thurgau was a condominium of the Swiss Confederacy , and Uri was one of the cantons involved in its administration . ) Finally , Constance joined the Swabian League as a full member on November 3 , 1498 . Although this did not yet definitively define the position of the city — during the Reformation , it would be allied again with Zürich and Bern , and only after the defeat of the Schmalkaldic League in 1548 its close connections to the Eidgenossenschaft would be finally severed — it was another factor contributing to the growing estrangement between the Swiss and the Swabians .
The competition between Swiss ( Reisläufer ) and Swabian mercenaries ( Landsknechte ) , who both fought in armies throughout Europe , sometimes opposing each other on the battlefield , sometimes competing for contracts , intensified . Contemporary chronicles agree in their reports that the Swiss , who were considered the best soldiers in Europe at the time after their victories in the Burgundian Wars , were subject to many taunts and abuses by the Landsknechte ; they were called " Kuhschweizer " and ridiculed in other ways . Such insults were neither given nor taken lightly , and frequently led to bloodshed . Indeed , such incidents would contribute to prolong the Swabian War itself by triggering skirmishes and looting expeditions that the military commands of neither side had ever wanted or planned .
= = = The imperial reform of 1495 = = =
Maximilian I , like other Holy Roman Emperors before and after him , had to face struggles with other powerful princes in the empire and he thus sought to secure his position and the imperial monarchy by furthering centralisation . At the Imperial Diet held in Worms in 1495 , he was partly successful , but he also had to make concessions in favor of the princes . The imperial reform proclaimed an " eternal public peace " ( Ewiger Landfriede ) to put an end to the abounding feuds and the anarchy of the robber barons and it defined a new standing Imperial Army to enforce that peace , to which each imperial estate ( Reichsstand ) would have had to send troops . It also mandated the common penny ( Reichspfennig ) , a new head tax to finance this army . Among the concessions Maximilian had to make was the institution of a new supreme court , the Reichskammergericht , thus separating the highest judicial authority from the person and the whereabouts of the emperor . He also had to agree to the formation of a governmental council of princes called the Reichsregiment . It would never play a significant role : it convened for the first time in 1500 , but was dissolved by Maximilian two years later .
The Swiss did not accept these resolutions of the Imperial Diet , and they explicitly refused to pay the common penny . They had no interest whatsoever in sending troops to serve in an army under Habsburg authority , nor in paying taxes , nor would they accept any foreign court 's jurisdiction ; and they had succeeded in securing public peace within their territories reasonably well by themselves . They simply considered the whole proposal a curtailing of their freedom . The Swiss were by far not the only members of the empire who refused to accept the resolutions , but Maximilian would use their refusal later as a pretext to place the Swiss Confederacy under an imperial ban ( Reichsacht ) .
= = The course of the war = =
Open war broke out over a territorial conflict in the Grisons , where during the 15th century a federation similar to the Eidgenossenschaft had developed . Like the Swiss , these Three Leagues had achieved a far @-@ reaching autonomy , but also were involved in constant struggles with the Habsburgs , who ruled the neighbouring territories to the east and who kept trying to bring the Grisons under their influence . During the 1470s and 1480s , duke Sigismund had succeeded in acquiring step by step the high justice over most of the communes of the Zehngerichtebund ( " League of the Ten Jurisdictions " in the Prättigau , the youngest of the Three Leagues that had sprung up in the Grisons , having been founded only in 1436 ) , and Maximilian continued this expansionist strategy . The Habsburg pressure prompted the Three Leagues to sign a close military alliance with the Swiss Confederacy in 1497 @-@ 98 .
At the same time , the Habsburgs had been involved in a major power struggle with the French kings of the House of Valois over the control of the remains of the realm of Charles the Bold , whose daughter and heiress Mary Maximilian had married . Maximilian 's second marriage in 1493 with Bianca Maria Sforza from Milan then got the Habsburgs directly involved in the Italian Wars , clashing again with the French kings over the control of the Duchy of Milan .
As a direct connection between Tyrol and Milan , the Grisons and in particular the Val Müstair became strategically important to the Habsburgs . The Umbrail Pass in the Val Müstair connects the Vinschgau valley ( Val Venosta ) in southern Tyrol with the Valtellina in northern Italy . Furthermore , the Habsburgs and the Bishop of Chur had been quarrelling over the judicial rights over the region for some time . On January 20 , 1499 , Habsburg troops occupied the valley and plundered the Benedictine Convent of Saint John at Müstair , but were soon driven back by the forces of the Three Leagues , and an armistice was signed already on February 2 in Glurns ( Glorenza ) , a village in the upper Vinschgau .
But the Three Leagues had already called upon the Swiss for help and troops from Uri had already arrived in Chur . Upon learning about the truce , they withdrew , but met a small troop of Habsburg soldiers on their way back home . When those engaged in the usual insults on the Swiss , the latter crossed the Rhine and killed the scoffers . In retaliation , Habsburg troops sacked the village of Maienfeld on February 7 and called the Swabian League for help . Only five days later , Swiss troops from several cantons had been assembled and reconquered the village and moved towards Lake Constance , pillaging and plundering along the way . On February 20 , they again met a Habsburg army , which they defeated in the battle of Hard on the shores of Lake Constance near the estuary of the Rhine , and at about the same time , other Swiss troops invaded the Hegau region between Schaffhausen and Constance . On both sites , the Swiss retreated after a few days .
Meanwhile , the Swabian League had completed its recruitment , and undertook a raid on Dornach on March 22 , but suffered a defeat against numerically inferior Swiss troops in the battle of Bruderholz that same evening . In early April , both sides raided each other 's territories along the Rhine ; the Swiss conquered the villages of Hallau and Neunkirch in the Klettgau west of Schaffhausen . A larger attack of the Swabian League took place on April 11 , 1499 : the Swabian troops occupied and plundered some villages on the southern shore of Lake Constance , just south of Constance . The expedition ended in a shameful defeat and open flight when the Swiss soldiers , who had their main camp just a few miles south at Schwaderloh , arrived and met the Swabians in the battle of Schwaderloh . The Swabians lost more than 1 @,@ 000 soldiers ; 130 from the city of Constance alone ; and the Swiss captured their heavy equipment , including their artillery .
Again , the Swiss raided the Klettgau and the Hegau and pillaged several fortified smaller Swabian cities such as Tiengen or Stühlingen before retreating again . This whole war was characterized by many such smaller raids and plundering expeditions of both sides between a few larger battles . On the eastern front , a new Habsburg attack on the Rhine valley provoked a counterstrike of the Eidgenossen , who remained victorious in the battle of Frastanz near Feldkirch on April 20 , 1499 .
The continued defeats of both Habsburg and Swabian armies made king Maximilian , who had hitherto been occupied in the Netherlands , travel to Constance and assume the leadership of the operations himself . He declared an imperial ban over the Swiss Confederacy in an attempt to gain wider support for the operation amongst the German princes by declaring the conflict an " imperial war " . However , this move had no success . Maximilian then decided that the next decisive attack should take place again in the Val Müstair , since he didn 't have enough troops near Constance to risk attacking there . An abandoned attack attempt in the west in early May 1499 had drawn significant Swiss forces there , who subsequently raided the Sundgau . On May 21 , the Swiss undertook a third raid in the Hegau , but abandoned the operation one week later after the city of Stockach withstood a siege long enough for Swabian relief troops to come dangerously close .
Simultaneously , the Three Leagues attacked the Habsburg troops that camped again at Glurns on May 22 , 1499 , before Maximilian could arrive with reinforcements . They overran the fortifications and routed the Austrian army in the battle of Calven and then ravaged the Vinschgau , before retreating after three days . Maximilian and his troops arrived one week late , on May 29 . In revenge , his troops pillaged the Engadin valley , but retreated quickly before reinforcements from the Swiss Confederacy arrived .
The refusal of the military leaders of the Swabian League to withdraw troops from the northern front to send them to the Grisons as Maximilian had demanded made the king return to Lake Constance . The differences between the Swabians , who preferred to strike in the north , and the king , who still hoped to convince them to help him win the struggle in the Val Müstair , led to a pause in the hostilities . Troops were assembled at Constance , but an attack did not occur . Until July , nothing of significance happened along the whole front .
By mid @-@ July , Maximilian and the Swabian leaders suddenly were under pressure from their own troops . In the west , where there lay an army under the command of count Heinrich von Fürstenberg , a large contingent of mercenaries from Flanders and many knights threatened to leave as they had not received their pay . The foot soldiers of the Swabian troops also complained : most of them were peasants and preferred to go home and bring in the harvest . Maximilian was forced to act .
An attack by sea across Lake Constance on Rheineck and Rorschach on July 21 was one of the few successful Swabian operations . The small Swiss detachment was taken by surprise , the villages plundered and burnt . A much larger attack of an army of about 16 @,@ 000 soldiers in the west on Dornach , however , met a quickly assembled but strong Swiss army . In the battle of Dornach on July 22 , 1499 , the Swabian and mercenary troops suffered a heavy defeat after a long and hard battle . Their general Heinrich von Fürstenberg fell early in the fight , about 3 @,@ 000 Swabian and 500 Swiss soldiers died , and the Swabians lost all of their artillery again .
One of the last skirmishes of the war took place on July 25 . A Swabian army marched from the Hegau on Schaffhausen , but met with fierce defense at Thayngen . Although the small force of defenders was finally overcome , and the village was pillaged , the defenders inflicted heavy casualties and the attack was held up long enough for the Swiss to send troops from Schaffhausen to meet the Swabians in the field . Misunderstandings between the Swabian knights and their foot soldiers made the Swabians retreat , and nightfall then prevented a larger battle .
A major problem for the Swiss was the lack of any unified command . The cantonal contingents only took orders from their own leaders . Complaints of insubordination were common . The Swiss Diet had to adopt this resolution on 11 March 1499 : " Every canton shall impress upon its soldiers that when the Confederates are under arms together , each one of them , whatever his canton , shall obey the officers of the others . "
The war was paid for largely by the French and Italian allies of the Swiss as well as by ransoming prisoners of war .
= = Peace negotiations = =
Early mediation attempts in March 1499 had failed because of mutual distrust between the parties . But after the battle of Dornach , the Swabian League was war @-@ weary and had lost all confidence in the king 's abilities as a military leader , and thus refused Maximilian 's demands to muster a new army . The Swabian and Habsburg armies had suffered far higher human losses than the Swiss , and were also short on artillery , after repeatedly having lost their equipment to the Swiss . The Swiss also had no interest to prolong the war further , though they refused a first peace proposal that Maximilian presented at Schaffhausen in August 1499 .
However , events in the Italian Wars helped bring the Swabian War to an end . The French king Louis XII tried to bring the Duchy of Milan under his control . As long as the Swabian War continued , the Milanese ruler Ludovico il Moro — whose niece Bianca Maximilian had married in 1493 — could not expect help from either Swiss mercenaries or Maximilian , and thus his envoy Galeazzo Visconti tried to mediate between the Swiss and the king . The French delegation at the Tagsatzung , the federal diet and war council of the Swiss , tried to prevent any agreement for the same reason . The Milanese delegation prevailed in these intrigations and succeeded to persuade both sides to moderate their demands . Finally , a peace treaty between Maximilian I and the Swiss was signed in Basel on September 22 , 1499 . The peace treaty carefully played down the whole war from the " imperial war " that Maximilian had tried to make it by declaring the ban over the Confederacy to what it actually was : a war between two equal members of the empire ( Imperial estate , or Reichsstände ) , namely the House of Habsburg and the Swiss Confederacy . The document referred to Maximilian only as " duke of Habsburg " , not as " king of the Germans " or even " Holy Roman Emperor " .
With the Peace of Basel , the relations between the Old Swiss Confederacy and the empire returned to the status quo ante from before the Diet of Worms in 1495 . The imperial ban was dropped silently . Maximilian had to accept the refusal of the cantons and to abandon implicitly the Habsburg claims on their territories , acknowledging their independence . Consequently , the then ten members of the Swiss Confederacy remained exempt from the jurisdiction of the Reichskammergericht . The Swiss henceforth exercised also the high justice over the Thurgau . The war had not caused any territorial changes , except in the area around Schaffhausen , where the city had succeeded to assert its hegemony over some places that had formerly belonged to the Bishop of Constance .
In the Grisons , the situation also reverted to pre @-@ war conditions . The Habsburgs could keep their rights over eight of the communes of the Zehngerichtebund , but also had to accept that league 's alliance with the two other leagues and with the Swiss Confederacy . Ultimately , this arrangement would lead to the Habsburgs losing the Prättigau to the Three Leagues , with the exception of a temporary re @-@ occupation during the Thirty Years ' War nearly 130 years later .
= = Further consequences = =
Basel had remained studiously neutral throughout the whole war . Although allied with some cantons of the Swiss Confederacy , it also had strong economic ties in the Alsace and further down along the Rhine . But the events of the war had strengthened the pro @-@ confederate party in the city council , and the Swiss recognized the city 's strategic position as a bridgehead on the Rhine ( like Schaffhausen , too ) . On June 9 , 1501 , a delegation from Basel and the Swiss cantons ' representatives signed the alliance contract , which the city council of Basel ratified on July 13 , 1501 .
Schaffhausen had fought alongside the Eidgenossen during the Swabian War , and thus its acceptance into the Confederacy was a mere formality . The city had been an imperial city since 1415 and an associate state of the Confederacy since 1454 through a 25 @-@ year contract that had been renewed in 1479 . On August 10 , 1501 , it became the twelfth member of the Confederacy .
With the end of the war , the Swiss troops were no longer bound along the Rhine and in the Grisons . The cantons concluded new mercenary contracts , so called capitulations , with the Duchy of Milan and soon got deeply involved in the Italian Wars , where Swiss mercenaries ended up fighting on both sides . The involvement of the Old Swiss Confederacy , acting in its own interests in these wars , was brought to an end by the defeat against French forces in the battle of Marignano in 1515 and a subsequent peace treaty with the French king in 1516 , the so @-@ called Eternal Peace . However , Swiss mercenaries from individual cantons of the federation continued to participate in the Italian Wars well beyond ( until the middle of the 16th century ) in the service of various parties and , following that peace with France , in particular in the service of the French king .
The Swiss Confederacy remained an independent Reichsstand of the Holy Roman Empire , but as it wasn 't even obliged to participate in the Imperial Diet , this relation was degraded to a purely formal one that would lose significance throughout the 16th century . However , the Swiss still considered themselves as members of the empire with the status of imperial immediacy ; the empire was still considered the foundation of all privileges , rights , or political identity as can be witnessed in the continued use of the imperial insignia . The relations between the Habsburgs and the Confederacy were fully normalized in the Erbeinung of 1511 , a renewal of the earlier Ewige Richtung of 1474 and a first Erbeinung of 1477 . In that treaty , the Habsburgs finally and officially gave up all their territorial claims of old , and even designated the Confederacy the protecting power of the County of Burgundy . In the Treaty of Westphalia of 1648 , all members and associate states of the Confederacy would gain official full exemption from the empire and recognition as a national and political entity on their own right .
= = Endnotes = =
= Chaim Koppelman =
Chaim Koppelman ( November 17 , 1920 – December 6 , 2009 ) was an American artist , art educator , and Aesthetic Realism consultant . Best known as a printmaker , he also produced sculpture , paintings , and drawings . A member of the National Academy of Design since 1978 , he was president of the Society of American Graphic Artists ( SAGA ) , which presented him with a Lifetime Achievement Award in 2004 . He established the Printmaking Department of the School of Visual Arts in 1959 , and taught there until 2007 .
Koppelman was an early student of Aesthetic Realism , the philosophy founded in 1941 by Eli Siegel , which is based on the principle , " All beauty is a making one of opposites , and the making one of opposites is what we are going after in ourselves " . This principle informed Koppelman 's art , teaching , and his work as an Aesthetic Realism consultant . About the importance of this principle to art and life , Koppelman stated , " When Eli Siegel showed that what makes a work of art beautiful – the oneness of opposites – is the same as what every individual wants , it was one of the mightiest and kindest achievements of man 's mind " .
Koppelman 's art is noted for its originality , masterful technique , humor , and power . He is represented in most major print collections , including New York 's Museum of Modern Art , Guggenheim Museum , Whitney Museum , Metropolitan Museum , New York Public Library , Brooklyn Museum , Philadelphia Museum of Art , National Gallery , Smithsonian Institution , and Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden in Washington , DC , and the Victoria and Albert Museum in London . A retrospective exhibition at the Museo Napoleonico in Rome ( 2011 – 12 ) exposed his work to an international audience .
= = Early life and education = =
Chaim Koppelman was born in Brooklyn , New York City , to Sam and Sadie Koppelman , whose images appear in several of his works . At the age of 9 , he drew a profile of Napoleon in a geography book , and images of the Emperor would reappear throughout his long career . He began his study of art in Works Progress Administration ( WPA ) classes at the Brooklyn Museum in 1936 , and continued at Brooklyn College , the Educational Alliance , and the American Artists School . He studied sculpture with William Koss , abstract painting with Carl Holty , and lithography with Eugene Morley . At the Art Students League , he studied sculpture with Jose de Creeft and etching with Martin Lewis and Will Barnet .
In the early 1940s Koppelman worked at the Museum of Non @-@ Objective Painting on 54th Street in Manhattan ( which later became the Guggenheim Museum ) with , among others , Jackson Pollock , Robert De Niro , Sr. , Rolph Scarlett , Lucia Autorino , and Ward Jackson . Two of his early , abstract pen and ink drawings are in the Guggenheim collection . The first recorded exhibition of Koppelman 's work was held in the Lounge Gallery of the Eighth Street Playhouse in 1942 , and included drawings , paintings , and sculpture . The following year , he had a solo exhibition at the Outlines Gallery in Pittsburgh .
= = Aesthetic Realism and artistic development = =
In 1940 Koppelman began attending poetry classes with Eli Siegel , the American poet and critic who first came to national attention in 1925 , when his poem , " Hot Afternoons Have Been in Montana " won the esteemed poetry prize of The Nation . This poem , Siegel later stated , arose from a way of seeing that in 1941 became Aesthetic Realism , the philosophy that reality is aesthetic , and that " The resolution of conflict in self is like the making one of opposites in art . " In Koppelman 's opinion , Siegel was " the most important philosopher of the 20th century – perhaps of all time " .
In Aesthetic Realism classes and lessons , Koppelman learned that ethical problems are also artistic problems . He felt his work suffered from a fight between rigidity and flexibility . He learned he could go after precision in the studio as penance for being careless at other times , wanting to get away from things . As freedom and order , truth and imagination became more integrated in his life , his art became more imaginative . “ I had always had a classical bent in my work , ” he wrote . “ But there was also a wildness in me that had not come into my work sufficiently or gracefully . ” As a result of his study , Koppelman noted , “ Tightness and abandon , the classical and the wild , even the conservative and the rebel seemed to be working better together ” resulting in art that was “ more imaginative , freer in concept ” Boldness of imagination and an unerring sense of detail were two qualities Koppelman ’ s work became noted for .
He also learned that art does not arise from suffering or depression , but rather from the hope to respect and honestly like the world by seeing opposites as one . This , according to Aesthetic Realism , is the deepest desire of every person , but it is opposed by the desire for contempt — the false notion that one adds to self by lessening the value of other things . Koppelman ’ s art is permeated with his understanding of this conflict . His works are often allegories which point to the discrepancy between , and the need to integrate , opposites such as pride and humility , generosity and selfishness , idealism and cynicism . “ That art could be a vehicle for understanding individual behavior seems always to have inspired Koppeman ’ s creative process ” wrote John B. Ravenal of the Virginia Museum of Fine Arts , noting that his works “ offer intimate rendering of closely observed detail , by which , paradoxically , they evoke universal truths ”
In November 1942 , Koppelman was drafted into the United States Army and in 1943 he married painter Dorothy Myers . He worked as a radio weatherman during World War II , guiding ships through the rough waters of the English Channel , which was a critical part of the Invasion of Normandy . He manned an anti @-@ aircraft machine gun in the D @-@ Day landing on Omaha Beach , and later , as staff sergeant , was awarded a Bronze Star . Before the invasion , he had been able to study at the Art College of Western England in Bristol , and later at the École des Beaux @-@ Arts in Reims . While on leave , he visited Picasso 's studio in Paris , and it was Picasso and Louis Aragon who told Koppelman that the war in Europe was over . Letters describing his wartime experience are in the Chaim and Dorothy Koppelman papers at the Smithsonian Archives of American Art .
Upon returning to New York , Koppelman continued his study of Aesthetic Realism , and under the G.I. Bill , he studied at the Amédée Ozenfant School and became Ozenfant 's assistant . While he continued to exhibit sculpture and drawings , he also began printmaking , a medium which , he said , combines the carving quality of sculpture with the subtleties of light and shade in drawing and painting .
= = Influence in the art community = =
In the early 1950s Koppelman was part of the Stanley William Hayter Atelier 17 in New York . Later he worked at the Printmaking Workshop founded by Robert Blackburn and Will Barnet . Blackburn credited Koppelman with saving the workshop when it faced financial difficulties in 1956 , by transforming it into a seven @-@ member artists cooperative with annual dues to keep its doors open .
Blackburn , Chaim and Dorothy Koppelman , and Leo Katz – the head of Atelier 17 after Hayter – were among the artists who attended Beauty Conferences and Art Inquiries conducted by Eli Siegel , classes in which he discussed current work of contemporary artists with the artists present and participating . " The depth of the discussions that took place , " Koppelman later wrote , " encouraged the artists to understand more deeply what their work was about , and what their intention was " .
In 1955 , the Terrain Gallery opened with Dorothy Koppelman as founding director . She and Chaim Koppelman , as print curator , were responsible for major print exhibitions which included the work of Roy Lichtenstein , Claes Oldenburg , Alex Katz , Ad Reinhardt , Fay Lansner , John von Wicht , Leonard Baskin , Robert Conover , Will Barnet , Harold Krisel , Vincent Longo and others . The motto of the Terrain was Siegel 's statement : " In reality opposites are one ; art shows this . " The gallery held exhibitions of contemporary art , with works frequently accompanied by the artists ' comments on Siegel 's fifteen questions , Is Beauty the Making One of Opposites ? , published by the Terrain and reprinted in The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism . After one @-@ person shows at the Terrain , both Chaim and Dorothy Koppelman had work included in the 1962 exhibition " Recent Painting USA : The Figure " at the Museum of Modern Art .
Koppelman opened his own studio and graphic workshop in 1964 at 498 Broome Street , pioneering the SoHo artists ' community . The Broome Street Workshop remained open more than forty years , and was used and cared for by various artists , including Michael DiCerbo , Sally Brody , Carl Shishido , Reynolds Tenezias , and others .
In 1967 the Terrain Gallery held an exhibition to benefit napalm @-@ burned and crippled Vietnamese children . Titled All Art Is for Life and Against the War in Vietnam , it included the work of 105 painters , sculptors , printmakers , and photographers . " Vietnam " , a Koppelman aquatint originally in the Terrain exhibit , is included in The Indignant Eye : The Artist as Social Critic in Prints and Drawings from the Fifteenth Century to Picasso , by Ralph E. Shikes , which quotes Koppelman about his artistic intention : " I wanted a sense of a mother 's dignity in the midst of tragedy . "
" Our Injustice , Vietnam " , an embossed print with metallic paint on paper , described as a " stark political statement " in The New York Times , is in the collections of the Whitney Museum of American Art and the Brooklyn Museum .
Koppelman was commissioned in 1968 to interview Roy Lichtenstein , Richard Anuszkiewicz , and Clayton Pond on the relevance of the Siegel Theory of Opposites to their work . Recordings of these interviews are part of the Smithsonian Archives of American Art . The following year , essays by Dorothy and Chaim Koppelman appeared in the book , Aesthetic Realism : We Have Been There – Six Artists on the Siegel Theory of Opposites ( New York : Definition Press , 1969 ) .
After having tested his aesthetic concepts in literally thousands of works of different periods , in different styles , in different media , for more than twenty years , I say that Eli Siegel 's Theory of Opposites is the key to what is good or beautiful in art . I have seen that the greater the work of art , the richer , more surprising and subtle the play and fusion of the opposing qualities in it . In a bad work of art , the opposites are present , but either they fight too much , or they are limply there ... Contempt is the greatest enemy of art ... Contempt , according to Aesthetic Realism , is the difference between what a thing deserves and what we give it ... Beauty can only arise from a mind that is just , wants to see things exactly and give them all the meaning they deserve . You can 't switch from contempt outside to respect in the studio , and get away with it .
= = Critical reception and awards = =
Koppelman 's prints were compared to William Blake and Francisco Goya . ARTnews wrote of his " superb use of allegory . " Critics praised his work at the Terrain Gallery , the Kennedy Gallery , the RoKo Gallery , the Brooklyn Museum , the National Academy of Design , and the National Gallery in Washington , D.C. " Koppelman 's concern is man , good and evil ... He is a superb technician whose work has grandeur and emotional impact , " wrote Bennett Schiff . " Chaim Koppelman brings a totally new concept and technique to the field of graphic art , " wrote critic and gallery director Sylvan Cole , Jr . " Siegel 's Theory of Opposites has had a profound effect upon his work " . Una Johnson , Curator Emeritus of Prints and Drawings at the Brooklyn Museum said , " He has harnessed his skills and his unblinking imagery to the troubled , often controversial problems of our times . " Fellow artist Will Barnet said , " He was brilliant , both in printmaking and painting . His work has a sense of darkness and light that is unique ... There was this profundity in him , and this sense of humanity . And it was developed through Aesthetic Realism " .
Koppelman received the SAGA Markel Prize in 1956 , and Tiffany Grants in 1967 and 1969 . He represented the United States in the Documenta II exhibition , Kassel , West Germany in 1969 . In the SAGA annual exhibition of 1967 , Koppelman 's print " Exodus " was awarded the Vera List Prize . The following year , his work was shown and discussed on Channel 31 , WNYC @-@ TV . In 1976 , he won a New York State CAPS ( Creative Artists Public Service ) Grant for a suite of lithographs titled Closeness and Clash in Couples and Domestic Life . In 1998 , his charcoal drawing " The Dark Angels " won the Gladys Emerson Cook Award for general excellence from the National Academy . In 1992 Koppelman , Blackburn , and Barnet received a New York Artists Equity Award for their dedicated service to the printmaking community . Legends of the Printmaking Workshop , a 2011 exhibition at the LaGrange Museum in Georgia , featured prints of all three artists and Tom Laidman , selected by , and now part of , the collection of Wesley Cochran . ,
= = Teaching , writing , and later work = =
In 1959 , Koppelman began the Printmaking Department at the School of Visual Arts , where he taught until 2007 . He also taught at the National Academy , New York University , SUNY New Paltz , the Rhodes Preparatory School , and the 92nd Street Y. In 1973 , he became a consultant on the faculty of the not @-@ for @-@ profit Aesthetic Realism Foundation . As part of the trio , The Kindest Art , he gave consultations to artists and others , teaching that art answers the deepest question in life : how to be fully oneself by being fair to the outside world . He taught The Art of Drawing : Surface and Depth . He studied Aesthetic Realism with Eli Siegel until 1978 , and then in professional classes with the Chairman of Education , Ellen Reiss .
His scholarly writing as an Aesthetic Realism consultant showing the relation of art and life includes considerations of the lives and works of sculptors Augustus Saint @-@ Gaudens and Jacques Lipchitz ; painters René Magritte , Giorgio de Chirico , Henri Matisse , Rembrandt , Fernand Léger , Henri de Toulouse @-@ Lautrec , Masaccio ; and many American printmakers . He is the author of The Art of the Print , essays on works of Picasso , Daumier , Munch , Hogarth , and Duane Hanson . His drawings illustrate Siegel 's book , Damned Welcome : Aesthetic Realism Maxims ( New York : Definition Press , 1972 , 2011 ) .
Although known mostly for his work in black and white , Koppelman 's painterly interest in color took a new form in the 1970s , when he began using color in his prints . After 1980 , he worked increasingly in pastel and watercolor .
= = Collections and exhibitions = =
Koppelman 's work appears in major print collections , including the Museum of Modern Art , the Metropolitan , Whitney , Brooklyn and Guggenheim Museums ; Peabody Essex Museum , Yale University Art Gallery , the National Gallery , Pennell Collection @-@ Library of Congress , the Minneapolis Institute of Art , Los Angeles County Museum , the Walker Art Center , the Victoria and Albert Museum in London , the Fine Arts Museum in Anchorage , and the Museum of Fine Arts in Caracas . Both Chaim and Dorothy Koppelman kept " object books " begun in 1949 , containing sketches of ordinary objects along with , at the suggestion of Eli Siegel , three descriptive sentences about each object . These sketches and notes continued to the year 2000 , and some volumes are among the Chaim and Dorothy Koppelman papers in the Archives of American Art collection of the Smithsonian Institution .
In 2000 , a retrospective exhibition of Koppelman 's works on paper was held at the Beatrice Conde gallery . Chaim Koppelman died on December 6 , 2009 of natural causes at Beth Israel Medical Center in Manhattan , New York City . A memorial exhibition spanning seven decades of his work was held at the Terrain Gallery in 2010 .
= = Museo Napoleonico exhibit = =
Throughout Koppelman 's long career , the image of Napoleon is recurrent , and a retrospective exhibition of over eighty works and studies dealing with Napoleon was held at the Museo Napoleonico in Rome ( 11 October 2011 – 6 May 2012 ) . Titled Napoleon Entering New York : Chaim Koppelman and the Emperor , Works 1957 – 2007 , it included paintings , pastels , drawings , collage , watercolors , intaglio etchings , linocuts , and many of the artist 's notes on paper . The exhibition also included selections from a lecture Siegel gave in 1951 , Napoleon Bonaparte : or , Orderly Energy , which Koppelman had attended and which he credited with inspiring much of the work displayed .
In his review , " Chaim Koppelman 's Napoleon Entering Brighton Beach , Coney Island " , artist Richard Sloat , past president of SAGA , wrote : " In his art , Chaim Koppelman was a maker of stories about our inner self . ... For Napoleon to be leading his army in retreat down the boardwalk of Coney Island is a bit heroic , a bit tragic , a bit funny , a bit absurd , but also glorious . Is this not a wonderful metaphor of our living this life ? "
In reviewing this exhibition , the Italian daily newspaper , Corriere della Sera described Koppelman as " one of the greatest American printmakers " .
= = Books and essays = =
Koppelman , Chaim ( 1969 ) . This Is the Way I See Aesthetic Realism . New York : Terrain Gallery & Definition Press .
Koppelman , Chaim . " I Believe This About Art " . In Kranz , Sheldon . Aesthetic Realism : We Have Been There – Six Artists on the Siegel Theory of Opposites . New York : Definition Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 910492 @-@ 11 @-@ 5 .
Koppelman , Chaim ( 2004 ) . Four Essays on the Art of the Print . New York : Orange Angle Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 9759813 @-@ 0 @-@ 7 .
Koppelman , Chaim ( 24 July 2003 ) . " The Sculpture of Augustus St. Gaudens : Its Meaning for Our Lives " . The Southampton Press . ISSN 0745 @-@ 6484 .
= Wannsee Conference =
The Wannsee Conference ( German : Wannseekonferenz ) was a meeting of senior officials of Nazi Germany , held in the Berlin suburb of Wannsee on 20 January 1942 during World War II . The purpose of the conference was to ensure the cooperation of administrative leaders of various departments in the implementation of the final solution to the Jewish question . The conference , called by Chief of the Reich Main Security Office ( RSHA ) Reinhard Heydrich , was attended by representatives from several government ministries , including state secretaries from the Foreign Office , the justice , interior , and state ministries , and representatives from the Schutzstaffel ( SS ) .
In the course of the meeting , Heydrich outlined the proposal of final extermination of European Jews in German @-@ occupied Europe under the pretext of resettlement . The plan called for removing them from their home environment and deporting them by train to extermination camps in the General Government territory of occupied Poland , where they would be murdered out of sight primarily by gassing .
Soon after the invasion of Poland in September 1939 , the unprecedented persecution of European Jewry was introduced , but the indiscriminate killings of men , women and children began in June 1941 after the onset of Operation Barbarossa against the Soviets . On 31 July 1941 Hermann Göring gave written authorization to Heydrich to prepare and submit a plan for a " total solution of the Jewish question " in territories under German control and to coordinate the participation of all involved government organisations . At Wannsee , Heydrich emphasised that once the mass deportation strategy was complete , the exterminations would become an internal matter of the SS . A secondary goal was to arrive at a definition of who was formally Jewish and thus determine the scope of the genocide .
One copy of the Protocol with circulated minutes of the meeting survived the war . It was found by the Allies in March 1947 among files that had been seized from the German Foreign Office . It was used as evidence in the Subsequent Nuremberg Trials . The Wannsee House , site of the conference , is now a Holocaust memorial .
= = Background = =
Legalized discrimination against Jews in Germany began immediately after the Nazi seizure of power in January 1933 . Violence and economic pressure were used by the Nazi regime to encourage Jews to voluntarily leave the country . The ideology of Nazism brought together elements of antisemitism , racial hygiene , and eugenics , and combined them with pan @-@ Germanism and territorial expansionism with the goal of obtaining more Lebensraum ( living space ) for the Germanic people . Nazi Germany attempted to obtain this new territory by attacking Poland and the Soviet Union , intending to deport or exterminate the Jews and Slavs living there , who were viewed as being inferior to the Aryan master race .
Discrimination against Jews , longstanding but extralegal throughout much of Europe at the time , was codified in Germany immediately after the Nazi seizure of power on 30 January 1933 . The Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service , passed on 7 April of that year , excluded most Jews from the legal profession and the civil service . Similar legislation soon deprived Jewish members of other professions of the right to practise . Violence and economic pressure were used by the regime to force Jews to leave the country . Jewish businesses were denied access to markets , forbidden to advertise in newspapers , and deprived of access to government contracts . Citizens were harassed and subjected to violent attacks and boycotts of their businesses .
In September 1935 the Nuremberg Laws were enacted . These laws prohibited marriages between Jews and people of Germanic extraction , extramarital relations between Jews and Germans , and the employment of German women under the age of 45 as domestic servants in Jewish households . The Reich Citizenship Law stated that only those of German or related blood were defined as citizens . Thus Jews and other minority groups were stripped of their German citizenship . A supplementary decree issued in November defined as Jewish anyone with three Jewish grandparents , or two grandparents if the Jewish faith was followed . By the start of World War II in 1939 , around 250 @,@ 000 of Germany 's 437 @,@ 000 Jews emigrated to the United States , Palestine , Great Britain , and other countries .
After the invasion of Poland in September 1939 , Hitler ordered that the Polish leadership and intelligentsia should be destroyed . The Sonderfahndungsbuch Polen ( Special Prosecution Book Poland ) — lists of people to be killed — had been drawn up by the SS as early as May 1939 . The Einsatzgruppen ( special task forces ) performed these murders with the support of the Volksdeutscher Selbstschutz ( Germanic Self @-@ Protection Group ) , a paramilitary group consisting of ethnic Germans living in Poland . Members of the SS , the Wehrmacht ( German Armed Forces ) , and the Ordnungspolizei ( Order Police ; Orpo ) also shot civilians during the Polish campaign . Approximately 65 @,@ 000 civilians were killed by the end of 1939 . In addition to leaders of Polish society , they killed Jews , prostitutes , Romani people , and the mentally ill .
On 31 July 1941 Hermann Göring gave written authorization to SS @-@ Obergruppenführer ( Senior Group Leader ) Reinhard Heydrich , Chief of the Reich Main Security Office ( RSHA ) , to prepare and submit a plan for a " total solution of the Jewish question " in territories under German control and to coordinate the participation of all involved government organisations . The resulting Generalplan Ost ( General Plan for the East ) called for deporting the population of occupied Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union to Siberia , for use as slave labour or to be murdered . The minutes of the Wannsee Conference estimated the Jewish population of the Soviet Union to be five million , with another three million in Ukraine .
In addition to eliminating Jews , the Nazis also planned to reduce the population of the conquered territories by 30 million people through starvation in an action called the Hunger Plan . Food supplies would be diverted to the German army and German civilians . Cities would be razed and the land allowed to return to forest or resettled by German colonists . The objective of the Hunger Plan was to inflict deliberate mass starvation on the Slavic civilian populations under German occupation by directing all food supplies to the German home population and the Wehrmacht on the Eastern Front . According to the historian Timothy Snyder , " 4 @.@ 2 million Soviet citizens ( largely Russians , Belarusians , and Ukrainians ) were starved " by the Nazis ( and the Nazi @-@ controlled Wehrmacht ) in 1941 – 1944 as a result of Backe 's plan .
Harvests were poor in Germany in 1940 and 1941 and food supplies were short , as large numbers of forced labourers had been brought into the country to work in the armaments industry . If these workers — as well as the German people — were to be adequately fed , there must be a sharp reduction in the number of " useless mouths " , of whom the millions of Jews under German rule were , in the light of Nazi ideology , the most obvious example .
At the time of the Wannsee Conference , the killing of Jews in the Soviet Union had already been underway for some months . Right from the start of Operation Barbarossa — the invasion of the Soviet Union — Einsatzgruppen were assigned to follow the army into the conquered areas and round up and kill Jews . In a letter dated 2 July 1941 Heydrich communicated to his SS and Police Leaders that the Einsatzgruppen were to execute Comintern officials , ranking members of the Communist Party , extremist and radical Communist Party members , people 's commissars , and Jews in party and government posts . Open @-@ ended instructions were given to execute " other radical elements ( saboteurs , propagandists , snipers , assassins , agitators , etc . ) . " He instructed that any pogroms spontaneously initiated by the occupants of the conquered territories were to be quietly encouraged . On 8 July , he announced that all Jews were to be regarded as partisans , and gave the order for all male Jews between the ages of 15 and 45 to be shot . By August the net had been widened to include women , children , and the elderly — the entire Jewish population . By the time planning was underway for the Wannsee Conference , hundreds of thousands of Polish , Serbian , and Russian Jews had already been killed . The initial plan was to implement Generalplan Ost after the conquest of the Soviet Union . European Jews would be deported to occupied parts of Russia , where they would be worked to death in road @-@ building projects .
= = Planning the conference = =
On 29 November 1941 , Heydrich sent invitations for a ministerial conference to be held on 9 December at the offices of Interpol at 16 Am Kleinen Wannsee . He changed the venue on 4 December to the eventual location of the meeting . He enclosed a copy of a letter from Göring dated 31 July that authorised him to plan a Final Solution to the Jewish question . The ministries to be represented were Interior , Justice , the Four @-@ year plan , Propaganda , and the Reich Ministry for the Occupied Eastern Territories .
Between the date the invitations to the conference went out ( 29 November ) and the date of the cancelled first meeting ( 9 December ) , the situation changed . On 5 December , the Soviet Army began a counter @-@ offensive in front of Moscow , ending the prospect of a rapid conquest of the Soviet Union . On 7 December , the Japanese attacked the United States at Pearl Harbor , causing the U.S. to declare war on Japan the next day . The Reich government declared war on the U.S. on 11 December . Some invitees were involved in these preparations , so Heydrich postponed his meeting . Somewhere around this time , Hitler resolved that the Jews of Europe were to be exterminated immediately , rather than after the war , which now had no end in sight . At the Reich Chancellery meeting of 12 December 1941 he met with top party officials and made his intentions plain . The war was still ongoing , and since transporting masses of people into a combat zone was impossible , Heydrich decided that the Jews currently living in the General Government ( the German @-@ occupied area of Poland ) would be killed in extermination camps set up in occupied areas of Poland , as would Jews from the rest of Europe .
On 8 January 1942 , Heydrich sent new invitations to a meeting to be held on 20 January . The venue for the rescheduled conference was a villa at 56 – 58 Am Großen Wannsee , overlooking the Großer Wannsee . The villa had been purchased from Friedrich Minoux in 1940 by the Sicherheitsdienst ( Security Force ; SD ) for use as a conference centre and guest house .
= = Attendees = =
Heydrich invited representatives from several government ministries , including state secretaries from the Foreign Office , the justice , interior , and state ministries , and representatives from the SS . The process of disseminating information about the fate of the Jews was already well underway by the time the meeting was held . Of the 15 who attended , 8 held academic doctorates .
= = Proceedings = =
In preparation for the conference , Eichmann drafted a list of the numbers of Jews in the various European countries . Countries were listed in two groups , " A " and " B " . " A " countries were those under direct Reich control or occupation ( or partially occupied and quiescent , in the case of Vichy France ) ; " B " countries were allied or client states , neutral , or at war with Germany . The numbers reflect actions already completed by Nazi forces ; for example , Estonia is listed as Judenfrei ( free of Jews ) , since the 4 @,@ 500 Jews who remained in Estonia after the German occupation had been exterminated by the end of 1941 . Occupied Poland was not on the list because by 1939 the country was split three ways between Polish areas annexed by Nazi Germany in the west , the territories of Poland annexed by the Soviet Union in the east , and the General Government , where many Polish and Jewish expellees had already been resettled .
Heydrich opened the conference with an account of the anti @-@ Jewish measures taken in Germany since the Nazi seizure of power in 1933 . He said that between 1933 and October 1941 , 537 @,@ 000 German , Austrian , and Czech Jews had emigrated . This information was taken from a briefing paper prepared for him the previous week by Eichmann .
Heydrich reported that there were approximately eleven million Jews in the whole of Europe , of whom half were in countries not under German control . He explained that since further Jewish emigration had been prohibited by Himmler , a new solution would take its place : " evacuating " Jews to the east . This would be a temporary solution , a step towards the final solution of the Jewish question .
Under proper guidance , in the course of the final solution the Jews are to be allocated for appropriate labor in the East . Able @-@ bodied Jews , separated according to sex , will be taken in large work columns to these areas for work on roads , in the course of which action doubtless a large portion will be eliminated by natural causes . The possible final remnant will , since it will undoubtedly consist of the most resistant portion , have to be treated accordingly , because it is the product of natural selection and would , if released , act as the seed of a new Jewish revival .
German historian Peter Longerich notes that vague orders couched in terminology that had a specific meaning for members of the regime were common , especially when people were being ordered to carry out criminal activities . Leaders were given briefings about the need to be " severe " and " firm " ; all Jews were to be viewed as potential enemies that had to be dealt with ruthlessly . The wording of the Wannsee Protocol — the distributed minutes of the meeting — made it clear to participants that evacuation east was a euphemism for death .
Heydrich went on to say that in the course of the " practical execution of the final solution " , Europe would be " combed through from west to east " but that Germany , Austria , and the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia would have priority " due to the housing problem and additional social and political necessities " . This was a reference to increasing pressure from the Gauleiters ( regional Nazi Party leaders ) in Germany for the Jews to be removed from their areas to allow accommodation for Germans made homeless by Allied bombing , as well as to make space for laborers being imported from occupied countries . The " evacuated " Jews , he said , would first be sent to " transit ghettos " in the General Government , from which they would be transported eastward . Heydrich said that to avoid legal and political difficulties , it was important to define who was a Jew for the purposes of " evacuation " . He outlined categories of people who would not be killed . Jews over 65 years old , and Jewish World War I veterans who had been severely wounded or who had won the Iron Cross , might be sent to Theresienstadt concentration camp instead of being killed . " With this expedient solution , " he said , " in one fell swoop many interventions will be prevented . "
The situation of people who were half or quarter Jews , and of Jews who were married to non @-@ Jews , was more complex . Under the Nuremberg Laws of 1935 , their status had been left deliberately ambiguous . Heydrich announced that Mischlings ( a Nazi pejorative for mixed @-@ race persons ) of the first degree ( persons with two Jewish grandparents ) would be treated as Jews . This would not apply if they were married to a non @-@ Jew and had children by that marriage . It would also not apply if they had been granted written exemption by " the highest offices of the Party and State . " Such persons would be sterilised or deported if they refused sterilisation . " Mischlings of the second degree " ( persons with one Jewish grandparent ) would be treated as Germans unless they were married to Jews or Mischlings of the first degree , had a " racially especially undesirable appearance that marks him outwardly as a Jew " , or had a " political record that shows that he feels and behaves like a Jew " . Persons in these latter categories would be killed even if married to non @-@ Jews . In the case of mixed marriages , Heydrich recommended that each case should be evaluated individually and the impact on any German relatives assessed . If such a marriage had produced children who were being raised as Germans , the Jewish partner would not be killed . If they were being raised as Jews , they might be killed or sent to an old @-@ age ghetto . These exemptions applied only to German and Austrian Jews , and were not always observed even for them . In most of the occupied countries , Jews were rounded up and killed en masse , and anyone who lived in or identified with the Jewish community in any given place was regarded as a Jew .
Heydrich commented , " In occupied and unoccupied France , the registration of Jews for evacuation will in all probability proceed without great difficulty " , but in the end the great majority of French @-@ born Jews survived . More difficulty was anticipated with Germany 's allies Romania and Hungary . " In Romania the government has [ now ] appointed a commissioner for Jewish affairs " , Heydrich said . In fact the deportation of Romanian Jews was slow and inefficient despite a high degree of popular antisemitism . " In order to settle the question in Hungary , " Heydrich said , " it will soon be necessary to force an adviser for Jewish questions onto the Hungarian government " . The Hungarian regime of Miklós Horthy continued to resist German interference in its Jewish policy until the spring of 1944 , when the Wehrmacht invaded Hungary . Very soon , 600 @,@ 000 Jews of Hungary ( and parts of Czechoslovakia , Romania , and Yugoslavia occupied by Hungary ) were sent to their deaths by Eichmann , with the collaboration of Hungarian authorities .
Heydrich spoke for nearly an hour . Then followed about thirty minutes of questions and comments , followed by some less formal conversation . Otto Hofmann ( head of the SS Race and Settlement Main Office ( RuSHA ) ) and Wilhelm Stuckart ( State Secretary of the Reich Interior Ministry ) pointed out the legalistic and administrative difficulties over mixed marriages , and suggested compulsory dissolution of mixed marriages or the wider use of sterilisation as a simpler alternative . Erich Neumann from the Four Year Plan argued for the exemption of Jews who were working in industries vital to the war effort and for whom no replacements were available . Heydrich assured him that this was already the policy ; such Jews would not be killed . Josef Bühler , State Secretary of the General Government , stated his support for the plan and his hope that the killings would commence as soon as possible . Towards the end of the meeting cognac was served , and after that the conversation became less restrained . " The gentlemen were standing together , or sitting together " , Eichmann said , " and were discussing the subject quite bluntly , quite differently from the language which I had to use later in the record . During the conversation they minced no words about it at all ... they spoke about methods of killing , about liquidation , about extermination " . Eichmann recorded that Heydrich was pleased with the course of the meeting . He had expected a lot of resistance , Eichmann recalled , but instead he had found " an atmosphere not only of agreement on the part of the participants , but more than that , one could feel an agreement which had assumed a form which had not been expected " .
= = Wannsee Protocol = =
At the conclusion of the meeting Heydrich gave Eichmann firm instructions about what was to appear in the minutes . They were not to be verbatim : Eichmann ensured that nothing too explicit appeared in them . He said at his trial : " How shall I put it — certain over @-@ plain talk and jargon expressions had to be rendered into office language by me " . Eichmann condensed his records into a document outlining the purpose of the meeting and the intentions of the regime moving forward . He stated at his trial that it was personally edited by Heydrich , and thus reflected the message he intended the participants to take away from the meeting . Copies of the minutes ( known from the German word for " minutes " as the " Wannsee Protocol " ) were sent by Eichmann to all the participants after the meeting . Most of these copies were destroyed at the end of the war as participants and other officials sought to cover their tracks . It was not until 1947 that Luther 's copy ( number 16 out of 30 copies prepared ) was found by Robert Kempner , a U.S. prosecutor in the International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg , in files that had been seized from the German Foreign Office .
= = Interpretation = =
The Wannsee Conference lasted only about ninety minutes . The enormous importance which has been attached to the conference by postwar writers was not evident to most of its participants at the time . Heydrich did not call the meeting to make fundamental new decisions on the Jewish question . Massive killings of Jews in the conquered territories in the Soviet Union and Poland were ongoing and a new extermination camp was already under construction at Belzec at the time of the conference ; other extermination camps were in the planning stages . The decision to exterminate the Jews had already been made , and Heydrich , as Himmler 's emissary , held the meeting to ensure the cooperation of the various departments in conducting the deportations . According to Longerich , a primary goal of the meeting was to emphasise that once the deportations had been completed , the implementation of the Final Solution became an internal matter of the SS , totally outside the purview of any other agency . A secondary goal was to determine the scope of the deportations and arrive at definitions of who was Jewish , who was Mischling , and who ( if anybody ) should be spared . " The representatives of the ministerial bureaucracy had made it plain that they had no concerns about the principle of deportation per se . This was indeed the crucial result of the meeting and the main reason why Heydrich had detailed minutes prepared and widely circulated " , said Longerich . Their presence at the meeting also ensured that all those present were accomplices and accessories to the murders that were about to be undertaken .
Eichmann 's biographer David Cesarani agrees with Longerich 's interpretation ; he notes that Heydrich 's main purpose was to impose his own authority on the various ministries and agencies involved in Jewish policy matters , and to avoid any repetition of the disputes that had arisen earlier in the annihilation campaign . " The simplest , most decisive way that Heydrich could ensure the smooth flow of deportations " , he writes , " was by asserting his total control over the fate of the Jews in the Reich and the east , and [ by ] cow [ ing ] other interested parties into toeing the line of the RSHA " .
= = Wannsee House Holocaust Memorial = =
In 1965 , historian Joseph Wulf proposed that the Wannsee House should be made into a Holocaust memorial and document centre , but the West German government was not interested at that time . The building was in use as a school , and funding was not available . Despondent at the failure of the project and the West German government 's failure to pursue and convict Nazi war criminals , Wulf committed suicide in 1974 .
= = House of the Wannsee Conference = =
On 20 January 1992 , on the fiftieth anniversary of the conference , the site was finally opened as a Holocaust memorial and museum known as the Haus der Wannsee @-@ Konferenz ( House of the Wannsee Conference ) . The museum also hosts permanent exhibits of texts and photographs that document events of the Holocaust and its planning . The Joseph Wulf Bibliothek / Mediothek on the second floor houses a large collection of books on the Nazi era , plus other materials such as microfilms and original Nazi documents .
= Kohlberg Kravis Roberts =
KKR & Co . L.P. ( formerly known as Kohlberg Kravis Roberts & Co . ) is an American multinational private equity firm , specializing in leveraged buyouts , headquartered in New York City . The firm sponsors and manages private equity investment funds . A pioneer in the leveraged buyout industry , the firm has completed over $ 400 billion of private equity transactions since its inception .
The firm was founded in 1976 by Jerome Kohlberg , Jr . , and cousins Henry Kravis and George R. Roberts , all of whom had previously worked together at Bear Stearns , where they completed some of the earliest leveraged buyout transactions . Since its founding , KKR has completed a number of landmark transactions including the 1989 leveraged buyout of RJR Nabisco , which was the largest buyout in history to that point , as well as the 2007 buyout of TXU , which is currently the largest buyout completed to date . KKR has completed investments in over 160 companies since 1977 , completing at least one investment in every year except in 1982 and in 1990 .
KKR has 13 additional offices in the United States , Europe and Asia . The firm is currently located in the Solow Building ( 9 W. 57th Street ) , but recently announced its intentions to occupy a newly constructed 30 Hudson Yards .
In October 2009 , KKR listed shares in the company through KKR & Co . , an affiliate that holds 30 % of the firm 's ownership equity , with the remainder held by the firm 's partners . In March 2010 , KKR filed to list its shares on the New York Stock Exchange ( NYSE ) , with trading commencing four months later , on July 15 , 2010 .
= = The Firm KKR = =
KKR is operated by its managing partners Henry Kravis and George R. Roberts and a team of approximately 140 investment professionals and 400 total employees , organized into industry @-@ focused groups . KKR is headquartered in the Solow Building at 9 West 57th Street , Manhattan , New York , with U.S. offices in Menlo Park , San Francisco , Houston , and Washington , D.C. , and offices abroad in London , Paris , Hong Kong , Tokyo , Beijing , Mumbai , Dubai , Seoul , São Paulo and Sydney .
KKR invests primarily through leveraged buyouts as well as growth capital investments ( including " PIPE " investments in public companies ) . It has traditionally specialized in private equity investments , focusing on specific industry sectors where the firm has created nine dedicated investment groups . The industries in which KKR has developed a specialization include :
Chemicals
Consumer products
Energy & natural resources
Financial services
Health care
Industrial
Media and communications
Retail
Technology
The professionals in each of KKR 's industry @-@ focused groups are expected to have developed a proficiency in their respective industries . The firm has traditionally had strong ties with its investors .
= = Investment funds and other affiliates = =
= = = Private equity funds = = =
KKR has historically relied primarily on private equity funds , pools of committed capital that are raised from a broad array of institutional investors ( e.g. , pension funds , insurance companies , investment banks , commercial banks , endowments , fund of funds , high @-@ net @-@ worth individuals , sovereign wealth funds ) . As of March 31 , 2014 , KKR had completed fund @-@ raising for approximately 23 traditional investment funds in the US , Europe and Asia with total committed capital of approximately US $ 80 billion :
Source : SEC Filings
= = = KKR Financial = = =
KKR Financial ( NYSE : KFN ) is a real estate investment trust ( REIT ) and specialty finance company that invests in residential and commercial mortgage loans and mortgage @-@ backed securities as well as corporate loans and debt securities , asset @-@ backed securities and equity securities . KFN was founded in 2004 raising $ 795 million in a private placement and raised $ 849 million in a June 2005 initial public offering , increasing the size of the offering from an original $ 600 million target . KKR had initially considered structuring KFN as a business development company like Apollo Management 's Apollo Investment Corporation but chose to pursue the REIT structure to capitalize on the strength in REIT valuations at the time .
KFN was an early casualty of the subprime mortgage crisis and in September 2007 , Henry Kravis and George Roberts injected $ 270 million into the company . On February 20 , 2008 , KFN was once again forced to delay the repayment of billions of dollars of commercial paper , and began a new round of talks with creditors . In April , KFN sold a controlling interest in a real estate subsidiary to an investment firm to raise cash and entered an agreement with the noteholders of certain secured commercial paper issued by two asset @-@ backed entities . Following the transaction , KFN converted from a REIT to a LLC .
= = = KKR Private Equity Investors = = =
KKR Private Equity Investors ( Euronext : KPE ) is a publicly traded private equity fund that invests as a fund of funds in KKR private equity funds . KPE also co @-@ invests in transactions alongside KKR 's private equity funds . KPE was founded in 2006 . In May 2006 , KKR raised $ 5 billion in an initial public offering for a KPE to serve as a new permanent investment vehicle listing it on the Euronext exchange in Amsterdam . KKR raised three times more than it expected , as many of the investors in KPE were hedge funds seeking exposure to private equity but could not make long term commitments to private equity funds . As private equity had been booming in preceding years , investing in a KKR fund was attractive to investors .
However , KPE 's first @-@ day performance was lackluster , trading down 1 @.@ 7 % and trading volume was limited . Initially , a handful of other private equity firms and hedge funds had planned to follow KKR 's lead but shelved those plans when KPE 's performance continued to falter after its IPO . KPE 's stock declined from an IPO price of € 25 per share to € 18 @.@ 16 ( a 27 % decline ) at the end of 2007 and a low of € 11 @.@ 45 ( a 54 @.@ 2 % decline ) per share in Q1 2008 .
KPE disclosed in May 2008 that it had completed approximately $ 300 million of secondary sales of selected limited partnership interests in , and undrawn commitments to , certain KKR @-@ managed funds in order to generate liquidity and repay borrowings .
In October 2009 KPE changed its name to KKR & Co . ( Guernsey ) L.P. , which was delisted from Euronext Amsterdam in July 2010 while common units of KKR & Co . L.P. began trading on the New York Stock Exchange under the symbol “ KKR ” .
= = History = =
= = = Founding and early history = = =
Running the corporate finance department for Bear Stearns in the 1960s and 1970s , Jerome Kohlberg and later with protégés Henry Kravis and George Roberts completed a series of what they described as " bootstrap " investments beginning in 1964 – 65 . They targeted family @-@ owned businesses , many of which had been founded in the years following World War II which by the 1960s and 1970s were facing succession issues . Many of these companies lacked a viable or attractive exit for their founders as they were too small to be taken public and the founders were reluctant to sell out to competitors and so a sale to a financial buyer could prove attractive .
Their acquisition of Orkin Exterminating Company in 1964 is among the first significant leveraged buyout transactions . In the following years the three Bear Stearns bankers would complete a series of buyouts including Stern Metals ( 1965 ) , Incom ( a division of Rockwood International , 1971 ) , Cobblers Industries ( 1971 ) , and Boren Clay ( 1973 ) , as well as Thompson Wire , Eagle Motors and Barrows through their investment in Stern Metals . Despite a number of highly successful investments , the $ 27 million investment in Cobblers ended in bankruptcy .
By 1976 , tensions had built up between Bear Stearns and Kohlberg , Kravis and Roberts , which led to the formation of Kohlberg Kravis Roberts & Co. in that year . Most notably , Bear Stearns executive Cy Lewis had rejected repeated proposals to form a dedicated investment fund within Bear Stearns and Lewis took exception to the amount of time spent on outside activities . In 1976 , Kravis had been required to serve as interim CEO of a failing direct mail company named Advo .
The new KKR completed its first buyout , that of manufacturer A.J. Industries , in 1977 . KKR raised capital from a small group of investors including the Hillman Company and First Chicago Bank . By 1978 , with the revision of the ERISA regulations , the nascent KKR was successful in raising its first institutional fund with over $ 30 million of investor commitments . In 1981 , KKR expanded its investor base significantly when the Oregon State Treasury 's public pension fund invested in KKR 's acquisition of retailer Fred Meyer , Inc . Oregon State remains an active investor in KKR funds .
KKR closed out the 1970s completing the public @-@ to @-@ private buyout of Houdaille Industries in 1979 , probably the largest take @-@ private of a public company to that point . As the 1980s began , KKR was among the most prominent practitioner of leveraged buyouts and would prove the most prolific of the private equity investors in the 1980s . Among the firm 's most notable acquisitions during the 1980s buyout boom were the following :
= = = Barbarians at the Gate – KKR 's leveraged buyout of RJR Nabisco = = =
After the 1987 resignation of Jerome Kohlberg at age 61 ( he later founded his own private equity firm , Kohlberg & Co . ) , Henry Kravis succeeded him as senior partner . Under Kravis and Roberts , the firm was responsible for the 1988 leveraged buyout of RJR Nabisco . RJR Nabisco proved to be not only the largest buyout in history to that time , at $ 25 billion ( $ 31 @.@ 1 billion , including assumed debt ) as well as a high @-@ water mark and sign of the end of the 1980s buyout boom . RJR — Nabisco , which would remain the largest buyout for the next 17 years , was chronicled in Barbarians at the Gate : The Fall of RJR Nabisco , and later made into a television movie starring James Garner .
In 1988 , F. Ross Johnson was the President and CEO of RJR Nabisco , formed in 1985 by the merger of Nabisco Brands and R.J. Reynolds Tobacco Company , a leading producer of food products ( Shredded Wheat , Oreo cookies , Ritz crackers , Planters peanuts , Life Savers , Del Monte Fruit and Vegetables , and Snickers Chocolate ) as well as Winston , Camel and Salem cigarettes . In October 1988 , Johnson proposed a $ 17 billion ( $ 75 per share ) management buyout of the company with the financial backing of investment bank Shearson Lehman Hutton and its parent company , American Express .
Several days later , Kravis , who had originally suggested the idea of the buyout to Johnson , presented a new bid for $ 20 @.@ 3 billion ( $ 90 per share ) financed with an aggressive debt package . KKR had the support of significant equity co @-@ investments from leading pension funds and other institutional investors . Investors included Coca @-@ Cola , Georgia @-@ Pacific and United Technologies corporate pension funds , as well as endowments from MIT , Harvard and the New York State Common Retirement Fund However , KKR faced criticism from existing investors over the firm 's use of hostile tactics in the buyout of RJR .
KKR proposed to provide a joint offer with Johnson and Shearson Lehman but was rebuffed and Johnson attempted to stonewall KKR 's access to financial information from RJR . Rival private equity firm , Forstmann Little & Co. was invited into the process by Shearson Lehman but attempted to provide a bid for RJR with a consortium of Goldman Sachs Capital Partners , Procter & Gamble , Ralston Purina and Castle & Cooke .
Ultimately the Forstmann consortium came apart and did not provide a final bid for RJR . Many of the major banking players of the day , including Shearson Lehman Hutton , Drexel Burnham Lambert , Morgan Stanley , Goldman Sachs , Salomon Brothers and Merrill Lynch were actively involved in advising and financing the parties .
In November 1988 , RJR set guidelines for a final bid submission at the end of the month . The management and Shearson group submitted a final bid of $ 112 , a figure they felt certain would enable them to outflank any response by Kravis and KKR . KKR 's final bid of $ 109 , while a lower dollar figure , was ultimately accepted by the board of directors of RJR Nabisco . KKR 's offer was guaranteed , whereas the management offer lacked a " reset " , meaning that the final share price might have been lower than their stated $ 112 per share .
Additionally , many in RJR 's board of directors had grown concerned at recent disclosures of Ross Johnson ' unprecedented golden parachute deal . Time Magazine featured Ross Johnson on the cover of their December 1988 issue along with the headline , " A Game of Greed : This man could pocket $ 100 million from the largest corporate takeover in history . Has the buyout craze gone too far ? " . KKR 's offer was welcomed by the board , and , to some observers , it appeared that their elevation of the reset issue as a deal @-@ breaker in KKR 's favor was little more than an excuse to reject Ross Johnson 's higher payout of $ 112 per share . Johnson received $ 53 million from the buyout . KKR collected a $ 75 million fee in the RJR takeover . At $ 31 @.@ 1 billion of transaction value ( including assumed debt ) , RJR Nabisco was by far the largest leveraged buyout in history .
In 2006 and 2007 , a number of leveraged buyout transactions were completed which , for the first time , surpassed the RJR Nabisco leveraged buyout in terms of nominal purchase price . The deal was first surpassed in July 2006 by the $ 33 billion buyout of U.S. hospital operator Hospital Corporation of America , in which KKR participated , though the RJR deal was larger , adjusted for inflation . However , adjusted for inflation , none of the leveraged buyouts of the 2006 – 07 period would surpass RJR Nabisco . The RJR transaction benefited many of the parties involved . Investment bankers and lawyers who advised KKR walked away with over $ 1 billion in fees . Kravis and Roberts attracted an unprecedented amount of publicity that turned the cousins into instant celebrities . Size did not , however , guarantee success as the high purchase price and debt load would burden the performance of the investment , which KKR overcame , raising a new investment fund and continuing to invest throughout the 1990s .
= = = Early 1990s : The aftermath of RJR Nabisco = = =
The buyout of RJR Nabisco was completed in April 1989 and KKR would spend the early 1990s repaying the RJR 's enormous debt load through a series of asset sales and restructuring transactions . After the RJR Nabisco deal , KKR did not complete a single investment in 1990 , the first and only other year , besides 1982 , with no new investment activity . They would not complete another major leveraged buyout transaction for more than three years , largely because of the shutdown of the high yield bond market and the collapse of Drexel Burnham Lambert which filed for bankruptcy in February 1990 . KKR began to focus primarily on its existing portfolio companies acquired during the buyout boom of the late 1980s . Six of KKR 's portfolio companies completed IPOs in 1991 , including RJR Nabisco and Duracell .
As the new decade began , KKR began restructuring RJR . In January 1990 , it completed the sale of RJR 's Del Monte Foods to a group led by Merrill Lynch . KKR had originally identified a group of divisions that it could sell to reduce debt . Over the coming years , RJR would pursue a number of additional restructurings , equity injections and public offerings of stock to provide the company with added financial flexibility . KKR contributed $ 1 @.@ 7 billion of new equity into RJR in July 1990 to complete a restructuring of the company 's balance sheet that appeased unhappy bondholders . KKR 's equity contribution as part of the original leveraged buyout of RJR had been only $ 1 @.@ 5 billion . In mid @-@ December 1990 , RJR announced an exchange offer that would swap debt in RJR for a new public stock in the company , effectively an unusual means of taking RJR public again and simultaneously reducing debt on the company .
RJR issued additional stock to the public in March 1991 to further reduce debt , resulting in an upgrade of the credit rating of RJR 's debt from junk to investment grade . KKR began to reduce its ownership in RJR in 1994 , when its stock in RJR was used as part of the consideration for its leveraged buyout of Borden , Inc . , a producer of food and beverage products , consumer products , and industrial products , in an unprecedented and complex transaction . The following year , in 1995 , KKR would divest itself of its final stake in RJR Nabisco when Borden sold a $ 638 million block of stock .
While KKR no longer had any ownership of RJR Nabisco by 1995 , its original investment would not be fully realized until KKR exited its last investment in 2004 . After sixteen years of efforts , including contributing new equity , taking RJR public , asset sales and exchanging shares of RJR for the ownership of Borden , Inc . , KKR finally sold the last remnants of its 1989 investment . In July 2004 , KKR agreed to sell its stock in Borden Chemical to Apollo Management for $ 1 @.@ 2 billion .
= = = Early 1990s : Investments = = =
In the early 1990s , the absence of an active high yield market prompted KKR to change its tactics , avoiding large leveraged buyouts in favor of industry consolidations through what were described as leveraged buildups or rollups . One of KKR 's largest investments in the 1990s was the leveraged buildup of Primedia in partnership with former executives of Macmillan Publishing , which KKR had failed to acquire in 1988 . KKR created Primedia 's predecessor , K @-@ III Communications , a platform to buy media properties , initially completing the $ 310 million divisional buyout of the book club division of Macmillan along with the assets of Intertec Publishing Corporation in May 1989 .
During the early 1990s , K @-@ III continued acquiring publishing assets , including a $ 650 million acquisition from News Corporation in 1991 . K @-@ III went public , however instead of cashing out , KKR continued to make new investments in the company in 1998 , 2000 and 2001 to support acquisition activity . In 2005 , Primedia redeemed KKR 's preferred stock in the company but KKR was estimated to have lost hundreds of millions of dollars on its common stock holdings as the price of the company 's stock collapsed .
In 1991 , KKR partnered with Fleet / Norstar Financial Group in the 1991 acquisition of the Bank of New England , from the US Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation . In January 1996 , KKR would exchange its investment for a 7 @.@ 5 % interest in Fleet Bank . KKR completed the 1992 buyout of American Re Corporation from Aetna as well as a 47 % interest in TW Corporation , later known as The Flagstar Companies and owner of Denny 's in 1992 . Among the other notable investments KKR completed in the early 1990s included World Color Press ( 1993 – 95 ) , RELTEC Corporation ( 1995 ) and Bruno 's ( 1995 ) .
= = = 1996 – 1999 = = =
By the mid @-@ 1990s , the debt markets were improving and KKR had moved on from the RJR Nabisco buyout . In 1996 , KKR was able to complete the bulk of fundraising for what was then a record $ 6 billion private equity fund , the KKR 1996 Fund . However , KKR was still burdened by the performance of the RJR investment and repeated obituaries in the media . KKR was required by its investors to reduce the fees it charged and to calculate its carried interest based on the total profit of the fund ( i.e. , offsetting losses from failed deals against the profits from successful deals ) .
KKR 's activity level would accelerate over the second half of the 1990s making a series of notable investments including Spalding Holdings Corporation and Evenflo ( 1996 ) , Newsquest ( 1996 ) , KinderCare Learning Centers ( 1997 ) , Amphenol Corporation ( 1997 ) , Randalls Food Markets ( 1997 ) , The Boyds Collection ( 1998 ) , MedCath Corporation ( 1998 ) , Willis Group Holdings ( 1998 ) , Smiths Group ( 1999 ) , and Wincor Nixdorf ( 1999 ) .
KKR 's largest investment of the 1990s would be one of its least successful . In January 1998 , KKR and Hicks , Muse , Tate & Furst agreed to the $ 1 @.@ 5 billion buyout of Regal Entertainment Group . KKR and Hicks Muse had initially intended to combine Regal with Act III Cinemas , which KKR had acquired in 1997 for $ 706 million and United Artists Theaters , which Hicks Muse had agreed to acquire for $ 840 million in November 1997 . Shortly after agreeing to the Regal takeover , the deal with United Artists fell apart , destroying the strategy to eliminate costs by building a larger combined company . Two years later , in 2000 , Regal encountered significant financial issues and was forced to file for bankruptcy protection ; the company passed to billionaire investor Philip Anschutz .
= = = 2000 – 2005 = = =
At the start of the 21st century , the landscape of large leveraged buyout firms was changing . Several large and storied firms , including Hicks Muse Tate & Furst and Forstmann Little & Company were dragged down by heavy losses in the bursting of the telecom bubble . Although , KKR 's track record since RJR Nabisco was mixed , losses on such investments as Regal Entertainment Group , Spalding , Flagstar and Primedia ( previously K @-@ III Communications ) were offset by successes in Willis Group , Wise Foods , Inc . , Wincor Nixdorf and MTU Aero Engines , among others .
Additionally , KKR was one of the few firms that was able to complete large leveraged buyout transactions in the years immediately following the collapse of the Internet bubble , including Shoppers Drug Mart and Bell Canada Yellow Pages . KKR was able to realize its investment in Shoppers Drug Mart through a 2002 IPO and subsequent public stock offerings . The directories business would be taken public in 2004 as Yellow Pages Income Fund , a Canadian income trust .
In 2004 a consortium comprising KKR , Bain Capital and real estate development company Vornado Realty Trust announced the $ 6 @.@ 6 billion acquisition of Toys " R " Us , the toy retailer . A month earlier , Cerberus Capital Management , made a $ 5 @.@ 5 billion offer for both the toy and baby supplies businesses . The Toys ' R ' Us buyout was one of the largest in several years . Following this transaction , by the end of 2004 and in 2005 , major buyouts were once again becoming common and market observers were stunned by the leverage levels and financing terms obtained by financial sponsors in their buyouts .
In 2005 , KKR was one of seven private equity firms involved in the buyout of SunGard in a transaction valued at $ 11 @.@ 3 billion . KKR 's partners in the acquisition were Silver Lake Partners , Bain Capital , Goldman Sachs Capital Partners , Blackstone Group , Providence Equity Partners , and TPG Capital . This represented the largest leveraged buyout completed since the takeover of RJR Nabisco in 1988 . SunGard was the largest buyout of a technology company until the Blackstone @-@ led buyout of Freescale Semiconductor . The SunGard transaction was notable given the number of firms involved in the transaction , the largest club deal completed to that point . The involvement of seven firms in the consortium was criticized by investors in private equity who considered cross @-@ holdings among firms to be generally unattractive .
= = = Since 2005 and the Buyout Boom = = =
In 2006 , KKR raised a new $ 17 @.@ 6 billion fund the KKR 2006 Fund , with which the firm began executing a series of some of the largest buyouts in history . KKR 's $ 44 billion takeover of Texas @-@ based power utility , TXU , in 2007 , proved to be the largest leveraged buyout of the mid @-@ 2000s buyout boom and the largest buyout completed to date . Among the most notable companies acquired by KKR in 2006 and 2007 were the following :
Other non @-@ buyout investments completed by KKR during this period included Legg Mason , Sun Microsystems , Tarkett , Longview Power Plant and Seven Network . In October 2006 , KKR acquired a 50 % stake in Tarkett , a France @-@ based distributor of flooring products , in a deal valued at about € 1 @.@ 4 billion ( $ 1 @.@ 8 billion ) . On November 20 , 2006 , KKR announced it would form a A $ 4 billion partnership with the Seven Network of Australia . On January 23 , 2007 , KKR announced it would invest $ 700 million through a PIPE investment in Sun Microsystems . In January 2008 , KKR announced it had made a $ 1 @.@ 25 billion PIPE investment in Legg Mason through a convertible preferred stock offering .
In addition to its successful buyout transactions , KKR was involved in the failed buyout of Harman International Industries ( NYSE : HAR ) , an upscale audio equipment maker . On April 26 , 2007 , Harman announced it had entered an agreement to be acquired by KKR and Goldman Sachs . As the financing markets became more adverse in the summer of 2007 , the buyout was on tenuous ground . In September 2007 , KKR and Goldman backed out of the $ 8 billion buyout of Harman . By the end of the day , Harman 's shares had plummeted by more than 24 % upon the news .
= = = Initial public offering = = =
In 2007 , KKR filed with the Securities and Exchange Commission to raise $ 1 @.@ 25 billion by selling an ownership interest in its management company . The filing came less than two weeks after the initial public offering of rival private equity firm Blackstone Group . KKR had previously listed its KPE vehicle in 2006 , but for the first time , KKR would offer investors an ownership interest in the management company itself . The onset of the credit crunch and the shutdown of the IPO market dampened the prospects of obtaining a valuation attractive to KKR . The flotation was repeatedly postponed , and called off by the end of August .
The following year , in July 2008 , KKR announced a new plan to list its shares . The plan called for KKR to complete a reverse takeover of its listed affiliate KKR Private Equity Investors in exchange for a 21 % interest in the firm . In November 2008 , KKR announced a delay of this transaction until 2009 . Shares of KPE had declined significantly in the second half of 2008 with the onset of the credit crunch . KKR has announced that it expects to close the transaction in 2009 . In October 2009 , KKR listed shares in KKR & Co. on the Euronext exchange , replacing KPE and anticipates a listing on the New York Stock Exchange in 2010 . The public entity represents a 30 % interest in Kohlberg Kravis Roberts . In October 2010 , KKR acquired about nine members of Goldman Sachs Group proprietary trading team after entertaining offers from investment firms such as Perella Weinberg and Blackrock . With Goldman shutting down its proprietary trading operations , its executives , led by Bob Howard , will help KKR expand beyond leveraged buyouts into areas such as hedge funds .
= = = 2010 to present day = = =
In January 2014 , KKR acquired Sedgwick Claims Management Services Inc for $ 2 @.@ 4 billion from two private equity companies - Stone Point , and Hellman & Friedman .
In June 2014 , KKR announced it was taking a one @-@ third stake in a Spanish energy business of Acciona Energy , at a cost of € 417 million ( $ 567 million ) . The international renewable energy generation business operates renewable assets , largely wind farms , across 14 countries including the United States , Italy and South Africa .
In August 2014 , KKR announced it was investing $ 400 million to acquire Fujian Sunner Development , China 's largest chicken farmer , which breeds , processes and supplies frozen and fresh chickens to consumers and corporate clients , such as KFC and McDonald 's , across China .
In September 2014 , the firm invested $ 90 million in a lighting and electrics firm Savant Systems .
In January 2015 , KKR confirmed its purchase of British rail ticket website thetrainline.com , previously owned by Exponent . The purchase sum is unknown .
In October 12 , 2015 , KKR announced that it has entered into definitive agreement with Allianz Capital Partners to acquire their majority stake in Selecta Group , a European vending services operator .
= = Notable current and former employees = =
Over the years , KKR has seen the departure of many of its original partners , the most notable being original co @-@ founder Jerome Kohlberg . After a leave of absence due to an illness in 1985 , Kohlberg returned to find increasing differences in strategy with his partners Kravis and Roberts . In 1987 , Kohlberg left KKR to found a new private equity firm Kohlberg & Company . Kohlberg & Company returned to the investment style that Kohlberg had originally practiced at Bear Stearns and in KKR 's earlier years , acquiring smaller , middle @-@ market companies .
Since 1996 , general partners of KKR have included Henry Kravis , George R. Roberts , Paul Raether , Robert MacDonnell , Jose Gandarillas , Michael Michelson , Saul Fox , James Greene , Michael Tokarz , Clifton Robbins , Scott Stuart , Perry Golkin and Edward Gilhuly . Among those who left were Saul Fox , Ted Ammon , Ned Gilhuly , Mike Tokarz and Scott Stuart who had been instrumental in establishing KKR 's reputation and track record in the 1980s . KKR remains tightly controlled by Kravis and Roberts . The issue of succession has remained an important consideration for KKR 's future as an ongoing institutionalized firm .
Saul A. Fox left KKR in 1997 to found Fox Paine & Company , a middle market private equity firm with over $ 1 @.@ 5 billion of capital under management
Clifton S. Robbins left KKR to join competitor General Atlantic Partners in 2000 and later founded Blue Harbour Group , a private investment firm based in Greenwich , Connecticut .
Edward A. Gilhuly and Scott Stuart left KKR in 2004 to launch Sageview Capital . Prior to this , Gilhuly was the managing partner of KKR 's European operations , based in London ; Stuart managed KKR 's energy and consumer products industry groups .
Ted Ammon , started several new ventures including Big Flower Press , which printed newspaper circulars , and Chancery Lane Capital , a boutique private equity firm , before being murdered in his Long Island home October 2001 . The lover of his estranged , now deceased wife , Generosa , was later convicted .
Paul Hazen , served as chairman and CEO of Wells Fargo ( 1995 – 2001 ) . Hazen later returned to KKR to serve as chairman of Accel @-@ KKR , a joint venture with Accel Partners and later as chairman of KKR 's publicly listed affiliate , KFN .
Clive Hollick , Baron Hollick , CEO of United News and Media ( 1996 – 2005 )
Ken Mehlman joined KKR in 2008 as Global Head of Public Affairs .
Scott C. Nuttall ( born 1972 ) , heads KKR 's fastest @-@ growing department , the Global Capital and Asset Management Group , which includes Asset Management , Capital Markets and Client and Partner Group . He joined KKR in November 1996 after leaving the Blackstone Group . His group , the firm 's fastest @-@ growing division , has $ 25 billion under management . With the support of co @-@ founder George Roberts , Nuttall has largely spearheaded the campaign to expand KKR beyond its institutional investors ( legacy and otherwise ) into credit investment , and alternative investments , pointing out that there are billions " in revenues up for grabs " .
David Petraeus , selected to serve as chairman of the newly formed KKR Global Institute ( 2013 — present )
Joseph Grundfest , Professor at Stanford Law School and youngest SEC Commissioner
= = Works about KKR = =
= Voyage of the James Caird =
The voyage of the James Caird was a small @-@ boat journey from Elephant Island in the South Shetland Islands to South Georgia in the southern Atlantic Ocean , a distance of 800 nautical miles ( 1 @,@ 500 km ; 920 mi ) . Undertaken by Sir Ernest Shackleton and five companions , its objective was to obtain rescue for the main body of the Imperial Trans @-@ Antarctic Expedition of 1914 – 17 , stranded on Elephant Island after the loss of its ship Endurance . Polar historians regard the voyage as one of the greatest small @-@ boat journeys ever undertaken .
In October 1915 , Endurance had been sunk by the pack ice in the Weddell Sea , leaving Shackleton and his companions adrift on a precarious ice surface . Throughout the duration of their survival , the group drifted northward until April 1916 , when the floe on which they had encamped , broke up . They then made their way in the ship 's lifeboats to Elephant Island , where Shackleton decided that the most effective means of obtaining rescue would be to sail one of the lifeboats to South Georgia .
Of the three lifeboats , the James Caird was deemed the strongest and most likely to survive the journey . It had been named by Shackleton after Sir James Key Caird , a Dundee jute manufacturer and philanthropist , whose sponsorship had helped finance the expedition . Before its voyage , the boat was strengthened and adapted by ship 's carpenter Harry McNish , to withstand the mighty seas of the Southern Ocean . Surviving a series of dangers , including a near capsizing , the boat reached the southern coast of South Georgia after a voyage lasting 16 days . Shackleton and two companions then crossed the island 's mountainous interior to reach a whaling station on the northern side . Here he was able to organise the relief of the Elephant Island party , and to return his men home without loss of life . After the end of the First World War , the James Caird was brought back from South Georgia to England , and is now on permanent display at Shackleton 's old school , Dulwich College .
= = Background = =
On 5 December 1914 , Shackleton 's expedition ship Endurance left South Georgia for the Weddell Sea , on the first stage of the Imperial Trans @-@ Antarctic Expedition . It was making for Vahsel Bay , the southernmost explored point of the Weddell Sea at 77 ° 49 ' S , where a shore party was to land and prepare for a transcontinental crossing of Antarctica . Before it could reach its destination the ship was trapped in pack ice , and by 14 February 1915 was held fast , despite prolonged efforts to free her . During the following eight months she drifted northward until , on 27 October , she was crushed by the pack 's pressure , finally sinking on 21 November .
As his 27 @-@ man crew set up camp on the slowly moving ice , Shackleton 's focus shifted to how best to save his party . His first plan was to march across the ice to the nearest land , and try to reach a point that ships were known to visit . The march began , but progress was hampered by the nature of the ice 's surface , later described by Shackleton as " soft , much broken up , open leads intersecting the floes at all angles " . After struggling to make headway over several days , the march was abandoned ; the party established " Patience Camp " on a flat ice floe , and waited as the drift carried them further north , towards open water . They had managed to salvage three lifeboats , which Shackleton had named after the principal backers of the expedition : Stancomb Wills , Dudley Docker and James Caird . The party waited until 8 April 1916 , when they finally took to the boats as the ice started to break up . Over a perilous period of seven days they sailed and rowed through stormy seas and dangerous loose ice , to reach the temporary haven of Elephant Island on 15 April .
= = On Elephant Island = =
Elephant Island , on the eastern limits of the South Shetland Islands , was remote from anywhere that the expedition had planned to go , and far beyond normal shipping routes . No relief ship would search for them there , and the likelihood of rescue from any other outside agency was equally negligible . The island was bleak and inhospitable , and its terrain devoid of vegetation , although it had fresh water , and a relative abundance of seals and penguins to provide food and fuel for immediate survival . The rigours of an Antarctic winter were fast approaching ; the narrow shingle beach where they were camped was already being swept by almost continuous gales and blizzards , which destroyed one of the tents in their temporary camp , and knocked others flat . The pressures and hardships of the previous months were beginning to tell on the men , many of whom were in a run @-@ down state both mentally and physically .
In these conditions , Shackleton decided to try to reach help , using one of the boats . The nearest port was Stanley in the Falkland Islands , 540 nautical miles ( 1 @,@ 000 km ; 620 mi ) away , but made unreachable by the prevailing westerly winds . A better option was to head for Deception Island , at the western end of the South Shetland chain . Although it was uninhabited , Admiralty records indicated that this island held stores for shipwrecked mariners , and was also visited from time to time by whalers . However , reaching it would also involve a journey against the prevailing winds — though in less open seas — with ultimately no certainty when or if rescue would arrive . After discussions with the expedition 's second @-@ in @-@ command , Frank Wild , and ship 's captain Frank Worsley , Shackleton decided to attempt to reach the whaling stations of South Georgia , to the north @-@ east . This would mean a much longer boat journey , of 800 nautical miles ( 1 @,@ 500 km ; 920 mi ) across the Southern Ocean , in conditions of rapidly approaching winter , but with the help of following winds it appeared feasible . Shackleton thought that " a boat party might make the voyage and be back with relief within a month , provided that the sea was clear of ice , and the boat survive the great seas " .
= = Preparations = =
The South Georgia boat party could expect to meet hurricane @-@ force winds and waves — the notorious Cape Horn Rollers — measuring from trough to crest as much as 60 feet ( 18 m ) . Shackleton therefore selected the heaviest and strongest of the three boats , the 22 @.@ 5 @-@ foot ( 6 @.@ 9 m ) long James Caird . It had been built as a whaleboat in London to Worsley 's orders , designed on the " double @-@ ended " principle pioneered by Norwegian shipbuilder Colin Archer . Shackleton asked the expedition 's carpenter , Harry McNish , if he could make the vessel more seaworthy . Using improvised tools and materials , McNish raised the boat 's sides and built a makeshift deck of wood and canvas , sealing his work with oil paints , lamp wick , and seal blood . The craft was strengthened by having the mast of the Dudley Docker lashed inside , along the length of her keel . She was then fitted as a ketch , with a mainmast and a mizzenmast , rigged to carry lugsails and a jib . The weight of the boat was increased by the addition of approximately 1 long ton ( 1 @,@ 016 kg ) of ballast , to lessen the risk of capsizing in the high seas that Shackleton knew they would encounter .
The boat was loaded with provisions to last six men one month ; as Shackleton later wrote , " if we did not make South Georgia in that time we were sure to go under " . They took ration packs that had been intended for the transcontinental crossing , biscuits , Bovril , sugar and dried milk . They also took two 18 @-@ gallon casks of water ( one of which was damaged during the loading and let in sea water ) , two Primus stoves , paraffin , oil , candles , sleeping bags and odd items of spare clothing .
Shackleton 's first choices for the boat 's crew were Worsley and Tom Crean — the latter , he said , " begged to go " . Crean was a shipmate from the Discovery Expedition , 1901 – 04 , and had also been with Scott 's Terra Nova Expedition in 1910 – 13 , where he had distinguished himself on the fatal polar march . Shackleton was confident that Crean would persevere to the bitter end , and had great faith in Worsley 's skills as a navigator , especially his ability to work out positions in difficult circumstances . Worsley later wrote : " We knew it would be the hardest thing we had ever undertaken , for the Antarctic winter had set in , and we were about to cross one of the worst seas in the world " .
For the remaining places Shackleton requested volunteers , and of the many who came forward he chose two strong sailors in John Vincent and Timothy McCarthy . He offered the final place to the carpenter , McNish . " He was over fifty years of age " , wrote Shackleton of McNish ( he was in fact 41 ) , " but he had a good knowledge of sailing boats and was very quick " . Vincent and McNish had each proved their worth during the difficult boat journey from the ice to Elephant Island . They were both somewhat awkward characters , and their selection may have reflected Shackleton 's wish to keep potential troublemakers under his personal charge
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rather than leaving them on the island where personal animosities could fester .
= = The open @-@ boat journey = =
Before leaving , Shackleton instructed Frank Wild that he was to assume full command as soon as the James Caird departed , and that should the journey fail , he was to attempt to take the party to Deception Island the following spring . The James Caird was launched from Elephant Island on 24 April 1916 . The wind was a moderate south @-@ westerly , which aided a swift getaway , and the boat was quickly out of sight of the land .
Shackleton ordered Worsley to set a course due north , instead of directly for South Georgia , to get clear of the menacing ice @-@ fields that were beginning to form . By midnight they had left the immediate ice behind , but the sea swell was rising . At dawn the next day , they were 45 nautical miles ( 83 km ; 52 mi ) from Elephant Island , sailing in heavy seas and force 9 winds . Shackleton established an on @-@ board routine : two three @-@ man watches , with one man at the helm , another at the sails , and the third on bailing duty . The off @-@ watch trio rested in the tiny covered space in the bows . The difficulties of exchanging places as each watch ended would , Shackleton wrote , " have had its humorous side if it had not involved us in so many aches and pains " . Their clothing , designed for Antarctic sledging rather than open @-@ boat sailing , was far from waterproof ; repeated contact with the icy seawater left their skins painfully raw .
Success depended on Worsley 's navigation , based on sightings attempted during the very brief appearances of the sun , as the boat pitched and rolled . The first observation was made after two days , and showed them to be 128 nautical miles ( 237 km ; 147 mi ) north of Elephant Island . The course was now changed to head directly for South Georgia . They were clear of the dangers of floating ice but had reached the dangerous seas of the Drake Passage , where giant waves sweep round the globe , unimpeded by any land . The movement of the ship made preparing hot food on the Primus nearly impossible , but Crean , who acted as cook , somehow kept the men fed .
The next observation , on 29 April , showed that they had travelled 238 nautical miles ( 441 km ; 274 mi ) . Thereafter , navigation became , in Worsley 's words , " a merry jest of guesswork " , as they encountered the worst of the weather . The James Caird was taking on water in heavy seas and in danger of sinking , kept afloat by continuous bailing . The temperature fell sharply , and a new danger presented itself in the accumulations of frozen spray , which threatened to capsize the boat . In turns , they had to crawl out on to the pitching deck with an axe and chip away the ice from deck and rigging . For 48 hours they were stopped , held by a sea anchor , until the wind dropped sufficiently for them to raise sail and proceed . Despite their travails , Worsley 's third observation , on 4 May , put them only 250 nautical miles ( 460 km ; 290 mi ) from South Georgia .
On 5 May the worst of the weather returned , and brought them close to disaster in the largest seas so far . Shackleton later wrote : " We felt our boat lifted and flung forward like a cork in breaking surf " . The crew bailed frantically to keep afloat . Nevertheless , they were still moving towards their goal , and a dead reckoning calculation by Worsley on the next day , 6 May , suggested that they were now 115 nautical miles ( 213 km ; 132 mi ) from the western point of South Georgia . The strains of the past two weeks were by now taking their toll on the men . Shackleton observed that Vincent had collapsed and ceased to be an active member of the crew , McCarthy was " weak , but happy " , McNish was weakening but still showing " grit and spirit " .
On 7 May Worsley advised Shackleton that he could not be sure of their position within ten miles . To avoid the possibility of being swept past the island by the fierce south @-@ westerly winds , Shackleton ordered a slight change of course so that the James Caird would reach land on the uninhabited south @-@ west coast . They would then try to work the boat round to the whaling stations on the northern side of the island . " Things were bad for us in those days " , wrote Shackleton . " The bright moments were those when we each received our one mug of hot milk during the long , bitter watches of the night " . Late on the same day floating seaweed was spotted , and the next morning there were birds , including cormorants which were known never to venture far from land . Shortly after noon on 8 May came the first sighting of South Georgia .
As they approached the high cliffs of the coastline , heavy seas made immediate landing impossible . For more than 24 hours they were forced to stand clear , as the wind shifted to the north @-@ west and quickly developed into " one of the worst hurricanes any of us had ever experienced " . For much of this time they were in danger of being driven on to the rocky South Georgia shore , or of being wrecked on the equally menacing Annenkov Island , five miles from the coast . On 10 May , when the storm had eased slightly , Shackleton was concerned that the weaker members of his crew would not last another day , and decided that whatever the hazard they must attempt a landing . They headed for Cave Cove near the entrance to King Haakon Bay , and finally , after several attempts , made their landing there . Shackleton was later to describe the boat journey as " one of supreme strife " ; historian Caroline Alexander comments : " They could hardly have known — or cared — that in the carefully weighted judgement of authorities yet to come , the voyage of the James Caird would be ranked as one of the greatest boat journeys ever accomplished " .
= = South Georgia = =
As the party recuperated , Shackleton realised that the boat was not capable of making a further voyage to reach the whaling stations , and that Vincent and McNish were unfit to travel further . He decided to move the boat to a safer location within King Haakon Bay , from which point he , Worsley and Crean would cross the island on foot , aiming for the station at Stromness .
On 15 May the James Caird made a run of about 6 nautical miles ( 11 km ; 6 @.@ 9 mi ) to a shingle beach near the head of the bay . Here the boat was beached and up @-@ turned to provide a shelter . The location was christened " Peggotty Camp " ( after Peggoty 's boat @-@ home in Charles Dickens 's David Copperfield ) . Early on 18 May Shackleton , Worsley and Crean began what would be the first confirmed land crossing of the South Georgia interior . Since they had no map , they had to improvise a route across mountain ranges and glaciers . They travelled continuously for 36 hours , before reaching Stromness . Shackleton 's men were , in Worsley 's words , " a terrible trio of scarecrows " , dark with exposure , wind , frostbite and accumulated blubber soot . Later that evening , 19 May , a motor @-@ vessel was despatched to King Haakon Bay to pick up McCarthy , McNish and Vincent , and the James Caird . Worsley wrote that the Norwegian seamen at Stromness all " claimed the honour of helping to haul her up to the wharf " , a gesture which he found " quite affecting " .
The advent of the southern winter and adverse ice conditions meant that it was more than three months before Shackleton was able to achieve the relief of the men at Elephant Island but finally , with the aid of the steam @-@ tug Yelcho commanded by Luis Pardo , the entire party was brought to safety , reaching Punta Arenas in Chile on 3 September 1916 .
= = Aftermath = =
The James Caird was returned to England in 1919 . In 1921 Shackleton went back to Antarctica , leading the Shackleton – Rowett Expedition . On 5 January 1922 he died suddenly of a heart attack , while the expedition ’ s ship Quest was moored at South Georgia .
Later that year John Quiller Rowett , who had financed this last expedition and was a former schoolfriend of Shackleton ’ s from Dulwich College , South London , decided to present the James Caird to the college . It remained there until 1967 , although its display building was severely damaged by bombs in 1944 . In 1967 , the boat was given to the care of the National Maritime Museum , and underwent restoration . It was then displayed by the museum until 1985 , when it was returned to Dulwich College and placed in a new location in the North Cloister , on a bed of stones gathered from South Georgia and Aberystwyth . This site has become the James Caird 's permanent home , although the boat is sometimes lent to major exhibitions and has taken part in the London Boat Show and in events at Greenwich , Portsmouth , and Falmouth . It has travelled overseas to be exhibited in Washington , D.C. , New York , Sydney , Australia and Bonn , Germany .
The James Caird Society was established in 1994 , to " preserve the memory , honour the remarkable feats of discovery in the Antarctic , and commend the outstanding qualities of leadership associated with the name of Sir Ernest Shackleton " .
In the Year 2000 the German polar explorer Arved Fuchs built a detailed copy of Shackletons ship named James Caird II . In his expedition titled „ Shackleton 2000 “ he succeeded to replicate the voyage of Shackleton and his crew from Elephant Island to South Georgia . The James Caird II was among the first expositions when the International Maritime Museum in Hamburg was first opened .
= England =
England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom . It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west . The Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest . England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east and the English Channel to the south . The country covers much of the central and southern part of the island of Great Britain , which lies in the North Atlantic ; and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly , and the Isle of Wight .
The area now called England was first inhabited by modern humans during the Upper Palaeolithic period , but takes its name from the Angles , one of the Germanic tribes who settled during the 5th and 6th centuries . England became a unified state in the 10th century , and since the Age of Discovery , which began during the 15th century , has had a significant cultural and legal impact on the wider world . The English language , the Anglican Church , and English law – the basis for the common law legal systems of many other countries around the world – developed in England , and the country 's parliamentary system of government has been widely adopted by other nations . The Industrial Revolution began in 18th @-@ century England , transforming its society into the world 's first industrialised nation .
England 's terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains , especially in central and southern England . However , there are uplands in the north ( for example , the mountainous Lake District , Pennines , and Yorkshire Dales ) and in the south west ( for example , Dartmoor and the Cotswolds ) . The capital is London , which is the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union . England 's population of over 53 million comprises 84 % of the population of the United Kingdom , largely concentrated around London , the South East , and conurbations in the Midlands , the North West , the North East , and Yorkshire , which each developed as major industrial regions during the 19th century .
The Kingdom of England — which after 1284 included Wales — ceased being a separate sovereign state on 1 May 1707 , when the Acts of Union put into effect the terms agreed in the Treaty of Union the previous year , resulting in a political union with the Kingdom of Scotland to create the Kingdom of Great Britain . In 1801 , Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland . In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom , leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland .
= = Toponymy = =
The name " England " is derived from the Old English name Englaland , which means " land of the Angles " . The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages . The Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea . The earliest recorded use of the term , as " Engla londe " , is in the late ninth century translation into Old English of Bede 's Ecclesiastical History of the English People . The term was then used in a different sense to the modern one , meaning " the land inhabited by the English " , and it included English people in what is now south @-@ east Scotland but was then part of the English kingdom of Northumbria . The Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle recorded that the Domesday Book of 1086 covered the whole of England , meaning the English kingdom , but a few years later the Chronicle stated that King Malcolm III went " out of Scotlande into Lothian in Englaland " , thus using it in the more ancient sense . According to the Oxford English Dictionary , its modern spelling was first used in 1538 .
The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st @-@ century work by Tacitus , Germania , in which the Latin word Anglii is used . The etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars ; it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula , an angular shape . How and why a term derived from the name of a tribe that was less significant than others , such as the Saxons , came to be used for the entire country and its people is not known , but it seems this is related to the custom of calling the Germanic people in Britain Angli Saxones or English Saxons . In Scottish Gaelic , another language which developed on the island of Great Britain , the Saxon tribe gave their name to the word for England ( Sasunn ) ; similarly , the Welsh name for the English language is " Saesneg " .
An alternative name for England is Albion . The name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain . The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus , specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo : " Beyond the Pillars of Hercules is the ocean that flows round the earth . In it are two very large islands called Britannia ; these are Albion and Ierne " . But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo @-@ Aristotle , i.e. it was written later in the Graeco @-@ Roman period or afterwards . The word Albion ( Ἀλβίων ) or insula Albionum has two possible origins . It either derives from a cognate of the Latin albus meaning white , a reference to the white cliffs of Dover , the only part of Britain visible from the European Continent , or from the phrase the " island of the Albiones " in the now lost Massaliote Periplus , that is attested through Avienus ' Ora Maritima to which the former presumably served as a source . Albion is now applied to England in a more poetic capacity . Another romantic name for England is Loegria , related to the Welsh word for England , Lloegr , and made popular by its use in Arthurian legend .
= = History = =
= = = Prehistory and antiquity = = =
The earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor , dating to approximately 780 @,@ 000 years ago . The oldest proto @-@ human bones discovered in England date from 500 @,@ 000 years ago . Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period , though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6 @,@ 000 years . After the last ice age only large mammals such as mammoths , bison and woolly rhinoceros remained . Roughly 11 @,@ 000 years ago , when the ice sheets began to recede , humans repopulated the area ; genetic research suggests they came from the northern part of the Iberian Peninsula . The sea level was lower than now and Britain was connected by land bridge to Ireland and Eurasia . As the seas rose , it was separated from Ireland 10 @,@ 000 years ago and from Eurasia two millennia later .
The Beaker culture arrived around 2 @,@ 500 BC , introducing drinking and food vessels constructed from clay , as well as vessels used as reduction pots to smelt copper ores . It was during this time that major Neolithic monuments such as Stonehenge and Avebury were constructed . By heating together tin and copper , which were in abundance in the area , the Beaker culture people made bronze , and later iron from iron ores . The development of iron smelting allowed the construction of better ploughs , advancing agriculture ( for instance , with Celtic fields ) , as well as the production of more effective weapons .
During the Iron Age , Celtic culture , deriving from the Hallstatt and La Tène cultures , arrived from Central Europe . Brythonic was the spoken language during this time . Society was tribal ; according to Ptolemy 's Geographia there were around 20 tribes in the area . Earlier divisions are unknown because the Britons were not literate . Like other regions on the edge of the Empire , Britain had long enjoyed trading links with the Romans . Julius Caesar of the Roman Republic attempted to invade twice in 55 BC ; although largely unsuccessful , he managed to set up a client king from the Trinovantes .
The Romans invaded Britain in 43 AD during the reign of Emperor Claudius , subsequently conquering much of Britain , and the area was incorporated into the Roman Empire as Britannia province . The best @-@ known of the native tribes who attempted to resist were the Catuvellauni led by Caratacus . Later , an uprising led by Boudica , Queen of the Iceni , ended with Boudica 's suicide following her defeat at the Battle of Watling Street . This era saw a Greco @-@ Roman culture prevail with the introduction of Roman law , Roman architecture , aqueducts , sewers , many agricultural items and silk . In the 3rd century , Emperor Septimius Severus died at Eboracum ( now York ) , where Constantine was subsequently proclaimed emperor .
There is debate about when Christianity was first introduced ; it was no later than the 4th century , probably much earlier . According to Bede , missionaries were sent from Rome by Eleutherius at the request of the chieftain Lucius of Britain in 180 AD , to settle differences as to Eastern and Western ceremonials , which were disturbing the church . There are traditions linked to Glastonbury claiming an introduction through Joseph of Arimathea , while others claim through Lucius of Britain . By 410 , during the Decline of the Roman Empire , Britain was left exposed by the end of Roman rule in Britain and the withdrawal of Roman army units , to defend the frontiers in continental Europe and partake in civil wars . Celtic Christian monastic and missionary movements flourished : Patrick ( 5th @-@ century Ireland ) and in the 6th century Brendan ( Clonfert ) , Comgall ( Bangor ) , David ( Wales ) , Aiden ( Lindisfarne ) and Columba ( Iona ) . This period of Christianity was influenced by ancient Celtic culture in its sensibilities , polity , practices and theology . Local " congregations " were centred in the monastic community and monastic leaders were more like chieftains , as peers , rather than in the more hierarchical system of the Roman @-@ dominated church .
= = = Middle Ages = = =
Roman military withdrawals left Britain open to invasion by pagan , seafaring warriors from north @-@ western continental Europe , chiefly the Angles , Saxons and Jutes who had long raided the coasts of the Roman province and began to settle , initially in the eastern part of the country . Their advance was contained for some decades after the Britons ' victory at the Battle of Mount Badon , but subsequently resumed , over @-@ running the fertile lowlands of Britain and reducing the area under Brythonic control to a series of separate enclaves in the more rugged country to the west by the end of the 6th century . Contemporary texts describing this period are extremely scarce , giving rise to its description as a Dark Age . The nature and progression of the Anglo @-@ Saxon settlement of Britain is consequently subject to considerable disagreement . Roman @-@ dominated Christianity had in general disappeared from the conquered territories , but was reintroduced by missionaries from Rome led by Augustine from 597 onwards . Disputes between the Roman- and Celtic @-@ dominated forms of Christianity ended in victory for the Roman tradition at the Council of Whitby ( 664 ) , which was ostensibly about haircuts and the date of Easter , but more significantly , about the differences in Roman and Celtic forms of authority , theology , and practice ( Lehane ) .
During the settlement period the lands ruled by the incomers seem to have been fragmented into numerous tribal territories , but by the 7th century , when substantial evidence of the situation again becomes available , these had coalesced into roughly a dozen kingdoms including Northumbria , Mercia , Wessex , East Anglia , Essex , Kent and Sussex . Over the following centuries this process of political consolidation continued . The 7th century saw a struggle for hegemony between Northumbria and Mercia , which in the 8th century gave way to Mercian preeminence . In the early 9th century Mercia was displaced as the foremost kingdom by Wessex . Later in that century escalating attacks by the Danes culminated in the conquest of the north and east of England , overthrowing the kingdoms of Northumbria , Mercia and East Anglia . Wessex under Alfred the Great was left as the only surviving English kingdom , and under his successors it steadily expanded at the expense of the kingdoms of the Danelaw . This brought about the political unification of England , first accomplished under Æthelstan in 927 and definitively established after further conflicts by Eadred in 953 . A fresh wave of Scandinavian attacks from the late 10th century ended with the conquest of this united kingdom by Sweyn Forkbeard in 1013 and again by his son Cnut in 1016 , turning it into the centre of a short @-@ lived North Sea Empire that also included Denmark and Norway . However the native royal dynasty was restored with the accession of Edward the Confessor in 1042 .
A dispute over the succession to Edward led to the Norman conquest of England in 1066 , accomplished by an army led by Duke William of Normandy . The Normans themselves originated from Scandinavia and had settled in Normandy in the late 9th and early 10th centuries . This conquest led to the almost total dispossession of the English elite and its replacement by a new French @-@ speaking aristocracy , whose speech had a profound and permanent effect on the English language .
Subsequently the House of Plantagenet from Anjou inherited the English throne under Henry II , adding England to the budding Angevin Empire of fiefs the family had inherited in France including Aquitaine . They reigned for three centuries , some noted monarchs being Richard I , Edward I , Edward III and Henry V. The period saw changes in trade and legislation , including the signing of the Magna Carta , an English legal charter used to limit the sovereign 's powers by law and protect the privileges of freemen . Catholic monasticism flourished , providing philosophers , and the universities of Oxford and Cambridge were founded with royal patronage . The Principality of Wales became a Plantagenet fief during the 13th century and the Lordship of Ireland was given to the English monarchy by the Pope .
During the 14th century , the Plantagenets and the House of Valois both claimed to be legitimate claimants to the House of Capet and with it France ; the two powers clashed in the Hundred Years ' War . The Black Death epidemic hit England ; starting in 1348 , it eventually killed up to half of England 's inhabitants . From 1453 to 1487 civil war occurred between two branches of the royal family — the Yorkists and Lancastrians — known as the Wars of the Roses . Eventually it led to the Yorkists losing the throne entirely to a Welsh noble family the Tudors , a branch of the Lancastrians headed by Henry Tudor who invaded with Welsh and Breton mercenaries , gaining victory at the Battle of Bosworth Field where the Yorkist king Richard III was killed .
= = = Early Modern = = =
During the Tudor period , the Renaissance reached England through Italian courtiers , who reintroduced artistic , educational and scholarly debate from classical antiquity . England began to develop naval skills , and exploration to the West intensified .
Henry VIII broke from communion with the Catholic Church , over issues relating to his divorce , under the Acts of Supremacy in 1534 which proclaimed the monarch head of the Church of England . In contrast with much of European Protestantism , the roots of the split were more political than theological . He also legally incorporated his ancestral land Wales into the Kingdom of England with the 1535 – 1542 acts . There were internal religious conflicts during the reigns of Henry 's daughters , Mary I and Elizabeth I. The former took the country back to Catholicism while the latter broke from it again , forcefully asserting the supremacy of Anglicanism .
Competing with Spain , the first English colony in the Americas was founded in 1585 by explorer Walter Raleigh in Virginia and named Roanoke . The Roanoke colony failed and is known as the lost colony , after it was found abandoned on the return of the late @-@ arriving supply ship . With the East India Company , England also competed with the Dutch and French in the East . In 1588 , during the Elizabethan period , an English fleet under Francis Drake defeated an invading Spanish Armada . The political structure of the island changed in 1603 , when the King of Scots , James VI , a kingdom which was a longtime rival to English interests , inherited the throne of England as James I — creating a personal union . He styled himself King of Great Britain , although this had no basis in English law . Under the auspices of King James VI and I the Authorised King James Version of the Holy Bible was published in 1611 . It has not only been ranked with Shakespeare 's works as the greatest masterpiece of literature in the English language but also was the standard version of the Bible read by most Protestant Christians for four hundred years , until modern revisions were produced in the 20th century .
Based on conflicting political , religious and social positions , the English Civil War was fought between the supporters of Parliament and those of King Charles I , known colloquially as Roundheads and Cavaliers respectively . This was an interwoven part of the wider multifaceted Wars of the Three Kingdoms , involving Scotland and Ireland . The Parliamentarians were victorious , Charles I was executed and the kingdom replaced by the Commonwealth . Leader of the Parliament forces , Oliver Cromwell declared himself Lord Protector in 1653 ; a period of personal rule followed . After Cromwell 's death and the resignation of his son Richard as Lord Protector , Charles II was invited to return as monarch in 1660 , in a move called the Restoration . After the Glorious Revolution of 1688 , it was constitutionally established that King and Parliament should rule together , though Parliament would have the real power . This was established with the Bill of Rights in 1689 . Among the statutes set down were that the law could only be made by Parliament and could not be suspended by the King , also that the King could not impose taxes or raise an army without the prior approval of Parliament . Also since that time , no British monarch has entered the House of Commons when it is sitting , which is annually commemorated at the State Opening of Parliament by the British monarch when the doors of the House of Commons are slammed in the face of the monarch 's messenger , symbolising the rights of Parliament and its independence from the monarch . With the founding of the Royal Society in 1660 , science was greatly encouraged .
In 1666 the Great Fire of London gutted the City of London but it was rebuilt shortly afterwards with many significant buildings designed by Sir Christopher Wren . In Parliament two factions had emerged — the Tories and Whigs . Though the Tories initially supported Catholic king James II , some of them , along with the Whigs , deposed him in the Revolution of 1688 and invited Dutch prince William of Orange to become William III . Some English people , especially in the north , were Jacobites and continued to support James and his sons . After the parliaments of England and Scotland agreed , the two countries joined in political union , to create the Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707 . To accommodate the union , institutions such as the law and national churches of each remained separate .
= = = Late Modern and contemporary = = =
Under the newly formed Kingdom of Great Britain , output from the Royal Society and other English initiatives combined with the Scottish Enlightenment to create innovations in science and engineering , while the enormous growth in British overseas trade protected by the Royal Navy paved the way for the establishment of the British Empire . Domestically it drove the Industrial Revolution , a period of profound change in the socioeconomic and cultural conditions of England , resulting in industrialised agriculture , manufacture , engineering and mining , as well as new and pioneering road , rail and water networks to facilitate their expansion and development . The opening of Northwest England 's Bridgewater Canal in 1761 ushered in the canal age in Britain . In 1825 the world 's first permanent steam locomotive @-@ hauled passenger railway — the Stockton and Darlington Railway — opened to the public .
During the Industrial Revolution , many workers moved from England 's countryside to new and expanding urban industrial areas to work in factories , for instance at Manchester and Birmingham , dubbed " Warehouse City " and " Workshop of the World " respectively . England maintained relative stability throughout the French Revolution ; William Pitt the Younger was British Prime Minister for the reign of George III . During the Napoleonic Wars , Napoleon planned to invade from the south @-@ east . However this failed to manifest and the Napoleonic forces were defeated by the British at sea by Lord Nelson and on land by the Duke of Wellington . The Napoleonic Wars fostered a concept of Britishness and a united national British people , shared with the Scots and Welsh .
London became the largest and most populous metropolitan area in the world during the Victorian era , and trade within the British Empire — as well as the standing of the British military and navy — was prestigious . Political agitation at home from radicals such as the Chartists and the suffragettes enabled legislative reform and universal suffrage . Power shifts in east @-@ central Europe led to World War I ; hundreds of thousands of English soldiers died fighting for the United Kingdom as part of the Allies . Two decades later , in World War II , the United Kingdom was again one of the Allies . At the end of the Phoney War , Winston Churchill became the wartime Prime Minister . Developments in warfare technology saw many cities damaged by air @-@ raids during the Blitz . Following the war , the British Empire experienced rapid decolonisation , and there was a speeding up of technological innovations ; automobiles became the primary means of transport and Frank Whittle 's development of the jet engine led to wider air travel . Residential patterns were altered in England by private motoring , and by the creation of the National Health Service ( NHS ) in 1948 . The UK 's NHS provided publicly funded health care to all UK permanent residents free at the point of need , being paid for from general taxation . Combined , these changes prompted the reform of local government in England in the mid @-@ 20th century .
Since the 20th century there has been significant population movement to England , mostly from other parts of the British Isles , but also from the Commonwealth , particularly the Indian subcontinent . Since the 1970s there has been a large move away from manufacturing and an increasing emphasis on the service industry . As part of the United Kingdom , the area joined a common market initiative called the European Economic Community which became the European Union . Since the late 20th century the administration of the United Kingdom has moved towards devolved governance in Scotland , Wales and Northern Ireland . England and Wales continues to exist as a jurisdiction within the United Kingdom . Devolution has stimulated a greater emphasis on a more English @-@ specific identity and patriotism . There is no devolved English government , but an attempt to create a similar system on a sub @-@ regional basis was rejected by referendum .
= = Governance = =
= = = Politics = = =
As part of the United Kingdom , the basic political system in England is a constitutional monarchy and parliamentary system . There has not been a government of England since 1707 , when the Acts of Union 1707 , putting into effect the terms of the Treaty of Union , joined England and Scotland to form the Kingdom of Great Britain . Before the union England was ruled by its monarch and the Parliament of England . Today England is governed directly by the Parliament of the United Kingdom , although other countries of the United Kingdom have devolved governments . In the House of Commons which is the lower house of the British Parliament based at the Palace of Westminster , there are 532 Members of Parliament ( MPs ) for constituencies in England , out of the 650 total .
In the United Kingdom general election , 2015 , the Conservative Party won an absolute majority in the 650 contested seats with 10 seats more than all other parties combined ( the Speaker of the House not being counted as a Conservative ) . The Conservative party , headed by the prime minister David Cameron , won 98 more seats than the Labour Party , whose leader Ed Miliband subsequently stood down . The Scottish National Party ( Scotland only ) won 56 out of 59 Scottish seats in the House of Commons replacing the Liberal Democrats as the third largest party overall in the UK .
As the United Kingdom is a member of the European Union , there are elections held regionally in England to decide who is sent as Members of the European Parliament . The 2014 European Parliament election saw the regions of England elect the following MEPs : 22 UK Independence Party ( UKIP ) , 17 Conservatives , 17 Labour , 3 Greens , and one Liberal Democrat .
Since devolution , in which other countries of the United Kingdom — Scotland , Wales and Northern Ireland — each have their own devolved parliament or assemblies for local issues , there has been debate about how to counterbalance this in England . Originally it was planned that various regions of England would be devolved , but following the proposal 's rejection by the North East in a referendum , this has not been carried out .
One major issue is the West Lothian question , in which MPs from Scotland and Wales are able to vote on legislation affecting only England , while English MPs have no equivalent right to legislate on devolved matters . This when placed in the context of England being the only country of the United Kingdom not to have free cancer treatment , prescriptions , residential care for the elderly and free top @-@ up university fees , has led to a steady rise in English nationalism . Some have suggested the creation of a devolved English parliament , while others have proposed simply limiting voting on legislation which only affects England to English MPs .
= = = Law = = =
The English law legal system , developed over the centuries , is the basis of common law legal systems used in most Commonwealth countries and the United States ( except Louisiana ) . Despite now being part of the United Kingdom , the legal system of the Courts of England and Wales continued , under the Treaty of Union , as a separate legal system from the one used in Scotland . The general essence of English law is that it is made by judges sitting in courts , applying their common sense and knowledge of legal precedent — stare decisis — to the facts before them .
The court system is headed by the Senior Courts of England and Wales , consisting of the Court of Appeal , the High Court of Justice for civil cases , and the Crown Court for criminal cases . The Supreme Court of the United Kingdom is the highest court for criminal and civil cases in England and Wales . It was created in 2009 after constitutional changes , taking over the judicial functions of the House of Lords . A decision of the Supreme Court is binding on every other court in the hierarchy , which must follow its directions .
Crime increased between 1981 and 1995 , but fell by 42 % in the period 1995 – 2006 . The prison population doubled over the same period , giving it the highest incarceration rate in Western Europe at 147 per 100 @,@ 000 . Her Majesty 's Prison Service , reporting to the Ministry of Justice , manages most prisons , housing over 85 @,@ 000 convicts .
= = = Regions , counties , and districts = = =
The subdivisions of England consist of up to four levels of subnational division controlled through a variety of types of administrative entities created for the purposes of local government . The highest tier of local government were the nine regions of England : North East , North West , Yorkshire and the Humber , East Midlands , West Midlands , East , South East , South West , and London . These were created in 1994 as Government Offices , used by the UK government to deliver a wide range of policies and programmes regionally , but there are no elected bodies at this level , except in London , and in 2011 the regional government offices were abolished . The same boundaries remain in use for electing Members of the European Parliament on a regional basis .
After devolution began to take place in other parts of the United Kingdom it was planned that referendums for the regions of England would take place for their own elected regional assemblies as a counterweight . London accepted in 1998 : the London Assembly was created two years later . However , when the proposal was rejected by the northern England devolution referendums , 2004 in the North East , further referendums were cancelled . The regional assemblies outside London were abolished in 2010 , and their functions transferred to respective Regional Development Agencies and a new system of local authority leaders ' boards .
Below the regional level , all of England is divided into 48 ceremonial counties . These are used primarily as a geographical frame of reference and have developed gradually since the Middle Ages , with some established as recently as 1974 . Each has a Lord Lieutenant and High Sheriff ; these posts are used to represent the British monarch locally . Outside Greater London and the Isles of Scilly , England is also divided into 83 metropolitan and non @-@ metropolitan counties ; these correspond to areas used for the purposes of local government and may consist of a single district or be divided into several .
There are six metropolitan counties based on the most heavily urbanised areas , which do not have county councils . In these areas the principal authorities are the councils of the subdivisions , the metropolitan boroughs . Elsewhere , 27 non @-@ metropolitan " shire " counties have a county council and are divided into districts , each with a district council . They are typically , though not always , found in more rural areas . The remaining non @-@ metropolitan counties are of a single district and usually correspond to large towns or sparsely populated counties ; they are known as unitary authorities . Greater London has a different system for local government , with 32 London boroughs , plus the City of London covering a small area at the core governed by the City of London Corporation . At the most localised level , much of England is divided into civil parishes with councils ; they do not exist in Greater London .
= = Geography = =
= = = Landscape and rivers = = =
Geographically England includes the central and southern two @-@ thirds of the island of Great Britain , plus such offshore islands as the Isle of Wight and the Isles of Scilly . It is bordered by two other countries of the United Kingdom — to the north by Scotland and to the west by Wales . England is closer to the European continent than any other part of mainland Britain . It is separated from France by a 21 @-@ mile ( 34 km ) sea gap , though the two countries are connected by the Channel Tunnel near Folkestone . England also has shores on the Irish Sea , North Sea and Atlantic Ocean .
The ports of London , Liverpool , and Newcastle lie on the tidal rivers Thames , Mersey and Tyne respectively . At 220 miles ( 350 km ) , the Severn is the longest river flowing through England . It empties into the Bristol Channel and is notable for its Severn Bore tidal waves , which can reach 2 metres ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) in height . However , the longest river entirely in England is the Thames , which is 215 miles ( 346 km ) in length . There are many lakes in England ; the largest is Windermere , within the aptly named Lake District .
In geological terms , the Pennines , known as the " backbone of England " , are the oldest range of mountains in the country , originating from the end of the Paleozoic Era around 300 million years ago . Their geological composition includes , among others , sandstone and limestone , and also coal . There are karst landscapes in calcite areas such as parts of Yorkshire and Derbyshire . The Pennine landscape is high moorland in upland areas , indented by fertile valleys of the region 's rivers . They contain three national parks , the Yorkshire Dales , Northumberland , and the Peak District . The highest point in England , at 978 metres ( 3 @,@ 209 ft ) , is Scafell Pike in Cumbria . Straddling the border between England and Scotland are the Cheviot Hills .
The English Lowlands are to the south of the Pennines , consisting of green rolling hills , including the Cotswold Hills , Chiltern Hills , North and South Downs — where they meet the sea they form white rock exposures such as the cliffs of Dover . The granite Southwest Peninsula in the West Country includes upland moorland , such as Dartmoor and Exmoor , and enjoys a mild climate ; both are national parks .
= = = Climate = = =
England has a temperate maritime climate : it is mild with temperatures not much lower than 0 ° C ( 32 ° F ) in winter and not much higher than 32 ° C ( 90 ° F ) in summer . The weather is damp relatively frequently and is changeable . The coldest months are January and February , the latter particularly on the English coast , while July is normally the warmest month . Months with mild to warm weather are May , June , September and October . Rainfall is spread fairly evenly throughout the year .
Important influences on the climate of England are its proximity to the Atlantic Ocean , its northern latitude and the warming of the sea by the Gulf Stream . Rainfall is higher in the west , and parts of the Lake District receive more rain than anywhere else in the country . Since weather records began , the highest temperature recorded was 38 @.@ 5 ° C ( 101 @.@ 3 ° F ) on 10 August 2003 at Brogdale in Kent , while the lowest was − 26 @.@ 1 ° C ( − 15 @.@ 0 ° F ) on 10 January 1982 in Edgmond , Shropshire .
= = = Major conurbations = = =
The Greater London Urban Area is by far the largest urban area in England and one of the busiest cities in the world . It is considered a global city and has a population larger than other countries in the United Kingdom besides England itself . Other urban areas of considerable size and influence tend to be in northern England or the English Midlands . There are fifty settlements which have been designated city status in England , while the wider United Kingdom has sixty @-@ six .
While many cities in England are quite large in size , such as Birmingham , Sheffield , Manchester , Liverpool , Leeds , Newcastle , Bradford , Nottingham and others , a large population is not necessarily a prerequisite for a settlement to be afforded city status . Traditionally the status was afforded to towns with diocesan cathedrals and so there are smaller cities like Wells , Ely , Ripon , Truro and Chichester . According to the Office for National Statistics the ten largest , continuous built @-@ up urban areas are :
= = Economy = =
England 's economy is one of the largest in the world , with an average GDP per capita of £ 22 @,@ 907 . Usually regarded as a mixed market economy , it has adopted many free market principles , yet maintains an advanced social welfare infrastructure . The official currency in England is the pound sterling , whose ISO 4217 code is GBP . Taxation in England is quite competitive when compared to much of the rest of Europe – as of 2014 the basic rate of personal tax is 20 % on taxable income up to £ 31 @,@ 865 above the personal tax @-@ free allowance ( normally £ 10 @,@ 000 ) , and 40 % on any additional earnings above that amount .
The economy of England is the largest part of the UK 's economy , which has the 18th highest GDP PPP per capita in the world . England is a leader in the chemical and pharmaceutical sectors and in key technical industries , particularly aerospace , the arms industry , and the manufacturing side of the software industry . London , home to the London Stock Exchange , the United Kingdom 's main stock exchange and the largest in Europe , is England 's financial centre — 100 of Europe 's 500 largest corporations are based in London . London is the largest financial centre in Europe , and as of 2014 is the second largest in the world .
The Bank of England , founded in 1694 by Scottish banker William Paterson , is the United Kingdom 's central bank . Originally established as private banker to the government of England , since 1946 it has been a state @-@ owned institution . The bank has a monopoly on the issue of banknotes in England and Wales , although not in other parts of the United Kingdom . The government has devolved responsibility to the bank 's Monetary Policy Committee for managing the monetary policy of the country and setting interest rates .
England is highly industrialised , but since the 1970s there has been a decline in traditional heavy and manufacturing industries , and an increasing emphasis on a more service industry oriented economy . Tourism has become a significant industry , attracting millions of visitors to England each year . The export part of the economy is dominated by pharmaceuticals , cars ( although many English marques are now foreign @-@ owned , such as Land Rover , Lotus , Jaguar and Bentley ) , crude oil and petroleum from the English parts of North Sea oil along with Wytch Farm , aircraft engines and alcoholic beverages .
Most of the UK 's £ 25 billion aerospace industry is primarily based in England . The wings for the Airbus A380 and the Airbus A350 XWB are designed and manufactured at Airbus UK 's world @-@ leading facility in Broughton . GKN Aerospace – an expert in metallic and composite aerostructures is involved in almost every civil and military fixed and rotary wing aircraft in production is based in Redditch .
BAE Systems makes large sections of the Typhoon Eurofighter at its sub @-@ assembly plant in Salmesbury and assembles the aircraft for the RAF at its Warton plant , near Preston . It is also a principal subcontractor on the F35 Joint Strike Fighter – the world 's largest single defence project – for which it designs and manufactures a range of components including the aft fuselage , vertical and horizontal tail and wing tips and fuel system . As well as this it manufactures the Hawk , the world 's most successful jet training aircraft .
Rolls @-@ Royce PLC is the world 's second @-@ largest aero @-@ engine manufacturer . Its engines power more than 30 types of commercial aircraft , and it has more 30 @,@ 000 engines currently in service across both the civil and defence sectors . With a workforce of over 12 @,@ 000 people , Derby has the largest concentration of Rolls @-@ Royce employees in the UK . Rolls @-@ Royce also produces low @-@ emission power systems for ships ; makes critical equipment and safety systems for the nuclear industry and powers offshore platforms and major pipelines for the oil and gas industry .
Much of the UK 's space industry is centred on EADS Astrium , based in Stevenage and Portsmouth . The company builds the buses – the underlying structure onto which the payload and propulsion systems are built – for most of the European Space Agency 's spacecraft , as well as commercial satellites . The world leader in compact satellite systems , Surrey Satellites , is also part of Astrium . Reaction Engines Limited , the company planning to build Skylon , a single @-@ stage @-@ to @-@ orbit spaceplane using their SABRE rocket engine , a combined @-@ cycle , air @-@ breathing rocket propulsion system is based Culham .
Agriculture is intensive and highly mechanised , producing 60 % of food needs with only 2 % of the labour force . Two thirds of production is devoted to livestock , the other to arable crops .
= = = Science and technology = = =
Prominent English figures from the field of science and mathematics include Sir Isaac Newton , Michael Faraday , Robert Hooke , Robert Boyle , Joseph Priestley , J. J. Thomson , Charles Babbage , Charles Darwin , Stephen Hawking , Christopher Wren , Alan Turing , Francis Crick , Joseph Lister , Tim Berners @-@ Lee , Paul Dirac , Andrew Wiles and Richard Dawkins . Some experts claim that the earliest concept of a metric system was invented by John Wilkins , the first secretary of the Royal Society , in 1668 .
As the birthplace of the Industrial Revolution , England was home to many significant inventors during the late 18th and early 19th centuries . Famous English engineers include Isambard Kingdom Brunel , best known for the creation of the Great Western Railway , a series of famous steamships , and numerous important bridges , hence revolutionising public transport and modern @-@ day engineering . Thomas Newcomen 's steam engine helped spawn the Industrial Revolution . The Father of Railways , George Stephenson , built the first public inter @-@ city railway line in the world , the Liverpool and Manchester Railway , which opened in 1830 . With his role in the marketing and manufacturing of the steam engine , and invention of modern coinage , Matthew Boulton ( business partner of James Watt ) is regarded as one of the most influential entrepreneurs in history . The physician Edward Jenner 's smallpox vaccine is said to have " saved more lives ... than were lost in all the wars of mankind since the beginning of recorded history . "
Inventions and discoveries of the English include : the jet engine , the first industrial spinning machine , the first computer and the first modern computer , the World Wide Web along with HTML , the first successful human blood transfusion , the motorised vacuum cleaner , the lawn mower , the seat belt , the hovercraft , the electric motor , steam engines , and theories such as the Darwinian theory of evolution and atomic theory . Newton developed the ideas of universal gravitation , Newtonian mechanics , and calculus , and Robert Hooke his eponymously named law of elasticity . Other inventions include the iron plate railway , the thermosiphon , tarmac , the rubber band , the mousetrap , " cat 's eye " road marker , joint development of the light bulb , steam locomotives , the modern seed drill and many modern techniques and technologies used in precision engineering .
= = = Transport = = =
The Department for Transport is the government body responsible for overseeing transport in England . There are many motorways in England , and many other trunk roads , such as the A1 Great North Road , which runs through eastern England from London to Newcastle ( much of this section is motorway ) and onward to the Scottish border . The longest motorway in England is the M6 , from Rugby through the North West up to the Anglo @-@ Scottish border , a distance of 232 miles ( 373 km ) . Other major routes include : the M1 from London to Leeds , the M25 which encircles London , the M60 which encircles Manchester , the M4 from London to South Wales , the M62 from Liverpool via Manchester to East Yorkshire , and the M5 from Birmingham to Bristol and the South West .
Bus transport across the country is widespread ; major companies include National Express , Arriva and Go @-@ Ahead Group . The red double @-@ decker buses in London have become a symbol of England . There is a rapid rail network in two English cities : the London Underground ; and the Tyne and Wear Metro in Newcastle , Gateshead and Sunderland . There are several tram networks , such as the Blackpool tramway , Manchester Metrolink , Sheffield Supertram and Midland Metro , and the Tramlink system centred on Croydon in South London .
Rail transport in England is the oldest in the world : passenger railways originated in England in 1825 . Much of Britain 's 10 @,@ 000 miles ( 16 @,@ 000 km ) of rail network lies in England , covering the country fairly extensively , although a high proportion of railway lines were closed in the second half of the 20th century . There are plans to reopen lines such as the Varsity Line between Oxford and Cambridge . These lines are mostly standard gauge ( single , double or quadruple track ) though there are also a few narrow gauge lines . There is rail transport access to France and Belgium through an undersea rail link , the Channel Tunnel , which was completed in 1994 .
England has extensive domestic and international aviation links . The largest airport is London Heathrow , which is the world 's busiest airport measured by number of international passengers . Other large airports include Manchester Airport , London Stansted Airport , Luton Airport and Birmingham Airport . By sea there is ferry transport , both local and international , including to Ireland , the Netherlands and Belgium . There are around 4 @,@ 400 miles ( 7 @,@ 100 km ) of navigable waterways in England , half of which is owned by the Canal and River Trust , however water transport is very limited . The Thames is the major waterway in England , with imports and exports focused at the Port of Tilbury in the Thames Estuary , one of the United Kingdom 's three major ports .
= = Healthcare = =
The National Health Service ( NHS ) is the publicly funded healthcare system in England responsible for providing the majority of healthcare in the country . The NHS began on 5 July 1948 , putting into effect the provisions of the National Health Service Act 1946 . It was based on the findings of the Beveridge Report , prepared by economist and social reformer William Beveridge . The NHS is largely funded from general taxation including National Insurance payments , and it provides most of its services free at the point of use , although there are charges for some people for eye tests , dental care , prescriptions and aspects of personal care .
The government department responsible for the NHS is the Department of Health , headed by the Secretary of State for Health , who sits in the British Cabinet . Most of the expenditure of the Department of Health is spent on the NHS — £ 98 @.@ 6 billion was spent in 2008 – 2009 . In recent years the private sector has been increasingly used to provide more NHS services despite opposition by doctors and trade unions . The average life expectancy of people in England is 77 @.@ 5 years for males and 81 @.@ 7 years for females , the highest of the four countries of the United Kingdom .
= = Demography = =
= = = Population = = =
With over 53 million inhabitants , England is by far the most populous country of the United Kingdom , accounting for 84 % of the combined total . England taken as a unit and measured against international states has the fourth largest population in the European Union and would be the 25th largest country by population in the world . With a density of 407 people per square kilometre , it would be the second most densely populated country in the European Union after Malta .
The English people are a British people . Some genetic evidence suggests that 75 – 95 % descend in the paternal line from prehistoric settlers who originally came from the Iberian Peninsula , as well as a 5 % contribution from Angles and Saxons , and a significant Scandinavian ( Viking ) element . However , other geneticists place the Germanic estimate up to half . Over time , various cultures have been influential : Prehistoric , Brythonic , Roman , Anglo @-@ Saxon , Viking ( North Germanic ) , Gaelic cultures , as well as a large influence from Normans . There is an English diaspora in former parts of the British Empire ; especially the United States , Canada , Australia , South Africa and New Zealand . Since the late 1990s , many English people have migrated to Spain .
In 1086 , when the Domesday Book was compiled , England had a population of two million . About ten per cent lived in urban areas . By 1801 the population had grown to 8 @.@ 3 million , and by 1901 had grown to 30 @.@ 5 million . Due in particular to the economic prosperity of South East England , it has received many economic migrants from the other parts of the United Kingdom . There has been significant Irish migration . The proportion of ethnically European residents totals at 87 @.@ 50 % , including Germans and Poles .
Other people from much further afield in the former British colonies have arrived since the 1950s : in particular , 6 % of people living in England have family origins in the Indian subcontinent , mostly India , Pakistan and Bangladesh . 2 @.@ 90 % of the population are black , from both the Caribbean and countries in Africa itself , especially former British colonies . There is a significant number of Chinese and British Chinese . In 2007 , 22 % of primary school children in England were from ethnic minority families , and in 2011 that figure was 26 @.@ 5 % . About half of the population increase between 1991 and 2001 was due to immigration . Debate over immigration is politically prominent ; according to a 2009 Home Office poll , 80 % of people want to cap it . The ONS has projected that the population will grow by six million between 2004 and 2029 .
= = = Language = = =
As its name suggests , the English language , today spoken by hundreds of millions of people around the world , originated as the language of England , where it remains the principal tongue spoken by 98 % of the population . It is an Indo @-@ European language in the Anglo @-@ Frisian branch of the Germanic family . After the Norman conquest , the Old English language was displaced and confined to the lower social classes as Norman French and Latin were used by the aristocracy .
By the 15th century , English was back in fashion among all classes , though much changed ; the Middle English form showed many signs of French influence , both in vocabulary and spelling . During the English Renaissance , many words were coined from Latin and Greek origins . Modern English has extended this custom of flexibility , when it comes to incorporating words from different languages . Thanks in large part to the British Empire , the English language is the world 's unofficial lingua franca .
English language learning and teaching is an important economic activity , and includes language schooling , tourism spending , and publishing . There is no legislation mandating an official language for England , but English is the only language used for official business . Despite the country 's relatively small size , there are many distinct regional accents , and individuals with particularly strong accents may not be easily understood everywhere in the country .
As well as English , England has two other indigenous languages , Cornish and Welsh . Cornish died out as a community language in the 18th century but is being revived , and is now protected under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages . It is spoken by 0 @.@ 1 % of people in Cornwall , and is taught to some degree in several primary and secondary schools .
When the modern border between Wales and England was established by the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542 , many Welsh @-@ speaking communities found themselves on the English side of the border . Welsh was spoken in Archenfield in Herefordshire into the nineteenth century . Welsh was spoken by natives of parts of western Shropshire until the middle of the twentieth century if not later .
State schools teach students a second language , usually French , German or Spanish . Due to immigration , it was reported in 2007 that around 800 @,@ 000 school students spoke a foreign language at home , the most common being Punjabi and Urdu . However , following the 2011 census data released by the Office for National Statistics , figures now show that Polish is the main language spoken in England after English .
= = = Religion = = =
According to the 2011 census , 59 @.@ 4 % of the population is Christian , 24 @.@ 7 % non @-@ religious , 5 % is Muslim while 3 @.@ 7 % of the population belongs to other religions and 7 @.@ 2 did not give an answer . Christianity is the most widely practised religion in England , as it has been since the Early Middle Ages , although it was first introduced much earlier in Gaelic and Roman times . This Celtic Church was gradually joined to the Catholic hierarchy following the 6th @-@ century Gregorian mission to Kent led by St Augustine . The established church of England is Church of England , which left communion with Rome in the 1530s when Henry VIII was unable to annul his divorce to the aunt of the king of Spain . The religion regards itself as both Catholic and Reformed .
There are High Church and Low Church traditions , and some Anglicans regard themselves as Anglo @-@ Catholics , following the Tractarian movement . The monarch of the United Kingdom is the Supreme Governor of the church , which has around 26 million baptised members ( of whom the vast majority are not regular churchgoers ) . It forms part of the Anglican Communion with the Archbishop of Canterbury acting as its symbolic worldwide head . Many cathedrals and parish churches are historic buildings of significant architectural importance , such as Westminster Abbey , York Minster , Durham Cathedral , and Salisbury Cathedral .
The 2nd @-@ largest Christian practice is the Latin Rite of the Catholic Church . Since its reintroduction after the Catholic Emancipation , the Church has organised ecclesiastically on an England and Wales basis where there are 4 @.@ 5 million members ( most of whom are English ) . There has been one Pope from England to date , Adrian IV ; while saints Bede and Anselm are regarded as Doctors of the Church .
A form of Protestantism known as Methodism is the third largest Christian practice and grew out of Anglicanism through John Wesley . It gained popularity in the mill towns of Lancashire and Yorkshire , and amongst tin miners in Cornwall . There are other non @-@ conformist minorities , such as Baptists , Quakers , Congregationalists , Unitarians and The Salvation Army .
The patron saint of England is Saint George ; his symbolic cross is included in the flag of England , as well as in the Union Flag as part of a combination . There are many other English and associated saints ; some of the best @-@ known are : Cuthbert , Edmund , Alban , Wilfrid , Aidan , Edward the Confessor , John Fisher , Thomas More , Petroc , Piran , Margaret Clitherow and Thomas Becket . There are non @-@ Christian religions practised . Jews have a history of a small minority on the island since 1070 . They were expelled from England in 1290 following the Edict of Expulsion , only to be allowed back in 1656 .
Especially since the 1950s , religions from the former British colonies have grown in numbers , due to immigration . Islam is the most common of these , now accounting for around 5 % of the population in England . Hinduism , Sikhism and Buddhism are next in number , adding up to 2 @.@ 8 % combined , introduced from India and South East Asia .
A small minority of the population practice ancient Pagan religions . Neopaganism in the United Kingdom is primarily represented by Wicca and Witchcraft religions , Druidry , and Heathenry . According to the 2011 UK Census , there are roughly 53 @,@ 172 people who identify as Pagan in England , and 3 @,@ 448 in Wales , including 11 @,@ 026 Wiccans in England and 740 in Wales .
= = Education = =
The Department for Education is the government department responsible for issues affecting people in England up to the age of 19 , including education . State @-@ run and state @-@ funded schools are attended by approximately 93 % of English schoolchildren . Of these , a minority are faith schools ( primarily Church of England or Roman Catholic schools ) . Children who are between the ages of 3 and 5 attend nursery or an Early Years Foundation Stage reception unit within a primary school . Children between the ages of 5 and 11 attend primary school , and secondary school is attended by those aged between 11 and 16 . After finishing compulsory education , students take GCSE examinations . Students may then opt to continue into further education for two years . Further education colleges ( particularly sixth form colleges ) often form part of a secondary school site . A @-@ level examinations are sat by a large number of further education students , and often form the basis of an application to university .
Although most English secondary schools are comprehensive , in some areas there are selective intake grammar schools , to which entrance is subject to passing the Eleven @-@ Plus exam . Around 7 @.@ 2 % of English schoolchildren attend private schools , which are funded by private sources . Standards in state schools are monitored by the Office for Standards in Education , and in private schools by the Independent Schools Inspectorate .
Higher education students normally attend university from age 18 onwards , where they study for an academic degree . There are over 90 universities in England , all but one of which are public institutions . The Department for Business , Innovation and Skills is the government department responsible for higher education in England . Students are generally entitled to student loans to cover the cost of tuition fees and living costs . The first degree offered to undergraduates is the Bachelor 's degree , which usually takes three years to complete . Students are then able to work towards a postgraduate degree , which usually takes one year , or towards a doctorate , which takes three or more years .
England 's universities include some of the highest @-@ ranked universities in the world ; Cambridge University , Imperial College London , Oxford University , University College London and King 's College London are all ranked in the global top 20 in the 2014 – 2015 QS World University Rankings . The London School of Economics has been described as the world 's leading social science institution for both teaching and research . The London Business School is considered one of the world 's leading business schools and in 2010 its MBA programme was ranked best in the world by the Financial Times . Academic degrees in England are usually split into classes : first class ( 1st ) , upper second class ( 2 : 1 ) , lower second class ( 2 : 2 ) , third ( 3rd ) , and unclassified .
The King 's School , Canterbury and King 's School , Rochester are the oldest schools in the English @-@ speaking world . Many of England 's most well @-@ known schools , such as Winchester College , Eton , St Paul 's School , Harrow School and Rugby School are fee @-@ paying institutions .
= = Culture = =
= = = Architecture = = =
Many ancient standing stone monuments were erected during the prehistoric period , amongst the best @-@ known are Stonehenge , Devil 's Arrows , Rudston Monolith and Castlerigg . With the introduction of Ancient Roman architecture there was a development of basilicas , baths , amphitheaters , triumphal arches , villas , Roman temples , Roman roads , Roman forts , stockades and aqueducts . It was the Romans who founded the first cities and towns such as London , Bath , York , Chester and St Albans . Perhaps the best @-@ known example is Hadrian 's Wall stretching right across northern England . Another well @-@ preserved example is the Roman Baths at Bath , Somerset .
Early Medieval architecture 's secular buildings were simple constructions mainly using timber with thatch for roofing . Ecclesiastical architecture ranged from a synthesis of Hiberno — Saxon monasticism , to Early Christian basilica and architecture characterised by pilaster @-@ strips , blank arcading , baluster shafts and triangular headed openings . After the Norman conquest in 1066 various Castles in England were created so law lords could uphold their authority and in the north to protect from invasion . Some of the best @-@ known medieval castles are the Tower of London , Warwick Castle , Durham Castle and Windsor Castle .
Throughout the Plantagenet era an English Gothic architecture flourished — the medieval cathedrals such as Canterbury Cathedral , Westminster Abbey and York Minster are prime examples . Expanding on the Norman base there was also castles , palaces , great houses , universities and parish churches . Medieval architecture was completed with the 16th @-@ century Tudor style ; the four @-@ centred arch , now known as the Tudor arch , was a defining feature as were wattle and daub houses domestically . In the aftermath of the Renaissance a form of architecture echoing classical antiquity , synthesised with Christianity appeared — the English Baroque style , architect Christopher Wren was particularly championed .
Georgian architecture followed in a more refined style , evoking a simple Palladian form ; the Royal Crescent at Bath is one of the best examples of this . With the emergence of romanticism during Victorian period , a Gothic Revival was launched — in addition to this around the same time the Industrial Revolution paved the way for buildings such as The Crystal Palace . Since the 1930s various modernist forms have appeared whose reception is often controversial , though traditionalist resistance movements continue with support in influential places .
= = = Folklore = = =
English folklore developed over many centuries . Some of the characters and stories are present across England , but most belong to specific regions . Common folkloric beings include pixies , giants , elves , bogeymen , trolls , goblins and dwarves . While many legends and folk @-@ customs are thought to be ancient , for instance the tales featuring Offa of Angel and Wayland the Smith , others date from after the Norman invasion ; Robin Hood and his Merry Men of Sherwood and their battles with the Sheriff of Nottingham being , perhaps , the best known .
During the High Middle Ages tales originating from Brythonic traditions entered English folklore — the Arthurian myth . These were derived from Anglo @-@ Norman , Welsh and French sources , featuring King Arthur , Camelot , Excalibur , Merlin and the Knights of the Round Table such as Lancelot . These stories are most centrally brought together within Geoffrey of Monmouth 's Historia Regum Britanniae ( History of the Kings of Britain ) . Another early figure from British tradition , King Cole , may have been based on a real figure from Sub @-@ Roman Britain . Many of the tales and pseudo @-@ histories make up part of the wider Matter of Britain , a collection of shared British folklore .
Some folk figures are based on semi or actual historical people whose story has been passed down centuries ; Lady Godiva for instance was said to have ridden naked on horseback through Coventry , Hereward the Wake was a heroic English figure resisting the Norman invasion , Herne the Hunter is an equestrian ghost associated with Windsor Forest and Great Park and Mother Shipton is the archetypal witch . On 5 November people make bonfires , set off fireworks and eat toffee apples in commemoration of the foiling of the Gunpowder Plot centred on Guy Fawkes . The chivalrous bandit , such as Dick Turpin , is a recurring character , while Blackbeard is the archetypal pirate . There are various national and regional folk activities , participated in to this day , such as Morris dancing , Maypole dancing , Rapper sword in the North East , Long Sword dance in Yorkshire , Mummers Plays , bottle @-@ kicking in Leicestershire , and cheese @-@ rolling at Cooper 's Hill . There is no official national costume , but a few are well established such as the Pearly Kings and Queens associated with cockneys , the Royal Guard , the Morris costume and Beefeaters .
= = = Cuisine = = =
Since the early modern period the food of England has historically been characterised by its simplicity of approach and a reliance on the high quality of natural produce . During the Middle Ages and through the Renaissance period , English cuisine enjoyed an excellent reputation , though a decline began during the Industrial Revolution with the move away from the land and increasing urbanisation of the populace . The cuisine of England has , however , recently undergone a revival , which has been recognised by the food critics with some good ratings in Restaurant 's best restaurant in the world charts . An early book of English recipes is the Forme of Cury from the royal court of Richard II .
Traditional examples of English food include the Sunday roast , featuring a roasted joint ( usually beef , lamb , chicken or pork ) served with assorted vegetables , Yorkshire pudding , and gravy . Other prominent meals include fish and chips and the full English breakfast ( generally consisting of bacon , sausages , grilled tomatoes , fried bread , black pudding , baked beans , mushrooms , and eggs ) . Various meat pies are consumed such as steak and kidney pie , steak and ale pie , cottage pie , pork pie ( the latter usually eaten cold ) and the Cornish Pasty .
Sausages are commonly eaten , either as bangers and mash or toad in the hole . Lancashire hotpot is a well known stew in the northwest . Some of the more popular cheeses are Cheddar , Red Leicester and Wensleydale together with Blue Stilton . Many Anglo @-@ Indian hybrid dishes , curries , have been created such as chicken tikka masala and balti . Traditional English dessert dishes include apple pie or other fruit pies ; spotted dick – all generally served with custard ; and , more recently , sticky toffee pudding . Sweet pastries include scones ( either plain or containing dried fruit ) served with jam and / or cream , dried fruit loaves , Eccles cakes and mince pies as well as a wide range of sweet or spiced biscuits . Common drinks include tea , whose popularity was increased by Catherine of Braganza , whilst frequently consumed alcoholic drinks include wines , ciders and English beers , such as bitter , mild , stout , and brown ale .
= = = Visual arts = = =
The earliest known examples are the prehistoric rock and cave art pieces , most prominent in North Yorkshire , Northumberland and Cumbria , but also feature further south , for example at Creswell Crags . With the arrival of Roman culture in the 1st century , various forms of art utilising statues , busts , glasswork and mosaics were the norm . There are numerous surviving artefacts , such as those at Lullingstone and Aldborough . During the Early Middle Ages the style favoured sculpted crosses and ivories , manuscript painting , gold and enamel jewellery , demonstrating a love of intricate , interwoven designs such as in the Staffordshire Hoard discovered in 2009 . Some of these blended Gaelic and Anglian styles , such as the Lindisfarne Gospels and Vespasian Psalter . Later Gothic art was popular at Winchester and Canterbury , examples survive such as Benedictional of St. Æthelwold and Luttrell Psalter .
The Tudor era saw prominent artists as part of their court , portrait painting which would remain an enduring part of English art , was boosted by German Hans Holbein , natives such as Nicholas Hilliard built on this . Under the Stuarts , Continental artists were influential especially the Flemish , examples from the period include — Anthony van Dyck , Peter Lely , Godfrey Kneller and William Dobson . The 18th century was a time of significance with the founding of the Royal Academy , a classicism based on the High Renaissance prevailed — Thomas Gainsborough and Joshua Reynolds became two of England 's most treasured artists .
The Norwich School continued the landscape tradition , while the Pre @-@ Raphaelite Brotherhood with their vivid and detailed style revived the Early Renaissance style — Holman Hunt , Dante Gabriel Rossetti and John Everett Millais were leaders . Prominent amongst 20th @-@ century artists was Henry Moore , regarded as the voice of British sculpture , and of British modernism in general . Contemporary painters include Lucian Freud , whose work Benefits Supervisor Sleeping in 2008 set a world record for sale value of a painting by a living artist .
= = = Literature , poetry and philosophy = = =
Early authors such as Bede and Alcuin wrote in Latin . The period of Old English literature provided the epic poem Beowulf and the secular prose of the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle , along with Christian writings such as Judith , Cædmon 's Hymn and hagiographies . Following the Norman conquest Latin continued amongst the educated classes , as well as an Anglo @-@ Norman literature .
Middle English literature emerged with Geoffrey Chaucer , author of The Canterbury Tales , along with Gower , the Pearl Poet and Langland . William of Ockham and Roger Bacon , who were Franciscans , were major philosophers of the Middle Ages . Julian of Norwich , who wrote Revelations of Divine Love , was a prominent Christian mystic . With the English Renaissance literature in the Early Modern English style appeared . William Shakespeare , whose works include Hamlet , Romeo and Juliet , Macbeth , and A Midsummer Night 's Dream , remains one of the most championed authors in English literature .
Christopher Marlowe , Edmund Spenser , Philip Sydney , Thomas Kyd , John Donne , and Ben Jonson are other established authors of the Elizabethan age . Francis Bacon and Thomas Hobbes wrote on empiricism and materialism , including scientific method and social contract . Filmer wrote on the Divine Right of Kings . Marvell was the best @-@ known poet of the Commonwealth , while John Milton authored Paradise Lost during the Restoration .
Some of the most prominent philosophers of the Enlightenment were John Locke , Thomas Paine , Samuel Johnson and Jeremy Bentham . More radical elements were later countered by Edmund Burke who is regarded as the founder of conservatism . The poet Alexander Pope with his satirical verse became well regarded . The English played a significant role in romanticism : Samuel Taylor Coleridge , Lord Byron , John Keats , Mary Shelley , Percy Bysshe Shelley , William Blake and William Wordsworth were major figures .
In response to the Industrial Revolution , agrarian writers sought a way between liberty and tradition ; William Cobbett , G. K. Chesterton and Hilaire Belloc were main exponents , while the founder of guild socialism , Arthur Penty , and cooperative movement advocate G. D. H. Cole are somewhat related . Empiricism continued through John Stuart Mill and Bertrand Russell , while Bernard Williams was involved in analytics . Authors from around the Victorian era include Charles Dickens , the Brontë sisters , Jane Austen , George Eliot , Rudyard Kipling , Thomas Hardy , H. G. Wells and Lewis Carroll . Since then England has continued to produce novelists such as George Orwell , D. H. Lawrence , Virginia Woolf , C. S. Lewis , Enid Blyton , Aldous Huxley , Agatha Christie , Terry Pratchett , J. R. R. Tolkien , and J. K. Rowling .
= = = Performing arts = = =
The traditional folk music of England is centuries old and has contributed to several genres prominently ; mostly sea shanties , jigs , hornpipes and dance music . It has its own distinct variations and regional peculiarities . Wynkyn de Worde printed ballads of Robin Hood from the 16th century are an important artefact , as are John Playford 's The Dancing Master and Robert Harley 's Roxburghe Ballads collections . Some of the best @-@ known songs are Greensleeves , Pastime with Good Company , Maggie May and Spanish Ladies amongst others . Many nursery rhymes are of English origin such as Twinkle Twinkle Little Star , Roses are red , Jack and Jill , London Bridge Is Falling Down , The Grand Old Duke of York , Hey Diddle Diddle and Humpty Dumpty . Traditional English Christmas carols include " We Wish You a Merry Christmas " , " The First Noel " and " God Rest You Merry , Gentlemen " .
Early English composers in classical music include Renaissance artists Thomas Tallis and William Byrd , followed up by Henry Purcell from the Baroque period . German @-@ born George Frideric Handel became a British subject and spent most of his composing life in London , creating some of the most well @-@ known works of classical music , The Messiah , Water Music , and Music for the Royal Fireworks . One of his four Coronation Anthems , Zadok the Priest , composed for the coronation of George II , has been performed at every subsequent British coronation , traditionally during the sovereign 's anointing . There was a revival in the profile of composers from England in the 20th century led by Edward Elgar , Benjamin Britten , Frederick Delius , Gustav Holst , Ralph Vaughan Williams and others . Present @-@ day composers from England include Michael Nyman , best known for The Piano , and Andrew Lloyd Webber , whose musicals have achieved enormous success in the West End and worldwide .
In the field of popular music , many English bands and solo artists have been cited as the most influential and best @-@ selling musicians of all time . Acts such as The Beatles , Led Zeppelin , Pink Floyd , Elton John , Queen , Rod Stewart and The Rolling Stones are among the highest selling recording artists in the world . Many musical genres have origins in ( or strong associations with ) England , such as British invasion , progressive rock , hard rock , Mod , glam rock , heavy metal , Britpop , indie rock , gothic rock , shoegazing , acid house , garage , trip hop , drum and bass and dubstep .
Large outdoor music festivals in the summer and autumn are popular , such as Glastonbury , V Festival , and the Reading and Leeds Festivals . The most prominent opera house in England is the Royal Opera House at Covent Garden . The Proms – a season of orchestral classical concerts held at the Royal Albert Hall in London – is a major cultural event in the English calendar , and takes place yearly . The Royal Ballet is one of the world 's foremost classical ballet companies , its reputation built on two prominent figures of 20th @-@ century dance , prima ballerina Margot Fonteyn and choreographer Frederick Ashton .
= = = Cinema = = =
England ( and the UK as a whole ) has had a considerable influence on the history of the cinema , producing some of the greatest actors , directors and motion pictures of all time , including Alfred Hitchcock , Charlie Chaplin , David Lean , Laurence Olivier , Vivien Leigh , John Gielgud , Peter Sellers , Julie Andrews , Michael Caine , Gary Oldman , Helen Mirren , Kate Winslet and Daniel Day @-@ Lewis . Hitchcock and Lean are among the most critically acclaimed of all @-@ time . Hitchcock 's first thriller , The Lodger : A Story of the London Fog ( 1926 ) , helped shape the thriller genre in film , while his 1929 film , Blackmail , is often regarded as the first British sound feature film .
Major film studios in England include Pinewood , Elstree and Shepperton . Some of the most commercially successful films of all time have been produced in England , including two of the highest @-@ grossing film franchises ( Harry Potter and James Bond ) . Ealing Studios in London has a claim to being the oldest continuously working film studio in the world . Famous for recording many motion picture film scores , the London Symphony Orchestra first performed film music in 1935 .
The BFI Top 100 British films includes Monty Python 's Life of Brian ( 1979 ) , a film regularly voted the funniest of all time by the UK public . English producers are also active in international co @-@ productions and English actors , directors and crew feature regularly in American films . The UK film council ranked David Yates , Christopher Nolan , Mike Newell , Ridley Scott and Paul Greengrass the five most commercially successful English directors since 2001 . Other contemporary English directors include Sam Mendes , Guy Ritchie and Steve McQueen . Current actors include Tom Hardy , Daniel Craig , Benedict Cumberbatch and Emma Watson . Acclaimed for his motion capture work , Andy Serkis opened The Imaginarium Studios in London in 2011 . The visual effects company Framestore in London has produced some of the most critically acclaimed special effects in modern film . Many successful Hollywood films have been based on English people , stories or events . The ' English Cycle ' of Disney animated films include Alice in Wonderland , The Jungle Book and Winnie the Pooh .
= = = Museums , libraries , and galleries = = =
English Heritage is a governmental body with a broad remit of managing the historic sites , artefacts and environments of England . It is currently sponsored by the Department for Culture , Media and Sport . The charity National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty holds a contrasting role . 17 of the 25 United Kingdom UNESCO World Heritage Sites fall within England . Some of the best @-@ known of these are : Hadrian 's Wall , Stonehenge , Avebury and Associated Sites , Tower of London , Jurassic Coast , Saltaire , Ironbridge Gorge , Studley Royal Park and various others .
There are many museums in England , but perhaps the most notable is London 's British Museum . Its collection of more than seven million objects is one of the largest and most comprehensive in the world , sourced from every continent , illustrating and documenting the story of human culture from its beginning to the present . The British Library in London is the national library and is one of the world 's largest research libraries , holding over 150 million items in all known languages and formats ; including around 25 million books . The most senior art gallery is the National Gallery in Trafalgar Square , which houses a collection of over 2 @,@ 300 paintings dating from the mid @-@ 13th century to 1900 . The Tate galleries house the national collections of British and international modern art ; they also host the famously controversial Turner Prize .
= = Sports = =
England has a strong sporting heritage , and during the 19th century codified many sports that are now played around the world . Sports originating in England include association football , cricket , rugby union , rugby league , tennis , boxing , badminton , squash , rounders , hockey , snooker , billiards , darts , table tennis , bowls , netball , thoroughbred horseracing , greyhound racing and fox hunting . It has helped the development of golf , sailing and Formula One .
Football is the most popular of these sports . The England national football team , whose home venue is Wembley Stadium , played Scotland in the first ever international football match in 1872 . Referred to as the " home of football " by FIFA , England hosted the 1966 FIFA World Cup , and won the tournament by defeating West Germany 4 – 2 in the final , with Geoff Hurst scoring a hat @-@ trick . With a British television audience peak of 32 @.@ 30 million viewers , the final is the most watched television event ever in the UK .
At club level England is recognised by FIFA as the birthplace of club football , due to Sheffield F.C. founded in 1857 being the world 's oldest club . The Football Association is the oldest governing body in the sport , with the rules of football first drafted in 1863 by Ebenezer Cobb Morley . The FA Cup and The Football League were the first cup and league competitions respectively . In the modern day the Premier League is the world 's most @-@ watched football league , most lucrative , and amongst the elite .
As is the case throughout the UK , football in England is renowned for the intense rivalries between clubs and the passion of the supporters , which includes a tradition of football chants , such as , " You 're Not Singing Any More " ( or its variant " We Can See You Sneaking Out ! " ) , sung by jubilant fans towards the opposition fans who have gone silent ( or left early ) . The European Cup ( now UEFA Champions League ) has been won by Liverpool , Manchester United , Nottingham Forest , Aston Villa and Chelsea , while Arsenal , and Leeds United have reached the final . Other English clubs have enjoyed success , Tottenham Hotspur , Ipswich Town , Chelsea , and Liverpool have won the UEFA Cup , renamed UEFA Europa League .
Cricket is generally thought to have been developed in the early medieval period among the farming and metalworking communities of the Weald . The England cricket team is a composite England and Wales team . One of the game 's top rivalries is The Ashes series between England and Australia , contested since 1882 . The climax of the 2005 Ashes was viewed by 7 @.@ 4 million as it was available on terrestrial television . England has hosted four Cricket World Cups ( 1975 , 1979 , 1983 , 1999 ) and will host the 2019 edition , but never won the tournament , reaching the final 3 times . However they have hosted the ICC World Twenty20 in 2009 , winning this format in 2010 beating rivals Australia in the final . In the domestic competition , the County Championship , Yorkshire are by far the most successful club having won the competition 31 times . Lord 's Cricket Ground situated in London is sometimes referred to as the " Mecca of Cricket " .
William Penny Brookes was prominent in organising the format for the modern Olympic Games . In 1994 , then President of the IOC , Juan Antonio Samaranch , laid a wreath on Brooke 's grave , and said , " I came to pay homage and tribute to Dr Brookes , who really was the founder of the modern Olympic Games " . London has hosted the Summer Olympic Games three times , in 1908 , 1948 , and 2012 . England competes in the Commonwealth Games , held every four years . Sport England is the governing body responsible for distributing funds and providing strategic guidance for sporting activity in England .
Rugby union originated in Rugby School , Warwickshire in the early 19th century . The England rugby union team won the 2003 Rugby World Cup , the country was one of the host nations of the competition in the 1991 Rugby World Cup and is set to host the 2015 Rugby World Cup . The top level of club participation is the English Premiership . Leicester Tigers , London Wasps , Bath Rugby and Northampton Saints have had success in the Europe @-@ wide Heineken Cup .
Rugby league was born in Huddersfield in 1895 . Since 2008 , the England national rugby league team has been a full test nation in lieu of the Great Britain national rugby league team , which won three World Cups but is now retired . Club sides play in Super League , the present @-@ day embodiment of the Rugby Football League Championship . Rugby League is most popular among towns in the northern English counties of Lancashire , Yorkshire and Cumbria . All eleven English clubs in Super League are based in the north of England . Some of the most successful clubs include Wigan Warriors , St Helens , Leeds Rhinos and Huddersfield Giants ; the former three have all won the World Club Challenge previously .
Golf has been prominent in England ; due in part to its cultural and geographical ties to Scotland , the home of Golf . There are both professional tours for men and women , in two main tours : the PGA and the European Tour . England has produced grand slam winners : Cyril Walker , Tony Jacklin , Nick Faldo , and Justin Rose in the men 's and Laura Davies , Alison Nicholas , and Karen Stupples in the women 's . The world 's oldest golf tournament , and golf 's first major , is The Open Championship , played both in England and Scotland . The biennial golf competition , the Ryder Cup , is named after English businessman Samuel Ryder who sponsored the event and donated the trophy . Nick Faldo is the most successful Ryder Cup player ever , having won the most points ( 25 ) of any player on either the European or U.S. teams .
Tennis was created in Birmingham , England in the late 19th century , and the Wimbledon Championships is the oldest tennis tournament in the world , and widely considered the most prestigious . Fred Perry was the last Englishman to win Wimbledon in 1936 . He was the first player to win all four Grand Slam singles titles and helped lead the Great Britain team to victory over France in the Davis Cup in 1933 . English women who have won Wimbledon include : Ann Haydon Jones won in 1969 and Virginia Wade in 1977 .
In boxing , under the Marquess of Queensberry Rules , England has produced many world champions across the weight divisions internationally recognised by the governing bodies . World champions include Bob Fitzsimmons , Ted " Kid " Lewis , Randolph Turpin , Nigel Benn , Chris Eubank , Frank Bruno , Lennox Lewis , Ricky Hatton , Naseem Hamed , Amir Khan , Carl Froch , and David Haye . In women 's boxing , Nicola Adams became the world 's first woman to win an Olympic boxing Gold medal at the 2012 Summer Olympics .
The 1950 British Grand Prix at Silverstone was the first race in the newly created Formula One World Championship . Since then , England has produced some of the greatest drivers in the sport , including ; John Surtees , Stirling Moss , Graham Hill ( only driver to have won the Triple Crown ) , Nigel Mansell ( only man to hold F1 and IndyCar titles at the same time ) , Damon Hill , Lewis Hamilton and Jenson Button . It has manufactured some of the most technically advanced racing cars , and many of today 's racing companies choose England as their base of operations for its engineering knowledge and organisation . McLaren Automotive , Williams F1 , Team Lotus , Honda , Brawn GP , Benetton , Renault , and Red Bull Racing are all , or have been , located in the south of England . England also has a rich heritage in Grand Prix motorcycle racing , the premier championship of motorcycle road racing , and produced several World Champions across all the various class of motorcycle : Mike Hailwood , John Surtees , Phil Read , Geoff Duke , and Barry Sheene .
Darts is a widely popular sport in England ; a professional competitive sport , darts is a traditional pub game . The sport is governed by the World Darts Federation , one of its member organisations is the BDO , which annually stages the Lakeside World Professional Championship , the other being the Professional Darts Corporation ( PDC ) , which runs its own world championship at Alexandra Palace in London . Phil Taylor is widely regarded as the best darts player of all time , having won 187 professional tournaments , and a record 16 World Championships . Trina Gulliver is the ten @-@ time Women 's World Professional Darts Champion of the British Darts Organisation . Another popular sport commonly associated with pub games is Snooker , and England has produced several world champions , including Steve Davis and Ronnie O 'Sullivan .
The English are keen sailors and enjoy competitive sailing ; founding and winning some of the worlds most famous and respected international competitive tournaments across the various race formats , including the match race , a regatta , and the America 's Cup . England has produced some of the world 's greatest sailors , including , Francis Chichester , Herbert Hasler , John Ridgway , Robin Knox @-@ Johnston , Ellen MacArthur , Mike Golding , Paul Goodison , and the most successful Olympic sailor ever Ben Ainslie .
= = National symbols = =
The St George 's Cross has been the national flag of England since the 13th century . Originally the flag was used by the maritime Republic of Genoa . The English monarch paid a tribute to the Doge of Genoa from 1190 onwards , so that English ships could fly the flag as a means of protection when entering the Mediterranean . A red cross was a symbol for many Crusaders in the 12th and 13th centuries . It became associated with Saint George , along with countries and cities , which claimed him as their patron saint and used his cross as a banner . Since 1606 the St George 's Cross has formed part of the design of the Union Flag , a Pan @-@ British flag designed by King James I.
There are numerous other symbols and symbolic artefacts , both official and unofficial , including the Tudor rose , the nation 's floral emblem , and the Three Lions featured on the Royal Arms of England . The Tudor rose was adopted as a national emblem of England around the time of the Wars of the Roses as a symbol of peace . It is a syncretic symbol in that it merged the white rose of the Yorkists and the red rose of the Lancastrians — cadet branches of the Plantagenets who went to war over control of the nation . It is also known as the Rose of England . The oak tree is a symbol of England , representing strength and endurance . The Royal Oak symbol and Oak Apple Day commemorate the escape of King Charles II from the grasp of the parliamentarians after his father 's execution : he hid in an oak tree to avoid detection before safely reaching exile .
The Royal Arms of England , a national coat of arms featuring three lions , originated with its adoption by Richard the Lionheart in 1198 . It is blazoned as gules , three lions passant guardant or and it provides one of the most prominent symbols of England ; it is similar to the traditional arms of Normandy . England does not have an official designated national anthem , as the United Kingdom as a whole has God Save the Queen . However , the following are often considered unofficial English national anthems : Jerusalem , Land of Hope and Glory ( used for England during the 2002 Commonwealth Games ) , and I Vow to Thee , My Country . England 's National Day is 23 April which is St George 's Day : St George is the patron saint of England .
= Global financial system =
The global financial system is the worldwide framework of legal agreements , institutions , and both formal and informal economic actors that together facilitate international flows of financial capital for purposes of investment and trade financing . Since emerging in the late 19th century during the first modern wave of economic globalization , its evolution is marked by the establishment of central banks , multilateral treaties , and intergovernmental organizations aimed at improving the transparency , regulation , and effectiveness of international markets . In the late 1800s , world migration and communication technology facilitated unprecedented growth in international trade and investment . At the onset of World War I , trade contracted as foreign exchange markets became paralyzed by money market illiquidity . Countries sought to defend against external shocks with protectionist policies and trade virtually halted by 1933 , worsening the effects of the global Great Depression until a series of reciprocal trade agreements slowly reduced tariffs worldwide . Efforts to revamp the international monetary system after World War II improved exchange rate stability , fostering record growth in global finance .
A series of currency devaluations and oil crises in the 1970s led most countries to float their currencies . The world economy became increasingly financially integrated in the 1980s and 1990s due to capital account liberalization and financial deregulation . A series of financial crises in Europe , Asia , and Latin America followed with contagious effects due to greater exposure to volatile capital flows . The global financial crisis , which originated in the United States in 2007 , quickly propagated among other nations and is recognized as the catalyst for the worldwide Great Recession . A market adjustment to Greece 's noncompliance with its monetary union in 2009 ignited a sovereign debt crisis among European nations known as the Eurozone crisis .
A country 's decision to operate an open economy and globalize its financial capital carries monetary implications captured by the balance of payments . It also renders exposure to risks in international finance , such as political deterioration , regulatory changes , foreign exchange controls , and legal uncertainties for property rights and investments . Both individuals and groups may participate in the global financial system . Consumers and international businesses undertake consumption , production , and investment . Governments and intergovernmental bodies act as purveyors of international trade , economic development , and crisis management . Regulatory bodies establish financial regulations and legal procedures , while independent bodies facilitate industry supervision . Research institutes and other associations analyze data , publish reports and policy briefs , and host public discourse on global financial affairs .
While the global financial system is edging toward greater stability , governments must deal with differing regional or national needs . Some nations are trying to orderly discontinue unconventional monetary policies installed to cultivate recovery , while others are expanding their scope and scale . Emerging market policymakers face a challenge of precision as they must carefully institute sustainable macroeconomic policies during extraordinary market sensitivity without provoking investors to retreat their capital to stronger markets . Nations ' inability to align interests and achieve international consensus on matters such as banking regulation has perpetuated the risk of future global financial catastrophes .
= = History of international financial architecture = =
= = = Emergence of financial globalization : 1870 – 1914 = = =
The world experienced substantial changes prior to 1914 , which created an environment favorable to an increase in and development of international financial centers . Principal among such changes were unprecedented growth in capital flows and the resulting rapid financial center integration , as well as faster communication . Before 1870 , London and Paris existed as the world 's only prominent financial centers . Soon after , Berlin and New York grew to become major financial centres . An array of smaller financial centers became important as they found market niches , such as Amsterdam , Brussels , Zurich , and Geneva . London remained the leading international financial center in the four decades leading up to World War I.
The first modern wave of economic globalization began during the period of 1870 – 1914 , marked by transportation expansion , record levels of migration , enhanced communications , trade expansion , and growth in capital transfers . During the mid @-@ nineteenth century , the passport system in Europe dissolved as rail transport expanded rapidly . Most countries issuing passports did not require their carry , thus people could travel freely without them . The standardization of international passports would not arise until 1980 under the guidance of the United Nations ' International Civil Aviation Organization . From 1870 to 1915 , 36 million Europeans migrated away from Europe . Approximately 25 million ( or 70 % ) of these travelers migrated to the United States , while most of the rest reached Canada , Australia , Argentina , and Brazil . Europe itself experienced an influx of foreigners from 1860 to 1910 , growing from 0 @.@ 7 % of the population to 1 @.@ 8 % . While the absence of meaningful passport requirements allowed for free travel , migration on such an enormous scale would have been prohibitively difficult if not for technological advances in transportation , particularly the expansion of railway travel and the dominance of steam @-@ powered boats over traditional sailing ships . World railway mileage grew from 205 @,@ 000 kilometers in 1870 to 925 @,@ 000 kilometers in 1906 , while steamboat cargo tonnage surpassed that of sailboats in the 1890s . Advancements such as the telephone and wireless telegraphy ( the precursor to radio ) revolutionized telecommunication by providing instantaneous communication . In 1866 , the first transatlantic cable was laid beneath the ocean to connect London and New York , while Europe and Asia became connected through new landlines .
Economic globalization grew under free trade , starting in 1860 when the United Kingdom entered into a free trade agreement with France known as the Cobden – Chevalier Treaty . However , the golden age of this wave of globalization endured a return to protectionism between 1880 and 1914 . In 1879 , German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck introduced protective tariffs on agricultural and manufacturing goods , making Germany the first nation to institute new protective trade policies . In 1892 , France introduced the Méline tariff , greatly raising customs duties on both agricultural and manufacturing goods . The United States maintained strong protectionism during most of the nineteenth century , imposing customs duties between 40 and 50 % on imported goods . Despite these measures , international trade continued to grow without slowing . Paradoxically , foreign trade grew at a much faster rate during the protectionist phase of the first wave of globalization than during the free trade phase sparked by the United Kingdom .
Unprecedented growth in foreign investment from the 1880s to the 1900s served as the core driver of financial globalization . The worldwide total of capital invested abroad amounted to US $ 44 billion in 1913 ( $ 1 @.@ 02 trillion in 2012 dollars ) , with the greatest share of foreign assets held by the United Kingdom ( 42 % ) , France ( 20 % ) , Germany ( 13 % ) , and the United States ( 8 % ) . The Netherlands , Belgium , and Switzerland together held foreign investments on par with Germany at around 12 % .
= = = = Panic of 1907 = = = =
In October 1907 , the United States experienced a bank run on the Knickerbocker Trust Company , forcing the trust to close on October 23 , 1907 , provoking further reactions . The panic was alleviated when U.S. Secretary of the Treasury George B. Cortelyou and John Pierpont " J.P. " Morgan deposited $ 25 million and $ 35 million , respectively , into the reserve banks of New York City , enabling withdrawals to be fully covered . The bank run in New York led to a money market crunch which occurred simultaneously as demands for credit heightened from cereal and grain exporters . Since these demands could only be serviced through the purchase of substantial quantities of gold in London , the international markets became exposed to the crisis . The Bank of England had to sustain an artificially high discount lending rate until 1908 . To service the flow of gold to the United States , the Bank of England organized a pool from among twenty @-@ four different nations , for which the Banque de France temporarily lent £ 3 million ( GBP , 305 @.@ 6 million in 2012 GBP ) in gold .
= = = = Birth of the U.S. Federal Reserve System : 1913 = = = =
The United States Congress passed the Federal Reserve Act in 1913 , giving rise to the Federal Reserve System . Its inception drew influence from the Panic of 1907 , underpinning legislators ' hesitance in trusting individual investors , such as John Pierpont Morgan , to serve again as a lender of last resort . The system 's design also considered the findings of the Pujo Committee 's investigation of the possibility of a money trust in which Wall Street 's concentration of influence over national financial matters was questioned and in which investment bankers were suspected of unusually deep involvement in the directorates of manufacturing corporations . Although the committee 's findings were inconclusive , the very possibility was enough to motivate support for the long @-@ resisted notion of establishing a central bank . The Federal Reserve 's overarching aim was to become the sole lender of last resort and to resolve the inelasticity of the United States ' money supply during significant shifts in money demand . In addition to addressing the underlying issues that precipitated the international ramifications of the 1907 money market crunch , New York 's banks were liberated from the need to maintain their own reserves and began undertaking greater risks . New access to rediscount facilities enabled them to launch foreign branches , bolstering New York 's rivalry with London 's competitive discount market .
= = = Interwar period : 1915 – 1944 = = =
Economists have referred to the onset of World War I as the end of an age of innocence for foreign exchange markets , as it was the first geopolitical conflict to have a destabilizing and paralyzing impact . The United Kingdom declared war on Germany on August 4 , 1914 following Germany 's invasion of France and Belgium . In the weeks prior , the foreign exchange market in London was the first to exhibit distress . European tensions and increasing political uncertainty motivated investors to chase liquidity , prompting commercial banks to borrow heavily from London 's discount market . As the money market tightened , discount lenders began rediscounting their reserves at the Bank of England rather than discounting new pounds sterling . The Bank of England was forced to raise discount rates daily for three days from 3 % on July 30 to 10 % by August 1 . As foreign investors resorted to buying pounds for remittance to London just to pay off their newly maturing securities , the sudden demand for pounds led the pound to appreciate beyond its gold value against most major currencies , yet sharply depreciate against the French franc after French banks began liquidating their London accounts . Remittance to London became increasingly difficult and culminated in a record exchange rate of $ 6 @.@ 50 USD / GBP . Emergency measures were introduced in the form of moratoria and extended bank holidays , but to no effect as financial contracts became informally unable to be negotiated and export embargoes thwarted gold shipments . A week later , the Bank of England began to address the deadlock in the foreign exchange markets by establishing a new channel for transatlantic payments whereby participants could make remittance payments to the U.K. by depositing gold designated for a Bank of England account with Canada 's Minister of Finance , and in exchange receive pounds sterling at an exchange rate of $ 4 @.@ 90 . Approximately $ 104 million USD in remittances flowed through this channel in the next two months . However , pound sterling liquidity ultimately did not improve due to inadequate relief for merchant banks receiving sterling bills . As the pound sterling was the world 's reserve currency and leading vehicle currency , market illiquidity and merchant banks ' hesitance to accept sterling bills left currency markets paralyzed .
The U.K. government attempted several measures to revive the London foreign exchange market , the most notable of which were implemented on September 5 to extend the previous moratorium through October and allow the Bank of England to temporarily loan funds to be paid back upon the end of the war in an effort to settle outstanding or unpaid acceptances for currency transactions . By mid @-@ October , the London market began functioning properly as a result of the September measures . The war continued to present unfavorable circumstances for the foreign exchange market , such as the London Stock Exchange 's prolonged closure , the redirection of economic resources to support a transition from producing exports to producing military armaments , and myriad disruptions of freight and mail . The pound sterling enjoyed general stability throughout World War I , in large part due to various steps taken by the U.K. government to influence the pound 's value in ways that yet provided individuals with the freedom to continue trading currencies . Such measures included open market interventions on foreign exchange , borrowing in foreign currencies rather than in pounds sterling to finance war activities , outbound capital controls , and limited import restrictions .
In 1930 , the Allied powers established the Bank for International Settlements ( BIS ) . The principal purposes of the BIS were to manage the scheduled payment of Germany 's reparations imposed by the Treaty of Versailles in 1919 , and to function as a bank for central banks around the world . Nations may hold a portion of their reserves as deposits with the institution . It also serves as a forum for central bank cooperation and research on international monetary and financial matters . The BIS also operates as a general trustee and facilitator of financial settlements between nations .
= = = = Smoot – Hawley tariff of 1930 = = = =
U.S. President Herbert Hoover signed the Smoot – Hawley Tariff Act into law on June 17 , 1930 . The tariff 's aim was to protect agriculture in the United States , but congressional representatives ultimately raised tariffs on a host of manufactured goods resulting in average duties as high as 53 % on over a thousand various goods . Twenty @-@ five trading partners responded in kind by introducing new tariffs on a wide range of U.S. goods . Hoover was pressured and compelled to adhere to the Republican Party 's 1928 platform , which sought protective tariffs to alleviate market pressures on the nation 's struggling agribusinesses and reduce the domestic unemployment rate . The culmination of the Stock Market Crash of 1929 and the onset of the Great Depression heightened fears , further pressuring Hoover to act on protective policies against the advice of Henry Ford and over 1 @,@ 000 economists who protested by calling for a veto of the act . Exports from the United States plummeted 60 % from 1930 to 1933 . Worldwide international trade virtually ground to a halt . The international ramifications of the Smoot @-@ Hawley tariff , comprising protectionist and discriminatory trade policies and bouts of economic nationalism , are credited by economists with prolongment and worldwide propagation of the Great Depression .
= = = = Formal abandonment of the Gold Standard = = = =
The classical gold standard was established in 1821 by the United Kingdom as the Bank of England enabled redemption of its banknotes for gold bullion . France , Germany , the United States , Russia , and Japan each embraced the standard one by one from 1878 to 1897 , marking its international acceptance . The first departure from the standard occurred in August 1914 when these nations erected trade embargoes on gold exports and suspended redemption of gold for banknotes . Following the end of World War I on November 11 , 1918 , Austria , Hungary , Germany , Russia , and Poland began experiencing hyperinflation . Having informally departed from the standard , most currencies were freed from exchange rate fixing and allowed to float . Most countries throughout this period sought to gain national advantages and bolster exports by depreciating their currency values to predatory levels . A number of countries , including the United States , made unenthusiastic and uncoordinated attempts to restore the former gold standard . The early years of the Great Depression brought about bank runs in the United States , Austria , and Germany , which placed pressures on gold reserves in the United Kingdom to such a degree that the gold standard became unsustainable . Germany became the first nation to formally abandon the post @-@ World War I gold standard when the Dresdner Bank implemented foreign exchange controls and announced bankruptcy on July 15 , 1931 . In September 1931 , the United Kingdom allowed the pound sterling to float freely . By the end of 1931 , a host of countries including Austria , Canada , Japan , and Sweden abandoned gold . Following widespread bank failures and a hemorrhaging of gold reserves , the United States broke free of the gold standard in April 1933 . France would not follow suit until 1936 as investors fled from the franc due to political concerns over Prime Minister Léon Blum 's government .
= = = = Trade liberalization in the United States = = = =
The disastrous effects of the Smoot – Hawley tariff proved difficult for Herbert Hoover 's 1932 re @-@ election campaign . Franklin D. Roosevelt became the 32nd U.S. president and the Democratic Party worked to reverse trade protectionism in favor of trade liberalization . As an alternative to cutting tariffs across all imports , Democrats advocated for trade reciprocity . The U.S. Congress passed the Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act in 1934 , aimed at restoring global trade and reducing unemployment . The legislation expressly authorized President Roosevelt to negotiate bilateral trade agreements and reduce tariffs considerably . If a country agreed to cut tariffs on certain commodities , the U.S. would institute corresponding cuts to promote trade between the two nations . Between 1934 and 1947 , the U.S. negotiated 29 such agreements and the average tariff rate decreased by approximately one third during this same period . The legislation contained an important most @-@ favored @-@ nation clause , through which tariffs were equalized to all countries , such that trade agreements would not result in preferential or discriminatory tariff rates with certain countries on any particular import , due to the difficulties and inefficiencies associated with differential tariff rates . The clause effectively generalized tariff reductions from bilateral trade agreements , ultimately reducing worldwide tariff rates .
= = = Rise of the Bretton Woods financial order : 1945 = = =
As the inception of the United Nations as an intergovernmental entity slowly began formalizing in 1944 , delegates from 44 of its early member states met at a hotel in Bretton Woods , New Hampshire for the United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference , now commonly referred to as the Bretton Woods conference . Delegates remained cognizant of the effects of the Great Depression , struggles to sustain the international gold standard during the 1930s , and related market instabilities . Whereas previous discourse on the international monetary system focused on fixed versus floating exchange rates , Bretton Woods delegates favored pegged exchange rates for their flexibility . Under this system , nations would peg their exchange rates to the U.S. dollar , which would be convertible to gold at $ 35 USD per ounce . This arrangement is commonly referred to as the Bretton Woods system . Rather than maintaining fixed rates , nations would peg their currencies to the U.S. dollar and allow their exchange rates to fluctuate within a 1 % band of the agreed @-@ upon parity . To meet this requirement , central banks would intervene via sales or purchases of their currencies against the dollar . Members could adjust their pegs in response to long @-@ run fundamental disequillibria in the balance of payments , but were responsible for correcting imbalances via fiscal and monetary policy tools before resorting to repegging strategies . The adjustable pegging enabled greater exchange rate stability for commercial and financial transactions which fostered unprecedented growth in international trade and foreign investment . This feature grew from delegates ' experiences in the 1930s when excessively volatile exchange rates and the reactive protectionist exchange controls that followed proved destructive to trade and prolonged the deflationary effects of the Great Depression . Capital mobility faced de facto limits under the system as governments instituted restrictions on capital flows and aligned their monetary policy to support their pegs .
An important component of the Bretton Woods agreements was the creation of two new international financial institutions , the International Monetary Fund ( IMF ) and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development ( IBRD ) . Collectively referred to as the Bretton Woods institutions , they became operational in 1947 and 1946 respectively . The IMF was established to support the monetary system by facilitating cooperation on international monetary issues , providing advisory and technical assistance to members , and offering emergency lending to nations experiencing repeated difficulties restoring the balance of payments equilibrium . Members would contribute funds to a pool according to their share of gross world product , from which emergency loans could be issued . Member states were authorized and encouraged to employ capital controls as necessary to manage payments imbalances and meet pegging targets , but prohibited from relying on IMF financing to cover particularly short @-@ term capital hemorrhages . While the IMF was instituted to guide members and provide a short @-@ term financing window for recurrent balance of payments deficits , the IBRD was established to serve as a type of financial intermediary for channeling global capital toward long @-@ term investment opportunities and postwar reconstruction projects . The creation of these organizations was a crucial milestone in the evolution of the international financial architecture , and some economists consider it the most significant achievement of multilateral cooperation following World War II . Since the establishment of the International Development Association ( IDA ) in 1960 , the IBRD and IDA are together known as the World Bank . While the IBRD lends to middle @-@ income developing countries , the IDA extends the Bank 's lending program by offering concessional loans and grants to the world 's poorest nations .
= = = = General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade : 1947 = = = =
In 1947 , 23 countries concluded the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade ( GATT ) at a UN conference in Geneva . Delegates intended the agreement to suffice while member states would negotiate creation of a UN body to be known as the International Trade Organization ( ITO ) . As the ITO never became ratified , GATT became the de facto framework for later multilateral trade negotiations . Members emphasized trade reprocity as an approach to lowering barriers in pursuit of mutual gains . The agreement 's structure enabled its signatories to codify and enforce regulations for trading of goods and services . GATT was centered on two precepts : trade relations needed to be equitable and nondiscriminatory , and subsidizing non @-@ agricultural exports needed to be prohibited . As such , the agreement 's most favored nation clause prohibited members from offering preferential tariff rates to any nation that it would not otherwise offer to fellow GATT members . In the event of any discovery of non @-@ agricultural subsidies , members were authorized to offset such policies by enacting countervailing tariffs . The agreement provided governments with a transparent structure for managing trade relations and avoiding protectionist pressures . However , GATT 's principles did not extend to financial activity , consistent with the era 's rigid discouragement of capital movements . The agreement 's initial round achieved only limited success in reducing tariffs . While the U.S. reduced its tariffs by one third , other signatories offered much smaller trade concessions .
= = = Resurgence of financial globalization = = =
= = = = Flexible exchange rate regimes : 1973 @-@ present = = = =
Although the exchange rate stability sustained by the Bretton Woods system facilitated expanding international trade , this early success masked its underlying design flaw , wherein there existed no mechanism for increasing the supply of international reserves to support continued growth in trade . The system began experiencing insurmountable market pressures and deteriorating cohesion among its key participants in the late 1950s and early 1960s . Central banks needed more U.S. dollars to hold as reserves , but were unable to expand their money supplies if doing so meant exceeding their dollar reserves and threatening their exchange rate pegs . To accommodate these needs , the Bretton Woods system depended on the United States to run dollar deficits . As a consequence , the dollar 's value began exceeding its gold backing . During the early 1960s , investors could sell gold for a greater dollar exchange rate in London than in the United States , signaling to market participants that the dollar was overvalued . Belgian @-@ American economist Robert Triffin defined this problem now known as the Triffin dilemma , in which a country 's national economic interests conflict with its international objectives as the custodian of the world 's reserve currency .
France voiced concerns over the artificially low price of gold in 1968 and called for returns to the former gold standard . Meanwhile , excess dollars flowed into international markets as the United States expanded its money supply to accommodate the costs of its military campaign in the Vietnam War . Its gold reserves were assaulted by speculative investors following its first current account deficit since the 19th century . In August 1971 , President Richard Nixon suspended the exchange of U.S. dollars for gold as part of the Nixon Shock . The closure of the gold window effectively shifted the adjustment burdens of a devalued dollar to other nations . Speculative traders chased other currencies and began selling dollars in anticipation of these currencies being revalued against the dollar . These influxes of capital presented difficulties to foreign central banks , which then faced choosing among inflationary money supplies , largely ineffective capital controls , or floating exchange rates . Following these woes surrounding the U.S. dollar , the dollar price of gold was raised to $ 38 USD per ounce and the Bretton Woods system was modified to allow fluctuations within an augmented band of 2 @.@ 25 % as part of the Smithsonian Agreement signed by the G @-@ 10 members in December 1971 . The agreement delayed the system 's demise for a further two years . The system 's erosion was expedited not only by the dollar devaluations that occurred , but also by the oil crises of the 1970s which emphasized the importance of international financial markets in petrodollar recycling and balance of payments financing . Once the world 's reserve currency began to float , other nations began adopting floating exchange rate regimes .
= = = = = The post @-@ Bretton Woods financial order : 1976 = = = = =
As part of the first amendment to its articles of agreement in 1969 , the IMF developed a new reserve instrument called special drawing rights ( SDRs ) , which could be held by central banks and exchanged among themselves and the Fund as an alternative to gold . SDRs entered service in 1970 originally as units of a market basket of sixteen major vehicle currencies of countries whose share of total world exports exceeded 1 % . The basket 's composition changed over time and presently consists of the U.S. dollar , euro , Japanese yen , Chinese yuan , and British pound . Beyond holding them as reserves , nations can denominate transactions among themselves and the Fund in SDRs , although the instrument is not a vehicle for trade . In international transactions , the currency basket 's portfolio characteristic affords greater stability against the uncertainties inherent with free floating exchange rates . Special drawing rights were originally equivalent to a specified amount of gold , but were not directly redeemable for gold and instead served as a surrogate in obtaining other currencies that could be exchanged for gold . The Fund initially issued 9 @.@ 5 billion XDR from 1970 to 1972 .
IMF members signed the Jamaica Agreement in January 1976 , which ratified the end of the Bretton Woods system and reoriented the Fund 's role in supporting the international monetary system . The agreement officially embraced the flexible exchange rate regimes that emerged after the failure of the Smithsonian Agreement measures . In tandem with floating exchange rates , the agreement endorsed central bank interventions aimed at clearing excessive volatility . The agreement retroactively formalized the abandonment of gold as a reserve instrument and the Fund subsequently demonetized its gold reserves , returning gold to members or selling it to provide poorer nations with relief funding . Developing countries and countries not endowed with oil export resources enjoyed greater access to IMF lending programs as a result . The Fund continued assisting nations experiencing balance of payments deficits and currency crises , but began imposing conditionality on its funding that required countries to adopt policies aimed at reducing deficits through spending cuts and tax increases , reducing protective trade barriers , and contractionary monetary policy .
The second amendment to the articles of agreement was signed in 1978 . It legally formalized the free @-@ floating acceptance and gold demonetization achieved by the Jamaica Agreement , and required members to support stable exchange rates through macroeconomic policy . The post @-@ Bretton Woods system was decentralized in that member states retained autonomy in selecting an exchange rate regime . The amendment also expanded the institution 's capacity for oversight and charged members with supporting monetary sustainability by cooperating with the Fund on regime implementation . This role is called IMF surveillance and is recognized as a pivotal point in the evolution of the Fund 's mandate , which was extended beyond balance of payments issues to broader concern with internal and external stresses on countries ' overall economic policies .
Under the dominance of flexible exchange rate regimes , the foreign exchange markets became significantly more volatile . In 1980 , newly elected U.S. President Ronald Reagan 's administration brought about increasing balance of payments deficits and budget deficits . To finance these deficits , the United States offered artificially high real interest rates to attract large inflows of foreign capital . As foreign investors ' demand for U.S. dollars grew , the dollar 's value appreciated substantially until reaching its peak in February 1985 . The U.S. trade deficit grew to $ 160 billion in 1985 ( $ 341 billion in 2012 dollars ) as a result of the dollar 's strong appreciation . The G5 met in September 1985 at the Plaza Hotel in New York City and agreed that the dollar should depreciate against the major currencies to resolve the United States ' trade deficit and pledged to support this goal with concerted foreign exchange market interventions , in what became known as the Plaza Accord . The U.S. dollar continued to depreciate , but industrialized nations became increasingly concerned that it would decline too heavily and that exchange rate volatility would increase . To address these concerns , the G7 ( now G8 ) held a summit in Paris in 1987 , where they agreed to pursue improved exchange rate stability and better coordinate their macroeconomic policies , in what became known as the Louvre Accord . This accord became the provenance of the managed float regime by which central banks jointly intervene to resolve under- and overvaluations in the foreign exchange market to stabilize otherwise freely floating currencies . Exchange rates stabilized following the embrace of managed floating during the 1990s , with a strong U.S. economic performance from 1997 to 2000 during the Dot @-@ com bubble . After the 2000 stock market correction of the Dot @-@ com bubble the country 's trade deficit grew , the September 11 attacks increased political uncertainties , and the dollar began to depreciate in 2001 .
= = = = = European Monetary System : 1979 = = = = =
Following the Smithsonian Agreement , member states of the European Economic Community adopted a narrower currency band of 1 @.@ 125 % for exchange rates among their own currencies , creating a smaller scale fixed exchange rate system known as the snake in the tunnel . The snake proved unsustainable as it did not compel EEC countries to coordinate macroeconomic policies . In 1979 , the European Monetary System ( EMS ) phased out the currency snake . The EMS featured two key components : the European Currency Unit ( ECU ) , an artificial weighted average market basket of European Union members ' currencies , and the Exchange Rate Mechanism ( ERM ) , a procedure for managing exchange rate fluctuations in keeping with a calculated parity grid of currencies ' par values . The parity grid was derived from parities each participating country established for its currency with all other currencies in the system , denominated in terms of ECUs . The weights within the ECU changed in response to variances in the values of each currency in its basket . Under the ERM , if an exchange rate reached its upper or lower limit ( within a 2 @.@ 25 % band ) , both nations in that currency pair were obligated to intervene collectively in the foreign exchange market and buy or sell the under- or overvalued currency as necessary to return the exchange rate to its par value according to the parity matrix . The requirement of cooperative market intervention marked a key difference from the Bretton Woods system . Similarly to Bretton Woods however , EMS members could impose capital controls and other monetary policy shifts on countries responsible for exchange rates approaching their bounds , as identified by a divergence indicator which measured deviations from the ECU 's value . The central exchange rates of the parity grid could be adjusted in exceptional circumstances , and were modified every eight months on average during the systems ' initial four years of operation . During its twenty @-@ year lifespan , these central rates were adjusted over 50 times .
= = = = Birth of the World Trade Organization : 1994 = = = =
The Uruguay Round of GATT multilateral trade negotiations took place from 1986 to 1994 , with 123 nations becoming party to agreements achieved throughout the negotiations . Among the achievements were trade liberalization in agricultural goods and textiles , the General Agreement on Trade in Services , and agreements on intellectual property rights issues . The key manifestation
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consist of collecting trophies hidden in the city through the use of gadgets to disable traps and barriers . The player can mark Riddler trophies on the in @-@ game map once found if they do not initially have the necessary equipment to complete the puzzle . The player can also reveal the locations of Riddler trophies on the map by identifying the Riddler 's henchmen with " Detective Vision " and interrogating them , which requires the player to save the henchmen for last when engaging in combat with a wave of enemies . There are also environmental challenges which require the player to solve riddles by locating a specific item or location ( which are rewarded with stories relating to the answer ) , and to locate question marks painted around the city , some of which can only be viewed in whole from certain vantage points . After completing a select number of challenges , Batman must rescue a civilian hostage held in one of the Riddler 's death traps .
After completing the story mode on " normal " or " hard " difficulties , a " New Game Plus " mode is unlocked , enabling the player to replay the game with all of the gadgets , experience , and abilities that they have attained ; enemies are tougher and the on @-@ screen icon that warns players of imminent attacks is disabled . Arkham City features a series of challenge maps separate from the game 's story mode . The maps focus on the completion of specific goals , such as eliminating successive waves of enemies in combat , subduing patrolling enemies while employing stealth , or traveling to a specific location as efficiently as possible . The methods and variety of abilities used to achieve these goals earn an overall performance score that is ranked online against other players .
Catwoman is another playable character available via the Catwoman campaign , which was initially downloadable content ( DLC ) on PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 consoles but was later included with the PC version and Game of the Year editions . Catwoman 's campaign features her own heist @-@ focused storyline that intersects with the main story at specific points in the game . Her combat emphasizes agility and allows for the use of unique weapons such as clawed gauntlets , bolas , and her iconic whip . A portion of the Riddler challenges are specific to Catwoman and can only be completed by her . Batman 's allies Robin and Nightwing are also playable via optional DLC and feature their own combat abilities and gadgets . Both characters are available in the challenge maps ; Robin has his own main story narrative .
The PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 versions of Arkham City include a stereoscopic 3D ( S3D ) mode for 3D HDTVs and for 2D HDTVs via Inficolor 3D glasses , while the PC version supports Nvidia 3D Vision on compatible monitors . It uses TriOviz for Games Technology , which is integrated with Unreal Engine 3 . The Wii U version uses the Wii U 's touch screen controller to let the player manage Batman 's equipment and upgrades , selectively detonate Explosive Gel placements , and view a map of the city . The Wii U version adds a Sonar mode which highlights points of interest nearby , and the Battle Armored Tech Mode ( BAT Mode ) that allows Batman to accrue energy during combat and , when activated , inflict increased damage .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Characters = = =
Arkham City features a large ensemble cast of characters from the history of Batman ' comics . Returning characters from Arkham Asylum include Batman ( Kevin Conroy ) , the Joker ( Mark Hamill ) — in what Hamill stated would be his final time voicing the character ; ( he subsequently reprised the role in Arkham City 's successor Batman : Arkham Knight ) — Warden @-@ turned @-@ Mayor Quincy Sharp ( Tom Kane ) , police Commissioner James Gordon ( David Kaye ) , and reporter Jack Ryder ( James Horan ) . Returning villains include the Riddler ( Wally Wingert ) , Victor Zsasz ( Danny Jacobs ) , Bane ( Fred Tatasciore ) , and Poison Ivy ( Tasia Valenza ) . Joker 's sidekick Harley Quinn also returns , voiced by Tara Strong , who replaces Arleen Sorkin . Batman 's supporting cast introduces Catwoman ( Grey DeLisle ) , Robin ( Troy Baker ) , and Batman 's butler Alfred Pennyworth ( Martin Jarvis ) , who provides radio support alongside the returning Oracle ( Kimberly Brooks ) . Nightwing appears as a playable character outside of the main story via challenge maps .
Other characters marking their debut in the series include the manipulative warden of Arkham City , Hugo Strange ( Corey Burton ) , Two @-@ Face ( also voiced by Baker ) , and the Penguin ( Nolan North ) . Stana Katic lends her voice as Talia al Ghul , and Maurice LaMarche voices both Mr. Freeze and Calendar Man . Other characters include the zombie Solomon Grundy ( also voiced by Tatasciore ) , the shapeshifter Clayface ( Rick D. Wasserman ) , the League of Assassins 's leader , Ra 's al Ghul ( Dee Bradley Baker ) , the mind @-@ controlling Mad Hatter ( Peter MacNicol ) , and the assassin Deadshot ( Chris Cox ) , who has infiltrated Arkham City to kill several high @-@ profile character targets . The villain Hush ( also voiced by Conroy ) , the mysterious Azrael ( Khary Payton ) , and reporter Vicki Vale ( also voiced by DeLisle ) also appear . Black Mask ( also voiced by North ) , Killer Croc ( Steven Blum ) , and Freeze 's wife , Nora Fries , make cameo appearances in the game .
= = = Setting = = =
The events of Arkham City are set one year after Batman : Arkham Asylum . Quincy Sharp , the asylum 's erstwhile director , has taken sole credit for halting the Joker 's armed siege , using this distinction to become mayor of Gotham City . Declaring both the asylum and Blackgate Penitentiary no longer suitable to contain the city 's detainees , Sharp 's administration orders both facilities closed and he purchases Gotham 's most notorious slums , converting them into an immense prison enclosure known as Arkham City . This facility is subsequently placed in the care of psychiatrist Hugo Strange — who is secretly manipulating Sharp — and monitored by a rogue private military firm , TYGER Security . Strange permits the inmates to do as they please , so long as they do not attempt to escape . A wary Batman maintains his own vigil over the new project , concerned that the chaotic situation there will get out of hand . Meanwhile , the Joker is suffering from a potentially fatal disease caused by his previous consumption of the Titan formula , an unstable steroid serum which turns men into maddened monsters .
= = = Plot = = =
At a press conference held by Bruce Wayne to declare his opposition to Arkham City , TYGER mercenaries arrest and imprison him in Arkham City . Hugo Strange discloses his knowledge of Wayne 's dual identity as Batman before releasing him into the prison 's criminal populace . While Strange prepares to commence " Protocol 10 " , Wayne obtains his equipment via airdrop from Alfred Pennyworth , allowing him to become Batman . He first saves Catwoman from being executed by Two @-@ Face , who hopes to gain respect by murdering her . After Joker attempts to assassinate Catwoman , Batman tracks him to his hideout in the Sionis Steelmill , believing Joker may know the truth behind Protocol 10 .
There , Batman learns that the unstable properties of the Titan formula are mutating in Joker 's blood , gradually killing him . Joker captures Batman and performs a blood transfusion on him , infecting him with the same fatal disease . Joker also reveals that Gotham hospitals have been poisoned with his infected blood . Desperate to save himself and innocent citizens , Batman seeks out Mr. Freeze , who had been developing a cure but has since been kidnapped by the Penguin .
Tracking Penguin to the Cyrus Pinkney National History Institute , Batman defeats his forces , his imprisoned monster Solomon Grundy , and ultimately the Penguin himself , before liberating Mr. Freeze . Freeze tells Batman that he has already developed the cure , but its instability renders it useless . Batman deduces that the restorative properties of Ra 's al Ghul 's blood can complete the cure . Batman tracks one of Ra 's al Ghul 's assassins to his underground lair , leading Batman into a confrontation with Ra 's and his daughter Talia , Batman 's former lover . With Ra 's al Ghul 's blood , Freeze is able to develop an antidote , but it is stolen by Harley Quinn before Batman can use it .
When he returns to the Joker , Batman finds him restored to health . While the two fight , Strange activates Protocol 10 , which is revealed to be a scheme to wipe out the entire population of Arkham City and destroy the criminal element of Gotham . The TYGER troops begin executing inmates as Strange launches missile strikes on Arkham 's denizens from his base in Wonder Tower . A missile hits the steelmill , burying Batman under rubble . Before Joker can take advantage of the situation , Talia arrives and offers him immortality in exchange for sparing Batman 's life . After escaping with the help of Catwoman , Batman is convinced by Alfred to end Protocol 10 before pursuing Talia and Joker .
Batman infiltrates Wonder Tower and disables Protocol 10 . Ra 's al Ghul is revealed to be the true mastermind behind Arkham City and mortally wounds Strange for failing to defeat Batman . With his dying breath , Strange activates " Protocol 11 " , the self @-@ destruction of Wonder Tower . Batman and Ra 's escape , but Ra 's commits suicide rather than risk capture . Joker contacts Batman , threatening to kill Talia unless Batman meets him at the Monarch Theater . Once Batman arrives , Joker demands the cure but is stabbed and apparently killed by Talia while distracted . Talia admits to stealing the cure from Quinn , when she is killed by a second Joker , still stricken with the disease . The healthy Joker that Talia stabbed then reanimates into the shapeshifting Clayface , who is revealed to have been masquerading as a healthy Joker all along at the ailing villain 's request .
Batman incapacitates Clayface , but Joker blows up the theater floor , sending Batman plummeting into Ra 's ' lair below . Batman destroys Ra 's ' rejuvenating Lazarus Pit before the Joker can use it , and drinks a portion of the antidote . Batman debates curing his foe but is attacked by Joker before he can act , causing the antidote vial to inadvertently smash . Batman admits that in spite of everything Joker had done , he would have saved him . After Joker finally succumbs to his illness and dies , Batman carries his body out of Arkham City . As Commissioner Gordon asks what happened , Batman places Joker 's body on the hood of a police car and leaves in silence .
= = Development = =
= = = Concept = = =
Rocksteady conceived the idea of a sequel before development of Arkham Asylum had concluded , developing ideas for both the story and setting so the games ' narratives could be effectively connected ; a secret room was hidden in the asylum warden 's office in Arkham Asylum containing hints of how the sequel would progress , including blueprints for the Arkham City prison ; the blueprints are quite similar to its final layout in Arkham City . The original idea was to take the game out of the asylum setting and onto the streets of Gotham City while retaining the level of design detail put into the asylum . To that end they wanted to include locations from the Batman mythos that were notable and meaningful to the character , instead of a series of generic streets ; Rocksteady was initially unsure how technical considerations would limit the scope of this idea .
Serious development of the game 's story and concept started in February 2009 , as teams were moved from Arkham Asylum to Arkham City 's development as they completed the work on that game . By the time they had programmed Batman to dive and glide between buildings of the asylum , the adaption of the gameplay to the city was considered natural . Rocksteady decided to not include the Batmobile , because it would be unable to travel on the city 's broken terrain . Batman 's gliding provided a sufficient means of transportation , and it was considered that putting Batman in any vehicle would make it a completely different game . Sefton Hill , Arkham City 's director from Rocksteady Studios , stated that a key goal for the game was to deliver the " ' Batman in Gotham ' feeling . " The sequel was described by Conroy as " really , really dark " . While relating the game 's dark nature to the animated movie Batman Beyond : Return of the Joker , Conroy also said , " It involves a lot of the villains and it goes to that area – it 's that dark . "
= = = Design = = =
As part of the " Batman in Gotham " design philosophy , Batman 's arsenal of moves and actions were expanded . Although the team developed several ideas for new moves , gadgets and abilities , they only went forward with those that they felt would be authentic to Batman . They also chose to have Batman start the game with access to the gadgets unlocked in Arkham Asylum , to convey the impression that Batman is fully prepared for the inevitability of things going wrong in Arkham City . The studio reviewed the play and combat systems used in Arkham Asylum , and built the new moves as natural extensions of the existing system as a means to " add even more depth and gameplay instead of changing them fundamentally " . The number of animations were doubled to reflect the larger arsenal of moves at the player 's disposal . The X @-@ ray @-@ like " Detective Vision " mode used to highlight certain objects in @-@ game was redeveloped for Arkham City because it was considered to be too useful in Arkham Asylum , resulting in some players using it throughout almost the entire game ; the visual effect also obscured the game 's design aesthetic . One idea was to introduce a time limit on its use , but it was considered that Batman " wouldn 't make a gadget like that " . Instead , the mode was designed to be difficult to use in certain situations such as obscuring navigational information , and combat where enemy strikes will blur the screen when " Detective Vision " is active . Rocksteady art director David Hego described the new " Detective Vision " as an " augmented reality mode " .
Another way the developers wished to enhance the player 's Batman experience was through the larger game world . Arkham City has a virtual footprint five times larger than that of Arkham Asylum , and the navigational aspects were improved to offer the player " the freedom and exhilaration of gliding down alleyways and soaring above the skyline " . Though the concepts were compared to an open world game , Hill notes that such freeform nature would not be appropriate for a Batman game because it would inhibit the atmosphere they wanted to create , and that Arkham City was designed to challenge the player to think like Batman to survive . To counterbalance the larger game world , the developers also sought to include more challenges and side missions while keeping the player alert as to the primary mission , such that the players constantly are aware of " extreme pressure of the challenges that they face " . The Riddler Trophies were designed towards the end of the game 's development and were incorporated into every area of the map without overpopulating it , resulting in 440 trophies . Rocksteady aimed to make the player think creatively when collecting trophies by requiring the use of gadgets to solve puzzles , rather than placing the trophies in obscure areas of the map as mere collection items .
With the open game world , Rocksteady included more villains to create challenges for Batman . Hugo Strange was selected as a primary antagonist , as his power and controlling manner help maintain the lockdown on Arkham City once Batman enters . Strange is aware of Batman 's true identity , making Batman " vulnerable and exposed in a way that he has never been before " , according to Hill . He noted that Strange is a character new to many players but that his backstory and character are detailed throughout the game . Catwoman was also included based on her long history with Batman , though she was given her own agenda running parallel to the events within Arkham City . Catwoman 's missions initially ended with her coming to Batman 's aide , but late in development , the developers decided to give the player an alternate choice , allowing them to have the morally grey Catwoman leave the city with her loot ; the addition was implemented in two days . Batman 's sidekick Robin also appears , featuring a shaved head and contemporary costume design that were intended to move away from his traditional " Boy Wonder " image . Senior concept artist Kan Muftic explained : " Our vision of Robin is the one of a troubled young individual that is calm and introverted at times , but very dangerous and aggressive if provoked . The shaved head is inspired by cage fighters , because we thought that Robin might be doing that in his spare time to keep him on his toes . Still , we kept all the classic trademarks of Robin 's appearance , such as the red and yellow colors of his outfit , the cape and the mask . " Rocksteady originally did not plan to include Robin in the main story but later decided to as an authentic means of delivering new gadgets to Batman , as well as to introduce their version of the character and his relationship with Batman .
Rocksteady intended for Batman , Catwoman , and Robin to offer three different playing experiences . Other villains from Batman 's comic history were selected to show that the prison was a melting pot of people from Gotham . The developers believed that providing a small part of each villain 's story rather than focusing on a select few allowed the player to meet many more characters and effectively conveyed the feeling of being in a superprison filled with supervillains . Rocksteady decided early on that the Joker would die in the story , and developed the idea of him poisoning Batman with the same affliction , in order to show how the two diametrically opposed characters would interact in pursuit of a shared goal . Warner Bros. and Dini did not oppose killing off the character as long as it was not done for shock value , and as long as they made it clear that Batman was not at fault , since he would not intentionally kill someone .
The developers had considered adding a multiplayer element to the game , but ultimately decided against it . According to Hill , " If we use all of the energy that is required to create multiplayer and instead focus this on the single player , would that deliver a better overall game ? " , and decided in the affirmative .
Variety was added to the city itself , as certain areas were designed around the villains that control that particular territory . Dax Ginn , marketing game manager at Rocksteady Games , said , " If you move into Joker 's territory , you get a very Joker @-@ ized experience , and all the artwork on the buildings – whether that 's graffiti , signage , or whatever it might be – gives you a dense kind of Joker experience . So our art team has really put a lot of effort in making that sort of transition between one turf zone to another – really helping the player feel like they 're making a physical transition into another emotional space . " The architecture was imbued with 19th century Art Nouveau design , such as Strange 's Wonder Tower which was inspired by the Eiffel Tower , while character designs employed a modern Hyperrealism style . To keep the environments interesting , base color schemes such as Mr Freeze 's ice @-@ themed area , Joker 's fire @-@ themed steel mill , and Poison Ivy 's jungle @-@ themed area were populated with contrasting elements : for example , the steel mill uses large , white clown faces to contrast the oranges and reds used throughout . To develop the expanded environment of Arkham City and build a " natural urban environment " for Batman , Rocksteady expanded its workforce from 75 to over 100 people .
= = = Music = = =
The game 's release was accompanied by two albums of music released by WaterTower Music . Batman : Arkham City – Original Video Game Score was released on October 18 , 2011 , and features 19 tracks written for the game by Arkham Asylum composers Nick Arundel and Ron Fish . Batman : Arkham City – The Album was released on October 4 , 2011 , via CD and digital download . The album contains 11 original songs inspired by the game from mainstream artists including Daughtry , Panic ! at the Disco , and Coheed and Cambria . An extra song was made available via the Collector 's edition of the album , and the Deluxe edition included a portion of Arundel 's original score .
= = Marketing = =
Arkham City 's marketing campaign was designed to reach an audience outside of superhero fans and appeal to consumers who are attracted to games like the first @-@ person shooter series Call of Duty . Warner Bros. ' s marketing team decided that Batman 's status as a cultural icon and superhero was unavoidable , so they decided to emphasize other elements of the character that could appeal to fans of first @-@ person shooters and action games . Black @-@ and @-@ white photographs of iconic personalities like inventor Steve Jobs and actor James Dean served as inspiration and a basis for the final marketing campaign used in advertisements and the game 's cover art . The imagery , highlighted with blood and bathed in light was considered to move away from the classic superhero image and refocus on Batman 's humanity . The black and white campaign was featured on 120 magazine covers and was targeted towards approximately 15 million consumers across a variety of social media and Warner Bros. products , in addition to a series of viral marketing videos and stunts involving actors in costume attending press @-@ related events . By April 2012 , three gameplay trailers had gained approximately 6 million views . The viral segment of the campaign involved several audio recordings between characters from the game including Hugo Strange , Quincy Sharp , Riddler , and the Penguin ; each recording could be found by solving a puzzle . The entire campaign spent more than a year in development , producing artwork , videos , DLC , printed advertisements , billboards , and events , and was estimated to have cost at least $ 10 million .
A six @-@ issue , limited monthly comic series , also titled Batman : Arkham City was released on May 11 , 2011 . The series bridges the plot between Arkham Asylum and Arkham City . It was written by Paul Dini with art by Carlos D 'Anda . Warner Bros. also developed toys based on the characters through Mattel , Hallmark cards , batarang @-@ shaped videogame controllers , and a variety of apparel by Converse , Eckō Complex , C Life , New Era , and Briefly Stated .
Toys " R " Us in Times Square New York City , released 500 copies of Batman : Arkham City on Monday , October 17 , one day before the game officially hit shelves . The first 100 customers to pre @-@ order a copy through the store 's " Personal Shopping Department " had a chance to get their game autographed by DC Entertainment co @-@ publisher Jim Lee , Batman voice actor Kevin Conroy , and Arkham City game director Sefton Hill . The remaining 400 copies of Arkham City could be purchased at the event , unautographed .
= = Release = =
Batman : Arkham City was released in North America on October 18 , 2011 , for Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 , followed on October 19 in Australia and October 21 in Europe . Australian retailers EB Games and Game broke the official release date two days early , selling the game on October 17 . The Windows version had been scheduled for simultaneous release with other versions , but in September 2011 , its release was pushed back to November 18 without explanation . Alongside its PC launch , the game was also released digitally on the OnLive , Origin , and Steam platforms . A Game of the Year edition was released on May 29 , 2012 , in the United States and Canada , and on September 7 , 2012 , in Europe , Australia , and other territories on PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 , except the United Kingdom where its scheduled release was pushed back to November 2 , 2012 .
A spin @-@ off game titled Batman : Arkham City Lockdown was developed by NetherRealm Studios for iOS and was released on December 7 , 2011 . Taking place before Arkham City , the game sees players using touchscreen controls to fight enemies one @-@ on @-@ one , including villains such as Two @-@ Face , Solomon Grundy , Joker , and the mercenary Deathstroke . Defeating enemies earns points that can be used to upgrade Batman 's stats or unlock gadgets or costumes .
The Wii U version of Arkham City was released on November 18 , 2012 , alongside the console 's launch in North America . Titled Batman : Arkham City Armored Edition , the release contains all of the available content from previous releases — plus a Battle Armored Tech mode , GamePad support , and other additions . The Wii U version was developed by Warner Bros. Studios in Montréal and Burbank . The Game of the Year edition was developed for OS X by Feral Interactive and released on December 13 , 2012 .
Batman : Return to Arkham , developed by Virtuos , features remastered versions of Arkham Asylum and Arkham City using the Unreal Engine 4 for the PlayStation 4 and Xbox One . Additionally , both games include all previously released downloadable content , and feature improved graphics , upgraded models and environments , and improvements in the lighting , effects and shaders for both games . Originally intended for release in North America on July 26 , 2016 , and in Europe on July 29 , 2016 , the collection has since been delayed indefinitely in order to give the development team " additional time to deliver a polished Batman Arkham game experience . "
= = = Pre @-@ order bonuses = = =
Warner Bros. partnered with several retailers and companies globally to provide bonus content as a reward for pre @-@ ordering , including : Best Buy , Amazon.com , GameStop , Game , Gamestation , EB Games , Tesco , and Asda . The content was only made available by pre @-@ ordering the game with a specific retailer or purchasing a product , such as a NOS beverage , to obtain an unlockable code .
A variety of alternate outfits for Batman were revealed in August 2011 , including suit designs worn by the character in The Dark Knight Returns , Batman : Earth One , the Bronze Age of Comics , Batman : The Animated Series , and Batman Beyond . The Batman : The Animated Series skin was initially only available to GameStop customers in the U.S. with a Power @-@ Up Rewards Membership . A PlayStation 3 @-@ exclusive Sinestro Corps outfit was revealed in August 2011 that initially was only unlockable via a unique code obtained by purchasing the extended cut edition of the Warner Bros. film , Green Lantern on Blu @-@ ray Disc .
Batman 's sidekick Robin ( Tim Drake ) was made available as a playable character for use in challenge maps , with his own set of combat moves and gadgets . Additional Robin skins were also released , including his appearance from Batman : The Animated Series and the Red Robin outfit . The character came with two exclusive challenge maps : " Black Mask Hideout " and " Freight Train Escape " . The " Joker 's Carnival " challenge map was also made available ; it set within the Joker 's Sionis Steel Mill base where the player is faced with multiple waves of opponents . The pre @-@ order content was considered an " early access opportunity " for customers , with Ginn confirming that all of the content would be made available for download after the game 's release date . Pre @-@ orders for Arkham City numbered more than 200 % above those of Arkham Asylum .
= = = Retail editions = = =
In the United Kingdom , the Robin Edition was announced , available exclusively through retailers Game and Gamestation , containing the game and all of the Robin pre @-@ order content including the playable character , skins and challenge maps . A series of " Steelbook Edition " versions of the game were also made available , featuring the standard game with a metallic case . The Joker @-@ themed Steelbook includes the " Joker 's Carnival " challenge map , the animated film Batman : Under the Red Hood on DVD ( Blu @-@ ray for PlayStation 3 ) , and the Bronze Age Batman skin DLC . Three other villain @-@ themed steelbook cases were also offered , featuring the likenesses of Two @-@ Face and the Penguin . A fourth steelbook featuring Catwoman was released , containing the Batman : Earth One alternative skin for Batman .
The Collector 's Edition contains a Batman statue by Kotobukiya , a collectible art book , Batman : Arkham City – The Album from WaterTower Music , the animated film Batman : Gotham Knight , the The Dark Knight Returns skin and the Penguin @-@ themed " Iceberg Lounge " challenge map . In July 2011 , the Microsoft Windows version of the game was revealed to use Games for Windows – Live ( GFWL ) to access online services . Confusion concerning the use of GFWL was raised when a distributor was told by Warner Bros. that the title did not use the Live system , but the use of GFWL was confirmed in late August .
On October 25 , 2011 , a Batman themed Xbox 360 console bundle was released , containing the game , a DVD of Batman : Gotham Knight , a DVD of the Green Lantern film , the Green Lantern video game tie @-@ in Rise of the Manhunters , and a 250GB Xbox 360 console . A bundle containing these items and a Kinect controller was also released .
A Game of the Year edition was announced on April 23 , 2012 , containing the game and all of the released downloadable content ( DLC ) . A free download of the animated movie Batman : Year One was also included with versions released in the United States and Canada .
= = = Downloadable content = = =
New purchases of the game for Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 are provided with a unique code that unlocks the " Catwoman " DLC , enabling a series of missions for Catwoman , with unique weapons and moves . Although the missions were presented as part of the main game , on October 13 , 2011 , Warner Bros. announced that it would be restricted to new purchases . Users can also purchase the content separately . It was later announced that pre @-@ owned copies purchased from GameStop would contain the necessary unlock code . A Warner Bros. rep confirmed that playing as Catwoman would not be required to complete the game . The Catwoman DLC also contains two alternate skins for the character : her appearances from The Animated Series and Batman : The Long Halloween . The PC version of the game includes the DLC , requiring no downloads or further installs to access .
Additional DLC packs were later released . The " Nightwing " pack , released on November 1 , 2011 , includes Batman 's ally Nightwing as a playable character for the game 's challenge maps , an Animated Series alternative skin for the character , and two more challenge maps : " Wayne Manor " and " Main Hall " . The " Robin " pack was released on November 22 , 2011 , and contains the Robin pre @-@ order content . A " Skins " pack containing all of the alternate Batman pre @-@ order skins was released on December 6 , 2011 . Another pack was announced for release on December 20 , 2011 , containing the pre @-@ order " Iceberg Lounge " and " Joker 's Carnival " challenge maps , and a completely new challenge map : " Batcave " . On December 19 , 2011 , a new Batman skin was released — based on the character 's outfit from Batman Incorporated — to download for free on all platforms .
On October 23 , 2011 , an official map app was made available to purchase on the iOS App Store that contains maps for Arkham City , the locations of in @-@ game collectibles , and the solutions to the Riddler 's riddles .
" Harley Quinn 's Revenge " , a story @-@ based campaign expansion , was released on May 29 , 2012 , for the PlayStation 3 and the Xbox 360 , with a PC version coming out a week later . The campaign features a new story , new areas , new enemies , and both Batman and Robin as playable characters . The story takes place two weeks after the events of Arkham City . The mega prison has since been evacuated , but Quinn returns and sets up in Joker 's former base . The game follows Robin 's search for Batman , who has gone missing while hunting Quinn ; Batman has been acting differently following the end of the main game story , concerning his allies . On the same day , it was announced that all of the released DLC , including " Harley Quinn 's Revenge " , would be made available as part of the Arkham City Game of the Year edition .
= = Reception = =
Batman : Arkham City received critical acclaim . Aggregating review websites GameRankings and Metacritic , respectively , gave the PlayStation 3 version of the game 96 % and 96 / 100 , the Xbox 360 version 94 % and 94 / 100 , and the PC version 90 % and 91 / 100 .
Game Informer 's Andrew Reiner awarded the game a perfect 10 score , labeling it " the best licensed video game ever made " . Reiner said that the game could be the biggest and " most enjoyable timesink " of 2011 , and concluded that the game surpassed every standard set by Batman : Arkham Asylum " in every way and stands tall as one of Batman 's greatest moments . " Joystiq 's Griffin McElroy praised the attention to detail , and mechanical excellence of the game environment , crediting Rocksteady for " breathing life into a staggeringly beautiful world ; one which hums not only with opportunity , but ambition " . McElroy criticized the game narrative as a series of excuses to encounter villains that were " one @-@ dimensional punching [ bags ] " , and that the character dialogue was clichéd . McElroy was also critical of the Riddler challenges , stating that they were " frustrating " when the player lacks the necessary items to complete them .
Eurogamer 's Christian Donlan considered that the game lacked the same " surprise " as its predecessor , but praised the overall improvement of bosses , animations and the scope of activities available . Donlan said that the game environment was intricate and very detailed , and the abilities provided for its traversal made it " hard not to feel like the world 's greatest detective , on patrol " . IGN 's Greg Miller said " the voice acting , the challenges , the amazing opening , the unbelievable ending and the feeling of being the Dark Knight — these are the things that standout " . Miller said that the Catwoman missions were a fun change of pace from the main gameplay , and that he " adored " the option to replay the game with unlocked abilities and more difficult enemies .
The Daily Telegraph 's Tom Hoggins praised the game 's sense of progress in discovering and mastering the character abilities , and the " show @-@ stopping brutality " of the improved combat system . Hoggins highlighted the Catwoman campaign as a " delight " and fitting lithe contrast to Batman 's strength , but lamented the campaign 's short length . The Guardian 's Nick Cowen labeled it the best Batman game of all time , praising the variety of side missions and content , the large cast of iconic characters , and the satisfying challenge of the Riddler missions . The Australian Official PlayStation Magazine awarded a perfect score of 10 stating that the game " is not only the best superhero game ever made , it 's one of the best games ever made ... it brings the Caped Crusader 's world to life better than any comic , movie or television show before it " . Play3 ( Germany ) awarded a score of 92 % , calling it " the best superhero game ever made " . GamesMaster awarded a score of 97 % , saying it is " the gold standard by which all future videogames should be judged " .
Batman : Arkham City Armored Edition for Wii U received a mixed reception . GameRankings provided a score of 85 % , and Metacritic provided a score of 85 / 100 . Eurogamer 's Richard Leadbetter was critical of technical performance including issues with visual quality and inconsistent framerate . EGM 's Ray Carsillo said that the optional B.A.T. system made certain battles too easy . Carsillo also said it was the " clearly inferior version " of the game due to glitches and " tacked on gimmicks " . Nintendo World Report 's Patrick Barnett wrote that certain uses of the Wii U controller made it " the best way to experience Arkham City " , but that some new features were a " nuisance " . Barnett added that it was " on par , if not better , visually " , than its counterparts . Joystiq 's JC Fletcher opined that the persistent map screen and touch screen interface were appreciated , and complimented the use of augmented reality to explore crime scenes . Game Revolution 's Blake Peterson praised the real @-@ time management of information , upgrades and equipment that he considered made Batman more vulnerable , although Barnett included this as a point of criticism .
For the " Harley Quinn 's Revenge " DLC , IGN 's Greg Miller scored the content 9 out of 10 and gave it an Editor 's Choice designation . Miller said that it " is what downloadable content should be " , but criticized the lack of variety in the missions and the lack of conclusion to some plot threads . Eurogamer 's Christian Donlan gave the DLC a score of 7 out of 10 , and said that Harley Quinn worked as well as the Joker as a narrative focus . Donlan said that Robin was " enormous fun to play " , but criticized the DLC for not offering anything not present in the main game . Kotaku 's Stephen Totilo was critical of the DLC , saying that it diminished his desire to replay the main game and describing it as " delicious a dessert as a poison @-@ filled Joker pie to the face " . Totilo said it presented an emotionless , inconclusive journey , composed of unused material from the main game .
= = = Sales = = =
Worldwide , the game sold two million units in its first week of approximately 4 @.@ 6 million shipped units , compared to Arkham Asylum which sold 4 @.@ 3 million units in its entire release . This made Arkham City one of the fastest selling games ever . On February 8 , 2012 , it was announced that over six million units of the game had been shipped since release .
During the first week of sales in the United Kingdom , Batman : Arkham City became the number one selling game on all available formats , topping the all @-@ format , PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 charts , replacing FIFA 12 . It became the fourth biggest launch of 2011 after FIFA 12 , Gears of War 3 and L.A. Noire , and Warner Bros. biggest UK game launch ever , doubling the first week sales of Arkham Asylum . It was the tenth @-@ best @-@ selling game of 2011 with approximately ten weeks in release , and the 34th @-@ best @-@ selling game of 2012 .
According to NPD Group , Batman : Arkham City was the second @-@ best @-@ selling game in the United States for October 2011 , selling 1 @.@ 5 million copies across available formats , the tenth @-@ best @-@ selling in November , and the seventh @-@ best @-@ selling game overall in 2011 . Game @-@ rental service GameFly announced that it was the most requested game of 2011 , beating out Call of Duty : Modern Warfare 3 .
= = = Accolades = = =
Batman : Arkham City won multiple awards at the 2011 Spike Video Game Awards including : Character of the Year ( Joker ) , Best Xbox 360 Game , Best Action Adventure Game , and Best Adapted Video Game ; and received nominations for : Best Original Score , Best Graphics , Best Performance by a Human Female ( Tara Strong ) , Best Performance by a Human Male ( Mark Hamill ) , Trailer of the Year ( Hugo Strange Reveal Trailer ) , Studio of the Year ( Rocksteady ) , and Game of the Year . As part of the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences ( AIAS ) 2011 awards , the game was named Adventure Game of the Year , and received nominations for : Outstanding Achievement in Animation ; Outstanding Achievement in Art Direction ; Outstanding Achievement in Game Play Engineering ; Outstanding Achievement in Game Direction ; and Game of the Year . The 2012 British Academy of Film and Television ( BAFTA ) awards saw the game win two awards for Performer ( Mark Hamill ) and Action game , and receive nominations for : Artistic Achievement ; Audio Achievement ; Best Game ; Design ; Original Music ; Story ; and the publicly voted GAME Award of 2011 . Paul Crocker , Paul Dini , and Sefton Hill were nominated for the Video Game Writing award by the Writers Guild of America , and Crocker won the Best Videogame Script award from the Writers ' Guild of Great Britain .
The Daily Telegraph awarded the game Best Original Score ( Nick Arundel ) and Game of the Year , with a statement that said : " as a video game , it 's a magnificent piece of work , but it also shines as a unique , lovingly @-@ crafted slice of Batman fiction . " The newspaper also nominated the game for : Best Director ( Sefton Hill ) ; Best Acting Performance ( Mark Hamill and Nolan North ) ; and Best Developer ( Rocksteady Studios ) . The game was nominated for Game of the Year and Best Game Design at the Game Developers Choice Awards , and Game Audio Network Guild award 's for Music of the Year , Best Soundtrack Album , Best Audio Mix , and Best Original Vocal – Choral for the track " Main Theme " . The game was named the Best Action / Adventure Game and Best Overall Game of 2011 as part of the 2011 Yahoo ! Games Game of the Year awards . Batman : Arkham City received several honors from GameTrailers.com , including Best Xbox 360 Game of the Year , Best PC Game of 2011 , as well as Best Action / Adventure game . It also won the Best Action @-@ Adventure Game award at the 2012 Golden Joystick Awards , and was nominated for Top Gaming Moment for the game 's ending , Best DLC for " Harley Quinn 's Revenge " , and the overall Ultimate Game of the Year . It was nominated for Game of the Decade at the 2012 Spike Video Game Awards .
According to Metacritic , the PlayStation 3 version of the game was the highest @-@ rated game of 2011 ; and across all formats , the game was tied with the role @-@ playing game The Elder Scrolls V : Skyrim as the highest @-@ rated game of 2011 . This also tied Arkham City for the sixth @-@ highest @-@ rated game ever .
Batman : Arkham City appeared on several lists of the top video games of 2011 , including these : number 1 by E ! Online , and CNET ; number 2 by Gamasutra ; number 3 by Digital Spy , Joystiq , VentureBeat , and Wired ; number 5 by the Associated Press , and Time ; and number 10 by the Daily Mirror .
GameSpot labeled it the Best Action / Adventure Game as part of its Best of 2011 series , Game Informer named it their Best Action / Adventure game of 2011 in their February 2012 issue , and highlighted specific points of the game including placing Batman number 1 on their list of the Top Ten Heroes , and the Mr. Freeze boss fight number 4 on their list of Top Ten Video Games Moments . Playstation Official Magazine UK placed Batman : Arkham City as their number 2 Game Of the Year . IGN labeled it the Best PC Action Game of 2011 . 1UP.com placed the games main theme song as number 6 on its " Top 10 Theme Songs of 2011 " . In January 2012 , Eurogamer listed it as the third best game of 2012 . In November 2012 , Time named it one of the 100 greatest video games of all time and said , " It 's hard to imagine a better superhero game than Batman : Arkham City . It 's also hard to imagine a better video game in general . " Also in November , Entertainment Weekly named it one of the ten best games of the past decade ( 2002 – 2012 ) and said , " this is the definitive superhero adventure of the decade . " In 2013 , Game Informer named it the best superhero game of all time , and GamingBolt listed it at number 62 on its list of the 100 Greatest Video Games Ever Made . In 2014 , Empire placed it as number 12 on its list of the 100 Greatest Video Games of All Time , ahead of Arkham Asylum at number 28 , PC Gamer named it the sixty @-@ eighth best PC Game , and IGN named it the twenty @-@ fourth best PC game of the preceding decade , and the sixteenth best game of the contemporary console generation .
= = = Technical issues = = =
During launch week , issues were found to exist in the code @-@ restricted content . Some customers discovered the code to be missing from their copy , preventing them from obtaining the Catwoman story missions . The problem was reported by customers in Canada , the United States , and the United Kingdom . Warner Bros. issued a statement claiming that the missing codes had affected less than 0 @.@ 5 % of customers . Upon release in the United Kingdom , a technical issue rendered the game unplayable for some players , booting them from the game with an error message that the " downloadable content is corrupt . " Rocksteady European community manager Sarah Wellock claimed that the fault lay with the PlayStation Network and Xbox Live online systems .
In early November 2011 , Rocksteady confirmed that it was investigating reports by numerous users that save files for the Xbox 360 version of the game were being erased without prompting , resulting in players losing their progress and being unable to complete the game . On launch , performance issues arose for the PC version when DirectX 11 features were enabled ; the developer acknowledged the inconvenience and recommended running the game with DirectX 9 until a title update was released to address this matter .
= = Legacy = =
Batman : Arkham Origins , the successor to Arkham City , was announced in April 2013 . The game was developed by WB Games Montréal for Microsoft Windows , PlayStation 3 , Xbox 360 , and Wii U , and was released on October 25 , 2013 . Set several years before the events of Arkham Asylum , Arkham Origins follows a younger and less experienced Batman on Christmas Eve on the streets of Gotham City as he faces off against eight deadly assassins . A separate title , Batman : Arkham Origins Blackgate , was developed for Nintendo 3DS and PlayStation Vita by Armature Studios , and was released on the same day . Dini stated that he would not be involved in writing a sequel . He had not been included in writing for any of Arkham City 's DLC , including the story @-@ based " Harley Quinn 's Revenge " DLC , and said that Warner Bros. and Rocksteady suggested that he take work elsewhere if offered .
Batman : Arkham Knight , the successor to Arkham Origins , was announced in March 2014 . Developed by Rocksteady for PlayStation 4 , Xbox One and Windows , the game was released on June 23 , 2015 . Arkham Knight is set one year after the events of Arkham City and follows Batman as he confronts an assault on Gotham City by the Scarecrow , and his ally , the Arkham Knight .
= Cheadle Hulme railway station =
Cheadle Hulme railway station is an open triangular station in Cheadle Hulme , Greater Manchester , England . It is on the West Coast Main Line and is operated by Northern .
Cheadle Hulme 's first railway station opened in 1842 , when the Manchester and Birmingham Railway to Crewe was completed . With the extension of the line to Macclesfield , and later Stoke @-@ on @-@ Trent , a new station opened in 1845 which has served the area since . The railway transformed it from a collection of small hamlets into a suburb of over 29 @,@ 000 people .
2011 saw the construction of pedestrian bridges linking all four platforms and lifts enabling disabled access .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
In 1833 Parliament approved the Grand Junction Railway , a railway line to connect Manchester and Birmingham . It opened in 1837 , after proposals had been made for more direct routes in 1830 and 1835 . The earlier schemes attracted little interest , but two proposals were put forward in late 1835 . The two companies , based in Manchester and Birmingham , had to negotiate with each other to develop the proposals , and they were altered somewhat over the next two years . In 1837 Parliament approved the final plans for lines to Crewe and Stoke . The companies merged to become the Manchester and Birmingham Railway company , and the first part of the line opened in June 1840 . It originally ran from a temporary station at Travis Street in Manchester , to a station in Heaton Norris just north of Stockport . A large viaduct was built over the River Mersey , and opened to trains on 10 May 1842 . It allowed services to be extended to Sandbach ; in the following August they reached Crewe . Also at this time , a new station opened to serve as the line 's northern terminus ; it later became Manchester Piccadilly . Edgeley railway station opened in February 1843 in response to complaints that the Heaton Norris station was " too inconvenient " , and it soon became Stockport 's busiest station . Three years later in 1846 the Manchester and Birmingham Railway company merged with two other companies to become the London and North Western Railway .
= = = Cheadle station = = =
The original Cheadle Hulme railway station on the Crewe line , about 0 @.@ 3 miles ( 0 @.@ 5 km ) south @-@ west of the current structure , was known simply as " Cheadle " . It was in use from May 1842 , following the opening of the viaduct . The station building , opposite the Hesketh Tavern public house , is now a private residence . It included a structure from which tickets were sold , and in the window of which a candle was lit to act as a signal during the hours of darkness . This structure , however , no longer exists .
When plans were made for a line to Stoke @-@ on @-@ Trent , it was originally intended for a branch to be built from Stockport to Macclesfield . Instead , the junction was built south at Cheadle Hulme . The line was constructed over four years : it opened for goods traffic as far as Poynton in June 1845 , and on 24 November it reached Macclesfield and was opened to the public . In June 1846 Parliament authorised the completion of the line to Stoke @-@ on @-@ Trent . By June 1849 the section between Congleton and Macclesfield was completed and the line was finished .
= = = New station = = =
After the Stoke line opened , the station was rebuilt north @-@ east at the junction so it could serve both lines . The new station opened on 9 June 1845 ; at first , southbound services ran to Crewe and Poynton . By November the line had been extended to Macclesfield , and by 1849 , when the original station closed , it had reached Stoke @-@ on @-@ Trent . The new station had four platforms , and was served by trains running between Manchester and Crewe or Stoke @-@ on @-@ Trent . It was renamed Cheadle Hulme in 1866 , to avoid confusion with Cheadle LNW railway station which opened the same year .
Before the arrival of the railway , Cheadle Hulme was a rural and agricultural cluster of hamlets . The railway brought a huge influx of people to the area , and provided opportunities for residents to work in places such as Manchester . Cheadle Hulme gradually grew to become a large suburb of over 29 @,@ 000 people thanks to the railway .
= = = Derailments = = =
A special train - known as the " Lollipop Express " - carrying 234 school children from Gnosall , Stafford to York for a day trip derailed at the station on 28 May 1964 . Three people , including two children , were killed and 27 were injured . The bridge , which carried the line between Macclesfield and Stoke , was in the process of being reconstructed . Passing trains were restricted to a temporary speed limit of 10 miles per hour ( 16 @.@ 1 km / h ) . A hearing determined that the train 's excessive speed had caused the derailment because the train driver was not aware of the speed restriction .
In July 1969 , there was another derailment near Cheadle Hulme involving a freight diesel locomotive . It injured no one but blocked services to Crewe and Stoke @-@ on @-@ Trent for several hours .
= = = Alterations = = =
The original station , as it remains in 2009 , was sited above road level . The station office was located on the platform " island " that forms platforms 2 and 3 , which were accessed by a flight of stairs where the ticket office is now . Passengers accessed the other two platforms by a footbridge , which was removed after the lines were electrified . Cheadle Hulme was also used as a goods depot until 31 October 1964 , when goods trains were withdrawn . The goods yard is now a car park .
The lines to Crewe and Stoke @-@ on @-@ Trent were electrified in 1960 and 1967 respectively . In 1963 , due to the growing amount of traffic travelling down Station Road , it was decided that the parts of the road that pass under the bridges should be widened , as they were becoming a bottleneck . The bridge carrying the line to Stoke was upgraded first . The road under it was more than doubled in width , and the bridge height was increased by 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 9 m ) allowing double @-@ decker buses to pass underneath .
Work on the second bridge commenced on 8 June 1965 , increasing the height and width in accordance with Ministry of Transport requirements . Around this time , the station itself was upgraded : the platforms were demolished and replaced , and new waiting shelters were erected . A new booking office , facing Station Road and approached by a flight of stairs , was built alongside a new booking lobby , toilets and staff accommodation . New entrances to the platforms were built , and the entire station was installed with electric lighting . Station Road was significantly widened and rerouted slightly in 1967 in a further attempt to accommodate increasing traffic .
Following the privatisation of British Rail , the station operation was taken over by Railtrack , and later First North Western until 2004 when it was taken over by Northern . In 1996 Railtrack launched a £ 1 billion programme to restore and renovate every station it operated . Cheadle Hulme had £ 1 @.@ 2 million spent on repairs to its platforms , buildings and waiting shelters , and new lighting installed throughout the station . Stephen Day , the Member of Parliament ( MP ) for Cheadle Hulme , opened the updated station in March 1998 . The junction itself was revamped in 2000 and the signal box was removed , having been superseded by a central signalling point at Stockport station . In 2011 , major work was carried out after years of campaigns , with the construction of pedestrian bridges connecting all four platforms , and lifts enabling disabled access to the platforms .
= = Services = =
The station 's four platforms are all accessed via stairs – access to platform 1 is next to Pimlott 's butchers , access to platforms 2 and 3 is through the ticket office , and access to platform 4 is near the Platform 5 public house .
Northern provides passenger services . Three trains per hour run northeastwards to Manchester Piccadilly . In the other direction , trains run hourly on the Stoke line ( serving all stations to Kidsgrove , then Stoke ) . On the Crewe line , one train per hour runs to Alderley Edge serving all stations , and one train per hour serves the same stations and continues to Crewe .
= Tropical Storm Hanna ( 2002 ) =
Tropical Storm Hanna was a moderately strong tropical storm that affected the Gulf Coast and Southeastern regions of the United States . The tenth tropical cyclone and ninth named storm of the 2002 Atlantic hurricane season , Hanna formed through the complex interaction of a surface trough , a tropical wave , and an upper @-@ level low pressure system , a disturbance in the upper atmosphere . Designated a tropical depression at 0000 UTC on September 12 , the storm remained disorganized throughout its duration , though it attained tropical storm status and a peak intensity of 1 @,@ 001 mbar ( 29 @.@ 6 inHg ) , with winds of 60 miles per hour ( 100 km / h ) . Hanna crossed extreme southeastern Louisiana , and made a second landfall along the Alabama – Mississippi border .
Because most of the associated convective activity was east of the center of circulation , Louisiana and Mississippi received minimal damage . However , on Dauphin Island , Alabama , the storm caused coastal flooding which closed roads and forced the evacuation of residents . Florida received high wind gusts , heavy rainfall , and strong surf that resulted in the deaths of three swimmers . 20 @,@ 000 homes in the state lost electricity . The heavy rainfall progressed into Georgia , where significant flooding occurred . Crop damage was extensive , and about 335 structures were damaged by the flooding . The storm caused a total of about $ 20 million ( 2002 USD ; $ 23 @.@ 96 million 2008 USD ) in damage .
= = Meteorological history = =
A broad surface trough extended from the western Atlantic Ocean into the Gulf of Mexico in early September 2002 . At the same time , a westward @-@ moving tropical wave entered the gulf on September 10 and spawned a weak low along the trough , with little associated thunderstorm activity . On September 11 , an upper @-@ level low over the United States moved into the Gulf and became cut off from the flow , allowing atmospheric convection to develop to the east of the tropical wave . The surface low organized , and convection formed closer to the center of the low . At 0000 UTC on September 12 , a Hurricane Hunters aircraft was able to find a well @-@ defined center of circulation ; the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) thus designated it a tropical depression while it was about 280 miles ( 450 km ) south of Pensacola , Florida .
After being designated , the cyclone became disorganized , and contained little deep and persistent convection ; with dry air infringing on the western edge of the storm , substantial intensification was deemed unlikely . Despite being sheared , the cyclone neared tropical storm status later that day , though it remained a depression due to a partially non @-@ tropical appearance . Initially , the depression meandered towards the northeast due to weak steering currents , and it intensified into a tropical storm at 0600 UTC . As such , it was named Hanna by the National Hurricane Center . Over the next 24 hours , the low @-@ level center rotated around the mid- and upper @-@ level centers , and the entire tropical storm turned southwestward by late September 12 . After a jog to the northwest , the low @-@ level center became separated from the convection . Meandering , the storm started to turn northward under the steering currents of a southwesterly flow associated with an approaching mid @-@ level trough . Hanna then strengthened sharply to reach to its peak intensity of 60 miles per hour ( 100 km / h ) at 0000 UTC on September 14 .
Convection shifted towards the eastern semicircle of the circulation , while the still @-@ exposed center became malformed and elongated . On September 14 , the poorly organized cyclone crossed southeastern Louisiana , turned towards the north @-@ northeast and made a second landfall close to the Alabama – Mississippi border at 1500 UTC that day , still at its peak strength . The storm dissipated rapidly as it proceeded inland , and the remnant low pressure area moved into Georgia and South Carolina .
= = Preparations = =
Shortly after the formation of the storm , the National Hurricane Center issued a tropical storm watch for the coastal area between Pascagoula , Mississippi and the Suwanee River in Florida . A tropical storm warning for the region between Grand Isle , Louisiana and Apalachicola , Florida replaced the watch , though it was discontinued east of Apalachicola . All tropical cyclone warnings and watches were discontinued by 1800 UTC on September 14 , as there was no longer a need for the advisories . After the landfall , officials issued flood watches for inland parts of Mississippi and Alabama as well as for western portions of Georgia and the Carolinas . On Dauphin Island in Alabama , some residents boarded up windows and filled sandbags provided by local fire departments to prepare for Hanna . The Red Cross opened 10 shelters throughout the Gulf Coast region .
= = Impact = =
The total damage caused by Tropical Storm Hanna amounted to about $ 20 million — equivalent to $ 23 million in 2008 USD .
= = = U.S. Gulf Coast = = =
In Louisiana , damage was light , as the majority of Hanna 's convective activity was to the east . Rainfall was mostly less than 1 inches ( 25 mm ) , and little rise in tide was reported . Little or no damage occurred in neighboring Mississippi , where similar effects were reported .
Damage was greater in Alabama , where rain reached 7 @.@ 55 inches ( 192 mm ) at Coden and 5 @.@ 75 inches ( 146 mm ) at Belle Fontaine . Sustained winds of 40 miles per hour ( 64 km / h ) were reported at Dauphin Island , with gusts up to 51 mph ( 82 km / h ) . The lowest barometric pressure was also at Dauphin Island ; it reportedly fell to 1005 mb . Storm tides of 3 @.@ 7 feet ( 1 @.@ 1 m ) caused minor coastal flooding and beach erosion in some areas , including along the causeway that crosses the Mobile Bay . One tornado , an F0 on the Fujita Scale , touched down in south Mobile County , knocking down trees . Some residents were left without electric power , and there was flooding on both ends of Dauphin Island , leading to road closures . The storm forced the evacuation of some residents on the western end of the island . In addition to the heavy rains , trees were downed in parts of Baldwin County .
In Florida , peak gusts were recorded at 68 miles per hour ( 109 km / h ) near Pensacola Beach . The winds , combined with associated thunderstorms , caused minor damage , and brought down small trees and power lines . Throughout Walton County , Hanna left approximately 15 @,@ 000 customers without power , forming a statewide total of 20 @,@ 000 power outages . Due to high winds , bridges to offshore islands were closed . Minor beach erosion was reported along the coast of Walton , Bay and Gulf counties . Three people drowned in high surf ; one near Pensacola Beach , one at Seagrove Beach and another at Panama City Beach . The fatalities prompted a local Police Major to comment , " People are getting into the water and not paying attention to the warning flags . " Heavy rain fell throughout the central and western Panhandle ; the highest reported total was 9 @.@ 68 inches ( 246 mm ) , at Chipley . As a result , rivers topped their banks , while county roads and homes in Perry , as well as streets in the Tallahassee region , were flooded . The total damage in Florida is estimated at $ 400 @,@ 000 ( 2002 USD ) .
= = = Eastern United States = = =
Hanna dropped heavy rainfall across much of Georgia , peaking at 15 @.@ 56 inches ( 395 mm ) at Donalsonville , 12 @.@ 47 inches ( 317 mm ) at Carrollton , and 11 @.@ 23 in ( 285 mm ) at Embry . Although the heaviest rainfall was mostly confined to southwestern parts of the state , precipitation was widespread within a northwest – northeast feeder band over central and northern Georgia . Associated with the band was up to 2 inches ( 51 mm ) of rainfall in a matter of hours , as well as gusty thunderstorms . The highest rainfall totals from this individual band were limited to an area north of a line from Atlanta to Athens . The heavy rainfall helped to relieve a persistent drought , bringing vegetation back to life . However , climatologists determined that the rainfall did not fully alleviate the dry conditions . The band of thunderstorms produced gusts of 40 to 50 mph ( 64 to 80 km / h ) , downing trees and power lines . In the Atlanta metropolitan area , 48 @,@ 000 customers received power outages . The winds tore a roof off a house and damaged a number of mobile homes . The heavy rainfall caused severe flooding ; in Donalsonville , 250 houses and 50 businesses suffered water damage , while another 35 were damaged in nearby Miller County . Roads were flooded , including parts of U.S. Route 27 . Crop damage was significant in the state . According to the Georgia Farm Services Agency , $ 19 million ( 2002 USD ; $ 22 million 2008 USD ) in damage to cotton and peanut crops were reported . Due to the flooding and damage , Governor Roy Barnes declared Seminole , Miller and Decatur counties federal disaster areas .
Moderate to heavy rain extended as far north as the Carolinas , and light showers reached the Delmarva Peninsula . Locations in western South Carolina picked up around 3 inches ( 75 mm ) of rainfall , causing flooding on some roads and highways . Various streams and ponds topped their banks , and flood waters on some roads reached an estimated 4 to 6 inches ( 100 to 150 mm ) deep . On South Carolina Highway 20 , a motorist became stranded in high waters , and nearby houses were damaged . The rainfall delayed a football game at Williams @-@ Brice Stadium for about 50 minutes . Farther northward , the remnants of Tropical Storm Hanna contributed to around 1 inch ( 25 mm ) of rainfall in New England , particularly in Vermont .
= James White ( author ) =
James White ( 7 April 1928 – 23 August 1999 ) was a Northern Irish author of science fiction novellas , short stories and novels . He was born in Belfast and returned there after spending some early years in Canada . After a few years working in the clothing industry , he worked at Short Brothers Ltd . , an aircraft company based in Belfast , from 1965 until taking early retirement in 1984 as a result of diabetes . White married Margaret Sarah Martin , another science fiction fan , in 1955 and the couple had three children . He died of a stroke .
He became a fan of science fiction in 1941 and co @-@ wrote two fan magazines , from 1948 to 1953 and 1952 to 1965 . Encouraged by other fans , White began publishing short stories in 1953 , and his first novel was published in 1957 . His best @-@ known novels were the twelve of the Sector General series , the first published in 1962 and the last after his death . White also published nine other novels , two of which were nominated for major awards , unsuccessfully .
White abhorred violence , and medical and other emergencies were the sources of dramatic tension in his stories . Some critics regarded him as a second @-@ rank writer , who occasionally produced first @-@ rank works , and felt his plots and writing could be formulaic . However , the " Sector General " series is regarded as defining the genre of medical science fiction , and as introducing a memorable crew of aliens . Although missing winning the most prestigious honours four times , White gained other awards for specific works and for contributions to science fiction . He was also Guest @-@ of @-@ Honour of several conventions .
= = Biography = =
James White was born in Belfast , Northern Ireland , on 7 April 1928 , and spent part of his early life in Canada . He was educated in Belfast at St. John 's Primary School ( 1935 – 1941 ) and St. Joseph 's Technical Secondary School ( 1942 – 1943 ) . As a teenager he lived with foster parents . He wanted to study medicine but financial circumstances prevented this . Between 1943 and 1965 he worked for several Belfast tailoring firms and then as assistant manager of a Co @-@ op department store . He married Margaret ( " Peggy " ) Sarah Martin , another science fiction fan , in 1955 and the couple had three children : daughter Patricia , and sons Martin and Peter . White later worked for the aeroplane builders Short Brothers Ltd. as a technical clerk ( 1965 – 1966 ) , publicity assistant ( 1966 – 1968 ) , and publicity officer ( 1968 – 1984 ) .
He became a science fiction fan in 1941 , attracted particularly by the works of E. E. " Doc " Smith , which featured good aliens as well as evil ones , and of Robert A. Heinlein , many of whose stories concern ordinary people . In 1947 he met another Irish fan , Walter A. ( " Walt " ) Willis ( 1919 – 1999 ) , and the two helped to produce the fan magazines Slant ( 1948 – 1953 ) and Hyphen ( 1952 – 1965 ) , which featured stories and articles by noted authors including John Brunner , A. Bertram Chandler , and Bob Shaw . In 2004 both White and Willis were nominated for the retrospective Hugo Award for Best Fan Writer of 1953 , although neither won . White said that he started writing stories because the Slant team felt that Astounding Science Fiction was too dominated by prophesies of nuclear doom , and his friends dared him to write the kind of story that they all liked to read . He said that getting published was fairly easy during the 1950s , as the World War II restrictions on paper were ended , and there were at least 12 science magazines in Britain and about 40 in the United States . His first published short story , Assisted Passage , a parody of 1950s Anglo @-@ Australian emigration policies , appeared in the January 1953 edition of the magazine New Worlds . Further stories appeared in New Worlds during the next few years , but White 's attempt to access the more lucrative American market by submitting stories to Astounding Science Fiction stalled after the publication of The Scavengers . White later said that his optimism about inter @-@ species relations was unpalatable to Astounding 's xenophobic editor , John W. Campbell . As a result , White 's work was little @-@ known outside the UK until the 1960s .
In 1957 , Ace Books published White 's first novel , The Secret Visitors , which included locations in Northern Ireland . The book had previously been serialised in New Worlds with the title Tourist Planet . Ace Books ' science fiction editor , Donald A. Wollheim , thought the original ending was too tame and suggested that White should insert an all @-@ out space battle just after the climactic courtroom scene . In November the same year New Worlds published White 's novelette Sector General , and editor John ( " Ted " ) Carnell requested more stories set in the same universe , founding the series for which White is known best . White gained " a steady following " for his " scientifically accurate " stories , which were notable examples of hard science fiction in New Worlds , despite the magazine 's promotion of literary " New Wave " science fiction during the 1960s .
White kept his job with Short Brothers and wrote in the evenings , as his stories did not make enough money for him to become a full @-@ time author . In 1980 he taught a literature course at a Belfast branch of the Workers Educational Association . When diabetes had severely impaired his eyesight , he took early retirement in 1984 and relocated to the north Antrim resort town of Portstewart , where he continued to write . For many years he was a Council Member of the British Science Fiction Association and , with Harry Harrison and Anne McCaffrey , a Patron of the Irish Science Fiction Association . White was also a strong pacifist . He died of a stroke on 23 August 1999 , while his novels Double Contact and The First Protector were being prepared for publication . His wife Peggy , son Martin , and daughter Patricia survived him .
= = Published works = =
= = = Sector General = = =
The Sector General series consists of 12 books published originally between 1962 ( Hospital Station ) and 1999 ( Double Contact ) . Additional short stories set in the Sector General Universe ( Countercharm , Tableau , Occupation : Warrior , and Custom Fitting ) appear in other collections by White .
Sector General is a gigantic multi @-@ species hospital space station founded as a peace @-@ making project by two heroes from opposite sides of humanity 's only full interstellar war . The hospital accommodates patients and staff from dozens of species , with different environmental requirements , behaviours and ailments . Initially most of the stories concern the career of Doctor Conway , who rises from junior surgeon to Diagnostician . In the fourth book the Galactic Federation decides that the emergency service which the hospital offers to victims of space accidents and planetary catastrophes is the most effective means of making peaceful contact with new spacefaring species , which allows the series to expand its range of plots , characters and settings . The seventh and later books each have a different and usually alien viewpoint character , which gave them " considerable new pep " . They also expand the range of issues beyond purely medical , and in Mike Resnick 's opinion treat issues such as guilt and forgiveness better than most science fiction .
The series defined the subgenre of multi @-@ species medical stories , and was " the first explicitly pacifist space opera " series , when much of contemporary space opera from the USA was notably military .
= = = Other novels = = =
Second Ending ( 1961 ) , which White described as " about the last man on Earth " but with " an upbeat ending " , was short @-@ listed for a Hugo Award .
The Escape Orbit ( 1964 ; title Open Prison in the UK ) , which was short @-@ listed for a Nebula Award , chronicles the efforts of human prisoners of war to survive after being dumped on a hostile planet without tools or weapons .
All Judgement Fled ( 1968 ) , which won the 1979 Europa prize , was described by Mike Resnick as his favourite among White 's novels and as " Rendezvous with Rama done right . "
White 's other novels not part of the Sector General series are :
The Secret Visitors ( 1957 )
The Watch Below ( 1966 )
Tomorrow is Too Far ( 1971 )
Dark Inferno ( 1972 ) ( alternate title : Lifeboat )
The Dream Millennium ( 1974 )
Underkill ( 1979 )
Federation World ( 1988 )
The Silent Stars Go By ( 1991 )
Earth : Final Conflict : First Protector ( 1999 )
= = = Collections and short stories = = =
The title story of White 's collection Deadly Litter ( 1964 ) anticipated the dangers of space debris although there had been only a few orbital missions . The White Papers was produced by NESFA ( New England Science Fiction Association ) to commemorate White 's being the Guest @-@ of @-@ Honour at the 1996 Worldcon , and includes short stories and fan magazine articles by White , plus sections of Gary Louie 's guide to the Sector General series . Among the stories , Custom Fitting ( 1976 ) was short @-@ listed for a Hugo Award , and Sanctuary ( 1988 ) won an Analog Analytical Laboratory Award . His short story Un @-@ Birthday Boy , published in the magazine Analog in 1996 but not in a collection or anthology , was short @-@ listed for a Hugo Award .
Other collections include :
The Aliens Among Us ( 1969 )
Monsters and Medics ( 1977 ; published by Ballantine Books ; includes the novel Second Ending )
Futures Past ( 1982 ) ( includes the Sector General story Spacebird )
= = Critical appraisal = =
Paul Kincaid described White as a second @-@ rank writer who occasionally produced first @-@ rank works , and attracted a devoted but not wide audience . Kincaid noted that his plots were often formulaic and his writing employed a predictable set of techniques and mannerisms , along with a " studied quietness . " On the other hand , John Clute wrote that " in the depiction of goodness may lie the real genius of James White , " Mike Resnick described the Sector General series ' characters as " the most memorable crew of aliens ever created , " and Graham Andrews wrote that White 's aliens are really alien , not just human minds with exotic biologies . Michael Ashley commented that the setting of the television series Star Trek : Deep Space Nine is reminiscent of Sector General , and Mark R. Leeper noted similarities between Sector General 's setting and that of television 's Babylon 5 . Chris Aylott wrote that White 's plot construction and writing , including occasionally clumsy exposition , are typical of the Golden Age of science fiction in the 1930s , ' 40s , and ' 50s .
Algis Budrys concluded his review of The Watch Below with " ... this is very nice writing when considered simply as prose and as an attempt to involve the reader 's emotions . " However , when reviewing All Judgment Fled he wrote , " I suspect that he generates so much tension within himself while writing a book that he literally cannot bear to come to grips with crucial scenes . "
White said of his approach to producing stories , " Of course , the plot idea must come first – but the characters soon take over , " and compared it to using a compass rather than a map . He explained that he was drawn to medical themes by two factors : they offered opportunities for dramatic tension without war ; and he had wanted to become a doctor , but had to go to work instead . His avoidance of violent themes is as strong in his non @-@ medical stories as in the Sector General series .
None of White 's works won Hugo or Nebula Awards , although four were short @-@ listed . However , he won a Europa Prize in 1979 , an Analog Analytical Laboratory Award in 1988 and a Science Fiction Chronicle Reader Award in 1996 . In 1998 , White received the NESFA ( New England Science Fiction Association ) Edward E. Smith Memorial Award ( " Skylark Award " ) for contributions to science fiction , named after a story by one of his inspirations , E. E. " Doc " Smith , and appreciated this so much that he donated his complete collection of Slant magazines to NESFA . The next year he was inducted into the European Science Fiction Society 's Hall of Fame . White was Guest @-@ of @-@ Honour at many conventions including : the 1971 and 1985 Novacons in the United Kingdom ; three Beneluxcons ( Belgium , Netherlands and Luxembourg ) ; the 1998 Octocon ( Ireland ) ; a Nicon ( Northern Ireland ) ; and the 1996 Worldcon .
Since 2000 the James White Award has been presented for the best short story by a non @-@ professional writer . The judges are professional authors and editors , and have included Mike Resnick , Orson Scott Card , Lois McMaster Bujold , Peter F. Hamilton , Christopher Priest and Robert Sheckley .
= Lynton K. Caldwell =
Lynton Keith Caldwell ( November 21 , 1913 – August 15 , 2006 ) was an American political scientist and a principal architect of the 1969 National Environmental Policy Act , the first act of its kind in the world . He was educated at the University of Chicago and spent most of his career at Indiana University Bloomington , where he received tenure in 1956 and retired as Arthur F. Bentley Professor Emeritus of Political Science in 1984 . Caldwell was the internationally acclaimed author or coauthor of fifteen books and more than 250 scholarly articles , which may be found in at least 19 different languages . He served on many boards and advisory committees , as a consultant on environmental policy issues worldwide , and received numerous honors and awards .
= = Early life and education = =
Caldwell was born in Montezuma , Iowa to Lee Lynton and Alberta ( Mace ) Caldwell , and died in Bloomington , Indiana , at age 92 . He earned his undergraduate degree in English at the University of Chicago in 1934 , his Master 's degree at Harvard in History and Government in 1938 , and his doctoral degree in political science at the University of Chicago in 1943 . He married Helen A. Walcher on December 21 , 1940 and they raised two children .
= = Academic career and public service = =
From 1944 @-@ 1947 he was director of research and publications for The Council of State Governments in Chicago . In 1947 he was appointed professor of political science at the Maxwell School of Citizenship and Public Affairs at Syracuse University . In 1952 and 1953 he was part of U.N. sponsored missions in public administration in Colombia , the Philippines , and Japan . His next one @-@ year U.N. appointment was as co @-@ Director of the Public Administration Institute for Turkey and the Middle East in Ankara , Turkey . Indiana University then appointed him director of the Institute of Training for Public Service and Coordinator of Indonesian and Thailand Public Administration Programs . By the time of his retirement , further appointments , research and lecture tours and vacations had enabled him to visit nearly one hundred countries around the world as well as every state in the union . In 1956 , after a year as visiting professor of government at the University of California , Berkeley , he returned to Bloomington as Professor of Government at Indiana University , where he remained until his retirement . In the course of his career he secured 21 National Science Foundation grants to support his research .
During his career , Caldwell served on the faculties of the University of Chicago , Northwestern University , the University of Oklahoma , Syracuse University , and the University of California at Berkeley , and had shorter appointments at some 80 other collegiate institutions both within the U.S. and overseas . At various times , Caldwell served as advisor or consultant to the U.S. Senate , UNESCO , the United Nations , the Departments of Commerce , Energy , Defense , and Interior , and the National Institutes of Health . Although not a natural scientist , as part of his work towards establishing interdisciplinary study in universities and achieving a greater merging of the two worlds of science and public policy , he became deeply involved in national and international environmental affairs and worked closely with several important scientific bodies serving , among many appointments , on the Sea Grant Program of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , the first Environmental Advisory Board of the United States Army Corps of Engineers , the Pacific Science Congress , the President ’ s National Commission on Materials Policy , the Science Advisory Board for the Great Lakes of the International Joint Commission , as chair of the first Commission on Environmental Policy , Law and Administration for the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources ( IUCN ) , and as advisor to the UNESCO Man and the Biosphere Program ( MAB ) , and the UNESCO working program for the environmental education and training of engineers .
He also served on the editorial boards of numerous prestigious scientific and professional journals . A lover of nature , bird watching , and botany from an early age , he was a founding member of the South Bend , Indiana chapter of the Audubon Society , and of both the first local chapter of The Nature Conservancy ( TNC ) in New York , and the Conservancy 's Indiana Chapter . He served on the Board of Governors of TNC from 1959 to 1965 .
= = Notable accomplishments = =
During the 1960s Caldwell was virtually a lone voice in attempting to establish policies for the environment because such a holistic and interdisciplinary approach to solving environmental problems did not then exist . In 1962 his groundbreaking article “ Environment : A New Focus for Public Policy ? ” appeared in Public Administration Review , launching development of a new subfield of environmental policy studies . After 1962 , he changed the main focus of his career towards examining policies for protecting the quality of the human environment . In 1972 he was the catalyst for founding the School of Public and Environmental Affairs ( SPEA ) at Indiana University , Bloomington . His 1976 article " Novus Ordo Seclorum : The Heritage of American Public Administration " in Public Administration Review was a defining paper in the modern history of public administration .
Caldwell is perhaps best known as one of the principal architects of the National Environmental Policy Act ( NEPA ) , the first act of its kind in the world , signed into law on January 1 , 1970 . In drafting A National Policy on the Environment in 1968 as consultant to Senator Henry Jackson , the head of the powerful Senate Interior and Insular Affairs Committee , Caldwell realized that more was needed than a mere a policy statement : an “ action @-@ forcing mechanism ” would be necessary to secure federal agency compliance with the Act ’ s requirements . The origin of the requirement for preparation of an environmental impact statement ( EIS ) has been attributed to Caldwell , whose testimony at the Senate hearing in April 1969 laid the groundwork for inclusion of provisions requiring an evaluation of the effects of all major federal projects significantly affecting the quality of the human environment . In these “ detailed statements , ” as they were termed in the Act , all reasonably foreseeable social , economic , and environmental effects of a proposed action and any possible alternatives to it must be identified and assessed before any federal action takes place .
NEPA has been emulated , in one form or another , by more than one hundred other countries , and many states have also established “ mini NEPAs . ” When national government agencies first started to prepare EISs , there were no professional associations dedicated to the planning and problem solving that NEPA demanded . Subsequently , Caldwell 's efforts in formulating NEPA , and later promoting it , led to formation of the National Association of Environmental Professionals ( NAEP ) , a national professional association of persons who prepare EISs .
= = Honors and awards = =
The many awards Caldwell received included the William E. Mosher Award ( 1964 ) and the Marshall E. Dimock Award of the American Society for Public Administration ( 1981 ) ; the John M. Gaus Award from the American Political Science Association ; and the National Environmental Quality Award from the Natural Resources Council of America ( 1997 ) . In 1991 , he was named one of the United Nations Environmental Program 's ( UNEP ) Global 500 for distinguished environmental services , and in 1997 , he was awarded an honorary LLD from Western Michigan University . In 2001 he was the recipient of Indiana University 's Distinguished Service Award . He was a Fellow of the Royal Society of Arts , and an honorary member of the International Association for Impact Assessment . Annually since 1995 the American Political Science Association has awarded the Lynton Keith Caldwell Prize for the best book in environmental politics and policy published during the previous three years . Shortly after his death in 2006 , the Caldwell Center for Culture and Ecology was established in Bloomington , IN to provide environmental education for youth and adults .
= = Scholarly publications = =
The administrative theories of Hamilton & Jefferson : Their contribution to thought on public administration . New York : Russell & Russell , 1944 .
The government and administration of New York . New York : Crowell , 1954 .
Environment : A challenge for modern society . Garden City , NY : Natural History Press , 1970 . Published for the American Museum of Natural History .
In defense of earth : International protection of the biosphere . Bloomington : Indiana University Press , 1972 .
Man and his environment : Policy and administration . New York : Harper & Row , 1975 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 06 @-@ 041147 @-@ 3
Citizens and the environment : Case studies in popular action . With Lynton R. Hayes and Isabel M. MacWhirter . Bloomington : Indiana University Press , 1976 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 253 @-@ 31355 @-@ 3
Science and the National Environmental Policy Act : Redirecting policy through procedural reform . University , AL : University of Alabama Press , 1982 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8173 @-@ 0112 @-@ 5
US interests and the global environment . Muscatine , IA : Stanley Foundation , 1985 .
Biocracy : Public policy and the life sciences . Boulder : Westview Press , 1987 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8133 @-@ 7363 @-@ 8
Perspectives on ecosystem management for the Great Lakes : A reader . Albany : State University of New York Press , 1988 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 88706 @-@ 765 @-@ 5
Between two worlds : Science , the environmental movement , and policy choice . New York : Cambridge University Press , 1990 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 521 @-@ 33152 @-@ 4 .
International environmental policy : Emergence and dimensions , 2d ed . Durham : Duke University Press , 1990 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8223 @-@ 1058 @-@ 7
" Globalizing environmentalism : Threshold of a new phase in international relations . In : American Environmentalism : The U.S. environmental movement , 1970 @-@ 1990 , Riley E. Dunlap and Angela G. Mertig , eds . New York : Taylor & Francis , 1992 . ISBN 0 @-@ 8448 @-@ 1730 @-@ 9
Policy for land : Law and ethics . With Karen S. Shrader @-@ Frechette . Lanham , MD : Rowman & Littlefield Publishers , 1993 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8476 @-@ 7778 @-@ 8
Environment as a focus for public policy . With Robert V. Bartlett and James N. Gladden . College Station : Texas A & M University Press , 1995 .
International environmental policy : From the twentieth to the twenty @-@ first century , 3d ed . With Paul S. Weiland . Durham : Duke University Press , 1996 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8223 @-@ 1861 @-@ 3
Environmental policy : Transnational issues and national trends . With Robert V. Bartlett . Westport , CT : Quorum Books , 1997 . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 56720 @-@ 079 @-@ 9
The National Environmental Policy Act : An agenda for the future . Bloomington : Indiana University Press , 1998 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 253 @-@ 33444 @-@ 2
= Jerry Reinsdorf =
Jerry M. Reinsdorf ( born February 25 , 1936 ) is a CPA , lawyer and an owner of the NBA 's Chicago Bulls and the MLB 's Chicago White Sox . He started his professional life as a tax attorney with the Internal Revenue Service . He has been the head of the White Sox and Bulls for over 25 years .
He made his initial fortune in real estate , taking advantage of the Frank Lyon Co. v. United States decision by the United States Supreme Court which allowed economic owners of realty to sell property and lease it back , while transferring the tax deduction for depreciation to the title owner .
As the owner and Chairman of the Chicago Bulls since 1985 , he has turned the franchise into a lucrative business that won six NBA Championships in the 1990s ( 1991 – 1993 and 1996 – 1998 ) . He is controversial for his involvement ( along with Jerry Krause ) in breaking up the championship team by not hiring back key personnel such as Phil Jackson and Michael Jordan . He hired Jordan as a baseball player during his sabbatical from basketball . He also moved the Bulls from Chicago Stadium to the United Center .
As a baseball owner since 1981 , he has brought success to the White Sox franchise . The franchise made the playoffs in 1983 for the first time since 1959 and won the World Series in 2005 for the first time since 1917 . He moved the White Sox from Comiskey Park to New Comiskey Park and then renamed the new park U.S. Cellular Field . In both sporting endeavors , he has developed a reputation as an anti @-@ labor union hardliner . Since the early 1990s , he has been considered one of the most , if not the most , influential basketball owners . He has been influential in instituting the salary cap and revenue sharing .
On April 4 , 2016 , Reinsdorf was elected to the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame as a contributor .
= = Background = =
Reinsdorf was born to a Jewish family in Brooklyn , New York . He attended Erasmus Hall High School in Brooklyn , and he was the son of a sewing machine salesman . A lifelong baseball fan who grew up in the shadows of Ebbets Field , Reinsdorf was in the stands the day Jackie Robinson debuted for the Brooklyn Dodgers , breaking the color barrier which prevented black players from serving on Major League teams .
Reinsdorf earned a bachelor 's degree from George Washington University in Washington , D.C. where he became a member of Alpha Epsilon Pi . He subsequently moved to Chicago in 1957 . Reinsdorf became a CPA and lawyer as well as a registered mortgage underwriter and a certified review appraiser . He leveraged a full scholarship offer from the University of Chicago Law School into a scholarship from the Northwestern University School of Law . His first job after graduating from Northwestern in 1960 was a tax delinquency case of Bill Veeck who at the time owned the White Sox . In 1964 , Reinsdorf went into private practice . He developed a specialty in real estate partnership tax shelters . He sold his business interests in the real estate partnership in 1973 and formed Balcor , which raised US $ 650 million to invest in buildings under construction . He sold Balcor in 1982 for $ 102 million to Shearson Lehman Brothers , the investment banking and brokerage arm of American Express . However , he continued to be President of the company for several years thereafter .
= = Sports ownership = =
= = = New purchases = = =
In 1981 he was wealthy enough to purchase the White Sox for $ 19 million . The purchase was brokered by American National Bank who arranged for a limited partnership . He followed previous eccentric White Sox owners Charles Comiskey , who was known as a miser , and Veeck , who was known as a prankster who gutted the team by trading away promising prospects . Soon after buying the White Sox , he signed Greg Luzinski and Carlton Fisk . He also tripled the team promotional budget and increased the number of team scouts from 12 to 20 . By the 1983 Major League Baseball season the White Sox made the playoffs with the best record in the Major Leagues . The team initially signed a television deal with the newly founded Sportsvision under the new leadership of Chairman Reinsdorf and Vice Chairman Eddie Einhorn , but that arrangement quickly fizzled . Einhorn continued as Vice Chairman of the White Sox until his death in 2016 .
In 1985 , following in the footsteps of Einhorn who had purchased a United States Football League franchise in 1984 , he purchased the Chicago Bulls as part of a syndicate for US $ 16 million and quickly turned the team from one that averaged 6 @,@ 365 fans per game at the 17 @,@ 339 @-@ seat Chicago Stadium in 1985 into one with an 8 @,@ 000 @-@ person season ticket waiting list . He did so by drafting Horace Grant and Scottie Pippen , and trading for Bill Cartwright to join John Paxson and Michael Jordan under the tutelage of head coach Doug Collins . In 1989 , the team signed Phil Jackson as the final piece of the championship puzzle . From November 20 , 1987 through Jordan 's 1999 retirement the Bulls sold out every game .
In the months prior to the purchase , Milwaukee businessman Marvin Fishman had been awarded a $ 16 @.@ 2 million judgment against the Bulls . Fishman had been illegally blocked from purchasing the team in 1972 . Reinsdorf purchased the team from an ownership group that included Lamar Hunt , George Steinbrenner , Walter Shorenstein , Jonathan Kovler , Lester Crown , Philip Klutznick , and the estate of Arthur Wirtz , and he held a $ 9 @.@ 2 million controlling interest in the team . Reinsdorf 's share of 56 @.@ 8 % of the team was purchased from Klutznick , Steinbrenner , Shorenstein and the estate of Wirtz . His purchase ended an era in which the Bulls were managed by committee with decisions by conference call , verdicts by vote . Reinsdorf acquired his majority interests on March 11 , 1985 and Kovler sold his 7 % stake in the team on January 29 , 1986 , bringing Reinsdorf 's interest to 63 % . The following week Reinsdorf ousted Rod Thorn as general manager and replaced him with Jerry Krause .
= = = Ownership history = = =
The White Sox have won American League regular season Division Championships in 1983 , 1993 , 2000 , 2005 and 2008 under Reinsdorf and they won the 2005 World Series . In addition , they were in first place of the central division at the conclusion of the strike @-@ shortened 1994 Major League Baseball season . The World Series victory made him only the third owner in the history of North American sports to win a championship in two different sports . The baseball championship boosted the value of the franchise to over $ 300 million . When Reinsdorf signed Jordan after Jordan 's announcement that he wanted to play baseball , many thought Jordan 's drawing power provided an ulterior motive . Reinsdorf , however , had tried to convince Jordan not to give up basketball , but he did not attempt to make Jordan the highest paid player in the game like some feel he should have .
As a basketball owner , he has been described by Time as a " cheapskate " , a reference they also use for his baseball persona . As of 1995 , the time when Scottie Pippen was eager to either be traded or be rid of Krause , he had never renegotiated a contract . As a baseball owner , he has had a reputation as one of the most militant , anti @-@ union , hard @-@ line owners . Newsweek described him as " one of the hardest heads in the 1994 baseball strike " . In the baseball offseason between the 1992 and 1993 seasons , he completely abstained from the free agent market . Reinsdorf was one of the last holdouts to the 1996 labor agreement that instituted the salary cap while retaining arbitration rights for the players . His 1996 signing of Albert Belle made news because of his widely publicized general opposition to spiraling player salaries . The $ 55 million signing was a turning point in the decision by the baseball owners to agree to revenue sharing . The signing also made Reinsdorf the employer of the highest paid Major League Baseball player and highest paid professional basketball player ( Jordan ) at the same time . Reinsdorf had just re @-@ signed Jordan after the 1995 – 96 NBA season . However , Jordan had been underpaid most of his career , and Reinsdorf , who did not feel he could justify the $ 30 million salary from a business standpoint , immediately realized he was going to soon feel buyer 's remorse . Even his most successful baseball team was not highly paid : when the White Sox won the 2005 World Series , Reinsdorf had the 13th highest payroll of the 30 Major League Baseball teams .
After Reinsdorf purchased the team in 1981 , the team experienced erosion of fan and media support which led to moving the team . He complained about old Comiskey Park with its foible such as numerous obstructed view seats and threatened to move the White Sox . Among his threats was moving the team to Itasca or Addison , Illinois in DuPage County . Reinsdorf , through his real estate business purchased 100 acres ( 400 @,@ 000 m2 ) in Addison . Chicago Mayor Harold Washington lobbied the Illinois legislature , and subsequently then @-@ Illinois Governor James R. Thompson promoted a package of incentives to retain the team in Chicago . The state floated bonds to build New Comiskey Park and let Reinsdorf keep all parking and concession revenues , as well as the $ 5 million per year from 89 skyboxes . Reinsdorf and Chicago Blackhawks owner , William Wirtz contributed $ 175 million to fund the construction of the largest arena in the United States . When the United Center opened in 1994 all of the skyboxes were leased for up to eight years . As per the collective bargaining agreement , Reinsdorf was allowed to exclude 60 % of luxury suite revenue from " basketball @-@ related income " and thus it is not part of the revenue sharing income .
Reinsdorf is a powerful baseball owner who in 1988 stopped the sale of the Texas Rangers and later influenced the sale of the Seattle Mariners . Edward Gaylord and Gaylord Entertainment Company had first attempted to buy the Rangers in 1985 . Reinsdorf was also said to be largely responsible for the ousting of Fay Vincent as the Commissioner of Baseball in 1992 . He had previously undermined Vincent by employing Richard Ravitch as the league 's labor negotiator at a salary higher than Vincent 's . By the early 1990s , Reinsdorf and acting Baseball commissioner ( as well as Milwaukee Brewers owner ) Bud Selig had assumed baseball 's mantle of power from Atlanta Braves owner , Ted Turner , and New York Yankees owner , George Steinbrenner , who had in turn taken over the sport from Brooklyn / Los Angeles Dodgers owner , Walter O 'Malley , St. Louis Cardinals owner , Gussie Busch , and Oakland Athletics owner , Charlie O. Finley .
In the 1980s , Reinsdorf , Bud Selig and the American League President colluded to dissuade the Philadelphia Phillies from signing Lance Parrish who was a Detroit Tigers free agent . During the strike , Reinsdorf , who was an anti @-@ union hard @-@ liner , was so pessimistic that he did not expect baseball to resume until the 1996 Major League Baseball season . In the early 1990s he was able to get new stadiums ( United Center and U.S. Cellular Field ) for his teams .
Some fans and columnists have accused Reinsdorf of breaking up the championship Bulls team after their third straight title and sixth in eight years , claiming the Bulls could have competed for more titles with Michael Jordan , Scottie Pippen and good support from the rest of the team that in the eight @-@ year span included Dennis Rodman , Horace Grant , Toni Kukoč , Ron Harper , BJ Armstrong , and coach Phil Jackson . Some accounts claim that because Jackson feuded with both Reinsdorf and Krause and because both Jordan and Pippen were linked to Jackson , the team was broken up . Forbes describes the scenario as an example of owner greed . Many note that Phil Jackson 's decision not to return as coach and Jordan 's retirement during the 1998 – 99 NBA season lockout impacted the decisions of several players on whether to return to Chicago . Krause and Reinsdorf had held out hope that they could convince Jackson and Jordan to return and thus had introduced Tim Floyd as President of Chicago Bulls Basketball Operations instead of head coach . Reinsdorf had made it clear to Jackson that he was wanted back .
Reinsdorf was one of two bidders for the Phoenix Coyotes that would commit to not relocating the team . On July 29 , 2009 Reinsdorf and his group were approved for ownership of the Coyotes for $ 148 million . The official sale is set to occur during bankruptcy auction which will take place September 10 .
In August 2009 , it was reported that Jerry Reinsdorf & Ice Edge LLC had dropped its bid for the Coyotes , leaving only Balsillie and the NHL as bidders for the team . The NHL bid ultimately prevailed , however the league has stated it wishes to re @-@ sell the franchise as soon as possible . On March 24 , 2010 , it was reported that Reinsdorf was once again a possible buyer for the Phoenix Coyotes . Reinsdorf had been working out an arrangement to make the deal more feasible with the municipality of Glendale , Arizona . As late as August 2011 , negotiations between Reinsdorf and the City of Glendale were still in process for the purchase of the Coyotes . However , in 2013 , the Coyotes were sold to IceArizona , a group of investors that did not include Reinsdorf .
= = = Legacy = = =
Reinsdorf is largely responsible for the revenue sharing of the internet rights of Major League Baseball in which all teams have shared equally since Major League Baseball Advanced Media ( known as BAM ) was established in 2000 . Reinsdorf also endeavored to sell the naming rights to the New Comiskey Park to U.S. Cellular in a $ 68 million 20 @-@ year deal that funded a 7 @-@ year $ 85 million overhaul of the stadium that ended prior to the 2008 Major League Baseball season . The overhaul included the removal of top rows of the upper deck , replacement of the baby blue seats with traditionally @-@ colored green ones and dozens of other upgrades . Prior to the seven @-@ year overhaul , the 2001 White Sox barely broke even financially with a $ 700 @,@ 000 operating profit on revenues of $ 101 @.@ 33 million .
Reinsdorf won a major revenue sharing legal battle with other NBA owners over the Chicago Bulls broadcasts on WGN @-@ TV . The 55 game schedule on the superstation for an audience of 35 million competed with the NBA broadcasts , but Reinsdorf was permitted to maintain the contract . As recently as 2004 , the Bulls continued to be the NBAs most profitable team , earning $ 49 million in operating income and having an estimated valuation of $ 356 million .
Reinsdorf feels that if Major League Baseball Players Association chief , Donald Fehr , had not opposed steroid testing , baseball would have taken a stand against steroid use much sooner . He feels that in the end this delayed action will cost some players election into the National Baseball Hall of Fame .
= = Accolades and service = =
Reinsdorf has been involved ( along with the likes of Playboy Enterprises ' Christie Hefner ) in Chicago Mayor Richard M. Daley 's initiative to improve standardized test scores in the 559 Chicago Public Schools . He has been involved in other extensive charitable work including those of CharitaBulls and White Sox Charities . His philanthropy and community development have been notable in the Near West Side community area near the United Center . Twice the White Sox Charities has donated $ 1 million to the Chicago Park District with particular attention to funding baseball and softball fields .
Reinsdorf was inducted into the Appleton , Wisconsin Baseball Hall of Fame on August 5 , 2006 in a ceremony at Fox Cities Stadium prior to that evening 's game between the Midwest League Wisconsin Timber Rattlers and Beloit Snappers . He was so recognized because a former Minor League club , the Appleton Foxes , was a Chicago White Sox affiliate and won three consecutive Midwest League Championships in the early years of Reinsdorf 's ownership .
In 2011 , Reinsdorf received a Jefferson Award for Public Service . He was recognized for " Greatest Public Service Benefiting the Disadvantaged " based on philanthropic efforts through the Chicago White Sox Charities and CharitaBulls .
He has been a member of the board of directors of Shearson Lehman Brothers , Inc . , the Northwestern University Law School Alumni Association , LaSalle Bank , Equity Office Properties and numerous other corporations and charities . He currently serves as a Life Trustee of Northwestern University . Reinsdorf and his wife , Martyl ( née Rifkin ) , have four children and eight grandchildren .
Throughout the years Reinsdorf has been active in the affairs of baseball , serving on the Executive Council and Ownership , Long Range Planning , Restructuring , Expansion , Equal Opportunity , Strategic Planning , Legislative and Labor Policy Committees of Major League Baseball , he also serves on the Boards of MLB Advanced Media and MLB Enterprises .
= = Other businesses = =
In 2013 , Reinsdorf partnered with Mark Sullivan , Noah Kroloff , Dennis Burke , David Aguilar , and John Kaites to found Global Security and Innovative Strategies .
= Association football =
Association football , more commonly known as football or soccer , is a sport played between two teams of eleven players with a spherical ball . It is played by 250 million players in over 200 countries and dependencies , making it the world 's most popular sport . The game is played on a rectangular field with a goal at each end . The object of the game is to score by getting the ball into the opposing goal .
The goalkeepers are the only players allowed to touch the ball with their hands or arms while it is in play and only in their penalty area . Outfield players mostly use their feet to strike or pass the ball , but may also use their head or torso to do so instead . The team that scores the most goals by the end of the match wins . If the score is level at the end of the game , either a draw is declared or the game goes into extra time or a penalty shootout depending on the format of the competition . The Laws of the Game were originally codified in England by The Football Association in 1863 . Association football is governed internationally by the International Federation of Association Football ( FIFA ; French : Fédération Internationale de Football Association ) , which organises World Cups for both men and women every four years .
= = Name = =
The rules of association football were codified in England by the Football Association in 1863 and the name association football was coined to distinguish the game from the other forms of football played at the time , specifically rugby football . The term soccer originated in England , first appearing in the 1880s as an Oxford " -er " abbreviation of the word " association " .
Within the English @-@ speaking world , association football is now usually called football in the United Kingdom and mainly soccer in Canada and the United States . People in Australia , Ireland and New Zealand use either or both terms , although national associations in Australia and New Zealand now primarily use " football " for the formal name .
= = History = =
According to FIFA , the Chinese competitive game cuju ( 蹴鞠 , literally " kick ball " ) is the earliest form of football for which there is scientific evidence . Cuju players could use any of the body apart from hands and the intent was kicking a ball through an opening into a net . It was remarkably similar to modern football , though similarities to rugby occurred . During the Han Dynasty ( 206 BC – 220 AD ) , cuju games were standardized and rules were established .
Phaininda and episkyros were Greek ball games . An image of an episkyros player depicted in low relief on a vase at the National Archaeological Museum of Athens appears on the UEFA European Championship Cup . Athenaeus , writing in 228 AD , referenced the Roman ball game harpastum . Phaininda , episkyros and harpastum were played involving hands and violence . They all appear to have resembled rugby football , wrestling and volleyball more than what is recognizable as modern football . As with pre @-@ codified " mob football " , the antecedent of all modern football codes , these three games involved more handling the ball than kicking . Non @-@ competitive games included kemari in Japan , chuk @-@ guk in Korea and woggabaliri in Australia .
Association football in itself does not have a classical history . Notwithstanding any similarities to other ball games played around the world FIFA have recognised that no historical connection exists with any game played in antiquity outside Europe . The modern rules of association football are based on the mid @-@ 19th century efforts to standardise the widely varying forms of football played in the public schools of England . The history of football in England dates back to at least the eighth century AD .
The Cambridge Rules , first drawn up at Cambridge University in 1848 , were particularly influential in the development of subsequent codes , including association football . The Cambridge Rules were written at Trinity College , Cambridge , at a meeting attended by representatives from Eton , Harrow , Rugby , Winchester and Shrewsbury schools . They were not universally adopted . During the 1850s , many clubs unconnected to schools or universities were formed throughout the English @-@ speaking world , to play various forms of football . Some came up with their own distinct codes of rules , most notably the Sheffield Football Club , formed by former public school pupils in 1857 , which led to formation of a Sheffield FA in 1867 . In 1862 , John Charles Thring of Uppingham School also devised an influential set of rules .
These ongoing efforts contributed to the formation of The Football Association ( The FA ) in 1863 , which first met on the morning of 26 October 1863 at the Freemasons ' Tavern in Great Queen Street , London . The only school to be represented on this occasion was Charterhouse . The Freemason 's Tavern was the setting for five more meetings between October and December , which eventually produced the first comprehensive set of rules . At the final meeting , the first FA treasurer , the representative from Blackheath , withdrew his club from the FA over the removal of two draft rules at the previous meeting : the first allowed for running with the ball in hand ; the second for obstructing such a run by hacking ( kicking an opponent in the shins ) , tripping and holding . Other English rugby clubs followed this lead and did not join the FA and instead in 1871 formed the Rugby Football Union . The eleven remaining clubs , under the charge of Ebenezer Cobb Morley , went on to ratify the original thirteen laws of the game . These rules included handling of the ball by " marks " and the lack of a crossbar , rules which made it remarkably similar to Victorian rules football being developed at that time in Australia . The Sheffield FA played by its own rules until the 1870s with the FA absorbing some of its rules until there was little difference between the games .
The world 's oldest football competition is the FA Cup , which was founded by C. W. Alcock and has been contested by English teams since 1872 . The first official international football match also took place in 1872 , between Scotland and England in Glasgow , again at the instigation of C. W. Alcock . England is also home to the world 's first football league , which was founded in Birmingham in 1888 by Aston Villa director William McGregor . The original format contained 12 clubs from the Midlands and Northern England .
The laws of the game are determined by the International Football Association Board ( IFAB ) . The Board was formed in 1886 after a meeting in Manchester of The Football Association , the Scottish Football Association , the Football Association of Wales , and the Irish Football Association . FIFA , the international football body , was formed in Paris in 1904 and declared that they would adhere to Laws of the Game of the Football Association . The growing popularity of the international game led to the admittance of FIFA representatives to the International Football Association Board in 1913 . The board consists of four representatives from FIFA and one representative from each of the four British associations .
Today , football is played at a professional level all over the world . Millions of people regularly go to football stadiums to follow their favourite teams , while billions more watch the game on television or on the internet . A very large number of people also play football at an amateur level . According to a survey conducted by FIFA published in 2001 , over 240 million people from more than 200 countries regularly play football . Football has the highest global television audience in sport .
In many parts of the world football evokes great passions and plays an important role in the life of individual fans , local communities , and even nations . R. Kapuscinski says that Europeans who are polite , modest , or humble fall easily into rage when playing or watching football games . The Côte d 'Ivoire national football team helped secure a truce to the nation 's civil war in 2006 and it helped further reduce tensions between government and rebel forces in 2007 by playing a match in the rebel capital of Bouaké , an occasion that brought both armies together peacefully for the first time . By contrast , football is widely considered to have been the final proximate cause for the Football War in June 1969 between El Salvador and Honduras . The sport also exacerbated tensions at the beginning of the Yugoslav Wars of the 1990s , when a match between Dinamo Zagreb and Red Star Belgrade degenerated into rioting in May 1990 .
= = = Women 's association football = = =
= = = = Early women 's football = = = =
Women may have been playing " football " for as long as the game has existed . Evidence shows that an ancient version of the game ( Tsu Chu ) was played by women during the Han Dynasty ( 25 – 220 CE ) . Two female figures are depicted in Han Dynasty ( 25 – 220 CE ) frescoes , playing Tsu Chu . There are , however , a number of opinions about the accuracy of dates , the earliest estimates at 5000 BCE . Reports of an annual match being played in Scotland are reported as early as the 1790s . The first match recorded by the Scottish Football Association took place in 1892 in Glasgow . In England , the first recorded game of football between women took place in 1895 .
Association football , the modern game , also has documented early involvement of women . In Europe , it is possible that 12th @-@ century French women played football as part of that era 's folk games . An annual competition in Mid @-@ Lothian , Scotland during the 1790s is reported , too . In 1863 , football governing bodies introduced standardized rules to prohibit violence on the pitch , making it more socially acceptable for women to play .
The most well @-@ documented early European team was founded by activist Nettie Honeyball in England in 1894 . It was named the British Ladies ' Football Club . Nettie Honeyball is quoted , " I founded the association late last year [ 1894 ] , with the fixed resolve of proving to the world that women are not the ' ornamental and useless ' creatures men have pictured . I must confess , my convictions on all matters where the sexes are so widely divided are all on the side of emancipation , and I look forward to the time when ladies may sit in Parliament and have a voice in the direction of affairs , especially those which concern them most . " Honeyball and those like her paved the way for women 's football . However the women 's game was frowned upon by the British football associations , and continued without their support . It has been suggested that this was motivated by a perceived threat to the ' masculinity ' of the game .
Women 's football became popular on a large scale at the time of the First World War , when employment in heavy industry spurred the growth of the game , much as it had done for men fifty years earlier . The most successful team of the era was Dick , Kerr 's Ladies of Preston , England . The team played in the first women 's international matches in 1920 , against a team from Paris , France , in April , and also made up most of the England team against a Scottish Ladies XI in 1920 , and winning 22 @-@ 0 .
Despite being more popular than some men 's football events ( one match saw a 53 @,@ 000 strong crowd ) , women 's football in England suffered a blow in 1921 when The Football Association outlawed the playing of the game on Association members ' pitches , on the grounds that the game ( as played by women ) was distasteful . Some speculated that this may have also been due to envy of the large crowds that women 's matches attracted . This led to the formation of the English Ladies Football Association and play moved to rugby grounds .
Association football has been played by women since at least the time of the first recorded women 's games in the late 19th century . It has traditionally been associated with charity games and physical exercise , particularly in the United Kingdom . In the late 1960s and early 1970s women 's association football was organised in the United Kingdom , eventually becoming the most prominent team sport for British women .
= = = = 20th and 21st century = = = =
The growth in women 's football has seen major competitions being launched at both national and international level mirroring the male competitions . Women 's football has faced many struggles . It had a " golden age " in the United Kingdom in the early 1920s when crowds reached 50 @,@ 000 at some matches ; this was stopped on 5 December 1921 when England 's Football Association voted to ban the game from grounds used by its member clubs . The FA 's ban was rescinded in December 1969 with UEFA voting to officially recognise women 's football in 1971 . The FIFA Women 's World Cup was inaugurated in 1991 and has been held every four years since , while women 's football has been an Olympic event since 1996 .
= = Gameplay = =
Association football is played in accordance with a set of rules known as the Laws of the Game . The game is played using a spherical ball of 68 @.@ 5 – 69 @.@ 5 cm ( 27 @.@ 0 – 27 @.@ 4 in ) circumference , known as the football ( or soccer ball ) . Two teams of eleven players each compete to get the ball into the other team 's goal ( between the posts and under the bar ) , thereby scoring a goal . The team that has scored more goals at the end of the game is the winner ; if both teams have scored an equal number of goals then the game is a draw . Each team is led by a captain who has only one official responsibility as mandated by the Laws of the Game : to be involved in the coin toss prior to kick @-@ off or penalty kicks .
The primary law is that players other than goalkeepers may not deliberately handle the ball with their hands or arms during play , though they do use their hands during a throw @-@ in restart . Although players usually use their feet to move the ball around , they may use any part of their body ( notably , " heading " with the forehead ) other than their hands or arms . Within normal play , all players are free to play the ball in any direction and move throughout the pitch , though the ball cannot be received in an offside position .
In game play , players attempt to create goal @-@ scoring opportunities through individual control of the ball , such as by dribbling , passing the ball to a team @-@ mate , and by taking shots at the goal , which is guarded by the opposing goalkeeper . Opposing players may try to regain control of the ball by intercepting a pass or through tackling the opponent in possession of the ball ; however , physical contact between opponents is restricted . Football is generally a free @-@ flowing game , with play stopping only when the ball has left the field of play or when play is stopped by the referee for an infringement of the rules . After a stoppage , play recommences with a specified restart .
At a professional level , most matches produce only a few goals . For example , the 2005 – 06 season of the English Premier League produced an average of 2 @.@ 48 goals per match . The Laws of the Game do not specify any player positions other than goalkeeper , but a number of specialised roles have evolved . Broadly , these include three main categories : strikers , or forwards , whose main task is to score goals ; defenders , who specialise in preventing their opponents from scoring ; and midfielders , who dispossess the opposition and keep possession of the ball to pass it to the forwards on their team . Players in these positions are referred to as outfield players , to distinguish them from the goalkeeper . These positions are further subdivided according to the area of the field in which the player spends most time . For example , there are central defenders , and left and right midfielders . The ten outfield players may be arranged in any combination . The number of players in each position determines the style of the team 's play ; more forwards and fewer defenders creates a more aggressive and offensive @-@ minded game , while the reverse creates a slower , more defensive style of play . While players typically spend most of the game in a specific position , there are few restrictions on player movement , and players can switch positions at any time . The layout of a team 's players is known as a formation . Defining the team 's formation and tactics is usually the prerogative of the team 's manager .
= = Laws = =
There are 17 laws in the official Laws of the Game , each containing a collection of stipulation and guidelines . The same laws are designed to apply to all levels of football , although certain modifications for groups such as juniors , seniors , women and people with physical disabilities are permitted . The laws are often framed in broad terms , which allow flexibility in their application depending on the nature of the game . The Laws of the Game are published by FIFA , but are maintained by the International Football Association Board ( IFAB ) . In addition to the seventeen laws , numerous IFAB decisions and other directives contribute to the regulation of football .
= = = Players , equipment , and officials = = =
Each team consists of a maximum of eleven players ( excluding substitutes ) , one of whom must be the goalkeeper . Competition rules may state a minimum number of players required to constitute a team , which is usually seven . Goalkeepers are the only players allowed to play the ball with their hands or arms , provided they do so within the penalty area in front of their own goal . Though there are a variety of positions in which the outfield ( non @-@ goalkeeper ) players are strategically placed by a coach , these positions are not defined or required by the Laws .
The basic equipment or kit players are required to wear includes a shirt , shorts , socks , footwear and adequate shin guards . An athletic supporter and protective cup is highly recommended for male players by medical experts and professionals . Headgear is not a required piece of basic equipment , but players today may choose to wear it to protect themselves from head injury . Players are forbidden to wear or use anything that is dangerous to themselves or another player , such as jewellery or watches . The goalkeeper must wear clothing that is easily distinguishable from that worn by the other players and the match officials .
A number of players may be replaced by substitutes during the course of the game . The maximum number of substitutions permitted in most competitive international and domestic league games is three , though the permitted number may vary in other competitions or in friendly matches . Common reasons for a substitution include injury , tiredness , ineffectiveness , a tactical switch , or timewasting at the end of a finely poised game . In standard adult matches , a player who has been substituted may not take further part in a match . IFAB recommends " that a match should not continue if there are fewer than seven players in either team . " Any decision regarding points awarded for abandoned games is left to the individual football associations .
A game is officiated by a referee , who has " full authority to enforce the Laws of the Game in connection with the match to which he has been appointed " ( Law 5 ) , and whose decisions are final . The referee is assisted by two assistant referees . In many high @-@ level games there is also a fourth official who assists the referee and may replace another official should the need arise .
= = = Ball = = =
The ball is spherical with a circumference of between 68 and 70 centimetres ( 27 and 28 in ) , a weight in the range of 410 to 450 grams ( 14 to 16 oz ) , and a pressure of between 0 @.@ 6 and 1 @.@ 1 bars ( 8 @.@ 5 and 15 @.@ 6 psi ) at sea level . In the past the ball was made up of leather panels sewn together , with a latex bladder for pressurisation , but modern balls at all levels of the game are now synthetic .
= = = Pitch = = =
As the Laws were formulated in England , and were initially administered solely by the four British football associations within IFAB , the standard dimensions of a football pitch were originally expressed in imperial units . The Laws now express dimensions with approximate metric equivalents ( followed by traditional units in brackets ) , though use of imperial units remains popular in English @-@ speaking countries with a relatively recent history of metrication ( or only partial metrication ) , such as Britain .
The length of the pitch for international adult matches is in the range of 100 – 110 m ( 110 – 120 yd ) and the width is in the range of 64 – 75 m ( 70 – 80 yd ) . Fields for non @-@ international matches may be 90 – 120 m ( 100 – 130 yd ) length and 45 – 90 m ( 50 – 100 yd ) in width , provided that the pitch does not become square . In 2008 , the IFAB initially approved a fixed size of 105 m ( 344 ft ) long and 68 m ( 223 ft ) wide as a standard pitch dimension for international matches ; however , this decision was later put on hold and was never actually implemented .
The longer boundary lines are touchlines , while the shorter boundaries ( on which the goals are placed ) are goal lines . A rectangular goal is positioned at the middle of each goal line . The inner edges of the vertical goal posts must be 24 feet ( 7 @.@ 3 m ) apart , and the lower edge of the horizontal crossbar supported by the goal posts must be 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) above the ground . Nets are usually placed behind the goal , but are not required by the Laws .
In front of the goal is the penalty area . This area is marked by the goal line , two lines starting on the goal line 16 @.@ 5 m ( 18 yd ) from the goalposts and extending 16 @.@ 5 m ( 18 yd ) into the pitch perpendicular to the goal line , and a line joining them . This area has a number of functions , the most prominent being to mark where the goalkeeper may handle the ball and where a penalty foul by a member of the defending team becomes punishable by a penalty kick . Other markings define the position of the ball or players at kick @-@ offs , goal kicks , penalty kicks and corner kicks .
= = = Duration and tie @-@ breaking methods = = =
A standard adult football match consists of two periods of 45 minutes each , known as halves . Each half runs continuously , meaning that the clock is not stopped when the ball is out of play . There is usually a 15 @-@ minute half @-@ time break between halves . The end of the match is known as full @-@ time . The referee is the official timekeeper for the match , and may make an allowance for time lost through substitutions , injured players requiring attention , or other stoppages . This added time is called additional time in FIFA documents , but is most commonly referred to as stoppage time or injury time , while loss time can also be used as a synonym . The duration of stoppage time is at the sole discretion of the referee . The referee alone signals the end of the match . In matches where a fourth official is appointed , toward the end of the half the referee signals how many minutes of stoppage time he intends to add . The fourth official then informs the players and spectators by holding up a board showing this number . The signalled stoppage time may be further extended by the referee . Added time was introduced because of an incident which happened in 1891 during a match between Stoke and Aston Villa . Trailing 1 – 0 and with just two minutes remaining , Stoke were awarded a penalty . Villa 's goalkeeper kicked the ball out of the ground , and by the time the ball had been recovered , the 90 minutes had elapsed and the game was over . The same law also states that the duration of either half is extended until the penalty kick to be taken or retaken is completed , thus no game shall end with a penalty to be taken .
In league competitions , games may end in a draw . In knockout competitions where a winner is required various methods may be employed to break such a deadlock , some competitions may invoke replays . A game tied at the end of regulation time may go into extra time , which consists of two further 15 @-@ minute periods . If the score is still tied after extra time , some competitions allow the use of penalty shootouts ( known officially in the Laws of the Game as " kicks from the penalty mark " ) to determine which team will progress to the next stage of the tournament . Goals scored during extra time periods count toward the final score of the game , but kicks from the penalty mark are only used to decide the team that progresses to the next part of the tournament ( with goals scored in a penalty shootout not making up part of the final score ) .
In competitions using two @-@ legged matches , each team competes at home once , with an aggregate score from the two matches deciding which team progresses . Where aggregates are equal , the away goals rule may be used to determine the winners , in which case the winner is the team that scored the most goals in the leg they played away from home . If the result is still equal , extra time and potentially a penalty shootout are required .
In the late 1990s and early 2000s , the IFAB experimented with ways of creating a winner without requiring a penalty shootout , which was often seen as an undesirable way to end a match . These involved rules ending a game in extra time early , either when the first goal in extra time was scored ( golden goal ) , or if one team held a lead at the end of the first period of extra time ( silver goal ) . Golden goal was used at the World Cup in 1998 and 2002 . The first World Cup game decided by a golden goal was France 's victory over Paraguay in 1998 . Germany was the first nation to score a golden goal in a major competition , beating Czech Republic in the final of Euro 1996 . Silver goal was used in Euro 2004 . Both these experiments have been discontinued by IFAB .
= = = Ball in and out of play = = =
Under the Laws , the two basic states of play during a game are ball in play and ball out of play . From the beginning of each playing period with a kick @-@ off until the end of the playing period , the ball is in play at all times , except when either the ball leaves the field of play , or play is stopped by the referee . When the ball becomes out of play , play is restarted by one of eight restart methods depending on how it went out of play :
Kick @-@ off : following a goal by the opposing team , or to begin each period of play .
Throw @-@ in : when the ball has crossed the touchline ; awarded to the opposing team to that which last touched the ball .
Goal kick : when the ball has wholly crossed the goal line without a goal having been scored and having last been touched by a player of the attacking team ; awarded to defending team .
Corner kick : when the ball has wholly crossed the goal line without a goal having been scored and having last been touched by a player of the defending team ; awarded to attacking team .
Indirect free kick : awarded to the opposing team following " non @-@ penal " fouls , certain technical infringements , or when play is stopped to caution or dismiss an opponent without a specific foul having occurred . A goal may not be scored directly ( without the ball first touching another player ) from an indirect free kick .
Direct free kick : awarded to fouled team following certain listed " penal " fouls . A goal may be scored directly from a direct free kick .
Penalty kick : awarded to the fouled team following a foul usually punishable by a direct free kick but that has occurred within their opponent 's penalty area .
Dropped @-@ ball : occurs when the referee has stopped play for any other reason , such as a serious injury to a player , interference by an external party , or a ball becoming defective .
= = = Misconduct = = =
= = = = On @-@ field = = = =
A foul occurs when a player commits an offence listed in the Laws of the Game while the ball is in play . The offences that constitute a foul are listed in Law 12 . Handling the ball deliberately , tripping an opponent , or pushing an opponent , are examples of " penal fouls " , punishable by a direct free kick or penalty kick depending on where the offence occurred . Other fouls are punishable by an indirect free kick .
The referee may punish a player 's or substitute 's misconduct by a caution ( yellow card ) or dismissal ( red card ) . A second yellow card at the same game leads to a red card , and therefore to a dismissal . A player given a yellow card is said to have been " booked " , the referee writing the player 's name in his official notebook . If a player has been dismissed , no substitute can be brought on in their place . Misconduct may occur at any time , and while the offences that constitute misconduct are listed , the definitions are broad . In particular , the offence of " unsporting behaviour " may be used to deal with most events that violate the spirit of the game , even if they are not listed as specific offences . A referee can show a yellow or red card to a player , substitute or substituted player . Non @-@ players such as managers and support staff cannot be shown the yellow or red card , but may be expelled from the technical area if they fail to conduct themselves in a responsible manner .
Rather than stopping play , the referee may allow play to continue if doing so will benefit the team against which an offence has been committed . This is known as " playing an advantage " . The referee may " call back " play and penalise the original offence if the anticipated advantage does not ensue within " a few seconds " . Even if an offence is not penalised due to advantage being played , the offender may still be sanctioned for misconduct at the next stoppage of play .
The referee 's decision in all on @-@ pitch matters is considered final . The score of a match cannot be altered after the game , even if later evidence shows that decisions ( including awards / non @-@ awards of goals ) were incorrect .
= = = = Off @-@ field = = = =
Along with the general administration of the sport , football associations and competition organisers also enforce good conduct in wider aspects of the game , dealing with issues such as comments to the press , clubs ' financial management , doping , age fraud and match fixing . Most competitions enforce mandatory suspensions for players who are sent off in a game . Some on @-@ field incidents , if considered very serious ( such as allegations of racial abuse ) , may result in competitions deciding to impose heavier sanctions than those normally associated with a red card . Some associations allow for appeals against player suspensions incurred on @-@ field if clubs feel a referee was incorrect or unduly harsh .
Sanctions for such infractions may be levied on individuals or on to clubs as a whole . Penalties may include fines , points deductions ( in league competitions ) or even expulsion from competitions . For example , the English and Scottish leagues will often deduct 10 points from a team that enters financial administration . Among other administrative sanctions are penalties against game forfeiture . Teams that had forfeited a game or had been forfeited against would be awarded a technical loss or win .
= = Governing bodies = =
The recognised international governing body of football ( and associated games , such as futsal and beach soccer ) is FIFA . The FIFA headquarters are located in Zürich , Switzerland . Six regional confederations are associated with FIFA ; these are :
Asia : Asian Football Confederation ( AFC )
Africa : Confederation of African Football ( CAF )
Europe : Union of European Football Associations ( UEFA )
North / Central America & Caribbean : Confederation of North , Central American and Caribbean Association Football ( CONCACAF )
Oceania : Oceania Football Confederation ( OFC )
South America : Confederación Sudamericana de Fútbol / Confederação Sul @-@ americana de Futebol ( South American Football Confederation ; CONMEBOL )
National associations oversee football within individual countries . These are generally synonymous with sovereign states , ( for example : the Fédération Camerounaise de Football in Cameroon ) but also include a smaller number of associations responsible for sub @-@ national entities or autonomous regions ( for example the Scottish Football Association in Scotland ) . 209 national associations are affiliated both with FIFA and with their respective continental confederations .
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While FIFA is responsible for arranging competitions and most rules related to international competition , the actual Laws of the Game are set by the International Football Association Board , where each of the UK Associations has one vote , while FIFA collectively has four votes .
= = International competitions = =
The major international competition in football is the World Cup , organised by FIFA . This competition takes place every four years . Approximately 190 – 200 national teams compete in qualifying tournaments within the scope of continental confederations for a place in the finals . The finals tournament , which is held every four years , involves 32 national teams competing over a four @-@ week period . The most recent edition of the tournament was the 2014 FIFA World Cup in Brazil .
There has been a football tournament at every Summer Olympic Games since 1900 , except at the 1932 games in Los Angeles . Before the inception of the World Cup , the Olympics ( especially during the 1920s ) had the same status as the World Cup . Originally , the event was for amateurs only ; however , since the 1984 Summer Olympics , professional players have been permitted , albeit with certain restrictions which prevent countries from fielding their strongest sides . The Olympic men 's tournament is played at Under @-@ 23 level . In the past the Olympics have allowed a restricted number of over @-@ age players per team . A women 's tournament was added in 1996 ; in contrast to the men 's event , full international sides without age restrictions play the women 's Olympic tournament .
After the World Cup , the most important international football competitions are the continental championships , which are organised by each continental confederation and contested between national teams . These are the European Championship ( UEFA ) , the Copa América ( CONMEBOL ) , African Cup of Nations ( CAF ) , the Asian Cup ( AFC ) , the CONCACAF Gold Cup ( CONCACAF ) and the OFC Nations Cup ( OFC ) . The FIFA Confederations Cup is contested by the winners of all six continental championships , the current FIFA World Cup champions and the country which is hosting the Confederations Cup . This is generally regarded as a warm @-@ up tournament for the upcoming FIFA World Cup and does not carry the same prestige as the World Cup itself . The most prestigious competitions in club football are the respective continental championships , which are generally contested between national champions , for example the UEFA Champions League in Europe and the Copa Libertadores in South America . The winners of each continental competition contest the FIFA Club World Cup .
= = Domestic competitions = =
The governing bodies in each country operate league systems in a domestic season , normally comprising several divisions , in which the teams gain points throughout the season depending on results . Teams are placed into tables , placing them in order according to points accrued . Most commonly , each team plays every other team in its league at home and away in each season , in a round @-@ robin tournament . At the end of a season , the top team is declared the champion . The top few teams may be promoted to a higher division , and one or more of the teams finishing at the bottom are relegated to a lower division .
The teams finishing at the top of a country 's league may be eligible also to play in international club competitions in the following season . The main exceptions to this system occur in some Latin American leagues , which divide football championships into two sections named Apertura and Clausura ( Spanish for Opening and Closing ) , awarding a champion for each . The majority of countries supplement the league system with one or more " cup " competitions organised on a knock @-@ out basis .
Some countries ' top divisions feature highly paid star players ; in smaller countries and lower divisions , players may be part @-@ timers with a second job , or amateurs . The five top European leagues – the Bundesliga ( Germany ) , Premier League ( England ) , La Liga ( Spain ) , Serie A ( Italy ) , and Ligue 1 ( France ) – attract most of the world 's best players and each of the leagues has a total wage cost in excess of £ 600 million / € 763 million / US $ 1 @.@ 185 billion .
= = Variants and casual play = =
Variants of football have been codified for reduced @-@ sized teams ( i.e. five @-@ a @-@ side football ) play in non @-@ field environments ( i.e. beach soccer , indoor soccer , and futsal ) and for teams with disabilities ( i.e. paralympic association football ) .
One of the attractions of association football is that a casual game can be played with only minimal equipment – a basic game can be played on almost any open area of reasonable size with just a ball and items to mark the positions of two sets of goalposts . Such games can often have team sizes that vary considerably from eleven @-@ a @-@ side , use a limited or modified subset of the official rules , and are likely to be self @-@ officiated by the players .
= Anne Rice =
Anne Rice ( born Howard Allen Frances O 'Brien ; October 4 , 1941 ) is an American author of gothic fiction , Christian literature , and erotica . She is perhaps best known for her popular and influential series of novels , The Vampire Chronicles , revolving around the central character of Lestat . Books from The Vampire Chronicles were the subject of two film adaptations , Interview with the Vampire in 1994 , and Queen of the Damned in 2002 .
Born in New Orleans , Rice spent much of her early life there before moving to Texas , and later to San Francisco . She was raised in an observant Catholic family , but became an agnostic as a young adult . She began her professional writing career with the publication of Interview with the Vampire in 1976 , while living in California , and began writing sequels to the novel in the 1980s . In the mid @-@ 2000s , following a publicized return to Catholicism , Rice published the novels Christ the Lord : Out of Egypt and Christ the Lord : The Road to Cana , fictionalized accounts of certain incidents in the life of Jesus . Several years later she distanced herself from organized Christianity , citing disagreement with the Church 's stances on social issues but pledging that faith in God remained " central to [ her ] life . " However , she now considers herself a secular humanist .
Rice 's books have sold nearly 100 million copies , placing her among the most popular authors in recent American history . While reaction to her early works was initially mixed , she became more popular with critics and readers in the 1980s . Her writing style and the literary content of her works have been deeply analyzed by literary commentators . She was married to poet and painter Stan Rice for 41 years , from 1961 until his death from brain cancer in 2002 at age 60 . She and Stan had two children , Michele , who died of leukemia at age five , and Christopher , who is also an author .
In addition to her vampire novels , Rice has authored books such as The Feast of All Saints ( adapted for television in 2001 ) and Servant of the Bones , which formed the basis of a 2011 comic book miniseries . Several books from The Vampire Chronicles have been adapted as comics by various publishers . Rice has also authored erotic fiction under the pen names Anne Rampling and A. N. Roquelaure , including Exit to Eden , which was later adapted into a 1994 film .
= = Early life = =
= = = New Orleans and Texas = = =
Born on October 4 , 1941 in New Orleans , Rice is the second of four daughters of parents of Irish Catholic descent , Howard O 'Brien and Katherine " Kay " Allen O 'Brien . Her father , a Naval veteran of World War II and lifelong resident of New Orleans , worked as a Personnel Executive for the U.S. Postal Service , and authored one novel , The Impulsive Imp , which was published posthumously . Her older sister , Alice Borchardt , later became a noted author of fantasy and horror fiction .
Rice spent most of her childhood and teenage years in New Orleans , a city that forms the backdrop against which many of her works are set . Her early years were marked by coping with the family 's poverty and her mother 's alcoholism . She and her family lived in the rented home of her maternal grandmother , Alice Allen , known as " Mamma Allen , " at 2301 St. Charles Avenue in the Irish Channel , which Rice says was widely considered a " Catholic Ghetto " . Allen , who began working as a domestic shortly after separating from her alcoholic husband , was an important early influence in Rice 's life , keeping the family and household together as Rice 's mother sank deeper into alcoholism . Allen died in 1949 , but the O 'Briens remained in her home until 1956 , when they moved to 2524 St. Charles Avenue , a former rectory , convent , and school owned by the parish , to be closer to both the church and support for Katherine 's addiction . As a young child , Rice studied at St. Alphonsus School , a Catholic institution previously attended by her father .
About her unusual given name , Rice said :
" Well , my birth name is Howard Allen because apparently my mother thought it was a good idea to name me Howard . My father 's name was Howard , she wanted to name me after Howard , and she thought it was a very interesting thing to do . She was a bit of a Bohemian , a bit of mad woman , a bit of a genius , and a great deal of a great teacher . And she had the idea that naming a woman Howard was going to give that woman an unusual advantage in the world . "
However , according to the authorized biography Prism of the Night , by Katherine Ramsland , Rice 's father was the source of his daughter 's birth name : " Thinking back to the days when his own name had been associated with girls , and perhaps in an effort to give it away , Howard named the little girl Howard Allen Frances O 'Brien . " Rice became " Anne " on her first day of school , when a nun asked her what her name was . She told the nun " Anne , " which she considered a pretty name . Her mother , who was with her , let it go without correcting her , knowing how self @-@ conscious her daughter was of her real name . From that day on , everyone she knew addressed her as " Anne " , and her name was legally changed in 1947 . Rice was confirmed in the Catholic Church when she was twelve years old and took the full name Howard Allen Frances Alphonsus Liguori O 'Brien , adding the names of a saint and of an aunt , who was a nun . " I was honored to have my aunt 's name , " she said , " but it was my burden and joy as a child to have strange names . "
When Rice was fifteen years old , her mother died as a result of alcoholism . Soon afterward , she and her sisters were placed by their father in St. Joseph 's Academy . Rice described St. Joseph 's as " something out of Jane Eyre ... a dilapidated , awful , medieval type of place . I really hated it and wanted to leave . I felt betrayed by my father . "
In November 1957 , Rice 's father married Dorothy Van Bever . On the subject of the couple 's first meeting , Rice recalled , " My father wrote her a formal letter inviting her to lunch which I hand @-@ delivered to her house ... I was so nervous . In the note he enclosed a pin which she was to wear if she accepted the invitation . The next day she had the pin on . " In 1958 , when Rice was sixteen , her father moved the family to north Texas , purchasing their first home in Richardson . Rice first met her future husband , Stan Rice , in a journalism class while they were both students at Richardson High School .
= = = San Francisco and Berkeley = = =
Graduating from Richardson High in 1959 , Rice completed her freshman year at Texas Woman 's University in Denton and transferred to North Texas State College for her sophomore year , but dropped out when she ran out of money and was unable to find employment . She soon decided to move to San Francisco , and received permission from her friend , Dennis Percy , to stay with his family there until she found work as an insurance claims processor . She persuaded her former roommate from Texas Woman 's University , Ginny Mathis , to join her , and they found an apartment in the Haight @-@ Ashbury district . Mathis acquired a job at the same insurance company as Rice . Soon after , they began taking night courses at University of San Francisco , an all @-@ male Jesuit school that allowed women to take night courses . For Easter vacation Anne returned home to Texas , rekindling her relationship with Stan Rice . After her return to San Francisco , Stan Rice came for a week @-@ long visit during summer break . He returned to Texas , Rice moved back in with the Percys , and Mathis left San Francisco in August to enroll in a nursing program in Oklahoma . Some time later , Anne received a special delivery letter from Stan Rice asking her to marry him . They married on October 14 , 1961 , in Denton , Texas , soon after she turned twenty years old , and when he was just weeks from his nineteenth birthday .
The Rices moved back to San Francisco in 1962 , experiencing the birth of the Hippie movement firsthand as they lived in the soon @-@ to @-@ be fabled Haight @-@ Ashbury district , Berkeley , and later the Castro District . " I 'm a totally conservative person , " she later told The New York Times , " In the middle of Haight @-@ Ashbury in the 1960s , I was typing away while everybody was dropping acid and smoking grass . I was known as my own square . " Rice attended San Francisco State University and obtained a B.A. in Political Science in 1964 . Their daughter Michele , later nicknamed " Mouse " , was born to the couple on September 21 , 1966 , and Rice later interrupted her graduate studies at SFSU to become a Ph.D. candidate at the University of California , Berkeley . However , she soon became disenchanted with the emphasis on literary criticism and the language requirements . In Rice 's words , " I wanted to be a writer , not a literature student . "
Rice returned to San Francisco State in 1970 to finish her studies in Creative Writing , and in 1972 graduated with an M.A. Stan Rice became an instructor at San Francisco State shortly after receiving his own M.A. in Creative Writing from the institution , and later chaired the Creative Writing department before retiring in 1988 . In 1970 , while Rice was still in the graduate program , her daughter was diagnosed with acute granulocytic leukemia . Rice later described having a prophetic dream , months before Michele became ill , that her daughter was dying from " something wrong with her blood . " On August 5 , 1972 , Michele died at Stanford Children 's Hospital in Palo Alto .
Rice 's son Christopher was born in Berkeley , California , in 1978 ; he would become a best @-@ selling author in his own right , publishing his first novel at the age of 22 . In mid @-@ 1979 , Rice , an admitted alcoholic , and her husband , Stan Rice , quit drinking so their son would not have the life that she had as a child .
= = Writing career = =
= = = Influences = = =
Rice has stated that Charles Dickens , Virginia Woolf , John Milton , Ernest Hemingway , William Shakespeare , the Brontë sisters , Jean @-@ Paul Sartre , and Henry James are writers who have influenced her work .
= = = Interview with the Vampire = = =
In 1973 , while still grieving the loss of her daughter , Rice took a previously written short story and turned it into her first novel , the bestselling Interview with the Vampire . She based her vampires on Gloria Holden 's character in Dracula 's Daughter : " It established to me what vampires were — these elegant , tragic , sensitive people . I was really just going with that feeling when writing Interview With the Vampire . I didn 't do a lot of research . " After completing the novel and following many rejections from publishers , Rice developed obsessive – compulsive disorder ( OCD ) . She became obsessed with germs , thinking that she contaminated everything she touched , engaged in frequent and obsessive hand washing and obsessively checked locks on windows and doors . Of this period , Rice says , " What you see when you 're in that state is every single flaw in our hygiene and you can 't control it and you go crazy . "
In August 1974 , after a year of therapy for her OCD , Rice attended the Squaw Valley Writer 's Conference at Squaw Valley , conducted by writer Ray Nelson . While at the conference , Rice met her future literary agent , Phyllis Seidel . In October 1974 , Seidel sold the publishing rights to Interview with the Vampire to Alfred A. Knopf for a $ 12 @,@ 000 advance of the hardcover rights , at a time when most new authors were receiving $ 2 @,@ 000 advances . Interview with the Vampire was published in May 1976 . In 1977 , the Rices traveled to both Europe and Egypt for the first time .
= = = Other works = = =
Following the publication of Interview with the Vampire , while living in California , Rice wrote two historical novels , The Feast of All Saints and Cry to Heaven , along with four erotic novels ( The Claiming of Sleeping Beauty , Beauty 's Punishment , Beauty 's Release , and Beauty 's Kingdom ) under the pseudonym A. N. Roquelaure , and two more under the pseudonym Anne Rampling ( Exit to Eden and Belinda ) . Rice then returned to the vampire genre with The Vampire Lestat and The Queen of the Damned , her bestselling sequels to Interview with the Vampire .
Shortly after her June 1988 return to New Orleans , Rice penned The Witching Hour as an expression of her joy at coming home . Rice also continued her popular Vampire Chronicles series , which later grew to encompass ten novels , and followed up on The Witching Hour with Lasher and Taltos , completing the Lives of the Mayfair Witches trilogy . She also published Violin , a tale of a ghostly haunting , in 1997 .
Rice calls Christ the Lord : Out of Egypt , published in 2005 , the beginning of a series chronicling the life of Jesus . The second volume , Christ the Lord : The Road to Cana , was published in March 2008 . The third book in the series , Christ the Lord : Kingdom of Heaven , has been postponed .
After moving to Rancho Mirage , California , in December 2005 , Rice wrote Christ the Lord : The Road to Cana , Angel Time , and Of Love and Evil ( the latter two being the first two books in her Songs of the Seraphim series ) , in addition to her memoir , Called Out of Darkness : A Spiritual Confession .
On March 9 , 2014 , Rice announced on her son Christopher 's radio show , " The Dinner Party with Christopher Rice and Eric Shaw Quinn " , that she had completed another book in the Vampire Chronicles , titled , Prince Lestat , a " true sequel " to Queen of the Damned . The book was released on October 28 , 2014 .
= = Reception and analysis = =
Following its debut in 1976 , Interview with the Vampire received many negative reviews from critics , causing Rice to retreat temporarily from the supernatural genre . When The Vampire Lestat debuted in 1985 , reaction — both from critics and from readers — was more positive , and the first hardcover edition of the book sold 75 @,@ 000 copies . Upon its publication in 1988 , The Queen of the Damned was given an initial hardcover printing of 405 @,@ 000 copies . The novel was a main selection of the Literary Guild of America for 1988 , and reached the # 1 spot on The New York Times Best Seller list , staying on the list for more than four months .
Rice 's novels are popular among many members of the LGBT community , some of whom have perceived her vampire characters as allegorical symbols of isolation and social alienation . Similarly , a reviewer writing for The Boston Globe observed that the vampires of her novels represent " the walking alienated , those of us who , by choice or not , dwell on the fringe . " On the subject , Rice herself commented , " From the beginning , I 've had gay fans , and gay readers who felt that my works involved a sustained gay allegory ... I didn 't set out to do that , but that was what they perceived . So even when Christopher was a little baby , I had gay readers and gay friends and knew gay people , and lived in the Castro district of San Francisco , which was a gay neighborhood . "
Rice 's writings have also been identified as having had a major impact on later developments within the genre of vampire fiction . " Rice turns vampire conventions inside out , " writes Susan Ferraro of The New York Times . " Because Rice identifies with the vampire instead of the victim ( reversing the usual focus ) , the horror for the reader springs from the realization of the monster within the self . Moreover , Rice 's vampires are loquacious philosophers who spend much of eternity debating the nature of good and evil . "
In addition , Rice 's writing style has been heavily analyzed . Ferraro , in a statement typical of many reviewers , describes her prose as " florid , both lurid and lyrical , and full of sensuous detail " . However , others have criticized Rice 's writing style as both verbose and overly philosophical . Author William Patrick Day comments that her writing is often " long , convoluted , and imprecise " .
= = Personal life = =
= = = Back to New Orleans and Catholicism = = =
In June 1988 , following the success of The Vampire Lestat and with The Queen of the Damned about to be published , the Rices purchased a second home in New Orleans . Stan took a leave of absence from his teaching , and together they moved to New Orleans . Within months , they decided to make it their permanent home .
Rice returned to the Catholic Church in 1998 after decades of self @-@ avowed atheism . On December 14 , 1998 , she fell into a coma and nearly died . She was later diagnosed with Diabetes mellitus type 1 , and is now insulin @-@ dependent . In 2003 , following the recommendation of her husband and shortly after his death , Rice underwent gastric bypass surgery and shed 103 pounds .
In 2004 , Rice nearly died again from an intestinal blockage or bowel obstruction , a common complication of gastric bypass surgery . In 2005 , Newsweek reported , " [ Rice ] came close to death last year , when she had surgery for an intestinal blockage , and also back in 1998 , when she went into a sudden diabetic coma ; that same year she returned to the Roman Catholic Church , which she 'd left at 18 . " Her return did not come with a full embrace of the Church 's stances on social issues ; Rice remained a vocal supporter of equality for gay men and lesbians ( including marriage rights ) , as well as abortion rights and birth control , writing extensively on such issues . In October 2005 , while promoting her book , Christ the Lord : Out of Egypt , she announced in Newsweek that she would now use her life and talent of writing to glorify her belief in God , but did not renounce her earlier works .
In the Author 's Note from Christ the Lord : Out of Egypt , Rice states :
I had experienced an old @-@ fashioned , strict Roman Catholic childhood in the 1940s and 1950s ... we attended daily Mass and Communion in an enormous and magnificently decorated church .... Stained @-@ glass windows , the Latin Mass , the detailed answers to complex questions on good and evil — these things were imprinted on my soul forever ....
I left this church at age 18 .... I wanted to know what was happening , why so many seemingly good people didn 't believe in any organized religion yet cared passionately about their behavior and value of their lives .... I broke with the church .... I wrote many novels that without my being aware that they reflected my quest for meaning in a world without God . "
In her memoir Called Out of Darkness : A Spiritual Confession , Rice also states :
In the moment of surrender , I let go of all the theological or social questions which had kept me from [ God ] for countless years . I simply let them go . There was the sense , profound and wordless , that if He knew everything I did not have to know everything , and that , in seeking to know everything , I 'd been , all of my life , missing the entire point . No social paradox , no historic disaster , no hideous record of injustice or misery should keep me from Him . No question of Scriptural integrity , no torment over the fate of this or that atheist or gay friend , no worry for those condemned and ostracized by my church or any other church should stand between me and Him . The reason ? It was magnificently simple : He knew how or why everything happened ; He knew the disposition of every single soul . He wasn 't going to let anything happen by accident ! Nobody was going to go to Hell by mistake . "
= = = Leaving New Orleans = = =
On January 18 , 2004 , Rice announced on her website that she had made plans to leave New Orleans . She cited living alone since the death of her husband and her son moving to California as the reasons for her move . On January 30 , 2004 , Rice put the largest of her three homes up for sale and moved to a gated community in Kenner , Louisiana . " Simplifying my life , not owning so much , that 's the chief goal " , said Rice . " I 'll no longer be a citizen of New Orleans in the true sense . " She sold her New York City condominium on January 20 , 2005 . In 2005 , after completing Christ the Lord : Out of Egypt , Rice left New Orleans , shortly before the events of Hurricane Katrina in August . None of her former New Orleans properties were flooded , and Rice remains a vocal advocate for the city and related relief projects .
= = = California = = =
After leaving New Orleans , Rice settled first in La Jolla , California . In November 2005 , she described the weather in La Jolla as " like heaven . " However , she left La Jolla less than a year after moving there , stating in January 2006 that the weather was too cold . She purchased a six @-@ bedroom home in Rancho Mirage , California , in December 2005 , allowing her to be closer to her son in Los Angeles .
On July 18 , 2010 , Rice auctioned off her large collection of antique dolls at Thierault 's in Chicago . Beginning in mid @-@ 2010 and continuing through early 2011 , Rice also began auctioning off her household possessions , collectibles featured in her many books , jewelry , and wardrobe on eBay . She also sold a large portion of her library collection to Powell 's Books .
= = = Distancing from Christianity = = =
On July 28 , 2010 , Rice publicly announced her disdain for the current state of Christianity on her Facebook page , stating , " Today I quit being a Christian .... I remain committed to Christ as always but not to being ' Christian ' or to being part of Christianity . It 's simply impossible for me to ' belong ' to this quarrelsome , hostile , disputatious , and deservedly infamous group . For ten years , I 've tried . I 've failed . I 'm an outsider . My conscience will allow nothing else . " Shortly thereafter , she clarified her statement : " My faith in Christ is central to my life . My conversion from a pessimistic atheist lost in a world I didn 't understand , to an optimistic believer in a universe created and sustained by a loving God is crucial to me . But following Christ does not mean following His followers . Christ is infinitely more important than Christianity and always will be , no matter what Christianity is , has been , or might become . "
Following her announcement , Rice 's critique of Christianity was commented upon by numerous journalists and pundits . In an interview with the Los Angeles Times , Rice elaborated on her view regarding being a member of a Christian church : " I feel much more morally comfortable walking away from organized religion . I respect that there are all kinds of denominations and all kinds of churches , but it 's the entire controversy , the entire conversation that I need to walk away from right now . " In response to the question , " how do you follow Christ without a church ? " Rice replied : " I think the basic ritual is simply prayer . It 's talking to God , putting things in the hands of God , trusting that you 're living in God 's world and praying for God 's guidance . And being absolutely faithful to the core principles of Jesus ' teachings . " In 2011 , Rice participated in the " I Am Second " project , with a short documentary about her spiritual journey . On April 14 , 2013 , Rice stated in a Facebook post that she was a secular humanist . On July 28 , 2014 Rice stated in a Facebook post that Christ is still central to her life , but not in the way he is presented by organized religion .
= = Adaptations = =
= = = Film = = =
In 1994 , Neil Jordan directed a motion picture adaptation of Interview with the Vampire , based on Rice 's own screenplay . The movie starred Tom Cruise as Lestat , Brad Pitt as the guilt @-@ ridden Louis , and a young Kirsten Dunst in her breakout role as the deceitful child vampire Claudia .
A second film adaptation , Queen of the Damned , was released in February 2002 , starring Stuart Townsend as the vampire Lestat and singer Aaliyah as Akasha . The movie combined plot points from both the novel The Queen of the Damned , as well as from The Vampire Lestat . Produced on a budget of $ 35 million , the film recouped only $ 30 million at the U.S. box office . On her Facebook page , Rice distanced herself from the film , and has stated that she feels the filmmakers " mutilated " her work in adapting the novel .
The 1994 film Exit to Eden , based loosely on the book Rice published as Anne Rampling , starred Rosie O 'Donnell and Dan Aykroyd . The work was transformed from a BDSM @-@ themed love story into a police comedy , and was widely considered a box @-@ office failure , receiving near @-@ universal negative reviews .
A film adaptation of Christ the Lord was reported to be in the early stages of development in February 2012 . It was reported that Chris Columbus had signed on to produce , and that Cyrus Nowrasteh had already completed the script . On November 8 , 2014 , during an interview with her long @-@ time editor , Victoria Wilson , at the Chicago Humanities Festival , Rice revealed that filming had finished on the movie and was going into post @-@ production . The film , titled The Young Messiah , was released in 2016 .
In August 2014 , Universal Pictures had acquired the rights to Rice 's Vampire Chronicles .
= = = Television = = =
In 1997 , Rice wrote the story for a television pilot entitled Rag and Bone , featuring elements of both horror and crime fiction . Screenwriter James D. Parriott penned the screenplay , and the pilot ultimately aired on CBS , starring Dean Cain and Robert Patrick .
The Feast of All Saints was made into a Showtime original miniseries in 2001 , directed by Peter Medak and starring James Earl Jones and Gloria Reuben . As of 2002 , NBC had plans to adapt Rice 's Lives of the Mayfair Witches trilogy into a miniseries , but the project never entered production .
= = = Theatre = = =
On April 25 , 2006 , the musical Lestat , based on Rice 's Vampire Chronicles books , opened at the Palace Theatre on Broadway after having its world premiere in San Francisco , California , in December 2005 . With music by Elton John and lyrics by Bernie Taupin , it was the inaugural production of the newly established Warner Brothers Theatre Ventures . Despite Rice 's own overwhelming approval and praise , the show received disappointing attendance and largely negative reviews from critics . Lestat closed a month later on May 28 , 2006 , after just 33 previews and 39 regular performances . The release of the cast recording of the show is reportedly on hold indefinitely .
= = = Comics = = =
Several of Anne Rice 's novels have been adapted into comic books . Below is a list of adaptations to date , along with their publishers and years of publication .
Anne Rice 's The Vampire Lestat # 1 – 12 by Innovation Comics ( 1990 ) , compiled into one volume by Ballantine Books ( 1991 )
Anne Rice 's The Mummy or Ramses the Damned # 1 – 12 by Millennium Publications ( 1990 )
Anne Rice 's The Queen of the Damned # 1 – 11 ( # 12 was never published ) by Innovation Comics ( 1991 )
Anne Rice 's The Master of Rampling Gate ( one @-@ shot ) by Innovation Comics ( 1991 )
Anne Rice 's The Vampire Companion # 1 – 3 by Innovation Comics ( 1991 )
Anne Rice 's Interview with a Vampire # 1 – 12 by Innovation Comics ( 1992 )
Anne Rice 's The Witching Hour # 1 – 5 by Millennium Publications ( 1992 ) , # 1 @-@ 3 compiled into Anne Rice 's The Witching Hour : The Beginning by Millennium Publications ( 1994 )
Anne Rice 's The Tale of the Body Thief # 1 – 4 ( numbers 5 – 12 were never published ) by Sicilian Dragon ( 1999 ) , completed in one volume by Sicilian Dragon ( 2000 )
Anne Rice 's Servant of the Bones # 1 – 6 by IDW Publishing ( 2011 ) , compiled into one volume by IDW ( 2012 )
Interview with the Vampire : Claudia 's Story by Yen Press ( 2012 )
= = = Fan fiction = = =
Rice initially expressed an adamant stance against fan fiction based on her works , and particularly in opposition to such fiction based on The Vampire Chronicles , releasing a statement on April 7 , 2000 , that disallowed all such efforts , citing copyright issues . She subsequently requested that FanFiction.Net remove stories featuring her characters . In 2012 , Metro reported that Rice developed a milder stance on the issue . " I got upset about 20 years ago because I thought it would block me , " she said . " However , it 's been very easy to avoid reading any , so live and let live . If I were a young writer , I 'd want to own my own ideas . But maybe fan fiction is a transitional phase : whatever gets you there , gets you there . "
= = = The Vampire Chronicles = = =
Interview with a Vampire ( 1976 )
The Vampire Lestat ( 1985 )
The Queen of the Damned ( 1988 )
The Tale of the Body Thief ( 1992 )
Memnoch the Devil ( 1995 )
The Vampire Armand ( 1998 )
Merrick ( 2000 )
Blood and Gold ( 2001 )
Blackwood Farm ( 2002 )
Blood Canticle ( 2003 )
" Claudia 's Story " ( 2012 )
Prince Lestat ( 2014 )
" Prince Lestat and the Realms of Atlantis " ( 2016 )
= = = New Tales of the Vampires = = =
Pandora ( 1998 )
Vittorio the Vampire ( 1999 )
= = = Lives of the Mayfair Witches = = =
The Witching Hour ( 1990 )
Lasher ( 1993 )
Taltos ( 1994 )
= = = Christ the Lord = = =
Christ the Lord : Out of Egypt ( 2005 )
Christ the Lord : The Road to Cana ( 2008 )
Christ the Lord : The Kingdom of Heaven ( currently on hold )
= = = Songs of the Seraphim = = =
Angel Time ( 2009 )
Of Love and Evil ( 2010 )
= = = The Wolf Gift Chronicles = = =
The Wolf Gift ( 2012 )
The Wolves of Midwinter ( 2013 )
= = = Miscellaneous novels = = =
The Feast of All Saints ( 1979 )
Cry to Heaven ( 1982 )
The Mummy , or Ramses the Damned ( 1989 )
Servant of the Bones ( 1996 )
Violin ( 1997 )
Born for Atlantis ( TBA )
= = = Under the pseudonym Anne Rampling = = =
Exit to Eden ( 1985 )
Belinda ( 1986 )
= = = Under the pseudonym A. N. Roquelaure = = =
The Claiming of Sleeping Beauty ( 1983 )
Beauty 's Punishment ( 1984 )
Beauty 's Release ( 1985 )
Beauty 's Kingdom ( 2015 )
= = = Non @-@ fiction = = =
Called Out of Darkness : A Spiritual Confession ( 2008 )
= = = Short fiction = = =
October 4 , 1948 ( 1965 )
Nicholas and Jean ( 1966 )
Interlude with the Undead ( Playboy , January 1979 )
The Master of Rampling Gate ( Redbook , February 1984 )
= Fuck It , We 'll Do It Live =
Fuck It , We 'll Do It Live is the first live album by American horror punk musician Wednesday 13 . It contains a live performance recorded at the Crocodile Rock in Allentown , Pennsylvania on July 18 , 2008 . The album was released on October 21 , 2008 , through Hot Topic locations in the United States and on website Interpunk.com , in a two @-@ disc format with recordings of the live performance on CD and DVD .
The album was inspired by a video clip featuring television personality Bill O 'Reilly . In an outtake from Inside Edition popularized on the Internet , O 'Reilly shouts " Fuck it , we 'll do it live ! " after becoming frustrated by a last @-@ minute alteration to the show 's teleprompter text . The band members watched the video clip of this incident repeatedly and decided that it was emblematic of how they wanted to record a live show – without overdubbing in post @-@ production . Personnel in the group for the live show included Wednesday 13 on vocals and guitar , Jason Trioxin on guitar , Nate Manor on bass , and Jonny Chops on drums .
Fuck It , We 'll Do It Live received a generally positive reception from music critics . Metal Storm reviewed the release and described the album as an ideal introduction to Wednesday 13 , comparing the style of music to glam punk . Metal Ireland recommended the music for its simple , B @-@ movie quality . Global Domination wrote that the album broke the trend of inadvisable purchases of live performances . The release received favorable reviews from Metal.de and MusicWaves ; the latter compared the album 's style to that of Alice Cooper and Marilyn Manson . The Swedish @-@ language review site Hallowed.se found the recording to be unexciting .
= = Production = =
= = = Inspiration = = =
Fuck It , We 'll Do It Live was inspired by a video clip featuring television personality Bill O 'Reilly . In an outtake from Inside Edition popularized on the Internet , O 'Reilly shouts " Fuck it , we 'll do it live ! " after becoming frustrated by a last @-@ minute alteration to the show 's teleprompter text .
Wednesday 13 explained the album 's inspiration in an interview : " Wednesday 13 ( the band ) has a live DVD that I put out and we couldn 't think of a title and we were driving down the road thinking , we are going to have to come up with a name for it . The live titles , you have to put something like that . So , we were watching Bill O 'Reilly and we kept listening to him say , ' Fuck it , we 'll do it live . ' That 's kind of how quick we threw that DVD together . We didn 't know we were putting it together like 4 days before so we were like , ' fuck it , we 'll do it live . ' We didn 't do any overdubs on it , everybody in the band was sick and we just went with it . "
= = = Live recording = = =
Fuck It , We 'll Do It Live was recorded live on July 18 , 2008 , at the Crocodile Rock nightclub in Allentown , Pennsylvania . Personnel in the group for the live show included Wednesday 13 on vocals and guitar , Jason Trioxin on guitar , Nate Manor on bass , and Jonny Chops on drums .
Wednesday 13 explained that he had been in a motor vehicle accident in September 2007 and had fractured his clavicle , and had subsequently decided to expand the band from four to five members . By the time of the live recording , he had healed sufficiently to both perform as frontman and play guitar , and the band was reduced back to its normal size of four members . This was Wednesday 13 's first live album . In an interview with SF Weekly , Wednesday 13 spoke about his touring band . " This is like my favorite lineup that I 've ever had , and I 've definitely had members come and go for many different reasons over the years . "
The video of the performance was recorded using six cameras . At brief times during the performance , the video recorded a moment of white on camera or a dark screen , both of which were related to the use of strobe lights . An individual dressed in costume as Friday the 13th character Jason Voorhees made an appearance on @-@ stage at one point during the performance .
= = = Post @-@ production = = =
No post @-@ production overdubbing was done in the studio . Occasional wrong notes can be heard in the final product of the recording . Wednesday 13 admitted , " First off , let me say this is a live recording . This is not a live recording where we went back into the studio and overdubbed guitar parts or vocals . This is us ... LIVE ! If we make a mistake , you will hear it . If my voice cracks , you hear it . This is as close to a live experience as we could give . "
= = = Release = = =
The album was released on October 21 , 2008 , timed to coincide with Halloween . The album was made available as a two @-@ disc set , with audio tracks on one in CD format and video recording of the live performance on the other in DVD format . The DVD contains a live video recording of the performance , without special features or DVD extras . The packaging also included a 20 @-@ panel booklet featuring photographs of the group performing , taken by their fans . Wednesday 13 commented , " This release is for the fans and we want them to feel like they are part of everything we do . "
The album was Wednesday 13 's first production released in a dual CD / DVD format , and the first time he had released a recording of a complete live concert show . The album was sold through Hot Topic stores and Interpunk.com. Wednesday 13 appeared for fans to sign albums on October 24 in Parsippany , New Jersey , as part of the Chiller Theatre Expo , which showcased films , models , and toys related to the horror genre . On October 30 , Wednesday 13 joined Hanoi Rocks frontman Michael Monroe at Fopp Records in Covent Garden , London , England , for a session signing merchandise for fans . This event included an exclusive release of the DVD recording of Fuck It , We 'll Do It Live . The DVD was featured as the first release in the " Live & Loud " collection by Global Music .
= = Reception = =
Metal Storm reviewed the DVD recording of the live performance and called it " a perfect way to discover the music of Wednesday 13 that I could describe as a mix of Glam with Punk " . Justin Donnelly reviewed the album for The Metal Forge and wrote favorably about the DVD portion : " Shot with six cameras , Fuck It , We 'll Do It Live is a raw and honest representation of Wednesday 13 live in concert " . A review by Metal Rage was critical of the DVD , but praised the audio on the CD : " All in all I definitely recommend the CD , ' cause you get a nice representative image of what a good Wednesday 13 show sounds like . "
Dónal McBrien gave the performance 3 @.@ 8 stars out of 5 in a review for Metal Ireland writing : " It 's horror punk , and you get exactly what you expect . Songs in the key of B @-@ movie , with faux @-@ horror lyrics and hook @-@ laden riffs that work surprisingly well for their simplicity . " Sweden @-@ based English @-@ language site Global Domination gave an enthusiastically positive review , commenting : " Because damn people , this album is so great that I fucking implore you to get both the album AND the DVD . "
The album received a score of 70 / 100 from Dutch @-@ language music site Metalfan.NL , which preferred the DVD to the CD version . French @-@ language site MusicWaves gave the album a rating of 4 out of 5 stars , and compared Wednesday 13 's style to that of Alice Cooper and Marilyn Manson . The album received a rating of 8 / 10 from German @-@ language site Metal.de , which recommended it as a good gift . The Swedish @-@ language review site Hallowed.se found the album to be boring .
= = Track listing = =
All tracks written by Wednesday 13 unless otherwise stated .
= = Personnel = =
Wednesday 13 – vocals , guitar
Jason Trioxin – guitar
Nate Manor – bass
Jonny Chops – drums
= Olivia ( Olivia album ) =
Olivia is the debut album by American R & B singer Olivia . It was released on May 15 , 2001 , by J Records . Olivia was known as " the First Lady of J " as she was the first artist signed to the label . Promotional efforts for the album associated Olivia with a provocative image . The record is a primarily hip hop and R & B record , with lyrical themes that revolve largely around sexuality and romance . It features guest vocals from American rapper Petey Pablo and American R & B singer Jimmy Cozier . Olivia received comparisons to music by rapper Lil ' Kim and R & B singers Aaliyah and Mýa . Olivia later expressed disappointment with her lack of control over the recording and promotion of the album and felt she was limited to a " bad girl " image by label executives . After promoting the album , Olivia left the label and was invited to join G @-@ Unit Records by its founder 50 Cent .
The album received mixed reviews from critics , who praised Olivia 's attitude while rapping and singing , though some criticized the record 's inconsistency , and Olivia 's lack of connection to the material . The album was moderately successful in the United States , peaking at number 55 on the Billboard 200 and number 22 on the Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums charts .
" Bizounce " was released as the lead single from Olivia on March 20 , 2001 , and peaked at number fifteen on the Billboard Hot 100 chart . The second single " Are U Capable " was released on July 3 , 2001 ; " You Got the Damn Thing ( I Like ) Remix " , a remix of the album track " You Got the Damn Thing " , was serviced as the third and final single from the record later that same year . Olivia further promoted the album through several performances on television and live shows and a promotional tour prior to its release .
= = Background = =
After initially attempting to rap under the name " O @-@ Lovely " , Olivia chose to attend Hofstra University and Five Towns College to further her career in music . Olivia said people would frequently compare her voice to R & B singer Brandy . During her audition for American record producer Clive Davis , she sang the gospel hymn " His Eye Is on the Sparrow " . Musician Joshua Thompson produced Olivia 's demo , and arranged her audition for Arista Records executives and Davis . In an interview with Billboard , Olivia said she was signed to the label immediately after the meeting . J Records senior vice president Ron Gillyard described Olivia as " the real deal " , emphasizing her roles as " a songwriter , a singer , and a rapper " . At age 17 , Olivia was the first artist signed to J Records by American record producer Clive Davis . Executives from the record company referred to her as " the First Lady of J " . Olivia described herself as " the one chosen to flagship the label " since her single and album were one of the first projects released by the company . She defined her music as " R & B with a strong hip hop flava " . The Morning Call 's Righi reported the popularity of Olivia , along with R & B singer Aaliyah , reflecting that " the right attitude , hip @-@ hop production and clothing — not to mention a body to die for " was considered more important in contemporary R & B than : " the plaintive human voice in the throes of transcendent ecstasy or bottomless hurt " .
Olivia later viewed the recording of the album as a learning experience for her future music ventures ; she said her time at the record label " was cut short by the politics of the industry and me not actually taking my career into my own hands " . She said record executives took away her control over the creation of the album given her youth and inexperience . In her 2014 autobiography Release Me : My Life , My Words , Olivia wrote that she did not consider building a cohesive set of songs during the recording process and identified the album as lacking a clear direction . During promotion for the record , Olivia described having a good working relationship with Davis , but she called him " extremely controlling " after leaving the label . Olivia claimed that she was forced to be the bad girl while label mate Alicia Keys was promoted as the good girl . In an official statement , J Records ' representatives pointed to Olivia 's credits as a co @-@ writer for a majority of the album as proof of her involvement with the project and maintained : " Clive doesn 't categorize artists as good or bad girls " . After her release from J Records , American rapper 50 Cent and Interscope Geffen A & M Records chairman Jimmy Iovine signed Olivia to G @-@ Unit Records . 50 Cent said he enjoyed Olivia 's previous work and blamed J Records for sabotaging her career .
= = Composition and promotion = =
The final cut of Olivia comprises twelve tracks on the standard edition . The album consists primarily of R & B songs , with hip @-@ hop and jazz influences . The Morning Call 's Righi characterized the album 's first ten tracks as " dreary complaints [ with ] a mercenary attitude " while the final three were : " girlish and even gooey " . " Bizounce " was released as Olivia 's lead single on March 20 , 2001 . Director Marcus Raboy shot the accompanying music video . The song reached number fifteen on the Billboard Hot 100 and number four on the Billboard Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart . It was Olivia 's highest @-@ charting single on the Billboard Hot 100 until her 2005 collaboration with 50 Cent on " Candy Shop " , which peaked at number one on the chart . In Canada , the single peaked at number sixteen on the Canadian Singles Chart . A reviewer in Billboard praised Olivia 's vocals , saying she " has the mouth of a bad girl and the voice of an angel " , and described the single as making her : " a bona fide R & B singer " .
The second single was originally intended to be " You Got the Damn Thing " before being changed to " Are U Capable " , which was released on vinyl , on July 3 , 2001 , and promoted with a music video . Rashaun Hall from Billboard gave the single a positive review , saying that it : " may be the song that sets her career ablaze " . " You Got the Damn Thing ( I Like ) Remix " , a remix of the album track " You Got the Damn Thing " , was later released separately and was treated as the third and final single from the album .
Olivia made appearances on television and on live shows to promote her debut album . Before the album 's release , she performed " Bizounce " on Soul Train , BET , MTV 's hip @-@ hop video block Sucker Free ( known at the time as DFX ) , and The Source Sound Lab . On February 11 , 2001 , she embarked on a promotional tour leading up to the album 's release on May 15 , 2001 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Olivia received mixed reviews from music critics . A reviewer in Honey praised the album , saying : " Hip Hop Soul has a real voice with Olivia " . A reviewer in The Source noted that " Olivia is most memorable when she 's in woman @-@ scorned mode " , calling her " a thugged @-@ out Aaliyah and pissed @-@ off Mýa " . A reviewer in CMJ called the album : " unique and ground @-@ breaking " . A reviewer in Q magazine described Olivia as " well @-@ versed in the not always noble art of the R & B ballad " and the songs as : " a list of saucy demands that would make Lil ' Kim blush " . Jon Azpiri of AllMusic praised the album , saying " her softer tracks show some versatility " , and deemed Olivia 's best works as coming from : " when she is venting her spleen rather than revealing her soul " . Negative criticism focused on the inconsistency of the album 's sound and Olivia 's lack of connection to the material . Entertainment Weekly 's Mark Bautz commended the album 's impeccable production , but felt that it : " lacks the overall energy and excitement of its best songs " . Len Righi of The Morning Call praised Olivia 's persona as " the vulgar thugette " , but was critical of the album 's content , saying " without being able to see the hand gesturing that is an integral part of modern R & B , Olivia 's music loses a lot " .
= = = Commercial performance = = =
In the United States , Olivia debuted at number 55 on the Billboard 200 chart on the week of June 2 , 2001 . The next week , it went down to number 103 and continued falling until it exited the chart on the week of July 14 . The album debuted at number 22 on the Billboard Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums chart on the week of June 2 before falling out of the top 25 in the following week .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Olivia , J Records , BMG Rights Management :
Managerial
Performance credits
Visuals and imagery
Instruments
Technical and production
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
= SMS Thetis =
SMS Thetis was the fourth member of the ten @-@ ship Gazelle class , built by the Imperial German Navy . She was built by the Imperial Dockyard in Danzig , laid down in 1899 , launched in July 1900 , and commissioned into the High Seas Fleet in September 1901 . Armed with a main battery of ten 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) guns and two 45 cm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes , Thetis was capable of a top speed of 21 @.@ 5 knots ( 39 @.@ 8 km / h ; 24 @.@ 7 mph ) .
Thetis served in the reconnaissance forces of the High Seas Fleet during her peacetime career . After the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , she was deployed as a coastal defense ship in the Baltic , where she saw heavy service against the Russians . She supported the German drive on Libau in April – May 1915 , and was damaged by mines during the Battle of the Gulf of Riga . She was repeatedly attacked by Allied submarines , though she was never hit . In 1917 , Thetis was withdrawn from front @-@ line service for use as a gunnery training ship . She survived the war and continued on in service with the Reichsmarine through the 1920s . She was stricken from the naval register on 29 March 1929 and broken up for scrap the following year .
= = Construction = =
Thetis was ordered under the contract name " C " and was laid down at the Imperial Dockyard in Danzig in 1899 and launched on 3 July 1900 , after which fitting @-@ out work commenced . She was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet on 14 September 1901 . The ship was 105 @.@ 1 meters ( 345 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 12 @.@ 2 m ( 40 ft ) and a draft of 4 @.@ 92 m ( 16 @.@ 1 ft ) forward . She displaced 3 @,@ 017 t ( 2 @,@ 969 long tons ; 3 @,@ 326 short tons ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of two triple @-@ expansion engines manufactured by AG @-@ Germania . They were designed to give 8 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 6 @,@ 000 kW ) , for a top speed of 21 @.@ 5 knots ( 39 @.@ 8 km / h ; 24 @.@ 7 mph ) . The engines were powered by ten coal @-@ fired Marine @-@ type water @-@ tube boilers . Thetis carried 560 tonnes ( 550 long tons ) of coal , which gave her a range of 3 @,@ 560 nautical miles ( 6 @,@ 590 km ; 4 @,@ 100 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . She had a crew of 14 officers and 243 enlisted men .
The ship was armed with ten 10 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 40 guns in single mounts . Two were placed side by side forward on the forecastle , six were located amidships , three on either side , and two were placed side by side aft . The guns could engage targets out to 12 @,@ 200 m ( 40 @,@ 000 ft ) . They were supplied with 1 @,@ 000 rounds of ammunition , for 100 shells per gun . She was also equipped with two 45 cm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes with five torpedoes . They were submerged in the hull on the broadside . The ship was protected by an armored deck that was 20 to 25 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 to 0 @.@ 98 in ) thick . The conning tower had 80 mm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) thick sides , and the guns were protected by 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick shields .
= = Service history = =
After her commissioning , Thetis was assigned to the reconnaissance forces of the High Seas Fleet , a role she served in until the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 . She was thereafter reduced to a coastal defense ship . As the Central Powers prepared to launch the Gorlice – Tarnów Offensive in early May 1915 , the extreme left flank of the German Army was ordered to launch a diversionary attack on 27 April . Thetis was assigned to the naval support for the attack ; on the first day of the attack , she and the cruiser Lübeck shelled the port of Libau . Ten days later , the Army was poised to seize Libau , and so requested naval support for the attack . Thetis and several other cruisers and torpedo boats covered the assault on the city and patrolled to ensure no Russian naval forces attempted to intervene .
On 14 May 1915 , Thetis had taken the U @-@ boat U @-@ 4 under tow off Bogskär island in the Gulf of Finland . The Russian submarine Drakon attacked the two German vessels , launching three torpedoes at Thetis and a fourth at U @-@ 4 , all of which missed . From the recently captured naval base at Libau , the Germans began to make offensive operations further into the Baltic . On 3 June , Thetis , four torpedo boats , and a seaplane tender attempted to force the Irben Strait into the Gulf of Riga , where they intended to lay a minefield . Russian and British submarines intercepted the flotilla in the Strait , however . The Russian submarine Okun attempted to move into position to attack Thetis , but one of the torpedo boats spotted her periscope and forced it off . On 5 June , the British submarine HMS E9 arrived on the scene , while Thetis was resupplying from a collier . E9 launched a spread of torpedoes at the two ships ; the one fired at Thetis missed , but the collier was hit , as was the torpedo boat S148 . The collier sank , but the torpedo boat survived and made it back to port .
In August , Thetis was assigned to the fleet that was to break into the Gulf of Riga to support the German Army 's attempt to capture the city . On 8 August , the Germans made their first attempt to force the Irben Strait , during which Thetis and the torpedo boat SMS S144 were damaged by mines . Thetis had to be towed back to Windau . The attack failed due to heavy Russian resistance , and the operation had to be postponed .
In 1917 , Thetis was rearmed with nine newer 10 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 45 guns in U @-@ boat mountings ; in this configuration , Thetis was used as a gunnery training ship . She was one of six light cruisers Germany was permitted to retain by the Treaty of Versailles . She served in the newly reorganized Reichsmarine through the 1920s . In 1922 , the ship was assigned to the Reserve Squadron on the Baltic Station , along with the battleships Hessen and Schleswig @-@ Holstein and the cruiser Berlin . Thetis was stricken from the naval register on 27 March 1929 and sold to Blohm & Voss , along with the torpedo boats V1 and V6 for a total of 351 @,@ 000 Reichsmarks . She was broken up for scrap the following year in Hamburg .
= Commander ( song ) =
" Commander " is a song performed by American recording artist Kelly Rowland from her third studio album , Here I Am ( 2011 ) . It serves as the project 's international lead single and her debut release with Universal Motown . It was co @-@ written by American songwriter Rico Love , who described the song as a " fun and aggressive club record " with themes of female empowerment and lyrics with deliberate grammatical errors . French disc jockeys and producers David Guetta and Sandy Vee produced " Commander " with synthesized dance beats that blend R & B with electronica and house music . Rowland and Guetta had previously topped charts around the world with a similar dance production , " When Love Takes Over " , in 2009 . The song was premiered at the 2010 Winter Music Conference and subsequently garnered acclaim from contemporary critics for Rowland 's vocal performance as well as Guetta 's musical production .
Just over a month after release , it topped the U.S. Hot Dance Club Chart and later peaked top ten in the UK and top twenty in Ireland and New Zealand . Entertainment Weekly named " Commander " the number @-@ one summer jam of 2010 and named by Fitness Magazine as one of The Top 100 Workout Songs of 2010 . The song was nominated at the International Dance Music Awards for Best R & B / Urban Dance Track . An accompanying music video was directed by Masashi Muto , and portrays Rowland facing herself in various dance @-@ off scenes . Promotion for the release included performing the song live on BBC Radio 1 's Live Lounge and The Graham Norton Show . The Extended Dance Mix , also produced by Guetta , was released alongside the main single worldwide , whereas the urban remix with American rapper Nelly was released in the United Kingdom and United States .
= = Background and context = =
In 2009 , before Rowland and Guetta collaborated for " When Love Takes Over " , the media reported that Columbia Records and Rowland were to part ways by mutual agreement . However in a 2010 interview with Entertainment Weekly , Rowland stated the decision to leave was not hers : the label ended their contract because singles from the previous record Ms. Kelly did not sell sufficiently well . After the release of " When Love Takes Over " she would go on to fire Matthew Knowles . It has since been suggested Rowland had fallen out with former fellow Destiny 's Child singer Beyoncé Knowles . The media reported that Knowles ' decision to release one more video ( " Why Don 't You Love Me " ) from her album I Am ... Sasha Fierce just before Rowland released " Commander " was unfair on Rowland . These claims would be denied by the singer who said that despite the clip for " Why Don 't You Love Me " airing several days before " Commander " , the media was " making too much of a big deal of release schedules and trying to create a feud where it doesn 't exist . " She also said , " we all came out at the same time and it really doesn 't matter ... I think there 's room for everybody ... There 's Bey [ oncé ] , there 's Ciara putting something out and [ Lady ] GaGa putting something out , but , because we started out together , people are going to say things like that . But I really don 't care , I love her ' til our dying days and that 's all that counts . "
= = Composition = =
= = = Music and lyrics = = =
" Commander " is an electro @-@ house @-@ R & B song , set in a common time signature of 125 beats per minute . It was written by Kelly Rowland , Rico Love , David Guetta and Sandy Vee with deliberate grammar errors such as " there 's no other who do it like I do it " and " you won 't find no lady who does it like I does it " . The lyrics have themes around hair , fashion and competing with other women . Guetta also produced the synthesized dance beats , which is similar to his other production , " Sexy Bitch " . The end portions of the song were compared to some of the works by hip @-@ hop producer Timbaland . Rowland explained that the hook of the song , " Commander " , should be associated with dance instead of the military . " When I command you to dance ... I want you moving , you know ? It felt good to have a song that I could express that in . "
= = = Themes = = =
The Daily Star quoted Rowland on the theme of the song . She said " I hope to see women singing the song like they 're in charge . It 's important to know that we are commanders who have the power to shape our own destiny . " Love explained to Rap @-@ Up magazine his view of the song , " It 's just such an aggressive record , it 's a club record , it 's a worldwide international record . She 's stretching her legs out and she 's showing her true vocal ability , she 's like the queen of the night on this record . " Then during the video shoot of the song Rowland said " I feel like I 've finally come into my own , " a reference to the exploration of a new musical sound . " With the sound of dance music getting embraced more , I 'm very excited , seeing how fans have been responding to the music . Dance music is more of a European thing , but I 've been looking on Twitter and seeing fans ( in different parts of the country ) talking about playing ' Commander ' . " She said working with Guetta was " amazing " because it is " effortless " and she feels a great sense of " chemistry " when working with him . Rowland felt she was trying something different : " In this generation and this day and time , no one is putting soul in dance music ... no pop artist . I thought maybe that was something I could try . And then it works . " In an interview for MSN Xin Rowland admitted the song was " darker " than her previous material but still fun . " I just thought it 'd be so much fun to be a commander of course . It 's just a statement for me definitely , coming out on my own , filling my space . I 'm happy being a commander " .
= = Release = =
" Commander " was selected as the album 's first single . Rowland said there were initially two songs in the running for the lead single , but " without a doubt we had to go with [ ' Commander ' ] , I just fell in love with it ... It 's definitely a club banger . You know the first time I heard it , I went bananas . " At Pat Field 's Disco Party in New York , she told Universal Music Group executives " I know in my gut that it felt good . Nobody could take my thoughts away from that . I doesn 't need anyone else to tell me it 's good " . The song was released on May 17 and May 18 , to the iTunes Store , in France and the U.S. respectively . The official Extended Dance Remix was released alongside the main single on May 18 , 2010 . In the UK , " Commander " was planned for a June 28 , 2010 release . Love and Rowland would later unveil plans for an urban mix of the song with a slower , smoother sound . American rapper Nelly heard the new version in its early stages and asked if he could be featured on the remix . It was released as part of the UK Remixes EP. as well as the second U.S. remixes EP . The official press from Universal Motown Records on May 19 , 2010 confirmed that " Commander " would serve only as the " international lead single " , leading to speculation another song would be released domestically . This speculation was confirmed when the Ne @-@ Yo @-@ penned , " Shake Them Haters Off " was set to impact on radio stations in the United States . However those plans were changed and on June 29 , 2010 two singles were serviced to impact in the United States . " Grown Woman " was sent to urban / rhythmic radio and " Rose Colored Glasses " for pop radio .
= = Critical reception = =
The song was well received by critics who praised the collaboration between Rowland and Guetta . Robert Copsey of Digital Spy said " It looks as though they 're going to be ruling the airwaves all over again ... After she lulls us into a false sense of security ( " I feel like the DJ is bodyguard / You see the way he keeps me safe ? / With the treble and the bass ? " ) , the track plunges into a pounding electro @-@ house chorus that quite literally orders us to the dance floor ... The result isn 't quite as fresh and inventive as some of Guetta 's recent output – Kelis ' ' Acapella ' , for example – but it goes a long way towards recapturing some of last summer 's magic . " The site 's other reviewer , Nick Levine , agreed saying that the song " thumps as persuasively as Muhammad Ali circa 1967 . " Robert Daw of Idolator said " if you think Ms. Kelly is taking the go @-@ go boots off anytime soon , then you 'd best go lean against the wall , flower . Rowland 's Guetta @-@ produced new single ' Commander ' is pure strobe @-@ light adrenaline rush ... [ it ] will appear on Kelly 's as @-@ yet @-@ untitled third solo album ... we 're predicting a full on Rowland Renaissance ! " . With Alex Catarinella of Paper saying " she belts out soaring vocals , is further proof that she 's no longer the cute teenage girl sharing a chorus . "
Rebecca Nicholson of The Guardian said that before Guetta 's collaborations with Kelis ( " Acapella " ) and Rowland , she felt " [ David Guetta ] was ruining R & B by turning all of my favorite ladies into Euro cheesemongers " . However " Acapella " changed Nicholson 's mind and she said , " ' Commander ' is further evidence of this " . Whilst Fraser McAlpine awarded the song four stars , his review was neither positive nor negative . He said " Singers always like to sing about how brilliantly attractive and astonishing ( and bossy ) they are . Even if the words have a double meaning , which hints that they are merely mouthing the self @-@ regard of a rampant egomaniac , who is laughing and rubbing his hands every time they start to sing , they don 't mind . Why would they ? The song mentions hair , and being better than the other ladies . That 's what singers live for . [ I awarded it ] one extra star for the stoopid grammar switcheroo ... because of the chorus , which rules . " Gavin Martin of The Mirror made similar comments neither praising nor criticizing the song , instead saying it will put her " firmly in control of the dance floor " . Entertainment Weekly named it " the number one summer jam of the year " whilst music station KISS 100 called it fabulous and made it their song of the week for the week beginning May 24 , 2010 . A reviewer from the network said , " Commander is another smash [ where ] ... Kelly 's taking command ! With glamour set to max and drama cranked up to full power ' Commander ' is proof that Kelly means business ! " In Fitness magazine 's 100 best workout songs , " Commander " was named one of the ten best dance workout songs for its bouncy 125 beats per minute composition .
= = Chart performance = =
" Commander " made its U.S. chart debut on May 18 , 2010 ( the day of release ) at No. 36 on the Hot Dance Club Songs chart ; it climbed the chart in subsequent weeks and peaked at the top position for one week in July . It also reached the top ten on the U.S. Hot Dance / Electronic Digital Songs chart , in the issue dated June 26 , 2010 . Jeremy Helligar of ' True / Slant ' offered an explanation of why the commercial prospects for " Commander " were limited in the United States , writing , " the dance music Rowland favors is a bit edgier than the danceable pop that Lady Gaga consistently takes to the top of the charts " .
In the United Kingdom , single and dance mixes were released as standalone downloads on May 17 , 2010 , whilst the song was added to urban music radio and UK 's biggest mainstream station , BBC Radio 1 's C @-@ playlist , that same week . Consequently " Commander " debuted on the UK Dance Singles chart at No. 34 . The following week the song debuted on the UK Singles Chart at No. 167 supported by the song 's ascension to the B @-@ playlists on the UK 's urban music radio station BBC 1Xtra as well as on mainstream radio . Then a week ahead of the remixes EP , " Commander " reached its peak at No. 2 on the UK Dance Chart and No. 9 on the Official Singles Chart as well as reaching the A @-@ playlist on urban radio . It peaked at No. 9 on the UK Download Chart and No. 19 on the ' UK Subscription Plays ' chart , the single was one of Rowland 's longest runs on the UK Top 40 with 16 weeks . The single became Rowland 's third best selling solo single in the UK with 285 @,@ 000 copies being sold as of November 2011 .
It made its Irish debut at No. 24 before peaking at No. 13 . It debuted in Australia on the Singles Chart at No. 64 and has since peaked at No. 61 . It fared better on the Australia Dance Chart , where it peaked at No. 11 . In New Zealand , the song debuted at No. 39 before falling out of the top forty the following week , only to return and peak at No. 16 . In Europe the song reached No. 2 on both the Belgium Wallonia and Flanders Ultratip Charts as well as on the Slovakian Airplay Charts . It reached the top twenty in Norway in addition to the top thirty in Denmark and Sweden .
= = Music video = =
The video was filmed on May 5 , 2010 with Japanese music producer and promo director , Masashi Muto . Muto 's previous work includes " I Will Be Here " for Dutch disc jockey Tiësto , as well as promo clips for Pepsi and Honda . His work is known for its scale , impact and colorful imagery . Love and Guetta make cameos in the video while Fatima Robinson handled the video 's choreography . The Los Angeles Times was one of several media outlets present during the video shoot and were able to release exclusive " behind the scenes " footage on May 10 , 2010 . On June 1 , 2010 an unfinished version of the video was leaked online ; this was addressed on Rowland 's official Twitter account , where she made clear that leaked video was the wrong edit . UK music channels MTV and MTV Base began to play the early version of the video on June 8 , 2010 though , it was not until June 21 , 2010 when the official final version premiered on Rowland 's website .
= = = Concept and synopsis = = =
Rowland stated to Rap Up TV that " the concept of the video is very futuristic and great . The red line in the story is that I am above all the lead but in the club atmosphere with cool people . I fight against myself with my haircut , makeup , and dance moves . " According to Love , in the clip Rowland is transformed into a fashionista , " Kelly 's look in this video is just utterly sexy . It 's like a jungle feel . I feel like we 're in Avatar somewhere , running through the woods , minus the blue paint . " Later one of her outfits was described as an " Avatar @-@ esque bodysuit " . Rowland said " I had to pull out my dancing shoes for this video ! " The video features " Kelly Rowland facing off against herself . The two Kellys start what appears to be a voguing competition on the dancefloor , then are flanked by respective dance teams . " Guetta makes an appearance at the end of the clip he " undergoes a ' Transformers ' -like metamorphosis , turning into a mixer . " Paper magazine described Rowland 's look in the video as " superhero @-@ esque " . Joanna Goh from MSN China said that in the clip " [ Rowland ] sports a new femme fatale image a la the bodysuits and masculine imaging " .
= = = Reception = = =
As of July 6 , 2010 and according to a press release from Universal Motown , the video has received critical acclaim with over two million Vevo views . When Robbie Daw of ' Idolator ' saw the unfinished version of the video compared it to the earlier works of Janet Jackson saying it had " old @-@ school Janet vibe " . Later after seeing the fully finished version he said it was " a colorful , militant dance @-@ off " . The theme , wardrobe , and choreography also drew comparisons to Janet Jackson 's " Feedback " video , with HitFix commenting " Rowland even has Janet 's singular and straight pony tail . " E ! Online 's Natalie Finn also had praise for the video . She said it " takes the themes of the song : taking charge , owning the floor and staying sexy and feminine throughout ... " and " dresses ' em in tight little outfits and turns ' em loose to break hearts and dominate the opposite sex at will . " " The music video is great and it might be a must @-@ spin " according to Martin from Above & Beyond magazine , who praised Rowland 's beauty by saying , " I didn 't know Kelly was that well @-@ equipped from the back but I always found Kelly more attractive than Beyoncé ... I 'm just saying " .
The video was criticized for the absence of story line by critics such as Laura Brooks of ' TeenToday ' , who described the video as " [ an opportunity ] to show off her lovely hair and her thighs " that " also features David Guetta who appears to have remembered at several points throughout the video that he 's left his iron on dashes off to remedy the situation . " Alyssa Rosenberg of The Atlantic agreed , calling the clip " dopey ... with guys who forgot to wash the home dye out of their hair " ( sic ) and the dancing was on @-@ par with sci @-@ fi film Matrix Reloaded . However she did say that " It 's a high @-@ concept understanding of the dance floor , even if it 's not my preferred interpretation of that space . If love and shaking it are war , Kelly seems like she 'd be a pretty decent person to have boss you around in both . " Meanwhile Sound Savvy said " There 's some nice moves and Kelly sports some sexy looks for the clip . ' Commander ' has received CRAZY airplay and the reception has been overwhelmingly positive for this track . I kinda dig the video , but I would 've liked more choreography . "
= = Promotion = =
Rowland debuted " Commander " live at Cathy Guetta 's Fuck Me I 'm Famous party in Miami , as part of Winter Music Conference on March 27 , 2010 . Immediately after the performance she said , " I was nervous and anxious , but when I hit the stage I felt the inner ' Commander ' come to life ! " Then on May 4 , whilst playing a DJ set at a club in Frankfurt ( Germany ) , Guetta premiered his extended remix . Rowland performed " Commander " at KIIS FM 's Wango Tango 2010 Staples Centre ( Los Angeles ) on May 15 , 2010 . International promotion for the song began a week later with live UK debut of " Commander " at BBC Radio 1 's Big Weekend . This was followed up on June 15 with a live performance and interview on The Graham Norton Show and a medley performance on June 25 in Singapore . Rowland has subsequently appeared three more times in the UK on GMTV , an acoustic performance on BBC Radio 1 's Live Lounge ; as well as The 5 O 'Clock Show . " Commander " was performed in acoustic for a second time on Radio 2 's Saturday Sessions with Dermot O 'Leary . In August 2010 the Canadian dance show , So You Think You Can Dance Canada used the song for their season three promotion TV clips . The music was also used in the presentation of delegates and opening number of the live telecast of Miss Universe 2010 in Mandalay Bay , Las Vegas .
= = Track listings = =
= = Credits = =
Recording
Recorded at Gum Prod Studios , Paris .
Personnel
Kelly Rowland – songwriter
Rico Love – songwriter , additional vocals , vocal producer
David Guetta – songwriter , producer , recording , mixing , keyboards and programming
Sandy Vee – songwriter , producer , recording , mixing , keyboards and programming
Seth Foster – mastering
Thurston McCrea – assistant recording engineer
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Radio and release history = =
= = = Radio adds = = =
= = = Release history = = =
† All releases are via digital download unless otherwise stated .
= Jupiter =
Jupiter is the fifth planet from the Sun and the largest in the Solar System . It is a giant planet with a mass one @-@ thousandth that of the Sun , but two and a half times that of all the other planets in the Solar System combined . Jupiter is a gas giant , along with Saturn , with the other two giant planets , Uranus and Neptune , being ice giants . Jupiter was known to astronomers of ancient times . The Romans named it after their god Jupiter . When viewed from Earth , Jupiter can reach an apparent magnitude of − 2 @.@ 94 , bright enough for its reflected light to cast shadows , and making it on average the third @-@ brightest object in the night sky after the Moon and Venus .
Jupiter is primarily composed of hydrogen with a quarter of its mass being helium , though helium comprises only about a tenth of the number of molecules . It may also have a rocky core of heavier elements , but like the other giant planets , Jupiter lacks a well @-@ defined solid surface . Because of its rapid rotation , the planet 's shape is that of an oblate spheroid ( it has a slight but noticeable bulge around the equator ) . The outer atmosphere is visibly segregated into several bands at different latitudes , resulting in turbulence and storms along their interacting boundaries . A prominent result is the Great Red Spot , a giant storm that is known to have existed since at least the 17th century when it was first seen by telescope . Surrounding Jupiter is a faint planetary ring system and a powerful magnetosphere . Jupiter has at least 67 moons , including the four large Galilean moons discovered by Galileo Galilei in 1610 . Ganymede , the largest of these , has a diameter greater than that of the planet Mercury .
Jupiter has been explored on several occasions by robotic spacecraft , most notably during the early Pioneer and Voyager flyby missions and later by the Galileo orbiter . In late February 2007 , Jupiter was visited by the New Horizons probe , which used Jupiter 's gravity to increase its speed and bend its trajectory en route to Pluto . The latest probe to visit the planet is Juno , which entered into orbit around Jupiter on July 4 , 2016 . Future targets for exploration in the Jupiter system include the probable ice @-@ covered liquid ocean of its moon Europa .
= = Formation and migration = =
Earth and its neighbor planets may have formed from fragments of planets after collisions with Jupiter destroyed those super @-@ Earths near the Sun . As Jupiter came toward the inner Solar System , in what theorists call the Grand Tack Hypothesis , gravitational tugs and pulls occurred causing a series of collisions between the super @-@ Earths as their orbits began to overlap .
Astronomers have discovered nearly 500 planetary systems with multiple planets . Regularly these systems include a few planets with masses several times greater than Earth 's ( super @-@ Earths ) , orbiting closer to their star than Mercury is to the Sun , and sometimes also Jupiter @-@ mass gas giants close to their star .
Jupiter moving out of the inner Solar System would have allowed the formation of inner planets , including Earth .
= = Physical characteristics = =
Jupiter is composed primarily of gaseous and liquid matter . It is the largest of the four giant planets in the Solar System and hence its largest planet . It has a diameter of 142 @,@ 984 km ( 88 @,@ 846 mi ) at its equator . The average density of Jupiter , 1 @.@ 326 g / cm3 , is the second highest of the giant planets , but lower than those of the four terrestrial planets .
= = = Composition = = =
Jupiter 's upper atmosphere is composed of about 88 – 92 % hydrogen and 8 – 12 % helium by percent volume of gas molecules . A helium atom has about four times as much mass as a hydrogen atom , so the composition changes when described as the proportion of mass contributed by different atoms . Thus , Jupiter 's atmosphere is approximately 75 % hydrogen and 24 % helium by mass , with the remaining one percent of the mass consisting of other elements . The interior contains denser materials , such that the distribution is roughly 71 % hydrogen , 24 % helium , and 5 % other elements by mass . The atmosphere contains trace amounts of methane , water vapor , ammonia , and silicon @-@ based compounds . There are also traces of carbon , ethane , hydrogen sulfide , neon , oxygen , phosphine , and sulfur . The outermost layer of the atmosphere contains crystals of frozen ammonia . Through infrared and ultraviolet measurements , trace amounts of benzene and other hydrocarbons have also been found .
The atmospheric proportions of hydrogen and helium are close to the theoretical composition of the primordial solar nebula . Neon in the upper atmosphere only consists of 20 parts per million by mass , which is about a tenth as abundant as in the Sun . Helium is also depleted to about 80 % of the Sun 's helium composition . This depletion is a result of precipitation of these elements into the interior of the planet .
Based on spectroscopy , Saturn is thought to be similar in composition to Jupiter , but the other giant planets Uranus and Neptune have relatively less hydrogen and helium .
= = = Mass and size = = =
Jupiter 's mass is 2 @.@ 5 times that of all the other planets in the Solar System combined — this is so massive that its barycenter with the Sun lies above the Sun 's surface at 1 @.@ 068 solar radii from the Sun 's center . Jupiter is much larger than Earth and considerably less dense : its volume is that of about 1 @,@ 321 Earths , but it is only 318 times as massive . Jupiter 's radius is about 1 / 10 the radius of the Sun , and its mass is 0 @.@ 001 times the mass of the Sun , so the densities of the two bodies are similar . A " Jupiter mass " ( MJ or MJup ) is often used as a unit to describe masses of other objects , particularly extrasolar planets and brown dwarfs . So , for example , the extrasolar planet HD 209458 b has a mass of 0 @.@ 69 MJ , while Kappa Andromedae b has a mass of 12 @.@ 8 MJ .
Theoretical models indicate that if Jupiter had much more mass than it does at present , it would shrink . For small changes in mass , the radius would not change appreciably , and above about 500 M ⊕ ( 1 @.@ 6 Jupiter masses ) the interior would become so much more compressed under the increased pressure that its volume would decrease despite the increasing amount of matter . As a result , Jupiter is thought to have about as large a diameter as a planet of its composition and evolutionary history can achieve . The process of further shrinkage with increasing mass would continue until appreciable stellar ignition is achieved as in high @-@ mass brown dwarfs having around 50 Jupiter masses .
Although Jupiter would need to be about 75 times as massive to fuse hydrogen and become a star , the smallest red dwarf is only about 30 percent larger in radius than Jupiter . Despite this , Jupiter still radiates more heat than it receives from the Sun ; the amount of heat produced inside it is similar to the total solar radiation it receives . This additional heat is generated by the Kelvin – Helmholtz mechanism through contraction . This process causes Jupiter to shrink by about 2 cm each year . When it was first formed , Jupiter was much hotter and was about twice its current diameter .
= = = Internal structure = = =
Jupiter is thought to consist of a dense core with a mixture of elements , a surrounding layer of liquid metallic hydrogen with some helium , and an outer layer predominantly of molecular hydrogen . Beyond this basic outline , there is still considerable uncertainty . The core is often described as rocky , but its detailed composition is unknown , as are the properties of materials at the temperatures and pressures of those depths ( see below ) . In 1997 , the existence of the core was suggested by gravitational measurements , indicating a mass of from 12 to 45 times that of Earth , or roughly 4 % – 14 % of the total mass of Jupiter . The presence of a core during at least part of Jupiter 's history is suggested by models of planetary formation that require the formation of a rocky or icy core massive enough to collect its bulk of hydrogen and helium from the protosolar nebula . Assuming it did exist , it may have shrunk as convection currents of hot liquid metallic hydrogen mixed with the molten core and carried its contents to higher levels in the planetary interior . A core may now be entirely absent , as gravitational measurements are not yet precise enough to rule that possibility out entirely .
The uncertainty of the models is tied to the error margin in hitherto measured parameters : one of the rotational coefficients ( J6 ) used to describe the planet 's gravitational moment , Jupiter 's equatorial radius , and its temperature at 1 bar pressure . The Juno mission , which arrived in July 2016 , is expected to further constrain the values of these parameters for better models of the core .
The core region is surrounded by dense metallic hydrogen , which extends outward to about 78 % of the radius of the planet . Rain @-@ like droplets of helium and neon precipitate downward through this layer , depleting the abundance of these elements in the upper atmosphere .
Above the layer of metallic hydrogen lies a transparent interior atmosphere of hydrogen . At this depth , the pressure and temperature are above hydrogen 's critical pressure of 1 @.@ 2858 MPa and critical temperature of only 32 @.@ 938 K. In this state , there are no distinct liquid and gas phases — hydrogen is said to be in a supercritical fluid state . It is convenient to treat hydrogen as gas in the upper layer extending downward from the cloud layer to a depth of about 1 @,@ 000 km , and as liquid in deeper layers . Physically , there is no clear boundary — the gas smoothly becomes hotter and denser as one descends .
The temperature and pressure inside Jupiter increase steadily toward the core , due to the Kelvin – Helmholtz mechanism . At the " surface " pressure level of 10 bars , the temperature is around 340 K ( 67 ° C ; 152 ° F ) . At the phase transition region where hydrogen — heated beyond its critical point — becomes metallic , it is calculated the temperature is 10 @,@ 000 K ( 9 @,@ 700 ° C ; 17 @,@ 500 ° F ) and the pressure is 200 GPa . The temperature at the core boundary is estimated to be 36 @,@ 000 K ( 35 @,@ 700 ° C ; 64 @,@ 300 ° F ) and the interior pressure is roughly 3 @,@ 000 – 4 @,@ 500 GPa .
= = = Atmosphere = = =
Jupiter has the largest planetary atmosphere in the Solar System , spanning over 5 @,@ 000 km ( 3 @,@ 000 mi ) in altitude . Because Jupiter has no surface , the base of its atmosphere is usually considered to be the point at which atmospheric pressure is equal to 100 kPa ( 1 @.@ 0 bar ) .
= = = = Cloud layers = = = =
Jupiter is perpetually covered with clouds composed of ammonia crystals and possibly ammonium hydrosulfide . The clouds are located in the tropopause and are arranged into bands of different latitudes , known as tropical regions . These are sub @-@ divided into lighter @-@ hued zones and darker belts . The interactions of these conflicting circulation patterns cause storms and turbulence . Wind speeds of 100 m / s ( 360 km / h ) are common in zonal jets . The zones have been observed to vary in width , color and intensity from year to year , but they have remained sufficiently stable for scientists to give them identifying designations .
The cloud layer is only about 50 km ( 31 mi ) deep , and consists of at least two decks of clouds : a thick lower deck and a thin clearer region . There may also be a thin layer of water clouds underlying the ammonia layer , as evidenced by flashes of lightning detected in the atmosphere of Jupiter . This is caused by water 's polarity , which makes it capable of creating the charge separation needed to produce lightning . These electrical discharges can be up to a thousand times as powerful as lightning on Earth . The water clouds can form thunderstorms driven by the heat rising from the interior .
The orange and brown coloration in the clouds of Jupiter are caused by upwelling compounds that change color when they are exposed to ultraviolet light from the Sun . The exact makeup remains uncertain , but the substances are thought to be phosphorus , sulfur or possibly hydrocarbons . These colorful compounds , known as chromophores , mix with the warmer , lower deck of clouds . The zones are formed when rising convection cells form crystallizing ammonia that masks out these lower clouds from view .
Jupiter 's low axial tilt means that the poles constantly receive less solar radiation than at the planet 's equatorial region . Convection within the interior of the planet transports more energy to the poles , balancing out the temperatures at the cloud layer .
= = = = Great Red Spot and other vortices = = = =
The best known feature of Jupiter is the Great Red Spot , a persistent anticyclonic storm that is larger than Earth , located 22 ° south of the equator . It is known to have been in existence since at least 1831 , and possibly since 1665 . Images by the Hubble Space Telescope have shown as many as two " red spots " adjacent to the Great Red Spot . The storm is large enough to be visible through Earth @-@ based telescopes with an aperture of 12 cm or larger . Mathematical models suggest that the storm is stable and may be a permanent feature of the planet .
The oval object rotates counterclockwise , with a period of about six days . The Great Red Spot 's dimensions are 24 – 40 @,@ 000 km × 12 – 14 @,@ 000 km . It is large enough to contain two or three planets of Earth 's diameter . The maximum altitude of this storm is about 8 km ( 5 mi ) above the surrounding cloudtops .
Storms such as this are common within the turbulent atmospheres of giant planets . Jupiter also has white ovals and brown ovals , which are lesser unnamed storms . White ovals tend to consist of relatively cool clouds within the upper atmosphere . Brown ovals are warmer and located within the " normal cloud layer " . Such storms can last as little as a few hours or stretch on for centuries .
Even before Voyager proved that the feature was a storm , there was strong evidence that the spot could not be associated with any deeper feature on the planet 's surface , as the Spot rotates differentially with respect to the rest of the atmosphere , sometimes faster and sometimes more slowly .
In 2000 , an atmospheric feature formed in the southern hemisphere that is similar in appearance to the Great Red Spot , but smaller . This was created when several smaller , white oval @-@ shaped storms merged to form a single feature — these three smaller white ovals were first observed in 1938 . The merged feature was named Oval BA , and has been nicknamed Red Spot Junior . It has since increased in intensity and changed color from white to red .
= = = Magnetosphere = = =
Jupiter 's magnetic field is fourteen times as strong as that of Earth , ranging from 4 @.@ 2 gauss ( 0 @.@ 42 mT ) at the equator to 10 – 14 gauss ( 1 @.@ 0 – 1 @.@ 4 mT ) at the poles , making it the strongest in the Solar System ( except for sunspots ) . This field is thought to be generated by eddy currents — swirling movements of conducting materials — within the liquid metallic hydrogen core . The volcanoes on the moon Io emit large amounts of sulfur dioxide forming a gas torus along the moon 's orbit . The gas is ionized in the magnetosphere producing sulfur and oxygen ions . They , together with hydrogen ions originating from the atmosphere of Jupiter , form a plasma sheet in Jupiter 's equatorial plane . The plasma in the sheet co @-@ rotates with the planet causing deformation of the dipole magnetic field into that of magnetodisk . Electrons within the plasma sheet generate a strong radio signature that produces bursts in the range of 0 @.@ 6 – 30 MHz .
At about 75 Jupiter radii from the planet , the interaction of the magnetosphere with the solar wind generates a bow shock . Surrounding Jupiter 's magnetosphere is a magnetopause , located at the inner edge of a magnetosheath — a region between it and the bow shock . The solar wind interacts with these regions , elongating the magnetosphere on Jupiter 's lee side and extending it outward until it nearly reaches the orbit of Saturn . The four largest moons of Jupiter all orbit within the magnetosphere , which protects them from the solar wind .
The magnetosphere of Jupiter is responsible for intense episodes of radio emission from the planet 's polar regions . Volcanic activity on Jupiter 's moon Io ( see below ) injects gas into Jupiter 's magnetosphere , producing a torus of particles about the planet . As Io moves through this torus , the interaction generates Alfvén waves that carry ionized matter into the polar regions of Jupiter . As a result , radio waves are generated through a cyclotron maser mechanism , and the energy is transmitted out along a cone @-@ shaped surface . When Earth intersects this cone , the radio emissions from Jupiter can exceed the solar radio output .
= = Orbit and rotation = =
Jupiter is the only planet whose barycenter with the Sun lies outside the volume of the Sun , though by only 7 % of the Sun 's radius . The average distance between Jupiter and the Sun is 778 million km ( about 5 @.@ 2 times the average distance between Earth and the Sun , or 5 @.@ 2 AU ) and it completes an orbit every 11 @.@ 86 years . This is two @-@ fifths the orbital period of Saturn , forming a 5 : 2 orbital resonance between the two largest planets in the Solar System . The elliptical orbit of Jupiter is inclined 1 @.@ 31 ° compared to Earth . Because of an eccentricity its orbit of 0 @.@ 048 , Jupiter 's distance from the Sun varies by 75 million km between its nearest approach ( perihelion ) and furthest distance ( aphelion ) .
The axial tilt of Jupiter is relatively small : only 3 @.@ 13 ° . As a result , it does not experience significant seasonal changes , in contrast to , for example , Earth and Mars .
Jupiter 's rotation is the fastest of all the Solar System 's planets , completing a rotation on its axis in slightly less than ten hours ; this creates an equatorial bulge easily seen through an Earth @-@ based amateur telescope . The planet is shaped as an oblate spheroid , meaning that the diameter across its equator is longer than the diameter measured between its poles . On Jupiter , the equatorial diameter is 9 @,@ 275 km ( 5 @,@ 763 mi ) longer than the diameter measured through the poles .
Because Jupiter is not a solid body , its upper atmosphere undergoes differential rotation . The rotation of Jupiter 's polar atmosphere is about 5 minutes longer than that of the equatorial atmosphere ; three systems are used as frames of reference , particularly when graphing the motion of atmospheric features . System I applies from the latitudes 10 ° N to 10 ° S ; its period is the planet 's shortest , at 9h 50m 30.0s. System II applies at all latitudes north and south of these ; its period is 9h 55m 40.6s. System III was first defined by radio astronomers , and corresponds to the rotation of the planet 's magnetosphere ; its period is Jupiter 's official rotation .
= = Observation = =
Jupiter is usually the fourth brightest object in the sky ( after the Sun , the Moon and Venus ) ; at times Mars appears brighter than Jupiter . Depending on Jupiter 's position with respect to the Earth , it can vary in visual magnitude from as bright as − 2 @.@ 9 at opposition down to − 1 @.@ 6 during conjunction with the Sun . The angular diameter of Jupiter likewise varies from 50 @.@ 1 to 29 @.@ 8 arc seconds . Favorable oppositions occur when Jupiter is passing through perihelion , an event that occurs once per orbit .
Earth overtakes Jupiter every 398 @.@ 9 days as it orbits the Sun , a duration called the synodic period . As it does so , Jupiter appears to undergo retrograde motion with respect to the background stars . That is , for a period Jupiter seems to move backward in the night sky , performing a looping motion .
Because the orbit of Jupiter is outside that of Earth , the phase angle of Jupiter as viewed from Earth never exceeds 11 @.@ 5 ° . That is , the planet always appears nearly fully illuminated when viewed through Earth @-@ based telescopes . It was only during spacecraft missions to Jupiter that crescent views of the planet were obtained . A small telescope will usually show Jupiter 's four Galilean moons and the prominent cloud belts across Jupiter 's atmosphere . A large telescope will show Jupiter 's Great Red Spot when it faces Earth .
= = Research and exploration = =
= = = Pre @-@ telescopic research
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1970s . No substantial damage occurred to the two fossil @-@ fuel units that were still operational at the facility . Several types of sensors were installed at the site to capture strong motion data in this seismically @-@ active area , but the majority of records from the event were considered unreliable due to faulty equipment or inadequate maintenance . Only one piece of equipment at the facility provided data by which an estimate of the peak ground acceleration could be made .
= = Tectonic setting = =
Near Cape Mendocino , the Mendocino Triple Junction is an area of active seismicity where three tectonic plates come together . The Mendocino Fracture Zone ( also known as the Mendocino Fault east of the Gorda Ridge ) is a transform fault that separates the Pacific and Gorda Plates . To the south , the relative motion between the Pacific Plate and North American Plate is accommodated by the San Andreas Fault , and to the north , the Gorda Plate is converging with the North American Plate at the Cascadia Subduction Zone . Earthquakes within the Gorda Plate are the result of north @-@ south compression at the Mendocino Fault .
= = Earthquake = =
The left @-@ lateral strike @-@ slip earthquake was the largest to occur in California since the 1952 Kern County earthquake . The mainshock ( which was described as a multiple @-@ rupture , with four subevents in the initial 80 seconds ) and its aftershocks occurred on a northeast @-@ trending fault that extended from near the Mendocino Fault to a point northwest of Eureka . Movement along the fault is due to a north @-@ south compressional regime and the resulting intraplate deformation of the Gorda Plate . Previous events in this area were the January 1922 7 @.@ 3 Ms and the January 1923 7 @.@ 2 Ms shocks .
The earthquake occurred offshore ( to the northwest of Eureka , about 37 mi ( 60 km ) west of Patrick 's Point ) and had a maximum Mercalli intensity of VII ( Very strong ) . Some people reported intense shaking that lasted for 15 to 30 seconds ; tremors were felt as far south as the San Francisco Bay Area and as far north as Salem , Oregon . In the epicentral area , items were knocked off shelves and furniture was displaced , but damage was considered light ( the smaller 5 @.@ 2 ML event that occurred in June 1975 caused more damage ) .
= = = Damage = = =
While most of the damage from the Gorda Basin earthquake was considered light , there were some exceptions . Mercalli intensities in the immediate area were judged to be in the range of V ( Moderate ) to VII . In Eureka , intensity VI ( Strong ) effects included broken windows and dishes , fallen chimneys , and merchandise that fell from store shelves . Intensity VII effects affected the Fields Landing , King Salmon , Loleta , and Big Lagoon areas , and included surface cracks on the ground , soil liquefaction , small landslides and rockfalls , and numerous slumps along the Eel River . Similar effects occurred along the Old Coast Highway near Trinidad and Moonstone , where the roadway was reduced to one lane of travel in some areas . Several homes were knocked off their foundations and a highway overpass collapsed in Fields Landing . Seismic wave amplification , poor design , or inadequate construction style may have contributed to losses there .
= = = = Tompkins Hill Road overpass = = = =
The Tompkins Hill Road overpass is situated just south of Fields Landing and was built in the late 1960s . It suffered slight damage during the 1975 earthquake and was due for a retrofit in 1981 . The overpass was constructed with cement abutments on earthen ramps on either end and a series of concrete support columns in the middle . Eight 60 ft ( 20 m ) reinforced concrete spans accommodated northbound and southbound lanes of traffic , with no anchors connecting the spans with each other or to the abutments . At the time of the shock , two of the southbound spans came off their support ( a 6 in ( 15 cm ) ledge ) and six people were injured when a Volkswagen Beetle and a small pickup truck plummeted off the bridge .
= = = = Humboldt Bay Power Plant = = = =
The Humboldt Bay Power Plant is located about 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) north of the collapsed highway overpass and operated fossil @-@ fuel and nuclear units in the 1960s and 1970s . The nuclear unit was cancelled in 1976 because of seismic safety concerns , but the two fossil @-@ fuel units remained in operation . The Nuclear Regulatory Commission performed a post @-@ event survey of the facility 's systems in late 1980 , but inspectors found only minor effects to the plant 's structure , piping , tanks , and other mechanical equipment . It was found that the two units were automatically shut down at the time of the shock for various protective concerns and that there were minor cracks in masonry and concrete , sheared bolts , pipe leaks , and slight movement of water tanks . The deformation of a reinforced masonry wall that resulted in a variable @-@ width gap was the only structural issue .
= = = Strong motion = = =
Pacific Gas and Electric initially reported that peak ground accelerations in the range of .16 – .4g were recorded on the floor of the refueling building on the plant 's strong motion instruments ( accelerometers ) . Low voltage from a faulty power supply left the instruments in a condition that was functional , but the records were not considered reliable . Three TERA Technology film recorders were also in use as a backup system , but these instruments also did not produce any usable records , because lack of maintenance had allowed dirt and grit to get inside . Only records from one instrument ( an Engdhal peak shock recorder ) was believed to be operating correctly and , with a close examination of the energy dispersed at various frequencies , an estimate of .15 – .25g was given for the event at that location .
= Pokémon Apokélypse =
Pokémon Apokélypse is a 2010 fan @-@ made short film directed by Kial Natale and produced by Dylan Innes and Lee Majdoub . Based on the Pokémon franchise , the storyline takes place several years after the events of the original anime series . Intended as a fan @-@ response to " the common trend of ' dark and gritty ' reboots of popular franchises " , the film was meant to give a mature spin on Pokémon and be in the same vein as work seen on parody website CollegeHumor . The creators initially intended to reveal the film at the Vancouver Anime Evolution convention , it was not shown due to technical difficulties . Instead on September 14 , 2010 , it revealed online via a teaser segment distributed through emails sent to various media outlets , which presented itself as a recording of a " secret movie trailer screening " for a film in development . The full film followed shortly thereafter , posted online on September 20 .
The result of almost two years of work , the film follows Ash Ketchum and his friends years after the events of the original anime series , and their struggle against criminal organization Rocket Industries . Deciding on using the subject of Pokémon after considering several possibilities such as Grand Theft Auto and Dragon Ball Z , the producers were surprised by fan reaction to the material . Despite praises for the content , they have stated they have no intention to produce a full @-@ fledged film .
The initial " leaked " preview was met with skepticism and criticism , with Crave Online in particular recalling the trend of past video game @-@ inspired films being of poor quality . Kotaku and Topless Robot in particular noting that the preview did it a disservice by hiding the charm of the completed project , which by comparison was met with very positive reception . GamesRadar called it " amazing " , and stated that the content was " good enough for grown ups " ; in a further discussion , they added they were impressed by the quality of the work , and how it addressed the similarity between the games and dog fighting . Other sources such as The Escapist and Game Informer also heavily praised the production , with the former lamenting that such a concept would never officially appear from Nintendo .
= = Synopsis = =
Structured as a trailer for a non @-@ existent film , Pokémon Apokélypse is set in the fictional Celadon City , and takes place several years after the events of the original anime series . The plot focuses on Ash Ketchum ( Lee Majdoub ) , a Pokémon Trainer who commands creatures called Pokémon to battle other Trainers ' Pokémon to advance within a league setting . Formerly a global sport , it was long since outlawed due to outcries of animal abuse , and instead continued in underground arenas , where the fighting became much more brutal . Despite warnings by his friend Brock ( Kial Natale ) , Ash takes part in the battles with his Pokémon , Pikachu . When approached by Giovanni ( David Quast ) , the head of Rocket Industries , with a bribe to throw his next fight , Ash turns the offer down . In response , Giovanni threatens Ash 's former mentor Professor Oak ( Richard Toews ) and girlfriend , Misty ( Rebecca Strom ) . Deciding to keep them safe , Ash accepts the bribe , and Pikachu is nearly killed in the match .
Quickly regretting his actions , Ash revisits Giovanni and returns the bribe money , declaring himself out of the league . Enraged , Giovanni declares Ash and his friends dead , and sends his minions Jessie , James ( Julia Lawton and Gharret Patrick Paon ) and Meowth to carry out the retribution . As a result , Oak is killed , Pikachu and Misty are assaulted , and Brock is tortured . With the help of Pikachu , Brock and Misty , Ash goes after Giovanni and aims to take down Rocket Industries , declaring he will not stop until he has " caught them all " .
= = Cast = =
Lee Majdoub as Ash Ketchum
Ikue Ohtani as Pikachu ( voice )
Kial Natale as Brock
Rebecca Strom as Misty
Julia Lawton as Jessie
Gharrett Patrick Paon as James
David Quast as Giovanni
Richard Toews as Professor Oak
Sahaj Malhotra as Nurse Joy
Katherine Atkinson as Officer Jenny
Jason Lee Fraser as Team Rocket Grunt
Tanner McColman as Team Rocket Grunt
Taylor Enobuc James as Team Rocket Grunt
Derek Cheng as Team Rocket Grunt
= = Development and production = =
Produced as a side project by Kial Natale , Dylan Innes and Lee Majdoub , the concept originated in December 2008 from the desire to produce a live @-@ action version of a series , with Natale wishing to focus on Grand Theft Auto , and Majdoub suggesting a film based upon Dragon Ball Z. After another member of the group suggested Pokémon as a possibility , they focused on that concept instead . Kial quickly wrote a script for the short film , while Majdoub and executive film producer Innes contributed additional material to flesh it out . Originally intended to be a film in the vein of CollegeHumor 's parody productions , more scenes were added and visual effects improved due to Kial 's love for the series and his desire for the film to be " more and more " . Planning of the film took four months , while filming and production took a year and a half . Varying crew sizes were used for the four different filming periods with the majority of filming occurring within one weekend . Majdoub noted he was surprised at the number of people that came forth for auditions that were not actors , but fans of the series .
The film 's tone was inspired by a discussion with editor Nicholas Porteous about a review of Ang Lee 's film Hulk , in which a producer theorized that the film was seen as a commercial failure " because it wasn ’ t dark and gritty , like Batman Begins " . Natale found the idea that Begins succeeded solely due to its tone insulting to its director Christopher Nolan , and joked with Majdoub on the popularity of ' dark ' series reboots , pondering what series would be good for a live @-@ action adaptation . Settling on Pokémon due to its undertones of animal rights abuse , Majdoub wanted to approach the film from a completely mature standpoint . Displeased with the current trend of video game to film adaptations , they wished to " see how far we could take it without being absolutely ridiculous " . A variety of locations were worked in to give the completed project a proper trailer feel . The title Pokémon Apokélypse was chosen as nod to Apocalypse Now , due to the similarity of the shooting ratios , with only ten percent of the footage actually used . Though several scenes were shot to add more content to the film , others using dialogue and one @-@ liners from the anime series were purposefully shot in longer scenes then cropped down , in order to ensure the lines did not feel forced and to give a sense that " here is a world beyond what is shown in the trailer " .
Though originally intended to be shown at the Anime Evolution convention in Vancouver , Canada , the crew ran into technical difficulties . At a friend 's suggestion , the film was instead revealed through viral emails on September 14 , 2010 , with the sender named " Professor Oak " attaching a small thirty @-@ second part of the film and presenting it as a small part recorded from a " secret movie trailer screening " . Satisfied that the teaser had sparked interest , the full film was released on September 20 . Natale stated that he was impressed by the people that had scrutinized the preview to determine whether or not it was genuine . When asked if they had any plans to produce a full movie , Majdoub stated that he would like to consider the prospects if they could receive assistance with the CGI aspects of the film , however any further production would be up to Natale . Natale in turn added that while he was grateful for the positive reviews , he had no intention to do further films based on the Pokémon franchise .
= = Critical reception = =
= = = Initial reaction = = =
Reaction to the film 's preview segment was mixed . Kotaku heavily praised the effects , undertone and music , stating that the staff loved it , though lamented that an official film of this kind would join a long line of " ill @-@ advised live @-@ action adaptations " . Game Informer called it " absurd " , stating that while it was a possible proof of concept film it was more likely completely fake , and adding " It looks goofy as hell , and Pokéfans are sure to get a couple chuckles out of it if nothing else . " ComicsAlliance called it " somewhere in the middle " of presenting a better take on the franchise and a reminder that " some intellectual properties got things right ( or inherently wrong ) the first time " , though called the effect " surprisingly competent " and it both generally fun and funny . Crave Online heavily criticized the film , calling the story formulaic and the production values " threadbare " , and further adding that they dreaded the idea of it inspiring an actual live @-@ action film on the series in light of Capcom 's Street Fighter : The Legend of Chun @-@ Li .
= = = Post @-@ release = = =
In contrast , the full film has been well received by the media . GamesRadar praised the idea of the film , stating that if produced it would be " the best movie since Piranha 3D " and calling it " good enough for grown @-@ ups " . In a further discussion via their Pokémon Monday cast , the three editors involved praised the film as " very well done " . While one editor stated disdain for the appearance of the various Pokémon in the film , they agreed that in any live @-@ action adaptation the creatures would " always look weird " , and that for a film with a lack of budget they were done very well . They also praised the attention of detail , and praised David Quast 's portrayal of Giovanni , as well as the presentation of recurring anime villains Jessie , James and Meowth . Editor Carolyn Gudmundson added that she was uncomfortable with the grittiness of the production , though praised it for presenting out the inherent problem of the concept behind the games and its similarity to dog fighting .
The Escapist shared similar sentiments , calling the film " amazing " and stating their desire to see the mock @-@ trailer expanded into a full film despite it being contrary to Nintendo 's vision of the series ; " Why can 't anything this cool ever come through official channels ? " Joystiq commented that it was " long , long overdue " and called the completed results delightful , questioning why such a project had not been properly attempted years prior . Kotaku added that while the " leaked " segment hid the flaws in the film 's effects , it hurt the film by hiding the " hammy charm " of the completed project . Though Game Informer criticized the original segment , they heavily praised the full film , describing it as " what the franchise could look like if Peter Jackson , Martin Scorsese , and Jerry Bruckheimer all teamed up " . Topless Robot stated that while the original preview had nearly sabotaged the final production 's appeal , they called it " awesome " and described it as taking " Pokémon battles to its inevitable , cock @-@ fighting end " . Cinemablend stated that while the content was out of place with Nintendo 's presentation of the series , they found the finished product still " pretty cool " , further praising the effects and the approach taken towards the material .
= Ohio State Route 369 =
State Route 369 ( SR 369 ) is a short , two @-@ lane north – south state highway in the western portion of the U.S. state of Ohio . The southern terminus of SR 369 is at an interchange with SR 4 approximately two and a half miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) northeast of Enon . Its northern terminus is at U.S. Route 40 ( US 40 ) nearly one and a half miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) east of Donnelsville . SR 369 was created in the mid @-@ 1930s . In addition to serving as a connector between SR 4 and US 40 southwest of Springfield , it provides access to a county park named in honor of George Rogers Clark .
= = Route description = =
All of SR 369 is situated within Bethel Township in the southwestern quadrant of Clark County . The route starts at an interchange with SR 4 approximately two and a half miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) northeast of Enon . SR 369 serves as a continuation of Lower Valley Pike , which enters the interchange from the North of SR 4 , the west side of SR 369 abuts a residential subdivision , while the east side of the route straddles the western portion of the county – maintained George Rogers Clark Park . As the highway proceeds north of the park boundary , both sides of the highway are lined with houses , leading up to the point where it comes to an end at US 40 nearly one and a half miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) east of Donnelsville . Continuing to the north of the U.S. route following the terminus of SR 369 is Tecumseh Road .
SR 369 is maintained by the Ohio Department of Transportation ( ODOT ) . As a part of its duties in maintaining this highway , ODOT tracks the volume of traffic using it by a metric called the average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) . This measurement determines the amount of traffic utilizing a particular stretch of the roadway on a typical day of the year . A 2008 AADT report shows that the busiest stretch of SR 369 is the portion in the vicinity of the SR 4 interchange , at the Lower Valley Pike transition , where typically 2 @,@ 900 passenger vehicles and 220 commercial vehicles use the highway on a daily basis . The AADT along the portion of SR 369 between SR 4 and US 40 was determined to be 1 @,@ 580 passenger vehicles and 120 commercial vehicles . SR 369 is not included within the National Highway System .
= = History = =
SR 369 was first designated in 1934 . Originally , the route was a spur route off of US 40 that served George Rogers Clark Park . In 1959 , with the relocation of SR 4 onto a new freeway alignment along the north side of the Mad River through this vicinity , the southern terminus of SR 369 was reconfigured such that the highway met the new freeway at an interchange at the south end of the park .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Bethel Township , Clark County .
= Tropical Storm Chris ( 1988 ) =
Tropical Storm Chris caused minor flooding in the Greater Antilles and the Eastern United States in August 1988 . The seventh tropical cyclone and third named storm of the annual hurricane season , Chris developed from a tropical wave while roughly midway between Africa and the Lesser Antilles on August 21 . Forming as a tropical depression , it remained weak for several days , crossing the Lesser Antilles , Hispaniola , and The Bahamas during this time . While offshore the coast of Florida on August 28 , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Chris . Thereafter , the system tracked rapidly north @-@ northwestward and came ashore near Savannah , Georgia later that day . Once inland , Chris quickly weakened , and by early on the following day , it weakened to a tropical depression over South Carolina . Six hours later , Chris was absorbed by a cold front while over North Carolina , though the remnants of the system tracked across the Eastern United States and Atlantic Canada before dissipating on August 30 .
In the Leeward Islands and U.S. Virgin Islands , Chris produced only light rainfall , that caused no damage or fatalities . Heavy rainfall occurred in Puerto Rico , which damaged 100 homes and caused three fatalities . Large amounts of precipitation also fell in Hispaniola , though no damage was reported . In the United States , much of the damage occurred due to tornadoes , especially in The Carolinas . A tornado in South Carolina destroyed at least 15 mobile homes , caused one fatality , and resulted in a brief shutdown of U.S. Route 301 . Flooding was minimal , as rainfall totals amounted to 5 inches ( 130 mm ) or less , though standing water was reported on Interstate 26 . Another destructive tornado occurred in Virginia . Two additional deaths were reported in New York , two from drowning and one from a tree falling onto a car . Although winds were light , at least 118 @,@ 000 people from South Carolina to Maine were left without electricity . The dissipating storm produced light winds and precipitation in Nova Scotia . Overall , Tropical Storm Chris was attributed to four fatalities and $ 2 @.@ 25 million ( 1988 USD ) in losses .
= = Meteorological history = =
A tropical wave emerged into the Atlantic from the west coast of Africa on August 15 . Six days later , the system developed into Tropical Depression Seven while centered halfway between the Lesser Antilles and Africa . The depression tracked west @-@ northwestward around the periphery of a subtropical surface high pressure ridge . After strengthening minimally , the depression struck Guadeloupe late on August 23 and entered the Caribbean Sea shortly thereafter . Although satellite intensity estimates indicated tropical storm status , 13 reconnaissance flights conducted by the National Hurricane Center between August 23 and August 27 indicated winds were less than 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) . By August 25 , the depression made landfall near Santo Domingo , Dominican Republic . Despite the mountainous terrain of Hispaniola , the depression did not weakened and re @-@ emerged into the Atlantic from the northern coast of Haiti early on August 26 . The depression curved northwestward and did not strengthen . On August 27 , the depression made another landfall near Andros Town on Andros , Bahamas . Later that day , the depression passed less than 25 miles ( 40 km ) east of West Palm Beach , Florida . Thereafter , the depression curved north @-@ northwestward and remained offshore of Florida .
At 0600 UTC on August 28 , a ship located about 93 miles ( 150 km ) from the center of the depression reported tropical storm force winds . As a result , the depression was finally upgraded to Tropical Storm Chris . Tracking rapidly north @-@ northeastward , Chris attained its peak intensity about six hours later , with maximum sustained winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 1 @,@ 006 mbar ( 29 @.@ 7 inHg ) . The storm made its final landfall near Savannah , Georgia with winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) at 1500 UTC on August 28 . After moving inland , Chris quickly weakened and was downgraded to a tropical depression near Columbia , South Carolina on August 29 . Shortly thereafter , Chris merged with a cold front over North Carolina . The remnants of Chris tracked east @-@ northeastward across the Eastern United States . Eventually , the remnants briefly re @-@ emerged into the Atlantic from New England , then moved across Nova Scotia before dissipating near Cape Breton on August 30 .
= = Preparations = =
In preparation of the tropical depression , officials in Puerto Rico closed public schools and sent federal workers home early . At 1000 UTC on August 28 , a tropical storm watch was issued for Edisto Beach , South Carolina , to Cape Hatteras , North Carolina . Two hours later , areas from Savannah , Georgia , to Cape Hatteras North Carolina , were placed under a tropical storm warning . They were later discontinued at an unknown time . Residents of Charleston , South Carolina , complained of little warning in advance of the storm . However , as Chris moved ashore only nine hours after becoming a tropical storm , there was minimal time for preparations .
= = Impact = =
= = = Lesser and Greater Antilles = = =
In the United States Virgin Islands , the depression dropped 1 inch ( 25 mm ) of rain . Precipitation on the island of Puerto Rico was generally between 3 and 7 inches ( 76 and 178 mm ) , with a peak total of 14 @.@ 5 inches ( 356 mm ) in Hacienda Constanza . Heavy rainfall resulting in flooding , which damaged at least 100 homes and left 485 people homeless . By August 24 , at least 15 people evacuated their homes because of flooding . Due to high winds , two cars were crushed by falling trees , causing the deaths of two men and one 12 @-@ year @-@ old boy . Hispaniola received heavy rain and 35 mph ( 56 km / h ) winds but no deaths or damage was reported . In the Bahamas , the storm brought winds of 35 mph ( 56 km / h ) but left no damage .
= = = United States = = =
The outer bands of Chris produced 1 – 3 inches ( 25 – 76 mm ) of rain in Florida , though no damage was reported . At Fort Pulaski National Monument in Georgia , tides were 1 @.@ 5 feet ( 0 @.@ 46 m ) above normal . In that state , Chris produced a sustained wind speed of 43 mph ( 69 km / h ) at Savannah Light , though it was at an elevation of 70 feet ( 21 m ) . In addition , the highest wind gust was reported at that location , reaching up to 49 mph ( 80 km / h ) . Elsewhere in Georgia , winds were light and were below tropical storm force . Rainfall in the state was mostly less than 2 inches ( 51 mm ) , with a peak of 2 @.@ 01 inches ( 51 mm ) in southeastern Georgia .
Along the coast of South Carolina , tides of at least 0 @.@ 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 061 m ) and 0 @.@ 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 091 m ) above normal were reported at Charleston and Myrtle Beach , respectively . However , the Preliminary Report on Tropical Storm Chris indicates tides of 0 @.@ 5 feet ( 0 @.@ 15 m ) at Charleston and 1 foot ( 0 @.@ 30 m ) above normal at Myrtle Beach . Several tornadoes were spawned in the state , one of which caused one fatality , one injury , and destroyed at least 15 mobile homes in Clarendon County . Overall , tornadoes in the state collectively resulted in more than $ 550 @,@ 000 in damage ( 1988 USD ) . Debris littered U.S. Route 301 , which briefly shutdown that highway . Winds were relatively light in the state , with sustained winds generally less than 30 mph ( 48 km / h ) and gusts to 44 mph ( 71 km / h ) were reported in Charleston . However , 18 @,@ 000 people in Charleston and other nearby communities lost electricity . In addition , one mobile home was destroyed and another was overturned in Olanta . Rainfall in South Carolina was generally between 1 and 5 inches ( 25 and 127 mm ) , though peaking at 7 @.@ 64 inches ( 194 mm ) in Bishopville . Near Columbia , 1 @.@ 72 inches ( 44 mm ) of rain fell in only an hour , leaving standing water on several roads , including Interstate 26 .
A tornado spawned in Iredell County threw a tractor @-@ trailer into a building at an industrial park . In addition , that tornado struck the Iredell Container Corp. building and damaged several nearby mobile homes . As a result , numerous residents of Iredell County were left without gas or electricity . Four houses and a produce stand were destroyed by another tornado along U.S. Route 401 in Cumberland County . A third tornado in Granville County caused one injury and light damage . Collectively , the three tornadoes in the state caused at least $ 1 million ( 1988 USD ) in damage . In Charlotte , a wind gust of 42 mph ( 68 km / h ) was reported , which downed power lines and damaged the facade of a hotel .
In Mecklenburg County , Virginia , an F2 tornado spawned near Chase City damaged or destroyed ten buildings , including a mobile home , which was wrapped completely around a tree . Additionally , several vehicles were damaged and one injury occurred . Damage from that tornado reached about $ 700 @,@ 000 ( 1988 USD ) . Winds in Washington D.C. reached slightly more than 47 mph ( 76 km / h ) , leaving 3 @,@ 800 homes without electricity . In Maryland , rainfall was less than 2 inches ( 51 mm ) at all locations . A wind gust reaching 55 mph ( 89 km / h ) was reported in Baltimore , though sustained winds were below tropical storm force . Similar amounts of rainfall occurred in other nearby states such as Delaware , New Jersey , and Pennsylvania ; minor creek flooding occurred in those three states . In Wilmington , Delaware , a wind gust of 48 mph ( 77 km / h ) was reported . Power lines were snapped in Essex County , New Jersey .
The storm downed power lines on Staten Island and Long Island in New York , leaving 31 @,@ 000 people without power . However , many had their electricity restored within 24 hours . A woman was killed in Mamaroneck when an oak tree fell on her car . According to New York City Transit officials , trees also fell on tracks , which slowed transportation services during rush hour . Two other fatalities when two people canoed in the Highland Falls Reservoir ; high winds tipped their canoe and both people subsequently drowned . Wind gusts up to 40 mph ( 64 km / h ) in Rhode Island caused scattered power outages and minor property damage , due to falling tree limbs . In Connecticut , gusty winds felled trees , which struck power lines , leaving at least 59 @,@ 000 people without electricity . High winds in Maine from the storm damaged power lines , leaving 10 @,@ 000 people without electricity . The storm also damaged four houses and several automobiles near Crystal Lake . Throughout the United States , damaged totaled to at least $ 2 @.@ 25 million ( 1988 USD ) .
= = = Canada = = =
The extratropical remnants of Chris dropped heavy rains and produced winds of 25 @-@ 30 mph ( 40 – 48 km / h ) . There were no reports of damage .
= Don 't Look Now =
Don 't Look Now is a 1973 independent British @-@ Italian film directed by Nicolas Roeg . It is a thriller adapted from the short story by Daphne du Maurier . Julie Christie and Donald Sutherland star as a married couple who travel to Venice following the recent accidental death of their daughter , after the husband accepts a commission to restore a church . They encounter two sisters , one of whom claims to be clairvoyant and informs them that their daughter is trying to contact them and warn them of danger . The husband at first dismisses their claims , but starts to experience mysterious sightings himself .
While Don 't Look Now observes many conventions of the thriller genre , its primary focus is on the psychology of grief , and the effect the death of a child can have on a relationship . Its emotionally convincing depiction of grief is often singled out as a trait not usually present in films featuring supernatural plot elements .
As well as the unusual handling of its subject matter , Don 't Look Now is renowned for its innovative editing style , and its use of recurring motifs and themes . The film often employs flashbacks and flashforwards in keeping with the depiction of precognition , but some scenes are intercut or merged to alter the viewer 's perception of what is really happening . It also adopts an impressionist approach to its imagery , often presaging events with familiar objects , patterns and colours using associative editing techniques .
Originally causing controversy on its initial release due to an explicit and — for the time — very graphic sex scene between Christie and Sutherland , its reputation has grown considerably in the years since , and it is now acknowledged as a modern classic and an influential work in horror and British film .
= = Plot = =
Some time after the drowning of their young daughter , Christine ( Sharon Williams ) , in a tragic accident at their English country home , John Baxter ( Donald Sutherland ) and his grief @-@ stricken wife , Laura ( Julie Christie ) , take a trip to Venice after John accepts a commission from a bishop ( Massimo Serato ) to restore an ancient church . Laura encounters two elderly sisters , Heather ( Hilary Mason ) and Wendy ( Clelia Matania ) , at a restaurant where she and John are dining ; Heather claims to be psychic and — despite being blind — informs Laura she is able to " see " the Baxters ' deceased daughter . Shaken , Laura returns to her table , where she faints .
Laura is taken to the hospital , where she later tells John what Heather told her . John is sceptical but pleasantly surprised by the positive change in Laura 's demeanour . Later in the evening after returning from the hospital , John and Laura engage in passionate sexual intercourse . Afterwards , they go out to dinner where they get lost and briefly become separated . John catches a glimpse of what appears to be a small child ( Adelina Poerio ) wearing a red coat similar to the one Christine was wearing when she died .
The next day , Laura meets with Heather and Wendy , who hold a séance to try to contact Christine . When she returns to the hotel Laura informs John that Christine has said he is in danger and must leave Venice . John loses his temper with Laura , but that night they receive a telephone call informing them that their son ( Nicholas Salter ) has been injured in an accident at his boarding school . Laura departs for England , while John stays on to complete the restoration . Under the assumption that Laura is in England , John is shocked when later that day he spots her on a vaporetto that is part of a funeral cortege , accompanied by the two sisters . Concerned about his wife 's mental state and with reports of a serial killer at large in Venice , he reports Laura 's disappearance to the police . The inspector ( Renato Scarpa ) investigating the killings is suspicious of John and has him followed .
After conducting a futile search for Laura and the sisters — in which he again sees the childlike figure in the red coat — John contacts his son 's school to enquire about his condition , only to discover Laura is already there . After speaking to her to confirm she really is in England , a bewildered John returns to the police station to inform the police he has found his wife . In the meantime the police have brought Heather in for questioning , so an apologetic John offers to escort her back to the hotel .
Shortly after returning , Heather slips into a trance so John makes his excuses and quickly leaves . Upon coming out of it she beseeches her sister to go after John , sensing that something terrible is about to happen , but Wendy is unable to catch up with him . Meanwhile , John catches another glimpse of the mysterious figure in red and this time pursues it . He corners the elusive figure in a deserted palazzo and approaches it , believing it to be a child . Instead , it is revealed to be a hideous female dwarf , and while John is frozen in terror the dwarf pulls out a meat cleaver and cuts his throat . As the life drains from him , John realises too late that the strange sightings he has been experiencing were premonitions of his own murder and funeral .
= = Analysis = =
= = = Themes = = =
Don 't Look Now ostensibly is an occult thriller , but the genre conventions of the Gothic ghost story primarily serve to explore the minds of a grief @-@ stricken couple . The film 's director , Nicolas Roeg , was intrigued by the idea of making " grief into the sole thrust of the film " , noting that " Grief can separate people ... Even the closest , healthiest relationship can come undone through grief . " The presence of Christine , the Baxters ' deceased daughter , weighs heavily on the mood of the film , as she and the nature of her death are constantly recalled through the film 's imagery : there are regular flashbacks to Christine playing in her red coat as well as the sightings of the mysterious childlike figure also wearing a red coat which bears a likeness to her ; the constant association of water with death is maintained via a serial @-@ killer sub @-@ plot , which sees victims periodically dragged from the canals ; there is also a poignant moment when John fishes a child 's doll out of a canal just as he did with his daughter 's body at the beginning of the film .
The associative use of recurring motifs combined with unorthodox editing techniques foreshadows key events in the film . In Daphne du Maurier 's novella it is Laura that wears a red coat , but in the film the colour is used to establish an association between Christine and the elusive figure that John keeps catching glimpses of . Du Maurier 's story actually opens in Venice following Christine 's death from meningitis , but the decision was taken to change the cause of death to drowning and to include a prologue to exploit the water motif . The threat of death from falling is also ever present throughout the film : besides Christine falling into the lake , Laura is taken to hospital after her fall in the restaurant , their son Johnny is injured in a fall at boarding school , the bishop overseeing the church restoration informs John that his father was killed in a fall , and John himself is nearly killed in a fall during the renovations . Glass is frequently used as an omen that something bad is about to occur : just before Christine drowns , John knocks a glass of water over , and Johnny breaks a pane of glass ; as Laura faints in the restaurant she knocks glassware off the table , and when John almost falls to his death in the church , a plank of wood shatters a pane of glass ; finally , shortly before confronting the mysterious red clad figure , John asks the sisters for a glass of water , a piece of symbolism that prefigured Christine 's death .
The plot of the film is preoccupied with misinterpretation and mistaken identity : when John sees Laura on the barge with the sisters , he fails to realise it is a premonition and believes Laura is in Venice with them . John himself is mistaken for a Peeping Tom when he follows Laura to the séance , and ultimately he mistakes the mysterious red @-@ coated figure for a child . The concept of Doppelgänger and duplicates feature prominently in the film : reproductions are a constantly recurring motif ranging from reflections in the water , to photographs , to police sketches and the photographic slides of the church John is restoring . Laura comments in a letter to their son that she can 't tell the difference between the restored church windows and the " real thing " , and later in the film John attempts to make a seamless match between recently manufactured tiles and the old ones in repairing an ancient mosaic . Roeg describes the basic premise of the story as principally being that in life " nothing is what it seems " , and even decided to have Donald Sutherland 's character utter the line — a scene which required fifteen takes .
Communication is a theme that runs through much of Nicolas Roeg 's work , and figures heavily in Don 't Look Now . This is best exemplified by the blind psychic woman , Heather , who communicates with the dead , but it is presented in other ways : the language barriers are purposefully enhanced by the decision to not include subtitles translating the Italian dialogue into English , so the viewer experiences the same confusion as John . Women are presented as better at communicating than men : besides the clairvoyant being female , it is Laura who stays in regular contact with their son , Johnny ; when the Baxters receive a phone call informing them of Johnny 's accident at the boarding school , the headmaster 's inarticulateness in explaining the situation causes his wife to intercept and explain instead .
Much has been made of the fragmented editing of Don 't Look Now , and Nicolas Roeg 's work in general . Time is presented as ' fluid ' , where the past , present and future can all exist in the same timeframe . John 's premonitions merge with the present , such as at the start of the film where the mysterious red @-@ coated figure is seemingly depicted in one of his photographic slides , and when he ' sees ' Laura on the funeral barge with the sisters and mistakenly believes he is seeing the present , but in fact it is a vision of the future . The most famous use of this fragmented approach to time is during the love scene , in which the scenes of John and Laura having sex are intercut with scenes of them dressing afterwards to go out to dinner . After John is attacked by his assailant in the climactic moments , the preceding events depicted during the course of the film are recalled through flashback , which may be perceived as his life flashing before his eyes . At a narrative level the plot of Don 't Look Now can be regarded as a self @-@ fulfilling prophecy : it is John 's premonitions of his death that set in motion the events leading up to his death . According to the editor of the film , Graeme Clifford , Nicolas Roeg regarded the film as his " exercise in film grammar " .
= = = Inspirations = = =
Don 't Look Now is particularly indebted to Alfred Hitchcock , exhibiting several characteristics of the director 's work . The aural match cut following Christine 's death from Laura 's scream to the screech of a drill references a cut in The 39 Steps , when a woman 's scream cuts to the whistle of a steam train . When John reports Laura 's disappearance to the Italian police he inadvertently becomes a suspect in the murder case they are investigating — an innocent man being wrongly accused and pursued by the authorities is a common Hitchcock trait . The film also takes a Hitchcockian approach to its mise en scène , by manifesting its protagonist 's psychology in plot developments : in taking their trip to Venice the Baxters have run away from personal tragedy , and are often physically depicted as running to and from things during their stay in Venice ; the labyrinthine geography of Venice causes John to lose his bearings , and he often becomes separated from Laura and is repeatedly shown to be looking for her — both physical realisations of what is going on in his head .
Nicolas Roeg had employed the fractured editing style of Don 't Look Now on his previous films , Performance and Walkabout , but it was originated by editor Antony Gibbs on Petulia . Roeg served as the cinematographer on Petulia , which incidentally also starred Julie Christie , and Gibbs went on to edit Performance and Walkabout for Roeg . Roeg 's use of colour — especially red — can be traced back to earlier work : both Performance and Walkabout feature scenes where the whole screen turns red , similar in nature to the scene during Christine 's drowning when the spilt water on the church slide causes a reaction that makes it — along with the whole screen — turn completely red . The mysterious red @-@ coated figure and its association with death has a direct parallel with an earlier film Roeg worked on as cinematographer , The Masque of the Red Death , which depicted a red clad Grim Reaper character . The fleeting glimpses of the mysterious red @-@ coated figure possibly draw on Proust : in Remembrance of Things Past , while in Venice , the narrator catches sight of a red gown in the distance which brings pack painful memories of his lost love .
Besides Proust , other possible literary influences include Borges and Nietzsche ; Pauline Kael in her review comments that " Roeg comes closer to getting Borges on the screen than those who have tried it directly " , while Mark Sanderson in his BFI Modern Classics essay on the film , finds parallels with Nietzsche 's Beyond Good and Evil .
= = Production = =
Don 't Look Now was produced by Peter Katz through London based Casey Productions and Rome based Eldorado Films . The script based on the short story by Daphne du Maurier was offered to Nicolas Roeg by scriptwriter Allan Scott , who had co @-@ written the screenplay with Chris Bryant , while Julie Christie and Donald Sutherland were cast in the principal roles . Filming began in England in December 1972 , breaking off for Christmas , and resuming in January 1973 for seven more weeks in Italy .
= = = Development = = =
Don 't Look Now was to be Nicolas Roeg 's third directorial feature following Performance and Walkabout . Although real @-@ life couple Natalie Wood and Robert Wagner were suggested for the parts of Laura and John Baxter , Roeg was eager to cast Julie Christie and Donald Sutherland from the very start . Initially engaged by other projects both actors unexpectedly became available . Christie liked the script and was keen to work with Roeg who had served as cinematographer on Fahrenheit 451 , Far from the Madding Crowd and Petulia in which she had starred . Sutherland also wanted to make the film but had some reservations about the depiction of clairvoyance in the script . He felt it was handled too negatively and believed that Don 't Look Now should be a more " educative film " , and that the " characters should in some way benefit from ESP and not be destroyed by it " . Roeg was resistant to any changes and issued Sutherland with an ultimatum .
Roeg wanted Julie Christie to attend a séance prior to filming . Leslie Flint , a direct voice medium based in Notting Hill , invited them to attend a session which he was holding for some American parapsychologists , who were coming over to observe him . Roeg and Christie went along and sat in a circle in the pitch dark and joined hands . Flint instructed his guests to " uncross " their legs , which Roeg subsequently incorporated into the film .
Adelina Poerio was cast as the fleeting red @-@ coated figure after Roeg saw her photo at a casting session in Rome . Standing at only 4 ' 2 " tall , she had a career as a singer . Renato Scarpa was cast as Inspector Longhi , despite not being able to speak English and so he had no idea what he was saying in the film .
= = = Filming = = =
The drowning scene and house exteriors were filmed in Hertfordshire at the home of actor David Tree , who also plays the headmaster at the son 's boarding school . Shooting the sequence was particularly problematic : Sharon Williams , who played Christine , became hysterical when submersed in the pond , despite the rehearsals at the swimming pool going well . A farmer on the neighbouring land volunteered his daughter who was an accomplished swimmer , but who refused to be submersed when it came to filming . In the end , the scene was filmed in a water tank using three girls . Nicolas Roeg and editor Graeme Clifford showed the opening sequence to some friends before filming resumed on the Venice segment , and Clifford recalls it making a considerable impression .
The Venice locations included the Hotel Gabrielli Sandwirth — the lobby and exteriors standing in for the film 's fictional Europa Hotel , although the Baxters ' suite was located at the Bauer Grunwald ( which better accommodated the cameras ) — and the San Nicolò dei Mendicoli ( the Church of St. Nicholas " of the beggars " ) , located on the outskirts of Venice . Finding an appropriate church proved difficult : after visiting most of the churches in Venice , the Italian location manager suggested constructing one in a warehouse . The discovery of San Nicolò was particularly fortuitous since it was currently being renovated and the scaffolding was already in place , the circumstances lending themselves well to the plot of the film . Roeg decided not to use traditional tourist locations to purposefully avoid a " travel documentary " look . Venice turned out to be a difficult place to film in , mainly due to the tides which caused problems with the continuity and transporting equipment .
Filming the scene in which John almost falls to his death while restoring the mosaic in San Nicolò church was also beset by problems , and resulted in Donald Sutherland 's life being put in danger . The scene entailed some of the scaffolding collapsing leaving John dangling by a rope , but the stuntman refused to perform the stunt because the insurance was not in order . Sutherland ended up doing it instead , and was attached to a kirby wire as a precaution in case he should fall . Some time after the film had come out , renowned stunt co @-@ ordinator Vic Armstrong commented to Sutherland that the wire was not designed for that purpose , and the twirling around caused by holding on to the rope would have damaged the wire to the extent it would have snapped if Sutherland had let go .
While many of the changes were down to the logistics of filming in Venice , some were for creative reasons , the most prominent being the inclusion of the famous love scene . The scene was in fact an unscripted last minute improvisation by Roeg , who felt that without it there would be too many scenes of the couple arguing . The scene set in the church where Laura lights a candle for Christine was mostly improvised too . Originally intended to show the gulf between John 's and Laura 's mental states — John 's denial and Laura 's inability to let go — the script included two pages of dialogue to illustrate John 's unease at Laura 's marked display of grief . After a break in filming to allow the crew to set up the equipment , Donald Sutherland returned to the set and commented that he did not like the church , to which Julie Christie retorted that he was being " silly " , and the church was " beautiful " . Roeg felt that the exchange was more true to life in terms of what the characters would actually say to each other , and that the scripted version was " overwritten " , so opted to ditch the scripted dialogue and included the real @-@ life exchange instead .
The funeral scene at the end of the film was also played differently from what was originally intended . Julie Christie was supposed to wear a veil to hide away her face , but prior to filming Roeg suggested to Christie that she should play it without the veil and smile throughout the scene . Christie was initially sceptical , but Roeg felt it would not make sense for the character to be heartbroken if she believed her husband and daughter were together in the afterlife .
= = = Scoring = = =
The score was composed by Pino Donaggio , a native Venetian who was a popular singer at the time ( he had a hit with " lo Che Non Vivo " which was covered by Dusty Springfield in 1966 as " You Don 't Have to Say You Love Me " ) ; prior to Don 't Look Now , Donaggio had never scored a film . Ugo Mariotti , a producer on the film , spotted Donaggio on a Vaporetto on the Grand Canal in Venice , and believing it to be a " sign " contacted him to see if he would be interested in working on the film . Donaggio was reluctant at first because he did not understand why they would be interested in someone who had no experience of scoring films .
Donaggio had no interest in making soundtracks for films at the time , but was introduced to Nicolas Roeg who decided to try him out and asked him to write something for the beginning of the film . Roeg was enthusiastic about the result but the London @-@ based producers were resistant to hiring someone who had no background in films . The film 's financiers were pleased with Donaggio 's work and overruled the producers . As well as composing the score , Donaggio performed a substantial portion of it himself . The piano pieces were performed by Donaggio , despite the fact that he was not very accomplished at playing the piano . The piano pieces are usually associated with Christine in the film , and Roeg wanted them to have an innocent sound reminiscent of a little girl learning to play the piano . Donaggio claims that since he was not very good at playing the piano , the pieces had an unsure style to them , perfect for the effect they were trying to capture .
The only disagreement over the musical direction of the film was for the score accompanying the love scene . Donaggio composed a grand orchestral piece , but Roeg thought the effect was overkill , and wanted it toned down . In the end the scene just used a combination of the piano , the flute , an acoustic guitar and an acoustic bass guitar . The piano was played by Donaggio again , who also played the flute ; in contrast to his skill as a pianist , Donaggio was a renowned flautist , famous for it at the conservatory . Donaggio conceded that the more low @-@ key theme worked better in the sequence and ditched the high strings orchestral piece , reworking it for the funeral scene at the end of the film .
Donaggio won a ' best soundtrack of the year ' award for his work on the film , which gave him the confidence to quit his successful singing career and embark on a career scoring films . Donaggio became a regular composer for Brian De Palma films and credits Nicolas Roeg with giving him his first lesson in writing film scores , and expressed a desire to work with him again .
= = Release = =
= = = Sex scene controversy = = =
Don 't Look Now has become famous for a sex scene involving Julie Christie and Donald Sutherland , which caused considerable controversy prior to its release in 1973 . British tabloid newspaper , the Daily Mail , observed at the time " one of the frankest love scenes ever to be filmed is likely to plunge lovely Julie Christie into the biggest censorship row since Last Tango in Paris " . The scene was unusually graphic for the period , including a rare depiction of cunnilingus in a mainstream film .
Christie commented that " people didn 't do scenes like that in those days " , and that she found the scenes difficult to film : " There were no available examples , no role models ... I just went blank and Nic [ Roeg ] shouted instructions . " The scene caused problems with censors on both sides of the Atlantic . The American censor advised Nicolas Roeg explicitly , saying , " We cannot see humping . We cannot see the rise and fall between thighs . " The scene 's much celebrated fragmented style , in which scenes of the couple having sexual intercourse are intercut with scenes of the couple post @-@ coitally getting dressed to go out to dinner , partly came about through Roeg 's attempt to accommodate the concerns of the censors : " They scrutinised it and found absolutely nothing they could object to . If someone goes up , you cut and the next time you see them they 're in a different position , you obviously fill in the gaps for yourself . But , technically speaking , there was no ' humping ' in that scene . " In the end , Roeg only cut nine frames from the sequence , and the film was awarded an R rating in the United States . In Britain , the British Board of Film Classification judged the uncut version to be " tasteful and integral to the plot " , and a scene in which Donald Sutherland 's character can be clearly seen performing oral sex on Christie 's character was permitted , but it was still given an X rating — an adults only certificate .
The sex scene remained controversial for some years after the film 's release . The BBC cut it altogether when Don 't Look Now premiered on UK television , causing a flood of complaints from viewers . The intimacy of the scene led to rumours that Christie and Sutherland had unsimulated sex which have persisted for years , and that outtakes from the scene were doing the rounds in screening rooms . Michael Deeley , who oversaw the film 's UK distribution , claimed on BBC Radio 4 's Desert Island Discs that Warren Beatty had flown to London and demanded that the sex scene — featuring then girlfriend Julie Christie — be cut from the film . The rumours were seemingly confirmed in 2011 by former Variety editor Peter Bart , who was a Paramount executive at the time . In his book , Infamous Players : A Tale of Movies , the Mob , ( and Sex ) , Bart says he was on set on the day the scene was filmed and could clearly see Sutherland 's penis " moving in and out of " Christie . Bart also reiterated Warren Beatty 's discontent , noting that Beatty had contacted him to complain about what he perceived to be Roeg 's exploitation of Christie , and insisting that he be allowed to help edit the film . Sutherland subsequently issued a statement through his publicist stating that the claims were not true , and that Bart did not witness the scene being filmed . Peter Katz , the film 's producer , corroborated Sutherland 's account that the sex was entirely simulated .
= = = Theatrical releases = = =
Don 't Look Now — marketed as a " psychic thriller " — was released in Britain on 16 October 1973 , as the main feature of a double bill . The Wicker Man was its accompanying ' B ' feature and — like Don 't Look Now — went on to achieve great acclaim . The two films have thematic similarities , and both end with their protagonists being led to preordained fates by a ' child ' they believe to be helping . Michael Deeley , who was managing director of British Lion Films at the time of the film 's release , claimed that the film 's US reception was hurt by Paramount Pictures rushing the film into cinemas too early , due to the unexpected failure of Jonathan Livingston Seagull ; despite its mismanaged distribution , Peter Bart — from his time at Paramount — recalls it performing " fairly well " at the box office . The film had recouped most of its expenses before it was even released , with its $ 1 @.@ 1 million budget offset by the fee Paramount paid for the US distribution rights .
Don 't Look Now was chosen by the British Film Institute in 2000 as one of eight classic films from those that had begun to deteriorate to undergo restoration . On completion of the restoration in 2001 , the film was given another theatrical release .
= = = Home media = = =
Don 't Look Now has been released on VHS , DVD and Blu @-@ ray . Extras include an introduction by film journalist Alan Jones , an audio commentary by director Nicolas Roeg , a retrospective documentary featurette ( " Looking Back " ) , an extract from a 1980s documentary about Roeg ( " Nothing is as it Seems " ) , and interviews with Donald Sutherland , composer Pino Donaggio ( " Death in Venice " ) , scriptwriter Allan Scott , cinematographer Anthony Richmond and film director Danny Boyle , as well as a " compressed " version of the film made by Boyle for a BAFTA tribute .
A new DVD and Blu @-@ ray release with a 4K digital restoration was released in 2015 by The Criterion Collection . In addition to the " Death in Venice " and " Looking Back " featurettes which accompanied earlier editions , there is a conversation between editor Graeme Clifford and film writer Bobbie O ’ Steen , an essay by film critic David Thomson and a Q & A with Roeg at London ’ s Ciné Lumière from 2003 . Two new documentaries are also included : the first documentary , " Something Interesting " , features interviews with Anthony Richmond , Donald Sutherland , Julie Christie and Allan Scott about the making of the film ; the second , " Nicolas Roeg : The Enigma of Film " , features interviews with Danny Boyle and fellow film @-@ maker Steven Soderbergh discussing Roeg 's cinematic style .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response and awards = = =
At the time of its initial release , Don 't Look Now was generally well received by critics , although some criticised it for being " arty and mechanical " . Jay Cocks for Time , wrote that " Don 't Look Now is such a rich , complex and subtle experience that it demands more than one viewing " , while Variety commented that the film 's visual flourishes made it " much more than merely a well @-@ made psycho @-@ horror thriller " . Pauline Kael writing for The New Yorker was more reserved in her praise , considering the film to be " the fanciest , most carefully assembled enigma yet put on the screen " but that there was a " distasteful clamminess about the picture " , while Gordon Gow of Films and Filming felt that it fell short of the aspirations of Nicolas Roeg 's previous two films , Performance and Walkabout , but it was nevertheless a thriller of some depth . Vincent Canby , reviewer for The New York Times , on the other hand , criticised the film for a lack of suspense which he put down to a twist that comes halfway through rather than at the end , and at which point it " stops being suspenseful and becomes an elegant travelogue that treats us to second @-@ sightseeing in Venice " . Canby also suggested that second sight was not convincing on screen , since it appeared simply like flash @-@ forward which is a standard story @-@ telling device in films , and concluded that " Not only do you probably have better things to do , but so , I 'm sure , do most of the people connected with the film . "
British critics were especially enthusiastic about Nicolas Roeg 's direction . In the view of Tom Milne of Monthly Film Bulletin , Roeg 's combined work on Performance , Walkabout and Don 't Look Now put him " right up at the top as film @-@ maker " . George Melly similarly wrote in The Observer that Roeg had joined " that handful of names whose appearance at the end of the credit titles automatically creates a sense of anticipation " . Penelope Houston for Sight & Sound also found much to appreciate in Roeg 's direction : " Roeg deploys subtle powers of direction and Hitchcockian misdirection . " American critics were similarly impressed with Roeg 's work on the film . Jay Cocks regarded Don 't Look Now to be Roeg 's best work by far and that Roeg was one of " those rare talents that can effect a new way of seeing " . Cocks also felt that the film was a marked improvement on the novella , noting that a reading " makes one appreciate Roeg and Screenwriters [ Allan ] Scott and [ Chris ] Bryant all the more . Film and story share certain basic elements of plot and an ending of cruel surprise . The story is detached , almost cursory . Roeg and his collaborators have constructed an intricate , intense speculation about levels of perception and reality . " Roger Ebert in his review for the Chicago Sun @-@ Times commented that Roeg is " a genius at filling his frame with threatening forms and compositions " , while Pauline Kael labelled him " chillingly chic " in hers . Even Vincent Canby , whose opinion of the film was negative overall , praised Roeg for being able to " maintain a sense of menace long after the screenplay has any right to expect it " .
Julie Christie and Donald Sutherland also received praise for their performances . Variety considered Sutherland to be at his most subdued but also at his most effective , while Christie does her " best work in ages " . Cocks felt that thanks to their superb performances the film had a " rigorous psychological truth and an emotional timbre " that most other films in the supernatural genre lacked . Canby considered the " sincerity of the actors " to be one of the better aspects of the film , while Kael found Christie especially suited to the part , observing she has the " anxious face of a modern tragic muse " .
Roeg 's use of Venice was praised too , with Roger Ebert finding that he " uses Venice as well as she 's ever been used in a movie " , and Canby also noted Venice is used to great effect : " He gets a great performance from Venice , which is all wintery grays , blues and blacks , the color of the pigeons that are always underfoot . " Variety also found much to admire about the editing , writing that it is " careful and painstaking ( the classically brilliant and erotic love @-@ making scene is merely one of several examples ) and plays a vital role in setting the film 's mood " .
Daphne du Maurier was pleased with the adaptation of her story , and wrote to Nicolas Roeg to congratulate him for capturing the essence of John and Laura 's relationship . The film was not received well by Venetians , particularly the councillors who were afraid it would scare away tourists .
At the 27th British Academy Film Awards , Anthony B. Richmond won for Best Cinematography , and Don 't Look Now received further nominations in the Best Film , Direction , Actor , Actress , Sound Track and Film Editing categories . It was also nominated in the Best Motion Picture category at the 1974 Edgar Allan Poe Awards .
= = = Re @-@ evaluation = = =
The reputation of Don 't Look Now has grown since its release and it is now regarded as a key work in horror cinema . It has led to some critics re @-@ evaluating their original opinions of it : Roger Ebert , nearly thirty years after his original review , states that he has come to an " accommodation " with his reservations about what he terms the " admitted weakness of the denouement " . Having gone through the film shot by shot , he now considers it a " masterpiece of physical filmmaking , in the way the photography evokes mood and the editing underlines it with uncertainty " . It was ranked 127th by Sight & Sound in the 2012 edition of their prestigious decennial critics poll .
Don 't Look Now is also very well regarded by other industry professionals , placing in the top 100 on Sight & Sound 's directors poll , run in tandem with their critics poll . A survey of 1000 people who work across the film and television industry , undertaken by the British Film Institute in 1999 , saw the film ranked eighth on their list of top 100 British films of the 20th century . It also topped a similar list organised by Time Out London in 2011 , in which 150 film industry professionals were polled . In 2012 Time Out also undertook a poll of the horror industry , in which more than 100 professionals who work within or have connections to the genre selected their favourite horror films , which saw Don 't Look Now finish in twelfth position .
= = = Influence = = =
Don 't Look Now has been much admired by and an influence on subsequent filmmakers . Danny Boyle cites Nicolas Roeg as a key influence on his work and counts it amongst his favourite films . Mark Gatiss , Steve Pemberton , Reece Shearsmith , and Jeremy Dyson drew upon Don 't Look Now considerably for their television series The League of Gentlemen ; Pemberton ranks it among the top three British horror films of the 1960s and 1970s , and says that he wants things he has written to make audiences feel the way he felt when he watched the The Wicker Man and Don 't Look Now . Similarly , Ryan Murphy considers his TV series American Horror Story to be a throwback to ' 60s and ' 70s psychological horror , citing Don 't Look Now , Rosemary 's Baby and The Shining as particular examples . Thematic and narrative similarities with Lars von Trier 's Antichrist have also been observed , with Antichrist 's cinematographer , Anthony Dod Mantle , commenting that he has watched Don 't Look Now more times than any other film . Fabrice Du Welz , whose film Vinyan has often been compared to Don 't Look Now , has stated that it is a film he is " obsessed with " , and one of his favourites , while Lynne Ramsay cited it as an influence on We Need to Talk about Kevin , which incidentally is also produced by Roeg 's son , Luc . Ami Canaan Mann has also acknowledged she was influenced by atmospheric thrillers such as Picnic at Hanging Rock and Don 't Look Now while directing her debut feature , Texas Killing Fields .
Its imagery has been directly referenced in several works . The 2006 James Bond film , Casino Royale contains a small homage where James Bond pursues a female character through Venice , catching glimpses of her through the crowds wearing a red dress . The Bruges set thriller , In Bruges , starring Colin Farrell , includes a number of explicit references ; director Martin McDonagh said that the " Venice of Don 't Look Now " was the template for the depiction of Bruges in his film , and the film includes numerous thematic similarities , including one character stating that the film she is working on is a " pastiche of Don 't Look Now " . Flatliners , a 1990 supernatural thriller directed by Joel Schumacher , also draws explicitly on the red @-@ coated childlike figure by having a character terrorised by a child wearing a red coat ; coincidentally , the character who is being tormented is played by Kiefer Sutherland , Donald Sutherland 's son . In the 2007 stage play of Don 't Look Now , written by Nell Leyshon and directed by Lucy Bailey , the play made a conscious effort to bypass the film and be a faithful adaptation of du Maurier 's short story , but it did however retain the iconic red mac from the film as worn by the elusive childlike figure .
Its influence is less obvious but still apparent in Out of Sight , a 1998 film directed by Steven Soderbergh . The famous intercutting technique used in the sex scene was used to similar effect in a sex scene featuring George Clooney and Jennifer Lopez . The film 's imagery and stylistic techniques have served as an inspiration to films such as Schindler 's List directed by Steven Spielberg , Memento by Christopher Nolan , The Dark by John Fawcett , Frozen by Juliet McKoen , Submarine by Richard Ayoade , and Snow White and the Huntsman by Rupert Sanders . David Cronenberg regards it as the most frightening film he has seen , and its influence has been detected on Cronenberg 's The Brood .
Nicolas Roeg has never been slow to draw upon the world of pop music for his work , casting Mick Jagger in Performance , David Bowie in The Man Who Fell to Earth and Art Garfunkel in Bad Timing , and in turn his films have served as inspiration for musicians . Big Audio Dynamite wrote a tribute song to Roeg , called " E = MC2 " , which included lyrical references to Don 't Look Now — among Roeg 's other films — along with clips from it in the video , directed by Luc Roeg , while Sophie Ellis @-@ Bextor performed a " pop synth homage " to Don 't Look Now with her song , " Catch You " .
= SMS Undine =
SMS Undine was the last member of the ten @-@ ship Gazelle class , built by the Imperial German Navy . She was built by the Howaldtswerke shipyard in Kiel , laid down in 1901 , launched in December 1902 , and commissioned into the High Seas Fleet in January 1904 . Armed with a main battery of ten 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) guns and two 45 cm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes , Undine was capable of a top speed of 21 @.@ 5 knots ( 39 @.@ 8 km / h ; 24 @.@ 7 mph ) .
Undine was initially used as a artillery training ship for the gunners of the German fleet . In November 1904 , she accidentally rammed and sank the torpedo boat SMS S26 while on maneuvers off Kiel ; thirty @-@ three men were killed in the incident . After the outbreak of World War in August 1914 , Undine was deployed to the Baltic Sea for use as a coastal defense ship . She was attacked by the British submarine HMS E19 on 7 November 1915 and was hit by two torpedoes , the second of which detonated the ship 's ammunition magazines . Undine exploded and sank , but only 14 men were killed in the attack .
= = Construction = =
Undine was ordered under the contract name " J " and was laid down at the Howaldtswerke shipyard in Kiel in 1901 and launched on 11 December 1902 , after which fitting @-@ out work commenced . She was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet on 5 January 1904 . The ship was 105 meters ( 344 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 12 @.@ 4 m ( 41 ft ) and a draft of 4 @.@ 81 m ( 15 @.@ 8 ft ) forward . She displaced 3 @,@ 112 t ( 3 @,@ 063 long tons ; 3 @,@ 430 short tons ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of two triple @-@ expansion engines manufactured by Howaldtswerke . They were designed to give 6 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 4 @,@ 500 kW ) , for a top speed of 21 @.@ 5 knots ( 39 @.@ 8 km / h ; 24 @.@ 7 mph ) . The engines were powered by eight coal @-@ fired Marine @-@ type water @-@ tube boilers . Undine carried 700 tonnes ( 690 long tons ) of coal , which gave her a range of 4 @,@ 400 nautical miles ( 8 @,@ 100 km ; 5 @,@ 100 mi ) at 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . She had a crew of 14 officers and 256 enlisted men .
The ship was armed with ten 10 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 40 guns in single mounts . Two were placed side by side forward on the forecastle , six were located amidships , three on either side , and two were placed side by side aft . The guns could engage targets out to 12 @,@ 200 m ( 40 @,@ 000 ft ) . They were supplied with 1 @,@ 500 rounds of ammunition , for 150 shells per gun . She was also equipped with two 45 cm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes with five torpedoes . They were submerged in the hull on the broadside . The ship was protected by an armored deck that was 20 to 25 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 to 0 @.@ 98 in ) thick . The conning tower had 80 mm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) thick sides , and the guns were protected by 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick shields .
= = Service history = =
After her commissioning , Undine was assigned to the training squadron for use as a gunnery training ship . On the night of 17 November 1904 , Undine collided with the torpedo boat S26 while on maneuvers just outside Kiel . S26 , along with the rest of her unit , the IV Torpedo Boat Flotilla , was conducting a mock night attack on Undine . The cruiser was steaming with her lights off , and when the torpedo boats approached , Undine turned her search lights on , which blinded the crew of S26 . The torpedo boat inadvertently ran in front of Undine , and the latter rammed and sank the former . One officer and thirty @-@ two enlisted men aboard S26 were killed in the accident .
After the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , Undine was employed as a coastal defense ship
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uil , to de Bourlamaque were to hold Carillon as long as possible , then to destroy it , as well as the nearby Fort St. Frédéric , before retreating toward Montreal .
= = British advance and French retreat = =
Although General Amherst had been ordered to move his forces " as early in the year , as on or about , the 7th of May , if the season shall happen to permit " , Amherst 's army of 11 @,@ 000 did not leave the southern shores of Lake George until July 21 . There were several reasons for the late departure . One was logistical ; Prideaux 's expedition to forts Oswego and Niagara also departed from Albany ; another was the slow arrival of provincial militias .
When his troops landed and began advancing on the fort , Amherst was pleased to learn that the French had abandoned the outer defenses . He still proceeded with caution , occupying the old French lines from the 1758 battle on July 22 , amid reports that the French were actively loading bateaux at the fort . His original plan had been to flank the fort , denying the road to Fort St. Frédéric as a means of French escape . In the absence of French resistance outside the fort , he decided instead to focus his attention on the fort itself .
For the next three days , the British entrenched and began laying siege lines to establish positions near the fort . This work was complicated by the fact there was little diggable ground near the fort , and sandbags were required to protect the siege works . During this time , the French gun batteries fired , at times quite heavily , on the British positions . On July 25 , a detachment of Rogers ' Rangers launched some boats onto the lake north of the fort and cut a log boom the French had placed to prevent ships from moving further north on the lake . By July 26 , the British had pulled artillery to within 600 feet ( 180 m ) of the fort 's walls .
Bourlamaque had withdrawn with all but 400 of his men to Fort St. Frédéric as soon as he learned that the British were approaching . The cannon fire by this small force killed five and wounded another 31 of the besieging British . Captain Louis @-@ Philippe Le Dossu d 'Hébécourt , who had been left in command of the fort , judged on the evening of July 26 that it was time to leave . His men aimed the fort 's guns at its walls , laid mines , and put down a powder trail to the overstocked powder magazine . They then lit the fuse and abandoned the fort , leaving the French flag flying . The British were notified of this action by the arrival of French deserters . General Amherst offered 100 guineas to any man willing to enter the works to find and douse the fuse ; but no one was willing to take up the offer . The entire works went off late that evening with a tremendous roar . The powder magazine was destroyed , and a number of wooden structures caught fire due to flying embers , but the fort 's walls were not badly damaged . After the explosion , some of Gage 's light infantry rushed into the fort and retrieved the French flag . Fires in the fort were not entirely extinguished for two days .
= = Aftermath = =
The British began occupying the fort the next day . In one consequence of the French forces ' hasty departure from Carillon , one of their scouting parties returned to the fort , believing it to still be in French hands ; forty men were taken prisoner .
The retreating French destroyed Fort St. Frédéric on July 31 , leaving the way clear for the British to begin military operations on Lake Champlain ( denying the British access to Champlain had been the reason for the existence of both forts ) . However , the French had a small armed fleet , which would first need to be neutralized . The time needed to capture and effect some repairs to the two forts , as well as the need to build ships for use on Lake Champlain , delayed Amherst 's forces further and prevented him from joining General Wolfe at the Siege of Quebec . Amherst , worried that Bourlamaque 's retreat might be leading him into a trap , spent August and September overseeing the construction of a small navy , Fort Crown Point ( a new fort next to the ruins of Fort St. Frédéric ) , and supply roads to the area from New England .
On October 11 , Amherst 's army began to sail and row north on Lake Champlain to attack Bourlamaque 's position at the Île @-@ aux @-@ Noix in the Richelieu River . Over the next two days , one of the French ships was captured ; the French abandoned and burned the others to prevent their capture . On October 18 , he received word of Quebec 's fall . As there was an " appearance of winter " ( parts of the lake were beginning to freeze ) , and provincial militia enlistments were set to end on November 1 , Amherst called off his attack , dismissed his militia forces , and returned the army to winter quarters .
The British definitively gained control of Canada with the surrender of Montreal in 1760 . The fort , which had always been called Ticonderoga by the British ( after the place where the fort is located ) , was held by them through the end of the French and Indian War . Following that war , it was manned by small garrisons until 1775 , when it was captured by American militia early in the American Revolutionary War .
= = Commemorations = =
A major reenactment of French and Indian War events took place at Fort Ticonderoga on June 26 – 27 , 2009 .
= Fabula Nova Crystallis Final Fantasy =
Fabula Nova Crystallis Final Fantasy ( Japanese : ファブラ ノヴァ クリスタリス ファイナルファンタジー , Hepburn : Fabura Nova Kurisutarisu Fainaru Fantajī ) is a series of games within the Final Fantasy video game franchise , developed and published by Square Enix . While featuring various worlds and different characters , each Fabula Nova Crystallis game is ultimately based on and expands upon a common mythos focusing around important crystals tied to deities . The series title translates from Latin as ' The New Tale of the Crystal ' . The original titles in the series were handled by Square Enix 's 1st Production Department , with each development team given the freedom to adapt the mythos to fit the context of a game 's story .
The series , originally announced in 2006 as Fabula Nova Crystallis Final Fantasy XIII , currently consists of six games across multiple platforms . Final Fantasy XIII , designed as the series ' flagship title , was released in 2009 . The creative forces behind the series include many developers from previous Final Fantasy titles , including Shinji Hashimoto and Motomu Toriyama . The mythos was conceived and written by Kazushige Nojima . The first games made for the series were Final Fantasy XIII and Final Fantasy XV ( as Versus XIII ) , with Final Fantasy Type @-@ 0 ( as Agito XIII ) coming later . All three games went through delays . After XIII and Type @-@ 0 's releases , their respective teams used ideas and concepts from development to create additional games . For later games , other studios have been brought in to help with aspects of development .
As of 2015 , five titles have been released in the series , and two further titles , Final Fantasy XV and Final Fantasy Type @-@ 0 Online , are in production . Individual games have generally received a positive reception , although opinions have been more mixed over various aspects of the three XIII games . Reception of the mythos ' use in the released games has also been mixed : while some critics called it confusing or too similar to the lore of the main series , others were impressed by its scope and use . The series is complemented by works in related media , including companion books , novelizations , and manga .
= = Titles = =
= = = Games = = =
Final Fantasy XIII , the thirteenth core Final Fantasy game and the first title in the series . First released in Japan as a PlayStation 3 exclusive in December 2009 , it was released on the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 in North America and Europe in March 2010 . A version of the game for the Xbox 360 , Final Fantasy XIII Ultimate Hits International , was released in Japan in December 2010 . XIII was released as a digital download for Microsoft Windows in October 2014 . The game was designed to be a story @-@ driven single @-@ player role @-@ playing game ( RPG ) , with a battle system designed to emulate the cinematic battles seen in the film Final Fantasy VII : Advent Children .
Final Fantasy Type @-@ 0 ( originally titled Final Fantasy Agito XIII ) was released in October 2011 in Japan for the PlayStation Portable . A high @-@ definition remaster for PlayStation 4 and Xbox One , Final Fantasy Type @-@ 0 HD , was released worldwide in March 2015 . The original game is a real @-@ time action RPG , featuring combat similar to Crisis Core : Final Fantasy VII , and a multiplayer option where online players can take control of characters during the majority of the game . Type @-@ 0 HD features updated graphics and changes to the gameplay , such as lower difficulty and the removal of multiplayer .
Final Fantasy XIII @-@ 2 , a direct sequel to XIII , was released in December 2011 in Japan , and in January and February , 2012 in North America and Europe respectively . In response to criticism the company received from critics and fans about XIII 's linear structure , XIII @-@ 2 was designed to be a more traditional role @-@ playing game , with explorable towns , a nonlinear story structure , mini @-@ games and other traditional features .
Lightning Returns : Final Fantasy XIII , a sequel to XIII and XIII @-@ 2 , was released in November 2013 in Japan , and February 2014 in North America and Europe . It concludes both the story of the main character Lightning and the Final Fantasy XIII story arc . Lightning Returns blends several traditional role @-@ playing features , such as shops , quests and an explorable open world , with an action @-@ oriented combat system .
Final Fantasy Agito , a companion title set in Type @-@ 0 's world , was released in May 2014 in Japan on Android and iOS smartphones . Service ended in November 2015 . A port for the PlayStation Vita was also in development , but has since been cancelled . Agito was an episodic game featuring single @-@ player and multi @-@ player modes , and a social system where the player 's standing with non @-@ playable characters advances their rank in @-@ game .
= = = Upcoming titles = = =
Final Fantasy XV ( originally known as Final Fantasy Versus XIII ) , the fifteenth core Final Fantasy title and the third main title in the subseries , was announced in the same year as XIII and Type @-@ 0 , and will release worldwide on September 30 , 2016 . The game is an action role @-@ playing game with a battle system similar to those from the Kingdom Hearts series and Type @-@ 0 . The game uses open world exploration using both a vehicle and chocobos , along with a camping mechanic linked to gaining experience levels . Its development cycle , beginning in 2006 , lasted ten years .
Final Fantasy Type @-@ 0 Online , a replacement for Agito , is being developed for Android , iOS and Microsoft Windows . It is currently set for release in 2016 . The gameplay features cooperative multiplayer similar to the original multiplayer elements of Type @-@ 0 , along with hack @-@ and @-@ slash gameplay .
= = = Related media = = =
The games have been complemented and expanded upon through other media . For Final Fantasy XIII , a small book of short stories titled Final Fantasy XIII - Episode Zero was released , first through the game 's website and then as a print release in December 2009 . It shows events prior to the game 's opening . A second novella , Episode i , was published via XIII @-@ 2 's official website , bridging the narrative gap between XIII and XIII @-@ 2 . After XIII @-@ 2 's Japanese release , two books were released detailing events not shown or described in the game : Fragments Before , released in December 2011 ; and Fragments After , released in June 2012 . Only Episode i has received an official English translation and release , as a pre @-@ order bonus for the game from American electronics store Best Buy . Lightning Returns was also set to receive a prequel novel by Benny Matsuyama alongside the game 's Japanese release in November 2013 , however this was later cancelled due to the author falling ill . A three @-@ part novella exclusive to Famitsu Weekly magazine titled Final Fantasy XIII Reminiscence : tracer of memories was released across June and July 2014 . It was written by Daisuke Watanabe , who handled the scripts for the XIII games , and takes place immediately after the ending of Lightning Returns . Reminiscence was later released online .
Final Fantasy Type @-@ 0 received a manga adaptation illustrated by Takatoshi Shiozawa . It began publication in the November 2011 of Young Gangan and was collected into a single volume and released in April 2012 . The manga was translated into English and released as part of the western collector 's edition for Type @-@ 0 HD , available exclusively through Square Enix 's online store . A second manga following one of the game 's secondary characters , Final Fantasy Type @-@ 0 Side Story : Reaper of the Icy Blade ( ファイナルファンタジー零式外伝 氷剣の死神 , Fainaru Fantajī Reishiki Gaiden Hyouken no Shinigami ) , began serialization in May 2012 . The latter manga was created by Shiozawa under direct supervision by Tetsuya Nomura . The manga ended in January 2014 , with a bonus chapter released in February of the same year . It will be released in the west in July 2015 , licensed by Yen Press . Two novels detailing an alternate version of Type @-@ 0 , titled Final Fantasy Type @-@ 0 : Change the World ( ファイナルファンタジー零式 Change the World ) , were released in April and June 2012 . Agito received another Change the World novel adaptation focusing on two of the game 's supporting characters . Ultimania guides and companion books have been released for the majority of released games .
XV similarly had additional media released around it , forming a dedicated multimedia expansion dubbed the " Final Fantasy XV Universe " . The majority of its content fleshed out the background for XV 's plot , which would have required multiple video games under normal circumstances . An anime produced by Square Enix and A @-@ 1 Pictures , Brotherhood : Final Fantasy XV , details the backstories of the main cast and how they came to be journeying together . It is being distributed online through the months leading up to the game 's release . A CGI feature film produced by the same team as Advent Children , Kingsglaive : Final Fantasy XV , is set for release in 2016 prior to the game 's own release : it focuses on the main character 's father Regis Lucis Caelum , alongside original characters . While comparing the Final Fantasy XV Universe to the overall structure of Fabula Nova Crystallis , the game 's director defined it as an attempt to make the narrative of XV work in current times rather than attempting to " reinvent " the original concept .
= = Themes = =
The entries in the Fabula Nova Crystallis series share the same mythology , interpreted differently and referred to in varying degrees for each of the game worlds . The mythos ' deities hold similar roles in the games , but are not the same characters in a narrative sense . While the mythos is still present in XV , it was " disconnected " from the " framework " , with specific terminology being removed and its emphasis reduced to become a background element for the world and story . The universes of XIII , Type @-@ 0 and XV are unrelated to each other , though common elements and themes are present . The first is a common narrative theme of harmful interference by the mythos ' deities in the affairs of humans , and those humans ' choice of whether to accept or challenge the predetermined fates given to them . Tetsuya Nomura defined this theme as " a battle of the gods that lies behind each tale and gives it inspiration in a different way " . The second common element is the structure of the Fabula Nova Crystallis universe , which is divided in two : the mortal world , where humans live , and the afterlife or Unseen Realm ( 不可視世界 , Fukashi sekai , lit . " Invisible World " ) .
In the mythology , the god Bhunivelze ( ブーニベルゼ , Būniberuze ) seizes control of the mortal world by killing his mother , the creator goddess Mwynn ( ムイン , Muin ) , who vanishes into the Unseen Realm . Believing that the mortality of the world is Mwynn 's curse , Bhunivelze creates three new deities to search for the gate to the Unseen Realm so he can control both worlds . The first deity , Pulse ( パルス , Parusu ) , is tasked with terraforming the world ; the second deity , Etro ( エトロ , Etoro ) , is discarded because of her resemblance to Mwynn ; the third deity , Lindzei ( リンゼ , Rinze ) , acts as his protector . Bhunivelze then enters a deep sleep , while Lindzei and Pulse carry out their missions . Distraught at being abandoned , Etro kills herself , and humans are born from her blood . Once in the Unseen Realm , Etro finds Mwynn being consumed by a force called chaos , which threatens to destroy reality . As Mwynn fades , she tasks Etro with protecting the balance between the worlds . Etro gives humans pieces of chaos that become their " hearts " . Because humans held chaos within them , they maintained the balance through their death and reincarnation . Since then , humans have either worshiped or feared Pulse and Lindzei , and refer to Etro as the goddess of death .
A recurring race in the games are god @-@ like beings created by Pulse and Lindzei to act as their servants in the mortal world . In the original mythos and the XIII games , the demigods are called fal 'Cie / fælˈsiː / . They take the form of crystal @-@ powered mechanical beings in the XIII games . In the universe of Type @-@ 0 , they are both semi @-@ sentient crystals and humanoid beings living among the people . The fal 'Cie have the ability to imbue chosen humans with magical powers and assign them a task to complete either willingly or unwillingly . XIII and Type @-@ 0 refer to these people as l 'Cie / ləˈsiː / and the task given to them as a Focus . In the worlds of XIII and Type @-@ 0 , there are two possible outcomes for l 'Cie : once their Focus is fulfilled , they can go into ' crystal stasis ' , transforming into a crystal statue , and gain eternal life , but if they fail they become mindless crystalline monsters . In Type @-@ 0 , l 'Cie are chosen by the crystal of their country , and given great power to fulfill their assigned Focus , but lose their memories if emotionally unstable . While not referred to as such using the original terminology , humans imbued with magic exist , one of them being the main protagonist Noctis .
A common element not related to the mythos , themes or plots of the series is the use of Latin in the games ' titles or worlds , often as key words to describing themes and story points : the series ' title translates as ' The New Tale of the Crystal ' , ' Agito ' roughly translates as " to put into motion " , while ' Versus ' translates as both " to turn around " and " against " , which were described as representing key narrative concepts . ' Agito ' was kept within the Type @-@ 0 universe with both an in @-@ universe concept and the title of its prequel . ' Versus ' was used in early trailers for XV after its re @-@ reveal in 2013 , carrying the tagline ' A World of the Versus Epic ' . Commenting on the high use of Latin in XV prior to its public name change , Nomura stated that he wanted a language that was no longer used on a daily basis and that people " won 't be able to understand and yet appreciate " , desiring a sense of general equality .
= = Production = =
= = = Creation = = =
The concept for the Fabula Nova Crystallis series originated while Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 and the original Kingdom Hearts were being completed . Discussing what to do after the completion of Final Fantasy XII , Nomura , Shinji Hashimoto and Yoshinori Kitase decided to build upon the idea of multiple games connected by a single " central theme " . This came from the Compilation of Final Fantasy VII , a multimedia subseries featuring the world and characters of Final Fantasy VII . Whereas the common link in the Compilation was VII , the three chose to use " the tale of new crystals " for the new series , with the mythos connecting the games rather than an overarching narrative . Another key idea behind the mythos was to ease the production of future Final Fantasy games by providing an established mythos . Scenario writer Kazushige Nojima started writing the original mythology for the Fabula Nova Crystallis series in 2003 , finishing it by February 2004 . During his work , he received creative input from game producers Hashimoto and Kitase , as well as Nomura , Motomu Toriyama and Hajime Tabata . Nojima wrote a series bible about the mythology , explaining concepts such as the fal 'Cie and l 'Cie and the feelings of the gods who created them . This bible became the basis for a video animated by Yusuke Naora 's art team to showcase the Fabula Nova Crystallis story in 2011 .
The individual directors are allowed to freely interpret the base mythology when they create their games . When referring to this freedom , Tabata has compared the mythos and the concept behind it to Greek mythology ; a mythology with common themes and deities , but featuring a large variety of unrelated stories . Toriyama conceived a story for Final Fantasy XIII set primarily around the mythos ' deities and their direct relations to the world . Tabata and Nomura both focused more on the human side of the story . Tabata chose to portray the divine elements from a historical standpoint in Type @-@ 0 , while Nomura created a modern @-@ day setting similar to contemporary Earth in XV , referring far less to the mythos ' terminology . Nomura was also appointed as the main character designer for all entries in the subseries . In a 2007 interview , Hashimoto compared the planning of the Fabula Nova Crystallis series to film franchises such as Star Wars and The Lord of the Rings : an expansive brand on which to build multiple Final Fantasy titles planned in advance . The development of all games connected to the mythos was handled by Square Enix 1st Production Department .
= = = Development = = =
Final Fantasy XIII began development in February 2004 . It began as a title for the PlayStation 2 under the codename " Colors World " , however it was moved onto PlayStation 3 after the positively received Crystal Tools engine demo in 2005 and the delayed release of XII . The original titles in the series were XIII and Versus XIII . Agito XIII was conceived later , when Tabata was looking for a new project after finishing Before Crisis : Final Fantasy VII . Originally titled Fabula Nova Crystallis Final Fantasy XIII , the three titles were announced at E3 2006 : Agito XIII was a mobile phone title similar to Before Crisis and the other two were PS3 exclusives . XIII was developed by team members who had also previously worked on Final Fantasy VII , VIII and X , Agito XIII was handled by staff from Before Crisis , while Versus XIII 's development was headed by the team behind the console Kingdom Hearts games . XIII and Versus XIII were intended to form the core of the series , with future games each being a " facet " of XIII .
Agito XIII and Versus XIII both began production in 2006 . By 2008 , Agito XIII had been moved onto the PlayStation Portable , then later renamed Final Fantasy Type @-@ 0 . The stated reason for the change of title was that XIII and Type @-@ 0 shared little besides the core mythos . The title change also resulted in the " XIII " numeral being dropped from the series title as it " would have been an issue " . Late in its development , XIII also changed from being an exclusive when an Xbox 360 version was announced , significantly delaying its release . A port for Microsoft Windows was considered , but not followed up due to platform @-@ specific concerns and the company 's view of the video game market . Later , all three XIII games would receive PC ports through Steam . As early as 2007 , Square Enix considered re @-@ branding Versus XIII as a numbered entry in the main series due to the rapidly growing scale of the project . The game was eventually re @-@ branded in 2011 , though it still used the subseries ' mythos . The game was also moved fully onto eighth generation consoles and developed using the company 's new Luminous Studio engine . The PS3 version was abandoned due to concerns about the console 's continued viability . Type @-@ 0 's western release was delayed due to the flagging PSP market in western territories . A high @-@ definition port to the same platforms as XV was co @-@ developed by Square Enix and HexaDrive , and was eventually announced for a western release . It was developed with the intention of boosting console sales prior to the latter 's release . XV eventually had help from multiple developers , including HexaDrive , XPEC Entertainment , Avalanche Studios and Umbra .
After the release of Final Fantasy XIII , the creators wanted to expand on the game 's setting and tell more stories about the characters , so XIII @-@ 2 and Lightning Returns were developed . For these games , Japanese developer tri @-@ Ace was brought in to help with the games ' design and graphics . The three games and their respective tie @-@ in media were referred to as the " Lightning Saga " by Square Enix staff after the games ' central character . Alongside that , Tabata created Agito around his original ideas for Type @-@ 0 as a mobile title . Agito acted as both a prequel to Type @-@ 0 and an alternate story set within its world . The game was co @-@ developed by mobile game developer Tayutau K. K. Later , Chinese developer Perfect World were brought in to help with Type @-@ 0 Online . A trademark for Final Fantasy Haeresis XIII hinted at another entry , but the trademark expired in 2011 and the company did not renew . While there was speculation that Fabula Nova Crystallis would end with Lightning Returns , Kitase repeatedly stated that there was still room for further titles beyond the XIII universe .
= = Reception = =
The Fabula Nova Crystallis mythos has received mixed reactions from gaming sites . Hardcore Gamer 's Brady Hale called the series " anything but ordinary " in the variety of games it featured . In an article concerning the 25th Anniversary event for the Final Fantasy series , Joystiq 's Ben Gilbert called the Fabula Nova Crystallis mythos " occasionally bizarre and often beautiful " . In 2014 , Jeremy Parish of USGamer said that the series was " much ado about nothing " , stating that since the games shared a large amount of themes and plot points with the main series , there seemed little reason for a distinction . TechnoBuffalo 's Ron Duwell , in an article concerning a documentary video on XV , called the series " overly ambitious " , but felt that it was worth Fabula Nova Crystallis " [ imploding ] upon itself " if XV fulfilled its promises .
Speaking about the XIII games in particular , Parish suggested that their mixed reactions influenced the title changes of other games in the original series , giving the teams a chance to give those games more of their own identity . He also felt that the decision to expand the XIII storyline into multiple games " probably worked out just as well " . The presentation of the mythos and its terms received mixed reactions in XIII , resulting in the production team toning down their use for XIII @-@ 2 . Siliconera writer Spencer Yip , in his review of Lightning Returns , commented that the story and pace of the game was " muddled " by the mythos . In 2016 , RPGFan writer Mike Salbato wrote a retrospective of the XIII games and their version of Fabula Nova Crystallis : he felt that the lack of specific references to the mythos in XIII had harmed general comprehension , and that a reliance on foreknowledge made its sequels difficult to play as standalone titles . In contrast , the portrayal of the mythos in Type @-@ 0 was praised by RPG Site 's Erren Van Duine in an import review of the title , with him saying that " elements such as l 'Cie and fal 'Cie are handled in much more interesting ways " .
Final Fantasy XIII was positively received in Japanese magazines , garnering exceptionally high scores from both Famitsu and Dengeki PlayStation . In the west , the game was praised for its graphics , battle system , and music , but opinions were mixed about its story and it was criticized for its highly linear structure . XIII also won an award for best graphics in GamesRadar 's 2012 Platinum Trophy Awards . XIII @-@ 2 received a positive reception overall , gaining perfect scores from Famitsu and Dengeki PlayStation , and high scores from most western sites . Common points of praise were its non @-@ linear nature , improved battle system and graphics , while the main points of criticism were its story and characters , which were often called weak , confusing or both . Lightning Returns received mixed to positive reviews , with its combat being highly praised , its graphics and time limit mechanic drawing mixed responses , and the story and characters being cited as poorly developed .
Type @-@ 0 had a highly positive reception in Japan , with it garnering near @-@ perfect scores in Famitsu and Dengeki PlayStation . Import reviews were also fairly positive , sharing many points of praise with the Japanese reviews . Type @-@ 0 HD also received a positive reception in the west , with main praise going to the story , characters and action @-@ based gameplay . Other aspects came in for criticism , such as elements of the graphics upgrade , the real @-@ time strategy segments , and the localization . Western previews of Agito have also been positive , with critics agreeing that it looked good on the platform and worked well from a gameplay standpoint .
= = = Sales = = =
XIII broke sales records for the Final Fantasy franchise , selling 1 @.@ 5 million units in Japan on its release day , and a further million a month after its North American release . XIII @-@ 2 was the most purchased title of 2011 in Japan upon release , and reached second and first place in sales charts in the United States and United Kingdom respectively . Lightning Returns had lower first @-@ week sales than its predecessors , but still topped the sales charts in Japan , selling over 277 @,@ 000 units in its first week and over 404 @,@ 000 copies by the end of 2013 . It ranked as third and eighth in the UK and US February sales charts respectively . Approximately 800 @,@ 000 copies were sold by as of November 2014 . The three XIII games have collectively sold 11 million units worldwide . Speaking of the decreasing success of the XIII games and their effect on the Fabula Nova Crystallis series on USGamer , Jeremy Parish felt that the initial backlash received by XIII had turned the " XIII " moniker into " box office poison " .
Type @-@ 0 sold over 472 @,@ 000 units in its first week , and went on to sell over 740 @,@ 000 units in Japan . The title was also added to the company 's list of Ultimate Hits , re @-@ releases of lucrative titles . Type @-@ 0 HD reached the top of the sales charts in its debut week , selling 93 @,@ 000 units , though it ultimately performed poorly in Japan . It was among the ten top @-@ selling games in March for the UK and US . By April , Type @-@ 0 HD had shipped over one million copies worldwide . Agito was highly successful in Japan , achieving 500 @,@ 000 registered users within a week of release . By November of the year of release , the game had received one million downloads .
= SMS Baden =
SMS Baden was a Bayern @-@ class dreadnought battleship of the German Imperial Navy built during World War I. Launched in October 1915 and completed in March 1917 , she was the last battleship completed for use in the war ; two of her sisters — Sachsen and Württemberg — were incomplete when the war ended . The ship mounted eight 38 @-@ centimeter ( 15 in ) guns in four twin turrets , displaced 32 @,@ 200 metric tons ( 31 @,@ 700 long tons ; 35 @,@ 500 short tons ) at full combat load , and had a top speed of 21 knots ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) . Along with her sister Bayern , Baden was the largest and most powerfully armed battleship built by the Imperial Navy .
Upon commissioning into the High Seas Fleet , Baden was made the fleet flagship , replacing Friedrich der Grosse . Baden saw little action during her short career ; the only major sortie in April 1918 ended without any combat . Following the German collapse in November 1918 , Baden was interned with the majority of the High Seas Fleet in Scapa Flow by the British Royal Navy . On 21 June 1919 , Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter ordered the scuttling of the fleet . However , British sailors in the harbor managed to board Baden and beach her to prevent her sinking . The ship was refloated , thoroughly examined , and eventually sunk in extensive gunnery testing by the Royal Navy in 1921 .
= = Construction = =
Baden was ordered under the provisional name Ersatz Wörth in 1912 , under the fourth and final Naval Law , which was passed that year . Construction began at the Schichau @-@ Werke dockyard in Danzig under construction number 913 . The ship was laid down on 20 December 1913 and launched on 30 October 1915 . After fitting @-@ out , sea trials were conducted ; the ship was commissioned into service on 14 March 1917 . She had cost the Imperial German Government 49 million Goldmarks . Baden 's two sisterships , Sachsen and Württemberg , both lay incomplete at the end of World War I and were subsequently scrapped , leaving Baden the last battleship built for the Imperial Navy .
Baden was 179 @.@ 4 m ( 588 ft 7 in ) long at the waterline , and 180 m ( 590 ft 7 in ) long overall . She had a draft of between 9 @.@ 3 – 9 @.@ 4 m ( 30 ft 6 in – 30 ft 10 in ) . Baden displaced 28 @,@ 530 metric tons ( 28 @,@ 080 long tons ) at her designed displacement , which did not include a full load of combat supplies , fuel , and other operational necessities ; at full combat load , she displaced up to 32 @,@ 200 metric tons ( 31 @,@ 700 long tons ) . Baden 's displacement was more than 3 @,@ 000 t ( 3 @,@ 000 long tons ) greater than that of the preceding König @-@ class ships , making her the largest battleship built by the Imperial Navy . Baden was powered by three sets of Schichau steam turbines , which were rated at 34 @,@ 521 shaft horsepower ( 25 @,@ 742 kW ) , and produced a maximum of 55 @,@ 500 shaft horsepower ( 41 @,@ 390 kW ) . Designed speed was 21 knots ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) , but Baden achieved a maximum speed of 22 @.@ 1 knots ( 40 @.@ 9 km / h ; 25 @.@ 4 mph ) .
She was armed with eight 38 cm ( 15 in ) guns arranged in four twin gun turrets : two superfiring turret pairs fore and aft of the superstructure . Baden and her sister Bayern were the first German warships to feature guns of this caliber ; earlier battleships carried either 28 or 30 @.@ 5 cm ( 11 or 12 inch ) guns . Her secondary armament consisted of sixteen 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) guns , six 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 45 in ) guns and five 60 cm ( 23 @.@ 6 in ) underwater torpedo tubes , one in the bow and two on each beam . Upon commissioning , she carried a crew of 42 officers and 1 @,@ 129 enlisted men .
= = Service history = =
After her commissioning into the High Seas Fleet , Baden was placed in the role of flagship for the commander of the fleet , Admiral Franz von Hipper , a position she held until the end of the war . At the end of August 1917 , Baden took Kaiser Wilhelm II to visit the fortified island of Helgoland ; the ship was escorted by the battlecruiser Derfflinger and the light cruisers Emden and Karlsruhe . After the conclusion of the visit , Baden returned the Kaiser to Cuxhaven . The ship struck the sea bottom outside Cuxhaven , though no major damage was done .
= = = Advance of 23 April 1918 = = =
In late 1917 , light forces of the High Seas Fleet began interdicting British convoys to Norway . On 17 October the light cruisers Brummer and Bremse intercepted one of the convoys , sinking nine of the twelve cargo ships and the two escorting destroyers before turning back to Germany . On 12 December , four German destroyers ambushed a second British convoy of five cargo vessels and two British destroyers . All five transports were sunk , as was one of the destroyers . Following these two raids , Admiral David Beatty , the commander of the Grand Fleet , detached battleships from the battle fleet to protect the convoys . The German Imperial Navy ( Kaiserliche Marine ) was now presented with an opportunity for which it had been waiting the entire war : a portion of the numerically stronger Grand Fleet was separated and could be isolated and destroyed . Vice Admiral Franz von Hipper planned the operation : the battlecruisers of the I Scouting Group , along with light cruisers and destroyers , would attack one of the large convoys , while the rest of the High Seas Fleet would stand by , ready to attack the British dreadnought battleship squadron .
At 05 : 00 on 23 April 1918 , the German fleet departed from the Schillig roadstead . Hipper , aboard Baden , ordered wireless transmissions be kept to a minimum , to prevent radio intercepts by British intelligence . At 06 : 10 the German battlecruisers had reached a position approximately 60 kilometers ( 37 mi ) southwest of Bergen when the battlecruiser Moltke lost her inner starboard propeller , which severely damaged the ship 's engines . The crew effected temporary repairs that allowed the ship to steam at 4 kn ( 7 @.@ 4 km / h ) , but it was decided to take the ship under tow . Despite this setback , Hipper continued northward . By 14 : 00 , Hipper 's force had crossed the convoy route several times but had found nothing . At 14 : 10 , Hipper turned his ships southward . By 18 : 37 , the German fleet had made it back to the defensive minefields surrounding their bases . It was later discovered that the convoy had left port a day later than expected by the German planning staff .
On 24 May , Baden again steamed to Helgoland , this time to take the commander in chief of the fleet , Admiral Reinhard Scheer , and Grand Duke Friedrich von Baden to visit the island . Only Karlsruhe joined the ship on this voyage .
= = = Wilhelmshaven mutiny = = =
As the fleet flagship , Baden was to have taken part in a final fleet action days before the Armistice , an operation which envisioned the bulk of the High Seas Fleet sortieing from their base in Wilhelmshaven to engage the British Grand Fleet . In order to obtain a better bargaining position for Germany , Admirals Hipper and Scheer intended to inflict as much damage as possible on the British navy , whatever the cost to the fleet . Consequently , on 29 October 1918 , the order was given to depart from Wilhelmshaven to consolidate the fleet in the Jade roadstead , with the intention of departing the following morning . However , starting on the night of 29 October , sailors on Thüringen mutinied .
Early on the 30th , the crew of Helgoland , which was directly behind Thüringen , joined in the mutiny . Both ships surrendered after two torpedo boats arrived and threatened to open fire , and the battleships ' crews were taken ashore and incarcerated . The mood of Baden 's crew was reported as " dangerous " . The rebellion then spread ashore ; on 3 November , an estimated 20 @,@ 000 sailors , dock workers , and civilians fought a battle against the authorities in Kiel in an attempt to secure the release of the jailed mutineers . Meanwhile , on 9 November , the Socialists ' red flag was hoisted aboard Baden , which finally convinced Hipper and Scheer to abandon the plan .
= = = Scapa Flow = = =
Baden was not originally intended to be surrendered under the terms of the Armistice , but was substituted for the battlecruiser Mackensen , which lay incomplete and could not put to sea . As a result , instead of joining the High Seas Fleet when it departed for Scapa Flow on 21 November 1918 , Baden left Germany on 7 January 1919 . The Royal Navy inspected the ship on 9 January , but many of the technical instruments , including gunnery equipment , had been removed before the ship left Germany .
The fleet remained in captivity during the negotiations in Versailles that ultimately produced the treaty that ended the war . A copy of The Times informed Rear Admiral von Reuter that the Armistice was to expire at noon on 21 June 1919 , the deadline by which Germany was to have signed the peace treaty . Von Reuter came to the conclusion that the British intended to seize the German ships after the Armistice expired . To prevent this , he decided to scuttle his ships at the first opportunity . On the morning of 21 June , the British fleet left Scapa Flow to conduct training maneuvers ; at 11 : 20 Reuter transmitted the order to his ships . Baden was the last major warship to begin the scuttling process , and British forces in the harbor managed to secure the ship and run it aground before it could sink in deeper water . She was the only capital ship not successfully sunk in the scuttling . The ship was refloated in July , after which she was towed to the British naval base at Invergordon .
= = = British service = = =
After the ship arrived in Invergordon , Baden was carefully examined by Royal Navy technicians . Naval engineers inspected the hull , including the screws , bilge keels , and rudders , to determine the water resistance of the hull form . The ship was found to have been approximately as efficient as the British Revenge @-@ class battleships . The ship 's armor system was extensively investigated ; the British team concluded that the ship had not been modified to incorporate the lessons from the Battle of Jutland of 31 May – 1 June 1916 .
The main battery turrets and ammunition magazines were also the subject of intense scrutiny ; among the tests conducted was a trial to see how fast the magazines could be flooded — the result was 12 minutes . The gunnery school HMS Excellent ran loading trials on the main battery guns . It was found that the guns could be prepared to fire in 23 seconds , 13 seconds faster than in the Queen Elizabeth @-@ class battleships . The ship 's watertight bulkhead and underwater protection systems also particularly interested the inspection team ; they paid close attention to the ship 's pumping and counter @-@ flooding equipment . Commander W M Phipps Hornby , who lived on board Baden for weeks during the examination , wrote to the naval historian Arthur Marder in 1969 that it was his " considered opinion — which I know coincided with that of others engaged on the same job — that , considered as a fighting machine , anyhow on balance the Baden was markedly in advance of any comparable ship of the Royal Navy " .
After the inspection was concluded , it was determined to expend Baden as a gunnery target . In January 1921 the first round of gunnery tests was ordered . The gunners at HMS Excellent fired the new armor @-@ piercing ( AP ) shells that had been introduced after the Battle of Jutland . This round of tests was used to determine the most efficient ratio of explosives in the detonator caps ; the shells fired at Jutland had a tendency to fragment when striking heavy armor rather than penetrate . The monitor HMS Terror moored some 500 yd ( 460 m ) away from Baden to fire her 15 in ( 38 cm ) guns from point @-@ blank range . Baden was made to list to starboard by the removal of coal and armor from the port side , to simulate the effect of a shell striking armor from a plunging angle . The forward @-@ most gun turret had by this time been removed . Terror fired 17 shells of various types into the ship . The Royal Navy concluded after these tests that the new shells were sufficiently powerful to penetrate heavy armor , and were much more effective than the previous versions that had been employed at Jutland . Following the tests , heavy seas caused the ship to sink in the shallow water ; after three months she was again raised and docked for repairs . The ship was readied for a second round of testing by August 1921 .
The second series of tests was scheduled for 16 August 1921 . The monitor HMS Erebus fired a mix of shell types into Baden with her 15 in guns . This time , the shells did not perform as well against Baden 's heavy armor ; one of the AP shells failed to explode and two semi @-@ AP shells appear to have broken up on impact . Six aerial bombs were also detonated on the ship , though they had been placed on board and were detonated remotely . The bombs did not perform as well as had been expected . Immediately following the second round of gunnery trials , Baden was scuttled . The ship sank in Hurd Deep in a depth of approximately 180 m ( 600 ft ) .
The most important finding of the trials on Baden was that the 7 @-@ inch ( 18 cm ) thick medium armor was completely useless against large @-@ caliber shells . As a result , the British navy adopted the " all or nothing " armor pioneered by the United States Navy . The " all or nothing " armor theory consisted of protecting the ship 's vitals with extremely heavy armor , while leaving the rest of the ship completely unprotected . This system was used on Britain 's first post @-@ war class of battleships , the Nelson class .
= Aalborg =
Aalborg ( Danish pronunciation : [ ˈʌlb ̥ ɒːˀ ] ) , also spelled Ålborg , is an industrial and university city in the North of Jutland , Denmark . It has an urban population of 112 @,@ 194 , making it the fourth most populous city in Denmark . With a population of 210 @,@ 316 ( as of 1 January 2016 ) , the Municipality of Aalborg is the third most populous in the country after Copenhagen and Aarhus . By road Aalborg is 64 kilometres ( 40 mi ) southwest of Frederikshavn , and 118 kilometres ( 73 mi ) north of Aarhus .
The earliest settlements date to around AD 700 . Aalborg 's position at the narrowest point on the Limfjord made it an important harbour during the Middle Ages , and later a large industrial centre . Architecturally , the city is known for its half @-@ timbered mansions built by its prosperous merchants . Budolfi Church , now a cathedral , dates from the end of the 14th century and Aalborghus Castle , a royal residence , was built in 1550 . Today , Aalborg is a city in transition from a working @-@ class industrial area to a knowledge @-@ based community . A major exporter of grain , cement , and spirits , its thriving business interests include Siemens Wind Power , Aalborg Industries , and Aalborg Portland . These companies have become global producers of wind turbine rotors , marine boilers and cement .
With its theatres , symphony orchestra , opera company , performance venues , and museums such as Aalborg Historical Museum and the Aalborg Museum of Modern Art , Aalborg is an important cultural hub . The Aalborg Carnival , held at the end of May , is one of the largest festivals in Scandinavia , attracting some 100 @,@ 000 people annually . The major university is the University of Aalborg , founded in 1974 , which has more than 17 @,@ 000 students . The University College of Northern Denmark is one of seven new regional organisations while the Royal School of Library and Information Science ( RSLIS ) provides higher education in library and information science . Trænregimentet , the Danish regiment for army supply and emergency medical personnel , is also in Aalborg . Aalborg University Hospital , the largest in the north of Jutland , was founded in 1881 .
The football club Aalborg BK , established in 1885 and based at Nordjyske Arena , won the Danish Superliga in the 1994 – 95 season , the 1998 – 99 season , the 2007 – 08 season and the 2013 – 14 season . Other sports associations include the women 's handball club Aalborg DH , the rugby club Aalborg RK , and Aalborg Cricket Club . Aalborg Railway Station , on John F. Kennedys Plads has connected the city to Randers and the south since 1869 . Aalborg Airport is just 6 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 7 mi ) northwest of the city centre , and the E45 , a European route from Karesuando , Sweden , to Gela , Italy , passes through Aalborg .
The European Commission has concluded that the citizens of Aalborg are the most satisfied people in Europe with their city .
= = History = =
The area around the narrowest point on the Limfjord attracted settlements as far back as the Iron Age leading to a thriving Viking community until around the year 1000 in what has now become Aalborg . In the Middle Ages , royal trading privileges , a natural harbour and a thriving herring fishing industry contributed to the town 's growth . Despite the difficulties it experienced over the centuries , the city began to prosper once again towards the end of the 19th century when a bridge was built over Limfjord and the railway arrived . Aalborg 's initial growth relied on heavy industry but its current development focuses on culture and education .
= = = Beginnings = = =
Aalborg traces its history back over a thousand years . It was originally settled as a trading post because of its position on the Limfjord . The sites of what were two settlements and a burial ground can be seen on Lindholm Høje , a hill overlooking the city . These large settlements , one from the 6th @-@ century Germanic Iron Age , the other from the Viking Age in the 9th to 11th centuries , evolved at the narrowest point on Limfjord as a result of the traffic between Himmerland to the south and Vendsyssel to the north .
The first mention of Aalborg under its original name Alabu or Alabur is found on coins from c . 1040 , the period when King Harthacnut ( Hardeknud ) settled in the area . In c . 1075 , Adam of Bremen reported that Alaburg , as he called it in German , was an important harbour for ships sailing to Norway . In Valdemar 's Danish Census Book from 1231 it was called Aleburgh , possibly meaning " the fort by the stream " as in Old Norse all meant a stream or current and bur or burgh a fort or a castle . The Church of Our Lady in Aalborg was originally built in the early 12th century but was demolished during the Reformation . Grey Friar Convent , on the east side of Østerå , was probably built around 1240 ; it was documented in 1268 when it was a Franciscan Convent of the Order of Friars Minor , but like many other Roman Catholic monasteries and convents was shut down in 1530 as a result of the Reformation .
= = = Middle Ages = = =
Aalborg 's earliest trading privileges date from 1342 , when King Valdemar IV received the town as part of his huge dowry on marrying Helvig of Schleswig . The privileges were extended by Eric of Pomerania in 1430 and by Christopher of Bavaria in 1441 . The town prospered , becoming one of the largest communities in Denmark . Its prosperity increased when the merchant- and trade association Guds Legems Laug was established in 1481 , facilitating trade with the Hanseatic League , especially from 1516 when Christian II granted it a monopoly in salting Limfjord 's herring . The king frequently visited the town , where he held court and stayed in the old Aalborghus . The herring fishery linked Aalborg to the East coast of England , across the North Sea , both in commercial competition and cultural exchange . During the Middle Ages a number of important institutions were established in Aalborg , including Budolfi Cathedral in the late 14th century and the Hospital of the Holy Ghost , a monastery and nunnery founded in 1451 to help those in need . It was converted into a hospital during the Reformation and is still in use today as a nursing home for the elderly .
In 1530 a large part of the town was destroyed by fire , and in December 1534 it was stormed and plundered by the king 's troops after a peasants ' revolt known as the Count 's Feud led by Skipper Clement . It resulted in the death of up to 2 @,@ 000 people . The Reformation in 1536 brought about the demolition of the town 's two monasteries . As a result of the Reformation , Aalborg became a Lutheran bishopric in 1554 .
= = = 17th to 19th centuries = = =
From the 1550s to the 1640s , as a result of increased foreign trade , Aalborg enjoyed great prosperity , second only to that of Copenhagen . The population grew in parallel with the development of many fine buildings in the city as merchants benefitted from their shipping routes from Norway to Portugal . In 1663 , the city suffered yet another serious fire , which destroyed the tower of Budolfi Church .
During the second half of the 18th century , Aalborg entered a further period of prosperity . In Erik Pontoppidan 's Danske Atlas ( Danish Atlas ) it was described as " after Copenhagen , the best and most prosperous market town in Denmark " . The population grew from 4 @,@ 160 in 1769 to 5 @,@ 579 in 1801 . In 1767 , the second newspaper ever published in Denmark appeared in the city .
After Denmark ceded Norway to Sweden in 1814 , Aalborg lost its important role as the country 's centre for Norwegian trade . Its former prosperity also suffered as a result of difficulties with the herring industry as the fish disappeared after the sea breached the Agger Tange ( which had linked Thy with the rest of Jutland at the western end of Limfjord ) in the 1825 North Sea storm . The after effects of the state bankruptcy in 1813 also contributed to widespread poverty in the city . In the mid @-@ 19th @-@ century , Aalborg was overtaken by Aarhus as the largest city in Jutland . Towards the end of the 19th century there was however an upturn . In 1865 , the pontoon bridge over Limfjord was completed , and in 1869 , the railway reached the city with a railway bridge over the sound to Vendsyssel three years later . The harbour facilities were also improved , making Aalborg Denmark 's second port . Aalborg became the country 's main producer of tobacco products and spirits , followed in the 1890s by fertilisers and cement . By 1901 , the population had increased to almost 31 @,@ 500 .
= = = 20th century industrialisation = = =
Around the beginning of the 20th century , as a result of decisions taken by the municipality , many of the city 's half @-@ timbered houses were torn down . They were replaced by hundreds of modern buildings , completely changing the look of the city . Factories with smoking chimneys became ever more prevalent in the outskirts . Among the most important were De Danske Spritfabrikker ( spirits and liquors ) , De forenede Textilfabrikker ( textiles ) , the East Asiatic Company ( trading ) , Dansk Eternit ( building materials ) and C.W. Obel 's tobacco factory ( established in 1787 ) . Aalborg Portland run by F.L. Smidth was one of several cement factories operating in 1913 , together employing some 800 workers . By the 1930s , Aalborg was being promoted as " Denmark 's new centre for industry and workers " . Replanning continued with additional thoroughfares cutting through the city . The port facilities were also improved with the help of a dredger and the opening of new docks . In 1933 , Christian X inaugurated a new bridge over Limfjord to replace the fragile pontoon crossing .
Aalborg Airport , officially opened in 1938 because of the success of the cement industry , had in fact operated flights to Copenhagen since 1936 . During the German invasion of Denmark in 1940 , the airport was captured by German paratroopers on the night of the 21 April as a base for German aircraft flying to Norway . On 13 August 1940 , a dozen Bristol Blenheim bombers of No. 82 Squadron RAF were launched against the Luftwaffe airfield during one of the most disastrous Royal Air Force raids of the war . One turned back because of fuel problems , but all of the remaining 11 were shot down by enemy fighters and / or flak batteries within 20 minutes . After the war , the Royal Air Force destroyed all the German facilities including planes , hangars and equipment but left the passenger facilities intact .
By 1960 , Aalborg had become known as the " city of smoking chimneys " with half of the inhabitants working in industry or manufacturing . Ten years later , Aalborg 's population had grown to around 97 @,@ 000 inhabitants .
= = = Recent history = = =
The significance of Aalborg 's industry began to decline in the 1970s , precipitating a fall in the city 's population until about 1990 when it again began to increase . By the year 2000 , the service and education sectors accounted for about 60 percent of the workforce , partly as a result of the founding of Aalborg University in 1974 . Since 1970 , Aalborg and the northern suburb of Nørresundby have become a major administrative centre , thanks in part to the offices of the Region Nordjylland established in the east of the city . In addition to large industrial companies including Aalborg Portland , the only cement @-@ producing company in the country , and the building products company Eternit , many small and medium @-@ sized enterprises have been established . The telecommunications and information technology sector has developed with the support of Aalborg University and the North Jutland knowledge park NOVI .
The First European Conference on Sustainable Cities and Towns took place in Aalborg in 1994 . It adopted the Aalborg Charter , which provides a framework for the delivery of local sustainable development and calls on local authorities to engage in Local Agenda 21 processes . The Fourth European Sustainable Cities and Towns Conference , held in Aalborg in 2004 , adopted the more binding Aalborg Commitments on local sustainable development . The commitments have now been signed by 650 local authorities while over 2 @,@ 500 have signed the earlier Aalborg Charter .
= = Geography = =
Aalborg is in North Jutland ( northwestern Denmark ) , at the narrowest point of the Limfjord , a shallow sound that separates North Jutlandic Island ( Vendsyssel @-@ Thy ) from the rest of the Jutland Peninsula and connects Aalborg to the Kattegat about 35 kilometres ( 22 mi ) to the east . Aalborg is 118 km ( 73 mi ) north of Aarhus , 82 km ( 51 mi ) north of Randers , and 64 km ( 40 mi ) southwest of Frederikshavn . It is 414 km ( 257 mi ) by Great Belt Fixed Link to Copenhagen , 150 km ( 93 mi ) by the Frederikshavn @-@ Göteborg ferry to Gothenburg in Sweden , and 363 km ( 226 mi ) by the Frederikshavn @-@ Oslo ferry to Oslo in Norway .
The area close to the waterfront is low @-@ lying , with an elevation averaging about 5 metres ( 16 ft ) , but there are many hills in and around city , some reaching over 60 m ( 200 ft ) . Nørresundby , on the northern side of the sound , is also a hilly area . Villages to the south of Aalborg from west to east include Frejlev , Svenstrup , and Gistrup ( which contains extensive woodland to the south as well as a golf club ) . Klarup and Storvorde lie to the southeast along the 595 road , which , flanking a stretch of the Limfjord known as Langerak , leads to the town of Hals . Nibe , with a harbour on the Limfjord , is 21 kilometres ( 13 mi ) to the southwest , past the village of Frejlev . The Nibe Broads ( Nibe Bredning ) in the Limfjord not only has the largest eelgrass belts in Danish waters but is an important sanctuary for thousands of migratory birds . To the north of the city , villages include Vadum , Aabybro , Vestbjerg , Sulsted , Tylstrup , Vodskov , and Hjallerup . There is an extensive plantation , Branths Plantage - Møgelbjerg , immediately north of Vodskov .
The Himmerland region to the south still has a number of moors which once formed a vast area of heathland extending 35 km ( 22 mi ) to the Rold Forest near Arden . Rebild Hills in the Rold Forest stretch over 425 acres ( 172 ha ) of rolling heath country about 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) south of Aalborg . Lille Vildmose , to the southeast , is reported to be the largest high moor in north @-@ western Europe .
= = = The city = = =
The city centre , dating from the Middle Ages , lies on a series of clay banks between the former streams of Vesterå and Lilleå , which used to run into the sound . Despite effective drainage , the main streets , including Algade , still run east to west while the side streets run north to south . The Budolfi Church and the old town hall line Gammeltorv , the old market square . The main shopping streets are Algade and Bispengade , the latter lying inbetween the modern Vesterbro thoroughfare and Nytorv square . Østerågade , once the old harbor , is noted for its merchants ' mansions .
The city cemetery , the Kilden park and the modern art museum , Kunsten , are in the modern commercial and administrative area around the railway station to the west . Beyond this , Hasseris has become a residential district with a number of large villas and detached houses . The city 's main development area is now to the east of the centre although in addition to the university and new areas of housing , it still contains the shipping harbor , Østhavnen , and the cement factory . The waterfront to the northeast of the centre is being transformed from a harbour into a recreational area with the Utzon Center and Musikkens Hus .
= = = Egholm = = =
Off the northwestern side of the city in the sound is the island of Egholm , reached via ferry . The island , with a population of 55 as of 2013 , covers an area of 6 @.@ 05 square kilometres ( 2 @.@ 34 sq mi ) and consists mainly of farmland although there are still a few untilled areas of salt marshes and woodland . Dikes have been built along the coastline to protect the island from flooding . The Kronborg Forest on the island , covering an area of 17 hectares ( 42 acres ) , was acquired by the municipal government in 1945 . A restaurant in the vicinity was established in 1918 but rebuilt in 1946 following a fire . To the west of Egholm is the smaller uninhabited Fruensholm , and there are also three small islands to the north .
= = = Lakes and chalk deposits = = =
There are several man @-@ made lakes nearby : Lindholm Kridtgrav lies to the northwest of Skanse Park on the northern side of Limfjord , while Nordens Kridtgrav to the northwest of Mølleparken is on the southern side . The Aalborg area is one of three in Denmark where chalk deposits are found ( the others being Møns Klint and Stevns ) . The largest quarry is at Rørdal in Øster Sundby ( 6 km ( 4 mi ) to the east of the city centre ) , while Vokslev ( 20 km ( 12 mi ) to the west ) has also provided chalk . Clay is also quarried in Østerådalen in the southern outskirts , making the area ideal for cement production .
= = = Parks and green spaces = = =
The 6 @.@ 5 hectares ( 16 acres ) Østre Anlæg park is one of the oldest in Aalborg , visited by up to 175 @,@ 000 people a year . It was used as a dumping ground in the 1920s before being cleaned up and made into a recreational area in the 1930s and 1940s . It contains lawns , flowers , tall trees , bushes , and a lake , overlooked by St. Mark 's Church on the eastern side . Fifty @-@ one species of bird have been recorded in the park .
Lindholm Fjordpark , to the south of the Lindholm 's industrial park , forms part of the green sector of the city known as ' Ryåkilen ' along the coast of the sound , covering roughly 50 hectares ( 120 acres ) . Like Østre Anlæg , it once served as a waste site with landfill , and a housing estate was built on its northeastern side . Its use as a landfill site was gradually discontinued in the 1990s , and in 1996 , extensive restoration work began . Today it has woodlands and open areas with grass and herbaceous vegetation , notably buckthorn . It is also a habitat for many species of migratory birds such as light @-@ bellied brent geese , curlews , and songbirds . The park is also used by the Nordjysk Windsurfing Club and has a six @-@ hole golf course .
Aalborg has a number of additional civic parks and recreational facilities . Among them are Kildeparken , which hosts the annual Aalborg Carnival , Mølleparken , which contains a pond , statues , an outdoor exercise facility , and a 2 @.@ 5 kilometre ( 1 @.@ 6 mi ) jogging trail ( within the trail lies the Lysløjpen , a 45 metre [ 148 ft ] gradient ) , Sohngårdsholmpark , a wooded area containing trails for both walking / jogging and biking and a six @-@ hole golf course ( free to the public ) , the Aalborg Open Air Swimming Pool , also free to the public , Bundgårdsparken , and Lindholm Strandpark .
The Aalborg Zoo was opened in 1935 and typically houses 1 @,@ 300 animals from 138 different species , including tigers , chimpanzees , zebra , elephants , giraffes , penguins and polar bears . It is one of the area 's major tourist attractions with over 300 @,@ 000 visitors a year . Within the zoo an African savannah has been created where exotic animals are housed .
Aalborg was home to an amusement park , Karolinelund , founded in 1946 . In 2005 , still owned by the founding family , it was sold to an entrepreneur who resold it to the city the following year . When the park closed in 2010 , it was home to 17 attractions . Recently , the city has reopened the park to volunteers who wish to return it to operating status . The park is once again open to the public as a leisure facility but without rides and attractions . The association , Platform4 , a non @-@ profit user @-@ driven project @-@ oriented venue that experiments with technology ( electronics ) in combination with artistic genres is now located in the park . Volunteers frequently arrange seminars , exhibitions , films , music concerts , and more which are open to the public .
= = = Climate = = =
Aalborg is cool most of the year , with average high temperatures of around 20 ° C ( 68 ° F ) and lows of 11 ° C ( 52 ° F ) during the summer , and average temperatures of − 3 to 2 ° C ( 27 to 36 ° F ) during the coldest months of January and February , rarely dropping below − 10 ° C ( 14 ° F ) . The warmest months are typically July and August , with an average temperature of 16 ° C ( 61 ° F ) , but by October the temperature averages 9 ° C ( 48 ° F ) . June has the highest number of hours of sunshine on average at 218 , closely followed by May and July . Precipitation is rather evenly distributed all year around , with an average of 76 mm ( 3 in ) during October , normally the wettest month with an average 14 days with rainfall , and an average of 35 mm ( 1 in ) during February , normally the driest month with an average of eight days of precipitation , closely followed by April .
= = Politics and government = =
Henning G. Jensen , a Social Democrat , was the long @-@ serving Mayor of Aalborg from 1998 until 2013 . He was succeeded by Thomas Kastrup @-@ Larsen , also a Social Democrat , who was elected to the City Council in 1998 .
The civic government in Aalborg consists of seven departments : the Mayor 's Department ( responsible for the titular position , the four Citizen Service Centres in Aalborg , the Financial Services division , the Commercial Services division , the General Services division , and the Fire and Rescue Centre ) ; the Technical and Environmental Department ( responsible for urban planning , transportation oversight , the Parks and Nature division , and the Environmental Division ) ; the Department of Family and Employment ( responsible for Children and Family services , social services , and the city 's " Job Centre " ) ; the Department of Care of the Elderly and Disabled ( responsible for social benefits , senior citizen care , and disabled citizen care ) ; the Department of Education and Cultural Affairs ( responsible for the municipal schools , the public libraries , the Cultural Affairs division , and the city archives ) ; the Health and Sustainable Development Department ( responsible for public health , the Occupational Health and Safety Division , the Public Transportation division , and the Sustainable Development division ) ; and the Utilities Department ( responsible for gas , heating , water , sewage , and refuse collection ) .
Aalborg City Council consists of 31 members , including a mayor . As of September 2013 , 11 of the council seats are held by the Social Democratic Party , nine by Venstre , three by the Socialist People 's Party , two by the Danish People 's Party , and two by the Conservative People 's Party , while three members are professed independents . The council is mandated to hold a minimum of two meetings per month , with meetings of a public forum format .
= = Demographics = =
Aalborg was the largest city in Jutland until it was surpassed by Aarhus in the mid @-@ 19th century . In 1672 , it had 4 @,@ 181 inhabitants , growing slowly during the 18th century , with 4 @,@ 425 in 1769 , 4 @,@ 866 in 1787 and 5 @,@ 579 by 1801 . By 1845 , there were 7 @,@ 477 inhabitants , increasing to 10 @,@ 069 by 1860 . Dramatic growth began in the late 19th century , with an increase from 14 @,@ 152 in 1880 to 31 @,@ 457 in 1901 . By 1930 , the population had grown to 59 @,@ 091 , although the figure was boosted by the merging of Nørre Tranders , Rørdal Fabriksby , Øster Sundby and Øster Uttrup into Aalborg . In 1950 , it reached 87 @,@ 883 , which grew to 100 @,@ 587 by 1970 . There was a temporary decline in population to 94 @,@ 994 in 1976 but in 1981 , following the incorporation of Nørresundby , it grew to 114 @,@ 302 . The population has increased steadily since then ; according to the census of 1 January 2009 , Aalborg had a total of 122 @,@ 461 inhabitants , 101 @,@ 497 of them living in the city and 20 @,@ 964 in the independent suburb of Nørresundby . As of 2015 , the city has a total of 132 @,@ 578 inhabitants ( 110 @,@ 495 in the city proper and 22 @,@ 083 in Nørresundby ) making it the fourth most populous in Denmark after Copenhagen , Aarhus and Odense . Statistics for 2016 showed there were 210 @,@ 316 people living in the Municipality of Aalborg .
= = Economy = =
Aalborg is North Jutland 's major industrial and commercial centre , exporting grain , cement , and spirits . Heavy industry was behind the city 's prosperity until fairly recently . Many of the factories have now closed , to be replaced by developments in the knowledge @-@ based and green @-@ energy sectors . Mobile and wireless communications industries have grown substantially since the 1990s , as has rotor production for wind turbines .
In January 2011 , there were some 9 @,@ 200 enterprises in Aalborg , employing around 109 @,@ 000 people or approximately 35 % of the workforce of the Northern Region . In the 2010s , the city is set on increasing its participation in the global economy through both existing companies and new entrants . Its efforts are focused on four areas : energy and environment , information technology , health support systems and " Arctic business " . The latter covers trade with Greenland as Aalborg handles over 60 % of all goods shipped to Greenland . Four harbours dot the waterfront , Marina Fjordparken , Skudehavnen , Vestre Badehavn , and Østre Havn . Tourism is also growing , with a considerable rise in the number of passengers at Aalborg Airport . Aalborg Municipality has Denmark 's second highest revenue from tourism and is the only municipality in the north of Denmark where overnight stays are increasing .
= = = Major private companies = = =
Telenor Denmark , part of the Norwegian Telenor telecommunications and mobile phone company , has a workforce of about 1 @,@ 100 in Aalborg , making it one of the city 's largest new employers . Siemens Wind Power has rotor @-@ blade production and testing facilities in Aaborg . In 2012 and 2013 , there were additions in both areas . The new testing plant is the world 's largest research test centre for wind turbine technology . In 2012 , the company shipped a record 570 wind turbine blades from the Port of Aalborg , mainly to England and Ireland , up 45 % on the previous year .
Aalborg was home to De Danske Spritfabrikker or Danish Distillers ( now owned by the Norwegian company Arcus ) , which produces numerous brands of akvavit , until 2014 . The company is the world 's largest akvavit producer and exporter . Aalborg Industries , the world 's largest manufacturer of marine boilers , has been established in Aalborg since the 1920s . It has recently expanded into floating production systems for the offshore market . Employing 2 @,@ 600 people , in December 2010 it was acquired by the Swedish Alfa Laval , also a specialist in the area . Aalborg Portland , a subsidiary of the Italian Cementir since 2004 , was founded in 1889 with the support of FLSmidth . Able to draw on the chalk deposits from Rørdal to the east of the city , it rapidly became a major cement producer . Today it is the world 's largest supplier of white cement , which it exports around the globe .
= = = Facilities = = =
Aalborg has a wide selection of shops and restaurants . In the city centre , there are both large department stores and smaller speciality shops . One of the largest shopping malls in Denmark , the Aalborg Storcenter , is to the south of the city in Skalborg . It has about 75 stores , including a large Bilka supermarket . The city has over 300 restaurants , catering in Danish , European and Asian dishes . Notable establishments include Fusion on the waterfront , Mortens Kro , run by celebrity chef Morten Nielsen , and Irish House , a pub in the 17th @-@ century Jens Olufsen 's House . While Aalborg is renowned for its alcohol and nightlife , there are also a number of coffee shops .
Aalborg has 12 large hotels , most within walking distance of the city centre . The Helnan Phønix Hotel is the largest , occupying what was originally built as a lavish private residence in 1783 for a Danish brigadier . It was converted into a hotel in 1853 , and in 2011 had 210 rooms , furnished with dark oak . The Chagall was established in the 1950s and has reproductions of Marc Chagall paintings in the rooms . Radisson Blu Limfjord Hotel , operated by the Radisson Hotels chain , contains 188 rooms and has the Italian restaurant Vero Gusto . The Park Hotel , opposite the railway station , was established in 1917 . Other hotels include Cabinn Aalborg , Hotel Hvide Hus , Hotel Krogen and Prinsen Hotel . Several banks including Danske Bank , Forex , Jyske Bank , Spar Nord and Nordea have branches in Aalborg .
= = Landmarks = =
Despite its industrial background and the factories along its waterfront , the city has gained popularity for tourism in recent years , offering a wide variety of attractions and historic buildings in addition to its museums , churches and parks . See the religion section for details on churches .
= = = Historic buildings = = =
Jens Bang 's House ( Danish : Jens Bangs Stenhus ) , on Østerågade near the old town hall , is one of Denmark 's best examples of 17th @-@ century domestic architecture . Built in 1624 by the Aalborg merchant Jens Bang in the Dutch Renaissance style , the four @-@ story sandstone building is noted for its rising gables and sculpted auricular window decorations . For over 300 years , it has housed the city 's oldest pharmacy .
Jørgen Olufsen 's House ( Jørgen Olufsens Gård ) on Østerågade is Denmark 's best preserved merchant 's mansion in the Renaissance style . Built mainly of sandstone in 1616 , it also has a half @-@ timbered section . The style is reminiscent of similar buildings in the north of Germany and in the Netherlands . Olufsen , Jens Bang 's half brother , was not only a successful merchant but also mayor of Aalborg . When it was built , the residence with its integrated warehouse was on the Østerå , an inlet from the sound with access for barges . The old iron bar with a hook for scales can be seen in the portico .
Aalborghus Castle ( Aalborghus Slot ) is a half @-@ timbered building with red @-@ painted woodwork and whitewashed wall panels . It was built in the mid @-@ 16th century by King Christian III for his vassals who collected taxes and is the only remaining example of its kind in the country . The park , dungeon and casemates , but not the castle itself , are open to the public in the summer months . In the 1950s , the castle was converted into administrative offices .
Aalborg 's old city hall in Gammeltorv , in service until 1912 , was built in 1762 . It is now only used for ceremonial and representative purposes . Designed in the Late Baroque style , the building with its black @-@ glazed tile roof consists of two storeys and a cellar . The yellow @-@ washed façade is decorated with white pilasters and a frontispiece featuring the Danish coat of arms and a bust of King Frederick V. His motto , Prudentia et Constantia , is also seen above the main entrance . The well @-@ preserved door is an example of the Rococo style . The building was listed by the Danish Heritage Agency in 1918 .
Another old building of note is the half @-@ timbered Håndværkerhuset ( at Kattesunded 20 ) from c . 1625 , which originally housed a number of warehouses . It is now used as a centre for arts and crafts . Finally , the headquarters of Danish Distillers ( De Danske Spritfabrikker ) , to the west of the Limfjord Bridge , is noted for its Neoclassical appearance . Completed in 1931 by the architect Alf Cock @-@ Clausen , it combines functionality with decorative classical symbolism . Considered a masterpiece of Danish factory design , it is now a Danish National Heritage site . When the factory closed in 2014 , was the area bought by an investor , who will use the buildings to create an international culture city with museums , theatres , apartments etc .
= = = Other landmarks = = =
Jomfru Ane Gade ( literally Virgin Anne 's Street ) is one of the most famous streets in Aalborg if not in Denmark . Popular for its cafés and restaurants during the day , it is even busier at night with its clubs , discos and bars . During the 1990s , the street was infamously a ' hang out ' of two biker gangs who were at war for some years all over Scandinavia . As the bikers disappeared it became increasingly popular for people of all ages . The pedestrian hubs of Nytorv Square and John F. Kennedy Square in the central city area are also part of the cityscape .
Aalborgtårnet is a tripod tower erected in 1933 with a restaurant on the top . The tower itself is 55 m ( 180 ft ) high ; but as it stands on the top of the Skovbakken hill , it reaches a total height of 105 m ( 344 @.@ 49 ft ) above sea level , providing a view over the sound and the city . Designed by Carlo Odgård , it was erected in 1933 in connection with the North Jutland Fair .
In 2008 , the Utzon Center , its art , architecture and design credited to the noted architect Jørn Utzon , is also dedicated to him . It was built next to the Limfjord at the central harbour front in Aalborg . Born in Copenhagen , Utzon grew up in Aalborg . The centre contains an exhibition on Utzon 's work , which includes the Sydney Opera House , as well as educational displays on architecture and design . The centre consists of several individual buildings creating a special place around a courtyard on a platform . The tall sculptural roofs of the auditorium and the boat @-@ hall , both on the harbour front , and the library facing the park area and the city are set off by the lower roofs of the exhibition and workshop areas inside the complex .
= = Culture = =
The annual Aalborg Carnival usually takes place in the last weekend of May . It consists of three events : the children 's carnival ( Børnekarneval ) , the battle of carnival bands , and the carnival proper . Attracting about 100 @,@ 000 visitors , it is the biggest carnival in Scandinavia and one of the largest in northern Europe . Hjallerup Market in Hjallerup , about 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) northeast of Aalborg is one of the oldest and largest markets in Denmark and is the largest horse market in Europe . Held for three days in the beginning of June , it annually attracts more than 200 @,@ 000 people and 1200 horses .
In 1999 Aalborg was for the first time one of the four host ports in The Tall Ships Race ( then Cutty Sark Tall Ships Race ) of that year . The city hosted the world 's largest event for sailing vessels again in 2004 and 2010 , and will do so for the fourth time in less than two decades when The Tall Ships Races visits Aalborg in early August 2015 .
= = = Major venues = = =
Aalborgs Kongres & Kultur Center , designed in a functional style by Otto Frankild , was completed in 1952 . The centre 's main component , the Aalborg Hall , can be divided into sections . The complex also contains a hotel , restaurant , bowling alley , and a number of meeting rooms . The smaller Europahallen was added in 1991 , making the centre the largest in Scandinavia . With over 100 theatrical and musical presentations per year , it offers international stars , opera , ballet , musicals , classical concerts , productions for children as well as pop and rock concerts . It can accommodate audiences of up to 2 @,@ 500 . Aalborg Teater , built in 1878 and subsequently modified by Julius Petersen , seats 870 in the main auditorium . First privately owned , the theatre is now controlled and owned by the Danish Ministry of Culture . While most productions are housed in the main hall , the building can accommodate up to four shows at once in halls of varying sizes . Over the years , the theatre has produced a wide selection of drama and musicals .
Nordkraft is a cultural centre in a former power plant near the harbour . It has theatres , a cinema , and concert facilities . Kunsthal Nord , established in the centre in 2009 , arranges up to five exhibitions a year of all forms of contemporary art , especially of local origin but also from other parts of Denmark and beyond . It serves as the exhibition centre for KunstVærket , the North Jutland centre for the arts , and also works in collaboration with the modern art museum Kunsten designed by the Finnish architect Alvar Aalto .
In the same neighbourhood , a huge concert hall , Musikkens Hus , designed by Coop Himmelb ( l ) au , opened in 2014 . It is Aalborg 's most ambitious construction project in recent years .
The city also has a wide selection of galleries and arts and crafts outlets operated by local artists . The Academy of Music also has a presence in Aarhus . There are several glass workshops ; others produce jewelry , sculptures or exhibit paintings .
= = = Museums = = =
There are various museums in the city . The Aalborg Historical Museum was established in 1863 , making it one of the earliest provincial museums in the country . The North Jutland Historical Museum conducted a series of archaeological excavations in the 1950s at Lindholm Høje , revealing ancient burial sites . In 1992 , the Lindholm Høje Museum was opened there and extended in 2008 . In 1994 and 1995 , excavations at the site of the Greyfriars Monastery resulted in the creation of the underground Gråbrødrekloster Museum in the city centre . Several organisations now collaborate under the leadership of the North Jutland Historical Museum . The Springeren - Marine Experience Center is a marine museum on the city 's wharf with a wide range of exhibits including " Springeren " , an old Danish submarine , whence its name . The Aalborg Defence and Garrison Museum documents Danish defences during the Second World War as well as the history of Aaborg 's garrison since 1779 . The KUNSTEN Museum of Modern Art Aalborg was built from 1958 to 1972 ; the collection consists of around 1 @,@ 500 art objects , including paintings , sculptures and other media .
= = = Music = = =
The Aalborg Symphony Orchestra ( Aalborg Symfoniorkester ) founded in 1943 presents about 150 concerts a year , frequently playing in the Musikkens Hus . It also plays for the Jutland opera company ( Den Jyske Opera , also based in Aalborg ) , and at the Royal Danish Theatre in Copenhagen . It is one of the main organisers of the 10 @-@ day Aalborg Opera Festival held every March . Aalborg has the jazz club Jazzclub Satchmo and an annual jazz and blues festival ( Den Blå Festival ) , also known as the Mini New Orleans Festival . Over four days in mid @-@ August , concerts are performed on squares , in the streets , and in cafés and restaurants . Since 2012 , the Egholm Festival , a small music festival on the island of Egholm near Aalborg has been organized in the first weekend of August . It features relatively unknown upcoming pop , rock and hip @-@ hop artists . The festival has two stage areas and was organized by the Musical Association Aalborg ( MUSAM ) and Aalborg Events .
= = Religion = =
= = = Lutheranism = = =
The principal religion in Aalborg as in the rest of Denmark is Christianity . Aalborg is the seat of a bishop within the Lutheran State Church of Denmark . The cathedral of this bishopric is the Budolfi Church , originally built no later than 1132 by Viborg 's Bishop Eskil . This church was considerably smaller than the current one , as it was merely a parish church . The existing structure was completed in the late 14th century , on the grounds of the former church , and was listed for the first time in the Atlas of Denmark in 1399 . The church was named after St Botolph , an English abbot and saint . The church is constructed in the Gothic style . In 1554 Aalborg was made a diocese and , after consideration , St Budolfi Church was made the seat of the Bishop of Aalborg . Aalborg is also home to the former Catholic church , the Abbey of Our Lady , converted from a Benedictine nunnery .
= = = = Churches = = = =
The present Budolfi Church , which has the status of a cathedral , dates from the end of the 14th century , although at least two earlier churches stood on the same spot . Built in the Gothic style , it consists of a nave flanked by two aisles , a tower , and a porch . After the original tower was destroyed by fire in 1663 , the striking new Baroque tower , based on that of an earlier Copenhagen city hall , was completed in 1779 . The church has 16th @-@ century frescoes and an intricately carved early Baroque altarpiece from 1689 created by Lauridtz Jensen .
Abbey of Our Lady ( Vor Frue Kirke ) was designed in 1878 by J.E. Gnudtzmann in the Neo @-@ Romanesque style . The original Church of Our Lady from the early 12th century was pulled down after the Reformation because it was old and unstable , but the 12th @-@ century tower and the original portal with sculpted decorations can still be seen . The carved pulpit dates to around 1581 .
As a result of the considerable population increase from the end of the 19th century , a number of new churches were built in various styles . Next to Aalborg Hall , Ansgar 's Church with its tall tower was built in 1929 to a design by Hother August Paludan in a modern Baroque style . St Mark 's Church ( Sankt Markus Kirke ) , completed in 1933 , was designed by Einar Packness . Its tower is crowned by an imposing spire . The Biblical figures known as the Johannes Group ( based on Christ 's meeting with John the Baptist in Matthew , Chapter 3 ) sculpted by Bertel Thorvaldsen are displayed around the interior . The Margrethe Church with its steeply sloping roof reaching 22 m ( 72 ft ) is the work of Carlo Odgaard and Aaby Sørensen . Bent Exner designed some of the artefacts in the church including the crucifix over the altar .
= = = = Cemeteries = = = =
Aalborg 's cemeteries have a history dating to the end of the Middle Ages . Sankt Jørgens Kirkegård ( St George 's Cemetery ) was on the corner of Hasserisgade and Kirkegårdsgade . The site was chosen in a district outside the city as it provided isolation for those affected by the plague , many of whom died in the neighbouring hospice , Sankt Jørgens Gårde . In 1794 , a new cemetery was opened in Klostermarken , immediately to the south of Sankt Jørgens Kirkegård . It was further extended in 1804 , 1820 and 1870 . It is now known as Aalborgs Almen Kirkegård ( meaning " common cemetery " ) and contains the graves of many of the city 's most notable citizens .
= = = Judaism = = =
Aalborg had a synagogue , built in 1854 ; and the Jewish rabbi Salomon Mielziner served it for 35 years . Services were no longer offered after Mielziner died , and in 1924 the synagogue was donated to the city government , which began using it to store the city archives ( Stadsarkivet ) . It was burned down by the Schalburg Corps in April 1945 towards the end of World War II , destroying its centuries @-@ old Torahs . Anti @-@ semitism continues to exist in Denmark , and in 1999 , an unlicensed Nazi radio station began operating from a neo @-@ Nazi stronghold in Fynen , Nørresundby , within Aalborg municipality . The activity has been widely denounced with organized opposition in Aalborg and the rest of Denmark , and in February 1999 , 12 anti @-@ fascists were arrested for possession of explosives at their base in Fynen .
= = Education = =
The major university in Aalborg is the University of Aalborg , founded in 1974 . It has more than 17 @,@ 000 students and more than 3 @,@ 000 employees . In 2012 , 3 @,@ 000 new students started at the university . In 1995 it merged with Esbjerg Engineering College . The university has attempted from the outset to " develop a more “ relevant ” form of education than was then being offered by the established universities " . It has sought to develop what is known as " contextual knowledge " , a form of problem @-@ based learning based around the project work conducted by students , rather than the curriculum focusing on traditional academic disciplines .
The University College of Northern Denmark is one of seven new regional organisations ( professionshøjskoler ) of different study sites in Denmark offering courses normally at the bachelor level . The Royal School of Library and Information Science ( RSLIS ) provides higher education in library and information science ; one of its two departments is in Aalborg . With about 4 @,@ 500 students a year and 700 employees , Tech College Aalborg offers a wide spectrum of vocational training and runs Aalborg Tekniske Gymnasium . Aalborg Business College provides basic training in retail and trading for private enterprises and the public sector , with courses which cover information technology , economics , sales and communication , and languages .
The island of Egholm contains the former Egholm Skole , which was closed in 1972 when a ferry service to Aalborg was established and children on the island began attending the Vesterkæret Skole in Aalborg . Today the old school on Egholm is run as a school camp by the City of Aalborg , with 18 beds and facilities for 60 people . Skipper Clement International School is a private school for children between 6 and 16 . The international department conducts its classes in English , the first to be established in the Jutland peninsula , but it does have department which educates in Danish , like the public schools in Denmark .
= = Sport = =
The city is home to Aalborg BK , established in 1885 and known as " AaB " for short . The club has won the Danish championship ( Superliga ) four times in recent years ( 1995 , 1999 , 2008 , 2014 ) . The team qualified for the group stages of the 1995 – 96 and 2008 – 09 UEFA Champions League seasons . Aalborg Chang is a Danish amateur association football club , previously known as FC Nordjylland .
Aalborg is also known for the women 's handball club Aalborg DH , and the men 's handball club Aalborg Håndbold . Established in 2001 and 2011 , respectively , they both play their games in the Gigantium . Rugby in Aalborg is represented by Aalborg RK Lynet ( Lightning ) , established in 1964 . The city also has the Aalborg Cricket Club , which is part of the Danish Cricket League . They were established in 2000 and have players from various nations .
Aalborg Tennisklub is located along the Kastetvej road in the centre of Aalborg . About 10 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) to the southwest of the city , near the hamlet of Restrup Enge , is Aalborg Golf Klub . Aalborg Golf Klub is the second oldest golf club in Denmark , and was originally established in 1908 in the eastern part of Aalborg . In 1929 it moved to Sohngaardsholm , but 30 years later the course had to again move because of developments with the university . The present course to the southwest of Aalborg was designed in 1968 by Graham Lockey and Commander John Harris as a 9 @-@ hole course , later expanded to 18 holes in 1976 and 27 in 2006 . In 2010 the club hosted the European Girls Team Golf Championships . Another course , Ørnehoj Golfklub , is at the southeastern limits of the city , in the village of Gistrup .
On 11 September 1977 , Aalbord hosted the Final of the Long Track World Championship for Motorcycle speedway . The Final was won by Swedish rider Anders Michanek . He defeated West Germany 's Hans Seigl and Denmark 's own speedway hero Ole Olsen .
= = Transport = =
On the north side of the Limfjord is Nørresundby , connected to Aalborg by the Limfjordsbroen road bridge , which was inaugurated in 1933 , replacing a pontoon bridge which dated to 1865 . The iron Limfjord Railway Bridge , inaugurated in 1938 , is a nine @-@ span bascule bridge . It opens 4 @,@ 000 times a year , allowing around 10 @,@ 000 vessels to sail under it . Opening in 1969 as the first motorway tunnel to be built in Denmark , the Limfjord Tunnel is 582 m ( 1 @,@ 909 ft ) long and has three lanes in each direction . It forms part of the E45 , stretching from Karesuando , Sweden , to Gela , Italy .
Aalborg Airport is 6 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 7 mi ) northwest of the city centre . With its two runways , it has 20 direct routes to destinations in Denmark , Norway , the Netherlands , the UK , Spain , and Turkey , along with seasonal flights to additional Spanish destinations and the Faroe Islands . Processing 1 @.@ 4 million passengers a year , the airport is the third largest in Denmark . The Aalborg Air Base , an important Danish Air Force facility , occupies part of the extensive airport area . The Port of Aalborg is northern Denmark ’ s main import / export hub , operated by Aalborg Havn A / S on the Limfjord . Two additional private harbours serve the cement factory , Aalborg Portland A / S , and the power station , Vattenfall A / S.
The city 's main train station , Aalborg Railway Station , is on John F. Kennedys Plads . It opened in 1869 , when the Aalborg to Randers railway was inaugurated . The original station building was designed by N.P.C. Holsøe while the present building , which opened in 1902 , was designed by Thomas Arboe . Aalborg Railway Station is operated by Banedanmark and DSB . Other rail stations in Aalborg are Skalborg Station , Aalborg Vestby Station and Lindholm Station . There are regular bus services covering the inner city as well as the wider urban area .
Cycling is also relatively popular in Aalborg . Statistics for 2012 indicate 44 % of the population use their bicycles several times a week while 27 % of the workforce cycle to work . The municipal authorities hope to increase the use of bicycles by providing better cycle tracks and parking facilities , as well as improved support services . City bikes are provided free of charge in Aalborg and Nørresundby from April to November with numerous stands throughout the area .
= = Healthcare = =
Aalborg University Hospital , the largest in the north of Jutland , was founded in 1881 . As of 2013 , it consists of two large buildings in Aalborg , the hospital in Dronninglund and smaller departments in Hobro and Hjørring . It is the largest employer in the area with around 6 @,@ 500 on the payroll . The hospital has traditionally undertaken research but from the beginning of 2013 it has had a formal collaboration with Aalborg University . A new building , designed by schmidt hammer lassen architects and to be completed by 2020 , will provide 134 @,@ 000 m2 ( 1 @,@ 440 @,@ 000 sq ft ) for hospital buildings and 17 @,@ 000 m2 ( 180 @,@ 000 sq ft ) for the university 's Faculty of Health . The Aalborg University Hospital , section south , is on Hobrovej and has a 24 @-@ hour emergency ward . The northern section is in Reberbanegade , which is in the western part of the city centre . Trænregimentet , the Danish regiment for army supply and emergency medical personnel , is also in Aalborg .
= = Media = =
Nordjyske Stiftstidende , published in Aalborg , is Denmark 's second oldest newspaper founded in 1767 as Nyttige og fornøyelige Jydske Efterretninger . It was later known as Aalborg Stiftstidende ( until 1999 ) . In 1827 , it merged with Aalborg 's second newspaper Aalborgs Stifts Adresse @-@ Avis . The paper now serves the whole of Vendsyssel and most of Himmerland and has local editions in Aalborg , Hjørring , Hobro , Frederikshavn , Fjerritslev , and Skagen and Brønderslev .
ANR ( also Aalborg Nærradio and Alle Nordjyders Radio ) is a local radio station operated by Nordjyske Medier , owner of Nordjyske Stiftstidende . The TV news channel , 24Nordjyske ,
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is operated by the same firm .
= = International relations = =
= = = Twin towns – sister cities = = =
Aalborg maintains cultural , economic and educational ties with 33 cities around the globe , more than any other city in Denmark . Every four years Aalborg gathers young people from most of its twin cities for a week of sports , known as Ungdomslegene ( Youth Games ) .
= = Notable people = =
Among those who contributed to Aalborg 's prosperity in the 19th century were Poul Pagh who significantly developed trade and shipping , and Christen Winther Obel who increased production at the C.W. Obel tobacco factory until it became the city 's main employer . Another important figure of the times was Marie Rée who ran the local newspaper Aalborg Stiftstidende until 1900 , often promoting women 's rights .
More recently , the actor and script @-@ writer Preben Kaas ( 1930 – 1981 ) , who was born in Aalborg , starred in over 50 Danish films . Among the city 's many sporting figures , Peter Gade ( born 1976 ) stands out as one of the world 's most successful badminton players . On the cultural side , Jørn Utzon ( 1918 – 2008 ) , designer of the Sydney Opera House , grew up in Aalborg ; the iconic Utzon Center which he inspired now serves as a museum for his architectural designs and offers courses of study based on his approach .
= History of KFC =
KFC ( Kentucky Fried Chicken ) was founded by Colonel Harland Sanders , an entrepreneur who began selling fried chicken from his roadside restaurant in Corbin , Kentucky , during the Great Depression . Sanders identified the potential of restaurant franchising , and the first " Kentucky Fried Chicken " franchise opened in Salt Lake City , Utah in 1952 . KFC popularized chicken in the fast @-@ food industry , diversifying the market by challenging the established dominance of the hamburger . Branding himself " Colonel Sanders " , the founder became a prominent figure of American cultural history , and his image remains widely used in KFC advertising . The company 's rapid expansion made it too large for Sanders to manage , so in 1964 he sold the company to a group of investors led by John Y. Brown , Jr. and Jack C. Massey .
KFC was one of the first fast @-@ food chains to expand internationally , opening outlets in England , Mexico and Jamaica by the mid @-@ 1960s . Throughout the 1970s and 80s , KFC experienced mixed success domestically , as it went through a series of changes in corporate ownership with little or no experience in the restaurant business . In the early 1970s , KFC was sold to the spirits distributor Heublein , which was taken over by the R.J. Reynolds food and tobacco conglomerate , which later sold the chain to PepsiCo . The chain continued to expand overseas , and in 1987 KFC became the first Western restaurant chain to open in China .
In 1997 , PepsiCo spun off its restaurants division as Tricon Global Restaurants , which changed its name to Yum ! Brands in 2002 . Yum has proved a more focused owner than Pepsi , and although KFC 's number of outlets have declined in the US , the company has continued to grow in Asia , South America and Africa . The chain has expanded to 18 @,@ 875 outlets across 118 countries and territories , with 4 @,@ 563 outlets in China alone , KFC 's largest market .
= = Origin = =
Harland Sanders was born in 1890 and raised on a farm outside Henryville , Indiana . His father died in 1895 , and to make ends meet his mother took work at a canning plant . As the eldest child at the age of five , Sanders was left to care for his two siblings . When he turned seven his mother taught him how to cook . After leaving the family home at age 13 , Sanders pursued several professions including railroad worker and insurance salesman , with mixed success . In 1930 , he took over a Shell filling station on US Route 25 just outside North Corbin , a small city on the edge of the Appalachian Mountains . By June , he had converted a storeroom into a small eating area using his own dining table , serving meals such as steaks and country ham to travelers .
In 1934 , Sanders took over the lease of the Pure Oil filling station on the other side of the road , due to its greater visibility for motorists . He then began to sell fried chicken . To improve his skills , Sanders took an eight @-@ week restaurant @-@ management course at the Cornell University School of Hotel Administration . By 1936 , his business had proved successful enough for him to be given the honorary title of Kentucky colonel by Governor Ruby Laffoon . In 1937 , Sanders expanded his restaurant to 140 seats , and in 1940 purchased a motel across the street , the Sanders Court & Café .
Sanders was dissatisfied with the 35 minutes it took to prepare his chicken in an iron frying pan , but he did not want to deep fry . Although a much faster process , in Sanders ' opinion it produced dry and crusty chicken that was unevenly cooked . On the other hand , if he prepared the chicken in advance of an order , there was sometimes waste at the end of the day . In 1939 , the first commercial pressure cookers were released onto the market , predominantly designed for steaming vegetables . Sanders bought one and modified it into a pressure fryer , which he then used to prepare chicken . The new method reduced production time to be comparable with deep frying , yet , in Sanders ' opinion , retained the quality of pan @-@ fried chicken . In July 1940 , Sanders finalized what came to be known as his Original Recipe of 11 herbs and spices . Although he never publicly revealed the recipe , he admitted to the use of salt and pepper , and claimed that the ingredients " stand on everybody 's shelf " .
After being recommissioned as a Kentucky colonel in 1950 by Governor Lawrence Wetherby , Sanders began to dress the part , growing a goatee and wearing a black frock coat ( later switching to a white suit ) , a string tie , and referring to himself as " Colonel " . His associates went along with the title change , " jokingly at first and then in earnest " , according to biographer Josh Ozersky .
= = Early franchisees = =
The Sanders Court & Café generally served travelers , so when the route planned in 1955 for Interstate 75 bypassed Corbin , Sanders sold his properties and traveled the US to market his chicken concept to restaurant owners . Independent restaurant owners would pay four cents on each chicken sold as a franchise fee ( later increased to five cents ) , in exchange for Sanders ' " secret blend of herbs and spices " , his recipe and method , and the right to advertise using his name and likeness . In 1952 he had already successfully franchised his chicken recipe to Pete Harman of South Salt Lake , Utah , the operator of one of the largest restaurants in the city .
Don Anderson , a sign painter hired by Harman , coined the name " Kentucky Fried Chicken " . Sanders adopted the name because it distinguished his product from the deep @-@ fried " Southern fried chicken " product found in restaurants . Harman claimed that in his first year of selling " Kentucky Fried Chicken " , his restaurant sales more than tripled , with 75 percent of the increase coming from the sale of fried chicken . In Utah , a product from Kentucky was exotic and evoked imagery of Southern hospitality .
As a franchise @-@ led operation , KFC 's success depended on the work of the early franchisees , and Harman has been described as the " virtual co @-@ founder " of the chain by Sanders ' biographer . Harman trademarked the phrase " It 's finger lickin ' good " , which was eventually adopted as a slogan across the entire chain . In 1957 Harman bundled 14 pieces of chicken , five bread rolls and a pint of gravy into a cardboard bucket , and offered it to families as " a complete meal " for US $ 3 @.@ 50 ( around US $ 30 in 2014 ) . He first test @-@ trialled the packaging as a favor to Sanders , who had called on behalf of a Denver franchisee who did not know what to do with 500 cardboard buckets he had bought from a traveling salesman .
By 1956 , Sanders had six or eight franchisees , including Dave Thomas , who eventually founded the Wendy 's restaurant chain . Thomas developed the rotating red bucket sign , was an early advocate of the take @-@ out concept that Harman had pioneered , and introduced a bookkeeping form that Sanders rolled out across the entire KFC chain . Thomas sold his shares in 1968 for US $ 1 million ( around US $ 7 million in 2013 ) , and became regional manager for all KFC restaurants east of the Mississippi before founding Wendy 's in 1969 .
In 1956 , Sanders moved the company headquarters from Corbin to Shelbyville , Kentucky , which offered superior transport links through which he could distribute his spices , pressure cookers , take @-@ out cartons and advertising material to franchisees .
= = Sale by Sanders and rapid growth = =
KFC popularized chicken in the fast food industry , diversifying the market by challenging the established dominance of the hamburger . In 1960 the company had around 200 franchised restaurants ; by 1963 this had grown to over 600 , making it the largest fast food operation in the United States . In 1963 , Sanders met John Y. Brown , Jr , a young Kentucky encyclopaedia salesman , who explained that he was keen to join the company . Sanders instead proposed the sale of the company , as business skills did not come naturally to him , and he lacked an obvious or willing heir among his relatives .
Lacking sufficient funds himself , Brown convinced the financier Jack C. Massey to provide 60 percent of the acquisition capital , and provided a major contribution himself , with smaller contributions from franchise holder Pete Harman and company officials Lee Cummings and Harlan Adams . Sanders then began to have doubts about selling the company , as some members of his family were against it . The group acquired the company in 1964 for US $ 2 million ( around US $ 15 million in 2013 ) . The contract included a lifetime salary for Sanders and the agreement that he would be the company 's quality controller and trademark .
Massey and Brown introduced standardization to the fragmented company . After visiting Pete Harman 's operations in Utah , they began to implement the stand @-@ alone take @-@ out model across the entire chain . Franchisees were ordered to delist their own menu items so that they could concentrate on KFC products . The restaurants were re @-@ branded with a distinctive red @-@ and @-@ white striped color pattern and mansard roofs with cupolas . The roll @-@ out of freestanding stores accelerated the company 's growth as outlets exclusively selling fried chicken proved to be more appealing to potential franchisees .
Despite selling the company , Sanders retained significant moral authority over executives and franchisees , and made his feelings clear when he disagreed with corporate decisions . When Massey moved company headquarters from Kentucky to Nashville , Tennessee , Sanders was quoted as saying , " This ain 't no goddam Tennessee Fried Chicken , no matter what some slick , silk @-@ suited son @-@ of @-@ a @-@ bitch says " . He believed that the company had reneged on their contract with him when they opened operations in Canada , arguing that the contract had granted him the exclusive rights to operate there . KFC was forced to renegotiate with Sanders regarding the Canadian activities , as he owned $ 1 @.@ 5 million worth of stock and was using it to prevent Massey from listing the company publicly until his points of issue were addressed . Brown and Massey claimed that Sanders only had the rights to process chicken in Canada . After they renegotiated the contract to guarantee Sanders exclusive rights over Canada , he sold his stock to them , and the company went public in 1966 . After going public , the company bought out its 600 franchisees , and directly operated them itself . Later that year , Massey resigned from day @-@ to @-@ day management of the company ( although he remained as chairman ) , and Brown announced that headquarters would be moved to Louisville , Kentucky .
By 1967 , KFC had become the sixth largest restaurant chain in the US by sales volume , and 30 percent of sales were take @-@ out . Brown felt that the company had to expand quickly , or else emerging rivals such as Church 's Chicken would steal the company 's lead ; 863 outlets were opened in 1968 . The company 's growth pushed its stock value to " stratospheric " levels , according to Reuters , and in 1969 it was listed on the New York Stock Exchange . Meanwhile , KFC entered into ventures with other companies . Brown believed that the Colonel Sanders brand could be used to market anything , and launched the " Kentucky Roast Beef " restaurant chain , and " Colonel Sanders Inns " motels . The two ventures quickly failed , although the roast beef chain had 100 outlets by 1970 . That same year , KFC entered a joint venture with the California @-@ based fish and chips chain H. Salt Esquire , which proved more successful , but was sold off in 1980 .
Massey resigned as chairman of the company in March 1970 , and Brown took over his role . The chain had reached 3 @,@ 000 outlets in 48 different countries by 1970 , but expansion was often chaotic and poorly executed . When he was promoted to regional manager , Dave Thomas complained that the company had become too " corporate " , sent him " a lot of Mickey Mouse memos " and that Brown lacked motivational skill . A member of KFC senior management described the international strategy as " throwing some mud against the map on the wall , and hoping some of it would stick . " The first outlet in Japan was opened after just two weeks preparation , and it proved to be a costly failure , losing $ 400 @,@ 000 during its opening month and wasting more chicken than it sold . Operational problems became clear in July 1971 , after the company reported its first ever profit loss from the prior six @-@ month period .
= = Heublein and strained relations with Sanders ; R.J. Reynolds = =
Once too large for Sanders to manage , Kentucky Fried Chicken grew to overwhelm John Y. Brown as well . In July 1971 , Brown sold the company to the Connecticut @-@ based Heublein , a packaged food and drinks corporation , for US $ 285 million ( around US $ 1 @.@ 6 billion in 2013 ) . Brown personally gained around $ 35 million from the sale . Reuters opined that the takeover probably saved the company from disaster . Heublein planned to increase KFC 's volume with its sales and marketing expertise .
Meanwhile , Church 's Chicken began taking KFC 's market share by offering indoor seating and its " Crispy Chicken " product . KFC introduced its own " Extra Crispy Chicken " in 1972 . The introduction of barbecue spare ribs in 1973 caused " tremendous " operating problems . After the product was launched there was a shortage of pork , which pushed prices beyond what customers were willing to pay . When management withdrew the product , they realized that fried chicken sales had been decreasing . Meanwhile , Sanders increasingly regretting selling the company , and his relationship with the new owners had soured . He began to complain of the company 's declining food quality to the media :
My God , that gravy is horrible ! They buy tap water for 15 @-@ 20 cents a thousand gallons and then they mix it with flour and starch and end up with pure wallpaper paste ... And another thing . That new crispy recipe is nothing in the world but a damn fried doughball stuck on some chicken .
The outburst prompted a KFC franchisee in Bowling Green , Kentucky , to unsuccessfully attempt to sue Sanders for libel . In 1973 , Heublein attempted to sue Sanders after he opened a restaurant in Shelbyville , Kentucky , under the name of " Claudia Sanders , the Colonel 's Lady Dinner House " . In retaliation , Sanders attempted to sue Heublein for US $ 122 million ( around US $ 570 million in 2013 ) over the alleged misuse of his image in promoting products he had not helped develop , and for hindering his ability to franchise restaurants . A Heublein spokesman described it as a " nuisance suit " . In 1975 , Heublein settled out of court with Sanders for US $ 1 million ( around US $ 4 million in 2013 ) , and allowed his restaurant venture to go ahead under the reworked name : " Claudia Sanders Dinner House " .
Heublein had no previous experience in the operation of fast food outlets . Overconfidence led KFC to fail in such overseas markets as Hong Kong , which the company abandoned in 1975 after two years in operation . Sanders continued to attack Heublein publicly , and in 1976 complained that the company " doesn 't know what it 's doing " and that it was " downright embarrassing " to have his image associated with such a poor quality product . The 800 company @-@ owned stores had become unprofitable by 1978 .
Heublein promoted Michael A. Miles to run the chain in 1977 and Miles is credited with saving the ailing company by instituting its back @-@ to @-@ basics formula . Miles refurbished the stores , and introduced indoor seating and drive @-@ thru windows . Electronic tills produced daily customer counts , inventories and profit and loss statements , so that problems could be identified quickly . KFC expanded internationally in the 1970s and 80s , particularly in Japan , Australia and the United Kingdom . Miles also lured Sanders back , and listened to his recommendations for the business . Subsequent changes resulted in 30 months of consecutive per store sales increases by late 1980 .
Sanders died in 1980 from pneumonia at the age of 90 , having continued to travel 200 @,@ 000 – 250 @,@ 000 miles a year up to this time , largely by car , promoting his product . By branding himself as " Colonel Sanders " , Harland became a prominent figure of American cultural history , and his image remains widely used in KFC advertising .
There were 5 @,@ 800 KFC outlets worldwide by 1983 , located across 55 different countries . That year , General Cinema Corporation acquired 18 percent of Heublein , who , fearing a hostile takeover , approached R. J. Reynolds , the tobacco firm , to act as a white knight and acquire the company for $ 1 @.@ 3 billion . That year , Michael Miles resigned as chairman of KFC to take the role of CEO at Kraft Foods , and Richard Mayer took over his role . Reynolds had to contend with the introduction of Chicken McNuggets across the McDonald 's chain in 1983 ; KFC introduced its own brand of chicken nuggets , called " Kentucky Nuggets " in 1985 . In 1984 , Reynolds dedicated $ 168 million for capital expansion at KFC .
= = Acquisition by PepsiCo = =
In July 1986 , Reynolds sold KFC to PepsiCo for a book value of $ 850 million ( around US $ 1 @.@ 8 billion in 2013 ) . At the time , PepsiCo had interests in soft drinks and snacks , and also owned the restaurant chains Pizza Hut and Taco Bell . Reynolds divested KFC in order to pay off debt related to its recent purchase of Nabisco and to concentrate on its tobacco and packaged food business . It was anticipated that PepsiCo would bring their merchandising expertise to the company . Dan Koeppel of Adweek believed that the chain had been suffering from corporate neglect , menu stagnation and mixed marketing messages ; Nancy Giges of Advertising Age felt that the chain had been " smartly revived " by R. J. Reynolds . KFC chairman Richard Mayer was of the opinion that Reynolds had treated their restaurants division as a " hobby " .
PepsiCo 's acquisition was seen by some analysts as a means for the company to increase its soft drinks sales . PepsiCo chairman D. Wayne Calloway denied that soft drink preference was a factor in the KFC takeover . KFC management had previously given franchisees the freedom to sell any soft drinks they wanted , but PepsiCo stated that it hoped it could convince them to stock Pepsi products . Before the takeover , only 1 @,@ 000 of the 6 @,@ 500 KFC outlets sold Pepsi Cola , and PepsiCo switched 1 @,@ 800 company @-@ owned stores to their own soft drinks with immediate effect . The purchase of KFC by PepsiCo led to some fast food competitors switching from Pepsi to Coca @-@ Cola . One of the first to switch was Wendy 's , whose chairman , Robert Barney , stated , " [ PepsiCo 's ] interests are now in conflict with Wendy 's and we will not support a company that is trying to make our customers its customers . " Burger King , which had switched from Coca @-@ Cola to PepsiCo in 1983 , returned to Coca @-@ Cola in 1990 , citing the growth of the PepsiCo chains as a " large factor " in the switch . By 1998 , the majority of KFC franchisees had agreed to stock PepsiCo soft drink products .
In November 1987 , KFC became the first Western restaurant chain in China , with an outlet in Beijing . In 1989 , first quarter sales at KFC rose 30 percent to US $ 280 million . In July , president and CEO Richard Meyer left KFC in order to become the CEO at Kraft Foods , and was replaced by John Cranor III .
= = = International growth and franchisee disputes under John Cranor III = = =
In August 1989 , Cranor proposed amendments to the existing 1976 contract for US franchisees : PepsiCo could take over weak franchises , existing restaurants would not be safeguarded against competition from new outlets , and PepsiCo would have the right to increase royalty fees . The contract proved controversial amongst franchisees , who countered with a lawsuit , and the issue was not resolved until 1996 . PepsiCo was accused of behaving in an imperious manner towards franchisees , who it believed were holding back the firm 's growth , while the franchisees believed they had been the backbone of the company during a succession of indifferent corporate owners .
Cranor spent $ 42 million restructuring the company 's operations worldwide . He invested an additional $ 50 million to refurbish outlets and $ 20 million on a new computer system to link outlet cash registers to the kitchen , drive @-@ through window , manager 's office and company headquarters . Cranor also expanded the chain into non @-@ traditional locations , beginning with a 150 sq ft limited menu kiosk at a General Motors assembly plant in Dayton , Ohio . Between 1986 and 1991 , the chain built a further 2 @,@ 000 outlets to bring its total number to 8 @,@ 500 , and sales grew from $ 3 @.@ 5 to $ 6 @.@ 2 billion . The chain had to contend with the rise of grilled chicken as Americans became increasingly health conscious . KFC found itself competing against the growing El Pollo Loco restaurant chain , as well as with Burger King , which had just introduced the BK Broiler , a grilled chicken burger . Delays in product development , cramped kitchens and the ongoing franchisee contract dispute prevented the chain from rolling out a grilled product of its own .
In March 1991 the KFC name was officially adopted , although the chain was already widely known by that initialism . The change was advised by the Schechter Group brand consultancy agency . Research demonstrated that 80 percent of customers already associated the " KFC " initials with Kentucky Fried Chicken . A spokesman for the chain said that it represented its diversified menu , which was moving away from solely fried products . Kyle Craig , president of KFC US , admitted the change was an attempt to distance the chain from the unhealthy connotations of " fried " . In 1994 , Milford Prewitt praised the " crafty and well @-@ timed repositioning " in Nation 's Restaurant News . On the other hand , a 2005 editorial in Advertising Age stated , " the chain 's jettisoning of a venerable name — and distancing from the word fried — was ill @-@ conceived and damaging . It made a clear brand fuzzy . "
The early 1990s saw successful major products launched throughout the chain , including spicy " Hot Wings " ( launched in 1990 ) , popcorn chicken ( 1992 ) , and , outside the US , the " Zinger " , a spicy chicken fillet burger ( 1993 ) . In 1993 , rotisserie style chicken , under the name " Colonel 's Rotisserie Gold " , was introduced at over 30 percent of US outlets . However , despite a $ 100 million investment in marketing , the product failed to gain sales traction . The launch of skinless chicken , designed to appeal to health @-@ conscious customers , failed ; customers disliked the unfamiliar texture , and the product resulted in increased overheads , which contributed to a 37 percent decline in operating profits in 1991 .
In June 1991 , Singapore was chosen for the launch of the first ever KFC breakfast menu . Products included chicken , omelettes and scrambled eggs , sold under the " Colonel 's Country Breakfast " banner . Singapore was chosen for the launch due to the growth of the breakfast market in that country .
While the US division struggled , becoming the weakest part of PepsiCo 's restaurants division , elsewhere sales boomed , with particular success in Japan . By 1992 , almost half of company turnover came from outside the US . By 1993 , KFC in the Asia Pacific region accounted for 22 percent of all KFC sales . John Cranor announced , " We 're looking at almost unlimited opportunity for growth in Asia " . By 1993 , KFC was the leading Western fast food chain in South Korea , China , Thailand , Malaysia and Indonesia , and was second to McDonald 's in most other Asian markets , including Japan and Singapore . Overseas operations often flourished while local management ignored or even defied orders from Louisville headquarters .
= = = David Novak appointed President = = =
By 1994 , KFC had a total of 9 @,@ 407 outlets worldwide , including 5 @,@ 149 outlets in the US , and over 100 @,@ 000 employees . That year , the chain began to struggle after competitors such as McDonald 's introduced value menu offerings . After a disappointing set on quarterly earnings , Cranor left the company in January 1994 . In his wake , two executives with marketing backgrounds were charged with reviving the company . Roger Enrico was appointed as the CEO of PepsiCo Worldwide Restaurants , and David C. Novak was appointed President of KFC in North America .
In 1995 , Novak introduced two successful new products — Crispy Strips ( breaded strips of chicken ) and the chicken pot pie — the chain 's first major new product launches in almost two years . Novak credits an improved , more " open " relationship with franchisees for the introduction of the two new items : Crispy Strips were invented by an Arkansas franchisee , and the pot pie was similarly developed alongside franchisees . Meanwhile , less popular items , such as corn muffins , were removed from the menu . At the same time , Enrico scaled back the increasing competition between KFC and its sister companies , Taco Bell and Pizza Hut ; Taco Bell had begun offering its own chicken products , and KFC had attacked Pizza Hut in its marketing .
In 1996 the company repaired its relationship with its franchisees by immediately dropping the most contentious of the contract terms that had been proposed by chairman John Cranor five years previously . The 1976 contract was restored , including the 1 @.@ 5 mile outlet exclusivity zone , while the parent company gained greater control over national advertising . Novak also axed the Colonel 's Rotisserie Gold product and introduced a new non @-@ fried item called the Tender Roast . Tender Roast was served by piece , as with the fried chicken , in contrast with the rotisserie product , which had been sold in quarter , half or whole chicken portions . Afterwards , Novak oversaw ten fiscal quarters of consecutive growth at KFC North America . As a result of his success at KFC North America , Novak became President and CEO of the entire KFC organization in 1996 .
= = Spin @-@ off as Tricon ( later Yum ! Brands ) = =
In August 1997 , PepsiCo spun off its poorly performing restaurants division as a public company valued at US $ 4 @.@ 5 billion ( around US $ 6 @.@ 5 billion in 2013 ) . Although KFC had been doing well , Pizza Hut and Taco Bell had been under @-@ performing . One PepsiCo executive admitted , " restaurants weren 't our schtick " . The new company , named Tricon Global Restaurants , had 30 @,@ 000 outlets and annual sales of US $ 10 billion ( around US $ 14 billion in 2013 ) at the time , making it second only to McDonald 's in global sales .
Since the turn of the 21st century , fast food has been criticised for its animal welfare record , its links to obesity and its environmental impact . Eric Schlosser 's book Fast Food Nation ( 2002 ) and Morgan Spurlock 's film Super Size Me ( 2004 ) reflected these concerns . Since 2003 , People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals ( PETA ) has protested KFC 's choice of poultry suppliers worldwide with the Kentucky Fried Cruelty campaign . PETA have held thousands of demonstrations , sometimes in the home towns of KFC executives , and CEO David Novak was soaked in fake blood by a protester . KFC President Gregg Dedrick said PETA mischaracterized KFC as a poultry producer rather than a purchaser of chickens . In 2008 , Yum ! stated : " [ As ] a major purchaser of food products , [ Yum ! ] has the opportunity and responsibility to influence the way animals supplied to us are treated . We take that responsibility very seriously , and we are monitoring our suppliers on an ongoing basis . "
Tricon was renamed Yum ! Brands in May 2002 . In that year , the chain had to contend with Burger King 's launch of the Chicken Whopper , as well as fried chicken offerings from the Domino 's and Papa John 's pizza chains . Within three months , the Chicken Whopper became Burger King 's most successful launch of all time , with sales of 50 million . In September 2002 , KFC sales were down 10 percent against the previous year . From 2002 to 2005 , KFC experienced three years of weak sales , when underinvestment in product development left the brand looking " tired and poorly positioned " , according to Restaurant Research , an independent consultancy . A roast chicken product line introduced in 2004 proved unsuccessful , and the worldwide avian flu scare of 2005 temporarily decreased sales by as much as 40 percent . KFC responded in March 2005 by adding a cheap , small chicken burger to the menu called the " Snacker " . It proved to be one of the chain 's most successful product launches to date , with over 100 million in sales . In international markets , KFC introduced the " Boxmaster " , a meal @-@ sized wrap in a box . KFC also began a makeover of the US brand image , bringing back the full " Kentucky Fried Chicken " name at some outlets and returning portraits of Colonel Sanders to prominence .
In 2009 , KFC International launched the Krusher ( Krushem in some markets ) line of frozen beverages . The product was an attempt to introduce a between @-@ meals snack to KFC , and was marketed towards teenagers . In April 2010 , the Double Down sandwich was launched . Criticised as an unhealthy product , it featured two pieces of fried chicken in lieu of a conventional bread bun . It has proved to be a success for the company , with 15 million Double Downs sold worldwide between March 2011 and March 2013 . In September 2012 , the Chicken Little sandwich returned in the US .
By December 2013 , there were 18 @,@ 875 KFC outlets in 118 countries and territories around the world . KFC is the second largest restaurant chain in the world by sales after McDonald 's .
In April 2014 , Yum ! announced that first quarter KFC sales had risen by 11 percent in China , following a 15 percent fall in 2013 .
In July 2014 , Chinese authorities closed down the Shanghai operations of the OSI Group , amidst allegations that it had supplied KFC with expired meat . Yum ! immediately terminated its contract with the supplier , and stated that the revelation had led to a significant decline in sales .
= McGill University =
McGill University is an English @-@ language public research university in Montreal , Canada . It was officially founded by royal charter issued by King George IV in 1821 . The University bears the name of James McGill , a prominent Montreal merchant from Scotland whose bequest in 1813 formed the university 's precursor , McGill College .
McGill 's main campus is set at the foot of Mount Royal in Downtown Montreal , with the second campus situated near fields and forested lands in Sainte @-@ Anne @-@ de @-@ Bellevue , also on the Montreal Island , 30 kilometres ( 18 miles ) west of the main campus . All the academic units are organized into 11 main Faculties and Schools . The University is one of two members of the Association of American Universities located outside the United States , and it is the only Canadian university member of the Global University Leaders Forum ( GULF ) , within the World Economic Forum , which is made up of 26 of the world 's top universities .
McGill offers degrees and diplomas in over 300 fields of study , with the highest average admission grade of any Canadian university . Most students are enrolled in the five larger Faculties , namely Arts , Science , Medicine , Engineering , and Management . Tuition fees vary significantly between in @-@ province , out @-@ of @-@ province , and international students , as well as between faculties . Scholarships are generous , yet highly competitive and relatively difficult to attain , compared to other institutions of higher learning in the country .
McGill counts among its alumni 12 Nobel laureates and 140 Rhodes Scholars , both the most in the country , as well as three astronauts , three Canadian prime ministers , thirteen justices of the Canadian Supreme Court , four foreign leaders , 28 foreign ambassadors , nine Academy Award winners , eleven Grammy Award winners , three Pulitzer Prize winners , and 28 Olympic medalists . Throughout its long history , McGill alumni were instrumental in inventing or initially organizing football , basketball , and ice hockey . McGill University or its alumni also founded several major universities and colleges , including the Universities of British Columbia , Victoria , and Alberta , the Schulich School of Medicine & Dentistry , the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine , and Dawson College .
= = History = =
= = = Royal Institution for the Advancement of Learning = = =
The Royal Institution for the Advancement of Learning ( RIAL ) was created in 1801 under an Act of the Legislative Assembly of Lower Canada - An Act for the establishment of Free Schools and the Advancement of Learning in this Province .
In 1816 the RIAL was authorized to operate two new Royal Grammar Schools , in Quebec City and in Montreal . This was a turning point for public education in Lower Canada as the schools were created by legislation , the District Public Schools Act of 1807 , which showed the government 's willingness to support the costs of education and even the salary of a schoolmaster . This was an important first step in the creation of nondenominational schools . When James McGill died in 1813 his bequest was administered by the RIAL .
The original two Royal Grammar Schools closed in 1846 and by the mid @-@ 19th century the RIAL lost control of the other 82 grammar schools it had administered . Its sole remaining purpose was to administer the McGill bequest on behalf of the private college . The RIAL continues to exist today ; it is the corporate identity that runs the university and its various constituent bodies , including the former Macdonald College ( now Macdonald Campus ) , the Montreal Neurological Institute and the Royal Victoria College ( the former women 's college turned residence ) . Since the revised Royal Charter of 1852 , The Trustees of the RIAL comprise the Board of Governors of McGill University .
= = = McGill College = = =
James McGill , born in Glasgow , Scotland on 6 October 1744 , was a successful English- and French @-@ speaking merchant in Quebec , having matriculated into Glasgow University in 1756 . Between 1811 and 1813 , he drew up a will leaving his " Burnside estate " , a 19 @-@ hectare ( 47 @-@ acre ) tract of rural land and 10 @,@ 000 pounds to the Royal Institution for the Advancement of Learning .
Upon McGill 's death in December 1813 , the Royal Institution for the Advancement of Learning , established in 1801 by an Act of the Legislative Assembly of Lower Canada , added the establishing of a University pursuant to the conditions of McGill 's will to its original function of administering elementary education in Lower Canada .
As a condition of the bequest , the land and funds had to be used for the establishment of a " University or College , for the purposes of Education and the Advancement of Learning in the said Province . " The will specified that a private , constituent college would be required to bear his name and the school must be established within 10 years of his death ; otherwise the bequest would revert to the heirs of his wife .
On March 31 , 1821 , after protracted legal battles with the Desrivières family ( the heirs of his wife ) , McGill College received a royal charter from King George IV . The Charter provided that the College should be deemed and taken as a University , with the power of conferring degrees .
= = = University development = = =
= = = = Campus expansions = = = =
Though McGill College received its Royal Charter in 1821 , it was inactive until 1829 when the Montreal Medical Institution , which had been founded in 1823 , became the college 's first academic unit and Canada 's first medical school . The Faculty of Medicine granted its first degree , a Doctor of Medicine and Surgery , in 1833 ; this was also the first medical degree to be awarded in Canada .
The Faculty of Medicine remained the school 's only functioning faculty until 1843 when the Faculty of Arts commenced teaching in the newly constructed Arts Building and East Wing ( Dawson Hall ) . The university also historically has strong linkage with The Canadian Grenadier Guards , a military regiment in which James McGill served as the Lieutenant @-@ Colonel . This title is marked upon the stone that stands before the Arts building , from where the Guards step off annually to commemorate Remembrance Day .
The Faculty of Law was founded in 1848 which is also the oldest of its kind in the nation . 48 years later , the school of architecture at McGill University was founded .
Sir John William Dawson , McGill 's principal from 1855 to 1893 , is often credited with transforming the school into a modern university . He recruited the aid of Montreal 's wealthiest citizens ( eighty percent of Canada 's wealth was then controlled by families who lived within the Golden Square Mile area that surrounded the university ) , many of whom donated property and funding needed to construct the campus buildings . Their names adorn many of the campus 's prominent buildings .
William Spier designed the addition of West Wing of the Arts Building for William Molson , 1861 . Alexander Francis Dunlop designed major alterations to the East Wing of McGill College ( now called the Arts Building , McGill University ) for Prof. Bovey and the Science Dept . , 1888 . This expansion of the campus continued until 1920 . Buildings designed by Andrew Taylor , include the Redpath Museum ( 1880 ) , Macdonald Physics Building ( 1893 ) , the Redpath Library ( 1893 ) , the Macdonald Chemistry Building ( 1896 ) , the Macdonald Engineering Building ( 1907 ) — now known as the Macdonald @-@ Stewart Library Building , and the Strathcona Medical Building ( 1907 ) — since renamed the Strathcona Anatomy and Dentistry Building .
In 1900 , the university established the MacLennan Travelling Library . McGill University Waltz composed by Frances C. Robinson , was published in Montréal by W.H. Scroggie , c 1904 .
In 1885 , the university 's Board of Governors formally adopted the use of the name " McGill University " . In 1905 , the university acquired a second campus when Sir William C. Macdonald , one of the university 's major benefactors , endowed a college in Sainte @-@ Anne @-@ de @-@ Bellevue , 32 kilometres west of Montreal . Macdonald College , now known as the Macdonald Campus , opened to students in 1907 , originally offering programs in agriculture , household science , and teaching .
George Allan Ross designed the Pathology Building , 1922 – 23 ; the Neurological Institute , 1933 ; Neurological Institute addition 1938 at McGill University . Jean Julien Perrault ( architect ) designed the McTavish Street residence for Charles E. Gravel , which is now called David Thompson House ( 1934 ) .
= = = = Women 's education = = = =
Women 's education at McGill began in 1884 , when Donald Smith , also known as Lord Strathcona , began funding separate lectures for women , given by university staff members . The first degrees granted to women at McGill were conferred in 1888 . In 1899 , the Royal Victoria College ( RVC ) opened as a residential college for women at McGill . Until the 1970s , all female undergraduate students , known as " Donaldas , " were considered to be members of RVC . Beginning in the autumn of 2010 , the newer Tower section of Royal Victoria College is a co @-@ ed dormitory , whereas the older West Wing remains strictly for women . Both the Tower and the West Wing of Royal Victoria College form part of the university 's residence system .
= = = = McGill in the Great War = = = =
McGill University played a meaningful role in the Great War . Many students and alumni enlisted in the first wave of patriotic fervor that swept the nation in 1914 , but in the spring of 1915 — after the first wave of heavy Canadian casualties at Ypres — Hamilton Gault , the founder of the Canadian regiment and a wealthy Montreal businessman , was faced with a desperate shortage of troops . When he reached out to his friends at home for support , over two hundred were commissioned from the ranks , and many more would serve as soldiers throughout the war . On their return to Canada after the war , Major George McDonald and Major George Currie formed the accounting firm McDonald Currie , which later became one of the founders of Price Waterhouse Coopers . Captain Percival Molson was killed in action in July 1917 . Percival Molson Memorial Stadium at McGill is named in his honour .
The War Memorial Hall ( more generally known as Memorial Hall ) is a landmark building on the campus of McGill University . At the dedication ceremony the Governor General of Canada ( Harold Alexander , 1st Earl Alexander of Tunis ) laid the cornerstone . Dedicated on October 6 , 1946 , the Memorial Hall and adjoining Memorial Pool honour students who had enlisted and died in the First World War , and in the Second World War . In Memorial Hall , there are two Stained Glass Regimental badge World War I and World War II Memorial Windows by Charles William Kelsey c . 1950 / 1 .
A war memorial window ( 1950 ) by Charles William Kelsey in the McGill War Memorial Hall depicts the figure of St. Michael and the badges of the Navy , Army and the Air Force . A Great War memorial window featuring Saint George and a slain dragon at the entrance to the Blackader @-@ Lauterman Library of Architecture and Art is dedicated to the memory of 23 members of the McGill Chapter of Delta Upsilon who gave their lives in the Great War . Six other windows ( 1951 ) by Charles William Kelsey on the west wall of the memorial hall depict the coats of arms of the regiments in which the McGill alumni were members .
There is a memorial archway at Macdonald College , two additional floors added to the existing Sir Arthur Currie gymnasium , a hockey rink and funding for an annual Memorial Assembly . A Book of Remembrance on a marble table contains the names of those lost in both World Wars . On 11 November 2012 the McGill Remembers web site launched ; the University War Records Office collected documents between 1940 @-@ 1946 related to McGill students , staff and faculty in the Second World War .
= = = Related institutions = = =
McGill was instrumental in founding several major universities and colleges . It established the first post @-@ secondary institutions in British Columbia to provide degree programs to the growing cities of Vancouver and Victoria . It chartered Victoria College in 1903 , an affiliated junior college of McGill . It served as a two @-@ year college offering first and second @-@ year courses in arts and science , until it became today 's University of Victoria . British Columbia 's first university was incorporated in Vancouver in 1908 as the McGill University College of British Columbia . The private institution granted McGill degrees until it became the independent University of British Columbia in 1915 .
Dawson College began in 1945 as a satellite campus of McGill to absorb the anticipated influx of students after World War II . Many students in their first 3 years in the Faculty of Engineering took courses at Dawson College to relieve the McGill campus for the later two years for their degree course . Dawson eventually became independent of McGill and evolved into the first English CEGEP in Quebec . Another CEGEP , John Abbott College , was established in 1971 at the campus of McGill 's Macdonald College .
Both founders of the University of Alberta , Premier Alexander Cameron Rutherford of Alberta and Henry Marshall Tory , were also McGill alumni . In addition , McGill alumni and professors , Dr. William Osler and Dr. Howard Atwood Kelly , were among the four founders and early faculty members of the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine . Osler eventually became the first Physician @-@ in @-@ Chief of the new Johns Hopkins Hospital in Baltimore , Maryland , USA in 1889 . He led the creation of the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine in 1893 . Other McGill alumni founded the Schulich School of Medicine & Dentistry in the 1880s .
= = Campus = =
= = = Downtown campus = = =
McGill 's main campus is situated in downtown Montreal at the foot of Mount Royal . Most of its buildings are situated in a park @-@ like campus located north of Sherbrooke Street and south of Pine Avenue between Peel and Aylmer streets . The campus also extends west of Peel Street for several blocks , starting north of Doctor Penfield ; the campus also extends east of University Street , starting north of Pine Avenue , an area that includes McGill 's Percival Molson Memorial Stadium and the Montreal Neurological Institute and Hospital . The community immediately east of University Street and south of Pine Avenue is known as the McGill Ghetto , where a large number of students reside . The campus is near the Peel and McGill Metro stations . A major downtown boulevard , McGill College Avenue , leads up to the Roddick Gates , the university 's formal main entrance . All of the major university buildings were constructed using local grey limestone , which serves as a unifying element .
The university 's first classes were held in at Burnside Place , James McGill 's country home . Burnside Place remained the sole educational facility until the 1840s , when the school began construction on its first buildings : the central and east wings of the Arts Building . The rest of the campus was essentially a cow pasture , a situation similar to the few other Canadian universities and early American colleges of the age .
The university 's athletic facilities , including Molson Stadium , are located on Mount Royal , near the residence halls and the Montreal Neurological Institute . The Gymnasium is named in honour of General Sir Arthur William Currie .
In 2012 , Travel + Leisure rated McGill 's campus as one of the 17 most beautiful university campuses in the world .
= = = = Residence = = = =
McGill 's residence system houses approximately 3 @,@ 100 undergraduate students and some graduate students . With the exception of students returning as " floor fellows " or " dons " , few McGill students live in residence ( known colloquially as " rez " ) after their first year of undergraduate study , even if they are not from the Montreal area . Most second @-@ year students transition to off @-@ campus apartment housing . Many students settle in the " McGill Ghetto " , the neighbourhood directly to the east of the downtown campus . In recent years , students have begun moving out to other areas such as Mile End , The Plateau , and even as far as Verdun because of rising rent prices .
Many first @-@ year students live in the Bishop Mountain Residences ( " Upper Rez " ) , a series of concrete dormitories on the slope of Mount Royal , consisting of McConnell Hall , Molson Hall , Gardner Hall , and Douglas Hall . McGill 's largest residence is New Residence Hall ( " New Rez " ) , a converted four @-@ star hotel located a few blocks east of campus at Park Avenue and Prince Arthur . Solin Hall , located near Lionel @-@ Groulx station , is McGill 's second largest residence , housing roughly 300 students . Carrefour Sherbrooke Residence Hall was opened in 2009 on 475 Sherbrooke Street West , previously the Four Points Sheraton Hotel . In 2012 , McGill opened La Citadelle , a converted hotel residence housing 286 students located on Sherbrooke Street West at the corner of Hutchinson .
Royal Victoria College , once a women @-@ only dormitory , became co @-@ ed in September 2010 . The college 's original building was designed by Bruce Price and its extension was designed by Percy Erskine Nobbs and George Taylor Hyde . Erected in front of the Royal Victoria College is a statue of Queen Victoria by her daughter Princess Louise , Duchess of Argyll .
Among the McGill Off @-@ Campus Residence Experience buildings are Presbyterian Hall ( " Pres Rez " ) , adjacent to the Presbyterian College , and University Hall ( also known as " Dio " ) , adjacent to the Montreal Diocesan Theological College . Greenbriar Hall houses 89 students . Other buildings included in the McGill Off @-@ Campus Residence Experience are located on Peel Street , University Street , and Pine Avenue .
= = = Macdonald campus = = =
A second campus , the Macdonald Campus , in Sainte @-@ Anne @-@ de @-@ Bellevue houses the Faculty of Agricultural and Environmental Science , the School of Dietetics and Human Nutrition , the Institute of Parasitology , and the McGill School of Environment . The Morgan Arboretum and the J. S. Marshall Radar Observatory are nearby .
The Morgan Arboretum was created in 1945 . It is a 2 @.@ 5 @-@ square @-@ kilometre ( 0 @.@ 965 sq mi ) forested reserve with the aim of ' teaching , research , and public education ' . Its mandated research goals are to continue research related to maintaining the health of the Arboretum plantations and woodlands , to develop new programs related to selecting species adapted to developing environmental conditions and to develop silvicultural practices that preserve and enhance biological diversity in both natural stands and plantations .
= = = McGill University Health Centre redevelopment plan = = =
In 2006 , the Quebec government initiated a $ 1 @.@ 6 billion LEED redevelopment project for the McGill University Health Centre ( MUHC ) . The project will expand facilities to two separate campuses and consolidate the various hospitals of the MUHC on the site of an old CP rail yard adjacent to the Vendôme Metro station . This site , known as Glen Yards , comprises 170 @,@ 000 square metres ( 1 @,@ 800 @,@ 000 sq ft ) and spans portions of Montreal 's Notre @-@ Dame @-@ de @-@ Grâce neighbourhood and the city of Westmount .
The Glen Yards project has been controversial due to local opposition to the project , environmental issues , and the cost of the project itself . The project , which has received approval from the provincial government , was , in 2003 , expected to be complete by 2010 . The new ' campus ' has now been completed , and a massive effort of moving units from older hospitals , such Royal Victoria , Montreal Children 's , and Montreal General , into the new McGill University Health Center is underway .
= = = Sustainability = = =
In 2007 , McGill premiered its Office of Sustainability and added a second full @-@ time position in this area , the Director of Sustainability in addition to the Sustainability Officer . Recent efforts in implementing its sustainable development plan include the new Life Sciences Center which was built with LEED @-@ Silver certification and a green roof , as well as an increase in parking rates in January 2008 to fund other sustainability projects . Other student projects include The Flat : Bike Collective , which promotes alternative transportation , and the Farmer 's Market , which occurs during the fall harvest . The Farmer 's Market and many other initiatives came out of student collaboration during the Rethink Conference 2008 .
= = = Other facilities = = =
McGill 's Bellairs Research Institute , located in Saint James , Barbados 13 ° 10 ′ N 59 ° 35 ′ W , is Canada 's only teaching and research facility in the tropics . The institute has been in use for over 50 years . Its facilities are regularly utilized by the Canadian Space Agency for research .
The laboratories of the Huntsman Marine Science Centre are located in St. Andrews , N.B. , on 300 @,@ 000 square metres ( 3 @,@ 200 @,@ 000 sq ft ) of land at the estuary of the St. Croix River . It hosts the Atlantic Reference Centre , which is known throughout the Maritimes for its extensive marine biology collections . The HMS is a research facility " committed to the advancement of the marine sciences through basic and applied research " and acts as a field facility for research and teaching by McGill and other member universities .
McGill 's Gault Nature Reserve ( 45 ° 32 ′ N 73 ° 10 ′ W ) spans over 10 square kilometres ( 3 @.@ 9 sq mi ) of forest land , the largest remaining remnant of the primeval forests of the St. Lawrence River Valley . The first scientific studies at the site occurred in 1859 . The site has been the site of extensive research activities : " Today there are over 400 scientific articles , 100 graduate theses , more than 50 government reports and about 30 book chapters that are based on research at Mont St. Hilaire . "
In addition to the McGill University Health Centre , McGill has been directly partnered with many teaching hospitals for decades , and also has a history of collaborating with many hospitals in Montreal . These cooperations allow the university to graduate over 1 @,@ 000 students in health care each year . McGill 's contract @-@ affiliated teaching hospitals include the Montreal Children 's Hospital , the Montreal General Hospital , the Montreal Neurological Hospital , the Montreal Chest Institute and the Royal Victoria Hospital which are all now part of the McGill University Health Centre . Other hospitals that health care students may use include the Jewish General Hospital , the Douglas Hospital and St. Mary 's Hospital Center .
Until the late 19th century , McGill had also owned parkland atop the Westmount Summit , which was used as a botanical garden . In the early twentieth century , McGill donated the land to the City of Westmount on the condition that it become a bird sanctuary .
In 1998 , the Faculty of Management launched their MBA Japan program , the first Canadian degree program offered in Japan , with teaching facilities at Nishi @-@ Shinjuku , Tokyo .
= = Administration and Organization = =
= = = Structure = = =
Schools at the university include the School of Architecture , the School of Computer Science , the School of Information Studies , the School of Dietetics and Human Nutrition , the School of Physical & Occupational Therapy , the Ingram School of Nursing , the School of Social Work , the School of Urban Planning , and the McGill School of Environment . They also include the Institute of Islamic Studies ( established in 1952 ) which offers graduate courses leading to the M.A. and Ph.D. degrees , and covering the history , culture , and civilization of Islam ; the Institute is also served by one of the richest libraries in North America on Islamic studies .
The Graduate and Postdoctoral Studies ( GPS ) oversees the admission and registration of graduate students ( both master 's and Ph.D. ) . The GPS administers graduate fellowships , postdoctoral affairs , and the graduation process , including the examination of theses . In conjunction with other units , it conducts regular program reviews in all study disciplines .
Founded in 1956 , the McGill Executive Institute provides business seminars and custom executive education to companies , government services and non @-@ profit organizations . Led primarily by McGill faculty , the executive courses and management training programs are designed for all managerial levels , from board members to senior @-@ level executives to junior managers .
= = = University identity and culture = = =
The McGill coat of arms is derived from an armorial device assumed during his lifetime by the founder of the University , James McGill . The University 's patent of arms was granted by the Garter King at Arms in 1922 , registered in 1956 with Lord Lyon King of Arms in Edinburgh , and in 1992 with the Public Register of Arms , Flags and Badges of Canada . In heraldic terms , the coat of arms is described as follows : " Argent three Martlets Gules , on a chief dancette of the second , an open book proper garnished or bearing the legend In Domino Confido in letters Sable between two crowns of the first . Motto : Grandescunt Aucta Labore . " The coat of arms consists of two parts , the shield and the scroll . The University publishes a guide to the use of the University 's arms and motto .
The University 's symbol is the martlet , stemming from the presence of the mythical bird on the official arms of the university . The university 's official colour is scarlet , which figures prominently in the academic dress of McGill University . McGill 's motto is Grandescunt Aucta Labore , Latin for " By work , all things increase and grow " ( literally , " Things grown great increase by work , " that is , things that grow to be great do so by means of work ) . The official school song is entitled " Hail , Alma Mater . "
= = = Finances = = =
As a public university , McGill is not as dependent on its endowment for operating revenue as some of its international peers . The McGill endowment only provides approximately 10 per cent of the school 's annual operating revenues . Nonetheless , McGill 's endowment rests within the top 10 percent of all North American post @-@ secondary institutions ' endowments . While McGill 's conservative investment policy has protected it from the more substantial losses experienced at many other universities during the market crisis of 2008 – 2009 , it still faced a 20 % endowment decline from approximately $ 920 million to $ 740 million . Currently valued at $ 35 @,@ 851 per student , the university 's endowment is the second largest among Canadian universities on a per @-@ student basis .
McGill launched the Campaign McGill comprehensive campaign in October 2007 , with the goal of raising over $ 750 million for the purpose of further " attracting and retaining top talent in Quebec , to increase access to quality education and to further enhance McGill 's ability to address critical global problems . " The largest goal of any Canadian university fundraising campaign in history , within the first six months , McGill had accumulated over $ 400 million towards its efforts . The campaign was officially closed on 18 June 2013 . The university surpassed its initial goal of $ 750 million and raised more than $ 1 billion .
= = Academics = =
= = = Admissions = = =
Twenty @-@ two percent of all students are enrolled in the Faculty of Arts , McGill 's largest academic unit . Of the other larger faculties , the Faculty of Science enrolls 15 % , the Faculty of Medicine enrolls 13 % , the Centre for Continuing Education enrolls 12 % , the Faculty of Engineering and the Desautels Faculty of Management enroll about 10 % each . The remainder of all students are enrolled in McGill 's smaller schools , including the Faculty of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences , Faculty of Dentistry , Faculty of Education , Faculty of Law , Schulich School of Music , and the Faculty of Religious Studies . Since the 1880s , McGill has been affiliated with three Theological Colleges ; the Montreal Diocesan Theological College ( Anglican Church of Canada ) , The Presbyterian College , Montreal ( Presbyterian Church in Canada ) , and United Theological College ( United Church of Canada ) . The university 's Faculty of Religious Studies maintains additional affiliations with other theological institutions and organizations , such as the Montreal School of Theology .
In 2015 , McGill had an acceptance rate of 48 @.@ 6 % , accepting 15 @,@ 084 students out of a total of 31 @,@ 008 undergraduate applicants with 6 @,@ 318 students enrolling . McGill students have the highest average entering grade of any Canadian university . Among admitted students , the median Quebec CEGEP R @-@ score was 30 @.@ 0 , while the median grade 12 averages for students entering McGill from outside of Quebec ranged between 92 % and 93 % ( A ) . For American students , the median SAT scores in the verbal , mathematics , and writing sections were 700 , 690 , and 700 respectively , for a combined SAT score of around 2090 ; the median ACT score was 31 .
For law students , the median undergraduate GPA was 85 % ( or 3 @.@ 7 on a 4 @.@ 0 scale ) and the median LSAT score was 163 ( 88.1th percentile ) out of a possible 180 points . For medical students , the median undergraduate GPA was 3 @.@ 8 out of 4 @.@ 0 and the median MCAT score was 32 @.@ 1 . Among the 30 % of applicants admitted to the Desautels Faculty of Management 's MBA program , applicants had , on average , a GMAT score of 665 , an age of 27 , and 49 months of work experience .
= = = Teaching and learning = = =
In the 2007 – 2008 school year , McGill offered over 340 academic programs in eleven faculties . The university also offers over 250 doctoral and master 's graduate degree programs . Despite strong increases in university enrollment across North America , McGill has upheld a relatively low and appealing student @-@ faculty ratio of 16 : 1 . There are nearly 1 @,@ 600 tenured or tenure @-@ track professors teaching at the university .
Tuition fees vary significantly between in @-@ province , out @-@ of @-@ province , and international students , with full @-@ time Quebec students paying around $ 4 @,@ 014 @.@ 82 per year , Canadian students from other provinces paying around $ 8 @,@ 799 @.@ 82 per year , and international students paying $ 18 @,@ 267 @.@ 22 – $ 41 @,@ 815 @.@ 92 per year . Students must also pay housing costs , though Montreal has some of the least expensive housing among large North American cities .
Since 1996 , McGill , in accordance with the Ministère de l 'Éducation , du Loisir et du Sport ( MELS ) , has had eight categories that qualifies certain international students to be excused from paying international fees . These categories include : students from France , a quota of students from select countries which have agreements with MELS , which include Algeria , China , and Morocco , students holding diplomatic status , including their dependents , and students enrolled in certain language programs leading to a degree in French . In the school year 2008 @-@ 2009 , McGill 's graduate business program became funded by tuition , and was the last business school in Canada to do so .
Scholarships at McGill are relatively difficult to attain , compared to other Canadian universities . For out @-@ of @-@ province first year undergraduate students , a high school average of 95 % is required to receive a guaranteed one @-@ year entrance scholarship . To be considered for the same scholarships , Quebec CEGEP students need a minimum R @-@ score of 35 @.@ 5 , United States high school students need a minimum A average as well as at least 700 in each SAT or 33 in the ACT , and French Baccalaureate students need an average of 15 @.@ 5 plus a minimum score of 14 in each course ; similarly , students in the British education system need As in both GCSE Level and predicted Advanced Level results , and International Baccalaureate students need to attain a minimum overall average of 6 @.@ 9 on predicted grades or a score of 42 on exam results . In general , entrance scholarship recipients rank in the top 1 – 2 % of their class .
For renewal of previously earned scholarships , students generally need to be within the top 10 % of their faculty . For in @-@ course scholarships in particular , students must be within the top 5 % of their faculty . McGill itself outlines scholarship considerations as follows : " Competition for basic and major scholarships is intense at McGill . An extraordinary number of exceptional applications are received each year and therefore we cannot award scholarships to all good candidates . "
The university has joined Project Hero , a scholarship program cofounded by General ( Ret 'd ) Rick Hillier for the families of fallen Canadian Forces members . McGill is also partnered with the STEM initiative Schulich Leader Scholarships , awarding an $ 80 @,@ 000 scholarship to an incoming engineering student and a $ 60 @,@ 000 scholarship to a student pursuing a degree in science / technology / mathematics each year .
= = = Language policy = = =
McGill is one of only three English @-@ language universities in Quebec ; fluency in French is not a requirement to attend . The Faculty of Law does , however , require all students to be " passively bilingual " , meaning that all students must be able to understand written and spoken French — or English if the student is Francophone — since English or French may be used at any time in a course . Over 38 @,@ 000 students attend McGill , with international students comprising one @-@ fifth of the student population . Francophone students , whether from Quebec or overseas , now make up approximately 18 percent of the student body .
Although the language of instruction is English , since its founding McGill has allowed students to write their thesis in French , and since 1964 students in all faculties have been able to submit any graded work in either English or French , provided that the objective of the class is not to learn a particular language . The University has a bilingual language policy and charter .
In 1969 , the nationalist McGill français movement demanded that McGill become francophone , pro @-@ nationalist , and pro @-@ worker . The movement was led by Stanley Gray , a political science professor ( and possibly unaware of government plans after the recent ( 1968 ) legislation founding the Université du Québec ) A demonstration was held of 10 @,@ 000 trade unionists , leftist activists , CEGEP students , and even some McGill students , at the university 's Roddick Gates on March 28 , 1969 . Protesters saw English as the privileged language of commerce . McGill , where Francophones comprised only three percent of the students , could be seen as the force maintaining economic control by Anglophones of a predominantly French @-@ speaking province . However , the majority of students and faculty opposed such a position .
= = = Rankings and reputation = = =
As of the 2015 @-@ 2016 school year , McGill was ranked 1st in Canada among all its major / research universities in the Maclean 's 24th annual rankings , maintaining this position for the 11th consecutive year .
Internationally , McGill ranked 24th in the world and 1st in Canada in the 2015 QS World University Rankings . This is the 12th year in a row that QS has ranked McGill in the top 25 of the world ’ s universities . It was ranked 38th in the world by the 2015 @-@ 2016 Times Higher Education World University Rankings and 64th in the world by the Academic Ranking of World Universities ( ARWU ) 2015 . Times Higher Education also ranked McGill 21st in the world in its 2015 Global Employability University Rankings . In the 2011 Emerging / Trendence Global Employability Ranking , McGill was ranked the 19th finest in the world , and 1st in Canada , for popularity among major employers . In the 2008 College Prowler Online rankings for Academics at North American universities , McGill earned an A- for Academics ; making it the only Canadian school to achieve a grade above a B- .
McGill is one of 26 members of the prestigious Global University Leaders Forum ( GULF ) , which acts as an intellectual community within the World Economic Forum to advise its leadership on matters relating to higher education and research . It is the only Canadian university member of GULF .
Since Maclean 's began ranking Canadian law schools in 2007 , it has placed McGill 's law school second overall for the second year in a row . In particular , McGill 's law school ranked first by supreme court clerkships , second by elite firm hiring , third by faculty hiring , fourth by faculty journal citations , and eighth by national reach .
The Globe and Mail 's Canadian University Report awarded McGill top marks in its 2013 annual university survey . McGill received an A + for Employer Reputation , the highest score of any large , medium , or small sized University . Additionally the school received an A for campus technology and city satisfaction .
LinkedIn ranked McGill # 1 for accounting professionals , # 2 for investment bankers , and # 3 for software developers within Canada .
In 2009 , Forbes ranked McGill 's business school , the Desautels Faculty of Management , 11th in the world among non @-@ U.S. universities for its two @-@ year MBA program . The Eduniversal Ranking placed the Desautels Faculty of Management of McGill University first in Canada and 8th in the world among business schools . The Financial Times , in its global MBA ranking , placed Desautels 84th in the world in 2014 and 76th in 2013 . The ranking placed it 55th and 43rd worldwide in the value for money and alumni recommended categories respectively . In BusinessWeek 's Best International B @-@ Schools Of 2008 , Desautels was ranked among the top 16 international business schools , ranking fourth in intellectual capital with a selectivity of 32 % .
Bloomberg BusinessWeek 's 2012 Business Schools Ranking ranked McGill 's Desautels Faculty of Management 10th in the world among non @-@ US business schools , referring to McGill University as " the # 1 university in Canada and among the top 20 worldwide . "
Research Infosource named McGill " Research University of the Year " in its 2003 and 2005 rankings of Canada 's Top 50 Research Universities . In 2007 , Research Infosource ranked McGill the second @-@ best research university in the country . They also ranked McGill University third in Canada in research @-@ intensity and fourth in total @-@ research funding , finding that McGill ranks in the top five universities in terms of research dollars per full @-@ time faculty member and number of refereed publications per full @-@ time faculty member . The study showed that research funding represents approximately $ 259 @,@ 100 per faculty member , the fourth highest in the country .
McGill was named one of " Canada 's Top 100 Employers " in October 2008 and October 2009 .
The Sustainable Endowments Institute gave McGill a grade of " B " on the 2009 College Sustainability Report Card for its improvements in on @-@ campus environmental sustainability , with only 34 schools earning higher grade .
= = = Research = = =
Research plays a critical role at McGill . McGill is affiliated with 12 Nobel Laureates and professors have won major teaching prizes . According to the Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada , " researchers at McGill are affiliated with about 75 major research centres and networks , and are engaged in an extensive array of research partnerships with other universities , government and industry in Quebec and Canada , throughout North America and in dozens of other countries . " McGill has one of the largest patent portfolios among Canadian universities . McGill 's researchers are supported by the McGill University Library , which comprises 13 branch libraries and holds over six million items .
Since 1926 , McGill has been a member of the Association of American Universities ( AAU ) , an organization of leading research universities in North America . McGill is a founding member of Universitas 21 , an international network of leading research @-@ intensive universities that work together to expand their global reach and advance their plans for internationalization . McGill is one of 26 members of the prestigious Global University Leaders Forum ( GULF ) , which acts as an intellectual community within the World Economic Forum to advise its leadership on matters relating to higher education and research . It is the only Canadian university member of GULF . McGill is also a member of the U15 , a group of prominent research universities within Canada .
McGill @-@ Queen 's University Press began as McGill in 1963 and amalgamated with Queen 's in 1969 . McGill @-@ Queen 's University Press focuses on Canadian studies and publishes the Canadian Public Administration Series .
McGill is perhaps best recognized for its research and discoveries in the health sciences . William Osler , Wilder Penfield , Donald Hebb , Brenda Milner , and others made significant discoveries in medicine , neuroscience and psychology while working at McGill , many at the University 's Montreal Neurological Institute . The first hormone governing the Immune System ( later christened the Cytokine ' Interleukin @-@ 2 ' ) was discovered at McGill in 1965 by Gordon & McLean .
The invention of the world 's first artificial cell was made by Thomas Chang while an undergraduate student at the university . While chair of physics at McGill , nuclear physicist Ernest Rutherford performed the experiment that led to the discovery of the alpha particle and its function in radioactive decay , which won him the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1908 . Alumnus Jack W. Szostak was awarded the 2009 Nobel Prize in medicine for discovering a key mechanism in the genetic operations of cells , an insight that has inspired new lines of research into cancer .
William Chalmers invented Plexiglas while a graduate student at McGill . In computing , MUSIC / SP , software for mainframes once popular among universities and colleges around the world , was developed at McGill . A team also contributed to the development of Archie , a pre @-@ WWW search engine . A 3270 terminal emulator developed at McGill was commercialized and later sold to Hummingbird Software . A team has developed digital musical instruments in the form of prosthesis , called Musical Prostheses .
= = = Libraries , Archives and Museums = = =
The McGill University Libraries . The McGill University Library includes 13 branches or subject libraries including the Department of Rare Books & Special Collections which holds about 350 @,@ 000 items , including books , manuscripts , maps , prints , and a general rare book collection . The Osler Library of the History of Medicine is the largest medical history library in Canada and one of the most comprehensive in the world .
The McGill University Archives- now administered as part of the McGill Library - houses official records of , or relating to , or people / activities connected with McGill University . The collection consists of manuscripts , texts , photographs , audio @-@ visual material , architectural records , cartographic materials , prints and drawings , microforms and artifacts . In 1962 F. Cyril James declared that the newly founded McGill University Archives ( MUA ) , while concentrating on the institutional records of McGill , had the mandate to acquire private papers of former faculty members . In the 1990s drew back their acquisition scope and in 2004 new terms of reference on private acquisitions were introduced that included a wider McGill Community .
The Redpath Museum houses collections of interest to ethnology , biology , paleontology , and mineralogy / geology . Built in 1882 , the Redpath is the oldest building in Canada built specifically to be a museum .
The McGill Medical Museum catalogues , preserves , conserves and displays collections that documents the study and practice of medicine at McGill University and its associated teaching hospitals . The Medical museum features collections , individual specimens , artifacts , equipment log books / autopsy journals / paper materials and medical instruments and apparati , 25 wax models , 200 mostly skeletal dry specimens ; and 400 lantern slides of anatomic specimens . There is a special emphasis on pathology ; there are 2000 fluid filled @-@ preserved anatomical and pathological specimens . The Osler collection , for example consists of 60 wet specimens while The Abbott collection consists of 80 wet specimens , mostly examples of congenital cardiac disease .
= = Student life = =
= = = Student body = = =
McGill 's student population includes 22 @,@ 778 undergraduate and 7 @,@ 247 graduate students representing diverse geographic and linguistic backgrounds . Of the entire student population , 54 @.@ 7 % are from Quebec and 25 @.@ 4 % are from the rest of Canada , while 20 @.@ 0 % are from outside of Canada ( including the United States ) . International students hail from about 150 different countries , with Americans comprising about half of all international undergraduates and a third of all international postgraduates in the entering class of 2010 . Almost half of McGill students claim a first language other than English . While the university is located in a Francophone province , only 17 @.@ 8 % of the students claim French as their mother tongue , compared to 51 @.@ 8 % who claim English and 30 @.@ 5 % who claim some other language .
= = = Student organizations = = =
The campus has an active students ' society represented by the undergraduate Students ' Society of McGill University ( SSMU ) and the Post @-@ Graduate Students ' Society of McGill University ( PGSS ) . Due to the large postdoctoral population , the PGSS also contains a semi @-@ autonomous Association of Postdoctoral Fellows ( APF ) . In addition , each faculty and department has its own student governing body , the largest faculty associations being the Arts Undergraduate Society ( AUS ) and the Science Undergraduate Society ( SUS ) . The oldest is the Medical Students Society , founded in 1859 .
There are hundreds of clubs and student organizations at the university . Many of them are centred around McGill 's student union building , the University Centre . In 1992 , students held a referendum which called for the University Centre to be named for actor and McGill alumnus William Shatner . The university administration refused to accept the name and did not attend the opening . Traditionally , the administration names buildings in honour of deceased members of the university community or for major benefactors — Shatner is neither .
McGill has a number of student @-@ run publications . The McGill Daily , first published in 1911 , was previously published twice weekly , but shifted to a once @-@ a @-@ week publication schedule in September 2013 due to tightened budgets . The Délit français is the Daily 's French @-@ language counterpart . The combined circulation of both papers is over 28 @
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,@ 000 . The McGill Tribune currently publishes once a week , circulating approximately 11 @,@ 000 copies across campus . The Bull & Bear , operating under the Management Undergraduate Society , publishes 1 @,@ 000 copies each month . The satirical publication Plumber 's Faucet and its counterpart Plumber 's Legder ( established in 2012 ) operate under the Engineering Undergraduate Society . Past publications include the Red Herring and the Plumber 's Pot . CKUT ( 90 @.@ 3 FM ) is the campus radio station . TVMcGill is the University TV station , broadcasting on closed @-@ circuit television and over the internet .
The McGill University Faculty of Law is home to three student @-@ run academic journals , including the world @-@ renowned McGill Law Journal , founded in 1952 . Other student @-@ run journals include such publications as the McGill Journal of Law and Health , the McGill Journal of Medicine , and the McGill Journal of Education .
While fraternities and sororities are not a large part of student life at McGill , some , including fraternities Zeta Psi , Delta Kappa Epsilon , Sigma Alpha Epsilon , Alpha Delta Phi , Alpha Epsilon Pi , Alpha Sigma Phi , Kappa Alpha Society and Sigma Chi and sororities Gamma Phi Beta , Kappa Kappa Gamma , Kappa Alpha Theta , and Alpha Omicron Pi have been established at the university . Phi Kappa Pi , Canada 's only national fraternity , was founded at McGill and the University of Toronto in 1913 and continues to be active . With just over 2 % of the student body population participating , involvement is below that of most American universities , but on par with most Canadian schools .
Queer McGill ( formerly Gay McGill ) has supported lesbian , bisexual , gay , and transgender students since 1972 .
Many large organizations , including NGOs , have a local presence on campus . The International Relations Students Association of McGill ( IRSAM ) publishes the world 's only all @-@ inclusive international relations research journal , the McGill International Review and currently has consultative status with the UN 's Economic and Social Council ( ECOSOC ) and the United Nations Educational , Scientific and Cultural Organization ( UNESCO ) . Since 1990 , IRSAM has hosted an annual Model United Nations , McMUN , for university students and since 1993 it has hosted an annual Model United Nations , SSUNS , for high school students . Other humanitarian groups represented at McGill include UNICEF , Oxfam , End Poverty Now , Right to Play , and Free the Children .
= = = Athletics = = =
McGill is represented in Canadian Interuniversity Sport ( CIS ) by the McGill Redmen ( men 's ) and the McGill Martlets ( women 's ) . Following a major restructuring of the varsity programme for the fall semester of 2010 , McGill is currently home to 28 varsity teams . McGill is known for its strong hockey and lacrosse programs . McGill 's unique mascot , Marty the Martlet , was introduced during the 2005 Homecoming game ,
The downtown McGill campus sport and exercise facilities include : the McGill Sports Centre ( which includes the Tomlinson Fieldhouse and the Windsor Varsity Clinic ) , Molson Stadium , Memorial Pool , Tomlinson Hall , McConnell Arena , Forbes Field , many outdoor tennis courts and other extra @-@ curricular arenas and faculties . The Macdonald Campus facilities , include an arena , a gymnasium , a pool , tennis courts , fitness centres and hundreds of acres of green space for regular use . The university 's largest sporting venue , Molson Stadium , was constructed in 1914 . Following an expansion project completed in 2010 , it now seats just over 25 @,@ 000 , and is the current home field of the Montreal Alouettes .
= = = = Athletic history = = = =
In 1868 , the first recorded game of rugby in North America occurred in Montreal , between British army officers and McGill students , giving McGill the oldest university @-@ affiliated rugby club in North America . Other McGill @-@ originated sports evolved out of rugby rules : football , hockey , and basketball . The first game of North American football was played between McGill and Harvard on May 14 , 1874 , leading to the spread of American football throughout the Ivy League .
On March 3 , 1875 , the first organized indoor hockey game was played at Montreal 's Victoria Skating Rink between two nine @-@ player teams , including James Creighton and several McGill University students . The McGill University Hockey Club , the first organized hockey club , was founded in 1877 and played its first game on January 31 , 1877 . Very soon thereafter , those McGill students wrote the first hockey rule book . McGill alumnus James Naismith invented basketball in early December 1891 . Norwegian Herman " Jackrabbit " Smith @-@ Johannsen ( later the coach of Canada 's 1932 Olympic team ) popularized cross @-@ country skiing in North America from McGill 's Gault Estate in Mont St. Hilaire .
There has been a McGill alumnus or alumna competing at every Olympic Games since 1908 . Swimmer George Hodgson won two gold medals at the 1912 Summer Olympics , ice hockey goaltender Kim St @-@ Pierre won gold medals at the 2002 Winter Olympics and at the 2006 Winter Olympics . Other 2006 gold medalists are Jennifer Heil ( women 's freestyle mogul ) and goaltender Charline Labonté ( women 's ice hockey ) .
In 1996 , the McGill Sports Hall of Fame was established to honour its best student athletes . Notable members of the Hall of Fame include James Naismith and Sydney Pierce .
A 2005 hazing scandal forced the cancellation of the final two games in the McGill Redmen football season .
In 2006 , McGill 's Senate approved a proposed anti @-@ hazing policy to define forbidden initiation practices .
= = = = Fight song = = = =
The McGill University song book , compiled by a committee of graduates and undergraduates , was published in Montreal by W.F. Brown , circa 1896 . Notable among a number of songs commonly played and sung at various events such as commencement and convocation , and athletic games are :
" Alma Mater McGill , " with words by J. McDougall ;
" L 'Enfant du McGill , " with words by Louis @-@ Honoré Fréchette , and music by Guillaume Couture ;
" God Save McGill , " with words by W.M. Mackeracher , tune ' God Save the Queen ' ;
" A Health to Old McGill , " with words by R.W. Huntingdon , and music by Mrs W.C. Baynes ;
" McGill , " with words by C.W. Colby , sung to the tune ' The Gay Cavalier ' ;
" McGill Revisited , " with words by John Cox ,
" McGill Students , " with words by W.N. Evans ;
" The Student of McGill , " with words by R.D. McGibbon
= = = = Rivalries = = = =
McGill maintains an academic and athletic rivalry with Queen 's University in Kingston , Ontario . Competition between rowing athletes at the two schools has inspired an annual boat race between the two universities in the spring of each year since 1997 , inspired by the famous Oxford @-@ Cambridge Boat Race . The football rivalry , which started in 1884 , ended after Canadian university athletic divisions were re @-@ organized in 2000 ; the Ontario @-@ Quebec Intercollegiate Football Conference was divided into Ontario University Athletics and Quebec Student Sports Federation . The rivalry returned in 2002 when it transferred to the annual home @-@ and @-@ home hockey games between the two institutions . Queen 's students refer to these matches as " Kill McGill " games , and usually show up in Montreal in atypically large numbers to cheer on the Queen 's Golden Gaels hockey team . In 2007 , McGill students arrived in bus @-@ loads to cheer on the McGill Redmen , occupying a third of Queen 's Jock Harty Arena .
The school also competes in the annual " Old Four ( IV ) " soccer tournament , with Queen 's University , the University of Toronto and the University of Western Ontario .
McGill and Harvard are also athletic rivals , as demonstrated by the biennial Harvard @-@ McGill rugby games , alternately played in Montreal and Cambridge .
= = = Historical links = = =
The University of Glasgow , one of four ancient Scottish universities and member of the British Russell Group . Founded in 1451 , the original benefactor of McGill College , James McGill , studied here in the 1750s before his family worked as merchants in the city . The two universities continue this link today as part of Universitas 21 , an international student exchange programme .
The University of Edinburgh , one of four ancient Scottish universities and member of the British Russell Group . The University was founded as a civic institution in 1583 and has maintained a strong reputation in the study of medicine , among other disciplines . McGill 's first ( and , for several years , its only ) faculty , Medicine , was founded by four physicians / surgeons who had trained in Edinburgh . In common with Glasgow , Edinburgh shares an international exchange link with McGill through Universitas 21 .
= = Notable people = =
In the arts , McGill students include three Pulitzer Prize winners , Templeton Prize winner Charles Taylor , essayist and novelist John Ralston Saul , a Companion of the Order of Canada along with Charles Taylor , Juno Award winner Sam Roberts , Singer @-@ Songwriter Prita Chhabra and William Shatner , best known for his portrayal of Captain Kirk on Star Trek and winner of several Emmy Awards . Nine Academy Award winners studied at McGill . Poet and singer @-@ songwriter Leonard Cohen majored in English at McGill and graduated in 1955 . Composer and six @-@ time Grammy award winner Burt Bacharach studied music at McGill , and Win Butler and Régine Chassagne of the Grammy Award winning group Arcade Fire met while studying at McGill . In the sciences , students include doctors , inventors , three astronauts and scientist Dr. Mark J. Poznansky , a member of the Order of Canada . On October 16 , 2009 , the 42nd American president , Bill Clinton accepted an Honorary Doctorate from McGill University .
Some politicians and government officials both within Canada and abroad are McGill alumni , including three Canadian prime ministers and thirteen justices of the Supreme Court of Canada . Vaira Vīķe @-@ Freiberga completed her Ph.D. at McGill and was elected as president of the Republic of Latvia in 1999 as the first female president in Eastern Europe after Turkey 's Tansu Çiller . Ahmed Nazif also completed a Ph.D. at McGill in 1983 and has served as the youngest prime minister of Egypt since the republic 's founding 1953 . Zbigniew Brzezinski , Former United States National Security Advisor under President Jimmy Carter completed his undergraduate studies at McGill .
In the 2015 Canadian election , a total of twenty @-@ five former McGill students were elected as Members of Parliament , including the current Prime Minister of Canada , Justin Trudeau and three cabinet members . In the United States , 2006 McGill graduate Ilya Sheyman is a Democratic candidate for the U.S. House of Representatives .
Corporate leaders and media personalities have also studied at McGill . Leading Canadian philanthropist and entrepreneur Seymour Schulich donated $ 20 million , the highest donation to any music school in Canada , to the newly named Schulich School of Music . Henry Mintzberg , a professor at McGill 's Desautels Faculty of Management is an acclaimed management thinker and contributes to The New York Times and The Economist . Mintzberg is an Officer of the Order of Canada . Co @-@ founder and president of Matrox Electronic Systems Ltd . , which innovates globally in graphics , video editing , and image processing , Lorne Trottier , after whom the new engineering building is named , has donated $ 10 million towards services in information and technology at McGill . Media magnate Conrad Black also studied at McGill .
McGill students are also recognized as athletes , including various members of Canadian national teams and twenty @-@ eight Olympic medalists . Since the Olympics began , McGill has produced 112 Olympians who have won a total of eight gold medals , nine silver , and eleven bronze .
Jacob Viner , who would later go on to form the beginnings of the modern day Chicago School of Economics , earned his undergraduate degree from McGill . William Osler , one of the founders of the Johns Hopkins School of Medicine , and the originator of the concept of medical residency , received his medical degree from McGill .
Professors at McGill have won 26 Prix du Québec , 14 Prix de l 'Association francophone pour le savoir and 21 Killam Prizes . Twelve Nobel Laureates have studied or taught at McGill , among them Otto Hahn , who was awarded the 1944 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his discovery of the nuclear fission of uranium and thorium .
Since 1902 , Canadian undergraduate students have been eligible for Rhodes Scholarships to study at the University of Oxford . Since then , McGill students have won 140 Rhodes Scholarships – more than any other Canadian University . These students include parliamentary and cabinet ministers David Lewis ( 1932 ) , Alastair Gillespie ( 1947 ) , and Marcel Massé ( 1963 ) , and political philosopher Charles Taylor ( 1952 ) .
= Satisfied ( DecembeRadio album ) =
Satisfied is the fourth studio album by American Christian rock band DecembeRadio ; it was released in August 2008 through Slanted Records . Like their previous album , DecembeRadio ( 2006 ) , it was recorded at Southern Tracks Recording in Atlanta , Georgia , and produced by Scotty Wilbanks . The songs were written to ensure they would translate well in a concert setting , and the band strove to write more uplifting lyrics than those on their previous album . Recording sessions began in September 2007 and were not completed until the second quarter of 2008 , as the sessions twice were interrupted for concert tours .
The album debuted at its peak positions of number 116 on the Billboard 200 and number three on the Billboard Top Christian Albums charts ; first week sales nearly doubled those of the band 's previous album . DecembeRadio promoted Satisfied by making television and radio appearances ahead of its release , filming two promotional videos and headlining a concert tour of the United States . Satisfied received generally positive reviews ; most critics approved of the band 's continuation of the Southern rock sound evident on DecembeRadio . While critics disagreed on whether Satisfied measured up to DecembeRadio , a frequent complaint was the album 's lack of lyrical depth . Satisfied won the 2009 Gospel Music Association Dove Award for Rock Album of the Year .
= = Writing and production = =
DecembeRadio felt pressure to meet growing expectations following the accolades received for their previous album , DecembeRadio ( 2006 ) , which won a Gospel Music Association Dove Award and was nominated for a Grammy Award . " We had some great stuff go on with the first record , but I think the biggest thing over the past two years has been trying to make sure Satisfied is not a sophomore slump " said lead guitarist Brian Bunn . While the self @-@ titled album was written and recorded with little thought to how the songs would translate in concert , the experience of opening for Third Day helped DecembeRadio learn what works best live . Thus it was the band 's goal to " make sure every single song on the [ next ] album worked well in a live concert setting " , according to Bunn .
Writing for Satisfied began soon after the release of DecembeRadio and occurred in spurts , as the band found more success in letting ideas come to them spontaneously than in meeting for dedicated writing sessions . The chorus melody of " Be Alright " , for example , popped into bassist and lead singer Josh Reedy 's head while showering . On another occasion , Reedy came up with a riff on GarageBand while traveling between gigs . Two of the earliest completed songs , " Satisfy Me " and " Find You Waiting " , were included in the band 's live shows by April 2008 . The former was the first song written for the album , and the latter was first released on the expanded edition of DecembeRadio in November 2007 .
For Satisfied , DecembeRadio made a concerted effort to write lyrics that were more uplifting than those featured on their previous album . Said Bunn , " Our first record had a lot of darker songs such as ' Razor ' and ' Greed ' . Even though we liked some of that , we truly realized we 're a bunch of happy guys ! We like to have fun onstage and in our lives , so we didn 't want this album to be as dark as the last one . " To that end , the band wrote and included on Satisfied songs like " Better Man " , which Reedy says imparts that " if we learn from our mistakes and follow Jesus Christ it will make us a better man " , and the " vertical worship song " " For Your Glory " . The band was inspired to write " Find You Waiting " following the death of a friend of producer Scotty Wilbanks . At the funeral , the man 's widow stood over the casket praising God with arms raised amidst her sorrow . " It struck a chord in our hearts to write a song about how , no matter what current problem we might be facing , God 's love and mercy is always waiting there for us " , said Reedy .
Recording of Satisfied began in September 2007 at Southern Tracks Recording in Atlanta , Georgia . As with DecembeRadio 's previous album , Scotty Wilbanks was hired as the producer . Said Reedy of Wilbanks , " We just have a kindredship as musicians and as players .... There 's a lot of excitement and passion that comes from his end .... [ A ] big thing for us is having a really good time . If we 're not having a good time making a record , it 's gonna show and you 're gonna hear it . " To capture the excitement of their live shows , DecembeRadio recorded basic tracks live in the studio . Reedy said recording live is particularly useful for capturing energetic performances from drummer Boone Daughdrill . " It 's definitely very critical for him to be on top of his game and feeling like it 's a unit , because you play off of each other . It 's a real push and pull thing that happens in rock and roll music that you really can 't sometimes capture by just doing it track by track by track " , said Reedy . Miker said the band recorded a handful of songs that were " out of the box of where CCM music is " , and Reedy noted that some tracks " stretched what we 're doing ... with production . " " Gasoline " , for example , includes a " Beatlesque " section with a children 's choir , string section and piccolo trumpet , and " Falling for You " begins and ends with some guitar " shred licks " that started as a joke in the writing process .
DecembeRadio took a break from recording to headline the Drifter Tour in October and November , which also featured Nevertheless , Superhero and Bread of Stone . Recording resumed in early 2008 , but the sessions were again interrupted for a major tour , this time in support of Third Day in March and April . Soon after the tour ended , DecembeRadio finished recording the album .
= = Promotion and release = =
Satisfied was released through Slanted Records on August 26 , 2008 , and debuted at its peak positions of number 116 on the Billboard 200 and number three on the Billboard Top Christian Albums charts . First week sales nearly doubled those of DecembeRadio . The album cover was the product of a spontaneous suggestion from the band 's manager on the day of a photoshoot . Another photo had been slated for the album cover , but the band found a swamp and acted on their manager 's idea . " We went down there , took off our shoes , rolled up our jeans a little bit and walked right into the water — and stood there for 45 minutes while we got our picture taken . It 's a good thing we did it because when we got the pictures back , those were by far our favorite ! " said Bunn .
DecembeRadio promoted Satisfied by making television and radio appearances in Atlanta before their concert at the local Hard Rock Cafe on August 20 . Six days later , the band hosted an album release party at the Jefferson Center in Roanoke , Virginia , which sold out the 938 @-@ seat venue . After returning to the studio in September to record the Comfort & Joy Christmas EP , DecembeRadio filmed promotional videos for " Gasoline " and " Look for Me " in October . The band then headlined a month @-@ long U.S. tour in support of Satisfied with Ruth , Sevenglory and speaker Billy Wayne . DecembeRadio returned to the road in February 2009 to open for Newsboys on their Join the Tribe Tour . During the tour , the video for " Look for Me " debuted on the Gospel Music Channel . According to Miker , however , some radio stations refused to play the track because the lyrics were written from the perspective of God .
= = Critical reception = =
Satisfied was generally regarded by critics as a continuation of the musical style from their previous album . Many reviewers praised DecembeRadio 's " southern flavored rock " , " punchy rhythm section " and " great guitar work " , as well as the " ferocious howls of front man Josh Reedy " . Gospel Music Channel 's Beau Black , however , found that DecembeRadio 's roots are " getting tougher to spot " as they try to be " all things to all people " . Critics varied more widely on whether Satisfied 's tracks measure up to those of DecembeRadio . Russ Breimeier of Christianity Today felt the songs " fail to leave as lasting an impression as those on the debut " . Conversely , Andy Argyrakis , writing for Christian Music Central , detected more " blissfully controlled chaos " on Satisfied than on DecembeRadio , and Billboard 's Deborah Evans Price called the album " even stronger " than the last and the band 's playing " even tighter " . A more moderate view was offered by Allmusic 's Jared Johnson , who noted that while Satisfied contains " few , if any , inconsistencies or weak spots " , it " falls short " due to " the lack of a strong single " .
A frequent complaint among critics was the album 's lack of lyrical depth . Black wrote that " Satisfy Me " " delivers a message listeners have likely heard a time or six before " , and Scott Fryberger of Jesus Freak Hideout opined that DecembeRadio struggle to " be blatant about [ their ] faith without sounding cheesy " . Breimeier described the lyrics as walking " a fine line between open expressions of faith and CCM clichés " and granted that while " Find You Waiting " " relies heavily on platitudes , it 's still powerfully affecting and relatable testimony " . Argyrakis , though , remarked that the band " has plenty to say " and their " stacked sounds are never at the expense of a meaningful gospel message " .
Satisfied won the 2009 Dove Award for Rock Album of the Year and two of its tracks , " Find You Waiting " and " Better Man " , were nominated for Rock / Contemporary Recorded Song of the Year and Rock Recorded Song of the Year , respectively . Reedy said that such recognition " inspires us to be ... better at what we do musically and bolder in what we believe in our faith . "
= = Track listing = =
All songs written by Brian Bunn , Boone Daughdrill , Eric Miker , Josh Reedy and Scotty Wilbanks , except where noted .
" Better Man " – 3 : 23
" Satisfy Me " – 3 : 22
" Believer " – 3 : 40
" For Your Glory " ( Bunn , Daughdrill , Miker , Reedy , Wilbanks , Brian White ) – 3 : 56
" Gasoline " – 2 : 51
" Falling for You " – 2 : 39
" Look for Me " ( Bunn , Daughdrill , Miker , Reedy , Wilbanks , White ) – 4 : 01
" Love Can " ( Bunn , Daughdrill , Miker , Reedy , Wilbanks , Russ Lee ) – 4 : 14
" Peace of Mind " – 3 : 32
" Be Alright " – 3 : 16
" Powerful Thing " ( Bunn , Daughdrill , Miker , Reedy , Wilbanks , White ) – 3 : 24
" Find You Waiting " – 4 : 07
1 : 31 of silence brings the track length to 5 : 38
( hidden track ) – 4 : 48
= = Personnel = =
= = Chart positions = =
= = = Album = = =
= = = Singles = = =
= Fox Terrier =
Fox Terriers are two different breeds of the terrier dog type : the Smooth Fox Terrier and the Wire Fox Terrier . Both of these breeds originated in the 19th century from a handful of dogs who are descended from earlier varieties of British terriers , and are related to other modern white terrier breeds . In addition , a number of breeds have diverged from these two main types of fox terrier and have been recognised separately , including the Jack Russell Terrier , Miniature Fox Terrier and Rat Terrier . The Wire and Smooth Fox Terriers share similar characteristics , the main differences being in the coat and markings . They have been successful in conformation shows , more prominently in America than their homeland .
= = History = =
Small dogs were observed by the Romans in England in 54 BC being used by hunters to chase quarry into burrows and dens , demonstrating the instinctive terrier behaviour of " going to earth " . English physician John Caius described the English terrier type in his 1577 work English Dogges . By the 18th century , it was recorded that all terriers were wire haired , and black and tan in colour .
The earliest record of any white terrier was a dog named Pitch , who was owned by Colonel Thomas Thornton in 1790 . The dog was the subject of a painting by Sawrey Gilpin , who created a portrait of it while it was still alive . An engraving of this painting , made prior to 1810 , was accompanied by the text , " It would be necessary to notice Colonel Thorton 's terriers if they were only on account of his justly celebrated Pitch , from whom are descended most of the white terriers in the kingdom . " Dog writers of the early 20th century suggested that Pitch was a terrier @-@ greyhound cross , which was how the colour was introduced into the breed .
Not much is known of early 19th century breeding practices that came to create the modern Fox Terrier . However it is thought that the Beagle , Old English Bulldog , English Toy Terrier , Pointer and even Dalmatian were all used in the creation and stabilisation of the breed .
From 1870 onwards , a complete pedigree for Fox Terriers exists . Three dogs , known as Old Jock , Trap and Tartar , are the ancestors of most modern strains of white terrier . Old Jock was bred from a black and tan terrier , while Trap was from the strain out of Reverend John Russell 's dogs . Although definitive history on Tartar is not known , he is also thought to have come from black and tan terrier stock . Of the female dogs from this period , Grove Nettle was the best known . In addition to those dogs , another named Old Tip is thought to be the forefather of the modern Wire Fox Terrier . One Fox Terrier breeder during this period was Parson John " Jack " Russell , who would later have the Jack Russell Terrier series of breeds named after him .
The terrier of this period was short of leg , built in a chunky fashion , and had a skull that was broad across the top . Used in hunting packs and kept in kennels along with English Foxhounds , they were bred for their ability to drive the fox out of its den . Gradually the pace of the hunt became faster , and the terriers were bred with longer legs for more speed towards the end of the 18th century . However the increased size meant that the Fox Terrier became too big to be used for its original purpose , and its use in fox hunting began to decline .
The Fox Terrier Club of England was founded in 1876 , with the American Fox Terrier Club following nine years later , becoming the first breed speciality club to become a member of the American Kennel Club . A female Smooth Fox Terrier bred by Winthrop Rutherfurd named Warren Remedy was the first winner of Best in Show at the Westminster Kennel Club Dog Show in 1907 , 1908 , and 1909 . Following the popularity of conformation dog shows , the Fox Terrier was the result of selective breeding . For instance , by 1949 , 120 of 140 Wire Fox Terrier champions were descended from a single championship @-@ winning dog .
= = Modern breeds = =
There are two main breeds of Fox Terrier , Smooth and Wire , both of which originate in England . In addition , there are several descendant breeds which have been developed in a variety of countries . For example , the American Toy Fox Terrier was developed from the Smooth Fox Terrier , Italian Greyhound , Manchester Terrier , Miniature Pinscher and Chihuahua breeds .
Both major types of Fox Terrier are mostly white with coloured markings and have similar facial characteristics . They are essentially the same except for differences in coats , and slight differences in colouration and markings . Markings on either type can appear black at birth on the head , but may lighten in adult life , the most common colours being tan and black . The markings are a type of piebald spotting . Although the two main breeds were originally commonly interbred , this no longer occurs in pure @-@ bred lines .
The Fox Terrier has been more successful than any other breed at the Westminster Kennel Club Dog Show , with four Best in Show titles going to the Smooth Fox Terrier and fourteen titles going to the Wire Fox Terrier . They were both shown as one breed with two coat variations ; this changed in 1985 when the American Kennel Club listed the two as separate breeds . In the UK , at Crufts , the Smooth Fox Terrier has not won any Best in Show titles , while the Wire Fox Terrier has won on three occasions .
= = = Smooth Fox Terrier = = =
The Smooth Fox Terrier has a short , hard coat which is predominantly white . It measures 14 – 15 @.@ 5 inches ( 36 – 39 cm ) at the withers , and weighs between 15 – 19 pounds ( 6 @.@ 8 – 8 @.@ 6 kg ) . The head of this breed is long and wedge shaped , with small , dark eyes and ears that are v @-@ shaped .
The breed has been identified as one of several Vulnerable Native Breeds in the UK . This is when there are fewer than 300 annual registrations with The Kennel Club . In 2010 , there were 155 Smooth Fox Terriers registered , compared to 693 for the Wire Fox Terrier and 8 @,@ 663 for the most popular breed in the Terrier Group , the Staffordshire Bull Terrier .
The most successful dog at the Westminster Kennel Club Dog Show was Ch . Warren Remedy , who won the Best in Show title three times between 1907 and 1909 . These victories were followed by a further Best in Show title for Ch . Sabine Rarebit in 1910 . Despite the Smooth Fox Terrier breed winning the first four Best in Show titles at Westminster , it has not won again since .
= = = Wire Fox Terrier = = =
The Wire Haired Fox Terrier has a hard and crisp double coat with a coarse texture underneath that provides protection from the cold . It should be so dense that the skin cannot be seen or felt . The individual hairs should twist , but are not curly . An average member of the breed should measure 14 – 15 @.@ 5 inches ( 36 – 39 cm ) at the withers and weigh between 15 – 19 pounds ( 6 @.@ 8 – 8 @.@ 6 kg ) . It has similar features to the Smooth Fox Terrier with small dark eyes and v @-@ shaped ears . Its body is shorter than it is tall .
King Edward VII owned a Wire Fox Terrier from the Notts kennel called Caeser of Notts , which did a great deal to popularise the breed at the turn of the 20th century . Another member of the Notts kennel was an early winner of Best Champion at Crufts in 1911 named Collarbone of Notts . Other individual dogs which greatly influenced the breed included Ch . Talavera Simon , born in 1924 , and Ch . Zeloy Emperor , born in 1960 .
= = = Descendant breeds = = =
= = Common health issues = =
Myasthenia gravis , a neuromuscular disease , is inheritable in the Smooth Fox Terrier through an autosomal recessive gene . This can also be a symptom of megaesophagus , which is a health issue for the Wire Fox Terrier . Another inheritable condition in the Smooth Fox Terrier is cataracts , which is more prevalent than average in the breed . Both types of Fox Terrier can be susceptible to allergies .
In a survey conducted by The Kennel Club , the primary cause of death for Fox Terriers was old age , causing 31 @.@ 8 % of reported deaths . The secondary cause was cancer of an unspecified type , which accounted for 22 @.@ 7 % of reports . The average lifespan of a Fox Terrier is around 15 years ; however , the Kennel Club survey reported a median age at death of 13 years and 2 months .
= Release the Stars =
Release the Stars is the fifth studio album by Canadian @-@ American singer @-@ songwriter Rufus Wainwright , released through Geffen Records on May 15 , 2007 . Pet Shop Boys ' Neil Tennant was the executive producer and the album was mixed by producers Marius de Vries and Andy Bradfield . Wainwright 's most commercially successful album to date , Release the Stars charted in 13 countries , reaching Top 10 positions in Denmark , Norway , and the United Kingdom , and was certified gold in Canada and the UK . The album generated three singles : " Going to a Town " , which peaked at number 54 on the UK Singles Chart , " Rules and Regulations " , and " Tiergarten " .
Wainwright originally planned to create a more simple piano and voice album , but began leaning towards more lush sounds once the recording process started . Guests on Release the Stars include Richard Thompson , longtime friend and fellow singer @-@ songwriter Teddy Thompson , family members Martha Wainwright and Kate McGarrigle , Neil Tennant , Joan Wasser , and actress Siân Phillips . The world tour supporting the album lasted from May 2007 to February 2008 , and included tour stops in North America , Europe , Asia and Australia . For Release the Stars , Wainwright received two nominations for the Juno Awards of 2008 , including Adult Alternative Album of the Year and Songwriter of the Year , and won the Outstanding Music Artist award at the 19th GLAAD Media Awards .
= = Conception and development = =
" Initially , this was simply going to be an album of piano and voice " , Wainwright stated in a May 2007 interview with The Independent 's Nick Duerden . That was , however , until he visited Berlin , which influenced the album 's lush sound . Wainwright declared , " Basically , a huge wave of German Romanticism descended on the recording process , and almost drowned me . " Wainwright cited two reasons for the change in direction and the heightened dramatic flare : the cancer diagnosis received by his mother ( folk musician Kate McGarrigle ) during the album 's genesis , which he found " fueled his creative intensity in some kind of displaced attempt to get her well " , and the New York Metropolitan Opera 's commissioning Wainwright to write an opera , making Release the Stars a way of training for such a large project . Revealing the overall theme in January 2007 , Wainwright declared the album was about opening up and following impulses . " Whether it 's the environment , politics or religious warfare " , Wainwright stated in an interview with The Japan Times , " it 's time to get out there and be a part of the solution , whatever that is . "
For his " incredible take on what popular music means in today 's world " , Wainwright recruited Neil Tennant to advise him , act as executive producer of the album , and assist with the editing process . Parts of the album were recorded at Second Story and Legacy in New York City , Brooklyn Recording in Brooklyn , Saal 4 in Berlin , and Strongroom and Angel Studios in London . Wainwright had his sister Martha Wainwright , half @-@ sister Lucy Wainwright Roche , and mother Kate McGarrigle appear on the album , along with father and son musicians Richard Thompson and Teddy Thompson . Marius de Vries , who produced both of Wainwright 's previous albums ( Want One and Want Two ) , worked on the album , as did longtime band members Jeff Hill , Jack Petruzelli , and Matt Johnson .
= = Singles = =
" Going to a Town " was released as a single in digital format on April 3 , 2007 , in the United States . The track was later released via digital distribution in the UK on May 7 , including " Low Grade Happiness " as a B @-@ side on iTunes . " Going to a Town " entered the UK Singles Chart on May 19 , 2007 , at number 68 . The following week ( May 26 ) , the track reached its highest position at number 54 . " Going to a Town " lasted on the chart for two weeks in total , and failed to chart in other countries . The music video for the song was directed by Sophie Muller . The video premiered in April 2007 , and Logo aired a 20 @-@ minute feature on the making of the video on April 27 , 2007 ( Making the Video : Going to a Town ) .
The album 's second single , " Rules and Regulations " , was released digitally in the UK on July 30 , 2007 . The song failed to chart . Petro Papahadjopoulos directed the music video for " Rules and Regulations " , which features a group of men performing a choreographed dance around a long john @-@ wearing Wainwright inside a London mansion .
Released in October 2007 , " Tiergarten " was the third single from Release the Stars . A limited edition ( 500 copies ) 12 @-@ inch single containing " Supermayer Lost in Tiergarten " was released on October 27 . A one @-@ track EP containing the Supermayer remix was released in the UK via iTunes and 7digital on October 29 . Both the album version and remix of " Tiergarten " failed to chart .
= = Songs and themes = =
" Do I Disappoint You " , the album 's opener , " sees [ Wainwright ] present a withering defense of his own human frailties , while one orchestral battalion after another mount their attacks and Martha Wainwright summons ' CHAOS ! ' and ' DESTRUCTION ! ' like a marauding Fury " . " Going to a Town " , the album 's lead single , was considered by Uncut 's John Mulvey to be among the angriest lyrics Wainwright has written , an " indictment of the country of his birth that hinges on the refrain , ' I 'm so tired of you America ' " . The political track , which Wainwright claimed that he wrote in just five minutes on the eve of his departure for Berlin , confronts the Bush administration 's perceived damage to the U.S. in the form of a love song . It was his discontent with America at the time that lead Wainwright to spend some time recording the album in Berlin . " Tiergarten " , named after a large park in Berlin of the same name , is a song about Wainwright 's German boyfriend , Jörn Weisbrodt . While recording parts of Release the Stars in Berlin , the couple visited the park often .
" Nobody 's Off the Hook " is written about the singer @-@ songwriter Teddy Thompson , a longtime friend of Wainwright 's . Citing Mozart , Beethoven , Schubert and Mahler as influences , Wainwright stated the string arrangements were his first attempt at writing chamber music . " Between My Legs " , which Wainwright wrote about a " boy [ he ] was infatuated with named Tommy Hotpants " , is a " fantasy about being able to save your object of desire when the apocalypse comes , and bring him to some sort of hidden paradise " . The last 30 seconds of the song contains the opening notes of the title song from Andrew Lloyd Webber 's musical The Phantom of the Opera , along with a dramatic spoken word part by Siân Phillips . According to Wainwright , " Rules and Regulations " was originally written as a slow ballad for Robert Wilson , and is about the perspective of " someone who looks at athletes , but who is not an athlete " . " Not Ready to Love " is Wainwright 's " surrender to the whole idea of being loved and being able to maintain a relationship " .
" Slideshow " is about Michael Cavadias , a friend that Wainwright took to Australia for a Leonard Cohen tribute concert , who failed to include Wainwright in the computer slide show he put together . Wainwright wrote " Tulsa " after meeting The Killers frontman Brandon Flowers at a bar in Tulsa , Oklahoma . After reuniting with Flowers at the 2007 Glastonbury Festival in England , Wainwright said of their encounter that Flowers was " very flattered " and " somewhat bashful " .
" Leaving for Paris N ° 2 " , previously released as " Leaving for Paris " on a bonus CD for Want One in France , differs from the first version with the addition of a second verse along with added instrumental effects . In an April 2007 interview with Scotland on Sunday , Wainwright revealed the inspiration for both " Do I Disappoint You " and " Leaving for Paris N ° 2 " :
" [ They were ] actually written for a musical that I was thinking of writing . They 're both about the same person . Essentially it 's about an extremely beautiful individual , man or woman , who 's deathly attractive , who basically lashes out at his oppressors or fondlers or pursuers . And just tells them that , ' you know , the fact that you love me for my physical attributes is kind of a sin , and in fact I 'm a lot like you , and that 's the truth . Looking at me physically you don 't see my soul . ' And that was just [ written ] during the period when I was obsessed with good @-@ looking people and why people liked them . "
Wainwright later stated that the musical was Moulin Rouge ! :
" [ Leaving for Paris ] is a very old song . I wrote this years ago , and I 've sung it for a long time . Initially , it was a piece I wrote for Moulin Rouge ! , Baz Luhrmann 's movie . I thought it would be great for Nicole Kidman to sing , and kind of walk away from her little village and end up a prostitute in Paris . Slowly , Nicole Kidman morphed into me . Because they didn 't use it in the movie , I kept it for myself . "
" Sanssouci " was inspired by 18th century Prussian monarch Frederick the Great 's Rococo summer palace outside Berlin . Wainwright has said the song is about the discrepancy between expectations from success and its reality . " Release the Stars " , the title track and album closer , has a " brassy Broadway swagger " . The song 's lyrical inspiration comes from Lorca Cohen , Leonard 's daughter , " missing the New York show " ( referring to one of the Judy Garland tribute concerts Wainwright performed in June 2006 at Carnegie Hall ) .
= = Cover art and liner notes = =
The images on the front cover , back cover , and liner notes of the album are from the gigantomachy frieze at the Pergamon Altar in Berlin . The photos were taken by Wainwright . Insert photographs of Wainwright , the altar , the bushes , and the long path were taken by Sam Taylor Wood , Wainwright , Lucy Roche , and Jörn Weisbrodt . In the liner notes , Wainwright gives " special thanks to all [ his ] family and friends " .
= = World tour = =
To promote the album , Wainwright embarked on a tour that lasted for nearly eight months , starting in London in May 2007 and ending in New York City in February 2008 . The tour visited the United States and Canada during June – August 2007 , the UK in October , Europe during November – December , and Japan and Australia / New Zealand during January – February 2008 .
Throughout much of the tour , fans could audition to join Wainwright on stage and perform their own rendition of Siân Phillips ' spoken word part in " Between My Legs " . Candidates posted their audition videos on YouTube , and a winning act was chosen for each concert . Photos of " Between My Legs " contest winners performing on stage with Wainwright were posted on his official MySpace site . The last stop of the tour was on February 14 ( Valentine 's Day ) , 2008 at Radio City Music Hall in NYC .
= = Critical reception = =
Overall , reception of the album was positive . In his review for The Guardian , Alexis Petridis wrote that Release the Stars " is , by anyone 's standards , a wonderful album , packed with stunning melodies and brilliant lyrics " . Billboard magazine 's Susan Visakowitz described the album as Wainwright 's " most unabashedly flamboyant record yet " , with " larger @-@ than @-@ life melodies wrapped in swelling strings and surging horns and buoyed by the singer 's typical swoon @-@ inducing , caramel @-@ covered tenor " . The Observer 's Stephanie Merritt called the album " complex , melodramatic , ambitious , vain , beautiful and frequently magnificent " . While she wrote that Release the Stars may not yield many chart hits , Merritt claimed " it feels like an album that will endure " . Music journalist Robert Christgau complimented the album , observing , " To prove he can , [ Wainwright ] sets just one of this career @-@ topping aggregation of florid melodies to electric guitars , and damn my heterosexual ears for liking it best " . Caitlin Moran of The Times declared , " The stars will be released , in batches of fours and fives , in every review " . Referring to Sanssouci , the former summer palace of Frederick the Great and inspiration for the song of the same name , Uncut contributor John Mulvey wrote , " If he keeps making albums as good as this , we should wall him up in there forever " .
However , the album did receive some criticism , mostly pertaining to its overly lavish and decadent style . Regarding Wainwright 's attempt at creating radio @-@ friendly music , Petridis claimed that Wainwright " doesn 't seem to be trying at all " by employing Neil Tennant ( a musician also known for grandiloquence ) as executive producer of the album and including extravagant orchestrations . He wrote , " every time Wainwright seems on the verge of making a straightforward appeal for the mainstream , he throws a glittery spanner in the works " . He noted the exotic instruments used in " Do I Disappoint You " : " It 's a marvelous song , but it 's lavishly decorated with thundering timpani , fluttering woodwind , pizzicato strings and brass . " Petridis questions , " Is this really the way he proposes to win over the punters who pick up two albums a year ? " In his review for NME , Priya Elan wrote , " Someone needs to tell Wainwright there 's a huge difference between ' epic ' and ' over @-@ egged ' " . Entertainment Weekly 's Gregory Kirschling stated that Release the Stars was " adorned with more strings , horns , choirs , and piccolo flute ( ! ) than ever , his melodies — and what melodies they are — are drowned out by the bombast " , citing " Nobody 's Off the Hook " as an example . " But " , Kirschling stated , " he still yearns more beautifully than anyone " .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written by Wainwright .
" Do I Disappoint You " – 4 : 40
" Going to a Town " – 4 : 06
" Tiergarten " – 3 : 26
" Nobody 's Off the Hook " – 4 : 27
" Between My Legs " – 4 : 26
" Rules and Regulations " – 4 : 05
" Not Ready to Love " – 5 : 51
" Slideshow " – 6 : 21
" Tulsa " – 2 : 20
" Leaving for Paris N ° 2 " – 4 : 52
" Sanssouci " – 5 : 16
" Release the Stars " – 5 : 20
Track listing adapted from Allmusic .
= = Personnel = =
Credits adapted from Allmusic and the album liner notes .
= = Chart positions and certifications = =
Release the Stars debuted at number 23 on the U.S. Billboard 200 , Wainwright 's highest debut chart position as of 2009 , selling about 24 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . The album also achieved Wainwright 's highest chart position on the UK Albums Chart , debuting at number 2 with sales approaching 30 @,@ 000 in the first week . Overall , Release the Stars charted in 13 countries , reaching Top 10 positions in Denmark , Norway , and the United Kingdom . The album was certified gold in both Canada and the UK .
= = Awards and recognitions = =
For Release the Stars , Wainwright received two nominations for the Juno Awards of 2008 , including Adult Alternative Album of the Year and Songwriter of the Year for " Going to a Town " , " Release the Stars " , and " Do I Disappoint You " . Wainwright won the Outstanding Music Artist award at the 19th GLAAD Media Awards , an awards ceremony created by the Gay & Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation to recognize and honor LGBT representation in mainstream media . At the same ceremony , Wainwright was presented with the Stephen F. Kolzak Award , an honor given to an openly gay member of the entertainment or media community for his or her work toward eliminating homophobia .
The following table displays some of the 2007 " End of Year " list placements by various publications :
= Albert Bonass =
Albert Edward Bonass ( 29 May 1911 – 9 October 1945 ) was an English footballer who scored 58 goals from 186 appearances in the Football League playing as an outside left for Darlington , York City , Hartlepools United and Chesterfield .
Bonass spent the second half of the 1932 – 33 season as an amateur with Darlington in the Third Division North . He then returned to his home town where he turned professional with York City . He played six league matches for each club . In 1934 , he joined another Third Division club , Hartlepools United , where he established himself as the regular selection at outside @-@ left and scored at better than a goal every two games in his first season . Less prolific in his second year , he was sold to Chesterfield , newly promoted to the Second Division for 1936 – 37 . Again , he was first choice on the left wing and productive in front of goal during his first season , less so in the next , in which he helped the team reach the fifth round of the 1937 – 38 FA Cup . In 1938 – 39 , he fell out of favour , and requested a transfer . He joined Queens Park Rangers , but his career was cut short by the outbreak of war .
During the Second World War , Bonass served in the Metropolitan Police 's War Reserve and then as a wireless operator in the Royal Air Force . He was killed in October 1945 , together with the rest of the crew and a civilian on the ground , when his Short Stirling bomber crashed on a training flight .
= = Early life and career = =
Bonass was born in Acomb , which is now a suburb of York . He was the son of George and Amelia Bonass .
He began his football career with local teams including York Wednesday and York & District League club Dringhouses , and signed for Third Division club Darlington as an amateur in December 1932 . According to the Sunderland Echo , he was " speedy and gives promise of developing into a good player " . He played six league matches and scored once , in a 1 – 1 draw with Chester . He was not retained – after a disappointing season , Darlington named only five players on their retained list .
During the 1933 close season , Bonass married Dorothy Parsons in York . He turned professional with York City ahead of the 1933 – 34 season . Again , he made only six league appearances ; in November 1933 , he was injured playing for York 's reserve team when he crashed into railings surrounding the pitch .
= = Hartlepools United = =
After a trial , Bonass signed on a free transfer for Hartlepools United as replacement for winger Ralph Pedwell who had left the club . The 1934 – 35 Football League campaign began with a visit to Walsall . After two minutes of the match , the home goalkeeper " failed to deal with a centre by [ Tommy ] Hird , and Bonass dashed in and headed the ball out of his hands into the net " . He continued as both regular selection and regular scorer , with 23 goals from 43 matches in all competitions in his first season . His opening goal in the FA Cup first @-@ round replay against Halifax Town created such excitement among the spectators that they broke through the barriers separating terraces from pitch .
In 1935 – 36 , he continued as a fixture at outside @-@ left , but scored fewer goals. one of which came as an equaliser against Lincoln City when the referee failed to notice that teammate Johnny Wigham punched the ball to him rather than playing it legitimately . All the same , three months into the season he was the team 's top scorer with six . As in the previous season , Hartlepools played Halifax Town in the FA Cup , and again , they won after a replay ; Bonass was involved in three of their four goals , two of which were scored when his shot was parried to another player . He finished the season with 13 goals , second only to Wigham , as Hartlepools finished eighth in the Third Division .
= = Chesterfield = =
Bonass signed for Chesterfield , newly promoted to the Second Division , for a £ 250 fee in May 1936 . He went straight into the starting eleven , scored the opening goal in the first home match of the new season , against Norwich City , and the Derby Evening Telegraph 's correspondent was impressed : " Bonass , at outside @-@ left , was the pick of the line , for he generally shot accurately , and he showed a good idea of combination . " At Christmas he scored the only goal of the game against Aston Villa , and contributed two – one a neat back @-@ heel – to a 4 – 0 win against Swansea Town on New Year 's Day . His goal return for the season was 14 from 39 league games as Chesterfield finished in mid @-@ table , and he was part of the team that beat Derby County to win the Derbyshire Senior Cup .
Chesterfield listed fourteen forwards on their retained list , but Bonass kept his place in the team , partnered at inside @-@ left by new signing Peter Ramage who , the Derby Evening Telegraph wrote , " brought out the best in Bonass and [ Harry ] Clifton " . He was injured against Nottingham Forest in December , thus ending a sequence of 19 consecutive appearances . He had returned to fitness by mid @-@ January , when his team 's FA Cup third @-@ round victory reportedly " owed much to ... the dash of Bonass and Clifton in the forwards " . They progressed to the fifth round , in which they lost to Tottenham Hotspur only after a replay in front of a 50 @,@ 000 crowd at White Hart Lane . In the second half of the season , Chesterfield slumped from promotion candidate to mid @-@ table , and after contributing six goals from 39 appearances in the league , Bonass was left out of the last few games , appearing instead for the reserves in the Central League . He was again retained for 1938 – 39 .
Bonass came into the team at outside @-@ right for the fifth game of the new season , before reverting to outside @-@ left against Sheffield Wednesday on 17 September , which coincided with Chesterfield 's first win . Two weeks later , he scored the only goal of the game at home to West Ham United direct from a corner kick . He kept his place to the end of the year , but then played only three times before the end of February when he submitted a transfer request . The Derbyshire Times reported no disharmony between club and player , who just felt that different surroundings might help a return to form . He moved on to London club Queens Park Rangers ( QPR ) in June , and played in all three of their matches before the 1939 – 40 Football League season was abandoned when war broke out .
= = Style of play = =
A profile on Chesterfield F.C. historian Stuart Basson 's website describes Bonass as " a sturdy wingman with a keen eye for cutting in and shooting for goal " , who was able to produce a " steady supply of goals and good crosses from the left " . He was left @-@ footed , and had pace . He had a strong shot , and was a good taker of goalscoring chances , although the Northern Daily Mail 's correspondents noted a tendency to miss the easy ones . He rarely scored headed goals . He was also a hard @-@ working and conscientious team player .
= = Second World War = =
Bonass completed the 1939 – 40 season with QPR in the wartime league , which although not regarded as competitive was certainly taken seriously : against Chelsea in December , he was stretchered off with a suspected broken leg , victim of a tough tackle " like many others in this pacy , no @-@ quarter struggle " where the " war of words between rival fan factions on the terrace reminded [ the Daily Express 's Stanley Halsey ] of the Glasgow Rangers – Celtic match " . He played some 30 times for QPR thereafter , and guested for a number of clubs including Aldershot , Brentford , Chesterfield , Fulham , Luton Town , Southampton , Watford and York . Bonass served with the Metropolitan Police as a War Reserve Constable for four years , and apart from his war @-@ related duties , played for their football team , scored as the Police Professionals beat the Police Amateurs 5 – 2 in September 1942 , and also represented the national police team .
He went on to join the Royal Air Force , and was promoted to the rank of sergeant . He became a member of the Caterpillar Club after bailing out over Manchester from a Wellington aircraft . In the early hours of 9 October 1945 , he was the wireless operator aboard a Short Stirling bomber on a training flight when it crashed on the village of Tockwith , North Riding of Yorkshire , which was on the edge of the RAF base at Marston Moor . One civilian and all six crew were killed , a number of houses were demolished , by impact or by fire , and many residents made homeless . He was the father of a daughter , and had been expecting to be demobilised " shortly " .
Bonass was buried at the Stonefall Cemetery near Harrogate . On 11 October 2015 , a memorial was erected at Tockwith to commemorate the 70th anniversary of the crash in which Bonass was killed .
= = Career statistics = =
= Bloody Fun Day =
Bloody Fun Day is a puzzle Flash game developed by Urban Squall and published by Kongregate on March 12 , 2009 . Players control one of a family of three grim reapers and are tasked with moving around an island of hexagonal tiles , killing creatures called Cuties in order to replenish their own life force . Cuties come in four colors . Only the red ones restore life ; the others charge special abilities that give the player more ways to kill further Cuties .
The game was initially developed as a demo by Urban Squall during the group 's annual development meeting , in a San Diego hotel during November 2008 . The demo was further tested after the five @-@ day meeting , resulting in the complete game being released during March . The game 's theme was inspired by the short story Everything Can Be Beaten by Jhonen Vasquez , which features a monster that clubs animals to death and is unable to interact with them in any other way .
Critics praised the game 's concept , gameplay and addictiveness . The intensity of trying to keep the reaper alive was highlighted by some reviewers , such as saving the reaper 's life by killing a large number of Cuties . Some issues , such as the lack of special effects and enemies , were highlighted ; this did not prevent reviewers from rating the game positively overall .
= = Gameplay = =
The game is turn based , with players selecting one of a family of three grim reapers as their player character and starting the tutorial or selecting a game mode from either " 5 Level Mode " or " Unlimited Mode " . Players are presented with an island consisting of hexagonal tiles , each occupied by a cutie , with their chosen reaper present in the middle of the board armed with a scythe . The objective of the game is to earn the highest score possible , by killing Cuties , before dying .
Cuties come in four colors : Red , Black , Blue and Gold . When defeated , a Cutie releases a soul of the same color , which is added to the player 's stock . Red Cuties ' souls replenish the player 's life gauge . The other three colors fill one or more of six special move buttons , allowing the player to use different attacks when the buttons are filled . When a new game is started , the player begins with 15 life points , one of which is expended each time the player moves to an adjoining tile . If the player 's life points are depleted then their reaper dies , the player must slay as many red Cuties as possible to continue playing . In " 5 Level Mode " play ends after the player completes the fifth level , in " Unlimited Mode " play continues until the player runs out of life energy .
When a player moves to a tile occupied by a Cutie , that creature is slain along with any other Cuties of the same color directly connected to that tile . Chains of Cuties can be slain in this fashion , producing several souls . Each tile the player moves to is drained of life , causing the grass to wither and preventing the player from moving back to it , any Cuties destroyed in a chain outside of the initial tile become eggs . After a set period of turns the eggs hatch into random Cuties , which can again be harvested for souls . Any tiles drained by the player 's presence return to life and are furnished with an egg when existing eggs hatch . The result of this is that every tile the reaper travels on takes twice as long to spawn a new Cutie compared to tiles that housed a Cutie destroyed by a chain attack . Players move to the next game level after a certain amount of moves , every new level increases the time taken for eggs to hatch by a turn . Moving onto a tile containing an egg destroys the egg and incurs a small point deduction , but destroying a golden egg increases the player 's score . A golden egg is produced whenever 10 or more Cuties are killed in a chain .
The left side of the game screen features a turn tracker , which consists of a number of notches that represent turns . Markers are placed beside events such as level waypoints , egg hatching events , and the turn that ends the game if the player can 't harvest more red souls . The 6 special abilities the player can charge with souls include the ability to kill any group of Cuties on the board , convert any adjacent group into red souls , and double the amount of souls obtained from any adjacent Cutie group .
= = Development = =
Initial development began in November 2008 when Urban Squall met in San Diego for their annual meeting , 2008 's theme was ' a game in a week ' . The team consisted of designer and programmer Andrew Pellerano , programmer Panayoti Haritatos , graphic designer Tim Wendorf and musician Nick Esposito . The developers hired two adjoining hotel rooms and opened the connecting door , allowing them to concentrate solely on creating the game over a period of five days , resulting in a demo . Pellerano spent further weeks updating the game during his spare time after which it was released to the public . During the weeks between the initial demo version and the game 's release , Wendorf playtested the game and provided feedback on the number of souls needed to allow special abilities to be activated . The music track was created one night when Pellerano met Esposito in the latter 's studio , during which Pellerano also voiced the sound effects resulting from Cuties being killed .
Bloody Fun Day 's theme was inspired by the short story Everything Can Be Beaten by Jhonen Vasquez . The story centres on a monster called It , who spends his life in the confines of a single room , waiting in front of a chute that kittens slide down . He crushes the kittens with a hammer . One day It decides to leave the room , and encounters a world full of ' cute ' animals . It responds by crushing the creatures , the only thing he is capable of doing .
= = Reception = =
Bloody Fun Day received a positive response from video game critics . Psychotronic , reviewer for Jay is Games , called it " an exceptionally well @-@ crafted and deep game " and " refreshingly original " , saying the developer " gets more interesting with every new title " . Kotaku Australia 's David Wildgoose stated the game is " rather addictive " . Vue Weekly writer Darren Zenko stated that the game is addictive , finding himself playing for more than 8 hours in a day . Psychotronic disliked the lack of variety in levels , due to only one island shape being available and no enemies being present . He also highlighted the lack of special effects when using the reapers ' abilities , since Cuties all die using the same animation regardless of whether they are killed with a reaper 's scythe or a special ability . Despite this , Psychotronic praised the game 's special abilities in terms of balance and interest , stating that the " three different families of powers support each other , making it feel like your efforts in one area can always be redirected to another . "
Wired writer Nate Ralph found that " Bloody Fun Day might not feature a deep or even logical narrative , but it 's got style in spades , bolstered by simple , fun game mechanics . " He added that the increased amount of turns needed to hatch eggs " can lead to some delightfully irritating close shaves . " IndieGames.com writer Michael Rose agreed , stating " The game mechanics work really well and it 's a very nice concept . " Anthony Carboni , a former co @-@ host of Attack of the Show ! and current presenter of online video game review show Bytejacker , was also positive . In his review he said " It 's a lot of fun and easy to pick up , but as levels progress things do get pretty intense . " Zenko stated the game embodied three virtues ; " simple , hot and deep " . These virtues were required in games published by Electronic Arts , which had been outlined to Zenko in a letter from Electronic Arts ' founder Trip Hawkins after Zenko had written to Hawkins as a teenager . During play Zenko 's reaper almost died due to a lack of red souls , but he managed to reverse the situation and fill the life bar ; " even after all these years of gaming , that rush still does its neurochemical work " .
= Elizabeth Randles =
Elizabeth Randles ( 1 August 1800 – 6 May 1829 ) , also known as " Little Cambrian Prodigy " , was a Welsh harpist and pianist . A child prodigy , she started playing the piano at the age of sixteen months , and performed in public for the first time before she was two years old . Elizabeth was taught by her blind father , who was organist at the Holywell parish church . She performed for local aristocracy , leading to a performance for King George III and his royal family when she was three and a half . Caroline , Princess of Wales , hoped to adopt her but her father did not allow it . She did , however , spend a few days at the Princess of Wales ' summer home , often playing with Princess Charlotte of Wales . Elizabeth went on to tour the country as a child , performing with John Parry . In 1808 , she returned home and learned the harp . She went on to take lessons from Friedrich Kalkbrenner , before moving to Liverpool and becoming a teacher .
= = Biography = =
Elizabeth Randles , also known as Bessy , was born on 1 August 1800 in Wrexham , north Wales . Her father , Edward Randles , the organist at the Holywell parish church of St. James , lost his sight at the age of three as a result of small pox . Perhaps due to his lack of sight , his parents placed him to be trained under the blind harpist John Parry , whom he excelled under . Elizabeth was the youngest of Randles ' several children including her brother Edward , who would become a subsequent organist at the parish church .
At the age of sixteen months , Elizabeth enjoyed pressing keys on the piano and attempting to " pick out a melody " . One day , while Randles was ill , he noticed someone attempting to play Blue Bells of Scotland on the nearby piano . Assuming it was one of his older children , he requested they stopped and was surprised to find it was Elizabeth who was playing . Due to her age , she needed to hit each key with the side of the hand . He discovered that she could play the basic melody for both the Blue Bells of Scotland and Charley over the water . Her father decided to start teaching her some other simple tunes and the musical notes . Before she could talk , she had the ability to recognise notes and press the piano keys which related to them . Randles went on to teach Elizabeth the melody to the Welsh folk song , Ar hyd y nos . Elizabeth also attempted to play the chords so her father ended up teaching her the full piece .
During the summer of 1802 , Wrexham was visited by a troupe of travelling comedians . One of the leaders , who had heard Elizabeth play , requested that she performed with them . Before the age of two , she joined the troupe at Wrexham theatre to play Ar hyd y nos and The Downfall of Paris . There , she played her pieces with an apple and slice of cake on either side of the piano , receiving both when she finished for playing well . Over the next nine months , Elizabeth played at the houses of Sir Watkin Williams @-@ Wynn , Lady Dungannon and Lady Cunliffe . Williams @-@ Wynn proposed that Elizabeth play in a Wrexham concert during the spring of 1803 , under the direction of the Welsh harpist John Parry . The concert was postponed a number of times due to the illness of Elizabeth 's mother , who insisted they carry on without her . On the night of the concert , Elizabeth 's mother died , after hearing that it was a success .
By the time Elizabeth was three and a half , she was invited to play for King George III , Queen Charlotte and other members of the Royal Family . The recital was a success and the king presented Elizabeth with 100 guineas ( worth approximately £ 96 @,@ 000 in 2014 ) . She created such a sensation that Caroline , Princess of Wales , wished to adopt her though her father would not allow it . The publicity of the royal concert led to a subsequent breakfast concert for the public , with tickets costing 1 guinea each ( approximately £ 960 in 2014 ) . The concert was held at Cumberland Gardens , with approximately 500 people " of first rank " attending . All profits of the breakfast , as well as donations by the attendees , were given to Elizabeth in the form of various trusts .
Elizabeth spent a few days under the care of the Princess of Wales , at her summer home , the Pagoda in Blackheath . There she spent time playing with a young Princess Charlotte of Wales , To ensure that she had sufficient funds for her education , Elizabeth , her father and Parry toured the rest of the United Kingdom between 1805 until 1808 . In June 1808 , she returned to London to perform at the Hanover Square Rooms , sponsored by the Prince of Wales and the Marchioness of Downshire . Parry remained in London , whilst Elizabeth and her father returned home . There she learned to play the harp and by the age of fourteen she was proficient in both instruments , as well as the organ . She returned to London in 1818 , to take harp lessons from François @-@ Joseph Dizi and piano lessons from Friedrich Kalkbrenner .
Elizabeth moved to Liverpool , teaching harp , piano and singing regularly at a school in Ellesmere , and returning each weekend to attend to her father , until his death in 1823 . Elizabeth 's health was described as " delicate " and she died of " decline " on 6 May 1829 in Liverpool . Her musical skill at such a young age left her known as the " Little Cambrian Prodigy " .
= Fringe ( season 2 ) =
The second season of the American science fiction television series Fringe commenced airing on the Fox network on September 17 , 2009 , and concluded on May 20 , 2010 . The season was produced by Bad Robot Productions in association with Warner Bros. Television , and its showrunners were Jeff Pinkner and J.H. Wyman . Actors Anna Torv , John Noble , and Joshua Jackson reprised their roles as FBI agent Olivia Dunham and father @-@ son duo Peter and Walter Bishop . Previous series regulars Lance Reddick , Jasika Nicole , Blair Brown , and Kirk Acevedo also returned , though with Acevedo in a limited capacity .
The season followed the continuation of a war between two universes , the prime and the parallel . It was set in the former , until the last several episodes when Peter Bishop ( Jackson ) journeyed back to the parallel universe after being lured there by his real father , " Walternate " ( Noble ) . While co @-@ creator J.J. Abrams described the first season as " identifying that there is an enemy " , he referred to season two as " getting to know the enemy " as it " build [ s ] to a very specific type of confrontation " between the two universes . The writers focused on their characters ' development , in particular making them more comfortable with each other while solving cases for Fringe Division . By inventing the " mythalone " style of episode , the producers sought to create the perfect episode that mixed standalone episode qualities for casual viewers with the further development of the series ' mythology for regular viewers .
In a departure from the previous season , the second season aired in a new competitive timeslot at 9 : 00 pm on Thursdays . It contained 22 episodes , plus an unaired episode that was produced during the first season ; " Unearthed " aired as a special as episode 11 of season two , days prior to " Johari Window " , the first new episode of 2010 . Also part of the season was the series ' only musical episode , " Brown Betty " , which was produced at the request of the network . The season finale , " Over There " , fully introduced the parallel universe and laid the groundwork for the third season .
Fringe ended its second season with a per episode average of 6 @.@ 252 million total viewers and a 2 @.@ 3 ratings share in the 18 – 49 demographic . The season was generally well @-@ received by critics , though most agreed that the second half was a considerable improvement over the first . The series was chosen for a number of 2010 " best of television " lists , including The New York Times , the Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer , and Entertainment Weekly . Despite its critical acclaim , Fringe failed to earn any major category nominations at the 62nd Primetime Emmy Awards , but did receive nominations at the Creative Arts Emmy Awards , Golden Reel Awards , and Satellite Awards ; at the Saturn Awards , Torv and guest actor Leonard Nimoy won in their respective categories . The second season was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray in region 1 on September 14 , 2010 , in region 2 on September 27 , and in region 4 on November 10 .
= = Season summary = =
Olivia , having been taken to William Bell 's office in the parallel universe , is returned to the prime universe but with short term amnesia , unable to recall her experience there . Massive Dynamic 's Nina Sharp directs her to Sam Weiss , a bowling alley manager , who gives her cryptic but helpful advice to overcome her amnesia . Meanwhile , the Fringe division has discovered several shapeshifters - a human / machine hybrid that bleed mercury - have crossed over , but unbeknownst to them , one takes the form of Olivia 's partner , Charlie . When Sam 's advice allows Olivia to recall what Bell told her , she unwittingly gives this information to the shapeshifter , who calls its agents to use the information to recover the body of Thomas Jerome Newton , an agent for some entity operating from the parallel universe . Nina provides Olivia with cautionary advice , alerting her to a " great war " that Bell postulated would occur between the two universes . During this time , Peter has come to forgive Walter for his past , and Walter has grown accustomed to normal life outside of the institution , but is still troubled by a secret .
Newton , using old technology from Walter and Bell 's research , is able to pull an entire building from the parallel universe to the prime , and the team races against time to prevent harm when , due to the laws of mass conservation , a building from the prime is pulled to the parallel one . This event forces Walter to try to coax Olivia to recall her Cortexiphan abilities as to identify things affected by the parallel universe . Initially unable to do so , her fear of failure enables her ability , allowing them to save the people within the target building , but also revealing to her that Peter is from the parallel universe . Walter explains to Olivia that in 1985 , he and Bell had devised a way to observe the parallel universe , where he found his doppelgänger , " Walternate " , was also close to losing his son . Though Walter 's Peter had died , Walternate continued to search for a cure , but missed the telltale sign when the Observer September arrived at his lab . Walter resynthesized the cure and aimed to cross over using untested equipment at Reiden Lake , though stalled by Nina and his lab assistant Clara . Nina tackled him on his way over , losing her arm in the process , while Walter , on the other side , found the cure vial broken . Intent on curing the alternate Peter , he posed as his father and crossed back with Peter , intending to administer the cure at the lab and then return Peter . However , on the return , the ice on Reiden Lake broke , threatening to drown both , but they were saved by September , who cautioned Walter " the boy must live " . While Walter successfully administered the cure , his wife Elizabeth saw Peter , and Walter realized he could never return Peter to the parallel universe . After Walter reveals this truth , he considers letting Peter know but struggles with how to do so , hoping to seek repentance from God for his actions .
Meanwhile , Newton has continued to use Walter 's technology to bring into temporary existence elements from the parallel universe . This enables Newton and his agents to bring over a figure known as " Mr. Secretary " , despite Fringe 's attempts to stop them . Peter , from this action , deduces that he is from the parallel universe , and furious at Walter for hiding this information , leaves on his own . While hiding in the Pacific Northwest , Peter meets Mr. Secretary - Walternate , his true father , who offers to take him back to the parallel universe , which Peter accepts . Olivia and Walter are alerted by September that Walternate plans to use Peter to initiate the operation of a strange device that threatens to destroy the prime universe , and the two launch a rescue attempt . In the parallel universe , they find that it suffers from singularities caused by Walter 's crossing in 1985 , forcing Walternate 's Fringe team to use an amber @-@ like substance to surround and quarantine such areas , regardless of innocent lives trapped within . They meet with William Bell , and Walter and Bell resolve their past differences . Olivia faces off against her doppelgänger , " Fauxlivia " , who works for Walternate in the Fringe Division under the U.S. Secretary of Defense ; she is able to recover Peter , who has seen the device and recognized that it reacted only to his biology , and wants nothing of it , willing to return with the others . As Olivia , Walter , and Peter attempt to return , they are engaged by Fauxlivia and others in the Fringe Division . Bell sacrifices himself to provide energy into a device to allow the three to cross over , but none of them are aware that Fauxlivia has secretly switched places with Olivia under Walternate 's orders , while Olivia is captured and held in a secured facility by Walternate .
= = Episodes = =
= = Development = =
= = = Crew = = =
The season was produced by Bad Robot Productions in association with Warner Bros. Television . Though still set in Boston , the show 's production for the second season moved from New York City to Vancouver out of financial necessity , as it lost access to New York 's TV production tax incentive program . Fringe consequently got a mostly new writing staff and production team , though co @-@ creators J.J. Abrams , Roberto Orci , and Alex Kurtzman , and producer Bryan Burk remained involved with the series . Jeff Pinkner and J.H. Wyman returned as executive producers and showrunners . Jeff Vlaming and previous episode director Akiva Goldsman joined the crew as consulting producers . While Abrams had six episode writing credits for the first season he remained much more hands @-@ off for the second , instead focusing on other commitments like the film Star Trek . He explained , " Sometimes we 'll talk every day . Then there will be a period of a couple weeks where we don 't speak . But we 're emailing a lot . There 's a lot of stuff that happens that way . " Eden FX and Zoic Studios stayed as vendors for the series ' visual effects , effectively giving Fringe a sense of continuity . Jay Worth , the overall visual effects supervisor , commented that having these two companies " helped the show not feel as a big of a bump from one season to the next , particularly with different crews and a different vibe a little bit . " Despite his decreased involvement , Abrams was sent all of the visual effects for the series during production , and responded back with notes and tweaks .
= = = Writing and filming = = =
Responding to criticism that some first season episodes were too neatly wrapped and solved , Jeff Pinkner commented towards the end of that season , " We found that , absolutely , early on , we were falling into the trap of — the tease would be fantastic . And then we would too quickly answer it and [ reduce ] the tension . And we 've tried to course @-@ correct and have the tease promise " questions that don 't get answered right away . He further elaborated that the goal now is to " have the energy of the show get bigger as [ an episode ] goes along ... We 're learning how to tell this version of a detective story . It 's not really a police procedural . There are elements of that . But it 's an incredible mish @-@ mash of genres . I think we 're getting better at finding our way through these stories . "
Pinkner , Abrams , Orci , Burk , Kurtzman , Wyman , and Goldsman developed the second season 's storyline together . Goldsman explained that they " mapped " out the season " in a way that we remained fundamentally faithful to " . Though they changed certain aspects , they knew where Olivia and Peter were going to start and end up but " got there at different paces than what [ they ] originally planned " . While the first season both focused on Olivia and dealt with discovering the existence of an enemy , the second was designed to " [ build ] to a very specific type of confrontation " between the two universes . Explained Pinkner , " Season 2 is about the people from ' over there ' putting the final pieces of the invasion into play , and explaining why " . At the same time , the producers approached the second season as a " journey of self @-@ actualization " and " maturation for our characters . " They wanted to make the three main cast members become more comfortable as a team in Fringe Division ; Peter thus was written to be more heroic and to go from reluctance to a desire to help his father , while Walter became gradually more independent and " grounded as a human being " . They made the secret of Peter 's origins one of the main story focuses of the season . While the audience had been made aware of Walter 's secret in the season one finale , the producers wanted to " acknowledge it to our characters " . All the while Walter was " suffering ... and desperately trying to keep it all quiet " , Olivia and Peter grew closer to the truth . By " giv [ ing ] these things time " to develop , Pinkner strove to avoid focusing just on " event , event , event " , instead concentrating on the real consequences of Peter and Olivia 's eventual discovery .
The second season 's mythology was intended to be revealed in small parcels . Throughout the season , Pinkner and Wyman tried to create an episode that best bridged " standalone " traits — needed for casual viewers — with the further advancement of the show 's mythology for those who watched regularly . At the start of the season Pinkner believed they had found a " good rhythm " between the two , as the mythology " really [ started to ] affect the characters , to the point where even the standalone [ episodes ] advance mythology " . After the season ended , Wyman commented at San Diego Comic @-@ Con International , " We learned that the fan fans love mythology but there are needs from the networks . We started experimenting with a thing we called ' mythalones ' , not standalone or myth . " Wyman cited the season 's 18th episode , " White Tulip " as a prime example , noting " You can see that you 're following Walter 's journey , it 's the right mix . " The Fringe producers strove to avoid becoming bogged down in mythology , an issue that they perceived happened in Alias , another J.J. Abrams television series . In a joint statement released midway through the season , Abrams , Pinkner , and Wyman noted that their " only internal rule is that we make every effort to not raise mythological questions merely to string viewers along , but rather to provide answers that generate consequences . "
At Fox 's request , the writers developed a musical episode , " Brown Betty " to fit into the network 's " Fox rocks " campaign in the same vein as its series Glee . While the episode already had most of the necessary elements in place before Fox 's request , the producers were able to add the musical theme as a " narrative device " to " explore Walter 's feelings " in the aftermath of Peter 's discovery and flight . To prepare for the season finale , the producers began developing characteristics of the parallel universe relatively early on . Relating to the two universes ' idiosyncrasies , Pinkner and Wyman were both interested in world building and " the concept of choices " , such as the differing events that led to the Other Side possessing a still @-@ standing World Trade Center but destroyed White House . Other historical idiosyncrasies included the oxidation of the Statue of Liberty and the use of zeppelins as transportation . They believed that all of their additions were " the texture that actually makes it a world . The richness of detail is what makes it feel real " .
As the series began filming in Vancouver , the University of British Columbia campus served as a substitute for Harvard University . Because of its heritage buildings and antique storefronts , many of the scenes set in the alternate universe were shot in New Westminster , an area outside Vancouver . Consulting producer and previous Fringe director Akiva Goldsman returned to direct several episodes , as did producer Brad Anderson , executive producer Joe Chappelle , and producer Paul Edwards . One time guest directors for the season included Bryan Spicer , Jon Cassar , Dennis Smith , Paul Holahan , Jeannot Szwarc , Frederick E. O. Toye , Deran Sarafian , Adam Davidson , Charles Beeson , David Straiton , Thomas Yatsko , Jeffrey Hunt , and Seith Mann .
= = = Cast = = =
= = = = Main cast = = = =
Anna Torv as Olivia Dunham ( 23 episodes )
Joshua Jackson as Peter Bishop ( 22 episodes )
Lance Reddick as Phillip Broyles ( 22 episodes )
Kirk Acevedo as Charlie Francis ( 6 episodes )
Blair Brown as Nina Sharp ( 10 episodes )
Jasika Nicole as Astrid Farnsworth ( 22 episodes )
John Noble as Dr. Walter Bishop ( 23 episodes )
As with the previous season , the second season featured three main characters all working together to solve various Fringe cases . Anna Torv played determined FBI agent Olivia Dunham , who is able to travel between universes as a result of childhood experiments performed on her with the nootropic drug , Cortexiphan . The man responsible for these experiments , Dr. Walter Bishop , was played by John Noble . Walter 's son Peter Bishop , whom he stole from the parallel universe , was portrayed by Joshua Jackson . Other members of the main cast included Jasika Nicole as Junior FBI Agent and Walter 's lab assistant Astrid Farnsworth , Lance Reddick as Agent Phillip Broyles , Blair Brown as Massive Dynamic executive Nina Sharp , and Kirk Acevedo as Agent Charlie Francis . Acevedo 's character was killed off in the season 's fourth episode , though at the time Pinkner and Wyman hinted of the actor 's possible return later in the season . Acevedo returned to guest star in the season finale as the parallel universe version of Charlie Francis . Acevedo was also featured in " Unearthed " , a special episode that was filmed during the first season , but aired as the eleventh episode of the second season .
= = = = Recurring cast = = = =
The second season marked a large number of recurring guest appearances . Michael Cerveris played September / The Observer , a mysterious man that observes important events and appeared in every episode of the season , often merely in brief glimpses . Further Observers were revealed , including August ( Peter Woodward ) and December ( Eugene Lipinski ) . Ryan McDonald portrayed Massive Dynamic scientist Brandon Fayette , while its founder , Dr. William Bell was played by Leonard Nimoy , despite the actor 's recent retirement . Thomas Jerome Newton , one of the season 's main villains , was played by Sebastian Roché . Kevin Corrigan portrayed Samuel Weiss , a mysterious man who helps Olivia recover from her injuries . Ari Graynor appeared as Olivia 's sister Rachel Dunham , while Lily Pilblad played Rachel 's daughter and Olivia 's niece Ella Blake . Orla Brady played Walter 's wife Elizabeth Bishop . A new FBI agent , Amy Jessup , was portrayed by Meghan Markle . Roger Cross appeared as a shapeshifter . Former Cortexiphan subjects James Heath and Nick Lane were played by Omar Metwally and David Call , respectively . Karen Holness appeared as Broyles ' ex @-@ wife Diane , and Clark Middleton played rare book seller Edward Markham . Philip Winchester appeared as Fauxlivia 's boyfriend Frank Stanton , while Seth Gabel played Agent Lincoln Lee from the parallel universe , both in the finale . J. R. Bourne played Agent Edwards , and Gerard Plunkett appeared as Senator James Van Horn .
Further notable guest stars included Andrew Airlie , Stefan Arngrim , Demore Barnes , Jenni Blong , Pascale Hutton , Ravil Isyanov , Ravi Kapoor , Alice Kremelberg , Diane Kruger , Quinn Lord , Tzi Ma , Stephen McHattie , Jennifer Missoni , Cameron Monaghan , Michael O 'Neill , Geoff Pierson , Martha Plimpton , Paul Rae , John Savage , Peter Weller , and Craig Robert Young .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings and broadcast = = =
Fringe 's first season ended with an average of 9 @.@ 96 million viewers , and among the season 's new series , it was the first rated show for adults 18 – 49 . On May 4 , 2009 , a week before the season one finale , Fox renewed Fringe for a second season , giving it a full season pick @-@ up of 22 episodes . The network 's president of entertainment , Kevin Reilly , explained " Fringe proved to be a notable addition to our schedule all season and it really has fans buzzing as it builds to a fantastic season finale . "
Later in May , Fox announced Fringe would be moving from Tuesdays to Thursdays for the second season , to be aired in the competitive 9 : 00 pm timeslot . Kevin Reilly explained the move , " The door is more open on this night than it has been in a long time . Fringe is a real alternative to both [ Grey 's and CSI : Crime Scene Investigation ] . " However , after a perceived " healthy " first season , the second season premiere was watched by an estimated 7 @.@ 817 million viewers . Ratings for the season continued to decline , culminating in 5 @.@ 68 million viewers watching the finale . Fringe 's second season ended with an average of 6 @.@ 252 million viewers per episode and a 2 @.@ 3 ratings share for adults 18 – 49 , causing the series to finish in 79th place out of all the season 's network television shows . However , Fringe and its lead @-@ in , Bones , did help the network increase 52 % among adults aged 18 – 49 and 65 percent among total viewers from the same night the previous year . Despite its middling ratings , Fringe received a full @-@ season renewal on March 6 , 2010 .
= = = Reviews = = =
The second season of Fringe received generally very favorable reviews . At the beginning of the season , the series was featured on the September 18 cover of Entertainment Weekly , which promised to give readers a " deep dive into the gory , witty world of Fox 's Fringe " . Metacritic , a film review aggregate website , gave the second season 75 / 100 based upon ten reviews , indicating a " generally favorable " reception . After viewing the first eight episodes , Entertainment Weekly columnist Ken Tucker gave the series an A- , calling it " one of the fastest , smartest , wittiest shows on television now ... Fringe successfully mixes the crime genre with sci @-@ fi , and cold conspiracies with heartfelt emotion . " Peter Swanson from Slant Magazine gave Fringe two and a half stars after watching the first six episodes . He believed the second season had " floundered a little , stuck in that creative hinterland between the desire to grab new viewers and the need to build on the mythology of the show 's universe . " While Swanson understood the need to attract a larger audience , he thought the standalone episodes to be " less than stellar " , as " they 've yet to get scary , or even vaguely unsettling " . Swanson did however find the war between two universes to be " particularly compelling " , and expressed hope that " Fringe [ would ] find its footing . "
In a review of the entire second season , IGN believed that despite the premiere 's " great start " , the first half contained " some rather lackluster episodes " that " made a lot of fans worried and got the rumors of cancellation circulating " ; the second half however " showed that Fringe is still one of the best sci @-@ fi series on TV " . The A.V. Club agreed , and called the first half " entertaining " but " never essential " while noting a great improvement mid @-@ way through the season , as " the show finally grounded its freak @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week weirdness in deep sadness " . The A.V. Club continued , " ... The season @-@ two episode " Peter " finally dramatized the moment that changed [ Peter 's ] life , giving the series ' overarching storyline a devastating emotional core , based in a father 's love instead of in theoretical concepts . It only got better from there , as the series expanded its world by further making those
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s Jism , which prevented her from being stereotyped . According to Ghoshal , " Jaadu Hai Nasha Hai " and " Chalo Tumko Lekar Chale " from the film " made everyone look at [ her ] in a new light " , opening the doors to a " versatile image " . She was awarded with another Filmfare trophy for Best Female Playback Singer for the song " Jaadu Hai Nasha Hai " . She thereupon worked with Anu Malik , where she performed the female version of " Aye Meri Zindagi " , " Seena Pada " and " Aai Jo Teri Yaad " , along with the bhajan @-@ styled " Har Taraf " . In spite of providing vocals for " Har Taraf " , Ghoshal also made her first on @-@ screen appearance in Saaya . Apart from Inteha , Ghoshal provided vocals for Malik in two other films , Munna Bhai M.B.B.S. and LOC Kargil , where she recorded the song " Chann Chann " for the former and " Pyaar Bhara Geet " for the latter , along with Sonu Nigam . Besides , Ghoshal made her first collaboration with Shankar – Ehsaan – Loy by performing the female version of the song " Tu Hi Bata Zindagi " . Calling her sing " effortless " in the song , The Hindu mentioned that she was " able to impart the required emotions " for the song .
In 2004 , Ghoshal contributed to the soundtrack album of Thoda Tum Badlo Thoda Hum by performing four tracks , which were labelled with an " average " tag by Joginder Tuteja from Bollywood Hungama . However , he was " impressed " with Ghoshal 's rendition from her songs in Khakee , where he affirmed that Ghoshal 's voice suits Aishwarya Rai to the " core " and she " lends credibility to the entire song " in " Wada Raha " . Besides , the two duets with Nigam ; " Dil Dooba " and " Youn Hi Tum Mujhse " , were equally favored by music critics . Further complimenting her vocals in the song " Hum Tumko Nigahon Mein " and " Soniye " from Garv , Tuteja asserted that Ghoshal 's " vocals have started to suit the current breed of actresses better and better with each passing day " . Apart from Dil Bechara Pyaar Ka Maara , Ghoshal worked with Nikhil – Vinay in other projects , by recording " Betab Dil Hai " from Phir Milenge , and " Woh Ho Tum " from Muskaan .
During the time , Nadeem – Shravan composed Tumsa Nahin Dekha : A Love Story was considered to be the biggest album for Ghoshal , as she sang all the numbers with an exception of one song . She performed a wide variety of songs — from a jazzy number to soft romantic tunes — in the album . According to Ghoshal , the album allowed her to " experiment with the entire range " of her " singing capabilities " . Besides , Ghoshal lent her voice for Malik , where she sung " Tumhe Jo Maine Dekha " and " Gori Gori " for Main Hoon Na apart from the title track — which received the maximum praise from critics . Mid Day affirmed that Ghoshal provided " perfect accompaniment " for the track , while Rediff.com was " impressed with her rendition " . The year marks her first collaboration with Rajesh Roshan and Daboo Malik by singing the melodious track for the former composed " Saansein Ghulne Lagi " from Aetbaar and performing the track " Shikdum " from Dhoom , for the latter .
= = = 2005 – 07 = = =
Ghoshal was bestowed with her second National Film Award for her rendition of " Dheere Jalna " in Paheli . As claimed by Daily News and Analysis , the song " treads the fine balance between the classical and popular genre of Hindi film music " . Barring the song " Dheere Jalna " , Ghoshal was heard in two other tracks " Kangna Re " and " Minnat Kare " , composed by M.M. Kreem . She provided vocals for Kreem in one of his another compositions : " Guzar Na Jaye " from Rog . With the film Parineeta , she made her first collaboration with Shantanu Moitra . She performed four tracks from the film alongside Nigam , which includes " Piyu Bole " , " Kasto Mazza " and " Soona Man Ka Aangan " . Thereupon , the duo worked for the soundtrack album of Yahaan , performing a soulful track " Naam Adaa Likhna " , " Urzu Urzu Durkut " and a Punjabi track " Mele Chaliyan " . Ghoshal 's work in both the films was widely acclaimed , subsequently being nominated for the Filmfare Awards with the song " Piyu Bole " . Reportedly , Ghoshal was selected to sing the female rendition of the track after being auditioned by many other artistes . In an interview , Moitra stated ; " Pradeep wanted a little trill of laughter in the middle of the song and she did it effortlessly " .
Along with " Piyu Bole " , Ghoshal received another Filmfare nomination for her rendition of the song " Agar Tum Mil Jao " from Zeher . The song along with " Jaane Ja Jaane Ja " from the same film was acclaimed by music critics . Apart from providing supporting vocals for Himesh Reshammiya 's " Aashiq Banaya Aapne " , Ghoshal 's voice had been used in some of his other compositions released during the year . However , while reviewing Malik @-@ composed " Pehle Se " , Bollywood Hungama wrote : " Ghoshal sings in a mature manner and does well once again to prove herself as a dependable playback singer " . Similar sentiments were echoed for the song " Bolo To " from Shabd which was composed by Vishal – Shekhar .
2006 marks Ghoshal 's first collaboration with Ravindra Jain in film Vivah , where she performed three duets with Narayan titled " Mujhe Haq Hai " , " Do Anjaane Ajnabi " and " Milan Abhi Aadha Adhura Hai " . For the album , she also recorded " Hamari Shaadi Mein " with Babul Supriyo and two sisters conversation song " O Jiji " with Pamela Jain , along with a bhajan performed with Jain . Ghoshal 's " obsessive " vocals were appraised in Roop Kumar Rathod 's composition , " So Jaoon Main " from Woh Lamhe . Despite the length , the version was particularly acclaimed from the album . During the year , Ghoshal performed her ever duet with Sunidhi Chauhan — though they have contributed in multi @-@ singer songs together — with the Salim – Sulaiman 's composition , " Imaan Ka Asar " from Dor . In spite of providing backing vocals for Lage Raho Munna Bhai 's " Bande Mein Tha Dum " , Ghoshal and Nigam performed a romantic duet titled " Pal Pal " , a composition by Moitra . For the song , she received a Best Female Playback Singer nomination at the 52nd Filmfare Awards . She was next heard with Vishal Bhardwaj in the song " O Saathi Re " , which exudes the feeling of intimacy and deep love . Ghoshal 's low pitch rendition in the song was positively noted by critics .
In 2006 , Ghoshal sang " Pyaar Ki Ek Kahani " , " Koi Tumsa Nahin " and " Chori Chori Chupke Chupke " for Rajesh Roshan @-@ composed Krrish which were also favored by the critics . Reviewing the album , Bollywood Hungama wrote : " Ghoshal is extremely competent and justifies her continued presence in the big league " . They also mentioned that Ghoshal has reached to a similar level of Alka Yagnik in terms of " class , quality and style " .
In 2007 , Ghoshal recorded a thumri in the mujra style for Khoya Khoya Chand . Titled " Chale Aao Saiyan " and composed by Moitra , the song was particularly praised for Ghoshal 's " different " vocal structure . She even lent her voice for two other songs for the album ; " Sakhi Piya " and " Thirak Thirak " . She reunited with Moitra for Laaga Chunari Mein Daag , where she performed " Hum To Aise Hain " along with Chauhan which also had Swanand Kirkire and Pranab Biswas lending supporting vocals . Raja Sen found " Kachchi Kaliyaan " song from the film less appealing with its " bad remix background " though praised Ghoshal , Chauhan , KK and Nigam for giving the song " the vim it requires " . Apart from providing background alaap in Monty Sharma 's composition " Masha @-@ Allah " , Ghoshal was heard in the classically oriented numbers " Jaan @-@ E @-@ Jaan " and " Sawar Gayi " , included in the album Saawariya . She also recorded her first track in a Sanjay Leela Bhansali 's composition , " Thode Badmaash " for the same album , providing a " feminine quality " to her " temperate nuances " .
During the same year , Ghoshal sang the peppy rain song , " Barso Re " for Mani Ratnam 's Guru , a composition by A.R. Rahman . A Review from Oneindia praised Ghoshal 's rendition of the song and opined that it was a different incarnation of her in comparison to her previous records . The song won her third Filmfare Award for Best Female Playback Singer . The same year , she came up with the song " Yeh Ishq Haaye " from Jab We Met , composed by Pritam which was successful in earning her a third National Film Award for Best Female Playback Singer .
The duo also worked with the classical track " Mere Dholna " for Bhool Bhulaiyaa ( 2007 ) , performed beside M. G. Sreekumar , which was acclaimed with special mention to the alaap towards the " climax of the song " . Ghoshal also lent her voice for Vishal – Shekhar with few of his compositions and was particularly praised for the theme song of Ta Ra Rum Pum along with the romantic song " Main Agar Kahoon " and the dance song " Dhoom Taana " from film Om Shanti Om , where some critics compared her singing style of the latter with S. Janaki . In the year , Ghoshal worked with Ilaiyaraaja for the album Cheeni Kum .
= = = 2008 – present = = =
After singing for films such as U Me Aur Hum , Sirf , Ghatothkach , Dashavatar , Mere Baap Pehle Aap , De Taali , Haal @-@ e @-@ Dil , Thoda Pyaar Thoda Magic and Kismat Konnection , Ghoshal recorded another hit song for Singh Is Kinng ( 2008 ) , titled " Teri Ore " , composed by Pritam Chakraborty . It received mixed reviews from music critics . The song earned her a fourth Filmfare Award for Best Female Playback Singer and overall fifth Filmfare Award . After that , she lent her voice for films like Bachna Ae Haseeno , God Tussi Great Ho , Welcome to Sajjanpur , Kidnap , Karzzzz , Ek Vivaah ... Aisa Bhi , Dostana , Yuvvraaj and others . She won her fourth National award for singing " Pherari Mon " for the Bengali film Antaheen ( 2008 ) , and " Jeev Rangla " for the Marathi film Jogwa ( 2008 ) .
She debuted in the Tamil cinema through the song " Yen Chellam " in Vasanthabalan 's film Album ( 2002 ) , and she received success after singing " Munbe Vaa " from Sillunu Oru Kaadhal under composer A. R. Rahman . She received her first Tamil Nadu State Film Award . She made her Telugu debut for music director Mani Sharma in Okkadu ( 2003 ) . She made her debut in Kannada cinema with the song " Krishna nee begane baaro " in the movie Paris Pranaya ( 2003 ) . Ghoshal debuted in Malayalam cinema through a studio album of composer Alphons Joseph and later gave voice to his song " Vida Parayukayano " from Big B ( 2007 ) . She became a sensation in Malayalam cinema through her song " Chandu Thottille " , and received her first Kerala State Film Award for Best Singer . She became the first North Indian Singer to receive this award . In 2010 , Ghoshal sang for the English independent film When Harry Tries to Marry .
In 2011 , Ghoshal recorded hit duet song " Saibo " in film Shor in the City with Tochi Raina , a composition by Sachin @-@ Jigar . Satyajit from Glamsham reported , " Sweetly toned and mesmerized with mellifluous flows of Shreya Ghoshal singing , the first outing " Saibo " is a smoothening surprise that extols the feel of romanticism to perfection " . Later that year , Ghoshal sang the duet " Teri Meri " in film Bodyguard with Rahat Fateh Ali Khan . A Himesh Reshamiya composition , the song received positive to mixed reviews . NDTV labelled the song as " moderately paced and average " . Ghoshal later collaborated with Bappi Lahiri in the duet " Ooh La La " from film The Dirty Picture . Abid from Glamsham stated that Shreya Ghoshal manage to keep up the fun tempo with an improvised and highly entertaining and excellent renditions . Ghoshal received further two nominations that year at Filmfare Awards for songs " Saibo " and " Teri Meri .
In 2012 , Ghoshal rendered her voice for popular item song , " Chikni Chameli " from film Agneepath featuring Katrina Kaif . The song was composed by Ajay @-@ Atul and was a remake of their own Marathi song " Kombdi Palali " from film Jatra . Joginder Tuteja of Bollywood Hungama stated , " A special word for Shreya Ghoshal too who changes her singing style in a big way and comes up trumps . She gets the kind of rustic flavour that was the need of the hour and is superb in her rendition . " Ghoshal received her one of the two Filmfare nominations of the year for the song . Ghoshal 's rendition of the female version of theme song of film Kahaani was well received by critics . Satyajit from Glamsham labelled the song as " mesmerizing , both in rendition and soothing decorum " . Ghoshal then performed in a Four @-@ part harmony song , " Radha " of film Student of the Year alongside Udit Narayan , Vishal Dadlani and Shekhar Ravjiani which garnered critical appreciation . In the same year , she again collaborated with A.R. Rahman for a duet song " Saans " from film Jab Tak Hai Jaan along with Mohit Chauhan . The song received positive to mixed reviews by critics . At the poll conducted by Indiatimes , the song Saans won the title of " Most Romantic Song of the year 2012 " . The song earned Ghoshal second of her two Filmfare nominations of the year .
In early 2013 , Ghoshal sang the female version of Sunn Raha Hai in Aashiqui 2 composed by Ankit Tiwari and written by Sandeep Nath . She garnered critical praise over Ankit Tiwari who sang the male version of the song . In the same year , Ghoshal collaborated with singer Kailash Kher for the song " Naina Chaar " , under the initiative ' Project Resound ' by Sony Music India . Apart from rendering vocals for A.R. Rahman composed " Banarasiya " in Raanjhanaa , Ghoshal lent her voice for duet " God , Allah aur Bhagwan " in Krrish 3 alongside Sonu Nigam . Though the former song was met with largely positive reviews , the latter was poorly received . Ghoshal next performed two tracks in Goliyon Ki Raasleela Ram @-@ Leela namely " Dhoop " and " Nagada Sang Dhol " both composed by the director of film , Sanjay Leela Bhansali . She earned positive to mixed response for former and mostly positive reviews for the latter . Mohar Basu of Koimoi stated in regards to " Dhoop " , " Shreya Ghosal ’ s voice croons hauntingly and this song evokes a range of deep emotions . Passionately sung and flatteringly themed , this song makes evident the reason why Ghosal can be compared to music veterans of the industry . " Ghoshal received two Filmfare nominations for songs " Sunn Raha Hai " and " Nagada Sang Dhol " that year .
In 2014 , Ghoshal recorded three songs for film PK namely the solo " Nanga Punga Dost " and duets " Chaar Kadam " and " Love is a Waste of Time " with Shaan and Sonu Nigam respectively . Later in the same year , she sang the duet " Manwa Laage " with Arijit Singh for film Happy New Year composed by Vishal @-@ Shekhar duo and written by Irshad Kamil . Surabhi Redkar of Koimoi stated , " While Shreya Ghoshal ’ s voice brings out the mush in you , there is also the soulful voice of Arijit Singh to give you the perfect recipe for a romantic song . " Ghoshal got another nomination at Filmfare Awards for the song .
2015 started with Ghoshal 's another collaboration with A.R. Rahman in Tamil film I. Besides rendering vocals for original Tamil duet " Pookkalae Sattru Oyivedungal " alongside Haricharan , she also dubbed its Hindi version " Tu Chale " alongside Arijit Singh and Telugu version " Poolane Kunukeyamantaa " alongside Haricharan . The original Tamil version song " Pookkalae Sattru Oyivedungal " was met with positive reviews by critics , with most critics praising the vocals of Haricharan and Ghoshal . Nicy V.P. from International Business Times commented on Tamil version , " Haricharan 's crystal clear voice , Shreya 's Hindustani driven singing lead to a chart @-@ buster , here . With regards to Shreya Ghoshal , we have to dig deep the dictionary to come up with some new adjectives to praise her singing . " Later that year , Ghoshal sang the female version of song " Hasi " from film Hamari Adhuri Kahani composed by Ami Mishra which got critical precedence over male version sung by Ami Mishra himself . Devesh Sharma from Filmfare remarked , " The female version of Hasi , sung by Shreya Ghoshal , works better than the male version , sung by guest composer Ami Mishra himself . Ghoshal elevates it with her superb effort and the softer arrangement works better for it overall . " The same year saw Ghoshal again collaborating with Sanjay Leela Bhansali in Bajirao Mastani . She performed three songs in the film , namely " Mohe Rang Do Laal " , " Deewani Mastani " and " Pinga " , all of which met with widespread critical acclaim . She also dubbed these songs in Tamil and Telugu versions of the film 's soundtrack . The qawwali interlude song " Deewani Mastani " in the film fetched her sixth Filmfare Award , fifth for Best female playback singer .
In 2016 , Ghoshal provided vocals for duet " Tere Bin " from film Wazir alongside Sonu Nigam . Composed by Shantanu Moitra and written by Vidhu Vinod Chopra , the song opened to positive reviews by critics . Labelling the song as " a beautiful start for the film " , critics from Bollywood Hungama commented , " Though the sound of song is quite classical for a film which is set in the current times , one can well expect that it would fit in well into the narrative . " Ghoshal was next heard in song " Tum Bin Jiya " in film Sanam Re , composed by Jeet Ganguly . It was a recreation of a song with same title from 2001 film Tum Bin sung by K.S. Chitra and composed by Nikhil @-@ Vinay . The song received positive to negative reviews .
= = Concerts and other activities = =
Ghoshal performs in musical concerts around the world . In 2013 , she performed at the Sharjah Cricket Association Stadium in United Arab Emirates . The same year , she paid her respects to the casualties of an excessive rainfall in Mauritius with a concert at the The Swami Vivekananda International Convention Centre in Pailles . Along with Hrishikesh Ranade , she also made a stage performance during the 18th annual day celebration of Airports Authority of India . Later in 2013 , Ghoshal made a Europe tour as a celebration of 100 years of Indian cinema .
In 2006 , along with Sonu Nigam , Sunidhi Chauhan and Shiamak Davar , Ghoshal performed the theme song of 2010 Commonwealth Games at its closing ceremony , as an invitation to everyone to the following Commonwealth Games in Delhi . The same year , she along with Nigam , recorded the title track " Haath Se Haath Milaa " for the album put together by the BBC World Service Trust as part of an AIDS awareness campaign , where profits garnered through the album , was donated to HIV charities .
Ghoshal has also been appearing on television reality shows . In 2007 , Ghoshal served as the judge for the first season for STAR Voice of India Chhote Ustaad , with singer Kunal Ganjawala and composer Pritam Chakraborty . She was one of the three judges in X Factor India with Sonu Nigam and Sanjay Leela Bhansali . Ghoshal was a captain on the singing show Music Ka Maha Muqqabla along with Shankar Mahadevan , Shaan , Himesh Reshammiya , Mohit Chauhan , and Mika Singh . In 2013 , Ghoshal appeared as a judge for the first season of Indian Idol Junior , along with Vishal Dadlani and Shekhar Ravjiani .
In 2011 , Ghoshal became the brand ambassador for Joyalukkas jewellery .
In 2016 , Ghoshal performed a charity event to support a 17 years old patient of Acute lymphoblastic leukemia .
= = Artistry = =
= = = Influences = = =
One of Ghoshal 's earliest musical memories is listening to her mother , Sarmistha Ghoshal , sing classical Bengali songs at clubs . As a very young child , she was introduced to music by her mother , whom she refers as her first " guru " . She states that her mother is her best critic .
Ghoshal has acknowledged Lata Mangeshkar , Asha Bhosle , K S Chithra , Geeta Dutt , Mohammed Rafi , Kishore Kumar and Mukesh as her inspirations . Ghoshal has also named Jagjit Singh as her inspiration to perform songs in the genre of Ghazal .
= = = Voice = = =
Ghoshal possesses a soprano vocal range of two octaves to C # 6 . In spite of her frequent high pitched rendition , Ghoshal has performed songs with a lower vocal range . Her voice has been described as " sweet " with " slightly huskiness " . In an interview , Ghoshal noted that her voice has transformed from the " girlish tenor " of the earlier days to a more matured texture . Her voice is characterized in the media for being most suitable for higher @-@ pitched renditions , although some critics have said that her voice tends to screech when she reaches a higher note of scale . Similarly , in the book Confession of a Coward — an Indian Adventure , it was stated that Ghoshal 's high @-@ pitched vocals are interesting and impressive , but " certainly take some time getting used to it " . Ghoshal has voiced against correcting pitch with Auto @-@ Tune .
What makes Ghoshal remarkable among her contemporaries , according to The Indian Express is , the " serenity in her voice " and the " enviable range " . Further complimenting her versatile vocal range , they noted : " The honey @-@ dipped inflection of [ her voice ] , which once put in the recording studio , can turn into naughty , sensuous , serious , sad , comic and pure classical , depending on the requirement of the job " . Naming her as the " most versatile singer of this generation " , India West remarked the smoothness of her voice when flowing from " lower registers to higher notes " . According to The Times of India , Ghoshal maintains the " touch of versatility " with her music by singing different style of songs from classical to pure commercial music . In 2003 , Ghoshal admitted that she modulates her voice well , hence " none of the music directors have yet been able to label me " .
Ghoshal took vocal lessons and did workshops with Kalyanji Virji Shah , where she learnt the technique about " throw of voice , straight notes , vibratos " . She considers classical music training as an asset in playback since it " keeps one 's voice fit and fresh " .
= = Personal life and popularity = =
On 5 February 2015 , Ghoshal married her childhood friend Shiladitya Mukhopadhyaya in a traditional Bengali ceremony .
Music director Jeet Gannguli , singers Javed Ali , Palak Muchhal , Sonu Nigam , Pakistani singers Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan , Syed Asrar Shah , A cappella band Penn Masala , and actress Dia Mirza , have mentioned her as one of their favorites in the industry . In a 2007 interview , Usha Uthup named her among the " voice for the future " . Director Vidhu Vinod Chopra has called her " the best singer in the industry " . Veteran singers Vani Jairam and Manna Dey has praised her musical abilities .
Ghoshal was also honored from the U.S. state of Ohio , where governor Ted Strickland declared 26 June as " Shreya Ghoshal Day " . The first Shreya Ghoshal Day ( on 26 June 2010 ) was celebrated among her fans on popular microblogging and social networking sites . In April 2013 , Ghoshal was awarded with the highest honour in London by the members of House of Commons of the United Kingdom .
In 2012 , Ghoshal appeared in the Forbes Celebrity 100 , a list based on income and popularity of India 's celebrities . She remained in the top fifty spots for four consecutive years , listed at the forty @-@ second spot in 2012 – 13 , the twenty @-@ eighth spot in 2014 and the thirty @-@ third spot in 2015 . In 2013 , the UK @-@ based newspaper Eastern Eye placed her forty @-@ third in their " 50 Sexiest Asian Women " list . In 2015 , Eastern Eye placed her seventh in their " Greatest 20 Bollywood Playback Singers " list .
Ghoshal maintains a Facebook and a Twitter account . She is the sixth most liked Indian personality on Facebook and on Twitter . According to the statistics of Socialbakers , Ghoshal ranks in seventh place on Facebook and forty @-@ fourth on Twitter in India . Ghoshal is among the top ten most searched Indian singers on Google Search .
= = Awards and nominations = =
Ghoshal has been a recipient of four National Film Awards for Best Female Playback Singing : " Bairi Piya " for Devdas ( 2002 ) , " Dheere Jalna " for Paheli ( 2005 ) , " Yeh Ishq Haaye " for Jab We Met ( 2007 ) , and " Pherari Mon " for the Bengali film Antaheen ( 2008 ) and " Jeev Rangla " for the Marathi film Jogwa ( 2008 ) . In addition to these , she has won six Filmfare Awards including the RD Burman Award for New Music Talent .
= Delhi =
Delhi ( / ˈdɛli / , Hindustani pronunciation : [ d ̪ ɪlliː ] Dilli ; Devanāgarī : दिल ् ली ) , officially the National Capital Territory of Delhi , is the capital territory of the Republic of India . Delhi is historically and culturally connected to both the Upper Doab of the Yamuna @-@ Ganges river system and the Punjab region . It is bordered by Haryana on three sides and by Uttar Pradesh to the east . It is the second most populous city in India — about 1 @,@ 484 square kilometres ( 573 sq mi ) . It has a population of about 25 million , making it the most populous city and second most populous urban agglomeration in India and 3rd largest urban area in the world . Such is the nature of urban expansion in Delhi that its growth has expanded beyond the NCT to incorporate towns in neighbouring states and at its largest extent can count a population of about 25 million residents as of 2014 . After Mumbai , Delhi has the second @-@ highest number of billionaires and millionaires among all cities in India .
Delhi has been continuously inhabited since the 6th century BCE . Through most of its history , Delhi has served as a capital of various kingdoms and empires . It has been captured , ransacked and rebuilt several times , particularly during the medieval period , and modern Delhi is a cluster of a number of cities spread across the metropolitan region .
Delhi and its urban region have been given the special status of National Capital Region ( NCR ) under the Constitution of India 's 69th Amendment Act of 1991 . The NCR includes the neighbouring cities of Faridabad , Gurgaon , Noida , Ghaziabad , Neharpar ( Greater Faridabad ) , Greater Noida , Bahadurgarh , Sonepat , Panipat , Karnal , Rohtak , Bhiwani , Rewari , Baghpat , Meerut , Muzaffarnagar , Alwar , Bharatpur and other nearby towns . A union territory , the political administration of the NCT of Delhi today more closely resembles that of a state of India , with its own legislature , high court and an executive council of ministers headed by a Chief Minister . New Delhi is jointly administered by the federal government of India and the local government of Delhi , and is the capital of the NCT of Delhi .
= = Toponomy = =
There are a number of myths and legends associated with the origin of the name Delhi . One of them is derived from Dhillu or Dilu , a king who built a city at this location in 50 BC and named it after himself . Another legend holds that the name of the city is based on the Hindi / Prakrit word dhili ( loose ) and that it was used by the Tomaras to refer to the city because the Iron Pillar of Delhi had a weak foundation and had to be moved . The coins in circulation in the region under the Tomaras were called dehliwal . According to the Bhavishya Purana , King Prithiviraja of Indraprastha built a new fort in the modern @-@ day Purana Qila area for the convenience of all four castes in his kingdom . He ordered the construction of a gateway to the fort and later named the fort dehali . Some historians believe that the name is derived from Dilli , a corruption of Urdu words dehleez or dehali — both terms meaning ' threshold ' or ' gateway ' — and symbolic of the city as a gateway to the Gangetic Plain . Another theory suggests that the city 's original name was Dhillika .
The people of Delhi are referred to as Delhiites or Dilliwalas . The city is referenced in various idioms of the Northern Indo @-@ Aryan languages . Examples include :
Abhi Dilli door hai or its Persian version , Hanouz Dehli dour ast , literally meaning Delhi is still far away , which is generically said about a task or journey still far from completion .
Dilli dilwalon ka shehr or Dilli Dilwalon ki meaning Delhi belongs to the large @-@ hearted / daring .
Aas @-@ paas barse , Dilli pani tarse , literally meaning it pours all around , while Delhi lies parched . An allusion to the sometimes semi @-@ arid climate of Delhi , it idiomatically refers to situations of deprivation when one is surrounded by plenty .
= = History = =
The area around Delhi was probably inhabited before the second millennium BC and there is evidence of continuous inhabitation since at least the 6th century BC . The city is believed to be the site of Indraprastha , the legendary capital of the Pandavas in the Indian epic Mahabharata . According to Mahabharata , this land was initially a huge mass of forests called ' Khandavaprastha ' which was burnt down to build the city of Indraprastha . The earliest architectural relics date back to the Maurya period ( c . 300 BC ) ; in 1966 , an inscription of the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka ( 273 – 235 BC ) was discovered near Srinivaspuri . Remains of eight major cities have been discovered in Delhi . The first five cities were in the southern part of present @-@ day Delhi . Gurjara @-@ Pratihara King Anang Pal of the Tomara dynasty founded the city of Lal Kot in AD 736 . The Chauhans conquered Lal Kot in 1180 and renamed it Qila Rai Pithora .
The king Prithviraj Chauhan was defeated in 1192 by Muhammad Ghori , a Tajik invader from Afghanistan , who made a concerted effort to conquer northern India . By 1200 , native Hindu resistance had begun to crumble , the dominance of foreign Turkic Muslim dynasties in north India was to last for the next five centuries . The slave general of Ghori , Qutb @-@ ud @-@ din Aibak was given the responsibility of governing the conquered territories of India . He began construction of the Qutb Minar and Quwwat @-@ al @-@ Islam ( Might of Islam ) mosque , the earliest extant mosque in India . Qutb @-@ ud @-@ din faced widespread Hindu rebellions and it was his successor , Iltutmish ( 1211 – 36 ) , who consolidated the Turkic conquest of northern India .
For the next three hundred years , Delhi was ruled by a succession of Turkic and an Afghan , Lodhi dynasty . They built several forts and townships that are part of the seven cities of Delhi . Delhi was a major centre of Sufism during this period . The Mamluk Sultanate ( Delhi ) was overthrown in 1290 by the Khilji dynasty ( 1290 – 1320 ) . Under the second Khilji ruler , Ala @-@ ud @-@ din Khilji , the Delhi sultanate extended its control south of the Narmada River in the Deccan . The Delhi sultanate reached its greatest extent during the reign of Muhammad bin Tughluq ( 1325 – 1351 ) . In an attempt to bring the whole of the Deccan under control , he moved his capital to Daulatabad , Maharashtra in central India . However , by moving away from Delhi he lost control of the north and was forced to return to Delhi to restore order . The southern provinces then broke away . In the years following the reign of Firoz Shah Tughlaq ( 1351 – 1388 ) , the Delhi sultanate rapidly began to lose its hold over its northern provinces . Delhi was captured and sacked by Timur Lenk in 1398 , who massacred 100 @,@ 000 captives . Delhi 's decline continued under the Sayyid dynasty ( 1414 – 1451 ) , until the sultanate was reduced to Delhi and its hinterland . Under the Afghan Lodhi dynasty ( 1451 – 1526 ) , the Delhi sultanate recovered control of the Punjab and the Gangetic plain to once again achieve domination over Northern India . However , the recovery was short @-@ lived and the sultanate was destroyed in 1526 by Babur , founder of the Mughal dynasty .
Babur , was a descendant of Genghis Khan and Timur , from the Fergana Valley in modern @-@ day Uzbekistan . In 1526 , he invaded India , defeated the last Lodhi sultan in the First Battle of Panipat and founded the Mughal Empire that ruled from Delhi and Agra . The Mughal dynasty ruled Delhi for more than three centuries , with a sixteen @-@ year hiatus during the reigns of Sher Shah Suri and Hemu from 1540 to 1556 . In 1553 , the Hindu king , Hemu acceded to the throne of Delhi by defeating forces of Mughal Emperor Humayun at Agra and Delhi . However , the Mughals re @-@ established their rule after Akbar 's army defeated Hemu during the Second Battle of Panipat in 1556 . Shah Jahan built the seventh city of Delhi that bears his name Shahjahanabad , which served as the capital of the Mughal Empire from 1638 and is today known as the Old City or Old Delhi .
After the death of Aurangzeb in 1707 , the Mughal Empire 's influence declined rapidly as the Hindu Maratha Empire from Deccan Plateau rose to prominence . In 1737 , Maratha forces sacked Delhi following their victory against the Mughals in the First Battle of Delhi . In 1739 , the Mughal Empire lost the huge Battle of Karnal in less than three hours against the numerically outnumbered but militarily superior Persian army led by Nader Shah of Persia . After his invasion , he completely sacked and looted Delhi , carrying away immense wealth including the Peacock Throne , the Daria @-@ i @-@ Noor , and Koh @-@ i @-@ Noor . The Mughals , severely further weakened , could never overcome this crushing defeat and humiliation which also left the way open for more invaders to come , including eventually the British . Nader eventually agreed to leave the city and India after forcing the Mughal emperor Muhammad Shah I to beg him for mercy and granting him the keys of the city and the royal treasury . A treaty signed in 1752 made Marathas the protectors of the Mughal throne in Delhi .
In 1757 , the Afghan ruler , Ahmad Shah Durrani , sacked Delhi . He returned to Afghanistan leaving a Mughal puppet ruler in nominal control . The Marathas again occupied Delhi in 1758 , and were in control until their defeat in 1761 at the third battle of Panipat when the city was captured again by Ahmad Shah . However , in 1771 , the Marathas established a protectorate over Delhi when the Maratha ruler , Mahadji Shinde , recaptured Delhi and the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II was installed as a puppet ruler in 1772 . In 1783 , Sikhs under Baghel Singh captured Delhi and Red Fort but due to the treaty signed , Sikhs withdrew from Red Fort and agreed to restore Shah Alam as the emperor.In 1803 , during the Second Anglo @-@ Maratha War , the forces of British East India Company defeated the Maratha forces in the Battle of Delhi . During the Indian Rebellion of 1857 , Delhi fell to the forces of East India Company after a bloody fight known as the Siege of Delhi . The city came under the direct control of the British Government in 1858 . It was made a district province of the Punjab . In 1911 , it was announced that the capital of British held territories in India was to be transferred from Calcutta to Delhi . The name " New Delhi " was given in 1927 , and the new capital was inaugurated on 13 February 1931 . New Delhi , also known as Lutyens ' Delhi , was officially declared as the capital of the Union of India after the country gained independence on 15 August 1947 . During the partition of India , thousands of Hindu and Sikh refugees , mainly from West Punjab fled to Delhi , while many Muslim residents of the city migrated to Pakistan . Migration to Delhi from the rest of India continues ( as of 2013 ) , contributing more to the rise of Delhi 's population than the birth rate , which is declining .
The Constitution ( Sixty @-@ ninth Amendment ) Act , 1991 declared the Union Territory of Delhi to be formally known as the National Capital Territory of Delhi .
The Act gave Delhi its own legislative assembly along Civil lines , though with limited powers . In December 2001 , the Parliament of India building in New Delhi was attacked by armed militants , killing six security personnel . India suspected Pakistan @-@ based militant groups were behind the attack , which caused a major diplomatic crisis between the two countries . There were further terrorist attacks in Delhi in October 2005 and September 2008 , resulting in a total of 103 deaths .
= = Ecology = =
Delhi is located at 28 @.@ 61 ° N 77 @.@ 23 ° E / 28 @.@ 61 ; 77 @.@ 23 , and lies in Northern India . It borders the Indian states of Haryana on the north , west and south and Uttar Pradesh ( UP ) to the east . Two prominent features of the geography of Delhi are the Yamuna flood plains and the Delhi ridge . The Yamuna river was the historical boundary between Punjab and UP , and its flood plains provide fertile alluvial soil suitable for agriculture but are prone to recurrent floods . The Yamuna , a sacred river in Hinduism , is the only major river flowing through Delhi . The Hindon River separates Ghaziabad from the eastern part of Delhi . The Delhi ridge originates from the Aravalli Range in the south and encircles the west , north @-@ east and north @-@ west parts of the city . It reaches a height of 318 m ( 1 @,@ 043 ft ) and is a dominant feature of the region .
The National Capital Territory of Delhi covers an area of 1 @,@ 484 km2 ( 573 sq mi ) , of which 783 km2 ( 302 sq mi ) is designated rural , and 700 km2 ( 270 sq mi ) urban therefore making it the largest city in terms of area in the country . It has a length of 51 @.@ 9 km ( 32 mi ) and a width of 48 @.@ 48 km ( 30 mi ) .
Delhi is included in India 's seismic zone @-@ IV , indicating its vulnerability to major earthquakes .
= = = Climate = = =
Delhi features an atypical version of the humid subtropical climate ( Köppen Cwa ) . The warm season lasts from 9 April to 8 July with an average daily high temperature above 36 ° C ( 97 ° F ) . The hottest day of the year is 22 May , with an average high of 38 ° C ( 100 ° F ) and low of 25 ° C ( 77 ° F ) . The cold season lasts from 11 December to 11 February with an average daily high temperature below 18 ° C ( 64 ° F ) . The coldest day of the year is 4 January , with an average low of 2 ° C ( 36 ° F ) and high of 15 ° C ( 59 ° F ) . In early March , the wind direction changes from north @-@ westerly to south @-@ westerly . From April to October the weather is hot . The monsoon arrives at the end of June , along with an increase in humidity . The brief , mild winter starts in late November , peaks in January and heavy fog often occurs .
Temperatures in Delhi usually range from 5 to 40 ° C ( 41 @.@ 0 to 104 @.@ 0 ° F ) , with the lowest and highest temperatures ever recorded being − 2 @.@ 2 and 48 @.@ 4 ° C ( 28 @.@ 0 and 119 @.@ 1 ° F ) respectively . The annual mean temperature is 25 ° C ( 77 ° F ) ; monthly mean temperatures range from 13 to 32 ° C ( 55 to 90 ° F ) . The highest temperature recorded in July was 45 ° C ( 113 ° F ) in 1931 . The average annual rainfall is approximately 714 mm ( 28 @.@ 1 in ) , most of which falls during the monsoon in July and August . The average date of the advent of monsoon winds in Delhi is 29 June .
= = = Air pollution = = =
Delhi is the most polluted city in the world and according to one estimate , air pollution causes the death of about 10 @,@ 500 people in Delhi every year . During 2013 @-@ 14 , peak levels of fine particulate matter ( PM ) in Delhi increased by about 44 % , primarily due to high vehicular and industrial emissions , construction work and crop burning in adjoining states . Delhi has the highest level of the airborne particulate matter , PM2.5 considered most harmful to health , with 153 micrograms . Rising air pollution level has significantly increased lung @-@ related ailments ( especially asthma and lung cancer ) among Delhi 's children and women . The dense smog in Delhi during winter season results in major air and rail traffic disruptions every year . According to Indian meteorologists , the average maximum temperature in Delhi during winters has declined notably since 1998 due to rising air pollution .
Environmentalists have criticised the Delhi government for not doing enough to curb air pollution and to inform people about air quality issues . Most of Delhi 's residents are unaware of alarming levels of air pollution in the city and the health risks associated with it ; however , as of 2015 , awareness , particularly among the foreign diplomatic community and high @-@ income Indians , was noticeably increasing . Since the mid @-@ 1990s , Delhi has undertaken some measures to curb air pollution – Delhi has the third highest quantity of trees among Indian cities and the Delhi Transport Corporation operates the world 's largest fleet of environmentally friendly compressed natural gas ( CNG ) buses . In 1996 , the Centre for Science and Environment ( CSE ) started a public interest litigation in the Supreme Court of India that ordered the conversion of Delhi 's fleet of buses and taxis to run on compressed natural gas ( CNG ) and banned the use of leaded petrol in 1998 . In 2003 , Delhi won the United States Department of Energy 's first ' Clean Cities International Partner of the Year ' award for its " bold efforts to curb air pollution and support alternative fuel initiatives " . The Delhi Metro has also been credited for significantly reducing air pollutants in the city .
However , according to several authors , most of these gains have been lost , especially due to stubble burning , a rise in the market share of diesel cars and a considerable decline in bus ridership . According to CSE and System of Air Quality Weather Forecasting and Research ( SAFAR ) , burning of agricultural waste in nearby Punjab , Haryana and Uttar Pradesh regions results in severe intensification of smog over Delhi . The state government of Uttar Pradesh is considering imposing a ban on crop burning to reduce pollution in Delhi NCR and an environmental panel has appealed to India 's Supreme Court to impose a 30 % cess on diesel cars .
The Circles of Sustainability assessment of Delhi gives a marginally more favourable impression of the ecological sustainability of the city only because it is based on a more comprehensive series of measures than only air pollution . Part of the reason that the city remains assessed at basic sustainability is because of the low resource @-@ use and carbon emissions of its poorer neighbourhoods .
= = Civic administration = =
As of July 2007 , the National Capital Territory of Delhi comprises nine districts , 27 tehsils , 59 census towns , 300 villages , and three statutory towns , the Municipal Corporation of Delhi ( MCD ) – 1 @,@ 397 @.@ 3 km2 or 540 sq mi , the New Delhi Municipal Council ( NDMC ) – 42 @.@ 7 km2 or 16 sq mi and the Delhi Cantonment Board ( DCB ) – 43 km2 or 17 sq mi ) . On 16 July 2012 , the Delhi Government decided to increase the number of districts from nine to 11 .
The Delhi metropolitan area lies within the National Capital Territory of Delhi ( NCT ) , which has five local municipal corporations ; North Delhi Municipal Corporation , South Delhi Municipal Corporation , East Delhi Municipal Corporation , NDMC and DCB . The former MCD was divided into three smaller Municipal Corporations – North Delhi , South Delhi and East Delhi . According to the 2011 census , MCD is among the largest municipal bodies in the world , providing civic services to about 11 million people .
Delhi ( civic administration ) was ranked 5th out of 21 Cities for best governance & administrative practices in India in 2014 . It scored 3 @.@ 6 on 10 compared to the national average of 3 @.@ 3 .
Delhi houses the Supreme Court of India and the regional Delhi High Court along with the Small Causes Court for civil cases ; the Magistrate Court and the Sessions Court for criminal cases has jurisdiction over Delhi . The city is administratively divided into eleven police @-@ zones which are subdivided into 95 local police stations .
= = Government and politics = =
The National Capital Territory of Delhi has its own Legislative Assembly , Lieutenant Governor , council of ministers and Chief Minister . Members of the legislative assembly are directly elected from territorial constituencies in the NCT . The legislative assembly was abolished in 1956 , after which direct federal control was implemented until it was re @-@ established in 1993 . The Municipal Corporation of Delhi ( MCD ) handles civic administration for the city as part of the Panchayati Raj Act . The Government of India and the Government of National Capital Territory of Delhi jointly administer New Delhi , where both bodies are located . The Parliament of India , the Rashtrapati Bhavan ( Presidential Palace ) , Cabinet Secretariat and the Supreme Court of India are located in the municipal district of New Delhi . There are 70 assembly constituencies and seven Lok Sabha ( Indian parliament 's lower house ) constituencies in Delhi .
The Indian National Congress ( Congress ) formed all the governments in Delhi until the 1990s , when the Bharatiya Janata Party ( BJP ) , led by Madan Lal Khurana , came to power . In 1998 , the Congress returned to power under the leadership of Sheila Dikshit , who was subsequently re @-@ elected for 3 consecutive terms . But in 2013 , the Congress was ousted from power by the newly formed Aam Aadmi Party ( AAP ) led by Arvind Kejriwal forming the government with outside support from the Congress . However , that government was short @-@ lived , collapsing only after 49 days . Delhi was then under President 's rule till February 2015 . On February 10 , 2015 , the Aam Aadmi Party returned to power after a landslide victory , winning 67 out of the 70 seats in the Delhi Legislative Assembly .
= = Economy = =
Delhi is the largest commercial centre in northern India ; in financial year 2009 @-@ 10 it had a gross State Domestic Product of ₹ 2 @,@ 176 billion ( US $ 32 billion ) . As of 2013 , the per capita income of Delhi was Rs . 210000 , the second highest in India . The GSDP of Delhi at the current prices for 2012 @-@ 13 is estimated at Rs 3 @.@ 66 trillion ( short scale ) against Rs 3 @.@ 11 trillion ( short scale ) in 2011 @-@ 12 .
As per the Economic survey of Delhi ( 2005 – 2006 ) , the tertiary sector contributes 70 @.@ 95 % of Delhi 's gross SDP followed by secondary and primary sectors with 25 @.@ 20 % and 3 @.@ 85 % contributions respectively . Delhi 's workforce constitutes 32 @.@ 82 % of the population , and increased by 52 @.@ 52 % between 1991 and 2001 . Delhi 's unemployment rate decreased from 12 @.@ 57 % in 1999 – 2000 to 4 @.@ 63 % in 2003 . In December 2004 , 636 @,@ 000 people were registered with various employment exchange programs in Delhi . In 2001 the total workforce in national and state governments and the quasi @-@ government sector was 620 @,@ 000 , and the private sector employed 219 @,@ 000 . Key service industries are information technology , telecommunications , hotels , banking , media and tourism . Construction , power , health and community services and real estate are also important to the city 's economy . Delhi has one of India 's largest and fastest growing retail industries . Manufacturing also grew considerably as consumer goods companies established manufacturing units and headquarters in the city . Delhi 's large consumer market and the availability of skilled labour has also attracted foreign investment . In 2001 , the manufacturing sector employed 1 @,@ 440 @,@ 000 workers and the city had 129 @,@ 000 industrial units .
= = Utility services = =
Delhi 's municipal water supply is managed by the Delhi Jal Board ( DJB ) . As of June 2005 , it supplied 650 million gallons per day ( MGD ) , whereas the estimated consumption requirement is 963 MGD . The shortfall is met by private and public tube wells and hand pumps . At 240 MGD , the Bhakra storage is DJB 's largest water source , followed by the Yamuna and Ganges rivers . Delhi 's groundwater level is falling and its population density is increasing , so residents often encounter acute water shortage .
In Delhi , daily domestic solid waste production is 8000 tonnes which is dumped at three landfill locations by MCD . The daily domestic waste water production is 470 MGD and industrial waste water is 70 MGD . A large portion of the sewage flows untreated into the Yamuna river .
The city 's electricity consumption is about 1 @,@ 265 kWh per capita but the actual demand is higher . In Delhi power distribution is managed by Tata Power Distribution and BSES Rajdhani since 2002 . The Delhi Fire Service runs 43 fire stations that attend about 15 @,@ 000 fire and rescue calls per year . The state @-@ owned Mahanagar Telephone Nigam Limited ( MTNL ) and private enterprises such as Vodafone , Airtel , Idea Cellular , Reliance Infocomm , Aircel and Tata Docomo provide telephone and cell phone services to the city . Cellular coverage is available in GSM , CDMA , 3G and 4G .
= = Transport = =
= = = Air = = =
Indira Gandhi International Airport , situated to the southwest of Delhi , is the main gateway for the city 's domestic and international civilian air traffic . In 2012 @-@ 13 , the airport was used by more than 35 million passengers , making it one of the busiest airports in South Asia . Terminal 3 , which cost ₹ 96 @.@ 8 billion ( US $ 1 @.@ 4 billion ) to construct between 2007 and 2010 , handles an additional 37 million passengers annually .
The Delhi Flying Club , established in 1928 with two de Havilland Moth aircraft named Delhi and Roshanara , was based at Safdarjung Airport which started operations in 1929 , when it was the Delhi 's only airport and the second in India . The airport functioned until 2001 , however in January 2002 the government closed the airport for flying activities because of security concerns following the New York attacks in September 2001 . Since then , the club only carries out aircraft maintenance courses and is used for helicopter rides to Indira Gandhi International Airport for VIP including the president and the prime minister .
A second airport open for commercial flights has been suggested either by expansion of Meerut Airport or construction of a new airport in Greater Noida .
= = = Road = = =
Delhi has the highest road density of 2103 km / 100 km2 in India .
Buses are the most popular means of road transport catering to about 60 % of Delhi 's total demand . Delhi has one of India 's largest bus transport systems . Buses are operated by the state @-@ owned Delhi Transport Corporation ( DTC ) , which owns the largest fleet of compressed natural gas ( CNG ) -fueled buses in the world . Personal vehicles especially cars also form a major chunk of vehicles plying on Delhi roads . Delhi has the highest number of registered cars compared to any other metropolitan city in India . Taxis , auto rickshaws and cycle rickshaws also ply on Delhi roads in large numbers .
Important Roads in Delhi
Some roads and expressways serve as important pillars of Delhi 's road infrastructure :
Inner Ring Road is one of the most important " state highways " in Delhi . It is a 51 km long circular road which connects important areas in Delhi . Owing to more than 2 dozen grade @-@ separators / flyovers , the road is almost signal @-@ free .
Outer Ring Road is another major artery in Delhi that links far @-@ flung areas of Delhi .
The Delhi Noida Direct Flyway ( DND Flyway ) is an eight @-@ laned access controlled tolled expressway which connects Delhi to Noida ( an important satellite city of Uttar Pradesh ) . The acronym DND stands for " Delhi @-@ Noida Direct " .
The Delhi Gurgaon Expressway is a 28 km ( 17 mi ) expressway connecting Delhi to Gurgaon , an important satellite city of Haryana .
The Delhi Faridabad Skyway is controlled tolled expressway which connects Delhi to Faridabad , an important satellite city of Haryana .
National Highways Passing Through Delhi
Delhi is connected by Road to various parts of the country through several National Highways :
National Highway 1 ( India ) or ( NH 1 ) is a National Highway in Northern India that links the National capital New Delhi to the town of Attari in Punjab near the Indo @-@ Pakistan border .
National Highway 2 ( India ) ( NH 2 ) commonly referred as Delhi @-@ Kolkata Road is a busy Indian National Highway that runs through the states of Delhi , Haryana , Uttar Pradesh , Bihar , Jharkhand and West Bengal .
National Highway 8 ( India ) ( NH 8 ) is a National Highway in India that connects the Indian capital city of New Delhi with the Indian Financial capital city of Mumbai .
National Highway 10 ( India ) ( NH 10 ) is a National Highway in northern India that originates at Delhi and ends at the town of Fazilka in Punjab near the Indo @-@ Pakistan border .
National Highway 24 ( India ) ( NH 24 ) is a National Highway in India that connects the National capital Delhi to Uttar Pradesh state capital Lucknow running 438 kilometres ( 272 miles ) in length .
= = = Railway = = =
Delhi is a major junction in the Indian railway network and is the headquarters of the Northern Railway . The five main railway stations are New Delhi railway station , Old Delhi , Nizamuddin Railway Station , Anand Vihar Railway Terminal and Sarai Rohilla . The Delhi Metro , a mass rapid transit system built and operated by Delhi Metro Rail Corporation ( DMRC ) , serves many parts of Delhi and the neighbouring cities Faridabad , Gurgaon , Noida and Ghaziabad . As of August 2011 , the metro consists of six operational lines with a total length of 189 km ( 117 mi ) and 146 stations , and several other lines are under construction . The Phase @-@ I was built at a cost of US $ 2 @.@ 3 billion and the Phase @-@ II was expected to cost an additional ₹ 216 billion ( US $ 3 @.@ 2 billion ) . Phase @-@ II has a total length of 128 km and was completed by 2010 . Delhi Metro completed 10 years of operation on 25 December 2012 . It carries millions of passengers every day . In addition to the Delhi Metro , a suburban railway , the Delhi Suburban Railway exists .
= = = Metro = = =
The Delhi Metro is a rapid transit system serving Delhi , Faridabad , Gurgaon , Noida and Ghaziabad in the National Capital Region of India . Delhi Metro is the world 's 10th largest metro system in terms of length . Delhi Metro was India 's first modern public transportation system , which has revolutionised travel by providing a fast , reliable , safe , and comfortable means of transport . The network consists of six lines with a total length of 189 @.@ 63 kilometres ( 117 @.@ 83 miles ) with 142 stations , of which 35 are underground , five are at @-@ grade , and the remainder are elevated . All stations have escalators , elevators , and tactile tiles to guide the visually impaired from station entrances to trains . It has a combination of elevated , at @-@ grade , and underground lines , and uses both broad gauge and standard gauge rolling stock . Four types of rolling stock are used : Mitsubishi @-@ ROTEM Broad gauge , Bombardier MOVIA , Mitsubishi @-@ ROTEM Standard gauge , and CAF Beasain Standard gauge . The Phase @-@ I of Delhi Metro was built at a cost of US $ 2 @.@ 3 billion and the Phase @-@ II was expected to cost an additional ₹ 216 billion ( US $ 3 @.@ 2 billion ) . Phase @-@ II has a total length of 128 km and was completed by 2010 . Delhi Metro completed 10 years of operation on 25 December 2012 . It carries millions of passengers every day . In addition to the Delhi Metro , a suburban railway , the Delhi Suburban Railway exists .
Delhi Metro is being built and operated by the Delhi Metro Rail Corporation Limited ( DMRC ) , a state @-@ owned company with equal equity participation from Government of India and Government of National Capital Territory of Delhi . However , the organisation is under administrative control of Ministry of Urban Development , Government of India . Besides construction and operation of Delhi Metro , DMRC is also involved in the planning and implementation of metro rail , monorail and high @-@ speed rail projects in India and providing consultancy services to other metro projects in the country as well as abroad . The Delhi Metro project was spearheaded by Padma Vibhushan E. Sreedharan , the Managing Director of DMRC and popularly known as the " Metro Man " of India . He famously resigned from DMRC taking moral responsibility for a metro bridge collapse , which took five lives . Sreedharan was awarded with the prestigious Legion of Honour by the French Government for his contribution to Delhi Metro .
Metro services are being extended to important hubs in the cities that are close to offices , colleges , and tourist spots . This will facilitate easy conveyance for the citizens , who otherwise have to rely on public buses that are heavily crowded and are often stuck in traffic jams .
= = = Regional Rapid Transit System ( RRTS ) = = =
The 08 RRTS Corridors have been proposed by National Capital Region Planning Board ( NCRPB ) to facilitate the people travelling from nearby cities in NCR to Delhi . The three main corridors in first phase are as follows which are expected to become operational before 2019 :
Delhi - Alwar via Gurgaon
Delhi - Panipat via Sonepat
Delhi - Meerut via Ghaziabad
Remaining five corridors are also approved by National Capital Region Planning Board but are planned in the second phase .
To make the project operational NCRPB has formed a separate body named as " National Capital Region Transport Corporation on the lines of DMRC to independently formalise and monitor its progress .
= = = Roads of 2006 and 2007 = = =
As of 2007 , private vehicles account for 30 % of the total demand for transport . Delhi has 1922 @.@ 32 km of road length per 100 km2 , one of the highest road densities in India . It is connected to other parts of India by five National Highways : NH 1 , 2 , 8 , 10 and 24 . The city 's road network is maintained by MCD , NDMC , Delhi Cantonment Board , Public Works Department ( PWD ) and Delhi Development Authority . The Delhi @-@ Gurgaon Expressway connects Delhi with Gurgaon and the international airport . " The Delhi @-@ Faridabad Skyway " . connects Delhi with the neighbouring industrial town of Faridabad . The DND Flyway and Noida @-@ Greater Noida Expressway connect Delhi with the suburbs of Noida and Greater Noida . Delhi 's rapid rate of economic development and population growth has resulted in an increasing demand for transport , creating excessive pressure on the city 's transport infrastructure . As of 2008 , the number of vehicles in the metropolitan region , Delhi NCR , is 11 @.@ 2 million ( 11 @.@ 2 million ) . In 2008 , there were 85 cars in Delhi for every 1 @,@ 000 of its residents .
To meet the transport demand , the State and Union government constructed a mass rapid transit system , including the Delhi Metro . In 1998 , the Supreme Court of India ordered that all public transport vehicles in Delhi must be fuelled by compressed natural gas ( CNG ) . Buses are the most popular means of public transport , catering to about 60 % of the total demand . The state @-@ owned Delhi Transport Corporation ( DTC ) is a major bus service provider which operates the world 's largest fleet of CNG @-@ fuelled buses . Delhi Bus Rapid Transit System runs between Ambedkar Nagar and Delhi Gate .
= = Slums = =
As of the early @-@ 21st century , slums are one of the biggest problems Delhi faces today . More than half of the population of Delhi lives in slums and unauthorised colonies , leaving only 25 per cent people in planned areas . Delhi has the second largest slum population after Mumbai in India . Many of the slums in Delhi are denied even the basic services . The majority of the slums don 't have even basic facilities like running water and electricity . In one report by Indian express almost 22 % of the slum population doesn 't have toilets and are doing open defecation . Almost 55 % uses community toilets which are very dirty and due to this many communicable diseases arise from the area and spread out .
= = Demographics = =
According to the 2011 census of India , the population of Delhi is 16 @,@ 753 @,@ 235 . The corresponding population density was 11 @,@ 297 persons per km2 with a sex ratio of 866 women per 1000 men , and a literacy rate of 86 @.@ 34 % . In 2004 , the birth rate , death rate and infant mortality rate per 1000 population were 20 @.@ 03 , 5 @.@ 59 and 13 @.@ 08 respectively . In 2001 , the population of Delhi increased by 285 @,@ 000 as a result of migration and by 215 @,@ 000 as a result of natural population growth , which made Delhi one of the fastest growing cities in the world . By 2015 , Delhi is expected to be the third @-@ largest conurbation in the world after Tokyo and Mumbai . Dwarka Sub City , Asia 's largest planned residential area , is located within the National Capital Territory of Delhi .
Hinduism is Delhi 's predominant religious faith , with 81 @.@ 68 % of Delhi 's population , followed by Islam ( 12 @.@ 86 % ) , Sikhism ( 3 @.@ 4 % ) , Jainism ( 0 @.@ 99 % ) , Christianity ( 0 @.@ 87 % ) , and others ( 0 @.@ 12 % ) . Other minority religions include Buddhism , Zoroastrianism , Baha 'ism and Judaism .
According to the 50th report of the commissioner for linguistic minorities in India , which was submitted in 2014 , Hindi is the Delhi 's most spoken language , with 80 @.@ 94 % speakers , followed by Punjabi ( 7 @.@ 14 % ) , Urdu ( 6 @.@ 31 % ) , and Bengali ( 1 @.@ 50 % ) . Hindi is also the Official language of Delhi while Urdu and Punjabi have been declared as the additional official languages .
According a 1999 – 2000 estimate , the total number of people living below the poverty line , defined as living on US $ 11 or less per month , in Delhi were 1 @,@ 149 @,@ 000 , or 8 @.@ 23 % of the total population , compared to 27 @.@ 5 % of India as a whole . 52 % of Delhi residents live in slums without basic services like water , electricity , sanitation , sewage system or proper housing . In 2005 , Delhi accounted for the highest percentage ( 16 @.@ 2 % ) of the crimes reported in 35 Indian cities with populations of one million or more . The city has the highest rate of kidnapping and abduction cases with 9 @.@ 3 % ; the national rate is 2 @.@ 2 % . Delhi accounts for 15 @.@ 4 % of crime against women in Indian cities .
According to the Centre for the Study of Developing Societies , Delhi has an estimated 40 % Forward caste voters . Brahmin voters have the biggest share among them , with 12 % voters , followed by Punjabi Khatris ( 7 % ) , Rajputs ( 7 % ) , Vaishyas ( 6 % ) , and others ( 8 % ) . Jat community , which mostly live in the rural areas of outer Delhi , constitute around 5 % of Delhi 's population while the Other Backward Classes ( OBCs ) & the Dalits constitute 18 % and 17 % respectively .
= = Culture = =
Delhi 's culture has been influenced by its lengthy history and historic association as the capital of India . This is exemplified by many significant monuments in the city . Delhi is also identified as the location of Indraprastha , the ancient capital of the Pandavas . The Archaeological Survey of India recognises 1200 heritage buildings and 175 monuments as national heritage sites . In the Old City , the Mughals and the Turkic rulers constructed several architecturally significant buildings , such as the Jama Masjid – India 's largest mosque built in 1656 and the Red Fort . Three World Heritage Sites – the Red Fort , Qutab Minar and Humayun 's Tomb – are located in Delhi . Other monuments include the India Gate , the Jantar Mantar – an 18th @-@ century astronomical observatory – and the Purana Qila – a 16th @-@ century fortress . The Laxminarayan temple , Akshardham temple , the Bahá 'í Lotus temple and the ISKCON temple are examples of modern architecture . Raj Ghat and associated memorials houses memorials of Mahatma Gandhi and other notable personalities . New Delhi houses several government buildings and official residences reminiscent of British colonial architecture , including the Rashtrapati Bhavan , the Secretariat , Rajpath , the Parliament of India and Vijay Chowk . Safdarjung 's Tomb is an example of the Mughal gardens style . Some regal havelis ( palatial residences ) are in the Old City .
Lotus Temple , is a Bahá 'í House of Worship completed in 1986 . Notable for its flowerlike shape , it serves as the Mother Temple of the Indian subcontinent and has become a prominent attraction in the city . The Lotus Temple has won numerous architectural awards and been featured in hundreds of newspaper and magazine articles . Like all other Bahá 'í Houses of Worship , is open to all regardless of religion , or any other distinction , as emphasised in Bahá 'í texts . The Bahá 'í laws emphasise that the spirit of the House of Worship be that it is a gathering place where people of all religions may worship God without denominational restrictions . The Bahá 'í laws also stipulate that only the holy scriptures of the Bahá 'í Faith and other religions can be read or chanted inside in any language ; while readings and prayers can be set to music by choirs , no musical instruments can be played inside . Furthermore , no sermons can be delivered , and there can be no ritualistic ceremonies practised .
Chandni Chowk , a 17th @-@ century market , is one of the most popular shopping areas in Delhi for jewellery and Zari saris . Delhi 's arts and crafts include , Zardozi – an embroidery done with gold thread – and Meenakari – the art of enamelling .
= = = Festivals = = =
Delhi 's association and geographic proximity to the capital , New Delhi , has amplified the importance of national events and holidays like Republic Day , Independence Day ( 15 August ) and Gandhi Jayanti . On Independence Day , the Prime Minister addresses the nation from the Red Fort . Most Delhiites celebrate the day by flying kites , which are considered a symbol of freedom . The Republic Day Parade is a large cultural and military parade showcasing India 's cultural diversity and military strength . Over the centuries , Delhi has become known for its composite culture , and a festival that symbolises this is the Phool Walon Ki Sair , which takes place in September . Flowers and pankhe – fans embroidered with flowers – are offered to the shrine of 13th century Sufi saint Khwaja Bakhtiyar Kaki and the Yogmaya temple , both situated in Mehrauli .
Religious festivals include Diwali ( the festival of lights ) , Mahavir Jayanti , Guru Nanak 's Birthday , Raksha Bandhan , Durga Puja , Holi , Lohri , Chauth , Krishna Janmastami , Maha Shivratri , Eid ul @-@ Fitr , Moharram and Buddha Jayanti . The Qutub Festival is a cultural event during which performances of musicians and dancers from all over India are showcased at night , with the Qutub Minar as a backdrop . Other events such as Kite Flying Festival , International Mango Festival and Vasant Panchami ( the Spring Festival ) are held every year in Delhi . The Auto Expo , Asia 's largest auto show , is held in Delhi biennially . The New Delhi World Book Fair , held biennially at the Pragati Maidan , is the second largest exhibition of books in the world . Delhi is often regarded as the " Book Capital " of India because of high readership . India International Trade Fair ( IITF ) , organised by ITPO is the biggest cultural and shopping fair of Delhi which takes place in November each year and is visited by more than 15 lakh people .
= = = Cuisine = = =
As India 's national capital and centuries old Mughal capital , Delhi influenced the food habits of its residents and is where Mughlai cuisine originated . Along with Indian cuisine , a variety of international cuisines are popular among the residents . The dearth of food habits among the city 's residents created a unique style of cooking which became popular throughout the world , with dishes such as Kebab , biryani , tandoori . The city 's classic dishes include butter chicken , aloo chaat , chaat , dahi vada , kachori , gol gappe , samosa , chole bhature , chole kulche , jalebi and lassi .
The fast living habits of Delhi 's people has motivated the growth of street food outlets . A trend of dining at local dhabas is popular among the residents . High profile restaurants have gained popularity in recent years , among the popular restaurants are the Karim Hotel , the Punjab Grill and Bukhara . The Gali Paranthe Wali ( the street of fried bread ) is a street in Chandni Chowk particularly for food eateries since the 1870s . Almost the entire street is occupied by fast food stalls or street vendors . It has nearly become a tradition that almost every prime minister of India has visited the street to eat paratha at least once . Other Indian cuisines are also available in this area even though the street specialises in north Indian food .
= = Education = =
Private schools in Delhi – which use either English or Hindi as the language of instruction – are affiliated to one of three administering bodies , the Council for the Indian School Certificate Examinations ( CISCE ) , the Central Board for Secondary Education ( NCERT ( CBSE ) ) or the National Institute of Open Schooling ( NIOS ) . In 2004 – 05 , approximately 15 @.@ 29 lakh ( 1 @.@ 529 million ) students were enrolled in primary schools , 8 @.@ 22 lakh ( 0 @.@ 822 million ) in middle schools and 6 @.@ 69 lakh ( 0 @.@ 669 million ) in secondary schools across Delhi . Female students represented 49 % of the total enrolment . The same year , the Delhi government spent between 1 @.@ 58 % and 1 @.@ 95 % of its gross state domestic product on education .
Schools and higher educational institutions in Delhi are administered either by the Directorate of Education , the NCT government or private organisations . In 2006 , Delhi had 165 colleges , five medical colleges and eight engineering colleges , seven major universities and nine deemed universities .
Delhi Technological University ( formerly Delhi College of Engineering ) , Indraprastha Institute of Information Technology , Netaji Subhas Institute of Technology , Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University and National Law University , Delhi are the only state universities . University of Delhi , Jawaharlal Nehru University and Jamia Millia Islamia are the central universities , and Indira Gandhi National Open University is for distance education .
As of 2008 , about 16 % of all Delhi residents possessed at least a college graduate degree .
= = Media = =
As the capital of India , Delhi is the focus of political reportage , including regular television broadcasts of Parliament sessions . Many national media agencies , including the state @-@ owned Press Trust of India , Media Trust of India and Doordarshan , is based in the city . Television programming includes two free terrestrial television channels offered by Doordarshan , and several Hindi , English and regional @-@ language cable channels offered by multi system operators . Satellite television has yet to gain a large quantity of subscribers in the city .
Print journalism remains a popular news medium in Delhi . The city 's Hindi newspapers include Navbharat Times , Hindustan Dainik , Punjab Kesari , Pavitra Bharat , Dainik Jagran , Dainik Bhaskar , Amar Ujala - Delhi and Dainik Desbandhu . Amongst the English language newspapers , The Hindustan Times , with a daily circulation of over a million copies , is the single largest daily . Other major English newspapers include Times of India , The Hindu , Indian Express , Business Standard , The Pioneer , The Statesman , Italic text and The Asian Age 'Top Story ( Daily ) . Regional language newspapers include the Malayalam daily Malayala Manorama and the Tamil dailies Dinamalar and Dinakaran .
Radio is a less popular mass medium in Delhi , although FM radio has gained popularity since the inauguration of several new stations in 2006 . A number of state @-@ owned and private radio stations broadcast from Delhi .
= = Sports = =
Delhi has hosted many major international sporting events , including the first and also the ninth Asian Games , the 2010 Hockey World Cup , the 2010 Commonwealth Games and the 2011 Cricket World Cup . Delhi lost bidding for the 2014 Asian Games , and considered making a bid for the 2020 Summer Olympics . However , sports minister Manohar Singh Gill later stated that funding infrastructure would come before a 2020 bid . There are indications of a possible 2028 bid .
The 2010 Commonwealth Games , which ran from 3 to 14 October 2010 , was one of the largest sports event held in India . The opening ceremony of the 2010 Commonwealth Games was held at the Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium , the main stadium of the event , in New Delhi at 7 : 00 pm Indian Standard Time on 3 October 2010 . The ceremony featured over 8 @,@ 000 performers and lasted for two and a half hours . It is estimated that ₹ 3 @.@ 5 billion ( US $ 52 million ) were spent to produce the ceremony . Events took place at 12 competition venues . 20 training venues were used in the Games , including seven venues within Delhi University . The rugby stadium in Delhi University North Campus hosted rugby games for Commonwealth Games . The mess left behind after the Commonwealth Games prompted Prime Minister Manmohan Singh to replace Sports and Youth Affairs minister Manohar Singh Gill with Ajay Maken in the 19 January 2011 Cabinet reshuffle .
Cricket and football are the most popular sports in Delhi . There are several cricket grounds , or maidans , located across the city . The Feroz Shah Kotla Ground ( known commonly as the Kotla ) is one of the oldest cricket grounds in India and is a venue for international cricket matches . It is the home ground of the Delhi cricket team , which represents the city in the Ranji Trophy , the premier Indian domestic first @-@ class cricket championship . The Delhi cricket team has produced several world @-@ class international cricketers such as Virender Sehwag , Gautam Gambhir , Virat Kohli , Madan Lal , Chetan Chauhan and Bishan Singh Bedi to name a few . The Railways and Services cricket teams in the Ranji Trophy also play their home matches in Delhi , in the Karnail Singh Stadium and the Harbax Singh Stadium respectively . The city is also home to the Indian Premier League team Delhi Daredevils , who play their home matches at the Kotla , and was the home to the Delhi Giants team ( previously Delhi Jets ) of the now defunct Indian Cricket League .
Ambedkar Stadium , a football stadium in Delhi which holds 21 @,@ 000 people , was the venue for the Indian football team 's World Cup qualifier against UAE on 28 July 2012 . Delhi hosted the Nehru Cup in 2007 and 2009 , in both of which India defeated Syria 1 – 0 . In the Elite Football League of India , Delhi 's first professional American football franchise , the Delhi Defenders played its first season in Pune . Buddh International Circuit in Greater Noida , a suburb of Delhi , hosts the annual Formula 1 Indian Grand Prix . The Indira Gandhi Arena is also in Delhi .
Delhi also has a football team Delhi Dynamos FC , which plays in Indian Super League . Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium is the home stadium for Delhi Dynamos FC .
Delhi is a member of the Asian Network of Major Cities 21 .
= = World Heritage status = =
In February 2014 , the Government of India approved Delhi 's bid for World Heritage City status . The historical city of Shahjahanabad and Lutyens ' Bungalow Zone in New Delhi were cited in the bid . A team from UNESCO was scheduled to visit Delhi in September 2014 to validate its claims . INTACH acted as the nodal agency for the bid . The announcement of accepted cities was to be made in June 2015 . However , the Government of India withdrew its nomination on 21 May 2015 .
= Tropical Storm Blanca ( 2009 ) =
Tropical Storm Blanca was a short @-@ lived tropical cyclone during the 2009 Pacific hurricane season . Forming out of a trough of low pressure on July 6 , Blanca was immediately classified a tropical storm roughly 420 mi ( 675 km ) south @-@ southwest of the southern tip of the Baja California Peninsula . Later that day , the storm reached its peak intensity with winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) and a barometric pressure of 998 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 47 inHg ) as deep convection persisted around the center of circulation . Shortly after , the system began to weaken . Intermittent bursts of convection occurred on July 7 before Blanca weakened to a tropical depression . The following day , the system degenerated into a remnant low pressure system , devoid of shower and thunderstorms . The remnants were monitored by the National Hurricane Center for another day . Although the storm did not impact land as a tropical cyclone , its remnants produced unseasonable rains in southern California and moisture from the system contributed to flooding in Mexico .
= = Meteorological history = =
Tropical Storm Blanca originated from a tropical wave that moved off the western coast of Africa into the Atlantic Ocean on June 19 . Traveling westward , the wave existed in a region of strong wind shear , preventing convective activity from developing . By June 29 , the wave had crossed Central America and moved into the eastern Pacific basin . Several days later , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) began monitoring the system as a disorganized area of shower and thunderstorm activity off the southwest coast of Mexico . Early the next day , a trough of low pressure developed within the system ; wind shear in the path of the storm were expected to be low enough to allow tropical cyclone development . On July 4 , curved banding @-@ features developed along the periphery of the wave , indicating that an area of low pressure had developed . Gradual organization took place over the follow days . Early on July 6 , the low had become sufficiently organized to attain tropical depression strength roughly 435 miles ( 700 kilometres ) south of Cabo San Lucas , Mexico . However , the system was not operationally declared a depression ; instead , the first advisory by the NHC was issued several hours later and immediately declared the cyclone as Tropical Storm Blanca .
Upon being classified a tropical storm , Blanca had already developed an eye @-@ feature , though it not expected to develop into a hurricane . The storm maintained a general northwestward track throughout its existence due to a mid @-@ level ridge well to the west of the circulation . Shortly after , a central dense overcast , a large area of deep convection , developed over the center of circulation and large banding features developed along the periphery of the cyclone . Late on July 6 , Blanca reached its peak intensity with winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) and a barometric pressure of 998 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 47 inHg ) . Although the storm had intensified , its overall structure had deteriorated , with cloud tops warming and convection shrinking .
By July 7 , most of the deep convection associated with Blanca had dissipated , and the remaining convection was confined to an outer band southeast of the center . Later that day , the system was barely holding on to tropical storm intensity as the center became devoid of shower and thunderstorm activity . A brief burst in convection allowed Blanca to maintain 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) winds , minimal tropical storm intensity , for several more hours before being downgraded to a tropical depression .
Early on July 8 , another brief burst in convection near the center of Blanca occurred . In this area , satellites found sustained winds around 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) . However , the convection quickly dissipated and the winds were not considered to be representative of the storm 's true intensity . By later that day , convection had not reformed around the center of circulation and Blanca degenerated into a non @-@ convective remnant low pressure system , corresponding with the final public advisory from the NHC . Although no longer a tropical cyclone , the remnants of Blanca maintained a well @-@ defined low pressure center as it continued its northwesterly movement . Early on July 11 , the system turned northward and gradually weakened . The following day , the remnants of Blanca dissipated over open waters .
= = Preparations and impact = =
On July 6 , Mexican officials posted high seas advisories for Michoacán , Jalisco , Nayarit , Baja California Sur and Colima and advised ships to remain at port . These advisories were discontinued the following day as Blanca moved out to sea . After weakening to a tropical depression , moisture from the system enhanced a frontal system over Coahuila . The system produced upwards of 22 @.@ 2 mm ( 0 @.@ 87 in ) in the span of a few hours , triggering flooding throughout the state . Numerous streets were closed due to flooding and local fire departments were deployed to assist in draining the water . No injuries or structural damage resulted from the flooding .
The remnants of the storm also brought unseasonable rainfall , although negligible , to parts of southern and central California on July 11 . The moisture reached the region after being pulled northward by an upper @-@ level low off the coast of Oregon . While over open waters , the storm produced usually heavy rainfall , exceeding 2 in / h ( 50 mm / h ) at times .
= The Boat Race 1864 =
The 21st Boat Race , an annual side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames , took place on 14 March 1864 . Umpired by Joseph William Chitty , Oxford won by nine lengths in a time of 21 minutes 4 seconds , the fastest winning time since the event was held on The Championship Course in 1845 . The race , whose start was moved in order to avoid interruptions from river traffic , was witnessed by the Prince of Wales .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities and followed throughout the United Kingdom and worldwide . Oxford went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 1863 race by ten lengths , with the overall record tied on ten victories each .
The location of the start of the race was moved to approximately 400 feet ( 122 m ) upstream of Putney Bridge in order to reduce interruptions to the race from steamers . Indeed , both boat club presidents had issued a caution to the steamer captains , indicating that the race would be conducted on the ebb tide should any interruption take place which would risk the steamers becoming grounded at Mortlake . The finish was moved the corresponding distance upstream to maintain the traditional length of the race . Oxford rowed in the same boat as the previous race , which was constructed by J. and S. Salter while Cambridge utilised a new vessel built for them by Taylor of Newcastle . Oxford were coached by George Morrison who had rowed in the 1859 , 1860 and 1861 races and was non @-@ rowing president for the 1862 race . The race was umpired by Joseph William Chitty who had rowed for Oxford twice in 1849 ( in the March and December races ) and the 1852 race , while the starter was Edward Searle .
= = Crews = =
The Cambridge crew weighed an average of 11 st 11 @.@ 5 lb ( 74 @.@ 9 kg ) , 4 pounds ( 1 @.@ 8 kg ) per rower more than their Dark Blue opposition . Cambridge 's crew , however , was tall , averaging over 6 ft 0 in ( 1 @.@ 83 m ) per rower . Oxford 's crew contained three rowers from the previous years race in William Awdry , F. H. Kelly and W. B. R. Jacobson . The Cambridge boat also saw three participants from the 1863 race : bow John Hawkshaw , number five Robert Kinglake and cox Francis Archer ( who had also coxed the Light Blues in the 1862 race ) returned .
= = Race = =
The weather on the day of the race was sunny with a mild breeze . The Prince of Wales , future King of the United Kingdom Edward VII was in attendance ; as a result , the start time was moved forward to enable the Prince to leave for another engagement . Oxford were pre @-@ race favourites , and won the toss , electing to start from the Middlesex station , handing the Surrey side of the river to Cambridge . The Cantabrigians made the better start , and soon led by a third of a length . However , by Finch 's field , Oxford had recovered to draw level and started to leave the Light Blues behind . Half a mile into the course , the Dark Blues held a half @-@ length lead which they extended to a length by Craven Cottage .
With a clear water advantage , they crossed in front of Cambridge and were three lengths ahead by the Crab Tree pub , extending to " four or five lengths " by Hammersmith Bridge . They were so far ahead at Barnes Bridge their advantage in lengths was impossible " to be accurately counted " . Misinterpreting the position of the finish line , the Oxford crew stopped rowing early , but once aware of their mistake , rowed on to the finish , winning by nine lengths in a time of 21 minutes 4 seconds . It was their fourth consecutive victory and was , at the time , the fastest winning time in the history of the event .
= Krypton =
Krypton ( from Greek : κρυπτός kryptos " the hidden one " ) is a chemical element with symbol Kr and atomic number 36 . It is a member of group 18 ( noble gases ) elements . A colorless , odorless , tasteless noble gas , krypton occurs in trace amounts in the atmosphere and is often used with other rare gases in fluorescent lamps . With rare exceptions , krypton is chemically inert .
Krypton , like the other noble gases , is used in lighting and photography . Krypton light has many spectral lines , and krypton plasma is useful in bright , high @-@ powered gas lasers ( krypton ion and excimer lasers ) , each of which resonates and amplifies a single spectral line . Krypton fluoride also makes a useful laser . From 1960 to 1983 , the official length of a meter was defined by the 605 nm wavelength of the orange spectral line of krypton @-@ 86 , because of the high power and relative ease of operation of krypton discharge tubes .
= = History = =
Krypton was discovered in Britain in 1898 by Sir William Ramsay , a Scottish chemist , and Morris Travers , an English chemist , in residue left from evaporating nearly all components of liquid air . Neon was discovered by a similar procedure by the same workers just a few weeks later . William Ramsay was awarded the 1904 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for discovery of a series of noble gases , including krypton .
In 1960 , the International Conference on Weights and Measures defined the meter as 1 @,@ 650 @,@ 763 @.@ 73 wavelengths of light emitted by the krypton @-@ 86 isotope . This agreement replaced the 1889 international prototype meter located in Paris , which was a metal bar made of a platinum @-@ iridium alloy ( one of a series of standard meter bars , originally constructed to be one ten @-@ millionth of a quadrant of the Earth 's polar circumference ) . This also obsoleted the 1927 definition of the ångström based on the red cadmium spectral line , replacing it with 1 Å = 10 − 10 m . The krypton @-@ 86 definition lasted until the October 1983 conference , which redefined the meter as the distance that light travels in a vacuum during 1 / 299 @,@ 792 @,@ 458 s .
= = Characteristics = =
Krypton is characterized by several sharp emission lines ( spectral signatures ) the strongest being green and yellow . Krypton is one of the products of uranium fission . Solid krypton is white and has a face @-@ centered cubic crystal structure , which is a common property of all noble gases ( except helium , with a hexagonal close @-@ packed crystal structure ) .
= = = Isotopes = = =
Naturally occurring krypton in Earth 's atmosphere is composed of six stable isotopes . In addition , about thirty unstable isotopes and isomers are known . 81Kr , the product of atmospheric reactions , is produced with the other naturally occurring isotopes of krypton . Being radioactive , it has a half @-@ life of 230 @,@ 000 years . Krypton is highly volatile and does not stay in solution in near @-@ surface water , but 81Kr has been used for dating old ( 50 @,@ 000 – 800 @,@ 000 years ) groundwater .
85Kr is an inert radioactive noble gas with a half @-@ life of 10 @.@ 76 years . It is produced by the fission of uranium and plutonium , such as in nuclear bomb testing and nuclear reactors . 85Kr is released during the reprocessing of fuel rods from nuclear reactors . Concentrations at the North Pole are 30 % higher than at the South Pole due to convective mixing .
= = = Chemistry = = =
Like the other noble gases , krypton is highly chemically unreactive . In fact , before the 1960s , no noble gas compounds had been synthesized .
However , following the first successful synthesis of xenon compounds in 1962 , synthesis of krypton difluoride ( KrF
2 ) was reported in 1963 . In the same year , KrF
4 was reported by Grosse , et al . , but was subsequently shown to be a mistaken identification . Under extreme conditions , krypton reacts with fluorine to form KrF2 according to the following equation :
Kr + F2 → KrF2
Compounds with krypton bonded to atoms other than fluorine have also been discovered . There are also unverified reports of a barium salt of a krypton oxoacid . ArKr + and KrH + polyatomic ions have been investigated and there is evidence for KrXe or KrXe + .
The reaction of KrF
2 with B ( OTeF
5 )
3 produces an unstable compound , Kr ( OTeF
5 )
2 , that contains a krypton @-@ oxygen bond . A krypton @-@ nitrogen bond is found in the cation [ HC ≡ N – Kr – F ] + , produced by the reaction of KrF
2 with [ HC ≡ NH ] + [ AsF −
6 ] below − 50 ° C. HKrCN and HKrC ≡ CH ( krypton hydride @-@ cyanide and hydrokryptoacetylene ) were reported to be stable up to 40 K.
Krypton hydride ( Kr ( H2 ) 4 ) crystals can be grown at pressures above 5 GPa . They have a face @-@ centered cubic structure where krypton octahedra are surrounded by randomly oriented hydrogen molecules .
= = = Natural occurrence = = =
Earth has retained all of the noble gases that were present at its formation except helium . Krypton 's concentration in the atmosphere is about 1 ppm . It can be extracted from liquid air by fractional distillation . The amount of krypton in space is uncertain , because measurement is derived from meteoric activity and solar winds . The first measurements suggest an abundance of krypton in space .
= = Applications = =
Krypton 's multiple emission lines make ionized krypton gas discharges appear whitish , which in turn makes krypton @-@ based bulbs useful in photography as a brilliant white light source . Krypton is used in some photographic flashes for high speed photography . Krypton gas is also combined with other gases to make luminous signs that glow with a bright greenish @-@ yellow light .
Krypton is mixed with argon in energy efficient fluorescent lamps , reducing the power consumption , but also reducing the light output and raising the cost . Krypton costs about 100 times as much as argon . Krypton ( along with xenon ) is also used to fill incandescent lamps to reduce filament evaporation and allow higher operating temperatures . A brighter light results with more blue color than conventional incandescent lamps .
Krypton 's white discharge is often used to good effect in colored gas discharge tubes , which are simply painted or stained to create the desired color ( for example , " neon " type multi @-@ colored advertising signs are often entirely krypton @-@ based ) . Krypton is produces much higher light power than neon in the red spectral line region , and for this reason , red lasers for high @-@ power laser light @-@ shows are often krypton lasers with mirrors that select the red spectral line for laser amplification and emission , rather than the more familiar helium @-@ neon variety , which could not achieve the same multi @-@ watt outputs .
The krypton fluoride laser. is important in nuclear fusion energy research in confinement experiments . The laser has high beam uniformity , short wavelength , and the spot size can be varied to track an imploding pellet .
In experimental particle physics , liquid krypton is used to construct quasi @-@ homogeneous electromagnetic calorimeters . A notable example is the calorimeter of the NA48 experiment at CERN containing about 27 tonnes of liquid krypton . This usage is rare , since liquid argon is less expensive . The advantage of krypton is a smaller Molière radius of 4 @.@ 7 cm , which provides excellent spatial resolution with little overlapping . The other parameters relevant for calorimetry are : radiation length of X0 = 4 @.@ 7 cm , and density of 2 @.@ 4 g / cm3 .
The sealed spark gap assemblies in ignition exciters in some older jet engines contain a small amount of krypton @-@ 85 to produce consistent ionization levels and uniform operation .
Krypton @-@ 83 has application in magnetic resonance imaging ( MRI ) for imaging airways . In particular , it enables the radiologist to distinguish between hydrophobic and hydrophilic surfaces containing an airway .
Although xenon has potential for use in computed tomography ( CT ) to assess regional ventilation , its anesthetic properties limit its fraction in the breathing gas to 35 % . A breathing mixture of 30 % xenon and 30 % krypton is comparable in effectiveness for CT to a 40 % xenon fraction , while avoiding the unwanted effects of a high partial pressure of xenon gas .
Krypton @-@ 85 in the atmosphere has been used to detect clandestine nuclear fuel reprocessing facilities in North Korea and Pakistan . Those facilities were detected in the early 2000s and were believed to be producing weapons @-@ grade plutonium .
= = Precautions = =
Krypton is considered to be a non @-@ toxic asphyxiant . Krypton has a narcotic potency seven times greater than air , and breathing an atmosphere of 50 % krypton and 50 % natural air ( as might happen in the locality of a leak ) causes narcosis in humans similar to breathing air at four times atmospheric pressure . This is comparable to scuba diving at a depth of 30 m ( 100 ft ) ( see nitrogen narcosis ) and could affect anyone breathing it . At the same time , that mixture would contain only 10 % oxygen ( rather than the normal 20 % ) and hypoxia would be a greater concern .
= Final Fantasy III =
Final Fantasy III ( ファイナルファンタジーIII , Fainaru Fantajī Surī ) is a role @-@ playing video game developed and published by Square in 1990 for the Family Computer as the third installment in the Final Fantasy series and the last main series game for the console . It is the first numbered Final Fantasy game to feature the job @-@ change system . The story revolves around four orphaned youths drawn to a crystal of light . The crystal grants them some of its power , and instructs them to go forth and restore balance to the world . Not knowing what to make of the crystal 's pronouncements , but nonetheless recognizing the importance of its words , the four inform their adoptive families of their mission and set out to explore and bring back balance to the world .
The game was originally released in Japan on April 27 , 1990 . It had not been released outside Japan until a remake was developed by Matrix Software for the Nintendo DS on August 24 , 2006 . At that time , it was the only Final Fantasy game not previously released in North America or Europe . There had been earlier plans to remake the game for Bandai 's WonderSwan Color handheld , as had been done with the first , second , and fourth installments of the series , but the game faced several delays and was eventually canceled after the premature cancellation of the platform . The Nintendo DS version of the game was positively received , selling over one million copies in Japan .
It was also released for the many other systems : the Japanese Virtual Console version ( Famicom version ) on July 21 , 2009 ( Wii ) and January 8 , 2014 ( Wii U ) , an iOS port of the Nintendo DS remake on March 24 , 2011 , an Android version on March 12 , 2012 , a PlayStation Portable version on late September 2012 ( Downloadable only version outside Japan via PlayStation Network ) and Android @-@ based Ouya console on April 11 , 2013 .
= = Gameplay = =
The gameplay of Final Fantasy III combines elements of the first two Final Fantasy games with new features . The turn @-@ based combat system remains in place from the first two games , but hit points are now shown above the target following attacks or healing actions , rather than captioned as in the previous two games . Auto @-@ targeting for physical attacks after a friendly or enemy unit is killed is also featured for the first time . Unlike subsequent games in the series , magical attacks are not auto @-@ targeted in the same fashion .
The experience point system featured in Final Fantasy makes a return following its absence from Final Fantasy II . The character class system featured in the first game also reappears , with some modifications . Whereas in the original game the player chooses each character 's class alignment at the start of the game and is then locked into that class for the duration of the game , Final Fantasy III introduces the " job system " for which the series would later become famous . Jobs are presented as interchangeable classes : in the Famicom version of the game , all four characters begin as " Onion Knights " , with a variety of additional jobs becoming available as the game progresses . Any playable character has access to every currently available job and can change from job to job at will . Switching jobs consumes " capacity points " which are awarded to the entire party following every battle , much like gil . Different weapons , armor and accessories , and magic spells are utilized by each job . A character 's level of proficiency at a particular job increases the longer the character remains with that job . Higher job levels increase the battle statistics of the character and reduce the cost in capacity points to switch to that job .
Final Fantasy III is the first game in the series to feature special battle commands such as " Steal " or " Jump " , each of which is associated with a particular job ( " Steal " is the Thief 's specialty , whilst " Jump " is the Dragoon 's forte ) . Certain jobs also feature innate , non @-@ battle abilities , such as the Thief 's ability to open passages that would otherwise require a special key item . Final Fantasy III is also the first game in the series to feature summoned creatures , which are called forth with the " Summon " skill .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting = = =
One thousand years before the events in the game , on a floating continent hovering high above the surface of an unnamed planet , a technologically advanced civilization sought to harness the power of the four elemental crystals of light . They did not realize that they could not control such fundamental forces of nature . This power of light would have consumed the world itself had the light crystals not had their natural counterparts : the four dark elemental crystals . Disturbed by the sudden interruption of the careful balance between light and dark , four warriors were granted the power of the dark crystals to recapture the power of the light crystals . These so @-@ called Dark Warriors succeeded in their quest , and restored harmony to the world . But their victory came too late to save the doomed civilization , whose culture was reduced to ruin , though their floating continent remained . On that continent , the circle of Gulgans , a race of blind soothsayers and fortune @-@ tellers , predicted that these events will ultimately repeat .
= = = Characters = = =
Final Fantasy III focuses around four orphans from the remote village of Ur , each starting off as an Onion Knight in the original game , but as Freelancers in the Nintendo DS remake , which also individualized the party members , giving them unique appearances ( designed by Akihiko Yoshida ) , backstories , personalities and names :
Luneth ( ルーネス , Rūnesu ) who symbolizes courage , an adventurous orphan boy raised in the village of Ur ; Arc ( アルクゥ , Arukū ) who symbolizes kindness , Luneth 's childhood best friend and a timid yet intelligent young man ; Refia ( レフィア ) who symbolizes affection , a girl raised in the village of Kazus who tires of her father 's blacksmith training and often runs away from home ; and Ingus ( イングズ , Ingusu ) who symbolizes determination , a loyal soldier serving the King of Sasune , with a ( mutual ) soft spot for the princess Sara .
Xande ( ザンデ , Zande ) is the antagonist the party seeks to stop for most of the game , though he is eventually revealed to merely be a pawn of the Cloud of Darkness ( 暗闇の雲 , Kurayami no Kumo ) ( DarkCloud in the fan translation ) : a malevolent and vicious deity who wishes to push the world into a state of chaos and destruction by upsetting the balance between light and darkness , allowing the Void to consume the world . Appearing in a female @-@ like form , the Cloud of Darkness refers to herself in first @-@ person plural because her two tentacles have minds of their own . Although she initially defeats the Light Warriors , they are resurrected with Unei and Doga 's help , and , with help from the Dark Warriors , they defeat the Cloud of Darkness .
= = = Story = = =
An earthquake opens up a previously hidden cavern in Altar Cave near the village of Ur on the floating continent . Four young orphans under the care of Topapa , the village elder , explore the earthquake 's impact and come across a crystal of light . The crystal grants them a portion of its power , and instructs them to go forth and restore balance to the world . Not knowing what to make of the crystal 's pronouncements , but nonetheless recognizing the importance of its words , the four inform their adoptive family of their mission and set out to explore an overworld outside the area in which they were brought up , in order to bring balance back to the world .
Their adventures lead them to discover that there lies a whole world beyond the boundaries of the floating continent upon which they were living . In the world below , they discover a warlock named Xande , one of three apprentices to the legendary Archmage Noah , is trying to possess the crystals of light , so as to bring forth chaos and disorder . The four warriors eventually arrive at the Crystal Tower where they discover that the Cloud of Darkness is the source of the recent events . The Cloud attempts to create a similar situation to the Flood of Light a millennia earlier so that the world is pulled into the void . The Light Warriors traverse into the domain of the dark crystals to free the imprisoned Dark Warriors and defeat the Cloud of Darkness , thereby restoring the crystals and balance to the world . In the DS remake , there are also several " side quests " that can also be completed .
The story is virtually the same in the DS version , but with some major differences in the introductory sequence : Luneth goes to the Altar Cave alone , but while exploring he trips and falls into a hole created by the earthquake . He is then beset by goblins , and while he is frantically searching for a way out , he comes upon the wind crystal . It tells him that he has been chosen as a Warrior of Light , destined to restore balance to the world , and there are three others like him , but before Luneth can ask it to elaborate , he is teleported to the surface . He returns to Ur , but Elder Topapa does not elucidate much on the matter . Going to a corner of town , Luneth finds his friend Arc being bullied by some of the kids . When Luneth intervenes , Arc runs away , heading for the village of Kazus .
Luneth chases Arc to Kazus and , upon reuniting with Arc , discovers that the rumors of a curse on Kazus are not false . The people there are see @-@ through , and one such person , Cid of Canaan , instructs the two boys to take his airship and look for Refia , the mythril smith Takka 's adoptive daughter . They find her on the airship , and accompany her to Castle Sasune as per her suggestion . There , they meet Ingus , a soldier of Sasune who has somehow escaped the curse . He joins the trio after an audience with the king , who instructs them to find his daughter , Sara . They catch up to her in the Sealed Cave , and with her , battle the monster who cast the curse : the Djinn . Just as Sara seals the Djinn away , however , Luneth , Arc , Refia and Ingus all disappear before her eyes . As it transpires , the wind crystal had summoned the four youths in order to grant them a portion of its power . After this , Luneth 's party reunites with Sara at Castle Sasune . She completes the process of dispelling the Djinn 's curse , but becomes depressed when Luneth reveals that he and his companions must leave at once . After Sara stops crying long enough to see them off , they go back to Kazus , where Takka drags Refia home . The three boys consult with Cid , and then Takka , who builds a mythril ram on the ship . It should be noted that Refia is not with him when he returns , and when the party once more finds her aboard Cid 's airship , the player would be able to piece together why : she had told Takka that she is a Warrior of Light like the boys , and therefore has to leave . The new introductory sequence ends with the airship being used to demolish the boulder in Nelv Valley .
= = Development = =
Director and story writer Hironobu Sakaguchi , designer Hiromichi Tanaka , character designer Yoshitaka Amano , scenario writer Kenji Terada , and music composer Nobuo Uematsu returned from the two previous Final Fantasy games to contribute to the development of Final Fantasy III . As with the previous two installments of the series , Final Fantasy III was programmed for the Famicom by Nasir Gebelli . It was the last original Final Fantasy title on which Gebelli worked . Midway through the development of the game , Gebelli was forced to return to Sacramento , California from Japan due to an expired work visa . The rest of the development staff followed him to Sacramento with necessary materials and equipment and finished production of the game there . The completed game was one of the largest ever released for the Famicom , published on a 512KiB cartridge , the second @-@ highest capacity available for the console . Like many console role @-@ playing games of the era , Final Fantasy III is noted for its difficulty .
Square developed and released Final Fantasy III during the same period that Nintendo released its 16 @-@ bit Super Famicom console , intended as the successor to the original 8 @-@ bit Famicom . Designer Hiromichi Tanaka said that the original game was never released outside Japan because Square was focused on developing for Nintendo 's new console .
Square planned to localize and release the game outside Japan , but the game 's localization 's plans were scrapped .
= = = Music = = =
The music of the Final Fantasy III was composed by regular series composer Nobuo Uematsu . Final Fantasy III Original Sound Version , a compilation album of almost all of the music in the game , was released by Square / NTT Publishing in 1991 , and subsequently re @-@ released by NTT Publishing in 1994 and 2004 . A vocal arrangement album entitled Final Fantasy III Yūkyū no Kaze Densetsu , or literally Final Fantasy III Legend of the Eternal Wind , contains a selection of musical tracks from the game , performed by Nobuo Uematsu and Dido , a duo composed of Michiaki Kato and Shizuru Ohtaka . The album was released by Data M in 1990 and by Polystar in 1994 .
Selected tracks the game were featured in various Final Fantasy arranged music compilation albums , including Final Fantasy : Pray and Final Fantasy : Love Will Grow ( with lyrical renditions performed by singer Risa Ohki ) , and the second and third albums from Uematsu 's progressive metal group , The Black Mages . Several tracks from the game were subsequently remixed and featured in later Square or Square Enix titles , including Chocobo Racing and Final Fantasy Fables : Chocobo 's Dungeon . Several pieces from the soundtrack remain popular today , and have been performed numerous times in Final Fantasy orchestral concert series such as the Tour de Japon : Music from Final Fantasy concert series and the Distant Worlds - Music from Final Fantasy series .
The score was arranged for the Nintendo DS remake by Tsuyoshi Sekito and Keiji Kawamori , working under Uematsu 's supervision . The soundtrack was released as an album by NTT Publishing in 2006 as Final Fantasy III Original Soundtrack , with revamped versions of the tracks plus some additional tracks .
= = Versions and re @-@ releases = =
There are two distinct Final Fantasy III versions : the original 2D Famicom version , which was released only in Japan , and complete remade 3D version , which was released worldwide .
= = = Cancelled WonderSwan Color remake = = =
Bandai unveiled their WonderSwan Color handheld system in 2000 and had immediately headed up a deal with Square to release enhanced remakes of their first three Final Fantasy titles on the new console . Although Final Fantasy and Final Fantasy II were both released within a year of the announcement , Final Fantasy III was ultimately delayed from its late 2001 release date , even after Bandai picked up the game 's publishing rights . While a port of Final Fantasy IV was eventually released for the WonderSwan Color , Square remained silent regarding Final Fantasy III . Although the game was never formally cancelled , the official website was taken offline once production of the WonderSwan Color consoles ceased in 2002 .
In 2007 , Hiromichi Tanaka explained in an interview that the WonderSwan Color remake had been abandoned because the size and structure of the coding of the original Famicom game was too difficult to recreate on the WonderSwan Color :
= = = 3D remake = = =
Following the failure to remake the game for the WonderSwan Color , and Square 's merger with former competitor Enix to form Square Enix in 2003 , the company posted assurance that the game 's promised remake would not be completely forgotten , and there was speculation that it might find its way to Sony 's PlayStation or Nintendo 's Game Boy Advance as its predecessors had . Square Enix considered porting the game to the PlayStation 2 , but was eventually convinced by Nintendo to develop the title for their new handheld system , the Nintendo DS , a decision that would later be positively reinforced by the commercial success of the Nintendo DS . The Final Fantasy III remake was first announced on October 24 , 2004 , but detailed information did not emerge for a year . Hiromichi Tanaka headed the project as both the executive producer and director . His guidance and supervision were needed because the remake was not a mere graphical update as Final Fantasy and Final Fantasy II 's remakes were , but a total overhaul using the Nintendo DS 's 3D capabilities . Along with 3D graphics , a full motion video opening scene was produced for the game , similar to those found in the ports of the 2D Final Fantasy games for the PlayStation . Programming was handled by developer Matrix Software .
The remake was produced by Tomoya Asano and co @-@ developed by Square Enix and Matrix Software . Ryosuke Aiba ( Final Fantasy XI ) served as art director , and Akihiko Yoshida ( Final Fantasy XII ) redesigned the original characters for use in 3D , and designed the look of the new playable characters . The formerly generic and nameless party characters were replaced with more concrete characters with new personalities and background stories , and additional scenes were added to develop their individuality ; however , the main storyline was not altered significantly . Along with these four , additional characters ( called " sub @-@ characters " ) also join the party temporarily , like in the original . Unlike the original , however , these characters may randomly participate in battle .
The remake features a redesigned job system , which rebalances the classes , adds new abilities and adds a new " Freelancer " class which replaces the " Onion Knight " as the default job at the beginning of the game ( Onion Knight is retained as a secret class ) . It also includes new events , a new crystal and dungeon , and the removal of capacity points . Unlike the original Famicom version , most of the jobs remain useful for the entire game . The ultimate jobs — the Ninja and the Sage — and some of the lesser @-@ used jobs , like the Geomancer , were redesigned to have the same level of abilities as the Warrior . Another addition are special job @-@ specific items available only if a character has fully mastered a certain job .
In place of capacity points , each character incurs a small temporary penalty for switching jobs . This penalty decreases the character 's statistics for the next zero to ten battles . This period is called a " Job Transition Phase " and its length is based on how similar the new job is to the old job , and how proficient the character already is at the new job .
The remake takes advantage of the Wi @-@ Fi feature of the Nintendo DS in the form of a Mail / Mognet system similar to Final Fantasy IX . Various moogles in the game allow the player to send email to others . Players are also able to send mail to various characters in the game as well as to other players . Side quests can also be unlocked using this system , such as the quest to unlock the Onion Knight . An interruption @-@ save option is also available that lets the player turn off the DS and continue when turning it back on . Like in the original , there is no way to make permanent saves while inside a dungeon .
An iOS port of the DS remake was released on March 24 , 2011 on the App Store . Both the gameplay and graphics were improved , and the sound was remastered . However , the Mail / Mognet to other players was removed , with the Onion Knight job available via another quest .
An Android port of the DS remake was released in June 2012 on Google Play . A PlayStation Portable version was released on September 20 , 2012 although it was to be a downloadable only version outside Japan where it was released later that month . In April 2013 , Square Enix released a high @-@ definition port of the remake for the Ouya console , as a launch title . A Windows Phone version was also released on December 27 , 2013 . An HD release for Steam , based on the Nintendo DS version , was released on May 27 , 2014 .
= = Reception = =
Upon release , Famicom Tsūshin ( now Famitsu ) gave the Famicom version a score of 36 out of 40 , based on a panel of four reviewers giving it ratings of 9 , 9 , 10 and 8 out of 10 . This made it one of their three highest @-@ rated games of 1990 , along with Dragon Quest IV and F @-@ Zero , both of which scored 37 out of 40 . It was also one of the magazine 's six highest @-@ rated games up until 1990 , along with Dragon Quest II , Dragon Quest III and Zelda II : The Adventure of Link . Retrospectively , the Famicom version of Final Fantasy III is considered a typical RPG of its day , with a high degree of difficulty requiring a significant amount of grinding .
In Famicom Tsūshin 's 1990 Game of the Year awards , Final Fantasy III was voted the runner @-@ up for the Grand Prize , with 37 @,@ 101 points , behind Dragon Quest IV . In 2006 , readers of the Japanese gaming magazine Famitsu voted the original Final Fantasy III the eighth best video game of all @-@ time , above Dragon Quest IV . As of March 31 , 2003 , the original Famicom game had shipped 1 @.@ 4 million copies in Japan .
The DS remake met with high sales . IGN notes that " interest in FFIII should come as no surprise given ... the popularity of the DS . " The game sold 500 @,@ 000 units within the first week in Japan , beating Square Enix 's original prediction that they would only sell 350 @,@ 000 . According to Enterbrain , by the end of 2006 the remake sold over 935 @,@ 000 copies in Japan . As of August 6 , 2007 , the game has sold 990 @,@ 000 units in Japan and 460 @,@ 000 units in North America . As of August 8 , 2008 , it has sold 480 @,@ 000 units in Europe . This adds up to total worldwide sales of 1 @.@ 93 million units for the DS version , and 3 @.@ 33 million units for the Famicom and DS versions combined , as of August 9 , 2008 . The PSP port sold over 80 @,@ 000 copies in Japan by the end of 2012 .
Reviews of the DS remake of Final Fantasy III have been mostly positive , with the game holding an aggregate score of 77 % on GameRankings . 1UP.com described the gameplay as " an RPG for dedicated RPG enthusiasts , " and noted that while the job system had been heavily improved over the original title , it still felt at times " very limiting . " The review however stated that it was important to remember Final Fantasy III as " a slice of history and a missing piece of a blockbuster series , " citing that " hardcore RPG players " may enjoy the title more than other Final Fantasy games and calling it " one of the best portable RPGs to date . " GameSpy argued that one 's enjoyment hinged " entirely on your desire to play a game with decidedly archaic game mechanics that may seem primitive and uninviting " compared to other recent Square Enix titles , noting the game was " quite challenging " and adding that " some people live for this stuff , but others may be annoyed at the game 's often unfriendly nature . "
GameTrailers noted that while the plot was simple and the party members generic , the game 's scenarios were " top notch . " It additionally noted that while players should expect to have to do some grinding , the game offers " lots of little areas to explore . " IGN described the game as one that may be " amazingly frustrating for the now mainstream Final Fantasy fan , " and noted that while the unique concept of the job system was one that " simply blew gamers ' minds " at the time , in the contemporary environment , comparing it to Final Fantasy XII 's license board system was " literally no contest . " The review additionally argued that the remake hampered the game , citing that battles that would take " mere seconds to scroll through " were now " lengthened to nearly a minute . " Another complaint was in the game 's presentation on the Nintendo DS , noting that the handheld 's top screen was inactive for " 75 % of the game , " and that even displaying only artwork on the screen during those periods would have been a preferable outcome . However IGN described the game as " graphically phenomenal and ... set to a simply beautiful musical score . " They also stated that the transition from 2D to 3D was " a good call . "
= = Legacy = =
From 1991 to 1992 , Kadokawa Shoten 's Famicom gaming magazine , Maru Katsu Famicom ( マル勝ファミコン ) published Legend of the Eternal Wind , from Final Fantasy III ( 悠久の風伝説 ファイナルファンタジーIIIより , Yūkyū no Kaze Densetsu Fainaru Fantajī Surī @-@ yori ) , a manga serialization of Final Fantasy III illustrated by Yu Kinutani . Based on the original story by Kenji Terada , the manga chronicles the events that take place throughout the course of the game . It was subsequently collected into three tankōbon under Kadokawa Shoten 's Dragon Comics imprint : Legend of the Eternal Wind 1 , 2 , and 3 .
The Onion Knight and the Cloud of Darkness are the respective hero and villainess representing Final Fantasy III in Dissidia Final Fantasy , where they are voiced by Jun Fukuyama and Masako Ikeda , respectively , in the Japanese version , and by Aaron Spann and Laura Bailey , respectively , in English . The characters reprise their roles in the sequel , Dissidia 012 Final Fantasy .
= Yellow stingray =
The yellow stingray ( Urobatis jamaicensis ) is a species of stingray in the family Urotrygonidae , found in the tropical western Atlantic Ocean from North Carolina to Trinidad . This bottom @-@ dwelling species inhabits sandy , muddy , or seagrass bottoms in shallow inshore waters , commonly near coral reefs . Reaching no more than 36 cm ( 14 in ) across , the yellow stingray has a round pectoral fin disc and a short tail with a well @-@ developed caudal fin . It has a highly variable but distinctive dorsal color pattern consisting of either light @-@ on @-@ dark or dark @-@ on @-@ light reticulations forming spots and blotches , and can rapidly change the tonality of this coloration to improve its camouflage .
Relatively sedentary during the day , the yellow stingray feeds on small invertebrates and bony fishes . When hunting it may undulate its disc to uncover buried prey , or lift the front of its disc to form a " cave " attractive to shelter @-@ seeking organisms . This species is aplacental viviparous , meaning that the developing embryos are sustained initially by yolk and later by histotroph ( " uterine milk " ) . Females bear two litters of up to seven young per year in seagrass , following a gestation period of 5 – 6 months . Though innocuous towards humans , the yellow stingray can inflict a painful injury with its venomous tail spine . This species is taken as bycatch by commercial fisheries and collected for the aquarium trade ; it may also be negatively affected by habitat degradation . Nevertheless , it remains common and widespread , which has led the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) to list it under Least Concern .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
French naturalist Georges Cuvier originally described the yellow stingray as Raia jamaicensis in 1816 , in Le Règne Animal distribué d 'après son organisation pour servir de base à l 'histoire naturelle des animaux et d 'introduction à l 'anatomie comparée . He based his account on specimens obtained from Jamaica , though no type specimens were designated . Subsequent authors moved this species to the genus Urolophus , and then to the genus Urobatis ( some literature still refers to this species as Urolophus jamaicensis ) . Other common names used for this ray include the yellow @-@ spotted ray , the round ray , and the maid ray .
Nathan Lovejoy 's 1996 phylogenetic analysis , based on morphology , found that the yellow stingray is the most basal member of a clade that also contains Pacific Urobatis species and the genus Urotrygon of Central and South America . This finding would render Urobatis polyphyletic , though further study is warranted to elucidate the relationships between these taxa .
= = Description = =
The yellow stingray is small , growing no more than 36 cm ( 14 in ) across and 70 cm ( 28 in ) long . It has a nearly circular pectoral fin disc slightly longer than wide , with a short , obtuse snout . The eyes are immediately followed by the spiracles . There is a narrow curtain of skin between the nostrils , with a fringed posterior margin . The mouth is nearly straight and contains a transverse row of 3 – 5 papillae on the floor . There are 30 – 34 tooth rows in the upper jaw and a similar number in the lower jaw , arranged into bands . The teeth are broad @-@ based , with low , blunt crowns in females and juveniles , and tall , pointed cusps in adult males . The teeth of males are more widely spaced than those of females . The pelvic fins have nearly straight leading margins and rounded trailing margins .
The tail is stout and flattened , comprising less than half the total length , and terminates in a small , leaf @-@ shaped caudal fin about a quarter high as long , that is continuous around the last vertebra . A serrated spine is positioned about halfway along the tail . Newborn rays are smooth @-@ skinned ; shortly after birth small , blunt tubercles appear in the middle of the back , which in larger adults extends to between the eyes , the " shoulders " , and the base of the tail . Adults also develop recurved thorns along the upper margin of the caudal fin . The color and pattern of the yellow stingray varies significantly among individuals , though most follow one of two schemes : minute dark green or brown reticulations on a light background , or dense white , yellow , or golden spots on a dark green or brown background . The underside is yellowish , greenish , or brownish white , with small darker spots toward the disc margin and the tail . This species is capable of rapidly changing the tone and contrast of its coloration to better match its environment .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The yellow stingray is found throughout the inshore waters of the Gulf of Mexico ( where it is the only representative of its family ) and the Caribbean Sea , including Florida , the Bahamas , and the Greater and Lesser Antilles to Trinidad . On rare occasions , it ranges as far north as Cape Lookout in North Carolina . It is quite abundant in the Florida Keys and parts of the Antilles , and rather uncommon elsewhere . Off Mexico , this species occupies a salinity range of 26 – 40 ppt .
Benthic in nature , the yellow stingray inhabits coastal habitats such as bays , lagoons , estuaries , and low @-@ energy surf zones , and has been reported from the water 's edge to a depth of 25 m ( 82 ft ) . It particularly favors insular hard @-@ bottomed habitats with a dense encrustation of sessile invertebrates ( termed live @-@ bottom habitats ) , but can also be found over sand , mud or seagrass ( Thalassia ) , sometimes in the vicinity of coral reefs . Off Jamaica , large numbers of yellow stingrays , up to one per square meter , gather beneath the aerial roots of mangrove trees used as roosts by cattle egrets ( Bubulcus ibis ) ; it is theorized that the birds ' droppings sustain invertebrates that attract the rays . There is no evidence of seasonal migration , though during the spring females tend to be found closer to shore than males .
= = Biology and ecology = =
During the day , the yellow stingray is fairly inactive and spends much time buried under a thin layer of sediment or lying motionless in vegetation . Tracking studies have shown that it generally remains within a small home range of around 20 @,@ 000 m2 ( 220 @,@ 000 sq ft ) , with individuals covering only a portion of the entire area on any particular day . It favors the boundaries between different terrain , such as sand and reef . Its periscopic eyes give it a 360 ° panoramic view of its surroundings ; each eye bears an elaborate covering or " operculum " that allows fine control over the amount of light entering the pupil . Therefore , the resting ray is well equipped to detect approaching predators , which may potentially include any large carnivorous fish such as the tiger shark ( Galeocerdo cuvier ) . The yellow stingray is most sensitive to sounds of 300 – 600 Hertz , which is fairly typical among sharks and rays that have been investigated thus far . It and other stingrays have a large brain relative to other rays , comprising around 1 – 2 % of the body weight .
The diet of the yellow stingray is poorly documented but includes shrimps , and likely also worms , clams , and small bony fishes . Typically , the ray will settle over a prey item and trap it against the bottom , whereupon it is manipulated to the mouth with motions of the disc . Like the related round stingray ( U. halleri ) , this species sometimes uses undulations of its disc margins to excavate pits and reveal buried prey . It has also been observed raising the front of its disc to create a shaded " cave " , to attract shelter @-@ seeking organisms . Known parasites of the yellow stingray include the tapeworms Acanthobothrium cartagenensis , Phyllobothrium kingae , Discobothrium caribbensis , Rhinebothrium magniphallum , and R. biorchidum , and the monogenean Dendromonocotyle octodiscus .
= = = Life history = = =
Like other stingrays , the yellow stingray is aplacental viviparous : at first the embryos are sustained by yolk , which is later supplanted by histrotroph ( " uterine milk " , rich in proteins and lipids ) , delivered by the mother through numerous finger @-@ like extensions of the uterine epithelium called " trophonemata " . Mature females have two functional uteruses , with the left used more than the right . Except in a few individuals , only the left ovary is functional . The reproductive cycle is biannual with a 5 – 6 month long gestation period . The first period of ovulation occurs from January to April , peaking in late February and early March , with birthing from June to September , peaking in late July and early August . The second period of ovulation occurs from August to September , with birthing from November to January . The two cycles overlap as vitellogenesis ( yolk formation ) begins while the female is still pregnant .
Courtship and mating in the yellow stingray involves one or more males closely following a female , seeking to bite and grip the rear margin of her disc ; the high , pointed teeth of males serve to aid in this endeavor . Once the male successfully holds onto the female , he flips under her so that the two are aligned abdomen @-@ to @-@ abdomen , and inserts a single clasper into her cloaca . Rival males may attempt to interfere with the mating pair by biting or bumping them . In one observation that took place in water 2 @.@ 5 m ( 8 @.@ 2 ft ) deep near Tobacco Caye on the Belize Barrier Reef , the male pursuit
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s whitebeams . Other notable plants include Bristol Rock @-@ cress , Bristol onion , Spiked Speedwell , Autumn Squill and Honewort . Other areas along the river which have this designation include Bickley Wood , Cleeve Wood , Hanham for its large population of Bath Asparagus ( Ornithogalum pyrenaicum ) . Stidham Farm near Keynsham contains at least At least 2 metres ( 7 ft ) of Pleistocene terrace @-@ gravels , consisting of limestone clasts mainly , but also with Millstone Grit , Pennant Sandstone , flint and chert clasts . The site is of considerable importance for studies relating to the possible glaciation of the area , and of the terrace stratigraphy , particularly as it is one of only two accessible terrace deposits in this part of the Avon valley . Newton St Loe SSSI is also listed for geological reasons as it represents the only remaining known exposure of fossiliferous Pleistocene gravels along the River Avon . In conjunction with other sites within the wider area , they have aided the development of a scientific understanding of the history of early glaciation within South West England .
At Horseshoe Bend , Shirehampton the wooded cliff and a narrow salt marsh are supported by rocks of Devonian sandstone and Carboniferous limestone , overlain by with Triassic Dolomitic conglomerate . The site 's principal interest and the reason for its designation as an SSSI is the presence of a population of the True Service @-@ tree ( Sorbus domestica ) growing on the cliffs . This tree is nationally rare in Britain , and this site hosts the largest known population in England . Other notable species of Sorbus here are the whitebeams Sorbus eminens and Sorbus anglica , both of which are also nationally rare in Britain . The nationally scarce Large @-@ leaved Lime ( Tilia platyphyllos ) also occurs , and herbs include Field garlic ( Allium oleraceum ) and Pale St. John 's @-@ wort ( Hypericum montanum ) . The saltmarsh vegetation , which lies at the base of the cliff , is predominantly made up of Sea Aster ( Aster tripolium ) and English Scurvygrass ( Cochlearia anglica ) . There are however two nationally scarce vascular plant species here as well – Slender Hare 's @-@ ear ( Bupleurum tenuissimum ) and Long @-@ stalked Orache ( Atriplex longipes ) .
The tidal reaches of the River Avon provide habitat for waterbirds , with 64 species having been recorded up to 2004 , including 21 species of shorebird , and 13 species of gull .
= = History = =
The distribution of archaeological finds suggests that the western end of the river between Bath and Avonmouth formed a border between the Dobunni and Durotriges during the late Iron Age , prior to the Roman conquest of Britain . Further east , between Bath and what is now Wiltshire , it may also have formed a border of the territory ruled by the Belgae . After the Roman occupation the river formed a boundary between the lands of the Hwicce ( which became Mercia ) and the kingdom of Wessex .
The river Avon had been navigable from Bristol to Bath during the early years of the 13th century but construction of mills on the river forced its closure . The floodplain of the Avon , on which the city centre of Bath is built , has an altitude of about 59 ft ( 18 m ) above sea level . The river , once an unnavigable series of braided streams broken up by swamps and ponds , has been managed by weirs into a single channel . Periodic flooding , which shortened the life of many buildings in the lowest part of the city , was normal until major flood control works were completed in the 1970s .
The Bristol Avon Navigation , which runs the 15 miles ( 24 km ) from the Kennet and Avon Canal at Hanham Lock to the Bristol Channel at Avonmouth , was constructed between 1724 and 1727 , following legislation passed by Queen Anne , by a company of proprietors and the engineer John Hore of Newbury . The first cargo of ' Deal boards , Pig @-@ Lead and Meal ' arrived in Bath in December 1727 . It is now administered by the Canal & River Trust .
Throughout Bristol 's history the Avon Gorge has been an important transport route , carrying the River Avon , major roads and two railways . The Bristol Channel and Avon estuary have a very high tidal range of 15 metres ( 49 ft ) , second only to Bay of Fundy in Eastern Canada ; and the gorge is relatively narrow and meandering , making it notoriously difficult to navigate . Several vessels have grounded in the gorge including the SS Demerara soon after her launch in 1851 , the schooner Gipsy in 1878 , the steam tug Black Eagle in 1861 and the Llandaff City .
In 1877 Halfpenny Bridge , a pedestrian toll bridge , crossing the river from Bath Spa railway station to Widcombe collapsed with the loss of about 10 lives amongst a large crowd going to the Bath and West Agricultural show .
The Avon has flooded several times in its recorded history . These floods include the one in 1799 / 1800 damaging Pulteney Bridge . Various points along the river including the valley around Freshford are at risk of fluvial flooding , as a result of sediment entering the river and narrowing the channel . To help cope with this some areas on the banks of the river are designated as a functional floodplain to cope with increased flow volumes . The potential changes to weather patterns as a result of climate change suggest that further measures are likely to be needed to protect the population from flooding risk . A tidal surge , combined with high water levels from the flooding of the surrounding area caused flooding in the city of Bristol .
= = Route and points of interest = =
= New York State Route 205 =
New York State Route 205 ( NY 205 ) is a north – south state highway in central Otsego County , New York , in the United States . It extends for 23 @.@ 24 miles ( 37 @.@ 40 km ) from Interstate 88 ( I @-@ 88 ) exit 13 near the city of Oneonta to a junction with NY 28 in the town of Otsego . The latter junction also marks the east end of a 2 @.@ 1 @-@ mile ( 3 @.@ 4 km ) overlap between NY 205 and NY 80 , from where NY 80 heads southeast to follow NY 28 to Cooperstown . NY 205 is a two @-@ lane highway for its entire length and passes through the towns of Laurens and Hartwick .
NY 205 originally began at NY 23 northwest of Oneonta when it was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York . The route originally followed local , substandard roads surrounding Otego Creek ; however , it was gradually moved onto its modern alignment over the course of the 1930s . It was officially extended southward from West Oneonta to connect to I @-@ 88 in 1970 ; however , it was not extended southward in reality until the mid @-@ 1970s . The extension created a short overlap with NY 23 west of the city .
= = Route description = =
NY 205 begins at exit 13 off I @-@ 88 just north of the Susquehanna River in the town of Oneonta . The two @-@ lane route heads northwestward from the exit , crossing the Interstate Highway and passing north of an office park built up alongside the freeway . Another overpass brings NY 205 over the Delaware and Hudson Railway and leads to an intersection with NY 7 ( Oneida Street ) , the main east – west surface road through the city of Oneonta . Past NY 7 , the route turns northward , serving the National Soccer Hall of Fame and another office park prior to crossing County Route 8 ( CR 8 , named Country Club Road ) . NY 205 continues on , passing through a residential area adjacent to Oneonta County Club and intersecting with NY 23 ( Chestnut Street ) at the club 's eastern edge . NY 23 turns north at the junction , overlapping with NY 205 for about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) to the outskirts of the town .
While NY 23 forks to the northwest to serve West Oneonta , NY 205 continues to run northward along the east side of Otego Creek through a rural section of Otsego County . It soon enters the town of Laurens , where it connects to CR 11A ( Water Street ) east of the village of Laurens . The short east – west county road is the only connection between NY 205 and the village , which is located on CR 11 , a parallel route to NY 205 on the western bank of Otego Creek . NY 205 and CR 11 continue northeastward , following loosely parallel alignments to the hamlet of Mount Vision in the northern part of the town . In Mount Vision , NY 205 ducks northwest at an intersection with CR 46 and meets CR 11B ( Mill Street ) , another connector between CR 11 and NY 205 , near the Mount Vision Cemetery .
After leaving Mount Vision , the two roads parallel each other into the town of Hartwick , where both intersect with another highway crossing Otego Creek , CR 11D . The roads enter the hamlet of Jones Crossing , intersecting with another crossroad , the locally maintained Jones Crossing Road . In the rural backdrop north of Jones Crossing , NY 205 intersects with CR 45 's western terminus . The parallel alignments of NY 205 and CR 11 end a short distance to the north in the hamlet of Hartwick as CR 11 enters the community on the east – west Main Street and intersects NY 205 in the hamlet 's center . CR 11 leaves NY 205 for good outside of Hartwick , continuing on a generally easterly track toward Cooperstown , while NY 205 passes Hartwick Town Park and crosses over Otego Creek as it heads northward into the town of Otsego .
In Otsego , NY 205 continues to run through mostly undeveloped areas to a junction with NY 80 . NY 205 turns eastward here to follow NY 80 while NY 205 's former northward right @-@ of @-@ way continues as a town highway named Raymond Fish Road . The two state routes initially head southeastward for roughly 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) ; however , they soon curve to the northeast as they descend into a valley surrounding Oaks Creek , a tributary of the Susquehanna River . At the base of the valley , NY 80 and NY 205 meet NY 28 , the primary north – south road through the area . NY 205 terminates here while NY 80 heads southeastward along NY 28 , following the route through the hamlet of Oaksville toward Cooperstown .
= = History = =
NY 205 was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York to a series of substandard highways connecting the hamlets of West Oneonta and Oaksville . The route began at NY 23 northwest of Oneonta and followed what is now CR 11 and CR 11B north through the village of Laurens and along the west side of Otego Creek to Mount Vision , from where it continued to NY 80 over a highway along the east bank of the creek that ultimately became the basis for NY 205 's modern routing . At this point , NY 205 turned eastward , overlapping with NY 80 to connect to NY 28 at a junction just outside Oaksville and 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) northwest of Cooperstown . South of Hartwick , NY 205 ran adjacent to the Southern New York Railway , a scenic passenger and freight railroad that was once the corridor 's main transportation artery .
Work to replace or improve the existing roads began c . 1930 with the construction of a new highway between West Oneonta and modern CR 11A near Laurens that ran along the east side of Otego Creek . The new road was completed by 1932 as a realignment of NY 205 , as was an extension of the highway north to Mount Vision . As part of the change , NY 205 was altered between Mount Vision and Hartwick to use a series of highways along the west bank of the creek , specifically Angel Road , current CR 11 , and Weeks Road . In late 1932 , the section of NY 205 north of Hartwick was closed to traffic as part of a project to completely reconstruct the road . It was completed and reopened c . 1934 . The eastern creekside highway between Mount Vision and Hartwick was upgraded c . 1938 ; as a result , NY 205 was rerouted once again to follow the improved road .
The reconstruction of NY 205 transformed the road into the main north – south connection between West Oneonta and Oaksville . At the same time , the parallel Southern New York Railway had become unprofitable as the highways running alongside the track had become more appealing to shippers and travelers than the railroad itself . In 1940 , the railroad abandoned the section of its line between West Oneonta and Jordanville , Herkimer County . The track ran alongside state routes for most of its length , and the presence of NY 205 and NY 167 was noted as a contributing factor to the line 's demise in the railroad 's abandonment petition to the Interstate Commerce Commission .
On January 1 , 1970 , NY 205 was officially extended southward to meet I @-@ 88 at what is now exit 13 . In reality , however , NY 205 continued to begin at NY 23 for most of the early 1970s as all of I @-@ 88 had yet to be built . The extension finally materialized c . 1974 following the completion of I @-@ 88 in the vicinity of Oneonta . The newly extended NY 205 connected to the freeway by way of a 0 @.@ 7 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 1 km ) overlap with NY 23 and a new 1 @.@ 4 @-@ mile ( 2 @.@ 3 km ) highway linking NY 23 to an interchange with I @-@ 88 at the Oneonta city line .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Otsego County .
= Nightshade ( 1985 video game ) =
Nightshade is an action video game developed and published by Ultimate Play The Game . It was first released for the ZX Spectrum in 1985 , and was then ported to the Amstrad CPC and BBC Micro later that year . It was also ported to the MSX exclusively in Japan in 1986 . In the game , the player assumes the role of a knight who sets out to destroy four demons in a plague @-@ infested village .
The game features flip @-@ screen and isometric gameplay , in similar vein to its predecessors , Knight Lore and Alien 8 . In addition , Nightshade features an enhanced version of the Ultimate Play The Game 's Filmation game engine , branded Filmation II . The game received positive reviews upon release ; critics praised its gameplay traits , graphics and colours , however one critic was divided over its perceived similarities to its predecessors .
= = Gameplay = =
The game is presented in an isometric format . The player assumes the role of a knight who enters the plague @-@ infested village of Nightshade to vanquish four demons who reside within . Additionally , all residents from the village have been transformed into vampires and other supernatural creatures . Contact with these monsters infects the knight , with repeated contact turning the character from white to yellow and then to green , which will lead to the character 's death . The knight may be hit up to three times by an enemy , however the fourth hit will result in a life being deducted .
The objective of the game is to locate and destroy four specific demons . Each demon is vulnerable to a particular object which must be collected by the player : a hammer , a Bible , a crucifix and an hourglass . Once the four items have been collected , the player must track down a specific demon and cast the correct item at it in order to destroy it . Once all four demons have been destroyed , the game will end . In order to defend against other enemies such as vampires and monsters , the player can arm themselves with " antibodies " , which take the appearance of maces . Antibodies can be found in houses around the village , and will slowly deplete once used by the player . Other collectible items include extra lives and boots , the latter of which enables the player character to run at a faster speed .
= = Background and release = =
Ashby Computers and Graphics was founded by brothers Tim and Chris Stamper , along with Tim 's wife , Carol , from their headquarters in Ashby @-@ de @-@ la @-@ Zouch in 1982 . Under the trading name of Ultimate Play the Game , they began producing multiple video games for the ZX Spectrum throughout the early 1980s . The company were known for their reluctance to reveal details about their operations and upcoming projects . Little was known about their development process except that they used to work in separate teams ; one team would work on graphics whilst the other would concentrate on other aspects such as sound or programming . When a journalist reviewing Nightshade for Crash asked Tim and Chris Stamper what the object of the game was they responded : " oh , we can 't tell you that " .
The game was developed with the isometric projection game engine known as Filmation II , an upgraded version of the Filmation engine . The Filmation engine was created by the Stamper brothers to portray 3D imagery . Filmation II used an image masking technique that drew and filled holes in the background , allowing the game to create composite structures out of pixelated drawings without visual overlay , despite the limitations platforms such as the ZX Spectrum offered . Nightshade was first released in the United Kingdom for the ZX Spectrum in 1985 , and was then ported to the Amstrad CPC and BBC Micro later that year . It was also ported to the MSX exclusively in Japan in 1986 .
= = Reception = =
The game received positive reviews upon release . Chris Bourne of Sinclair User praised the game 's new graphics system , opining that it was " wonderfully " detailed and " juiced up " in contrast to its predecessors , Knight Lore and Alien 8 . A reviewer writing for Computer and Video Games praised the graphics as " great " and stated that its sound effects were " up to standard " considering the " dumb " ZX Spectrum . Philippa Irving of Crash thought that the visuals and use of colours were " stunning " and up to Ultimate Play The Game 's " usual standards " , however she did notice a few instances of attribute clash . A reviewer writing for Computer Gamer asserted that the graphics were " as good as ever " , however they admitted that the game seemed " lacking " in comparison to Ultimate Play The Game 's most recent releases . Chris Jenkins of Popular Computing Weekly opined that the game 's interior visuals looked like " featureless squares " , however he admitted that the game 's background drops were more detailed .
The gameplay was also praised by reviewers . Bourne opined that the game was well @-@ paced in similar vein to arcade @-@ style games , however he noted " a sense of déjà vu " with the game 's concept , stating that the developer 's games were starting to " wear thin " . The reviewer from Computer and Video Games appreciated Nightshade 's " nice touches " , summarising that it was an instant classic from Ultimate Play The Game . Irving criticised the lack of instructions or hints that came with the game , and stated that Nightshade did not set new standards with programming , unlike Knight Lore and Alien 8 . However , Irving admitted that the game was still another " technically brilliant " game . The reviewer from Computer Gamer enjoyed the wide range of gameplay elements , stating that it was enough to hold their attention for hours . A reviewer from Home Computing Weekly stated that the gameplay was not as addictive as Knight Lore or Alien 8 due to the game 's lack of obstacles . Jenkins praised the game 's use of its new engine , Filmation II , stating that it was ahead of " everything else " on the ZX Spectrum .
= SM U @-@ 32 ( Austria @-@ Hungary ) =
SM U @-@ 32 or U @-@ XXXII was a U @-@ 27 class U @-@ boat or submarine for the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy . U @-@ 32 , built by the Hungarian firm of Ganz Danubius at Fiume , was launched in May 1917 and commissioned in June .
U @-@ 32 had a single hull and was just over 121 feet ( 37 m ) in length . She displaced nearly 265 metric tons ( 261 long tons ) when surfaced and over 300 metric tons ( 295 long tons ) when submerged . Her two diesel engines moved her at up to 9 knots ( 17 km / h ; 10 mph ) on the surface , while her twin electric motors propelled her at up to 7 @.@ 5 knots ( 13 @.@ 9 km / h ; 8 @.@ 6 mph ) while underwater . She was armed with two bow torpedo tubes and could carry a load of up to four torpedoes . She was also equipped with a 75 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) deck gun and a machine gun .
In her service career U @-@ 32 hit five ships of 6 @,@ 788 gross register tons ( GRT ) , sinking four and damaging one . At Pola at war 's end , the boat was handed over to Italy and scrapped in 1920 .
= = Design and construction = =
Austria @-@ Hungary 's U @-@ boat fleet was largely obsolete at the outbreak of World War I. The Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy satisfied its most urgent needs by purchasing five Type UB I submarines that comprised the U @-@ 10 class from Germany , by raising and recommissioning the sunken French submarine Curie as U @-@ 14 , and by building four submarines of the U @-@ 20 class that were based on the 1911 Danish Havmanden class .
After these steps alleviated their most urgent needs , the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy selected the German Type UB II design for its newest submarines in mid 1915 . The Germans were reluctant to allocate any of their wartime resources to Austro @-@ Hungarian construction , but were willing to sell plans for up to six of the UB II boats to be constructed under license in Austria @-@ Hungary . The Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy agreed to the proposal and purchased the plans from AG Weser of Bremen .
U @-@ 32 displaced 264 metric tons ( 260 long tons ) surfaced and 301 metric tons ( 296 long tons ) submerged . She had a single hull with saddle tanks , and was 121 feet 1 inch ( 36 @.@ 91 m ) long with a beam of 14 feet 4 inches ( 4 @.@ 37 m ) and a draft of 12 feet 2 inches ( 3 @.@ 71 m ) . For propulsion , she had two shafts , twin diesel engines of 270 bhp ( 200 kW ) for surface running , and twin electric motors of 280 shp ( 210 kW ) for submerged travel . She was capable of 9 knots ( 16 @.@ 7 km / h ) while surfaced and 7 @.@ 5 knots ( 13 @.@ 9 km / h ) while submerged . Although there is no specific notation of a range for U @-@ 32 in Conway 's All the World 's Fighting Ships , 1906 – 1921 , the German UB II boats , upon which the U @-@ 27 class was based , had a range of over 6 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 11 @,@ 000 km ) at 5 knots ( 9 @.@ 3 km / h ) surfaced , and 45 nautical miles ( 83 km ) at 4 knots ( 7 @.@ 4 km / h ) submerged . U @-@ 27 @-@ class boats were designed for a crew of 23 – 24 .
U @-@ 32 was armed with two 45 cm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) bow torpedo tubes and could carry a complement of four torpedoes . She was also equipped with a 75 mm / 26 ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) deck gun and an 8 mm ( 0 @.@ 31 in ) machine gun .
After intricate political negotiations to allocate production of the class between Austrian and Hungarian firms , U @-@ 27 was ordered from Ganz Danubius on 12 October 1915 . She was laid down on 18 July 1916 at Fiume and launched on 11 May 1917 .
= = Service career = =
After launching , the U @-@ boat made her way to Pola , where , on 29 April 1917 , SM U @-@ 32 was commissioned into the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy under the command of Linienschiffleutnant Gaston Vio . Vio , a 30 @-@ year @-@ old native of Fiume , was a first @-@ time submarine commander . Vio and U @-@ 32 began their first patrol on 3 July when they sailed from Pola for a Mediterranean deployment . East of Manfredonia two days later , an enemy submarine launched a spread of three torpedoes at U @-@ 32 but the Austro @-@ Hungarian submarine avoided them all . Two days later , U @-@ 32 had an at @-@ sea rendezvous with the German U @-@ boat UC @-@ 52 . The following day , Vio failed to hit a steamer in the Gulf of Taranto .
On 15 July , U @-@ 32 launched torpedoes against the British steamer Incemore . Hit 225 nautical miles ( 417 km ) east @-@ southeast of Malta , the 3 @,@ 060 @-@ ton ship was en route from Marseilles to Salonika when she was attacked . Incemore was damaged but continued on her way ; no one aboard the steamer was killed in the attack . The U @-@ boat docked in Cattaro to end her first patrol four days later .
The next Mediterranean patrol for U @-@ 32 began on 14 August . Sister boat U @-@ 40 met up with her at sea on 29 August . Two days later , U @-@ 32 stopped a Greek sailing vessel , Agios Georgios and examined her , but let her go on her way . Vio put in his boat at Cattaro on 4 September , ending the boat 's second patrol . On 12 October , U @-@ 32 departed Cattaro for Durazzo , arriving the next day . On the 18th , the submarine departed there for Brindisi , screening for a sortie by the Austro @-@ Hungarian cruiser Helgoland and a destroyer group . When U @-@ 32 reached Brindisi the following day , she was greeted by Italian torpedo boats which dropped five depth charges over her . After putting in at Cattaro on the 19th , she quickly departed for Pola to repair damage to her conning tower .
After two months of repairs at Pola , U @-@ 32 set out on 27 December but had to return with engine problems . She departed for the Mediterranean the following day and cruised between Alexandria and Malta , but returned to Cattaro in late January 1918 without success . Another patrol beginning in late February was similarly fruitless and U @-@ 32 returned to Cattaro empty @-@ handed again on 26 March .
While at Cattaro , Vio was relieved of command on 24 April and replaced by Linienschiffleutnant Otto Kasseroller , who had formerly been in command of U @-@ 2 . Kasseroller was a 31 @-@ year @-@ old Salzburg native . On 8 May , U @-@ 32 began her first cruise with Kasseroller at the helm . Five days out , the Greek sailing ship Julia was stopped near Cape Matapan . After allowing Julia 's crew to board a lifeboat , Kasseroller sank Julia with fire from the U @-@ boat 's deck gun . After the 48 @-@ ton ship was sunk , U @-@ 32 towed the lifeboat close to the shore . As a result , none of the Greek ship 's crew died in the attack .
A week later , on 20 May , U @-@ 32 sank two more Greek sailing ships : the 58 @-@ ton Agios Dionysios , and the 30 @-@ ton Angeliki . The following day Kasseroller torpedoed a British steamer . Chatham , of 3 @,@ 592 gross register tons ( GRT ) , was headed from Karachi to Marseilles with grain and onions when U @-@ 32 sent her down 80 nautical miles ( 150 km ) from Cape Matapan . Continuing her most successful patrol , U @-@ 32 met with the German UB @-@ 48 off the coast of Africa on 3 June , but returned to Cattaro on the 6th .
During the remainder of June and into July , U @-@ 32 patrolled in the Adriatic out of Cattaro , calling at the Albanian ports of Durazzo and San Giovanni di Medua . Continuing this same duty into August , U @-@ 32 was forced to crash dive to avoid an attack by another submarine on 19 August . Five days later an airplane attacked the U @-@ boat , dropping a total of five bombs . After the attack , U @-@ 32 made her way to Cattaro and , in early September , headed back to Pola . After making a stop at Fiume , the submarine docked at Pola on 13 September and remained there through the end of the war . She was ceded to Italy as a war reparation , and scrapped in 1920 . In total , U @-@ 32 sank four ships and damaged one other ship , hitting a combined total of 6 @,@ 788 GRT .
= = Ships sunk or damaged = =
* damaged but not sunk
= Structural alignment =
Structural alignment attempts to establish homology between two or more polymer structures based on their shape and three @-@ dimensional conformation . This process is usually applied to protein tertiary structures but can also be used for large RNA molecules . In contrast to simple structural superposition , where at least some equivalent residues of the two structures are known , structural alignment requires no a priori knowledge of equivalent positions . Structural alignment is a valuable tool for the comparison of proteins with low sequence similarity , where evolutionary relationships between proteins cannot be easily detected by standard sequence alignment techniques . Structural alignment can therefore be used to imply evolutionary relationships between proteins that share very little common sequence . However , caution should be used in using the results as evidence for shared evolutionary ancestry because of the possible confounding effects of convergent evolution by which multiple unrelated amino acid sequences converge on a common tertiary structure .
Structural alignments can compare two sequences or multiple sequences . Because these alignments rely on information about all the query sequences ' three @-@ dimensional conformations , the method can only be used on sequences where these structures are known . These are usually found by X @-@ ray crystallography or NMR spectroscopy . It is possible to perform a structural alignment on structures produced by structure prediction methods . Indeed , evaluating such predictions often requires a structural alignment between the model and the true known structure to assess the model 's quality . Structural alignments are especially useful in analyzing data from structural genomics and proteomics efforts , and they can be used as comparison points to evaluate alignments produced by purely sequence @-@ based bioinformatics methods .
The outputs of a structural alignment are a superposition of the atomic coordinate sets and a minimal root mean square deviation ( RMSD ) between the structures . The RMSD of two aligned structures indicates their divergence from one another . Structural alignment can be complicated by the existence of multiple protein domains within one or more of the input structures , because changes in relative orientation of the domains between two structures to be aligned can artificially inflate the RMSD .
= = Data produced by structural alignment = =
The minimum information produced from a successful structural alignment is a set of superposed three @-@ dimensional coordinates for each input structure . ( Note that one input element may be fixed as a reference and therefore its superposed coordinates do not change . ) The fitted structures can be used to calculate mutual RMSD values , as well as other more sophisticated measures of structural similarity such as the global distance test ( GDT , the metric used in CASP ) . The structural alignment also implies a corresponding one @-@ dimensional sequence alignment from which a sequence identity , or the percentage of residues that are identical between the input structures , can be calculated as a measure of how closely the two sequences are related .
= = Types of comparisons = =
Because protein structures are composed of amino acids whose side chains are linked by a common protein backbone , a number of different possible subsets of the atoms that make up a protein macromolecule can be used in producing a structural alignment and calculating the corresponding RMSD values . When aligning structures with very different sequences , the side chain atoms generally are not taken into account because their identities differ between many aligned residues . For this reason it is common for structural alignment methods to use by default only the backbone atoms included in the peptide bond . For simplicity and efficiency , often only the alpha carbon positions are considered , since the peptide bond has a minimally variant planar conformation . Only when the structures to be aligned are highly similar or even identical is it meaningful to align side @-@ chain atom positions , in which case the RMSD reflects not only the conformation of the protein backbone but also the rotameric states of the side chains . Other comparison criteria that reduce noise and bolster positive matches include secondary structure assignment , native contact maps or residue interaction patterns , measures of side chain packing , and measures of hydrogen bond retention .
= = = Structural superposition = = =
The most basic possible comparison between protein structures makes no attempt to align the input structures and requires a precalculated alignment as input to determine which of the residues in the sequence are intended to be considered in the RMSD calculation . Structural superposition is commonly used to compare multiple conformations of the same protein ( in which case no alignment is necessary , since the sequences are the same ) and to evaluate the quality of alignments produced using only sequence information between two or more sequences whose structures are known . This method traditionally uses a simple least @-@ squares fitting algorithm , in which the optimal rotations and translations are found by minimizing the sum of the squared distances among all structures in the superposition . More recently , maximum likelihood and Bayesian methods have greatly increased the accuracy of the estimated rotations , translations , and covariance matrices for the superposition .
Algorithms based on multidimensional rotations and modified quaternions have been developed to identify topological relationships between protein structures without the need for a predetermined alignment . Such algorithms have successfully identified canonical folds such as the four @-@ helix bundle . The SuperPose method is sufficiently extensible to correct for relative domain rotations and other structural pitfalls .
= = Algorithmic complexity = =
= = = Optimal solution = = =
The optimal " threading " of a protein sequence onto a known structure and the production of an optimal multiple sequence alignment have been shown to be NP @-@ complete . However , this does not imply that the structural alignment problem is NP @-@ complete . Strictly speaking , an optimal solution to the protein structure alignment problem is only known for certain protein structure similarity measures , such as the measures used in protein structure prediction experiments , GDT _ TS and MaxSub . These measures can be rigorously optimized using an algorithm capable of maximizing the number of atoms in two proteins that can be superimposed under a predefined distance cutoff . Unfortunately , the algorithm for optimal solution is not practical , since its running time depends not only on the lengths but also on the intrinsic geometry of input proteins .
= = = Approximate solution = = =
Approximate polynomial @-@ time algorithms for structural alignment that produce a family of " optimal " solutions within an approximation parameter for a given scoring function have been developed . Although these algorithms theoretically classify the approximate protein structure alignment problem as " tractable " , they are still computationally too expensive for large @-@ scale protein structure analysis . As a consequence , practical algorithms that converge to the global solutions of the alignment , given a scoring function , do not exist . Most algorithms are , therefore , heuristic , but algorithms that guarantee the convergence to at least local maximizers of the scoring functions , and are practical , have been developed .
= = Representation of structures = =
Protein structures have to be represented in some coordinate @-@ independent space to make them comparable . This is typically achieved by constructing a sequence @-@ to @-@ sequence matrix or series of matrices that encompass comparative metrics : rather than absolute distances relative to a fixed coordinate space . An intuitive representation is the distance matrix , which is a two @-@ dimensional matrix containing all pairwise distances between some subset of the atoms in each structure ( such as the alpha carbons ) . The matrix increases in dimensionality as the number of structures to be simultaneously aligned increases . Reducing the protein to a coarse metric such as secondary structure elements ( SSEs ) or structural fragments can also produce sensible alignments , despite the loss of information from discarding distances , as noise is also discarded . Choosing a representation to facilitate computation is critical to developing an efficient alignment mechanism .
= = Methods = =
Structural alignment techniques have been used in comparing individual structures or sets of structures as well as in the production of " all @-@ to @-@ all " comparison databases that measure the divergence between every pair of structures present in the Protein Data Bank ( PDB ) . Such databases are used to classify proteins by their fold .
= = = DALI = = =
A common and popular structural alignment method is the DALI , or distance alignment matrix method , which breaks the input structures into hexapeptide fragments and calculates a distance matrix by evaluating the contact patterns between successive fragments . Secondary structure features that involve residues that are contiguous in sequence appear on the matrix 's main diagonal ; other diagonals in the matrix reflect spatial contacts between residues that are not near each other in the sequence . When these diagonals are parallel to the main diagonal , the features they represent are parallel ; when they are perpendicular , their features are antiparallel . This representation is memory @-@ intensive because the features in the square matrix are symmetrical ( and thus redundant ) about the main diagonal .
When two proteins ' distance matrices share the same or similar features in approximately the same positions , they can be said to have similar folds with similar @-@ length loops connecting their secondary structure elements . DALI 's actual alignment process requires a similarity search after the two proteins ' distance matrices are built ; this is normally conducted via a series of overlapping submatrices of size 6x6 . Submatrix matches are then reassembled into a final alignment via a standard score @-@ maximization algorithm — the original version of DALI used a Monte Carlo simulation to maximize a structural similarity score that is a function of the distances between putative corresponding atoms . In particular , more distant atoms within corresponding features are exponentially downweighted to reduce the effects of noise introduced by loop mobility , helix torsions , and other minor structural variations . Because DALI relies on an all @-@ to @-@ all distance matrix , it can account for the possibility that structurally aligned features might appear in different orders within the two sequences being compared .
The DALI method has also been used to construct a database known as FSSP ( Fold classification based on Structure @-@ Structure alignment of Proteins , or Families of Structurally Similar Proteins ) in which all known protein structures are aligned with each other to determine their structural neighbors and fold classification . There is an searchable database based on DALI as well as a downloadable program and web search based on a standalone version known as DaliLite .
= = = Combinatorial extension = = =
The combinatorial extension ( CE ) method is similar to DALI in that it too breaks each structure in the query set into a series of fragments that it then attempts to reassemble into a complete alignment . A series of pairwise combinations of fragments called aligned fragment pairs , or AFPs , are used to define a similarity matrix through which an optimal path is generated to identify the final alignment . Only AFPs that meet given criteria for local similarity are included in the matrix as a means of reducing the necessary search space and thereby increasing efficiency . A number of similarity metrics are possible ; the original definition of the CE method included only structural superpositions and inter @-@ residue distances but has since been expanded to include local environmental properties such as secondary structure , solvent exposure , hydrogen @-@ bonding patterns , and dihedral angles .
An alignment path is calculated as the optimal path through the similarity matrix by linearly progressing through the sequences and extending the alignment with the next possible high @-@ scoring AFP pair . The initial AFP pair that nucleates the alignment can occur at any point in the sequence matrix . Extensions then proceed with the next AFP that meets given distance criteria restricting the alignment to low gap sizes . The size of each AFP and the maximum gap size are required input parameters but are usually set to empirically determined values of 8 and 30 respectively . Like DALI and SSAP , CE has been used to construct an all @-@ to @-@ all fold classification database from the known protein structures in the PDB .
The RCSB PDB has recently released an updated version of CE and FATCAT as part of the RCSB PDB Protein Comparison Tool . It provides a new variation of CE that can detect circular permutations in protein structures .
= = = SSAP = = =
The SSAP ( Sequential Structure Alignment Program ) method uses double dynamic programming to produce a structural alignment based on atom @-@ to @-@ atom vectors in structure space . Instead of the alpha carbons typically used in structural alignment , SSAP constructs its vectors from the beta carbons for all residues except glycine , a method which thus takes into account the rotameric state of each residue as well as its location along the backbone . SSAP works by first constructing a series of inter @-@ residue distance vectors between each residue and its nearest non @-@ contiguous neighbors on each protein . A series of matrices are then constructed containing the vector differences between neighbors for each pair of residues for which vectors were constructed . Dynamic programming applied to each resulting matrix determines a series of optimal local alignments which are then summed into a " summary " matrix to which dynamic programming is applied again to determine the overall structural alignment .
SSAP originally produced only pairwise alignments but has since been extended to multiple alignments as well . It has been applied in an all @-@ to @-@ all fashion to produce a hierarchical fold classification scheme known as CATH ( Class , Architecture , Topology , Homology ) , which has been used to construct the CATH Protein Structure Classification database .
= = Recent developments = =
Improvements in structural alignment methods constitute an active area of research , and new or modified methods are often proposed that are claimed to offer advantages over the older and more widely distributed techniques . A recent example , TM @-@ align , uses a novel method for weighting its distance matrix , to which standard dynamic programming is then applied . The weighting is proposed to accelerate the convergence of dynamic programming and correct for effects arising from alignment lengths . In a benchmarking study , TM @-@ align has been reported to improve in both speed and accuracy over DALI and CE .
However , as algorithmic improvements and computer performance have erased purely technical deficiencies in older approaches , it has become clear that there is no one universal criterion for the ' optimal ' structural alignment . TM @-@ align , for instance , is particularly robust in quantifying comparisons between sets of proteins with great disparities in sequence lengths , but it only indirectly captures hydrogen bonding or secondary structure order conservation which might be better metrics for alignment of evolutionarily related proteins . Thus recent developments have focused on optimizing particular attributes such as speed , quantification of scores , correlation to alternative gold standards , or tolerance of imperfection in structural data or ab initio structural models . An alternative methodology that is gaining popularity is to use the consensus of various methods to ascertain proteins structural similarities .
= = RNA structural alignment = =
Structural alignment techniques have traditionally been applied exclusively to proteins , as the primary biological macromolecules that assume characteristic three @-@ dimensional structures . However , large RNA molecules also form characteristic tertiary structures , which are mediated primarily by hydrogen bonds formed between base pairs as well as base stacking . Functionally similar noncoding RNA molecules can be especially difficult to extract from genomics data because structure is more strongly conserved than sequence in RNA as well as in proteins , and the more limited alphabet of RNA decreases the information content of any given nucleotide at any given position .
However , because of the increasing interest in RNA structures and because of the growth of the number of experimentally determined 3D RNA structures , few RNA structure similarity methods have been developed recently . One of those methods is , e.g. , SETTER which decomposes each RNA structure into smaller parts called general secondary structure units ( GSSUs ) . GSSUs are subsequently aligned and these partial alignments are merged into the final RNA structure alignment and scored . The method has been implemented into the SETTER webserver .
A recent method for pairwise structural alignment of RNA sequences with low sequence identity has been published and implemented in the program FOLDALIGN . However , this method is not truly analogous to protein structural alignment techniques because it computationally predicts the structures of the RNA input sequences rather than requiring experimentally determined structures as input . Although computational prediction of the protein folding process has not been particularly successful to date , RNA structures without pseudoknots can often be sensibly predicted using free energy @-@ based scoring methods that account for base pairing and stacking .
= = Software = =
Choosing a software tool for structural alignment can be a challenge due to the large variety of available packages that differ significantly in methodology and reliability . A partial solution to this problem was presented in and made publicly accessible through the ProCKSI webserver . A more complete list of currently available and freely distributed structural alignment software can be found in structural alignment software .
Properties of some structural alignment servers and software packages are summarized and tested with examples at Structural Alignment Tools in Proteopedia.Org.
= Frederick E. Morgan =
Lieutenant @-@ General Sir Frederick Edgworth Morgan KCB ( 5 February 1894 – 19 March 1967 ) was a senior officer of the British Army who fought in both world wars . He is best known as the chief of staff to the Supreme Allied Commander ( COSSAC ) , the original planner of Operation Overlord .
A graduate of the Royal Military Academy , Woolwich , Morgan was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the Royal Field Artillery in 1913 . During the First World War he served on the Western Front as an artillery subaltern and staff officer . Afterwards he served two long tours with the British Army in India .
Shortly before the outbreak of the Second World War in 1939 , Morgan was promoted to brigadier and assumed command of the 1st Support Group of the 1st Armoured Division , which he led during the Battle of France . In May 1942 he became a lieutenant @-@ general and given command of I Corps . Morgan 's headquarters was designated Force 125 , and given the task of dealing with a German thrust through Spain to Gibraltar that never occurred . In March 1943 he was appointed chief of staff to the Supreme Allied Commander ( Designate ) , or COSSAC . As COSSAC he directed the planning for Operation Overlord . When General Dwight Eisenhower became Supreme Allied Commander , Major General Bedell Smith became chief of staff at Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force ( SHAEF ) , while Morgan became deputy chief of staff .
After the war , Morgan served as Chief of Operations for the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration ( UNRRA ) in Germany until his position in Germany was eliminated following publication of " off the record " comments concerning incompetence and corruption within UNRRA , including diverting the resources of UNRRA to support of Zionist ambitions in Palestine . In 1951 , Morgan became Controller of Atomic Energy , and was present for Operation Hurricane , the first British atomic weapons tests at the Montebello Islands in 1952 . His position was abolished in 1954 with the creation of the United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority but he remained as Controller of Nuclear Weapons until 1956 .
= = Early life = =
Morgan was born in Paddock Wood , Kent on 5 February 1894 , the eldest son among nine children of Frederick Beverley Morgan , a timber importer , and his wife Clare Elizabeth née Horrocks . He was raised at Mascall 's Manor . Paddock Wood . He commenced his education at Hurstleigh , a private school in Tunbridge Wells in 1902 . At an early age it was decided that Frederick would become a British Army officer , and in 1907 he entered Clifton College , a school noted for its connections with the Royal Military Academy , Woolwich . At Clifton he played rugby and cricket , and served in the School Cadet Corps , which became the Officers ' Training Corps in 1908 . As a cadet sergeant , he was one of many who lined the route to Buckingham Palace for the Coronation of George V of the United Kingdom in 1911 . He eventually rose to the rank of second lieutenant . Morgan duly passed the entrance examination for Woolwich , which he entered in 1912 .
Morgan was commissioned second lieutenant in the Royal Artillery on 17 July 1913 , and joined 41st Battery , 42nd Brigade , Royal Field Artillery at Aldershot . He volunteered for service in India , and in January 1914 departed on the British @-@ India Steam Navigation Company troopship Rewa , joining the 84th Battery , 11th Brigade , Royal Field Artillery , which was stationed in Jabalpur .
= = First World War = =
Following the outbreak of the First World War , Morgan 's battery departed for the Western Front in October 1914 as part of the 3rd ( Lahore ) Division . Morgan suffered a near @-@ miss from a German 5 @.@ 9 @-@ inch gun which blew him into the air and buried him in a shell hole , and he was evacuated to hospital in Boulogne with shell shock . He was granted a short sick leave in England only to be present when news reached his family that his brother had been killed in action . On returning to the front , Morgan became aide @-@ de @-@ camp to Brigadier General Edward Spencer Hoare @-@ Nairne , the commander of the Lahore Divisional Artillery . The artillery remained on the Western Front when the bulk of the division departed for the Mesopotamian campaign . As it took longer to train artillery than infantry , the Lahore divisional artillery acted in turn as the artillery of the 2nd Canadian Division , 3rd Canadian Division , 4th Australian Division and finally the 4th Canadian Division until their own artillery was sufficiently trained to take over .
Morgan became a staff captain in February 1916 , and was promoted to the temporary rank of captain in May 1916 . The Lahore divisional artillery was broken up in mid @-@ 1917 and Morgan was posted to the 42nd ( East Lancashire ) Division as a staff captain . On 15 August 1917 , he married Marjorie Cecile Whaite , the daughter of Colonel Thomas du Bédat Whaite of the Royal Army Medical Corps . The couple had met on board the Rewa en route to India in 1914 . Their marriage produced two daughters and a son . During the Hundred Days Offensive he served as brigade major of the 42nd Divisional Artillery . During the war he was twice mentioned in dispatches , on 15 May 1917 , and again on 5 July 1919 .
= = Between the wars = =
In 1919 , Morgan volunteered for a six @-@ year tour of India and joined the 118th Field Battery , 26th Field Brigade , at Deepcut , where it was forming and training for service in the subcontinent . Later that year the brigade moved to its new station at Jhansi . After three years Morgan was posted to Attock , where he commanded the Divisional Ammunition Column . In 1924 he accepted a temporary staff posting as Deputy Assistant Adjutant @-@ General ( DAAG ) of Major @-@ General Sir Herbert Uniacke 's 1st ( Peshawar ) Division at Murree . This was followed in 1925 by a year 's secondment to the headquarters of Lieutenant @-@ General Sir Claud Jacob 's Northern Command , where Morgan helped plan and direct large @-@ scale manoeuvres .
Morgan returned to England in 1926 , and assumed command of the 22nd Heavy Battery . Equipped with a mixture of 9 @.@ 2 inch guns , 6 inch guns , 12 pounders and 6 pounders , it was responsible for the coastal defences of Weymouth , Dorset . Still a captain , Morgan hoped that his next career move would be to attend the Staff College , Camberley , having narrowly passed the entrance examination . Instead , he was offered a place at the Staff College , Quetta , requiring a return trip to India . Morgan 's classmates at Quetta in 1927 and 1928 included William Slim , John Crocker , Kenneth Anderson , David Cowan , George Alan Vasey and Tommy Burns . After graduation , Morgan was posted to the 70th Field Battery at Lucknow , and then was artillery staff officer at headquarters Western Command , under Brigadier Henry Karslake . When Karslake became major @-@ general , Royal Artillery , at GHQ India in 1931 , he brought Morgan to Delhi to serve with him as General Staff Officer ( Grade 2 ) . Morgan was finally promoted major in 1932 and brevet lieutenant @-@ colonel in 1934 .
Returning to England in 1934 , Morgan assumed command of the 4th Anti @-@ Aircraft Battery , which was deployed to Malta during the diplomatic crisis that accompanied the Italian invasion of Abyssinia in 1935 . He served in the War Office from 1936 to 1938 . Here he became increasingly disturbed at the lack of urgency that the government displayed in the face of a war that Morgan and his fellow staff officers felt was inevitable and imminent . That year he was promoted colonel and became General Staff Officer ( Grade 1 ) of the 3rd Division , in which Brigadier Bernard Montgomery commanded a brigade .
= = Second World War = =
= = = Battle of France = = =
In 1939 , Morgan was promoted brigadier and assumed command of the 1st Support Group of the 1st Armoured Division . When the 1st Support Group was shipped to France in May 1940 , following the outbreak of the Second World War , it had already been stripped of its two field artillery regiments and two infantry battalions . As a result , Morgan 's command included only a force of Royal Engineers and a Territorial battalion of the Royal Welch Fusiliers , which was in the process of converting to an anti @-@ aircraft / anti @-@ tank regiment and armed only with anti @-@ tank guns . His group was in no position to fulfil its normal role supporting the division 's armoured brigades and so was sent to reinforce 51st ( Highland ) Division south of the river Somme . During a confused retreat most of the Support Group was captured along with the 51st Division at Saint @-@ Valery @-@ en @-@ Caux but the remainder , including Morgan , got away and were evacuated to England .
The 1st Armoured Division was subsequently reformed , and became a mobile reserve in south eastern England . It was tasked with counter @-@ attacking an invading German army , and the 1st Support Group was given two Canadian infantry battalions for this purpose . In November 1940 Morgan was appointed Brigadier General Staff at II Corps , based in Norfolk . Morgan was promoted major @-@ general in 1941 and given command of the Devon and Cornwall County Division , a static formation created for coastal defence . In October he assumed command of the 55th ( West Lancashire ) Infantry Division , a second line territorial formation .
In May 1942 he was promoted to the rank of lieutenant @-@ general and given command of the I Corps District , which included Lincolnshire and the East Riding of Yorkshire . In October of that year his headquarters became a mobile formation , was redesignated I Corps and placed under Lieutenant General Dwight D. Eisenhower . Morgan 's corps headquarters was designated Force 125 . It was given command of the 1st and 4th Divisions , and the task of dealing with a German thrust through Spain to Gibraltar .
This operation proved unnecessary , and Morgan 's two divisions were sent to North Africa , while he was directed to plan the invasion of Sardinia . In time this was abandoned in favour of the Allied invasion of Sicily . I Corps headquarters remained in the United Kingdom the whole time , located at 1 Cumberland near Marble Arch , with the headquarters mess in the Lyons Marble Arch Corner House . However , it gained considerable experience in operational planning . Morgan was appointed a Commander of the Order of the Bath on 2 June 1943 .
= = = COSSAC = = =
At the Casablanca Conference in January 1943 , the Combined Chiefs of Staff agreed to establish a staff to plan operations in north west Europe in 1944 . It was envisaged that the Supreme Allied Commander would be British , and the usual practice was for the commander and the chief of staff to be of the same nationality , so it was decided to appoint a British officer for the role of chief of staff to the Supreme Allied Commander ( Designate ) ( COSSAC ) , with an American deputy . In March 1943 Morgan became COSSAC . Brigadier General Ray Barker became his American deputy . Initially , Morgan 's staff consisted of an aide , two batmen and a driver with a car purloined from I Corps headquarters . Morgan established his headquarters in Norfolk House at 31 St James 's Square . However , by October 1943 , it was clearly too small for COSSAC needs , which called for accommodation for a staff of 320 officers and 600 other ranks . In November and December part of the staff moved to the South Rotunda , a bombproof structure that had originally been fitted up as an anti @-@ invasion base , which was connected to the various ministries by the Whitehall Tunnel . Other staff were accommodated at 80 Pall Mall .
COSSAC was charged with planning three operations : Operation Cockade , a deception operation to keep German forces pinned to the coast ; Operation Rankin , a plan for measures to be taken in the case of a sudden German collapse ; and Operation Overlord , a plan for a full @-@ scale assault on north western Europe . Morgan and his staff worked on the Overlord plan throughout June and the first half of July 1943 . He presented it to the Chiefs of Staff Committee on 15 July . The plan set forth in detail the conditions under which the assault could be made , the area where a landing would be feasible , and the means by which a lodgement on the continent would be developed .
On 28 July , a group of the COSSAC staff , headed by Barker , travelled to Washington D.C. to present the Overlord plan to the U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff , and to confer with the U.S. War Department about the troop basis for the operation and issues related to its civil affairs and logistics aspects . Missions were also exchanged with Eisenhower 's Allied Force Headquarters in Algiers to coordinate the plans of offensive action in the Mediterranean and north western Europe in 1944 . In October and November , Morgan went to Washington , to discuss the operation with the Combined Chiefs of Staff , accompanied only by Major General Nevil Brownjohn and an aide . Morgan met with General George Marshall , who instructed him to proceed with planning on the basis that Marshall would be Supreme Allied Commander and Morgan his chief of staff . Morgan met with President Franklin D. Roosevelt at the White House . Roosevelt turned down Morgan 's request for the services of Anthony Joseph Drexel Biddle , Jr. to assist with civil affairs , and also cast doubt on whether Marshall could be spared to become Supreme Allied Commander . While in the United States Morgan visited the Gettysburg Battlefield and the training camps at Camp Carrabelle , Fort Benning , Camp Mackall and Fort Bragg .
The Combined Chiefs of Staff authorised Morgan to issue orders in the name of the Supreme Allied Commander to the Commanders in Chief of the Air , Naval and Land Forces , even though they outranked him . When Montgomery was appointed Commander in Chief Land Forces for the invasion , in December 1943 , he declared that Morgan 's original plans were unworkable ; they had originally been limited by the availability of landing craft , but Montgomery insisted it would require more men attacking over a wider front . Ultimately , more landing craft were obtained and the invasion was scaled up to Montgomery 's satisfaction , at the cost of a month 's delay and a reduction in the Southern France operation . However , all the key features of Morgan 's plan remained ; the choice of Normandy as the assault area , the use of Mulberry harbours , the deployment of American forces on the right and British on the left , the use of airborne troops to cover the flanks , and some form of diversionary operation in Southern France .
= = = SHAEF = = =
When Eisenhower was appointed Supreme Allied Commander the COSSAC team was absorbed into SHAEF . Eisenhower brought his chief of staff for Allied Forces Headquarters , Major General Bedell Smith , and moved the headquarters to Bushey Park . Morgan was offered command of a corps in Italy but declined in favour of becoming one of Smith 's three deputies . His responsibilities covered Intelligence and Operations . Morgan coordinated the work of various SHAEF divisions and deputised for Bedell Smith when he was absent .
Morgan was also called upon on occasion to deal with Montgomery , with whom his professional relationship as deputy chief of staff was similar to that before the war when Montgomery was a brigade commander . On one occasion Morgan was summoned to Smith 's office to find him white with rage at a telephone receiver . " That 's your bloody marshal on the other end of that , " Smith explained . " I can 't talk to him any more . Now you go on . " " As the campaign progressed , " Morgan later wrote , " it became more difficult for us British at SHAEF to provide explanation , as we were continually called upon to do , for the attitude and behaviour of the British authorities as exemplified by their chosen representative in the field . " Senior British officers at SHAEF , notably Morgan , Kenneth Strong and Jock Whiteley remained loyal to Eisenhower . This cast a pall over their careers after the war , when Montgomery became Chief of the Imperial General Staff .
After the war Smith described Morgan as his British alter ego , " a man I wouldn 't willingly have dispensed with " . Morgan served in this role until SHAEF was dissolved in June 1945 . He was appointed Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath ( KCB ) in August 1944 " in recognition of distinguished services in connection with the invasion of Normandy " . The United States government awarded him the Legion of Merit in April 1945 , and the Distinguished Service Medal in 1948 for his services .
= = Post @-@ war career = =
= = = UNRRA = = =
In September 1945 Morgan became the Chief of Operations for the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration ( UNRRA ) in Germany . He applied his energy and planning skills to the problem of providing relief to millions of refugees and displaced persons in Europe in the wake of the war . However he became frustrated with the inefficiency of the United Nations organisation .
Events in the British – Zionist conflict in the British Mandate for Palestine made Morgan feel conflicted between his role in assisting Jewish refugees at UNRRA , whom he regarded as special victims of the Nazis for being persecuted solely for their race , and supporting British policy as a British Army officer . In January 1946 he created an uproar by claiming at a press conference that there was a secret Zionist organisation that was attempting to facilitate an " exodus " of Jewish people from Europe to a new state in Palestine with Soviet encouragement . He later wrote :
I had been able to piece together a reasonably comprehensive picture of the way in which the UNRRA set up was being most skilfully used to promote what was nothing less than a Zionist campaign of aggression in Palestine . In defiance of the prohibition by the British Mandatory power , reluctant as ever to employ decisive means , the admirably organised Zionist command was employing any and every means of forcing immigration into the country irrespective of the hardship and sufferings of the immigrants , few of whom seemed to have spontaneous enthusiasm for the Zionist cause . The whole project evidently had Russian connivance , if not actual support , since its success would conduce to the elimination of British authority in a vital area of the Middle East .
A correspondent reported that Morgan made " casual observations based on what he saw ... but the controversial remarks were taken out of the context and put together by correspondents . " UNRRA expected that Morgan would offer his resignation but he did not do so . An attempt to clarify his position " off the record " failed , and Morgan 's position in Germany was eliminated by UNRRA Director Fiorello La Guardia .
Morgan 's statements caused a furore in the press , which portrayed them as anti @-@ Semitic and distasteful . However , Morgan 's comments were factual , based on military intelligence . It was reported at the time in Time magazine that : " Observers here [ in Berlin ] ... are positive of [ Morgan 's ] sincerity , and know he had no intention of feeding the fires of anti @-@ Semitic propaganda . " Archibald MacLeish , a former Assistant Secretary of State for Public Affairs , stated that when the press had finished with Sir Frederick , " .. the sum total effect was a lie and a disastrous and evil lie . This brings up the question of journalistic standards . In a world as closely integrated as this one is , the question must be asked : what is the standard of truth in journalism ? When the journalist is dealing with an inflammatory subject and so reports it that verbally his story is true , but the overall effect is false , are the standards of truth satisfied ? "
With his military background , Morgan was appalled at the corruption , inefficiency and political diversion of UNRRA . A member of his staff said that " to serve such an outfit is degradation beyond description . In fact , [ Morgan wrote ] , to have been rejected for such service I have always felt to have been a high honour . "
= = = Atomic Energy = = =
Morgan was appointed Colonel @-@ Commandant of the Royal Artillery in 1948 . In 1951 , he succeeded Lord Portal as Controller of Atomic Energy . The position had been created in January 1946 as " Controller of Production , Atomic Energy " when the Ministry of Supply had assumed responsibility for nuclear weapons . The job , the title of which was changed to " Controller Atomic Energy " in 1950 , had no written terms of reference , but carried broad responsibility for the coordination of all aspects of nuclear weapons production . Although located within the Ministry of Supply , the controller had direct access to the Prime Minister ; Portal rarely exercised this , however . It was widely believed that Morgan , who was , in the words of Margaret Gowing , " amiable but not adequate to the task " , had been appointed by mistake , having been confused with his namesake , General Sir William Duthie Morgan . The latter had greatly impressed Prime Minister Clement Attlee as Army member of the Joint Staff Mission to the United States from 1947 to 1950 . Morgan therefore relied heavily on his key subordinates , Sir John Cockcroft , William Penney , and Christopher Hinton .
In his role as Controller of Atomic Energy , Morgan was present for Operation Hurricane , the first British atomic weapons tests at the Montebello Islands in October 1952 . His position was gradually reduced to a figurehead , with his authority largely supplanted by the Atomic Energy Board , which was chaired by Lord Cherwell , and was abolished in 1954 with the creation of the United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority . Morgan then became Controller of Nuclear Weapons . Nonetheless , he was still an important figure in the push for higher @-@ yield weapons . He pressed for the testing of the Green Bamboo boosted fission weapon during Operation Mosaic . This resulted in Mosaic becoming a two @-@ test series , although Green Bamboo could not be made available in time . A Green Bamboo assembly was subsequently taken to Christmas Island for Operation Grapple , but was deleted from the test series to save money . Morgan was also instrumental in putting the case for the development of the H @-@ bomb on operational grounds .
Morgan retired in 1956 , although he remained Colonel Commandant of the Royal Artillery until 1958 . He published his memoirs , entitled Peace and War : A Soldier 's Life in 1961 . He died at Mount Vernon Hospital on 19 March 1967 .
= Phil Hughes =
Philip Joseph " Phil " Hughes ( born June 24 , 1986 ) is an American right @-@ handed professional baseball pitcher for the Minnesota Twins of Major League Baseball ( MLB ) . He played in MLB for the New York Yankees from 2007 through 2013 . He stands 6 feet 5 inches ( 1 @.@ 96 m ) tall and weighs 240 pounds ( 110 kg ) . He was the Yankees ' first @-@ round pick in the 2004 MLB draft .
During his time in the Yankees ' minor @-@ league system , Hughes was one of the most highly anticipated prospects in baseball , but his major league career has thus far been marked by inconsistency . He debuted in the major leagues in 2007 as a starting pitcher and quickly demonstrated his potential with a bid for a no @-@ hitter in only his second MLB start . However , injury cut short his outing , as well as significant portions of his 2007 and 2008 seasons . Hughes began 2009 in the minors but later returned to the major leagues , eventually converting to a relief pitcher in June ; pitching as a setup man for Mariano Rivera , Hughes excelled in the new role during the regular season . Despite his struggles in the postseason , Hughes won a championship with the Yankees in the 2009 World Series .
Upon returning to the starting rotation in 2010 , he won 18 games and earned his first All @-@ Star selection . Arm fatigue cost Hughes nearly half of the season in 2011 , but the following year , he stayed healthy for the entire season , winning 16 games as the Yankees ' third starter . In 2013 , he had his worst season , posting a 4 – 14 win – loss record and 5 @.@ 19 earned run average , a performance that led to him being removed from the rotation . The following year , Hughes had a turnaround season with the Twins , where he went 16 @-@ 10 with an ERA of 3 @.@ 52 that resulted in him placing 7th in American League Cy Young Award voting .
= = Early life = =
Hughes was born in Mission Viejo , California on June 24 , 1986 , and attended Foothill High School in Santa Ana , California , where he was a first @-@ team High School All @-@ American pitcher and had one perfect game . In his junior year ( 2003 ) , he had a 12 – 0 record and posted an 0 @.@ 78 earned run average ( ERA ) while striking out 85 batters in 72 innings . In his senior year ( 2004 ) , he had an 0 @.@ 69 ERA and a 9 – 1 record . In 61 innings , he gave up 41 hits and three walks while striking out 83 batters .
Hughes first committed to Santa Clara University , but he chose to sign with the New York Yankees when they selected him in the first round , with the 23rd overall selection , of the 2004 Major League Baseball draft . The Yankees were awarded this pick as compensation when free agent pitcher Andy Pettitte signed with the Houston Astros .
= = Professional baseball career = =
= = = Minor leagues = = =
In 2004 , Hughes pitched five scoreless innings for the rookie Gulf Coast League Yankees , striking out eight hitters . He spent 2005 , his first full professional year , between the Class A Charleston RiverDogs and the Advanced A Tampa Yankees . He had a 9 – 2 record and a 1 @.@ 24 ERA , and in 85 1 ⁄ 3 innings he gave up 54 hits while striking out 93 .
After attending spring training with the Yankees in 2006 , Hughes began the season with Tampa . He was promoted to the Double @-@ A Trenton Thunder of the Eastern League at the beginning of May after he had a 2 – 3 record and a 1 @.@ 80 ERA with Tampa while striking out 30 batters in 30 innings .
On June 13 , Hughes took a no @-@ hitter into the sixth inning and threw a one @-@ hitter through seven innings in a 3 – 0 victory over the New Hampshire Fisher Cats . Ten days later , he put forth another dominant start , taking a no @-@ hitter into the eighth inning and pitching eight shutout innings in a 4 – 0 win over the Connecticut Defenders . With Trenton , Hughes had a 10 – 3 record , a 2 @.@ 25 ERA , and 138 strikeouts in 116 innings . He made one appearance in the Eastern League playoffs , earning a no @-@ decision after pitching six innings of 1 @-@ run ball with 13 strikeouts . The game was the only postseason victory for the Thunder that year . After the season , he won the Kevin Lawn " Pitcher of the Year " Award as the top Yankees ' minor league pitcher .
Entering 2007 , Baseball America rated Hughes the Yankees ' # 1 prospect , said he had the best curveball and best control in the Yankee system , and called him " arguably the best pitching prospect in the minors . " Baseball America also named him the fourth @-@ best prospect in baseball . MiLB.com named Hughes the top right @-@ handed starting pitching prospect in the AL East farm systems . In January 2007 , the Yankees announced that Hughes was being invited to spring training . According to Bryan Hoch of MLB.com , scouts believed that Hughes was ready for the major leagues , but Yankees ' general manager Brian Cashman said it was " unlikely " that Hughes would play for the Yankees in April . Hughes began 2007 pitching for the Triple @-@ A Scranton / Wilkes @-@ Barre Yankees of the International League ( IL ) .
= = = New York Yankees = = =
= = = = 2007 = = = =
Following injuries to several Yankees ' starters in 2007 , Hughes was called up in April . Hughes made his major league debut on April 26 against the Toronto Blue Jays . In 4 1 ⁄ 3 innings , he allowed four runs on seven hits , earning his first career loss . In his second major league start on May 1 against the Texas Rangers , he was maintaining a no @-@ hitter through 6 1 ⁄ 3 innings before pulling his left hamstring while facing his future teammate Mark Teixeira . Mike Myers later allowed a hit , but Hughes earned his first career win . After the game , he was placed on the disabled list ( DL ) . He returned on August 4 against the Kansas City Royals , allowing six runs in 4 2 ⁄ 3 innings and earning a no @-@ decision in a 16 – 8 victory . In his final start of the year , on September 27 against the Tampa Bay Devil Rays , he allowed one run in a season @-@ high seven innings and earned the win in a 3 – 1 victory . In 17 starts for the Yankees , Hughes had a 5 – 3 record , a 4 @.@ 46 ERA , and 58 strikeouts in 72 2 ⁄ 3 innings pitched . He was the second @-@ youngest American League ( AL ) player in 2007 .
Hughes was included on the Yankees ' postseason roster as a long reliever . He made his first postseason appearance in 2007 against the Cleveland Indians in the AL Division Series ( ALDS ) , giving up one run in two innings in Game 1 , a 12 – 3 loss . In Game 3 , Hughes ( the youngest player on the Yankees ' roster ) relieved an injured Roger Clemens ( the oldest player on the roster ) in the third inning and pitched 3 2 ⁄ 3 scoreless innings . He struck out four and earned his first playoff win . The Yankees were eliminated in four games in the series .
= = = = 2008 = = = =
Prior to the 2008 season , it was reported by numerous news sources that the Yankees were thinking of including Hughes in a trade to the Minnesota Twins for Johan Santana . The trade never happened ; Santana was traded to the New York Mets instead .
Hughes began the 2008 season as the third starter in the Yankees ' rotation . In his first six starts , he had an 0 – 4 record and a 9 @.@ 00 ERA . On April 30 , he was placed on the disabled list with a strained oblique and cracked rib . On a May 2 visit to an optometrist , Hughes was found to be slightly nearsighted ; as a result , he started wearing glasses on the mound .
After recovering from the rib injury , Hughes pitched for Scranton / Wilkes @-@ Barre ; he helped them win the 2008 International League title , earning the win after striking out 12 batters in the clinching game . On September 13 , a day after the IL playoffs , Hughes was recalled by the Yankees . On September 17 , Hughes made his first start since April 29 , giving up one earned run over four innings and earning a no @-@ decision in a 5 – 1 victory over the Chicago White Sox . In his final start of the season , on September 24 , he gave up two runs in eight innings and received a no @-@ decision in a ten @-@ inning , 6 – 2 victory over Toronto . He finished the season with an 0 – 4 record , a 6 @.@ 62 ERA , 23 strikeouts , and 34 innings pitched in eight starts . Because injuries severely limited his workload during the season , the Yankees sent Hughes to the Arizona Fall League after the season to pitch more innings .
= = = = 2009 = = = =
Although he had a solid performance in spring training , Hughes began the 2009 season in Triple @-@ A. He was called up to the majors in April after Chien @-@ Ming Wang was placed on the disabled list . Hughes made his first start of the season on April 28 against the Detroit Tigers and pitched six scoreless innings , earning his first win since 2007 in an 11 – 0 victory . On May 25 , Hughes threw eight scoreless innings , earning the win in an 11 – 1 victory over the Rangers .
After he posted a 3 – 2 record and a 5 @.@ 45 ERA in seven starts , Hughes was moved to the bullpen when Wang returned to the rotation in early June . Hughes pitched well , becoming the primary setup man to Mariano Rivera in July due to injuries to Brian Bruney and Dámaso Marte . Despite his success as a reliever , Cashman maintained that Hughes would be a starter over the long @-@ term .
Hughes 's first regular season win in relief came on July 17 , when he threw two scoreless innings in a 5 – 3 victory over Detroit . On July 23 , he recorded his first career save after a 6 – 3 Yankees victory over the Oakland Athletics . He relieved CC Sabathia in the eighth inning and pitched two perfect innings . From June 10 through July 3 , he had a 25 1 ⁄ 3 inning scoreless streak , the longest by a Yankee reliever since Rivera had a 30 2 ⁄ 3 inning scoreless streak in 1999 . In 44 games as a relief pitcher in 2009 , Hughes posted a 1 @.@ 40 ERA ; he had 65 strikeouts in 51 1 ⁄ 3 innings .
Hughes pitched in all three games of the ALDS against the Minnesota Twins , posting a 9 @.@ 00 ERA . In Game 5 of the AL Championship Series ( ALCS ) against the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim , he suffered a loss when he gave up a run and also allowed an inherited runner to score in the 7 – 6 defeat . He had scoreless outings in Games 2 and 3 as the Yankees won the series in six games . He had a 16 @.@ 20 ERA in the World Series , but he won his first World Series ring as the Yankees defeated the Philadelphia Phillies in six games .
= = = = 2010 = = = =
On March 25 , 2010 , Hughes was named the Yankees ' fifth starter . Throughout the season , the Yankees occasionally had Hughes skip starts to limit his innings , in hopes that this would help him stay healthy . On April 21 , Hughes carried a no @-@ hitter into the eighth inning against the Athletics before allowing a leadoff single to Eric Chavez ; he faced two more hitters prior to being relieved , having struck out 10 batters .
He won his first five decisions , a streak snapped May 22 by the New York Mets . He followed with another five @-@ game win streak , the last coming against the Mets on June 19 . After missing a start , he saw this win streak come to an end June 29 against the Seattle Mariners .
Hughes was named to the AL All @-@ Star Team , Sunday , July 4 . Five days after his first selection to the midsummer classic , Hughes threw seven innings and gave up one run to beat the Mariners 6 – 1 . His next outing , the All @-@ Star Game , did not go well . Hughes , after retiring the first batter he faced in the seventh inning , allowed a pair of singles to Scott Rolen and Matt Holliday before yielding to Matt Thornton ; Rolen and Holliday scored the tying and go @-@ ahead runs on Brian McCann 's three @-@ run double that proved decisive in the NL 's 3 – 1 victory . On August 14 , Hughes allowed three runs in six innings , earning the win in an 8 – 3 victory over the Kansas City Royals . It was the 50th start of Hughes 's career , making him at 24 years and 51 days old the youngest Yankee to make his 50th start since Al Downing made his 50th start at 23 years and 61 days old in 1964 . Hughes had 18 wins ( tied for fourth in the AL with Trevor Cahill and Justin Verlander behind Sabathia , who had 21 , and Jon Lester and David Price , who both had 19 ) , only 8 losses , and a 4 @.@ 19 ERA while striking out 146 batters in 176 1 ⁄ 3 innings of work . His run support of 6 @.@ 48 runs per game was the highest in the major leagues .
Hughes made his first postseason start in Game 3 of the ALDS against the Twins . He threw seven shutout innings to earn the win in the clinching game of the series as the Yankees beat the Twins 6 – 1 . Game 2 of the ALCS against the Rangers did not go as well for Hughes , who allowed seven runs in four innings and earned the loss as the Yankees were defeated 7 – 2 . He allowed four runs in 4 2 ⁄ 3 innings in Game 6 and earned another loss as the Yankees lost 6 – 1 and were eliminated from the postseason .
= = = = 2011 = = = =
Hughes , who began as the third starter in the 2011 season , suffered from a dip in velocity . His four @-@ seam fastball averaged only 89 mph and peaked at 92 mph after three starts , compared to his usual 92 – 95 mph . After opening the season 0 – 1 with a 13 @.@ 94 ERA in three starts , Hughes was placed on the DL due to a dead arm syndrome . It was later revealed that Hughes had been suffering from shoulder inflammation . He underwent an arm strength rehabilitation program for several weeks . On July 6 , he made his first start in nearly 3 months , pitching five innings , allowing two earned runs , striking out and walking two batters , in a 5 – 3 loss to the Cleveland Indians . On August 2 , in a rain @-@ shortened game , Hughes threw his first career shutout as the Yankees defeated the White Sox 6 – 0 in six innings . Late in September , Hughes was moved to the bullpen after back stiffness caused him to miss a start . In 17 games ( 14 starts ) , Hughes had a 5 – 5 record , a 5 @.@ 79 ERA , and 47 strikeouts in 74 2 ⁄ 3 innings pitched .
Hughes was included on the Yankees ' postseason roster as a relief pitcher . He had scoreless outings in Games 4 and 5 of the ALDS as the Yankees were defeated by the Detroit Tigers in five games .
= = = = 2012 = = = =
On January 16 , 2012 , Hughes signed a one @-@ year deal worth $ 3 @.@ 25 million that included incentives , effectively avoiding arbitration . His deal was a $ 500 @,@ 000 raise from his disappointing 2011 season .
Hughes was the Yankees ' third starter in 2012 . He started the season averaging only four innings in his first four starts while posting a 1 – 3 record and a 7 @.@ 88 ERA . From May to the end of the season , however , Hughes had a 15 – 10 record and a 3 @.@ 90 ERA . He had a season @-@ high four @-@ game winning streak from May 22 through June 15 . Hughes threw a complete game on June 3 , allowing one run in a 5 – 1 win against the Tigers . On June 26 , he threw eight shutout innings and earned the win in a 6 – 4 victory over Cleveland . He threw 7 1 ⁄ 3 shutout innings and earned the win on September 13 in a 2 – 0 victory over the Boston Red Sox . In 32 starts , Hughes had a 4 @.@ 19 ERA and 165 strikeouts in 191 1 ⁄ 3 innings pitched . He was tied for sixth in the AL in wins ( 16 , with Max Scherzer , Yu Darvish , and Hiroki Kuroda ) , but he also tied for eighth in the league in losses ( 13 , with Dan Haren and Ervin Santana ) .
In Game 4 of the ALDS against the Baltimore Orioles , Hughes allowed one run in 6 2 ⁄ 3 innings but received a no @-@ decision in a 13 @-@ inning , 2 – 1 loss . The Yankees won the series in five games . In Game 3 of the ALCS against Detroit , Hughes allowed one run in three innings before exiting with back stiffness ; he took the loss as the Yankees lost 2 – 1 . The Tigers swept the Yankees in four games .
= = = = 2013 = = = =
Hughes began the 2013 season on the DL with a bulging disc in his back . He returned from the DL on April 6 , allowing four runs ( three earned ) in four plus innings and earning the loss as Detroit won 8 – 4 . On May 15 against the Seattle Mariners , Hughes only lasted 2 ⁄ 3 of an inning after giving up 7 runs , 6 hits , 2 walks , including a grand slam to former Yankee Raúl Ibañez in a 12 – 2 Yankee loss . It was the shortest start of his career and at the time the shortest non @-@ injury start by a Yankee at the new Yankee Stadium .
After pitching to a 4 @-@ 13 record and a 4 @.@ 86 ERA , with a 5 @.@ 71 ERA in the second half , the Yankees removed Hughes from the rotation on September 4 , replacing him with David Huff . Hughes went 1 – 10 in home starts in 2013 , making him just the second MLB pitcher to win fewer than two games when making at least 15 home starts in a season ; the other being Phil Huffman of the Toronto Blue Jays in 1979 . He has the third @-@ highest ERA in Yankee history among pitchers with at least 500 innings pitched .
= = = Minnesota Twins = = =
Hughes agreed to a three @-@ year contract worth $ 24 million with the Minnesota Twins on November 30 , 2013 . The deal was confirmed by the Twins on December 5 , 2013 .
= = = = 2014 = = = =
The 2014 season was arguably the best season for Hughes , pitching to a 3 @.@ 52 ERA in 209 2 / 3 innings . On September 24 , 2014 Hughes ended the season with the best strikeout to walk ratio in a single season in MLB history .
Hughes finished 7th in Cy Young voting , leading all MLB nominees in Strikeouts / Base On Balls ( 11 @.@ 625 ) and Bases On Balls per 9 IP ( 0 @.@ 687 ) .
On December 22 , 2014 Hughes and the Twins agreed on a three @-@ year extension worth $ 42 million .
= = = = 2015 = = = =
Looking to build on the success of his 2014 season , Hughes went into the 2015 season as the Twins ace . Hughes had lost velocity in his fastball , dropping from 93MPH to 92MPH . His 2015 season was marred with inconsistency and injury as he only started 25 times while appearing 2 times out of the bullpen . Despite going 11 @-@ 9 , his ERA was 4 @.@ 40 and he served up 29 home runs in only 155 @.@ 1 innings .
= = = = 2016 = = = =
On June 9 , 2016 , Hughes was struck in the left knee off a line drive from J.T. Realmuto and left the game . The next day , he was placed on the 15 @-@ day disabled list due to left knee contusion . He was ruled out for 6 @-@ 8 weeks . On June 11 , it was revealed that there was a non @-@ displaced fracture of the femur in the left knee . On June 12 , he was transferred to the 60 @-@ day disabled list . On June 28th , Hughes ' season was declared over as he was set to undergo season ending surgery . He finished the 2016 season with a 1 @-@ 7 record for the Twins .
= = Personal = =
As a child , Hughes was a Boston Red Sox fan . He had a poster of Nomar Garciaparra with the slogan " Reverse the Curse " on his bedroom wall . Hughes is a Christian . His baseball glove has the reference for the Bible verse Philippians 4 : 13 on it , and Hughes has the entire verse ( " I can do all things through Christ who strengthens me . " ) tattooed on his left arm . He enjoys watching the Food Network and is a fan of Alton Brown .
= = Scouting report = =
Hughes 's pitch repertoire has varied over the years , although his main pitch has consistently been a four @-@ seam fastball at 92 – 95 mph , and he has also relied on a spike curveball in the range of 73 – 77 mph . He has also developed a mid @-@ 80s Vulcan changeup against left @-@ handed hitters , and in mid @-@ 2012 he developed a low @-@ 80s slider to right @-@ handers .
Hughes added a cut fastball in the high 80s as a weapon against right @-@ handers in the 2008 season , and he used the pitch 16 % of the time in the 2009 and 2010 seasons :
By early 2011 , Hughes 's velocity on his fastball was down several mph ; John Harper of the New York Daily News speculated that Hughes 's overuse of the cutter was to blame , not a dead arm . Hughes continued to use the cutter into the start of the 2012 season ; he posted a 7 @.@ 88 ERA in April , throwing the cutter about 12 % of the time in this span . In early May , Hughes dropped the cutter from his repertoire , using it only 1 @.@ 2 % of the time for the rest of the year .
Hughes throws a disproportionate number of his pitches high in the strike zone and above the zone .
Hughes asserts that the hamstring injury he suffered in his rookie year has permanently altered his pitching mechanics : " My stride , and things like that , have never quite been the same . "
= = Awards and honors = =
2004 – 1st team High School All @-@ American P
2006 – New York Yankees Minor League Player of the Year
2007 – AL East Division Top Prospects ( Right @-@ handed starting pitcher )
2007 – Baseball America 's Top 100 prospects : # 4 .
2009 – World Series champion
2010 – American League All @-@ Star
= Mummy Cave =
Mummy Cave is a rock shelter and archeological site in Park County , Wyoming , United States , near the eastern entrance to Yellowstone National Park . The site is adjacent to the concurrent U.S. Routes 14 / 16 / 20 , on the left bank of the North Fork of the Shoshone River at an altitude of 6 @,@ 310 feet ( 1 @,@ 920 m ) in Shoshone National Forest .
At its mouth , the cave is approximately 150 feet ( 46 m ) wide , and it extends approximately 40 feet ( 12 m ) into a volcanic cliff above the North Fork . It lies along the left bank of the river , next to the mouth of a small stream and opposite from the mouth of Blackwater Creek . The largest known cave along the North Fork , it is believed to have been carved by the river 's flow ; the reason for its diversion away from the alcove is unknown .
Mummy Cave was occupied between 7280 BC and AD 1580 . Discovered by Cody resident Gene Smith in 1957 , it was first studied in 1962 and excavated by the Buffalo Bill Historical Center . The site includes unusual amounts of perishable materials such as hide , feathers and wood , as well as the buried and mummified remains of an inhabitant , named by researchers " Mummy Joe , " and dated to about AD 800 . The cave is notable for the depth of its cultural deposits , extending over 28 feet ( 8 @.@ 5 m ) in depth , and in particular for the continuity of those deposits . The deposits have been classified into 38 occupation levels that represent at least seasonal use of the site on an annual basis , extending from the Paleoindian period to the late Prehistoric period .
= = Geology = =
Although it is referred to as a " cave " , Mummy Cave is actually a broad , shallow alcove in a vertical cliff . It owes its depth to its overall size and the stability of the parent rock . The alcove 's roof is about 50 feet ( 15 m ) above the river , with the rock floor of the alcove at about 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) above the river . By the time it was discovered , the alcove had been almost entirely filled with alluvium . The cliff is composed of Tertiary period volcanic ash mixed with larger rock fragments of volcanic origin . A similar alcove is being cut by the Shoshone at the mouth of Clocktower Creek . The cave fill has accumulated for at least 10 @,@ 000 years and appears to have originated from nearby debris fans formed where weathered material has flowed down channels in neighboring cliffs .
Apart from the depth and consistent nature of the alluvium , Mummy Cave is also characterized by extreme dryness . The pointed shape of the cliff above prevents rain and meltwater from percolating through the rock to the cave , and there are no vertical joints in the rock above .
= = Archeological investigation = =
The investigation of Mummy Cave was led by Robert Edgar from 1963 to 1965 . The alcove was marked out into a 5 @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) grid , with a permanent reference mark for elevation marked on the wall . Initial investigation focused on establishing stratigraphy . Once the layers of alluvium in the cave floor were established , the excavation proceeded layer by layer . The excavations terraced the cave floor into 4 @-@ to @-@ 6 @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 2 to 1 @.@ 8 m ) levels , following the established reference grid . Digging was done with hand trowels in the artifact @-@ bearing layers while layers devoid of artifacts were excavated with shovels . Spoils were disposed of down the embankment .
The site had previously been disturbed by relic hunters , who had dug a 2 @.@ 5 feet ( 0 @.@ 76 m ) deep pit in what turned out to be the most productive zone of the excavation . The relic hunters appear to have stopped when they encountered a rock cairn that covered what proved to be a human burial site .
By the end of 1963 a portion of the site had been excavated to a depth of 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) and shored with timbers , while the upper three cultural zones ( layers 36 – 38 ) were removed across the site . During the 1964 season layers 29 – 35 were removed and some zones were excavated much more deeply . In 1965 layers 24 – 28 were removed from the central area of the alcove . By this time it was clear that excavation would proceed for the full depth of the site , and that the disposal of a considerable quantity of excavated debris would need to be addressed . A bulldozer was brought in to remove sections of fill beyond the drip line of the shelter . The 1966 season was directed by Wilfred M. Husted . Results of the Mummy Cave investigations were published in Science in 1968 .
= = Results = =
The excavation of Mummy Cave yielded a nearly continuous succession of artifacts , which span a period of over 9000 years . The artifacts were disposed in a manner that permitted dating in both relative terms through stratigraphy , as well as through radiocarbon dating to establish an absolute scale . This continuum has proved to be invaluable in relating and dating other excavations in the Rocky Mountain region . In particular , the stone projectile points found at Mummy Cave have been used to set the standard for classifying stone arrowheads and spear heads in the region . The point typology has been extrapolated to define cultural and commercial relationships between peoples throughout the American West . Stratigraphy and carbon dating indicate that Mummy Cave was first occupied near the end of the Pinedale glaciation . Later occupancy spanned the Altithermal , followed by a cooler climate from about 1000 BC .
The earliest layers at Mummy Cave yielded a few prismatic stone blades dating to about 7300 BC . Several layers contained no artifacts and were defined by soot layers . By layer 6 the first parallel @-@ oblique points appeared . By Layer 8 , roughly corresponding to 6500 BC , the cultural evidence became continuous . Layers 8 , 9 , 10 and 12 produced lanceolate or leaf @-@ shaped projectile points which have been interpreted as corresponding to Angostura @-@ style points . This implies that the inhabitants of Mummy Cave during this era were big @-@ game hunters from the Great Plains who adapted to the mountain environment . In layer 16 , radiocarbon dated to 5630 BC , a new type of point appeared . These Blackwater side @-@ notched points implied the arrival of a group from eastern Nebraska or western Iowa , replacing the previous group which may have moved to the north . The presence of such points suggests a connection with the Simonsen Site in northeastern Iowa , which has been dated to the Early Archaic period . This transition coincided with the climatic shift to the Altithermal . Side @-@ notched points recovered from layers 21 , 24 and 28 imply a return of the previous inhabitants ; the easterners had moved on to the central Columbian Plateau .
Layer 30 was dated to 2470 ± 150 BC . Layer 32 was dated to 870 ± 135 BC . It is hypothesized that layers 32 – 38 represent the presence of people of the Shoshonean culture , with increasingly definitive Shoshonean artifacts present from layer 36 onward , including cordage and basketwork . Layer 38 yielded gray flat @-@ bottomed pottery of Shoshonean manufacture . Layer 36 is notable as the source of the " mummy . " The desiccated body of an adult male covered by a sheepskin garment with fur and feather ornament was recovered from this layer and dated to about AD 770 by radiocarbon dating .
Several thousand animal bones were discovered in Mummy Cave . While the large majority of the bones could not be identified , researchers at the University of Texas at El Paso ( UTEP ) were able to determine the biological origins of over two thousand bones . As at many other archeological sites in the region , significant numbers of Bighorn Sheep ( Ovis canadensis ) and deer from the genus Odocoileus were identified . Of particular interest to biologists was the much larger number of sheep than deer : eighty @-@ eight sheep and fifteen deer were identified . Such a prevalence of sheep over deer is highly unusual for archeological sites in the region , because deer are equally or more plentiful in areas such as the one in which Mummy Cave is located . This anomaly has led researchers at UTEP to propose that the site was used as a home base for hunters to operate at higher altitudes .
The wide range of artifacts discovered at the site has caused Mummy Cave to be seen as a highly significant site for the study of Rocky Mountain archeology . The cave 's significance was recognized by the National Park Service with its placement on the National Register of Historic Places in 1981 .
= Together When ... =
" Together When ... " is a song recorded by Japanese recording artist Ayumi Hamasaki . It was released by Avex Trax on December 5 , 2007 , and Rhythm Republic on April 9 , 2008 as a double A @-@ side with one of Hamasaki 's tracks " Game " as the third and final single from her ninth studio album , Guilty ( 2007 ) . It was released as Hamasaki 's first digital single in Japan , and was Avex Trax 's first single to be distributed as a digital download only . The track was written by Hamasaki herself , while production was handled by long @-@ time collaborator Max Matsuura . Musically , " Together When ... " is a power ballad . The lyrical content is about the finishing and separation of a relationship between lovers .
Upon its release , " Together When ... " received positive reviews from most music critics . Some of them selected the track as the best song from the album , while complimenting the composition and Hamasaki 's vocals / songwriting . Although it did not enter in Japan 's Oricon Singles Chart , it did peak at number one on the Reco @-@ kyō Singles Chart . It was certified in two categories by the Recording Industry Association of Japan ( RIAJ ) ; as of June 2016 , it has been downloaded over three million times , making this Hamasaki 's highest selling single . An accompanying music video was directed by Takahide Ishii , which displays Hamasaki waiting at a taxi stand , and another scene with her as a marionette . To promote the single , it was included on some of Hamasaki 's concert tours including her 2007 and 2010 New Years countdown shows .
= = Background and release = =
" Together When ... " was written by Hamasaki herself , while production was handled by long @-@ time collaborator Max Matsuura . The song 's instrumentation consists of piano and guitar by musician CMJK , drums by Makoto Izumitani , bass by Chris Chaney , conducting by David Campbell , and string arrangements by the David Campbell Strings Ensemble . It was then composed together and arranged by Kunio Tago and CMJK . " Together When ... " was one of the only tracks on Hamasaki 's ninth studio album , Guilty ( 2008 ) , that included instrumentation by Caucasian composers , instead of musicians in Japan . Musically , " Together When ... " is a power ballad . Bradley Stern from MuuMuse compared the composition and musical elements to the material from Hamasaki 's 2002 album I Am ... , and her 2003 EP Memorial Address . According to a staff reviewer at Japanese music magazine CD Journal , the song includes " quiet piano " riffs and " elegant string " arrangements . The lyrical content is about the finishing and separation of a relationship between lovers .
It was released by Avex Trax on December 5 , 2007 as the third and final single from Guilty . It was released as Hamasaki 's first digital single in Japan , and was Avex Trax 's first single to be distributed only on a digital download format . The digital single included the recording and its instrumental version . Then on April 9 , 2008 , " Together When ... " was re @-@ released by Rhythm Republic as a double A @-@ side single , issued on a 12 " inch vinyl , with one of Hamasaki 's previous songs " Game " ( which appeared on her sixth studio album My Story ( 2003 ) . ) . The vinyl included two remixes of " Game " by Japanese DJ Yoji , whilst the second side featured two remixes of " Together When ... " by Co @-@ Fusion .
= = Reception = =
Upon its release , " Together When ... " received positive reviews from most music critics . Bradley Stern , head writer from MuuMuse , awarded the song a maximum of ten points and labelled it one of the best tracks on Guilty . He commented , " Finally , a ballad with feeling ! ... Call me sadistic , but the best moments in an Ayumi song are the parts where it sounds like she ’ s about to break ( " Memorial Address " ) . This song is full of those moments . " In a similar review , a staff member at Channel @-@ Ai awarded it five stars out of five , and believed that the song is one " of her strongest ballads " . The reviewer further explained , " The emotion within the ballad is so infectious that the audience cannot help but feel empathy towards Ayumi . " A staff member at CD Journal enjoyed the song , labeling it a " beautiful performance " by Hamasaki ; the reviewer also complimented the instrumentation and production , and how it " melted together comfortably " .
" Together When ... " was unable to chart on Japan 's Oricon Singles Chart because of their restriction of digital sales and position . Despite this , it did peak at number one on the Reco @-@ kyō Singles Chart . The single was later certified in two categories by the Recording Industry Association of Japan ( RIAJ ) ; a triple platinum award certifying 750 @,@ 000 ringtone downloads , and a platinum award certifying 250 @,@ 000 cellphone downloads . This made it Hamasaki 's first and final million selling single since " Blue Bird " in 2006 , and her third and final single to sell over one million digital shipments ( behind " Carols " and " Heaven " ) . As of June 2016 , it has been downloaded over 3 @.@ 3 million times , making this Hamasaki 's highest selling single .
= = Music video = =
The accompanying music video was directed by Takahide Ishii . It opens with a couple arguing in a taxi , which later has them leaving the car and walk down the street . Behind them has Hamasaki sitting on a bench observing a puppet show , smiling in the distance . The taxi driver questions her smiling , and looks at the show . It then shows several camera angles with Hamasaki singing the song , and then has the second verse with Hamasaki and a male companion as the marionette dolls . As marionette dolls , they both walk past each other in a dark atmosphere , whilst the chorus has Hamasaki singing the song again at the bench . As the second chorus is about to begin , several children start to play with the dolls , to Hamasaki 's delight . However , the children decide to purchase the male doll , and leaves the female doll ( portrayed by Hamasaki ) on the small puppet show 's stage .
As the town , where Hamasaki is sitting on the bench , starts to rain , the atmosphere where Hamasaki is the doll starts to rain as well . Just after Hamasaki finishes singing the second chorus , an instrumental break happens and has Hamasaki looking at the now abandoned puppet show . A truck then drives past , which vibrates the puppet show 's stage , causing the doll to fall on the ground and its strings become tangled . This happens to Hamasaki as the doll ; she faints in the dark atmosphere land , with strings attached to her . Hamasaki , sitting on the bench , starts to cry and sings the remaining of the song . It ends with the taxi driver , who finishes day dreaming about the marionettes dolls , opening the door for Hamasaki to enter .
= = Promotion and live performances = =
To promote the single , Hamasaki performed the song on several concert tours and was used as commercials in Japan . It was used as the commercial track for Gemcerey jewellery , which Hamasaki appeared as the spokeswoman for the company . It was then used for Music.jp in Japan . The song was included on some of Hamasaki 's concert tours , including her : 2007 @-@ 2008 Anniversary Tour , the 2010 @-@ 2011 : Do It Again Tour , and the 2012 @-@ 2013 : Wake Me Up Tour .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
Credits adapted from the CD liner notes of Guilty ;
Recording
Recorded at Record Plant Recording Studio , Los Angeles , California ; Conway Recording Studios , Los Angeles , California ; Clinton Recording Studios , New York City , New York .
Credits
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= New York State Route 15A =
New York State Route 15A ( NY 15A ) is a north – south state highway located in the western portion of New York in the United States . It serves as an easterly alternate route of NY 15 , beginning in the Livingston County town of Springwater and ending 35 @.@ 19 miles ( 56 @.@ 63 km ) to the north in the Monroe County city of Rochester . NY 15A meets U.S. Route 20A ( US 20A ) in the hamlet of Hemlock , US 20 and NY 5 in the village of Lima , and Interstate 390 ( I @-@ 390 ) twice in Henrietta and Brighton . Its southern and middle sections traverse mostly rural areas , while the northernmost piece in Henrietta , Brighton , and Rochester passes through significantly more developed areas .
From 1927 to the late 1930s , modern NY 15 was part of NY 2 . As a result , all of what is now NY 15A was originally designated as New York State Route 2A as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York . Two parts of the route were sub @-@ standard at the time ; however , those sections were rebuilt in the early and mid @-@ 1930s . NY 2 was supplanted by an extended US 15 c . 1939 , at which time NY 2A was renumbered to NY 15A to match its parent 's new designation .
= = Route description = =
= = = Livingston and Ontario Counties = = =
NY 15A begins at an intersection with NY 15 in the town of Springwater hamlet of the same name , also officially known as Springwater Hamlet , located on the east side of a large valley in southeastern Livingston County . The route heads northward as North Main Street , proceeding along the eastern base of the valley as it passes through the northern half of the community . Outside of the hamlet , NY 15A enters a rural , undeveloped area dominated by dense forests to the east and a low @-@ lying , slightly more open area to the west . As the route approaches the Livingston – Ontario county line , the lowlands give way to marshes , which in turn lead to Hemlock Lake at the county line . While in Ontario County in the town of Canadice , NY 15A follows a more inland route to the east , passing through an isolated forest situated between Hemlock and Canadice Lakes . After 6 miles ( 10 km ) , the highway reenters Livingston County near the northern end of Hemlock Lake .
Now in the town of Livonia , NY 15A becomes Bald Hill Road as it passes by Hemlock Lake Park , a local park situated at the northeastern tip of the lake . It changes names again just 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) later upon entering the hamlet of Hemlock . Here , it becomes Main Street and intersects US 20A , which forms a concurrency with NY 15A along the length of Main Street . The concurrency continues through Hemlock and into rural Livonia , where the 2 @-@ mile ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) overlap ends as US 20A turns west towards Buffalo . NY 15A , meanwhile , heads northward into the town of Lima as Plank Road . It continues across rural terrain for another 3 miles ( 5 km ) to the village of Lima , where it becomes Lake Avenue . At the village center , NY 15A crosses over US 20 and NY 5 and changes names to Rochester Street . The route leaves the community and its residential surroundings after 0 @.@ 75 miles ( 1 @.@ 21 km ) , but retains the Rochester Street name until it reaches the Livingston – Monroe county line west of Honeoye Falls .
= = = Monroe County = = =
Across the county line in the town of Mendon , NY 15A takes on the name Rush – Lima Road and begins curving to the northwest . It connects to Honeoye Falls twice : first via Main Street at a junction just north of the county line , and later by way of Monroe Street ( formerly NY 363 ) at an intersection 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) to the northwest . Past Monroe Street , the route makes a long , significant turn to the west , following Honeoye Creek into the town of Rush and the hamlet of the same name . The highway meets Rush – West Rush Road at an intersection south of the community , at which point NY 15A turns back to the north and crosses over Honeoye Creek . In the process , NY 15A becomes East Henrietta Road , a name the highway retains until its northern end in Rochester . On the opposite side of the creek , NY 15A intersects NY 251 in the center of Rush .
Outside of Rush , NY 15A takes on a more northeasterly alignment as it passes Rush 's town reservoir and enters the town of Henrietta . The surroundings initially remain as rural as they were in Rush ; however , the amount of development along the highway gradually increases as the route approaches and passes over the New York State Thruway ( I @-@ 90 ) . One mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) later , NY 15A intersects NY 253 in a densely populated area west of Rush – Henrietta Senior High School . The homes continue for another 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) to the Monroe County Fairgrounds ( home to The Dome Center ) , at which point NY 15A begins to become lined with commercial establishments . The trend temporarily ceases around an interchange with I @-@ 390 — where NY 15A curves northwestward — but resumes ahead of a junction with NY 252 , itself a major commercial strip .
North of NY 252 , NY 15A passes under the CSX Transportation @-@ owned West Shore Subdivision and crosses into Brighton . Just past the town line , the route connects to Clay and Brighton – Henrietta Town Line Roads by way of a grade @-@ separated intersection 0 @.@ 25 miles ( 0 km ) north of the railroad overpass . It continues onward , passing along the west side of the sprawling Monroe Community College campus to another interchange with I @-@ 390 . NY 15A passes over the Erie Canal and enters the city of Rochester shortly afterward . Once in the city , the route passes by two large office campuses south of Westfall Road and several blocks of homes north of the street before merging back into NY 15 ( Mount Hope Avenue ) at a junction east of Strong Memorial Hospital .
= = History = =
What is now NY 15 was originally designated as part of NY 4 when the first set of posted routes in New York were assigned in 1924 . The route was renumbered to NY 2 in 1927 to eliminate numerical duplication with the new US 4 in eastern New York . Modern NY 15A , meanwhile , was only partially state @-@ maintained by the mid @-@ 1920s . In 1926 , only two sections of the route were state @-@ owned : from Monroe Street west of Honeoye Falls north to Rochester , and the segment of highway in Livonia that modern NY 15A shares with US 20A . In spite of this fact , all of what is now NY 15A was designated as NY 2A , an alternate route of NY 2 between Springwater and Rochester , in the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York .
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standard sections of the route between Springwater and Hemlock and from north of Hemlock to Honeoye Falls were improved in stages over the next half @-@ decade , beginning with the piece between the villages of Lima and Honeoye Falls c . 1931 . The remainder of the Hemlock – Honeoye Falls segment and the entirety of the route south of Hemlock was rebuilt c . 1934 . NY 2 was replaced c . 1939 by US 15 , which was extended northward from its previous terminus at the Pennsylvania state line to Rochester . NY 2A was renumbered to NY 15A as a result . NY 15A has not been substantially altered since that time .
= = Major intersections = =
= Battle of Vukovar =
The Battle of Vukovar ( Croatian : Bitka za Vukovar , Serbian : Битка за Вуковар , Bitka za Vukovar ) was an 87 @-@ day siege of Vukovar in eastern Croatia by the Yugoslav People 's Army ( JNA ) , supported by various paramilitary forces from Serbia , between August and November 1991 . Before the Croatian War of Independence the Baroque town was a prosperous , mixed community of Croats , Serbs and other ethnic groups . As Yugoslavia began to break up , Serbia 's President Slobodan Milošević and Croatia 's President Franjo Tuđman started to pursue nationalist politics . In 1990 , an armed insurrection was started by Croatian Serb militias , supported by the Serbian government and paramilitary groups , who seized control of Serb @-@ populated areas of Croatia . The JNA began to intervene in favour of the rebellion , and conflict broke out in the eastern Croatian region of Slavonia in May 1991 . In August , the JNA launched a full @-@ scale attack against Croatian @-@ held territory in eastern Slavonia , including Vukovar .
Vukovar was defended by around 1 @,@ 800 lightly armed soldiers of the Croatian National Guard ( ZNG ) and civilian volunteers , against 36 @,@ 000 JNA soldiers and Serb paramilitaries equipped with heavy armour and artillery . During the battle , shells and rockets were fired into the town at a rate of up to 12 @,@ 000 a day . At the time , it was the fiercest and most protracted battle seen in Europe since 1945 , and Vukovar was the first major European town to be entirely destroyed since the Second World War . When Vukovar fell on 18 November 1991 , several hundred soldiers and civilians were massacred by Serb forces and at least 31 @,@ 000 civilians were expelled from the town and its surroundings . Most of Vukovar was ethnically cleansed of its non @-@ Serb population and became part of the self @-@ declared Republic of Serbian Krajina . Several Serb military and political officials , including Milošević , were later indicted and in some cases jailed for war crimes committed during and after the battle .
The battle exhausted the JNA and proved a turning point in the Croatian war . A ceasefire was declared a few weeks later . Vukovar remained in Serb hands until 1998 , when it was peacefully reintegrated into Croatia . It has since been rebuilt but has less than half of its pre @-@ war population and many buildings are still scarred by the battle . Its two principal ethnic communities remain deeply divided and it has not regained its former prosperity .
= = Background = =
Vukovar is an important regional centre on Croatia 's eastern border , situated in eastern Slavonia on the west bank of the Danube river . The area has a diverse population of Croats , Serbs , Hungarians , Slovaks , Ruthenians and many other nationalities , who had lived together for centuries in relative harmony before the Croatian war . It was one of the wealthiest areas of Yugoslavia before the war . Vukovar 's long @-@ standing prosperity was reflected in one of Croatia 's finest ensembles of Baroque architecture .
The region underwent major demographic changes following the Second World War , when its ethnic German inhabitants were expelled and replaced with settlers from elsewhere in Yugoslavia . In the last Yugoslav census in 1991 , the Vukovar municipality , which included the town and surrounding villages , was recorded as having 84 @,@ 189 inhabitants , of whom 43 @.@ 8 percent were Croats , 37 @.@ 5 percent were Serbs and the remainder were members of other ethnic groups . The town 's population was 47 percent Croat and 32 @.@ 3 percent Serb .
From 1945 , the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was governed as a federal socialist state comprising six newly created republics – Slovenia , Croatia , Bosnia and Herzegovina , Serbia , Montenegro and Macedonia . The current border between Serbia and Croatia was defined in 1945 by a Yugoslav federal government commission which assigned areas with a majority Serb population to the Socialist Republic of Serbia and those with a Croatian majority to the Socialist Republic of Croatia . This left a large Serb minority in Croatian territory .
After Yugoslavia 's leader Josip Broz Tito died in 1980 , long @-@ suppressed ethnic nationalism revived and the individual republics began to assert their authority more strongly as the federal government weakened . Slovenia and Croatia moved towards multi @-@ party democracy and economic reform , but Serbia 's authoritarian communist President Slobodan Milošević opposed reform and sought to increase the power of the communist Yugoslav government . In 1990 , Slovenia and Croatia held elections that ended communist rule and brought pro @-@ independence nationalist parties to power in both republics . In Croatia , the Croatian Democratic Union ( HDZ ) party of Franjo Tuđman took office , with Tuđman as President .
Tuđman 's programme was opposed by many members of Croatia 's Serbian minority , towards whom he was overtly antagonistic . The Serb Democratic Party ( SDS ) of Croatia , supported by Milošević , denounced the HDZ as a reincarnation of the nationalist @-@ fascist Ustaše movement , which had massacred hundreds of thousands of Serbs during the Second World War . From mid @-@ 1990 , the SDS mounted an armed rebellion in Serb @-@ inhabited areas of Croatia and set up the self @-@ declared Serbian Autonomous Oblast of Krajina with covert support from the Serbian government and Serbian paramilitary groups . The Croatian government rapidly lost control of large areas of the republic . In February 1991 , the Krajina Serbs declared independence from Croatia and announced that they would unite with Serbia . Other Serb communities around Croatia also announced that they would secede and established their own militias .
= = Prelude to the battle = =
The conflict between Serbs and Croats spread to eastern Slavonia in early 1991 . On 1 April , Serb villagers around Vukovar and other towns in eastern Slavonia began to erect barricades across main roads . The White Eagles , a Serbian paramilitary group led by Vojislav Šešelj , moved into the Serb @-@ populated village of Borovo Selo just north of Vukovar . In mid @-@ April 1991 , Gojko Šušak , a Croatian government minister and hardline nationalist , personally fired three Armbrust shoulder @-@ launched anti @-@ tank missiles at houses inhabited by Serbs in Borovo Selo . There were no casualties , but the attack aggravated and deepened ethnic tensions . On 2 May , Serb paramilitaries ambushed two Croatian police buses in the centre of Borovo Selo , killing 12 policemen and injuring 22 more . Three Serbs were also killed . The Battle of Borovo Selo represented the worst act of violence between the country 's Serbs and Croats since the Second World War . It enraged many Croatians and led to a surge of ethnic violence across Slavonia .
Shortly after , Yugoslav People 's Army units moved into Borovo Selo . The army 's intervention was welcomed by local Croatian leaders , but Croatian deputy interior minister Milan Brezak accused the JNA of preventing the Croatian police from dealing with the paramilitaries . Gun battles broke out across the region between rival militias . In Vukovar , Croatians harassed Serb residents , sometimes violently . Croatian police forcibly took over the local radio station , Radio Vukovar , and Serb members of the station 's ethnically mixed staff were fired and replaced with Croats . Serb militias systematically blocked transport routes in the predominantly Serb @-@ inhabited countryside around Vukovar , and within days the town could only be reached by an unpaved track running through Croat @-@ inhabited villages . The atmosphere in Vukovar was said to be " murderous " .
On 19 May 1991 , the Croatian government held a nationwide referendum on a declaration of sovereignty . In Vukovar , as elsewhere in Croatia , hardline Serb nationalists urged Serbs to boycott the referendum , while moderates advocated using the poll to register opposition to independence . Many local Serbs did vote , but the referendum passed with 94 percent nationally voting in favour .
Violence in and around Vukovar worsened after the independence referendum . Repeated gun and bomb attacks were reported in the town and surrounding villages . Sporadic shelling of the city started in June , and increased in intensity throughout the summer . Borovo Naselje , the Croatian @-@ held northern suburb of Vukovar , sustained a significant shelling on 4 July . Serb paramilitaries expelled thousands of non @-@ Serbs from their homes in the municipality . Croatian paramilitaries , led by Tomislav Merčep , attacked Serbs in and around Vukovar ; between thirty and eighty @-@ six Serbs were alleged to have disappeared or been killed , and thousands of others fled their homes . A Croatian government representative in Vukovar told the Zagreb authorities that " the city is again [ the ] victim of terror , armed strife and provocative shoot @-@ outs with potentially unfathomable consequences . The policy pursued so far has created an atmosphere of terror among the Croatian and Serbian population . " Gunmen from both sides burned and looted hundreds of houses and farms in the area .
The conflict blurred ethnic lines . Many Serbs who had lived in Vukovar for generations – known as the starosedioci or " old settlers " – resisted the propaganda coming from Belgrade and Knin and continued to live peacefully with their Croatian neighbours . The došljaci , or " newcomers " , whose families had relocated from southern Serbia and Montenegro to replace the deported Germans after 1945 , were the most responsive to nationalist appeals . Paolo Rumiz describes how they " tried to win their coethnics over to the patriotic mobilization , and when they had no success with that , they killed them , plundered their property and goods , or drove them away . The old settlers would not let themselves be stirred up against other nationalities . " When Croats fled the fighting they often gave their house keys for safekeeping to their Serb neighbours , whom they trusted , rather than to the Croatian police . Sabrina P. Ramet comments that the distinctive feature of the war in eastern Slavonia was " the mobilization of those who were not integrated into the multi @-@ cultural life of the cities against urban multi @-@ culturalism . " The former mayor of Belgrade , Bogdan Bogdanović , characterises the attack on Vukovar as an act of " urbicide " , a deliberate assault on urbanism .
= = Opposing forces = =
By the end of July 1991 , an improvised Croatian defence force in Vukovar was almost surrounded by Serbian militias in the neighbouring villages . Paramilitaries , Yugoslav People 's Army ( JNA ) soldiers and Serbian conscripts of the Territorial Defence forces ( Croatian : Teritorijalna obrana , Serbian : Територијална одбрана or TO ) were present in Serb @-@ inhabited areas . There was a small JNA force in the town barracks in the Sajmište district of Vukovar , surrounded by territory controlled by Croatian forces . Although the two sides were commonly referred to as " Croatian " and " Serbian " or " Yugoslav " , Serbs and Croats as well as many other of Yugoslavia 's national groups fought on both sides . The first commander of the attacking force was a Macedonian , and a substantial portion of the Croatian defenders were Serbs and members of other ethnicities .
= = = Croatian forces = = =
The Croatian force in Vukovar comprised 1 @,@ 800 men assembled from units of the newly created Croatian National Guard , including 400 members of the 3rd Guards Brigade and the 1st Guards Brigade . The 4th Battalion of the 3rd Guards Brigade was stationed in the city from the beginning , while elements of the 1st Guards Brigade arrived retreating from elsewhere in western Syrmia . In addition to the guardsmen there were 300 police officers and 1 @,@ 100 civilian volunteers from Vukovar and nearby communities . The bulk of the force had initially been organised in an improvised manner , but was formally reorganised in late September 1991 as the 204th Vukovar Brigade , also known as the 124th Brigade .
Volunteers arrived from other parts of Croatia , including from the far @-@ right paramilitary Croatian Defence Forces ( HOS ) backed by Dobroslav Paraga 's extreme nationalist Croatian Party of Rights ( HSP ) . The defenders were a cross @-@ section of Vukovar society ; as many as a third were non @-@ Croats , including Serbs , Ruthenians , Hungarians and other ethnicities . About a hundred of the defenders were Serbs . According to Zoran Šangut , one of the Croat defenders , " We had complete confidence in them . They defended Vukovar alongside us . " A 300 @-@ strong HOS battalion named the Black Legion led by Alija Šiljak operated in Vukovar under the Croatian Ministry of the Interior as a " anti @-@ terrorist brigade " .
The Croatian force in Vukovar was commanded by Mile Dedaković , a former JNA officer who had joined the ZNG . Dedaković volunteered for a post in Vukovar and took charge of the town 's defences . During the siege of Vukovar he was referred to as Jastreb ( " Hawk " ) . At the time , the Croatian Minister of Defence Šušak publicly claimed that Dedaković was a Serb , a claim that was later reprinted by independent sources , but was false . Dedaković 's second @-@ in @-@ command , Branko Borković , was another former JNA officer who had volunteered for service in Vukovar . The two men established a unified command structure , organised the defenders into a single brigade and implemented an integrated defence system . A defensive ring of six sectors was established , each assigned to one unit within the 204th Brigade . The defenders used a network of cellars , canals , ditches and trenches to redeploy around the sectors as needed .
At the start of the battle , they were poorly armed and many were equipped only with hunting rifles . They relied mostly on light infantry weapons , but obtained a few artillery pieces and anti @-@ aircraft guns and improvised their own land mines . They also obtained several hundred anti @-@ tank weapons such as M79 and M80 rocket launchers , but were critically short of ammunition throughout the battle . Although the Croatian government sent some supplies and reinforcements in the early stages , the defenders received little of significance . This was partly because of the difficulty of reaching the town , but may also have been a result of the Croatian government 's decision to supply large quantities of arms to the Bosnian Croats in advance of the Bosnian War . In doing so , it starved its own forces of weapons and ammunition .
= = = Yugoslav and Serb forces = = =
The attacking force included JNA soldiers conscripted from across Yugoslavia , members of the TO , Chetniks ( Serbian nationalist paramilitaries ) , local Serb militiamen and units of the Yugoslav Navy and the Yugoslav Air Force . At their peak , the Yugoslav and Serb forces in the vicinity of Vukovar numbered about 36 @,@ 000 troops . They were equipped with heavy artillery , rockets and tanks and supported by aircraft and naval vessels on the Danube .
Although the battle was fought primarily by the federal Yugoslav military , the government of Serbia was directly involved . The Serbian secret police agency , the SDB , took part in military operations , and some of its officers commanded Serbian TO units fighting in Vukovar . The Serbian interior ministry directed the activities of the paramilitaries as well as arming and equipping them . Slobodan Milošević was later accused of direct involvement . According to Veselin Šljivančanin , who was later convicted of war crimes committed at Vukovar , the order to shell Vukovar came " from Dedinje " – the elite Belgrade quarter where Milošević lived .
At the start of the war in Slovenia , the army still saw itself as the defender of a federal , communist Yugoslavia , rather than an instrument of Serbian nationalism . Its head , General Veljko Kadijević , the Yugoslav Minister of Defence and a committed communist , initially sought to forcibly keep Yugoslavia together and proclaimed the army 's neutrality in the Serb @-@ Croat conflict . The JNA leadership aimed to cut Croatia in two by seizing the Serb @-@ inhabited inland regions , almost all of the Dalmatian coast and much of central and eastern Croatia . It aimed to force Croatia 's political leadership to capitulate and renegotiate its membership of Yugoslavia . The JNA 's leadership was not yet dominated by ethnic Serbs , and these early goals reflected the " Yugoslav " outlook of its multiethnic leadership . Kadijević was half @-@ Croat and half @-@ Serb , his deputy was a Slovene , the commander of JNA forces in the first phase of the battle was a Macedonian , and the head of the Yugoslav Air Force , which repeatedly bombed Vukovar during the battle , was a Croat .
The loss of Slovenia in the Ten @-@ Day War made it impossible to fulfil the original objective of keeping Yugoslavia intact . Many of the Serb members of the army no longer wanted to fight for a multiethnic Yugoslavia . The army developed an increasingly Serbian character as non @-@ Serbs deserted or refused to be drafted . Some JNA commanders overtly supported the Serb rebels in Croatia and provided them with weapons . Although Kadijević and other senior JNA commanders initially argued that " the JNA must defend all the nations of Yugoslavia " , they eventually recognised that they had no chance of achieving their original goals , and threw their support behind the rebel Serbs of Croatia .
Yugoslav and Serb propaganda portrayed the Croatians as genocidal Ustaše , who had illegally taken over Yugoslav territory and were threatening Serb civilians in a reprise of the anti @-@ Serb pogroms of the Second World War . Kadijević later justified the JNA 's offensive against Vukovar on the grounds that it was part of the " backbone of the Croatian army " and had to be " liberated " . The JNA 's periodical Narodna Armija claimed after the battle that Vukovar " had for decades been prepared to support German military penetration down the Danube . " The paramilitary leader Vojislav Šešelj declared : " We 're all one army . This war is a great test for Serbs . Those who pass the test will become winners . Deserters cannot go unpunished . Not a single Ustaša must leave Vukovar alive . "
= = Phase I , August to September 1991 = =
The Battle of Vukovar took place in two phases over about 90 days : from August to September 1991 , before the town was fully surrounded , and from early October to mid @-@ November , when the town was encircled then taken by the JNA . From June , the Serb forces subjected Vukovar and neighbouring villages to daily or near @-@ daily artillery and mortar fire . During July the JNA and TO began deploying in large numbers across eastern Slavonia , surrounding Vukovar on three sides . Heavy fighting began at the end of August . On 23 August Borovo Naselje came under heavy shellfire . Croatian forces shot down two Yugoslav G @-@ 2 Galeb fighter aircraft using shoulder @-@ launched anti @-@ aircraft missiles . The following day , the JNA , the Yugoslav Air Force and the Yugoslav Navy launched a major attack using aircraft , naval vessels on the Danube , tanks and artillery . The attack , which was mounted from both sides of the border , caused extensive damage and many civilian casualties .
The Croatian government launched an attack on JNA garrisons and arms depots throughout its territory on 14 September – an offensive dubbed the Battle of the Barracks . Vukovar 's JNA barracks was one of those attacked that day , but the local Croatian forces failed to capture it . In retaliation , Serb paramilitaries attacked areas to the southwest of Vukovar from the direction of Negoslavci , forcing about 2 @,@ 000 people to flee . There were reports of mass killings and scores of civilian deaths . Croatian forces outside the Vukovar perimeter received large quantities of arms and ammunition from depots captured elsewhere , enabling them to hold the line against JNA attacks .
The JNA responded by launching a major offensive in eastern Slavonia , from where it intended to progress west via Vinkovci and Osijek to Zagreb . The army did not bypass Vukovar , because they wished to relieve the besieged barracks and to eliminate a possible threat to their supply lines . The JNA leadership did not intend to make Vukovar the main focus of the offensive but , as happened with Stalingrad in the Second World War , an initially inconsequential engagement became an essential political symbol for both sides .
On 19 September , a JNA force consisting of at least a hundred T @-@ 55 and M @-@ 84 tanks with armoured personnel carriers and heavy artillery pieces left Belgrade and crossed into Croatia near the Serbian town of Šid on 20 September . Croatian units were quickly routed and fell back to Vukovar . The JNA 's 1st Guards Mechanised Brigade quickly reached the Vukovar barracks and lifted the Croatian siege of the facility . They also moved to encircle Vukovar . By 30 September , the town was almost completely surrounded ; all roads in and out were blocked , and the only route in was via a farm track through a perilously exposed cornfield .
The JNA launched repeated assaults on Vukovar but failed to make any progress . Its armour , designed for combat in open country , was barely able to enter Vukovar 's narrow streets . Support from regular infantry was lacking , and the poorly trained and motivated troops of the TO were inadequate substitutes . The JNA 's soldiers appeared to have little understanding of how to conduct urban operations and its officers displayed slow and reactive decision @-@ making on the ground .
Croatian forces countered the JNA 's attacks by mining approach roads , sending out mobile teams equipped with anti @-@ tank weapons , deploying many snipers , and fighting back from heavily fortified positions . The JNA initially relied on massing armoured spearheads which would advance along a street in a column followed by a few companies of infantry . The defenders responded by opening fire with anti @-@ tank weapons at very close range – often as short as 20 metres ( 66 ft ) – to disable the lead and rear vehicles , trapping the rest of the column , where it could be systematically disabled . The defenders tried to avoid completely destroying enemy armour , as the materiel that they retrieved from disabled vehicles was an important source of resupply . They used a strategy of " active defence " , carrying out hit @-@ and @-@ run attacks to keep the JNA forces off balance . Anti @-@ tank and anti @-@ personnel mines hindered JNA manoeuvres . The defenders used unconventional tactics to undermine enemy morale , such as firing weather rockets at Serb forces and sabotaging JNA tanks by planting mines underneath them while they were parked at night , so that they would blow up when the crews started them in the morning . JNA casualties were heavy ; on one road , dubbed the " tank graveyard " , about a hundred JNA armoured vehicles were destroyed , fifteen of them by Croatian Colonel Marko Babić . The high casualties had a debilitating effect on morale all the way up the chain of command .
The JNA began launching artillery and rocket barrages against the town . By the end of the battle , over 700 @,@ 000 shells and other missiles had been fired at Vukovar at a rate of up to 12 @,@ 000 a day . It is estimated that Vukovar as well as its surroundings were bombarded with a total of over 2 @.@ 5 million shells of mortar and artillery of over 20 mm . Metre for metre , the bombardment was more intense than at Stalingrad . The thousands of civilians remaining in Vukovar took shelter from the bombardment in cellars and bomb shelters that had been built during the Cold War .
= = = JNA weaknesses and adoption of new tactics = = =
The JNA 's lack of infantry support was due to a disastrously low level of mobilisation in the preceding months . Many reservists – who were drawn from all the Yugoslav republics , including Croatia – refused to report for duty , and many serving soldiers deserted rather than fight . Serbia was never formally at war and no general mobilisation was carried out . An estimated 150 @,@ 000 Serbs went abroad to avoid conscription , and many others deserted or went into hiding . Only 13 percent of conscripts reported for duty . Another 40 @,@ 000 staged rebellions in towns across Serbia ; the Serbian newspaper Vreme commented in July 1991 that the situation was one of " total military disintegration " .
Morale on the battlefield was poor . JNA commanders resorted to firing on their own positions to motivate their men to fight . When the commander of a JNA unit at Vukovar demanded to know who was willing to fight and who wanted to go home , the unit split in two ; one conscript , unable to decide which side to take , shot himself on the spot . A JNA officer who served at Vukovar later described how his men refused to obey orders on several occasions , " abandoning combat vehicles , discarding weapons , gathering on some flat ground , sitting and singing Give Peace a Chance by John Lennon . " In late October , an entire infantry battalion from Novi Sad in Serbia abandoned an attack on Borovo Naselje and fled . Another group of reservists threw away their weapons and went back to Serbia on foot across a nearby bridge . A tank driver , Vladimir Živković , drove his vehicle from the front line at Vukovar to the Yugoslav parliament in Belgrade , where he parked on the steps in front of the building . He was arrested and declared insane by the authorities . His treatment enraged his colleagues , who protested by taking over a local radio station at gunpoint and issuing a declaration that " we are not traitors , but we do not want to be aggressors . "
In late September , Lieutenant Colonel General Života Panić was put in charge of the operation against Vukovar . He established new headquarters and command @-@ and @-@ control arrangements to resolve the disorganisation that had hindered the JNA 's operations . Panić divided the JNA forces into Northern and Southern Areas of Responsibility ( AORs ) . The northern AOR was assigned to Major General Mladen Bratić , while Colonel Mile Mrkšić was given charge of the south . As well as fresh troops , paramilitary volunteers from Serbia were brought in . They were well armed and highly motivated but often undisciplined and brutal . They were formed into units of company and battalion size as substitutes for the missing reservists . The commander of the Novi Sad corps was videotaped after the battle praising the Serb Volunteer Guard ( " Tigers " ) of Željko Ražnatović , known as " Arkan " :
The greatest credit for this goes to Arkan 's volunteers ! Although some people accuse me of acting in collusion with paramilitary formations , these are not paramilitary formations here ! They are men who came voluntarily to fight for the Serbian cause . We surround a village , he dashes in and kills whoever refuses to surrender . On we go !
Panić combined well @-@ motivated paramilitary infantry with trained engineering units to clear mines and defensive positions , supported by heavy armour and artillery . The paramilitaries spearheaded a fresh offensive that began on 30 September . The assault succeeded in cutting the Croatian supply route to Vukovar when the village of Marinci , on the route out of the town , was captured on 1 October . Shortly afterwards , the Croatian 204th Brigade 's commander , Mile Dedaković , broke out with a small escort , slipping through the Serbian lines to reach the Croatian @-@ held town of Vinkovci . His deputy , Branko Borković , took over command of Vukovar 's defences . General Anton Tus , commander of the Croatian forces outside the Vukovar perimeter , put Dedaković in charge of a breakthrough operation to relieve the town and launched a counter @-@ offensive on 13 October . Croatian tanks and infantry , supported by artillery , retook Marinci and drove the JNA back almost to its starting position . The counter @-@ offensive was then called off by President Tuđman , citing pressure from the European Community for a ceasefire . This enabled the JNA 's 252nd Armoured Brigade to retake the ground that it had lost . From then on the town was completely surrounded and under constant attack from the JNA .
= = Phase II , October to November 1991 = =
During the final phase of the battle , Vukovar 's remaining inhabitants , including several thousand Serbs , took refuge in cellars and communal bomb shelters , which housed up to 700 people each . A crisis committee was established , operating from a nuclear bunker underneath the municipal hospital . The committee took over the running of the town and organised the delivery of food , water and medical supplies . It kept the number of civilians on the streets to a minimum and ensured that each shelter was guarded and had at least one doctor and nurse assigned to it .
The hospital had to deal with hundreds of wounded people – between sixteen and eighty each day , three quarters of them civilians , in the second half of September . Even though the building was marked with the Red Cross , it was struck by over eight hundred shells during the battle . Much of the building was wrecked , and the staff and patients had to relocate to underground service corridors . The intensive care unit was moved into the building 's nuclear bomb shelter . On 4 October , the Yugoslav Air Force attacked the hospital , destroying its operating theatre . One bomb fell through several floors , failed to explode and landed on the foot of a wounded man , without injuring him . One of the hospital doctors later asked in Serbia why the hospital had been attacked ; he was told : " Because you held wounded Croatian soldiers there . "
Croatian forces adapted several Antonov An @-@ 2 biplanes to drop supplies by parachute on Vukovar . The aircraft also dropped improvised bombs made of fuel cans and boilers filled with explosive and metal bars . The crews used GPS to find the target , then pushed the payloads out of the side door . One of the aircraft was shot down by an SA @-@ 6 missile , killing Marko Živković , the commander of the air unit .
The European Community attempted to provide humanitarian aid to the 12 @,@ 000 civilians trapped within the perimeter , but only one aid convoy made it through . Croatian forces suspended military action to allow the convoy to pass on 12 October , but the JNA used the pause as cover to make further military gains . After the convoy set off , the JNA delayed it for two days and used the time to lay mines , bring in reinforcements and consolidate JNA control of the road out of Vukovar . When the convoy arrived , it delivered medical supplies to the hospital at Vukovar and evacuated 114 injured civilians .
On 16 October , the JNA mounted a major attack against Borovo Naselje . It achieved some gains , but became bogged down in the face of determined Croatian resistance . On 30 October , the JNA launched a fully coordinated assault , spearheaded by paramilitary forces , with infantry and engineering troops systematically forcing their way through the Croatian defences . The JNA forces , divided into northern and southern operations sectors , attacked several points simultaneously and pushed back the defenders . The JNA also adopted new tactics , such as firing directly into houses and then driving tanks through them , using tear gas and smoke bombs to drive out the defenders , and using anti @-@ tank and anti @-@ aircraft guns to capture the town building by building . This enabled the Serb forces to flush out the defenders , inflicting heavy casualties .
On 2 November , the JNA reached the strategic suburb of Lužac , between Borovo Naselje and Vukovar , cutting one of the two roads linking the town centre with its northern suburb . Meanwhile , the ZNG ( which had been renamed the Croatian Army ) attempted to retake the villages of Marinci and Cerić to reopen the supply route to Vukovar . It mounted a heavy bombardment of the JNA 's access routes to Vukovar and a tank attack on JNA lines . JNA General Mladen Bratić was killed on 4 November when his tank was hit by a shell , but the JNA 's advantage in artillery and rockets enabled it to halt the Croatian advance and inflict heavy casualties .
= = = Fall of Vukovar = = =
JNA troops launched an amphibious assault across the Danube north of Lužac on 3 November to link up with Arkan 's paramilitary " Tigers " . This attack split the Croatian perimeter in half and divided the main group of defenders in the town centre from a smaller stronghold in Borovo Naselje . The JNA 's Operational Group South now began to systematically clear the town centre , cutting off the remaining groups of defenders . They captured a key hilltop , Milova Brda ( Mill Hill ) , on 9 November , giving them a clear view of the town . The assault was largely led by paramilitary troops , with JNA and TO soldiers providing support , especially in demining operations and close artillery support . The Croatian @-@ held village of Bogdanovci , just to the west of Vukovar , fell on 10 November . On 13 November the JNA cut the last link between Borovo Naselje and Vukovar . Croatian forces outside the Vukovar perimeter mounted a last @-@ ditch attempt to break the siege by attacking from the village of Nuštar , but the JNA again repelled them .
By now , the defenders were running out of ammunition and were exhausted from fighting around the clock without any prospect of being relieved or replacing their dead and wounded . They had been reduced to three separate pockets . With defeat now inevitable , several hundred Croatian soldiers and civilians attempted to break out over the course of several days , as the JNA mounted its final offensive . Most of those in Borovo Naselje were unable to break out and were killed . On 18 November , the last defenders in Vukovar 's town centre surrendered .
Many of Vukovar 's civilian inhabitants were living in squalid conditions and nearing starvation . One woman told UN Special Envoy Cyrus Vance that she had spent the last two months in a bomb shelter with her five children without toilets or water for washing . They lived on two slices of bread and a piece of pâté per day . One of Vukovar 's defenders described conditions as the battle reached its peak :
By early October , there were no cigarettes . People were smoking grape leaves or tea . There was no yeast for bread . My son was eating tinned food with me and my wife . There was less and less of that . The shelling became 24 hours a day , and the cease @-@ fires were worse . When people came out of the shelters to go to the well during the cease @-@ fires , the snipers shot them . You can 't keep children in for two months , and when they ran outside , when there was sun in the morning , they shot at them , too .
When the battle ended , the scale of the destruction came as a shock to many who not been out of their shelters in weeks . Siniša Glavašević , a reporter for Croatian Radio and a native of Vukovar , who had stayed in the town throughout the battle , described the scene as the survivors emerged :
The picture of Vukovar at the 22nd hour of the 87th day [ of the siege ] will stay forever in the memory of those who witnessed it . Unearthly scenes are endless , the smell of burning , under the feet the remnants of old roof tiles , building materials , glass , ruins , and a dreadful silence . ... We hope that the torments of Vukovar are over .
Although the fighting was over in the centre of Vukovar , sporadic combat continued for several more days elsewhere in the shattered town . Some defenders continued to resist until 20 November and a few managed to slip away from Borovo Naselje as late as 23 November .
Foreign journalists and international monitors entered the town soon after the surrender and recorded what they saw . Blaine Harden of the Washington Post wrote :
Not one roof , door or wall in all of Vukovar seems to have escaped jagged gouges or gaping holes left by shrapnel , bullets , bombs or artillery shells – all delivered as part of a three @-@ month effort by Serb insurgents and the Serb @-@ led Yugoslav army to wrest the city from its Croatian defenders . Not one building appears habitable , or even repairable . Nearly every tree has been chopped to bits by firepower .
Chuck Sudetic of The New York Times reported :
Only soldiers of the Serbian @-@ dominated army , stray dogs and a few journalists walked the smoky , rubble @-@ choked streets amid the ruins of the apartment buildings , stores and hotel in Vukovar 's center . Not one of the buildings seen during a daylong outing could be described as habitable . In one park , shell fire had sheared thick trees in half like blades of grass cut by a mower . Across the street , the dome of an Orthodox Christian church had fallen onto the altar . Automatic weapons fire erupted every few minutes as the prowling Serbian soldiers , some of them drunk , took aim at land mines , pigeons and windows that had survived the fighting .
Laura Silber and the BBC 's Allan Little described how " corpses of people and animals littered the streets . Grisly skeletons of buildings still burned , barely a square inch had escaped damage . Serbian volunteers , wild @-@ eyed , roared down the streets , their pockets full of looted treasures . " The JNA celebrated its victory , as Marc Champion of The Independent described :
The colonels who ran " Operation Vukovar " entertained more than 100 journalists inside the ruins of the Dunav Hotel at a kind of Mad Hatter 's victory celebration . They handed out picture postcards of the old Vukovar as mementoes and served drinks on starched white tablecloths , as wind and rain blew in through shattered windows ... Inside the Dunav Hotel was an Alice in Wonderland world where Colonel [ Miodrag ] Gvero announced that the gaping holes in the walls had been blasted by the Croatian defenders . They had placed sticks of dynamite in the brickwork to make the army look bad , he said .
= = Casualties = =
= = = Croatian = = =
Croatian forces and civilians suffered heavy casualties . The Croatian side initially reported 1 @,@ 798 killed — civilians and soldiers — in the siege of the city . Croatian general Anton Tus later stated that about 1 @,@ 100 of Vukovar 's defenders were killed and 2 @,@ 600 defenders and civilians were listed as missing ; another 1 @,@ 000 Croatian soldiers were killed on the approaches to Vinkovci and Osijek . He noted that the intensity of the fighting can be judged by the fact that the losses in eastern Slavonia between September and November 1991 constituted half of all Croatian war casualties during the whole of 1991 . According to figures published in 2006 by the Croatian Ministry of Defence , 879 Croatian soldiers were killed and 770 wounded in Vukovar . The Central Intelligence Agency estimates Croatian casualties at around 4 @,@ 000 to 5 @,@ 000 dead across eastern Slavonia . The 204th Vukovar Brigade lost over 60 percent of its strength in the battle . Croatian officials have given figures of 2 @,@ 000 killed , 800 missing , 3 @,@ 000 taken prisoner and 42 @,@ 852 made refugees in eastern Slavonia as a whole .
= = = Serbian and Yugoslav = = =
Although JNA losses were undoubtedly substantial , the exact numbers are unclear because of a lack of official data . The JNA officially acknowledged 1 @,@ 279 killed in action , including 177 officers , during the entire war in Croatia . According to Anton Tus , the JNA 's Novi Sad corps alone lost 1 @,@ 300 soldiers during the campaign in eastern Slavonia . He extrapolates from this to estimate that between 6 @,@ 000 and 8 @,@ 000 soldiers and volunteers died in eastern Slavonia , with the loss of 600 armoured vehicles and heavy weapons and over 20 aircraft .
Serbian sources disagree with this assessment . General Andrija Biorčević , the former commander of the Novi Sad corps , has said there were " [ not ] more than 1 @,@ 500 killed on our side . " The Serbian journalist Miroslav Lazanski , who has close links with the Serbian military , wrote in the Belgrade newspaper Večernje novosti that " on the side of the JNA , Territorial Defence and volunteer units , exactly 1 @,@ 103 members were killed . " He cited losses of 110 armoured vehicles and two combat aircraft shot down , plus another destroyed due to technical failure . However , the actual number may have been considerably greater as casualties were consistently underreported during the war .
= = War crimes = =
Many of those captured in Vukovar , both soldiers and civilians , were killed . Serb paramilitaries roamed the streets looking for Croats to kill and carried out numerous summary executions . Journalists witnessed one such killing in Vukovar 's main street and also reported seeing the streets strewn with bodies in civilian clothes . BBC television reporters recorded Serbian paramilitaries chanting : " Slobodane , Slobodane , šalji nam salate , biće mesa , biće mesa , klaćemo Hrvate ! " ( " Slobodan [ Milošević ] , Slobodan , send us some salad , [ for ] there will be meat , there will be meat , we will slaughter Croats " ) . A Serbian journalist embedded with the JNA reserve forces in Vukovar later reported :
After Vukovar fell , people were lined up and made to walk to detention areas . As the prisoners walked by , local Serbian paramilitaries pulled people out of the lines at random , claiming that they had to be executed because they were " war criminals . " Most of these people were Croats who had spent the duration of the fighting in basements , particularly in the Vukovar hospital . The selection of those who were to be executed also was done as these people were leaving the shelters . They were removed from lines under the supervision , and with the apparent permission , of Major Veselin Šljivančanin , the JNA officer in charge of security after Vukovar 's fall .
Around 400 people in Vukovar 's hospital – non @-@ Serb patients , medical personnel , local political figures and others who had taken refuge there – were taken from the hospital by the JNA . Although some were subsequently released , around 200 were taken to a nearby Ovčara camp and were executed in what became known as the Vukovar massacre . At least fifty others were taken somewhere else and were never seen again . Thousands more people were transferred by the JNA to prison camps elsewhere in Serb @-@ controlled Croatia and in Serbia proper . Further mass killings followed ; at Dalj , north of Vukovar , where many inhabitants were previously massacred , numerous prisoners from Vukovar were subjected to harsh interrogations , beatings and torture , and at least 35 were killed . The JNA imprisoned two thousand people in the Velepromet industrial facility in Vukovar . Eight hundred were classified by the JNA as prisoners of war . Many were brutally interrogated , several were shot on the spot by TO members and paramilitaries , and others were sent to Ovčara where they were killed in the massacre . The remaining prisoners were transferred to a JNA @-@ run prison camp at Sremska Mitrovica in Serbia , where they were stripped naked on arrival , beaten and interrogated , and forced to sleep for weeks on bare wooden floors . Most were released in January 1992 under an agreement brokered by UN envoy Cyrus Vance . Others were kept prisoner until mid @-@ 1992 . Serbs who had fought to defend Vukovar were particularly harshly treated and were subjected to savage beatings because their captors considered them to be traitors .
Detainees who were not suspected of involvement with the Croatian armed forces were evacuated from Vukovar to other locations in Serbia and Croatia . The non @-@ Serb population of Vukovar and the surrounding region was systematically ethnically cleansed and 31 @,@ 732 people were forced to leave their homes in the Vukovar district , adding to the tens of thousands already expelled from across eastern Slavonia . 2 @,@ 600 people disappeared following the fall of the town , of whom around 550 are still missing . There were also incidents of war rape , for which two soldiers were later convicted .
Serb forces singled out a number of prominent individuals . Among them was Dr. Vesna Bosanac , the director of the town 's hospital , who was regarded as a heroine in Croatia but demonised by the Serbian media . She and her husband were taken to Sremska Mitrovica prison , where she was locked up in a single room with 66 other women for several weeks . Her husband was subjected to repeated beatings . After appeals from the International Committee of the Red Cross , the couple were eventually released in a prisoner exchange . The Croatian Radio journalist Siniša Glavašević , whose broadcasts had become iconic in Croatia , was taken to Ovčara , severely beaten and shot along with the other victims of the massacre .
Vukovar was systematically looted after its capture . A JNA soldier who fought at Vukovar told the Serbian newspaper Dnevni Telegraf that " the Chetnik [ paramilitaries ] behaved like professional plunderers , they knew what to look for in the houses they looted . " The JNA also participated in the looting ; an official in the Serbian Ministry of Defence commented : " Tell me of even one reservist , especially if he is an officer , who has spent more than a month at the front and has not brought back a fine car filled with everything that would fit inside the car . " The Serb forces looted more than 8 @,@ 000 artworks from Vukovar , including the contents of the municipal museum , Eltz Castle , which was bombed and destroyed during the siege . Serbia returned 2 @,@ 000 pieces of looted art in December 2001 .
= = = Indictments and trials = = =
Three JNA officers , Mile Mrkšić ; Veselin Šljivančanin ; and Miroslav Radić , were indicted by the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia ( ICTY ) on multiple counts of crimes against humanity and violations of the laws of war , having surrendered or been captured during 2002 and 2003 . On 27 September 2007 , Mrkšić was sentenced by the ICTY to 20 years ' imprisonment for murder and torture , and Šljivančanin was sentenced to five years ' imprisonment on charges of torture . Radić was acquitted . Šljivančanin 's sentence was increased to 17 years on appeal , then reduced again to ten years after a second appeal , and he was granted early release in July 2011 . Slavko Dokmanović , the Serb mayor of Vukovar , was also indicted and arrested for his role in the massacre , but committed suicide in June 1998 , shortly before judgement was to be announced .
The Serbian paramilitary leader Vojislav Šešelj was indicted on war crimes charges , including several counts of extermination , for the Vukovar hospital massacre , in which his " White Eagles " were allegedly involved . In March 2016 , Šešelj was acquitted on all counts pending appeal . Croatia also indicted a number of Serbs for war crimes committed in Vukovar . In December 2005 , a Serbian court convicted fourteen former paramilitaries for their involvement in the hospital massacre . The ICTY linked Željko " Arkan " Ražnatović to the massacre , but he was assassinated in Belgrade before he could be brought to trial .
The ICTY indictment of Slobodan Milošević characterised the overall JNA and Serb offensive in Croatia – including the fighting in eastern Slavonia – as a " joint criminal enterprise " to remove non @-@ Serb populations from Serb @-@ inhabited areas of Croatia . Milošević was charged with numerous crimes against humanity , violations of the laws of war , and breaches of the Geneva Conventions in relation to the battle of Vukovar and its aftermath . He died in March 2006 , before his trial could be completed . The Croatian Serb leader Goran Hadžić was indicted for " wanton destruction of homes , religious and cultural buildings " and " devastation not justified by military necessity " across eastern Slavonia , and for deporting Vukovar 's non @-@ Serb population . He was arrested in July 2011 , after seven years on the run , and has pleaded not guilty to fourteen counts of war crimes and crimes against humanity .
Croatian courts indicted Veljko Kadijević and Blagoje Adžić , former commanders of the Yugoslav Army , for war crimes in Vukovar . Adžić died of natural causes in Belgrade in March 2012 , and never faced trial . Kadijević fled Yugoslavia following Milošević 's overthrow and sought asylum in Russia . He was granted Russian citizenship in 2008 , and died in Moscow in November 2014 . In 2011 , a Serbian court indicted more than 40 Croatians for alleged war crimes committed in Vukovar , but an earlier indictment against a Croatian soldier was dropped because of irregularities in the investigation .
In 1999 , Croatia sued Yugoslavia before the International Court of Justice ( ICJ ) , claiming genocide had been committed in Vukovar . At Serbia and Montenegro 's dissolution in 2006 , this suit was passed on to Serbia . In February 2015 , the ICJ ruled that the battle of Vukovar and the ensuing massacre did not constitute genocide , though it confirmed that serious crimes had been committed by the JNA and Serb paramilitaries .
= = Political aspects = =
= = = Propaganda = = =
The Serbian and Croatian media waged a fierce propaganda battle over the progress and reasons for the battle . Both sides ' propaganda machines aimed to promote ultranationalist sentiments and denigrate the other side with no pretence of objectivity or self @-@ criticism . Croatian media described the Serbian forces as " Serb terrorists " and a " Serbo @-@ Communist army of occupation " intent on crushing a thousand @-@ year dream of an independent Croatia . The propaganda reached peak intensity in the wake of Vukovar 's fall . The Croatian newspaper Novi list denounced the Serbs as " cannibals " and " brutal Serb extremists " , while the Serbian media depicted the JNA and Serbian forces as " liberators " and " defenders " of the Serbian people , and the Croatian forces as " Ustashoid hordes " , " blackshirts " , " militants " and " drunk and stoned monsters " . There were overt appeals to racial and gender prejudice , including claims that the Croatian defenders had " put on female dress to escape from the town " and had recruited " black men " .
Victim status became a central aim for the propaganda machines of both sides , and the battle was used to support claims of atrocities . Victims became interchangeable as anonymous victims were identified as Croats on Zagreb television and as Serbs on Belgrade TV . According to the Serbian opposition periodical Republika , the state @-@ owned station TV Novi Sad was under orders to identify any bodies its reporters filmed as being " Serbian corpses " . After the battle , Belgrade television showed pictures of hundreds of corpses lined up outside Vukovar 's hospital and claimed that they were Serbs who had been " massacred " by Croatians . According to Human Rights Watch , the bodies belonged to those who had died of their injuries at the hospital , whose staff had been prevented from burying them by the intense Serbian bombardment , and had been forced to leave them lying in the open . Serbian television continued to broadcast claims of " massacred Serbs in Vukovar " for some time after the fall of the town .
Such victim @-@ centred propaganda had a powerful motivating effect . One Serbian volunteer said that he had never seen the town before the war , but had come to fight because " the Croats had a network of catacombs under the city where they killed and tortured children just because they were Serbs . " Reuters reported erroneously that forty @-@ one children had been massacred in Vukovar by Croatian soldiers ; although the claim was retracted a day later , it was used by the Serbian media to justify military action against Croatia . Many of those fighting at Vukovar believed that they were engaged in a struggle to liberate the town from a hostile occupier .
= = = International reaction = = =
The international community made repeated unsuccessful attempts to end the fighting . Both sides violated ceasefires , often within hours . Calls by some European Community members for the Western European Union to intervene militarily were vetoed by the United Kingdom . Instead , a Conference for Yugoslavia was established under the chairmanship of Lord Carrington to find a way to end the conflict . The United Nations ( UN ) imposed an arms embargo on all of the Yugoslav republics in September 1991 under Security Council Resolution 713 , but this was ineffective , in part because the JNA had no need to import weapons . The European powers abandoned attempts to keep Yugoslavia united and agreed to recognise the independence of Croatia and Slovenia on 15 January 1992 .
International observers tried unsuccessfully to prevent the human rights abuses that followed the battle . A visit by UN envoys Marrack Goulding and Cyrus Vance was systematically obstructed by the JNA . Vance 's demands to see the hospital , from which wounded patients were being dragged out to be killed , were rebuffed by one of the massacre 's creators , Major Veselin Šljivančanin . The major also blocked Red Cross representatives in an angry confrontation recorded by TV cameras : " This is my country , we have conquered this . This is Yugoslavia , and I am in command here ! "
There was no international media presence in Vukovar , as there was in the simultaneous Siege of Dubrovnik and the later Siege of Sarajevo , and relatively little of the fighting in Vukovar was broadcast to foreign audiences . British journalist Misha Glenny commented that the JNA , the Croatian Serb government and many ordinary Serbs were often hostile to the foreign media ; the Croatians presented a much more open and friendly attitude .
= = = Croatian reaction = = =
The Croatian media gave heavy coverage to the battle , repeatedly airing broadcasts from the besieged town by the journalist Siniša Glavašević . Much popular war art focused on the " VukoWAR " , as posters dubbed it . The Croatian government began suppressing Glavašević 's broadcasts when it became clear that defeat was inevitable , despite the confident slogans of " Vukovar shall not fall " and " Vukovar must not fall . " Two of the main daily newspapers , Večernji list and Novi list , failed to report the loss of Vukovar and , on 20 November , two days after it had fallen , repeated the official line that the fight was still continuing . News of the surrender was dismissed as Serbian propaganda . Nevertheless , many people saw Western satellite broadcasts showing the ruined town and Serbian soldiers taking its inhabitants into custody . When the surrender could no longer be denied , the two newspapers interpreted the loss as a demonstration of Croatian bravery and resistance , blaming the international community for not intervening to help Croatia .
The Croatian government was criticised for its approach to the battle . Surviving defenders and right @-@ wing political parties accused it of betrayal and of deliberately sacrificing Vukovar to secure international recognition for Croatia . The only explanation that many people were willing to accept for the town 's fall was that it had been given up as part of a conspiracy . The commanders of the Croatian forces in Vukovar , Mile Dedaković and Branko Borković , both survived the battle and spoke out publicly against the government 's actions . In an apparent attempt to silence them , both men were briefly detained by Croatian military police , and the Croatian government suppressed an issue of the newspaper Slobodni tjednik that published a transcript of a telephone call from Vukovar , in which Dedaković had pleaded with an evasive Tuđman for military assistance . The revelations caused public outrage and reinforced perceptions that the defenders had been betrayed .
From a military point of view , the outcome at Vukovar was not a disaster for Croatia 's overall war effort . The battle broke the back of the JNA offensive and left Croatia 's main adversary exhausted and unable to press its offensive deeper into the country . Vukovar was probably indefensible , being almost surrounded by Serb @-@ held territory and closer to Belgrade than to Zagreb , and although the defeat was damaging to morale , in a strategic context the damage and delays inflicted on the JNA more than made up for the loss of the town .
Following the battle , Vukovar became a symbol of Croatian resistance and suffering . The survivors , veterans and journalists wrote numerous memoirs , songs and testimonies about the battle and its symbolism , calling it variously " the phenomenon " , " the pride " , " the hell " and " the Croatian knight " . Writers appealed to the " Vukovar principle " , the " spirituality of Vukovar " and " Vukovar ethics " , the qualities said to have been exhibited by the defenders and townspeople . Croatian war veterans were presented with medals bearing the name of Vukovar . In 1994 , when Croatia replaced the Croatian dinar with its new currency , the kuna , it used the destroyed Eltz Castle in Vukovar and the Vučedol Dove – an artefact from an ancient Neolithic culture centred on eastern Slavonia , which was discovered near Vukovar – on the new 20 @-@ kuna note . The imagery emphasises the Croatian nature of Vukovar , at the time under Serbian control . During 1993 – 94 , there was a national debate on how Vukovar should be rebuilt when it was recovered ; some Croatians even proposed that it should be preserved as a monument .
The ruling HDZ made extensive use of popular culture relating to Vukovar as propaganda in the years before the region was reintegrated into Croatia . In 1997 , President Tuđman mounted a tour of eastern Slavonia , accompanied by a musical campaign called Sve hrvatske pobjede za Vukovar ( " All Croatian victories for Vukovar " ) . The campaign was commemorated by the release of a compilation of patriotic music from Croatia Records . When Vukovar was returned to Croatian control in 1998 , its recovery was hailed as the completion of a long struggle for freedom and Croatian national identity . Tuđman alluded to such sentiments when he gave a speech in Vukovar to mark its reintegration into Croatia :
Our arrival in Vukovar – the symbol of Croatian suffering , Croatian resistance , Croatian aspirations for freedom , Croatian desire to return to its eastern borders on the Danube , of which the Croatian national anthem sings – is a sign of our determination to really achieve peace and reconciliation .
= = = Serbian reaction = = =
Although the battle had been fought in the name of Serbian defence and unity , reactions in Serbia were deeply divided . The JNA , the state @-@ controlled Serbian media and Serbian ultra @-@ nationalists hailed the victory as a triumph . The JNA even erected a triumphal arch in Belgrade through which its returning soldiers could march , and officers were congratulated for taking " the toughest and fiercest Ustaša fortress " . The Serbian newspaper Politika ran a front @-@ page headline on 20 November announcing : " Vukovar Finally Free " . In January 1992 , from the ruins of Vukovar , the ultranationalist painter Milić Stanković wrote an article for the Serbian periodical Pogledi ( " Viewpoints " ) , in which he declared : " Europe must know Vukovar was liberated from the Croat Nazis . They were helped by Central European scum . They crawled from under the papal tiara , as a dart of the serpent 's tongue that protruded from the bloated Kraut and overstretched Eurocommunal anus . "
The Serbian geographer Jovan Ilić set out a vision for the future of the region , envisaging it being annexed to Serbia and its expelled Croatian population being replaced with Serbs from elsewhere in Croatia . The redrawing of Serbia 's borders would unite all Serbs in a single state , and would cure Croats of opposition to Serbian nationalism , which Ilić termed an " ethno @-@ psychic disorder " ; thus , " the new borders should primarily be a therapy for the treatment of ethno @-@ psychic disorders , primarily among the Croatian population . " Other Serbian nationalist writers acknowledged that historical evidence was that eastern Slavonia had been Croatian for centuries , but blamed the Croatian majority in the region on " conversion to Catholicism , Uniating and Croatisation " plus " genocidal destruction " . Most irredentist propaganda focused on the region 's proximity to Serbia and the large number of Serbs who inhabited the area .
The Croatian Serb leadership also took a positive view of the outcome . During the rule of the Republic of Serbian Krajina ( RSK ) between 1991 and 1995 , the fall of Vukovar on 18 November 1991 was officially commemorated as " Liberation Day " . It was portrayed as a successful struggle by local Serbs to defend their lives and property from the aggression of the Croatian state . Thousands of Vukovar 's Serbs had suffered alongside their Croatian neighbours , sheltering in basements or bomb shelters for three months in appalling conditions , but after their " liberation " they were denigrated as the podrumaši , the " people from the basement " . The Serb civilian dead were denied recognition , and the only people buried in the Serbian memorial cemetery at Vukovar were local Serbs who had fought with or alongside the JNA .
In contrast , many people in Serbia were strongly opposed to the battle and the wider war and resisted efforts by the state to involve them in the conflict . When the JNA tried to call up reservists , parents and relatives gathered around JNA barracks to prevent their children taking part in the operation . Resistance to conscription became widespread across Serbia , ranging from individual acts of defiance to collective mutinies by hundreds of reservists at a time . Serbian opposition politicians condemned the war : Desimir Tošić of the Democratic Party accused Slobodan Milošević of " using the conflict to cling to power " and Vuk Drašković , leader of the Serbian Renewal Movement , appealed to JNA soldiers to " pick up their guns and run " from the front line . After the fall of Vukovar he condemned what had been done in the name of Yugoslavia , writing in the daily newspaper Borba :
I cannot applaud the Vukovar victory , which is so euphorically celebrated in the war propaganda of intoxicated Serbia . I cannot , for I won 't violate the victims , thousands of dead , nor the pain and misfortune of all Vukovar survivors ... [ Vukovar ] is the Hiroshima of both Croatian and Serbian madness ... Everyone in this state , Serbs but especially Croats , have established days of the greatest shame and fall .
By late December 1991 , just over a month after victory had been proclaimed in Vukovar , opinion polls found that 64 percent wanted to end the war immediately and only 27 percent were willing to continue the war . Milošević and other senior Serbian figures decided against continuing the fighting , as they saw it as politically impossible to mobilise more conscripts to fight in Croatia . Desertions from the JNA continued and the well @-@ motivated and increasingly well @-@ equipped Croatian Army was becoming increasingly difficult to counter . By the end of 1991 , Serbian politicians and JNA leaders alike had concluded that it would be counter @-@ productive to continue the war . The looming conflict in Bosnia also required that the military resources tied up in Croatia be freed for future use .
Although the battle was publicly portrayed as a triumph , behind the scenes it profoundly affected the JNA 's character and leadership . The army 's leaders realised that they had overestimated their ability to pursue operations against heavily defended urban targets . The central Croatian town of Gospić , for instance , was a strategic target of the JNA but was now assessed as potentially a " second Vukovar " . The " Serbianisation " of the army was greatly accelerated , and , by the end of 1991 , it was estimated to be 90 percent Serb . Its formerly pro @-@ communist , pan @-@ Yugoslav identity was abandoned , and new officers were now advised to " love , above all else , their unit , their army and their homeland – Serbia and Montenegro " . The JNA 's failure enabled the Serbian government to tighten its control over the military , whose leadership was purged and replaced with pro @-@ Milošević nationalists . After the battle , General Veljko Kadijević , commander of the JNA , was forced into retirement for " health reasons " , and in early 1992 , another 38 generals and other officers were forced to retire , with several put on trial for incompetence and treason .
Many individual JNA soldiers who took part in the battle were revolted by what they had seen and protested to their superiors about the behaviour of the paramilitaries . Colonel Milorad Vučić later commented that " they simply do not want to die for such things " . The slaughter that they witnessed at Vukovar led some to experience subsequent feelings of trauma and guilt . A JNA veteran told a journalist from the Arabic newspaper Asharq Al @-@ Awsat :
'I was in the Army and I did my duty . Vukovar was more of a slaughter than a battle . Many women and children were killed . Many , many . ' I asked him : ' Did you take part in the killing ? ' He answered : ' I deserted . ' I asked him : ' But did you kill anyone ? ' He replied : ' I deserted after that ... The slaughter of Vukovar continues to haunt me . Every night I imagine that the war has reached my home and that my own children are being butchered.'
= = = Other Yugoslav reaction = = =
In Bosnia and Herzegovina , President Alija Izetbegović made a televised appeal to Bosnian citizens to refuse the draft on the grounds that " this is not our war " . He called it their " right and duty " to resist the " evil deeds " being committed in Croatia and said : " Let those who want it , wage it . We do not want this war . " When JNA troops transferred to the front via the Višegrad region of north @-@ eastern Bosnia , local Bosnian Croats and Muslims set up barricades and machine @-@ gun posts . They halted a column of 60 JNA tanks but were dispersed by force the following day . More than 1 @,@ 000 people had to flee the area . This action , nearly seven months before the start of the Bosnian War , caused the first casualties of the Yugoslav Wars in Bosnia .
Macedonia 's parliament adopted a declaration of independence from Yugoslavia in January 1991 , but it did not take effect until a referendum in September 1991 confirmed it . A group of Macedonian JNA officers secretly sought to prevent soldiers from Macedonia being sent to Croatia , and busloads of soldiers ' parents , funded by the Macedonian government , travelled to Montenegro to find their sons and bring them home . Meanwhile , Macedonians continued to be conscripted into the JNA and serve in the war in Croatia . The commander of JNA forces in the first phase of the battle , Gen. Aleksandar Spirkovski , was a Macedonian ; his ethnicity was probably a significant factor in the decision to replace him with Života Panić , a Serb . In 2005 , the Macedonian Army 's Chief of Staff , Gen. Miroslav Stojanovski , became the focus of international controversy after it was alleged that he had been involved in possible war crimes following the battle .
= = Occupation , restoration and reconstruction = =
Vukovar suffered catastrophic damage in the battle . Croatian officials estimated that 90 percent of Vukovar 's housing stock was damaged or destroyed , 15 @,@ 000 housing units in total and put the cost at $ 2 @.@ 5 billion . The town barely recovered during its seven years under Serb control . Marcus Tanner of The Independent described post @-@ battle Vukovar as :
a silent , ghostly landscape , consisting of mile upon mile of bricks , rusting cars , collapsed roofs , telegraph poles and timber beams poking out from the rubble . The wind whistles through the deserted warehouses along the river front . By next spring , grass and saplings will be sprouting and birds nesting in these piles , and hope of rebuilding will be over .
When Michael Ignatieff visited Vukovar in 1992 , he found the inhabitants living in squalor :
Such law and order as there is administered by warlords . There is little gasoline , so ... everyone goes about on foot . Old peasant women forage for fuel in the woods , because there is no heating oil . Food is scarce , because the men are too busy fighting to tend the fields . In the desolate wastes in front of the bombed @-@ out high rise flats , survivors dig at the ground with hoes . Every man goes armed .
The population increased to about 20 @,@ 000 as Serb refugees from other parts of Croatia and Bosnia were relocated by RSK authorities . They initially lived without water or electricity , in damaged buildings patched up with plastic sheeting and wooden boards . Residents scavenged the ruins for fragments of glass that they could stick back together to make windows for themselves . The main sources of income were war profiteering and smuggling , though some were able to find jobs in eastern Slavonia 's revived oil industry . Reconstruction was greatly delayed by economic sanctions and lack of international aid .
After the Erdut Agreement was signed in 1995 , the United Nations Transitional Authority for Eastern Slavonia , Baranja and Western Sirmium ( UNTAES ) was established to enable the return of Croatian refugees and to prepare the region for reintegration into Croatia . This UN peacekeeping force provided security during the transition period between 1996 and 1998 . It was only in 1999 that Croats began returning to Vukovar in significant numbers , and many of the pre @-@ war inhabitants never returned . By March 2001 , the municipality was recorded as having 31 @,@ 670 inhabitants – less than half the pre @-@ war total – of whom 18 @,@ 199 ( 57 @.@ 46 % ) were Croats and 10 @,@ 412 ( 32 @.@ 88 % ) were Serbs . The community did not recover its mixed character : Croats and Serbs now lived separate social lives . Public facilities such as shops , cafés , restaurants , sports clubs , schools , non @-@ governmental organisations and radio stations were re @-@ established on segregated lines , with separate facilities for each community .
Although the Croatian government sponsored reconstruction efforts in and around Vukovar , the Serb @-@ populated town centre remained in ruins until 2003 . Both Croat and Serb residents believed the government had neglected it deliberately , in order to punish the Serb community . Human Rights Watch noted that , of 4 @,@ 000 homes that had been rebuilt , none of them were inhabited by Serbs . Unemployment was high because of the destruction of the town 's major industries , and many of the inhabitants could not sell their houses . Most houses and many of Vukovar 's historic buildings had been restored by 2011 .
= = Commemorations and memorials = =
Signs of the battle are still widely apparent in Vukovar , where many buildings remain visibly scarred by bullets and shrapnel . The riverside water tower has been preserved in its badly damaged state as a memorial . The town hospital presents an exhibition and reconstruction of the conditions in the building during the battle . At Ovčara , the site of the massacre is marked by a mass grave and exhibition about the atrocity . Local tourist guides , some of whom lived through the battle , offer tourists the opportunity to visit these and other sites on walking and bicycle tours .
Every November , Vukovar 's authorities hold four days of festivities to commemorate the fall of the town , culminating in a " Procession of Memory " held on 18 November . This represents the expulsion of the town 's Croatian inhabitants and involves a five @-@ kilometre ( 3 @.@ 1 mile ) walk from the city 's hospital to the Croatian Memorial Cemetery of Homeland War Victims . It is attended by tens of thousands of people from across Croatia .
Local Serbs have avoided participating in the Croatian commemorations , often preferring either to leave the town or stay indoors on 18 November . They have held a separate low @-@ key commemoration at the Serbian military cemetery on 17 November , until 2003 and on 18 November since then . The RSK @-@ era term " Liberation Day " has been dropped , but the Serbs also avoid the Croatian terminology , instead calling it simply " 18 November " .
The issue of how to remember the Serbian dead has posed particular difficulties . Local Serbs who died fighting alongside the JNA were buried by the Croatian Serb authorities on a plot of land where Croatian houses had once stood . The gravestones were originally topped with a sculptural evocation of the V @-@ shaped Serbian military cap , or šajkača . After Vukovar 's reintegration into Croatia , the gravestones were repeatedly vandalised . The Serb community replaced them with more neutral gravestones without overt military connotations .
Vukovar Serbs report feeling marginalised and excluded from places associated with Croatian nationalist sentiment , such as monuments to the Croatian defenders . The Croatian sociologist Kruno Kardov gives the example of a prominent memorial , a large cross made from white stone , where the Vuka flows into the Danube . According to Kardov , Serbs rarely if ever go there , and they feel great stress if they do . A Serb boy spoke of how he wanted to know what was written on the monument but was too frightened to go and read the inscription ; one day he got up the courage , ran to the monument , read it and immediately ran back to " safety " . As Kardov puts it , Vukovar remains divided by an " invisible boundary line ... inscribed only on the cognitive map of the members of one particular group . "
The battle is widely commemorated across Croatia . Almost every town has streets named after Vukovar , and the lead vessel of the Croatian Navy 's two new Helsinki @-@ class missile boats was named the Vukovar in January 2009 . The Croatian Parliament has declared 18 November to be the " Remembrance Day of the Sacrifice of Vukovar in 1991 " , when " all those who participated in the defence of the city of Vukovar – the symbol of Croatian freedom – are appropriately honoured with dignity . "
As a symbol of Croatia 's national identity , Vukovar has become a place of pilgrimage for people from across Croatia who seek to evoke feelings of " vicarious insideness " , as Kruno Kardov described them , in the suffering endured during the country 's war of independence . Some gather in front of the town 's main memorial cross on New Year 's Eve to pray as the year ends , though such sentiments have attracted criticism from local Croats for not allowing them to " rejoice for even a single night " , as one put it . The town has thus become , in Kardov 's words , " the embodiment of a pure Croatian identity " and the battle " the foundational myth of the Croatian state " . This has led to it becoming as much an " imagined place " , a receptacle for Croatian national sentiment and symbolism , as a real place . Kardov concludes that it is questionable whether Vukovar can realise a vision of once again becoming " one place for all its citizens " .
In November 2010 , Boris Tadić became the first President of Serbia to travel to Vukovar , when he visited the massacre site at Ovčara and expressed his " apology and regret " .
= = Films and books = =
The battle was portrayed in the Serbian films Dezerter ( " The Deserter " ) ( 1992 ) , Kaži zašto me ostavi ( " Why Have You Left Me ? " ) ( 1993 ) and Vukovar , jedna priča ( " Vukovar : A Story " ) ( 1994 ) ; in the Croatian films Vukovar se vraća kući ( " Vukovar : The Way Home " ) ( 1994 ) and Zapamtite Vukovar ( " Remember Vukovar " ) ( 2008 ) ; and in the French film Harrison 's Flowers ( 2000 ) . A 2006 Serbian documentary film about the battle , Vukovar – Final Cut , won the Human Rights Award at the 2006 Sarajevo Film Festival . The battle is also at the centre of Serbian writer Vladimir Arsenijević 's 1995 novel U potpalublju ( " In the Hold " ) .
= Hurricane Daisy ( 1962 ) =
Hurricane Daisy brought the worst flooding to New England since Hurricane Diane in 1955 . The fourth named storm and second hurricane of the 1962 Atlantic hurricane season , Daisy developed from a tropical disturbance located well east of the Leeward Islands on September 29 . Initially a tropical depression , it headed west @-@ northwestward and failed to strengthen significantly . While located a short distance from the Leeward Islands , the depression curved northwestward and began intensifying . On October 2 , the depression was upgraded to Tropical Storm Daisy . Around that time , the storm turned back to the west @-@ northwest and continued to deepen . Daisy reached hurricane status late on October 3 . Two days later , it became a Category 2 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale , but briefly weakened back to a Category 1 on October 6 .
Daisy re @-@ strengthened into a Category 2 later on October 6 , and peaked with winds of 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) . The outerbands of Daisy produced strong winds and heavy surf in Bermuda , but caused no damage . It weakened back to a Category 1 again on October 7 . While passing offshore New England , the storm , combined with a nor 'easter , produced flooding and strong winds . Two fatalities were directly related to the hurricane , and 24 other people died in traffic related deaths , that were caused by slick roads from the heavy rain . Total damage in New England was estimated to be over $ 1 @.@ 1 million ( 1962 USD ) . Early on October 8 , Daisy made landfall near Yarmouth , Nova Scotia , several hours before transitioning into an extratropical cyclone . In Atlantic Canada , the storm brought rough seas , causing coastal flooding and six fatalities in Nova Scotia .
= = Meteorological history = =
A Television Infrared Observation Satellite ( TIROS ) revealed the presence of a tropical disturbance east of the Leeward Islands on September 28 . A reconnaissance aircraft flight into a system on the following day indicated that a tropical depression developed near 14 @.@ 5 ° N , 48 @.@ 9 ° W. The depression initially moved west @-@ northwestward and remained disorganized for several days . In the early stages of the depression , the system appeared to have been located under minor vortices in the upper atmosphere , located within a strong east – to – west oriented trough . Approaching the Lesser Antilles , the system curved northwestward between two high pressure areas on September 30 and avoided landfall in the islands . By October 2 , the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Daisy . The trough dissipated on the following day , causing Daisy to resume its initial west @-@ northwest motion . The storm intensified into a Category 1 hurricane later on October 3 . Further deepening occurred , and by October 5 , Daisy became a Category 2 hurricane .
A nor 'easter off the East Coast of the United States caused Daisy to curve northward on October 5 . The storm briefly weakened to a Category 1 hurricane on October 6 . Six hours later , it re @-@ strengthened to a Category 2 hurricane ; Daisy also attained its minimum barometric pressure of 965 mbar ( 28 @.@ 5 inHg ) . Late on October 6 , maximum sustained winds reached 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) , the highest in relation to the system . Daisy absorbed the nor 'easter on October 6 , after it weakened . Thereafter , Daisy began accelerating and cold sea surface temperatures weakened the storm back to a Category 1 hurricane on October 7 .. It briefly curved north @-@ northwestward , before sharply turning east @-@ northeastward in the Gulf of Maine . Early on October 8 , Daisy made landfall near Yarmouth , Nova Scotia with winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) . Several hours later , the storm transitioned into an extratropical cyclone . The remnants of Daisy re @-@ emerged into the Atlantic Ocean and headed east @-@ northeastward before dissipating south of Newfoundland on October 9 .
= = Preparations = =
Upon becoming a tropical cyclone , hurricane watches and gale warnings were issued for the Leeward Islands . As Daisy intensified , moved northward , and threatened New England , gale warnings were issued for the coastal areas from Block Island , Rhode Island , to Eastport , Maine , while hurricane watches were issued for the east coast of Maine .
= = Impact = =
= = = United States = = =
Damage totals from Daisy in the United States alone could surpass $ 10 million , including the passage of a nor 'easter a day prior . Two fatalities were directly related to the storm , while 24 other people died from traffic related deaths due to flooded and slick roads . Rainfall from the two systems caused record rainfall in some areas of Massachusetts , with 14 @.@ 25 inches ( 362 mm ) in Wakefield . Some areas of Boston were under 1 foot ( 0 @.@ 30 m ) of water . The subways associated with the Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority were flooded and could not be reopened until at least a day after the rain ceased .
A total of 7 @.@ 71 inches ( 196 mm ) of precipitation fell in Portland , Maine within 24 hours , 3 @.@ 13 inches ( 80 mm ) of which fell in only 6 hours . Subsequently , Hurricane Daisy set a then @-@ record the highest 24 ‑ hour rainfall total for Portland ; however , this recorded was broken during Hurricane Bob in 1991 . The overall rainfall total for Portland was 9 @.@ 47 inches ( 0 @.@ 241 m ) at the international jetport . In Auburn and Lewiston , a total of 4 @.@ 58 inches ( 116 mm ) of rain fell . The Androscoggin River overflowed and flooded a road in the former . Two fatalities were reported in Maine . Throughout New England , thousands fled after homes , buildings , and school began to flood . It was considered the worst flood in the region since Hurricane Diane in 1955 , and was caused partially because falling leaves clogged drains .
Damages to boats were severe ; hundreds of small boats were destroyed , while many larger boats were damaged . In addition , the lobster industry suffered heavy losses from the system . In the heavy surf that caused those damages to boats , three people were rescued in two different accidents , but they sustained injuries . Also , several small structures in Mount Desert Island , Maine were swept away by the high waves . In other areas of the New England coast , tides were 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) above average ; a person was swept away and drowned , and minor tidal flooding occurred in coastal areas . In addition , a pier was washed away in the high surf . Total damage from wave and tide was $ 600 @,@ 000 . Some roads were completely under water , with pumping operations continuing for four days in the hardest hit locations . Throughout Massachusetts , many roofs were blown off of houses .
Strong winds were also reported in New England . The highest winds associated with Daisy were felt over coastal Maine , where winds of 70 mph ( 115 km / h ) were commonly reported . Wind damage was severe and widespread ; one person in Maine was killed when a fallen tree landed on , and crushed his car while he was in it . In the southeastern portion of the state , power outages were reported , due to fallen trees and tree limbs . In addition , some roof shingles blown off in Maine and Massachusetts , while other houses were completely unroofed . Daisy caused moderate to severe damage in eastern New England . Total wind damage in New England was estimated to have reached $ 500 @,@ 000 .
= = = = Elsewhere = = = =
During Daisy 's track northward , it passed within 200 miles ( 320 km / h ) of Bermuda , causing heavy surf , and up to 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) winds . Wind gusts up to 85 mph ( 137 km / h ) disrupted telephone service in Nova Scotia . Waves of almost 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) above normal in Shelburne smashed three fishing boats , causing 16 @,@ 000 CAD ( $ 14 @,@ 866 , 1962 USD ) in damage . The government pier and building at Sandy Point were lost . Six people were swept into the ocean at Peggy 's Cove and drowned . In Lockeport , waves washed sand across a highway . Rough seas in Newfoundland caused fishing boats to be crashed ashore in Seaforth . Strong winds were also reported in Prince Edward Island .
= Diamond Valley Lake =
Diamond Valley Lake is a man @-@ made offstream reservoir located near Hemet , California , United States . It is one of the largest reservoirs in Southern California and also one of the newest . With a capacity of 800 @,@ 000 acre feet ( 990 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 m3 ) , the lake nearly doubled the area ’ s surface water storage capacity and provides additional water supplies for drought , peak summer , and emergency needs .
The Metropolitan Water District of Southern California ( MWD ) began the $ 1 @.@ 9 billion construction project in 1995 . Filling of the lake , by way of the Colorado River Aqueduct , began in 1999 and was completed in 2003 . The lake is currently served by the Inland Feeder .
The lake features three earth fill dams , two located on either side of the valley and one on the north rim . Construction of the dams utilized nearby materials , and was one of the largest earthworks projects in the United States . Excavation of core materials for the dams resulted in many paleontological finds , all of which are displayed at the Western Science Center at the lake 's East end . The lake is open to boating and fishing , along with hiking and other recreational activities around the lake .
= = Geography = =
Diamond Valley Lake is located within the Domenigoni / Diamond valleys , between the Domenigoni Mountains and Rawson Mountains , 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) southwest of the city of Hemet . The site was chosen because of its location between the cities of San Diego and Los Angeles , and because of the raw materials located on @-@ site for the construction of the three dams . The location was also chosen because of its proximity , about 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) , to the existing Colorado River Aqueduct that supplies the lake with water .
= = Construction = =
Planning for the lake began in 1987 . The main goal was to meet Southern California seasonal , drought and emergency needs . MWD chose the current site because of its geographic location , and began construction planning in 1993 . Construction of the lake in 1995 with construction of the three dams . With over 40 million cubic yards of foundation excavation and 110 million cubic yards of embankment construction , the construction of the dams was the largest earthworks project in the United States . The shovels , loaders and trucks used on the project were the largest available and established a new standard for earth and rock movement . The two rock processing plants established for the project provided combined production exceeding the capability of any single commercial processing operation in California . Construction of the lake was the largest construction project by the MWD since building the Colorado River Aqueduct .
At its peak in 1997 and 1998 , the reservoir construction project employed an average of 1 @,@ 800 people . At times , more than 1 @,@ 900 people labored in building the reservoir ’ s three dams . From start to finish , about 5 @,@ 000 people were employed by the construction project .
= = = Dams = = =
Construction of the three dams was completed in 1999 , requiring the excavation of 31 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cubic metres ( 41 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cu yd ) of foundation material . The earth fill dam project required about 110 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cubic yards ( 84 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 m3 ) of sand , clay and rock . Much of the materials needed were obtained from the project area . Core materials were obtained from the silty and clayey sandy alluvium in the floor of the reservoir and the rock fill came from the bedrock highlands of the reservoir 's south rim . Design and construction of the dams took into consideration the threat of earthquakes with the San Jacinto Fault Zone , located about 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) from the reservoir , and the San Andreas Fault , located about 19 miles ( 31 km ) from the reservoir .
= = = = West Dam = = = =
The west dam rises to 285 feet ( 87 m ) above the valley floor . It spans 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) over a nearly flat alluvial valley floor between bedrock abutment ridges . About 65 % of the dam 's foundation area is founded on quartzite and phyllite bedrock . The remainder is founded on dense alluvium that fills three buried channels , which are up to 120 feet ( 37 m ) deep . The foundation excavations were extended 90 feet ( 27 m ) below the original ground surface to remove liquefaction soils that would have made the dam unstable in an earthquake . To minimize foundation seepage through the alluvium , 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) thick cut @-@ off walls of plastic concrete were constructed across the three alluvial channels and excavated at least 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) into bedrock . To reduce seepage through the rock foundation , the entire core width was consolidation grouted and a double @-@ line grout curtain was installed to a depth of approximately 125 feet ( 38 m ) . Grouting of the west dam took about two years to complete and required 189 miles ( 304 km ) of grout holes .
= = = = East Dam = = = =
The 2 @.@ 1 @-@ mile ( 3 @.@ 4 km ) long East Dam , constructed by a Kiewit @-@ led joint venture , is the longest of the three dams . It measures 1 @,@ 200 feet ( 370 m ) wide at the base and 40 feet ( 12 m ) wide at the top . Before embankment of the dam could begin , more than 18 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cubic yards ( 14 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 m3 ) of alluvium had to be excavated to reach a solid bedrock foundation .
The embankment required 43 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cubic yards ( 33 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 m3 ) of crushed rock . An on @-@ site crushing plant crushed and processed over 14 million tons of rock in 20 months to supply the dam 's materials . The cut @-@ off wall , which consists of a 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) thick plastic concrete mix constructed through the weathered portion of bedrock , varies in depth from 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) to 110 feet ( 34 m ) and totals 250 @,@ 000 square feet ( 23 @,@ 000 m2 ) . A two @-@ line grout curtain reaches depths of 150 feet ( 46 m ) below the foundation in the north segment of the East Dam and 100 feet ( 30 m ) in the south segment .
Because of the amount of material used in the construction of the east dam , some of the biggest trucks in the world were used . Twelve Caterpillar 789 dump trucks were used in construction of the East Dam .
= = = = Saddle Dam = = = =
The Saddle Dam rises 130 feet ( 40 m ) above the lowest point in the Domenigoni Mountains ridgeline of the north rim and is around 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) long . The dam was built to increase the storage capacity of the lake , which would have been limited due to the lower ridge in this area . It is founded completely on phyllite and schist bedrock . To minimize foundation seepage , a two @-@ line grout curtain extends up to 100 feet ( 30 m ) below the foundation .
= = = Filling the lake = = =
Filling of the lake began in 1999 with water from the Colorado River Aqueduct and San Diego Canal . Water first entered the forebay , a 35 @-@ acre ( 14 ha ) — 163 @-@ million @-@ US @-@ gallon ( 620 @,@ 000 m3 ) — basin that held the water before being pumped through the pumping station . The pumping station , named after one of the founders of the MWD , Hiram W. Wadsworth , features twelve 6 @,@ 000 horsepower ( 4 @,@ 500 kW ) pumps for moving water from the forebay to the intake @-@ outlet ( I / O ) tower . In 2001 , four of the twelve pumps were converted to hydroelectric turbine generators capable of producing 3 megawatts of power each . If all the pumps were converted , the entire facility could produce up to 40 megawatts of power .
Water is pumped from the pumping station , located just outside the west dam , through a 2 @,@ 000 @-@ foot ( 610 m ) long , 16 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) diameter pipe and into the lake via the I / O tower . At peak rate , water flowed into the lake at 1 @,@ 000 cubic feet ( 28 m3 ) per second . Filling of the lake finished in 2003
In 2009 , the lake began being filled with water provided by the Inland Feeder after nearly two years without a source . The water replenished much of what was lost after drought conditions required the MWD to tap into the lake . Water from the Colorado River Aqueduct is not being used due to the threat of the Quagga mussel , an invasive species that has already contaminated other Southern California lakes served by the aqueduct .
= = Paleontological finds = =
During excavation , bones and skeletons were found from extinct mastodons , mammoth , camel , sloth , dire wolf and long @-@ horned bison . Paleontologists from the San Bernardino County Museum in Redlands , California uncovered thousands of fossils in the Diamond and Domenigoni valleys that will add immensely to the store of public knowledge about the region . Collectively , these animal fossils are named the Diamond Valley Lake Local Fauna .
The paleontological finds of mammoth , mastodon , bison , and other Pleistocene Epoch species from Diamond Valley Lake provide a unique snapshot on inland southern California during the Ice Ages , and bridge a massive information gap between fossil deposits at La Brea Tar Pits in Los Angeles , California and Ice Age sites in the Mojave Desert . Unofficially , the Diamond Valley Lake area is often referred to as the " Valley of the Mastodons " . Fossils from the Diamond Valley Lake site comprise a classic late Pleistocene assemblage , which includes the following extinct animals :
Jefferson ’ s ground sloth , Megalonyx jeffersonii
Harlan ’ s ground sloth , Paramylodon harlani
Dire wolf , Canis dirus
Giant short @-@ faced bear , Arctodus simus
Sabre @-@ toothed cat , Smilodon fatalis
American lion , Panthera leo atrox
American mastodon , Mammut americanum
Columbian mammoth , Mammuthus columbi
Western horse , Equus occidentalis
Small horse , Equus conversidens
Flat @-@ headed peccary , Platygonus compressus
“ Yesterday ’ s ” camel , Camelops hesternus
Ancient bison , Bison antiquus
Long @-@ horned bison , Bison latifrons
Diminutive Pronghorn , Capromeryx minor
Many fossils of rabbits , rodents and pond turtles , as well as coyotes , deer and the Black bear , have been recovered as well . One of the most common animals identified from the Diamond Valley Lake site by San Bernardino County Museum scientists was the extinct American mastodon , Mammut americanum . In North American paleontology , mastodons are thought to have been solitary forest @-@ dwelling browsers . The abundance of mastodons in the fossil record from the site suggests that , during the last Ice Age , the Diamond Valley Lake site was more wooded or forested than today . Fossil remains of ponderosa pine and manzanita recovered from the site lend credence to this interpretation . Radiometric dating of fossil plants from the Diamond Valley Lake site confirms an age range of less than 13 @,@ 000 years ago to more than 60 @,@ 000 years ago for these fossils .
= = Recreation = =
Diamond Valley Lake offers fishing and light boating on the lake . A recreation park , aquatic center , visitor center and the Western Science Center along with the lake marina are located on the eastern end of the lake . A viewpoint , offering views of the pumping station and I / O tower , along with most of the lake is located on the western end of the lake . To the south of the lake is the Southwestern Riverside County Multi @-@ Species Reserve , a 13 @,@ 500 @-@ acre ( 5 @,@ 500 ha ) preserve between Diamond Valley Lake and Skinner Reservoir . The reserve is home to at least 16 sensitive , endangered or threatened native California bird , animal and plant species .
Stocking of the lake with fish began before the reservoir was filled , with a small rearing pond being placed on the bottom of the valley . The lake has several species of freshwater fish ; largemouth bass , smallmouth bass , bluegill , crappie , rainbow trout , striped bass , channel catfish , and shad . It is considered one of the best fisheries in California .
Much of the area around the lake remains undeveloped and empty . Original plans included large recreation areas on both the eastern and western end of the lake complete with golf courses , campgrounds , swimming lakes , water parks and other amenities . The MWD still plans on building the additional recreation facilities , but lack of funding and lack of support from developers has prevented them from doing so .
= Compounds of berkelium =
Berkelium forms a number of chemical compounds , where it normally exists in an oxidation state of + 3 or + 4 , and behaves similarly to its lanthanide analogue , terbium . Like all actinides , berkelium easily dissolves in various aqueous inorganic acids , liberating gaseous hydrogen and converting into the trivalent oxidation state . This trivalent state is the most stable , especially in aqueous solutions , but tetravalent berkelium compounds are also known . The existence of divalent berkelium salts is uncertain and has only been reported in mixed lanthanum chloride @-@ strontium chloride melts . Aqueous solutions of Bk3 + ions are green in most acids . The color of the Bk4 + ions is yellow in hydrochloric acid and orange @-@ yellow in sulfuric acid . Berkelium does not react rapidly with oxygen at room temperature , possibly due to the formation of a protective oxide surface layer ; however , it reacts with molten metals , hydrogen , halogens , chalcogens and pnictogens to form various binary compounds . Berkelium can also form several organometallic compounds .
= = Oxides = =
Two oxides of berkelium are known , with berkelium in the + 3 ( Bk2O3 ) and + 4 ( BkO2 ) oxidation states . Berkelium ( IV ) oxide is a brown solid that crystallizes in a cubic ( fluorite ) crystal structure with the space group Fm3m and the coordination numbers of Bk [ 8 ] and O [ 4 ] . The lattice parameter is 533 @.@ 4 ± 0 @.@ 5 pm .
Berkelium ( III ) oxide , a yellow @-@ green solid , is formed from BkO2 by reduction with hydrogen :
<formula>
The compound has a melting point of 1920 ° C , body @-@ centered cubic crystal lattice and a lattice constant a
= 1088 @.@ 0 ± 0 @.@ 5 pm . Upon heating to 1200 ° C , the cubic Bk2O3 transforms to a monoclinic structure , which further converts to a hexagonal phase at 1750 ° C ; the latter transition is reversible . Such three @-@ phase behavior is typical for the actinide sesquioxides .
A divalent oxide BkO has been reported as a brittle gray solid with a face centered cubic ( fcc ) structure and a lattice constant a =
496 @.@ 4 pm , but its exact chemical composition is uncertain .
= = Halides = =
In halides , berkelium assumes the oxidation states + 3 and + 4 . The + 3 state is most stable , especially in solutions , and the tetravalent halides BkF4 and Cs2BkCl6 are only known in the solid phase . The coordination of the berkelium atom in its trivalent fluoride and chloride is tricapped trigonal prismatic , with a coordination number of 9 . In the trivalent bromide , it is bicapped trigonal prismatic ( coordination 8 ) or octahedral ( coordination 6 ) , and in the iodide it is octahedral .
Berkelium ( IV ) fluoride ( BkF4 ) is a yellow @-@ green ionic solid which crystallizes in the monoclinic crystal system ( Pearson symbol mS60 , space group C2 / c No. 15 , lattice constants a
= 1247 pm , b =
1058 pm , c
= 817 pm ) and is isotypic with uranium tetrafluoride or zirconium ( IV ) fluoride .
Berkelium ( III ) fluoride ( BkF3 ) is also a yellow @-@ green solid , but it has two crystalline structures . The most stable phase at low temperatures has an orthorhombic symmetry , isotypic with yttrium ( III ) fluoride ( Pearson symbol oP16 , space group Pnma , No. 62 , a =
670 pm , b
= 709 pm , c =
441 pm ) . Upon heating to 350 to 600 ° C , it transforms to a trigonal structure found in lanthanum ( III ) fluoride ( Pearson symbol hP24 , space group P3c1 , No. 165 , a
= 697 pm , c =
714 pm ) .
Visible amounts of berkelium ( III ) chloride ( BkCl3 ) were first isolated and characterized in 1962 , and weighed only 3 billionths of a gram . It can be prepared by introducing hydrogen chloride vapors into an evacuated quartz tube containing berkelium oxide at a temperature of about 500 ° C. This green solid has a melting point of 603 ° C and crystallizes in the hexagonal crystal system isotypic with uranium ( III ) chloride ( Pearson symbol hP8 , space group P63 / m , No. 176 ) . Upon heating to just below its melting point , BkCl3 converts into an orthorhombic phase . The hexahydrate BkCl3 · 6H2O ( berkelium trichloride hexahydrate ) has a monoclinic structure with the lattice constants a
= 966 pm , b =
654 pm and c
= 797 pm . Another berkelium ( III ) chloride , Cs2NaBkCl6 can be crystallized from a chilled aqueous solution containing berkelium ( III ) hydroxide , hydrochloric acid and caesium chloride . It has a face @-@ centered cubic structure where Bk ( III ) ions are surrounded by chloride ions in an octahedral configuration .
The ternary berkelium ( IV ) chloride Cs2BkCl6 is obtained by dissolving berkelium ( IV ) hydroxide in a chilled solution of caesium chloride in concentrated hydrochloric acid . It forms orange hexagonal crystals with the lattice constants a =
745 @.@ 1 pm and c
= 1209 @.@ 7 pm . The average radius of the BkCl62 − ion in this compound is estimated as 270 pm .
Two forms of berkelium ( III ) bromide are known , a monoclinic with berkelium coordination 6 and orthorhombic with coordination 8 ; the latter is less stable and transforms to the former phase upon heating to about 350 ° C. An important phenomenon for radioactive solids has been studied for these two crystal forms : the structures of fresh and aged 249BkBr3 samples were studied using X @-@ ray diffraction over a period longer than 3 years , so that various fractions of 249Bk had beta decayed to 249Cf . No change in structure was observed upon the 249BkBr3 — 249CfBr3 transformation , even though the orthorhombic bromide was previously unknown for californium . However , other differences were noted for 249BkBr3 and 249CfBr3 . For example , the latter could be reduced with hydrogen to249CfBr2 , but the former could be not – this result was reproduced on individual 249BkBr3 and 249CfBr3 samples , as well on the samples containing both bromides . The intergrowth of californium in berkelium occurs at a rate of 0 @.@ 22 % per day and is an intrinsic obstacle in studying berkelium properties . Besides a chemical contamination , 249Cf , as an alpha emitter brings undesirable self @-@ damage of the crystal lattice due to the resulting self @-@ heating . This can be avoided by performing measurements as a function of time and extrapolating the obtained results .
Berkelium ( III ) iodide forms hexagonal crystals with the lattice constants a =
758 @.@ 4 pm and c = 2087 pm . The known oxyhalides of berkelium include BkOCl , BkOBr and BkOI ; they all crystallize in a tetragonal lattice .
= = Other inorganic compounds = =
= = = Pnictides = = =
The monopnictides of berkelium @-@ 249 are known for the elements nitrogen , phosphorus , arsenic and antimony . They are prepared by the reaction of either berkelium ( III ) hydride ( BkH3 ) or metallic berkelium with these elements at elevated temperatures ( about 600 ° C ) under high vacuum in quartz ampoules . They crystallize in the cubic crystal system with the lattice constant of 495 @.@ 1 pm for BkN , 566 @.@ 9 pm for BkP , 582 @.@ 9 for BkAs and 619 @.@ 1 pm for BkSb . These lattice constant values are smaller than those in curium pnictides , but are comparable to those of terbium pnictides .
= = = Chalcogenides = = =
Berkelium ( III ) sulfide , Bk2S3 , has been prepared by either treating berkelium oxide with a mixture of hydrogen sulfide and carbon disulfidevapors at 1130 ° C , or by directly reacting metallic berkelium with sulfur . These procedures yield brownish @-@ black crystals with a cubic symmetry and lattice constant a = 844 pm .
= = = Other compounds = = =
Berkelium ( III ) and berkelium ( IV ) hydroxides are both stable in 1 M sodium hydroxide solutions . Berkelium ( III ) phosphate ( BkPO4 ) has been prepared as a solid , which shows strong fluorescence under argon laser ( 514 @.@ 5 nm line ) excitation . Berkelium hydrides are produced by reacting metal with hydrogen gas at temperatures about 250 ° C. They are non @-@ stoichiometric with the nominal formula BkH2 + x ( 0 < x < 1 ) . Whereas the trihydride has a hexagonal symmetry , the dihydride crystallizes in an fcc structure with the lattice constant a = 523 pm . Several other salts of berkelium are known , including Bk2O2S , ( BkNO3 ) 3 · 4H2O , BkCl3 · 6H2O , Bk2 ( SO4 ) 3 · 12H2O and Bk2 ( C2O4 ) 3 · 4H2O . Thermal decomposition at about 600 ° C in an argon atmosphere ( to avoid oxidation to Bk2O ) of Bk2 ( SO4 ) 3 · 12H2O yields the body @-@ centered orthorhombic crystals of berkelium ( IV ) oxysulfate ( Bk2O2SO4 ) . This compound is thermally stable to at least 1000 ° C in an inert atmosphere .
= = Organoberkelium compounds = =
Berkelium forms a trigonal ( η5 – C5H5 ) 3Bk complex with three cyclopentadienyl rings , which can be synthesized by reacting berkelium ( III ) chloride with the molten beryllocene Be ( C5H5 ) 2 at about 70 ° C. It has an amber color and orthorhombic symmetry , with the lattice constants of a
= 1411 pm , b =
1755 pm and c = 963 pm and the calculated density of 2 @.@ 47 g / cm3 . The complex is stable to heating to at least 250 ° C , and sublimates without melting at about 350 ° C. The high radioactivity of berkelium gradually destroys the compound within a period of weeks . One C5H5 ring in ( η5 – C5H5 ) 3Bk can be substituted by chlorine to yield [ Bk ( C5H5 ) 2Cl ] 2 . The optical absorption spectra of this compound are very similar to those of ( η5 – C5H5 ) 3Bk .
= Italian ironclad Roma =
Roma was an ironclad warship built for the Italian Regia Marina in the 1860s ; she was the lead ship of the Roma @-@ class ironclads . Armed with a main battery of five 10 @-@ inch ( 250 mm ) and twelve 8 in ( 200 mm ) guns in a broadside arrangement , Roma was obsolescent by the time she entered service . As a result , her career was limited . In 1880 , she took part in an international naval demonstration off Ragusa to enforce the Treaty of Berlin . In November 1881 , she collided with the ironclad Principe Amedeo in a storm in Naples , but she was not damaged . Roma was reduced to a guard ship in 1890 and then to a depot ship in 1895 . In July 1896 , she was scuttled to save the ship from a fire caused by a lightning strike . She was thereafter raised and broken up for scrap .
= = Design = =
Roma was 79 @.@ 67 meters ( 261 ft 5 in ) long between perpendiculars ; she had a beam of 17 @.@ 33 m ( 56 ft 10 in ) and an average draft of 7 @.@ 57 m ( 24 ft 10 in ) . She displaced 5 @,@ 698 metric tons ( 5 @,@ 608 long tons ) normally and up to 6 @,@ 151 t ( 6 @,@ 054 long tons ) at full load . Her propulsion system consisted of one single @-@ expansion steam engine that drove a single screw propeller , with steam supplied by six coal @-@ fired , cylindrical fire @-@ tube boilers . Her engine produced a top speed of 13 knots ( 24 km / h ; 15 mph ) from 3 @,@ 670 indicated horsepower ( 2 @,@ 740 kW ) . She could steam for 1 @,@ 940 nautical miles ( 3 @,@ 590 km ; 2 @,@ 230 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . The ship was barque @-@ rigged to supplement the steam engine . She had a crew of 549 – 551 officers and men .
Roma was a broadside ironclad , and she was armed with a main battery of five 10 in ( 254 mm ) guns and twelve 8 in ( 203 mm ) guns . The ship was protected by iron belt armor that was 5 @.@ 9 in ( 150 mm ) thick and extended for the entire length of the hull at the waterline .
= = Service history = =
The keel for Roma was laid down at the Cantiere della Foce shipyard in Genoa in February 1863 . She was launched on 18 December 1865 , and fitting @-@ out work was finished by May 1869 . By the time she entered service , other navies had begun to build casemate ships , rendering Roma obsolescent almost immediately after she was completed . In addition , the Italian naval budget was drastically reduced following the defeat at Lissa in 1866 , which reflected a stark decrease in the government 's confidence in the fleet . As a result , she saw little use during her career ; indeed the budget was reduced so significantly that the fleet had great difficulty in mobilizing its ironclad squadron to attack the port of Civitavecchia in September 1870 , as part of the wars of Italian unification . Instead , the ships were laid up and the sailors conscripted to man them were sent home .
In 1874 – 75 , the ship 's armament was revised to eleven 10 @-@ inch guns . In November 1880 , Roma and the ironclad Palestro took part in a naval demonstration off Ragusa in an attempt to force the Ottoman Empire to comply with the terms of the Treaty of Berlin and turn over the town of Ulcinj to Montenegro . In early November 1881 , Roma was moored in Naples when a severe storm tore the ship from her anchors . The heavy winds drove her into the ironclad Principe Amedeo , but neither ship was damaged in the collision . During the annual fleet maneuvers held in 1885 , Roma served in the 2nd Division of the " Western Squadron " ; she was joined by the ironclad Affondatore and five torpedo boats . The " Western Squadron " attacked the defending " Eastern Squadron " , simulating a Franco @-@ Italian conflict , with operations conducted off Sardinia .
The ship had her guns replaced again in 1886 , this time with eleven 220 mm ( 8 @.@ 7 in ) guns . In 1890 , Roma was removed from front @-@ line service and tasked with the defense of La Spezia . While serving as a guard ship , her armament was reduced to five 8 @-@ inch guns . The ship was stricken on 5 May 1895 and thereafter used as an ammunition depot ship based in La Spezia . The ship was accidentally set on fire by a lightning strike on 28 July 1896 ; her crew scuttled the ship to prevent her from being burned completely . Roma was refloated the following month and then broken up for scrap immediately thereafter .
= Tupaia miocenica =
Tupaia miocenica is a fossil treeshrew from the Miocene of Thailand . Known only from a single tooth , an upper first or second molar , it is among the few known fossil treeshrews . With a length of 3 @.@ 57 mm , the tooth is large for a treeshrew . At the back lingual corner ( the side of the tongue ) , the tooth shows a small cusp , the hypocone , that is separated from the protocone in front of it by a narrow valley . The condition of the hypocone distinguishes this species from various other treeshrews . In addition , the presence of a well @-@ developed but simple mesostyle ( a small cuspule ) is distinctive .
= = Taxonomy = =
Tupaia miocenica was described in 1997 by French paleontologists Pierre Mein and Léonard Ginsburg in a report on the fossil mammals of Li Mae Long , a Miocene site in Thailand . The animal is known from a single tooth , which according to Mein and Ginsburg 's comparisons most closely resembles the living treeshrews of the genus Tupaia . The specific name , miocenica , refers to the animal 's occurrence during the Miocene . Only a few other fossil treeshrews are known , and T. miocenica is the only fossil species from Thailand . When it was described , it was the only Miocene representative of Tupaia , but a second species , Tupaia storchi , was named from the Late Miocene of Lufeng , China , in 2012 .
= = Description = =
The single known tooth , a worn left upper molar known as T Li 175 , is large for a treeshrew , with a length of 3 @.@ 57 mm and width of 4 @.@ 79 mm . Although Mein and Ginsburg described it a second upper molar ( M2 ) , Ni and Qiu argued in 2012 that it is more likely a first upper molar ( M1 ) . It is dilambdodont ( with a W @-@ shaped chewing surface ) and the labial surface ( the side of the cheeks ) is concave and bears a cingular crest . A well @-@ developed small cusp , a mesostyle , is present on the labial side . The presence of the mesostyle distinguishes the animal from Ptilocercus , the only member of the treeshrew family Ptilocercidae . The lingual ( tongue ) side is narrow . A large cusp , the protocone , is on the front lingual corner . Two crests descend from it ; one reaches the paracone on the front labial side and another approaches the metacone to the back of the tooth . A smaller cusp , a hypocone , is on the back lingual corner . This feature distinguishes T. miocenica both from the treeshrew genera Dendrogale , Prodendrogale , and Palaeotupaia , which lack the cusp entirely , and from Anathana and Urogale , which have a large hypocone . In T. miocenica the back and lingual sides of the hypocone are straight and form a right angle with each other . The tooth most closely resembles Tupaia species with a simple mesostyle , such as the common treeshrew ( Tupaia glis ) . However , this species is smaller and unlike in T. miocenica , the hypocone is not isolated from the protocone by a narrow valley .
= = Range and ecology = =
Li Mae Long , the collection site of T. miocenica , is dated to the latest Early Miocene , corresponding to the European zone MN 4 , around 18 mya . It is in the Thai province of Lamphun . The fossil fauna encompasses 34 species of mammals , including the tarsier Hesperotarsius thailandicus , the slow loris ? Nycticebus linglom , and the metatherian Siamoperadectes . Mein and Ginsburg conclude that the fauna represents a tropical forest environment close to a shallow lake .
= Maryland Route 55 =
Maryland Route 55 ( MD 55 ) is a state highway in the U.S. state of Maryland . Known as Vale Summit Road , the state highway runs 2 @.@ 53 miles ( 4 @.@ 07 km ) from MD 36 in Vale Summit north to U.S. Route 40 Alternate ( US 40 Alt . ) in Clarysville . MD 55 connects the La Vale area with Midland in the upper Georges Creek Valley in northwestern Allegany County . MD 55 was paved from Clarysville to Vale Summit around 1921 and extended south to Midland in the late 1930s . The state highway was truncated at Vale Summit when MD 36 took over part of the highway for a new alignment in the early 1970s .
= = Route description = =
MD 55 begins at an intersection with MD 36 ( New Georges Creek Road ) in Vale Summit . The two @-@ lane highway descends from Vale Summit into the valley of Braddock Run on its way to Clarysville . The state highway starts by heading east through a residential area of Vale Summit . As MD 55 passes the Vale Summit United Methodist Church , which dates back to 1889 , the state highway curves to the north and passes by the residential settlements of Loartown and Montel . The state highway descends into Spruce Hollow and passes under Interstate 68 and US 40 ( National Freeway ) with no access before arriving in Clarysville . MD 55 intersects Clarysville Road , the original alignment of US 40 , and passes the site of the Clarysville Inn , a historic inn built in 1807 that was destroyed by a fire in 1999 , before reaching its northern terminus at US 40 Alt . ( National Pike ) in Clarysville .
= = History = =
MD 55 was paved from Clarysville to Vale Summit by 1921 . The Vale Summit – Midland segment of the highway was constructed around 1938 . When US 40 was relocated in Clarysville around 1950 , MD 55 was extended north a short distance to meet the new alignment . MD 55 itself was rebuilt and widened from Clarysville to Vale Summit in 1952 and from there to Midland in 1954 . As part of MD 36 's relocation between Midland and Frostburg , MD 36 took over the section of MD 55 between Midland and Vale Summit in 1972 , leaving MD 55 at its present length .
= = Junction list = =
The entire route is in Allegany County .
= Ice block expedition of 1959 =
The ice block expedition of 1959 ( Norwegian : isblokkekspedisjonen ) was a publicity stunt carried out by the Norwegian insulation material producer Glassvatt ( today called Glava AS ) . Responding to a challenge from the radio station Radio Luxembourg , Glassvatt decided to equip a truck to bring a three @-@ ton block of ice from Mo i Rana by the Arctic Circle , to Libreville by the Equator . There was no form of refrigeration applied , and the expedition was intended to display the efficiency of the insulating glass wool used . The truck also brought 300 kg of medicines to the hospital of Albert Schweitzer in Lambaréné .
The expedition then was followed by a worldwide press corps , and great crowds of spectators gathered in various European cities along the route . Crossing the Sahara , where the truck repeatedly got stuck in the sand , proved both a dangerous and laborious task . Once the truck had made it through the desert , however , and reached its final destination , it was revealed that the ice block had lost no more than 11 % of its original weight . The expedition was an enormous success , judged both by the end result and by the media attention generated for the company , and has been called " the world 's greatest publicity stunt " . To mark the 50th anniversary of the event in 2009 , the company made the original documentary of the expedition available online . They also released a new interview with the expedition 's leader Sivert Klevan , who was 84 years old at the time of the interview .
= = Background and preparations = =
In the autumn of 1958 , Radio Luxembourg launched a challenge to transport three tons of ice from the Arctic Circle to the Equator . The radio station would award 100 @,@ 000 francs for each kilogram ( at the time , US $ 202 @.@ 55 per kilogram ; $ 1 @,@ 487 @.@ 19 or € 1 @,@ 120 @.@ 19 per kg in 2009 currency ) that remained at the destination ; the only condition was that no form of refrigeration should be used . Managing director Birger Natvik at the Norwegian insulation material company Glassvatt ( today Glava AS ) saw the announcement and suggested that the company take on the challenge . He estimated that by isolating the ice with glass wool ( " glassvatt " in Norwegian ) made from fibreglass , the driver could make several million francs . Once Radio Luxembourg realised the potential loss , they retracted the offer . By this point , however , the planned expedition had received so much attention
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-@ quarters of a mile ( 1 @.@ 2 km ) north of the city between 5 am and 6 am on 23 May . The Reverend William Metcalfe met them , read the Riot Act , and asked what the mob required . On being told that they wanted " the price of a stone of flour per day " and that " our children are starving , give us a living wage , " the Reverend agreed but stated that he would have to converse with the other magistrates . He asked everyone to return to Littleport , but they marched on . Metcalfe implored them to go to the market place and many did go there , where they were joined by Ely citizens . Recognising the needs of the rioters , the Ely magistrates , the Reverends William Metcalfe , Peploe Ward and Henry Law drafted a response , offering poor families two @-@ shillings per head per week and ordering farmers to pay two @-@ shillings ( £ 7 ) per day wages . On hearing the proclamation , the mob cheered . The magistrates then " gave the men some beer , told them not to get drunk and tried to persuade them to go home " . Some took the advice , whilst others continued the rampage , intimidating shopkeepers , millers and bankers and stealing from some . However , most of the rioters , marching with their wagons and guns , left the city for Littleport before the arrival of the military from Bury .
Meanwhile , the magistrates delegated Henry Law to go to London to discuss the matter with Lord Sidmouth , the Home Secretary . On the way , Law stopped at the barracks of the Royston troop of volunteer yeomanry cavalry and requested they go to Ely . Law was unable to convince Sidmouth of the seriousness of the situation , and Sidmouth asked Reverend Sir Henry Bate Dudley to return with Law and report on the matter .
= = Restoring order = =
A detachment of 18 men of the 1st The Royal Dragoons , commanded by Captain Methuen , arrived in Ely from Bury on 23 May in the late afternoon . They marched through the streets as a show of force , remaining all night . The following afternoon , 24 May , the troops marched on Littleport , led by Sir Henry Bate Dudley and John Bacon , a Bow Street constable . They were followed by the Royston troop of volunteer yeomanry cavalry summoned earlier by Henry Law , and a militia of gentlemen and inhabitants of Ely .
Before arrival at the Ely Road , a small detachment of troops were ordered across the Hemp Field to enter the village from the east . The larger group then charged at a hard gallop down the Mill Street incline through to Main Street . The rioters were found making a stand in The George and Dragon near the west end of Station Road . The militia were called to the front when the rioters would not come out after being ordered to by Bate Dudley . Thomas South , shooting from a window , hit trooper Wallace in the forearm . The militia got the rioters out of the public house and assembled them in the street , surrounded by the troopers . Thomas Sindall attempted to take a musket from trooper William Porter but was not successful . Sindall ran away and when he did not stop after being called on to do so by Porter , he was shot through the back of the head . Thomas Sindall was killed ; he was the only person known to be at both Downham Market and Littleport . The result of this shooting was to subdue the rest of the rioters . Those captured were taken to Ely gaol and the rest of the rioters were rounded up .
The home secretary , Lord Sidmouth , had dispatched three troops of cavalry ( 100 men ) , two six – pounder cannons and three companies of the 69th ( South Lincolnshire ) Regiment of Foot under Major General Byng to help capture the leading rioters .
Two rioters were hidden in Lakenheath by a labourer who eventually betrayed them for £ 5 each ( £ 345 ) . One rioter , William Gotobed , a bricklayer , escaped and was eventually pardoned a few years later . He returned to Littleport after seven years and then went to America . The rioting spread to nearby areas such as Little Downham , Cambridgeshire , although such areas were not as badly affected . It took until 10 June before the areas were finally cleared of trouble and all of the rioters had been captured .
= = Trial = =
The assizes for the 82 persons , 73 of whom were in prison and nine on bail , lasted from Monday 17 June 1816 through to the following Saturday .
= = = Special Commission = = =
Since 970 AD , and until 1837 the Bishop of Ely retained exclusive jurisdiction in civil and criminal matters , and was also keeper of the records ( Custos rotulorum ) . As part of this right , the Bishop appointed a Chief Justice of the Isle of Ely ; Edward Christian had held the post since 1800 . In these special assizes , the crown , via Lord Sidmouth , created a Special Commission . Sidmouth appointed two judges , Mr Justice Abbott and Mr Justice Burrough to preside over it . Christian , nevertheless , felt he should attend and indeed was in attendance throughout . After the trial Christian said , " It was suggested to me in London , ... that it would be more conducive to the great object of the Commission , ... if I declined my rotation of duty , and left the trial of all the prisoners to them [ the appointed commissioners ] . "
= = = Monday = = =
Shortly after 10 am , the three judges went to the courthouse , in the market place at that time , and the Special Commission was read . The judges then breakfasted at the bishop 's palace , after which a service was held in the cathedral and attended by 50 of the principal inhabitants of Ely . The sermon , preached by Henry Bate Dudley , was " that the law is not made for a righteous man , but for the lawless and disobedient " .
After the service , around 1 pm , the court reconvened ; the Grand Jury was sworn in , and Mr W. Dunn Gardner elected the foreman . Mr Gurney , Mr Bolland and Mr Richardson , were counsel for the crown , led by Mr William Hobhouse , treasury solicitor . For the defence , Mr Hunt was counsel for Jefferson , Wyebrow , Harley , Pricke , Cooper , Freeman and Jessop ; Mr Hart was counsel for John Easey , Joseph Easey , Benton , Layton , Atkin , Hobbs and another .
Mr Justice Abbott addressed the court :
Gentlemen of the Grand Jury , — You have been called together at this unusual period , and with the present solemnities , in consequence of some very daring acts of outrage committed by various misguided individuals in this town and its immediate neighbourhood , which must still be fresh in your recollection . In contemplating the nature of these atrocities , it is impossible to consider without commendation , the conductors of those prompt and efficacious measures by which , after it had domineered for several days together , the spirit of tumult and devastation was finally subdued .
He then went on to direct the jury at length , commenting at one point that these disturbances " seem to have been the necessity of an advance in the wages of husbandry ; but the circumstances of some among the offenders do not correspond with the supposition of such an object " . He was probably referring to John Dennis , licensed victualler of Littleport . He outlined the three capital offences that would be presented , namely burglary , robbery from the person and stealing in a dwelling house . He defined burglary as breaking into a house at night with intent , robbery from the person as extortion by violence or threat thereof , and stealing in a dwelling house as an actual act of stealing , not just the threat . He reminded the jury that when offences are carried out by a mob , it is the whole mob that is guilty , not just the person doing the deed . He closed :
It is of the highest importance to the peace and safety , not only of this isle , but of the surrounding country , that all who are present on this solemn inquiry , and all who read the account of its proceedings ( and there are few parts of the kingdom in which it will not be read ) may be convinced by the awful lesson which may here be taught , that whatever wild or chimerical notions may prevail of the power of an armed multitude , the law is too strong for its assailants ; and that , however triumphant or destructive their sway for a few days , those who defy the law , will ultimately be compelled to submit either to its justice or its mercy .
The court adjourned until the following day .
= = = Tuesday = = =
On Tuesday 18 June the court opened at 9 am ; 12 defendants were charged with breaking into the house of Rebecca Waddelow in Littleport and stealing personal property and money . After hearing evidence , the judges held a discussion . Mr Justice Abbott informed the jury that a mistake had been made in the indictment , directing the jury to acquit . All 12 defendants were pronounced not guilty .
Seven defendants were then indicted for breaking into the house of Josiah Dewey in Littleport , stealing money and property and assaulting Dewey . Mr Gurney addressed the jury . Three witnesses testified . The jury recorded a verdict of guilty against Chevall , Easey , Jessop , South and Benton ; Dann and Torrington were acquitted . The court adjourned at 5 pm .
= = = Wednesday = = =
On Wednesday 19 June the court opened at 9 am ; the indictment on three of the defendants was read for forcibly entering the house of Robert Speechly in Littleport and stealing personal property . Mr Gurney addressed the jury , who later pronounced all defendants guilty .
Five defendants were then indicted for forcing their way in the house of Rev. John Vachell in Littleport , threatening him and stealing £ 2 . Mr Gurney addressed the jury . Two witnesses testified . A verdict of guilty was returned against Harley and Newell whilst Warner and Stibbard were acquitted .
Five defendants were then indicted for stealing £ 50 from the house of Robert Edwards in Ely . Mr Gurney addressed the jury at length describing the events occurring in the town of Ely on the morning of the 23 May 1816 . Eight witnesses were called . The jury returned guilty verdicts against Dennis , Jefferson , and Rutter . Hopkin and Cammell were given not guilty verdicts .
= = = Thursday = = =
On Thursday morning 20 June two defendants were indicted for stealing silverware from the home of Rev. J. Vachell in Littleport and one was charged with receiving the stolen goods . Four witnesses called were Elizabeth Carter following which Mr Justice Burrough summed up . Lavender was pronounced guilty of the theft and Beamiss and Butcher received not guilty verdicts .
John Gaultrip was next , also indicted for stealing spoons at the vicarage . As the evidence was contradictory , Gaultrip was acquitted by the jury .
Next at the bar was William Beamiss indicted for highway robbery of Hugh Robert Evans , of Ely . Two witness were called . Mr Justice Abbott summed up and the jury returned a verdict of guilty on the prisoner Beamiss .
Then nine defendants were charged with threatening W. Cooper of Ely and stealing from him . Mr Gurney addressed the jury , explaining the circumstances of the disturbances carried out by the mob in Ely . Nine witnesses were called . Mr Justice Abbott spoke to the jury for a long time . The jury retired for fifteen minutes . On returning , it pronounced as guilty Dennis , Jessop , Atkin , Layton , Hobbs , Pricke , Cooper , and Jefferson . It acquitted Freeman .
Six defendants were then charged with stealing from George Stevens in Ely . Three witness were examined following which Dennis , Layton , Atkin , and Cammell were all pronounced guilty by the jury . Capital convictions against Aaron Chevall and William Beamiss , for robbing Henry Tansley of two £ 1 notes , were also returned by the jury . The court adjourned at 6 pm .
= = = Friday = = =
On Friday morning 21 June , seven prisoners were brought to the bar on a similar charge as on Tuesday ( breaking into the house of Rebecca Waddelow in Littleport and stealing personal property and money ) . The prisoners all pleaded not guilty . Mr Gurney addressed the jury explaining that these were the same persons indicted on Tuesday for the same offence . He explained to the jury that the earlier indictment incorrectly described the house to be the property of Rebecca Waddelow , leading to the prisoners ' acquittal . He also explained that in the original indictment , other persons had been charged , but as these other persons had since been convicted of capital offences , they had been removed from the indictment . The witness were all brought forward again and made their statements . They said much the same as previously , though this took much of the day . In summing up , Mr Abbott went on a length closing with " the duty which it belonged to them [ the jury ] to execute – confident that , from experience which the court had now of them , their verdict would be such as good sense would dictate , and the public justice of the country require " . It took the jury five minutes to find Walker , Butcher and Crow guilty and Nicholas , Wilson and Jefferson not guilty .
Brought to the bar next was Henry Benson , a farmer who was out on bail , charged with inciting to riot . Benson was held in surety for £ 400 plus two other sureties for £ 200 each . He was to appear for trial at the next assizes . Richard Cooper the elder and Richard Cooper the younger were also bound over to the next assizes . Father and son , William Beamiss the elder and the younger , were then brought in and charged with assaulting and stealing from Robert Cheesewright the younger , of Littleport , in the Isle of Ely . Mr Gurney addressed the jury . Mr Burrough summed up and the jury gave their guilty verdict to both prisoners shortly after .
Next , between 20 and 30 prisoners were brought to the bar and " indicted for having committed various felonies and misdemeanour 's at Littleport on 22 , 23 , and 24 of May last " . A few were put to the next assizes and the remainder chose to be tried immediately . Mr Gurney addressed the jury explaining that his Majesty 's government was keen not to put to the jury more cases than was necessary . If the prisoners now at the bar offered a small surety and remained on good behaviour , there would be no more said . Mr Abbott spoke to the prisoners at length , finally demanding that each of them offer surety of £ 50 and find two more sureties each of £ 10 or one more each of £ 20 . Mr Abbott then thanked the jury for their services . The court adjourned .
= = = Sentences = = =
Saturday
On Saturday 22 June 1816 six men were acquitted ; 10 were discharged ; 36 were bailed ; 23 men and one woman were condemned of whom 18 men and the woman , Sarah Hobbs , had their sentences commuted . Of the 19 persons commuted , nine were sentenced to penal transportation . Seven of those nine sailed on the convict ship Sir William Bensley , which departed for New South Wales on 9 October 1816 , captained by Lew E Williams . Records exist for the following known to have sailed : James Newell , Richard Jessop , John Jefferson , Joseph Easey , Aaron Chevell , all of Littleport and all transported for life ; Richard Rutter of Littleport for 14 years ; John Easey of Littleport for seven years . Two others were also sentenced to transportation for seven years , Mark Benton and John Walker , both of Littleport . 10 , including Sarah Hobbs , were committed to Ely gaol for 12 months ; five were from Littleport and five , including Sarah Hobbs were from Ely .
The five condemned without commutation were all from Littleport . They were William Beamiss ( 42 ) the elder , shoemaker , for stealing from the persons of Henry Tansley and Robert Cheeseright , both of Littleport ; George Crow ( 23 ) , labourer , for stealing in the dwelling @-@ house of Rebecca Waddelow and Henry Martin , both of Littleport ; John Dennis ( 32 ) , a publican , for stealing from the persons of William Cooper , Robert Edwards , and George Stevens , all of Ely ; Isaac Harley junior ( 33 ) , labourer , for stealing from the person of the Reverend John Vachell , of Littleport ; and Thomas South the younger ( 22 ) , labourer , for stealing in the dwelling @-@ house of Josiah Dewey and Robert Speechley , both of Littleport .
= = = Execution = = =
On Friday 28 June 1816 at 9 am , the condemned men , William Beamiss , George Crow , John Dennis , Isaac Harley and Thomas South , were driven from the gaol at Ely market place in a black @-@ draped cart and two horses costing five @-@ pound five @-@ shillings ( £ 362 ) accompanied by the bishop 's gaol chaplain , John Griffin , in a hired chaise and pair costing 13 shillings ( £ 45 ) . In submitting his expenses on 29 June , chief bailiff F. Bagge noted " We have no power of pressing a cart for the purpose , and ' tis a difficult matter to get one , people feel 's so much upon the occasion " .
The men arrived at the gallows at Parnell pits around 11 am , and were hanged after praying with the crowd for some time . Griffin was unofficially given the ropes , which cost one @-@ pound five @-@ shillings ( £ 86 ) , after hanging , which he kept ; he left a collection to his housekeeper , who sold them as a cure for sore throats . Following the hanging , the bodies were placed in coffins and displayed in a cottage in Gaol Street , where many people came to visit . They were buried the next day in St Mary 's Church , Ely , with the vicar 's blessing . As a warning to others , a stone plaque ( pictured ) was installed on the west side of St Mary 's Church ; it concludes , " May their awful Fate be a warning to others " .
In 1816 , there were a total of 83 people executed in England : 80 men , including the five Littleport rioters , and three women .
= = Aftermath = =
A few days after the execution , the ten condemned prisoners who had had their sentences commuted to twelve months ' imprisonment were transported to the prison hulk Justitia , moored at Woolwich on the River Thames . Such ships were used as holding areas prior to convicts being transferred to a regular vessel for penal transportation to , at this time , Australia . Residents of Ely tried to hold meetings to complain at this apparent extension of the prisoners ' sentences . Despite , or because of , media attention — newspapers of the time took sides depending whether they supported the government or not — the prisoners were returned to Ely gaol ; it may all have been a simple mistake by the clerk of the assizes .
On 3 April 1816 , lieutenant @-@ colonel William Sorell was appointed lieutenant @-@ governor of Van Diemen 's Land , now Tasmania . He sailed on the Sir William Bensley , the same ship transporting the rioters sentenced to penal transportation . Leaving England on 9 October 1816 , the ship arrived in New South Wales 152 days later on 10 March 1817 . Soon after , Sorrel sailed to Hobart arriving on 8 April 1817 , where he distinguished himself as the third lieutenant @-@ governor .
The Reverend John Vachell stayed on as vicar of St George 's Littleport in title until 1830 ; he appointed a curate , George Britton Jermyn from 1817 . Some of the St George 's church registers were destroyed during the riots . The remaining registers start from 1754 ( marriages ) , 1756 ( burials ) , and 1783 ( baptism ) . General unrest and riots such as that at Littleport may have been a factor in the government passing the Vagrancy Act of 1824 . Due in part to some difficulties in enforcing the law and to continued public unease , the Metropolitan Police Act of 1829 was created leading to the first modern police force .
= Æthelwold ætheling =
Æthelwold or Æthelwald ( died 902 or 903 ) was the younger of two known sons of Æthelred I , King of Wessex from 865 to 871 . Because Æthelwold ætheling and his brother were still infants when their father the king died while fighting a Danish Viking invasion , the throne passed to the king 's younger brother ( and Æthelwold 's uncle ) Alfred the Great , who carried on the war against the Vikings and won a crucial victory at the Battle of Edington in 878 .
After Alfred 's death in 899 , Æthelwold disputed the throne with Alfred 's son , Edward the Elder . As senior ætheling ( prince of the royal dynasty eligible for kingship ) , Æthelwold had a strong claim to the throne . He attempted to raise an army to support his claim , but was unable to get sufficient support to meet Edward in battle and fled to Viking @-@ controlled Northumbria , where he was accepted as king . In 901 or 902 he sailed with a fleet to Essex , where he was also accepted as king .
The following year Æthelwold persuaded the East Anglian Danes to attack Edward 's territory in Wessex and Mercia . Edward retaliated with a raid on East Anglia , and when he withdrew the men of Kent lingered and met the East Anglian Danes at the Battle of the Holme . The Danes were victorious but suffered heavy losses , including the death of Æthelwold , which ended the challenge to Edward 's rule .
= = Background = =
In the eighth century , Mercia was the most powerful kingdom in southern England , but in the early ninth Wessex became dominant . In the 820s King Egbert of Wessex conquered south @-@ east England ( Kent , Surrey , Sussex and Essex ) . His reign saw the beginning of Viking attacks , but Egbert and his son Æthelwulf , who succeeded in 839 , were able to resist them . Æthelwulf died in 858 , and he was followed by four sons in succession . King Æthelbald died in 860 , and King Æthelberht in 865 ; Æthelwold 's father , Æthelred , then succeeded to the throne . In the same year the Viking Great Heathen Army invaded England . Within five years they had conquered Northumbria and East Anglia , and forced Mercia to buy them off . In late 870 the Vikings invaded Wessex , and in early 871 they fought armies under Æthelred and Alfred in four battles in quick succession , the last two of which Wessex lost . Æthelred died shortly after Easter that year , leaving young sons . Primogeniture was not established in this period , and it was believed that kings should be adults , so he was succeeded by his younger brother Alfred .
By 878 the Vikings had seized eastern Mercia and nearly conquered Wessex , and Alfred was reduced to being a fugitive in the Somerset marshes , but he fought back and won the Battle of Edington . This was followed by a period of peace , and in the late 880s Alfred concluded a treaty with Guthrum , king of the East Anglian Vikings , setting the boundary between Wessex and English Mercia on the one hand , and the Danelaw on the other . A further Viking assault in the mid 890s was unsuccessful .
= = Early life = =
Very little is known of Æthelwold 's immediate family . Æthelred was born in about 848 and died in 871 , so his sons must have been young children when he died . Æthelred 's wife was probably the Wulfthryth who witnessed a charter in 868 . Æthelwold and his older brother Æthelhelm are first recorded in King Alfred 's will in the 880s . Æthelhelm is not heard of again , and he probably died soon afterwards . The only other record of Æthelwold before Alfred 's death is as a witness to a charter that probably dates to the 890s .
After King Æthelred 's death in 871 , his sons ' supporters complained about Alfred keeping property that should have belonged to his nephews . Alfred justified his conduct in a preamble to his will , which probably dates to the 880s , One of Alfred 's biographers , Richard Abels , describes the text as " rather tendentious " , and another , Alfred Smyth , as " ambiguous and vague – and deliberately so " . Patrick Wormald views the will as " one of the seminal documents of pre @-@ Conquest history , and like many such not easily understood . "
The dispute concerned property bequeathed in the will of Alfred 's father , Æthelwulf . This does not survive , but Alfred described some of its provisions in a preamble to his own will . Æthelwulf had left property jointly to three of his four surviving sons , Æthelbald , Æthelred and Alfred , stipulating that all of it was to be inherited by the brother who lived the longest . When Æthelred inherited the throne in 865 , Alfred asked for the property to be divided between them . Æthelred refused , offering instead to leave it to Alfred on his death , together with any further property he acquired , and Alfred agreed . The Viking invasion of Wessex , and the need to provide for their children , led to a revision of the terms . Under an agreement in late 870 or early 871 , the survivor was still to keep the property bequeathed jointly to the three brothers , but he would give his brother 's children any lands which he had received separately from his father , and any he had acquired later .
In the preamble to his will , Alfred stated :
When we now heard many disputes about the inheritance , I brought King Æthelwulf 's will to our assembly at Langandene , and it was read before all the councillors of the West Saxons . When it had been read , I urged them all for love of me – and gave them my pledge that I would never bear a grudge against any one of them because they declared what was right – that none of them would hesitate , either for love or fear of me , to expound the common law , lest any man should say that I had treated my young kinsmen wrongfully , the older or the younger . And then they all pronounced what was right , and said that they could not conceive any juster title , nor could they find one in the will . " Now everything has come into your possession , and you may bequeath it or give it into the hand of kinsman or stranger , whichever you prefer . "
Historians have taken differing views of Æthelwulf 's will . The editors of Alfred 's will , Simon Keynes and Michael Lapidge , suggest that Æthelwulf 's other surviving son , Æthelberht , was excluded from the arrangement because he was provided for separately in the eastern kingdom ( the recently conquered south @-@ east England ) , where he acted as king in 855 and 856 ; it was probably intended that he should establish a separate dynasty there . The bequest to the three brothers would only have covered part of Æthelwulf 's property . The transmission of folkland was governed by customary law , and another portion was reserved for the holder of the office of king . Keynes and Lapidge argue that Æthelwulf clearly intended that his personal property should be preserved intact , and it seems to have been considered desirable that this should be held by the reigning king , so it is likely that he intended the kingship of western Wessex to be inherited by the survivor of the three brothers . This plan was abandoned when Æthelbald died in 860 and the kingdom was reunited under Æthelberht , and Æthelred 's confirmation of the arrangement when he acceded in 865 recognised Alfred as heir apparent .
Ann Williams comments : " Æthelred virtually disinherits his children in favour of Alfred 's in the event of his own previous death , at least in respect of the lion 's share of the inheritance and therefore the kingship . This is in fact exactly what happened , and Æthelred 's sons were not pleased at the outcome . " In his Life of Alfred , written in 893 , Asser states three times that Alfred was Æthelred 's secundarius ( heir apparent ) , an emphasis that in Ryan Lavelle 's view " reflects sensitivity on the subject of Alfred 's succession " .
Smyth argues , however , that it is unlikely that Æthelwulf intended to divide his kingdom , or that the kingship of Wessex should be inherited by the surviving brother ; the joint property was probably provision for his youngest sons at a time when they appeared very unlikely to succeed to the kingship , with Æthelbald included as a residual beneficiary in case both of them died young . D. P. Kirby argues that it cannot be assumed that the disputed lands represented the greater part of the royal estates ; he believes that Æthelwulf did intend to divide his kingdom , but also that it is unlikely he intended the surviving son to inherit the kingship : " Such an arrangement would have led to fratricidal strife . With three older brothers , Alfred 's chances of reaching adulthood would , one feels , have been minimal . "
In his own will , Alfred left the bulk of his property to Edward , while Æthelhelm was left eight estates , and Æthelwold only three ( at Godalming and Guildford in Surrey , and Steyning in Sussex ) , all in the less important eastern part of the kingdom . The largest of these was Steyning , Æthelwulf 's original burial place ; in Patrick Wormald 's view , Alfred may have moved the body to Winchester because he was required to give the estate to Æthelwold under his agreement with Æthelred , and he did not want his nephew to have the prestige of owning his grandfather 's grave . Keynes and Lapidge comment : " If only to judge from the relatively small number of estates he received , Æthelwold in particular would have had cause to be aggrieved by this allocation of property , and his resentment is shown by his rebellion against Edward soon after Alfred 's death . " Smyth argues that the meeting of the king 's council , the witan , was bound to support him :
Alfred , by [ c.885 ] in full control of Wessex and at the height of his power , was clearly bent on trying to settle the kingship on his son , Edward , to the exclusion of his brother Æthelred 's heirs . That kingship was never in Alfred 's gift , but clearly the greater amount of landed wealth he could entail on Edward , the stronger he made that son 's position in any future contest for the kingship . We must , therefore , treat anything he tells us of the terms of the disputed inheritance of his rival nephews with the utmost caution , if not scepticism . The support which Alfred tells us he received from the witan counts for little . As king , Alfred controlled immense patronage in relation to his thegns , who stood to benefit from backing their lord against claims which his nephews made on his property . It is significant that the case ever came before the witan at all . That it did , suggests that Æthelhelm and Æthelwold were by then young men who commanded some independent support and sympathy in Wessex .
In Abels ' view , Æthelred 's sons attempted to shame Alfred into handing over the lands they claimed so as to strengthen their position in the inevitable battle that would break out over the succession when Alfred died , and the Langandene assembly was Alfred 's riposte .
Alfred also assisted his own son by promoting men who could be relied on to support him , and by giving him opportunities for command in battle once he was old enough . In the view of Barbara Yorke , the compilation of the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle , which magnified Alfred 's achievements , may have been partly intended to strengthen the case for the succession of his own descendants . However , Yorke also argues that Æthelwold 's position was not fatally undermined by Alfred 's will . His mother had witnessed a charter as regina , whereas Alfred followed West Saxon tradition in refusing to have his wife consecrated as queen , and Æthelwold 's status as the son of a queen may have given him an advantage over Edward . Æthelwold was still the senior ætheling , and the only surviving charter he witnessed shows both him and Edward as filius regis ( son of a king ) , but lists Æthelwold above Edward , implying that he ranked above him .
= = Æthelwold 's Revolt = =
After Alfred 's death in 899 , Æthelwold made a bid for the throne . Janet Nelson comments that " in the eyes of many Englishmen as well as Scandinavians this ætheling had claims stronger than Edward 's own . " According to the ' A ' version of the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle , Æthelwold abducted a nun from her convent without the permission of King Edward and against the command of the bishop . Her identity is not known , but it must have been intended to strengthen his claim , and in the view of the historian Pauline Stafford , the Chronicle 's account is biased in favour of Edward and may have been intended to delegitimise a politically important marriage . Æthelwold took her to the royal manors of Twynham ( now Christchurch ) and then Wimborne Minster , symbolically important as his father 's burial place , and declared that " he would live or die there " . Lavelle sees Wimborne as strategically significant , close to Roman roads to Dorchester and Salisbury , and at a crossing point of the rivers Allen and Stour ; it was the most southern point for control of access to western Wessex and Æthelwold may have intended a division of the kingdom .
However , when Edward 's army approached and camped at Badbury Rings , an Iron Age hill fort four miles west of Wimborne , Æthelwold was unable to gain sufficient support to meet them in battle . Leaving behind his consort , he fled to the Danes of Northumbria , who accepted him as king . Northumbrian coins were issued at this time in the name of a king called ' Alwaldus ' , who is thought to have been Æthelwold . Norse sagas record traditions of a Danish king Knútr , who briefly ruled Northumbria around 900 . He is said to have been at first been repulsed by an English king called Adalbrigt north of Cleveland , but then to have defeated him at Scarborough . In 1987 , Smyth suggested that Adalbrigt may have been Æthelwold , but in 1995 Smyth put forward the alternative idea that the Northumbrian Danes may have accepted Æthelwold 's claim to be king of the West Saxons rather than taking him as their own king .
Æthelwold 's reign in Northumbria was short , in David Rollason 's view because Æthelwold saw it only as a base for gaining power in Wessex . In 901 or 902 he sailed with a fleet to Essex , where Rollason states that he was accepted as king by the local Vikings . However , David Dumville points out that in the next year Æthelwold persuaded the Danes in East Anglia to wage war against Edward , and Dumville argues that it is unlikely that there was an unknown separate Viking army in Essex . In his view Æthelwold was aiming to secure recognition in part of the kingdom of Wessex in order to strengthen his claim to the throne , and he succeeded in gaining the submission of the English rulers of Essex .
The East Anglian Danes joined Æthelwold in a raid on Mercia , reaching as far as the fortified burh at Cricklade on the border with Wessex . He then crossed the Thames into Wessex itself to raid Braydon . Edward retaliated by ravaging Danish East Anglia , but he withdrew without engaging Æthelwold in battle . The men of Kent lingered , although according to the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle Edward sent seven messengers to recall them . The Danes caught up with the men of Kent to fight the Battle of the Holme . Its location is unknown but may be Holme in Cambridgeshire . The Danes were victorious but suffered heavy losses . Æthelwold was among the leaders on the Danish side who were killed , together with Eohric , the Viking King of East Anglia , two holds ( Danish noblemen ) , Ysopa and Oscetel , and Beorhtsige , son of the ætheling Beornoth , who was probably a kinsmen of the former king of Mercia , Burgred . Kentish losses included their two ealdormen , Sigewulf and Sigehelm , and an Abbot Cenwulf .
The achievement of the Kentish contingent put Edward 's failure to engage the Danes with his whole army in a poor light . In Cyril Hart 's view : " Undoubtedly there were recriminations , which appear to have continued to threaten Edward 's authority for some considerable period , especially in Kent ; witness the Wessex chronicler 's anxiety to find excuses for Edward 's failure to support the Kentish contingent . " Edward was later to marry Sigehelm 's daughter , Eadgifu , and Hart thinks that this may have been designed to placate his Kentish subjects .
The various texts of the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle give different versions of the revolt . Hart states : " The oldest and more authoritative is preserved in the ' B ' text of the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle ( supported in its essentials by the Latin East Anglian Chronicle ) ; the official version in the ' A ' text is clearly a late revision , intended to justify King Edward 's position and to reinforce his authority . " ' B ' describes Æthelwold as an ætheling , indicating the legitimacy of his claim for the kingship , a description omitted in ' A ' . ' A ' says that he took possession of Wimborne and Twinham without the permission of the king and his councillors ' , ' B ' against their will . ' B ' says that Æthelwold " rode away by night " from Wimborne ; ' A ' reads " stole away " . According to ' B ' , the Northumbrian Danes accepted Æthelwold as their king , and gave allegiance to him , but this is omitted in ' A ' . However , none of the texts describe him as an ætheling after his flight to Northumbria , showing that his actions were no longer thought to have a claim to legitimacy . In the view of Scott Thompson Smith , the dispute was over property as well as kingship , and the Chronicle presents Edward as the successful protector of family property against outside interests .
= = Legacy = =
According to the historian Martin Ryan :
What is striking about Æthelwold 's " rebellion " is the level and range of support he was able to draw on : he could call on allies from Wessex , Northumbria , East Anglia and , probably , Mercia and Essex . For a time Æthelwold had a claim to be the most powerful ruler in England . Edward 's apparent reluctance to engage him in battle may have been well founded .
In the view of James Campbell , the bias in the sources has led historians to see Æthelwold 's rebellion as a " somewhat odd episode " , but he had a justifiable claim to the kingship , and he was nearly successful ; if he had not been killed at the Holme , he might have united England with much less warfare than ultimately proved to be necessary . " Had it not been for the chances of battle and war Æthelwold might very well have been regarded as one of the greatest figures in our island 's story " . Lavelle argues that " it is important to acknowledge the audacity of Æthelwold 's actions " and that he " well deserves to be ranked amongst the ' Nearly Men ' of early Medieval Europe " . The twelfth @-@ century Annals of St Neots called him " king of the pagans " .
It is not known whether he had any descendants , but the chronicler Æthelweard was a great @-@ great @-@ grandson of King Æthelred , and this may have been through Æthelwold . Shashi Jayakumar suggests the rivalry between King Eadwig and his younger brother Edgar in the 950s dates back to the conflict which resulted in the Battle of the Holme . Eadwig 's wife , Ælfgifu , was probably Æthelweard 's sister , and one of Eadwig 's supporters , Byrhtnoth , may have been descended from the Mercian royal family through the ætheling Beorhtnoth , whose son Byrhtsige died fighting on Æthelwold 's side at the Holme . Opponents of Eadwig included his grandmother , Eadgifu , and Eadwig confiscated her property . In Jayakumar 's view : " The emergence of Ælfgifu , descendant of the ætheling Æthelwold , did not just threaten Edgar 's position , it represented a revanche to a line and lineage with royal claims of its own ... The ancestors of Byrhtnoth and Æthelweard had in all likelihood fought together with Æthelwold on the Danish side at the Battle of the Holme , the opposite side to that which Eadgifu 's father Sigehelm had fought for . " The marriage between Eadwig and Ælfgifu was dissolved on the grounds of consanguinity , and Edgar succeeded to the throne when Eadwig died without leaving children . In the view of Nick Higham , Æthelweard shows a " lack of empathy " for Edward in his chronicle , which Higham attributes to Edward 's victory over Æthelweard 's ancestor . Æthelweard was Ealdorman of the Western Provinces in the late tenth century , showing that Æthelred 's descendants held on to land and power in the century after his death . Æthelweard 's grandson , Æthelnoth , was an eleventh @-@ century Archbishop of Canterbury .
= Rolls @-@ Royce Merlin =
The Rolls @-@ Royce Merlin is a British liquid @-@ cooled V @-@ 12 piston aero engine of 27 @-@ litres ( 1 @,@ 650 cu in ) capacity . Rolls @-@ Royce designed the engine and first ran it in 1933 as a private venture . Initially known as the PV @-@ 12 , it was later called Merlin following the company convention of naming its piston aero engines after birds of prey .
After several modifications , the first production variants of the PV @-@ 12 were completed in 1936 . The first operational aircraft to enter service using the Merlin were the Fairey Battle , Hawker Hurricane and Supermarine Spitfire . More Merlins were made for the four @-@ engined Avro Lancaster heavy bomber than for any other aircraft ; however , the engine is most closely associated with the Spitfire , starting with the Spitfire 's maiden flight in 1936 . A series of rapidly applied developments , brought about by wartime needs , markedly improved the engine 's performance and durability .
One of the most successful aircraft engines of the World War II era , some fifty marks of Merlin were built by Rolls @-@ Royce in Derby , Crewe and Glasgow , as well as by Ford of Britain at their Trafford Park factory , near Manchester . Post @-@ war , the Merlin was largely superseded by the Rolls @-@ Royce Griffon for military use , with most Merlin variants being designed and built for airliners and military transport aircraft . Production ceased in 1950 after 160 @,@ 000 engines had been delivered . In addition , the Packard V @-@ 1650 was a version of the Merlin built in the United States , itself produced in numbers upwards of 55 @,@ 000 examples , and was the principal engine used in the North American P @-@ 51 Mustang .
Merlin engines remain in Royal Air Force service today with the Battle of Britain Memorial Flight , and power many restored aircraft in private ownership worldwide .
= = Design and development = =
= = = Origin = = =
In the early 1930s , Rolls @-@ Royce started planning its future aero @-@ engine development programme and realised there was a need for an engine larger than their 21 @-@ litre ( 1 @,@ 296 cu in ) Kestrel which was being used with great success in a number of 1930s aircraft . Consequently , work was started on a new 1 @,@ 100 hp ( 820 kW ) -class design known as the PV @-@ 12 , with PV standing for Private Venture , 12 @-@ cylinder , as the company received no government funding for work on the project . The PV @-@ 12 was first run on 15 October 1933 and first flew in a Hawker Hart biplane ( serial number K3036 ) on 21 February 1935 . The engine was originally designed to use the evaporative cooling system then in vogue . This proved unreliable and when supplies of ethylene glycol from the U.S. became available , the engine was adapted to use a conventional liquid @-@ cooling system . The Hart was subsequently delivered to Rolls @-@ Royce where , as a Merlin testbed , it completed over 100 hours of flying with the Merlin C and E engines .
In 1935 , the Air Ministry issued a specification , F10 / 35 , for new fighter aircraft with a minimum airspeed of 310 mph ( 500 km / h ) . Fortunately , two designs had been developed : the Supermarine Spitfire and the Hawker Hurricane ; the latter designed in response to another specification , F36 / 34 . Both were designed around the PV @-@ 12 instead of the Kestrel , and were the only contemporary British fighters to have been so developed . Production contracts for both aircraft were placed in 1936 , and development of the PV @-@ 12 was given top priority as well as government funding . Following the company convention of naming its piston aero engines after birds of prey , Rolls @-@ Royce named the engine the Merlin after a small , Northern Hemisphere falcon ( Falco columbarius ) .
Two more Rolls @-@ Royce engines developed just prior to the war were added to the company 's range . The 700 hp ( 520 kW ) Rolls @-@ Royce Peregrine was an updated , supercharged development of their V @-@ 12 Kestrel design , while the 1 @,@ 700 hp ( 1 @,@ 300 kW ) 42 @-@ litre ( 2 @,@ 560 cu in ) Rolls @-@ Royce Vulture used four Kestrel @-@ sized cylinder blocks fitted to a single crankcase and driving a common crankshaft , forming an X @-@ 24 layout . This was to be used in larger aircraft such as the Avro Manchester .
Although the Peregrine appeared to be a satisfactory design , it was never allowed to mature since Rolls @-@ Royce 's priority was refining the Merlin . As a result , the Peregrine saw use in only two aircraft : the Westland Whirlwind fighter and one of the Gloster F.9 / 37 prototypes . The Vulture was fitted to the Avro Manchester bomber , but proved unreliable in service and the planned fighter using it – the Hawker Tornado – was cancelled as a result . With the Merlin itself soon pushing into the 1 @,@ 500 hp ( 1 @,@ 100 kW ) range , the Peregrine and Vulture were both cancelled in 1943 , and by mid @-@ 1943 the Merlin was supplemented in service by the larger Griffon . The Griffon incorporated several design improvements and ultimately superseded the Merlin .
= = = Development = = =
Initially the new engine was plagued with problems , such as failure of the accessory gear trains and coolant jackets , and several different construction methods were tried before the basic design of the Merlin was set . Early production Merlins were also unreliable : Common problems were cylinder head cracking , coolant leaks , and excessive wear to the camshafts and crankshaft main bearings .
= = = = Early engines = = = =
The prototype , developmental , and early production engine types were the :
PV @-@ 12
The initial design using an evaporative cooling system . Two built , passed bench type testing in July 1934 , generating 740 horsepower ( 552 kW ) at 12 @,@ 000 @-@ foot ( 3 @,@ 700 m ) equivalent . First flown 21 February 1935 .
Merlin B
Two built , ethylene glycol liquid cooling system introduced . " Ramp " cylinder heads ( inlet valves were at a 45 @-@ degree angle to the cylinder ) . Passed Type Testing February 1935 , generating 950 horsepower ( 708 kW ) at 11 @,@ 000 @-@ foot ( 3 @,@ 400 m ) equivalent .
Merlin C
Development of Merlin B ; crankcase and cylinder blocks became three separate castings with bolt @-@ on cylinder heads . First flight in Hawker Horsley 21 December 1935 , 950 horsepower ( 708 kW ) at 11 @,@ 000 @-@ foot ( 3 @,@ 400 m ) .
Merlin E
Similar to C with minor design changes . Passed 50 @-@ hour civil test in December 1935 generating a constant 955 horsepower ( 712 kW ) and a maximum rating of 1 @,@ 045 horsepower ( 779 kW ) . Failed military 100 @-@ hour test in March 1936 . Powered the Supermarine Spitfire prototype .
Merlin F ( Merlin I )
Similar to C and E. First flight in Horsley 16 July 1936 . This became the first production engine , and was designated as the Merlin I. The Merlin continued with the " ramp " head , but this was not a success and only 172 were made . The Fairey Battle was the first production aircraft to be powered by the Merlin I and first flew on 10 March 1936 .
Merlin G ( Merlin II )
Replaced " ramp " cylinder heads with parallel pattern heads ( valves parallel to the cylinder ) scaled up from the Kestrel engine . 400 @-@ hour flight endurance tests carried out at RAE July 1937 ; acceptance test 22 September 1937 . It was first widely delivered as the 1 @,@ 030 @-@ horsepower ( 770 kW ) Merlin II in 1938 , and production was quickly stepped up .
Merlin III
Merlin II with standardised de Havilland / Rotol SBAC propeller shaft , and dual accessory @-@ drive . 1 @,@ 030 @-@ horsepower ( 770 kW ) at 3 @,@ 000 rpm at 10 @,@ 250 feet at + 6 @.@ 5 lb boost .
" Racing " Merlin
Racing engine for 1937 / 38 " Speed Spitfire " world speed record attempt . Merlin III with strengthened pistons , connecting rods , and gudgeon @-@ pins , running on increased octane fuel , developed 2 @,@ 160 @-@ horsepower ( 1 @,@ 610 kW ) at 3 @,@ 200 rpm and + 27 lb boost , a power / weight ratio of 0 @.@ 621 lb per horsepower . Completed 15 hour endurance run at 1 @,@ 800 @-@ horsepower ( 1 @,@ 342 kW ) , 3 @,@ 200 rpm at + 22 lb boost .
Merlin IV
Merlin with pressure @-@ water cooling for Armstrong Whitworth Whitley IV .
Merlin VIII
Medium @-@ supercharged Merlin developed for Fairey Fulmar I , rated 1 @,@ 010 @-@ horsepower ( 754 kW ) at 2 @,@ 850 rpm at 6 @,@ 750 feet , 1 @,@ 080 @-@ horsepower ( 805 kW ) at 3 @,@ 000 rpm for take @-@ off using 100 octane fuel .
Merlin X
First Merlin with two @-@ speed supercharger , 1 @,@ 145 @-@ horsepower ( 853 kW ) in low gear at 5 @,@ 250 feet , 1 @,@ 010 @-@ horsepower ( 754 kW ) in high gear at 17 @,@ 750 feet . First of Rolls @-@ Royce unitised " Power Plant " installation designs for this engine in 1937 and used in Handley Page Halifax I , Vickers Wellington II , and Armstrong Whitworth Whitley V and VII .
Merlin XII
Merlin fitted with 0 @.@ 477 : 1 reduction gear installed in some Spitfire II 's with three @-@ bladed Rotol constant @-@ speed propeller . Rated at 1 @,@ 150 @-@ horsepower ( 857 kW ) at 3 @,@ 000 rpm at 14 @,@ 000 feet .
Merlin XX
Merlin X with Stanley Hooker re @-@ designed supercharger incorporating re @-@ designed inlet and improved guide vanes on impeller with revised blower gear ratios ; 8 : 15 : 1 for low gear , 9 : 49 : 1 for high gear . New larger SU twin choke updraught carburettor . Engine interchangeable with Merlin X. Rated at 1 @,@ 240 @-@ horsepower ( 924 kW ) at 2 @,@ 850 rpm in low gear at 10 @,@ 000 feet and + 9 lb boost ; 1 @,@ 175 @-@ horsepower ( 876 kW ) at 2 @,@ 850 rpm in high gear at 17 @,@ 500 feet at + 9 lb boost . Revised Rolls @-@ Royce unitised " Power Plant " installation design . Engine used in Bristol Beaufighter II , Boulton Paul Defiant II , Handley Page Halifax II and V , Hawker Hurricane II and IV , and Avro Lancaster I and III . First Merlin produced by Packard Motor Car Company as V @-@ 1650 @-@ 1 and designated by Rolls @-@ Royce as Merlin 28 .
= = = = Production engines = = = =
The Merlin II and III series were the first main production versions of the engine . The Merlin III was the first version to incorporate a " universal " propeller shaft , allowing either de Havilland or Rotol manufactured propellers to be used .
The first major version to incorporate changes brought about through experience in operational service was the XX , which was designed to run on 100 octane fuel . This fuel allowed higher manifold pressures , which were achieved by increasing the boost from the centrifugal supercharger . The Merlin XX also utilised the two @-@ speed superchargers designed by Rolls @-@ Royce , resulting in increased power at higher altitudes than previous versions . Another improvement , introduced with the Merlin X , was the use of a 70 % – 30 % water @-@ glycol coolant mix rather than the 100 % glycol of the earlier versions . This substantially improved engine life and reliability , removed the fire hazard of the flammable ethylene glycol , and reduced the oil leaks that had been a problem with the early Merlin I , II and III series .
The process of improvement continued , with later versions running on higher octane ratings , delivering more power . Fundamental design changes were also made to all key components , again increasing the engine 's life and reliability . By the end of the war the " little " engine was delivering over 1 @,@ 600 horsepower ( 1 @,@ 200 kW ) in common versions , and as much as 2 @,@ 030 horsepower ( 1 @,@ 540 kW ) in the Merlin 130 / 131 versions specifically designed for the de Havilland Hornet . Ultimately , during tests conducted by Rolls @-@ Royce at Derby , an RM.17.SM ( the high altitude version of the Merlin 100 @-@ Series ) achieved 2 @,@ 640 horsepower ( 1 @,@ 969 kW ) at 36 lb boost ( 103 " Hg ) on 150 octane fuel with water injection .
With the end of the war , work on improving Merlin power output was halted and the development effort was concentrated on civil derivatives of the Merlin . Development of what became the " Transport Merlin " ( TML ) commenced with the Merlin 102 ( the first Merlin to complete the new civil type @-@ test requirements ) and was aimed at improving reliability and service overhaul periods for airline operators using airliner and transport aircraft such as the Avro Lancastrian , Avro York ( Merlin 500 @-@ series ) , Avro Tudor II & IV ( Merlin 621 ) , Tudor IVB & V ( Merlin 623 ) , TCA Canadair North Star ( Merlin 724 ) and BOAC Argonaut ( Merlin 724 @-@ IC ) . By 1951 time between overhaul ( TBO ) was typically between 650 – 800 hours depending on use . By then single @-@ stage engines had accumulated 2 @,@ 615 @,@ 000 engine hours in civil operation , and two @-@ stage engines 1 @,@ 169 @,@ 000 .
In addition , an exhaust system to reduce noise levels to below those from ejector exhausts was devised for the North Star / Argonaut . This " cross @-@ over " system took the exhaust flow from the inboard bank of cylinders up @-@ and @-@ over the engine before discharging the exhaust stream on the outboard side of the UPP nacelle . As a result , sound levels were reduced by between 5 and 8 decibels . The modified exhaust also conferred an increase in horsepower over the unmodified system of 38 hp ( 28 kW ) , resulting in a 5 knot improvement in true air speed . Still @-@ air range of the aircraft was also improved by around 4 per cent . The modified engine was designated the " TMO " and the modified exhaust system was supplied as kit that could be installed on existing engines either by the operator or by Rolls @-@ Royce .
Power ratings for the civil Merlin 600 , 620 , and 621 @-@ series was 1 @,@ 160 hp ( 870 kW ) continuous cruising at 23 @,@ 500 feet ( 7 @,@ 200 m ) , and 1 @,@ 725 hp ( 1 @,@ 286 kW ) for take @-@ off . Merlins 622 @-@ 626 were rated at 1 @,@ 420 hp ( 1 @,@ 060 kW ) continuous cruising at 18 @,@ 700 feet ( 5 @,@ 700 m ) , and 1 @,@ 760 hp ( 1 @,@ 310 kW ) for take @-@ off . Engines were available with single @-@ stage , two @-@ speed supercharging ( 500 @-@ series ) , two @-@ stage , two @-@ speed supercharging ( 600 @-@ series ) , and with full intercooling , or with half intercooling / charge heating , charge heating being employed for cold area use such as in Canada . Civil Merlin engines in airline service flew 7 @,@ 818 @,@ 000 air miles in 1946 , 17 @,@ 455 @,@ 000 in 1947 , and 24 @,@ 850 @,@ 000 miles in 1948 .
= = = = Basic component overview ( Merlin 61 ) = = = =
From Jane 's :
Cylinders
Twelve cylinders consisting of high @-@ carbon steel liners set in two , two @-@ piece cylinder blocks of cast " R.R.50 " aluminium alloy having separate heads and skirts . Wet liners , ie. coolant in direct contact with external face of liners . Cylinder heads fitted with cast @-@ iron inlet valve guides , phosphor bronze exhaust valve guides , and renewable " Silchrome " steel @-@ alloy valve seats . Two diametrically opposed spark plugs protrude into each combustion chamber .
Pistons
Machined from " R.R.59 " alloy forgings . Fully floating hollow gudgeon pins of hardened nickel @-@ chrome steel . Three compression and one oil @-@ control ring above the gudgeon pin , and one oil @-@ control ring below .
Connecting rods
H @-@ section machined nickel @-@ steel forgings , each pair consisting of a plain and a forked rod . The forked rod carries a nickel @-@ steel bearing block which accommodates steel @-@ backed lead @-@ bronze @-@ alloy bearing shells . The " small @-@ end " of each rod houses a floating phosphor bronze bush .
Crankshaft
One @-@ piece , machined from a nitrogen @-@ hardened nickel @-@ chrome molybdenum steel forging . Statically and dynamically balanced . Seven main bearings and six throws .
Crankcase
Two aluminium @-@ alloy castings joined together on the horizontal centreline . The upper portion bears the wheelcase , supercharger and accessories ; and carries the cylinder blocks , crankshaft main bearings ( split mild @-@ steel shells lined with lead bronze alloy ) , and part of the housing for the airscrew reduction gear . The lower half forms an oil sump and carries the oil pumps and filters .
Wheelcase
Aluminium casting fitted to rear of crankcase . Houses drives to the camshafts , magnetos , coolant and oil pumps , supercharger , hand and electric starters , and the electric generator .
Valve gear
Two inlet and two exhaust poppet valves of " K.E.965 " steel per cylinder . Both the inlet and exhaust valves have hardened " stellited " ends ; while the exhaust valves also have sodium @-@ cooled stems , and heads protected with a " Brightray " ( nickel @-@ chromium ) coating . Each valve is kept closed by a pair of concentric coil @-@ springs . A single , seven @-@ bearing camshaft , located on the top of each cylinder head operates 24 individual steel rockers ; 12 pivoting from a rocker shaft on the inner , intake side of the head to actuate the exhaust valves , the others pivoting from a shaft on the exhaust side of the head to actuate the inlet valves .
= = = = Technical improvements = = = =
Most of the Merlin 's technical improvements resulted from more efficient superchargers , designed by Stanley Hooker , and the introduction of aviation spirits with increased octane ratings . Numerous detail changes were made internally and externally to the engine to withstand increased power ratings and to incorporate advances in engineering practices .
= = = = = Ejector exhausts = = = = =
The Merlin consumed an enormous volume of air at full power ( equivalent to the volume of a single @-@ decker bus per minute ) , and with the exhaust gases exiting at 1 @,@ 300 mph ( 2 @,@ 100 km / h ) it was realised that useful thrust could be gained simply by angling the gases backwards instead of venting sideways .
During tests , 70 pounds @-@ force ( 310 N ; 32 kgf ) thrust at 300 mph ( 480 km / h ) , or roughly 70 horsepower ( 52 kW ) was obtained which increased the level maximum speed of the Spitfire by 10 mph ( 16 km / h ) to 360 mph ( 580 km / h ) . The first versions of the ejector exhausts featured round outlets , while subsequent versions of the system used " fishtail " style outlets which marginally increased thrust and reduced exhaust glare for night flying .
In September 1937 the Spitfire prototype , K5054 , was fitted with ejector type exhausts . Later marks of the Spitfire used a variation of this exhaust system fitted with forward @-@ facing intake ducts to distribute hot air out to the wing @-@ mounted guns to prevent freezing and stoppages at high altitudes , replacing an earlier system that used heated air from the engine coolant radiator . The latter system had become ineffective due to improvements to the Merlin itself which allowed higher operating altitudes where air temperatures are lower . Ejector exhausts were also fitted to other Merlin @-@ powered aircraft .
= = = = = Supercharger = = = = =
Central to the success of the Merlin was the supercharger . A.C. Lovesey , an engineer who was a key figure in the design of the Merlin , delivered a lecture on the development of the Merlin in 1946 ; in this extract he explained the importance of the supercharger :
The impression still prevails that the static capacity known as the swept volume is the basis of comparison of the possible power output for different types of engine , but this is not the case because the output of the engine depends solely on the mass of air it can be made to consume efficiently , and in this respect the supercharger plays the most important role ... the engine has to be capable of dealing with the greater mass flows with respect to cooling , freedom from detonation and capable of withstanding high gas and inertia loads ... During the course of research and development on superchargers it became apparent to us that any further increase in the altitude performance of the Merlin engine necessitated the employment of a two @-@ stage supercharger .
As the Merlin evolved so too did the supercharger ; the latter fitting into three broad categories :
Single @-@ stage , single @-@ speed gearbox : Merlin I to III , XII , 30 , 40 , and 50 series ( 1937 – 1942 ) .
Single @-@ stage , two @-@ speed gearbox : experimental Merlin X ( 1938 ) , production Merlin XX ( 1940 – 1945 ) .
Two @-@ stage , two @-@ speed gearbox with intercooler : mainly Merlin 60 , 70 , and 80 series ( 1942 – 1946 ) .
The Merlin supercharger was originally designed to allow the engine to generate maximum power at an altitude of about 16 @,@ 000 ft ( 4 @,@ 900 m ) . In 1938 Stanley Hooker , an Oxford graduate in applied mathematics , explained " ... I soon became very familiar with the construction of the Merlin supercharger and carburettor ... Since the supercharger was at the rear of the engine it had come in for pretty severe design treatment , and the air intake duct to the impeller looked very squashed ... " Tests conducted by Hooker showed the original intake design was inefficient , limiting the performance of the supercharger . Hooker subsequently designed a new air intake duct with improved flow characteristics which increased maximum power at a higher altitude of over 19 @,@ 000 ft ( 5 @,@ 800 m ) ; and also improved the design of both the impeller , and the diffuser which controlled the airflow to it . These modifications led to the development of the single @-@ stage Merlin XX and 45 series .
A significant advance in supercharger design was the incorporation in 1938 of a two @-@ speed drive ( designed by the French company Farman ) to the impeller of the Merlin X. The later Merlin XX incorporated the two @-@ speed drive as well as several improvements that enabled the production rate of Merlins to be increased . The low @-@ ratio gear , which operated from takeoff to an altitude of 10 @,@ 000 ft ( 3 @,@ 000 m ) , drove the impeller at 21 @,@ 597 rpm and developed 1 @,@ 240 horsepower ( 925 kW ) at that height ; while the high gear 's ( 25 @,@ 148 rpm ) power rating was 1 @,@ 175 horsepower ( 876 kW ) at 18 @,@ 000 ft ( 5 @,@ 500 m ) . These figures were achieved at 2 @,@ 850 rpm engine speed using + 9 pounds per square inch ( 1 @.@ 66 atm ) ( 48 " ) boost .
In 1940 , after receiving a request in March of that year from the Ministry of Aircraft Production for a high @-@ rated ( 40 @,@ 000 ft ( 12 @,@ 000 m ) ) Merlin for use as an alternative engine to the turbocharged Hercules VIII used in the prototype high @-@ altitude Vickers Wellington V bomber , Rolls @-@ Royce started experiments on the design of a two @-@ stage supercharger and an engine fitted with this was bench @-@ tested in April 1941 , eventually becoming the Merlin 60 . The basic design used a modified Vulture supercharger for the first stage while a Merlin 46 supercharger was used for the second . A liquid @-@ cooled intercooler on top of the supercharger casing was used to prevent the compressed air / fuel mixture from becoming too hot . Also considered was an exhaust @-@ driven turbocharger but , although a lower fuel consumption was an advantage the added weight and the need to add extra ducting for the exhaust flow and waste @-@ gates , meant that this option was rejected in favour of the two @-@ stage supercharger . Fitted with the two @-@ stage two @-@ speed supercharger , the Merlin 60 series gained 300 horsepower ( 224 kW ) at 30 @,@ 000 ft ( 9 @,@ 100 m ) over the Merlin 45 series , at which altitude a Spitfire IX was nearly 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) faster than a Spitfire V.
The two @-@ stage Merlin family was extended in 1943 with the Merlin 66 which had its supercharger geared for increased power ratings at low altitudes , and the Merlin 70 series that were designed to deliver increased power at high altitudes .
While the design of the two @-@ stage supercharger forged ahead , Rolls @-@ Royce also continued to develop the single @-@ stage supercharger , resulting in 1942 in the development of a smaller " cropped " impeller for the Merlin 45M and 55M ; both of these engines developed greater power at low altitudes . In squadron service the LF.V variant of the Spitfire fitted with these engines became known as the " clipped , clapped , and cropped Spitty " to indicate the shortened wingspan , the less @-@ than @-@ perfect condition of the used airframes , and the cropped supercharger impeller .
= = = = = Carburettor developments = = = = =
The use of carburettors was calculated to give a higher specific power output , due to the lower temperature , hence greater density , of the fuel / air mixture compared to injected systems . However , the Merlin 's float controlled carburettor meant that both Spitfires and Hurricanes were unable to pitch nose down into a steep dive . The contemporary Bf 109E , which had direct fuel injection , could " bunt " into a high @-@ power dive to escape attack , leaving the pursuing aircraft behind because its fuel had been forced out of the carburettor 's float chamber by the effects of negative g @-@ force ( g ) . RAF fighter pilots soon learned to " half @-@ roll " their aircraft before diving to pursue their opponents . " Miss Shilling 's orifice " , a restrictor in the fuel supply line to restrict flow together with a diaphragm fitted in the float chamber to contain fuel under negative G , went some way towards curing the fuel starvation in a dive ; however , at less than maximum power a fuel @-@ rich mixture still resulted . Another improvement was made by moving the fuel outlet from the bottom of the S.U. carburettor to exactly halfway up the side , which allowed the fuel to flow equally well under negative or positive g .
Further improvements were introduced throughout the Merlin range : 1943 saw the introduction of a Bendix @-@ Stromberg pressure carburettor that injected fuel at 5 pounds per square inch ( 34 kPa ; 0 @.@ 34 bar ) through a nozzle directly into the supercharger , and was fitted to Merlin 66 , 70 , 76 , 77 and 85 variants . The final development , which was fitted to the 100 @-@ series Merlins , was an S.U. injection carburettor that injected fuel into the supercharger using a fuel pump driven as a function of crankshaft speed and engine pressures .
= = = = = Improved fuels = = = = =
At the start of the war the Merlin I , II and III ran on the then standard 87 octane aviation spirit and could generate just over 1 @,@ 000 horsepower ( 750 kW ) from its 27 @-@ litre ( 1 @,@ 650 @-@ cu in ) displacement : the maximum boost pressure at which the engine could be run using 87 octane fuel was + 6 pounds per square inch ( 141 kPa ; 1 @.@ 44 atm ) . However , as early as 1938 , at the 16th Paris Air Show , Rolls @-@ Royce displayed two versions of the Merlin rated to use 100 octane fuel . The Merlin R.M.2M was capable of 1 @,@ 265 horsepower ( 943 kW ) at 7 @,@ 870 feet ( 2 @,@ 400 m ) , 1 @,@ 285 horsepower ( 958 kW ) at 9 @,@ 180 feet ( 2 @,@ 800 m ) and 1 @,@ 320 horsepower ( 984 kW ) on take @-@ off ; while a Merlin X with a two @-@ speed supercharger in high gear generated 1 @,@ 150 horsepower ( 857 kW ) at 15 @,@ 400 feet ( 4 @,@ 700 m ) and 1 @,@ 160 horsepower ( 865 kW ) at 16 @,@ 730 feet ( 5 @,@ 100 m ) .
From late 1939 , 100 octane fuel became available from the U.S. , West Indies , Persia , and , in smaller quantities , domestically , consequently , " ... in the first half of 1940 the RAF transferred all Hurricane and Spitfire squadrons to 100 octane fuel . " Small modifications were made to Merlin II and III series engines , allowing an increased ( emergency ) boost pressure of + 12 pounds per square inch ( 183 kPa ; 1 @.@ 85 atm ) . At this power setting these engines were able to produce 1 @,@ 310 horsepower ( 977 kW ) at 9 @,@ 000 ft ( 2 @,@ 700 m ) while running at 3 @,@ 000 revolutions per minute . Increased boost could be used indefinitely as there was no mechanical time limit mechanism but pilots were advised not to use increased boost for more than a maximum of five minutes and it was considered a " definite overload condition on the engine " ; if the pilot resorted to emergency boost he had to report this on landing , when it was noted in the engine log book , while the engineering officer was required to examine the engine and reset the throttle gate . Later versions of the Merlin ran only on 100 octane fuel and the five @-@ minute combat limitation was raised to + 18 pounds per square inch ( 224 kPa ; 2 @.@ 3 atm ) .
In late 1943 trials were run of a new " 100 / 150 " grade ( 150 octane ) fuel , recognised by its bright @-@ green colour and " awful smell " . Initial tests were conducted using 6 @.@ 5 cubic centimetres ( 0 @.@ 23 imp fl oz ) of tetraethyllead ( T.E.L. ) for every one imperial gallon of 100 octane fuel ( or 1 @.@ 43 cc / L or 0 @.@ 18 U.S. fl oz / U.S. gal ) , but this mixture resulted in a build @-@ up of lead in the combustion chambers , causing excessive fouling of the spark plugs . Better results were achieved by adding 2 @.@ 5 % mono methyl aniline ( M.M.A. ) to 100 octane fuel . The new fuel allowed the five @-@ minute boost rating of the Merlin 66 to be raised to + 25 pounds per square inch ( 272 kPa ; 2 @.@ 7 atm ) . With this boost rating the Merlin 66 generated 2 @,@ 000 hp ( 1 @,@ 491 Kw ) at sea @-@ level and 1 @,@ 860 hp ( 1 @,@ 387 Kw ) at 10 @,@ 500 ft ( 3 @,@ 200 m ) .
Starting in March 1944 , the Merlin 66 @-@ powered Spitfire IXs of two Air Defence of Great Britain ( ADGB ) squadrons were cleared to use the new fuel for operational trials , and it was put to good use in the summer of 1944 when it enabled Spitfire L.F. Mk . IXs to intercept V @-@ 1 flying bombs coming in at low altitudes . 100 / 150 grade fuel was also used by Mosquito night fighters of the ADGB to intercept V @-@ 1s . In early February 1945 , Spitfires of the Second Tactical Air Force ( 2TAF ) also began using 100 / 150 grade fuel . This fuel was also offered to the USAAF were it was designated " PPF 44 @-@ 1 " and informally known as " Pep " .
= = Production = =
Production of the Rolls @-@ Royce Merlin was driven by the forethought and determination of Ernest Hives , who at times was enraged by the apparent complacency and lack of urgency encountered in his frequent correspondence with Air Ministry and local authority officials . Hives was an advocate of shadow factories , and , sensing the imminent outbreak of war , pressed ahead with plans to produce the Merlin in sufficient numbers for the rapidly expanding Royal Air Force . Despite the importance of uninterrupted production , several factories were affected by industrial action . By the end of its production run in 1950 , 168 @,@ 176 Merlin engines had been built ; over 112 @,@ 000 in Britain and more than 55 @,@ 000 under licence in the U.S.
= = = Derby = = =
The existing Rolls @-@ Royce facilities at Osmaston , Derby were not suitable for large @-@ scale engine production although the floor space had been increased by some 25 % between 1935 and 1939 ; nevertheless , Hives planned to build the first two- or three hundred engines there until engineering teething troubles had been resolved . To fund this expansion , the Air Ministry had provided a total of ₤ 1 @,@ 927 @,@ 000 by December 1939 . Having a workforce that consisted mainly of design engineers and highly skilled men , the Derby factory carried out the majority of development work on the Merlin , with flight testing carried out at nearby RAF Hucknall .
Total Merlin production at Derby was 32 @,@ 377 .
The original factory closed in March 2008 , but Rolls @-@ Royce plc still maintains a large presence in Derby .
= = = Crewe = = =
To meet the increasing demand for Merlin engines , Rolls @-@ Royce started building work on a new factory at Crewe in May 1938 , with engines leaving the factory in 1939 . The Crewe factory had convenient road and rail links to their existing facilities at Derby . Production at Crewe was originally planned to use unskilled labour and sub @-@ contractors with which Hives felt there would be no particular difficulty , but the number of required sub @-@ contracted parts such as crankshafts , camshafts and cylinder liners eventually fell short and the factory was expanded to manufacture these parts " in house " .
Initially the local authority promised to build 1 @,@ 000 new houses to accommodate the workforce by the end of 1938 , but by February 1939 it had only awarded a contract for 100 . Hives was incensed by this complacency and threatened to move the whole operation , but timely intervention by the Air Ministry improved the situation . In 1940 a strike took place when women replaced men on capstan lathes , the workers ' union insisting this was a skilled labour job ; however , the men returned to work after 10 days .
Total Merlin production at Crewe was 26 @,@ 065 .
The factory was used postwar for the production of Bentley motor cars , and in 1998 Volkswagen AG bought both the marque and the factory . Today it is known as Bentley Crewe .
= = = Glasgow = = =
Hives further recommended that a factory be built near Glasgow to take advantage of the abundant local work force and the supply of steel and forgings from Scottish manufacturers . In September 1939 , the Air Ministry allocated ₤ 4 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 for a new Shadow factory . This government @-@ funded and -operated factory was built at Hillington starting in June 1939 with workers moving into the premises in October , one month after the outbreak of war . The factory was fully occupied by September 1940 . A housing crisis also occurred at Glasgow where Hives again asked the Air Ministry to step in .
With 16 @,@ 000 employees , the Glasgow factory was one of the largest industrial operations in Scotland . Unlike the Derby and Crewe plants which relied significantly on external subcontractors , it produced almost all the Merlin 's components itself . Engines began to leave the production line in November 1940 , and by June 1941 monthly output had reached 200 , increasing to more than 400 per month by March 1942 . In total 23 @,@ 675 engines were produced . Worker absenteeism became a problem after some months due to the physical and mental effects of wartime conditions such as the frequent occupation of air @-@ raid shelters . It was agreed to cut the punishing working hours slightly to 82 hours a week , with one half @-@ Sunday per month awarded as holiday . Record production is reported to have been 100 engines in one day .
Immediately after the war the site repaired and overhauled Merlin and Griffon engines , and continued to manufacture spare parts . Finally , following the production of the Rolls @-@ Royce Avon turbojet and others , the factory was closed in 2005 .
= = = Manchester = = =
The Ford Motor Company was asked to produce Merlins at Trafford Park , Stretford , near Manchester , and building work on a new factory was started in May 1940 on a 118 @-@ acre ( 48 ha ) site . Built with two distinct sections to minimise potential bomb damage , it was completed in May 1941 and bombed in the same month . At first , the factory had difficulty in attracting suitable labour , and large numbers of women , youths and untrained men had to be taken on . Despite this , the first Merlin engine came off the production line one month later and it was building the engine at a rate of 200 per week by 1943 , at which point the joint factories were producing 18 @,@ 000 Merlins per year . In his autobiography Not much of an Engineer , Sir Stanley Hooker states : " ... once the great Ford factory at Manchester started production , Merlins came out like shelling peas ... " .
Some 17 @,@ 316 people worked at the Trafford Park plant , including 7 @,@ 260 women and two resident doctors and nurses . Merlin production started to run down in August 1945 , and finally ceased on 23 March 1946 .
Total Merlin production at Trafford Park was 30 @,@ 428 .
= = = Packard V @-@ 1650 = = =
As the Merlin was considered to be so important to the war effort , negotiations were soon started to establish an alternative production line outside the UK . Rolls @-@ Royce staff visited a number of North American automobile manufacturers in order to select one to build the Merlin in the U.S. or Canada . Henry Ford rescinded an initial offer to build the engine in the U.S. in July 1940 , and the Packard Motor Car Company was subsequently selected to take on the $ 130 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 Merlin order . Agreement was reached in September 1940 , and the first Packard @-@ built engine , a Merlin XX designated the V @-@ 1650 @-@ 1 , ran in August 1941 .
Total Merlin production by Packard was 55 @,@ 523 .
Six development engines were also made by Continental Motors , Inc .
= = Variants = =
This is a list of representative Merlin variants , describing some of the mechanical changes made during development of the Merlin . Engines of the same power output were typically assigned different model numbers based on supercharger or propeller gear ratios , differences in cooling system or carburettors , engine block construction , or arrangement of engine controls . Power ratings quoted are usually maximum " military " power . All but the Merlin 131 and 134 engines were " right @-@ hand tractor " , i.e. the propeller rotated clockwise when viewed from the rear . In addition to the mark numbers , Merlin engines were allocated experimental numbers by the Ministry of Supply ( MoS ) – e.g. : RM 8SM for the Merlin 61 and some variants – while under development ; these numbers are noted where possible . Merlin engines used in Spitfires , apart from the Merlin 61 , used a propeller reduction ratio of .477 : 1 . Merlins used in bombers and other fighters used a ratio of .42 : 1 .
Data from Bridgman ( Jane 's ) unless otherwise noted :
Merlin II ( RM 1S )
1 @,@ 030 hp ( 775 kW ) at 3 @,@ 000 rpm at 5 @,@ 500 ft ( 1 @,@ 676 m ) using + 6 psi boost ( 41 kPa gauge ; or an absolute pressure of 144 kPa or 1 @.@ 41 atm ) ; used 100 % glycol coolant . First production Merlin II delivered 10 August 1937 . Merlin II used in the Boulton Paul Defiant , Hawker Hurricane Mk.I , Supermarine Spitfire Mk.I fighters , and Fairey Battle light bomber .
Merlin III ( RM 1S )
Merlin III fitted with " universal " propeller shaft able to mount either de Havilland or Rotol propellers . From late 1939 , using 100 octane fuel and + 12 psi boost ( 83 kPa gauge ; or an absolute pressure of 184 kPa or 1 @.@ 82 atm ) , the Merlin III developed 1 @,@ 310 hp ( 977 kW ) at 3 @,@ 000 rpm at 9 @,@ 000 ft ( 2 @,@ 700 m ) ; using 87 octane fuel the power ratings were the same as the Merlin II . Used in the Defiant , Hurricane Mk.I , Spitfire Mk.I fighters , and Battle light bomber . First production Merlin III delivered 1 July 1938 .
Merlin X ( RM 1SM )
1 @,@ 130 hp ( 840 kW ) at 3 @,@ 000 rpm at 5 @,@ 250 ft ( 1 @,@ 600 m ) ; maximum boost pressure + 10 psi ; this was the first production Merlin to use a two @-@ speed supercharger ; Used in Halifax Mk.I , Wellington Mk.II , and Whitley Mk.V bombers . First production Merlin X , 5 December 1938 .
Merlin XII ( RM 3S )
1 @,@ 150 hp ( 860 kW ) ; fitted with Coffman engine starter ; first version to use 70 / 30 % water / glycol coolant rather than 100 % glycol . Reinforced construction , able to use constant boost pressure of up to + 12 psi using 100 octane fuel ; Used in Spitfire Mk.II. First production Merlin XII , 2 September 1939 .
Merlin XX ( RM 3SM )
1 @,@ 480 hp ( 1 @,@ 105 kW ) at 3 @,@ 000 rpm at 6 @,@ 000 ft ( 1 @,@ 829 m ) ; two @-@ speed supercharger ; boost pressure of up to + 14 psi ; Used in Hurricane Mk.II , Beaufighter Mk.II , Halifax Mk.II and Lancaster Mk.I bombers , and in the Spitfire Mk.III prototypes ( N3297 & W3237 ) . First production Merlin XX , 4 July 1940 .
Merlin 32 ( RM 5M )
1 @,@ 645 hp ( 1 @,@ 230 kW ) at 3 @,@ 000 rpm at 2 @,@ 500 ft ( 762 m ) ; a " low altitude " version of Merlin with cropped supercharger impellers for increased power at lower altitudes and a maximum boost pressure of + 18 psi ; fitted with Coffman engine starter ; used mainly in Fleet Air Arm aircraft , mainly the Fairey Barracuda Mk.II torpedo bomber and Supermarine Seafire F. Mk.IIc fighters . Also Hurricane Mk.V and Spitfire P.R Mk.XIII. First production Merlin 32 , 17 June 1942 .
Merlin 45 ( RM 5S )
1 @,@ 515 hp ( 1 @,@ 130 kW ) at 3 @,@ 000 rpm at 11 @,@ 000 ft ( 3 @,@ 353 m ) ; used in Spitfire Mk.V , PR.Mk.IV and PR.Mk.VII , Seafire Ib and IIc . Maximum boost pressure of + 16 psi . First production Merlin 45 , 13 January 1941 .
Merlin 47 ( RM 6S )
1 @,@ 415 hp ( 1 @,@ 055 kW ) at 3 @,@ 000 rpm at 14 @,@ 000 ft ( 4 @,@ 267 m ) ; high @-@ altitude version used in Spitfire H.F.Mk.VI. Adapted with a Marshall compressor ( often called a " blower " ) to pressurise the cockpit . First production Merlin 47 , 2 December 1941 .
Merlin 50.M ( RM 5S )
1 @,@ 585 hp ( 1 @,@ 182 kW ) at 3 @,@ 000 rpm at 3 @,@ 800 ft ( 1 @,@ 158 m ) ; low @-@ altitude version with supercharger impeller " cropped " to 9 @.@ 5 in ( 241 mm ) in diameter . Permitted boost was + 18 psi ( 125 kPa gauge ; or an absolute pressure of 225 kPa or 2 @.@ 2 atm ) instead of + 16 psi ( 110 kPa gauge ; or an absolute pressure of 210 kPa or 2 @.@ 08 atm ) on a normal Merlin 50 engine . Merlin 50 series was first to use the Bendix @-@ Stromberg " negative @-@ g " carburettor .
Merlin 61 ( RM 8SM )
1 @,@ 565 hp ( 1 @,@ 170 kW ) at 3 @,@ 000 rpm at 12 @,@ 250 ft ( 3 @,@ 734 m ) , 1 @,@ 390 hp ( 1 @,@ 035 kW ) at 3 @,@ 000 rpm at 23 @,@ 500 ft ( 7 @,@ 163 m ) ; fitted with a new two @-@ speed two @-@ stage supercharger providing increased power at medium to high altitudes ; + 15 psi boost ; used in Spitfire F Mk.IX , and P.R Mk.XI. First British production variant to incorporate two @-@ piece cylinder blocks designed by Rolls @-@ Royce for the Packard Merlin . Reduction gear ratio .42 : 1 , with gears for pressurization pump . First production Merlin 61 , 2 March 1942 .
Merlin 63 & 63A
1 @,@ 710 hp ( 1 @,@ 275 kW ) at 3 @,@ 000 rpm at 8 @,@ 500 ft ( 2 @,@ 591 m ) , 1 @,@ 505 hp ( 1 @,@ 122 kW ) at 3 @,@ 000 rpm at 21 @,@ 000 ft ( 6 @,@ 401 m ) ; strengthened two @-@ speed two @-@ stage development of Merlin 61 ; + 18 psi boost ; Reduction gear ratio .477 : 1 ; Merlin 63A did not have extra gears for pressurization and incorporated a strengthened supercharger drive quill shaft . Used in Spitfire F Mk.VIII and F. Mk . IX .
Merlin 66 ( RM 10SM )
1 @,@ 720 hp ( 1 @,@ 283 kW ) at 5 @,@ 790 ft ( 1 @,@ 765 m ) using + 18 psi boost ( 124 kPa gauge ; or an absolute pressure of 225 kPa or 2 @.@ 2 atm ) ; low @-@ altitude version of Merlin 63A . Fitted with a Bendix @-@ Stromberg anti @-@ g carburettor ; intercooler used a separate header tank . Used in Spitfire L.F Mk.VIII and L.F Mk.IX.
Merlin 76 / 77 ( RM 16SM )
1 @,@ 233 hp ( 920 kW ) at 35 @,@ 000 ft ( 10 @,@ 668 m ) ; Fitted with a two @-@ speed , two @-@ stage supercharger and a Bendix @-@ Stromberg carburettor . Dedicated " high altitude " version used in the Westland Welkin high @-@ altitude fighter and some later Spitfire and de Havilland Mosquito variants . The odd @-@ numbered mark drove a blower for pressurising the cockpit .
Merlin 130 / 131
2 @,@ 060 hp ( 1 @,@ 536 kW ) ; redesigned " slimline " versions for the de Havilland Hornet . Engine modified to decrease frontal area to a minimum and was the first Merlin series to use down @-@ draught induction systems . Coolant pump moved from the bottom of the engine to the starboard side . Two @-@ speed , two @-@ stage supercharger and S.U. injection carburettor . Maximum boost was 25 psi ( 170 kPa gauge ; or an absolute pressure of 270 kPa or 2 @.@ 7 atm ) . On the Hornet the Merlin 130 was fitted in the port nacelle : the Merlin 131 , fitted in the starboard nacelle , was converted to a " reverse " or left @-@ hand tractor engine using an additional idler gear in the reduction gear casing .
Merlin 133 / 134
2 @,@ 030 hp ( 1 @,@ 514 kW ) ; derated 130 / 131 variants used in Sea Hornet F. Mk . 20 , N.F. Mk . 21 and P.R. Mk . 22 . Maximum boost was lowered to + 18 psi gauge ( 230 kPa or 2 @.@ 2 atm absolute ) .
Merlin 266 ( RM 10SM )
The prefix " 2 " indicates engines built by Packard , otherwise as Merlin 66 , optimised for low @-@ altitude operation . Fitted to the Spitfire Mk.XVI.
Merlin 620
1 @,@ 175 hp ( 876 kW ) continuous cruising using 2 @,@ 650 rpm at + 9 psi boost ( 62 kPa gauge ; or an absolute pressure of 165 kPa or 1 @.@ 6 atm ) ; capable of emergency rating of 1 @,@ 795 hp ( 1 @,@ 338 kW ) at 3 @,@ 000 rpm using + 20 psi boost ( 138 kPa gauge ; or an absolute pressure of 241 kPa or 2 @.@ 4 atm ) ; civilian engine developed from Merlin 102 ; two @-@ stage supercharger optimised for medium altitudes , and used an S.U. injection carburettor . " Universal Power Plant " ( UPP ) standardised annular radiator installation development of that used on Lancaster VI and Avro Lincoln . The Merlin 620 – 621 series was designed to operate in the severe climatic conditions encountered on Canadian and long @-@ range North Atlantic air routes . Used in Avro Tudor , Avro York , and the Canadair North Star .
= = Applications = =
In chronological order , the first operational aircraft powered by the Merlin to enter service were the Fairey Battle , Hawker Hurricane , and Supermarine Spitfire . Although the engine is most closely associated with the Spitfire , the four @-@ engined Avro Lancaster was the most numerous application , followed by the twin @-@ engined de Havilland Mosquito .
List from Lumsden 2003
= = = Postwar = = =
At the end of World War II , new versions of the Merlin ( the 600- and 700 @-@ series ) were designed and produced for use in commercial airliners such as the Avro Tudor , military transport aircraft such as the Avro York , and the Canadair North Star which performed in both roles . These engines were basically military specification with some minor changes to suit the different operating environment .
A Spanish @-@ built version of the Messerschmitt Bf 109 G @-@ 2 , the 1954 Hispano Aviación HA @-@ 1112 @-@ M1L Buchon , was built in Hispano 's factory in Seville with the Rolls @-@ Royce Merlin 500 / 45 engine of 1 @,@ 600 horsepower ( 1 @,@ 200 kW ) – a fitting powerplant for the last @-@ produced version of the famous Messerschmitt fighter , as the Bf 109 V1 prototype aircraft had been powered by the Rolls @-@ Royce Kestrel V @-@ 12 engine in 1935 .
The CASA 2 @.@ 111 was another Spanish @-@ built version of a German aircraft , the Heinkel He 111 , that was adapted to use the Merlin after the supply of Junkers Jumo 211F @-@ 2 engines ran out at the end of the war . A similar situation existed with the Fiat G.59 when available stocks of the Italian licence @-@ built version of the Daimler @-@ Benz DB 605 engine ran short .
The Australian built [ Avro Lincoln ] from A73 @-@ 51 used Australian built Commonwealth aircraft Corporation Merlin 102s . A total of 108 CAC Merlins were built by the time production ended .
= = = Alternative applications = = =
A non @-@ supercharged version of the Merlin using a larger proportion of steel and iron components was produced for use in tanks . This engine , the Rolls @-@ Royce Meteor , in turn led to the smaller Rolls @-@ Royce Meteorite . In 1943 , further Meteor development was handed over to Rover , in exchange for Rover 's gas turbine interests .
In 1938 , Rolls @-@ Royce started work on modifying some Merlins which were later to be used in British MTBs , MGBs , and RAF Air @-@ Sea Rescue Launches . For these the superchargers were modified single @-@ stage units and the engine was re @-@ engineered for use in a marine environment . Some 70 engines were converted before priority was given to producing aero engines .
Experiments were carried out by the Irish Army involving replacing the Bedford engine of a Churchill tank with a Rolls @-@ Royce Merlin engine salvaged from an Irish Air Corps Seafire aircraft . The experiment was not a success , although the reasons are not recorded .
= = Survivors = =
One of the most successful of the World War II era aircraft engines , the Merlin continues to be used in many restored World War II vintage aircraft all over the world . The Royal Air Force Battle of Britain Memorial Flight is a notable current operator of the Merlin . In England the Shuttleworth Collection owns and operates a Merlin @-@ powered Hawker Sea Hurricane IB and a Supermarine Spitfire VC – the Hurricane can be seen flying at home displays throughout the summer months , while the Spitfire is currently undergoing a major restoration .
= = Engines on display = =
Preserved examples of the Rolls @-@ Royce Merlin are on display at the following museums :
Atlantic Canada Aviation Museum
Aviation Heritage Museum ( Western Australia )
Montrose Air Station Heritage Centre
Polish Aviation Museum , Kraków ( Cracow ) , Poland
Rolls @-@ Royce Derby Heritage Centre
Royal Air Force Museum , Cosford & London
Science Museum ( London )
Shuttleworth Collection
Wings Museum , West Sussex , England
= = Specifications ( Merlin 61 ) = =
Data from Jane 's .
= = = General characteristics = = =
Type : 12 @-@ cylinder , supercharged , liquid @-@ cooled , 60 ° " Vee " , piston aircraft engine .
Bore : 5 @.@ 4 in ( 137 mm )
Stroke : 6 @.@ 0 in ( 152 mm )
Displacement : 1 @,@ 649 cu in ( 27 L )
Length : 88 @.@ 7 in ( 225 cm )
Width : 30 @.@ 8 in ( 78 cm )
Height : 40 in ( 102 cm )
Dry weight : 1 @,@ 640 lb ( 744 kg )
= = = Components = = =
Valvetrain : Overhead camshaft , two intake and two exhaust valves per cylinder , sodium @-@ cooled exhaust valve stems .
Supercharger : Two @-@ speed , two @-@ stage . Boost pressure automatically linked to the throttle , coolant @-@ air aftercooler between the second stage and the engine .
Fuel system : Twin @-@ choke updraught Rolls @-@ Royce / S.U. carburettor with automatic mixture control . Twin independent fuel pumps .
Fuel type : 100 / 130 Octane petrol .
Oil system : Dry sump with one pressure pump and two scavenge pumps .
Cooling system : 70 % water and 30 % ethylene glycol coolant mixture , pressurised . Supercharger intercooler system entirely separate from main cooling system .
Reduction gear : 0 @.@ 42 : 1
= = = Performance = = =
Power output :
1 @,@ 290 hp ( 962 kW ) at 3 @,@ 000 rpm at take @-@ off .
1 @,@ 565 hp ( 1 @,@ 167 kW ) at 3 @,@ 000 rpm at 12 @,@ 250 ft ( 3 @,@ 740 m , MS gear )
1 @,@ 580 hp ( 1 @,@ 178 kW ) at 3 @,@ 000 rpm at 23 @,@ 500 ft ( 7 @,@ 200 m , FS gear )
Specific power : 0 @.@ 96 hp / cu in ( 43 @.@ 6 kW / L )
Compression ratio : 6 : 1
Fuel consumption : Minimum 30 Imp gal / h ( 136 L / h ) , maximum 130 Imp gal / h ( 591 L / h )
Power @-@ to @-@ weight ratio : 0 @.@ 96 hp / lb ( 1 @.@ 58 kW / kg ) at maximum power .
= Lion @-@ class battleship =
The Lion @-@ class battleships were a class of six fast battleships designed for the Royal Navy in the late 1930s . They were a larger , improved version of the King George V class with 16 @-@ inch ( 406 mm ) guns . Only two ships were laid down before World War II began in September 1939 and a third was ordered during the war , but their construction was suspended shortly afterwards . Their design changed several times in response to the removal of treaty restrictions on size and in light of war experience . None of the other ships planned were laid down , although there was a proposal to modify one of the suspended ships into a hybrid battleship / aircraft carrier with two 16 @-@ inch gun turrets and a flight deck . The two ships already begun were scrapped after the end of the war .
= = Design and description = =
The choice of 14 @-@ inch ( 356 mm ) gun and the mix of quadruple and twin turrets for the main battery of the King George Vs had been dictated by the Second London Naval Treaty , which limited battleships to 35 @,@ 000 long tons ( 36 @,@ 000 t ) standard displacement and a main calibre of 14 inches . However , when the Japanese Government refused to agree to its terms , the maximum calibre allowed reverted to 16 inches in April 1937 . The Board of Admiralty then began preliminary design work on a 35 @,@ 000 @-@ ton ship armed with 16 @-@ inch guns and they were promising enough that the Director of Naval Construction ( DNC ) was ordered to further investigate such designs , providing for several aircraft as well . To save design time , many of the features of the King George Vs were incorporated in the new design , but the limited size of the ship was a real challenge for the designers . The increased weight of the main armament was compensated for by a slight reduction in the overall weight of armour and the elimination of two twin 5 @.@ 25 @-@ inch ( 133 mm ) gun turrets .
The designer 's issues were made much easier on 31 March 1938 when the signatories of the Treaty invoked its escalation clause because the Japanese refused to provide any information about their battleship construction programme and the signatories feared that their new ships could be outclassed by the new Japanese battleships . The new limit was 45 @,@ 000 long tons ( 46 @,@ 000 t ) at " American insistence " , but the Admiralty decided to limit themselves to 40 @,@ 000 long tons ( 41 @,@ 000 t ) and nine 16 @-@ inch guns on cost grounds and that larger vessels would be unable to dock at Rosyth or Portsmouth . A new design was prepared with more armour , more powerful machinery , the two twin 5 @.@ 25 @-@ inch gun turrets restored , and four aircraft added . The Admiralty approved this design on 15 December and bids were solicited very shortly afterwards .
= = = 1938 design = = =
The 1938 version of the Lion class had an overall length of 785 feet ( 239 @.@ 3 m ) , a beam of 105 feet ( 32 @.@ 0 m ) , and a maximum draught of 33 feet 6 inches ( 10 @.@ 2 m ) . They displaced 40 @,@ 550 long tons ( 41 @,@ 200 t ) at standard load and 46 @,@ 400 long tons ( 47 @,@ 100 t ) at deep load . The appearance of the Lions closely resembled that of the KGVs , but with a transom stern to improve steaming efficiency at high speed .
In the interests of saving time , the four @-@ shaft unit machinery design from the King George Vs was duplicated with alternating boiler and engine rooms . The Lion @-@ class ships had four sets of single @-@ reduction geared Parsons steam turbines housed in separate engine rooms . Each set consisted of one high @-@ pressure and one low @-@ pressure turbine driving one propeller shaft . They were designed to produce a total of 130 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 97 @,@ 000 kW ) at overload condition and a speed of 30 knots ( 56 km / h ; 35 mph ) . The turbines were powered by eight Admiralty @-@ type three @-@ drum water @-@ tube boilers in four boiler rooms at a working pressure of 400 psi ( 2 @,@ 758 kPa ; 28 kgf / cm2 ) and temperature of 700 ° F ( 371 ° C ) . The turbines and boilers could be cross @-@ connected in an emergency . The ships were designed to carry 3 @,@ 720 long tons ( 3 @,@ 780 t ) of fuel oil . Their maximum estimated range was 14 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 26 @,@ 000 km ; 16 @,@ 000 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . They were equipped with six 330 @-@ kilowatt ( 440 hp ) turbogenerators and two 330 @-@ kW diesel generators that supplied the common ring main at 220 volts .
The Lion @-@ class ships ' main armament consisted of nine 45 @-@ calibre 16 @-@ inch guns of a new design in three triple , hydraulically powered gun turrets designated ' A ' , ' B ' , and ' Y ' from bow to stern . The maximum elevation of the turrets was increased to + 40 ° although the guns were loaded at + 5 ° . They fired 2 @,@ 375 @-@ pound ( 1 @,@ 077 kg ) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 483 ft / s ( 757 m / s ) ; this provided a maximum range of 40 @,@ 560 yards ( 37 @,@ 088 m ) . Their rate of fire was two rounds per minute . The ships carried 100 shells per gun . The secondary armament consisted of sixteen 45 @-@ calibre QF 5 @.@ 25 @-@ inch Mk I dual purpose guns in eight twin gun mounts . They had a maximum depression of − 5 ° and a maximum elevation of + 70 ° . They fired an 80 @-@ pound ( 36 kg ) high @-@ explosive shell at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 672 ft / s ( 814 m / s ) . Their normal rate of fire was about 7 – 8 rounds per minute . At maximum elevation , the guns had a maximum range of 24 @,@ 070 yards ( 2
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77 @-@ run defeat . Macartney 's return to form was interrupted by an illness , which caused him to miss the following three Test matches . After a two @-@ month layoff , Macartney struck 130 in a match for his state against England .
He returned for the Fifth and final Test , where he recorded his highest Test innings of 170 on his home ground , the Sydney Cricket Ground . Among the spectators was a 12 @-@ year @-@ old Don Bradman , who had been taken to watch Macartney by his father . Eight decades later , Bradman recalled the innings , " as if it were yesterday " , describing it as full of " delicate leg @-@ glances , powerful pulls , cuts and glorious drives " and concluding that it was one of the best innings he had seen in his lifetime . Bradman cited the innings as an inspiration for his career . Macartney headed the Australian Test averages with 260 runs at 86 @.@ 66 as Australia won the Ashes 5 – 0 . It was the only such Ashes whitewash until 2006 – 07 . Macartney has amassed 821 runs at 68 @.@ 42 for the season . He took only three wickets at 56 @.@ 33 .
= = Wisden Cricketer of the Year = =
On the 1921 Ashes tour , Macartney — who needed a special medical clearance before being selected — had a chance to rectify his poor batting performances of his pre @-@ war tours of England . In his first match , against Leicestershire , he started strongly with 177 @.@ his fast scoring helped Australia complete an innings victory in just over half the allotted playing time . He scored 87 against Surrey , 51 against Combined Services and 77 against Oxford University in the next seven matches leading up to the start of the Tests , with a total of 539 runs at 53 @.@ 90 under his belt .
Macartney made 20 in the first innings and was unbeaten on 22 , playing as an opener , as Australia completed a ten @-@ wicket win in the First Test . It was Australia 's sixth consecutive Test win over England . He failed to pass 20 in the next two county matches , but did take 2 / 19 against Middlesex , his first wickets on tour . This came in his 11th match on tour and was a reflection of his role as a specialist batsman in the post @-@ war years . The next game against Gloucestershire heralded the start of a rich vein of run @-@ scoring during the remainder of June . Macartney scored 149 , in an Australian innings noted for elegant strokeplay and big hitting , after managing only 31 and eight in the eight @-@ wicket win in the Second Test , hit three consecutive centuries .
Macartney hit 105 as Australia amassed 7 / 708 declared against Hampshire and then made 193 as Australia compiled 621 and defeated Northamptonshire by an innings and 484 runs . The two matches were separated by a match against Surrey , which Macartney missed due to injury . In the latter match , Macartney came in at first drop after the hosts took a wicket from the first ball of the match , and he scored 193 of the 318 runs scored while he was in the middle . Macartney took only 135 minutes and hit 31 fours as Australia added more than 300 in just over two hours of batting . Such was the dominance of Macartney and the rest of Armstrong 's men that they disposed of Northamptonshire in less than two days . However , his most famed innings was yet to come .
In the next match , Macartney scored 345 against Nottinghamshire at Trent Bridge in 232 minutes , with 47 fours and four sixes . Macartney had an inauspicious start to the day , coming to the crease after the dismissal of Warren Bardsley with only one run scored . He attacked immediately and was dropped in the slips when on nine runs . The missed chance further emboldened Macartney , who had a philosophy that being dropped was a signal that it was his day to shine . He proceeded to exhibit his full repertoire of strokes . After reaching his double century in only 150 minutes , Macartney signalled to the pavilion . When Nottinghamshire captain Arthur Carr asked him if he was seeking a drink , Macartney said that he wanted a heavier bat and indicated that he was going to attack . Macartney kept his promise , adding his next 100 runs in only 48 minutes to reach 300 in 198 minutes . At the time , it was the fastest triple century in first @-@ class cricket in terms of minutes . It still stands as the highest innings by an Australian in England , and at the time was the most runs scored by any batsman in one day . During the innings , Macartney partnered Nip Pellew in a partnership of 291 . Australia went on to score 675 and won by an innings and 517 runs , in only two days , the largest winning margin achieved by Australia in a first @-@ class match . The cricket writer Sumner Reid described Macartney 's innings as :
the most destructive innings I ever saw in England or Australia . Not Trumper at his brilliant best , nor even Bradman in his calculated genius , ever performed with more unadulterated , murderous power and masterful technique .
In the space of four days , Macartney had scored 538 runs , and for the month of June , he had totalled 913 runs at 91 @.@ 30 . He carried this form into the next Test .
In the Third Test at Headingley , he made his first Test century on foreign soil , striking 115 in the first innings . It was a relatively sedate innings for his standards , but helped Australia to victory by 191 runs and an unassailable 3 – 0 series lead . It gave Warwick Armstrong 's men an eighth consecutive Test win , which remained a world record for more than five decades until surpassed by the West Indies cricket team of the 1980s . The cricket writer Gideon Haigh said that " It was like watching the armies of succeeding generations in combat , artillery , and tank against sword and horse " .
Macartney had a quiet time over the next month , passing fifty only once in the next eight innings in seven matches . He also ended his wicket @-@ taking drought , claiming six in three matches after almost two months without success . He returned to form with 72 against Warwickshire and 155 in the next match against Kent .
Macartney finished with 61 in the drawn Fifth Test at The Oval , to head the run @-@ scoring with 300 runs at 42 @.@ 85 as Australia took the series 3 – 0 . He did not take a wicket in the Tests . Macartney then scored 121 against Gloucestershire in an innings victory immediately after the Tests , but did not pass 45 in the remaining four matches of the tour . Macartney topped the batting aggregates and averages with 2 @,@ 317 runs at 59 @.@ 41 in the first @-@ class matches . He took only eight wickets at 32 @.@ 63 for the entire tour .
Macartney 's efforts during the 1921 English summer led to his being named as one of the 1922 Wisden Cricketers of the Year . Wisden stated that Macartney was " by many degrees the most brilliant and individual Australian batsman of the present day " .
On the journey back to the southern hemisphere , Australia stopped for its first ever Test tour of South Africa . Macartney warmed up with 135 in a victory over Natal . The cricket writer Jack Pollard described Macartney 's hitting as " powerful , almost arrogant " . Macartney then scored 59 and 116 in an aggressive display in the First Test in Durban , which was drawn , with the hosts hanging on with only three wickets in hand . After missing the Second Test due to fitness reasons , Macartney returned against Western Province . He took 5 / 40 in the first innings , his first five @-@ wicket innings since June 1912 , nine and a half years earlier .
In the Third Test in Cape Town , Macartney scored 44 , before taking 5 / 44 in the second innings to ensure that Australia would only have to chase a solitary run . He bowled three of his victims and removed Billy Zulch twice . The hosts struggled against the dual spin of Macartney and Mailey . Australians went on to secure a ten @-@ wicket victory . Macartney finished the Test series with seven wickets at 14 @.@ 86 . He totalled 492 runs at 70 @.@ 28 and 14 wickets at 17 @.@ 14 for the tour , against topping the batting averages .
Macartney started the 1922 – 23 season strongly , scoring 63 and 84 and taking 2 / 8 in a five @-@ wicket win over the touring MCC in the first match of the summer . He only passed fifty once more in the season and took 5 / 8 in an innings against Victoria . Macartney totalled 350 runs at 29 @.@ 16 and 12 wickets at 12 @.@ 16 in eight matches for the season . The next Australian season was a shortened one for New South Wales . Macartney scored 174 runs at 21 @.@ 75 and took seven wickets at 21 @.@ 14 in four matches before his state embarked on a tour of New Zealand .
Macartney struck form immediately , scoring 80 and 120 in the opening match against Wellington . He followed this with 100 ( in a non @-@ first @-@ class match ) , 120 against Otago and 221 in the next match against Canterbury , all in consecutive innings . He added match figures of 4 / 38 as New South Wales defeated Canterbury by an innings . Macartney then scored 36 and 55 not out and took match figures of 4 / 55 in an eight @-@ wicket win over New Zealand . He made only two and seven in the remaining first @-@ class matches , and ended with 13 wickets at 20 @.@ 92 .
Macartney missed the 1924 – 25 Test series when England toured Australia . He played in only two first @-@ class matches in the early stages of the season , scoring 11 runs at 3 @.@ 66 and taking five wickets at 23 @.@ 40 . The withdrawal of Macartney from competition was attributed to a flare @-@ up of an injury he had suffered during World War I , but sceptics believed that he had suffered a nervous breakdown .
Following his year off , Macartney returned to full @-@ time cricket in 1925 – 26 . He re @-@ established himself in his first match , scoring 114 and taking a total of 4 / 49 as New South Wales crushed Western Australia by an innings and 235 runs . Macartney then scored 84 and 28 to help the Rest of Australia defeat the national team by 156 runs . He then scored two centuries as New South Wales won all four of their Sheffield Shield matches , three by an innings . Up to this point , Macartney had scored 582 runs at 72 @.@ 75 and taken 20 wickets at 20 @.@ 30 . This was enough for him to be selected for the 1926 tour of England . His most notable performance with the ball was his 7 / 85 and 2 / 16 in an innings victory over arch @-@ rivals Victoria . His wickets included batsmen Bill Woodfull ( twice ) , Bill Ponsford , Jack Ryder and all rounder Hunter Hendry , who played alongside him in the 1926 Tests . Following his selection for the England tour , Macartney warmed up by scoring 66 and 163 not out and taking a total of 4 / 48 in consecutive innings victories for the Australian touring party over Tasmania .
= = International farewell = =
Macartney 's international farewell on the 1926 tour of England saw him at the peak of his batting powers . Unlike the previous tour in 1921 , Macartney was also prominent with the ball .
During the opening first @-@ class fixture against Leicestershire , Macartney scored only two but took 5 / 9 in a rain @-@ affected draw . In the next match against Essex , another rain @-@ affected draw , he starred with the bat , scoring 148 . In the third match , another draw against Surrey , Macartney combined both of his skills and scored 53 and took 6 / 63 in the first innings . His victims included English Test batsmen Jack Hobbs and Percy Fender . He then took 3 / 21 and 4 / 57 as Australia beat Hampshire to record their first win of the season . In nine matches before the First Test , Macartney scored 379 runs at 42 @.@ 11 and took 30 wickets at 13 @.@ 20 .
The First Test at Trent Bridge was washed out , with England scoring 0 / 32 in the only innings of the match . Macartney then scored 54 as Australia made 6 / 148 in the only innings of another wet match against Yorkshire . He then hit form ahead of the Second Test , scoring 160 and taking a total of 5 / 34 in an innings win over Lancashire .
After scoring 39 in the first innings in the Second Test at Lord 's , Macartney took 1 / 90 , removing centurion Jack Hobbs as England took a 92 @-@ run first innings lead . He then scored 133 not out in the second innings , to help to stave off defeat . Australia were 5 / 194 when the match ended , and were it not for Macartney 's effort could have been bowled out .
Between Tests , Macartney scored 42 and 81 against Northamptonshire and Nottinghamshire respectively before taking 5 / 38 against Worcestershire . Australia won all three matches .
In the Third Test at Headingley , Macartney became only the second Australian to score a century before lunch on the opening day of a Test . The match started poorly for Australia . English captain Arthur Carr won the toss and sent Australia in to bat after a thunderstorm on the previous day had turned the surface into a sticky wicket ; Bardsley was then dismissed by the first ball for a golden duck . Macartney strode to the crease , surveyed the fielding positions and called down the wicket to the bowler Maurice Tate " Let 's have it ! " He nearly regretted his comment when he edged the ball to Carr at third slip from the fifth ball of the day . It was a difficult chance but the English skipper failed to hold the ball . Macartney was then on two . Within a few minutes , he had regained the initiative for the Australians .
Utilising both conventional technique and audacious shots , Macartney pierced the field with a variety of cuts , hooks , pulls , drives and glances . He teased the fielders with deliberate deflections through the slips ; his late cuts were described by Raymond Robertson @-@ Glasgow as being " so late they are almost posthumous " . Macartney 's attack helped his partner Bill Woodfull to settle in the difficult conditions . Macartney saved his severest hitting for George Macaulay , a medium pace swing bowler and off spinner whom he regarded as England 's most potent bowler . Macartney had asked for and received permission from captain Herbie Collins to target Macaulay 's bowling . By the end of the Australian innings , Macaulay had figures of 1 / 123 and was never to play against Australia again . Macartney 's confidence was such that he charged down the pitch to meet the medium pace bowlers , a dangerous tactic on a surface with erratic bounce .
He reached 40 in as many minutes as Australia 's total reached 50 . Australia reached 100 in only 79 minutes with Macartney contributing 83 of those runs . Macartney reached his century in 103 minutes with the tourists on 131 . By lunch , he had scored 112 in 116 minutes and he continued until the score reached 1 / 235 , when he hit Macaulay to Patsy Hendren and was dismissed , having amassed 151 in 170 minutes . Former English captain Sir Pelham Warner said " I say without hesitation that I have never seen a greater innings ... not even the immortal Victor Trumper could have played more finely " . Macartney 's innings allowed Australia to accumulate a healthy first innings total of 494 . He then took 2 / 51 , removing Carr and Fender as England made 294 and were forced to follow on ; however , the Australians could not dismiss the hosts for a second time and the match ended in a draw .
Macartney then made 106 in a non @-@ first @-@ class match against the West of Scotland , before hitting 109 in the Fourth Test at Old Trafford in a rain @-@ affected draw ; the match failed to reach the second innings . Macartney had scored three centuries in as many innings .
Macartney 's form tailed off thereafter ; in the following six weeks , he made only one score beyond 40 in 11 innings and took only three wickets in nine matches . This included the Fifth Test , when he scored 25 and 16 and failed to take a wicket as England won the Test by 289 runs and with it the Ashes . Macartney topped the batting averages with 473 runs at 94 @.@ 60 and took four wickets at 53 @.@ 75 . Macartney returned to form in the final first @-@ class fixture of the season with an unbeaten 100 against and England XI .
Macartney decided to retire from Tests after the tour . He had taken part in twelve Test century partnerships , the highest being 235 with Woodfull in the Leeds Test .
= = Career end = =
After his return to Australia , Macartney continued to play club cricket and turned out for a final first @-@ class summer . At the start of the 1926 – 27 season , he captained a combined Sydney City team against a New South Wales country team , which included the then 18 @-@ year @-@ old Bradman . Macartney scored 126 and Bradman 98 in a match viewed as a generational transition in Australian batting . He scored 114 in his opening first @-@ class match of the season , and took wickets in each of his four matches . Macartney totalled 243 runs at 40 @.@ 50 and took 11 wickets at 17 @.@ 82 .
In mid @-@ 1927 he toured Singapore and Malaya with Bert Oldfield 's team and played in a series of non @-@ first @-@ class matches against local teams . In October 1929 , he played for a New South Wales Cricket Association team against a series of local teams in the state 's rural west .
In 1935 – 36 , Macartney was vice @-@ captain to Jack Ryder , on the tour of India organised by Frank Tarrant ; he also wrote forthright columns for The Hindu , covering the trip . At the time , India had only received its first official tour , by England , and Australia was not keen on sending a Test team there . Thus , while the Test team were in South Africa , Tarrant 's party consisted mainly of retired Test cricketers in their mid @-@ 40s and beyond .
In his return to first @-@ class cricket after nine years , Macartney took 5 / 17 and 3 / 42 in the first international match against India , which the Australians won by eight wickets . He went wicketless as the series was squared in the second match , before taking 3 / 52 and 6 / 41 in the final match . Despite his nine wickets , Australia lost by 34 runs . Other notable performances included an 85 against Bengal and 3 / 45 and 3 / 47 against Madras . In the latter match , Macartney added 39 as the Australians scraped home by one wicket .
= = Outside cricket = =
Macartney married Anna Bruce , a schoolteacher , at Chatswood Presbyterian Church in December 1921 . At the time , the NSW Railway & Tramway Magazine noted that he was a " strict teetotaller and non @-@ gambler " who loved his pipe , tennis and music . After his marriage , Macartney described himself as a civil servant while he was not engaged in cricketing activities . Like most Australian cricketers of his era , Macartney was Protestant , and a freemason .
Macartney wrote for several Sydney newspapers , and between 1936 and 1942 regularly produced pieces for the Sydney Morning Herald . In 1930 he published the autobiographical My Cricketing Days . During the Second World War , he was a lieutenant in the amenities service of the Australian Defence Force , and afterwards was a personnel officer at Prince Henry Hospital .
Childless , Macartney was predeceased by his wife . He died of coronary occlusion ( heart attack ) while at work in Little Bay , New South Wales , aged 72 . In February 2007 , Macartney was inducted into the Australian Cricket Hall of Fame along with Richie Benaud , making them the 26th and 27th inductees .
= = Test match performance = =
= Battle of Artemisium =
The Battle of Artemisium , or Battle of Artemision , was a series of naval engagements over three days during the second Persian invasion of Greece . The battle took place simultaneously with the more famous land battle at Thermopylae , in August or September 480 BC , off the coast of Euboea and was fought between an alliance of Greek city @-@ states , including Sparta , Athens , Corinth and others , and the Persian Empire of Xerxes I.
The Persian invasion was a delayed response to the defeat of the first Persian invasion of Greece , which had been ended by the Athenian victory at the Battle of Marathon . King Xerxes had amassed a huge army and navy , and set out to conquer all of Greece . The Athenian general Themistocles proposed that the Allied Greeks block the advance of the Persian army at the pass of Thermopylae and simultaneously block the Persian navy at the Straits of Artemisium . An Allied naval force of 271 triremes was thus dispatched to await the arrival of the Persians .
Approaching Artemisium towards the end of summer , the Persian navy was caught in a gale off the coast of Magnesia and lost around a third of their 1200 ships . After arriving at Artemisium , the Persians sent a detachment of 200 ships around the coast of Euboea in an attempt to trap the Greeks , but these were caught in another storm and shipwrecked . The main action of the battle took place after two days of smaller engagements . The two sides fought all day , with roughly equal losses ; however the smaller Allied fleet could not afford the losses .
After the engagement , the Allies received news of the defeat of the Allied army at Thermopylae . Since their strategy required both Thermopylae and Artemisium to be held , and given their losses , the Allies decided to withdraw to Salamis . The Persians overran Boeotia and captured the now @-@ evacuated Athens . However , seeking a decisive victory over the Allied fleet , the Persians were later defeated at the Battle of Salamis in late 480 BC . Fearing being trapped in Europe , Xerxes withdrew with much of his army to Asia , leaving Mardonius to complete the conquest of Greece . The following year , however , saw an Allied army decisively defeat the Persians at the Battle of Plataea , thereby ending the Persian invasion .
= = Background = =
The Greek city @-@ states of Athens and Eretria had supported the unsuccessful Ionian Revolt against the Persian Empire of Darius I in 499 @-@ 494 BC . The Persian Empire was still relatively young , and prone to revolts amongst its subject peoples . Moreover , Darius was an usurper , and had spent considerable time extinguishing revolts against his rule . The Ionian revolt threatened the integrity of his empire , and Darius thus vowed to punish those involved ( especially those not already part of the empire ) . Darius also saw the opportunity to expand his empire into the fractious world of Ancient Greece . A preliminary expedition under Mardonius in 492 BC , to secure the land approaches to Greece , re @-@ conquered Thrace , and forced Macedon to become a fully subordinate client kingdom part of Persia . It had been made a vassal or ally as early as the late 6th century BC , but remained having autonomy . Mardonius ' campaign of 492 BC changed this .
In 491 BC , Darius sent emissaries to all the Greek city @-@ states , asking for a gift of ' earth and water ' in token of their submission to him . Having had a demonstration of his power the previous year , the majority of Greek cities duly obliged . In Athens , however , the ambassadors were put on trial and then executed by throwing them in a pit ; in Sparta , they were simply thrown down a well . This meant that Sparta was also effectively at war with Persia .
Darius thus put together an amphibious task force under Datis and Artaphernes in 490 BC , which attacked Naxos , before receiving the submission of the other Cycladic Islands . The task force then moved on Eretria , which it besieged and destroyed . Finally , it moved to attack Athens , landing at the bay of Marathon , where it was met by a heavily outnumbered Athenian army . At the ensuing Battle of Marathon , the Athenians won a remarkable victory , which resulted in the withdrawal of the Persian army to Asia .
Darius therefore began raising a huge new army with which he meant to completely subjugate Greece ; however , in 486 BC , his Egyptian subjects revolted , indefinitely postponing any Greek expedition . Darius then died whilst preparing to march on Egypt , and the throne of Persia passed to his son Xerxes I. Xerxes crushed the Egyptian revolt , and very quickly restarted the preparations for the invasion of Greece . Since this was to be a full @-@ scale invasion , it required long @-@ term planning , stock @-@ piling and conscription . Xerxes decided that the Hellespont would be bridged to allow his army to cross to Europe , and that a canal should be dug across the isthmus of Mount Athos ( rounding which headland , a Persian fleet had been destroyed in 492 BC ) . These were both feats of exceptional ambition , which would have been beyond any contemporary state . By early 480 BC , the preparations were complete , and the army which Xerxes had mustered at Sardis marched towards Europe , crossing the Hellespont on two pontoon bridges .
The Athenians had also been preparing for war with the Persians since the mid @-@ 480s BC , and in 482 BC the decision was taken , under the guidance of the Athenian politician Themistocles , to build a massive fleet of triremes that would be necessary for the Greeks to fight the Persians . However , the Athenians did not have the manpower to fight on land and sea ; and therefore combating the Persians would require an alliance of Greek city states . In 481 BC , Xerxes sent ambassadors around Greece asking for earth and water , but making the very deliberate omission of Athens and Sparta . Support thus began to coalesce around these two leading states . A congress of city states met at Corinth in late autumn of 481 BC , and a confederate alliance of Greek city @-@ states was formed . It had the power to send envoys asking for assistance and to dispatch troops from the member states to defensive points after joint consultation . This was remarkable for the disjointed Greek world , especially since many of the city @-@ states in attendance were still technically at war with each other .
The ' congress ' met again in the spring of 480 BC . A Thessalian delegation suggested that the allies could muster in the narrow Vale of Tempe , on the borders of Thessaly , and thereby block Xerxes 's advance . A force of 10 @,@ 000 hoplites was dispatched to the Vale of Tempe , through which they believed the Persian army would have to pass . However , once there , they were warned by Alexander I of Macedon that the vale could be bypassed through the Sarantoporo Pass , and that the army of Xerxes was overwhelming , the Greeks retreated . Shortly afterwards , they received the news that Xerxes had crossed the Hellespont .
Themistocles therefore suggested a second strategy to the allies . The route to southern Greece ( Boeotia , Attica and the Peloponnesus ) would require the army of Xerxes to travel through the very narrow pass of Thermopylae . The pass could easily be blocked by the Greek hoplites , despite the overwhelming numbers of Persians . Furthermore , to prevent the Persians bypassing Thermopylae by sea , the Athenian and allied navies could block the straits of Artemisium . This dual strategy was adopted by the congress . However , the Peloponnesian cities made fall @-@ back plans to defend the Isthmus of Corinth should all else fail , whilst the women and children of Athens were evacuated en masse to the Peloponnesian city of Troezen .
= = Prelude = =
The Allied fleet sailed north to Cape Artemisium once it became known that the Persian army was advancing along the coast past Mount Olympus , probably around late July or the beginning of August . The Allies took up station at Artemisium , most likely beaching their ships at the headland , from which they could be quickly launched as needed . The Allies sent three ships to Skiathos as scouts to provide warning of the approach of the Persian fleet . Two weeks passed without sight of the Persian fleet . Finally , ten Sidonian triremes arrived off Skiathos , and the main Allied fleet was informed by a fire @-@ beacon lit on the island . However , the Allied patrol ships themselves were caught unaware and two were captured , whilst one ran aground . According to Herodotus , in the ensuing confusion , unsure whether or not the beacon heralded the arrival of the whole Persian fleet , as a precaution the whole Allied fleet launched into the straits of Artemisium . Once it became clear that the Persian fleet was not going to arrive that day , they decided to sail to Chalcis , halfway down on the western coast of Euboea , leaving men on the heights of Euboea to warn of the actual arrival of the Persian ships .
Historians suggest that the Allies may have misinterpreted the Persian movements and come to the mistaken conclusion that the Persians were sailing east around Skiathos , aiming to sail around the eastern side of Euboea . The signals sent by fire beacons must have been very simplistic , and potentially interpreted wrongly ; alternatively , the signallers may have genuinely believed that the Persian fleet was sailing to the east of Skiathos . If the Persians sailed around the outer , eastern side of Euboea , they could head straight to Attica , and thereby cut off the Allied fleet 's line of retreat . Furthermore , the Persians had enough ships to attempt to both attack the Straits of Artemisium , and sail around Euboea . The withdrawal to Chalcis therefore gave the Allies the opportunity to escape from the Straits of Euboea if the Persians did travel around the outside of Euboea , but also allowed them to return to Artemisium if necessary . In this context , the watchers left on Euboea could inform the Allies if the Persian fleet did indeed sail east of Euboea . The Allied fleet thus continued to wait at Chalcis . Nevertheless , the Allies , undoubtedly anxious about facing a Persian fleet which outnumbered them so comprehensively , may have somewhat overreacted .
Around ten days later , the Persian army arrived at Thermopylae , and the Allies at Chalcis were informed by a ship , captained by Abronichus , which had been appointed to liaise between the army and the fleet . However , there was still no sign of the Persian fleet , and the first day the Persians spent at Thermopylae passed without them launching an attack . The next day , the Persian fleet finally drew near to Artemisium , heading for the Gap of Skiathos ( between the coast of Magnesia and Skiathos ) , when a summer gale ( a ' Hellesponter ' - probably a north @-@ easterly storm ) broke , driving the Persian fleet onto the mountainous coast . The storm lasted two days , wrecking approximately one third of the Persian ships . Meanwhile , at Thermopylae , the Persians had continued to wait for the Greeks to disperse , also choosing not to attack during the storm .
The day after the storm finished , the Allied fleet returned to Artemisium to protect the flank of the army at Thermopylae . The following day , ( the fifth since the Persians had arrived at Thermopylae ) the Persian army began their attacks on the Allied army at Thermopylae . The same day , the Persian fleet finally appeared through the Gap of Sciathos , and began mooring on the coast opposite Artemisium , at Aphetae . According to Herodotus , 15 Persian ships blundered into the Allied lines , and were captured . Although clearly storm damaged , the Persian fleet still probably outnumbered the Allies by nearly 3 : 1 . As a result , the Allies contemplated withdrawing completely . The Euboeans , not wanting to be abandoned to the Persians , bribed Themistocles to try to ensure that the Allied fleet remained . Since the joint operation at Thermopylae and Artemisium was his strategy in the first place , it is likely this is exactly what Themistocles wanted , and this bribe allowed him in turn to bribe the Spartan and Corinthian admirals , Eurybiades and Adeimantus to remain at Artemisium .
Later on that day , a deserter from the Persian fleet , a Greek called Scyllias , swam into the Allied camp . He brought bad news for the Allies — whilst most of the Persian fleet was undergoing repairs , the Persians had detached 200 seaworthy ships to sail around the outer coast of Euboea , to block the escape route of the Allied fleet . The Persians did not want to attack the Allies yet , because they thought the Allies would simply flee , and so they sought to trap them . The Allies resolved to go and meet this detachment , to prevent being trapped , though they planned to leave by nightfall to prevent the Persians becoming aware of their plans .
The Allies most likely realised that this situation presented them with an opportunity to destroy an isolated part of the Persian fleet . Herodotus is not clear on where the Allies planned to meet this detachment , only that they resolved to do so . One possibility is that they planned to sail down the Straits of Euboea , and hope that the other Allied ships , patrolling the coast of Attica , [ Note 1 ] followed the Persians as they entered the Straits of Euboea from the south ; then the Persians might themselves be caught in a trap . Alternatively , the Allies may have planned to ambush the detachment as it passed by Artemisium , on its journey from Aphetae . Either way , they decided to make a demonstration towards the Persian lines during what remained of the day , to convince the Persians that they were planning to stay at Artemisium . Herodotus also suggests that this was an opportunity for them to assess Persian seamanship and tactics . The Allies probably waited until late afternoon so that there was little chance of being drawn into a full scale engagement ; they did not want to suffer casualties before sailing to meet to the Persian detachment . These decisions finally led to the beginning of the battle .
= = = Chronology = = =
The exact chronology of the battles of Thermopylae and Artemisium , and their relation to each other is somewhat unclear . The chronology below represents an estimated reconstruction of the time @-@ line , following Lazenby and Holland .
= = Opposing forces = =
= = = Persian fleet = = =
Herodotus gives a detailed description of the Persian fleet which assembled at Doriskos in spring 480 BC ( see table ) . However , after the fleet was struck the storm off the coast of Magnesia , approximately one third of the fleet was lost . Thus , by Herodotus 's reckoning , the Persian fleet would have had approximately 800 triremes at Artemisium .
Some modern scholars have accepted these numbers , especially since the ancient sources are unusually consistent on this point . Other authors reject this number , with 1 @,@ 207 being seen as more of a reference to the combined Greek fleet in the Iliad , and generally claim that the Persians could have launched no more than around 600 warships into the Aegean .
= = = Greek fleet = = =
Herodotus claims there were 280 ships in the Greek fleet at the Battle of Artemisium , made up of the following contingents ( numbers in parentheses refer to Penteconters , other ships are all Triremes ) :
The Athenians had been building up a large fleet since 483 BC , ostensibly to help win them in their ongoing conflict with Aegina . However , it is probable this build up , made under the guidance of Themistocles , was also made with a future conflict with the Persians in mind . Although the Athenians initially requested command of the Allied fleet , they allowed command of the fleet to be given to Eurybiades of Sparta , in order to preserve the unity of the force .
= = Strategic and tactical considerations = =
Strategically , the Allied mission was simple . The fleet needed to protect the flank of the army at Thermopylae , whilst not being cut off themselves . For the Persians , the strategic situation was equally simple , although with more options . They needed to force their way through either one of Thermopylae or Artemisium ( since holding both was necessary for the Allied effort ) , or to outflank either position . Outflanking the Straits of Artemisium was theoretically much easier than outflanking Thermopylae , by sailing around the east coast of Euboea . The Greek position at Artemisium may have been chosen in order to watch for such attempts ; if the narrowness of the channel had been the only determinant , the Allies could have found a better position near the city of Histiaea .
The Persians were at a significant tactical advantage , outnumbering the Allies and having " better sailing " ships . The " better sailing " that Herodotus mentions was probably due to the superior seamanship of the crews ; most of the Athenian ships ( and therefore the majority of the fleet ) were newly built , and had inexperienced crews . The most common naval tactics in the Mediterranean area at the time were ramming ( triremes were equipped with a ram at the bows ) , or boarding by ship @-@ borne marines ( which essentially turned a sea battle into a land one ) . The Persians and Asiatic Greeks had by this time begun to use a manoeuver known as diekplous . It is not entirely clear what this was , but it probably involved sailing into gaps between enemy ships and then ramming them in the side . This maneuver would have required skilled sailing , and therefore the Persians would have been more likely to employ it . The Allies , however , developed tactics specifically to counter this .
Herodotus suggests that the Allied ships were heavier and , by implication , less maneuverable . Their weight would further reduce the likelihood of the Allied ships employing the diekplous . The source of this heaviness is uncertain ; possibly the Allied ships were bulkier in construction . Another suggestion is that the heaviness was caused by the weight of fully armoured hoplite marines . The Allies may have had extra marines on board if their ships were less maneuverable , since boarding would then be the main tactic available to them ( at the cost of making the ships even heavier ) . Indeed , Herodotus refers to the Greeks capturing ships , rather than sinking them .
= = Battle = =
= = = First day = = =
When the Persians saw the Allied fleet rowing towards them , they decided to seize the opportunity to attack , even though it was late in the day , as they thought they would win an easy victory . They quickly advanced on the much smaller Allied fleet . However , the Allies had come up with a tactic for this situation , where they turned their " bows on to the barbarians , [ and ] they drew their sterns together in the middle " . This is usually taken to mean that they formed into a circle , with their rams pointing outwards ; Thucydides reports that in the Peloponnesian War , Peloponnesian fleets twice adopted a circular formation , with their sterns together . However , Herodotus does not actually use the word circle , and Lazenby points out the difficulty of forming a circle of 250 ships ( the Peloponnesian fleets had 30 – 40 ships ) . It is thus possible the Allies formed into more of a crescent formation , with the wings drawn back to prevent the Persian ships sailing around the Allied line . Whatever the case , it seems likely that this maneuver was intended to negate the superior Persian seamanship , and perhaps specifically the use of diekplous .
Having assumed this formation upon the giving of a prearranged signal , the Allied ships moved suddenly outwards from this position at a second signal , rowing into the Persian ships and catching them off guard . Their superior seamanship negated , the Persians came off worst from the encounter with 30 of their ships captured or sunk . During the battle a Greek ship , captained by Antidorus of Lemnos , defected to the Allies . Nightfall then ended the battle , with the Allies having fared better than they possibly expected to .
During the night , another storm broke ( this time probably a thunder @-@ storm , possibly with a south easterly wind ) , preventing the Allies from setting off southwards to counter the Persian detachment sent around the outside of Euboea . However , the storm also hit the Persian detachment of ships , driving them off course and onto the rocky coast of ' the Hollows ' of Euboea . This part of the Persian fleet was thus also shipwrecked , losing most of the ships .
= = = Second day = = =
The following day , which was also the second day of Battle of Thermopylae , the Persian fleet , now recovering from the two storms , declined to attack the Allies , and instead attempted to make the fleet seaworthy again . News of the shipwreck off Euboea reached the Allies that day , as well as a reinforcement of 53 ships from Athens .
Again waiting until late afternoon , the Allies took the opportunity to attack a patrol of Cilician ships , destroying them , before retreating as night fell . These ships were possibly survivors of the wrecked detachment sent around Euboea , or were perhaps anchored in an isolated harbour .
= = = Third day = = =
On the third day of the battle the Persian fleet was ready to attack the Allied lines in full force . Seeing the Persian fleet assemble , the Allies attempted to block the Straits of Artemisium as best they could , and waited for the Persians to attack . The Persians formed a semicircle of ships , and tried to enclose the Allied fleet , upon which the Allies rowed forward and joined battle . The battle raged all day long , with the Allies hard put to defend their line . When the fleets finally disengaged at nightfall , both sides had suffered roughly equal losses . However , the smaller Allied fleet could scarcely afford such losses ; half the Athenian ships ( the largest contingent in the fleet ) were damaged or lost .
Returning to Artemisium , the Allies saw that they would probably not be able to hold the line for another day , such were their losses . They thus debated whether they should withdraw from Artemisium , whilst they awaited news from Thermopylae . Themistocles ordered the men to slaughter and barbecue the flocks of the Euboeans , so that they would not fall into Persian hands . Abronichus arrived on the liaison ship from Thermopylae and told the Allies of the destruction of the Allied rearguard at Thermopylae . Since holding the Straits of Artemisium now no longer held any strategic purpose , and given their losses , the Allies decided to evacuate immediately .
= = Aftermath = =
The Persians were alerted to the withdrawal of the Greeks by a boat from Histiaea , but did not at first believe it . They sent some ships to see if this was the case , and finding that it was , the whole fleet set sail for Artemisium in the morning . The Persians then sailed on to Histiaea and sacked the surrounding region .
The Allied fleet sailed to Salamis , off the coast of Attica , to assist with the evacuation of the remaining Athenians . En route , Themistocles left inscriptions addressed to the Ionian Greek crews of the Persian fleet on all springs of water that they might stop at , asking them to defect to the Allied cause :
" Men of Ionia , that what you are doing is not proper , campaigning against your fathers and wishing to enslave Greece . It would be best if you came on our side . But if this is not possible , at least during the battle stand aside and also beg the Carians to do the same with you . But if you can not do either the one or the other , if you are chained by higher force and you can not defect during the operations , when we come at hand , act purposely as cowards remembering that we are of the same blood and that the first cause of animosity with the barbarians came from you . "
Following Thermopylae , the Persian army burned and sacked the Boeotian cities which had not submitted to the Persians , Plataea and Thespiae , before marching on the now evacuated city of Athens . Meanwhile , the Allies ( for the most part Peloponnesian ) prepared to defend the Isthmus of Corinth , demolishing the single road that led through it , and building a wall across it . As at Thermopylae , to make this an effective strategy required the Allied navy to stage a simultaneous blockade , barring the passage of the Persian navy across the Saronic Gulf , so that troops could not be landed directly on the Peloponnese . However , instead of a mere blockade , Themistocles persuaded the Allies to seek a decisive victory against the Persian fleet . Luring the Persian navy into the Straits of Salamis in September , the Allied fleet was able to destroy much of the Persian fleet , which essentially ended the threat to the Peloponnese .
Fearing that the Greeks might attack the bridges across the Hellespont and trap his army in Europe , Xerxes retreated with much of the army back to Asia . He left a hand picked force under Mardonius to complete the conquest the following year . However , under pressure from the Athenians , the Peloponnesian Allies eventually agreed to try to force Mardonius to battle , and marched on Attica . Mardonius retreated to Boeotia to lure the Greeks into open terrain and the two sides eventually met near the city of Plataea . There , at the Battle of Plataea in August 479 BC , the Greek army won a decisive victory , destroying much of the Persian army , and ending the invasion of Greece . Meanwhile , at the near @-@ simultaneous naval Battle of Mycale the Greeks destroyed much of the remaining Persian fleet , thereby reducing the threat of further invasions .
= = Significance = =
Considered by itself , Artemisium was a relatively insignificant battle . The Allies did not defeat the Persian navy , nor prevent it from advancing further along the coast of Greece . Conversely , neither did the Persians destroy the Greek fleet , nor irreparably weaken it . The battle was thus an indecisive one , which pleased neither side .
Nevertheless , in the wider context of the Greco @-@ Persian wars , it was a very significant battle for the Allies . The Allies had demonstrated to themselves that they could stand up to the Persian navy , even having the better of some encounters . For many of the Allied crews , it was their first taste of battle , and the experience gained was invaluable at the forthcoming Battle of Salamis . Moreover , fighting the Persians at Artemisium allowed the Greek admirals to see how the Persian fleet performed , and gave them insights into how it might be beaten . In addition , the events before and during Artemisium were crucial in cutting down the size of the Persian fleet ( even if this was not all due to military action ) , meaning that the odds faced by the Allies at the Battle of Salamis were not overwhelming . As the poet Pindar put it , Artemisium was " where the sons of the Athenians laid the shining foundation @-@ stone of freedom " .
= = = Ancient sources = = =
Herodotus , The Histories Perseus online version
Ctesias , Persica ( excerpt in Photius 's epitome )
Diodorus Siculus , Biblioteca Historica .
Thucydides , History of the Peloponnesian War
Cicero , On the Laws
= = = Modern sources = = =
Holland , Tom . Persian Fire . London : Abacus , 2005 ( ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 349 @-@ 11717 @-@ 1 )
Green , Peter . The Greco @-@ Persian Wars . Berkeley : University of California Press , 1970 ; revised ed . , 1996 ( hardcover , ISBN 0 @-@ 520 @-@ 20573 @-@ 1 ) ; 1998 ( paperback , ISBN 0 @-@ 520 @-@ 20313 @-@ 5 ) .
Lazenby , JF . The Defence of Greece 490 – 479 BC . Aris & Phillips Ltd . , 1993 ( ISBN 0 @-@ 85668 @-@ 591 @-@ 7 )
Fehling , D. Herodotus and His " Sources " : Citation , Invention , and Narrative Art . Translated by J.G. Howie . Leeds : Francis Cairns , 1989 .
Burn , A.R. , " Persia and the Greeks " in The Cambridge History of Iran , Volume 2 : The Median and Achaemenid Periods , Ilya Gershevitch , ed . ( 1985 ) . Cambridge University Press .
Köster , A.J. Studien zur Geschichte des Antikes Seewesens . Klio Belheft 32 ( 1934 ) .
Finley , Moses ( 1972 ) . " Introduction " . Thucydides – History of the Peloponnesian War ( translated by Rex Warner ) . Penguin . ISBN 0 @-@ 14 @-@ 044039 @-@ 9 .
Roisman , Joseph ; Worthington , Ian ( 2011 ) . A Companion to Ancient Macedonia . John Wiley and Sons . ISBN 1 @-@ 4443 @-@ 5163 @-@ X.
= Satake clan =
The Satake clan ( 佐竹氏 , Satake @-@ shi ) was a Japanese samurai clan that claimed descent from the Minamoto clan . Its first power base was in Hitachi Province . The clan was subdued by Minamoto no Yoritomo in the late 12th century , but later entered Yoritomo 's service as vassals . In the Muromachi period , the Satake served as provincial deputy ( shugo ) of Hitachi Province ( today Ibaraki prefecture ) , under the aegis of the Ashikaga Shogunate . The clan sided with the Western Army during the Battle of Sekigahara , and was punished by Tokugawa Ieyasu , who moved it to a smaller territory in northern Dewa Province ( northern Honshū ) at the start of the Edo period . The Satake survived as lords ( daimyō ) of the Kubota Domain ( also known as the Akita Domain ) . Over the course of the Edo period , two major branches of the Satake clan were established , one ruled the fief of Iwasaki , the other one the fief of Kubota @-@ Shinden .
During the Boshin War of 1868 @-@ 69 , the Satake were signatories to the pact that formed the Ōuetsu Reppan Dōmei , but after internal debate and a disagreement with the Sendai Domain , the clan switched sides and joined the imperial forces in subduing the alliance . As with all other daimyō families , the Satake clan was relieved of its title in 1871 .
= = Origins = =
The Satake clan claimed descent from Satake Masayoshi , the grandson of the prominent 11th century warrior Minamoto no Yoshimitsu . Yoshimitsu received land in Mutsu Province and Hitachi Province as a reward for his military service , and took up residence at Satake village , in Hitachi . Yoshimitsu willed the territory around Satake village to his son , Yoshinobu . Yoshinobu , in turn , passed it on to his own son , Masayoshi . The Satake clan would remain in Hitachi until they were ordered to move in 1602 . In 1106 , Masayoshi led a rebellion against Minamoto no Yoshikuni , a power figure in neighboring Shimotsuke Province , but was defeated and killed by Yoshikuni , who followed him back to Hitachi . During the Genpei War , Masayoshi 's son Takayoshi sided with Taira no Kiyomori . The Satake clan was defeated by Minamoto no Yoritomo in 1180 , and its territory confiscated ; it was not until nine years later that Yoritomo forgave Takayoshi 's son Hideyoshi , and allowed Hideyoshi to become his vassal . Hideyoshi served in the attack on Mutsu Province . The Satake clan later returned to its old territory in Hitachi .
= = Muromachi and Sengoku periods = =
In the Muromachi period ( 1336 – 1573 ) , the Satake family 's heads served as hereditary governors ( shugo ) of Hitachi Province . They were vassals of the Ashikaga shogunate 's Kamakura @-@ kubō , the Kamakura @-@ based official who oversaw the Ashikaga shogunate 's affairs in the Kantō region . The Satake clan saw a great deal of military service under the Ashikaga banner .
In the Sengoku period , the Satake worked toward unifying the often rebellious clans of the Hitachi region under their control . Satake Yoshishige , family head during the early Sengoku period , was renowned for his ferocity in battle ; he was also known by the nickname of " Ogre Yoshishige " ( 鬼義重 , Oni Yoshishige ) . He often fought against the Late Hōjō clan , who were extending their power into southern Hitachi . One such encounter was the Battle of Numajiri , where 20 @,@ 000 men under Yoshishige fought 80 @,@ 000 Hōjō troops . The Satake won , due in part to the use of over 8600 matchlock rifles by their troops .
In 1588 and again in 1589 , the Satake also fought with the Date clan at Sukagawa , but were ultimately defeated by forces under the command of Date Masamune .
In 1590 , under the headship of Yoshishige 's son Satake Yoshinobu , the Satake clan pledged fealty to Toyotomi Hideyoshi during the Siege of Odawara . After the fall of Odawara , Hideyoshi accepted them as vassals , and guaranteed their lordship of a 540 @,@ 000 koku swath of territory in Hitachi Province . Having received recognition from Hideyoshi as the ruler of Hitachi Province , Yoshinobu 's drive for unifying the province under his rule was strengthened . He brought nearly all of the province under his control , with the exception of the Tsuchiura and Shimodate areas , the control of which Hideyoshi had assured to the Yūki clan .
In 1593 , the Satake clan joined in Hideyoshi 's invasion of Korea , deploying troops to Nagoya Castle in Hizen Province .
= = Edo era = =
In 1600 , the Satake sided with the Western Army at the Battle of Sekigahara , and were discovered to be in secret communication with Ishida Mitsunari , the leader of the Western Army . After the Western Army 's defeat by the Eastern forces of Tokugawa Ieyasu , the Satake clan was allowed to continue , but was punished . The clan 's income level was severely reduced , and in 1602 , its territories were moved to Kubota , a much smaller fief in northern Japan , where they remained until 1871 .
Kubota 's income level was 205 @,@ 000 koku , and it was classified as an outside ( tozama ) daimyō . The income level remained constant throughout its history . The domain often had agricultural crises , which resulted in several peasant uprisings throughout the course of its history . It was also beset by an internal o @-@ ie sōdō conflict , the Satake disturbance ( 佐竹騒動 , Satake @-@ sōdō ) , which was brought on by financial issues .
Satake Yoshiatsu ( better known by his nom @-@ de @-@ plume Satake Shozan ) , the 8th generation lord of Kubota , was an accomplished artist . Yoshiatsu painted a number of paintings in the Dutch style , and also produced three treatises on European painting techniques , including the depiction of perspective . He was also a student of Dutch studies ( rangaku ) scholar Hiraga Gennai , who he had invited up to Akita to advise him on management of the domain 's copper mines . It was during Yoshiatsu 's lifetime that the Akita school ( 秋田派 , Akita @-@ ha ) of art was born and briefly flourished .
The Kubota domain was uncommon in that it contained more than one castle , despite the Tokugawa shogunate 's " one castle per domain " rule . The main castle was Kubota Castle , but there were also castles at Yokote and Ōdate , and five fortified estates elsewhere in the domain : Kakudate , Yuzawa , Hiyama , Jūniso , and In 'nai . Each of these was given to a senior retainer who ran it as his own small castle town . The senior retainers had personal retainers who resided in these castle towns .
Two of the clan elder ( karō ) families serving the Kubota domain were branches of the Satake family . One was the North Satake family ( Satake @-@ hokke ) , stipended at 10 @,@ 000 koku ; the other the West Satake family ( Satake @-@ nishike ) , stipended at 7200 koku . The North Satake family had its landholdings around Kakunodate , one of the fortified estates mentioned above ; the West Satake resided in and had their landholdings around Ōdate . Another karō family unrelated to the Satake was the Tomura , who held Yokote castle .
During its rule over Kubota , the Satake clan was ranked as a Province @-@ holding daimyō ( 国持ち大名 , kunimochi daimyō ) family , and as such , had the privilege of shogunal audiences in the Great Hall ( Ohiroma ) of Edo Castle . Though no Satake lord ever held shogunate office , the clan ( together with many of the other domains of northern Honshū ) assisted the shogunate in policing the frontier region of Ezochi ( now Hokkaido ) .
= = Boshin war = =
After the restoration of imperial rule in late 1867 , the Boshin War broke out in early 1868 , pitting the coalition of southern domains against the forces of the former Tokugawa shogunate . After the city of Edo fell , remnants of the Tokugawa forces retreated northward , and the fighting followed northward . The Satake clan was a signatory to the pact that formed the Ōuetsu Reppan Dōmei , the alliance of anti @-@ Satchō northern domains led by the Sendai Domain . The Satake clan 's delegation at Shiroishi , the alliance 's headquarters , was led by the clan elder ( karō ) Tomura Yoshiari . However , the Satake had political difficulties with the alliance , which culminated in the murder , in Akita , of a delegation from Sendai on August 21 , 1868 , and the display of the messengers ' gibbeted heads in the Akita castle town . The Sendai delegation , led by Shimo Matazaemon , was dispatched to request the Akita domain to hand over Kujō Michitaka and other officials of the imperial delegation that had been originally sent to the region to gather support for the imperial cause . The Satake then backed out of the alliance and supported the imperial army ; eleven days later , on September 1 , 1868 the Tsugaru clan of the neighboring Hirosaki domain followed suit . In response , the pro @-@ alliance domains of Morioka and Ichinoseki sent troops to attack Kubota . Kubota forces were hard @-@ pressed to defend their territory , with the result that the alliance troops had made serious advances before the war 's end ; Yokote Castle was burned , and by October 7 , Morioka troops took Ōdate , one of the Akita domain 's castles . In early 1869 , Satake Yoshitaka formally gave up the domain 's registers to the imperial government , and was made imperial governor of the Akita domain ( han chiji ) . In mid @-@ 1869 , the imperial government rewarded the service rendered by the main line of the Satake clan , by raising its income by 20 @,@ 000 koku . The heads of all the Satake clan 's branches were relieved of office as daimyō in 1871 , and ordered to relocate to Tokyo .
= = Meiji and beyond = =
In the Meiji era , Satake Yoshitaka was ennobled with the title of marquess ( kōshaku ) . Satake Yoshisato of Iwasaki received the title of viscount ( shishaku ) . The North Satake family received the title of baron ( danshaku ) .
Yoshitaka 's son Yoshinao served in the Imperial Japanese Army , and fought in the Satsuma Rebellion .
Norihisa Satake , the current governor of Akita Prefecture , is a descendant of the North Satake branch of the clan . Yoshitoshi Satake , president of Toyo Engineering Corporation is a descendant of the East Satake , a lesser branch .
= = Family Heads = =
= = = Kubota = = =
= = = Iwasaki = = =
= = = Kubota @-@ Shinden = = =
Satake Yoshikuni ( 1665 – 1725 )
Satake Yoshikata ( 1692 – 1742 )
= = Notable Retainers = =
Makabe Ujimoto ( 1550 – 1622 )
Onuki Yorihisa ( 1544 – 1603 )
Oba Yoshinari
Oba Tadanobu
Tomura Yoshikuni ( Jūdayū )
Wada Akitame ( 1532 – 1618 )
= Herb Mitchell ( actor ) =
Herbert L. Mitchell , Jr . ( June 18 , 1937 – January 4 , 2011 ) , credited as Herb Mitchell and sometimes Herb L. Mitchell , was an American actor , director , and teacher . He was a stockbroker before he made the switch to acting , appearing in films ; stage plays such as The Fiddler on the Roof , in which he played the lead role of Tevye ; television shows including The Practice , on which he had a recurring role ; and commercials , including ones for stock brokerage firms Dean Witter Reynolds and Paine Webber . He was married twice and had five children .
= = Early life = =
Herb Mitchell was born June 18 , 1937 , in Bar Harbor , Maine . He was one of three sons of Herbert L. Mitchell , Sr. , and Estella Mae Bourgeois Mitchell . He grew up in Bar Harbor , where he attended local schools , served as an altar boy in the local Catholic church , and participated in high school sports . Following studies at the University of Maine and the Maine Maritime Academy , he became a stockbroker in Bangor , Maine .
= = Acting career = =
In the late 1960s , Mitchell joined a community theater group in Ellsworth , Maine , the Ellsworth Players ; he eventually became its president . He was purely a behind @-@ the @-@ scenes participant in the group 's stage productions until 1971 , when director Bill Raiten persuaded him to take the role of Tevye in a production of the musical Fiddler on the Roof . His portrayal won praise , including a favorable review by playwright Samuel A. Taylor . A New York City producer who saw the show offered Mitchell a chance to play the same role in an off @-@ Broadway production of the musical in Brooklyn . Mitchell , as the father of four children , felt committed to his financial career and declined the offer . However , he continued to act in local productions in the following years , became disenchanted with his job , and decided to pursue acting as a profession .
During the 1970s , he became co @-@ owner of a jazz club and bar that operated seasonally in Maine ; he spent the off @-@ season acting on stage in southern California . He auditioned for the television series M * A * S * H ( 1972 – 83 ) without success . By 1980 , he was working in Los Angeles as an actor , appearing in films , television programs , live performances , and commercials . He portrayed roles in commercials for stock brokerage firms Dean Witter , as the company spokesman , and Paine Webber , as an executive .
In 1992 , while living in Los Angeles , Mitchell bought a home in Blue Hill , Maine . In the early 1990s , he operated the Company of CharActors Theatre , which performed stage plays , one of which he directed , in Studio City , California . In the 1993 film Gettysburg , set during the American Civil War ( 1861 – 65 ) , he portrayed the real @-@ life Union Army flag bearer Sergeant Andrew Jackson Tozier . In the early to mid @-@ 2000s , he survived three cancers and then moved back to Blue Hill with his family , where he semi @-@ retired while occasionally appearing in local stage productions .
He reprised his role as Tevye in Fiddler on the Roof in May 1990 and August 2006 , again directed by Raiten . He appeared in the television courtroom drama series The Practice ( 1997 – 2004 ) as the recurring character Judge Rodney White . In August 2006 he appeared at Ellsworth High School , in Ellsworth , Maine , as Eddie Carbone in a production of Arthur Miller 's play A View from the Bridge . Over the years , he was mentored in singing by Sheldon Bisberg , " his longtime musical collaborator " .
= = Personal life and death = =
Mitchell was the father of four children with his first wife , Scarlett Kinney , and one daughter with his second wife , Janet Ahearn . At the time of his death he also was a grandfather of four . On January 4 , 2011 , he died in the Blue Hill home of his daughter Kathy and her husband .
= = Selected performances = =
Fiddler on the Roof ( 1971 , 1990 , 2006 ) , Tevye – theatrical productions
Dean Witter commercials ( 1980s – 90s ) , spokesman – now called Dean Witter Reynolds
Paine Webber commercials ( circa 1980s @-@ 90s ) , executive
Gettysburg ( 1993 ) , Sergeant Andrew Jackson Tozier – Tozier was in his 20s at the time of war
The Practice ( 1997 – 2004 ) , Judge Rodney White – recurring role in the television series
A View from the Bridge ( 2006 ) , Eddie Carbone – high school production
= Washington State Route 276 =
State Route 276 ( SR 276 ) was a legislated , but not constructed , state highway located in the U.S. state of Washington . The highway was meant to serve as a northern bypass of Pullman in Whitman County , traveling east from U.S. Route 195 ( US 195 ) west of the city to SR 270 east of the city . Proposals were first drawn in 1969 for a complete ring road around Pullman , with the west side built and signed as US 195 in 1975 . The northern segment of the ring road was codified in law in 1973 as SR 276 , however no construction has occurred ; in 2016 , the highway was removed via legislative action .
= = Route description = =
SR 276 is legislated to begin at an intersection with US 195 west of Pullman in rural Whitman County . The highway would continue east through the Palouse as a divided limited @-@ access highway , intersecting Brayton Road at an at @-@ grade intersection and SR 27 at a diamond interchange . SR 276 would turn southeast and intersect the future Coliseum Road at a diamond interchange before ending at SR 270 east of Pullman .
The highway was proposed primarily to relieve traffic on SR 27 and SR 270 through downtown Pullman , measured in surveys conducted by the Washington State Department of Transportation ( WSDOT ) using average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) . WSDOT determined the intersection between SR 27 and SR 270 in downtown Pullman as the busiest highway in the region . SR 270 averaged 19 @,@ 000 vehicles east of the intersection and SR 27 averaged 16 @,@ 000 vehicles south of the intersection in 2011 , while WSDOT predicted that average traffic could rise to 26 @,@ 000 vehicles by 2025 .
= = History = =
A ring road around Pullman was first proposed by the Washington State Highway Commission in 1966 and surveyed in 1970 . Right @-@ of @-@ way acquisition by WSDOT began in 1972 and the corridor was designated and codified into law as SR 276 the following year . 2 @.@ 8 miles ( 4 @.@ 51 km ) of the ring road was completed west of the city as part of US 195 in 1974 while a public survey in 1975 recommended a southern bypass for SR 270 instead of SR 276 . The bypass project was canceled by 1978 and the WSDOT right @-@ of @-@ way was leased to farmers for agricultural purposes . The project was restarted with a transportation study from the Spokane Regional Council in 1993 and funded by the Pullman municipal government as part of their comprehensive plan . A route development plan , funded by WSDOT , recommended the construction of a 6 @.@ 89 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 11 @.@ 09 km ) divided limited @-@ access highway with a single at @-@ grade intersection at Brayton Road .
In 2016 , a bill was introduced in the Washington State Legislature to decommission the unbuilt highway by removing its designation , primarily to facilitate the expansion of the Pullman – Moscow Regional Airport runway . The bill was passed out of the legislature and was signed by the Governor of Washington on April 1 , 2016 .
= God of War : Ascension =
God of War : Ascension is a third @-@ person action @-@ adventure video game developed by Santa Monica Studio and published by Sony Computer Entertainment ( SCE ) . The game was first released on March 12 , 2013 , for the PlayStation 3 ( PS3 ) console . It is the seventh installment in the God of War series and prequel to the entire series . Loosely based on Greek mythology , the game is set in ancient Greece with vengeance as its central motif . The player controls the protagonist Kratos , the former servant of the God of War Ares , who tricked Kratos into killing his wife and daughter . In response to this tragedy , Kratos renounced Ares , breaking his blood oath to the god . Kratos was therefore imprisoned and tortured by the three Furies , guardians of honor and enforcers of punishment . Helped by the oath keeper Orkos , Kratos escapes his imprisonment and confronts the Furies to be completely free of his bond to Ares .
The gameplay is similar to previous installments , focusing on combo @-@ based combat with the player 's main weapon — the Blades of Chaos — and other weapons acquired by the new World Weapons mechanic . It continues the use of quick time events and adds a new , promptless , free @-@ form system . Four magical attacks and a power @-@ enhancing ability can be used as alternative combat options , and the game features puzzles and platforming elements . Ascension is the only installment in the series to include online multiplayer features for both competitive and cooperative play . It also features a redesigned combat system , new gameplay mechanics , and downloadable content . A graphic novel prequel to the single and multiplayer modes launched as Rise of the Warrior prior to the game 's release .
God of War : Ascension received generally favorable reception from critics , who praised its fundamental gameplay and spectacle , which they said were true to the series . Some reviewers said the story was not as compelling as previous installments , with IGN stating that in comparison to Zeus and Ares , " the Furies don 't quite cut it " . The game 's multiplayer element received a mixed response . Although reviewers said the gameplay translated well into the multiplayer element , they criticized the balance and depth of combat . Edge magazine , however , approved of the multiplayer element , calling it an " evolutionary step " with " some fine ideas ... that will form part of this genre 's future template " . In terms of sales , Ascension did not perform as well as its predecessors , and unlike them it won no awards . It received several nominations from various media outlets , including the Writers Guild of America Videogame Awards 's " Outstanding Achievement in Videogame Writing " and the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences award for " Outstanding Achievement in Sound Design " .
= = Gameplay = =
In both of God of War : Ascension 's single @-@ player and multiplayer elements , it is primarily a third @-@ person video game viewed from a fixed camera perspective . Some scenes in the single @-@ player campaign feature a first @-@ person camera view . In single @-@ player mode , the player controls the character Kratos in combo @-@ based combat , platforming , and puzzle games . The enemies are an assortment of creatures , most of whom are drawn from Greek mythology , including cyclopes , cerberuses , empusas , Sirens , Gorgons , satyrs , harpies , and centaurs . Several other monsters were created specifically for the game , such as the juggernauts ( elephantaur ) , wraiths , and manticores . Many of the monsters also appear in the multiplayer . Platforming elements require the player to climb walls and ladders , jump across chasms , and slide down walls to proceed through sections of the game . The game features a variety of puzzles , ranging from simple to complex .
= = = Combat = = =
Kratos ' main weapon is the Blades of Chaos , a pair of blades attached to chains that are wrapped around his wrists and forearms . In gameplay , the blades can be swung offensively in various maneuvers . A new weapons mechanic called the World Weapon system allows Kratos to pick up weapons scattered throughout game locations or to take them from defeated foes , and to use these for a limited time . There are five World Weapons ( sword , club , javelin , sling , shield ) that can be collected randomly , although Kratos may possess only one at any time . When a World Weapon is not equipped , Kratos may punch or kick foes as part of the new combat system . Another new addition is that Kratos can tether enemies , referred to as grappling ; he can hold an enemy in place with one blade while he attacks other enemies with the other blade , and he can throw the tethered enemy .
Four magical disciplines are acquired , including the Fire of Ares , the Ice of Poseidon , the Lightning of Zeus , and the Soul of Hades , which , depending on the magic equipped , imbues the Blades of Chaos with that elemental property . For example , the Soul of Hades imbues the Blades with purple flames and can unleash souls of the Underworld to briefly attack enemies . The Ice of Poseidon also enables Kratos to breathe underwater , a necessary ability as substantial time is spent there . The Rage ability , Rage of the Gods , featured in previous games is included and unlike them , its meter is filled by landing attacks on enemies and the ability is automatically activated once the meter has reached maximum capacity . It remains activated until Kratos is attacked or stops attacking for an extended period of time , then the meter must be refilled . The Rage ability is also affected by the magic equipped , allowing Kratos to use different Rage attacks , such as the lightning @-@ based Rage of Zeus .
Three relics , the Amulet of Uroborus ( Life Cycle mechanic ) , the Oath Stone of Orkos , and the Eyes of Truth , are acquired and needed for game progression . The Amulet of Uroborus allows Kratos to manipulate time by decaying or healing an object ; examples include reconstructing broken pathways and using it during puzzle @-@ solving . Construction can be paused or reversed if needed . The amulet can also be used against enemies to briefly slow their movements . The Oath Stone of Orkos gives Kratos the ability to create a " shadow " duplicate of himself that can depress plates , hold levers , or attack enemies . The Eyes of Truth remove illusions created by the Furies and casts a blinding light on enemies . In addition to the quick time event ( QTE ) mechanic featured in the previous games , a new , promptless , free @-@ form system has been added , allowing players to choose when to attack or dodge based on the enemy 's actions . When certain foes , such as a cyclops or a juggernaut , have been sufficiently weakened , the player may jump on its back and briefly force it to attack other foes .
Other extra features include ten artifacts hidden in the game world that provide additional abilities like unlimited magic during New Game Plus . New Game Plus also allows players to change Kratos ' costume , but trophies are disabled in this mode . A new feature absent from previous installments is " Chapter Select " , which allows players to select and replay previously completed levels . Unlike previous installments , in which behind @-@ the @-@ scenes videos are unlocked after completing the game , these videos are already available from the main menu .
= = = Multiplayer = = =
God of War : Ascension offers an online multiplayer feature for up to eight players — a first for the series — with a small story element . The main objective for players is to take control of a map to earn rewards from the gods . Before entering multiplayer battles , players are introduced to a warrior , who like Kratos , is an oath @-@ breaker and is imprisoned in the Prison of the Damned — the warrior 's backstory is explored in Rise of the Warrior . The player takes control of the warrior and aligns with one of the four deities : Ares , Hades , Zeus , or Poseidon . Each god offers a unique combat play @-@ style and in @-@ battle abilities . The attack style of the god with whom the player aligns is critical to their warrior 's path . Players can create up to three more warriors and have a champion representing each god .
Players can unlock special magic abilities , new and upgraded armors , weapons , relics , and other treasures as they earn experience points ( XP ) to level @-@ up their warrior . Players may also complete " Labors " , which are challenges from the gods that rewards armor and weapons . Throughout multiplayer matches , players receive buffs and debuffs , and there is a color @-@ coding system , called flashes , where a player 's character will flash a certain color indicating a special property , such as vulnerability or invulnerability . A prestige feature called " Ascension " , added in the June 10 , 2013 update , allows players to reset their allegiance progression when they reach Level 40 , and receive in @-@ game currency for " Godly " armors and weapons — the " most valuable and powerful items in the game " . They are classified as a Hero the first time they ascend and then a Demigod the second time and keep that title from then on .
There are five multiplayer modes : Team Favor of the Gods , Match of Champions , Trial of the Gods , Capture the Flag , and Bout of Honor . Team matches randomly assign players to compete on either the Spartan or Trojan team . The " signature " multiplayer mode is Team Favor of the Gods , in which two teams of two @-@ to @-@ four players try to accumulate a target quantity of points to win . Points , known as Favor , are earned by killing and other methods . When players are not on the offensive , they may help their team earn points by capturing altars , collecting red orbs from chests , and setting traps for opposing players . The non @-@ team version , Match of Champions , is a four @-@ to @-@ eight @-@ player deathmatch with a similar goal to Team Favor of the Gods . Trial of the Gods is a two @-@ player , cooperative ( co @-@ op ) , time @-@ trial mode in which the duo faces five waves of mythological monsters concluding with a boss fight . A single @-@ player version is also available . In Capture the Flag , two teams of four players battle to capture the opposing team 's flag and return it to their base until a target number of flags have been captured . In Bout of Honor , added in the July 11 , 2013 update , players test their skills in a best @-@ of @-@ seven @-@ rounds one @-@ on @-@ one fight .
All but two of the fifteen multiplayer maps are based on locations explored throughout the God of War series , with eight of those based on locations explored in Ascension ; for example , Desert of Lost Souls is from God of War , Bog of the Forgotten is from God of War II , and Labyrinth of Daedalus , Forum of Hercules , and Chamber of the Flame are from God of War III . The two original maps are the Coliseum of Persia and the Walls of Troy ( which features the Trojan Horse ) . Every map features several special power @-@ ups awarded by the gods for earning points , such as the Boots of Hermes for acceleration and running attacks . Maps also have environmental obstacles or objectives to complete for more points . For example , on the Desert of Lost Souls map , the cyclops Polyphemus may attack nearby players and killing him with the Spear of Olympus will grant bonus points for that team .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Setting = = =
As with previous games , God of War : Ascension is set in an alternate version of ancient Greece populated by the Olympian Gods , Titans , and other beings from Greek mythology . Game events are set six months after Kratos killed his family , which takes place before Chains of Olympus ( 2008 ) and ten years before God of War ( 2005 ) . The narrative takes place over four weeks ; it shifts several times between the present ( the fourth week ) and past ( the preceding three weeks ) , while the player controls Kratos in both . Several locations , including the Prison of the Damned and several real @-@ world locations — including the village Kirra , the city Delphi , and the island Delos — are explored in the game .
The Prison of the Damned is the Furies ' massive prison to house all oath @-@ breakers . Kirra is an abandoned village that lost its water supply after its water wheel and aqueduct were destroyed . Other than monsters , the only life is in its harbor , where the tamed Harbor Master guides vessels in and out of the port . Delphi is located in the snowy mountains north of Kirra and features the Tower of Delphi . After activating three massive , mechanical pythons , the Tower allows access to the Temple of Delphi , home of the Oracle . Delos features a Titan @-@ sized statue of Apollo , constructed by the inventor Archimedes to honor the god .
= = = Characters = = =
The game 's protagonist is Kratos ( voiced by Terrence C. Carson ) , a Spartan warrior who broke his blood oath to the god Ares after being tricked into killing his family . The main antagonists are the three Furies : Megaera ( Nika Futterman ) , Tisiphone ( Debi Mae West ) , and the Fury Queen , Alecto ( Jennifer Hale ) . The Furies are the guardians of honor and bane of traitors who punish those they deem guilty and were spawned from the eons @-@ long war between the Primordials , the beings who created the Earth . Other characters include the oath keeper Orkos ( Troy Baker ) , the son of Ares and Alecto who was disowned by the god as he was not the perfect warrior that Ares sought ; Aletheia ( Adrienne Barbeau ) , the Oracle of Delphi with prophetic sight ; the corrupted Prophet Castor ( David W. Collins ) and his conjoined twin Pollux ( Brad Grusnick ) , who usurped the oracle , deciding who can consult her ; and the Scribe of Hecatonchires ( Robin Atkin Downes ) , the first mortal imprisoned by the Furies who has been keeping records to maintain sanity . Kratos ' wife Lysandra ( Jennifer Hale ) and his daughter Calliope appear in an illusion created by Alecto , and the King of Sparta ( Crispin Freeman ) and the Village Oracle ( Susan Blakeslee ) appear in an illusion created by Tisiphone with the help of her familiar , Daemon . Zeus ( Corey Burton ) , the King of the Olympian Gods , Ares ( Steven Blum ) , the God of War , Poseidon ( Gideon Emery ) , the God of the Sea , and Hades ( Fred Tatasciore ) , the God of the Underworld , appear in the multiplayer mode . Castor and Pollux , the demigod Hercules ( Kevin Sorbo ) , the Titan cyclops Polyphemus , the Gorgon Stheno , and the giant scorpion Skorpius also appear in the multiplayer as bosses and / or environmental obstacles .
= = = Plot = = =
Gameplay begins with Kratos , who is imprisoned , chained , and tormented by the Furies for breaking his blood oath to Ares . Megaera tortures Kratos , but accidentally facilitates his freedom . Chasing the Fury through the prison , he discovers that the prison itself is Aegaeon the Hecatonchires , the first traitor of the Furies who had broken a blood oath to Zeus ; he was turned into the Prison of the Damned as punishment . Overcoming an illusion created by Tisiphone and Daemon , he finds and kills Megaera , retrieving the Amulet of Uroborus , which the Furies had confiscated from him in a preceding week .
The narrative shifts to three weeks before Kratos ' imprisonment . Confronted by Orkos in the Village of Kirra , Kratos is advised that the visions he has been experiencing are mind tricks created by the Furies , and instructs him to find the Oracle of Delphi . Upon arrival at the Temple of Delphi , he overcomes Castor and Pollux , who tried to kill the Oracle . In her dying breath , the Oracle instructs Kratos to travel to Delos to retrieve the Eyes of Truth . Taking the Amulet of Uroborus from the now @-@ dead Castor and Pollux , Kratos travels to Kirra 's harbor , where he again encounters Orkos . The oath keeper reveals that Ares wanted a perfect warrior to help him overthrow Zeus , so Ares helped Kratos against the barbarians to make him into a perfect warrior . Orkos became the oath keeper and did not question the Furies until Ares tricked Kratos into killing his own family . Armed with this knowledge , Kratos takes a ship to Delos .
A week later , Kratos arrives at the island of Delos and explores the ruined statue of Apollo . He is attacked by all three Furies and is eventually captured . Orkos appears and frees Kratos , transporting him to another location . Orkos gives Kratos his Oath Stone and reveals that he and Aletheia tried to warn Zeus of Ares ' and the Furies ' plan . In retaliation , the Furies took the Oracle 's eyes , the objects Kratos seeks . After a perilous journey , Kratos uses the Amulet of Uroborus to restore the statue in order to retrieve the eyes . After completing the Trials of Archimedes , however , Kratos is ambushed and captured by the Furies .
Back in the present time , Tisiphone and Daemon cast another illusion to deceive Kratos , who overcomes it and retrieves the Oath Stone of Orkos . He encounters the Scribe of Hecatonchires , who reveals that the Furies were originally fair in their punishment , but devolved into ruthless beings because of Ares . Continuing his pursuit of the Furies , Kratos reaches the door to Alecto 's Chamber , but seemingly returns home to his wife and daughter ; another illusion , this time cast by Alecto . She tries to convince Kratos he can live within this illusion if he rejoins Ares , but he denies her . Enraged , Alecto and Tisiphone attack Kratos , who retrieves the eyes , and Alecto transforms into a giant sea monster . After a brutal battle , Kratos uses the eyes to break through the Furies ' illusions before killing them both , which destroys the prison .
Kratos returns to Sparta , where he is met by Orkos . He praises Kratos ' victory over the Furies , but reveals that Kratos will not be free from Ares ' bond unless he kills Orkos . He begs Kratos to give him an honorable death , which will free them both from Ares . Kratos initially refuses but Orkos ' continuing pleas ultimately force Kratos to kill him . Afterward , Kratos experiences the first of many nightmares — previously masked by his bond — and discovers his path to redemption through continual service to Olympus . Kratos burns down his house with the corpse of Orkos inside and leaves , beginning his path towards becoming the champion of the gods .
= = Development = =
= = = Pre @-@ E3 2012 = = =
In January 2010 , Santa Monica 's studio director John Hight advised video @-@ gaming blog Joystiq " while God of War III will conclude the trilogy , it won 't spell the end of the franchise " and said " We 're going to be really careful about what we do next . " From April 2011 until April 2012 , several sources claimed that a fourth main entry would release sometime in 2012 and would feature an online component . On April 12 , 2012 , Sony released a teaser image on its official PlayStation Facebook page , which was followed by the game 's announcement on April 19 , though Amazon leaked the announcement the day before . The trailer announced Todd Papy , who had worked as a designer on God of War and God of War II and as Design Director on God of War III , as Game Director . David Jaffe confirmed that God of War III Game Director Stig Asmussen did not return to direct this game because he was working on another project at Santa Monica . The announcement trailer was narrated by Linda Hunt ; it refers to a time before Kratos became the Ghost of Sparta and was not " bound in blood " . The announcement officially confirmed the game 's title as God of War : Ascension . Papy said the game was not titled God of War IV to avoid confusion because it is a prequel , rather than a sequel , to the trilogy . The name was chosen because it compliments the story and the additional multiplayer component ; according to Papy , in this mode , players are " basically ascending from an unknown hero to a god " .
The game features a retooled God of War III engine , enabling online multiplayer battles for up to eight players . Papy said to allow customization , Kratos and other known gods would not be included as playable characters in the multiplayer modes because the developers did not want " red Kratos , blue Kratos , yellow Kratos " , and selecting gods would lock players into established roles . This decision was made " to balance the game when players are pitted against each other " . Papy also said there would be no female characters because each character in the multiplayer mode is based on Kratos ' animation model . The first demonstration of the game 's multiplayer element featured the Team Favor of the Gods mode running on the map Desert of Lost Souls , which features the Titan cyclops Polyphemus . The decision to add multiplayer came about from curiosity , according to Lead Combat Designer Jason McDonald . He said the team asked themselves , " can it be done ? Is there fun to be had ? " The multiplayer was first tested using Kratos , and McDonald said the testers had " a lot of fun " . Seeing their reaction made the team feel that the multiplayer had value . They then began to put the " God of War spin on it " .
The development team faced a number of challenges in adding multiplayer to an established single @-@ player franchise . It was a difficult task , and the team felt that they had to prove to critics that their multiplayer would not be " tacked on " ( since sub @-@ par multiplayer performance in other established , single @-@ player franchises has been criticized ) . To tackle this , Santa Monica had to hire new staff specializing in multiplayer , engineering , and design . During development , multiplayer required several rewrites which took longer than expected and delayed their production schedule . The player navigation code had to be changed for online play , which was initially designed for co @-@ op . Since multiplayer was new to the team , they did not realize the amount of work required for the experience they had envisioned . Although the original idea for multiplayer was exclusively co @-@ op , as development progressed , the team realized it was not what they wanted . Before the first press show , the team found the experience they wanted . Because of their focus on preparing multiplayer for the first press announcement , single @-@ player received less attention . When single @-@ player was reemphasized , its production was accelerated , resulting in less focus on multiplayer . Development focus shifted between single @-@ player and multiplayer throughout its entire course . Local co @-@ op was also explored , but the team decided to keep multiplayer online @-@ only .
David Jaffe , creator and Game Director of God of War , said in an interview with NowGamer if he had worked on God of War : Ascension , he would have incorporated three specific elements : different myths , a co @-@ star , and " look to the Zelda structure as a jumping off point " . He said a cooperative mode , in which " player one [ would ] be Kratos and player two [ would ] be this stupid annoying sidekick that — for some to be determined story reason — Kratos is stuck with for the whole adventure and in the end , once the main quest is over , Kratos just snaps the poor kid 's neck " , " would be cool " . Jaffe also spoke with IGN about the multiplayer element , stating , " I think it looks cool . It looks like another great , impeccably executed Sony Santa Monica game " , and said , " If it turns out to be the case that the single player is watered down because of [ the multiplayer ] , then I think they have some justification . But I don 't see any evidence of that , and I don 't see evidence of that based on the team they are . "
= = = Post @-@ E3 2012 = = =
At Sony 's 2012 Electronic Entertainment Expo ( E3 ) press conference , the North American release date was confirmed as March 12 , 2013 . A single @-@ player demo was shown , revealing new gameplay mechanics and combat systems . The demo showcased that Kratos would have an encounter with the sea monster Charybdis , but this sequence was cut from the final game . Charybdis was recast as the creature that Alecto transforms into during the final fight of the game . The same day , Papy confirmed on the PlayStation.Blog that a collector 's edition of the game would be released . He said God of War : Ascension was being developed to feature stereoscopic 3D , however , it was ultimately cut . At gamescom 2012 , new multiplayer footage was shown , followed by the announcement of a multiplayer beta .
At the 2012 Penny Arcade Expo ( PAX ) , Game Director Todd Papy , Lead Game Designer Mark Simon , Principal Character Artist Patrick Murphy , and writer of the God of War series Marianne Krawczyk , hosted the first God of War panel , discussing the origins of God of War : Ascension , and provided an overview of the evolution of Kratos . The Fury Megaera was revealed , and Mark Simon discussed the new combat system . Papy said he had considered using the goddess Artemis as a playable female character , which would have offered the player alternative combat options . Artemis would have been depicted as half @-@ human and half @-@ feline , with the head and torso of a woman and the legs of a lioness . Artemis was ultimately cut from the game , but Papy said he would like to explore the possibility of using other gods in the future .
In the developmental transition from God of War III to God of War : Ascension , one of the graphics engineers , Cedric Perthuis , noted that the limits of the God of War III engine restricted artist creativity , so they " tried to remove or push those limits as far as possible without losing any performance . " An example noted was the number of UV sets used , which was increased to three sets per mesh . For a complex character model like Kratos , " independent textures are needed for body parts unique to him , each wrapping around the head , torso and limbs - all of which form an editable ' UV set ' when laid out flat . " Allowing more UV sets also made it possible to have a more natural look to the environment . Ascension did not have a graphical leap over its predecessor like God of War III did : " From a graphics ' technical ' perspective , to a large degree God of War : Ascension was more refinement on the graphics front " said another graphics engineer , Ben Diamand , who focused on optimization during Ascension 's development . The development team also added dynamic lighting , which allowed for development of the Life Cycle gameplay mechanic . Particle effects were greatly improved upon from God of War III : " the idea was to give artists more control to achieve better results with less particles " said Perthuis .
Terrence C. Carson , Linda Hunt , Corey Burton , Gideon Emery , Steven Blum , and Kevin Sorbo reprised their roles as Kratos , the narrator , Zeus , Poseidon , Ares , and Hercules , respectively . Jennifer Hale , who voiced two characters in the previous installment , voiced the Fury Alecto and Kratos ' wife , Lysandra , who was previously voiced by Gwendoline Yeo . Debi Mae West , Adrienne Barbeau , and Crispin Freeman , who have each done voice work on previous installments , voiced the characters Tisiphone , Aletheia , and the King of Sparta , respectively . Troy Baker voiced the oath keeper Orkos and is the announcer in the multiplayer mode . Series veteran Fred Tatasciore assumed the role of Hades , who was previously voiced by Clancy Brown . Susan Blakeslee reprised her role as the Village Oracle , who makes a cameo appearance as an illusion created by Tisiphone . Unlike previous games in which motion capture and voice recording were done separately , God of War : Ascension used " voice @-@ over motion capture " ; voice recording and motion capture were done at the same time , which allowed the voice actors to act out their characters ' scenes together . The voice @-@ over motion capture was done at House of Moves in Culver City , California .
= = = Multiplayer beta = = =
A global multiplayer beta was announced at gamescom 2012 . The beta included features that had previously not been publicly revealed . Players who participated in the Rise of the Warrior social challenge on GodofWar.com received early access to the beta in December 2012 . Players from SCE Europe also received an opportunity to access the beta early . The beta became available for PlayStation Plus subscribers on January 8 , 2013 . On January 19 , Santa Monica allowed all PlayStation Network users in North and South America access the beta via a redeemable voucher . The beta test ended at midnight Pacific time on January 21 . In the beta , players could choose to align themselves with Ares or Zeus . It featured the eight @-@ player Desert of Lost Souls map and the four @-@ player Forum of Hercules map . The beta included the Desert of Lost Souls map in the modes Team Favor of the Gods and Capture the Flag , and the Forum of Hercules map in the mode Favor of the Gods , renamed Match of Champions in final release . All participants of the beta received the Champion 's Armor and Blade for their multiplayer character when the game launched .
According to Santa Monica 's senior producer Whitney Wade and director of internal development Chacko Sonny , the beta made the team look at the game as an " evolving service " . The testing allowed the developers to validate that their system would hold up to the criticism and abundance of players once the game launched . Because multiplayer was new , the beta allowed the team to prepare for the final game . Wade and Sonny said the testing went as expected , " revealing successive layers of issues that we would address , deploy fixes for , and then monitor in a live environment . " The most important change from the beta , they said , was their planning in how to support the game post @-@ launch . The team designed a process that allowed them to " quickly iterate on fixes , deploy them through infrastructure ( testing , certification , patching ) , and coordinate with internal technology partners within Sony . " They also developed a system to allow them to monitor , log , and interpret any changes added , and the beta test gave insight on how to prioritize key features .
= = Release = =
At E3 2012 , a single @-@ player demo was showcased , showing new gameplay mechanics and combat systems . The demo revealed a redesigned quick time event mini @-@ game , which replaced some button prompts with a new , prompt @-@ less , free @-@ form system . It featured the World Weapons mechanic and Kratos was shown to be capable of swinging opponents through the air while simultaneously attacking . Other new features included the Fire of Ares magic and the " Life Cycle " mechanic . Several new enemies , such as the juggernaut ( elephantaur ) and the sea beast Charybdis , were also featured . The E3 2012 single @-@ player demo was included with early copies of the " Director 's Cut " Blu @-@ ray edition and Blu @-@ ray / DVD Combo Pack versions of the film , Total Recall , which were released on December 18 , 2012 .
On February 26 , 2013 , a new single @-@ player demo titled the Prison of the Damned was released on the PlayStation Store to download . Participants of the Rise of the Warrior social challenge who were on the Spartan team received access to the demo on February 20 . The demo comprises the first 30 @-@ minutes of the single @-@ player mode . God of War : Ascension was released in North America on March 12 , 2013 , in mainland Europe and PAL regions on March 13 , in Australia and New Zealand on March 14 , and in the UK and Ireland on March 15 . In the US , it sold 570 @,@ 000 units in the first month of its release not including bundled sales , making it the fourth @-@ best @-@ selling game of March 2013 . The game 's sales were significantly lower than God of War III 's first month sales , which were 1 @.@ 1 million units . On October 15 , 2013 , God of War : Ascension was released as a digital download on the PlayStation Store in North America . The digital version was released in Europe and Australia on October 23 , and in Japan and Asia on October 31 . God of War : Ascension can be played from Sony 's game streaming service PlayStation Now , which is available on the PlayStation 3 , PlayStation Vita , PlayStation 4 , PlayStation TV , BRAVIA televisions , and select smart TVs of other brands . It became available during the service 's beta stage on September 24 , 2014 .
= = = Marketing = = =
God of War : Ascension 's marketing campaign initially focused on its multiplayer feature . Between October 22 , 2012 , and the day of the game 's release , there were four multiplayer trailers that featured each of the gods that players can align to , showcasing some of their abilities that players receive from them . On December 12 , 2012 , a multiplayer trailer titled " Evil Ways " was released , featuring Polyphemus . The first single @-@ player trailer since the initial one in April 2012 came on January 19 , 2013 . A live action trailer titled " From Ashes " was played during Super Bowl XLVII , which was followed by the last single @-@ player trailer on February 26 .
On June 4 , 2012 , Santa Monica Studio announced the release of God of War : Ascension — Collector 's Edition , which was available for a limited time in North America . The package included a 6 inches ( 150 mm ) statue of Kratos , a premium SteelBook game case , and exclusive downloadable content ( DLC ) available via the PlayStation Network ( PSN ) . The exclusive DLC included the official game soundtrack , a PS3 dynamic XrossMediaBar ( XMB ) theme , a PSN avatar pack , 48 hours of double XP for multiplayer , and a Season Pass to unlock all future DLC weapons and armor at no additional cost . On August 30 , 2012 , Santa Monica announced the release of the Collector 's Edition for European territories . The God of War : Ascension — Special Edition was also announced for release in European territories and was available for the same price as the standard edition . It included the premium SteelBook game case and the DLC that was available in the Collector 's Edition , although not the Season Pass . The God of War : Ascension Legacy Bundle , which included God of War : Ascension , God of War Saga , a one @-@ month subscription to PlayStation Plus , and a 500 GB garnet red PS3 , was available for a limited time . Similarly , the UK received an exclusive PS3 bundle , which included a white 500 GB PS3 , the God of War : Ascension — Special Edition , and a special God of War : Ascension DualShock 3 controller , which was released separately in Australia .
Pre @-@ orders for the Collector 's Edition commenced on June 4 , 2012 , in North America . Participating retailers offered the " Mythological Heroes Multiplayer DLC Pack " as a bonus for pre @-@ ordering the standard or Collector 's Edition of the game . The DLC pack included the armors of Achilles , Odysseus , Orion , and Perseus . Along with the DLC pack , GameStop offered an exclusive pre @-@ order bonus — the armor and spear of King Leonidas , as depicted by Gerard Butler in the 2007 film 300 , for use in multiplayer mode , and a double @-@ sided God of War : Ascension poster measuring 22 by 28 inches ( 56 cm × 71 cm ) . For a limited time , all copies of God of War : Ascension purchased from Best Buy included the multiplayer weapon Mjölnir ( the Hammer of Thor ) , inspired by the television series Vikings , as DLC . Walmart offered the Blade of Judgment multiplayer weapon as an exclusive pre @-@ order bonus . All copies of God of War : Ascension included early access to the demo of Naughty Dog 's video game The Last of Us . In North America , all copies included a voucher to download the characters Zeus and Isaac Clarke for PlayStation All @-@ Stars Battle Royale .
= = = Rise of the Warrior = = =
Rise of the Warrior was a graphic novel on GodofWar.com that featured a social experience that ran from October 22 , 2012 , until March 19 , 2013 . For the social experience of the graphic novel , players " [ lived ] out [ their ] warrior 's journey " and " [ embarked ] on a quest for redemption that [ lead players ] toward becoming the next Champion of the Gods " . Players were aligned with either the Spartans or the Trojans and competed via a number of social challenges , such as answering questions and solving riddles . In the first challenge , the teams competed to earn their army a week of exclusive , early access to the multiplayer beta test that began on December 12 , and 30 days of PlayStation Plus , which was won by the Spartans ; the Trojans received access on December 17 . The Spartans also won the next team challenge and received early access to the Prison of the Damned single @-@ player demo on February 20 , 2013 . Players could also earn early , in @-@ game unlocks for the final game 's multiplayer mode , including exclusive weapons and armor for all players who attained the rank of Champion of the Gods . Christopher Shy was the artist of the graphic novel .
Rise of the Warrior was a prequel story that tied into God of War : Ascension 's single @-@ player and multiplayer modes , and had 20 chapters . The story followed an unnamed warrior , also referred to as the champion or the redeemed warrior , who became the player 's character in the multiplayer mode . The warrior was a native of Kirra whose father was killed by a cruel general who poisoned the water supply of the village , killing many people . Before dying , the warrior 's father beckoned him to honor the gods and swear to never let harm come to their family . The warrior swore his father 's oath and was met by a cloaked figure known as The Giver , who guided him and followed him throughout his journey . Soon after , the warrior called upon Ares to save his people from the poisonous water ; the god destroyed the aqueduct and water wheel that supplied water to the village . The warrior then encountered the surviving soldiers who were under his father 's command . One soldier told the warrior that swords alone could not defeat the general . The warrior and his men traveled to the land of Aeaea and recruited the witch Circe , who seemingly also sought revenge against the general . Circe granted the soldiers magical weapons to aid them on their journey , and suggested that they see the Oracle of Delphi to discover whether the general had any weaknesses . During this time , the warrior vowed loyalty to Poseidon and to protect his men .
After traveling through Delphi , the warrior obtained the venomous blood of a cerberus . Eventually , both Circe and the warrior encountered the general , who was revealed to be the warrior 's uncle . The general revealed that he killed the warrior 's father because he refused to join the general . Circe was then revealed to be the general 's lover who had only aided the warrior so he would reach the general , who planned to offer the warrior a chance to serve him in his warmongering conquests . The warrior refused , and Circe offered him with a choice ; to serve the general and his men would be spared from Circe 's wrath , or to kill the general and his men shall die . The Giver , who followed the two , reminded the warrior that if he were to kill the general , who was a member of his family , the oath he made to his father would be broken , yet if he killed Circe , his men would perish and the oath he made to protect his men would be broken . The warrior declared that he would not slay Circe and defended the lives of his men . He tricked the general into drinking from a cup he had secretly filled with the cerberus 's blood , which killed the general . Circe was aghast at the warrior 's vengeful act and retreated . Because the warrior killed his own uncle , the oath he made to his father was broken . The Giver revealed himself to be Orkos , the oath keeper of the Furies and the warrior was imprisoned by the Furies in the Prison of the Damned .
= = = Downloadable content = = =
In addition to the downloadable content ( DLC ) included in the Collector 's Edition , the pre @-@ order bonuses , and DLC from Rise of the Warrior , the developers released several multiplayer DLC packs after the game 's release . All multiplayer maps that were released post @-@ launch are free , and players who obtained the Season Pass from the Collector 's Edition received all DLC weapons and armors at no additional cost . DLC weapons and armors can be purchased separately or in bundles . Other DLC , such as XP boosters , are available ; these were not covered by the Season Pass . On May 7 , 2013 , the first set of DLC armors and weapons , including the " Armors of Anarchy " and the " Blades of Darkness " , were released for purchase together with the free Chimeran Armor . Several other DLC packs , such as the " Primordials Pack " , the " Champions Pack " , the " Marks of the Gods Pack " , and the " Legendary Spears Pack " , were released .
In June 2013 , Santa Monica announced the " Community Cape Design Contest " , in which the God of War community could create and submit original cape designs . The winner 's cape design was released as DLC . From July 3 until July 7 , Sony allowed players to access all available DLC weapons for free , after which , they were required to purchase the DLC if they wished to continue using it . All experience gained per weapon during this trial was retained if the DLC was purchased . Some of the last sets of DLC released included co @-@ op weapons , the " Mantles of the Gods Pack " , several gauntlets , and the " Fury Capes Pack " . On October 11 , 2013 , Santa Monica announced that no further DLC maps , weapons , armors , or marks would be produced , but multiplayer gaming would still be supported with patch updates . All DLC items received special pricing options for the release of the digital version of God of War : Ascension . To celebrate the one year anniversary of the game 's release , from March 25 through April 2 , all DLC armor and weapons were available to download for free , XP boosters were discounted by 50 % , and the developers released a Santa Monica Studio cape and a " Marked One " mark , allowing player 's warriors to have Kratos ' red tattoo when equipped .
The first maps were released via patch 1 @.@ 06 , called the " Hunter " update , on May 23 , 2013 . The " Tower of Delphi " and a modified version of the " Coliseum of Persia " , which added Trial of the Gods mode , were included in this update . Because of technical difficulties experienced by some players who downloaded the patch , it was retracted and re @-@ released via update 1 @.@ 07 on June 3 . Players who lost all online progress due to 1 @.@ 06 received two 48 @-@ hour voucher codes granting five times the amount of XP earned , the Season Pass , 50 weapon and armor shards , and a special voucher code for the " Ascension " feature that ascended these players to " Hero " , giving them immediate access to the Godly weapons and armors . The second set of maps were released via update 1 @.@ 09 on July 11 . This update included four maps for the Bout of Honor mode — " Canyons of Kirra " , " Chamber of the Flame " , " Landing at Delos " , and " Streets of Sparta " — and a four @-@ player map , " The Whirlpool of Alecto " . On August 1 , update 1 @.@ 10 was released and added Trial of the Gods to the " Labyrinth of Daedalus " map . The last multiplayer map , the eight @-@ player " Furnace of Archimedes " , was released via update 1 @.@ 11 on August 27 .
= = Soundtrack = =
God of War : Ascension ( Original Soundtrack ) was composed by Tyler Bates and was released on iTunes on March 5 , 2013 by SCE and La @-@ La Land Records . It was included as DLC in the God of War : Ascension — Collector 's Edition and Special Edition . On October 15 , the soundtrack was made available for free on PSN for a limited time . A notable feature of Ascension 's soundtrack is that it was scored by only one composer ; all the previous games had multiple . Tyler Bates previously scored the similarly themed film 300 and game Rise of the Argonauts . Recorded at Abbey Road Studios with top musicians and vocalists , Bates said " My goal was to create a sound that supported the timeless dark age of God of War , while expanding the parameters of the ' Sword and Sandals ' genre . " He said that although the game 's story is linear , he approached the project as if he were scoring a novel as opposed to a film . Bates did not play any of the previous games and chose not to in order to take the score " to new places without being overtly aware of the great music that is emblematic of the first three installments of this storied franchise " . Rafe Pearlman and Ciscandra Nostalghia helped Bates and contributed their voices to the score ; Pearlman provided thematic voices and Nostalghia created the voice of the Furies .
Throughout the score , Bates uses a combination of techniques " to increase the drama of the game " said Emily McMillan of Game Music Online , who gave the album a 4 out of 5 stars . She said one of Bates 's signature techniques is " an intense and simultaneous crescendo and glissando . " All of the themes take place on a harmonic minor scale . On the track , " Warriors ' Truth " , Bates used Gerard Marino 's main God of War theme and " twists it for the prequel setting " , " taking the harmonic ascending scale and reverting it to a downwards pattern with a harsh choir / brass combination . " The track " Visions of Ruin " features the cimbalom , which is rarely used in video game soundtracks . She said overall " The music is powerful , rich , and pulsing " , though listening to the whole album can seem repetitive .
= = Reception = =
God of War : Ascension received a generally favorable reception upon release . Aggregating review websites GameRankings and Metacritic gave it an average review score of 79 @.@ 34 % ( based on 58 reviews ) and 80 / 100 ( based on 89 reviews ) , respectively . Critics praised the fundamental gameplay and spectacle , but were critical of the lack of new ideas and gave a mixed response to the additional multiplayer mode . Alex Simmons of IGN said the redesigned combat system adds a source of depth : " Learning how to use each power effectively ... provides a strategic lifeline when there ’ s no energy re @-@ gen chest nearby " . Although he initially found the World Weapons useful , he felt that they became unnecessary after upgrading the Blades of Chaos . He praised the magic system , stating that since magic attacks are unlocked at a later time , " It 's a positive step " because players cannot rely on them as much as they may have done in previous installments , and it encourages players " to think wisely about where to allocate experience points rather than being the ultimate badass from the outset " .
Dale North of Destructoid praised the new gameplay mechanics , saying , " God of War has never looked or played better than this " . Xav de Matos of Joystiq said the combat is simpler than God of War III 's , and it rarely required much adjustment . Matos also said , " Combat always looks impressive and chaotic " . Simmons said the majority of the gameplay is balanced , and that Ascension " is probably the easiest " in the series , with the exception of the large amount of enemies in some sections where dying " feels cheap and frustrating " . He said the Trial of Archimedes will likely frustrate advanced players , and " is tougher than anything I 've played in a God of War game before " . Hollander Cooper of GamesRadar was critical of apparent shifts in difficulty at certain points , saying it " [ tests ] your patience , rather than your skills — including one that 's easily the most difficult section in any God of War game to date , for all the wrong reasons " .
Simmons said the story is not as compelling as previous installments , stating that in comparison to Zeus and Ares , " the Furies don 't quite cut it " . He said although the narrative is " meticulously delivered " , it " felt a bit incidental " . Matos said , " the narrative fabric woven throughout the franchise has begun to split " , and Ascension does little to enhance its characters " in any meaningful way " . According to Matos , the plot framing does not work and the narrative structure " is just too chaotic " with little room to process it . He did say though that the game provides the " distinct God of War flair " known to the series .
North noted the enhanced graphics engine stating , " from the glossy textures , slick animations , and ultra @-@ realistic lighting , there 's a shine and polish that runs throughout the game that makes it a perfect send @-@ off for the PS3 " . Similarly , Cooper wrote , " Kratos battles some of the most impressive foes he 's ever fought " , going on to say the visuals " are not only the best the franchise has seen , but some of the most impressive on the PlayStation 3 " . Edge magazine said , " Aesthetically , it 's a great fit for PS3 's twilight years " , but they had frustrations with the visual approach , such as some camera angles .
Matos was critical of the game 's multiplayer mode . He felt that the connection to the single @-@ player mode was " a weird narrative tie @-@ in " , and that although the gameplay translates well into the multiplayer element , " the entire experience may be too chaotic to enrapture a large audience " . He also worried that balance may be an issue over time . He praised the maps , stating they were well designed and approved of the elements that can give players an advantage . He said although the multiplayer mode can be fun and satisfying , " it doesn 't feel deep enough to command much more than a furiously dedicated fan following " . Simmons said the multiplayer mode is " a genuinely fresh addition ... that successfully carries over many of the hallmarks of the much @-@ loved single @-@ player [ game ] " . Of the multiplayer modes , he most enjoyed Team Favor of the Gods , but said that the combat does not offer enough depth " to make [ multiplayer ] a truly engaging experience " . He said as a result of experience points being easily acquired , " multiplayer feels more like a curiosity that provides a few hours of enjoyment rather than being an essential addition " . Edge said the multiplayer element is an " evolutionary step " with " some fine ideas ... that will form part of this genre ’ s future template " . Although " chaotic at first " and options being overwhelming , it " [ starts ] to make sense " as players learn the levels . Edge also said the fixed camera system is an asset because " you can always see exactly what ’ s going on and fight your opponents instead of the viewpoint " , and that the biggest success is the color @-@ coding system , which " effectively lets you know when you have an opening and when to run " .
= = = Controversy = = =
Some reviewers issued complaints about the title of one of the game 's trophies , named "
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writer of English @-@ language haiku and published under several names , including O. Mabson Southard , O.M.B. Southard and Mabelsson Norway . He was a Communist Party candidate in the 1942 Alabama gubernatorial election . Southard 's older son , Austin , developed schizophrenia and committed suicide several years after his father 's death .
The elder Southard 's life was often busy and sleepless . According to L. Vernon Briggs , a colleague at Boston Psychopathic Hospital , Southard considered himself hypomanic . " He himself said that most people fell within one of the classifications of mental disease , and he felt himself to be of the manic @-@ depressive type . We seldom saw the depressive side of him though it was undoubtedly there ; ordinarily he appeared carried away with enthusiasm about his latest interest – and everything worthwhile interested him " , Briggs wrote .
Southard experienced chronic headaches and minor seizures ( sometimes accompanied by partial vision loss for several hours ) , which he attributed to mental strain . A 1901 episode kept him in Boston City Hospital for a week , and Southard said he was diagnosed with " acute brain tire " . A similar event several years later was diagnosed as vascular neurosis . According to Gay , a physical examination several months before Southard 's death may have indicated an endocrine gland problem , but no specific condition was diagnosed .
A member of two local chess clubs , Southard was described in his New York Times obituary as " one of the foremost amateur chess players in America " . He often arrived at his laboratory after spending the night playing chess . After his death , in " metaphors more appropriate for a comet than a man " , friends described the intellect which allowed Southard to play up to six blind chess matches simultaneously . At Danvers State Hospital , he introduced a move he called the Danvers Opening .
Southard frequently traveled from Boston to New York City to participate in Walter Arensberg 's salons , bringing scholarship to discussions of contemporary social @-@ science topics . Arensberg was also friends with artists such as Marcel Duchamp . Southard analyzed the dreams of Arensberg 's guests , and discussed the meaning of Duchamp 's work with the artist . Perhaps influenced by Arensberg and his friends , Southard began to write experimental poetry . He was a member of the Wicht Club , a social and intellectual group of young Harvard academics .
= = Death = =
Southard traveled to New York City on February 1 , 1920 to lecture to medical societies . He spoke to the Society of Neurology of New York on February 3 , and delivered a mental @-@ hygiene lecture at the New York Academy of Medicine the following day before developing pneumonia on February 5 . Despite care by three Presbyterian Hospital physicians at the Prince George Hotel , Southard died on February 8 , at the age of 43 .
Canavan became the acting laboratory director at Boston Psychopathic after his death . In 1925 she published Elmer Ernest Southard and His Parents : A Brain Study , following the postmortem dissections of Southard 's brain and those of his parents . Canavan undertook the study to examine hereditary links in brain structure . Southard had a prominent frontal lobe , which she associated with his planning ability . Canavan noted small olfactory tracts , and said that Southard had difficulty detecting certain smells . The arteries at the base of his brain were small , but the significance of this finding was unclear . The distinctive features of Southard 's brain did not appear in those of his mother or father .
Canavan later wrote that Southard had experienced " singular difficulties producing considerable mental discomfort " during the last year of his life . According to her , he sensed his impending death and felt pressure to complete his unfinished research tasks . Canavan quoted him as saying , " I shall not live long , I must hurry ; I must get lots of others busy . "
= = Works = =
Outline of Neuropathology ( 1906 )
Neurosyphilis : Modern Systematic Diagnosis and Treatment , Presented in One Hundred and Thirty @-@ seven Case Histories ( 1917 ) – with H.C. Solomon
Shell @-@ Shock and Other Neuropsychiatric Problems Presented in Five Hundred and Eighty @-@ nine Case Histories from the War Literature , 1914 – 1918 ( 1919 )
The Range of the General Practitioner in Psychiatric Diagnosis ( 1919 )
The Kingdom Of Evils : Psychiatric Social Work Presented In 100 Case Histories ( 1922 , posthumous ) – with Mary Jarrett
= Lahore Fort =
The Lahore Fort , locally referred to as the Shahi Qila ( Urdu / Punjabi : شاہی قلعہ , Royal Fort ) , is a citadel in the city of Lahore , Punjab , Pakistan . It is located in the northwestern corner of the Walled City of Lahore in Iqbal Park , which is one of the largest urban parks in Pakistan . The trapezoidal composition is spread over 20 hectares .
Origins of the fort extend far into antiquity but the existing base structure was built during the reign of Mughal Emperor Akbar between 1556 – 1605 . It was regularly upgraded by subsequent Mughal rulers and after the fall of the Mughal Empire it fell to Sikh and British rulers . It has two gates . One of the gates built by Aurangzeb is called Alamgiri gate that opens towards Badshahi mosque and another older gate built by Akbar is called Maseeti or Masjidi gate that opens towards Maseeti area of Walled city . Currently Alamgiri Gate is used as the principal entrance while Maseeti Gate is permanently closed . The fort manifests the rich traditions of Mughal architecture . Some of the famous sites inside the fort include Sheesh Mahal , Alamgiri Gate , Naulakha Pavilion , and Moti Masjid .
In 1981 , the fort was inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site along with the Shalimar Gardens . The Pakistan Pavilion at Expo 2010 is designed as a replica of the fort .
= = History = =
= = = Mughal and pre @-@ Mughal era = = =
The origins of Lahore Fort are obscure and traditionally based on various myths It is unknown who first built a fort there . According to some Hindu myths , its foundation was attributed to Loh , the mythical son of Lord Rama . However , the first historical reference to a fort ever actually existing on that location goes back to the 11th century , during the time of Mahmud of Ghazni . It was a weak mud fort that was subsequently destroyed . The earliest reference for this is that in the 1240s , it was destroyed by Mongols . After nearly 50 years , a new fort was constructed in its place by Balban of Mamluk dynasty of Delhi Sultanate . It was destroyed again around 1399 by the invading forces of Timur only to be rebuilt by Sultan Mubarak Shah Syed after 20 years . In the 1430s , the fort was occupied by Shaikh Ali of Kabul .
The present design and structure of the fort , however , traces its origins to the Mughals . In 1575 , Mughal emperor Akbar occupied the fort , which was used to guard the northwest frontier of the kingdom . He rebuilt the fort with solid bricks and lime and over time lofty palaces were built to which additional beauty was lent by luxuriant gardens . The other structures built by him included the Doulat Khana @-@ e @-@ Khas @-@ o @-@ Am , Jharoka @-@ e @-@ Darshan , and Masjidi Gate . On the other hand , his structures were replaced by subsequent rulers . However the structures built by him were replaced by subsequent rulers . Shah Jahan built the Shah Burj , the Sheesh Mahal and the Naulakha Pavilion . His son Aurangzeb built the entrance , Alamgiri Gate , which is flanked by semi @-@ circular towers with domes pavilions .
= = = Sikh era = = =
The fort was captured by the Maratha forces under Raghunathrao in 1758 . Then the Bhangi Sikh Dynasty ( 1716 – 1810 ) , one of the 12 Sikh Misls of Punjab ruled the city of Lahore from 1760 until 1799 . When Ranjit Singh , another Sikh chief from the Gujranwala area , took Lahore from the Bhangi Misl the Lahore Fort fell to Ranjit Singh and in 1801 he was crowned as the emperor of the Sikh Empire . The fort and the city from 1799 – 1849 remained under the control of Ranjit Singh and his sons , grandsons , and wives until the fall of the last Sikh empire in 1849 .
= = = Recent times = = =
Excavations in 1959 in front of Diwan @-@ i @-@ Am led to the discovery of a gold coin dated 1025 AD belonging to Mahmud of Ghazvani . The coin was unearthed at the depth of 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) from the lawn . The cultural layers were continuous to the depth of 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) indicating that the fort was inhabited by people even before his conquest .
While relaying the deteriorated floor of Akbari Gate in April 2007 , three floors in the fort were unearthed belonging to the British , Sikh and Mughal period . The floor of the British , Sikh and Mughal periods were constructed with bricks , burnt bricks and pebbles respectively . The latter either built during Jahangir ’ s or Shah Jahan ’ s era was the hallmark of Mughals .
In April 2006 , it was reported that officials had urged UNESCO to remove the name of the fort from the list of endangered World Heritage Sites because of extensive restoration work funded by Norway , Hong Kong , the United Kingdom and France .
Though in 1990 , UNESCO had ordered the Punjab Archaeological Department to bar the use of the Fort for state or private functions on account of historical significance , a wedding reception was held in violation on December 23 , 2010 . The Antiquities Act of 1975 , which prohibits the use of historical places to protect them from damage , was violated in the following month by hosting a dinner in the Diwan @-@ i @-@ Khas .
In April 2013 an exhibition of Sikh artefacts took place at the fort premises . It was titled Glorious Sikh Heritage under One Roof . Rare artefacts belonging to Ranjit Singh 's reign , agreement documents between the British and the Sikh , weapons , and jewellery were amongst the exhibits .
= = Structures = =
The strategic location of Lahore city between the Mughal territories and the strongholds of Kabul , Multan , and Kashmir necessitated the dismantling of the old mud @-@ fort and fortification with solid brick masonry . The structure is dominated by Persian gardens influence that deepened with the successive refurbishments by subsequent emperors . The fort is divided into two sections : first the administrative section , which is well connected with main entrances , and includes gardens and Diwan @-@ e @-@ khas for royal audiences . The second , a private and concealed residential section is divided into courts in the north and accessible through elephant gate . It also contains Sheesh Mahal , spacious bedrooms and small gardens . The exterior walls are decorated with blue Persian Kashi tiles . The original entrance faces the Maryam Zamani Mosque and the larger Alamgiri gate opens towards Hazuri Bagh through the majestic Badshahi mosque . Influence of Hindu architecture is seen in the zoomorphic corbels which does not show Mughal ones .
= = = Diwan @-@ i @-@ Aam = = =
The Diwan @-@ i @-@ Aam was the Hall of commons . It was built by Shah Jahan in 1628 . The kings regularly had with the common people in this hall . Its design is similar to the Diwan @-@ i @-@ Aam at the Agra Fort . The hall has forty pillars and was built in front of a balcony . It was destroyed when a Sikh ruler Sher Singh bombarded the fort in his fight against Maharani Chand Kaur , the wife of Mahraja Kharak Singh . It was later restored by the British in 1849 .
= = = Sheesh Mahal = = =
The Sheesh Mahal is the palace of mirrors and was built by Mirza Ghiyas Begh , the father of Mumtaz Mahal around 1631 during the rule of Shah Jahan . It consists of a spacious hall with several halls behind . This was the harem of the fort . There is a marble perforated screen in the rear chamber which is carved of tendril , floral and geometrical patterns . Pietra dura work can be seen on its walls .
= = = Khwabgah = = =
Khwabgah was the bedroom of Shah Jahan . It was built by Shah Jahan under the supervision of Wazir Khan in 1634 during his first visit to the city . It is the first building built by Shah Jahan in the fort . At present its decorations have vanished except for a trace of the marble which once might have beautified the façade .
= = = Naulakha Pavilion = = =
The pavilion was built during the reign of Shah Jahan for a cost of 9 lakh rupees . Situated in the west of Sheesh Mahal , the pavilion is rectangular in shape and prominent owing to its centrally arched and extraordinarily curved roof representing the unique feature of architecture during Shah Jahan reign . It reflects a mixture of contemporary traditions at the time of its construction of sloping @-@ roof from Bengal and Baldachin from Europe , which makes evident the imperial as well as religious image of the pavilion . The marble shades of the pavilion are capped with merlons to hide view from the grounds .
= = = Moti Masjid = = =
Moti Masjid is a 17th @-@ century mosque built inside the fort during the reign of Shah Jahan . It is constructed of white marble brought from Makrana . The facade is composed of cusped arches and engaged baluster columns , which has smooth and fine contours . It has three domes , a raised central pishtaq and two aisles of five bays.Unlike other contemporary mosques , which have three arches , this mosque has five arches in the facade . During the rule of Maharaja Ranjit Singh , it was forcibly converted into a Sikh temple called Moti Mandir .
= = = Gates = = =
Mughal Emperor Akbar built two gates . Akbari Gate was built in 1566 and now called Maseeti Gate . One of Akbar 's wives built a mosque outside the gate around 1614 . The other gate was replaced later by the Alamgiri Gate . The Alamgiri Gate is the entrance of the fort . It was built by Mughal emperor Aurangzeb in 1674 . It has two semi @-@ circular bastions where lotus petal design adorns at the base of it .
The Masti Gate is one of the thirteen gates located within the walled city . It is located on the east side of the Fort . The name " Masti " name comes from the word masjidi , relating to a mosque .
= = = Sikh buildings = = =
The Naag temple is a Sikh temple built by Chand Kaur , the wife of Kharak Singh who was the son of the then ruling Maharaja Ranjit Singh . The temple is square in plan and built on a raised platform . Its exterior walls are covered with fresco paintings . The temple also has a water @-@ melon shaped dome . As of September 2011 , it is a no @-@ go area for the public as officials consider that they can vandalize it by graffiti . It also required more security , which the government was unable to afford .
Mai Jindan Haveli is of unknown origins and believed to be a Mughal structure but attributed to the Mai Jindan , Chand Kaur because of the extensive additions by the Sikhs . It is a two storied building where she is alleged to be murdered . Presently this building serves as a museum . Kharak Singh Haveli was the haveli of Kharak Singh , the heir to Ranjit Singh . It lies in the south @-@ east of the Jahangir 's Quadrangle . It was later occupied by the British where the first and the ground floor were used as a Commandant 's Quarters and godown and servants house respectively . Currently it houses the archaeological survey office .
= = = Others = = =
Khilwat Khana was built by Shah Jahan in 1633 in the north of the Paen Bagh . It was the residence of the royal ladies of the court . The plinth and door frames are made of marble with a curvilinear roof . In the northwest of Khilwat Khana , lies a watch tower called Kala Burj . It was used as a summer pavilion . The topmost storey was built and used as bar during the British era . Its eave is interlocked with brick work .
Maktib Khana was constructed under the supervision of Mamur Khan during the reign of Mughal Emperor Jahangir . It was used as the entrance gate to the fort by the clerks . Besides , the fort also houses separate bath for royal men and women .
= = World Heritage status = =
In 1980 , Government of Pakistan nominated the fort for inclusion in UNESCO World Heritage Site based on the criteria i , ii , and iii together with the Shalimar . In the fifth meeting session held in Sydney in October 1981 , the World Heritage Site committee added both the monuments to the list . However , in 2000 , Pakistan sent a letter to the organization to include both the sites in List of World Heritage in Danger and sought help to restore the damaged part of the outer walls and hydraulic works of Shalamar Gardens . After years of extensive renovation and restoration work , they were removed from the list in June 2012 .
= Kepler @-@ 14b =
Kepler @-@ 14b is an extrasolar planet in orbit around the primary star of the binary Kepler @-@ 14 system . It is currently the only planet known to exist in this star system . Kepler @-@ 14b is 8 @.@ 4 times the mass of Jupiter and has a radius 1 @.@ 14 times that of Jupiter , and it orbits its host star every 6 @.@ 79 days . It was discovered by NASA @-@ led Kepler mission , which noted the planet as a planetary candidate as early as March 2009 , around the same time as the discovery of the first five planets discovered by Kepler ( Kepler @-@ 4b to Kepler @-@ 8b ) . However , the team was unable to confirm the planet until extensive follow @-@ up observations , as high @-@ resolution imaging resolved the star Kepler @-@ 14 as a closely orbiting binary system . The Kepler team would have not noticed that Kepler @-@ 14 was a binary star based solely on initial radial velocity measurements ( a standard method for confirming a planet 's existence ) , and found that if they had not realized this , their data on Kepler @-@ 14b would have been very inaccurate .
= = Discovery = =
NASA 's Kepler spacecraft , which was launched in March 2009 , collected photometric data continuously over a four @-@ month period in a small area of sky , using a 0.95m Schmidt telescope . When the data collected during this period was analyzed , 1235 planetary candidates were identified amongst the observed 150 @,@ 000 stars ; all of these planetary candidates were suspected of transiting their host stars , in which the planetary body periodically crosses in front of and slightly dims its host star . Because the data collected on the transits of KOI @-@ 98 ( later known as Kepler @-@ 14b ) seemed very clearly to indicate a planet , Kepler identified KOI @-@ 98 early on in its mission . Data on the object of interest was forwarded to the Kepler Follow @-@ up Program for a follow @-@ up investigation .
The Fibre @-@ fed Échelle Spectrograph ( FIES ) on the Canary Islands ' Nordic Optical Telescope was operated in October 2009 , using Doppler spectroscopy to gather information that would accompany the gathered photometric observations . The High Resolution Échelle Spectrometer ( HIRES ) at the W.M. Keck Observatory was also utilized . Use of the WIYN Observatory for speckle imaging found that the host star of KOI @-@ 98 was actually a close @-@ knit binary star , which complicated the analysis . A November 2009 operation of the ARIES instrument on the MMT Observatory and the July 2010 use of the PHARO near @-@ infrared camera on the Palomar Observatory 's 200 inch Hale telescope used adaptive optics to confirm WIYN 's findings . Although suspected as a planet early on , KOI @-@ 98 was not included when Kepler @-@ 4b , Kepler @-@ 5b , Kepler @-@ 6b , Kepler @-@ 7b , and Kepler @-@ 8b were published , as further investigation was still required .
Scientists investigated the possibility that the transit signal detected by Kepler was actually due to a third star in the system that eclipsed its sister stars . However a bisector analysis of the spectra of KOI @-@ 98 's star ruled out that hypothesis .
On August 7 , 2010 , the Infrared Array Camera aboard the Spitzer Space Telescope was used to find the centroid , the point in space around which both of the Kepler @-@ 14 stars orbit . Analysis of the collected data determined which component of the binary star system was the site of the transit signal , and , additionally , that the transit signal came from the primary star in the system ( as opposed to the fainter , less prominent star ) .
Using the spectral data collected by HIRES and FIES , the Kepler team derived the characteristics of the host star . The HIRES and FIES results agreed on every aspect of the star that had been derived except for the star 's radial velocity . With the stellar parameters known , the Kepler team interpreted the Spitzer data to confirm that Kepler @-@ 14b was indeed a planet .
= = Host star system = =
Kepler @-@ 14 is a binary star system , which means that it is actually composed of two gravitationally bound stars that orbit a common point in space . The system is composed of a primary star , Kepler @-@ 14A , and a dimmer companion star , Kepler @-@ 14B . When the stars were observed , while searching for the planet Kepler @-@ 14b , the angular separation of the binary system made it extremely difficult to note the dimmer companion star . The stars have such a wide orbit that it takes approximately 2800 years for each star to complete a revolution around the centroid . The two stars are located approximately 980 parsecs ( 3 @,@ 196 light years ) from Earth .
Kepler @-@ 14b 's host star is the primary ( A ) component of the Kepler @-@ 14 binary system . However , because the binary system is so closely knit , it was impossible at the time of Kepler @-@ 14b 's discovery to distinguish the characteristics of each individual star . If the Kepler @-@ 14 system was an individual star , it would be an F @-@ type star . With an apparent magnitude of 12 @.@ 12 , the star system is not visible from Earth with the naked eye . Kepler @-@ 14 's combined results resemble that of a star that is 1 @.@ 512 solar masses and 2 @.@ 048 solar radii . Its gyrochronological age , or its age as determined by the rate at which a star spins , is estimated at 2 @.@ 2 billion years , far younger than the Sun . It is also hotter , with an effective temperature of 6395 K. With a metallicity of 0 @.@ 12 , Kepler @-@ 14 has 132 % more iron than the amount measured in the Sun .
= = Characteristics = =
Kepler @-@ 14b is the sole planet discovered in the Kepler @-@ 14 system to date . The planet orbits the primary star in the Kepler @-@ 14 binary system . Kepler @-@ 14b is estimated to have 8 @.@ 40 Jupiter masses and 1 @.@ 136 Jupiter radii . In other words , the planet is 8 @.@ 4 times more massive than Jupiter , but only 1 @.@ 136 times Jupiter 's size . This equates to a high density , which is measured at 7 @.@ 1 g cm − 3 . According to the Extrasolar Planets Encyclopaedia , which calculated Kepler @-@ 14b 's eccentricity independently , Kepler @-@ 14b has a slightly irregular orbit , with an orbital eccentricity of 0 @.@ 035 . Kepler @-@ 14b takes approximately 6 @.@ 79 days to orbit its host star . The mean distance from its host star is about 8 @.@ 213 times the measured radius of Kepler @-@ 14 .
The authors of Kepler @-@ 14b 's discovery paper noted that , had they not discovered that Kepler @-@ 14 was indeed a binary system , the parameters for Kepler @-@ 14b would have been extremely inaccurate . They noted that other planets discovered using radial velocity measurements might not have accounted for the possibility that their host stars were binary systems ; the only way that this was definitely known in the case of Kepler @-@ 14 was through the use of high @-@ resolution imaging . If the less prominent portion of the Kepler @-@ 14 binary system had not been detected , Kepler @-@ 14b 's mass would have been incorrect by nearly 60 % , and its radius too small by about 10 % .
= Dundee United F.C. =
Dundee United Football Club is a Scottish professional football club based in the city of Dundee . Formed in 1909 , originally as Dundee Hibernian , the club changed to the present name in 1923 . United are nicknamed The Terrors or The Tangerines and the supporters are known as Arabs .
The club has played in tangerine kits since the 1960s and have played at the present ground , Tannadice Park , since their foundation in 1909 . United were founder members of the Scottish Premier League ( SPL ) in 1998 and were ever @-@ present in the competition until it was abolished in 2013 to make way for the new Scottish Premiership which is the top division of the current SPFL structure .
Domestically , the club has won the Scottish Premier Division on one occasion ( 1982 – 83 ) , the Scottish Cup twice ( 1994 and 2010 ) and the Scottish League Cup twice ( 1979 and 1980 ) . United appeared in European competition for the first time in the 1966 – 67 season , going on to appear in Europe in 14 successive seasons from 1976 . They also reached the European Cup semi @-@ finals in 1984 and the UEFA Cup final in 1987 . The club has a 100 % record in four matches against Barcelona in competitive European ties .
= = History = =
= = = Beginning ( 1909 – 1971 ) = = =
The club was formed as Dundee Hibernian in 1909 , playing from the outset at Tannadice Park . They were voted into the Scottish Football League in 1910 . After being saved from going out of business in October 1923 , the club changed their name to Dundee United in order to widen their appeal . Between 1925 and 1932 United were promoted and then relegated three times , winning the Second Division title in 1925 and 1929 . The club achieved little other success until Jerry Kerr became manager in 1959 . Kerr 's team won promotion in his first season in charge and became established in the top flight , where they remained until 1995 . Kerr strengthened the playing squad with Scandinavian imports and United qualified for European competition in 1966 , going on to eliminate Inter @-@ Cities Fairs Cup holders Barcelona on their European debut .
= = = Jim McLean era ( 1971 – 1993 ) = = =
Jim McLean took over from Kerr in 1971 and his youth policy led to the most successful era in the club 's history . United won the Scottish League Cup in 1979 and 1980 and then the Premier Division title in 1982 – 83 .
The club were also successful in Europe , reaching the European Cup semi @-@ finals in 1984 and the 1987 UEFA Cup Final . , the latter featuring another elimination of Barcelona . Despite losing to IFK Gothenburg in the final , the club won a FIFA Fair Play Award . McLean retired as manager in 1993 , but remained as club chairman .
= = = Since 1993 = = =
United won the Scottish Cup for the first time in 1994 under McLean 's successor Ivan Golac , but were relegated in 1995 , returning a year later . Eddie Thompson purchased the club from Jim McLean in 2002 and invested heavily in the team , but with little progress made until Craig Levein became manager in 2006 and successfully restructured the youth system . Shortly after Levein 's departure , the club won the Scottish Cup for a second time in 2010 under the management of Peter Houston . In 2013 , Jackie McNamara took charge of the club , and despite steering the Arabs to two reasonably successful season , his third season in charge saw his sides form drastically dip . He was succeeded by Mixu Paatelainen in October . Despite the managerial change , Paatelainen couldn 't make a significant improvement to the team 's form , and on 2 May 2016 , United were relegated to the Scottish Championship after a 2 @-@ 1 defeat away to local rivals Dundee , facing their first relegation from the top flight since 1995 .
= = Colours and badge = =
For a complete pictorial history of playing kit , see the Historical Football Kits site .
United 's playing kit consists of tangerine shirts and black shorts , first used when the team played under the Dallas Tornado moniker in the United Soccer Association competition of 1967 , which they were invited to participate in after their first European excursion had created many headlines in the football world . After persuasion by the wife of manager Jerry Kerr , the colour would soon be adopted as the club 's own in 1969 to give the club a brighter , more modern image . The new colour was paraded for the first time in a pre @-@ season friendly against Everton in August .
When originally founded as Dundee Hibernian , they had followed the example of other clubs of similar heritage by adopting the traditionally Irish colours of green shirts and white shorts . By the time the club became Dundee United in 1923 , the colours had been changed to white shirts and black shorts as they sought to appeal to a wider cross @-@ section of the community . These colours persisted in various forms up until 1969 , sometimes using plain shirts , but also at various times including Celtic @-@ style broad hoops , Queen 's Park @-@ style narrow hoops and an Airdrie @-@ style " V " motif .
The present club badge was introduced in 1993 , and saw the previous lion rampant design rebranded in a new circular logo incorporating the club colours . To mark the club 's centenary in 2009 , a special version of the badge with an added " 1909 2009 Centenary " logo has been introduced for the duration of the 2009 – 10 season , along with additional green trim on the badge , representing Dundee Hibernian 's colours .
Previously , the lion had been represented on a simpler shield design . Although this " classic " version had been used as the club crest on the cover of the matchday programme as early as 1956 , it had never appeared on the players ' strip prior to 1983 . Since 1959 , various other designs had been worn on the shirts , incorporating either the lion rampant or the letters DUFC , often on a circular badge .
The club first introduced shirt sponsorship in the 1985 – 86 season when future chairman Eddie Thompson 's VG chain sponsored the club in the first of a two @-@ year deal . A six @-@ year association with Belhaven then ensued with a sponsorless 1993 – 94 season . Rover began a two @-@ year deal early in time for the 1994 Scottish Cup final , sponsoring the club until the end of the 1995 – 96 season . Telewest took over sponsorship from 1996 for six years until Eddie Thompson 's Morning , Noon and Night started sponsoring the club in 2002 . This association continued until 2006 when Anglian Home Improvements began a two @-@ year deal with an optional third year . At the same time , Ole International became the first shorts sponsors . JD Sports ' Carbrini Sportswear brand sponsored the club in the 2008 – 09 and 2009 – 10 seasons . United 's shirt sponsor since the 2010 – 11 season has been Calor Gas .
United have had a number of official kit suppliers , including Adidas , Hummel and , from June 2009 , Nike .
= = = Historical home kits = = =
Alternative
= = Stadium = =
Dundee United 's home ground throughout their history has been Tannadice Park , located on Tannadice Street in the Clepington area of the city . It is situated a mere 170 yards ( 160 m ) away from Dens Park , home of rivals Dundee ; The club has only ever played one home fixture at another venue . This was a League Cup tie against Rangers in March 1947 , when despite snow rendering Tannadice Park unplayable , the match was able to go ahead across the road at Dens Park .
Tannadice is currently an all @-@ seater with a capacity of 14 @,@ 223 . The Main Stand , built in 1962 , was the first cantilever to be constructed at a Scottish football ground . For long periods of its history , only a small proportion of the ground contained seated accommodation . In the late 1980s the ground had 2 @,@ 252 seats out of a total capacity of 22 @,@ 310 .
The comparative age and proximity of their stadiums has led to various discussions about the possibility of both Dundee clubs moving to a new , purpose @-@ built shared stadium . The most recent proposal was put forward as part of Scotland 's bid to jointly host the UEFA Euro 2008 championship , with several clubs seeking to benefit from a new stadium . With planning permission given to a proposed site at Caird Park , special dispensation was requested to proceed with the proposal , as rules at the time forbade SPL teams from groundsharing . Following Scotland 's failed bid to host the tournament , the scheme was shelved , although it was resurrected in June 2008 , following doubts about joint @-@ host Ukraine 's ability to stage Euro 2012 , and the SFA 's keenness to act as an alternative host .
= = Achievements = =
= = = League = = =
Dundee United 's first trophy came in 1925 , when they won the 1924 – 25 Division Two championship . After two seasons in the top tier , they were relegated , but they won the Division Two title for a second time in 1928 – 29 . Immediate relegation followed and the club finished runners @-@ up in 1931 – 32 . Another runners @-@ up spot was claimed in 1959 – 60 , in manager Jerry Kerr 's first season , and from then club remained in the top division for the next 35 @-@ years . Under Jim McLean 's management , the club won the Premier Division title for the only time , in 1982 – 83 , resulting in European Cup football the following season . The title win was United 's last league success , although they finished runners @-@ up in the First Division in 1995 – 96 , after nearly avoiding relegation the previous season , and in third place in their first season back in the Premier Division .
= = = Cups = = =
The club had to wait several decades before their first realistic chance at cup silverware , when they began the first of a six @-@ game losing streak of Scottish Cup Final appearances in 1974 , losing 3 – 0 to Celtic . Towards the end of the 1970s , things began to change , with three successive appearances in the League Cup Final . United won their first major trophy with a 3 – 0 replay victory over Aberdeen in the 1979 – 80 Scottish League Cup Final . The club reached both cup finals in the following season ; while they retained the League Cup by winning 3 – 0 against rivals Dundee , United lost out again in the Scottish Cup with a replay defeat to Rangers . United reached a third consecutive League Cup Final in 1981 – 82 , but failed to make it a hat @-@ trick of wins as they lost 2 – 1 to Rangers .
United suffered the agony of reaching three out of four Scottish Cup finals in the mid @-@ 1980s , only to lose them all by a single goal . First came a 2 – 1 defeat to Celtic in 1984 – 85 , compounded by a 1 – 0 League Cup final loss to Rangers in the same season ; then a 1 – 0 defeat in extra time to St Mirren in 1986 – 87 ; and finally , a last @-@ minute 2 – 1 loss against Celtic the following year , despite being a goal ahead . A three @-@ year gap ensued before the 1990 – 91 Scottish Cup final , which pitted Jim McLean against his brother Tommy , at Motherwell . The final was won 4 – 3 by ' Well , with United again losing in extra time . The sixth Cup Final loss was also the club 's fifth final appearance in eleven years .
These defeats in cup finals at Hampden Park led to the Scottish football media claiming that United suffered from a Hampden hoodoo , as they had failed to win ten cup finals played at the ground between 1974 and 1991 . When the club reached the 1994 Scottish Cup Final , manager Ivan Golac dismissed talk of the hoodoo , even though opponents Rangers were strong favourites to complete a domestic treble in the 1993 – 94 season . United broke the supposed hoodoo and won the Scottish Cup for the first time when Craig Brewster 's goal gave them a 1 – 0 win .
Eleven years passed until the next Scottish Cup final appearance , when United lost 1 – 0 to Celtic in 2005 . Sandwiched in the middle of these appearances was a defeat on penalties to Stenhousemuir in the Scottish Challenge Cup ( when United failed to concede a goal in the whole competition ) and a 3 – 0 defeat to Celtic in the 1997 Scottish League Cup Final . United then lost the 2008 Scottish League Cup Final on penalties to Rangers after the match had finished 2 – 2 after extra time . Dundee United won their next major trophy in 2010 , under the guidance of manager Peter Houston , when First Division side Ross County were defeated 3 – 0 in the 2010 Scottish Cup Final . David Goodwillie scored the first goal and Craig Conway scored the second and third goals .
United 's 10th appearance in the Scottish Cup final came in 2014 , but the team lost 2 – 0 to St Johnstone at Celtic Park . The Tangerines reached the League Cup final the following year , but lost to Celtic in the final .
= = = Europe = = =
The club 's first experience of Europe came in 1966 – 67 when , helped by a clutch of Scandinavian players , United defeated Fairs Cup holders F.C. Barcelona both home and away . Although Juventus proved too strong in the next round with a 3 – 1 aggregate victory , United made headlines and were asked to compete as Dallas Tornado in the United Soccer Association league in North America during the summer of 1967 . After their only Premier Division championship win , the team reached the resulting semi @-@ final of the European Cup in 1984 , losing 3 – 2 on aggregate to Roma . In 1987 , the club went one better , reaching the final of the UEFA Cup . Despite the 2 – 1 aggregate loss to IFK Gothenburg , the Arabs won the first @-@ ever FIFA Fair Play Award for their sporting behaviour after the final defeat .
= = = United for Kids = = =
Dundee United have received national and international acclaim for their " United for Kids " ( or UfK ) scheme , which began in 2005 following a suggestion from an exiled supporter . The club accepts charitable donations from fans , sponsors and other donors and matches all donations before using the funds to supply free season tickets to under @-@ privileged and disadvantaged children from Dundee and the surrounding area . These kids , who can be accompanied by their carers free @-@ of @-@ charge , would otherwise be unable to attend football matches . Since the scheme began , several hundred children and their carers have received free season tickets . Dundee Council 's social work department have stated that the scheme has brought joy to the lives of many orphans , abused and battered children and others from disadvantaged backgrounds . All donations to UfK are now handled by Dundee United 's " United for All " official charity – a secure link to make donations can be found on the club 's website .
= = Rivalries = =
Dundee United 's traditional rivals are Dundee , with whom they compete in the Dundee derby . The fixture was lacking a competitive element for a number of years until Dundee 's return to the top flight of the Scottish game in 2012 . A unique element of the rivalry lies in the fact that both clubs ' stadiums are located within 100 yards of one another .
In spite of their rivalry , the two sides previously contemplated ground @-@ sharing as part of the SFA 's unsuccessful bid to host Euro 2008 . Perhaps one of their most notable meetings was in the 1980 Scottish League Cup Final played at Dens Park when United won 3 – 0 to claim their second League Cup in successive seasons .
Another intense fixture is that of the New Firm derby between United and North @-@ East rivals Aberdeen F.C .. The match itself became one of fierce competition due to the domestic and European success the two sides achieved in the late 1970s and 1980s under the stewardship of United 's Jim McLean and Aberdeen 's Alex Ferguson . Despite the relative lack of trophies in the years ahead , the derby has endured and continues to be one of the most eagerly awaited fixtures of the Scottish season .
United also share a rivalry with St Johnstone due to the relatively close proximity of Dundee and Perth , known as the Tayside derby . The most notable meeting between the two sides was in the 2014 Scottish Cup Final , when Saints came out on top after a 2 – 0 victory at Celtic Park in the Tangerines ' tenth final appearance .
= = Honours = =
= = = League = = =
Scottish league , first tier :
Winners ( 1 ) : 1982 – 83
Scottish league , second tier :
Winners ( 2 ) : 1924 – 25 , 1928 – 29
= = = Cups = = =
Scottish Cup :
Winners ( 2 ) : 1993 – 94 , 2009 – 10
Runners @-@ up ( 8 ) : 1973 – 74 , 1980 – 81 , 1984 – 85 , 1986 – 87 , 1987 – 88 , 1990 – 91 , 2004 – 05 , 2013 – 14
Scottish League Cup :
Winners ( 2 ) : 1979 – 80 , 1980 – 81
Runners @-@ up ( 5 ) : 1981 – 82 , 1984 – 85 , 1997 – 98 , 2007 – 08 , 2014 – 15
= = = Europe = = =
UEFA Cup :
Runners @-@ up ( 1 ) : 1986 – 87
European Cup :
Semi @-@ finalists ( 1 ) : 1983 – 84
= = = Other = = =
Scottish Challenge Cup :
Runners @-@ up ( 1 ) : 1995 – 96
Forfarshire Cup :
Winners ( 21 ) : 1910 – 11 , 1914 – 15 , 1919 – 20 , 1928 – 29 , 1929 – 30 , 1947 – 48 , 1950 – 51 , 1953 – 54 , 1960 – 61 , 1962 – 63 , 1964 – 65 , 1968 – 69 , 1971 – 72 , 1974 – 75 , 1975 – 76 , 1976 – 77 , 1979 – 80 , 1984 – 85 , 1986 – 87 , 1987 – 88 , 2004 – 05
= = Coaching staff = =
= = Current squad = =
= = = First @-@ team squad = = =
As of 14 July 2016
Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
= = = = Development squad = = = =
Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
= = Noted players = =
= = = International Players = = =
This is a list of former and current players who have played at full international level while with the club . They are ordered by nationality and year of United debut below . Additionally , two goalkeepers – Pat Onstad ( Canada ) and Kémoko Camara ( Guinea ) – were both capped while at Tannadice yet never played a first @-@ team game for United .
= = = Hall of Fame = = =
The club launched its official Hall of Fame in 2008 , with seven inaugural members . A further six players were inducted in January 2009 and seven more in January 2010 . Since then six players have been inducted each year .
= = Managers = =
List of prominent and recent managers , with respective records , as of 27 September 2015 . Only competitive matches are counted .
= = Women 's team = =
Dundee United announced in April 2015 that the club would be launching a women 's team , with the aim of entering the Scottish league structure in 2016 . Gavin Beith was appointed as the team 's manager in June 2015 .
= Canadian heraldry =
Canadian heraldry is the cultural tradition and style of coats of arms and other heraldic achievements in both modern and historic Canada . It includes national , provincial , and civic arms , noble and personal arms , ecclesiastical heraldry , heraldic displays as corporate logos , and Canadian heraldic descriptions .
Derived mainly from heraldic traditions in France and the United Kingdom , Canadian heraldry also incorporates distinctly Canadian symbols , especially native flora and fauna , references to the First Nations and other aboriginal peoples of Canada , and uniquely Canadian elements such as the Canadian pale , derived from the Canadian flag . A unique system of cadency is used for daughters inheriting arms , and a special symbol for United Empire Loyalists .
In 1988 , governance of both personal and corporate heraldry in Canada was patriated from the heraldic authorities in England and Scotland , with the formation of the Canadian Heraldic Authority , which now has exclusive jurisdiction over granting awards of arms in Canada . Coats of arms are used throughout Canada by all levels of government , in many cases including royal insignia as a mark of authority , as in the recently granted arms of the House of Commons and the Senate , and of Parliament as a combined body . Use of armorial bearings is not limited to governmental bodies ; all citizens of Canada have the right to petition for an award of arms , as do other entities including businesses and religious institutions . The granting of arms is regarded as an honour from the Queen of Canada , via her Viceroy , the Governor General of Canada , and thus are bestowed only on those whom the Chief Herald has deemed worthy of receiving a grant of arms .
= = History = =
Before the arrival of Europeans , the Aboriginal peoples of Canada used symbolic artwork to denote their allegiance to a particular clan or pantribal sodalities , and to show legendary and religious themes . For the West Coast peoples this would be done with carvings on totem poles , carvings integrated into longhouses and smaller wooden objects like boxes , masks , and canoes . For Plains people the Plains hide painting tradition painted images onto tipis , shields , and other animal @-@ hide objects .
The history of European @-@ style heraldry in Canada began with the raising of the Royal Arms of France by French explorer Jacques Cartier in 1534 , when he landed on Canadian soil at what is now known as the Gaspé Peninsula . From the beginning of the settlement of Canada until the Treaty of Paris in 1763 , armorial bearings were largely either brought from France or awarded by the French crown . A notable exception is the Coat of Arms of Nova Scotia , awarded in 1625 by Charles I ( making it the oldest coat of arms in the Commonwealth outside the United Kingdom ) , in use until 1868 , when it was replaced by a new achievement . The original was later rediscovered , and replaced the 1868 version in 1929 . The present @-@ day Coat of Arms of Newfoundland and Labrador was granted to a private company shortly after that of Nova Scotia , although it did not enter use as the region 's arms until the 1920s . The Coat of Arms of the Hudson 's Bay Company was first used in 1671 ( although no record of the original grant exists , and it was not registered with the College of Arms in London until 1921 ) , and has been in continual use with minor cosmetic changes to the official depiction ever since .
Upon ratification of the Treaty of Paris , the British Crown confirmed the French awards of arms . Between 1763 and 1867 , the year of Canadian Confederation , there is little evidence of much heraldic activity . After Confederation , however , heraldry in Canada became more widespread , including grants of arms to the provinces , various educational institutions , municipalities , and individuals . In the immediate post @-@ Confederation period , arms were granted to New Brunswick , Nova Scotia , Ontario , and Quebec , although not to the country as a whole . In the period between the Treaty of Paris and Confederation , the Arms of the United Kingdom had served as the emblem of authority within Canada .
From 1763 until 1988 , heraldry in Canada was under the authority of the College of Arms in London and the Court of the Lord Lyon in Edinburgh . In the late 1980s , the Queen issued Letters Patent creating the Canadian Heraldic Authority .
= = Modern heraldry = =
= = = Official = = =
Before the creation of the Canadian Heraldic Authority , Canadians wishing to obtain a legally granted coat of arms had to apply to one of the two heraldic offices in the United Kingdom : either the College of Arms in London or , if of Scottish descent , the Court of the Lord Lyon in Edinburgh . This process was quite lengthy — and costly . In addition , the heralds in Britain could sometimes be unfamiliar with Canadian history and symbols . In time , many Canadians with an interest in heraldry began calling for an office that would offer armorial bearings designed by and for Canadians .
As early as 1967 , plans were reportedly in the works to transfer overview of heraldry from the College of Arms in the UK to Canada . The push for a wholly Canadian heraldic system came largely from the Heraldry Society of Canada ( now the Royal Heraldry Society of Canada ) almost from its inception , though it was not seen as a priority by successive national governments . In 1986 , Vicki Huntington , a politician from British Columbia , forwarded a brief written by the Royal Heraldry Society of Canada calling for the creation of the Canadian Heraldic Authority to a staff member in then @-@ Secretary of State David Crombie 's office . Mr. Crombie had his department organise a meeting in Ottawa the following year , to which many national and international heraldic experts were invited . The meeting concluded with " a strong recommendation to government that an Authority be created . "
Two years later , on 4 June 1988 , then @-@ Governor General Jeanne Sauvé authorised the creation of the Canadian Heraldic Authority , made possible by letters patent signed by Queen Elizabeth II , on the advice of her Canadian Privy Council , and presented by her son , Prince Edward . As a result , Canada became the first Commonwealth realm outside the United Kingdom to have its own heraldic authority . Canada also provides full equality to women in terms of inheriting and transmitting arms . Additionally , all armigers within Canada may file for trademark protection of their grant of arms under the Trade @-@ Marks Act .
= = = State and national = = =
The Royal Arms of Canada are the official coat of arms of the Canadian monarch and thus also of Canada . They incorporate many distinctive Canadian elements such as the maple leaves , and the reference to the French Royal Arms in the fourth quarter which replace or add to those derived from the British .
The arms are used as a mark of authority by various government agencies and representatives , including the Prime Minister and Cabinet , the Speaker of the House of Commons , most courts ( including the Supreme Court ) , and , formerly , Parliament . It is also present on all denominations of Canadian paper currency , and on the cover of Canadian passports . Since 1962 , a banner of the arms , defaced with a variant of the Queen 's cypher , has formed the Royal Standard of Canada , for use by the Canadian sovereign . The personal flag of the Governor General has featured the crest of the arms of Canada on a blue background since 1981 .
On 15 February 2008 , the House of Commons was granted its own heraldic symbol following a request by Commons Speaker Peter Milliken to the Canadian Heraldic Authority . The new symbol for Parliament is a badge of the escutcheon in the Arms of Canada superimposed on the mace used by the House of Commons as a symbol of its authority derived from the Crown . The Senate was granted a similar badge on 15 April 2008 , using its own mace . Parliament as a whole has been granted the right to use the escutcheon of the Arms of Canada , superimposed over the maces of the Commons and Senate in saltire .
In June 2008 , MP Pat Martin introduced a motion into the House of Commons calling on the government to amend the coat of arms to incorporate symbols representing Canada 's First Nations , Inuit and Métis peoples .
= = = Provincial = = =
In much the same way that there is a national coat of arms , each province and territory possesses its own unique arms ; Saskatchewan 's is known formally as Her Majesty 's Arms in Right of Saskatchewan . The year after Confederation , Queen Victoria issued Royal Warrants assigning arms to Canada 's original four provinces : Quebec , Ontario , Nova Scotia , and New Brunswick .
Each provincial coat of arms includes specific local symbolism ; most also include symbolism derived from the coats of arms of the United Kingdom , France , or both . Since 1868 , each province and territory within Canada has been granted arms through warrants either from the monarch directly or from the Governor General , or has assumed them through other means .
Apart from Newfoundland and Labrador , each province and territory bears at least some elements from its coat of arms upon its flag . The flags of British Columbia , New Brunswick , Nova Scotia , and Prince Edward Island are banners of the provincial arms , while Alberta , Manitoba , Ontario , Saskatchewan , the Northwest Territories , and the Yukon each have the shield of the local coat of arms on their flags , with other design elements . The flag of Nunavut uses some elements from its coat of arms along with other symbols and colours . The shield of the arms of each province , on a blue background and circled with ten gold maple leaves , the whole surmounted by a crown , forms the main element of the flag of the Lieutenant @-@ Governor of that province . The exceptions are Nova Scotia , which uses the Union Flag defaced with the shield of Nova Scotia , surrounded by green maple leaves , and Quebec , which uses the shield on a white circle with the provincial motto inscribed below .
= = = Municipal = = =
The use of armorial bearings among Canadian cities is inconsistent , because many of them have been assumed and brought into force by local governmental authorities , rather than granted from the Crown . Many municipal coats of arms either awarded or confirmed by the Canadian Heraldic Authority may be found within the Public Register of Arms , though the online version of the Register is not complete .
= = = Personal = = =
In Canada , every citizen has the right to petition the Crown for a grant of arms . Canadians who have been appointed to the Order of Canada are automatically entitled to receive an award of arms including the ribbon of the Order , or should they already be armigerous , to encircle their extant arms with the ribbon . Amongst others , all members of the Privy Council are entitled to supporters in their arms , as are the Speakers of the House of Commons and the Senate , Companions of the Order of Canada , Commanders of the Orders of Military Merit , Merit of the Police Forces , and of the Royal Victorian Order .
= = Unique Canadian elements and practices = =
= = = Aboriginal and First Nations symbolism = = =
Due to the history of Canada , heraldry in the country has incorporated aboriginal and First Nations symbols and elements . The Coat of Arms of Nunavut , for example , includes elements such as an inukshuk , a qulliq , and an igloo , all of which are references to the Inuit peoples who live in the area , while the arms of the Canadian Heraldic Authority include ravens , a First Nations symbol of creation and transformation . In addition , some Canadians choose to bear their arms on a roundel rather than a shield , a reference to a drumhead ; an example is the coat of arms of Nunavut .
= = = Cadency = = =
In many systems of heraldry , the arms of each living person must be unique . English heraldry has used armorial variants to distinguish the arms of brothers from their father 's arms and from each other since the 13th century ; this is now normally done by the system of marks or brisures set up by the early Tudor herald John Writhe . Canada adds a unique series of brisures for use by female children who inherit arms . As in other heraldic systems , these cadency marks are not always used ; in any case , when the heir succeeds ( in Canada , this is normally the first child , whether male or female , according to strict primogeniture ; however , the grantee may choose another person as heir ) , the mark of cadency is removed and the heir uses the plain coat of arms .
Brisures
= = = Charges , ordinaries , and divisions of the field = = =
The Canadian pale , a pale division amounting to half the entire field , derived from the Canadian flag , is widely used in Canadian heraldry , while the Canadian fess , a similar horizontal division , has been used once . The term érablé , referring to maple leaves , is often used in Canadian arms . For example , as a tressure érablé in the arms of the Monarchist League of Canada , coronets érablé in the arms of Sudbury and Canada 's National History Society , and as a partition much like engrailed or dancetty . Canadian animals and birds , both real and fantastical , have also been widely used in arms , including the mythical raven @-@ bears in the arms of the Canadian Heraldic Authority .
= = = Status of women = = =
In both the English and the Scottish systems of heraldry , from which the Canadian draws many of its practices , a woman does not inherit or transmit arms unless she is an heraldic heiress , that is , a daughter of an armiger who has no sons . In Canadian heraldry , by contrast , women may inherit arms on an equal basis with their brothers ( if any ) . Women in Canada may also transmit their arms to their heirs , regardless of gender . This system of equality for men and women is a result of provisions in the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms , which guarantee , among other things , freedom from discrimination under the law on the basis of sex .
= = = United Empire Loyalists = = =
Those who are descended from the citizens loyal to the British Crown who fled the United States during and shortly after the revolution are known in Canada as United Empire Loyalists , and are entitled to the use of special coronets within their arms , if arms are granted to them . There are two versions of the Loyalist coronet : the civil , which is made up of alternating oak and maple leaves , and the military , made up of maple leaves alternating with crossed swords ; the latter is reserved for use by the families of those who served in the British military during the revolution . Proof of Loyalist heritage must be provided to the Canadian Heraldic Authority before permission is granted to use the coronet in arms . Unlike the common use of coronets in heraldry , the Loyalist coronet denotes no rank of nobility or royalty , but instead alludes to ancestral allegiance .
= = Obtaining arms = =
All citizens of Canada , as well as corporate bodies , may petition the Crown for an award of arms . For an individual to obtain a grant of arms , a petition must be sent to the Chief Herald , providing a biography , references , and completed application forms . If the grant is approved , the individual then consults with heralds from the Authority to work out the design of their award . Upon completion of this process , the grant documents , in the form of letters patent , are created and provided to the grantee . The entire process is subject to certain fees required by the Government of Canada to cover costs of research and artwork ; the fees are not to purchase the grant of arms . For corporations and institutions the process is similar .
Those individuals and institutions who are already armigerous through recognised heraldic authorities worldwide may apply to the Canadian Heraldic Authority to have their arms registered . There is no cost associated with application for registration , and it takes less time , approximately three months , than application for a new award of arms , which takes approximately twelve to fourteen months .
= Kenneth Grant =
Kenneth Grant ( 23 May 1924 – 15 January 2011 ) was an English ceremonial magician and prominent advocate of the Thelemite religion . A poet , novelist , and writer , he founded his own Thelemite organisation , the Typhonian Ordo Templi Orientis – later renamed the Typhonian Order – with his wife Steffi Grant .
Born in Ilford , Essex , Grant developed an interest in occultism and Asian religion during his teenage years . After several months serving in India with the British Army amid the Second World War , he returned to Britain and became the personal secretary of the Aleister Crowley , the ceremonial magician who had founded Thelema in 1904 . Crowley instructed Grant in his esoteric practices , initiating him into his own occult order , the Ordo Templi Orientis ( O.T.O. ) . When Crowley died in 1947 , Grant was seen as his heir apparent in Britain , and was appointed as such by the American head of the O.T.O. , Karl Germer . Founding the London @-@ based New Isis Lodge in 1954 , Grant added to many of Crowley 's Thelemite teachings , bringing in extraterrestrial themes and influences from the work of H.P. Lovecraft . This was anathema to Germer , who expelled Grant from the O.T.O. in 1955 , although the latter continued to operate his Lodge regardless until 1962 .
In 1949 , Grant befriended the occult artist Austin Osman Spare , and in ensuing years helped to publicise Spare 's artwork through a series of publications . During the 1950s he also came to be increasingly interested in Hinduism , exploring the teachings of the Hindu guru Ramana Maharshi and publishing a range of articles on the topic . He was particularly interested in the Hindu tantra , incorporating ideas from it into the Thelemic practices of sex magic . On Germer 's death in 1969 , Grant proclaimed himself Outer Head of the O.T.O. ; this title was disputed by the American Grady McMurtry , who took control of the O.T.O. Grant 's Order became known as the Typhonian Ordo Templi Orientis , operating from his Golders Green home . In 1959 he began publishing on the subject of occultism , and proceeded to author the Typhonian Trilogies , as well as a number of novels , books of poetry , and publications devoted to propagating the work of Crowley and Spare .
Grant 's writings and teachings have proved a significant influence over other currents of occultism , including chaos magic , the Temple of Set and the Dragon Rouge . They also attracted academic interest within the study of Western esotericism , particularly from Henrik Bogdan and Dave Evans .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life and Aleister Crowley : 1924 – 1947 = = =
Grant was born on 23 May 1924 in Ilford , Essex , the son of a Welsh clergyman . By his early teenage years , Grant had read widely on the subject of Western esotericism and Asian religions , including the work of prominent occultist Helena Blavatsky . He had made use of a personal magical symbol ever since being inspired to do so in a visionary dream he experienced in 1939 ; he spelled its name variously as A 'ashik , Oshik , or Aossic . Aged 18 , in the midst of the Second World War , Grant volunteered to join the British Army , later commenting that he hoped to be posted to British India , where he could find a spiritual guru to study under . He was never posted abroad , and was ejected from the army aged 20 due to an unspecified medical condition .
Grant was fascinated by the work of the occultist Aleister Crowley , having read a number of his books . Eager to meet Crowley , Grant unsuccessfully wrote to Crowley 's publishers , asking them to give him his address ; however , the publisher had moved address themselves , meaning that they never received his letter . He also requested that Michael Houghton , proprietor of Central London 's esoteric bookstore Atlantis Bookshop , introduce him to Crowley . Houghton refused , privately remarking that Grant was " mentally unstable . " Grant later stated his opinion that Houghton had refused because he didn 't wish to " incur evil karma " from introducing the young man to Crowley , but later suggested that it was because Houghton desired him for his own organisation , The Order of Hidden Masters , and thereby didn 't want him to become Crowley 's disciple . Persisting , Grant wrote letters to the new address of Crowley 's publishers , asking that they pass his letters on to Crowley himself . These resulted in the first meeting between the two , in autumn 1944 , at the Bell Inn in Buckinghamshire .
After several further meetings and an exchange of letters , Grant agreed to work for Crowley as his secretary and personal assistant . Now living in relative poverty , Crowley was unable to pay Grant for his services in money , instead paying him in magical instruction . In March 1945 , Grant moved into a lodge cottage in the grounds of Netherwood , a Sussex boarding house where Crowley was living . He continued living there with Crowley for several months , dealing with the old man 's correspondences and needs . In turn , he was allowed to read from Crowley 's extensive library on occult subjects , and performed ceremonial magic workings with him , becoming a high initiate of Crowley 's magical group , the Ordo Templi Orientis ( O.T.O. ) . Crowley saw Grant as a potential leader of O.T.O. in the UK , writing in his diary , " value of Grant . If I die or go to the USA , there must be a trained man to take care of the English O.T.O. " However , they also argued , with Grant trying to convince Crowley to relocate to London . On one occasion Crowley shouted at him : " You are the most consummate BORE that the world has yet known . And this at 20 ! "
Grant 's family disliked that he was working for no wage , and pressured him to resign , which he did in June 1945 , leaving Netherwood . Crowley wrote to Grant 's father , stating that he was " very sorry to part with Kenneth " and that he felt that Grant was " giving up his real future . " To David Curwen , an O.T.O. member who was another of his correspondents , Crowley related his opinion that " I may have treated him too severely . " Crowley put Curwen in contact with Grant , with Grant later claiming that he learned much from Curwen , particularly regarding the Kaula school of Tantra ; in his later writings he made reference to Curwen using his Order name of Frater Ani Abthilal . Although they continued to correspond with one another , Crowley and Grant never met again , for the former died in December 1947 . Grant attended Crowley 's funeral at a Brighton crematorium , while accompanied by his new wife , Steffi .
= = = The New Isis Lodge and Austin Osman Spare : 1947 – 1969 = = =
Steffi Grant introduced herself to the occult artist Austin Osman Spare in 1949 , having learned about him while she was modelling for Herbert Budd , a tutor at St. Martin 's School of Art who had studied alongside Spare . Steffi purchased two of Spare 's artworks , which she gave to Kenneth as a present for his twenty @-@ fifth birthday . She subsequently introduced her husband to Spare . At the time , Spare had fallen into poverty , living in obscurity in a South London flat . Although making some money as an artist and art tutor , he was largely financially supported by his friend Frank Letchford , whom he affectionately referred to as his " son " . There was some animosity between Letchford and Grant , although it is apparent that Spare preferred the former , having known him for 12 years longer , and placing him first in his will . Grant desired a closer relationship , and in 1954 began signing his letters to Spare " thy son . " Letchford claimed that Spare often told the Grants " white lies ... to boost a flagging ego . " Grant 's first published work represented a brief " appreciation " of Spare 's work that was included in a catalogue for the artist 's exhibition held at Temple Bar in London in 1949 .
Grant had continued studying Crowley 's work , and a year after Crowley 's death was acknowledged as a Ninth Degree member of the O.T.O. by Karl Germer , Crowley 's successor as Head of the O.T.O. Grant then successfully applied to Germer for a charter to operate the first three O.T.O. degrees and run his own lodge , which was granted in March 1951 . As this would mean that his lodge would be the only chartered O.T.O. body in England at the time , Grant believed that it meant that he was now head of the O.T.O. in Britain . Germer put Grant in contact with Wilfred Talbot Smith , an English Thelemite based in California who had founded the Agape Lodge , knowing that Smith was the only man who had practical knowledge of the O.T.O. degree work . Smith was eager to help , and wrote at length on his experiences in founding a lodge , although he was made uneasy by Grant 's magical seal of " Aossic " for reasons that have never been ascertained , and their correspondence soon petered out .
Grant began restructuring the system of the O.T.O. by augmenting its grading structure with that of Crowley 's other occult order , the A ∴ A ∴ . This attempt failed , as Grant 's attentions were increasingly drawn into his founding and running of the New Isis Lodge . The lodge became operational in April 1955 when Grant issued a manifesto announcing his discovery of an extraterrestrial " Sirius / Set current " upon which the lodge was to be based . In this manifesto , Grant claimed that a new energy was emanating down from Earth from another planet which he identified with Nuit , a goddess who appears in the first chapter of Crowley 's Thelemic holy text , The Book of the Law . Germer however deemed it " blasphemy " that Grant had identified a single planet with Nuit ; on 20 July 1955 , Germer issued a " Note of Expulsion " expelling Grant from the O.T.O.
Grant however ignored Germer 's letter of expulsion , continuing to operate the New Isis Lodge under the claim that he had powers from the " Inner Plane " . Upon learning of Grant 's expulsion , Smith feared that the O.T.O. would split up into warring factions much as the Theosophical Society had done following the death of Blavatsky . Grant 's Lodge continued to operate until 1962 . According to Grant , the group consisted of about thirty members , and met every seventh Friday at the lodge 's premises , which for a while were in the basement of Curwen 's furrier 's store at Melcombe Street , near to Baker Street in central London . During the period in which he worked with the lodge he claimed to have received two important texts from preternatural sources , the Wisdom of S 'lba and OKBISh or The Book of the Spider .
From 1953 to 1961 Grant immersed himself in the study of Hinduism , becoming a follower of the Hindu guru Ramana Maharshi . He was also interested in the work of another Hindu teacher , Lord Kusuma Haranath , and was credited with encouraging and helping to create the three @-@ volume Lord Haranath : A Biography by Akella Ramakrishna Sastri . He also authored articles on Advaita Vedanta and other Hindu topics for Indian journals like the Bombay @-@ based The Call Divine , as well as for Richard Cavendish 's Man , Myth & Magic . Many of these articles would be collected into a single anthology and published as At the Feet of the Guru in 2005 . Grant believed that the O.T.O. ' s sex magic teachings needed to be refashioned along tantric principles from Indian religion , in doing so relying heavily on Curwen 's ideas about tantra .
After Spare 's death , Grant began to focus more on his own writing career . From 1959 to 1963 , Grant privately published the Carfax Monographs , a series of short articles on magic published in ten installments , each at a limited print run of 100 . Nine of these volumes included original artworks produced by Steffi , reflecting the increasing collaboration between husband and wife which would be reflected in many of Grant 's subsequent publications . The Carfax Monographs would eventually be assembled together and re @-@ released as Hidden Lore in 1989 . In 1966 he also privately published a small book of his poems , Black to Black and Other Poems . During the 1950s and 1960s Spare also authored a number of novels , although these would only be published by Starfire Publishing between 1997 and 2012 .
= = = Typhonian O.T.O. and growing fame : 1970 – 2011 = = =
In 1969 , Grant co @-@ edited The Confessions of Aleister Crowley for publication with Crowley 's literary executor John Symonds . Over the coming years he edited – often with Symonds – a range of Crowley writings for republication , resulting in the release of The Magical Record of the Beast 666 ( 1972 ) , Diary of a Drug Fiend ( 1972 ) , Moonchild ( 1972 ) , Magick ( 1973 ) , Magical and Philosophical Commentaries on The Book of the Law ( 1974 ) and The Complete Astrological Writings ( 1974 ) . The release of these publications has been described as being " instrumental in the revival of interest in Crowley " .
At this point , Grant began describing himself as the O.H.O. ( Outer Head of the Order ) of the O.T.O. , claiming that he deserved this title not by direct succession from Crowley but because he displayed the inspiration and innovation that Germer lacked . A document purportedly by Crowley naming Grant as his successor was subsequently exposed as a hoax created by Robert Taylor , a Typhonian O.T.O. member . In the early 1970s he established his own Thelemic organisation , the Typhonian O.T.O. , which produced its first official announcement in 1973 . Although adopting the O.T.O. degree system used by Crowley , Grant removed the rituals of initiation designed to allow a member to enter a higher degree ; instead he personally promoted them through the degrees according to what he believed were their own personal spiritual development .
In 1972 , Frederick Muller Limited published the first book in Grant 's " Typhonian Trilogies " series , The Magical Revival , in which he discussed various events within the history of Western esotericism while also encouraging future interest in the subject . He followed this with a sequel published in 1973 , Aleister Crowley and the Hidden God , in which he examined Crowley 's sex magical practices and the Tantra . This was followed in 1975 by Cults of the Shadow , which brought the first Typhonian Trilogy to an end with a discussion of the Left Hand Path in magic , making reference to both Crowley and Spare 's work , as well as to Voodoo and Tantra . That same year , Grant also published Images and Oracles of Austin Osman Spare , a collection of his late friend 's images based on 20 years of research . The volume did not sell well , with much of the stock being remaindered , although became a rare collector 's item in later years . Grant had begun work on the book many years before , and had agreed for 500 copies to be published by Trigram Press Ltd in 1967 , although at the last minute the project was cancelled . He had also authored new introductions for re @-@ releases of two of Spare 's works , a 1973 publication of The Anathema of Zos and a 1975 release of The Book of Pleasure .
In 1977 , Grant began the second Typhonian Trilogy with Nightside of Eden , in which he discussed some of his own personal magical ideas , outlining magical formulae with which to explore a dark , dense realm that he variously called ' Universe B ' and ' the Tunnels of Set ' , conceived as a ' dark side ' of the Qabalistic Tree of Life . Grant made connections between this realm and the extramundane deities of H.P. Lovecraft 's horror fiction . The book proved controversial among occultists and Thelemites , and starkly divided opinion . The sequel appeared in 1980 as Outside the Circles of Time , and introduced Grant 's thoughts on the relevance of Ufology and insectoid symbolism for occultism . This would prove to be the final Grant volume published by Muller , who would merge with Blond and Briggs in 1984 , while te publishing rights to his works reverted to him the following year . His next book would not appear for another eleven years after Outside the Circles of Time .
In 1989 , Grant began his relationship with Skoob Books Limited , a publisher linked to the Skoob Books bookstore in Bloomsbury , central London which had begun to develop a line of esoteric titles under the leadership of Caroline Wise and Chris Johnson . In 1991 , Skoob Books published Grant 's Remembering Aleister Crowley , a volume containing his memoirs of Crowley alongside reproductions of diary entries , photographs , and letters . From 1989 to 1994 , Skoob reissued a number of Grant 's earlier books , and in 1992 published the sixth volume in the Typhonian Trilogies , Hecate 's Fountain , in which Grant provided many anecdotes about working in the New Isis Lodge and focused on describing accidents and fatalities that he believed were caused by magic . The seventh volume of the Typhonian Trilogies , Outer Gateways , followed in 1994 , discussing Grant 's ideas of older Typhonian traditions from across the world , with reference to the work of Crowley , Spare , and Lovecraft . It ends with the text of The Wisdom of S 'lba , a work that Grant claimed he had received clairvoyantly from a supernatural source .
After Skoob Books closed its esoteric publishing division , in 1996 Grant transferred the publishing rights of his books to two companies , Starfire Publishing – which decided to bring out his trilogies and novellas – and Fulgur Limited , which published his work on Spare . In 1997 Starfire published Grant 's first novel , Against the Light : A Nightside Narrative , which involved a character also named " Kenneth Grant " . He asserted that the work was " quasi @-@ autobiographical " , but never specified which parts were based on his life and which were fictional . In 1998 , Starfire published a book co @-@ written by Grant and his wife Steffi , titled Zos Speaks ! Encounters with Austin Osman Spare , in which they included 7 years ' worth of diary entries , letters , and photographs pertaining to their relationship with the artist . The following year , the next volume in the Typhonian Trilogies , Beyond the Mauve Zone was published , explaining Grant 's ideas on a realm known as the Mauve Zone that he claimed to have explored . A book containing two novellas , Snakewand and the Darker Strain , was published in 2000 , while the final volume of the Typhonian Trilogies , The Ninth Arch , was published in 2003 . It offered further Qabalistic interpretations of the work of Crowley , Spare , and Lovecraft , and the text of another work that Grant claimed had been given to him from a supernatural source , Book of the Spider . That same year , Grant also published two further volumes of fictional stories , Gamaliel and Dance , Doll , Dance ! , which told the story of a vampire and a Tantric sex group , and The Other Child , and Other Tales , which contained six short stories .
Grant died on 15 January 2011 after a period of illness . He was survived by his wife .
= = Legacy = =
While highlighting Grant 's reclusive character , the historian Dave Evans noted that Grant was " certainly unique " in the history of British esotericism because of his " close dealings " with Crowley , Spare , and Gardner , the " three most influential Western occultists of the 20th century . " The occultist and comic book author Alan Moore thought it " hard to name " any other living individual who " has done more to shape contemporary western thinking with regard to Magic " than Grant , thinking him " a schoolboy gone berserk on brimstone aftershave . "
In 2003 , the historian of Western esotericism Henrik Bogdan expressed the view that Grant was " perhaps ( the ) most original and prolific English author of the post @-@ modern occultist genre . " Although based in Thelema , his Typhonian tradition has been described as " a bricolage of occultism , Neo @-@ Vedanta , Hindu tantra , Western sexual magic , Surrealism , ufology and Lovecraftian gnosis " . Although membership of Grant 's own occult groups remained small , his Typhonian Thelema represented a significant influence over various other occult groups and currents . They included chaos magic , as well as the Temple of Set , the Dragon Rouge , and Andrew D. Chumbley 's Cultus Sabbati .
The occultist Peter Levenda discussed Grant 's work in his 2013 book , The Dark Lord . Here , he asserted that Grant 's importance was in attempting to create " a more global character for Thelema " by introducing ideas from Indian Tantra , Yezidism , and Afro @-@ Caribbean syncretic religions .
= = = Non @-@ fiction = = =
= = = Fiction = = =
= = = Poetry = = =
= Ottoman ironclad Mesudiye =
Mesudiye ( Ottoman Turkish : Happiness ) was a central @-@ battery ironclad of the Ottoman Navy , one of the largest ships of that type ever built . She was built at the Thames Iron Works in Britain between 1871 and 1875 . Mesudiye had one sister ship , though she was purchased by the Royal Navy and commissioned as HMS Superb . Her primary armament consisted of twelve 10 @-@ inch ( 250 mm ) guns in a central armored battery .
Mesudiye was poorly maintained for most of her career , including a twenty @-@ year long period between the Russo @-@ Turkish War in 1877 – 78 and the Greco @-@ Turkish War of 1897 . As a result , she was in very poor condition by the late 1890s , which prompted a major reconstruction of her into a pre @-@ dreadnought design type vessel in Genoa . The ship 's armament was overhauled , though the gun turrets that were to have mounted 230 mm ( 9 in ) guns never received the weapons . A new propulsion system was also installed , which significantly improved performance .
The ship saw extensive action during the First Balkan War in 1912 – 13 , including the battles of Elli and Lemnos in December 1912 and January 1913 , respectively . During the latter engagement , she was badly damaged by a Greek shell and forced to withdraw . Following the outbreak of World War I in 1914 , Mesudiye was moored at Nara to protect the minefields that blocked the entrance to the Dardanelles . On the morning of 13 December , the British submarine HMS B11 passed through the minefields and torpedoed Mesudiye , which quickly sank . Most of the crew survived , however , and many of her guns were salvaged and used to strengthen the defenses of the Dardanelles . A battery of these guns , named Mesudiye in honor of the ship , helped to sink the French battleship Bouvet in March 1915 .
= = Design = =
In the aftermath of the Crimean War , where an entire Ottoman squadron was destroyed by a Russian fleet at Sinop , the Ottoman Empire began a naval construction program , limited primarily by the chronically weak Ottoman economy . Several ironclad warships were ordered in the 1860s and 1870s , primarily from British and French shipyards . Despite the shortage of funds , by the late 1870s , the Ottomans had acquired a fleet of thirteen large ironclads and nine smaller armored warships . Mesudiye was designed by Edward Reed , who based the design on the recently build British ironclad HMS Hercules .
= = = General characteristics and machinery = = =
Mesudiye was 101 @.@ 02 meters ( 331 ft 5 in ) long , and she had a beam of 17 @.@ 98 m ( 59 ft 0 in ) and a draft of 7 @.@ 9 m ( 25 ft 11 in ) . She displaced 8 @,@ 938 metric tons ( 8 @,@ 797 long tons ; 9 @,@ 852 short tons ) as originally built . Her hull was constructed with iron , and was fitted with a ram bow . She had a crew of 700 officers and enlisted men .
The ship was powered by a single horizontal , two @-@ cylinder compound engine , with steam provided by eight coal @-@ fired box boilers . The boilers were trunked into a pair of funnels located amidships . The engines were rated at 7 @,@ 431 indicated horsepower ( 5 @,@ 541 kW ) and produced a top speed of 13 @.@ 7 knots ( 25 @.@ 4 km / h ; 15 @.@ 8 mph ) . By 1884 , decades of poor maintenance had reduced her top speed to 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . She carried 600 t ( 590 long tons ; 660 short tons ) of coal . Although intended to operate primarily via her steam engine , Mesudiye was also fitted with three masts and a barque rig .
= = = Armament and armor = = =
Mesudiye was armed with a main battery of twelve RML 10 inch 18 ton guns , all mounted in a central battery . Six were on each side , with four on the broadside , one angled forward and the other angled rearward . She was also equipped with three RML 7 inch guns , all on the upper deck , with two forward and one aft . In 1891 , six 76 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) quick @-@ firing guns ( QF ) and six 25 @.@ 4 mm ( 1 @.@ 00 in ) QF guns were installed .
Armor protection consisted of iron plate ; the armored belt had a maximum thickness of 305 mm ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) in the central portion of the ship , where it protected machinery and ammunition magazines , and was reduced on either end , first to 127 mm ( 5 @.@ 0 in ) and then to 76 mm . The thickest part of the belt extended 5 ft ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) below the waterline and 4 ft ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) above the line , and was composed of three strakes . The middle strake was the thickest , the upper strake was reduced slightly to 254 mm ( 10 @.@ 0 in ) , and the lower one was 9 in ( 230 mm ) and tapered to 150 mm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) . The gun battery was protected by another two strakes of armor , the lower being 254 mm thick and the upper reduced to 178 mm ( 7 @.@ 0 in ) .
= = Service history = =
Mesudiye was ordered in 1871 and was laid down at the Thames Iron Works shipyard in London the following year . She was launched on 28 October 1874 and was commissioned in December 1875 for sea trials . She had one sister ship , Mahmûdiye , which was renamed Hamidiye while under construction . She was purchased by the Royal Navy before completion and commissioned as HMS Superb . Mesudiye and Superb were the largest casemate ironclads ever built . In September 1876 , Mesudiye became the flagship of the Ottoman Black Sea Squadron , though she did not see action in the Russo @-@ Turkish War that broke out in April 1877 .
After the Ottoman defeat , the fleet was laid up at the Golden Horn and left largely unattended for the following twenty years . During this period of inactivity , Mesudiye received a minor modernization at the Tersâne @-@ i Âmire shipyard on the Golden Horn . At the start of the Greco @-@ Turkish War in February 1897 , Mesudiye was found to be unfit for combat , as were most of the other major warships of the fleet . On 15 May Mesudiye and several other warships attempted to hold a training exercise , which only highlighted the poor state of training of the ships ' crews .
= = = Reconstruction = = =
Following the end of the war , the government decided to begin a naval reconstruction program . The first stage was to rebuild the older armored warships , including Mesudiye . Requests for proposals were sent to foreign shipyards , and in October 1898 the Gio . Ansaldo & C. shipyard in Genoa requested permission to survey the ship and the ironclad Âsâr @-@ ı Tevfik . Both vessels were accordingly sent to Genoa in January 1899 , arriving on the 28th , though Ansaldo only received the contract for Mesudiye . Mesudiye was rebuilt into a pre @-@ dreadnought type vessel .
The modernization involved radical reconstruction of the hull ; the bow and stern were cut down to make room for a pair of gun turrets , each mounting a single 230 mm ( 9 in ) 40 @-@ caliber gun manufactured by Vickers . The turrets had 230 mm thick armored faces , though they never received their guns ; wooden dummy guns were installed in their place . A battery of twelve 150 mm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) 45 @-@ caliber QF guns was installed in place of the old rifled muzzle @-@ loaders , and sixteen 76 mm QF guns were added in an upper battery . Mesudiye also received ten 57 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) guns and a pair of 47 mm ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) guns .
A large superstructure was built amidships , with a new conning tower , which was given 200 mm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) of armor plating . Displacement rose to 9 @,@ 120 t ( 8 @,@ 980 long tons ; 10 @,@ 050 short tons ) normally and 9 @,@ 710 t ( 9 @,@ 560 long tons ; 10 @,@ 700 short tons ) at full load . The ship 's propulsion system was also completely replaced . Two triple @-@ expansion engines were installed , along with sixteen coal @-@ fired Niclausse boilers . The two screw propellers overlapped , so the port side screw was placed slightly ahead of the starboard one . Performance improved to 11 @,@ 000 ihp ( 8 @,@ 200 kW ) and 17 kn ( 31 km / h ; 20 mph ) . Her crew increased to 800 as a result of the modifications . On 15 March 1904 , Mesudiye completed sea trials and thereafter returned to Constantinople .
= = = Italo @-@ Turkish and Balkan Wars = = =
In 1909 , she participated in the first fleet maneuver conducted by the Ottoman Navy in twenty years , part of a reform program initiated by a British naval mission to the Ottoman Empire . Starting in July 1911 , Mesudiye joined the two pre @-@ dreadnoughts Barbaros Hayreddin and Turgut Reis , four destroyers , and a torpedo boat for a series of exercises that culminated in the routine summer cruise to Beirut . The fleet was returning to Constantinople when the Italy declared war , starting the Italo @-@ Turkish War on 29 September 1911 . Mesudiye and the rest of the fleet moored at Nara on 2 October and returned to Constantinople the following day . Mesudiye was thereafter assigned to the Reserve Division , which also included the rebuilt ironclad Âsâr @-@ ı Tevfik and the torpedo cruiser Berk @-@ i Satvet . She did not see action during the conflict , since the Ottoman fleet spent the war in port . This was in part due to the rising tensions in the Balkans that presaged the Balkan Wars ; the Ottomans kept their fleet in port so it could be prepared for the inevitable conflict .
In October 1912 , the Balkan League declared war on the Ottomans , a month before the Italo @-@ Turkish War ended . At the time , Mesudiye was moored off Büyükdere , a neighborhood in Constantinople , with the torpedo boats Hamidâbad and Kütahya , stationed as a guard ship . In December , the Ottoman fleet was reorganized , with Mesudiye joining the newly formed Battleship Division , under the command of Ramiz Naman Bey . The division also included Barbaros Hayreddin , Turgut Reis , and Âsâr @-@ ı Tevfik . The ship was moved to Büyükçekmece on 15 November , where she joined the rest of the fleet . Two days later , Mesudiye and Barbaros Hayreddin conducted shore bombardments in support of the Ottoman troops holding the Çatalca Line ; the bombardments did not cause particularly significant material damage to the attacking Bulgarians , but it did boost Ottoman morale .
= = = = Battle of Elli = = = =
The ships took part in the Battle of Elli , the first Ottoman surface action involving major warships since the Russo @-@ Turkish War , on 16 December 1912 . The Ottoman fleet sortied from the Dardanelles at 9 : 30 ; the smaller craft remained at the mouth of the straits while the battleships sailed north , hugging the coast . The Greek flotilla , which included the armored cruiser Georgios Averof and three Hydra @-@ class ironclads , sailing from the island of Lemnos , altered course to the northeast to block the advance of the Ottoman battleships . The Ottoman ships opened fire on the Greeks at 9 : 40 , from a range of about 15 @,@ 000 yd ( 14 @,@ 000 m ) . Five minutes later , Georgios Averof crossed over to the other side of the Ottoman fleet , placing the Ottomans in the unfavorable position of being under fire from both sides .
At 9 : 50 and under heavy pressure from the Greek fleet , the Ottoman ships completed a 16 @-@ point turn , which reversed their course , and headed for the safety of the straits . The turn was poorly conducted , and the ships fell out of formation , blocking each other 's fields of fire . Barbaros Hayreddin , Turgut Reis , and Mesudiye took several hits during the battle , though only Barbaros Hayreddin was significantly damaged . By 10 : 17 , both sides had ceased firing and the Ottoman fleet withdrew into the Dardanelles . When they approached the straits , Mesudiye and Âsâr @-@ ı Tevfik took up positions to cover the withdrawal of the damaged pre @-@ dreadnoughts . The ships reached port by 13 : 00 and transferred their casualties to the hospital ship Resit Paşa .
= = = = Battle of Lemnos = = = =
In late December , the Ottomans began a campaign of raids and patrols in the Aegean Sea against the islands that had been recently conquered by the Greeks . The Ottoman Army began planning to make a landing on Tenedos in late December , which had been captured by Greece earlier in the war . Mesudiye and the rest of the Battleship Division sortied from the Dardanelles on the morning of 4 January 1913 , but the operation was called off after the Greek fleet appeared . On 10 January , the fleet embarked on another offensive operation , this time to raid the island of Imbros . After a brief , inconclusive clash with Greek destroyers , the fleet again withdrew to the safety of the Dardanelles . Eight days later , another fleet operation began , which produced the Battle of Lemnos , the second major naval engagement of the war . Ottoman plan to lure the faster Georgios Averof away from the Dardanelles . The protected cruiser Hamidiye evaded the Greek blockade and broke out into the Aegean Sea in an attempt to draw the Greek cruiser into pursuit . Despite the threat posed by the cruiser , the Greek commander refused to detach Georgios Averof .
The Ottoman fleet departed the Dardanelles at 8 : 20 on the morning of 18 January , and sailed toward the island of Lemnos at a speed of 11 knots ( 20 km / h ; 13 mph ) . Barbaros Hayreddin led the line of battleships , with a flotilla of torpedo boats on either side of the formation . A long range artillery duel that lasted for two hours began at around 11 : 55 , when the Ottoman fleet opened fire at a range of 8 @,@ 000 m ( 26 @,@ 000 ft ) . They concentrated their fire on the Greek Georgios Averof , which returned fire at 12 : 00 . At 12 : 50 , the Greeks attempted to cross the T of the Ottoman fleet , but Barbaros Hayreddin turned north to block the Greek maneuver . At around that time , Mesudiye took a serious hit that disabled three of her 150 mm guns ; this damage , coupled with boiler trouble , led the Ottoman commander to detach the ship and send her back to port .
On 5 February , Mesudiye supported operations off Şarköy in the Sea of Marmara , bombarding Bulgarian troops that had occupied the town . This was the last wartime operation conducted by the ship ; she did not participate in the amphibious assault on Şarköy three days later . The Ottoman fleet then spent the remaining months of the war in port , until the armistice ended the conflict in April .
= = = World War I = = =
In late July 1914 , World War I broke out in Europe , though the Ottomans initially remained neutral . On 6 September 1914 , Mesudiye was sent to Nara to protect the minefields guarding the entrance to the Dardanelles . She was supported by the minelayer Nusret and the tug Intibah . Tensions between the Ottomans and a British fleet patrolling the entrance to the Dardanelles increased until 5 November , when Britain and France declared war on the Ottoman Empire .
On the morning of 13 December , the British submarine B11 , commanded by Lieutenant Norman Holbrook , entered the Dardanelles . At around 11 : 30 , she spotted Mesudiye at anchor and fired a single torpedo from a distance of 750 m ( 2 @,@ 460 ft ) . The torpedo hit the ship 's stern and caused serious damage ; Mesudiye 's guns briefly fired at B11 's periscope before the ship capsized and sank in shallow water . Casualties were light , with only 10 officers and 27 enlisted men killed in the attack . A salvage effort removed the 150 mm and 76 mm guns , which were used to strengthen the defenses of the Dardanelles . In the meantime , B11 successfully passed back through the Dardanelles and returned to port ; Holbrook was awarded the Victoria Cross for sinking Mesudiye .
Mesudiye 's salvaged 150 mm guns were installed as " Battery Mesudiye " in the Dardanelles . These guns played a role in the sinking of the French battleship Bouvet on 18 March 1915 , having hit the ship eight times — one of which disabled her forward turret — before she struck a mine and sank with very heavy loss of life .
= Marasmius sasicola =
Marasmius sasicola is a species of Marasmiaceae fungus known from Kanagawa Prefecture , Japan . First collected in 2000 , it was described in 2002 by Haruki Takahashi . The species produces small mushrooms with white caps and very short , very thin black stems . Unlike in other , similar species , the stems enter the plant matter on which the mushroom grows . The six to eight white gills are spread out around the cap , and all of them reach the stem . The flesh has no taste or odour . Found in June , the species grows on dead Sasa leaves , from which it takes its specific epithet .
= = Taxonomy and naming = =
Marasmius sasicola was first described by Haruki Takahashi ( 2002 ) in an article in Mycoscience , based on specimens collected from Ikuta Ryokuchi Park , Kawasaki , Kanagawa Prefecture , Japan in 2000 and 2001 . The specific name sasicola refers to the fact the species grows upon the leaves of Sasa species . The Japanese common name for the species is Sasa @-@ no @-@ houraitake . Within the genus Mycena , it probably belongs to the section Marasmius , and the subsection Penicillati , due to characters of the stem , gills and pileipellis ( the outer @-@ most layer of the cap ) .
= = Description = =
Marasmius sasicola produces mushrooms that have convex caps from 5 to 10 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 2 to 0 @.@ 4 in ) in diameter featuring folds or striations . The caps do not expand or flatten with age , and are dry and dull . The cap surface is covered in tiny grains which vanish as the mushrooms age . The caps of young mushrooms are coloured light brown , but paler at the cap margin ; as they mature , the caps become paler , approaching white when fully matured . The very thin , smooth stem measures between 2 and 3 mm ( 0 @.@ 08 and 0 @.@ 1 in ) in length by 0 @.@ 3 to 0 @.@ 4 mm ( 0 @.@ 01 to 0 @.@ 02 in ) thick . It connects to the centre of the cap , and is a dark brown to black colour . Mycelial cords cannot be seen at the base of the stem , which anchors itself into the substrate . The white gills can be adnexed ( attaching to the stem by only part of their depth ) to adnate ( attaching by their full depth ) . They are not at all crowded , with between 6 and 8 separate gills , all of which reach the stem . Each gill is up to 2 mm ( 0 @.@ 08 in ) broad , though it is thinner at the edge . The mushrooms have a very thin layer of whitish flesh up to 0 @.@ 4 mm ( 0 @.@ 02 in ) thick . The tough but flexible flesh lacks any odour or taste .
= = = Microscopic characteristics = = =
Marasmius sasicola produces colourless , ellipsoid basidiospores of between 8 and 10 by 4 to 6 micrometres ( μm ) . The spores have no ornamentation , are not amyloid and have thin cell walls . In his examinations , Takahashi did not observe any basidia , but he did describe the club @-@ shaped basidioles ( immature basidia ) which measured from 18 to 26 by 6 to 10 μm . The tightly packed cheilocystidia ( cystidia on the edge of the gill ) form a sterile edge to the gill , and there are no pleurocystidia ( cystidia on the face of the gill ) . The pileipellis , the top layer of the cap , forms a hymeniderm , a cell structure reminiscent of the hymenium on the gills . This is made up of club @-@ shaped cells measuring between 2 and 8 by 7 to 10 μm , with reddish @-@ brown , smooth cell walls up to 1 μm thick . The stipitipellis , the outermost layer of the stem , is made up of cylindrical hyphae measuring from 3 to 6 μm in width , which run parallel to one another . They have featureless brown cell walls measuring up to 1 μm thick , and the septa ( the walls separating individual cells ) have clamp connections .
The flesh in the cap is made up of irregularly arranged cylindrical hyphae from 5 to 15 μm wide . They stain a dark reddish @-@ brown in Melzer 's reagent or Lugol 's solution . The flesh in the stem is made up of hyphae which run down the stem and measure 4 to 11 μm in thickness . The smooth cell walls are colorless , but again stain a dark reddish @-@ brown in Melzer 's reagent or Lugol 's solution . The septa have clamp connections .
= = = Similar species = = =
Marasmius subconiatus , known from Sri Lanka and Indonesia , is somewhat similar to M. sasicola . It can be differentiated as its stem does not enter the substrate , and the gills differ . In M. subconiatus , the gills are orange , and sport cheilocystidia which are pale yellow .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Marasmius sasicola is known from the lowland forests of Kanagawa Prefecture , Japan , and can be found in June . Mushrooms grow in large numbers close together , and grow from dead leaves of Sasa ( grass bamboo ) which have fallen .
= Don Revie =
Donald George " Don " Revie , OBE ( 10 July 1927 – 26 May 1989 ) was an England international footballer and manager .
A forward , he began his career with Leicester City in August 1944 , before winning a £ 19 @,@ 000 move to Hull City in November 1949 . He was sold on to Manchester City in October 1951 for a fee of £ 25 @,@ 000 , where he became the main focus of the " Revie Plan " which saw him named as FWA Footballer of the Year in 1954 – 55 after innovating the role of the first deep @-@ lying centre forward in England . He won the FA Cup in 1956 , having finished on the losing side in the 1955 final . He was bought by Sunderland for £ 22 @,@ 000 in October 1956 , before moving on to Leeds United in November 1958 for a £ 14 @,@ 000 fee . In total he scored 108 goals in 501 league and cup appearances in an 18 @-@ year professional career , also scoring four goals in six England appearances as well as winning representative honours for the Football League XI and the England B team .
In March 1961 , Revie was appointed player @-@ manager of Leeds United , then a Second Division club who had never previously won a major trophy . Under Revie 's management , Leeds became a major force in English football , winning the Second Division in 1963 – 64 , the First Division in 1968 – 69 and 1973 – 74 , the FA Cup in 1972 , the League Cup in 1968 , the FA Charity Shield in 1969 , and the Inter @-@ Cities Fairs Cup in 1968 and 1971 . Additionally , Leeds were First Division runners @-@ up five times , thrice FA Cup runners @-@ up and runners @-@ up in the Inter @-@ Cities Fairs Cup and the European Cup Winners ' Cup . In July 1974 he accepted the job as England manager , but had an unsuccessful three years in the role before quitting in highly controversial circumstances to take up the management role with the United Arab Emirates . He later had spells in Middle Eastern club football with Al @-@ Nasr and Al @-@ Ahly .
As Leeds manager he was criticised for the physical and often negative approach of his teams , though the period was noted for its highly physical football across the country . His resignation as England manager fuelled criticism of him as money @-@ obsessed , and unproven allegations of bribery and financial misconduct also tarnished his reputation . He retired in 1984 , but was diagnosed with motor neurone disease in May 1987 , which led to his death two years later . He remains a highly popular figure in Leeds , and has a stand named after him at Elland Road as well as a statue outside the ground .
= = Club career = =
= = = Early life = = =
Revie was born in Middlesbrough , North Riding of Yorkshire , on 10 July 1927 . His father , also named Donald , was a joiner who found himself frequently out of work during the Great Depression . His mother , a washerwoman , died of cancer when he was 12 . He played youth football for Newport Boys ' Club and then Middlesbrough Swifts , who were coached by influential manager Bill Sanderson . He learnt the rudiments of the game using a small bundle of rags in the tiny yard behind his home . This influenced his thinking in later life , and he argued that young players should learn using smaller footballs , on smaller pitches , so they would be more adept in control when progressing to a bigger football .
= = = Leicester City = = =
He signed as a professional footballer for Leicester City in August 1944 , choosing them ahead of local club Middlesbrough primarily due to the close links between Middlesbrough Swifts and Leicester City ; he also worked as an apprentice bricklayer . Leicester originally thought him not good enough to turn professional , but he was taken under the wing of Leicester player Sep Smith who mentored Revie on many of his ideas about the game . Smith instructed Revie that " When not in position , get into position ; never beat a man by dribbling if you can beat him more easily with a pass ; it is not the man on the ball but the one running into position to take the pass who constitutes the danger ; and the aim is to have a man spare in a passing move . Soccer would then become easy . " He played in the wartime league , before making his debut in the Football League on the opening day of the 1946 – 47 season , a 3 – 0 defeat to Manchester City , who would go on to win the Second Division that season . He showed good form at Filbert Street before breaking his right ankle in three places after a tackle from Tottenham Hotspur 's Ron Burgess ; the injury could have ended his career , but he recovered to full fitness within 19 weeks .
Manager Johnny Duncan identified Revie as the player to build his team around for the 1947 – 48 and 1948 – 49 seasons , and though the Foxes fared poorly in the league they managed to reach the 1949 FA Cup Final . Revie scored the opening goal of the semi @-@ final victory over First Division champions Portsmouth , having being told pre @-@ match that opposition goalkeeper Ernest Butler tended to palm the ball over the attacker 's head before reclaiming possession Revie positioned himself to take advantage of the situation when teammate Jack Lee challenged Butler for the ball , leaving Revie with a simple conversion . However Revie suffered a nasal haemorrhage caused by a burst vein one week before the final , and the condition became so severe it would threaten his life and see him miss his first chance to play at Wembley . He could only listen on the radio as Leicester lost 3 – 1 to Wolverhampton Wanderers in the final . Revie decided to leave Leicester after Duncan left the club , having already been dissatisfied with the club 's lack of progress in the league .
= = = Hull City = = =
In November 1949 he joined Second Division club Hull City for a transfer fee of £ 19 @,@ 000 . He chose to join the Tigers ahead of bigger clubs like Arsenal and Manchester City who had shown interest in signing him due to the fact that Hull were managed by Raich Carter , who had been a great player before and after World War II . Carter did improve Revie 's game but was not a success as Hull manager , as City finished mid @-@ table in 1949 – 50 and 1950 – 51 , before becoming involved in a relegation battle in 1951 – 52 . Teammate Andy Davidson later said Revie failed to fulfil his potential at Boothferry Park as he was not a tough player , and the rest of the Hull team were not physically dominant enough to protect him and allow him to dictate play with his accurate passing . As at Leicester , Revie felt the time had come for him to move on and handed in a transfer request once Carter departed .
= = = Manchester City = = =
Revie was sold to First Division side Manchester City for £ 25 @,@ 000 ( including a part @-@ exchange for Ernie Phillips , valued at £ 12 @,@ 000 ) in October 1951 . The Citizens struggled in the 1951 – 52 season , and then went on to finish just one place above the relegation zone in the 1952 – 53 campaign . Revie was often isolated from the rest of the team due to his lack of pace . The sale of Ivor Broadis then allowed Revie to drop deeper down the field , and allowed manager Les McDowall to put Revie in what eventually proved to be a pivotal role , introducing to English football the position of deep @-@ lying centre forward . This evolved into the so @-@ called " Revie Plan " , with Revie as the central figure . His role derived from the more traditional inside right position , and was based on the style of the successful Hungarian national team , and in particular Nándor Hidegkuti , who invented the role . Revie devoted 20 pages to analysing and explaining the plan in his autobiography Soccer 's Happy Wanderer written in 1955 .
Revie had improved his goal tally to 13 in the 1953 – 54 season , but only once the Revie Plan was implemented in the 1954 – 55 campaign were Manchester City able to fully make use of his abilities . The new tactic opened with a 5 – 0 defeat to Preston North End , but then Ken Barnes replaced John McTavish at inside @-@ forward and the team clicked . Though the tactic was named after Revie , it had initially been introduced at reserve team level by Johnny Williamson , though Revie 's superior passing talents meant Williamson was overlooked for the position at first team level . City 's league title campaign fell away but they went on to reach the 1955 FA Cup Final at Wembley , where they were beaten 3 – 1 by Newcastle United ; a first @-@ half injury to Jimmy Meadows left City down to ten men and unable to compete effectively . At the end of the season Revie was named as FWA Footballer of the Year .
McDowall fined Revie £ 27 for missing two weeks of training for a family holiday in Blackpool , which infuriated him as he had already won permission from trainer Laurie Barnett and had promised to train whilst on holiday . McDowall dropped Revie for much of the 1955 – 56 season , preferring instead to play Bobby Johnstone . Revie played only one FA Cup match that season before being named in the team for the 1956 FA Cup Final against Birmingham City , with Johnstone being moved to the wings . He provided the assist for Joe Hayes 's opening goal , and instructed Ken Barnes to deviate from the manager 's instructions at half @-@ time , with the result being a more dominant second half display and a 3 – 1 victory ; Revie was named as Man of the Match . However the rift with his manager was not forgotten , and he was moved to right @-@ half in the 1956 – 57 campaign , leaving him to seek a move away from Maine Road .
= = = Sunderland = = =
In October 1956 , Sunderland manager Bill Murray bought Revie for a £ 22 @,@ 000 fee . Poor results left the Black Cats facing relegation towards the end of the 1956 – 57 campaign , but a late seven @-@ game unbeaten run lifted them to safety , just one place above relegated Cardiff City . A financial scandal over illegal payments to players resulted in harsh sanctions at Roker Park from The Football Association and forced Murray 's resignation . His replacement , Alan Brown , preferred a more physical style of play that did not suit Revie . Sunderland suffered relegation from the First Division for the first time in the club 's history in the 1957 – 58 season , and Revie was dropped for the 1958 – 59 Second Division campaign in favour of a youth policy . In September 1958 , he rejected the opportunity to sign for hometown club Middlesbrough – had he joined the club then he would have played alongside captain Brian Clough and goalkeeper Peter Taylor .
= = = Leeds United = = =
Revie returned to the First Division when he joined Leeds United in November 1958 for a £ 14 @,@ 000 fee . Manager Bill Lambton had hoped that Revie 's creativity would help the Peacocks to turn their poor form around , and appointed him as captain . Leeds avoided relegation in 1958 – 59 , but new manager Jack Taylor took Leeds down in the 1959 – 60 campaign with the division 's worst defensive record . Revie recognised his playing days were coming to an end and relinquished the captaincy to Freddie Goodwin .
= = International career = =
In October 1953 he was called up to The Football League XI to face the League of Ireland XI at Maine Road , and scored a hat @-@ trick in a 9 – 1 victory . He went on to play for the England B team in March 1954 . He scored on his England debut on 2 October 1954 , in a 2 – 0 British Home Championship victory over Northern Ireland at Windsor Park . He also scored during his second appearance on 2 April 1955 , a 7 – 2 victory over Scotland at Wembley Stadium . He made three further appearances that year , playing in defeats to France at the Stade Olympique Yves @-@ du @-@ Manoir and Wales at Ninian Park , and scoring once in a 5 – 1 win over Denmark at Idrætsparken . His sixth and final cap came in a 1 – 1 draw with Northern Ireland on 6 October 1956 .
= = Management career = =
= = = Leeds United = = =
Revie was made player @-@ manager at Leeds United in March 1961 following the resignation of Jack Taylor , who left after Leeds found themselves struggling in the Second Division . He had initially applied for the vacant job at Bournemouth , but Bournemouth were unable to find the £ 6 @,@ 000 Leeds demanded , and the Leeds directors decided to instead appoint Revie as manager . At the time the club was in debt and was located in a rugby league territory , with very little football tradition . Less than 7 @,@ 000 turned out for the final home game of the 1960 – 61 season whilst Leeds RLFC 's championship game of the 1960 – 61 Rugby League season had an attendance of over 50 @,@ 000 . He immediately began to institute radical changes such as ensuring the players stayed at higher quality hotels , and a change of kit from the traditional blue and yellow to an all @-@ white strip in the style of Real Madrid . He instilled a " family atmosphere " at Elland Road , making sure to take an interest in the lives of everyone at the club from the cleaning staff to the star players and ensuring there were no " big egos " at the club . He showed trust in his players , leaving them mainly to their own devices though he always made sure he was fully informed as to what they were up to off the pitch , even going so far as to tell them to dump their girlfriends if he viewed them as unsuitable . He also introduced lengthy dossiers on opposing teams to ensure his players knew every detail about the opposition and were able to exploit weaknesses and nullify threats . Other changes were based on some of his many superstitions , such as his belief that birds were bad luck which resulted in him getting rid of the owl on the club badge and the discontinuation of the Peacocks nickname in favour of the Whites , based on his choice of strip colour .
Leeds struggled in the 1961 – 62 season , as aside from Billy Bremner and Jack Charlton his playing squad was filled with journeymen pros ; he did though inherit a good coaching staff that included Les Cocker , Maurice Lindley and Syd Owen who would all spend many years with Revie at Leeds . He developed a youth policy at the club , notable graduates of which would be Eddie Gray , Norman Hunter , Peter Lorimer and Paul Reaney . He had a difficult task in persuading young players to join Leeds over more glamorous clubs but made sure he put in extra effort to make the youngsters feel happy at Leeds , and in one instance drove to Scotland to talk to Bremner 's girlfriend to successfully persuade her to encourage Bremner to stay at Leeds rather than return to Scotland to be with her . Revie played his last game in March 1962 before concentrating entirely on management .
After new investment at board level Revie was able to spend £ 25 @,@ 000 on Everton 's Scotland international Bobby Collins , who he installed as captain . Other arrivals included former Manchester City teammate Billy McAdams , forward Ian Lawson and left @-@ back Cliff Mason . He spent £ 53 @,@ 000 to bring John Charles back from Juventus , and though he proved not to be as effective as during his first spell at Leeds , Revie was able to sell him on to Roma for a £ 17 @,@ 000 profit within just a few months . Leeds pushed for promotion in 1962 – 63 , but the harsh winter caused many postponements and a backlog of games at the end of the season proved too much for Leeds , who fell away to finish in fifth place .
United secure promotion as champions of the Second Division in 1963 – 64 , helped by the late signing of striker Alan Peacock from Middlesbrough for £ 53 @,@ 000 . However the overly physical approach typified by captain Collins earned Leeds a reputation as " dirty " that would shadow the club throughout Revie 's tenure as manager and continue to this day . Leeds adapted well to the First Division early in the 1964 – 65 campaign , but caused controversy in Collins 's return to Goodison Park as the game against Everton descended into a brawl and the referee ordered the players off the field after 35 minutes to prevent further violence . Leeds went on to maintain a strong title challenge , finishing second to rivals Manchester United on goal difference after failing to beat Birmingham City on the last day of the season . They also reached the final of the FA Cup , losing 2 – 1 to Liverpool at Wembley after extra @-@ time .
Revie felt he did not have to strengthen his squad for the 1965 – 66 campaign , and made no new signings . With Leeds in the Inter @-@ Cities Fairs Cup he showed his gamesmanship , sending his team out against Italian club Torino wearing unfamiliar numbers in an attempt to confuse the Italian club 's tight man @-@ marking system . However Collins had his leg broken by Torino 's Fabrizio Poletti , meaning Revie had to partner Giles and Bremner in central midfield and sign Huddersfield Town winger Michael O 'Grady for £ 30 @,@ 000 . Although Collins would be missed the partnership of Giles and Bremner would prove highly effective . Leeds again finished second in the league , trailing Liverpool by six points . They reached the semi @-@ finals of the Inter @-@ Cities Fairs Cup , losing on aggregate to Spanish side Real Zaragoza despite Revie ordering the fire brigade to flood the pitch before the replay at Elland Road .
Leeds struggled at the start of the 1966 – 67 season , though despite winning just three of their opening eleven games they went on to finish in fourth place . They reached the semi @-@ finals of the FA Cup , losing 1 – 0 to Chelsea at Villa Park . They reached the final of the Inter @-@ Cities Fairs Cup against Yugoslavian side GNK Dinamo Zagreb , but were unable to scout the opposition due to Syd Owen having his flight cancelled on him ; Leeds lost 2 – 0 on aggregate and Revie was criticised for his negative tactics .
With his team coming close but failing to land a trophy he brought in a gypsy to lift a curse he believed had been placed on Elland Road so that there would be no bad luck for the 1967 – 68 season . A more practical measure he took to increase United 's fortunes was to nearly double the club 's record transfer to buy Sheffield United centre @-@ forward Mick Jones for £ 100 @,@ 000 , who would replace the frequently injured Peacock as the main striker . Soon after the purchase Leeds recorded a 7 – 0 victory over Chelsea , though ironically Jones was not on the score @-@ sheet . Revie 's first trophy would be the League Cup , as they eliminated Luton Town , Bury , Sunderland , Stoke City and Derby County to reach the final against Arsenal ; Terry Cooper scored the only goal of what was a dour and tense final as Revie told his players to " shut up shop " and defend their 1 – 0 lead . This success did not immediately translate into league and FA Cup success however , as they finished in fourth place and were beaten in the FA Cup semi @-@ finals by Everton . They instead reached a second successive Inter @-@ Cities Fairs Cup final , beating CA Spora Luxembourg ( Luxembourg ) , FK Partizan ( Yugoslavia ) , Hibernian ( Scotland ) , Rangers ( Scotland ) , and Dundee ( Scotland ) to reach the final against Hungarian club Ferencvárosi . Leeds won the first leg 1 – 0 , and a month later defended their lead with a 0 – 0 draw in Budapest , by which time Jimmy Greenhoff , a substitute in the first leg , had been sold to Birmingham City .
Having found success in both domestic and European cup competitions , Revie took the decision to focus exclusively on the league for the 1968 – 69 campaign . They went the rest of the season unbeaten in the league following a 5 – 1 defeat to Burnley at Turf Moor on 19 October , and secured the title with a 0 – 0 draw with challengers Liverpool at Anfield ; after the game Revie led his team back out onto the pitch to applaud the Liverpool supporters , who in turn applauded the Leeds team . His team set a number of records : most points ( 67 ) , most wins ( 27 ) , fewest defeats ( 2 ) , and most home points ( 39 ) ; a still @-@ unbroken club record is their 34 match unbeaten run that extended into the following season .
Revie strengthened his front line by breaking the British transfer record with a £ 165 @,@ 000 purchase of Allan Clarke from Leicester City , who would partner Mick Jones up front . This allowed him to sell O 'Grady to Wolverhampton Wanderers for £ 80 @,@ 000 and move Lorimer to a more attacking role . He targeted the treble in 1969 – 70 and came close to achieving his aim only to fail on all three fronts in a congested close season , finishing second in the league to Everton , losing the 1970 FA Cup Final to Chelsea ( after a replay ) , and exiting the European Cup with a semi @-@ final defeat to Celtic in front of a competition record crowd of 136 @,@ 505 at Hampden Park .
Rejecting a £ 100 @,@ 000 four @-@ year contract offer to manage Birmingham City , Revie instead elected to remain at Leeds and stick with the same squad for the 1970 – 71 campaign . Leeds and Arsenal soon pulled away from the rest of the pack , though it would be the Gunners who would claim the league title , finishing one point ahead of Leeds after the latter lost to West Bromwich Albion following a controversial offside goal in front of the Match of the Day television cameras late in the season . United were embarrassed in the FA Cup , being knocked out by Fourth Division side Colchester United in a famous " giant @-@ killing " . Leeds again found success in the Inter @-@ Cities Fairs Cup though , beating Sarpsborg FK ( Norway ) , Dynamo Dresden ( East Germany ) , AC Sparta Prague ( Czechoslovakia ) , Vitória ( Portugal ) and Liverpool to reach the final against Juventus . They drew 2 – 2 at the Stadio Olimpico di Torino before claiming the trophy on away goals after a 1 – 1 draw at Elland Road .
The previous season 's defeat to West Bromwich Albion led to Revie criticising referee Ray Tinkler . As punishment , Leeds were forced to play their first four home games of the 1971 – 72 season at a neutral venue ; they played at Huddersfield 's Leeds Road and boasted four wins and two draws from the opening seven matches . Leeds played good football , particularly winning praise for their 7 – 0 and 6 – 1 wins over Southampton and Nottingham Forest respectively , but again could only finish as runners @-@ up after a late collapse and final day defeat at Wolves , allowing Derby County to claim the title by a single point . Revie had attempted to strengthen his squad before the final run @-@ in with a £ 177 @,@ 000 bid for Asa Hartford , but the deal was cancelled by the medical team who spotted a heart defect in the attacker 's medical records . United reached the 1972 FA Cup Final after beating Bristol Rovers , Liverpool , Cardiff City , Tottenham Hotspur and Birmingham City , and lifted the trophy after a 1 – 0 victory over Arsenal in the final .
Looking for a successor to Jack Charlton , early in the 1972 – 73 season he signed Gordon McQueen from St Mirren for £ 30 @,@ 000 . He also spent £ 100 @,@ 000 on defender Trevor Cherry and £ 35 @,@ 000 on centre @-@ half Roy Ellam , both from Huddersfield Town , and started playing young Scottish forward Joe Jordan more regularly . Leeds again came close to a Treble , but their league title campaign tailed off and they finished third , some seven points behind champions Liverpool . They did reach the 1973 FA Cup Final to face Second Division Sunderland , but despite manager turned pundit Brian Clough 's remark that " there is no way Sunderland can beat Leeds " , United lost 1 – 0 . Leeds also reached the final of the European Cup Winners ' Cup against Italian club A.C. Milan at the Kaftanzoglio Stadium , where they were beaten 1 – 0 following some controversial refereeing from Christos Michas which eventually saw Norman Hunter sent @-@ off after he reacted badly to being consistently fouled by pushing Gianni Rivera to the ground . In 2009 , Yorkshire and the Humber MEP Richard Corbett unsuccessfully petitioned the European Parliament to reverse the result of the match over allegations that Michas accepted a bribe from the Italian side .
Revie was offered a five @-@ year £ 100 @,@ 000 contract ( plus £ 50 @,@ 000 signing @-@ on fee ) by Everton in the summer , but remained with Leeds after the move broke down due to a new law introduced in Parliament that prevented wage rises to curb inflation . He chose to continue with largely the same line @-@ up for the 1973 – 74 season . He told his squad that the aim for the season would be to go unbeaten throughout the campaign . Though Leeds failed to achieve this as they lost three successive games in February / March , they did secure the title with a five @-@ point lead over Liverpool . Completely focused on the league , and finally accepting that he was asking too much of his players to try and win every competition he played weakened teams to allow an early exit from the UEFA Cup . He chose to take the job of England national football team manager ahead of leading a European Cup challenge at Leeds and breaking up the ageing team he had stuck with for many years , and though he was well loved at the club he was not popular with the Leeds boardroom members , who appointed Brian Clough , a fierce critic of Revie as his successor . Despite lasting just 44 days in the job , Clough spent more in transfer fees than Revie had in his 13 years at the club .
= = = England = = =
In July 1974 , Revie accepted the offer of the England manager 's job , succeeding Alf Ramsey and caretaker @-@ manager Joe Mercer . The Football Association , particularly Ted Croker , were impressed with Revie 's personality and ideas . He was a popular appointment with the press and supporters , noted journalist Brian Glanville wrote that " Revie was the obvious choice " . Revie attempted to build a relationship with the media , and also invited 81 prospective and established England players to a meeting in Manchester to make everyone feel included , where he announced that he would establish extra pay for international players as well as bonus payments for wins and draws . He held a meeting with Alan Hardaker , chairman of the Football League , but Hardaker had long resented Revie and was very reluctant to accept his proposal to rearrange league fixtures to benefit the England team . He also had difficult relationships with figures within the FA , most notoriously with chairman Sir Harold Warris Thompson , who allegedly attempted to influence Revie 's team selections and undermine him publicly . As well as this he found difficulty in his attempts to introduce the Leeds traditions into the England camp , such as carpet bowls and bingo , which were met with resentment and disdain by some England internationals . Colin Todd stated that Revie was ill @-@ suited to the England job , with his strengths lying in the day @-@ to @-@ day contact found only in club management rather than the politics and committee meetings of international management .
For UEFA Euro 1976 , England were drawn in a tough qualification group including Czechoslovakia , Portugal and Cyprus , with only the winner progressing to the finals . England began the campaign well with a 3 – 0 victory over Czechoslovakia at Wembley , Mick Channon and Colin Bell scoring the goals . However a 0 – 0 home draw with Portugal was a minor setback , despite Malcolm Macdonald scoring all the goals in a 5 – 0 win over Cyprus following a morale boosting 2 – 0 friendly win over 1974 FIFA World Cup champions West Germany . Kevin Keegan scored the only goal of the game at the Tsirion Stadium to secure maximum points in Cyprus , and leave England
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, according to the Government of Russia , intended to protect children from being exposed to content that portrays homosexuality as being a " behavioural norm " . Emphasis was placed upon a goal to protect " traditional " family values ; bill author Yelena Mizulina ( the chair of the Duma 's Committee on Family , Women , and Children , who has been described by some as a " moral crusader " ) , argued that " traditional " relations between a man and a woman required special protection under Russian law . The amendment also expanded upon similar laws enacted by several Russian regions , including Ryazan , Arkhangelsk ( who repealed its law shortly after the passing of the federal version ) , and Saint Petersburg .
= = Contents = =
Article 1 of the bill amended On Protecting Children from Information Harmful to Their Health and Development with a provision classifying " propaganda of non @-@ traditional sexual relationships " as a class of materials that must not be distributed among minors . The term is defined as materials that are " [ aimed ] at causing minors to form non @-@ traditional sexual predispositions , notions of attractiveness of non @-@ traditional sexual relationships , distorted ideas about the equal social value of traditional and non @-@ traditional sexual relationships , or imposing information about non @-@ traditional sexual relationships which raises interest in such relationships insofar as these acts do not amount to a criminal offence . " Article 2 makes similar amendments to " On basic guarantees for the rights of the child in the Russian Federation " , commanding the government to protect children from such material .
Article 3 of the bill amended the Code of the Russian Federation on Administrative Offenses with Article 6 @.@ 21 , which prescribes penalties for violations of the propaganda ban : Russian citizens found guilty can receive fines of up to 5 @,@ 000 rubles , and public officials can receive fines of up to 50 @,@ 000 rubles . Organizations or businesses can be fined up to 1 million rubles and be forced to cease operations for up to 90 days . Foreigners may be arrested and detained for up to 15 days then deported , or fined up to 5 @,@ 000 rubles and deported . The fines for individuals are much higher if the offense was committed using mass media or internet .
= = Reaction = =
According to a survey conducted in June 2013 by the All @-@ Russian Center for the Study of Public Opinion ( also known as VTsIOM ) , at least 90 percent of Russians surveyed were in favour of the law . Over 100 conservative groups worldwide signed a petition in support for the law , with Larry Jacobs , manager of the World Congress of Families , supporting its aim to " prohibit advocacy aimed at involving minors in a lifestyle that would imperil their physical and moral health . " President of Russia Vladimir Putin answered to early objections to the then @-@ proposed bill in April 2013 by stating that " I want everyone to understand that in Russia there are no infringements on sexual minorities ' rights . They 're people , just like everyone else , and they enjoy full rights and freedoms " . He went on to say that he fully intended to sign the bill because the Russian people demanded it . As he put it , " Can you imagine an organization promoting pedophilia in Russia ? I think people in many Russian regions would have started to take up arms .... The same is true for sexual minorities : I can hardly imagine same @-@ sex marriages being allowed in Chechnya . Can you imagine it ? It would have resulted in human casualties . " Putin also mentioned that he was concerned about Russia 's low birth rate , as same @-@ sex relationships do not produce children . In August 2013 , Russian Sports Minister Vitaly Mutko also defended the law , equating it to protecting children from content that glorifies alcohol abuse or drug addiction . He also argued that the controversy over the law and its effects was " invented " by the Western media .
= = = Criticism = = =
The passing of the law was met with major international backlash , especially from the Western world , as critics considered it an attempt to effectively ban the promotion of LGBT rights and culture in the country . Article 19 disputed the claimed intent of the law , and felt that many of the terms used within were too ambiguous , such as the aforementioned " non @-@ traditional sexual relationships " , and " raises interest in " . The organization argued that it " feasibly could apply to any information regarding sexual orientation or gender identity that does not fit with what the State considers as in @-@ line with ' tradition ' . " The use of the term " among minors " was also criticized , as it was unclear whether it refers to being in the presence of minors , or any place where minors could be present , arguing that " predicting the presence of children in any space , on @-@ line or off @-@ line , is quite impossible and is a variable that the proponent of any expression will rarely be in absolute control of . "
LGBT rights activists , human rights activists , and other critics stated that the broad and vague wording of the law , which was characterized as a ban on " gay propaganda " by the media , made it a crime to publicly make statements or distribute materials in support of LGBT rights , hold pride parades or similar demonstrations , state that gay relationships are equal to heterosexual relationships , or according to Human Rights Campaign ( HRC ) president Chad Griffin , even display LGBT symbols such as the rainbow flag or kiss a same @-@ sex partner in public . The first arrest made under the law involved a person who publicly protested with a sign containing a pro @-@ LGBT message .
The legislation was also alleged to lead to an increase in homophobic violence in Russia by groups opposed to the LGBT rights movement ; Russian LGBT Network chairman Igor Kochetkov argued that the law " [ has ] essentially legalised violence against LGBT people , because these groups of hooligans justify their actions with these laws , " supported by their belief that gays and lesbians are " not valued as a social group " by the federal government . Reports surfaced of activity by groups such as ' Occupy Paedophilia ' and ' Parents of Russia ' , who lured alleged " paedophiles " into " dates " where they were tortured and humiliated . In August 2013 , it was reported that a gay teenager was kidnapped , tortured , and killed by a group of Russian Neo @-@ Nazis . Violence also increased during pro @-@ gay demonstrations ; on 29 July 2013 , a gay pride demonstration at Saint Petersburg 's Field of Mars resulted in a violent clash between activists , protesters , and police .
In January 2014 , a letter , co @-@ written by chemist Sir Harry Kroto and actor Sir Ian McKellen and co @-@ signed by 27 Nobel laureates from the fields of science and the arts , was sent to Vladamir Putin urging him to repeal the propaganda law as it " inhibits the freedom of local and foreign LGBT communities . " In February 2014 , the activist group Queer Nation announced a planned protest in New York City outside the Russian consulate on 6 February 2014 , timed to coincide with the opening ceremonies of the 2014 Winter Olympics . The same day , gay rights group All Out similarly coordinated worldwide protests in London , New York City , Paris , and Rio de Janeiro . On 8 February 2014 , a flash mob was held in Cambridge , England featuring same @-@ sex couples embracing and hugging , as part of a video project known as " From Russia With Love " .
Writing for The Guardian , Marc Bennetts argued that criticism of the law by foreign outlets had ties to anti @-@ Russian sentiment ; describing their response as being " both hysterical and hypocritical " , he acknowledged that countries had been inconsistent on their treatment of other countries for their stances on LGBT rights . He noted that Russia 's laws did not ban LGBT relationships as a whole , and did not go as far as those in other countries , such as India — which had recently reinstated a ban on same @-@ sex sexual activity , and Nigeria , which criminalized same @-@ sex marriage with sentences of up to 14 years ' imprisonment , and membership in pro @-@ gay groups with up to 10 years ' imprisonment . In conclusion , he stated that " in reality , there is little the west can do to influence Russia , on gay rights or anything else . But to stand even a chance , criticism needs to be measured , accurate and , above all , consistent . There are enough reasons to disapprove of Putin 's authoritarian regime without resorting to hyperbole and falsehoods . "
= = = Protests = = =
A number of protests were held against the law , both locally and internationally . Activists demonstrated outside New York City 's Lincoln Center at the opening night of the Metropolitan Opera on 23 September 2013 , which was set to feature Tchaikovsky 's opera Eugene Onegin . The protests targeted Tchaikovsky 's own homosexuality , and the involvement of two Russians in the production ; soprano Anna Netrebko and conductor Valery Gergiev , as they were identified as vocal supporters of Putin 's government .
On 12 October 2013 , the day following National Coming Out Day , a protest organized by at least 15 activists was held in Saint Petersburg . The protest site was occupied by a large number of demonstrators , some of whom were dressed as Russian Orthodox priests and Cossacks . In total , 67 protestors were arrested for creating a public disturbance .
Activists also called for a boycott of Stolichnaya vodka , who had prominently branded itself as a Russian vodka ( going as far as to dub itself " [ the ] Mother of All Vodkas from The Motherland of Vodka " in an ad campaign ) . However , its Luxembourg @-@ based parent company , Soiuzplodoimport , responded to the boycott effort , noting that the company was not technically Russian , did not support the government 's opinion on homosexuality , and described itself as a " fervent supporter and friend " of LGBT people .
= = Prosecutions and other effects = =
The first arrest made under the propaganda law occurred just hours after it was passed : 24 @-@ year @-@ old activist Dmitry Isakov was arrested in Kazan for publicly holding a sign reading " Freedom to the Gays and Lesbians of Russia . Down With Fascists and Homophobes " , and ultimately fined 4 @,@ 000 rubles ( US $ 115 ) . Isakov had performed a similar protest in the same location the previous day as a " test " run , but was later caught in an altercation with police officers who targeted his pro @-@ gay activism , and arrested him for swearing . He would be released without charge , but pledged to return there the next day to show that he would " not be cowed by such pressure . " Isakov also claimed that he had been fired from his job at a bank as a result of the conviction .
In December 2013 , Nikolay Alexeyev and Yaroslav Yevtushenko were fined 4 @,@ 000 rubles ( US $ 115 ) for picketing outside a children 's library in Arkhangelsk with banners reading , " Gays aren 't made , they 're born ! " Their appeal was denied . Alexeyev later criticized Western media outlets for its " biased " coverage of his conviction .
In January 2014 , Alexander Suturin , editor @-@ in @-@ chief of the Khabarovsk newspaper Molodoi Dalnevostochnik , was fined 50 @,@ 000 rubles ( US $ 1 @,@ 400 ) for publishing a news story discussing the teacher Alexander Yermoshkin , who had been fired for self @-@ admittedly holding " rainbow flash mobs " in Khabarovsk with his students , and was subsequently attacked by right @-@ wing extremist groups because of his sexuality . The fine centred around a quote in the article by the teacher , who stated that his very existence was " effective proof that homosexuality is normal . "
Elena Klimova has been charged under the law multiple times for operating Children @-@ 404 — an online support group for LGBT youth on the social networking services VKontakte and Facebook . The first of these charges was overturned in February 2014 , after a court ruled in consultation with a mental health professional that the group " helps teenagers exploring their sexuality to deal with difficult emotional issues and other problems that they may encounter " , and that these activities did not constitute " propaganda of non @-@ traditional sexual relationships " as defined under the law . In January 2015 , Klimova was sent to court for the same charges . They were overturned on appeal , only for the same court to convict Kilmova and issue a fine of 50 @,@ 000 rubles in July 2015 , pending an appeal .
In May 2014 , it was revealed that in accordance with the propaganda law , the computer game The Sims 4 — a new instalment in a life simulation game franchise that has historically allowed characters to participate in same @-@ sex relationships , had been given a " 18 + " rating , allowing its sale to adults only . In contrast , the pan @-@ European ratings board PEGI has historically given The Sims games a " 12 " rating , while the German rating board USK had given The Sims 3 an even lower " 6 + " rating .
In November 2014 , one day after current Apple Inc . CEO Tim Cook publicly announced that he was proud of being gay , it was reported that an iPhone @-@ shaped memorial honoring Apple founder Steve Jobs had been removed from a Saint Petersburg university campus by its installer , the West European Financial Union [ ZEFS ] , which issued a press release citing the law and noting that the memorial was in an area frequented by minors . However , the reports were later found to be a hoax , and the monument had actually been removed for maintenance . In September 2015 , Apple became the subject of an investigation by officials in Kirov for implementing emoji on its operating systems which depict same @-@ sex relationships , over whether they may constitute a promotion of non @-@ traditional sexual relationships to minors . Roskomnadzor later ruled that by themselves , emoji depicting same @-@ sex couples did not constitute a violation of the propaganda law , as whether they have a positive or negative connotation depends on their actual context and usage .
= = = Effects on sports = = =
The 2013 World Championships in Athletics , held at Moscow 's Luzhniki Stadium in August 2013 , were overshadowed by comments and protests over the law by athletes . After winning a silver medal at the event , U.S. runner Nick Symmonds stated that " whether you 're gay , straight , black , white , we all deserve the same rights . If there 's anything I can do to champion the cause and further it , I will , shy of getting arrested . " Swedish athletes Emma Green Tregaro and Moa Hjelmer painted her fingernails in rainbow colors as a symbolic protest . However , Tregaro was forced to re @-@ paint them after they were deemed a political gesture that violated the rules of the IAAF . In response , she re @-@ painted them red as a symbol of love . Russian pole vaulter Yelena Isinbaeva criticized Tregaro 's gesture as being disrespectful to the host country , stating in a press conference that " we have our law which everyone has to respect . When we go to different countries , we try to follow their rules . We are not trying to set our rules over there . We are just trying to be respectful . " After Isinbaeva 's remarks were characterized as being homophobic , she argued that her choice of words had been misinterpreted by the media , and that she was against the discrimination of gays .
The implications of the law on Russia 's hosting of two major international sporting events ; the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi ( where seven LGBT athletes , all female , were expected to compete ) and the 2018 FIFA World Cup , were called into question . In the case of the World Cup , FIFA had recently established an anti @-@ discrimination task force , and was also facing criticism for awarding the 2022 World Cup to the country of Qatar , where homosexuality is illegal ; in August 2013 , FIFA requested information from the Russian government on the law and its potential effects on the association football tournament . In the case of the Winter Olympics , critics considered the law to be inconsistent with the Olympic Charter , which states that " [ discrimination ] on grounds of race , religion , politics , gender or otherwise is incompatible with belonging to the Olympic Movement . " In August 2013 , the International Olympic Committee " received assurances from the highest level of government in Russia that the legislation will not affect those attending or taking part in the Games " , and also received word that the government would abide by the Olympic Charter . The IOC also confirmed that it would enforce Rule 50 of the Olympic Charter , which forbids political protest , against athletes who make displays of support for the LGBT community at the Games . Vladimir Putin also made similar assurances prior to the Games , but warned LGBT attendees that they would still be subject to the law .
Athletes and supporters used the Olympics as leverage for further campaigns against the propaganda law . A number of athletes came out as lesbian , gay , or bisexual to spread awareness of the situation in Russia , including Australian snowboarder Belle Brockhoff , Canadian speed skater Anastasia Bucsis , gold medal figure skater Brian Boitano , and Finnish swimmer Ari @-@ Pekka Liukkonen . There were also calls to boycott the Games , drawing comparisons to the Summer Olympics of 1980 in Moscow , the last time the Olympics were held on what is now Russian soil . A campaign known as Principle 6 was established in collaboration between a group of Olympic athletes , the organizations All Out and Athlete Ally , and clothing maker American Apparel , selling merchandise ( such as clothing ) with a quotation from the Olympic Charter to support pro @-@ LGBT organizations . Toronto advertising copywriter Brahm Finkelstein also began to market a rainbow @-@ coloured matryoshka doll set known as " Pride Dolls " , designed by Italian artist Danilo Santino , to benefit the Gay and Lesbian International Sport Association , organizers of the World OutGames .
Action was leveraged directly against Olympic sponsors and partners as well ; in late @-@ August 2013 , the Human Rights Campaign sent letters to the ten Worldwide Olympic Partner companies , urging them to show opposition towards anti @-@ LGBT laws , denounce homophobic violence , ask the IOC to obtain written commitments for the safety of LGBT athletes and attendees , and oppose future Olympic bids from countries that outlaw support for LGBT equality . In February 2014 , prior to the games , a group of 40 human rights organizations ( including Athlete Ally , Freedom House , Human Rights Campaign , Human Rights Watch and Russian LGBT network among others ) also sent a joint letter to the Worldwide Olympic Partners , urging them to use their prominence to support the rights of LGBT athletes under the Olympic Charter , and pressure the IOC to show greater scrutiny towards the human rights abuses of future host countries . On 3 February 2014 , USOC sponsor AT & T issued a statement in support of LGBT rights at the Games , becoming the first major Olympic advertiser to condemn the laws . Several major non @-@ sponsors also made pro @-@ LGBT statements to coincide with the opening of the Games ; Google placed a quotation from the Olympic Charter and an Olympic @-@ themed logo in the colours of the rainbow flag on its home page worldwide , while Channel 4 ( who serves as the official British broadcaster of the Paralympics ) adopted a rainbow @-@ coloured logo and broadcast a " celebratory " , pro @-@ LGBT advert entitled " Gay Mountain " on 7 February 2014 , alongside an interview with former rugby union player and anti @-@ homophobia activist Ben Cohen . As part of its Dispatches series , Channel 4 had also broadcast a documentary during the week of the Opening Ceremony entitled Hunted , which documented the violence and abuse against LGBT people in Russia in the wake of the law .
= USS Maine ( BB @-@ 10 ) =
USS Maine ( BB @-@ 10 ) , the lead ship of her class of pre @-@ dreadnought battleships , was the second ship of the United States Navy to be named in honor of the 23rd state . Maine was laid down in February 1899 at the William Cramp & Sons shipyard in Philadelphia . She was launched in July 1901 and commissioned into the fleet in December 1902 . She was armed with a main battery of four 12 @-@ inch ( 300 mm ) guns and could steam at a top speed of 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) .
Maine served in the Atlantic for the entirety of her career with the North Atlantic Fleet , which later became the Atlantic Fleet ; during the early years of her service , she was the fleet flagship , until she was replaced in 1907 . Later that year , she joined the cruise of the Great White Fleet , though her heavy coal consumption prevented her from continuing with the fleet past San Francisco . After returning to the U.S. , she served as the 3rd Squadron flagship . During America 's participation in World War I from April 1917 to November 1918 , Maine was used as a training ship . She remained in active service until May 1920 , when she was decommissioned . The ship was ultimately sold for scrap in January 1922 and broken up for scrap under the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty signed that year .
= = Description = =
Maine was 393 feet 11 inches ( 120 @.@ 07 m ) long overall and had a beam of 72 ft 3 in ( 22 @.@ 02 m ) and a draft of 24 ft 4 in ( 7 @.@ 42 m ) . She displaced 12 @,@ 846 long tons ( 13 @,@ 052 t ) as designed and up to 13 @,@ 700 long tons ( 13 @,@ 900 t ) at full load . The ship was powered by two @-@ shaft triple @-@ expansion steam engines rated at 16 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 12 @,@ 000 kW ) and twenty @-@ four coal @-@ fired Niclausse boilers , generating a top speed of 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) . As built , she was fitted with heavy military masts , but these were quickly replaced by cage masts in 1909 . She had a crew of 561 officers and enlisted men , which increased to 779 – 813 .
The ship was armed with a main battery of four 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) / 40 caliber guns in two twin gun turrets on the centerline , one forward and aft . The secondary battery consisted of sixteen 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) / 45 Mark 6 guns , which were placed in casemates in the hull . For close @-@ range defense against torpedo boats , she carried six 3 @-@ inch / 50 guns mounted in casemates along the side of the hull , eight 3 @-@ pounder guns , and six 1 @-@ pounder guns . As was standard for capital ships of the period , Maine carried two 18 @-@ inch ( 460 mm ) torpedo tubes , submerged in her hull on the broadside .
Maine 's main armored belt was 11 inches ( 279 mm ) thick over the magazines and the machinery spaces and 8 inches ( 203 mm ) elsewhere . The main battery gun turrets had 12 @-@ inch ( 300 mm ) thick faces , and the supporting barbettes had the same thickness of armor plating on their exposed sides . Armor that was 6 in thick protected the secondary battery . The conning tower had 10 @-@ inch ( 250 mm ) thick sides .
= = Service history = =
Maine was built by the William Cramp & Sons shipyard in Philadelphia ; her keel was laid down on 15 February 1899 . The ship was launched on 27 July 1901 and commissioned into the fleet on 29 December 1902 . Maine operated with the North Atlantic Fleet starting in 1903 ; over the next four years , she took part in various peacetime training exercises in the Atlantic and Caribbean . During this period she also steamed to the Mediterranean . She served as the flagship of Rear Admiral Robley D. Evans . On 16 April 1907 , Evans transferred his flag to the newly commissioned battleship Connecticut .
Maine 's next significant action was the cruise of the Great White Fleet around the world , which started with a naval review for President Theodore Roosevelt in Hampton Roads . On 17 December , the fleet steamed out of Hampton Roads and cruised south to the Caribbean and then to South America , making stops in Port of Spain , Rio de Janeiro , Punta Arenas , and Valparaíso , among other cities . After arriving in Mexico in March 1908 , the fleet spent three weeks conducting gunnery practice . The fleet then resumed its voyage up the Pacific coast of the Americas , stopping in San Francisco , where Maine was detached from the rest of the fleet . The ship 's boilers had proved to be badly inefficient , requiring excessive amounts of coal to keep up with the fleet . The battleship Alabama also left the fleet , owing to a cracked cylinder head .
Maine and Alabama crossed the Pacific independently , via Guam and the Philippines . After steaming through the Indian Ocean , they transited the Suez Canal and cruised the Mediterranean . They crossed the Atlantic and arrived back on the east coast of the United States in October 1908 , well ahead of the rest of the Great White Fleet . Following their arrival , Maine was assigned as the flagship of the 3rd Squadron , Atlantic Fleet , and operated off the east coast for the next several months . On 14 February , Maine , the new battleships New Hampshire , Mississippi , and Idaho , two armored cruisers and two scout cruisers were organized to meet the returning Great White Fleet . Maine and the rest of the squadron , under the command of Rear Admiral Conway Hillyer Arnold , steamed out into the Atlantic and rendezvoused with the Great White Fleet on 17 February . The combined fleet arrived in Hampton Roads on the 22nd , where a large naval review was held for President Theodore Roosevelt to celebrate the journey . On 31 August 1909 , the ship was temporarily decommissioned at Portsmouth , New Hampshire . She returned to service on 15 June 1911 for duty with the Atlantic Fleet .
On 6 April 1917 , the United States declared war on Germany , entering World War I. During the war , Maine was employed as a training ship for engine room personnel , armed guards for merchant ships , and midshipmen from the US Naval Academy . On 11 November 1918 , Germany signed the Armistice that ended the conflict . Maine participated in a naval review held in New York on 26 December to celebrate the Allied victory . At the time , most of the battleships of the Atlantic Fleet were used as transports to ferry American soldiers back from France . Maine and her sisters were not so employed , however , owing to their short range and small size , which would not permit sufficient additional accommodations . Maine instead remained on the east coast with the Atlantic Fleet . On 15 May 1920 , she was decommissioned at the Philadelphia Navy Yard and was reclassified as BB @-@ 10 on 17 July . She was kept laid up for a year and a half before being sold on 23 January 1922 to J.G. Hitner and W.F. Cutler of Philadelphia , to be broken up for scrap . By 17 December 1923 , she had been disarmed in accordance with the Washington Naval Treaty , which mandated significant reductions in naval strength . Maine was then scrapped .
= Ohio State Route 710 =
State Route 710 ( SR 710 ) is a 4 @.@ 06 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 6 @.@ 53 km ) state highway in the central portion of the U.S. state of Ohio . Existing entirely within the northern portion of the city of Columbus , SR 710 begins at an intersection with SR 161 , less than one @-@ quarter mile ( 0 @.@ 40 km ) west of exit 117 off of Interstate 71 ( I @-@ 71 ) . The highway ends at a seven @-@ ramp partial cloverleaf interchange with I @-@ 270 at its exit 27 .
SR 710 was established in 1969 . Although signed as an east – west route , the overall path of this route is that of an irregularly shaped inverted " U " , with its westernmost and easternmost portions following north – south roadways .
= = Route description = =
The entire length of SR 710 lies within the northern portion of Franklin County , and entirely within the city limits of Columbus . SR 710 starts at SR 161 . The first part of SR 710 is located in Busch Boulevard , a north – south road . SR 710 's western terminus is located in Busch , a business area . Later , Busch Boulevard ends and SR 710 turns east to Schrock Road and later makes a turn south to Cleveland Avenue , another north – south road . Here , SR 710 makes up the border of Northgate , a residential area . The route ends at a seven @-@ ramp partial cloverleaf interchange with I @-@ 270 that features loop ramps in all but the northwestern quadrant . SR 710 is not included as a part of the National Highway System .
= = History = =
The SR 710 designation was applied in 1969 . Since its inception , it has utilized the same alignment between SR 161 and I @-@ 270 in the northern portion of Columbus . Currently , safety , capacity , and aesthetic improvements are being designed for Cleveland Avenue and Schrock Road .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Columbus , Franklin County .
= Philip Morrison =
Philip Morrison ( November 7 , 1915 – April 22 , 2005 ) was a professor of physics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology ( MIT ) . He is known for his work on the Manhattan Project during World War II , and for his later work in quantum physics , nuclear physics and high energy astrophysics .
A graduate of Carnegie Tech , Morrison became interested in physics , which he studied at the University of California , Berkeley , under the supervision of J. Robert Oppenheimer . He also joined the Communist Party . During World War II he joined the Manhattan Project 's Metallurgical Laboratory at the University of Chicago , where he worked with Eugene Wigner on the design of nuclear reactors .
In 1944 he moved to the Manhattan Project 's Los Alamos Laboratory in New Mexico , where he worked with George Kistiakowsky on the development of explosive lenses required to detonate the implosion @-@ type nuclear weapon . Morrison transported the core of the Trinity test device to the test site in the back seat of a Dodge sedan . As leader of Project Alberta 's pit crew he helped load the atomic bombs on board the aircraft that participated in the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki . After the war ended , he traveled to Hiroshima as part of the Manhattan Project 's mission to assess the damage .
After the war he became a champion of nuclear nonproliferation . He wrote for the Bulletin of Atomic Scientists , and helped found the Federation of American Scientists and the Institute for Defense and Disarmament Studies . He was one of the few ex @-@ communists to remain employed and academically active throughout the 1950s , but his research turned away from nuclear physics towards astrophysics . He published papers on cosmic rays , and a 1958 paper of his is considered to mark the birth of gamma ray astronomy . He was also known for writing popular science books and articles , and appearing in television programs .
= = Early life and education = =
Philip Morrison was born in Somerville , New Jersey , November 7 , 1915 , the only son of Moses Morrison and Tillie Rosenbloom . He had a younger sister , Gail . The family moved to Pittsburgh when he was two . He contracted polio when he was four , and as a result wore a calliper on one leg , and spent his last years in a wheelchair .
Because of his polio , Morrison did not commence school until the third grade . On graduating from high school he entered Carnegie Tech , planning to major in electrical engineering . While there he became interested in physics . He earned his Bachelor of Science ( B.S. ) in 1936 . He then entered the University of California , Berkeley , where he earned his PhD in theoretical physics in 1940 under the supervision of J. Robert Oppenheimer , writing his thesis on " Three Problems in Atomic Electrodynamics " .
In 1938 , Morrison married Emily Kramer , a girl he had known in high school , and a fellow Carnegie Tech graduate . They divorced in 1961 . In 1965 he married Phylis Hagen . They remained together until Phylis died in 2002 .
= = Manhattan Project = =
After he finished his Ph.D. Morrison took a position as an instructor at San Francisco State College . In 1941 he became an instructor at the University of Illinois . In December 1942 , with World War II raging around the globe , he was recruited by Robert F. Christy to join the Manhattan Project 's Metallurgical Laboratory at the University of Chicago in January 1943 . There he worked with Eugene Wigner on the design of nuclear reactors .
Concerned about the danger from the German nuclear energy project , Morrison helped persuade the director of the Manhattan Project , Brigadier General Leslie R. Groves , Jr . , to initiate the Alsos Mission in order to gather information on it .
With the work in Chicago winding down in mid @-@ 1944 , Morrison moved to the Manhattan Project 's Los Alamos Laboratory in New Mexico as a group leader . His first task was to help determine how much plutonium a bomb would require . He calculated that 6 kilograms ( 13 lb ) would be sufficient . He then worked with George Kistiakowsky on the explosive lenses required to detonate the implosion @-@ type nuclear weapon .
Morrison transported the core of the Trinity test gadget to the test site in the back seat of a Dodge sedan . He was an eyewitness to the test on July 16 , 1945 , and wrote a report on it . A month later , as leader of Project Alberta 's pit crew , he helped load the atomic bombs on board the aircraft that participated in the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki . After the war ended , Morrison and Robert Serber traveled to Hiroshima as part of the Manhattan Project 's mission to assess the damage .
= = Activism = =
Morrison returned to Los Alamos , where he remained until 1946 . He turned down an offer from Ernest O. Lawrence to return to Berkeley , and instead accepted an invitation from Hans Bethe to join him at the physics faculty at Cornell University .
After surveying the destruction left by the use of the atom bomb in Hiroshima , Morrison became a champion of nuclear nonproliferation . He wrote for the Bulletin of Atomic Scientists , and helped found the Federation of American Scientists and the Institute for Defense and Disarmament Studies . He testified before Congress on the need for civilian control of nuclear energy , and participated in the Civil Rights Congress in New York and the Cultural and Scientific Conference for World Peace in 1949 . That year , Life magazine included his image in a gallery of " America 's 50 most eminent dupes and fellow travellers " .
Morrison had joined the Communist Party while he was at Berkeley . The House Un @-@ American Activities Committee devoted four pages of a 1951 report to his activities , and in 1953 , he was called before the Senate Internal Security Subcommittee . Theodore Paul Wright , the President of Cornell , was put under great pressure from board members and alumni to fire Morrison , but Bethe remained supportive , and Robert R. Wilson declared that Morrison had " demonstrated his patriotism by the distinguished role he played in the wartime development of the atomic bomb . "
Deane Malott , who became president of Cornell in 1951 , was much less sympathetic , and instructed Morrison to curtail all activities beyond his academic field . Morrison agreed to do so in 1954 . Nonetheless , he was one of the few ex @-@ communists to remain employed and academically active throughout the 1950s .
In 1999 , writer Jeremy Stone alleged that Morrison had been the Soviet spy Perseus , a charge that Morrison strongly and credibly rebutted . Stone accepted his rebuttal .
= = Academic work = =
Morrison co @-@ wrote a paper with Leonard I. Schiff in 1940 in which they calculated the gamma rays emitted by the process of K @-@ electron capture . Initially at Cornell after the war , Morrison continued working in nuclear physics , collaborating with Bethe on a textbook , Elementary Nuclear Physics ( 1952 ) , one of the early treatments of the relatively new field .
Following his political stances , Morrison 's attention began drifting towards the stars . In 1954 , he published a paper with Bruno Rossi and Stanislaw Olbert in which they explored Enrico Fermi 's theory of how cosmic rays travel through the galaxy . Morrison followed this up with a review of theories of the origins of cosmic rays in 1957 . A 1958 paper in Nuovo Cimento is considered to mark the birth of gamma ray astronomy .
In collaboration with Giuseppe Cocconi , Morrison published a paper in 1959 proposing the potential of microwaves in the search for interstellar communications , a component of the modern SETI program . This was one of the first proposals for detecting extraterrestrial intelligence . He conceded that " The probability of success is difficult to estimate , but if we never search , the chance of success is zero . "
Morrison remained at Cornell until 1964 , when he went to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology ( MIT ) . He remained there for the remainder of his career , becoming Institute Professor in 1976 , and Institute Professor Emeritus in 1986 . In 1963 , working in collaboration with a student of his , James Felten , Morrison had investigated the effect of inverse Compton scattering , an important source of cosmic x @-@ rays and gamma rays . At MIT , Morrison teamed up with Bruno Rossi 's x @-@ ray group there , and also with Riccardo Giacconi 's group at nearby American Science and Engineering . Morrison became deeply involved in the exploration of the cosmos through its x @-@ ray and gamma ray emissions . In a 1960 paper , he noted the similarities between pulsars and quasars . He returned to this in 1976 , applying his model to the radio galaxy Cygnus A.
= = Media work = =
Morrison was known for his numerous books and television programs . He produced 68 popular science articles between 1949 and 1976 , ten in issues of Scientific American . He provided the narration and script for Powers of Ten in 1977 . With his wife , Phylis , they turned the same material into a coffee table book in 1982 . He also appeared as himself in the science documentary film Target ... Earth ? in 1980 . In 1987 , PBS aired his six part miniseries , The Ring of Truth : An Inquiry into How We Know What We Know , which he also hosted . In addition , he was a columnist and reviewer of books on science for Scientific American starting in 1965 .
In later life he was a critic of the Strategic Defense Initiative . He authored or co @-@ authored a number of books critical of the Cold War and the nuclear arms race , including Winding Down : The Price of Defense ( 1979 ) , The Nuclear Almanac ( 1984 ) , Reason Enough to Hope ( 1998 ) Beyond the Looking Glass ( 1993 ) .
= = Recognition = =
Morrison was a fellow of the American Physical Society , and chairman of the Federation of American Scientists from 1973 to 1976 . He was also a member of the National Academy of Sciences , the International Astronomical Union , the American Association of Physics Teachers , the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and the American Philosophical Society .
Over his lifetime , Morrison received numerous honors and awards . He delivered the 1968 Royal Institution Christmas Lectures on Gulliver 's Laws : The Physics of Large and Small , and the 1982 Jansky Lectureship before the National Radio Astronomy Observatory . He was awarded the Presidential Award and Pregel Prize of the New York Academy of Sciences , the Babson Prize of the Gravity Foundation , the American Association for the Advancement of Science 's Westinghouse Science Writing Award , the American Association of Physics Teachers 's Oersted Medal , the Dickinson College Priestly Medallion , Minnesota Museum of Science Public Science Medal , the American Institute of Physics 's Andrew Gemant Award , the Astronomical Society of the Pacific 's Klumpke @-@ Roberts Award , the John P. McGovern Science and Society Award , the William Procter Prize for Scientific Achievement. and , with his wife Phylis , the Wheeler Prize by the Boston Museum of Science .
= = Death = =
Morrison died in his sleep of a respiratory failure at his home in Cambridge , Massachusetts , on April 22 , 2005 . He was survived by his stepson Bert Singer .
= Jack jumper ant =
The jack jumper ant ( Myrmecia pilosula ) , commonly known as the hopper ant , jumper ant or jumping jack , is a species of venomous ant native to Australia . Most commonly found in Tasmania and southeast Australia , it is a member of the genus Myrmecia , subfamily Myrmeciinae , and was formally described and named by British entomologist Frederick Smith in 1858 . This species is known for the ability to jump long distances . These ants are large ; workers and males are approximately the same size : 12 to 14 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 47 to 0 @.@ 55 in ) for workers , and 11 to 12 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 43 to 0 @.@ 47 in ) for males . The queen measures approximately 14 to 16 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 55 to 0 @.@ 63 in ) in length and is similar in appearance to workers , whereas males are identifiable by their perceptibly smaller mandibles .
Jack jumper ants are primarily active during the day and live in open habitats , nesting in bushland , woodland and dry open forests , surrounded by gravel and sandy soil , which can be found in rural areas and are less common in urban areas . They prey on small insects and use their barbless stinger to kill other insects by injecting venom . Other ants and predatory invertebrates prey on the jack jumper . The average worker has a life expectancy of over one year . Workers are gamergates , allowing them to reproduce with drones , whether or not a queen is present in the colony . The ant is a part of the Myrmecia pilosula species complex ; this ant and other members of the complex are known to have a single pair of chromosomes .
Their sting generally only causes a mild local reaction in humans ; however , it is one of the few ant species that can be dangerous to humans , along with other ants in the genus Myrmecia . The ant venom is particularly immunogenic for an insect venom ; the venom causes about 90 % of Australian ant allergies . In endemic areas , up to 3 % of the human population has developed an allergy to the venom and about half of these allergic people can suffer from anaphylactic reactions ( increased heart rate , falling blood pressure , and other symptoms ) , which can lead to death on rare occasions . Between 1980 and 2000 , there were four deaths due to anaphylaxis from jack jumper stings , all of them in Tasmania . Individuals prone to severe allergic reactions caused by the ant 's sting can be treated with allergen immunotherapy ( desensitisation ) .
= = Taxonomy and common names = =
The specific name derives from the Latin word pilose , meaning ' covered with soft hair ' . The ant was first identified in 1858 by British entomologist Frederick Smith in his Catalogue of hymenopterous insects in the collection of the British Museum part VI , under the binomial name Myrmecia pilosula from specimens he collected in Hobart in Tasmania . There , Smith described the specimens of a worker , queen and male . The type specimen is located in the British Museum in London . In 1922 , American entomologist William Morton Wheeler established the subgenus Halmamyrmecia characterised by its jumping behaviour , of which the jack jumper ant was designated as the type species . However , John Clark later synonymised Halmamyrmecia under the subgenus Promyrmecia in 1927 and placed the ant in the subgenus in 1943 . William Brown synonymised Promyrmecia due to the lack of morphological evidence that would make it distinct from Myrmecia and later placed the jack jumper ant in the genus in 1953 .
One synonym for the species has been published – Ponera ruginoda ( also titled Myrmecia ruginoda ) , described by Smith in the same work , and a male holotype specimen was originally described for this synonym . Ponera ruginoda was initially placed into the genera Ectatomma and Rhytidoponera , but it was later classified as a junior synonym of the jack jumper ant , after specimens of each were compared . The ant is a part of the Myrmecia pilosula species complex , a species group that was first defined by Italian entomologist Carlo Emery . The species complex is a monophyletic group , where the species are closely related to each other but their actual genetic relationship is distant . Members of this group include M. apicalis , M. chasei , M. chrysogaster , M. croslandi , M. cydista , M. dispar , M. elegans , M. harderi , M. ludlowi , M. michaelseni , M. occidentalis M. queenslandica , M. rugosa and M. varians . Additional species that were described in this group in 2015 include M. banksi , M. haskinsorum , M. imaii and M. impaternata .
Their characteristic jumping motion when agitated or foraging inspires the common name " jack jumper " , a behaviour also shared with other Myrmecia ants , such as Myrmecia nigrocincta . This is the most common name for the ant , along with " black jumper , " " hopper ant " , " jumper ant " , " jumping ant " , " jumping jack " and " skipper ant " . It is also named after the jumping @-@ jack firecracker . The species is a member of the genus Myrmecia , a part of the subfamily Myrmeciinae .
= = Description = =
Like its relatives , the ant possesses a powerful sting and large mandibles . These ants can be black or blackish @-@ red in colour , and may have yellow or orange legs . The ant is medium @-@ sized in comparison to other Myrmecia species , where workers are typically 12 to 14 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 47 to 0 @.@ 55 in ) long . Excluding mandibles , jack jumpers measure 10 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 39 in ) in length . The ant 's antennae , tibiae , tarsi and mandibles are also yellow or orange . Pubescence ( hair ) on the ant is greyish , short and erect , and is longer and more abundant on their gaster , absent on their antennae , and short and suberect on their legs . The pubescence on the male is grey and long , and abundant throughout the ant 's body , but it shortens on the legs . The mandibles are long and slender ( measuring 4 @.@ 2 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 17 in ) ) , and concaves around the outer border .
The queen has a similar appearance to the workers , but its middle body is more irregular and coarser . The queen is also the largest , measuring 14 to 16 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 55 to 0 @.@ 63 in ) in length . Males are either smaller or around the same size as workers , measuring 11 to 12 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 43 to 0 @.@ 47 in ) . Males also have much smaller triangular mandibles than workers and queens . The mandibles on the male contain a large tooth at the centre , among the apex and the base of the inner border . Punctures ( tiny dots ) are noticeable on the head , which are large and shallow , and the thorax and node are also irregularly punctuated . The pubescence on the male 's gaster is white and yellowish .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Jack jumper ants are abundant in most of Australia , being among the most common bull ant to be encountered . The ants can be found in the south @-@ western tip of Western Australia , where it has been seen in the sand hills around Albany , Mundaring , Denmark and Esperance . The ant is rarely sighted in the northern regions of Western Australia . In South Australia , it is commonly found in the south @-@ east regions of the state , frequently encountered in Mount Lofty ( particularly the Adelaide Hills ) , Normanville , Hallett Cove and Aldgate , but it is not found in north @-@ western regions . There are dense populations on the western seaboard of Kangaroo Island . Jack jumpers are widespread throughout the whole of Victoria , but the species is uncommon in Melbourne . However , populations have been collected from the suburb of Elsternwick , and they are commonly found in the Great Otway Ranges , with many nests observed around Gellibrand . In New South Wales , nests are found throughout the entire state ( with the exception of north @-@ western New South Wales ) , but dense populations are mostly found in the Snowy Mountains , Blue Mountains and coastal regions . The ants are widespread in the Australian Capital Territory . In Queensland , the ants are only found along the south @-@ eastern coastlines of the state , where populations are frequently encountered in the Bunya Mountains , Fletcher , Stanthorpe , Sunshine Coast , Tamborine Mountain and Millmerran , and have been found as far north as Rockhampton . The ant also resides in all of Tasmania , and their presence in the Northern Territory has not been verified .
Jack jumper ants live in open habitats , such as damp areas , forests , pastures , gardens and lawns , preferring fine gravel and sandy soil . Colonies can also be spotted around light bushland . Their preferred natural habitats include woodlands , dry open forests , grasslands and rural areas , and less common in urban areas . Their nests are mounds built from finely granular gravel , soil and pebbles , measuring 20 to 60 centimetres ( 8 to 24 in ) in diameter and can be as tall as half of a metre ( 20 in ) in height . Two types of nests for this species have been described : one being a simple nest with a noticeable shaft inside , the other being a complex structure surrounded by a mound . These ants utilise the warmth by decorating their nests with dry materials that heat in a quick duration , providing the nest with solar energy traps . They decorate their nests with seeds , soil , charcoal , stones , sticks , and even small invertebrate corpses . They also camouflage their nests by covering leaf litter , debris and long grass over the nest . Nests can be found hidden under rocks , where queens will most likely form their colony , or around small piles of gravel instead . Their range in southern Australia , like other regional ant species , appears like that of a relict ant . Jack jumpers have been found in dry sclerophyll forests , at elevations ranging from 121 to 1 @,@ 432 metres ( 397 to 4 @,@ 698 ft ) , averaging 1 @,@ 001 metres ( 3 @,@ 284 ft ) . Rove beetles in the genus Heterothops generally thrive in jack jumper nests and raise their brood within their chambers , and skinks have been found in some nests .
Populations are dense in the higher mountain regions of Tasmania . Widespread throughout the state , their presence is known on King Island , located north @-@ west from Tasmania . The ant prefers rural areas , found in warm , dry , open eucalypt woodlands ; the climate provides the ant with isolation and warmth . This environment also produces the ant 's food , which includes nectar and invertebrate prey . In suburban areas , this ant is found in native vegetation , and use rockeries , cracks in concrete walls , dry dirt and grass to build nests . One study found suburbs with voluminous vegetation cover such as Mount Nelson , Fern Tree and West Hobart host jack jumper populations , while the heavily urbanised suburbs of North Hobart and Battery Point , do not .
Pest control of the jack jumper ant is successful in maintaining their populations around suburban habitats . Chemicals like bendiocarb , chlorpyrifos , diazinon and permethrin are effective against them . Spraying of Solfac into nests is an effective way of controlling nests if they are in a close range of areas with considerable amounts of congestion and human activity . Pouring carbon disulfide into nest holes and covering entrances up with soil is another method of removing colonies . The Australian National Botanic Gardens has an effective strategy of marking and maintaining jack jumper nests .
= = Behaviour and ecology = =
Primarily diurnal , workers search for food during the day until dusk . They are active during warmer months , but are dormant during winter . Fights between these ants within the same colony is not uncommon . They are known for their aggression towards humans , attraction to movement and well developed vision , being able to observe and follow intruders from a metre ( 1 @.@ 1 yd ) away . This species is an accomplished jumper ants with leaps ranging from 2 to 3 inches ( 51 to 76 mm ) . William Morton Wheeler compared jack jumper ants to " Lilliputian cavalry galloping to battle " when disturbed , due to their jumping behaviour . He further wrote that they also made a ludicrous appearance as they emerge from their nests , in a series of short hops .
While no studies have established whether or not these ants contain alarm pheromones , its relative Myrmecia gulosa is capable of inducing territorial alarm using pheromones . If proven , this would explain their ability to attack en masse . Foraging workers are regularly observed on the inflorescences of Prasophyllum alpinum ( mostly pollinated by wasps of the subfamily Ichneumonidae ) . Although pollinia are often seen in the ants ' jaw , they have a habit of cleaning their mandibles on the leaves and stems of nectar @-@ rich plants before moving on , preventing pollen exchange . It is unknown whether jack jumper ants contribute to pollination .
= = = Prey = = =
Unlike many other ants that use scent to forage for food , jack jumpers use their sight to target their prey . Like other bull ants , they are solitary when they forage , but only workers perform this role . These ants are omnivores and scavengers , typically foraging in warmer temperatures . They deliver painful stings , which are effective in both killing prey and deterring predators . Jack jumpers have smooth stingers , and can thus sting indefinitely . Jack jumper ants are skilled hunters , partially due to their excellent vision ; they can even kill and devour wasps and bees . They also kill and eat other ants , such as carpenter ants ( Camponotus ) and feed on sweet floral secretions and other sugar solutions . Jack jumpers often hunt for spiders , and will sometimes follow their prey for a short distance , usually with small insects and small arthropods . Jack jumper ants , alongside M. simillima , have been given frozen houseflies ( Musca domestica ) and blowflies ( Calliphoridae ) as food under testing conditions . The ant has been observed to run and leap energetically at flies when they land , particularly on Acacia shrubs , plants or trees . Jack jumpers and other Myrmecia ants prey on insects such as cockroaches and crickets .
Mature adult ants of this species mostly eat sweet substances , so dead insects are given to their larvae collected while foraging . However , larvae are only fed insects when they have reached a particular size . Workers will mostly collect small insects , sap @-@ sucking insects along with the honeydew which is taken to their nest to feed their young . Observations have been made of fly predation by jack jumper ants ; they would only attack the smaller fly species and ignore larger flies .
= = = Predators and parasites = = =
Blindsnakes of the family Typhlopidae are known to consume Myrmecia broods , although smaller blindsnakes avoid them since they are vulnerable to their stings . Predatory invertebrates such as assassin bugs and redback spiders prey on jack jumpers and other Myrmecia ants , and echidnas , particularly the short @-@ beaked echidna ( Tachyglossus aculeatus ) hunt jack jumper ants , eating their larvae and eggs . Nymphs of the assassin bug species Ptilocnemus lemur lure these ants by trying to make the ant sting them . The jack jumper ant is a host to the parasite gregarines ( Gregarinasina ) . Ants that host this parasite change colour from their typical black appearance to brown . This was discovered when brown jack jumpers were dissected and found to have gregarinasina spores , while black jack jumpers showed no spores . If it is present in large numbers , the parasite interferes with the normal darkening of the cuticles while the ant is in its pupal stage . The cuticle softens due to the gregarine parasite .
= = = Life cycle = = =
Like every ant , the life of a jack jumper ant starts from an egg . If the egg is fertilised , the ant will be a female ( diploid ) ; if not , it will become a male ( haploid ) . They develop through complete metamorphosis , meaning that they pass through a larva and pupa stage before emerging as an adult . Cocoons that are isolated from the colony are able to shed their pupal skin before hatching , allowing themselves to advance to full pigmentation . Newborns can also eclose ( emerge from their pupa stage ) without assistance from other ants . Once born , jack jumper ants can identify distinct tasks , an obvious primitive trait Myrmecia ants are known for .
Based on observations of six worker ants , the average life expectancy of the jack jumper is around 1 @.@ 3 years , but workers were shown to live as little as 1 @.@ 12 years or as long as 1 @.@ 6 , with the queen living much longer than the workers at 10 years or more . This datum gives a life expectancy of 401 – 584 days , with an average of 474 days . Egg clumping is common , as observed in laboratory colonies . These clumps are often carried by worker ants , and these clumps would contain two to 30 eggs , without any larvae to hold them together . This confirms that eggs from jack jumper colonies do not always lie singly apart . George C. Wheeler and Jeanette Wheeler ( 1971 ) studied and described larvae collected from New South Wales and South Australia . They noted that very young larvae of the jack jumper were 2 @.@ 4 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 094 in ) in length , with two types of body hair . They also described young larvae ( matured from very young larvae ) at 2 @.@ 7 mm ( 0 @.@ 11 in ) , but with similar body characteristics to mature larvae , at 12 @.@ 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 49 in ) .
= = = Reproduction = = =
Queens are polyandrous , meaning that queens will mate more than once ; queens mate with one to nine males during a nuptial flight , and the effective number of mates per queen ranges from 1 @.@ 0 to 11 @.@ 4 . Studies show that most queen ants will only mate with one or two males . If the number of available male mates increases , the number of effective matings per queen decreases . Colonies are polygynous , meaning that a colony may house multiple queens ; there are on average one to four queens per colony , and in multiple @-@ queen colonies , the egg @-@ laying queens are unrelated to one another . Based on a study , 11 of the 14 colonies tested were polygynous ( 78 @.@ 57 % ) , showing that this is common in jack jumper colonies . When the queen establishes a nest after mating , she will hunt for food to feed her young , making her semi @-@ claustral . Nests can hold as few as 500 ants or as many as 800 to 1 @,@ 000 . Excavated nests typically have populations ranging from 34 to 344 individuals . Jack jumper ant workers are gamergates , having the ability to reproduce in colonies with or without queens .
Colonies are mainly polygynous with polyandrous queens , however , polyandry in jack jumper colonies is low in comparison to other Myrmecia ants , but it is comparable to M. pyriformis ants . In 1979 , Craig and Crozier investigated the genetic structure of jack jumper ant colonies , and although queens are unrelated to each other as mentioned previously , the occurrence of related queens in a single colony was possible . During colony foundation , there are suggestions of dependent colony foundation in jack jumper queens , although independent colony foundations can occur , as the queens do have fully developed wings and can fly . Isolation by distance ( IBD ) patterns have been recorded , specifically where nests that tend to be closer to each other were more genetically similar in comparison to other nests farther away .
As colonies closer to each other are more genetically similar , independent colony foundation is most likely associated with nuptial flight if they disperse far from genetically similar colonies they originate from . Inseminated queens could even seek adoption into alien colonies if a suitable nest site area for independent colony foundation is restricted or cannot be carried out , known as the nest @-@ site limitation hypothesis . Some queens could even try to return to their nests that they came from after nuptial flight , but end in another nest , in association that nests nearby will be similar to the queens birth nest .
= = Genetics = =
The jack jumper ant genome is contained on a single pair of chromosomes ( males have just one chromosome , as they are haploid ) . This is the lowest number known ( indeed possible ) for any animal , a number shared with the parasitic roundworm Parascaris equorum univalens . Jack jumper ants are taxonomically discussed as a single biological species in the Myrmecia pilosula species complex . The ant has nine polymorphic loci , which yielded 67 alleles .
= = Interaction with humans = =
= = = History = = =
The earliest known account of ant sting fatalities in Australia was first recorded in 1931 ; two adults and an infant girl from New South Wales died from ant stings , possibly from the jack jumper ant or Myrmecia pyriformis . 30 years later , another fatality was reported in 1963 in Tasmania . Historical and IgE results have suggested these two species or perhaps another species were responsible for all recorded deaths .
Between 1980 and 2000 , there have been four recorded deaths , all in Tasmania and all due to anaphylactic shock . All known patients who died from jack jumper stings were at least 40 years old and had cardiopulmonary comorbidities . Severe laryngeal oedema and coronary atherosclerosis was detected in most of the autopsies of those who died . Most of the victims died within 20 minutes after being stung . Prior to any desensitisation program being established , the fatality rate was one person every four years from the sting .
Before venom immunotherapy , whole body extract immunotherapy was widely used due to its apparent effectiveness , and it was the only immunotherapy used on ants . However , fatal failures were reported and this led to scientists researching for alternative methods of desensitisation . Whole body extract immunotherapy was later proven to be ineffective , and venom immunotherapy was found to be safe and effective to use . Paul Clarke first drew medical attention to the jack jumper ant in 1986 , and before this , there had been no history of records of allergic reactions or study on their sting venom . The identification of venom allergens began in the early 1990s in preparation for therapeutic use . Whole body extracts were first used to desensitize patients , but it was found to be ineffective and later withdrawn . Venom immunotherapy was shown to reduce the risk of systemic reactions , demonstrating that immunotherapy can be provided for ant @-@ sting allergies .
In 2003 , Professor Simon Brown established the jack jumper desensitisation program , although the program is at risk of closure . Since the establishment of the program , no death has been recorded since 2003 . However , the ant may be responsible for the death of a Bunbury man in 2011 .
= = = Incidence = = =
The extent of the jack jumper sting problem differs among areas . Allergy prevalence rates are significantly lower in highly urbanised areas and much higher in rural areas . These ants represent a hazard towards people in the southern states of Australia , due to a high proportion of the population having significant allergies to the ant 's sting . The ant is a significant cause of major insect allergies , responsible for most anaphylaxis cases in Australia , and rates of anaphylaxis are twice those of honeybee stings . One in three million annually die of general anaphalaxis in Australia alone . Over 90 % of Australian ant venom allergies have been caused by the jack jumper .
The ant is notorious in Tasmania , where most fatalities have been recorded . In 2005 , over a quarter of all jack jumper sting incidents were sustained in Tasmania ; excessive in comparison to its 2006 population of only 476 @,@ 000 people . Jack jumper stings are the single most common cause of anaphylaxis in patients at the Royal Hobart Hospital . The ant has also been a major cause of anaphylaxis outside Tasmania , notably around Adelaide and the outskirts of Melbourne , while cases in New South Wales and Western Australia have been more distributed . One in 50 adults have been reported to suffer anaphylaxis due to the jack jumper or other Myrmecia ants .
= = = Venom = = =
The jack jumper ant and its relatives in the genus Myrmecia are among the most dangerous ant genera and have fearsome reputations for their extreme aggression ; Guinness World Records certifies the ant Myrmecia pyriformis as the world 's most dangerous ant . The jack jumper have been compared to other highly aggressive ant species , such as Brachyponera chinensis , Brachyponera sennaarensis , and the red imported fire ant ( Solenopsis invicta ) . The retractable sting is located in their abdomen , attached to a single venom gland connected by the venom sac , which is where the venom is accumulated . Exocrine glands are known in jack jumpers , which produce the venom compounds later used to inject into their victims . Their venom contains haemolytic and eicosanoid elements and histamines . It contains a range of active ingredients and enzymatic activity , which includes phospholipase A2 and B , hyaluronidase , acid and alkaline phosphatase . The venom of the ant also contains several peptides ; one being pilosulin 1 , which causes cytotoxic effects , pilosulin 2 , which has antihypertensive properties and pilosulin 3 , which is known to be a major allergen . Other pilosulins include pilosulin 4 and pilosulin 5 . The peptides have known molecular weights . The LD50 ( lethal dose ) occurs at a lower concentration than for melittin , a peptide found in bee venom . Its LD50 value is 3 @.@ 6 mg / kg ( injected intravenously in mice ) .
Loss of cell viability in the jack jumper 's venom was researched through cytometry , which measures the proportions of cells that glow in the presence of fluorescent dye and 7 @-@ Aminoactinomycin D. Examinations of the rapidly reproducing Epstein – Barr B @-@ cells showed that the cells lost viability within minutes when exposed to pilosulin 1 . Normal white blood cells were also found to alter easily when exposed to pilosulin 1 . However , partial peptides of pilosulin 1 were less efficient at lowering cell viability ; the residue 22 N @-@ terminal plays a critical role in the cytotoxic activity of pilosulin 1 .
20 percent of jack jumper ants have an empty venom sac , so failure to display a sting reaction should not be interpreted as a loss of sensitivity . Substantial amounts of ant venom have been analysed to characterise venom components , and the jack jumper has been a main subject in these studies . An East Carolina University study which summarised the knowledge about ant stings and their venom showed that only the fire ant and jack jumper had the allergenic components of their venom extensively investigated . These allergenic components include peptides found as heterodimers , homodimers and pilosulin 3 . Only six Myrmecia ants , including the jack jumper , are capable of inducing IgE antibodies . Due to the vast differentiation of venom produced in each Myrmecia species , and other species sharing similar characteristics to the jack jumper ant , diagnosing which ant is responsible for an anaphylactic reaction is difficult . A review of a patients history with allergies while identifying a positive result of venom specific IgE levels helps to identify the species of ant that caused a reaction .
= = = Signs and symptoms = = =
Reactions to the ants sting show similar symptoms to fire ant stings ; namely local swelling which lasts for several days , and swelling of the lips , face and eyes may occur from a minor allergic reaction . Other common symptoms include watering of the eyes and nose , and hives or welts will begin to develop . Headaches , anxiety and flushing may also occur . Jack jumpers , bees and wasps are the most common causes of anaphylaxis from insect stings . People most commonly feel a sharp pain after these stings , similar to that from an electric shock . Some patients develop a systemic skin reaction after being stung . Localised envenomation occurs with every sting , but severe envenoming only occurs if someone has been stung many times ( as many as 50 to 300 stings in adults ) . The heart rate increases , and blood pressure falls rapidly . Most people will only experience mild skin irritation after being stung . Those who suffer from a severe allergic reaction will show a wide variety of symptoms . This includes difficulty breathing and talking , the tongue and throat will swell up , and coughing , chest tightness , abdominal pain , nausea and vomiting may occur . Others may lose consciousness and collapse ( sometimes people may not collapse ) , and confusion . Children who get stung will show symptoms such as floppiness and paleness if a severe allergic reaction occurs .
In individuals allergic to the venom ( about 2 – 3 % of the population ) , a sting sometimes causes anaphylactic shock . In comparison to other insects such as the western honeybee ( Apis mellifera ) and the European wasp ( Vespula germanica ) , their rates are only 1 @.@ 4 % and 0 @.@ 6 % . The annual sting exposure rates for the jack jumper ant , Western honeybee and European wasp are 12 % , 7 % and 2 % . The median time from sting to cardiac arrest is 15 minutes , but the maximum period is around three hours . The ant allergy does not disappear ; people with jack jumper allergies will most likely suffer from another allergic reaction if re @-@ stung . Approximately 70 percent of patients with a history of systemic reaction to the ant 's sting have another reaction when stung again . In comparison , systemic reaction figures for Apis mellifera and Vespula germanica after being stung show a rate of 50 % and 25 % . About half of these reactions were life @-@ threatening and occurred predominantly in people who had had previous incidents with the sting . Anaphylaxis in jack jumper ant stings are not rare ; 2 @.@ 9 % of 600 residents from semi @-@ rural Victoria had allergic reactions to the ant 's sting , according to a questionnaire . The sensitivity to stings is persistent for many years .
In 2011 , an Australian ant allergy venom study was conducted , with the goal of determining which native Australian ants were associated with ant sting anaphylaxis . It showed that the jack jumper ant was responsible for the majority of patients ' reactions to Myrmecia ant stings . Of the 265 patients who reacted to a sting from an ant belonging to the Myrmecia genus , 176 were from the jack jumper . 15 from M. nigrocincta and three from M. ludlowi , while 56 patients had reacted to other Myrmecia ants . The study concluded that four native species of Australian ants caused anaphylaxis . Apart from Myrmecia species , the green @-@ head ant ( Rhytidoponera metallica ) was also responsible for several systemic reactions .
Most people recover uneventfully following a mild local reaction and up to about 3 % of individuals suffer a severe localised reaction . Most individuals who suffer from severe localised reactions will most likely encounter another reaction if stung again . Fatalities are rare , and venom immunotherapy can prevent fatalities .
= = = First aid and emergency treatment = = =
If no signs of an allergic reaction are present , an ice pack or commercially available sprays are used to relieve the pain . Stingose is also recommended to treat a jack jumper sting . Other treatments include washing the stung area with soap and water , and if continuous pain remains for several days , antihistamine tablets are taken for one to three days .
Emergency treatment is needed in a case of a severe allergic reaction . Before calling for help , laying a person down and elevating the legs is suggested . Depending on a patients needs , they will be given an EpiPen or an Anapen to use in case they are stung . In a scenario of experiencing anaphylaxis , further doses of adrenaline and intravenous infusions may be required . Some with severe anaphylaxis may suffer cardiac arrest and will need resuscitation . Inhalers may additionally be used in case a victim has asthma and experiences a reaction from a sting . The use of ACE inhibitors is not recommended , as it is known to increase the risk of anaphylaxis . Medications like antihistamines , H2 blockers , corticosteroids and anti @-@ leukotrienes have no effect on anaphylaxis .
There are several bush remedies used to treat jack jumper stings ( and any other Myrmecia sting ) . The young tips of a bracken fern provide a useful bush remedy to treat jack jumper stings , discovered and currently used by indigenous Australians . The tips are rubbed on the stung area , and may relieve the local pain after getting stung . Another plant used as a bush remedy is Carpobrotus glaucescens ( known as angular sea @-@ fig or pigface ) .
= = = Desensitisation and prevention = = =
Desensitisation ( also called allergy immunotherapy ) to the jack jumper sting venom has shown effectiveness in preventing anaphylaxis , but the standardisation of jack jumper venom is yet to be validated . Unlike bee and wasp sting immunotherapy , jack jumper immunotherapy lacks funding and no government rebate is available . Venom is available ; however , no commercial venom extract is available that can be used for skin testing . Venom extract is only available through the Therapeutic Goods Administration Special Access Scheme .
The Royal Hobart Hospital offers a desensitisation program for patients who have had a severe allergic reaction to a jack jumper sting . However , the program may face closure due to budget cuts . Professor Simon Brown , who founded the program , commented , " Closing the program will leave 300 patients hanging in the lurch " . There is a campaign to make the program available in Victoria . The Royal Adelaide Hospital runs a small @-@ scale program that desensitises patients to the ants venom .
Patients are given an injection of venom under the skin in small amounts . During immunotherapy , the first dose is small , but will gradually increase per injection . This sort of immunotherapy is designed to change how the immune system reacts to increased doses of venom entering the body .
Follow @-@ ups of untreated people over thirty with a history of severe allergic reactions would greatly benefit from venom immunotherapy . Both rapid and slow doses can be done safely during immunotherapy . The efficacy ( capacity to induce a therapeutic effect ) of ant venom immunotherapy is effective in reducing systemic reactions in comparison to placebo and whole body extract immunotherapy , where patients were more likely to suffer from a systemic reaction . Ultrarush initiation of insect immunotherapy may be used , but results show higher risks of allergic reactions . Despite immunotherapy being successful , only ten percent of patients do not have any response to desensitisation .
It is suggested that people should avoid jack jumpers , but this is difficult to do . Closed footwear ( boots and shoes ) along with socks reduce the chances of encountering a sting , but wearing thongs or sandals will put the person at risk . With this said , they are still capable of stinging through fabric , and can find their way through gaps in clothing . Most stings occur when people are gardening , so taking extra caution or avoiding gardening altogether is recommended . People can also avoid encountering jack jumpers by moving to locations where jack jumper populations are either low or absent , or eliminate nearby nests . Since Myrmecia ants have different venoms , people who are allergic to them are advised to stay away from all Myrmecia ants , especially to ones they have not encountered before .
= 1982 – 83 South @-@ West Indian Ocean cyclone season =
The 1982 – 83 South @-@ West Indian Ocean cyclone season was least active cyclone season in the basin since 1961 – 1962 . There were six systems that were named , although three of them – Arilisy , Clera , and Fely – failed to intensify beyond tropical depression status . No storms reached tropical cyclone status , according to the official warning agency for the basin , Météo @-@ France , although the two strongest storms – Bemany and Elinah – peaked just below that intensity . The first named storm , Arilisy , formed on October 27 , and dissipated without having affected land . However , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) , which is an unofficial warning center for the basin , briefly tracked a tropical depression in July . The next storm was Bemany , which passed east of Mauritius near peak intensity in early December . Tropical Depression Clera existed briefly in the middle of September , and Tropical Storm Dadafy moved across the eastern portion of the basin in late December .
The only deadly storm of the season was Elinah , which formed on January 9 in the Mozambique Channel . It moved to the southwest and was intensifying when it struck Comoros on January 11 . There , high winds and waves heavily damaged banana and coconut crops , and the storm damaged or destroyed 4 @,@ 357 buildings . High waves knocked 40 people off a pier on Anjouan , killing 33 of them . Damage in Comoros totaled $ 23 @.@ 1 million ( 1983 USD ) . Elinah intensified before brushing the coast of Mozambique , and it dissipated on January 9 . Aside from a weak storm classified by the JTWC in February , there was minimal activity for several months . The final storm of the season was Tropical Depression Fely , which dropped moderate rainfall in eastern Madagascar in late June .
= = Season summary = =
The season was the least active since the 1961 – 1962 season . It occurred during a significant El Niño event . Its inactivity was comparable to the 2010 – 11 season which had three named storms . There were 13 days when storms were active , the same as 2010 – 11 , although the latter season also had a long @-@ lasting subtropical cyclone . It is estimated that Tropical Depression Fely and two of the other storms in this season would not have been named during the 2010 – 11 season .
There were six storms named by the weather service in Madagascar or Mauritius , with advisories issued by Météo @-@ France 's meteorological office at Réunion ( MFR ) . At the time , the MFR area of warning responsibility was from the coast of Africa to 80 ° E , and the agency primarily used the Dvorak technique to estimate the intensities of tropical cyclones . The Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) , which is a joint United States Navy – United States Air Force task force that issues tropical cyclone warnings for the region , also tracked a short @-@ lived tropical storm in February , which formed on February 5 northeast of Mauritius . The system tracked to the southeast , reaching peak winds of 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) before dissipating on February 8 northwest of Rodrigues .
= = Storms = =
= = = Tropical Depression Arilisy = = =
A disturbance in the South Indian convergence zone near Seychelles persisted on October 24 with an area of convection . It gradually organized while passing near Agaléga . On October 27 , it developed into a tropical depression , and after Dvorak classifications of 2 @.@ 5 , the system was named Arilisy . It became disorganized on October 29 , never having intensified beyond winds of 50 km / h ( 30 mph ) . After moving to the southwest for much of its duration , Arilisy dissipated on October 30 .
= = = Severe Tropical Storm Bemany = = =
On November 29 , the JTWC began tracking a disturbance well to the northeast of Madagascar . On December 1 , after a defined circulation developed , MFR began issuing warnings on the system . After having moved to the west @-@ southwest , the depression turned to the southeast on December 2 . Haven received the name Bemany , the storm gradually intensified ; the JTWC upgraded it to the equivalent of minimal hurricane status on December 3 , and the next day MFR estimated peak winds of 115 km / h ( 70 mph ) . While near peak intensity , Bemany passed about 230 km ( 140 mi ) east of Mauritius , and it subsequently weakened . The influence of an anticyclone turned the storm to the east and caused Bemany to loop back to the west . On December 5 , the storm became extratropical , and the next day the JTWC issued its last advisory . On December 7 , Bemany briefly became a tropical depression again , only to become extratropical for the final time the next day ; Bemany dissipated on December 9 .
= = = Tropical Depression Clera = = =
On December 19 , a tropical depression formed near St. Brandon . With an area of high pressure to the southeast , the depression moved to the northeast and was named Clera , after a Dvorak rating of 2 @.@ 5 . It only achieved winds of 50 km / h ( 30 mph ) before weakening .
= = = Severe Tropical Storm Dadafy = = =
The JTWC began tracking a disturbance on December 21 to the northeast of Madagascar . The system moved to the southeast and was classified by MFR on December 24 . Given the name Dadafy , the storm slowly intensified , reaching peak winds of 95 km / h ( 60 mph ) according to MFR on December 26 . The next day , the JTWC estimated Dadafy strengthened to the equivalent of a minimal hurricane . The storm turned to the south and weakened . On December 29 , MFR declared that Dadafy became extratropical , and JTWC discontinued advisories the next day . The extratropical remnants dissipated on January 1 .
= = = Severe Tropical Storm Elinah = = =
The South Indian convergence zone spawned a circulation that organized into a tropical depression in the Mozambique Channel on January 9 . It gradually intensified while moving to the southwest , developing spiral rainbands . On January 11 , Elinah passed between Anjouan and Mohéli in the Comoros archipelago . The next day , JTWC upgraded the storm to the equivalent of a minimal hurricane , although land interaction with Mozambique weakened Elinah . After it turned to the south and moved away from the coast , the storm re @-@ intensified , and MFR estimated Elinah reached peak winds of 115 km / h ( 70 mph ) on January 14 . Subsequently , the convergence zone caused the storm to weaken , ultimately absorbing it by January 16 .
While passing through the Comoros , Elinah caused heavy damage in Anjouan and Mohéli , destroying nearly all of the banana crops and 30 % of the coconut crops . About 2 @,@ 400 ha ( 5 @,@ 900 acres ) of agricultural lands were flooded , and the storm damaged 2 @,@ 120 ha ( 5 @,@ 200 acres ) of forests on Moheli ; agriculture damage was estimated at $ 9 @.@ 6 million ( 1983 USD ) . Elinah damaged or destroyed 4 @,@ 357 buildings . High waves reaching 12 m ( 39 ft ) damaged coastal roads and sea walls . On Anjouan , a wave knocked 40 people into the water , killing 33 of them . Elinah injured 52 and left $ 23 @.@ 1 million in damage ( 1983 USD ) . The military of Comoros helped clear roads , and workers rebuilt the damaged buildings . After the storm passed , the government of Comoros requested for aid to the international community . Collectively , the United States , Egypt , France , Germany , and Switzerland , as well as various agencies under the United Nations , provided $ 1 @.@ 7 million in assistance . Most if it was from the World Food Programme , which provided 2 @,@ 160 tons of rice and 162 tons of vegetable oil .
= = = Tropical Depression Fely = = =
The final system of the year formed as a weak tropical depression on June 22 to the north of a powerful anticyclone . Given the name Fely , the system tracked to the southwest toward Madagascar and did not intensify . It dissipated on June 24 to the east of Île Sainte @-@ Marie , although the remnants of Fely produced moderate rainfall . Tamatave reported 58 @.@ 6 mm ( 2 @.@ 31 in ) of precipitation while the storm was approaching .
= Xbox One =
The Xbox One is a home video game console developed by Microsoft . Announced on May 21 , 2013 , it is the successor to the Xbox 360 and the third console in the Xbox family , and was released on November 22 , 2013 , in North America , Europe ( in some countries ) , Australia and Brazil , September 2 , 2014 , for other Europe countries , September 4 , 2014 , in Japan , and September 29 , 2014 , for China . It competes with Sony 's PlayStation 4 and Nintendo 's Wii U as part of the eighth generation of video game consoles . It is the first Xbox game console to be released in China , specifically in the Shanghai Free @-@ Trade Zone . Microsoft marketed the device as an " all @-@ in @-@ one entertainment system " , which competed against other digital media players , such as the Apple TV and Google TV platforms .
Moving away from its predecessor 's PowerPC @-@ based architecture , the Xbox One marks a shift back to the x86 architecture used in the original Xbox ; it features an AMD Accelerated Processing Unit ( APU ) built around the x86 @-@ 64 instruction set . The console places an increased emphasis on cloud computing and the integration of entertainment applications and services , offering the ability to overlay live television programming from an existing set @-@ top box or a digital tuner for digital terrestrial television with an enhanced program guide , split @-@ screen multitasking of applications , and improved second @-@ screen support . The console optionally includes a redesigned Kinect sensor , marketed as the " Kinect 2 @.@ 0 " , providing improved motion tracking and voice recognition for use in its graphical user interface ( GUI ) and games . The Xbox One offers the ability for users to record and share " clips " from gameplay or live @-@ stream directly to Twitch , Ustream , and other streaming platforms . The console 's controller was redesigned over the Xbox 360 's , with a redesigned body , D @-@ pad and triggers capable of delivering directional haptic feedback , as well as the customization of the controller 's button input .
Prior to its official release , the Xbox One received mixed reviews ; the entertainment @-@ oriented features were praised , but controversy surrounded several policy changes since the Xbox 360 's release , including a proposed always @-@ on digital rights management ( DRM ) system , and concerns over a mandate that the Kinect sensor be used at all times . Microsoft retracted these changes prior to the launch , and it received mostly positive reception for its refined controller design , multimedia features , user interface , and voice navigation .
= = History = =
Xbox One is the successor to Xbox 360 , Microsoft 's previous video game console , which was introduced in 2005 as part of the seventh generation of video game consoles . In April 2016 , Microsoft announced the end of production of the 360 . Over the years , the 360 had received a number of small hardware revisions to reduce the unit 's size and improve its reliability . In 2010 , Microsoft 's Chris Lewis stated that the 360 was about " halfway " through its lifecycle ; this was aided by the introduction of the Kinect motion sensor that year , which Lewis stated would extend the lifecycle by five years .
Initial hardware for the 360 's successor , commonly referred to by the industry as the " Xbox 720 " , was reportedly in hands of developers as early as May 2011 . The official developer kit was codenamed Durango , and appeared to be available to developers by mid @-@ 2012 . Leaked documents suggested that the new console would include an improved Kinect sensor , cloud access to games and media , integration with phone and tablet devices , and technology to provide players heads @-@ up displays on glasses worn by the player , codenamed " Fortaleza " ; Microsoft did not comment on these reported features . Similar , leaked design documents also suggested that Microsoft was seeking to eliminate the ability to play used games , though Microsoft later clarified they were still reviewing the design and were " thinking about what is next and how we can push the boundaries of technology like we did with Kinect " , but did not comment on the validity of the information .
The console was publicly unveiled under the name Xbox One on May 21 , 2013 in a press conference designed to cover the unit 's broad multimedia and social capabilities . A second press event for the console was held during E3 on June 10 , 2013 , focusing on its video game @-@ oriented functionality . At that time , Microsoft announced that the console would be released in 21 different markets on November 22 , 2013 , but this was later amended down to 13 . The change , which pushed the release date for the other eight markets to 2014 , was attributed to unforeseen complexity in localizing the device 's voice recognition capabilities . Later , in September 2014 , the Xbox One was released in 26 markets , including remaining markets in Europe , the Japanese market , and Middle Eastern markets .
From the first announcement to the actual launch of the product , Microsoft made some significant changes to the console . Initially the system was to be able to play a disc @-@ based game without the disc after the initial install ; however , this came with a requirement that the users would have to connect online once per day , as well as restrictions on used games . These policies were reversed in June 2013 .
In 2015 , four members of an international hacking group pleaded guilty to gaining unauthorized access to Microsoft 's computer network and obtaining sensitive information relating to Xbox One and Xbox Live . At the time of the security breach , Microsoft was in the development stage for its next @-@ generation gaming system . Between 2011 and 2013 , the hackers spent hundreds of hours searching through Microsoft 's network copying log @-@ in credentials , source code , technical specifications and other data . Group members say they were driven by an immense curiosity about Microsoft 's then @-@ unreleased Xbox One console and associated software . " Using stolen access credentials " , two of the hackers also committed a physical theft by entering " a secure building on Microsoft 's Redmond Washington campus " and carrying away three " Durango " development kits .
= = Hardware = =
= = = Design = = =
Xbox One 's exterior casing consists of a two @-@ tone " liquid black " finish ; with half finished in a matte grey , and the other in a glossier black . The matte side of the top of the console consists of a large air vent . The design was intended to evoke a more entertainment @-@ oriented and simplified look than previous iterations of the console ; among other changes , the LED rings used by Xbox 360 are replaced by a glowing white Xbox logo used to communicate the system 's status to the user . Due to the overall ventilation design of the console , Xbox One is designed to only sit horizontally , unlike its competitor , the PlayStation 4 .
= = = Internals = = =
Xbox One is powered by an AMD " Jaguar " Accelerated Processing Unit ( APU ) with two quad @-@ core modules totaling eight x86 @-@ 64 cores clocked at 1 @.@ 75 GHz , and 8 GB of DDR3 RAM with a memory bandwidth of 68 @.@ 3 GB / s . The memory subsystem also features an additional 32 MB of " embedded static " RAM , or ESRAM , with a memory bandwidth of 109 GB / s . Eurogamer were told prior to its release that , for simultaneous read and write operations , the ESRAM is capable of a theoretical memory bandwidth of 192 GB / s and that a memory bandwidth of 133 GB / s has been achieved with operations that involved alpha transparency blending . The system includes a non @-@ replaceable hard drive and a Blu @-@ ray Disc optical drive . 138 GB of hard drive space is used by the operating system , with the remainder available for the storage of games . Since the June 2014 software update , up to two USB drives can be connected to Xbox One to expand its capacity . External drives must support USB 3 @.@ 0 and have a capacity of at least 256 GB .
It was reported that 3 GB of RAM would be reserved for the operating system and utility software , leaving 5 GB for games . With DirectX 11 @.@ 2 as the console 's API , the graphics processing unit ( GPU ) is based on an AMD GCN architecture with 12 compute units , which have a total of 768 cores , running at 853 MHz providing an estimated peak theoretical power of 1 @.@ 31 TFLOPS . For networking , Xbox One supports Gigabit Ethernet , 802.11n wireless , and Wi @-@ Fi Direct .
Xbox One supports 4K resolution ( 3840 × 2160 ) ( 2160p ) video output and 7 @.@ 1 surround sound . Yusuf Mehdi , corporate vice president of marketing and strategy for Microsoft , has stated that there is no hardware restriction that would prevent games from running at 4K resolution . Unlike the Xbox 360 , the Xbox One does not support 1080i and other interlaced resolutions . Xbox One supports HDMI 1 @.@ 4 for both input and output , and does not support composite or component video .
The console can monitor its internal temperature and adjust accordingly to prevent overheating ; alongside increasing fan speed , additional measures can be taken , including forcing the hardware to run in a lower power state — a feature that was not present on Xbox 360 . Restricting power consumption lowers maximum performance , but the setting would be intended as a last resort to prevent permanent hardware damage .
= = = Controller = = =
The Xbox One 's controller maintains the overall layout found in the Xbox 360 's controller , but with various refinements to its form . Among its changes include a smoother form , textured analog sticks , a four @-@ way directional pad , and redesigned triggers and shoulder buttons with a curved shape for ergonomics . " Menu " and " View " buttons have replaced the Start and Select buttons . Each trigger features independent rumble motors called " Impulse Triggers " , which allows developers to program directional vibration . One trigger can be made to vibrate when firing a gun , or both can work together to create feedback that indicates the direction of an incoming hit . The controller also contains light emitters that allow it to be tracked and paired using the Kinect sensor , and to detect when it 's not being held to automatically enter a low @-@ power state . An updated revision of the controller was released in June 2015 , which includes a 3 @.@ 5 @-@ millimeter headphone jack and other minor changes .
The Xbox One controller includes a micro USB port ; when attached via a micro @-@ USB cable , the controller can operate without battery power and can charge remotely , and is supported on computers running Windows 7 or later with drivers . The Xbox One Wireless Adapter accessory allows wireless use of Xbox One controllers on Windows computers also running Windows 7 or later .
The Elite Wireless Controller , or just Elite Controller , was released in October 2015 . It was described and marketed as " an elite controller for the elite gamer " , containing interchangeable parts , " hair trigger locks " for the triggers that allow users to reduce the amount of distance they must be pressed to register a press , and software for remapping buttons .
= = = Kinect 2 @.@ 0 sensor = = =
The Kinect 2 @.@ 0 , an updated natural user interface sensor , was redesigned and recreated to provide motion tracking and voice commands for the Xbox One .
Kinect 2 @.@ 0 features a wide @-@ angle time @-@ of @-@ flight camera and a 1080p camera , in comparison to the VGA resolution of the Xbox 360 version , and processes 2GB per second of data to map its environment . Kinect 2 @.@ 0 has an improved accuracy over its predecessor : it can track up to 6 people , referred to as " skeletons " at once , perform heart rate tracking , can track controller gestures , and QR codes to redeem Xbox Live gift cards . By default , voice recognition is active at all times , so the console can receive voice commands from the user when needed , even when the console is in sleep mode , as it is possible to awaken the console with a command , although settings are available to change which individual Kinect functions are active .
Prior to and after the mandate , all Xbox One consoles initially shipped with the Kinect sensor included . On June 9 , 2014 , cheaper Xbox One bundles were introduced , which slashed out the Kinect . Microsoft stated the decision to offer Xbox One bundles without Kinect was to " [ offer ] a choice to people that would allow people to buy an Xbox One and then ramp up to Kinect when they can afford to " , while also allowing games to use processing power that was previously reserved for Kinect . An updated Xbox Development Kit issued in June 2014 allows developers to explicitly disable motion tracking functionality in games , allowing access to additional system resources that represent about 10 % of the GPU processing power . These resources were previously reserved for Kinect skeletal tracking , regardless of whether the Kinect sensor was attached or in use .
A Windows compatible Kinect 2 @.@ 0 was released on July 15 , 2014 . Kinect 2 @.@ 0 was released as a standalone and optional item in October 2014 ; it is bundled with a digital copy of Dance Central Spotlight .
= = Software and services = =
Xbox One runs two operating systems within a hypervisor ; games run within one separate operating system , while apps and the user interface run within a stripped @-@ down " core " variant of Windows 10 , originally Windows 8 during its launch . This architecture allows resources to be allocated specifically to different aspects of the console 's functions , including multitasking and Kinect processing , ensuring an " absolute guarantee of performance " for games . Apps can be " snapped " to the side of the screen as a form of multitasking . Xbox One now supports Universal Windows Platform apps , which can be designed to run across Xbox One , Windows 10 , and Windows 10 Mobile in synchronization with the Windows platform .
Xbox One 's user interface is modeled on the Metro design language . The dashboard is divided into " Home " , " Community " , " OneGuide " , and " Store " sections . A guide sidebar is accessed by double @-@ pressing the Xbox Guide button , providing access to common functions such as the friends list , apps , the user 's party , and settings . Users can go back to the dashboard while using games or apps using either the Xbox button on their controller or a voice command ; up to four apps can run ( either actively or in the background ) at once , but only one game can run at a time . Use of Kinect enables the ability to control the console via voice commands . Xbox One 's voice control capabilities are similar to , albeit richer than those of Xbox 360 . Motion control support was also available on the dashboard with Kinect ; however , this feature has been removed from the New Xbox One Experience due to low usage . The voice assistant Cortana will be added in 2016 to provide expanded voice command functionality with natural language recognition .
The dashboard originally used a layout similar to Windows 8 's " Start screen " , with a horizontal @-@ scrolling , tile @-@ based interface . This design was replaced for Xbox Preview Program members in September 2015 with the current interface , known as " the New Xbox One Experience " , which was publicly released as part of the November 12 , 2015 system update .
= = = Multimedia features = = =
The Xbox One can view and play content from DLNA servers and USB storage devices using the " Media Player " app . An application allows playback of video from Blu @-@ ray Disc , DVD and CD media .
Xbox One provides the ability to feed live television by serving as an HDMI pass @-@ through for an existing television provider 's set @-@ top box or an optional Digital TV Tuner accessory that allows use of digital terrestrial television . The console provides its own electronic program guide known as OneGuide , augmenting the existing streaming functionality to provide show recommendations based on viewing history , integrated access to " App Channels " corresponding to online video services , and voice control via Kinect . The set @-@ top box and television are controlled by OneGuide using an IR blaster .
Xbox One does not provide full DVR functionality for recording television programs : executive Yusuf Mehdi indicated that Xbox One would " work in tandem " with existing television services , but that Microsoft would need to work with them directly to provide extended functionality , such as DVR integration . The digital TV tuner accessory allows limited DVR functionality for pausing and rewinding live TV for up to 30 minutes . In June 2016 , Microsoft announced that their plans for full DVR functionality for the Xbox One were on hold .
= = = Xbox Live = = =
The Xbox Live service has been scaled up to use 300 @,@ 000 servers for Xbox One users . Cloud storage is available to save music , films , games and saved content , and developers are able to use Live servers ( along with the Windows Azure cloud computing platform ) to offer dynamic in @-@ game content and other functionality . Users can have up to 1 @,@ 000 friends . The Xbox Avatars were reinstated in " the New Xbox Experience " update .
Players can use the Upload Studio app to edit and share clips from the last five minutes of gameplay footage that is automatically recorded by the console . Games can also be developed so that recording can automatically be triggered in response to notable events , such as achievements . Xbox One also integrates with the live streaming platform Twitch ; users can use voice commands to immediately begin streaming footage of their current game directly to the service , and use Kinect 's camera and microphone to record video and audio narration . Users can feature recorded clips on their Xbox Live profile page in a " Showcase " section .
As with Xbox 360 , premium online features such as multiplayer , voice communication , broadcasting and Upload Studio , as well as Games with Gold require an Xbox Live Gold subscription to use . Unlike Xbox 360 , a user 's Xbox Live Gold subscription benefits apply to all other users of their designated " home " console as well , rather than requiring a separate subscription for each user . Since June 2014 , applications no longer require an Xbox Live Gold membership to use . Additional subscriptions for outside services such as Netflix may still be required .
= = = Second screen and streaming = = =
The Xbox SmartGlass app provides extended functionality on Xbox One , allowing devices running Windows Phone , Windows 8 , iOS and Android to be used as a companion device for Xbox One features , such as powering on the console , a remote control , accessing messages and the Activity Feed , purchasing content , and providing integration with certain games and content . The SmartGlass app can also be used to stream live TV to Android and Windows devices if the console is using a USB digital TV tuner .
On Windows 10 , SmartGlass is succeeded by the Xbox App , which supports the local streaming of games from Xbox One to personal computers and tablets running Windows 10 . An Xbox One controller must be used , but Windows @-@ compatible headsets and microphones can be used for voice chat . Games requiring Kinect are not supported , while Game DVR and online streaming are not available while using this functionality .
Per a partnership with Oculus VR , users will also be able to stream Xbox One games to the Oculus Rift virtual reality headset by means of Xbox app for Windows 10 ; there are currently no immediate plans for direct integration between Xbox One and Oculus Rift .
= = Games = =
Xbox One games are distributed at retail on Blu @-@ ray Disc , and digitally as downloads through Xbox Games Store . All Xbox One games must be installed to the console 's storage : users can begin to play portions of a game ( such as opening levels ) once the installation or download reaches a specific point , while the remainder of the game is downloaded or installed in the background . Updates to games and system software are also downloaded in the background and while in standby . If the game is installed from physical media , the disc is still required for validation purposes . If the game is installed on another console , and that console owner no longer has access to the disc , the owner has the option of unlocking the install on their hard drive by purchasing it through Xbox Live ; the installed game then acts as a game installed on the hard drive . An active internet connection may be required for some games , particularly those that integrate cloud computing .
= = = Backward compatibility = = =
At its launch , the Xbox One did not have native backward compatibility with original Xbox or Xbox 360 games . Senior project management and planning director Albert Penello explained that Microsoft was initially considering a cloud gaming platform to enable backward compatibility , but he felt it would be " problematic " due to varying internet connection qualities . Xbox Live director of programming Larry " Major Nelson " Hryb did state that users could theoretically use the HDMI @-@ in port on the console to pass an Xbox 360 ( or , alternatively , any other device that supports HDMI output , including competing consoles ) through Xbox One . This process does generate a small amount of unnoticeable display lag .
Xbox 360 backward compatibility uses a software emulator within the system software ; 104 Xbox 360 titles were supported at the feature 's public launch , with more to be added in the following months . Xbox 360 games contained within Rare Replay are packaged as standalone applications using the Xbox 360 emulation . Microsoft stated that publishers would only need to provide permission to the company to allow the repackaging , and they expect the number of supported games to increase significantly over time . Microsoft , along with fourteen other third @-@ party publishers , will offer supported games , and all Games with Gold titles on Xbox 360 since November 2015 are made compatible.Xbox division head Phil Spencer has also hinted the possibility of adding support for games from the original Xbox , but they are focusing on Xbox 360 compatibility first .
= = Reception = =
= = = Pre @-@ release = = =
= = = = Post @-@ unveiling = = = =
After the official unveiling of Xbox One in May 2013 , the editorial staff of Game Informer offered both praise and criticism for the console . Matt Helgeson described the console as Microsoft 's intent to " control the living room " . He called Xbox One 's instant switching features " impressive " , and that the console was " a step in the right direction " with regards to TV entertainment , especially the prospect of avoiding the usage of non @-@ intuitive user interfaces often found on cable set @-@ top boxes . Jeff Cork said that Microsoft had " some great ideas " for the console , but that it failed to properly communicate them .
= = = = DRM controversy , E3 2013 = = = =
Microsoft initially announced a different game licensing scheme for Xbox One than what was used upon its release : all games , including those purchased at retail , would be bound to the user 's Xbox Live account . Users could access their purchased games from any other Xbox One console , play games without their disc once installed , and allow users to " share " their games with up to ten designated " family " members . Users would trade games at " participating retailers " , and could also transfer a game directly to any Xbox Live friend on their list for at least 30 days , but only once . To synchronize licenses , the console would be required to connect to the internet once every 24 hours ; if the console could not connect , all games would be disabled until the console was connected again .
Reaction to this digital rights management scheme was greatly negative . Critics felt that the changes would infringe on consumers ' first @-@ sale rights for games purchased on physical media , as games would only be licensed to users rather than sold , and the disc itself would only be used to install the game and not confer ownership of its license or permission to resell . Microsoft also stated that publishers could impose restrictions or activation fees on second @-@ hand copies of games . Xbox Chief Marketing and Strategy Officer Yusuf Mehdi explained that the system was built with digital distribution in mind , but that Microsoft wanted to maintain the availability of games on physical media . He also noted that Microsoft was not " giving in " to publishers ' objections to used games , but rather trying to balance the needs of consumers and the industry , and that the trading and sharing abilities of the platform added a level of flexibility not seen on other online distribution platforms at the time .
Microsoft 's E3 press conference on June 10 , 2013 , was also criticized for focusing too much on games that , beyond increased graphical capabilities , provided experiences that were otherwise similar to previous @-@ generation games — giving little incentive for buying the new console . After Sony 's E3 press conference later that evening , GameSpot editor Tom Mcshea went on to say that Microsoft had become anti @-@ consumerist , trying to " punish their loyal customers " with strict restrictions , and that " by saying no to the used game restrictions and always @-@ online that Microsoft is so happily implementing on the Xbox One , Sony has elevated the PlayStation 4 as the console to grab this holiday season . " Rafi Mohammed , author of " The Art of Pricing " felt that Microsoft priced Xbox One " too high " , and the $ 100 premium over its competitor could " derail " the system during the 2013 holiday season .
= = = = Response from Microsoft = = = =
On June 19 , 2013 , Microsoft announced , in response to the negative reaction , that it would reverse its changes to Xbox One 's DRM and game licensing model . As with Xbox 360 , users would be able to share and resell physical games without restrictions , and beyond a mandatory software update upon the console 's initial setup process to enable playback of Blu @-@ ray and DVD video , the console would not require a permanent internet connection to operate . These changes required the family sharing features , along with the ability to play games without their disc after installation , to be dropped . Xbox One chief product officer Marc Whitten stated that the family sharing feature may return in the future , but could not be implemented on launch due to time restraints . Don Mattrick , the then president of Microsoft 's Interactive Entertainment Business , stated that the licensing changes were in response to the negative public reaction . Other analysts believed that the change was in direct response of Sony 's aggressive position during its E3 press conference . Mattrick , who had been a leader in Xbox One development , announced his departure from Microsoft on July 1 , 2013 , to become CEO of Zynga . Analysts speculated that his departure was predicated on the poor response and subsequent reversal of the plans for Xbox One .
Microsoft also backtracked on a similarly controversial requirement for the Kinect sensor to be plugged into Xbox One at all times for it to function . Privacy advocates argued that Kinect sensor data could be used for targeted advertising , and to perform unauthorized surveillance on users . In response to these claims , Microsoft reiterated that Kinect voice recognition and motion tracking can be disabled by users , Kinect data cannot be used for advertising per its privacy policy , and that the console would not redistribute user @-@ generated content without permission . In response to these pre @-@ launch changes and a belief that Microsoft 's decisions for the systems were in poor judgement , journalists and consumers jokingly gave Xbox One nicknames such as " Xbox 180 " , in reference to the Xbox 360 and Microsoft 's decision to reverse its controversial decisions , and " Xbone " , suggesting that the company was " throwing a bone " to consumers by making these changes .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Upon its release , the Xbox One received favorable reviews from critics and reviewers . In its launch review , Polygon gave the Xbox One an 8 out of 10 . Its design was described as " inoffensive " but its larger size noted , while the console 's quieter and cooler operation was praised for indicating a potentially higher reliability than Xbox 360 was on @-@ launch . The controller was praised for its battery life and " premium " design , but some members of the site 's staff felt that its shoulder buttons were stiffer than that of previous designs . The design of Xbox One 's interface received mixed reviews : noting that it carried over Windows 8 's design language , the interface was disfavored for hiding functions under the controller 's menu button and for being awkward to use with a controller or motion gestures , seemingly encouraging users to use voice navigation instead . While praised for having more " robust " voice navigation than Xbox 360 , they felt that voice navigation still had a " learning curve in understanding what works and what doesn 't . " Although its user following , Smart Match , and improved voice chat features were noted , Xbox Live was panned for not offering the ability on @-@ launch to use one 's real name ( as on PlayStation 4 ) . Despite a regression in local and network multimedia functionality in comparison to Xbox 360 and how OneGuide interacted with outside set @-@ top boxes ( drawing comparisons to the operations of TiVo DVRs ) , Polygon felt the Xbox One 's overall multimedia experience " feels like a major step forward in set @-@ top boxes and makes the Xbox One the obvious center of any living room that has one . "
Engadget was similarly modest upon its launch , describing the Xbox One 's design as a " 1993 artist 's rendering of 2013 's technology " . Acknowledging that its controller was a mere refinement of the " ubiquit [ ous ] " Xbox 360 design , they praised the controller for its improved D @-@ pad and quieter triggers but criticized its stiff shoulder buttons . Kinect received positive reviews for its face recognition login and improved motion tracking , but that whilst " magical " , " every false positive or unrecognized [ voice ] command had us reaching for the controller . " The overall interface was also considered more intuitive and flexible than that of PlayStation 4 , but its game library view was described as being a " jumbled , sadly unfilterable rows of every owned piece of software " , that also knowingly listed games that require their disc to run alongside those which did not . The console was also panned for missing certain promised features on @-@ launch , such as Upload Studio , game streaming , and certain apps / services .
Later on , critics felt that the Xbox One 's functionality had matured over the year following its launch ; CNET acknowledged improvements to Xbox One 's software since its original release , but that its user interface was still unintuitive in comparison to Xbox 360 and PlayStation 4 , explaining that " navigating the interface seems to be much more problematic than it rightfully should be , and there 's simply not enough transparency in the logic within it . There are oddities peppered throughout , which is the root for countless headaches and frustrations . " Xbox One 's in @-@ game performance was mixed , with some titles showing slower performance over PS4 , but some multi @-@ platform games performing better on Xbox One than PS4 . CNET praised the console 's providing a better lineup of multimedia services and apps over PS4 , free cloud @-@ synced save data for all users ( PS4 requires PlayStation Plus for such functionality ) , support for high @-@ speed USB 3 @.@ 0 as secondary storage , and having a " slightly better " lineup of upcoming exclusives , concluding that " While the PS4 had a clear advantage at launch , that edge is slowly evaporating as Microsoft has worked feverishly to undo most of the Xbox One 's original missteps . "
TechRadar similarly felt that Xbox One " [ felt ] more like a media titan today than it did 12 months ago , " citing OneGuide , Upload Studio , and Microsoft 's decision to drop the Xbox Live Gold requirement for multimedia streaming apps , and that " there 's still a lot of potential locked away inside the hardware of the system that developers are just beginning to figure out . So while PlayStation might have the upper hand for now when it comes to certain third @-@ party titles , it may not always remain that way . Just how Microsoft will get it to that point , though , is still a mystery . " However , they disfavored the console 's dependence upon a subscription for most of its functionality , Kinect 's voice recognition , and that some games do not natively run at 1080p resolution , but are upscaled .
IGN also praised how Xbox One had evolved since its launch , acknowledging that Microsoft had " made good on its promise of listening to consumers , rolling out a steady stream of updates that have both broadened and deepened what this third Xbox console offers . " Regarding the console 's slightly lower level of graphics capabilities in comparison to PlayStation 4 , it was noted that " while videophiles might spot instances of upscaled graphics and less detailed environments immediately , most people generally won 't notice a difference between Xbox One and PlayStation 4 versions of a game ( when there is one ) unless they see both running side by side " , and examples of " gorgeous " Xbox One games were noted , such as Sunset Overdrive and Forza Motorsport 5 . The number of " hidden " options in Xbox One 's user interface was equated to " hunting for treasure in a messy room " ; as such , Kinect voice commands , in combination with access to common functions within the Xbox SmartGlass app , were praised for helping to provide a more streamlined user experience .
= = Retail configurations = =
On launch , Xbox One was available in a single retail configuration , which included the console with 500 GB hard drive , one controller , and Kinect sensor . In the United States , it retailed for US $ 499 . On June 9 , 2014 , Microsoft released a new Xbox One retail configuration that excludes the Kinect sensor , costing US $ 399 . A standalone Kinect sensor for Xbox One for use with these models was released in October 2014 , retailing at US $ 150 . On June 16 , 2015 , Microsoft lowered the price of the stock model to US $ 349 , and released a new US $ 399 model containing a 1 terabyte hard drive and in some markets , Halo : The Master Chief Collection . In May 2016 , Microsoft lowered the price of selected 500 GB bundles to US $ 299 , and 1 TB bundles to US $ 319 as a limited time offer of unspecified length . On June 14 , 2016 , the price of 500 GB models was lowered once more to US $ 279 through October 2016 , in anticipation of the launch of Xbox One S.
On August 31 , 2015 , Microsoft announced Xbox One Elite — a new SKU with a 1 TB solid @-@ state hybrid drive and an Elite controller . It was released in November 2015 and retails for US $ 499 @.@ 99 . In the US , the Elite bundle was a timed exclusive to GameStop and Microsoft Store . The Xbox One Elite bundle was dropped to $ 349 .
= = = Special editions = = =
Those who pre @-@ ordered Xbox One for its release received a special " Day One Edition " , which featured a " DAY ONE 2013 " inscriptions on the controller , and a unique achievement . A white " Launch Team " edition was given exclusively to Microsoft staff members , featuring the inscription " I made this , LAUNCH TEAM 2013 " on the console and controller , and was bundled with Dead Rising 3 , Forza Motorsport 5 , Ryse : Son of Rome , and Zoo Tycoon . A similar limited edition was gifted to Respawn Entertainment employees following the release of Titanfall , with a black , white , and orange color scheme and a similarly @-@ styled controller inspired by the game ( the controller itself would be released publicly as a tie @-@ in ) .
Xbox One consoles bundled with digital copies of specific games have also been released , including Titanfall and Forza Motorsport 5 .
In October 2014 , a non @-@ Kinect bundle featuring a white Xbox One and a coupon for a digital copy of Sunset Overdrive was released , marking the first public availability of white Xbox One models . A similar white hardware bundle was released for Quantum Break .
In November 2014 , a limited edition 1 TB bundle was released for Call of Duty : Advanced Warfare , featuring a dark grey and gold hardware , controller design , and customized sound effects on the console 's power and eject buttons inspired by the aesthetics of the in @-@ game Sentinel Task Force , a coupon for a digital copy of Advanced Warfare 's " Day Zero " edition , and special in @-@ game items .
Bundles featuring coupons for digital copies of both Assassin 's Creed Unity and Assassin 's Creed IV : Black Flag were released in November 2014 : the Kinect @-@ equipped version also includes a coupon for a digital copy of Dance Central Spotlight .
Another non @-@ Kinect bundle was released in March 2015 that includes a coupon for a digital copy of Halo : The Master Chief Collection .
A 1 TB Forza Motorsport 6 bundle was released on September 15 , 2015 , which features blue @-@ colored hardware with racing stripes and a push @-@ button start @-@ inspired design around the power button , and customized hardware sound effects .
A limited @-@ edition 1TB Halo 5 : Guardians bundle was released on October 20 , 2015 ( one week before the launch of the game itself ) , and features a gunmetal gray finish with metallic blue accents , military insignia detailing , and customized hardware sound effects .
= = = Sales = = =
On November 22 , 2013 , Microsoft confirmed that it had sold one million Xbox One consoles within its first 24 hours of being available . Based on approximately 102 @,@ 000 shopping receipts tracked by InfoScout , 1 @,@ 500 of which included a purchase of either a video game or a video game console , the Xbox One was the highest @-@ selling console during the Black Friday sales period in the United States .
On December 11 , 2013 , Microsoft announced that it had sold approximately 2 million units in its first 18 days on sale . On December 12 , 2013 , Microsoft announced it was the fastest selling console in the United States based on NPD Group figures , however the NPD report clarified , " PlayStation 4 sales included an additional week within the November data month compared to Xbox One . When looking at sales on an average per @-@ week basis , Xbox One led PS4 . Keep in mind , however , that supply typically becomes constrained in the second week after launch . "
On January 6 , 2014 , Microsoft announced that approximately 3 million consoles had been sold worldwide in 2013 . In their Q2 2014 earnings report on January 23 , 2014 , Microsoft announced that 3 @.@ 9 million Xbox One units had been shipped worldwide . On November 12 , 2014 , Microsoft announced they had shipped almost 10 million units to retailers worldwide . The company also revealed that a price cut had tripled U.S. sales of the console over the previous week . On December 11 , 2014 , Microsoft announced , based on NPD Group figures , that Xbox One was the best @-@ selling console in November 2014 .
The Xbox One has sold poorly in Japan , selling a total figure of 23 @,@ 562 consoles within its launch week . By comparison , the Xbox 360 sold 62 @,@ 000 consoles in Japan during its opening week in 2005 . In the week ending June 14 , 2015 the Xbox One sold just 100 consoles in Japan , by way of comparison , in the same week the Wii U sold 16 @,@ 413 consoles .
Although Microsoft has not released official cumulative sales numbers since December of the launch year , Electronic Arts reported during a financial call that the Xbox One has sold over 19 million consoles , as of January 2016 .
= = Hardware revisions = =
= Washington State Route 906 =
State Route 906 ( SR 906 ) is a 2 @.@ 65 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 4 @.@ 26 km ) state highway in the U.S. state of Washington , serving Snoqualmie Pass and its associated ski areas in King and Kittitas counties . The highway travels southeast between two interchanges with Interstate 90 ( I @-@ 90 ) in Snoqualmie Pass and Hyak . SR 906 was formed out of segments of the former Sunset Highway that were bypassed by the construction of the controlled @-@ access Interstate Highway over the pass . Between 360 and 2 @,@ 100 vehicles use the road on an average day in 2012 .
= = Route description = =
SR 906 begins at a half @-@ diamond interchange with I @-@ 90 , exit 52 , in Snoqualmie Pass , King County . North of I @-@ 90 , Summit Road provides access to the Alpental ski area . Only the first 3 ⁄ 10 mile ( 480 m ) of the highway is in King County , with the remainder of the highway in Kittitas County . After crossing the county line , SR 906 is bounded by Summit West on the west side of the highway and the Snoqualmie Pass Traveler 's Rest rest area on the east side . Access to the Pacific Crest Trail is provided from the one of Summit West 's parking lots . Just south of the rest area is an intersection with Yellowstone Road , which links back to I @-@ 90 at a full diamond interchange . Yellowstone Road was once a part of the Yellowstone Trail , a cross @-@ country auto @-@ trail .
Summit Central borders the west side of the highway with parking lots for the ski area on the east side of the highway , as the two @-@ lane 35 @-@ mile @-@ per @-@ hour ( 56 km / h ) speed limited road enters the unincorporated community of Hyak and continues southeastward . The highway comes to a four @-@ way intersection , and SR 906 turns to the north to meet I @-@ 90 at exit 54 . SR 906 Spur , a 0 @.@ 43 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 690 m ) spur route continues east through the intersection to serve the Washington State Department of Transportation ( WSDOT ) maintenance facility . Summit East is served by the roadway that continues south from the four @-@ way intersection . A hybrid half @-@ diamond interchange / partial cloverleaf serves as the eastern terminus of SR 906 as it reconnects to I @-@ 90 . The roadway continues north past the interchange as Lake Mardee Road , named after the nearby lake of the same name .
Every year , WSDOT conducts a series of surveys on its highways in the state to measure traffic volume . This is expressed in terms of average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) , which is a measure of traffic volume for any average day of the year . In 2012 , WSDOT calculated that , on average , 360 vehicles used the highway near its eastern terminus , and as many as 2 @,@ 100 vehicles used the highway just west of Yellowstone Road . Truck traffic was not reported between 2009 @-@ 2012 , and traffic counts have remained steady over the same period .
= = History = =
Automobile roads over Snoqualmie Pass date back to 1905 , when the first car traveled over the pass . A one @-@ lane road was competed by 1909 to promote the Alaska – Yukon – Pacific Exposition in Seattle , complete with a race over the pass . The Sunset Highway was built as a two @-@ lane road in 1915 , and rebuilt along the abandoned right @-@ of @-@ way of the Chicago , Milwaukee , St. Paul and Pacific Railroad in 1926 . The Sunset Highway was a part of the Yellowstone Trail , a transcontinental auto @-@ trail . In 1926 the United States Numbered Highway System was established , and the highway over Snoqualmie Pass was designated U.S. Route 10 ( US 10 ) . The bridge that carries SR 906 over Hyak Creek was built in 1928 . The road was first able to be kept open all winter by 1931 , and in 1934 it was numbered Primary State Highway 2 in addition to US 10 . The highway was paved between 1931 and 1939 .
SR 906 came to be the name of the highway during the construction of Interstate 90 over the pass . Parts of US 10 were not up to the new Interstate Highway System standards , so a new limited @-@ access highway was built , bypassing older alignments of roadway . The roadway now known as SR 906 was a bypassed section of the old Sunset Highway that was not up to Interstate Highway standards on May 11 , 1967 .
= = Major intersections = =
= = Spur route = =
State Route 906 Spur ( SR 906 Spur ) is a 0 @.@ 43 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 690 m ) spur route located entirely within the unincorporated community of Hyak , Kittitas County . It branches from its parent just before SR 906 's eastern terminus at I @-@ 90 . The highway travels southeast , between I @-@ 90 and the Iron Horse Trail , and ends at a WSDOT maintenance facility located at the north end of Keechelus Lake . The old Chicago , Milwaukee , St. Paul & Pacific Railroad @-@ Hyak Depot is accessible from SR 906 Spur , which now acts as a trail head for the Iron Horse rail trail . WSDOT conducts a series of surveys to measure traffic volume in terms of AADT and calculated that 300 vehicles @-@ per @-@ day used the spur route in 2012 . This number has remained steady between 2009 and 2012 .
= = = Major intersections = = =
The entire highway is in Hyak
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the other scientist 's workers . Reed was locked out of the Como train station by Carlin and was forced to haul the bones down the bluff and crate the specimens on the train platform in the bitter cold . Cope directed Carlin to set up his own quarry in Como Bluff , while Marsh sent Reed to spy on his former friend . As Reed 's Quarry # 4 dried up , Marsh ordered Reed to clear out the bone fragments from the other quarries . Reed reported he had destroyed all the remaining bones to keep them away from Cope . Concerned that strangers were encroaching on Reed 's quarries , Marsh sent Lakes to Como to assist in excavations , and in June 1879 visited Como himself . Cope likewise toured his own quarries in August . Although Marsh 's men continued to open new quarries and discover more fossils , relations between Lakes and Reed soured , with each offering his resignation in August . Marsh attempted to placate the two by sending each to opposite ends of the quarries , but after being forced to abandon one bone quarry in a freezing blizzard , Lakes submitted his resignation and returned to teaching in 1880 . The departure of Lakes did not ease tensions among Marsh 's men ; Lake 's replacement , a railroad man named Kennedy , felt he didn 't have to report to Reed , and the fighting between the two caused Marsh 's other workers to quit . Marsh tried separating Kennedy and Reed , and sent Williston 's brother Frank to Como in an effort to keep the peace . Frank Williston ended up leaving Marsh 's employ and taking up residence with Carlin . Cope 's own digging in Como began faltering , and Carlin 's replacements soon quit work altogether .
As the 1880s progressed , Cope 's and Marsh 's men faced stiff competition from each other and third parties interested in bones . Professor Alexander Emanuel Agassiz of Harvard sent his own representatives west , while Carlin and Frank Williston formed a bone company to sell fossils to the highest bidder . Reed left and became a sheep herder in 1884 , and Marsh 's Como quarries yielded little after his departure . Despite these setbacks , Marsh had more operational quarries than Cope at this point of time ; Cope , who at the early 1880s had more bones than he could fit in a single house , had fallen behind in the race for dinosaurs .
Cope 's and Marsh 's discoveries were accompanied by sensational accusations of spying , stealing workers and fossils , and bribery . The two men were so protective of their digging sites that they would destroy smaller or damaged fossils to prevent them from falling into their rival 's hands , or fill in their excavations with dirt and rock ; while surveying his Como quarries in 1879 , Marsh examined recent finds and marked several for destruction . On one occasion the scientists ' rival teams fought each other by throwing stones .
= = = Personal disputes and later years = = =
While Cope and Marsh dueled for fossils in the American West , they also tried their best to ruin each other 's professional credibility . Humiliated by his error in reconstructing the plesiosaur Elasmosaurus , Cope tried to cover up his mistake by purchasing every copy he could find of the journal it was published in . Marsh , who pointed out the error in the first place , made sure to publicize the story . Cope 's own rapid and prodigious output of scientific papers meant that Marsh had no difficulty in finding occasional errors to lambast Cope with . Neither was Marsh infallible ; he put the wrong skull on a skeleton of Apatosaurus and declared it a new genus , Brontosaurus .
By the late 1880s , public attention to the fighting between Cope and Marsh faded , drawn to international stories rather than the " Wild West " . Thanks to John Wesley Powell , head of the U.S. Geological Survey , and Marsh 's contacts with the rich and powerful in Washington , Marsh was placed at the head of the consolidated government survey and was happy to be out of the sensationalist spotlight . Cope was much less well @-@ off , having spent most of his money purchasing The American Naturalist , and had a hard time finding employment thanks to Marsh 's allies in higher education and Cope 's own temperament . Cope began investing in gold and silver prospects in the West , and braved malarial mosquitos and harsh weather to search for fossils himself . Due to setbacks in mining and a lack of support from the federal government , Cope 's financial situation steadily deteriorated , to the point that his fossil collection was his only significant asset . Marsh , meanwhile , alienated even his loyal assistants , including Williston , with his refusal to share his conclusions drawn from their findings , and his continually lax and infrequent payment schedule .
Cope 's chance to exploit Marsh 's vulnerabilities came in 1884 , when Congress began to investigate the proceedings of the consolidated geological survey . Cope had become friends with Henry Fairfield Osborn , then a professor of anatomy at Princeton University . Osborn was like Marsh in many ways , slow and methodical , but would prove a damaging influence on Marsh . Cope searched for disgruntled workers who would speak out against Powell and the Survey . For the moment , Powell and Marsh were able to successfully refute Cope 's charges , and his allegations did not reach the mainstream press . Osborn seemed reluctant to step up his campaign against Marsh , so Cope turned to another ally he had mentioned to Osborn — a " newspaper man from New York " named William Hosea Ballou . Despite setbacks in trying to oust Marsh from his presidency of the National Academy of Sciences , Cope received a tremendous financial boost after the University of Pennsylvania offered him a teaching job . Soon after , Cope 's chance to strike a critical blow at Marsh appeared .
Over the years , Cope kept an elaborate journal of mistakes and misdeeds that Marsh and Powell had committed ; the mistakes and errors of the men were put in writing and ensconced in the bottom drawer of Cope 's desk . Ballou planned the first set of articles , in what would become a series of newspaper debates between Marsh , Powell and Cope . While the scientific community had long known of Marsh and Cope 's rivalry , the public became aware of the shameful conduct of the two men when the New York Herald published a story with the headline " Scientists Wage Bitter Warfare . " According to author Elizabeth Noble Shor , the scientific community was galvanized :
Most scientists of the day recoiled to find that Cope 's feud with Marsh had become front @-@ page news . Those closest to the scientific fields under discussion , geology and vertebrate paleontology , certainly winced , particularly as they found themselves quoted , mentioned , or misspelled . The feud was not news to them , for it had lurked at their scientific meetings for two decades . Most of them had already taken sides .
In the newspaper articles , Cope attacked Marsh for plagiarism and financial mismanagement and attacked Powell for his geological classification errors and misspending of government allocated funds . Marsh and Powell were each able to publish their own side of the story , filing their own charges against Cope . Ballou 's articles were poorly researched , written , and read , and Cope himself was smarting from a Philadelphia Inquirer piece which suggested the University of Pennsylvania trustees would ask Cope to step down unless he provided proof for his charges against Marsh and Powell . Marsh himself kept the Herald story alive with a fiery rebuttal , but by the end of January the story had faded from all the newspapers , and little changed between the bitter rivals .
No congressional hearing was convened to investigate the misallocation of funds by Powell and neither Cope nor Marsh was held responsible for any of their mistakes , but some of Ballou 's slander against Marsh came to be associated with the Survey . Facing anti @-@ Survey sentiment inflamed by western drought and concerns about takeovers of abandoned western homesteads , Powell found himself the subject of larger scrutiny before the House Appropriations Committee . Galvanized to action by Marsh 's perceived extravagance with Survey funds , the Appropriations Committee demanded the Survey 's budget be itemized . When his appropriation was cut off in 1892 , Powell sent a terse telegram to Marsh demanding his resignation , a personal slight as well as a financial one . At the same time , many of Marsh 's allies were retiring or had died , lessening his scientific credence . Just as Marsh 's extravagant lifestyle was catching up with him , Cope received a position on the Texas Geological survey . Cope , still reeling from the personal attacks levied at him during the Herald affair , did not take advantage of the change in fortunes to press his personal attacks . Cope 's fortunes continued to look up throughout the early 1890s , as he was promoted to Leidy 's position as Professor of Zoology and was elected President of the National Association for the Advancement of Science the same year that Marsh stepped down as head of the Academy of Sciences . Towards the latter part of the decade , however , Cope 's fortunes began to sour once more as Marsh regained some of his recognition , earning the Cuvier Medal , the highest paleontological award .
Cope and Marsh 's rivalry lasted until Cope 's death in 1897 , by which time both men were financially ruined . Cope suffered from a debilitating illness in his later years and had to sell part of his fossil collection and rent out one of his houses to make ends meet . Marsh in turn had to mortgage his residence and ask Yale for a salary to live on . The rivalry between the two , however , remained strong if weary . Cope issued a final challenge before his death . He had his skull donated to science so that his brain could be measured , hoping that his brain would be larger than that of his adversary ; at the time , it was thought brain size was the true measure of intelligence . Marsh never accepted the challenge , and Cope 's skull is reportedly still preserved at the University of Pennsylvania . ( Whether the skull stored at the University is Cope 's is disputed ; the University stated that it believes the real skull was lost in the 1970s , although Robert Bakker has said that hairline fractures on the skull and coroner 's reports verify the skull 's authenticity . )
= = Legacy = =
Judging by pure numbers , Marsh " won " the Bone Wars . Both scientists made finds of incredible scientific value , but while Cope discovered a total of 56 new dinosaur species , Marsh discovered 80 . In the later stages of the Bone Wars , Marsh simply had more men and money at his disposal than Cope . Cope also had a much broader set of paleontological interests , while Marsh almost exclusively pursued fossilized reptiles and mammals .
Several of Cope 's and Marsh 's discoveries are the most well @-@ known of dinosaurs , encompassing species of Triceratops , Allosaurus , Diplodocus , Stegosaurus , Camarasaurus and Coelophysis . Their cumulative discoveries defined the then @-@ nascent field of paleontology ; before Cope 's and Marsh 's discoveries , there were only nine named species of dinosaur in North America . Some of their ideas — such as Marsh 's argument that birds are descended from dinosaurs — have been upheld ; while others are viewed as having little to no scientific merit . The Bone Wars also led to the discovery of the first complete skeletons , and the rise in popularity of dinosaurs with the public . As paleontologist Robert Bakker stated , " The dinosaurs that came from [ Como Bluff ] not only filled museums , they filled magazine articles , textbooks , they filled people 's minds . "
Despite their advances , the Bone Wars also had a negative impact not only on the two scientists but their peers and the entire field . The public animosity between Cope and Marsh harmed the reputation of American paleontology in Europe for decades . Furthermore , the reported use of dynamite and sabotage by employees of both men may have destroyed or buried hundreds of potentially critical fossil remains . Joseph Leidy abandoned his more methodical excavations in the West , finding he could not keep up with Cope 's and Marsh 's reckless searching for bones . Leidy also grew tired of the constant squabbling between the two men , with the result that his withdrawal from the field marginalized his own legacy ; after his death , Osborn found not a single mention of the man in either of the rivals ' works . In their haste to outdo each other , Cope and Marsh haphazardly assembled the bones of their own discoveries . Their descriptions of new species , based on their reconstructions , led to confusion and misconceptions that lasted for decades after their deaths .
A 2007 – 2008 excavation of several of Cope 's and Marsh 's sites suggest that the damage perpetrated by the two paleontologists was less than what has been reported . Using Lakes ' field paintings , researchers from the Morrison Natural History Museum discovered that Lakes had not actually dynamited the most productive quarries in Colorado ; rather , Lakes had just filled in the site . Museum director Matthew Mossbrucker theorized that Lakes propagated the lie " because he didn 't want the competition up at the quarry — playing mind games with Cope 's gang . "
= = = Adaptations = = =
Besides being the focus of historical and paleontological books , the Bone Wars has been the subject of a graphic novel , Bone Sharps , Cowboys , and Thunder Lizards , by Jim Ottaviani . Bone Sharps is a work of historical fiction , as Ottaviani introduces the character of Charles R. Knight to Cope for plot purposes , and other events have been restructured .
In 2011 , the PBS history series American Experience ran the documentary Dinosaur Wars .
In 2015 , a comedic story of the Bone Wars was on the show Drunk History .
= On the Floor =
" On the Floor " is a song recorded by American recording artist Jennifer Lopez for her seventh studio album , Love ? ( 2011 ) . Featuring American rapper Pitbull , it was released by Island Records on February 8 , 2011 as the lead single from the album . " On the Floor " was written by Kinda " Kee " Hamid , AJ Junior , Teddy Sky , Bilal " The Chef " Hajji , Pitbull , Gonzalo Hermosa , Ulises Hermosa , along with the song 's producer RedOne . It is an up @-@ tempo electro @-@ house dance song with a common time tempo of 130 beats per minute . " On the Floor " incorporates elements of electro house and draws further musical influences from eurodance , Latin music and techno music . Lopez recorded a Spanish @-@ language version of the song titled " Ven a Bailar " ( English : " Come to Dance " ) , which includes additional lyrical contributions from Julio Reyes Copello and Jimena Romero .
Its development was motivated by Lopez 's Latin heritage and pays homage to her career @-@ beginnings as a dancer . Interpolated within the song are recurrent elements of the 1982 Bolivian composition " Llorando se fue " written by Gonzalo and Ulises Hermosa , a composition that gained notoriety when it was sampled by Kaoma in their 1989 single " Lambada " . Lopez described " On the Floor " as an evolution of her classic sound and as something which sounded very current . The debut and release of " On the Floor " coincided with Lopez 's appointment as a judge on the tenth season of US reality TV show American Idol , as well as several other product endorsement deals . American Idol also provided a platform to debut the single 's music video , as well as the stage for Lopez 's first live performance of the song .
" On the Floor " was met with a generally positive reception from music critics , with editors from BBC Music and Los Angeles Times drawing comparisons to Lopez 's debut single , " If You Had My Love " ( 1999 ) and follow @-@ up single " Waiting for Tonight " ( 1999 ) . Commercially , " On the Floor " is Lopez 's most successful single to date , topping more than thirty national single charts . In the United States , it was Lopez 's first single in four years to garner airplay , and to date has sold over four million copies , earning a triple platinum certification by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) in the USA . It resulted in being the eleventh @-@ biggest hit of the year on the year @-@ end charts ; " On the Floor " finished in first in Austria , Finland , Germany , Spain , Switzerland , and other countries .
A music video was directed by TAJ Stansberry and choreographed by Frank Gatson , Jr , with fans being given the chance to vote for their preferred ending for the video . The completed clip premiered simultaneously on Vevo and during the March 3 , 2011 episode of American Idol . It depicts a Los Angeles underground club culture where Lopez portrays a " queen of the nightclub " , among other characters . The video received critical acclaim for its lavish production , the styling and choreography , that critics felt best highlighted Lopez 's abilities as a dancer . As of July 2016 , the video has received over 950 million views .
= = Background = =
Lopez 's seventh studio album Love ? ( 2011 ) was conceived in late 2007 and early 2008 . During that time frame , under contract to Epic Records , Lopez released " Louboutins " , a song written and produced by The @-@ Dream and Tricky Stewart , as the project 's lead single . However upon release , the song failed to garner enough airplay to chart , despite topping the US Billboard Hot Dance Club Songs chart . Lopez subsequently left Epic Records , citing that she had fulfilled her contractual obligations and now wished to release Love ? under a new label . Upon signing with The Island Def Jam Music Group , Lopez continued working with The @-@ Dream and Tricky Stewart , in addition to collaborating with new producers such as RedOne . It wasn 't until January 2011 that Lopez teased the media about the new lead single for Love ? . In a tweet on her Twitter account , Lopez posted : " I see u @ RedOne _ Official ! We 're making BIG things happen ' On the Floor ' this new year ! ! ! " . Subsequently on January 16 , 2011 , an unfinished snippet of " On the Floor " leaked online , labelled as a RedOne production and featuring rap vocals from Pitbull . It is the second time that Lopez and Pitbull have collaborated on a song , the first being " Fresh Out the Oven " , the 2009 buzz single which reached number one on the Hot Dance Club Songs chart .
According to the Los Angeles Times 's Gerrick D. Kennedy , a full length unfinished version of " On the Floor " leaked online over the same weekend in time for Lopez 's new L 'Oreal commercial , which premiered during the telecast of the 68th Golden Globe Awards ceremony in Los Angeles . The timing of the leak also coincided with Lopez 's debut on judges panel for season ten of American Idol . Lopez confirmed the single 's title as " On the Floor " during the red carpet ceremony at The Golden Globes , before appearing the following day on the radio show On Air with Ryan Seacrest for the song 's US premiere . The final version of the song was uploaded to Ryanseacrest.com , where the site 's editor , Sadao Turner , revealed that the final master of the song was different from the previously leaked and unfinished version . " On the Floor " made its debut in the United Kingdom , on January 28 , 2011 when it was played by DJ Scott Mills on his radio show , Ready for the Weekend . Benji Eisen from AOL Music stated that Lopez had used " genius marketing and branding " by synchronising the digital release of " On the Floor " with the premiere of its music video on American Idol . It was added to the B @-@ playlist on the UK 's biggest mainstream radio station , BBC Radio 1 , on March 16 , 2011 .
When talking about " On the Floor " , during an interview with MTV , Lopez said that she wanted a song that would evolve her sound , " it feels like me today , which I like . It 's not something that you hear and you 're like , ' That 's not her , ' but you also go , ' Is that her ? I like that . It 's new , ' and that 's what I wanted . I wanted it to be very me , but I wanted it to be me not from my first album or my second album , but for today . " Additionally , Lopez felt a strong connection to " On the Floor " because it captured both sides of her career , singing and dancing , " The minute RedOne played it for me , I made him play it 20 times in a row , and I just sat there at the board and I kept listening to it and listening to it ... Because I really feel like , emotionally , I connected to it , but also because of how much I love to dance and how much that 's always been such a big part of who I am since I started . Since I was a little girl , I just totally connected with the idea of getting out there . "
= = Composition = =
" On the Floor " is an up @-@ tempo dance and dance @-@ pop song produced by RedOne that incorporates elements of electropop and electro house . It also contains heavy synths and was influenced by Eurodance , Latin and techno music . American artist Pitbull starts the song with a rap introduction while the melody interpolates elements of the Los Kjarkas composition , " Llorando se fue " , popularized by Kaoma 's 1989 hit single " Lambada " . " On the Floor " was written by Bilal Hajji , Kinda Hamid , Gonzalo Hermosa , Ulises Hermosa , Achraf Janussi , RedOne , Pitbull and Geraldo Sandell in the key of E ♭ minor . It is written in the time signature of common time , set at a tempo of 130 beats per minute . Lopez 's vocal range spans from A ♭ 3 to B ♭ 4 while the melody uses a simple chord progression of E ♭ minor – B major – F ♯ major – C ♯ major . The song was adapted in Spanish as " Ven a Bailar " which featured additional lyrics by Julio Reyes Copello and Jimena Romero .
According to Idolator and Gerrick Kennedy from the Los Angeles Times , " On the Floor " is reminiscent of Lopez 's single , " Waiting for Tonight " ( 1999 ) . Kennedy elaborated on the comparisons , stating that " listeners haven 't heard this dance @-@ electro @-@ pop side of Lopez since 1999 ... much of her back catalog flirts with more gritty urban @-@ pop sounds . " Editors for the New York Daily News made some comparisons between " On the Floor " and another RedOne production , Kat DeLuna 's 2010 single , " Party O 'Clock " . DeLuna 's song contains the lyrics " Party in Ibiza , Party in New York / All the way to Africa / Love in the Caribbean / On my way to Vegas " whereas Lopez sings the nearly identical line , " Brazil , Morocco / London to Ibiza / Straight to L.A. New York / Vegas to Africa . "
= = Critical reception = =
" On the Floor " was met with generally positive reception from music critics . Rolling Stone called the song " music worth getting lost in " . Mikael Wood from the Los Angeles Times agreed , calling " On the Floor " the standout track from Love ? Wood said , " On the Floor " " returned Lopez to the upper reaches of the Billboard Hot 100 " but added that the rest of the album was unlikely to match its success . The Houston Chronicle 's Joey Guerra concurred with his fellowing critics , nothing that " On the Floor " was one of the four standout moments on the album , typyifying the " aggressively sexual anthems that are likely to soundtrack the summer . " Comments echoed by The Observer 's Hermione Hoby read , " the song [ ' On the Floor ' ] was a particular triumph . "
In his article for the Los Angeles Times , Gerrick Kennedy said the song is a " sweat @-@ inducing , sticky dance floor track " which was " vintage J.Lo " and catchier than either of her previous releases , " Louboutins " or " Fresh Out the Oven " . Although Kennedy praised the song 's overall appeal , he commented that RedOne had produced more inventive " pop gems " with the likes of Lady Gaga and that Pitbull 's appearance was a " throwaway verse . " In her review for AOL Music 's Radio Blog , Nadine Cheung commented that Lopez " reinforces her renaissance woman status . " Nick Levine from Digital Spy called " On the Floor " a song that The Black Eyed Peas would have been " proud to have released " . Levine 's review agreed with others that the song was a " welcome comeback for Lopez , " and praised the use of a " not so @-@ subtle " sample with the " Latin @-@ tinged electro @-@ housy " production . Overall , he said that the production was " the antithesis of classy " , and although not original " there 's no denying that this gets the job done . "
Not all of the reviews were positive , with some critics citing a lack of originality . In his review of Love ? , BBC Music 's Alex Macpherson said that " On the Floor " was a predictable recording from Lopez as it was " not too disimilar to the supreme millennial house of ' Waiting for Tonight ' ( 1999 ) " . He went on to describe " On the Floor , " and album track " Papi , " as " apparent distillations of the trashy Miami house aesthetic that dominates pop these days . " Ken Capobianco from The Boston Globe described " On the Floor " as quite generic .
The single also drew comparisons to " Party O 'Clock , " a 2010 single by American singer Kat DeLuna , also produced by RedOne . In a statement issued to the New York Daily News , DeLuna said " It 's cool that artists like J.Lo are inspired by my musical sound and style . ... Jennifer helped pave the way for Latinas like myself . I love her " , and insisted that there wasn 't an issue . DeLuna also noted Lopez as someone who inspired her , and paved the way for someone like her to perform . Following previews of the music video for " On the Floor , " DeLuna changed her mind about how she felt with the claims of copying . In another interview with the New York Daily News , several days after the first , she said " I 've seen this before , where the more established artist tries to take the vision and artistic ideas away from an emerging artist , and assumes no one will notice because of their bigger shadow , ... Luckily , my loyal fans and the power of the Internet have let the ' Kat ' out of the bag . " Lopez was interviewed about the issue on Hispanic @-@ American entertainment program ¡ Despierta America ! . Lopez replied " What ? Really ? I 'm not aware of that ... " , and when pressed by the presenter a second time , insisted she had not heard rumors of the comparisons .
= = = Accolades = = =
" On the Floor " received two International Dance Music nominations for Best Latin / Reggaeton Track and Best Commercial / Pop Track . The song was nominated at the 2012 Swiss Music Awards for Best International Hit . The Spanish version " Ven a Bailar " received two nominations at the 2012 Billboard Latin Music Awards for Vocal Duet Song of the Year and Latin Pop Song of the Year . " On the Floor " was recognized by the American Society of Composers , Authors and Publishers ( ASCAP ) in their Most Performed Songs list for the year . " Ven a Bailar " was also recognized at the 20th ASCAP Latin Music Awards at the Pop Category . It received a Broadcast Music Award at the Pop Awards and the London Awards . At the 2011 Premios Juventud ceremony , the duo received a nomination for La Combinación Perfecta ( The Perfect Combination ) for the song .
She got nominated for the MTV Europe Music Award for Best Song ( " On the Floor " ) , the MTV Europe Music Award for Best Female ( " On the Floor " ) , MuchMusic Video Award for International Video of the Year - Artist ( " On the Floor " ) with Pitbull .
= = Commercial performance = =
= = = North America = = =
" On the Floor " made its chart debut in Canada , during the week beginning February 12 , 2011 . It debuted at number eighty @-@ six on the Canadian Hot 100 , despite not being released until February 22 , 2011 , thus becoming the first release from Love ? to receive airplay recognition . Neither the album 's Epic Records buzz single ( " Fresh Out the Oven " , which also features Pitbull ) , nor the previous lead single " Louboutins " charted on US Billboard Charts . In the chart week dated April 16 , 2011 , " On the Floor " became Lopez 's fourth Canadian chart @-@ topper , and highest charting single in nine years following " If You Had My Love " ( 1999 ) , " Love Don 't Cost a Thing " ( 2001 ) and " Jenny from the Block " ( 2002 ) . In the United States , " On the Floor " made its chart debut on the Hot Dance Club Songs , at number twenty @-@ six . Additionally it debuted on the US Pop Songs chart at number forty , marking Lopez 's first appearance on pop airplay charts since 2007 . The single went on to make its Billboard Hot 100 debut at number nine , becoming the highest debuting Hot 100 single of Lopez 's career . " On the Floor " became Lopez 's tenth top @-@ ten hit on the Hot 100 , of which , six have featured other artists . Billboard 's Gary Trust reported that it was Lopez 's highest peaking chart position since her 2006 feature on LL Cool J 's " Control Myself , " although it was actually in 2003 when Lopez last released a top @-@ ten peaking single as a lead artist ( " All I Have " with LL Cool J ) . The full single was not released until February 22 , almost one month after it was uploaded to YouTube and serviced to radio , despite a remix EP being available before hand . Keith Caulfield from Billboard noted that Island Def Jam Music 's strategy of delaying the release was unusual as fellow pop contemporaries , such as Lady Gaga and Britney Spears , " released their singles to digital retailers at about the same time they were serviced to radio and streaming sites . " The single 's release was synchronized with the debut of the music video on season ten of American Idol , resulting in first week sales of 170 @,@ 000 copies and a Hot Digital Songs chart position of number three . The Spanish version of the song also became a success on Latin radio stations where it peaked at number two on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart .
As a direct result , Kaoma 's 1989 single " Lambada " re @-@ entered the charts after more than two decades , making its digital chart debut at number three on the Billboard World Digital Chart . In the week following the music video 's debut , " On the Floor " experienced a 31 % increase in sales , which totaled 232 @,@ 000 copies , and landed the song at number two on the Hot Digital Songs chart , as well as number five on the Hot 100 . " On the Floor " thus became Lopez 's seventh top @-@ five hit in the United States . It is the first single since " So What " ( 2008 ) by Pink to debut in the top @-@ ten of the Hot 100 , and then climb up the chart in its second week . Just over a month after release " On the Floor " had sold over 600 @,@ 000 copies in the United States , according to USA Today 's Bill Keveney . Keveney , attributed Lopez 's commercial comeback to product endorsement deals with L 'Oreal and Gillette , also noting her appointment as a judge on American Idol a contributing factor in the growth of her popularity . During the week ending May 8 , 2011 , " On the Floor " rose from number seven to a new peak of number three on the Hot 100 . By March 28 , 2011 , " On the Floor " reached number one on the Hot Dance Club Songs chart , becoming her fifth consecutive US dance chart topper , with three coming from her album Love ? , including " Fresh Out the Oven " ( with Pitbull ) and " Louboutins " ( 2009 ) . " On the Floor " brings Lopez 's US dance number ones total to nine singles since she launched her career in 1999 . Since then , it has been certified 3 × Multi @-@ Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , denoting shipments of three million copies . As a result of Lopez 's first televised performance of the song on May 5 , 2011 , " On the Floor " logged 175 @,@ 000 digital sales that week ( up 25 % on the previous week ) , earning Lopez the " Digital Gainer " title that week . Consequently , " On the Floor " reached a new peak of number three on the Hot 100 and number five on the US Pop Songs chart , becoming her highest charting single commercial single as a lead artist , as well as her most successful airplay hit on contemporary hit radio , since 2002 's " Jenny from the Block " . By April 2012 , the song has sold 3 @,@ 486 @,@ 000 downloads in the US alone . A year later in April 2013 , it was reported that " On the Floor " had sold 3 @,@ 800 @,@ 000 downloads in the United States . It also became the 60th best selling digital single of all time .
= = = Europe and Oceania = = =
Internationally , " On the Floor " topped nineteen national single charts ( see charts section ) . On the Slovakia Airplay chart , the single debuted at number sixteen , before peaking at number one where it remained for two weeks beginning on March 7 , 2011 . It returned to the top of the chart in the first week of April 2011 , after dipping to number two at the end of March , and made a third return to number one in the third week of April . In total , " On the Floor " spent a total of seven weeks at number one . It also topped both the Flemish and Wallonian single charts in Belgium . On the Flanders Ultratop 50 , " On the Floor " peaked at number one , remaining there for four weeks . Meanwhile , on the Wallonia Ultratop 50 , the single remained at number one for four weeks , before dropping to number four and then returning to number one for a fifth week . In both territories , it is Lopez 's first number one single in Belgium . The Belgian Entertainment Association ( BEA ) certified the single gold , for selling 15 @,@ 000 copies . In Finland , " On the Floor " debuted at number one , giving Lopez her third number one in the country , behind " Love Don 't Cost a Thing " ( 2001 ) and her debut single " If You Had My Love " ( 1999 ) . Selling platinum with over 12 @,@ 000 copies , " On the Floor " was the second @-@ best @-@ selling single of 2011 in Finland and in total it spent nine weeks at number one , making it Lopez 's longest @-@ serving number @-@ one , as well as her longest @-@ charting single in the country .
" On the Floor " also reached number one in Spain ( fifteen weeks ) , Germany ( six weeks ) and France ( one week ) . In Spain , " On the Floor " reached number one on March 13 , 2011 , where it remained for fifteen weeks . Consequently , the single was certified Triple Platinum , by the Productores de Música de España ( PROMUSICAE ) , for shipments of 120 @,@ 000 copies . It was also certified 2x Platinum by the Bundesverband Musikindustrie ( BVMI ) , in Germany , for shipping 600 @,@ 000 copies . In Italy , " On the Floor " entered the Italian Singles Chart at number four before ascending to the summit , where it would remain for four weeks . It is Lopez 's fourth Italian number @-@ one , and first English @-@ language single to reach number one since " Get Right " ( 2005 ) , though Spanish single " Qué Hiciste " reached number one in 2007 . The Federation of the Italian Music Industry ( FIMI ) certified " On the Floor " Multi @-@ Platinum for shipping 60 @,@ 000 copies . The single experienced similar success in Sweden and Switzerland , where it respectively spent three and five weeks at the top of the countries ' singles charts . In Sweden it is Lopez 's first number one single , whereas in Switzerland it is her second , following 2007 's " Qué Hiciste " . In both countries the single was certified Double Platinum , shipping 40 @,@ 000 copies in Sweden and 60 @,@ 000 copies in Switzerland . As of July 26 , 2011 " On the Floor " had official sales of 1 @.@ 41 million copies .
In Australia , " On the Floor " debuted at number ten , becoming Lopez 's first top @-@ ten single in the country since 2005 's " Get Right " . It has since reached number one , becoming her second Australian chart topper , and first in nearly twelve years since 1999 's " If You Had My Love " . It was certified 4 × platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for shipments of 280 @,@ 000 copies . It reached number two in New Zealand , and was certified double @-@ Platinum for sales of 30 @,@ 000 copies . In Ireland , " On the Floor " debuted at number twelve on the Irish Singles Chart on March 10 , 2011 . It continued a steady climb to the top spot , spending two weeks at number two before finally reaching number one on April 14 , 2011 . In the United Kingdom , " On the Floor " was added to playlists on mainstream radio in March 2010 . On April 3 , 2011 , " On the Floor " made its UK Single Chart debut at number one , becoming Lopez 's third chart @-@ topper in that country . Overall it is Lopez 's twelfth UK top @-@ five hit , and topped the UK Digital Songs chart after logging first week sales of 130 @,@ 000 copies – the highest first week sales for Lopez in the UK . " On the Floor " also debuted at the top of the R & B Singles Chart . It remained at number one for two weeks , becoming the only single by Lopez to do so . The song was the biggest selling R & B / hip hop single of 2011 in the UK . As of May 2012 , " On the Floor " had sold 822 @,@ 056 copies , becoming Lopez ' biggest @-@ selling single in the UK .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background and development = = =
The music video for " On the Floor " was filmed over the weekend dated January 22 – 23 , 2011 , with TAJ Stansberry serving as the director and Frank Gatson as the choreographer . Lopez told MTV News that for the video she was holding an open casting call to find club kids , " [ We want ] those kids who go to the club and they dance all night and that 's all they care about ? It 's just about having a good time , getting all sweaty , and it 's all about the music and leaving it on the dance floor . I don 't want to say what the video is , but that 's the type of dancers . We 're doing a big casting call ... " Meanwhile , Gatson said that Lopez wanted a post @-@ 2AM Los Angeles club vibe for the video . He said ,
" [ We 're trying to create a vibe ] that 's so amazing . [ It 's like ] everybody had some watermelon and the watermelon made them high , it gave them a little buzz — but a good buzz , a real magical buzz , a dance buzz , a buzz that makes you feel like fried chicken , so she just wants everybody to have a good old time .... The club must have this vibe , where you get on the floor and everybody 's bringing it " , he added . " We 've seen so many club videos , but we want to see a club video with a vibe unique to Jennifer Lopez . "
Just prior of the casting call and video shoot , Stansberry expressed his views to MTV News on the concept for the video – originality . " Originality , being you . This song is about being who you want . It 's about letting loose . There 's no explanation . This is this underground video , this underground party . " During the video shoot , MTV interviewed Lopez about the concepts for the video . Lopez described some of the characters she played , telling MTV that in one scene " I play one character where she kind of runs this party , acts like she 's kind of over it , but at the same time loves it and loves this kind of underground kind of party dance culture , ... So I got to be wild and crazy , and at the same time I got to be sexy and sweet too . " The video makes use of product placement , including BMW , Swarovski and Crown Royal , according to Tanner Stransky from Entertainment Weekly . Stransky also noted the " unintentional placement " of fake eyelashes and wigs , weaves , and other hair @-@ extending products .
Lopez later confirmed in an interview On Air with Ryan Seacrest , that the completed music video would premiere jointly on season ten of American Idol and on Vevo on March 3 , 2011 . Fans could vote between three alternative endings through Idol 's official website . Lopez said the idea behind giving fans the choice was to give them a chance to see what she experienced . " You get to do what I do , ... Like , I go in there with my videos and I start editing and picking all the shots I like and the things that I like and what I feel the best kind of feeling for the record is . You guys get to do that . We picked two different ones and we weren 't sure . " The alternative endings included three varying scenes : in the first , the video ends with a close @-@ up of Lopez 's face in the silver lace catsuit ; the second ends with a shot of dancers defying gravity on the walls and ceiling , while the final ending ends with a shot of Lopez on the dance floor in her harem pants . The first ending was the one used in the final video .
= = = Synopsis = = =
The clip begins with Lopez 's arrival at a club in a black BMW , one example of the product placement used throughout the video . As the music begins , she puts on a pair Swarovski crystal earrings before the camera switches to inside the club. where it descends from the ceiling amongst the Las Vegas @-@ style crystal chandeliers . Choreographer Frank Gatson Jr. called the club , " the best dance party in town , " where Lopez played several different characters . Both the scenery and artist were styled to pay homage to her background as a professional dancer , she said she wanted the video to " introduce people to a new J.Lo @-@ ration of party people " . In one scene , she plays a dominant queen of the party who watches from above , on a balcony surrounded by servants . When portraying this character , Lopez was styled with " a big beehive bun , gold gladiator heels and a glittery gold gown with Gaga @-@ esque detailing in its high collar and leaves . " The ' queen ' character " dangles lazily on a couch " and " regally oversees a crowd of people getting down on the dancefloor . " In another scene , Lopez wears a silver crystal and lace skin @-@ tight catsuit , designed by Lebanese fashion designer Zuhair Murad , as she dances against a " gold cardio barre " before proceeding to shake her " money maker , " according to the Los Angeles Times . Spliced in between these scenes , she is seen dressed in black harem pants and a bikini top , as she walks through the crowd to mount a circular stage on the Las Vegas @-@ style dancefloor . MTV 's Kelly Carter and AOL 's Khawlhring Sawmteii described the final scenes as Lopez " tearing up the floor , " and " breaking it down ' fly @-@ girl ' style . "
= = = Reception = = =
The music video was welcomed with critical acclaim from music critics , praising the expensive finish , arrangement , Lopez 's sense of fashion and the overall execution . Based on a preview of the video , Entertainment Weekly 's Tanner Stransky said the clip brought together a flawless realness with an expensive set @-@ up , things that are " very important elements in the pop music world and to the old Lopez that everyone knew and loved . " Following its full premiere , Stransky added that the video was " sexy and sultry . " Kyle Anderson from MTV 's Newsroom agreed , noting the " gorgeous and exquisite execution , " particularly praising Lopez 's " incredible hairstyles " and the " gorgeous club interiors [ set design ] . " Anderson ended his review by stating that the premiere of the song 's music video almost overshadowed the episode of American Idol in which it was shown .
AOL 's Benji Eisen called " On the Floor " a " comeback of sorts " for Lopez , particularly noting its clever cross @-@ promotion with Idol and Lopez 's multiple product endorsement deals . He applauded Lopez for moving on from her previous lack of commercial success in recent years . Kim Dawson , an editor for the UK daily newspaper Daily Star , also praised the video for returning Lopez to her " day job " ( as a performer ) despite being everyone 's " new favourite Idol judge . " The sex appeal in the video for " On the Floor " was likened to that last displayed by Lopez in the video for 2002 's " I 'm Gonna Be Alright " . A reviewer from the Daily Express said " Jennifer Lopez once told us in song that ' I 'm Gonna Be Alright ' and now she 's proved it ... The curves she displayed when she recorded the hit video nine years ago have been replaced by a leaner , fitter look [ in ' On the Floor ' ] . " Matthew Perpetua from Rolling Stone agreed with comparisons to Lopez 's earlier work : " Basically , this is classic Lopez tweaked for 2011 ... visuals that update late @-@ Nineties bling with a high fashion wardrobe nearly as eccentric as that of Rihanna and Lady Gaga . " As a result of the video 's premiere , the online traffic at Lopez 's official Vevo account increased by 1000 % . In the space of two weeks , the video was viewed over thirty million times on Lopez 's official Vevo page , according to USA Today .
= = Live performances = =
On May 5 , 2011 , Lopez and Pitbull took the stage of American Idol to perform " On the Floor " for the first time . The performance consisted of her breaking two dancers out of glass boxes , an elaborate dance routine and two appearances from Pitbull . Initially he appeared from the crowd , but for his second appearance , he arrived at the back of the stage via a moving staircase . Lopez was dressed in a " glimmering ensemble " while the set included lasers and pyrotechnics . According to Adam Graham from MTV , the performance was taped prior to the episode of Idol , made apparent by what Graham called " sloppy editing . " According to The Hollywood Reporter , Lopez pretaped the performance due to a perceived danger of flying shards of glass from the earlier part of the routine . The performance was praised by Caryn Ganz from Yahoo ! Music , who compliment all of the element of the performance . Ganz said " [ everything from the ] lush production values to her own high energy dancing and live vocals ... This performance maxed out what an artist can do in such a medium – awesome lighting , high @-@ impact video footage , a strong feature from Pitbull , excellent staging , solid choreography , a bit of pyro , and a ton of warmth and personality . " An editor from Rap @-@ Up magazine agreed , saying that " Lopez showed the contestants how its done , commanding the stage during her smashing performance . "
The duo reprised their performance at KIIS @-@ FM 's Wango Tango music festival in Los Angeles , on May 14 , 2011 . Lopez wore a shiny gold catsuite for the performance , which did not go as planned when halfway through the performance her microphone failed . She continued performing for 20 seconds , before realising that she had lost sound . According to lifestyle website Female First , Lopez proceeded to dance , and urged the audience to sing along . At the end of the performance , Lopez addressed the crowd straight after the performance , saying " We ain 't gonna let that get us down , right ? Nobody keeps mama down . " After Pitbull informed her of the malfunction , she turned to the band asking them to start from the beginning so that she could perform the song again .
On June 11 , 2011 , Lopez flew to the United Kingdom to promote " On the Floor , " first appearing at Capital FM 's Summertime Ball . Later that day , she appeared at the finale of the second series of So You Think You Can Dance to reprise the performance . Wearing a skin tight catsuit , Lopez descended from the ceiling in an illuminated heart before preceding to perform the song , which included her dropping to her knees during the chorus . Lopez reprise the performance on X Factor ( France ) on June 14 , 2011 and German game @-@ show Wetten , dass .. ? on June 18 .
= = Track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording
Recorded at : Cove Studios , New York and Henson Recording , Los Angeles .
Contains interpolations of the composition : " Llorando Se Fue " , written by Gonzales Hermosa and Ulises Hermosa .
Personnel
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= Cyclone Inigo =
Cyclone Inigo was the most intense recorded cyclone in the Australian region . It developed from a tropical low that crossed eastern Indonesia in late March 2003 . Becoming a named tropical cyclone on 1 April , Inigo rapidly intensified as it tracked southwestward , reaching a minimum central pressure of 900 hPa on 4 April . An approaching trough weakened the cyclone and turned it to the southeast , and on 8 April Inigo dissipated after making landfall on Western Australia as a minimal tropical storm .
The precursor disturbance dropped heavy rainfall across eastern Indonesia , causing widespread flooding and mudslides . The worst of the damage was on Flores island , though damage was also reported on West Timor and Sumba . The flooding and mudslides damage or destroyed thousands of houses , forcing many to leave their homes . A total of 58 casualties were reported in association with the disturbance . In Australia , Inigo produced locally heavy rainfall , but little damage .
= = Meteorological history = =
By 26 March , an area of disturbed weather was located within the near @-@ equatorial trough near Papua New Guinea . Initially located within an area of easterly wind shear , it tracked westward due to the presence of a ridge to its south , and on 27 March a low pressure area formed over Western New Guinea . Thunderstorm activity increased around a mid @-@ level circulation as it crossed into the Arafura Sea , and its overall organization continued to increase . On 29 March , a low @-@ level circulation was visible , though significant tropical development was prevented due to wind shear and land interaction with islands in the Indonesian archipelago . It developed into a tropical low on 30 March , and after turning to the southwest , it crossed the island of Flores on 31 March ; upon doing so its convection greatly increased due to increased upper @-@ level divergence , which produced heavy rainfall on Flores and Timor . On 1 April , wind shear decreased as it crossed into the Savu Sea , and by early on 1 April it developed into a tropical cyclone to the northeast of Sumba .
At 1200 UTC on 1 April , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) issued its first advisory on the system , classifying it as Tropical Cyclone 26S . At 0000 UTC on 2 April , the Bureau of Meteorology ( BOM ) warning center in Perth classified the low as Tropical Cyclone Inigo . The storm quickly intensified as it tracked southwestward , aided by low wind shear and strong divergence . An eye featured gradually organized , and early on 3 April the BOM classified Inigo as a severe tropical cyclone with winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) . Later that day , the cyclone underwent rapid intensification as the eye became increasingly better defined . On 4 April , Inigo attained Category 5 status on the Australian cyclone scale , and at 0600 UTC it reached peak winds of 240 km / h ( 150 mph ) and an estimated minimum pressure of 900 hPa ( mbar ) while located about 950 km ( 590 mi ) north of Onslow , Western Australia . Around the same time , the JTWC assessed Inigo as a powerful cyclone with 1 @-@ min winds of 260 km / h ( 160 mph ) . With a minimum pressure of 900 hPa , Inigo tied Cyclone Gwenda of the 1998 @-@ 99 season as the most intense tropical cyclone on record in the Australian cyclone region .
Upon reaching peak intensity , Inigo maintained an eyewall 32 km ( 20 mi ) in diameter . Late on 4 April , an approaching upper @-@ level trough increased wind shear over the system , which caused a steady weakening trend . On 5 April , the eye became cloud @-@ filled , and later that day the cyclone reached its westernmost point before the approaching trough turned it to the southeast . By 7 April , its winds decreased to below severe tropical cyclone status , or below 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) . The convection continued to decrease , leaving the center exposed from the convection as it made landfall early on 8 April in the Pilbara region of Western Australia . Upon moving ashore , Inigo had winds of around 75 km / h ( 45 mph ) , and the circulation dissipated within 12 hours after moving ashore .
= = Impact = =
The precursor tropical disturbance dropped heavy rainfall in eastern Indonesia ; on the island of Flores , Larantuka recorded 223 mm ( 8 @.@ 78 in ) in a 24 ‑ hour period . The rainfall caused flash flooding and mudslides , primarily in Flores but also on West Timor and Sumba . In some locations , the depth of the floodwaters reached 5 meters ( 16 ft ) . The Oessao River in West Timor exceeded its banks , which flooded seven villages . In Kupang in West Timor , the system destroyed hundreds of homes and large fields of corn , bean , and rice crop . Heavy damage was reported near Ende , where flooding and mudslides destroyed 20 houses and destroyed the roads connecting to East Flores . In Ende , a total of 294 animals were killed . The city 's airport was flooded with one meter ( 3 ft ) of water , preventing aerial transportation and leaving the city temporarily isolated . In East Flores Regency in eastern Flores Island , the system left 75 destroyed houses , along with 77 severely damaged and a further 56 receiving light damage . Damage in Indonesia totaled less than $ 6 million ( 2003 USD , $ 6 @.@ 8 million 2007 USD ) , and 102 injuries were reported . The Indonesian representative to the Tropical Cyclone Committee of the World Meteorological Organization in 2004 reported the death toll related to the disaster in Indonesia as 58 fatalities .
Additionally , the precursor disturbance produced rough seas along the coastlines , which resulting in the sinking of 12 sailing vessels . Two ships , each with a crew of five to eight people , were reported missing to the southwest of Sumba after Cyclone Inigo passed over their location on 3 April .
Inigo moved ashore on Australia as a weak tropical cyclone , though several locations reported winds of near gale force . The storm dropped light to moderate precipitation near where it made landfall which peaked at 226 mm ( 8 @.@ 90 inches ) , of which 128 mm ( 5 @.@ 04 in ) of rain fell in 80 minutes . No casualties or significant damage was reported in the country .
= = Aftermath = =
Shortly after the storm passed through Indonesia , local government and Red Cross officials distributed assistance to the storm victims , including food , medicine , clean water , and mattresses ; additionally , the government sent about $ 400 million ( 2003 IDR , $ 50 @,@ 000 2003 USD ) . The affected citizens resided in temporary shelters , including schools , police offices , and shelters built by local governments . Officials deployed machines to remove debris from the roads affected by the landslides .
As a result of its damage , the name Inigo was retired subsequent to its usage ; its name was replaced with Iggy .
= Angry Andy =
" Angry Andy " is the twenty @-@ first episode of the eighth season of the American comedy television series The Office . It was written by Justin Spitzer and directed by Claire Scanlon . The episode aired on NBC in the United States on April 19 , 2012 . " Angry Andy " guest stars Sendhil Ramamurthy as Ravi : Pam ( Jenna Fischer ) and Jim Halpert 's ( John Krasinski ) pediatrician and a potential love interest for Kelly Kapoor ( Mindy Kaling ) .
The series — presented as if it were a real documentary — depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania , branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In this episode , Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) returns to the office to find Nellie Bertram ( Catherine Tate ) in the manager 's chair . After throwing an extreme tantrum and punching a hole in the wall , Andy is fired . Meanwhile , Kelly is forced to choose between Ryan Howard ( B.J. Novak ) and a new man , Ravi .
The episode received a lukewarm response from critics . According to Nielsen Media Research , " Angry Andy " was viewed by an estimated 4 @.@ 35 million viewers and received a 2 @.@ 2 rating / 6 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 , making it , at the time , the lowest @-@ rated episode of The Office to air . The episode ranked second in its timeslot and was also the highest @-@ rated NBC series of the night .
= = Plot = =
Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) returns to Dunder Mifflin to find Nellie Bertram ( Catherine Tate ) in the manager 's chair . Andy enlists Robert California ( James Spader ) to give Andy his job back , which fails . Nellie further asserts her authority when she orders Angela Lipton ( Angela Kinsey ) to dock Andy 's paycheck twice , and she complies . This causes Andy to have performance difficulties with Erin Hannon ( Ellie Kemper ) . Erin asks Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) if he had similar problems after his loss of the manager position , which he denies . When he tells Nellie that she affected Andy 's performance abilities , she feels guilty about taking his manhood . She holds a meeting where the office workers share advice on how to perform sexually . After the meeting , when Nellie makes another innuendo about Andy 's problems , Erin loses her temper by yelling at Nellie to shut up , throwing her office phone to the ground , followed by Nellie 's memo forms , pens , and her caramel . This gives Andy , filled with anger , the freedom to vent by throwing his desk chair at Robert , throwing Nellie 's picture frame to the ground , and finally punching his hand through the wall . When Robert then chooses Nellie as regional manager , Andy refuses to accept a demotion by saying " no " too many times in a calm way , and a surprised Robert fires him . As a result , Andy regains his sense of self @-@ confidence and is once again able to perform .
Meanwhile , Kelly Kapoor ( Mindy Kaling ) is forced to choose between Ryan Howard ( B. J. Novak ) and a new man , Ravi ( Sendhil Ramamurthy ) . Pam Halpert ( Jenna Fischer ) set up Kelly and Ravi , Cece 's pediatrician , in hopes of Kelly finally moving on from Ryan . Ryan makes several attempts to get back with Kelly , though everyone finds the attempts pathetic because he can 't even say he truly loves her and wants to be with her always ( he keeps qualifying all of his feelings for her ) and even admits he would prefer she not be with anyone else if she 's not going to be with him . Pam eventually says that he 's not a nice person , and Oscar Martinez ( Oscar Nunez ) says he is not boyfriend material . Ryan tells the office he has a love poem for her , which Kelly has no interest in reading . As the staff are heading outside the building to go home , they see Ryan sitting on a steed professing his love ( again , in insultingly hedging terms ) to Kelly . She responds by saying she is in love with Ravi and hopes to stay friends with Ryan . They hug goodbye , which turns into a make @-@ out session . The episode closes with Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) and Pam finding and reading Ryan 's love poem . Initially scoffing , they are both noticeably moved by it . Tearing up , Jim informs the camera crew that Ryan can never know of the incident .
= = Production = =
" Angry Andy " was written by Justin Spitzer , his second writing credit for the season after " Garden Party " . The episode was directed by Claire Scanlon , her first credit for the series . The episode marks the eighth appearance of Catherine Tate as Nellie Bertram and her seventh consecutive appearance . She first appeared in the seventh season finale , " Search Committee " as a guest star , but starting with " Tallahassee " she was added to the cast as a recurring character .
The episode guest stars Sendhil Ramamurthy as Ravi , Pam and Jim 's pediatrician . Before the premiere of the episode , it was revealed that Ramamurthy would be introduced as a new romantic interest for Mindy Kaling 's character Kelly Kapoor . Writer B.J. Novak explained that Ryan and Kelly " go through a heart @-@ wrenching break @-@ up [ and the two ] end up becoming bitter enemies in the office when she falls in love with an Indian doctor . He 's very handsome and a much , much better match for Kelly than Ryan is . " TV Fanatic predicted that Ramamurthy 's appearance in the show was done so that Kaling could exit the program , due to her commitment to her Fox series The Mindy Project .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Angry Andy " originally aired on NBC in the United States on April 26 , 2012 . The episode was viewed by an estimated 4 @.@ 35 million viewers and received a 2 @.@ 2 rating / 6 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 2 @.@ 2 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 6 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . In addition , the episode was , at the time , the lowest @-@ rated episode of the series to air , beating the previous episode , " Welcome Party " , which gathered 4 @.@ 39 million viewers . The episode finished second in its time slot , being beaten by Grey 's Anatomy which received a 3 @.@ 3 rating / 9 % . The episode beat the Fox series Touch and The CW drama series The Secret Circle , as well as a re @-@ run of the CBS drama Person of Interest . Despite this , " Angry Andy " was the highest @-@ rated NBC television episode of the night .
= = = Reviews = = =
Critical reception to the episode was largely mixed . Myles McNutt of The A.V. Club awarded the entry a " C " and thoroughly criticized Nellie 's " hostile takeover " of the Scranton branch , calling it " utterly ridiculous " . McNutt also called most of the humorous moments in the episode " too familiar " , noting that Andy 's punching of a wall had already been performed in the third season episode " The Return " . Cindy White of IGN gave the episode a 7 @.@ 5 out of 10 , denoting a " good " episode , but noted that the show 's need to feature a direct flash back to " The Return " only " highlights the lack of [ Andy 's ] character continuity " and concluded that the scene came out " a bit contrived . "
M. Giant from Television Without Pity awarded the episode a " C + " . Joseph Kratzer of WhatCulture ! gave the episode a largely negative review and awarded it two stars out of five . He criticized the plot invoking Nellie taking the manager position away , as well as Erin 's outburst , saying " it was warranted but disingenuous " . Dan Forcella of TV Fanatic awarded the episode three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ stars out of five and noted that the return of Andy 's anger issues was a " pleasant change of pace " . He concluded that it include several scenes of physical comedy and was " certainly an improvement on last week 's episode [ ' Welcome Party ' ] " . Screencrave reviewer Jeffrey Hyatt awarded the episode a seven out ten but noted that Andy 's return and his meltdown " didn 't wow me " , but that his increased ego was impressive .
Critical reception to the episode 's subplot involving Kelly and Ryan was largely positive . McNutt called Novak 's acting " some of [ his ] best work in a long time " . He called the plots conclusion " the sort of screwed up situation that The Office does well " . White wrote that " If it weren 't for [ Kelly and Ravi 's ] story [ … ] I might have written this clumsy episode off entirely . " Forcella enjoyed the plot , praising the ending due to the fact that it concluded with " boos and hisses " . However , he was confused with the casting , noting that " why bring Sendhil Ramamurthy in for one scene ? [ … ] He seems more like someone you bring in for a multi @-@ episode arc . " Hyatt lauded the scenes , and wrote " the Ryan @-@ Kelly stuff I give a 10 / 10 . "
= Hawker Siddeley P.1154 =
The Hawker Siddeley P.1154 was a planned supersonic vertical / short take @-@ off and landing ( V / STOL ) fighter aircraft designed by Hawker Siddeley Aviation ( HSA ) .
Developed alongside the subsonic and smaller Hawker Siddeley P.1127 / Kestrel , the P.1154 was derived from the P.1150. The P.1150 proposal did not meet NATO Basic Military Requirement 3 and , consequently , the P.1154 was born . This Mach 2 @-@ capable aircraft retained plenum chamber burning previously designed for the P.1150. Although the technical winner of eleven submissions , follow @-@ on testing and production for the P.1154 did not proceed as a result of political strife .
Meanwhile , Hawker Siddeley considered modifying the airframe for a joint specification for an aircraft by the RAF and Royal Navy . Between 1961 and 1965 the two services harmonised their specifications to preserve design commonality . However , the RAF 's desired configuration was to take precedence over that of the Royal Navy 's . A number of proposals were submitted – at one stage , a twin @-@ Spey design was considered , then rejected . Following the Labour government 's coming to power the project was cancelled in 1965 . The Royal Navy would acquire the McDonnell Douglas F @-@ 4 Phantom II , while the RAF continued to foster development of the P.1127 ( RAF ) , leading to the successful Harrier Jump Jet family .
= = Development = =
= = = NATO requirements = = =
In 1961 , during the development of the V / STOL P.1127 and Kestrel , HSA considered the feasibility of a supersonic V / STOL aircraft . This was influenced by a general perception at the time that supersonic aircraft held significantly more value than subsonic aircraft . Consequently , on 13 April 1961 , HSA decided to conduct preliminary work on a supersonic P.1127 under the guidance of Ralph Hooper . The aircraft , designated P.1150 and 50 % larger than the P.1127 , would employ plenum chamber burning ( PCB ) – essentially an afterburner in the previously cold forward nozzles – in the engine . The engine was a Pegasus development named the BS.100 , and had four swivelling exhaust nozzles . The front nozzles were equipped with PCB , which uses the same principle as an afterburner , allowing the aircraft to theoretically reach speeds of Mach 1 @.@ 7 – 2 .
The design effort was initially undertaken to cater for NATO Basic Military Requirement 3 ( NBMR @-@ 3 ) , which was issued in August 1961 . Specifications called for a supersonic V / STOL strike fighter with a combat radius of 460 kilometres ( 250 nmi ) . Cruise speed was to be Mach 0 @.@ 92 , with a dash speed of Mach 1 @.@ 5 . The aircraft , with a 910 @-@ kilogram ( 2 @,@ 000 lb ) payload , had to be able to clear a 15 @-@ metre ( 50 ft ) obstacle following a 150 @-@ metre ( 500 ft ) takeoff roll . However , as requirement specifications changed , the aircraft was considered undersized ; subsequent studies confirmed these fears , and so Bristol enlarged the original PCB engine and raised the exhaust heat to increase thrust to 146 @.@ 8 kN ( 30 @,@ 000 lbf ) . A new larger design emerged , initially named P.1150 / 3 before being redesignated the P.1154.
NBMR.3 also attracted ten other contenders , among which was P.1154 's principal competitor , the Dassault Mirage IIIV . This design employed a separate lift / thrust engine concept whereby eight Rolls @-@ Royce engines would provide lift , with a single Turboméca Atar for thrust . The Mirage IIIV was supported by British Aircraft Corporation . HSA submitted its design to NATO through the Ministry of Aviation ( MoA ) on 8 January 1962 and , in May that year , the P.1154 emerged as the winner in the competition for the NBMR.3 over the Mirage IIIV . The P.1154 was judged to be technically superior , however the Mirage was politically palatable due to the co @-@ operative development and production across member nations . The project was terminated in 1965 after the French government subsequently withdrew following the selection of the P.1154 over the Dassault design .
= = = RAF and Royal Navy requirements = = =
On 6 December 1961 , before the design was submitted to NATO , it was decided that the P.1154 would be developed with the requirements for use by both the RAF and the Royal Navy . In February 1962 , the Royal Navy 's Admiralty received the aircraft concept with great interest as the Royal Navy was seeking a new interceptor aircraft for their aircraft carriers . As a single aircraft , the P.1154 would replace Hawker Hunters of the RAF and the de Havilland Sea Vixens of the Fleet Air Arm ( FAA ) . However , the services sought different characteristics in their aircraft – the RAF desired a single @-@ seat fighter with secondary intercept capability , while the Royal Navy wanted a two @-@ seat interceptor capable of secondary low @-@ level strike capability .
Although financially and politically committed to a joint requirement with the Royal Navy , the RAF 's single @-@ seat design took precedence over the two @-@ seat version of the Royal Navy . However , RAF P.1154s would have to accommodate the Navy 's large airborne intercept ( AI ) radar . When HSA submitted the design on 8 August , the Royal Navy criticised the proposal , which had a tandem undercarriage layout incompatible with catapult operations ; consequently , a tricycle undercarriage design was investigated and accepted as practical . In December that year , Rolls @-@ Royce offered a PCB @-@ equipped vectored thrust twin @-@ Spey design as an alternative . This was seen as inferior , however , and was not considered in great detail . The aircraft required PCB for vertical takeoff , but this caused significant ground erosion . The aircraft would have been armed with the Red Top missile .
With the RAF and Royal Navy requirements diverging , the aircraft 's development started to stumble . While modifications towards naval requirements had been made , by July 1963 weight gain had become a considerable issue , and the Navy was openly criticising the choice of V / STOL . However , despite a stated Navy preference for a swing @-@ wing fighter , on the 16 July 1963 the services agreed that the aircraft would be completely common , with the exception of different radar systems . By August 1963 Hawker Siddeley was expressing the view that range of changes made were damaging the aircraft 's potential for export . At the same time , the Navy stated that it regarded the P.1154 as a second @-@ rate interceptor , and the RAF openly decried the loss of strike performance . By October 1963 , the MoA was concerned with the project 's progress , and noted that the effort to combine a strike aircraft and a fighter in a single aircraft , and trying to fit that same airframe to both of the services , was " unsound " .
= = = Disfavour and cancellation = = =
In November 1963 , the RAF still found the P.1154 to be a suitable platform , while the Royal Navy appeared to consider the McDonnell Douglas F @-@ 4 Phantom II a better fit for its needs . In response , Hawker Siddeley focused its efforts on the RAF version . On 26 February 1964 , it was announced in the House of Commons by the Conservative government that a development contract had been placed for the P.1154 , equipped with the BS.100 engine , as an RAF strike aircraft . At the same time it was announced that the Naval requirement would be met by Spey @-@ engined Phantoms . More positive news emerged in 1964 ; on 30 October the BS.100 engine ran for the first time and Hawker Siddeley received favourable reports that the P.1154 was competitive with the performance of other aircraft , including the F @-@ 4 Phantom II .
However , on 2 February 1965 , the incoming Labour government , led by Harold Wilson , cancelled the P.1154 on the grounds of cost , along with several other aircraft such as the BAC TSR @-@ 2 strike aircraft and Hawker Siddeley HS.681 VSTOL transport . At the time of cancellation , at least three prototypes were under construction . Following the cancellation , the RAF and Royal Navy adopted the F @-@ 4 Phantom II instead , but the government also gave a contract for continued work on the P.1127 ( RAF ) , which led to the Harrier ; this name had originally been reserved for the P.1154 should it enter service . In retrospect , aviation author Tony Buttler considered the cancellation of the aircraft to be justified , noting the time consuming and expensive failures of attempts by other nations ( such as Soviet / Russia 's Yak @-@ 41 and West Germany 's EWR VJ 101 ) at a supersonic VTOL aircraft . These aircraft all used a multiple engines configuration like the Mirage IIIV , and not the single vectored thrust turbofan of the likes of the BS.100 and Pegasus which went on to great success in the Harrier .
= = Specifications ( P.1154 – RAF version ) = =
Data from The British Fighter since 1912
General characteristics
Crew : 1
Length : 49 ft 5 in ( 15 @.@ 07 m )
Wingspan : 24 ft 0 in ( 7 @.@ 32 m )
Height : ( )
Max. takeoff weight : 30 @,@ 970 lb ( 14 @,@ 050 kg )
Powerplant : 1 × Bristol Siddeley BS.100 / 9 vectored @-@ thrust turbofan engine with PCB , 33 @,@ 000 lbf ( 147 kN ) ( with afterburning )
Performance
Maximum speed : Mach 1 @.@ 3 at sea level ( Mach 2 @.@ 0 at altitude )
Service ceiling : 49 @,@ 000 ft ( 15 @,@ 000 m )
Armament
2 x 1000 lb bombs
= Ellis Coleman =
Ellis Coleman ( born August 16 , 1991 ) is an American wrestler from Chicago who won the 2012 U.S. Olympic Trials to compete for the United States team in the Greco @-@ Roman 60 kg competition of Wrestling at the 2012 Summer Olympics at the 2012 Olympics . Coleman overcame challenging life conditions after being enrolled in youth wrestling classes . As a high school senior for Oak Park and River Forest High School finished third in the state wrestling championships . On several occasions , Coleman executed a takedown by jumping over his opponent and grabbing him as he flew over his back . Coleman is sometimes referred to as the Flying Squirrel for this takedown move that he has made famous .
= = Background = =
Coleman was raised by his single mother , Yolanda Barral , in Chicago , Illinois . Coleman describes his biological father , Lewellis Coleman , as a person who was " in and out of jail [ his ] whole life . " Apart from visiting him in jail , the only memory he has of his father is the time his father sold all the family 's televisions and the PlayStation for drugs . Federal records describe his biological father as a " career offender " with 19 aliases .
His mother raised the family , including Coleman 's brother ( Lillashawn ) and sister , in the Humboldt Park community area , then the West Side and finally Oak Park . Coleman describes his stepfather as a long @-@ time gang member with an extensive criminal record . After enduring formative years with gunfights outside elementary school , home loss due to an apartment fire , and expulsion hearings , his stepfather , Mose Oliver , introduced him to wrestling to keep him out of trouble . Federal records confirm that Oliver is an alleged 1990s gang enforcer who served time from 2004 to 2011 for participation in Operation Day Trader . The wrestling started in about 2001 . By sixth grade both his father and stepfather were incarcerated and his father figure was his wrestling coach , Mike Powell . Coleman attended Ella Flagg Young elementary school . Barral raised her family with little assistance away from the gang influences of the West Side . She applied for section 8 assistance . Coleman , who was nearly expelled as a sophomore , graduated from Oak Park and River Forest High School in Oak Park , IL in 2009 . He has studied at Northern Michigan University .
= = Wrestling career = =
As a high school senior at the 2009 Illinois High School Association Class 3A tournament , Coleman endured his only loss of the season to Maxamillian Schneider of Lane Technical College Prep High School to finish third and end the season with a 49 – 1 record . Following the loss , his heart rate reached 225 , necessitating treatment by paramedics .
In 2011 , a video of Coleman was posted to YouTube . Subsequently , Coleman gained a cult @-@ following for the recording of him performing a move at the 2011 World Junior Championships that he calls " The Flying Squirrel " , which involves somersaulting over his opponent just before his takedown . He has performed the move at the 2009 Sunkist Open against Joe Betterman . He also performed the move against Iran 's Mehdi Zidvand at the 2011 World Junior Championships . Coleman claims he has used the " Flying Squirrel " move over a dozen times in competition . The move was ranked third on the ESPN 2011 Best of the Best Highlights . He appeared on ESPN 's morning shows , such as ESPN First Take . The move made him so famous that he received lucrative offers to begin a professional wrestling career , but he declined in favor of continuing his Olympic dream . Coleman credits his brother for the move .
Ellis defeated Betterman 2 to 0 at the finals of the 2012 U.S. Olympic Trials . Coleman had attended Betterman 's wrestling clinics when he was younger . Coleman is the youngest member of the American wrestling delegation going to the Olympics . After Coleman qualified for the Olympics , he realized that his mother , who works in customer service for the Illinois State Toll Highway Authority , could not afford to attend due to financial hardship . Coleman was living at the United States Olympic Training Center in Colorado Springs on a limited monthly stipend from the United States Olympic Committee and could not assist her . Powell rented Coleman 's family a one @-@ bedroom flat in London out of personal funds and the Oak Park High School wrestling program subsequently raised $ 14 @,@ 000 to ensure that his mother , aunt and siblings could attend . Coleman dropped from the 66 kg division to the 60 kg division for the Olympics . Coleman lost in the first round of Olympic competition to Ivo Angelov of Bulgaria by a 3 – 1 score .
2012 Olympic American gymnast Gabby Douglas also became known for the nickname " Flying Squirrel " . In an attempt to solidify his nickname while training in Colorado Springs , Coleman purchased a pet flying squirrel that he keeps in a cage and feeds apples . His Twitter handle is @ daFlyinSquirrel .
= Allah jang Palsoe =
Allah jang Palsoe ( [ aˈlah ˈjaŋ palˈsu ] ; Perfected Spelling : Allah yang Palsu ; Indonesian for The False God ) is a 1919 stage drama in six acts written by the ethnic @-@ Chinese author Kwee Tek Hoay . Based on E. Phillips Oppenheim 's short story " The False Gods " , the Malay @-@ language play follows two brothers , one a devout son who holds firmly to his morals and personal honour , the other who worships money and prioritises personal gain . Over more than a decade , the two learn that money ( the titular false god ) is not the path to happiness .
Kwee Tek Hoay 's first stage play , Allah jang Palsoe was written as a realist response to whimsical contemporary theatres . Though the published stageplay sold poorly and the play was deemed difficult to perform , Allah jang Palsoe found success on the stage . By 1930 it had been performed by various ethnic Chinese troupes to popular acclaim and pioneered a body of work by authors such as Lauw Giok Lan , Tio Ie Soei , and Tjoa Tjien Mo . In 2006 the script for the play , which continues to be performed , was republished with updated spelling by the Lontar Foundation .
= = Plot = =
Brothers Tan Kioe Lie and Tan Kioe Gie are preparing to leave their Cicuruk home to find work : Kioe Lie will go to Bandung , while Kioe Gie will go to Batavia ( now Jakarta ) and become a letter @-@ setter . As they are packing , Kioe Lie 's fiancée Gouw Hap Nio visits . She leaves some snacks with their father , the poor farmer Tan Lauw Pe , before going home , promising to take care of Pe while his sons are away . The brothers finish packing , say goodbye to their father , and head for the train station .
Three years later , Kioe Lie visits his brother in the latter 's Batavia home . Kioe Gie has become an editor of the newspaper Kamadjoean and is known as a generous philanthropist . Kioe Lie , meanwhile , has become the manager of a tapioca factory , but is planning to leave for competing business run by Tjio Tam Bing , who has offered him twice the salary . Kioe Gie asks him to reconsider , or at least not take any customers , but Kioe Lie is set on his goals . Before Kioe Lie leaves , the brothers discuss marriage : since Lie has no intent to marry Hap Nio soon , Kioe Gie asks permission to marry first . Though Kioe Lie disapproves of Kioe Gie 's sweetheart , a poor orphan girl named Oeij Ijan Nio , he agrees .
Another four years pass , and Kioe Gie has become editor @-@ in @-@ chief of Kemadjoean and married Ijan Nio . He is concerned , however , over the newspaper 's new political orientation : the owner , Oeij Tjoan Siat , is aiming to make the paper pro @-@ Dutch East Indies , a stance that Kioe Gie considers a betrayal to the ethnic Chinese . When Tjoan Siat comes to Kioe Gie 's home to ask him to follow the former 's new political leanings , heavily influenced by a monthly payment of 2 @,@ 000 gulden offered by an unnamed political party , Kioe Gie refuses and resigns .
During the following week Kioe Gie and his wife sell their belongings and prepare to move back to Cicuruk . This departure is delayed by a visit from Kioe Lie , who reveals that he will be marrying Tam Bing 's widow Tan Houw Nio – Tam Bing having died the year before . Kioe Gie is horrified , both because the widow has the same surname and because Kioe Lie had promised their father on his deathbed to marry Hap Nio . After an extensive argument , Kioe Lie disowns his brother and leaves .
Five years later , Kioe Lie and Houw Nio 's marriage is failing . Owing to poor investments ( some made with embezzled money ) , Houw Nio 's gambling , and Kioe Lie 's keeping of a mistress , they have lost their fortune . Kioe Lie tries to convince his wife to sell her jewellery , thus allowing him to return the stolen money . Houw Nio , however , refuses , tells him to sell the house and his mistress ' jewellery , and then leaves . Soon afterwards , Kioe Lie 's friend Tan Tiang An warns him that he will be arrested by the police unless he flees the colony . Together they rent a car and Kioe Lie heads for the port at Batavia .
Passing through Cicuruk , the car breaks down and , while the chauffeur attempts to fix it , Kioe Lie takes shelter in a nearby home . He learns that it belongs to Kioe Gie and Hap Nio , who have built up a vast farm , garden , and orchard that provides them with ample income . The two philanthropists are friends with the area 's elite , and Hap Nio is happily married to a rich plantation administrator . When Kioe Gie and his companions return from playing tennis , they discover Kioe Lie hiding shamefully under a piano . Kioe Lie admits that he was wrong to be greedy . When a police officer arrives , Kioe Lie confesses to poisoning Tam Bing , then runs outside and shoots himself .
= = Characters = =
= = Writing = =
Allah jang Palsoe was the first stage play by the journalist Kwee Tek Hoay . Born to an ethnic Chinese textile merchant and his wife , Kwee was raised in Chinese culture and schools that focused on modernity . By the time he wrote the drama , Kwee Tek Hoay was an active proponent of Buddhist theology . However , he also wrote extensively on themes relating to native Indonesians and was a keen social observer . He read extensively in Dutch , English , and Malay , and drew on these readings after becoming a writer .
According to the historian Nio Joe Lan , Allah jang Palsoe was the first stage drama in Malay by a Chinese writer . The six @-@ act work was written in vernacular Malay , the lingua franca of the Indies , and was based on E. Phillips Oppenheim 's short story " The False Gods " . Though in his foreword Kwee Tek Hoay apologised for the quality of the stage play , writing that " the content and arrangement of this book are far from what you could call neat " , Sumardjo praises his language , feeling that the story flowed well .
At the time Allah jang Palsoe was written , stage performances were heavily influenced by orality . Contemporary theatres , such as bangsawan and stamboel , were unscripted and generally used fantastic settings and plotlines . Kwee Tek Hoay heavily disapproved of such whimsy , considering it " better to say things as they are , than to create events out of nothing , which although perhaps more entertaining and satisfying to viewers or readers , are falsehoods and lies , going against the truth " . After condemning contemporary playwrights who merely wrote down existing stories , Kwee Tek Hoay expressed the hope that ultimately a unique form of Chinese Malay theatre — inspired by European theatrical traditions but dealing with Chinese themes — could be developed . Allah jang Palsoe was intended to be the first published stage play in this new tradition .
Kwee Tek Hoay made numerous recommendations for the play 's casting , costuming , setting , and music . He wrote that if sufficiently talented actors to portray Kioe Lie and Kioe Gie could not be found , " it would be better to not perform this show " , and that Ijan Nio needed to show " a perfect woman or wife " , as opposed to the " fierce and rough " Houw Nio . He provided four set designs , to be used at appropriate points in the plot , and gave suggestions for setting up the needed backgrounds and props . Kwee recommended that the play include only one song , John Payne and Henry Bishop 's " Home ! Sweet Home ! " , which was to be performed in the sixth act with either English or Malay vocals and a trio of piano , viola , and guitar or mandolin .
= = Analysis = =
The title Allah jang Palsoe is a reference to money , with an underlying didactic message that money is not everything in the world , and that an unquenchable thirst for it would turn one into " a money animal " . Throughout the dialogue , money is referred to as the false God , with Lie as a character who deifies money to the point of ignoring his other duties and only realising his error after it is too late . Gie , although he does become rich , does not consider money a god , but is a philanthropist and holds to his morals . The Indonesian literary critic Sapardi Djoko Damono writes that such a message would have been popular among ethnic Chinese of the contemporary Indies , and as such the play would have been a favourite of social organisations .
The Indonesian literary critic Jakob Sumardjo likewise notes money as the central issue of Allah jang Palsoe , writing that the play shows individuals doing anything to earn it — even sacrificing their values . He writes that the corrupting nature of money remains present in the best of times , and considers Kwee Tek Hoay 's message to have been too heavily based in morality rather than considerations of social and human factors . As a result , he writes , readers are brought to understand the lust for money as a " human illness " which must be overcome : they should follow the example of Tan Kioe Gie , not Tan Kioe Lie . John Kwee of the University of Auckland , citing Gie 's departure from Kamadjoean , suggests that this was a challenge directed at the Chinese Malay press , then becoming increasingly commercial .
Allah jang Palsoe also contains themes unrelated to money . The sinologist Thomas Rieger notes the presence of a Chinese national identity , pointing to Gie as a young man " excelling in all Confucianist values " , leaving his comfortable job rather than becoming an apologist for the Dutch colonial government to the detriment of his ethnic Chinese peers . Another sinologist , Myra Sidharta , looks at Kwee Tek Hoay 's view of women . She writes that his depiction of an ideal woman was not yet fully developed in Allah jang Palsoe , though she finds Houw Nio to be a depiction of how a woman should not act : selfish and addicted to gambling .
In a preface to his 1926 drama Korbannja Kong @-@ Ek ( The Victim of Kong @-@ Ek ) , Kwee Tek Hoay wrote that he had drawn inspiration from the realist Norwegian playwright Henrik Ibsen in that work , having read and reread the author 's plays . Damono finds signs of Ibsen 's influence already present in Allah jang Palsoe . He compares the stage directions in Allah jang Palsoe to those in Ibsen 's Hedda Gabler and finds them to be similar in their level of detail .
= = Release and reception = =
The script for Allah jang Palsoe was released by the Batavia @-@ based publisher Tjiong Koen Bie in mid @-@ 1919 . This edition included a foreword from the author , four illustrations of recommended stage decor , a number of performance guidelines , and a brief outline of the state of the theatre among the ethnic Chinese . Kwee Tek Hoay paid for this printing , a run of 1 @,@ 000 copies , out of his own pocket and saw large financial losses . The stage play was republished in 2006 , using the Perfected Spelling System , as part of the first volume of the Lontar Foundation 's anthology of Indonesian stage dramas .
Allah jang Palsoe was well received and broadly adopted . Troupes were allowed to perform the play as a charity opera , though proceeds were to go to the Tiong Hoa Hwe Koan branch in Bogor . One performance is recorded as garnering 10 @,@ 000 gulden . According to an advertisement , by 1930 the play had been performed " tens of times " and was popular with ethnic Chinese theatre troupes .
Kwee Tek Hoay received numerous letters from fans of Allah jang Palsoe , spurring him to continue writing . Considering the play too difficult for native troupes to stage , when one such troupe , the Union Dalia Opera , requested permission to perform it , Kwee Tek Hoay instead wrote a new story for them . This later became his best @-@ selling novel Boenga Roos dari Tjikembang ( The Rose of Cikembang ) . Another of Kwee Tek Hoay 's stage dramas , Korbannja Kong @-@ Ek , was inspired by a friend , who wrote him a letter asking for another comforting and educational play after reading Allah jang Palsoe .
In 1926 Kwee Tek Hoay wrote that , after Allah jang Palsoe , the quality of stage performances in the Indies had increased noticeably . Nio notes that the quantity of stage plays by ethnic Chinese authors likewise increased . Though not many were ultimately published , the body of work pioneered by Allah jang Palsoe included plays by Kwee Tek Hoay ( Korbannja Kong @-@ Ek , Mait Hidoep , Plesiran Hari Minggoe ) , Lauw Giok Lan ( Pendidikan jang Kliroe ) , Tio Ie Soei ( Jan Tio ) , and Tjoa Tjien Mo ( Beng Lee Koen , Hsi Shih ) .
Sumardjo writes that , though Allah jang Palsoe was published seven years before the Rustam Effendi 's Bebasari ( generally considered the first canonic Indonesian stage drama ) , Kwee Tek Hoay 's writing shows all the hallmarks of a literary work . Though the drama is not considered part of the Indonesian literary canon , performances have continued into the 21st century . In May 2003 , the Jakarta @-@ based Mainteater put on an abridged performance directed by E. Sumadiningrat . Another Jakarta @-@ based troupe , Teater Bejana , has included it in their repertoire .
= Hurricane Carmen =
Hurricane Carmen was the most intense tropical cyclone of the 1974 Atlantic hurricane season . A destructive and widespread storm , Carmen originated as a tropical disturbance that emerged from Africa toward the end of August . The disturbance traveled westward , spawning a tropical depression east of the Lesser Antilles on August 29 . The storm moved through the Caribbean Sea , and in an environment conducive to intensification , it quickly strengthened to its initial peak intensity as a Category 4 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale . Carmen moved ashore on the Yucatán Peninsula , where , despite striking a sparsely populated region , it caused significant crop damage and killed several people . Before the storm 's arrival , officials had set up several evacuation centers , and many residents had moved to higher ground .
Upon entering the Gulf of Mexico , Carmen turned northward and re @-@ intensified as it approached the United States . Initially threatening the major city of New Orleans , it veered westward and
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made landfall on the marshland of southern Louisiana , eventually dissipating over eastern Texas on September 10 . Tropical cyclone watches and warnings had been issued for the storm , and approximately 100 @,@ 000 residents left their homes and sought shelter . Damage was lighter than first feared , but the sugar industry suffered substantial losses . Throughout its course , the hurricane killed 8 people and caused $ 162 million in damage . Due to the severity of the storm , the name Carmen was retired from the list of Atlantic tropical cyclone names .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of Hurricane Carmen can be traced to a weather disturbance over Africa during the middle of August 1974 . The disturbance moved slowly westward with little convective activity initially , although upon entering the Atlantic Ocean , it spawned a tropical wave within the Intertropical Convergence Zone . The wave had intensified and broadened by August 25 , and it eventually split into two components , the northernmost of which consolidated into an organized storm system . Moving westward , the system developed into a tropical depression on August 29 , more than 200 mi ( 320 km ) east of Guadeloupe . Due to favorable outflow from an anticyclone nearby , the depression gradually strengthened as it moved through the Lesser Antilles . It attained tropical storm status on August 30 , south of Puerto Rico , and was named Carmen by the National Hurricane Center . At first , the storm 's proximity to Hispaniola prevented further strengthening , but by August 31 , it had managed to intensify into a Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale . As Carmen passed south of Jamaica , an eye feature briefly appeared .
On September 1 , the hurricane began to rapidly deepen over warm waters of the Caribbean Sea ; by 1800 Coordinated Universal Time ( UTC ) , it had strengthened to Category 4 intensity . Continuing westward , the storm passed north of Swan Island later that day . Early on September 2 , a double eyewall appeared on satellite imagery . Carmen 's forward movement gradually slowed as the storm took a west by north direction , and it reached its initial peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) , accompanied by a central barometric pressure of 928 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 4 inHg ) . Atmospheric steering currents became increasingly weaker , and Carmen slowed to a drift . Later on September 2 , the hurricane made landfall on the Yucatán Peninsula ; its northern jog spared Belize City from a direct hit . The storm 's center passed a few miles north of Chetumal , Quintana Roo .
The cyclone drifted inland , deteriorating to a tropical storm on September 3 . About a day later , Carmen emerged into the Gulf of Mexico , where it nearly stalled . Turning northward , the storm regained hurricane strength on September 5 . Carmen continued to strengthen and accelerated northward towards the United States Gulf Coast , reaching a forward speed of 12 mph ( 19 km / h ) ; at 0000 UTC on September 7 , it once again became a Category 3 major hurricane . The storm reached its second peak intensity while located south of Louisiana ; although the wind speeds were identical to that of its initial peak , the barometric pressure was slightly higher . Carmen weakened and veered westward before landfall , ultimately striking south @-@ central Louisiana . After moving ashore , the hurricane quickly lost strength and late on September 9 degenerated into a tropical depression . The depression moved westward and soon dissipated over eastern Texas .
= = Preparations = =
Initial reactions to the approaching hurricane in the Yucatán Peninsula were regarded as calm by the United States media . Mexican officials declared an emergency alert by September 2 , although they did not advise any evacuations . Meteorologists in the United States urged those living near the coast to move inland immediately . Fearing significant loss of life and property , the Red Cross began preparations for the approaching hurricane in Belize . The following day , the Mexican Army rushed to set up emergency operation centers and shelters in five cities . Mobile communication units and relief teams were prepared for deployment following the storm 's passage . Many of the nearly 35 @,@ 000 residents in and around the city of Chetumal evacuated to higher ground .
Although it initially threatened the United States city of New Orleans , the hurricane turned west prior to making landfall and spared the area from severe damage . Contrary to its actual path , forecasters predicted the hurricane to execute an eastward swerve toward Florida . Had the cyclone instead continued northward and traveled over Lake Pontchartrain , low @-@ lying areas could have suffered " catastrophic " flooding . Over 100 @,@ 000 residents of the Gulf Coast , mostly in Louisiana and Mississippi , evacuated in advance of the hurricane , causing heavy congestion on highways . About 60 @,@ 000 people sought shelter in facilities across the New Orleans region , according to Red Cross officials .
Hurricane warnings were issued along the coast , while Coast Guard personnel went door @-@ to @-@ door on Grand Isle urging residents to leave the area . From there through the coast of southwestern Florida , small craft were advised to remain near shore due to rough seas . Offshore , workers were removed from oil rigs . Many Mississippi citizens , having experienced the destruction of Hurricane Camille just five years earlier , quickly left their coastal homes .
= = Impact = =
As a tropical depression and storm , Carmen produced moderate rainfall across Puerto Rico and the northern Lesser Antilles , peaking at 5 @.@ 91 in ( 150 mm ) in Jajome Alto , Puerto Rico . The storm spawned a tornado on Puerto Rico and triggered flash flooding , which collectively left over $ 2 million in damage . Winds approaching gale force affected several islands . Heavy rain fell on Hispaniola as the storm progressed westward , and on Jamaica , the storm caused three drownings . High winds and heavy rainfall were reported there and in Cuba . The hurricane damaged local reefs on the north shore of Jamaica during its passage .
Following the storm , the name Carmen was retired from the annually rotating list of hurricane names . However , due to a change in the naming scheme in 1979 , it was not replaced by any particular name .
= = = Yucatán Peninsula = = =
Although Carmen made landfall as a powerful Category 4 hurricane , it caused significantly less damage than anticipated because it struck a sparsely populated region . However , torrential rainfall from the storm inundated farmland across the region , ruining rice crops . The fishing industry also sustained major losses . Communication with the hardest hit regions was lost following Carmen 's passage ; however , early reports stated that at least five people were injured . Several days later , officials in Mexico confirmed that three people had been killed by the storm . The city of Chetumal was described as a " disaster " , and hundreds of people were left homeless . More than 5 @,@ 000 people in the city lost their belongings as a result of the storm . Officials in the area estimated that damage in Chetumal alone reached $ 8 million ( 1974 USD ) . Throughout the Yucatán Peninsula , Hurricane Carmen claimed four lives and wrought $ 10 million ( 1974 USD ) in damage .
Following Carmen 's passage , officials feared the worst for an area of 1 @,@ 000 mi2 ( 2 @,@ 590 km2 ) where communication was lost in Belize . A reconnaissance task force was sent out from Belize City the day after Carmen made landfall to assist any residents stranded by the storm . One person was killed off the coast of Belize after being washed off his boat by large swells produced by Carmen . Three other fishermen were listed as missing following similar incidents . Thousands of people moved from coastal areas inland to escape the storm . Crop damage in the country was reportedly severe .
= = = United States = = =
Carmen dropped moderate rainfall along its path , though the heaviest rainfall occurred well to the east of the storm 's center , in southern Alabama and the northern Florida Panhandle . Precipitation peaked at over 13 in ( 330 mm ) in Atmore , Alabama . Winds gusted up to 86 mph ( 138 km / h ) , and along the coast tides ran as high as 6 ft ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) above normal . Over northwestern Louisiana , winds ranged from 40 to 45 mph ( 64 to 72 km / h ) and brought down several trees . In New Orleans , despite wind gusts to 72 mph ( 116 km / h ) , minimal damage was reported . The hurricane 's effects in Baton Rouge were confined to strewn debris and a few downed trees . Because Carmen moved ashore over uninhabited marshland , it caused far less damage than initially feared . Nonetheless , tidal flooding from the Gulf of Mexico and coastal bodies of water was severe . Freshwater flooding was less extreme . In total , the storm inundated 2 @,@ 380 @,@ 500 acres ( 963 @,@ 400 ha ) of land in Louisiana , including 742 @,@ 300 acres ( 300 @,@ 400 ha ) in Terrebonne Parish and 590 @,@ 000 acres ( 240 @,@ 000 ha ) in Plaquemines Parish .
The storm 's greatest impact was the loss of sugar cane crops in Louisiana . An estimated 308 @,@ 000 acres ( 125 @,@ 000 ha ) of sugar cane in 16 parishes was damaged , and about 20 percent was completely ruined . After a tour of the affected area , then @-@ Governor Edwin Edwards estimated crop damage alone at $ 400 million , although a more recent estimate placed total agricultural damage from the hurricane at $ 74 million . The sugar cane crop was crucial to the country 's sugar supplies , rendering the losses " doubly bad " , and sugar futures rose drastically after the storm . Other crops damaged by Carmen included soybeans , rice , and cotton .
Tidal action along the coast affected the balance of salinity in coastal marshes and water bodies . The sudden intrusion of saltwater stressed delicate plants . Fish , shrimp and oysters also suffered the ecological effects of Hurricane Carmen . Flooding on land caused some wildlife to drown . Several parks in Louisiana sustained damage , either from flooding or high winds ; losses to Grand Island State Park in particular totaled $ 114 @,@ 600 . The oil and gas industry was also affected , and its estimated $ 24 @.@ 7 million in losses resulted mainly from damage to equipment and offshore facilities . The storm diminished oil production by 1 @.@ 4 million barrels when it shut down operations for 24 to 48 hours at various locations . Over 60 @,@ 000 electric cooperative customers lost power .
The hurricane caused two fatalities in Louisiana : a utility repairman who was electrocuted while working on power lines damaged by strong winds , and a motorist who was involved in a storm @-@ related traffic accident . Total monetary losses in the state was estimated $ 150 million . Overall , the hurricane spawned four confirmed tornadoes . One touched down near Brandon , Mississippi , destroying a barn and causing other damage . Another struck Kaplan , Louisiana , injuring one person . The storm 's effects in Mississippi were described as minimal and were mainly confined to minor traffic accidents during bouts of heavy precipitation . Light to moderate rainfall from the storm extended as far east as Florida and Georgia and as far west as Oklahoma and Texas .
= Michael Francis Egan =
Michael Francis Egan , O.F.M. ( September 29 , 1761 – July 22 , 1814 ) was an Irish , later American prelate of the Roman Catholic Church . Born in Ireland in 1761 , he joined the Franciscan Order at a young age . He served as a priest in Rome , Ireland , and Pennsylvania and became known as a gifted preacher . In 1808 , Egan was appointed the first Bishop of Philadelphia , holding that position until his death in 1814 . Egan 's tenure as bishop saw the construction of new churches and the expansion of the Catholic Church membership in his diocese , but much of his time was consumed by disputes with the lay trustees of his pro @-@ cathedral , St. Mary 's Church in Philadelphia . He died in Philadelphia , probably of tuberculosis , in 1814 .
= = Early life and priesthood = =
Michael Francis Egan was born in Ireland on September 29 , 1761 . The exact location of his birth is uncertain . Early biographers believed Egan was possibly born in Galway , though more recent scholarship suggests it was actually Limerick . He joined the Order of Friars Minor ( commonly known as the Franciscans ) and studied at the Old University of Leuven and Charles University in Prague . Egan received minor orders , subdiaconate , and diaconate at Mechelen , in modern @-@ day Belgium . He was ordained a priest , probably in Prague , in 1785 or 1786 . While studying on the continent , Egan became fluent in German .
Egan advanced rapidly to positions of responsibility in the Franciscan order . He was appointed custos ( " guardian " ) of the province of Munster in Ireland in March 1787 . Later that year , he was also appointed custos of the Pontifical College at Sant ’ Isidoro a Capo le Case , the home of Irish Franciscans in Rome . Egan remained there until 1790 , when he returned to his native Ireland and was appointed custos of Ennis . He remained in Ireland until 1787 or 1788 , when he may have made a visit to the United States . After several more years as a missionary in Ireland , Egan came ( or returned ) to the United States in 1802 .
= = Priest in Pennsylvania = =
Accepting an invitation from the Catholics near Lancaster , Pennsylvania , Egan arrived in the United States in January 1802 to serve as assistant pastor to Louis de Barth at Conewago Chapel in Adams County . When the state legislature sat in Lancaster that year , word of Egan 's preaching abilities traveled back to Philadelphia , and soon the parishioners of that city 's St. Mary 's Church petitioned Bishop John Carroll of Baltimore to send Egan to them . ( At that time , the Bishop of Baltimore had jurisdiction over the entire Catholic Church in the United States . )
The following year , 1803 , Egan became one of the pastors of St. Mary 's Church at Philadelphia . The move coincided with a yellow fever outbreak in Philadelphia . Though less virulent than Philadelphia 's famous 1793 outbreak of the disease , there were nonetheless many deaths , and Egan presided over many funerals that year — St Mary 's had 77 interments between June and November 1803 . In 1804 , Egan received permission to establish a province of Franciscans in the United States for the first time , independent of the Irish Franciscans who were then supervising the American mission . Two years later , a parishioner willed Egan some land along the Yellow Creek in Indiana County , for the establishment of a Franciscan church . Because of the Order 's vows of poverty , Egan asked Carroll to hold the land in his name . Egan 's dream was never realized , as he was unable to attract Franciscans from Europe to establish the planned church .
Egan and the trustees of St. Mary 's established a singing school in 1804 , with the goal of improving the quality of the choir there . The following year was consumed by another yellow fever outbreak , and Egan joined John Rossiter , the pastor of another of Philadelphia 's four Catholic churches , St. Joseph 's , in ministering to the sick . In 1806 , they worked with the parishioners of a third church , Holy Trinity , to found an orphanage , as the problem of orphaned children had been made worse by the yellow fever deaths .
= = Bishop of Philadelphia = =
= = = Ordination = = =
The Catholic population in the United States was growing , and Bishop Carroll had for some time wished for his vast diocese to be divided into more manageable territories . On April 8 , 1808 , Pope Pius VII granted Carroll 's request , erecting four new sees in the United States and elevating Baltimore to an archdiocese . Among the new sees was the Diocese of Philadelphia , which included the states of Pennsylvania and Delaware as well as the western and southern parts of New Jersey . Even before the diocese was created , Carroll had determined to recommend Egan for the post , writing to Rome that Egan " was truly pious , learned , religious , remarkable for his great humility , but deficient , perhaps , in firmness and without great experience in the direction of affairs " .
Because of disruptions caused by the Napoleonic Wars , the papal bull nominating Egan did not reach the United States until 1810 . When it arrived , Egan traveled to St. Peter 's Pro @-@ cathedral in Baltimore , where he was ordained bishop by Archbishop Carroll , assisted by Benedict Joseph Flaget and Jean @-@ Louis de Cheverus , who had been appointed to bishoprics but had not yet been consecrated . Egan chose St. Mary 's to serve as his pro @-@ cathedral in Philadelphia . Even before Egan 's installation , Philadelphia Catholics began to raise funds to expand the church in accordance with its new prominence in the diocese . After their ordinations , the new bishops planned a council of the American church leadership for the near future ; in fact , they did not meet until 1829 , long after Egan 's death .
= = = Trusteeism dispute = = =
Egan 's elevation to the episcopate worsened an existing conflict in the American church : the dispute over trusteeism . In Europe , the Church owned property and directly controlled its parishes through the clergy . In the United States , however , early Catholic churches were typically founded by laymen who purchased the property , erected the church buildings . The laypeople accordingly demanded some control over the administration of the parish , even after the arrival of clergy from Europe who , like Egan , held the traditional view of parish organization . The dispute also had nationalist elements to it , as the heavily German parish of Holy Trinity resented the imposition of an Irish bishop instead of one of their own . When Holy Trinity 's pastor left for a new assignment in Maryland in 1811 , the trustees there were perturbed at Egan 's temporary appointment of an Irish priest , Patrick Kenny , to lead the parish , until a German priest could be found ( a German priest , Francis Roloff , was assigned the following year ) .
Egan 's own research into the issue showed that the trustees had conveyed St. Mary 's Church to the previous pastor , Father Robert Harding , and then to his heirs , but the trustees did not consider that property transfer to have extinguished their role in the church 's leadership . By 1811 , Egan 's worsening health caused him to accept the assistance of two priests at St. Mary 's , James Harold and his nephew , William Vincent Harold . Egan and the trustees became further embroiled in a dispute about clerical salaries , a situation possibly made worse by the decline in shipping income in the port city caused by the outbreak of the War of 1812 . Egan also came to believe the Harolds were making the situation worse by taking pro @-@ clergy positions that were more extreme than Egan 's own and by the younger Harold 's scheming to be named Egan 's coadjutor bishop . He appealed to the trustees for compromise , and offered to bring his cousin ( also a priest ) over from Ireland to replace the elder Harold . By 1813 , Egan and the trustees had reconciled and together resolved to remove the Harolds , who agreed to resign later that year and relocate to England .
= = = Death and burial = = =
Although the main complaints between bishop and trustees were resolved , some salary disputes lingered into 1813 . The conditions at St. Mary 's worsened in 1814 with the election of new trustees who were more in conflict with Egan than the previous ones . Elsewhere in the diocese , Egan was more successful . In about 1811 , he made his most extensive visitation of his diocese , travelling as far west as Pittsburgh after stopping in Lancaster and Conewago . He continued to raise funds for the Catholic orphanage and opened a new parish , Sacred Heart , in Trenton , New Jersey , in 1813 , bringing the total number of churches in the diocese to sixteen .
Egan 's health continued to decline , and he died on July 22 , 1814 . While 19th @-@ century chroniclers suggest that it " may be said in all truth that Bishop Egan died of a broken heart " , modern biographers believe his health troubles more closely resembled tuberculosis . Egan was buried in St. Mary 's churchyard . In 1869 , after the construction of the Cathedral Basilica of Saints Peter and Paul on Logan Square , his remains were removed there and reburied in a crypt along with those of his successor , Bishop Henry Conwell .
= New York State Route 309 =
New York State Route 309 ( NY 309 ) is a state highway located entirely in Fulton County , New York , in the United States . The southern terminus of the route is at an intersection with NY 29A in Gloversville . The northern terminus of the route is at a junction with Lily Lake Road in the hamlet of Bleecker , where the highway continues north and west as County Route 112 ( CR 112 ) to London Bridge Road ( CR 111 , near NY 10 and NY 29A ) at West Caroga Lake in the town of Caroga . Part of NY 309 and all of CR 112 is located within Adirondack Park . NY 309 was assigned to its current alignment as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York .
= = Route description = =
= = = NY 309 = = =
NY 309 begins at an intersection with NY 29A in downtown Gloversville . The route heads northward as Bleecker Street , passing large commercial buildings as it heads north through the city . At Spring Street — two blocks north of NY 29A — the surroundings become more residential as the commercial structures are replaced by homes . The route continues on , crossing Cayadutta Creek between 8th Avenue and McLaren Street before leaving Bleecker Street at 11th Avenue to follow an unnamed western extension of 11th Avenue . At this point , the amount of development along NY 309 drops substantially as it parallels Cayadutta Creek and heads northwestward out of the city limits . At this point , maintenance of the route shifts from the city of Gloversville to the New York State Department of Transportation ( NYSDOT ) .
Now in the town of Johnstown , the route winds its way northwestward as it follows Cayadutta Creek through an area of hilly terrain south of Adirondack Park . Development along the route largely ends at the intersection with West State Street ; however , a pair of isolated homes are situated on NY 309 about 0 @.@ 25 miles ( 0 @.@ 40 km ) to the northeast ahead of an intersection with CR 122 , an east – west highway that serves the Fulton County Infirmary a short distance to the west . The route continues to wind its way through the mountains to the hamlet of West Bush , where Cayadutta Creek ends amidst a small cluster of houses . The route turns north at this point , passing a handful of homes before leaving the community upon passing through a narrow pass between two hills .
North of West Bush , the route rapidly ascends in elevation as it climbs up the side of a large mountain . Along this stretch , the route veers to the northwest and southeast as it heads through an area of wilderness . NY 309 crosses the Blue Line into Adirondack Park near the mountain 's summit . Upon reaching the top of the mountain , the highway straightens out and heads northward for roughly 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) across the hill 's plateau . Upon reaching the other side , the road gradually descends in elevation as it passes by Mountain Lake and enters the town of Bleecker . The highway continues its northeastward descent into the small lakeside hamlet of Bleecker , where NY 309 ends at an intersection with Lily Lake Road . At this point , the roadway becomes CR 112 .
= = = CR 112 = = =
CR 112 heads northwest from Bleecker , passing Peck Lake to the northeast and Lily Lake to the southwest as it winds its way around several small hills . After 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) , the route curves to the north and serves Bleecker Center , an isolated hamlet centered at the junction of CR 112 and CR 145 . The former continues northwest across relatively low @-@ lying areas to Peters Corners , an equally isolated hamlet located at the intersection of CR 112 and CR 125 . CR 112 turns southwest here and begins to climb up the side of a small mountain overlooking Peters Corners .
As the route heads west , it runs along the base of Hogback , a large mountain with two peaks that reach over 2 @,@ 400 feet ( 730 m ) in elevation . Past Hogback , CR 112 enters the town of Caroga , where the route heads west across nearly flat terrain to the hamlet of Caroga Lake . CR 112 bypasses most of the hamlet to the north ; as a result , it passes through only lightly developed areas as the route nears its end . CR 112 intersects NY 10 and NY 29A just 70 feet ( 21 m ) from where it officially ends at an intersection with CR 111 , which itself begins at NY 10 and NY 29A just 80 yards ( 73 m ) to the south .
= = History = =
Part of CR 112 was originally part of an old Indian trail that went from Johnstown to Hamilton County via Bleecker . At some point , part of the trail in the vicinity of Bleecker was converted into a plank road that served several locations and churches north of Bleecker . Meanwhile , NY 309 was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York to a connector highway between the city of Gloversville and the hamlet of Bleecker .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Fulton County .
= Irreplaceable =
" Irreplaceable " is a song recorded by American singer Beyoncé for her second studio album , B 'Day ( 2006 ) . The song was written by Shaffer " Ne @-@ Yo " Smith , Tor Erik Hermansen , Mikkel , S. Eriksen , Espen Lind , Amund Bjørklund , Beyoncé and produced by Stargate and Beyoncé . " Irreplaceable " was originally a country record ; it was re @-@ arranged as a mid @-@ tempo ballad with pop and R & B influences by modifying the vocal arrangements and instrumentation . During the production and recording sessions , Beyoncé and Ne @-@ Yo wanted to create a record which people of either gender could relate to . The song 's lyrics are about the breakdown of a relationship with an unfaithful man and the song contains a message about female empowerment .
Following the moderate chart performances of " Déjà Vu " and " Ring the Alarm " , " Irreplaceable " was released internationally on October 23 , 2006 as the album 's second single , and the third in the United States on December 5 , 2006 . The single was released through Columbia Records . " Irreplaceable " was well received by contemporary music critics , who cited its distinct production compared with most songs featured on the album , and complimented its hook , " To the left , to the left " . Pitchfork Media and Rolling Stone placed it on their lists of Best Songs of the 2000s . " Irreplaceable " won several awards , including Best R & B / Soul Single at the 2007 Soul Train Music Awards . It was nominated for the Record of the Year award at the 50th Grammy Awards .
The single was commercially successful worldwide . It became Beyoncé 's fourth number @-@ one in the U.S. , was B 'Day 's most successful release , and remained at the top of the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 chart for ten consecutive weeks . " Irreplaceable " was the best @-@ selling U.S. single of 2007 , the twenty @-@ fifth most successful song of the 2000s ( decade ) in the U.S. , and was certified double @-@ platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . It became Beyoncé 's second single to achieve 200 million audience impressions in 2006 . She is the second singer to achieve this feat in the U.S. , the first having been Mariah Carey in 2005 . " Irreplaceable " peaked at number one in Australia , at number four in the United Kingdom , and reached the top twenty in several European countries . " Irreplaceable " was 2007 's tenth best @-@ selling digital single with over 4 @.@ 6 million copies sold worldwide .
The single 's accompanying music video was directed by Anthony Mandler and served as the debut performance of Beyoncé 's all @-@ female band , Suga Mama . The video was included on the 2007 B 'Day Anthology Video Album , and a video edit was produced for " Irreemplazable " , the Spanish version of the song . It won the Video of the Year award at the 2007 Black Entertainment Television ( BET ) Awards , and was nominated for the MTV Video Music Award for Video of the Year at the 2007 Awards . " Irreplaceable " has regularly featured in Beyoncé 's tours and live performances since 2006 . The American Society of Composers , Authors and Publishers ( ASCAP ) recognized the song as one of the most performed of 2007 at the ASCAP Pop Music Awards .
= = Production = =
" Irreplaceable " was written for Chrisette Michele . Production team Stargate and singer @-@ songwriter Ne @-@ Yo had written for Beyoncé 's second album B 'Day , but Tor Erik Hermansen of Stargate said that they might not have gone in the direction they did on the song . The tune did not suit Beyoncé 's voice , and Ne @-@ Yo wrote the lyrics from a male perspective , although it was not based upon his personal experiences . Ne @-@ Yo wrote the song in the country style , thinking of country singers Shania Twain and Faith Hill during the sessions . When Ne @-@ Yo heard them playing the song with a guitar , he thought it sounded like country music . But when the drums were incorporated into the music , it was brought to an R & B vibe , and Ne @-@ Yo considered making an R & B @-@ country western music song instead .
When the team worked with Ne @-@ Yo , they recorded the song with a male vocalist . However , they thought a female vocalist would be more suitable , and Ne @-@ Yo also thought that it was empowering for a woman to sing it . Eriksen of Stargate said it was an A & R person who suggested that the song would work better when sung by a woman . Two labels wanted the song . While Beyoncé worked on material for B 'Day , she was pleased with the demo of the " Irreplaceable " that was presented to her . However , " Irreplaceable " did not seem to fit on B 'Day , which was supposed to be " a hard @-@ hitting club album " . Swizz Beatz , who was working on the album , declared that Beyoncé would be crazy not to include the song on the record . Beyoncé asked for changes to the song , including the addition of drums , vocal arrangements , and singing in a higher register than the demo . Espen Lind and Amund Bjørklund , from the Norwegian production team Espionage , wrote the chord structure and the guitar part . In an interview with MTV , Ne @-@ Yo said , " Beyoncé had some stuff that she wanted to get off her chest " , while aiming to make a record that women could relate to , in keeping with the theme of the album .
The recording was engineered by Jim Caruana and mixed by Jason Goldstein at Sony Music Studios in New York City . Goldstein was hired to mix B 'Day . He said : " This song was really simple to mix . It was produced by Stargate and the sounds are really good and they all made sense , and there was lots of room for all the instruments . " Goldstein used a board equalizer for the drums ' treatment . For the acoustic guitars , he used the analogue flanger of a TC 1210 spatial expander " to sweeten the sound " and to give them " a little bit more spread " . Goldstein thought " Irreplaceable " sounded " a bit old @-@ school " ; an eighth note delay echo was placed on the song 's lead vocal at 341ms , using the Echo Farm plug @-@ in software . For the backing vocals , Goldstein used Echo Farm with a quarter note delay at 682ms and Sony 's Oxford Dynamics compressor / limiter in dual @-@ mono mode .
The compressor was placed in Classic setting , to emulate the LA @-@ 2A leveling amplifier , and the Warmth button used to add harmonics . Oxford Dynamics was used for the bass in a different setting . Goldstein passed the final mix through the Oxford EQ and Inflator plug @-@ ins . Pro Tools software was used to print the aux track into a 44.1kHz / 24 @-@ bit CD and then into a 24 @-@ bit CD master . After the sessions for " Irreplaceable " ended , Hermansen said that " everyone felt they had captured something special and that Beyoncé had done the track justice " , but there were still concerns that urban radio might not play the song as it featured acoustic guitars and had more of a pop appeal . " But then it became the biggest urban record ... ever , " [ Hermansen ] said .
= = = Songwriting controversy = = =
A controversy arose over the writing credits on " Irreplaceable " . Ne @-@ Yo told MTV : " Apparently Beyoncé was at a show somewhere and right before the song came on she said , ' I wrote this for all my ladies ' and then the song came on ... The song is a co @-@ write . I wrote the lyrics , I wrote all the lyrics . Beyoncé helped me with the melodies and the harmonies and the vocal arrangement and that makes it a co @-@ write . Meaning my contribution and her contribution made that song what it is . " In 2011 , Ne @-@ Yo said that he wrote the song for himself , but thought that it would be better suited for Beyoncé , and later regretted giving the song to her . Some of Beyoncé 's fans read Ne @-@ Yo 's remark as disrespectful towards her . However , he clarified his comment later through Twitter , writing , " I said I originally wrote the song for me . ... Once I realized how the song comes across if sung by a guy , that 's when I decided to give it away . "
= = Composition = =
" Irreplaceable " is a mid @-@ tempo ballad with pop and R & B influences . Written in the key of B ♭ major , the beat is set in common time and moves at a moderate 88 beats per minute . Beyoncé 's vocal range in the song spans nearly two and a half octaves , from B ♭ 2 to E ♭ 5 . While most of the songs on the album are aggressive and uptempo , her voice on " Irreplaceable " is toned down . " Irreplaceable " uses a gently strummed acoustic guitar , following the B ♭ 5 – F5 – Cm7 – E ♭ 6 / 9 chord series . Hermansen and Eriksen combined the classic chord progression on an acoustic guitar , a modern @-@ sounding 808 drum beat and cellos . Al Shipley of Stylus Magazine noted that the guitar strum can be found in Rihanna 's 2007 single " Hate That I Love You " , a song co @-@ produced by Stargate and Ne @-@ Yo . Rob Sheffield of Rolling Stone wrote that Chris Brown 's 2007 single " With You " , another Stargate @-@ produced song , also features the same element . He wrote , " ' With You ' is the convincer , even if you can instantly tell that producer Stargate was just trying to roll out ' Irreplaceable ' one more time . " while Billboard magazine wrote that it " leans a bit too heavily " to the song .
Jim DeRogatis of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times wrote that " Irreplaceable " resembles ballads sung by Whitney Houston . Spence D. of IGN wrote that the song was inspired by Aretha Franklin 's work since " Irreplaceable " consists of several variations in gutturals and octave range . The lyrics of " Irreplaceable " concern the breakdown of a woman 's relationship with her boyfriend after she discovers his infidelity , and the song " sounds a lot like a statement of independence " . Sarah Rodman of The Boston Globe wrote , " With a heretofore unknown grasp of nuance , Beyonce combines heartache , bravado , and anger as she tells a cad he 's far from irreplaceable — and that , in fact , her new man will be arriving momentarily . " Hermansen said that " Irreplaceable " is a song that " people from all walks of life can enjoy " . Beyoncé said that the song is " a little honest " , and , " ... basically we can 't forget our power and our worth . And sometimes you 're so in love , you forget that . And sometimes you feel like you 're not being appreciated . And sometimes they forget that they can be replaced . "
The song 's lyrics are constructed in the verse @-@ pre @-@ chorus @-@ chorus form . It begins with guitar strumming , and Beyoncé sings the hook @-@ intro , " To the left , to the left : everything you own in a box to the left " . In bar seven , she sings the first verse , arguing with her boyfriend about the indifference of their relationship , and tells him to walk away . The pre @-@ chorus and chorus follow , " You must not know ' bout me ... I can have another you by tomorrow / I could have another you in a minute ... Don 't you ever for a second get to thinking / You 're irreplaceable " . In the second verse , Beyoncé recollects the moment she discovered her boyfriend 's infidelity . The same pattern leads to the second chorus . Towards the end , Beyoncé sings the bridge , where she tells her lover , " Replacing you is so easy " . The song closes with an ad @-@ libbed chorus . The Boston Globe noted that Beyoncé sings some parts of it in a higher register " that complements the lyrics ' wounded sensibility " .
= = Release = =
During the production of " Irreplaceable " , Hermansen thought that the track would not receive radio play because of the acoustic guitars , and deemed the song too pop @-@ oriented . Hermansen did not expect " Irreplaceable " to conform to any genre . Despite his prediction , the song became successful on urban charts . It was played in New York and on country radio stations . Shortly after the release of " Irreplaceable " , Beyoncé told MTV : " I love ' Irreplaceable ' . I think it 's important to have those songs . I 've had so many people come up to me in tears , saying , ' I experienced my first breakup . If it wasn 't for the song , I wouldn 't be strong enough to not call . I wouldn 't know how much I 'm worth . ' I 'm happy to be a part of that . "
" Irreplaceable " was released in the United Kingdom on October 23 , 2006 , as the second single there . In the US , " Irreplaceable " was the third single from B 'Day ' , and followed " Ring the Alarm " . The single was released on December 5 , 2006 , and featured the album and instrumental versions of the track . " Irreplaceable " was the second single released from B 'Day in international markets on Columbia Records . Two versions of the single were released in the UK on October 26 , 2006 . A CD single , which featured the album version of " Irreplaceable " , and the Freemasons club mix radio edit of " Ring the Alarm " , was released . An enhanced CD , which included the album version , three remixes of " Ring the Alarm " , and the " Ring the Alarm " music video , was also released . A 12 " single was released in the UK the following week . In Australia , a maxi single , which featured the album version and two remixes of " Déjà Vu " , was released on December 5 , 2006 . A Maurice Joshua remix edit of the song was released in Australia two weeks later .
Beyoncé recorded a Spanish version of the song , called " Irreemplazable " , with additional lyrical contributions from Rudy Pérez and was included on the second disc of the deluxe edition of B 'Day released on June 12 , 2007 . An Irreemplazable EP was released in the US on August 28 , 2007 , and on September 10 , 2007 , in the UK . The EP includes " Irreemplazable " , the Norteña Remix of " Irreplaceable " , " Amor Gitano " , three versions of " Beautiful Liar " , the Timbaland remix of " Get Me Bodied " featuring Voltio , and " Oye " , the Spanish version of " Listen " . As a fundraiser for the 2011 earthquake in the Tōhoku region of Japan , a compilation album that included " Irreplaceable " , called Songs for Japan , was released on March 25 , 2011 .
= = Critical reception = =
" Irreplaceable " earned highly positive reviews from music critics for its guitar @-@ driven melody and its hook , " To the left , to the left " . Jody Rosen of Entertainment Weekly noted " Irreplaceable " to be " a lilting tune unlike anything Beyoncé has ever performed " . Sarah Rodman of The Boston Globe wrote that the song is " gentle but maddeningly hook @-@ y " . Spence Abbott of IGN wrote that " Irreplaceable " and " Resentment " go for " a much more traditional contemporary R & B vibe " than any of the previous tracks on B 'Day , making them stand out as if they were recorded separately from the rest of the album .
Roger Friedman of Fox News Channel wrote that " Irreplaceable " is a " clever ballad " and the most memorable track on B 'Day . He added that it has the most potential of catching on with fans quickly , and that it is the only song on the album that " you might actually want to sing along to " . Mike Joseph of PopMatters commented that " ' Irreplaceable ' tellingly , was co @-@ written by Ne @-@ Yo , who may not be the powerhouse vocalist Beyonce is , but has significantly stronger songwriting skills . It 's the best song on the album — perhaps Ms. Knowles should take a hint . " Tim Finney of Pitchfork Media , called " Irreplaceable " the best song on B 'Day and praised its overall production , writing :
Before , Beyoncé 's approach to heartbreak was always literal , her voice and her words declaiming her feelings with a studied earnestness that at times was difficult to believe , let alone connect with . ' Irreplaceable ' is the first song in which Beyoncé lies to herself , and the way her voice perfectly betrays that lie ( revealing a giveaway tremble in the stiff upper lip of the lyrics ) simultaneously renders it her most sophisticated and her most honest performance to date .
= = = Recognition and accolades = = =
Mark Edward Nero ranked it as the ninth best R & B song of 2006 , and wrote , " This song has modern @-@ day classic written all over it . " Staff members of Pitchfork Media ranked the song on their list of The Top 100 Tracks of 2006 at number 45 . Shaheem Reid , Jayson Rodriguez and Rahman Dukes of MTV News placed the song at number 3 on their year @-@ end list of 27 Essential R & B Songs of 2007 .
In 2009 , Ryan Schreiber ranked " Irreplaceable " at number 183 on his list of Top 500 Tracks of the 2000s ( decade ) . Barry Schwartz of Stylus Magazine wrote that " Irreplaceable " recaptured Beyoncé 's 2003 debut single " Crazy in Love " ' s near @-@ perfection , describing it as " gentle but defiant " , and further wrote , " Through some breezy strums and a sweet plaintive melody Beyonce delivers her most genuinely emotional vocal to date , equal parts vulnerable , upset , pissed off , vindictive , resigned , and apathetic . " Rolling Stone ranked the song at number 60 on its list of 100 Best Songs of the 2000s .
" Irreplaceable " won the award for Best R & B / Soul Single , Female , at the 2007 Soul Train Music Award , and the ' Favorite Song ' award at the 2007 Nickelodeon Kids ' Choice Awards . It was nominated for the Grammy Award for Record of the Year in the 2008 Grammy Awards , and Song of the Year at the VH1 Soul Vibe awards . " Irreplaceable " was recognized as one of the five most @-@ performed songs of 2007 by the ASCAP Pop Music Awards .
= = Chart performance = =
" Irreplaceable " entered various charts worldwide , and became the most successful single released from B 'Day . The single debuted on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart on November 4 , 2006 , at number eighty @-@ seven . It climbed the charts rapidly because of its radio airplay , and it was Greatest Airplay Gainer certification for six consecutive weeks by early December 2006 . Three weeks after the release of " Irreplaceable " , B 'Day re @-@ entered the top ten on the US Billboard 200 chart . The single reached number one on December 16 , becoming Beyoncé 's fourth number one single as a solo artist , and her second in 2006 , following " Check on It " ( 2005 ) . The single spent ten consecutive weeks at number one and was replaced by Nelly Furtado 's " Say It Right " ( 2006 ) on February 24 , 2007 . The feat was achieved after Kanye West 's 2005 single , " Gold Digger " featuring Jamie Foxx , spent ten weeks at the top spot . " Irreplaceable " outperformed " Baby Boy " ' s nine @-@ weeks at number one . Beyoncé 's former group Destiny 's Child 's 2000 single " Independent Women Part I " remained at number one for eleven weeks late in 2000 and early in 2001 . " Irreplaceable " remained on the chart for thirty weeks , has sold over 3 @,@ 139 @,@ 000 paid digital downloads in the US as of October 2012 according to Nielsen SoundScan , and was certified double @-@ platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . It was additionally certified triple @-@ platinum , denoting sales of three million master ringtones .
According to Mediabase " Irreplaceable " passed the 200 million audience impressions mark on December 11 , 2006 . Another single of Beyoncé , " Check on It " previously passed this mark on January 31 , 2006 . Consequently , Beyoncé became the second singer to achieve this in the United States , the first having been Mariah Carey whose two singles , " We Belong Together " ( 2005 ) and " Shake It Off " ( 2005 ) , passed the same audience impressions mark in 2005 . " Irreplaceable " stayed at number one on the US Hot 100 Airplay for eleven consecutive weeks , and was the best @-@ performing US single of 2007 , topping the Billboard Top Hot 100 Hits . " Irreplaceable " installed Beyoncé at third place for the most number one singles by a female songwriter , overtaking Janet Jackson and Carole King and tying Diane Warren for nine number @-@ one singles . Beyoncé received three song @-@ writing credits in one year , the only woman to achieve this since King in 1971 and Carey in 1991 . In February 2010 , the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) listed " Irreplaceable " as the highest certified master ringtone of the 2000s decade by a female solo artist . By August 2011 , the single had sold over three million digital downloads in the United States . " Irreemplazable " charted equally well , peaking at number four on the Hot Latin Songs . The EP appeared on the Latin Pop Albums at number two , Top Latin Albums at number three , Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums at number forty @-@ one and on the Billboard 200 at number 105 .
" Irreplaceable " debuted at number eight on the Australian ARIA Singles Chart , and peaked at number one for three consecutive weeks , becoming Beyoncé 's first and only number one single in Australia . It was certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , denoting shipment of 70 @,@ 000 copies . " Irreplaceable " appeared twice on the ARIA year @-@ end charts , reaching number twenty @-@ three in 2006 , and number forty @-@ two in 2007 . " Irreplaceable " debuted at number three on November 6 , 2006 , on the New Zealand Singles Chart , the song 's highest entry on any chart . It peaked at number one , and remained on the chart for eighteen weeks . It was later certified Platinum by the RIANZ . " Irreplaceable " peaked within the top fifteen in several European singles charts . It peaked at number four on the UK Singles Chart , spending 12 weeks in the top 20 and 25 weeks on the chart . It was Beyoncé 's fifth longest @-@ charting single , and spent more weeks on the chart than her number @-@ one singles " Crazy in Love " and " Déjà Vu " but slightly less than her recent hits " If I Were a Boy " , " Single Ladies ( Put a Ring on It ) " , " Halo " and " Sweet Dreams " . On the UK iTunes chart , " Irreplaceable " is currently Beyoncé 's most downloaded on I Am ... Sasha Fierce single and still ranks in the top 30 of R & B / Soul songs . Due to a performance of " Irreplaceable " at the 2011 Glastonbury Festival by Beyoncé on June 26 , 2011 , the song made a re @-@ entry in the top 40 of the UK Singles Chart , entering at number thirty @-@ three . " Irreplaceable " was 2007 's tenth best @-@ selling digital single with over 4 @.@ 6 million copies sold worldwide .
= = Music video = =
" Irreplaceable " was directed by Anthony Mandler , who co @-@ directed the video of " Get Me Bodied " . The video features the debut performance of Beyoncé 's all @-@ female band , Suga Mama , who also appeared in the " Green Light " music video . Her acting @-@ then @-@ ex @-@ boyfriend in the video is model Bobby Roache , who played police officer for the " Ring the Alarm " music video and warrior during Jay @-@ Z and Beyoncé 's live performance at the 2006 Fashion Rocks show . The video was included on the 2007 B 'Day Anthology Video Album , and a video edit was produced for " Irreemplazable " . Part of the video which shows Beyoncé dancing in silhouette in front of a glass door is inspired by a James Bond movie . Late in January 2008 , " Irreemplazable " premiered on the MiTRL , a video countdown show on the bilingual channel MTV Tr3s .
The music video follows the storyline of the song 's lyrics . " She told me to pack up all my stuff , I 'm getting kicked out — the video starts off like that " , said Roache . It opens with Beyoncé filing her nails in silence , as her ex @-@ partner packs up his property , as Beyoncé orders him to leave . Mid @-@ way in the video , Beyoncé follows her then @-@ ex @-@ boyfriend outside the house and leans on a 2007 Jaguar XK . She appears to be pretentiously caressing him ; only for the audience to find out that she is repossessing things she bought for him . He leaves her and the car , about to ride off in a taxi . Between cuts , Beyoncé manages herself in front of a mirror ; putting on a lipstick , wearing huge curlers and a high @-@ waisted skirt . There are additional beats mixed to the arrangement for the video version that can be heard , when Beyoncé sings with her all @-@ female band , Suga Mama , towards the end . It ends with Beyoncé greeting her new boyfriend at the front door .
At the 2007 Black Entertainment Television ( BET ) Awards , Beyoncé won Video of the Year Award for " Irreplaceable " , an award for which " Beautiful Liar " was also nominated . It was nominated for Video of the Year during the 2007 MTV Video Music Awards , but it lost to Rihanna 's single , " Umbrella " ( 2007 ) . At the 2007 Soul Train Music Awards , the video was nominated for the Michael Jackson Award for Best R & B / Soul or Rap Music Video , but lost to rapper ( and husband ) Jay @-@ Z 's " Show Me What You Got " video . The video received two nominations for Best Female Artist and Video of the Year at the 2007 MTV Australia Video Music Awards .
= = Live performances = =
Beyoncé performed " Irreplaceable " during various public appearances , including the 2006 American Music Awards , The Ellen DeGeneres Show , the Today Show .
The song was a part of Beyoncé 's set list for her tour The Beyoncé Experience and I Am ... World Tour . " Irreplaceable " was the closing song during her 2007 The Beyoncé Experience world tour . It was performed late in the set on earlier tour dates , but when Beyoncé embarked on the US leg , it was performed earlier in the show . Beyoncé performed " Irreplaceable " during her Revel Presents : Beyoncé Live revue .
Beyoncé has performed " Irreplaceable " without backup dancers or live instrumentation , or in another case , Beyoncé was accompanied by two drummers , two keyboardists , a percussionist , a horn section , three backup vocalists called the Mamas , and the lead guitarist , Bibi McGill . Footage of Beyoncé 's performance at the Staples Center , Los Angeles was included on The Beyoncé Experience Live ! DVD ( 2007 ) , and the deluxe edition of I Am ... World Tour ( 2010 ) . According to NME , " ' Irreplaceable ' [ at the Glastonbury Festival ] sparked a mass singalong , with the crowd taking the lead on the entire first verse . " Following the performance of " Irreplaceable " at the Glastonbury Festival , the song was digitally released in the UK and the US on June 27 , 2011 , as charity single to raise funds for Oxfam , WaterAid and Greenpeace . This version charted at number twenty @-@ six on the UK Singles Chart and seven on the UK Indie Chart for the week ending July 9 , 2011 .
= = Cover versions = =
= = = Sleigh Bells version = = =
American band Sleigh Bells recorded an acoustic cover of the song during their Maida Vale sessions and released it Zane Lowe 's BBC Radio 1 show on March 6 , 2012 . A writer of Billboard magazine commented that their cover was " ethereal " . Ray Rahman of Entertainment Weekly described the cover as " really good ! ... Krauss also has a teen @-@ pop background thanks to her Rubyblue days , so it 's actually not that surprising that she can find her away around a Top 40 single so well . " However , Maura Johnston of The Village Voice gave a negative review for the cover , saying : " Krauss sighs her way through the song , turning her voice into a mew that sounds like she was trying to sing along with the radio while not being heard by her roommates or anyone else outside of a six @-@ inch radius ... Also , some of the guitar chords are a bit off .... it 's sorta disappointing . "
= = Track listings and formats = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits are taken from B 'Day liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= Ludachristmas =
" Ludachristmas " is the ninth episode of the second season of the television series 30 Rock and was first broadcast on December 13 , 2007 , on the NBC network in the United States . The episode was written by Tami Sagher and directed by Don Scardino . Guest stars in this episode include Kevin Brown , Kay Cannon , Grizz Chapman , Anita Gillette , Selena Gonzalez , Buck Henry , John Lutz , John F Mooney , Maulik Pancholy , Andy Richter and Elaine Stritch .
In this episode , Liz Lemon 's ( Tina Fey ) family ( Anita Gillette , Buck Henry , and Andy Richter ) visit her for the holidays and Jack Donaghy 's ( Alec Baldwin ) mother , Colleen Donaghy ( Elaine Stritch ) , also visits him for the holidays . The cast and writers of TGS with Tracy Jordan , a fictional sketch comedy series , prepare to attend their annual Ludachristmas party . Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) is ordered by a court to wear an alcohol monitoring device .
= = Plot = =
Jack is delighted when he thinks his mother , Colleen , is unable to visit him for the holidays due to her flight from Florida being grounded by Hurricane Zapato . Unexpectedly , Colleen arrives because she was able to travel by bus to Atlanta and get a flight from there . Also arriving at 30 Rockefeller Plaza is Liz 's family , including her brother Mitch who has " Trauma Induced Nivea Aphasia " which means that his memory is stuck on December 7 , 1985 , and he believes that he is still 17 years old , when he is actually 40 . Jack 's mother immediately dislikes the Lemons due to their constant optimism and happiness . Colleen sets out to show Jack that they 're just as screwed up as their relationship is . Jack , Colleen and the Lemons spend the day together and eventually end up going to dinner with each other . At the dinner , Colleen comments that it appears that Liz is the " favorite " child leading Mitch to reveal that his parents , Dick and Margaret , took him to see The Goonies in 1985 when they should have been watching Liz at her football game . Liz then gets into in argument with her parents , culminating in her accidentally revealing to Mitch that he is in fact 40 years old . The Lemons then spiral into a drunken fight , achieving Colleen 's plan .
Meanwhile , the cast and writers of TGS are preparing their annual Ludachristmas party in the writer 's room . Tracy is annoyed because he is unable to attend due to a recent order from a courtroom judge which requires him to wear an alcohol monitoring ankle bracelet . Kenneth Parcell ( Jack McBrayer ) is also annoyed because he believes that none of the staff know what the true meaning of Christmas is . He cancels Ludachristmas and makes the staff sit through a talk , led by himself and Reverend Gary ( John F Mooney ) , about the meaning of Christmas . This inspires the cast and writers to run outside of 30 Rock and tear down the big Christmas tree which is outside the building . Kenneth eventually stops their efforts and Tracy reveals that he has been drinking alcohol when he should not have been .
The episode ends with the TGS cast and crew celebrating Christmas with each other and while at the dinner with the Lemons who are still arguing Jack says to Colleen " Merry Christmas Mother " revealing that he 's happy to see the Lemons aren 't so perfect after all .
= = Production = =
The storyline in this episode , which features Tracy having to wear an ankle bracelet to monitor alcohol levels in his sweat due to a driving under the influence arrest , is based on events which actually happened to actor Tracy Morgan , who portrays Tracy Jordan . Morgan has twice been arrested for drunk driving : once in December 2005 and once in November 2006 . He was sentenced to 36 months probation , fined US $ 390 , and mandated to attend an alcohol education program at the 2005 arrest . As a result of the 2006 arrest , Morgan was fined US $ 1000 and had his drivers license suspended for six months . Morgan was also ordered to wear a Secure Continuous Remote Alcohol Monitoring ( SCRAM ) , " an ankle bracelet worn to test for alcohol vapors that come out of the skin " .
NBC billed this episode on its press releases as " Episode 209 " . The episode had been unofficially titled " Ludachristmas " , until it was confirmed by the second season DVD . Similarly , the following episode also remains unnamed and is officially known as " Episode 210 " .
Kay Cannon , a writer for 30 Rock , appears in this episode as a Human Table at the Ludachristmas party . Cannon previously appeared as an unnamed wife character in " Fireworks " , an episode of the first season . Cannon co @-@ wrote " The Head and the Hair " , an episode of the first season , and " Somebody to Love " , an episode of the second season . Both episodes were co @-@ written with the series creator , Tina Fey .
= = Reception = =
The episode brought in an average 5 @.@ 6 million American viewers upon its original broadcast in the United States , achieving a 2 @.@ 8 / 7 in the key 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ old demographic . The 2 @.@ 8 refers to 2 @.@ 8 % of all people of ages 18 – 49 years old , and the 7 refers to 7 % of all people of ages 18 – 49 years old watching television at the time of the broadcast . It ranked second place in the 18 – 49 demographic and tied with CBS 's CSI : Crime Scene Investigation episode " Lying Down With Dogs " for first place among men aged 18 – 49 .
Matt Webb Mitovich of TV Guide wrote that " it 's hard to make a ' true meaning of Christmas ' story seem fresh . That 's why this week 's Kenneth / No LudaChristmas bit was a bit lame , in my opinion " , although he did say " the A story [ featuring Jack and Liz 's respective families ] fared a bit better " . Bob Sassone of AOL 's TV Squad thought that this episode was " a modern , irreverent look at [ Christmas ] " . Jeff Labrecque of Entertainment Weekly thought that Buck Henry and Andy Richter were both " destined to play " their roles . He also wrote that " [ Elaine ] Stritch wasn 't as brilliant as she 's been in previous appearances , but she 's always welcome , simply because her character riles Jack . " Robert Canning of IGN wrote that this episode " had all the trimmings for a holiday classic , though it fell just shy of that pantheon . " He added that " this may not have been the 30 Rock holiday classic people were hoping for , but it was a solid , funny episode nonetheless . " Canning rated this episode 8 out of 10 .
Elaine Stritch was nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series for this episode .
= Aldimir =
Aldimir ( Bulgarian : Алдимир ) or Eltimir ( Елтимир ) ( fl . 1280 – 1305 ) was a Bulgarian noble of the 13th – 14th century . A member of the Terter dynasty and a younger brother of Tsar George I Terter , Aldimir was an influential local ruler as the despot of Kran . Aldimir rose to that position under his brother George , though as Smilets assumed the throne he was forced into exile . At the turn of the 14th century , Aldimir returned to Bulgaria as an ally of the regent widowed consort Smiltsena . He did not oppose the accession of his nephew Theodore Svetoslav and even assisted him in ousting his contenders . However , he was promptly eliminated by Theodore Svetoslav when he betrayed him to ally with the Byzantines .
= = Under George I and Smiltsena = =
Just like his brother George , Aldimir was of Cuman origin . Bulgarian historian Plamen Pavlov is of the opinion that Aldimir and George 's ancestors had sought refuge in Bulgaria after 1241 , when they left the Kingdom of Hungary amidst sedition . The brothers must have originated from the Cuman royal dynasty Terteroba , and the ruler Köten was probably their relative or even direct ancestor . Pavlov also interprets Aldimir 's name as originating from the Cuman @-@ language expression for " heated iron " .
Aldimir rose in importance with the accession of his older brother George ( r . 1280 – 1292 ) to the Bulgarian throne in 1280 . He must have been conferred the high noble title of despot during George 's reign , and American historian John Fine believes Aldimir was granted his appanage at that time . Pavlov , however , conjectures that Aldimir 's domain dates to 1298 , long after George 's reign .
Unlike the neighbouring principality of Smilets at Kopsis , Aldimir remained loyal to the Bulgarian government and ensured that his domain retained its ties to the capital Tarnovo . Fine describes Aldimir 's lands as spanning the region from modern Sliven in the east to Kazanlak or Karlovo in the west , just south of the Balkan Mountains . His capital was the fortress of Kran in the Rose Valley .
After George 's abdication in 1292 , Aldimir had to flee into exile . He may have followed his brother as a refugee in the Byzantine Empire , though he certainly settled in the Golden Horde not long thereafter . Perhaps with Tatar approval , Aldimir returned to Bulgaria in 1298 , after the reign of Smilets ( r . 1292 – 1298 ) was over and the empire was in the hands of the child Tsar Ivan II and his mother , the widow of Smilets tentatively known as Smiltsena . Aldimir pledged his loyalty to Smiltsena , who either granted him the domain south of the Balkan Mountains or restored him to his former appanage . To consolidate that union , Aldimir married Smiltsena 's daughter , the princess Maria , possibly in late 1298 .
With Aldimir 's appointment as despot of Kran , Smiltsena ensured that his lands were better protected from Smilets ' brothers Radoslav and Voysil who , as émigrés in Byzantium , held aspirations for the Bulgarian throne or at least their former domains . During Smiltsena 's regency , Aldimir was one of the most influential people in Bulgaria ; indeed , Byzantine statesman Theodore Metochites refers to the " Scythian [ i.e. Cuman ] venturer " , as he calls Aldimir , as the queen 's right @-@ hand man . Aldimir 's leading position leaves little doubt that he was involved in the fruitless anti @-@ Byzantine negotiations between Bulgaria and Serbia in 1299 . Pavlov even goes as far as to suggest that the proposed anti @-@ Byzantine union was the brainchild of Aldimir .
= = Under Theodore Svetoslav = =
In 1299 , George 's son and Aldimir 's nephew Theodore Svetoslav ( r . 1300 – 1322 ) , the legitimate successor to the Bulgarian throne , invaded Bulgaria along with Tatar troops . The news of that invasion was enough to force Smiltsena and Ivan to flee to the despotate of Kran even before Theodore Svetoslav 's troops had reached the capital . Aldimir gave refuge to Smiltsena and Ivan , though he was clearly not opposed to his newly crowned nephew . In 1300 , Smilets ' brother sebastokrator Radoslav headed a Byzantine @-@ supported campaign against Aldimir en route to the capital . However , the attack had disastrous consequences to Radoslav . He was captured by Aldimir , blinded and forced back to Thessaloniki , while his Byzantine generals were sent as captives to Theodore Svetoslav . With this act , Aldimir pledged his allegiance to Theodore Svetoslav , who rewarded him with an extension to his appanage . The despotate of Kran was enlarged to the east to include the fortresses of Yambol and Lardea near today 's Karnobat .
While Aldimir was nominally loyal to Theodore Svetoslav , the presence of Smiltsena and Ivan at his court would have been seen by the Bulgarian emperor as a threat . In addition , Aldimir perhaps harboured a desire to accede to the throne himself . After Theodore Svetoslav 's victory over Byzantium at Skafida in 1304 , the Byzantines approached Aldimir with a proposal for an anti @-@ Bulgarian alliance . Aldimir initially remained adamant and was hostile to the Byzantine forces which entered his domain in 1305 . However , by the end of that year Aldimir had switched sides to the Byzantines , as Theodore Svetoslav took back the fortresses that he had granted to Aldimir . Shortly thereafter , Theodore Svetoslav restored his direct power over Kran by reconquering and annexing the appanage .
Aldimir may have been murdered during this campaign , as no activity of his is mentioned in later sources . His widow Maria and his son Ivan Dragushin managed to escape to Serbia , where Maria 's sister , Theodora , was married to the prince Stephen Dečanski . Having become a Serbian subject , Ivan Dragushin was installed by his first cousin King Stephen Dušan as a local ruler in the region of Macedonia . Donor 's portraits of Maria and Ivan Dragushin exist in the Pološko Monastery near Kavadarci , where Ivan Dragushin was buried before 1340 .
= 2015 Critérium du Dauphiné =
The 2015 Critérium du Dauphiné was the 67th edition of the Critérium du Dauphiné cycling stage race . The eight @-@ stage race in France began in Ugine on 7 June and concluded in Modane Valfréjus on 14 June , and was sixteenth of the twenty @-@ eight races in the 2015 UCI World Tour season . The Dauphiné was viewed as a preview for July 's Tour de France and a number of the contenders for the general classification of the Tour participated in the race .
The first leader of the general classification was Team Sky 's Peter Kennaugh , who won the opening stage . He lost the race lead to BMC Racing Team rider Rohan Dennis , whose team won stage three 's team time trial . His teammate Tejay van Garderen then took over after the race 's first mountain stage , stage five . Vincenzo Nibali of the Astana team took the lead after the stage six , before Van Garderen regained it following stage . Chris Froome ( Team Sky ) , who was second to Van Garderen after the penultimate stage , claimed the race victory with his win on the final stage . Van Garderen finished second overall , ten seconds in arrears , with Lampre – Merida 's Rui Costa third , a further one minute and six seconds down .
In the race 's other classifications , Nacer Bouhanni ( Cofidis ) won the sprinter 's points classification . The mountains classification was won by MTN – Qhubeka 's Daniel Teklehaimanot , who achieved it by getting in the early breakaways and placing highly over categorised climbs . Simon Yates of Orica – GreenEDGE won the young rider classification as the best rider born after 1 January 1990 . The team classification was won by Movistar Team .
= = Teams = =
As the Critérium du Dauphiné was a UCI World Tour event , all seventeen UCI WorldTeams were invited automatically and obligated to send a squad . Four second @-@ tier UCI Professional Continental teams were given wildcard invitations , forming the race 's 21 @-@ team peloton . The number of riders allowed per squad was eight , therefore the start list contained a total of 168 riders .
The teams entering the race were :
= = Pre @-@ race favourites = =
Former winners of the general classification named in the start list were both the 2008 and 2009 edition 's Alejandro Valverde ( Movistar Team ) , 2013 's Chris Froome ( Team Sky ) and the 2014 's Andrew Talansky ( Cannondale – Garmin ) . The leading contenders for general classification were two of the four Tour de France favourites , Froome and Vincenzo Nibali ( Astana ) . Both winners of the previous two Tours , they were thought to have planned to use the Dauphiné 's likeness to Tour 's mountainous route as preparation . The riders considered outsiders included Talansky , Valverde , Joaquim Rodríguez ( Team Katusha ) , Tejay van Garderen ( BMC Racing Team ) , Rui Costa ( Lampre – Merida ) , Romain Bardet ( AG2R La Mondiale ) , Bauke Mollema ( Trek Factory Racing ) and 2014 's winner of the young rider classification , Wilco Kelderman ( LottoNL – Jumbo ) .
= = Route = =
On 2 April 2015 , the organiser of the race , Amaury Sport Organisation ( ASO ) , announced the route of 2015 Critérium du Dauphiné at a presentation in Lyon , France . The eight @-@ stage race in the Dauphiné region of France was held from 7 – 14 June , and was seen as a preview for the Alpine stages in the Tour de France , which took place the following month . The race opened with a 132 km ( 82 @.@ 0 mi ) hilly circuit stage in around Albertville . Stage two crossed the flat Dombes area west from Le Bourget @-@ du @-@ Lac to Villars @-@ les @-@ Dombes and covered a distance of 173 km ( 107 @.@ 5 mi ) . The third stage was a team time trial , the first since the 1980 edition . The 24 @.@ 5 km ( 15 @.@ 2 mi ) route from Roanne to Montagny was described by Stephen Farrand of Cyclingnews.com as rolling and could " seriously influence " the general classification . Stage four , the longest at 228 km ( 141 @.@ 7 mi ) , moved the race south to Sisteron and to the Alps . The fifth stage covered the same distance and course of stage seventeen in the Tour de France . It featured the Col d 'Allos mountain pass and ended with a summit finish at the Pra Loup ski resort . Stage six took the race north , with the 183 km ( 113 @.@ 7 mi ) route from Saint @-@ Bonnet @-@ en @-@ Champsaur to Villard @-@ de @-@ Lans including six climbs . The penultimate stage was another mountainous stage that featured the Col de la Croix Fry and Col des Aravis climbs before a final accent to Saint @-@ Gervais @-@ les @-@ Bains . The final stage took in the Lacets de Montvernier before moving through the Maurienne valley to the finish at Modane Valfréjus .
= = Stages = =
= = = Stage 1 = = =
7 June 2015 — Ugine to Albertville , 132 km ( 82 @.@ 0 mi )
The race opened with its shortest race stage , at 132 km ( 82 @.@ 0 mi ) . The route left Ugine and passed the finishing city of Albertville , before a loop that featured the category 4 Côte d ’ Esserts @-@ Blay , 17 km ( 10 @.@ 6 mi ) in . On the return to Albertville the riders crossed the finish line for the first time for a 19 @.@ 5 km ( 12 @.@ 1 mi ) lap . In this lap were two climbs , the third @-@ category Côte du Villard ( 442 m ( 1 @,@ 450 ft ) ) and the fourth @-@ category Côte du Cruet , the highest of the stage at 551 m ( 1 @,@ 808 ft ) . As the race crossed the finish line for the second time , a shorter 15 @.@ 5 km ( 9 @.@ 6 mi ) circuit was undertaken five times , with primary difference the exclusion of the Côte du Cruet .
In the opening 5 km ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) , Gert Dockx of Lotto – Soudal was involved in a crash and was forced to abandon the race due to his injuries . After 11 km ( 6 @.@ 8 mi ) , a breakaway was formed by Romain Guillemois ( Team Europcar ) , Björn Thurau ( Bora – Argon 18 ) , Daniel Teklehaimanot ( MTN – Qhubeka ) and Maarten Wijnants ( LottoNL – Jumbo ) . Their advantage over the peloton increased to over four minutes at the 33 km ( 20 @.@ 5 mi ) mark , which moved up to a maximum of around seven minutes twenty seconds . Teklehaimanot accrued enough mountains classification points to secure the polka dot jersey with two climbs of the Côte du Villard to go .
Wijnants and Guillemois were dropped from the quartet on the penultimate ascent of the Villard , with 28 km ( 17 @.@ 4 mi ) to go . Thurau attacked Teklehaimanot on the last passing of the Villard , which led to an attack by Daniel Oss ( BMC Racing Team ) from the chasing peloton . With 10 km ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) remaining , four more riders joined Oss and the group caught Thurau in the final 5 km ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) , with the six @-@ rider group holding a margin of twelve seconds . Peter Kennaugh of Team Sky attacked from the group with 2 km ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) and took the stage victory two seconds ahead of the bunch sprint . Kennaugh 's first place gave him a ten @-@ second time bonus in the general classification ; he also took the lead of the points classification and Sky topped the team classification . Tiesj Benoot of Lotto – Soudal became the first lead of the young rider classification .
= = = Stage 2 = = =
8 June 2015 — Le Bourget @-@ du @-@ Lac to Villars @-@ les @-@ Dombes , 173 km ( 107 @.@ 5 mi )
Stage two 's 173 km ( 107 @.@ 5 mi ) course was the flattest of the race . The stage left the start at Le Bourget @-@ du @-@ Lac and within 3 km ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) crossed the second @-@ category Col du Chat . After five smaller climbs , 74 km ( 46 @.@ 0 mi ) in , the riders then came to the day 's highest climb at 1 @,@ 156 m ( 3 @,@ 793 ft ) , the first @-@ category Col de Cuvery . The route then followed a 52 km ( 32 @.@ 3 mi ) descent that included three uncategorised climbs . The final 44 km ( 27 @.@ 3 mi ) to the finish in Villars @-@ les @-@ Dombes were flat .
The early breakaway was formed by three riders , Perrig Quéméneur ( Team Europcar ) , Arnaud Courteille ( FDJ ) and ,
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the breakaway . Daniel Teklehaimanot took maximum points over the opening four climbs to secure the mountains classification . The Col des Aravis split the breakaway , and on the descent , an attack out of the eighteen @-@ strong leading group by Daniel Navarro ( Cofidis ) and Riccardo Zoidl ( Trek Factory Racing ) gained a lead of three minutes . The peloton fractured on the Côte des Amerands , with race leader Vincenzo Nibali being dropped .
At the start of the final climb , the leading duo were joined by Jonathan Castroviejo ( Movistar Team ) and Bartosz Huzarski ( Bora – Argon 18 ) . Sky set a high pace in pursuit of the leading group , and with 4 km ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) to go , Chris Froome attacked , followed by Tejay van Garderen , and they soon passed the leaders . With 1 @.@ 5 km ( 0 @.@ 9 mi ) remaining , Froome attacked to win the stage by a margin of seventeen seconds . Van Garderen moved into the lead of the general classification , and although placing second in the stage , he was content , saying " My tactic was just to mark Froome and when he went there was no way I could follow him , but I 'm very happy with the yellow jersey . "
= = = Stage 8 = = =
14 June 2015 — Saint @-@ Gervais @-@ les @-@ Bains to Modane Valfréjus , 156 @.@ 5 km ( 97 @.@ 2 mi )
The final stage of the race left from the location of the previous stage 's finish , Saint @-@ Gervais @-@ les @-@ Bains , for a 156 @.@ 5 km ( 97 @.@ 2 mi ) route . After the riders climbed a 7 @.@ 5 km ( 4 @.@ 7 mi ) rise from the start , they went down a long descent with the second @-@ category Côte d 'Héry @-@ sur @-@ Ugine in the middle . The terrain remained flat until the fourth @-@ category Côte d ’ Aiton , 65 @.@ 5 km ( 40 @.@ 7 mi ) in . This was followed by the third @-@ category Côte de Saint @-@ Georges @-@ d 'Hurtières . A further flat section placed the riders at the foot of the first @-@ category Lacets de Montvernier . After the subsequent descent began a long gradual incline to the climb of the third @-@ category Côte de Saint @-@ André . A small descent took the race to Modane and the ascent to the summit finish at the Valfréjus ski resort ; the length of the climb was 8 @.@ 4 km ( 5 @.@ 2 mi ) with an average gradient of 5 @.@ 7 % .
Wilco Kelderman 's move in the opening 10 km ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) initiated a breakaway of thirteen riders . Tony Martin attacked from the break on the Côte de Saint @-@ Georges @-@ d 'Hurtières and at the foot of the Lacets de Montvernier he had an advantage of one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half minutes over them and around four over the peloton . The last of the riders from the break caught Martin on the Côte de Saint @-@ André , where Steve Cummings of MTN – Qhubeka attacked this front group .
Cummings 's lead over the peloton at the foot of the final climb was one minute and twenty seconds . With 5 @.@ 5 km ( 3 @.@ 4 mi ) remaining , Vincenzo Nibali moved to the front in support of Astana teammate Michele Scarponi , whose failed attack led to the formation of an elite group of chasers including the general classification leaders . Chris Froome was the only rider to have the support of a teammate , Wouter Poels , who rode on the front until Froome attacked as they caught Cummings . At first Tejay van Garderen could follow this move , but he was eventually unable to keep up with Froome and was caught by Simon Yates and Rui Costa . Froome took the stage victory , eighteen seconds ahead of the three behind , and finished the race as the winner of the general classification .
= = Classification leadership = =
In the Critérium du Dauphiné , four different jerseys were awarded . The most important was the general classification , which was calculated by adding each rider 's finishing times on each stage . The rider with the least accumulated time is the race leader , identified by a yellow jersey with a blue bar ; the winner of this classification was considered the winner of the race .
Additionally , there was a points classification , which awarded a green jersey . In the classification , cyclists received points for finishing in the top 10 in a stage . For stages , 1 , 2 and 4 the win earned 25 points , second place 22 , third 20 , fourth 18 , fifth 16 , sixth 14 , seventh 12 , eighth 10 , ninth 8 and tenth 6 . For stages 5 , 6 , 7 and 8 the win earned 15 points , second place 12 , third 10 , fourth 8 , fifth 6 , and 1 point fewer per place down to a single point for 10th . Points towards the classification could also be achieved at each of the intermediate sprints ; these points were given to the top three riders through the line with 5 points for first , 3 for second , and 1 point for third .
There was also a mountains classification , the leadership of which was marked by a red jersey with white polka dots . In the mountains classification , points towards the classification were won by reaching the top of a climb before other cyclists . Each climb was categorised as either first , second , third , or fourth @-@ category , with more points available for the higher @-@ categorised climbs . First @-@ category climbs awarded the most points ; the first six riders were able to accrue points , compared with the first four on second @-@ category climbs , the first two on third @-@ category and only the first for fourth @-@ category .
The fourth jersey represented the young rider classification , marked by a white jersey . This was decided the same way as the general classification , but only riders born on or after 1 January 1990 were eligible to be ranked in the classification . There was also a team classification , in which the times of the best three cyclists per team on each stage were added together ; the leading team at the end of the race was the team with the lowest total time .
= = Final standings = =
= = = Team classification = = =
= The Camel ( Parks and Recreation ) =
" The Camel " is the ninth episode of the second season of Parks and Recreation , and the fifteenth overall episode of the series . It originally aired on NBC in the United States on November 12 , 2009 . In the episode , Leslie and the parks department bicker as they work on a proposal for a new town hall mural , while Ron and Andy share an awkward moment at Andy 's new shoe @-@ shine job .
The episode was written by Rachel Axler and was directed by Millicent Shelton . The title refers to the figure of speech that a camel is a " horse made by a committee " , and refers to the final mural proposed by the parks department . " The Camel " included references to several Indiana celebrities , including Greg Kinnear , John Mellencamp , Larry Bird , Michael Jackson and David Letterman , all of whom have a place in the mural representing Leonardo da Vinci 's The Last Supper .
Stand @-@ up comedian Kirk Fox made a guest appearance as Joe , from the Pawnee sewage department . According to Nielsen Media Research , " The Camel " was seen by 4 @.@ 67 million viewers , a drop from the previous week . The episode received generally positive reviews , with particular praise for the Ron and Andy subplot , and the jokes involving Jerry 's " murinal " .
= = Plot = =
The Pawnee council decides it will replace the town hall 's " Spirit of Pawnee " mural , which has been repeatedly vandalized because of its racist overtones . When each Pawnee department is asked to propose a new mural , Leslie ( Amy Poehler ) becomes determined for the parks department to win , especially after she is taunted by " Sewage " Joe ( Kirk Fox ) in the sewer department . Everyone in the parks department is told to come up with a possible mural . Tom ( Aziz Ansari ) pays a local artist ( Doug Anthony Jones ) to make a painting for him , and he is initially unsatisfied with the result , a colorful abstract painting . When presenting it to the staff , however , he suddenly experiences his first emotional reaction to a work of art . Ann ( Rashida Jones ) , who acknowledges a lack of creative talent , presents a rendering of a park that is widely panned by the others . April ( Aubrey Plaza ) presents a dark and bizarre piece made of garbage she found in a dumpster . Donna ( Retta ) presents a version of The Last Supper with famous people from Indiana . Jerry ( Jim O 'Heir ) presents a beautiful pointillist photomosaic of city hall , but everyone laughs at him when he accidentally calls his mural a " murinal " . Leslie proposes a picture of a historic Pawnee bakery fire , which she thinks will win because it is dark and depressing .
When the parks department casts votes for the best mural , they each vote for their own artwork . As a compromise , Leslie creates a mural using pieces of everybody 's artwork , but the result is an ugly and confusing mess . Leslie enlists the help of Mark ( Paul Schneider ) , who draws a bland but skillful sketch of an old man feeding pigeons in the park . Mark himself admits the sketch is dull , but claims it will win because it has mass appeal . Nobody in the parks department likes it except Ron ( Nick Offerman ) , but Leslie insists on entering it so they will win , much to everybody 's disappointment . While waiting to present the sketch , Leslie sees how much fun other departments had in making their mural , and she decides to enter the parks department 's original mural after all . The town council committee are confused by the proposal , but the parks department have fun presenting it and break into laughter . In the end , the town decides not to spend any money on a new mural and simply renames the old one " The Diversity Express " . The parks department is nevertheless proud of their work , which they hang in their conference room ; Ron also hangs Mark 's sketch in his office .
In a B plot , Andy ( Chris Pratt ) is doing well in his new job as the Pawnee shoeshiner , and Ron pays for a shine . Ron is impressed when Andy actually eases the pain from his bunion , and he later purposely scuffs his shoe so he can get a second shine . Andy is initially flattered , but starts to grow uncomfortable when Ron returns for a third shoeshine . This time , Ron makes an involuntary noise that sounds like a sexual moan , seriously embarrassing both men . After a day of avoiding each other , Ron and Andy discuss the noise and decide it would be best to simply pretend it never happened .
= = Production = =
" The Camel " was written by Rachel Axler and directed by Millicent Shelton . It derives its title from the figure of speech that a camel is " a horse made by a committee " . When the parks department puts together a mural proposal using elements of six different pieces of art , which Mark refers to in the episode as a camel . The episode features a guest appearance by stand @-@ up comedian Kirk Fox as Joe , Leslie 's nemesis from the Pawnee sewer department . Within a week of the episode 's original broadcast , a deleted scene from " The Camel " were made available on the official Parks and Recreation website . In the 90 @-@ second clip , Ann tries to get out of helping with the mural , April looks through a dumpster for inspiration and Ron defends " cookie cutter art " by saying , " There 's nothing wrong with a cookie cutter . You know what you get with a cookie cutter ? Perfectly shaped cookies ! "
= = Cultural references = =
Leslie indicates she had a dream involving American actress Gina Gershon . For her mural , Donna proposes a recreation of Leonardo da Vinci 's painting The Last Supper with Indiana natives in place of the apostles . Actor Greg Kinnear was chosen to replace Jesus , with the Apostles replaced by John Mellencamp , Larry Bird , Michael Jackson , David Letterman and a NASCAR race car , among others . Jerry presents for his mural a work of pointillism , a style of painting in which small distinct dots of color create the impression of a wider image . When proposing her somber mural , Leslie claims tragedy often succeeds in awards , and specifically cites the Academy Awards which honor the film industry . As an example , Leslie uses The English Patient , the 1996 Best Picture winner during the 69th Academy Awards . Upon first receiving his painting , Tom says , " It looks like a lizard puking up Skittles " , a reference to the multi @-@ colored candies . Leslie , upon the idea of putting the best parts of each design into a new mural , says it is like having Michelangelo , Andy Warhol , Jackson Pollock and Jim Davis do one painting . When Mark tries to get out of helping with the mural , he uses the excuse , " I was gonna go to Arby 's and watch Frontline " , a reference to a fast food restaurant chain and a Public Broadcasting Service public affairs program . Ron names his bunion Paul , after the mythological lumberjack Paul Bunyan .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast on November 12 , 2009 , " The Camel " was seen by 4 @.@ 67 million viewers , according to Nielsen Media Research . It drew a 2 @.@ 1 rating / 6 share among viewers aged between 18 and 49 , about a five percent drop from the previous week 's episode , " Ron and Tammy " . The episode received generally positive reviews . Matt Fowler of IGN said " The Camel " was a particularly funny episode , and that the parks department 's collaboration on the mural allowed " each character being able to instill their own level of brand @-@ specific insanity into the mix " . Fowler also praised the sewer department jokes , the " murinal " scene involving Jerry and the fact that no department ended up winning the mural contest , which Fowler called a commentary on " the futility of local government in their attempts to accomplish anything " . The Star @-@ Ledger television columnist Alan Sepinwall declared " The Camel " one of the episodes he would suggest to newcomers seeking to become familiar with Parks and Recreation . Sepinwall said the Ron and Andy subplot " made me laugh as hard as I have in a very long time " , and said the episode had a good mix of funny , sweet and ridiculous moments , and said the ensemble cast was starting to work extremely well together .
The A.V. Club writer Leonard Pierce said the episode included great lines , strong personality @-@ driven comedy and good character moments , specially Tom 's emotional reaction to his painting . Pierce said the Andy and Ron subplot was " so well played that it threatens to usurp the mural storyline " . Sandra Gonzalez particularly praised the " murinal " jokes about Jerry 's mural , as well as Ron 's claim that he ran a sheet metal factory when he was nine , and that " Child labor laws are ruining this country . " Time magazine television critic James Poniewozik said make jokes connected in " The Camel " , including the Andy shoeshine plot and the " unexpectedly glamorous " sewage department . But he particularly praised the character development in the main plot , in which " each in their own way sticks to the purity of their uniquely screwy ideas " . Brad Sanders of the Indiana Daily Student praised the entire cast , particularly Offerman and Pratt , who he said provide the show 's two best characters . Sanders said the fact that the episode included a " hilarious subplot " involving both of them " was more evidence that the writers have been listening to the fans " .
GQ writer Dan Fierman said Parks and Recreation appeared to be " approaching early Simpsons @-@ levels in its absurdity and comic pacing " . He suggested this could be due to the use of Mike Scully , a veteran comic writer with the animated series , as a consulting producer on Parks and Recreation . In an article reflecting on the Parks and Recreation second season , which became critically acclaimed following poor season one reviews , Slate magazine writer Jonah Weiner said the plot of " The Camel " " can be read as something of a Season 2 mission statement " . Weiner compared Leslie 's decision to submit the quirky collage rather than the safer bet as reflective of the Parks and Recreation writing staff 's apparent decision " to ride their zaniest whims rather than tamp them down for something more readily recognizable as a hit sitcom " .
= = DVD release = =
" The Camel " , along with the other 23 second season episodes of Parks and Recreation , was released on a four @-@ disc DVD set in the United States on November 30 , 2010 . The DVD included deleted scenes for each episode .
= Spies Reminiscent of Us =
" Spies Reminiscent of Us " is the third episode of the eighth season of the animated comedy series Family Guy . It originally aired on Fox in the United States on October 11 , 2009 . The episode pays homage to the 1985 comedy film Spies Like Us , featuring baby Stewie and anthropomorphic dog Brian as they discover that American spies Chevy Chase and Dan Aykroyd have moved into their neighbor Cleveland Brown 's old house ; they eventually follow them on a secret mission to Russia . Meanwhile , Peter , Joe , and Quagmire attempt to start an improv comedy group with very little success .
The episode was written by Alec Sulkin and was directed by Cyndi Tang @-@ Loveland . It received positive reviews from critics . According to Nielsen ratings , it was viewed in 8 @.@ 88 million homes in its original airing . The episode featured guest performances by Dan Aykroyd , Chevy Chase , Gary Cole , Dimitri Diatchenko , James Lipton , Henriette Mantel , Chris Parson , Nicole Sullivan , and Mae Whitman , along with several recurring guest voice actors for the series . " Spies Reminiscent of Us " was released on DVD along with seven other episodes from the season on June 15 , 2010 .
= = Plot = =
Peter loses to Lois in a race for the bathroom and finds their other bathroom is occupied by a transfer student from Africa . Angered , Peter begins frequenting the toilet at Cleveland 's old house , which he has vacated after moving to Virginia . The house is eventually rented to actors Chevy Chase and Dan Aykroyd , and Peter invites the two actors to his house for dinner . Peter shows them some of his comedy bits , including a crude impersonation of John Wayne , which Chase , Aykroyd and Lois find painfully unfunny .
Suspicious as to why Chevy Chase and Dan Aykroyd are living in their neighborhood , Stewie and Brian investigate the house and discover a secret underground military facility , eventually learning that the two actors were made real spies by Ronald Reagan after he saw their film Spies Like Us . Chase and Aykroyd explain that during the Cold War , the Soviet Union turned dozens of American citizens into sleeper agents who would fall into a trance and do the bidding of the KGB upon hearing the phrase , " Gosh , that Italian family at the next table sure is quiet " – a phrase no one would normally use . They later explain that one of the sleeper agents resides in Quahog , and they are looking for him / her . Chase and Aykroyd ask Brian and Stewie to help them in their mission , noting that they know several people acting very strangely in Quahog . Brian and Stewie accept the offer .
The four spies head to City Hall to warn Mayor West about the sleeper agent , but they discover that the mayor is the sleeper agent when Aykroyd inadvertently uses the trigger phrase . During the ensuing fight , Aykroyd plants a homing beacon on Mayor West 's leg . West escapes to Russia and the four follow him . They are quickly captured under orders of Prime Minister Vladimir Putin , who explains that the sleeper agent plan would be an embarrassment to their government if revealed to the public . He offers to help them stop West from fulfilling his pre @-@ programmed mission . When the four find West , they see him launch a nuclear missile aimed at the United States before he snaps out of his trance . Mayor West holds himself responsible for America 's fate , though Brian comforts him with the knowledge that West was not in control of his actions , having been brainwashed by the Soviets . Aykroyd realizes that he can hack into the missile 's guidance system . This allows him to aim the missile 's warhead high above the Earth 's atmosphere and harmlessly explode , saving the US . The fuselage , though , crashes into Cleveland 's house in Stoolbend , VA , while Cleveland was taking a bath , eliciting confusion from his neighbor , Tim the Bear . The episode ends with Brian and Stewie in the family living room as they recount their adventure and repeat the activation phrase , which reveals Meg to be another sleeper agent .
Meanwhile , Peter spends the rest of the episode working in an improv comedy group with Quagmire and Joe . Quagmire attempts to educate the others on the fine art of improv comedy but when they try to do a live show , Peter 's lack of conscious comedic knowledge completely gives way to his John Wayne impersonations , which the audience finds hilarious . This , along with Joe 's fecal incontinence , forces Quagmire to end the show early and conclude that this is something that should never have been attempted .
= = Production and development = =
The episode was written by series regular Alec Sulkin and directed by Cyndi Tang @-@ Loveland in her first episode for the eighth production season . The episode was originally intended to be a " Road to " episode , entitled " Road to ' 85 " , but was switched with " Road to the Multiverse " instead . Series creator Seth MacFarlane was convinced by " Road to the Multiverse " director Greg Colton to make the change , due to the subplot that involved Peter , which caused it to " not feel like a Road show " . Series regulars Peter Shin and James Purdum served as supervising directors , and series creator and executive producer Seth MacFarlane and David Zuckerman served as the episode 's staff writers .
" Spies Reminiscent of Us " , along with the seven other episodes from Family Guy 's eighth season , were released on a three @-@ disc DVD set in the United States on June 15 , 2010 . The sets included brief audio commentaries by Seth MacFarlane and various crew and cast members for several episodes , a collection of deleted scenes , a special mini @-@ feature which discussed the process behind animating " Road to the Multiverse " , and a mini @-@ feature entitled Family Guy Karaoke .
The episode saw the second re @-@ appearance , the first being a brief appearance in " Road to the Multiverse " , by former main cast member and writer Mike Henry as the voice of Cleveland Brown . The actor had previously left the role on Family Guy to star as the character in his own spin @-@ off The Cleveland Show , co @-@ created by Seth MacFarlane , Mike Henry , and Richard Appel . In addition to the regular cast , actors Dan Aykroyd , Chevy Chase , and Gary Cole ; voice actors Dimitri Diatchenko and Chris Parson ; writer , actor , and television host James Lipton ; actresses Henriette Mantel and Mae Whitman ; and voice actress Nicole Sullivan guest starred in the episode . Recurring guest voice actors Johnny Brennan , actor Ralph Garman , writer and showrunner Mark Hentemann , writer Alec Sulkin and writer John Viener also made minor appearances . Actors Adam West and Patrick Warburton made appearances as well .
= = Cultural references = =
The episode was largely based upon the 1985 film Spies Like Us , which starred Chevy Chase and Dan Aykroyd , and the movie is referred in the episode itself . The episode was also based on the 1977 spy film Telefon about brainwashed Russian spies in the U.S. who can be activated by a special code phrase . When Peter has to go to the bathroom , he runs to Cleveland 's empty home , which has been put up for sale since he left to live in Virginia with his new family . A montage of Peter going to the bathroom is shown , while Jennifer Lopez 's " Let 's Get Loud " plays . When Peter becomes aware that Cleveland 's house is being rented by actors Chevy Chase and Dan Aykroyd , he mentions that he is honored to have dinner with " two of the Ghostbusters " . Chase then replies that he was not in that movie ; Peter also notes that he is honored to meet " two of the Three Amigos " , a movie starring Chase but not Aykroyd . After dinner , Stewie is seen drawing and coloring Sebastian the crab , a character from the Disney film The Little Mermaid . When Aykroyd and Chase ask Stewie and Brian if they want to be " spies like us " , Stewie asks if they can be " spies like them " and points to Black Spy and White Spy from Spy vs. Spy , one of the head comic strip features of MAD magazine . When Aykroyd and Chase explain to Stewie and Brian how they were recruited as official spies by Reagan , a cutaway is shown of an event in which 1985 is awarded the " Awesomest year of the 80 's " prize and all characters spontaneously start dancing to the song ( Keep Feeling ) Fascination . Later , Brian and Stewie agree to become agents , and Stewie asks if " Ron Howard 's weird @-@ looking brother , Clint Howard is here " .
Back in Quahog , when Peter , Joe , and Quagmire discuss how to prove to Chase and Aykroyd that they know what is funny , Quagmire asks what the most consistent form of comedy is , to which Joe responds " improv . " This causes Peter , Joe , and Quagmire to yell " improv " repeatedly , until live @-@ action footage of James Lipton saying the word " improv " is shown . When Stewie , Brian , Chevy , and Dan land in Russia , the device Dan uses to track the beacon in Adam West 's ankle looks like a PKE meter from " Ghostbusters . " Vladimir Putin makes an appearance in the episode , and asks if Brian and Stewie would like to see a Russian Cutaway Gag . They agree and the viewers are presented with a hedgehog in a foggy forest . The hedgehog then goes on to say , " What kind of idiots would make a porcupine sandwich without bread ? These no @-@ good bastards ! " and laughs . This is a nod to the Russian @-@ made animated film Hedgehog in the Fog .
= = Reception = =
In its initial broadcast , this episode received a Nielsen rating of 5 @.@ 1 / 8 , totaling 8 @.@ 88 million viewers in the 18 – 19 demographic . The episode ranked one of the lowest in the 9 : 00PM timeslot , behind The Amazing Race on CBS , Sunday Night Football on NBC , and Desperate Housewives ; however , it was ahead of fellow Fox animated sitcom American Dad ! , which was shown immediately after Family Guy .
Reviews of the episode were mostly positive . The AV Club 's Todd VanDerWerff noted his enjoyment of the storyline , but he mostly enjoyed the episode 's inclusion and voice work of Chevy Chase and Dan Aykroyd . He also commented favorably on the gags that describe Russia as filled with bears on unicycles and that Adam West turns out to be the Russian sleeper agent . He criticized the improv comedy storyline but commented that improv troupes and 1980s comedies are lazy targets . He graded the episode a B , tying with The Simpsons and American Dad ! , and beating its spin @-@ off The Cleveland Show . IGN Television critic Ahsan Haque gave the episode a mixed review , stating that he did not like the improv storyline , and he was not amused with Peter 's usage of Joe 's American flag as toilet paper . However , he praised the scene that involved Stewie 's , Brian 's , Chevy Chase 's , and Dan Aykroyd 's travel to Russia , and he ultimately gave the episode 7 @.@ 7 out of 10 .
= Explorers on the Moon =
Explorers on the Moon ( French : On a marché sur la Lune ) is the seventeenth volume of The Adventures of Tintin , the comics series by Belgian cartoonist Hergé . The story was serialised weekly in Belgium 's Tintin magazine from October 1952 to December 1953 before being published in a collected volume by Casterman in 1954 . Completing a story arc begun in the preceding volume , Destination Moon ( 1953 ) , the narrative tells of the young reporter Tintin , his dog Snowy , and friends Captain Haddock , Professor Calculus , and Thomson and Thompson who are aboard humanity 's first manned rocket mission to the Moon .
Developed in part through the suggestions of Hergé 's friends Bernard Heuvelmans and Jacques Van Melkebeke , Explorers on the Moon was produced following Hergé 's extensive research into the possibility of human space travel – a feat that had yet to be achieved – with the cartoonist seeking for the work to be as realistic as possible . Hergé continued The Adventures of Tintin with The Calculus Affair , while the series itself became a defining part of the Franco @-@ Belgian comics tradition . Critics have praised the illustrative detail of the book , but have expressed mixed views of the story . The volume was adapted for both the 1957 Belvision animated series , Hergé 's Adventures of Tintin , and for the 1991 animated series The Adventures of Tintin by Ellipse and Nelvana .
= = Synopsis = =
The synopsis continues a plot begun in Destination Moon .
Professor Calculus , Tintin , Snowy , Captain Haddock , and Calculus ' assistant Frank Wolff are aboard an atomic rocket @-@ powered spacecraft leaving the Earth bound for the Moon . Soon after takeoff they discover that the detectives Thomson and Thompson have accidentally stowed away onboard , putting a strain on the oxygen supply . The detectives accidentally turn off the nuclear motor , disrupting the artificial gravity and sending everyone floating until Tintin corrects the problem . They then suffered a relapse of the Formula 14 drug ( seen in Land of Black Gold ( 1950 ) ) , resulting in their hair growing rapidly in multiple colours . Calculus subsequently administers a cure . Haddock , who has smuggled whisky aboard the rocket , gets drunk and takes an impromptu spacewalk , during which he briefly becoming a satellite of the asteroid Adonis ( at which point , Professor Calculus humorously says he will tell Earth that Adonis has a new satellite by the name of Haddock ) but Tintin is able to rescue him .
The rocket lands in the Hipparchus Crater , with Tintin being the first human to step on the Moon . Three days later , Haddock , Wolff and Tintin take the battery @-@ powered tank to explore some stalactite caves in the direction of the Ptolemaeus Crater ; inside a cave Snowy slips into an ice @-@ covered chasm , but Tintin rescues him . Later aboard the ship , Tintin is overwhelmed by a third stowaway , Colonel Jorgen , a spy who had been smuggled aboard by Wolff , who has been blackmailed by a foreign power for which Jorgen works . With Wolff 's help , Jorgen seeks to hijack the ship and return it to Earth , but through emergency sabotage that cuts power to the engine , is foiled by Tintin .
Due to the strain on the oxygen supplies , the crew decides to abandon most of the equipment and to cut short the lunar stay . The repair work is completed slightly ahead of schedule , and the rocket cleared for lift @-@ off . Halfway to Earth , Jorgen escapes his bonds thanks to the detectives ' bungling and tries to kill Tintin ; Wolff seeks to prevent him , and in their struggle over a gun Jorgen is killed . When it is revealed that there will not be enough oxygen aboard for the crew to survive the journey , Wolff sacrifices himself by opening the airlock and floating out into space to his death . The crew fall unconscious but Tintin wakes long enough to set the rocket to auto @-@ pilot and it arrives back in Syldavia safely .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
Hergé first devised the idea of sending Tintin on a mission to the Moon while he was working on Prisoners of the Sun ( 1949 ) . His decision to move into the field of science fiction might have been influenced by his friendly rivalry with his colleague Edgar P. Jacobs , who had recently had success with his own science fiction comic , The Secret of the Swordfish ( 1950 – 53 ) . He decided that it would be a two @-@ volume story arc , as had proved successful with his earlier arcs , The Secret of the Unicorn ( 1943 ) and Red Rackham 's Treasure ( 1944 ) , and The Seven Crystal Balls ( 1948 ) and Prisoners of the Sun . He had initially intended on beginning this story after the culmination of Prisoners of the Sun , but both his wife Germaine Remi and his close friend Marcel Dehaye convinced him to proceed with Land of Black Gold ( 1950 ) , a story that he had previously left unfinished , instead .
Seeking advice on the story , Hergé consulted his friend Bernard Heuvelmans , who had authored the non @-@ fiction book L 'Homme parmi les étoiles ( " Man Among the Stars " ) ( 1944 ) . In autumn 1947 , Heuvelmans and Jacques Van Melkebeke developed a script for the story , which they gave to Hergé . This version based Calculus ' lunar expedition in a fictional location , Radio City , in the United States . It featured a return of Professor Decimus Phostle , a character who had previously appeared in The Shooting Star ( 1942 ) , but this time as an antagonist ; Phostle had sold the secrets of the mission in order to attain funds to buy a diamond for the actress Rita Hayworth . In early 1948 , Hergé produced two black @-@ and @-@ white pages of this version of the story before abandoning it . Hergé retained some elements of this original script in his finished version , namely the scenes in which Haddock drinks whiskey in a gravity @-@ free environment and that in which Haddock goes for a space walk and nearly becomes a satellite of Adonis , which appear on pages 5 and 8 of Explorers on the Moon . Nevertheless , Heuvelmans thought his influence on the story to be more significant , stating that " In going through the two books we [ he and Van Melkebeke ] really had the impression that it was what we had originally done at the beginning . In broad outline , that was it . "
Hergé hoped for the story to be as realistic as possible , and sought to eschew fantastical elements . In his own words , it contained " no moonmen , no monsters , no incredible surprises " . To ensure this realism , he collected a wide range of documents about rockets and space travel with which to conduct research . In this he was aided by Heuvelmans , who collected pictures of rockets and atomic research facilities for him . Hergé 's research archive included an article from the American magazine Collier 's which discussed how humanity could reach the moon , as well as books by Pierre Rousseau and Auguste Piccard . A further work that he used was L 'Astronautique ( 1950 ) , a book on putative space travel by the physicist Alexander Ananoff , with whom Hergé began a correspondence in April 1950 . He also visited the Ateliers de Constructions Electriques de Charleroi 's Center for Atomic Research , striking up a subsequent correspondence with its director , Max Hoyaux . Hergé incorporated much of this technical information into the story , but juxtaposed it with moments of humour to make it more accessible to his young readership .
According to literary critics Jean @-@ Marc Lofficier and Randy Lofficier , possible fictional influences on Hergé 's story include Jules Verne 's 1870 novel Around the Moon and the 1950 American film Destination Moon . Hergé was certainly inspired by a number of photographic stills from the Destination Moon film which had been published . The computer system at the Sprodj space centre was visually based upon the UNIVAC I , the first computer to be created for non @-@ military purposes . Hergé based his moon rocket on the designs of the V @-@ 2 rocket which had been developed by German scientists during World War II . The red @-@ and @-@ white checker pattern on Hergé 's rocket was based upon an illustration of a V @-@ 2 which Hergé had come upon in Leslie Simon 's 1947 book German Research in World War II . He commissioned the construction of a model rocket with detachable parts from his assistant Arthur Van Noeyen . He took the model to Paris where he showed it to Ananoff , asking him if it was a realistic representation of what a moon rocket might look like . He and his assistants then used the model from which to accurately sketch when producing the comic . Hergé introduced into the story the character of Boris Jorgen , who had previously appeared as an antagonist in King Ottokar 's Sceptre ( 1939 ) . He added evidence for water on the moon at the advice of Heuvelmans .
= = = Publication = = =
On 7 September 1950 , Hergé broke off the story with the statement " end of part one " . He felt the need for a break from work , having fallen back into clinical depression . He and his wife Germaine went on holiday to Gland in Switzerland , before returning to Brussels in late September . Many readers sent letters to Tintin magazine asking why Explorers on the Moon was no longer being serialised , with a rumour emerging that Hergé had died . On 18 April 1951 , he published an open letter in the magazine explaining his absence as a result of illness caused by exhaustion and included an illustration of himself sprawled out on an armchair . As Hergé planned his return to work , covers of Tintin magazine announced the imminent return of the story . Explorers on the Moon would resume after an eighteen @-@ month hiatus , returning in the 9 April 1951 issue , accompanied with a summary of the story so far . Its final installment appeared on 31 December 1953 .
= = = Republication = = =
Upon the serial 's publication , Hergé faced criticism for including Wolff 's suicide in the story ; suicide was widely viewed as a sin in Catholic @-@ dominated Belgium . In deference to these critics , for the published book version he added Wolff 's line of " perhaps by some miracle I shall escape too " , to make the scene seem a less obvious suicide . Years later , Hergé expressed regret that he had capitulated on this issue . The story was collected together and published by Editions Casterman as On a Marché Sur La Lune in 1954 . Casterman were unhappy with this title , which translates as " They Walked on the Moon " , but Hergé resolutely refused to make a change .
= = Critical analysis = =
Jean @-@ Marc Lofficier and Randy Lofficier believed that the two @-@ part story " belongs " to Calculus as his " cosmic vision moves the story forward " . They further expressed the opinion that Wolff was a unique character in the Adventures of Tintin , suggesting that he is akin to a character from a John le Carré novel . Referring specifically to Explorers on the Moon , they opined that it was " a true epic of the human imagination " , believing that its depiction of the moon has " withstood the test of time " more than other " proto @-@ space exploration novels " . They felt that the moon adventure was " Hergé at his best ... a triumphant achievement on every level " , awarding both halves of the story five stars out of five .
Hergé biographer Pierre Assouline felt that the two moon adventures " mark a stage in the development of Hergé 's work " . Hergé biographer Benoît Peeters praised the " gradual introduction into the story of a real dimension of evil " as being something particularly effective . He also expressed the view that Wolff brings " a tragic note " to the story , comparing him to the characters in the stories of Graham Greene . He was critical of the two @-@ part story arc , stating that they had " neither the liveliness and dynamism " of The Secret of the Unicorn and Red Rackham 's Treasure , " nor the supernatural quality " of The Seven Crystal Balls @-@ Prisoners of the Sun .
Harry Thompson noted that Explorers on the Moon was widely regarded as Hergé 's " greatest artistic achievement " , describing the entire moon adventure as " a technical masterpiece " as a result of its " uncannily accurate " depiction of the moon . Thompson expressed his opinion that Explorers could be compared to the work of science @-@ fiction writers Jules Verne and H. G. Wells . Focusing on the scene in which the Thom ( p ) sons hair grows rapidly in bright colours , he stated that it provides an abrupt contrast with " the almost scholastic nature of the rest of the story " , and that it " injects a few bright splashes " into an otherwise " carefully restrained colour scheme " . Philippe Goddin praised the depiction of the rocket 's landing as " a magnificent spectacle , well worth the double space spread given by Hergé " , also highlighting what he perceived as the ending 's " unprecedented dramatic tension " .
In his psychoanalytical study of the Adventures of Tintin , the literary critic Jean @-@ Marie Apostolidès praised the Destination Moon @-@ Explorers on the Moon story arc for its " meticulous attention to scientific facts " , but added that this had also resulted in the story 's " rather pedagogical tone " . He added that in these stories , the main division was " no longer Good and Evil " as it had been in previous Adventures , but " Truth and Error " . Apostolidès opined that despite being a " fussy and somewhat ridiculous character " , through his scientific achievements Calculus grows to the " stature of a giant " in this arc , eclipsing Sir Francis Haddock ( from The Secret of the Unicorn ) as the series ' " founding ancestor " . He goes on to claim that in becoming the " sacred ancestor " , the voyage to the moon becomes " a mystical quest " with science as its guiding religion . Drawing comparisons between this arc and the Prisoners of the Sun story , he drew symbolic links between the scientific centre and the Inca Temple of the Sun , but noted that here Calculus was the " high priest " rather than the sacrificial victim as he had been in the previous story . Moving on to discuss the moon rocket in these stories , Apostolidès described it as a phallic object which penetrated the " virgin territory " of the moon . At the same time , he described the rocket as a " maternal belly " in which the space explorers slept . Commenting specifically on Explorers on the Moon he commented that the protagonists of the story reverted to childhood when exploring the moon , believing that they had treated it like a theme park .
Literary critic Tom McCarthy stated that in the Destination Moon @-@ Explorers of the Moon story arc , Calculus " embodies Hergé 's ... own wartime position , spun out into a post @-@ war environment " , representing a genius driven by his work whose activities are coincidental to national and political causes . He suggested that Explorers on the Moon was " perhaps both the most wildly adventurous and the most contemplative " installment in the series . He felt that the inclusion of Jorgen being smuggled aboard the rocket as a stowaway reflected the idea of the " stranger " penetrating the " home " , something which he thought was present in other Adventures . Commenting on the scene in which Haddock smuggles a whisky bottle inside the Guide to Astrology , he states " the text , in this case , is hollow , smuggling something else " , which he believed was a reversal of the appearance of a parchment hidden within a model ship in The Secret of the Unicorn .
= = Adaptation = =
In 1957 , the animation company Belvision Studios produced a string of colour adaptations based on Hergé 's original comics , adapting eight of the Adventures into a series of daily five @-@ minute episodes . Explorers on the Moon was the second to be adapted in the second animated series ; it was directed by Ray Goossens and written by Greg , a well @-@ known cartoonist who was to become editor @-@ in @-@ chief of Tintin magazine .
In 1991 , a second animated series based upon The Adventures of Tintin was produced , this time as a collaboration between the French studio Ellipse and the Canadian animation company Nelvana . Explorers on the Moon was the fifteenth story to be adapted and was divided into two twenty @-@ minute episodes . Directed by Stéphane Bernasconi , the series has been praised for being " generally faithful " to the original comics , to the extent that the animation was directly adopted from Hergé 's original panels .
= Two Weeks ( The Office ) =
" Two Weeks " is the twenty @-@ first episode of the fifth season of the television series The Office , and the 93rd overall episode of the series . It originally aired on NBC in the United States on March 26 , 2009 . In this episode , Michael , who has given his two weeks ' notice to Dunder Mifflin , tries to convince others in the office to quit and join him in starting a new paper company . Meanwhile , Pam spends her day trying to put together the new photocopier and becomes frustrated with her job .
The episode was written by Aaron Shure and directed by Paul Lieberstein . Executive story editor Charlie Grundy conceived the idea of Michael leaving Dunder Mifflin , and the writers collectively decided the Pam character should leave and try to find out what she wants from life . The episode included a guest appearance by Idris Elba , who played new Dunder Mifflin vice president Charles Miner . " Two Weeks " received generally positive reviews and , according to Nielsen ratings , was watched by 8 @.@ 7 million overall viewers and was the top @-@ rated show on NBC the week it aired . " Two Weeks " received a Primetime Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Single @-@ Camera Picture Editing for a Comedy Series .
= = Synopsis = =
Having submitted his two weeks ' notice to Dunder Mifflin , Michael ( Steve Carell ) begins goofing off and drinking around the office , while new company vice president Charles Miner ( Idris Elba ) plans to hire the new regional manager from the outside , for " obvious reasons . " The employees suggest that Michael start looking for another job . Michael is unworried at first , until he learns how poorly the economy is performing . He first tries Prince Paper , but they had been run out of business by Dunder Mifflin . After finding no available work , Michael decides to start his own paper company and unsuccessfully tries to convince others around the office to join him . When Charles catches Michael labeling Dunder Mifflin customer lists with his new company 's name , he orders security guard Hank ( Hugh Dane ) to escort Michael from the building . Michael drives out of the parking lot , but is later spotted sneaking back into the building .
Meanwhile , the office has received a new copy machine , but it is not assembled , so Pam ( Jenna Fischer ) spends the day putting it together as the rest of the employees hassle and tease her . She finally completes assembling it , but feels no satisfaction about it afterward . Meanwhile , Angela ( Angela Kinsey ) and Kelly ( Mindy Kaling ) continue to flirt with Charles .
Michael sneaks back into the office , crawling on the floor below the desks so Charles , who is sitting in the conference room , will not notice him . Michael grabs his customer list and makes a final desperate offer for the other employees to join him . Charles notices Michael and physically threatens him , prompting Michael to leave without the customer list . After Charles angrily closes the conference room door , Pam follows Michael out of the building , announcing that she 's leaving with him . However , she tells Michael she wants to be a salesperson at his new company , not a receptionist . Michael agrees , and the two leave together , feeling both exhilarated and apprehensive .
At the end of the episode , Charles , who still knows very little about the employees at the Scranton branch , decides to make Kevin ( Brian Baumgartner ) the temporary receptionist and make Stanley ( Leslie David Baker ) the office 's " Productivity Czar , " much to the surprise of both men .
= = Production = =
" Two Weeks " was written by Aaron Shure and directed by Paul Lieberstein . Executive story editor Charlie Grandy conceived the idea of Michael leaving Dunder Mifflin . Shure said there was a great deal of debate among the writers about Pam 's decision to leave Dunder Mifflin with Michael , but they decided to move in that direction to demonstrate Pam was trying to figure out what she wants in life . Lieberstein thought of the idea of the final scene in which Michael and Pam 's faces go from optimism to concern , because he felt it would anchor the episode . The decision to have Charles choose Stanley as productivity czar and Kevin as receptionist was made by Shure the day before the episode 's draft was handed in because he wanted to have Charles make " rookie mistakes , despite all his poise . " " Two Weeks " was the second of six episodes guest starring Idris Elba , best known as Stringer Bell from The Wire . Elba said he did not watch the episode after it aired because " I 'm hypercritical about my work , so I try not to torture myself . "
The official The Office website included three cut scenes from " Two Weeks " within a week of the episode 's original release . In one minute @-@ long clip , Michael asks Darryl for warehousing advice for his new paper company ; Darryl gives Michael encouraging words about the new business venture before admitting , " I 'm messing with you . This doesn 't sound like a good idea . " In a second one @-@ minute clip , Michael tries stealing office supplies from the Dunder Mifflin office for his new company , until he is caught by Charles , who literally chases him out of the office ; Charles then tries to describe what Michael 's like to the camera but finds himself shocked into silence . In a final 38 @-@ second clip , Kelly visits Michael 's office to ask what he will do with his life , then starts talking about her own fantasy of running off to Mexico with Charles . B. J. Novak wrote a talking @-@ head segment for Toby , where he compares Michael to a movie on a plane because " it 's not great , but it 's something to watch , and when it 's over you 're like , how much longer is this flight ? Now what ? "
An original draft for the episode included more dialogue between Pam and Jim about the decision , in which Pam brought up Jim 's impulsive decision to buy his parents ' house without consulting her in the episode " Frame Toby , " but it was ultimately cut because they felt it added too much time to get to the resolution . A number of documentary @-@ style interviews with Dwight about Michael 's defection and his thoughts about Charles Miner were cut for length issues .
Immediately after " Two Weeks " was first broadcast , NBC Universal 's The Office website DunderMifflinInfinity.com sent mass e @-@ mail messages said to be from " Michael Gary Scott " encouraging people to join his new company , " The Michael Scott Paper Company . " The message , which included a link to the website , said " As the manager of Dunder Mifflin , Scranton I learned two things : everything about the paper business and that Dunder Mifflin is a suckee company . I ’ m taking that expertness and creating The Michael Scott Paper Company . … I cannot promise success , but I will promise you the best effing time of your life ! ! ! "
= = Cultural references = =
Michael accidentally visits a website about actual monsters when trying to visit Monster.com , a popular employment site . During work , Michael drinks a combination of scotch and Splenda , an artificial sweetener ; Michael had the same drink in the third season episode " Cocktails " . Michael tries to get a job with Prince Family Paper Company only to find they have gone out of business ; this is a reference to " Prince Family Paper " , an episode from earlier in the fifth season , in which Michael and Dwight go undercover at Prince Paper to learn their company secrets and steal their clients . While flirting with Charles , Kelly said her family was so close they were like the Kardashians , a reference to the E ! reality series , Keeping Up with the Kardashians .
Several reviewers compared Pam 's decision to quit with Michael to that of Renée Zellweger 's character in the 1996 film Jerry Maguire , and the final scene in which Michael and Pam go from excitement over their new company to concern about the future to the final moments of The Graduate . Shure , who said he a fan of the movie scene , said it was not directly inspired by the film , but he was " painfully aware of the inevitable comparison " ; he said the writers considered having Michael refer to the movie in the episode , but dropped it due to time constraints . The line spoken by Oscar , " Just like that , as mysteriously as he arrived , he was gone " was written by Office writer Mindy Kaling and was inspired by the Keyser Söze character in the 1995 film , The Usual Suspects .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast on March 26 , 2009 , " Two Weeks " was watched by 8 @.@ 7 million overall viewers , and 5 @.@ 8 million viewers among ages 18 to 49 . The episode had a 4 @.@ 5 rating and 11 share in the 18 to 49 demographic , making it NBC 's top @-@ rated show the week it aired .
" Two Weeks " received generally positive reviews . Alan Sepinwall of The Star @-@ Ledger praised the episode and specific elements of it , like Michael wandering around the office drunk and many of the documentary @-@ style interviews , like Charles talking about his effect on women , Toby comparing Michael to a movie on a plane and Kevin being too lazy to compliment Michael in person . But he said the episode was " elevated " by Michael and Pam forming a partnership at the end : " Steve Carell and Jenna Fischer are always brilliant in those moments when they have to show multiple emotions at once , so it was nice to finally see them get to do it side @-@ by @-@ side . " Entertainment Weekly writer Margaret Lyons said " Two Weeks " offered a change that would keep the series fresh and , although he said it was " not a nonstop laugh riot " , he said it " highlights what The Office does that few other shows ever even attempt : incredibly humane , subtle moments that contrast with the kind of chaos only ever borne of monotony . "
Brian Howard of The Journal News said the episode flowed well and he liked the payoff at the end when Pam joined Michael 's new paper company , but he said the moments with Michael crawling on the floor felt like " unnecessary padding " . Nevertheless , he said , " I ’ m looking forward to rewatching this episode , probably the first time I ’ ve done that since ' Lecture Circuit : Part I. ' " Andy Shaw of TV Fodder said Michael was much more likable in " Two Weeks " than in other recent episodes , and said , " Steve Carell was at his best , with great throwaway lines and getting to the heart of Michael 's love for Dunder @-@ Mifflin and paper . " Will Leitch of New York magazine said the episode marked a " major step " for the series and had some particularly sweet moments between Michael and Pam . He also particularly liked the moment when Charles Miner , who is played by the same actor who played drug dealer Stringer Bell on the HBO series The Wire , threatened to attack Michael : " Michael Scott being beaten up by Stringer Bell . That 's one for the TV annals . "
Rick Porter of Zap2it said the episode was " pretty good " and that Jenna Fischer was " fantastic " , but he felt the episode was less outright funny than recent episodes . But Porter also said he had mixed feelings about Pam 's decision to work for Michael and about the Charles Miner character , who he said might be too humorless and uncomfortable for the show . Travis Fickett of IGN felt it was disappointing and slow @-@ paced compared to last week 's episode " New Boss " : " Things slow down a bit as we sort of repeat the awkwardness between Michael and new regional manager Charles Miner . It feels a bit like the episode is marking time - which is exactly what Michael is doing with his final two weeks on the job . " " Two Weeks " was voted the eighteenth highest @-@ rated episode out of 26 from the fifth season , according to an episode poll at the fansite OfficeTally ; the episode was rated 7 @.@ 74 out of 10 .
Stuart Bass received a Primetime Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Single @-@ Camera Picture Editing for a Comedy Series . " Two Weeks " accounted for one of the ten Primetime Emmy Award nominations The Office received for the show 's fifth season at the 61st Primetime Emmy Awards , which were held on September 20 , 2009 .
= Enzyme inhibitor =
An enzyme inhibitor is a molecule that binds to an enzyme and decreases its activity . Since blocking an enzyme 's activity can kill a pathogen or correct a metabolic imbalance , many drugs are enzyme inhibitors . They are also used in pesticides . Not all molecules that bind to enzymes are inhibitors ; enzyme activators bind to enzymes and increase their enzymatic activity , while enzyme substrates bind and are converted to products in the normal catalytic cycle of the enzyme .
The binding of an inhibitor can stop a substrate from entering the enzyme 's active site and / or hinder the enzyme from catalyzing its reaction . Inhibitor binding is either reversible or irreversible . Irreversible inhibitors usually react with the enzyme and change it chemically ( e.g. via covalent bond formation ) . These inhibitors modify key amino acid residues needed for enzymatic activity . In contrast , reversible inhibitors bind non @-@ covalently and different types of inhibition are produced depending on whether these inhibitors bind to the enzyme , the enzyme @-@ substrate complex , or both .
Many drug molecules are enzyme inhibitors , so their discovery and improvement is an active area of research in biochemistry and pharmacology . A medicinal enzyme inhibitor is often judged by its specificity ( its lack of binding to other proteins ) and its potency ( its dissociation constant , which indicates the concentration needed to inhibit the enzyme ) . A high specificity and potency ensure that a drug will have few side effects and thus low toxicity .
Enzyme inhibitors also occur naturally and are involved in the regulation of metabolism . For example , enzymes in a metabolic pathway can be inhibited by downstream products . This type of negative feedback slows the production line when products begin to build up and is an important way to maintain homeostasis in a cell . Other cellular enzyme inhibitors are proteins that specifically bind to and inhibit an enzyme target . This can help control enzymes that may be damaging to a cell , like proteases or nucleases . A well @-@ characterised example of this is the ribonuclease inhibitor , which binds to ribonucleases in one of the tightest known protein – protein interactions . Natural enzyme inhibitors can also be poisons and are used as defences against predators or as ways of killing prey .
= = Reversible inhibitors = =
= = = Types of reversible inhibitors = = =
Reversible inhibitors attach to enzymes with non @-@ covalent interactions such as hydrogen bonds , hydrophobic interactions and ionic bonds . Multiple weak bonds between the inhibitor and the active site combine to produce strong and specific binding . In contrast to substrates and irreversible inhibitors , reversible inhibitors generally do not undergo chemical reactions when bound to the enzyme and can be easily removed by dilution or dialysis .
There are four kinds of reversible enzyme inhibitors . They are classified according to the effect of varying the concentration of the enzyme 's substrate on the inhibitor .
In competitive inhibition , the substrate and inhibitor cannot bind to the enzyme at the same time , as shown in the figure on the right . This usually results from the inhibitor having an affinity for the active site of an enzyme where the substrate also binds ; the substrate and inhibitor compete for access to the enzyme 's active site . This type of inhibition can be overcome by sufficiently high concentrations of substrate ( Vmax remains constant ) , i.e. , by out @-@ competing the inhibitor . However , the apparent Km will increase as it takes a higher concentration of the substrate to reach the Km point , or half the Vmax . Competitive inhibitors are often similar in structure to the real substrate ( see examples below ) .
In uncompetitive inhibition , the inhibitor binds only to the substrate @-@ enzyme complex , it should not be confused with non @-@ competitive inhibitors . This type of inhibition causes Vmax to decrease ( maximum velocity decreases as a result of removing activated complex ) and Km to decrease ( due to better binding efficiency as a result of Le Chatelier 's principle and the effective elimination of the ES complex thus decreasing the Km which indicates a higher binding affinity ) .
In non @-@ competitive inhibition , the binding of the inhibitor to the enzyme reduces its activity but does not affect the binding of substrate . As a result , the extent of inhibition depends only on the concentration of the inhibitor . Vmax will decrease due to the inability for the reaction to proceed as efficiently , but Km will remain the same as the actual binding of the substrate , by definition , will still function properly .
In mixed inhibition , the inhibitor can bind to the enzyme at the same time as the enzyme 's substrate . However , the binding of the inhibitor affects the binding of the substrate , and vice versa . This type of inhibition can be reduced , but not overcome by increasing concentrations of substrate . Although it is possible for mixed @-@ type inhibitors to bind in the active site , this type of inhibition generally results from an allosteric effect where the inhibitor binds to a different site on an enzyme . Inhibitor binding to this allosteric site changes the conformation ( i.e. , tertiary structure or three @-@ dimensional shape ) of the enzyme so that the affinity of the substrate for the active site is reduced .
= = = Quantitative description of reversible inhibition = = =
Reversible inhibition can be described quantitatively in terms of the inhibitor 's binding to the enzyme and to the enzyme @-@ substrate complex , and its effects on the kinetic constants of the enzyme . In the classic Michaelis @-@ Menten scheme below , an enzyme ( E ) binds to its substrate ( S ) to form the enzyme – substrate complex ES . Upon catalysis , this complex breaks down to release product P and free enzyme . The inhibitor ( I ) can bind to either E or ES with the dissociation constants Ki or Ki ' , respectively .
When an enzyme has multiple substrates , inhibitors can show different types of inhibition depending on which substrate is considered . This results from the active site containing two different binding sites within the active site , one for each substrate . For example , an inhibitor might compete with substrate A for the first binding site , but be a non @-@ competitive inhibitor with respect to substrate B in the second binding site .
= = = Measuring the dissociation constants of a reversible inhibitor = = =
As noted above , an enzyme inhibitor is characterised by its two dissociation constants , Ki and Ki ' , to the enzyme and to the enzyme @-@ substrate complex , respectively . The enzyme @-@ inhibitor constant Ki can be measured directly by various methods ; one extremely accurate method is isothermal titration calorimetry , in which the inhibitor is titrated into a solution of enzyme and the heat released or absorbed is measured . However , the other dissociation constant Ki ' is difficult to measure directly , since the enzyme @-@ substrate complex is short @-@ lived and undergoing a chemical reaction to form the product . Hence , Ki ' is usually measured indirectly , by observing the enzyme activity under various substrate and inhibitor concentrations , and fitting the data to a modified Michaelis – Menten equation
<formula>
where the modifying factors α and α ' are defined by the inhibitor concentration and its two dissociation constants
<formula>
<formula>
Thus , in the presence of the inhibitor , the enzyme 's effective Km and Vmax become ( α / α ' ) Km and ( 1 / α ' ) Vmax , respectively . However , the modified Michaelis @-@ Menten equation assumes that binding of the inhibitor to the enzyme has reached equilibrium , which may be a very slow process for inhibitors with sub @-@ nanomolar dissociation constants . In these cases , it is usually more practical to treat the tight @-@ binding inhibitor as an irreversible inhibitor ( see below ) ; however , it can still be possible to estimate Ki ' kinetically if Ki is measured independently .
The effects of different types of reversible enzyme inhibitors on enzymatic activity can be visualized using graphical representations of the Michaelis – Menten equation , such as Lineweaver – Burk and Eadie @-@ Hofstee plots . For example , in the Lineweaver – Burk plots at the right , the competitive inhibition lines intersect on the y @-@ axis , illustrating that such inhibitors do not affect Vmax . Similarly , the non @-@ competitive inhibition lines intersect on the x @-@ axis , showing these inhibitors do not affect Km . However , it can be difficult to estimate Ki and Ki ' accurately from such plots , so it is advisable to estimate these constants using more reliable nonlinear regression methods , as described above .
= = = Reversible inhibitors = = =
Traditionally reversible enzyme inhibitors have been classified as competitive , uncompetitive , or non @-@ competitive , according to their effects on Km and Vmax . These different effects result from the inhibitor binding to the enzyme E , to the enzyme – substrate complex ES , or to both , respectively . The division of these classes arises from a problem in their derivation and results in the need to use two different binding constants for one binding event . The binding of an inhibitor and its effect on the enzymatic activity are two distinctly different things , another problem the traditional equations fail to acknowledge . In noncompetitive inhibition the binding of the inhibitor results in 100 % inhibition of the enzyme only , and fails to consider the possibility of anything in between . The common form of the inhibitory term also obscures the relationship between the inhibitor binding to the enzyme and its relationship to any other binding term be it the Michaelis – Menten equation or a dose response curve associated with ligand receptor binding . To demonstrate the relationship the following rearrangement can be made :
<formula>
Adding zero to the bottom ( [ I ] - [ I ] )
<formula>
Dividing by [ I ] + Ki
<formula>
This notation demonstrates that similar to the Michaelis – Menten equation , where the rate of reaction depends on the percent of the enzyme population interacting with substrate .
fraction of the enzyme population bound by substrate
<formula>
fraction of the enzyme population bound by inhibitor
<formula>
the effect of the inhibitor is a result of the percent of the enzyme population interacting with inhibitor . The only problem with this equation in its present form is that it assumes absolute inhibition of the enzyme with inhibitor binding , when in fact there can be a wide range of effects anywhere from 100 % inhibition of substrate turn over to just > 0 % . To account for this the equation can be easily modified to allow for different degrees of inhibition by including a delta Vmax term .
<formula>
or
<formula>
This term can then define the residual enzymatic activity present when the inhibitor is interacting with individual enzymes in the population . However the inclusion of this term has the added value of allowing for the possibility of activation if the secondary Vmax term turns out to be higher than the initial term . To account for the possibly of activation as well the notation can then be rewritten replacing the inhibitor " I " with a modifier term denoted here as " X " .
<formula>
While this terminology results in a simplified way of dealing with kinetic effects relating to the maximum velocity of the Michaelis – Menten equation , it highlights potential problems with the term used to describe effects relating to the Km . The Km relating to the affinity of the enzyme for the substrate should in most cases relate to potential changes in the binding site of the enzyme which would directly result from enzyme inhibitor interactions . As such a term similar to the one proposed above to modulate Vmax should be appropriate in most situations :
<formula>
= = = Special cases = = =
The mechanism of partially competitive inhibition is similar to that of non @-@ competitive , except that the EIS complex has catalytic activity , which may be lower or even higher ( partially competitive activation ) than that of the enzyme – substrate ( ES ) complex . This inhibition typically displays a lower Vmax , but an unaffected Km value .
Uncompetitive inhibition occurs when the inhibitor binds only to the enzyme – substrate complex , not to the free enzyme ; the EIS complex is catalytically inactive . This mode of inhibition is rare and causes a decrease in both Vmax and the Km value .
Substrate and product inhibition is where either the substrate or product of an enzyme reaction inhibit the enzyme 's activity . This inhibition may follow the competitive , uncompetitive or mixed patterns . In substrate inhibition there is a progressive decrease in activity at high substrate concentrations . This may indicate the existence of two substrate @-@ binding sites in the enzyme . At low substrate , the high @-@ affinity site is occupied and normal kinetics are followed . However , at higher concentrations , the second inhibitory site becomes occupied , inhibiting the enzyme . Product inhibition is often a regulatory feature in metabolism and can be a form of negative feedback .
Slow @-@ tight inhibition occurs when the initial enzyme – inhibitor complex EI undergoes isomerisation to a second more tightly held complex , EI * , but the overall inhibition process is reversible . This manifests itself as slowly increasing enzyme inhibition . Under these conditions , traditional Michaelis – Menten kinetics give a false value for Ki , which is time – dependent . The true value of Ki can be obtained through more complex analysis of the on ( kon ) and off ( koff ) rate constants for inhibitor association . See irreversible inhibition below for more information .
= = = Examples of reversible inhibitors = = =
As enzymes have evolved to bind their substrates tightly , and most reversible inhibitors bind in the active site of enzymes , it is unsurprising that some of these inhibitors are strikingly similar in structure to the substrates of their targets . An example of these substrate mimics are the protease inhibitors , a very successful class of antiretroviral drugs used to treat HIV . The structure of ritonavir , a protease inhibitor based on a peptide and containing three peptide bonds , is shown on the right . As this drug resembles the protein that is the substrate of the HIV protease , it competes with this substrate in the enzyme 's active site .
Enzyme inhibitors are often designed to mimic the transition state or intermediate of an enzyme @-@ catalyzed reaction . This ensures that the inhibitor exploits the transition state stabilising effect of the enzyme , resulting in a better binding affinity ( lower Ki ) than substrate @-@ based designs . An example of such a transition state inhibitor is the antiviral drug oseltamivir ; this drug mimics the planar nature of the ring oxonium ion in the reaction of the viral enzyme neuraminidase .
However , not all inhibitors are based on the structures of substrates . For example , the structure of another HIV protease inhibitor tipranavir is shown on the left . This molecule is not based on a peptide and has no obvious structural similarity to a protein substrate . These non @-@ peptide inhibitors can be more stable than inhibitors containing peptide bonds , because they will not be substrates for peptidases and are less likely to be degraded .
In drug design it is important to consider the concentrations of substrates to which the target enzymes are exposed . For example , some protein kinase inhibitors have chemical structures that are similar to adenosine triphosphate , one of the substrates of these enzymes . However , drugs that are simple competitive inhibitors will have to compete with the high concentrations of ATP in the cell . Protein kinases can also be inhibited by competition at the binding sites where the kinases interact with their substrate proteins , and most proteins are present inside cells at concentrations much lower than the concentration of ATP . As a consequence , if two protein kinase inhibitors both bind in the active site with similar affinity , but only one has to compete with ATP , then the competitive inhibitor at the protein @-@ binding site will inhibit the enzyme more effectively .
= = Irreversible inhibitors = =
= = = Types of irreversible inhibition = = =
Irreversible inhibitors usually covalently modify an enzyme , and inhibition can therefore not be reversed . Irreversible inhibitors often contain reactive functional groups such as nitrogen mustards , aldehydes , haloalkanes , alkenes , Michael acceptors , phenyl sulfonates , or fluorophosphonates . These electrophilic groups react with amino acid side chains to form covalent adducts . The residues modified are those with side chains containing nucleophiles such as hydroxyl or sulfhydryl groups ; these include the amino acids serine ( as in DFP , right ) , cysteine , threonine , or tyrosine .
Irreversible inhibition is different from irreversible enzyme inactivation . Irreversible inhibitors are generally specific for one class of enzyme and do not inactivate all proteins ; they do not function by destroying protein structure but by specifically altering the active site of their target . For example , extremes of pH or temperature usually cause denaturation of all protein structure , but this is a non @-@ specific effect . Similarly , some non @-@ specific chemical treatments destroy protein structure : for example , heating in concentrated hydrochloric acid will hydrolyse the peptide bonds holding proteins together , releasing free amino acids .
Irreversible inhibitors display time @-@ dependent inhibition and their potency therefore cannot be characterised by an IC50 value . This is because the amount of active enzyme at a given concentration of irreversible inhibitor will be different depending on how long the inhibitor is pre @-@ incubated with the enzyme . Instead , kobs / [ I ] values are used , wherekobs is the observed pseudo @-@ first order rate of inactivation ( obtained by plotting the log of % activity vs. time ) and [ I ] is the concentration of inhibitor . The kobs / [ I ] parameter is valid as long as the inhibitor does not saturate binding with the enzyme ( in which case kobs = kinact ) .
= = = Analysis of irreversible inhibition = = =
As shown in the figure to the left , irreversible inhibitors form a reversible non @-@ covalent complex with the enzyme ( EI or ESI ) and this then reacts to produce the covalently modified " dead @-@ end complex " EI * . The rate at which EI * is formed is called the inactivation rate or kinact . Since formation of EI may compete with ES , binding of irreversible inhibitors can be prevented by competition either with substrate or with a second , reversible inhibitor . This protection effect is good evidence of a specific reaction of the irreversible inhibitor with the active site .
The binding and inactivation steps of this reaction are investigated by incubating the enzyme with inhibitor and assaying the amount of activity remaining over time . The activity will be decreased in a time @-@ dependent manner , usually following exponential decay . Fitting these data to a rate equation gives the rate of inactivation at this concentration of inhibitor . This is done at several different concentrations of inhibitor . If a reversible EI complex is involved the inactivation rate will be saturable and fitting this curve will give kinact and Ki .
Another method that is widely used in these analyses is mass spectrometry . Here , accurate measurement of the mass of the unmodified native enzyme and the inactivated enzyme gives the increase in mass caused by reaction with the inhibitor and shows the stoichiometry of the reaction . This is usually done using a MALDI @-@ TOF mass spectrometer . In a complementary technique , peptide mass fingerprinting involves digestion of the native and modified protein with a protease such as trypsin . This will produce a set of peptides that can be analysed using a mass spectrometer . The peptide that changes in mass after reaction with the inhibitor will be the one that contains the site of modification .
= = = Special cases = = =
Not all irreversible inhibitors form covalent adducts with their enzyme targets . Some reversible inhibitors bind so tightly to their target enzyme that they are essentially irreversible . These tight @-@ binding inhibitors may show kinetics similar to covalent irreversible inhibitors . In these cases , some of these inhibitors rapidly bind to the enzyme in a low @-@ affinity EI complex and this then undergoes a slower rearrangement to a very tightly bound EI * complex ( see figure above ) . This kinetic behaviour is called slow @-@ binding . This slow rearrangement after binding often involves a conformational change as the enzyme " clamps down " around the inhibitor molecule . Examples of slow @-@ binding inhibitors include some important drugs , such methotrexate , allopurinol , and the activated form of acyclovir .
= = = Examples of irreversible inhibitors = = =
Diisopropylfluorophosphate ( DFP ) is shown as an example of an irreversible protease inhibitor in the figure above right . The enzyme hydrolyses the phosphorus – fluorine bond , but the phosphate residue remains bound to the serine in the active site , deactivating it . Similarly , DFP also reacts with the active site of acetylcholine esterase in the synapses of neurons , and consequently is a potent neurotoxin , with a lethal dose of less than 100 mg .
Suicide inhibition is an unusual type of irreversible inhibition where the enzyme converts the inhibitor into a reactive form in its active site . An example is the inhibitor of polyamine biosynthesis , α @-@ difluoromethylornithine or DFMO , which is an analogue of the amino acid ornithine , and is used to treat African trypanosomiasis ( sleeping sickness ) . Ornithine decarboxylase can catalyse the decarboxylation of DFMO instead of ornithine , as shown above . However , this decarboxylation reaction is followed by the elimination of a fluorine atom , which converts this catalytic intermediate into a conjugated imine , a highly electrophilic species . This reactive form of DFMO then reacts with either a cysteine or lysine residue in the active site to irreversibly inactivate the enzyme .
Since irreversible inhibition often involves the initial formation of a non @
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Monkey Island and Full Throttle and the Lucasfilm franchises Star Wars and Indiana Jones .
In 1995 , all of the comics and The Adventurer strips published to that date were released in a compilation , Sam & Max : Surfin ' the Highway . Published by Marlowe & Company , the 154 page book was updated and republished in 1996 . This original version of Surfin ' the Highway went out of print in 1997 , becoming a high priced collectors item sold through services such as eBay . In 2007 , a 197 @-@ page twenty @-@ year anniversary edition , containing all printed comics and strips as well as a variety of other artwork , was co @-@ designed by Steve Purcell and Jake Rodkin and published by Telltale Games . This second publication received an Eisner Award nomination for " Best Graphic Album – Reprint " in 2009 .
In December 2005 , Purcell started a Sam & Max webcomic , hosted on the website of Telltale Games . Entitled " The Big Sleep " , the webcomic began with Sam and Max bursting out of their graves at Kilpeck Church in England , symbolizing the Freelance Police 's return after nearly a decade . In the twelve page story , Max has to save Sam after earwigs start a colony in Sam 's brain . The webcomic concluded in April 2007 , and was later awarded the Eisner Award for " Best Digital Comic " of 2007 .
= = = Video games = = =
Following LucasArts ' employment of Purcell in 1988 , the characters of Sam and Max appeared in internal testing material for new SCUMM engine programmers ; Purcell created animated versions of the characters and an office backdrop for the programmers to practice on . In 1992 , LucasArts offered Purcell the chance to create a video game out of the characters , out of a wish to use new characters after the success of its two other main adventure titles , Monkey Island and Maniac Mansion , and after a positive reaction from fans to the Sam & Max comic strips featured in LucasArts ' The Adventurer newsletter . Consequently , development on a graphic adventure game , Sam & Max Hit the Road , began shortly after . Based on the SCUMM engine and designed by Sean Clark , Michael Stemmle , Steve Purcell and his future wife Collette Michaud , the game was partially based on the 1989 comic " On The Road " , and featured the Freelance Police travelling across America in search of an escaped bigfoot . Sam was voiced in the game by comedian Bill Farmer , while actor Nick Jameson voiced Max . Sam & Max Hit the Road was originally released for DOS in November 1993 . Soon after Sam & Max Hit the Road , another Sam & Max game using SCUMM entered planning under Purcell and Dave Grossman , but was abandoned . In a later interview Grossman described this sequel 's highlight as " a giant spaceship shaped like Max 's head " .
In September 2001 development began on a new project , Sam & Max Plunge Through Space . The game was to be an Xbox exclusive title , developed by Infinite Machine , a small company consisting of a number of former LucasArts employees . The story of the game was developed by Purcell and fellow designer Chuck Jordan and involved the Freelance Police travelling the galaxy to find a stolen Statue of Liberty . However , Infinite Machine went bankrupt within a year , partially due to the failure of their first game , New Legends , and the project was abandoned .
At the 2002 Electronic Entertainment Expo convention , nearly a decade after the release of Sam & Max Hit the Road , LucasArts announced the production of a PC sequel , entitled Sam & Max : Freelance Police . Freelance Police , like Hit the Road , was to be a point @-@ and @-@ click graphic adventure game , utilising a new 3D game engine . Development of Freelance Police was led by Michael Stemmle . Steve Purcell contributed to the project by writing the story and producing concept art . Farmer and Jameson were also set to reprise their voice acting roles . In March 2004 , however , quite far into the game 's development , Sam & Max : Freelance Police was abruptly cancelled by LucasArts , citing " current market place realities and underlying economic considerations " in a short press release . The fan reaction to the cancellation was strong ; a petition of 32 @,@ 000 signatures stating the disappointment of fans was later presented to LucasArts .
After LucasArts ' license with Steve Purcell expired in 2005 , the Sam & Max franchise moved to Telltale Games , a company of former LucasArts employees who had worked on a number of LucasArts adventure games , including on the development of Freelance Police . Under Telltale Games , a new episodic series of Sam & Max video games was announced . Like both Sam & Max Hit the Road and Freelance Police , Sam & Max Save the World was in a point @-@ and @-@ click graphic adventure game format . The game utilized a new 3D game engine , different from the one used in Freelance Police . The first season ran for six episodes , each with a self @-@ contained storyline but with an overall story arc involving hypnotism running through the series . The first episode was released on GameTap in October 2006 , with episodes following regularly until April 2007 . Sam is voiced by David Nowlin , while Max is voiced by William Kasten in all episodes except the first one , where Andrew Chaikin voices the character . In addition , Telltale Games produced fifteen machinima shorts to accompany the main episodes . These shorts were released in groups of three in between the release of each episode , showing the activities of the Freelance Police in between each story .
A second season of episodic video games developed by Telltale Games was announced in July 2007 . Sam & Max Beyond Time and Space followed the same overall format as Save the World , with each episode having a contained storyline with an overarching storyline involving laundering of the souls of the dead . As with Save the World , episodes were originally published on GameTap before being made available for general release . The season consisted of five episodes and ran from November 2007 to April 2008 . Nowlin and Kasten both returned to reprise their voice roles . In addition to the main games , a twenty @-@ minute machinima video was produced , taking the form of a Sam & Max Christmas special .
A third game entitled Sam & Max : The Devil 's Playhouse was confirmed in May 2008 for release in 2009 ; the title was later pushed back to 2010 , with concept art emerging after Telltale 's completion of Tales of Monkey Island . The season again ran for five episodes , released monthly from April to August 2010 . The Devil 's Playhouse followed a structure similar to ' Tales of Monkey Island , with each episode forming a part of an on @-@ going narrative , involving psychic powers and forces that would use them for world domination . A two @-@ minute Flash cartoon also accompanied the game , dealing with the origin story of General Skun @-@ ka 'pe , one of the game 's antagonists . Max also appears in Telltale 's 2010 casual game Poker Night at the Inventory alongside Tycho Brahe from Penny Arcade , the Heavy from Team Fortress 2 and Strong Bad from Homestar Runner . Sam and Max ( now voiced by Dave Boat ) also appear in the game 's sequel alongside Claptrap from Borderlands , Brock Samson from The Venture Bros. , Ash Williams from Evil Dead and GLaDOS from Portal .
= = = Television series = = =
Sam & Max were adapted into a cartoon series for Fox in 1997 . Produced by Canadian studio Nelvana , the series ran for 24 episodes . Each episode was approximately ten minutes , and were often aired in pairs . Broadcast on Fox Kids in the United States , YTV in Canada , and Channel 4 in the United Kingdom , the first episode was aired on October 4 , 1997 ; the series concluded on April 25 , 1998 . As opposed to the more adult humor in the rest of the series , The Adventures of Sam & Max : Freelance Police was aimed more at children , even though some humor in it was often directed at adults . As such , the violence inherent in the franchise is toned down , including removing Sam and Max 's guns , and the characters do not use the moderate profanity that they use in their other appearances . As in most Sam & Max stories , the series revolves around the Freelance Police accepting missions from their mysterious superior , the commissioner , and embarking on cases to a large variety of implausible locations . Sam is voiced by Harvey Atkin , while Max is voiced by Robert Tinkler . The series performed well and was considered a success , and in 1998 received the Gemini Award for " Best Animated Program or Series " . Despite the series ' success , a second series was never commissioned . In June 2007 , it was reported that Shout ! Factory were preparing a DVD release of the series . In October 2007 , as part of their marketing for Sam & Max Save the World , GameTap hosted the series on their website . The DVD release of the series was later published in March 2008 .
= = = Music = = =
The Sam & Max franchise features a variety of soundtracks that accompany its video game products . This music is mostly grounded in film noir jazz , incorporating various other styles at certain points , such as Dixieland , waltz and mariachi , usually to support the cartoon nature of the series . The first Sam & Max game , Sam & Max Hit the Road , was one of the first games to feature a fully scored music soundtrack , written by LucasArts ' composers Clint Bajakian , Michael Land and Peter McConnell . The music was incorporated into the game using Land and McConnell 's iMUSE engine , which allowed for audio to be synchronized with the visuals . Although the full soundtrack was never released , audio renders of four of the game 's MIDI tracks were included on the CD version of the game .
For Sam & Max Save the World , Beyond Time and Space , and The Devil 's Playhouse , Telltale Games contracted composer Jared Emerson @-@ Johnson , a musician whose previous work included composition and sound editing for LucasArts , to write the scores . The soundtracks for the first two games were released in two disc sets after the release of the games themselves ; the Season One Soundtrack was published in July 2007 , whilst the Season Two Soundtrack was released in September 2008 . Emerson @-@ Johnson 's scores use live performances as opposed to synthesized music often used elsewhere in the video games industry . Critics reacted positively to Emerson @-@ Johnson 's scores , IGN described Emerson @-@ Johnson 's work as a " breath of fresh air " , while 1UP.com praised his work as " top @-@ caliber " and Music4Games stated that the " whimsical nature of [ the classical jazz approach ] is well suited to the Sam & Max universe , which approaches American popular culture with a level of irreverence " . Purcell later commented that Emerson @-@ Johnson had seamlessly blended a " huge palette of genres and styles " , whilst in September 2008 , Brendan Q. Ferguson , one of the lead designers on Save the World and Beyond Time and Space , stated that he believed that it was Emerson @-@ Johnson 's scores that created the vital atmosphere in the games , noting that prior to the implementation of the soundtracks , playing the games was an " unrelenting horror " .
= = Cultural impact and reception = =
The Sam & Max franchise has been highly successful critically , and is considered an iconic and influential aspect of the video game industry in the 1990s and the adventure game genre . In 2007 , Steve Purcell wrote that he was somewhat surprised at the success of his creation , noting that the series had gained a large fan gathering despite the small size of the franchise . As the series contains only a small amount of comics , video games and a short TV series , Purcell commented that there was " certainly not enough material to build that relentless traction of an endlessly renewed sitcom or a syndicated comic that has existed since the Korean Conflict " . The comics were well received by critics , many praising the humor and style of the stories and characters . However , later commentators have noted that the comic book series did not gain much popularity or recognition until after the release of Sam & Max Hit the Road in 1993 ; the later episodic video games are seen to have revived interest in the comics again , resulting in the creation of the webcomic " The Big Sleep " and publication of an anniversary edition of Surfin ' The Highway .
Upon its release in 1993 , Sam & Max Hit the Road was met with near universal acclaim . Critics praised the title for its humor , voice acting , graphics , music and gameplay . It has since come to be regarded as a classic graphic adventure game , one of the most critically successful projects by LucasArts to date . Sam & Max Hit the Road is regularly featured in lists of top games , and was nominated for the 1994 Annie Award for " Best Animated CD @-@ ROM " , although the award instead went to LucasArts ' Star Wars : Rebel Assault . The abrupt cancellation of the sequel to Sam & Max Hit the Road in 2004 garnered substantial criticism of LucasArts . In addition to a petition of 32 @,@ 000 signatures objecting to the termination of development on Sam & Max : Freelance Police , both Steve Purcell and the media were critical of LucasArts ' decision . Purcell stated that he failed to understand quite why the game was cancelled , as he believed the development of the game was proceeding without hindrance , while the media put forward the view that LucasArts was moving to consolidate its position with low business risk Star Wars video games instead of pursuing the adventure games that had brought them success in earlier years . The cancellation of Freelance Police is often cited as the culmination in a perceived decline in the overall adventure game genre , and LucasArts later dismissed many of the designers involved with developing their adventure games , effectively ending their adventure game era .
Although Sam & Max Save the World did not receive the critical acclaim that Sam & Max Hit the Road acquired , it still received a favorable response from critics across its release in 2006 and 2007 . Critics praised the game 's humor , graphics and gameplay , although concerns were voiced over the low difficulty of the puzzles and the effectiveness of the story . Save the World is considered by journalists in the video game industry to be the first successful application of episodic gaming , as Telltale Games had managed to release a steady stream content with only small time gaps . Previous attempts by Valve Software with the Half @-@ Life series , Ritual Entertainment with SiN Episodes and Telltale Games themselves with Bone were for a variety of reasons not considered successful implementations of the distribution model . Beyond Time and Space was considered similar to Save the World and reviewers equally praised and faulted the game on this , although overall Beyond Time and Space received a good reception from critics .
The success of the franchise has spawned a selection of merchandise , including posters and prints , items of clothing and sketchbooks of Purcell 's work during various stages of the series ' development . Collectable statues of the characters have also been created . However , despite references in Purcell 's sketchbooks and demand from both fans and journalists alike , plush toys of the characters have not been produced .
= Matthew Cradock =
Matthew Cradock ( also spelled Craddock and Craddocke ) ( died 27 May 1641 ) was a London merchant , politician , and the first governor of the Massachusetts Bay Company . Founded in 1628 , it was an organization of Puritan businessmen that organized and established the Massachusetts Bay Colony . Although he never even visited the colony , he owned property and businesses there , and he acted on its behalf in London . His business and trading empire encompassed at least 18 ships , and extended from the West Indies and North America to Europe and the Near East . He was a dominant figure in the tobacco trade .
Cradock was a strong supporter of the Parliamentary cause in the years leading up to the English Civil War . He opposed royalist conservatism in the East India Company and , as a member of the Long Parliament , supported the Root and Branch attempts to radically reform the Church of England . He played a leading role in the Protestation of 1641 , and died not long after .
= = Early life and business = =
Nothing is known of Matthew Cradock 's early life . He was from a Staffordshire family ; a cousin , also named Matthew Cradock , was mayor of Stafford , and built a mansion on the site of Caverswall Castle , Staffordshire . Although his father was a cleric , his grandfather was a merchant , and other family members were involved in trade . Cradock was twice married . By his first wife Damaris he had a daughter , also named Damaris ; by his second wife , Rebeccah , he had three children that apparently did not survive . Rebeccah survived him , but the children are not mentioned in his will .
In 1606 he was an apprentice to William Cockayne at the Skinners ' Company , then a major London shipping firm . He probably began trading with northwestern Europe , but eventually expanded his business to the Near East . Cradock joined the Levant Company in 1627 , and in 1628 he purchased £ 2 @,@ 000 of stock in the East India Company . Cradock served as a director of the East India Company in 1629 – 1630 and again from 1634 until his death in 1641 . Cradock used his business and personal connections to establish a lucrative trade , shipping New World tobacco to the Near East and sending provisions to the colonies in North America and the West Indies that produced it . He is known to have been owner or part owner of 18 ships between 1627 and 1640 , and he was one of a relatively small number of businessmen whose trade encompassed both eastern trade ( to India and the Levant ) and trade in European waters . By the end of the 1630s he stood at the center of one of the largest trading business involved in the Americas . In 1640 Cradock was a member of a group of business men who opposed the conservative royalist leadership of the East India Company , engaging in an unsuccessful attempt to reform the company 's directorate .
= = Massachusetts Bay Company = =
Interest by London merchants in establishing and managing colonial settlements in North America waned after the 1624 failure of the London Company and the subsequent conversion of the Colony of Virginia into a Crown colony . Cradock was a notable exception ; a Puritan , in 1628 he made a major investment in the New England Company , formed by a group of Puritan religious and business leaders to take over the assets of the failed Dorchester Company and make new ventures in the colonisation of North America . Cradock was elected the company 's first governor on 13 May 1628 . Not long after , the company acquired a grant of land on Massachusetts Bay from the Plymouth Council for New England , and sent John Endecott with a small group of settlers to begin the process of establishing a colony at a place now called Salem , Massachusetts .
The company 's land grant was not without problems , because it overlapped a grant that had previously been acquired by John Oldham . Cradock wrote to Endecott in early 1629 , warning him about the issue , suggesting that he settle colonists in the claimed area and also that he treat well the Old Planters ( the surviving colonists from the failed Dorchester Company settlement ) . Cradock also recommended the colonists work on building ships and other profit @-@ making activities . Later in 1629 another small fleet sailed for the colony ; on board , in addition to Puritan settlers , were skilled craftsmen of all types who were engaged in Cradock 's businesses .
The company , in order to protect its claims , acquired a royal charter in 1629 , under which Cradock was named the colony 's governor in London , while Endecott governed in the colony . In that same year , financial instability in the government caused by King Charles I 's desire to prosecute a war with Scotland led the company 's investors to fear their investment might be at risk . Cradock , at a shareholder meeting in July 1629 , suggested that the company transfer its governance to the colony itself , something that was only possible because the charter did not specify where the company 's shareholder meetings were to be held . However , some investors ( Cradock among them ) did not want to emigrate to the colony , so a means to buy out those investors needed to be devised . After negotiating through the summer , an agreement was reached on 29 August 1629 . It called for those shareholders who were emigrating to buy out those that remained in England after seven years ; the latter would also receive a share of some of the colony 's business activities , including the fur trade . John Winthrop , one of the shareholders who was emigrating , was elected the company 's governor in October .
Winthrop sailed to Massachusetts in 1630 , and the fleet carrying the colonists included two of Cradock 's ships , and agents and servants of his who were to see to his commercial interests . Cradock , who took leave of the emigrants at the Isle of Wight , remained behind in England . Cradock 's representatives secured for him a plantation at Medford , which became a base for business operations funded by Cradock , including the colony 's first shipyard . As the colony developed , Cradock 's land holdings expanded to include properties in Ipswich and Marblehead .
Even though he did not travel to the colony , he continued to operate in London on its behalf . In 1629 he worked to recruit sympathetic Puritan ministers to emigrate . He sought permission from the king 's Privy Council to freely export provisions to the colony , claiming the colonists were in dire straits due to a shortage of provisions and threats from Native Americans . He and Governor Winthrop exchanged letters ; in one written in 1636 Cradock promised £ 50 toward the establishment of an institute of higher learning now known as Harvard University .
Actions by the Massachusetts Bay Colony rulers came into question at the Privy Council in 1633 . Several opponents of the Puritans levelled charges that the colony 's administrators sought independence from the crown and laws of England ; Cradock and other company representatives were called before the council to answer these charges . They successfully defended the actions of the colonists , but the Puritans ' opponents succeeded in having ships full of colonists detained from sailing in February 1633 / 4 until the colonial charter was presented to the council for inspection . Cradock was called upon to provide it ; he informed the council that the charter was in the colony , and secured the release of the ships with a promise to have the charter delivered . The colonial council in Boston , not wanting to send the document for fear the charter would be revoked , temporized , claiming in their July 1634 meeting that the document could only be released by a vote of the colony 's General Court . It was not scheduled to meet until September , at which time the matter would be taken up . The General Court refused to consider the issue , and began fortifying Boston Harbour , expecting a military confrontation over the issue . The 1634 launch of a ship intended to carry a force to the colony was unsuccessful , ending the military threat to the colony . The political threats continued , and the charter of the Plymouth Council of New England , issuer of the colony 's land grant , was revoked . Furthermore , criminal charges , some of them clearly trumped up , were laid against Cradock and others associated with the Massachusetts Bay Company in 1635 . Cradock was acquitted of most of these charges , but was convicted of usurpation of authority and deprived of his ability to act on behalf of the company .
= = Politics = =
In 1640 Cradock was an auditor of the City of London Corporation . In April 1640 , he was elected Member of Parliament for the City of London in the Short Parliament , and he was again elected to the Long Parliament in November 1640 . He was and other London MPs were politically allied to the Parliamentarian faction of Sir Henry Vane the Younger , and he supported the Root and Branch petition calling for radical reforms of the Church of England . In the opening session of the Long Parliament he denounced the king 's plan of fortifying the Tower of London , and declared that the city would not contribute its share of taxes until the garrison was removed . In early May 1641 Cradock brought word to the Parliament reports that the king was planning to send armed troops to seize the Tower of London ; this news sparked the Protestation of 1641 , in which Cradock played a leading role . He continued to be active in the Parliament , serving on a committee for recusants , until his death , which was apparently quite sudden , on 27 May 1641 .
= Noh =
Noh ( 能 , Nō ) , or Nogaku ( 能楽 , Nōgaku ) — derived from the Sino @-@ Japanese word for " skill " or " talent " — is a major form of classical Japanese musical drama that has been performed since the 14th century . Developed by Kan 'ami and his son Zeami , it is the oldest major theatre art still regularly performed today . Traditionally , a Noh program includes five Noh plays with comedic kyōgen plays in between ; an abbreviated program of two Noh plays and one kyōgen piece has become common in Noh presentations today . An okina ( 翁 ) play may be presented in the very beginning especially during New Years , holidays , and other special occasions .
Noh is often based on tales from traditional literature with a supernatural being transformed into human form as a hero narrating a story . Noh integrates masks , costumes and various props in a dance @-@ based performance , requiring highly trained actors and musicians . Emotions are primarily conveyed by stylized conventional gestures while the iconic masks represent the roles such as ghosts , women , children , and old people . Written in ancient Japanese language , the text " vividly describes the ordinary people of the twelfth to sixteenth centuries " . Having a strong emphasis on tradition rather than innovation , Noh is extremely codified and regulated by the iemoto system .
= = History = =
= = = Origins = = =
The word Noh means skill , craft , or the talent particularly in the field of performing arts in this context . The word Noh may be used alone or with gaku ( fun , music ) to form the word nōgaku . Noh is a classical tradition that is highly valued by many today . When used alone , Noh refers to the historical genre of theatre originated from sarugaku in the mid 14th century and continues to be performed today .
Noh and kyōgen " originated in the 8th century when the sangaku ( ja : 散楽 ) was transmitted from China to Japan . At the time , the term sangaku referred to various types of performance featuring acrobats , song and dance as well as comic sketches . Its subsequent adaption to Japanese society led to its assimilation of other traditional art forms . " l
Various performing art elements in sangaku as well as elements of dengaku ( rural celebrations performed in connection with rice planting ) , sarugaku ( popular entertainment including acrobatics , juggling , and pantomime ) , shirabyōshi ( traditional dances performed by female dancers in the Imperial Court in 12th century ) , and gagaku ( ancient music and dance performed in the Imperial Court beginning in 7th century ) evolved into Noh and kyōgen .
Studies on genealogy of the Noh actors in 14th century indicate they were members of families specialized in performing arts ; they had performed various traditional performance arts for many generations . Sociological research by Yukio Hattori reveals that the Konparu School ( ja : 金春流 ) , arguably the oldest school of Noh , is a descendant of Mimashi ( 味摩之 ) , the performer who introduced gigaku , now @-@ extinct masked drama @-@ dance performance , into Japan from Kudara Kingdom in 612 .
Another theory by Shinhachiro Matsumoto suggests Noh originated from outcastes struggling to claim higher social status by catering to those in power , namely the new ruling samurai class of the time . The transferral of the shogunate from Kamakura to Kyoto at the beginning of Muromachi period marked the increasing power of the samurai class and strengthened the relationship between the shogunate and the court . As Noh became the shogun 's favorite art form , Noh was able to become a courtly art form through this newly formed relationship . In 14th century , with strong support and patronage from shōgun Ashikaga Yoshimitsu , Zeami was able to establish Noh as the most prominent theatre art form of the time .
= = = Kan 'ami and Zeami = = =
Kan 'ami Kiyotsugu and his son Zeami Motokiyo brought Noh to what is essentially its present @-@ day form during the Muromachi period ( 1336 to 1573 ) . Kan 'ami was a renowned actor with great versatility fulfilling roles from graceful women and 12 @-@ year @-@ old boys to strong adult males . When Kan 'ami first presented his work to 17 @-@ year @-@ old Ashikaga Yoshimitsu , Zeami was a child actor in his play , around age 12 . Yoshimitsu fell in love with Zeami and his position of favor at court caused Noh to be performed frequently for Yoshimitsu thereafter .
= = = The Tokugawa era = = =
During the Tokugawa era Noh continued to be aristocratic art form supported by the shogun , the feudal lords ( daimyo ) , as well as wealthy and sophisticated commoners . While kabuki and joruri popular to the middle class focused on new and experimental entertainment , Noh strived to preserve its established high standards and historic authenticity and remained mostly unchanged throughout the era . To capture the essence of performances given by great masters , every detail in movements and positions was reproduced by others , generally resulting in an increasingly slow , ceremonial tempo over time .
= = = Modern Noh after Meiji era = = =
The fall of the Tokugawa shogunate in 1868 and the formation of a new modernized government resulted in the end of financial support by the government , and the entire field of Noh experienced major financial crisis . Shortly after the Meiji Restoration both the number of Noh performers and Noh stages greatly diminished . The support from the imperial government was eventually regained partly due to Noh 's appeal to foreign diplomats . The companies that remained active throughout the Meiji era also significantly broadened Noh 's reach by catering to the general public , performing at theatres in major cities such as Tokyo and Osaka .
In 1957 the Japanese Government designated nōgaku as an Important Intangible Cultural Property , which affords a degree of legal protection to the tradition as well as its most accomplished practitioners . The National Noh Theatre founded by the government in 1983 stages regular performances and organizes courses to train actors in the leading roles of nōgaku . Noh was inscribed in 2008 on the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity by UNESCO as Nôgaku theatre .
Although the terms nōgaku and Noh are sometimes used interchangeably , nōgaku encompasses both Noh and kyōgen . Kyōgen is performed in between Noh plays in the same space . Compared to Noh , " kyōgen relies less on the use of masks and is derived from the humorous plays of the sangaku , as reflected in its comic dialogue . "
= = Jo @-@ Ha @-@ Kyū = =
The concept of jo @-@ ha @-@ kyū dictates virtually every element of Noh including compiling of a program of plays , structuring of each play , songs and dances within plays , and the basic rhythms within each Noh performance . Jo means beginning , ha means breaking , and kyū means rapid or urgent . The term originated in gagaku , ancient courtly music , to indicate gradually increasing tempo and was adopted in various Japanese traditions including Noh , tea ceremony , poetry , and flower arrangement .
Jo @-@ ha @-@ kyū is incorporated in traditional five @-@ play program of Noh . The first play is jo , the second , third , and fourth plays are ha , and the fifth play is kyu . In fact , the five categories discussed below were created so that the program would represent jo @-@ ha @-@ kyu when one play from each category is selected and performed in order . Each play can be broken into three parts , the introduction , the development , and the conclusion . A play starts out in a slow tempo at jo , gets slightly faster at ha , then culminates in kyū .
= = Performers and roles = =
Actors begin their training as young children , traditionally at the age of three . Historically , Noh performers had been exclusively male , but daughters of established Noh actors have begun to perform professionally since 1940s . In 2009 , there were about 1200 male and 200 female professional Noh performers .
= = = Training = = =
Zeami isolated nine levels or types of Noh acting from lower degrees which put emphasis on movement and violence to higher degrees which represent the opening of a flower and spiritual prowess .
In 2012 , there are five extant schools of Noh acting called Kanze ( 観世 ) , Hōshō ( 宝生 ) , Komparu ( 金春 ) , Kongō ( 金剛 ) , and Kita ( 喜多 ) schools that train shite actors . Each school has its own iemoto family that carries the name of the school and is considered the most important . The iemoto holds the power to create new plays or modify lyrics and performance modes . Waki actors are trained in the schools Takayasu ( 高安 ) , Fukuou ( 福王 ) , and Hōshō ( 宝生 ) . There are two schools that train kyōgen , Ōkura ( 大蔵 ) and Izumi ( 和泉 ) . 11 schools train instrumentalists , each school specializing in one to three instruments .
The Nohgaku Performers ' Association ( Nōgaku Kyōkai ) , to which all professionals are registered , strictly protects the traditions passed down from their ancestors ( see iemoto ) . However , several secret documents of the Kanze school written by Zeami , as well as materials by Konparu Zenchiku , have been diffused throughout the community of scholars of Japanese theatre .
= = = Roles = = =
There are four major categories of Noh performers : shite , waki , kyōgen , and hayashi .
Shite ( 仕手 , シテ ) . Shite is the main protagonist , or the leading role in plays . In plays where the shite appears first as a human and then as a ghost , the first role is known as the mae @-@ shite and the later as the nochi @-@ shite .
Shitetsure ( 仕手連れ , シテヅレ ) . The shite 's companion . Sometimes shitetsure is abbreviated to tsure ( 連れ , ツレ ) , although this term refers to both the shitetsure and the wakitsure .
Kōken ( 後見 ) are stage hands , usually one to three people .
Jiutai ( 地謡 ) is the chorus , usually comprising six to eight people .
Waki ( 脇 , ワキ ) performs the role that is the counterpart or foil of the shite .
Wakitsure ( 脇連れ , ワキヅレ ) or Waki @-@ tsure is the companion of the waki .
Kyōgen ( 狂言 ) perform the aikyōgen ( 間狂言 ) , which are interludes during plays . Kyōgen actors also perform in separate plays between individual Noh plays .
Hayashi ( 囃子 ) or hayashi @-@ kata ( 囃子方 ) are the instrumentalists who play the four instruments used in Noh theatre : the transverse flute ( 笛 , fue ) , hip drum ( 大鼓 , ōtsuzumi ) or ōkawa ( 大皮 ) , the shoulder @-@ drum ( 小鼓 , kotsuzumi ) , and the stick @-@ drum ( 太鼓 , taiko ) . The flute used for noh is specifically called nōkan or nohkan ( 能管 ) .
A typical Noh play always involves the chorus , the orchestra , and at least one shite and one waki actor .
= = Performance elements = =
Noh performance combines a variety of elements into a stylistic whole , with each particular element the product of generations of refinement according to the central Buddhist , Shinto , and minimalist aspects of Noh 's aesthetic principles .
= = = Masks = = =
Noh masks ( 能面 nō @-@ men or 面 omote ) are carved from blocks of Japanese cypress ( 檜 " hinoki " ) , and painted with natural pigments on a neutral base of glue and crunched seashell . There are approximately 450 different masks mostly based on sixty types , all of which have distinctive names . Some masks are representative and frequently used in many different plays , while some are very specific and may only be used in one or two plays . Noh masks signify the characters ' gender , age , and social ranking , and by wearing masks the actors may portray youngsters , old men , female , or nonhuman ( divine , demonic , or animal ) characters . Only the shite , the main actor , wears a mask in most plays , even though the tsure may also wear a mask in some plays to represent female characters .
Even though the mask covers an actor 's facial expressions , the use of the mask in Noh is not an abandonment of facial expressions altogether . Rather , its intent is to stylize and codify the facial expressions through the use of the mask and to stimulate the imagination of the audience . By using masks , actors are able to convey emotions in a more controlled manner through movements and body language . Some masks utilize lighting effect to convey different emotions through slight tilting of the head . Facing slightly upward , or " brightening " the mask , will let the mask to capture more light , revealing more features that appear laughing or smiling . Facing downward , or " clouding " it , will cause the mask to appear sad or mad .
Noh masks are treasured by Noh families and institution , and the powerful Noh schools hold the oldest and most valuable Noh masks in their private collections , rarely seen by the public . The most ancient mask is supposedly kept as a hidden treasure by the oldest school , the Konparu . According to the current head of the Konparu school , the mask was carved by the legendary regent Prince Shōtoku ( 572 @-@ 622 ) over a thousand years ago . While the historical accuracy of the legend of Prince Shōtoku 's mask may be contested , the legend itself is ancient as it is first recorded in Zeami 's Style and the Flower written in the 14th century .
= = = Stage = = =
The traditional Noh stage has complete openness that provides a shared experience between the performers and the audience throughout the performance . Without any proscenium or curtains to obstruct the view , the audience sees each actor even during the moments before they enter ( and after they exit ) the central " stage " . The theatre itself is considered symbolic and treated with reverence both by the performers and the audience .
One of the most recognizable characteristic of Noh stage is its independent roof that hangs over the stage even in indoor theatres . Supported by four columns , the roof symbolizes the sanctity of the stage , with its architectural design derived from the worship pavilion ( haiden ) or sacred dance pavilion ( kagura @-@ den ) of Shinto shrines . The roof also unifies the theatre space and defines the stage as an architectural entity .
The pillars supporting the roof are named shitebashira ( principal character 's pillar ) , metsukebashira ( gazing pillar ) , wakibashira ( secondary character 's pillar ) , and fuebashira ( flute pillar ) , clockwise from upstage right respectively . Each pillar is associated with the performers and their actions .
The stage is made entirely of unfinished hinoki , Japanese cypress , with almost no decorative elements . The poet and novelist Tōson Shimazaki writes that " on the stage of the Noh theatre there are no sets that change with each piece . Neither is there a curtain . There is only a simple panel ( kagami @-@ ita ) with a painting of a green pine tree . This creates the impression that anything that could provide any shading has been banished . To break such monotony and make something happen is no easy thing . "
Another unique feature of the stage is the hashigakari , a narrow bridge at upstage right used by actors to enter the stage . Hashigakari means " suspension bridge " , signifying something aerial that connects two separate worlds on a same level . The bridge symbolizes the mythic nature of Noh plays in which otherworldly ghosts and spirits frequently appear . In contrast , hanamichi in Kabuki theatres is literally a path ( michi ) that connects two spaces in a single world , thus has a completely different significance .
= = = Costumes = = =
Noh actors wear silk costumes called shozoku ( robes ) along with wigs , hats , and props such as the fan . With striking colors , elaborate texture , and intricate weave and embroidery , Noh robes are truly works of art in their own right . Costumes for the shite in particular are extravagant , shimmering silk brocades , but are progressively less sumptuous for the tsure , the wakizure , and the aikyōgen .
For centuries , in accordance with the vision of Zeami , Noh costumes emulated the clothing that the characters would genuinely wear , such as the formal robes for a courtier and the street clothing for a peasant or commoner . But in the late sixteenth century , the costumes became stylized with certain symbolic and stylistic conventions . During the Edo ( Tokugawa ) period , the elaborate robes given to actors by noblemen and samurai in the Muromachi period were developed as costumes .
The musicians and chorus typically wear formal montsuki kimono ( black and adorned with five family crests ) accompanied by either hakama ( a skirt @-@ like garment ) or kami @-@ shimo , a combination of hakama and a waist @-@ coat with exaggerated shoulders . Finally , the stage attendants are garbed in virtually unadorned black garments , much in the same way as stagehands in contemporary Western theatre .
= = = Props = = =
The use of props in Noh is minimalistic and stylized . The most commonly used prop in Noh is the fan , as it is carried by all performers regardless of role . Chorus singers and musicians may carry their fan in hand when entering the stage , or carry it tucked into the obi ( the sash ) . The fan is usually placed at the performer 's side when he or she takes position , and is often not taken up again until leaving the stage . During dance sequences , the fan is typically used to represent any and all hand @-@ held props , such as a sword , wine jug , flute , or writing brush . The fan may represent various objects over the course of a single play .
When hand props other than fans are used , they are usually introduced or retrieved by kuroko who fulfill a similar role to stage crew in contemporary theatre . Like their Western counterparts , stage attendants for Noh traditionally dress in black , but unlike in Western theatre they may appear on stage during a scene , or may remain on stage during an entire performance , in both cases in plain view of the audience . The all @-@ black costume of kuroko implies they are not part of the action on stage and are effectively invisible .
Set pieces in Noh such as the boats , wells , altars , and bells , are typically carried onto the stage before the beginning of the act in which they are needed . These props normally are only outlines to suggest actual objects , although the great bell , a perennial exception to most Noh rules for props , is designed to conceal the actor and to allow a costume change during the kyōgen interlude .
= = = Chant and music = = =
Noh theatre is accompanied by a chorus and a hayashi ensemble ( Noh @-@ bayashi 能囃子 ) . Noh is a chanted drama , and a few commentators have dubbed it " Japanese opera " . However , the singing in Noh involves a limited tonal range , with lengthy , repetitive passages in a narrow dynamic range . Clearly , melody is not at the center of Noh singing . Still , texts are poetic , relying heavily on the Japanese seven @-@ five rhythm common to nearly all forms of Japanese poetry , with an economy of expression , and an abundance of allusion . The singing parts of Noh are called " Utai " and the speaking parts " Kataru " . The music has many blank spaces ( ma ) in between the actual sounds , and these negative blank spaces are in fact considered the heart of the music . In addition to utai , Noh hayashi ensemble consists of four musicians , also known as the " hayashi @-@ kata " , including three drummers , which play the shime @-@ daiko , ōtsuzumi ( hip drum ) , and kotsuzumi ( shoulder drum ) respectively , and a nohkan flutist .
The chant is not always performed " in character " ; that is , sometimes the actor will speak lines or describe events from the perspective of another character or even a disinterested narrator . Far from breaking the rhythm of the performance , this is actually in keeping with the other @-@ worldly feel of many Noh plays , especially in those characterized as mugen .
= = Plays = =
Of the roughly 2000 plays created for Noh that are known today , the current repertoire performed by the five existing Noh schools consist of approximately 240 plays . The current repertoire is heavily influenced by the taste of aristocratic class in Tokugawa period and does not necessarily reflect popularity among the commoners . There are several different ways to classify Noh plays .
= = = Subject = = =
All Noh plays can be classified into three broad categories .
Genzai Noh ( 現在能 , ' present ' Noh ) features human characters and events unfold according to a linear timeline within the play .
Mugen Noh ( 夢幻能 , ' supernatural ' Noh ) involves supernatural worlds , featuring gods , spirits , ghosts , or phantasms in the shite role . Time is often depicted as passing in a non @-@ linear fashion , and action may switch between two or more timeframes from moment to moment , including flashbacks .
Ryōkake Noh ( 両掛能 , ' mixed ' Noh ) , though somewhat uncommon , is a hybrid of the above with the first act being Genzai Noh and the second act Mugen Noh .
While Genzai Noh utilizes internal and external conflicts to drive storylines and bring out emotions , Mugen Noh focuses on utilizing flashbacks of the past and the deceased to invoke emotions .
= = = Performance style = = =
Additionally , all Noh plays may be categorized by their style .
Geki Noh ( 劇能 ) is a drama piece based around the advancement of plot and the narration of action .
Furyū Noh ( 風流能 ) is little more than a dance piece characterized by elaborate stage action , often involving acrobatics , stage properties , and multiple characters .
= = = Theme = = =
All Noh plays are divided by their themes into the following five categories . This classification is considered the most practical , and is still used today in formal programming choices today . Traditionally , a formal 5 @-@ play program is composed of a selection from each of the groups .
Kami mono ( 神物 , god plays ) or waki Noh ( 脇能 ) typically feature the shite in the role of a deity to tell the mythic story of a shrine or praise a particular god . Many of them structured in two acts , the deity takes a human form in disguise in the first act and reveals the real self in the second act . ( e.g. Takasago , Chikubushima )
Shura mono ( 修羅物 , warrior plays ) or ashura Noh ( 阿修羅能 ) takes its name from the Buddhist underworld . The protagonist appearing as a ghost of a famous samurai pleads to a monk for salvation and the drama culminates in a glorious re @-@ enactment of the scene of his death in a full war costume . ( e.g. Tamura , Atsumori )
Katsura mono ( 鬘物 , wig plays ) or onna mono ( 女物 , woman plays ) depict the shite in a female role and feature some of the most refined songs and dances in all of Noh , reflecting the smooth and flowing movements representing female characters . ( e.g. Basho , Matsukaze )
There are about 94 " miscellaneous " plays traditionally performed in the fourth place in a five @-@ play program . These plays include subcategories kyōran mono ( 狂乱物 , madness plays ) , onryō mono ( 怨霊物 , vengeful ghost plays ) , genzai mono ( 現在物 , present plays ) , as well as others . ( e.g. Aya no tsuzumi , Kinuta )
Kiri Noh ( 切り能 , final plays ) or oni mono ( 鬼物 , demon plays ) usually feature the shite in the role of monsters , goblins , or demons , and are often selected for their bright colors and fast @-@ paced , tense finale movements . Kiri Noh is performed the last in a five @-@ play program . There are roughly 30 plays in this category , most of which are shorter than the plays in the other categories .
In addition to the above five , Okina ( or Kamiuta ) is frequently performed at the very beginning of the program . Combining dance with Shinto ritual , it is considered the oldest type of Noh play .
= = = Some famous plays = = =
For a more comprehensive list , see List of Noh plays ( A – M ) ( N – Z ) .
Plays with individual articles are listed here .
The following categorization is that of the Kanze school .
= = Influence in the West = =
Many Western artists have been influenced by Noh .
= = = Theatre practitioners = = =
Eugenio Barba – Between 1966 and 1972 , Japanese Noh Masters Hideo Kanze and Hisao Kanze gave seminars on Noh at Barba ’ s Theater Laboratory of Holstebro . Barba primarily studied the physical aspects of Noh .
Samuel Beckett – Yoshihiko Ikegami considers Beckett 's Waiting for Godot a parody of Noh , particularly Kami Noh , in which a god or a spirit appears before a secondary character as the protagonist . Ikegami argues that " the dramatic conflict which was much in evidence in Yeats is so completely discarded that Beckett 's theatre ( where ' nothing happens ' ) comes to look even closer to Noh than Yeats 's did . "
Bertolt Brecht – According to Maria P. Alter , Brecht began reading Japanese plays during the middle twenties and have read at least 20 Noh plays translated into German by 1929 . Brecht 's Der Jasager is an adaptation of a Noh play Taniko . Brecht himself identified Die Massnahme as an adaptation of Noh play .
Peter Brook – Yoshi Oida , a Japanese actor with training in Noh , began working with Brook in their production of The Tempest in 1968 . Oida later joined Brook 's company .
Paul Claudel – According to John Willet , Paul Claudel learned about Noh during the time he served as French Ambassador to Japan . Claudel 's opera Christophe Colomb shows an unmistakable influence of the Noh .
Jacques Copeau – In 1923 , Copeau worked on a Noh play , Kantan , along with Suzanne Bing at Théâtre du Vieux @-@ Colombier without ever having seen a Noh play . Thomas Leabhart states that " Jacques Copeau was drawn instinctively by taste and tendency to a restrained theatre which was based in spirituality . " Copeau praised Noh theatre in writing when he finally saw a production in 1930 .
Jacques Lecoq – Physical theatre taught at L 'École Internationale de Théâtre Jacques Lecoq founded by Lecoq is influenced by Noh .
Eugene O 'Neill – O 'Neill 's plays The Iceman Cometh , Long Day 's Journey Into Night , and Hughie have various similarities to Noh plays .
Thornton Wilder – Wilder himself expressed his interest in Noh in his " Preface ” to Three Plays and his sister Isabel Wilder also confirmed his interests . Wilder 's work Our Town incorporates various elements of Noh such as lack of plot , representative characters , and use of ghosts .
= = = Composers = = =
William Henry Bell – An English composer Bell wrote music for modern presentation of several Noh plays , including Komachi ( 1925 ) , Tsuneyo of the Three Trees ( 1926 ) , Hatsuyuki ( 1934 ) , The Pillow of Kantan ( 1935 ) , and Kageyiko ( 1936 ) .
Benjamin Britten – Britten visited Japan in 1956 and saw for the first time Japanese Noh plays , which he called " some of the most wonderful drama I have ever seen . " The influences were seen and heard in his ballet The Prince of the Pagodas ( 1957 ) and later in two of the three semi @-@ operatic " Parables for Church Performance " : Curlew River ( 1964 ) and The Prodigal Son ( 1968 ) .
David Byrne – Byrne encountered Noh when he was on tour in Japan with Talking Heads and he was inspired by the highly stylized practices of Noh , completely different from its Western counterparts that focus on naturalism . According to Josh Kun , " Japanese Noh theatre inspired him to design the oversize business suit that became a visual staple of Talking Heads live shows . "
Alan Watts – 20th century philosopher , the liner notes from his third song off the 1962 album ' This is IT ' state " Watts in a Japanese no @-@ noh . "
Harry Partch – Partch called his work Delusion of the Fury “ a ritualistic web ” . Kate Molleson wrote for the Guardian that " the narrative is a bleary mix of Japanese Noh theatre , Ethiopian folk mythology , Greek drama and his own wacky imagination . " Will Salmon cites Partch himself writing , " Noh has been for centuries a fine art , one of the most sophisticated the world has known . " Delusion of the Fury incorporates two Noh plays , Atsumori by Zeami and Ikuta by Zenbō Motoyasu , into its story .
Karlheinz Stockhausen – Having essentially plotless libretto , Stockhausen 's grand operatic cycle Licht ( " Light " ) is based on " a mythology drawing on multiple cultural traditions , from Japanese Noh theatre to German folklore . "
Iannis Xenakis – Xenakis " admired Noh , the venerable theatrical form known for its ritualistic formality and gestural complexity . " Electronic Music Foundation presented Xenakis & Japan in March 2010 , " a dance / music event highlighting Xenakis ' lifelong interest in Japanese music and theatre " . The event featured a female Noh performer Ryoko Aoki .
= = = Poets = = =
William Butler Yeats – Yeats wrote an essay on Noh titled " Certain Noble Plays of Japan " in 1916 . As much as he tried to learn Noh , there were limited resources available in England at the time . The lack of complete understanding of Noh led him to create innovative works guided by his own imagination and what he fantasized Noh to be . Yeats wrote four plays heavily influenced by Noh , using ghosts or supernatural beings as the central dramatis personæ for the first time . The plays are At the Hawk 's Well , The Dreaming of the Bones , The Words upon the Window @-@ Fane , and Purgatory .
= = Aesthetic terminology = =
Zeami and Zenchiku describe a number of distinct qualities that are thought to be essential to the proper understanding of Noh as an art form .
Hana ( 花 , flower ) : In the Kadensho ( Instructions on the Posture of the Flower ) , Zeami describes hana saying " after you master the secrets of all things and exhaust the possibilities of every device , the hana that never vanishes still remains . " The true Noh performer seeks to cultivate a rarefied relationship with his audience similar to the way that one cultivates flowers . What is notable about hana is that , like a flower , it is meant to be appreciated by any audience , no matter how lofty or how coarse his upbringing . Hana comes in two forms . Individual hana is the beauty of the flower of youth , which passes with time , while " true hana " is the flower of creating and sharing perfect beauty through performance .
Yūgen ( 幽玄 , profound sublimity ) : Yūgen is a concept valued in various forms of art throughout Japanese culture . Originally used to mean elegance or grace representing the perfect beauty in waka , yūgen is invisible beauty that is felt rather than seen in a work of art . The term is used specifically in relation to Noh to mean the profound beauty of the transcendental world , including mournful beauty involved in sadness and loss .
Rōjaku ( 老弱 ) : Rō means old , and jaku means tranquil and quiet . Rōjaku is the final stage of performance development of the Noh actor , in which he eliminates all unnecessary action or sound in the performance , leaving only the true essence of the scene or action being imitated .
Kokoro or shin ( both 心 ) : Defined as " heart , " " mind , " or both . The kokoro of noh is that which Zeami speaks of in his teachings , and is more easily defined as " mind . " To develop hana the actor must enter a state of no @-@ mind , or mushin .
Myō ( 妙 ) : the " charm " of an actor who performs flawlessly and without any sense of imitation ; he effectively becomes his role .
Monomane ( 物真似 , imitation or mimesis ) : the intent of a Noh actor to accurately depict the motions of his role , as opposed to purely aesthetic reasons for abstraction or embellishment . Monomane is sometimes contrasted with yūgen , although the two represent endpoints of a continuum rather than being completely separate .
Kabu @-@ isshin ( 歌舞一心 , " song @-@ dance @-@ one heart " ) : the theory that the song ( including poetry ) and dance are two halves of the same whole , and that the Noh actor strives to perform both with total unity of heart and mind .
= = Existing Noh theatres = =
Noh is still regularly performed today in public theatres as well as private theatres mostly located in major cities . There are more than 70 Noh theatres throughout Japan , presenting both professional and amateur productions .
Public theatres include National Noh Theatre ( Tokyo ) , Nagoya Noh Theater , and Osaka Noh Theater . Each Noh school has its own permanent theatre , such as Kanze Noh Theater ( Tokyo ) , Hosho Noh Theater ( Tokyo ) , Kongo Noh Theater ( Kyoto ) , and Nara Komparu Noh Theater ( Nara ) . Additionally , there are various prefectural and municipal theatres located throughout Japan that present touring professional companies and local amateur companies . In some regions , unique regional Noh such as Ogisai Kurokawa Noh have developed to form schools independent from five traditional schools .
= = Audience etiquette = =
Audience etiquette is generally similar to formal western theatre — the audience quietly watches . Surtitles are not used , but some audience members follow along in the libretto . Because there are no curtains on the stage , the performance begins with the actors entering the stage and ends with their leaving the stage . The house lights are usually kept on during the performances , creating an intimate feel that provides a shared experience between the performers and the audience .
At the end of the play , the actors file out slowly ( most important first , with gaps between actors ) , and while they are on the bridge ( hashigakari ) , the audience claps restrainedly . Between actors , clapping ceases , then begins again as the next actor leaves . Unlike in western theatre , there is no bowing , nor do the actors return to the stage after having left . A play may end with the shite character leaving the stage as part of the story ( as in Kokaji , for instance ) — rather than ending with all characters on stage — in which case one claps as the character exits .
During the interval , tea , coffee , and wagashi ( Japanese sweets ) may be served in the lobby . In the Edo period , when Noh was a day @-@ long affair , more substantial makunouchi ' bentō ( 幕の内弁当 , " between @-@ acts lunchbox " ) were served . On special occasions , when the performance is over , お神酒 ( o @-@ miki , ceremonial sake ) may be served in the lobby on the way out , as it happens in Shinto rituals .
The audience is seated in front of the stage , to the left side of the stage , and in the corner front @-@ left of stage ; these are in order of decreasing desirability . While the metsuke @-@ bashira pillar obstructs the view of the stage , the actors are primarily at the corners , not the center , and thus the two aisles are located where the views of the two main actors would be obscured , ensuring a generally clear view regardless of seating .
= M @-@ 239 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 239 is a north – south state trunkline highway in Berrien County in the extreme southwestern corner of the US state of Michigan connecting State Road 39 ( SR 39 ) in Indiana to Interstate 94 ( I @-@ 94 ) . The highway was designated in 1963 , and it provided the only connection from the southern end of I @-@ 94 into Indiana until 1972 .
= = Route description = =
As SR 39 crosses into Michigan it becomes M @-@ 239 . As soon as it crosses the border , the road curves around to the northwest where it continues through a generally rural area . The trunkline intersects Wilson Road and passes next to a commercial development . After a little over a mile ( 1 @.@ 8 km ) , the road comes to its northern terminus at an interchange with I @-@ 94 at exit 1 . While M @-@ 239 officially ends at the interchange , the roadway , known as Harbor Country Drive , continues on to the northwest where it heads into New Buffalo . Like other state highways in Michigan , M @-@ 239 is maintained by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) . In 2011 , the department 's traffic surveys showed that on average , 6 @,@ 231 vehicles used the highway daily . No section of M @-@ 239 is listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
M @-@ 239 always ended at I @-@ 94 , even though Harbor Country Drive continues into New Buffalo . Before completion of the Indiana portion of I @-@ 94 , the freeway ended at the present exit 1 . A 1 @.@ 1 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 1 @.@ 8 km ) stretch of LaPorte Road was designated as M @-@ 239 in 1963 to carry traffic to SR 39 , which connects to the Indiana Toll Road . Until 1972 , when Indiana constructed their section of I @-@ 94 , M @-@ 239 and SR 39 were the only connection from the southern end of I @-@ 94 in Michigan across the state line .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway is in New Buffalo Township , Berrien County .
= Enzyme =
Enzymes / ˈɛnzaɪmz / are macromolecular biological catalysts . Enzymes accelerate , or catalyze , chemical reactions . The molecules at the beginning of the process are called substrates and the enzyme converts these into different molecules , called products . Almost all metabolic processes in the cell need enzymes in order to occur at rates fast enough to sustain life . The set of enzymes made in a cell determines which metabolic pathways occur in that cell . The study of enzymes is called enzymology .
Enzymes are known to catalyze more than 5 @,@ 000 biochemical reaction types . Most enzymes are proteins , although a few are catalytic RNA molecules . Enzymes ' specificity comes from their unique three @-@ dimensional structures .
Like all catalysts , enzymes increase the rate of a reaction by lowering its activation energy . Some enzymes can make their conversion of substrate to product occur many millions of times faster . An extreme example is orotidine 5 ' -phosphate decarboxylase , which allows a reaction that would otherwise take millions of years to occur in milliseconds . Chemically , enzymes are like any catalyst and are not consumed in chemical reactions , nor do they alter the equilibrium of a reaction . Enzymes differ from most other catalysts by being much more specific . Enzyme activity can be affected by other molecules : inhibitors are molecules that decrease enzyme activity , and activators are molecules that increase activity . Many drugs and poisons are enzyme inhibitors . An enzyme 's activity decreases markedly outside its optimal temperature and pH .
Some enzymes are used commercially , for example , in the synthesis of antibiotics . Some household products use enzymes to speed up chemical reactions : enzymes in biological washing powders break down protein , starch or fat stains on clothes , and enzymes in meat tenderizer break down proteins into smaller molecules , making the meat easier to chew .
= = Etymology and history = =
By the late 17th and early 18th centuries , the digestion of meat by stomach secretions and the conversion of starch to sugars by plant extracts and saliva were known but the mechanisms by which these occurred had not been identified .
French chemist Anselme Payen was the first to discover an enzyme , diastase , in 1833 . A few decades later , when studying the fermentation of sugar to alcohol by yeast , Louis Pasteur concluded that this fermentation was caused by a vital force contained within the yeast cells called " ferments " , which were thought to function only within living organisms . He wrote that " alcoholic fermentation is an act correlated with the life and organization of the yeast cells , not with the death or putrefaction of the cells . "
In 1877 , German physiologist Wilhelm Kühne ( 1837 – 1900 ) first used the term enzyme , which comes from Greek ἔνζυμον , " leavened " , to describe this process . The word enzyme was used later to refer to nonliving substances such as pepsin , and the word ferment was used to refer to chemical activity produced by living organisms .
Eduard Buchner submitted his first paper on the study of yeast extracts in 1897 . In a series of experiments at the University of Berlin , he found that sugar was fermented by yeast extracts even when there were no living yeast cells in the mixture . He named the enzyme that brought about the fermentation of sucrose " zymase " . In 1907 , he received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for " his discovery of cell @-@ free fermentation " . Following Buchner 's example , enzymes are usually named according to the reaction they carry out : the suffix -ase is combined with the name of the substrate ( e.g. , lactase is the enzyme that cleaves lactose ) or to the type of reaction ( e.g. , DNA polymerase forms DNA polymers ) .
The biochemical identity of enzymes was still unknown in the early 1900s . Many scientists observed that enzymatic activity was associated with proteins , but others ( such as Nobel laureate Richard Willstätter ) argued that proteins were merely carriers for the true enzymes and that proteins per se were incapable of catalysis . In 1926 , James B. Sumner showed that the enzyme urease was a pure protein and crystallized it ; he did likewise for the enzyme catalase in 1937 . The conclusion that pure proteins can be enzymes was definitively demonstrated by John Howard Northrop and Wendell Meredith Stanley , who worked on the digestive enzymes pepsin ( 1930 ) , trypsin and chymotrypsin . These three scientists were awarded the 1946 Nobel Prize in Chemistry .
The discovery that enzymes could be crystallized eventually allowed their structures to be solved by x @-@ ray crystallography . This was first done for lysozyme , an enzyme found in tears , saliva and egg whites that digests the coating of some bacteria ; the structure was solved by a group led by David Chilton Phillips and published in 1965 . This high @-@ resolution structure of lysozyme marked the beginning of the field of structural biology and the effort to understand how enzymes work at an atomic level of detail .
= = Structure = =
Enzymes are generally globular proteins , acting alone or in larger complexes . Like all proteins , enzymes are linear chains of amino acids that fold to produce a three @-@ dimensional structure . The sequence of the amino acids specifies the structure which in turn determines the catalytic activity of the enzyme . Although structure determines function , a novel enzyme 's activity cannot yet be predicted from its structure alone . Enzyme structures unfold ( denature ) when heated or exposed to chemical denaturants and this disruption to the structure typically causes a loss of activity . Enzyme denaturation is normally linked to temperatures above a species ' normal level ; as a result , enzymes from bacteria living in volcanic environments such as hot springs are prized by industrial users for their ability to function at high temperatures , allowing enzyme @-@ catalysed reactions to be operated at a very high rate .
Enzymes are usually much larger than their substrates . Sizes range from just 62 amino acid residues , for the monomer of 4 @-@ oxalocrotonate tautomerase , to over 2 @,@ 500 residues in the animal fatty acid synthase . Only a small portion of their structure ( around 2 – 4 amino acids ) is directly involved in catalysis : the catalytic site . This catalytic site is located next to one or more binding sites where residues orient the substrates . The catalytic site and binding site together comprise the enzyme 's active site . The remaining majority of the enzyme structure serves to maintain the precise orientation and dynamics of the active site .
In some enzymes , no amino acids are directly involved in catalysis ; instead , the enzyme contains sites to bind and orient catalytic cofactors . Enzyme structures may also contain allosteric sites where the binding of a small molecule causes a conformational change that increases or decreases activity .
A small number of RNA @-@ based biological catalysts called ribozymes exist , which again can act alone or in complex with proteins . The most common of these is the ribosome which is a complex of protein and catalytic RNA components .
= = Mechanism = =
= = = Substrate binding = = =
Enzymes must bind their substrates before they can catalyse any chemical reaction . Enzymes are usually very specific as to what substrates they bind and then the chemical reaction catalysed . Specificity is achieved by binding pockets with complementary shape , charge and hydrophilic / hydrophobic characteristics to the substrates . Enzymes can therefore distinguish between very similar substrate molecules to be chemoselective , regioselective and stereospecific .
Some of the enzymes showing the highest specificity and accuracy are involved in the copying and expression of the genome . Some of these enzymes have " proof @-@ reading " mechanisms . Here , an enzyme such as DNA polymerase catalyzes a reaction in a first step and then checks that the product is correct in a second step . This two @-@ step process results in average error rates of less than 1 error in 100 million reactions in high @-@ fidelity mammalian polymerases . Similar proofreading mechanisms are also found in RNA polymerase , aminoacyl tRNA synthetases and ribosomes .
Conversely , some enzymes display enzyme promiscuity , having broad specificity and acting on a range of different physiologically relevant substrates . Many enzymes possess small side activities which arose fortuitously ( i.e. neutrally ) , which may be the starting point for the evolutionary selection of a new function .
= = = = " Lock and key " model = = = =
To explain the observed specificity of enzymes , in 1894 Emil Fischer proposed that both the enzyme and the substrate possess specific complementary geometric shapes that fit exactly into one another . This is often referred to as " the lock and key " model . This early model explains enzyme specificity , but fails to explain the stabilization of the transition state that enzymes achieve .
= = = = Induced fit model = = = =
In 1958 , Daniel Koshland suggested a modification to the lock and key model : since enzymes are rather flexible structures , the active site is continuously reshaped by interactions with the substrate as the substrate interacts with the enzyme . As a result , the substrate does not simply bind to a rigid active site ; the amino acid side @-@ chains that make up the active site are molded into the precise positions that enable the enzyme to perform its catalytic function . In some cases , such as glycosidases , the substrate molecule also changes shape slightly as it enters the active site . The active site continues to change until the substrate is completely bound , at which point the final shape and charge distribution is determined . Induced fit may enhance the fidelity of molecular recognition in the presence of competition and noise via the conformational proofreading mechanism .
= = = Catalysis = = =
Enzymes can accelerate reactions in several ways , all of which lower the activation energy ( ΔG ‡ , Gibbs free energy )
By stabilizing the transition state :
Creating an environment with a charge distribution complementary to that of the transition state to lower its energy .
By providing an alternative reaction pathway :
Temporarily reacting with the substrate , forming a covalent intermediate to provide a lower energy transition state .
By destabilising the substrate ground state :
Distorting bound substrate ( s ) into their transition state form to reduce the energy required to reach the transition state .
By orienting the substrates into a productive arrangement to reduce the reaction entropy change . The contribution of this mechanism to catalysis is relatively small .
Enzymes may use several of these mechanisms simultaneously . For example , proteases such as trypsin perform covalent catalysis using a catalytic triad , stabilise charge build @-@ up on the transition states using an oxyanion hole , complete hydrolysis using an oriented water substrate .
= = = Dynamics = = =
Enzymes are not rigid , static structures ; instead they have complex internal dynamic motions – that is , movements of parts of the enzyme 's structure such as individual amino acid residues , groups of residues forming a protein loop or unit of secondary structure , or even an entire protein domain . These motions give rise to a conformational ensemble of slightly different structures that interconvert with one another at equilibrium . Different states within this ensemble may be associated with different aspects of an enzyme 's function . For example , different conformations of the enzyme dihydrofolate reductase are associated with the substrate binding , catalysis , cofactor release , and product release steps of the catalytic cycle .
= = = Allosteric modulation = = =
Allosteric sites are pockets on the enzyme , distinct from the active site , that bind to molecules in the cellular environment . These molecules then cause a change in the conformation or dynamics of the enzyme that is transduced to the active site and thus affects the reaction rate of the enzyme . In this way , allosteric interactions can either inhibit or activate enzymes . Allosteric interactions with metabolites upstream or downstream in an enzyme 's metabolic pathway cause feedback regulation , altering the activity of the enzyme according to the flux through the rest of the pathway .
= = Cofactors = =
Some enzymes do not need additional components to show full activity . Others require non @-@ protein molecules called cofactors to be bound for activity . Cofactors can be either inorganic ( e.g. , metal ions and iron @-@ sulfur clusters ) or organic compounds ( e.g. , flavin and heme ) . Organic cofactors can be either coenzymes , which are released from the enzyme 's active site during the reaction , or prosthetic groups , which are tightly bound to an enzyme . Organic prosthetic groups can be covalently bound ( e.g. , biotin in enzymes such as pyruvate carboxylase ) .
An example of an enzyme that contains a cofactor is carbonic anhydrase , which is shown in the ribbon diagram above with a zinc cofactor bound as part of its active site . These tightly bound ions or molecules are usually found in the active site and are involved in catalysis . For example , flavin and heme cofactors are often involved in redox reactions .
Enzymes that require a cofactor but do not have one bound are called apoenzymes or apoproteins . An enzyme together with the cofactor ( s ) required for activity is called a holoenzyme ( or haloenzyme ) . The term holoenzyme can also be applied to enzymes that contain multiple protein subunits , such as the DNA polymerases ; here the holoenzyme is the complete complex containing all the subunits needed for activity .
= = = Coenzymes = = =
Coenzymes are small organic molecules that can be loosely or tightly bound to an enzyme . Coenzymes transport chemical groups from one enzyme to another . Examples include NADH , NADPH and adenosine triphosphate ( ATP ) . Some coenzymes , such as riboflavin , thiamine and folic acid , are vitamins , or compounds that cannot be synthesized by the body and must be acquired from the diet . The chemical groups carried include the hydride ion ( H − ) carried by NAD or NADP + , the phosphate group carried by adenosine triphosphate , the acetyl group carried by coenzyme A , formyl , methenyl or methyl groups carried by folic acid and the methyl group carried by S @-@ adenosylmethionine .
Since coenzymes are chemically changed as a consequence of enzyme action , it is useful to consider coenzymes to be a special class of substrates , or second substrates , which are common to many different enzymes . For example , about 1000 enzymes are known to use the coenzyme NADH .
Coenzymes are usually continuously regenerated and their concentrations maintained at a steady level inside the cell . For example , NADPH is regenerated through the pentose phosphate pathway and S @-@ adenosylmethionine by methionine adenosyltransferase . This continuous regeneration means that small amounts of coenzymes can be used very intensively . For example , the human body turns over its own weight in ATP each day .
= = Thermodynamics = =
As with all catalysts , enzymes do not alter the position of the chemical equilibrium of the reaction . In the presence of an enzyme , the reaction runs in the same direction as it would without the enzyme , just more quickly . For example , carbonic anhydrase catalyzes its reaction in either direction depending on the concentration of its reactants :
The rate of a reaction is dependent on the activation energy needed to form the transition state which then decays into products . Enzymes increase reaction rates by lowering the energy of the transition state . First , binding forms a low energy enzyme @-@ substrate complex ( ES ) . Secondly the enzyme stabilises the transition state such that it requires less energy to achieve compared to the uncatalyzed reaction ( ES ‡ ) . Finally the enzyme @-@ product complex ( EP ) dissociates to release the products .
Enzymes can couple two or more reactions , so that a thermodynamically favorable reaction can be used to " drive " a thermodynamically unfavourable one so that the combined energy of the products is lower than the substrates . For example , the hydrolysis of ATP is often used to drive other chemical reactions .
= = Kinetics = =
Enzyme kinetics is the investigation of how enzymes bind substrates and turn them into products . The rate data used in kinetic analyses are commonly obtained from enzyme assays . In 1913 Leonor Michaelis and Maud Leonora Menten proposed a quantitative theory of enzyme kinetics , which is referred to as Michaelis – Menten kinetics . The major contribution of Michaelis and Menten was to think of enzyme reactions in two stages . In the first , the substrate binds reversibly to the enzyme , forming the enzyme @-@ substrate complex . This is sometimes called the Michaelis @-@ Menten complex in their honor . The enzyme then catalyzes the chemical step in the reaction and releases the product . This work was further developed by G. E. Briggs and J. B. S. Haldane , who derived kinetic equations that are still widely used today .
Enzyme rates depend on solution conditions and substrate concentration . To find the maximum speed of an enzymatic reaction , the substrate concentration is increased until a constant rate of product formation is seen . This is shown in the saturation curve on the right . Saturation happens because , as substrate concentration increases , more and more of the free enzyme is converted into the substrate @-@ bound ES complex . At the maximum reaction rate ( Vmax ) of the enzyme , all the enzyme active sites are bound to substrate , and the amount of ES complex is the same as the total amount of enzyme .
Vmax is only one of several important kinetic parameters . The amount of substrate needed to achieve a given rate of reaction is also important . This is given by the Michaelis @-@ Menten constant ( Km ) , which is the substrate concentration required for an enzyme to reach one @-@ half its maximum reaction rate ; generally , each enzyme has a characteristic Km for a given substrate . Another useful constant is kcat , also called the turnover number , which is the number of substrate molecules handled by one active site per second .
The efficiency of an enzyme can be expressed in terms of kcat / Km . This is also called the specificity constant and incorporates the rate constants for all steps in the reaction up to and including the first irreversible step . Because the specificity constant reflects both affinity and catalytic ability , it is useful for comparing different enzymes against each other , or the same enzyme with different substrates . The theoretical maximum for the specificity constant is called the diffusion limit and is about 108 to 109 ( M − 1 s − 1 ) . At this point every collision of the enzyme with its substrate will result in catalysis , and the rate of product formation is not limited by the reaction rate but by the diffusion rate . Enzymes with this property are called catalytically perfect or kinetically perfect . Example of such enzymes are triose @-@ phosphate isomerase , carbonic anhydrase , acetylcholinesterase , catalase , fumarase , β @-@ lactamase , and superoxide dismutase . The turnover of such enzymes can reach several million reactions per second .
Michaelis – Menten kinetics relies on the law of mass action , which is derived from the assumptions of free diffusion and thermodynamically driven random collision . Many biochemical or cellular processes deviate significantly from these conditions , because of macromolecular crowding and constrained molecular movement . More recent , complex extensions of the model attempt to correct for these effects .
= = Inhibition = =
Enzyme reaction rates can be decreased by various types of enzyme inhibitors .
= = = Types of inhibition = = =
Competitive
A competitive inhibitor and substrate cannot bind to the enzyme at the same time . Often competitive inhibitors strongly resemble the real substrate of the enzyme . For example , the drug methotrexate is a competitive inhibitor of the enzyme dihydrofolate reductase , which catalyzes the reduction of dihydrofolate to tetrahydrofolate . The similarity between the structures of dihydrofolate and this drug are shown in the accompanying figure . This type of inhibition can be overcome with high substrate concentration . In some cases , the inhibitor can bind to a site other than the binding @-@ site of the usual substrate and exert an allosteric effect to change the shape of the usual binding @-@ site .
Non @-@ competitive
A non @-@ competitive inhibitor binds to a site other than where the substrate binds . The substrate still binds with its usual affinity and hence Km remains the same . However the inhibitor reduces the catalytic efficiency of the enzyme so that Vmax is reduced . In contrast to competitive inhibition , non @-@ competitive inhibition cannot be overcome with high substrate concentration .
Uncompetitive
An uncompetitive inhibitor cannot bind to the free enzyme , only to the enzyme @-@ substrate complex ; hence , these types of inhibitors are most effective at high substrate concentration . In the presence of the inhibitor , the enzyme @-@ substrate complex is inactive . This type of inhibition is rare .
Mixed
A mixed inhibitor binds to an allosteric site and the binding of the substrate and the inhibitor affect each other . The enzyme 's function is reduced but not eliminated when bound to the inhibitor . This type of inhibitor does not follow the Michaelis @-@ Menten equation .
Irreversible
An irreversible inhibitor permanently inactivates the enzyme , usually by forming a covalent bond to the
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In Part II , Itachi uses one of Sasori 's informants as a clone of himself to hold off Naruto and the rest of his team while he and the others seal away Shukaku the One Tail . Itachi remains on the sidelines until learning that Sasuke has finally severed his ties to Orochimaru , having absorbed him and now being strong enough to settle matters . Prior to his fight with Sasuke , Itachi meets with Naruto and , after questioning his intentions to save Sasuke , ensures the youth 's safety with a crow with Shisui 's Sharingan as a countermeasure against Sasuke if he gains his Eternal Mangekyo Sharingan and attempts to attack Konoha . Sasuke ultimately tracks him down and they engage in their final battle , during the course of which he uses his Mangekyo Sharingan to push Sasuke to his limits . In doing so , Orochimaru is drawn out from Sasuke 's body , and Itachi seals him away with his Susanoo before finally dying . As his final act , Itachi implants his Amaterasu technique within Sasuke , meant as a protective measure that will kill Tobi in case he ever tries to manipulate Sasuke . Unfortunately , Tobi reveals the ' truth ' of Itachi 's actions to Sasuke as he resolves to destroy the village , eventually having his brother 's Mangekyo Sharingan implanted on him .
Itachi reappears later during the Fourth Great Ninja War , brought back by Kabuto Yakushi using the Reanimation Jutsu , a forbidden summoning jutsu that brings the dead back as immortal corpses , to fight on Tobi 's side . Paired with Nagato and forced to fight Naruto and Killer Bee against his will , Itachi learns of his brother 's intentions and summons the crow he gave Naruto to regain his free will . After sealing Nagato , Itachi heads out to stop Kabuto and encounters Sasuke , with his younger brother wanting to know the truth once it is over .
After a long battle , Itachi is pushed to use Izanami to trap Kabuto in an eternal time @-@ loop in his own mind , to have him break his jutsu . His soul beginning to fade , Itachi uses his Sharingan to project his memories to Sasuke to reveal the full story of the events leading to the Uchiha Clan Massacre . Telling his brother that he does not have to forgive him , Itachi tells Sasuke that he will always love him , no matter what choice he makes from then on . With his brother 's parting words , Sasuke decides against destroying the village and devotes the rest of his life to protecting it , fulfilling Itachi 's wish for his younger brother , and Itachi becomes the uncle of Sasuke 's daughter , Sarada Uchiha . Sasuke even adopts Itachi 's habit of poking on the forehead as a sign of affection , which Sasuke does with his wife and daughter .
= = = In other media = = =
Itachi is present in the sixth Naruto : Shippuden movie , Road to Ninja , where he leads an alternate @-@ universe Akatsuki to help Naruto . He has a brief cameo in one of the original video animations , and is a playable character in nearly all Naruto video games , including the Clash of Ninja series and the Ultimate Ninja series . In some games , he utilizes variations of his techniques not seen in the anime or manga . Several merchandise items based on Itachi have been released , including key chains , plush dolls , and figurines .
= = Reception = =
Itachi has ranked high in the Weekly Shonen Jump popularity polls for the series , continuously placing in the top 10 . He was ranked in fifth position in the polls of 2011 , his highest ranking to date . The character received generally positive reviews from several publications for manga , anime , video games , and other related media . IGN reader Jason Van Horn characterized Itachi as " badass " and jokingly mentioned that he is a character to be afraid of since , in his first fight in the series , he does not make any remarkable move . He found that " there is just something about the cold and numb Itachi , " that makes the viewer " want to breakout in chills " . IGN 's Charles White liked the episode where the relationship between young Sasuke and Itachi is revealed , and hoped to see more of their past to resolve the mystery of Itachi 's character commenting that learning about their " past has been intriguing " . NTT customers voted him as their tenth favorite black haired male anime character . CyberConnect2 CEO Hiroshi Matsuyama referred to Itachi as one of his favorite characters from Naruto .
In the Shelf Life section from Anime News Network ( ANN ) Bamboo Dong comments that Itachi is one of her favorite characters from the series , noting his background and his introduction as the best parts of the series . Activeanime writer Davey C. Jones celebrated Itachi 's fights as the best ones in the series , noting his abilities to be as amazing as a " sci @-@ fi ninja " . Holly Ellingwood from the same website agrees , citing his fight against Kakashi Hatake as one " few will be able to forget " . The reviewer also praised Itachi 's attitude , commenting that he " is as cold and as ruthless as any villain yet " .
In a review of Volume 16 of the manga , Deb Aoki from About.com listed Itachi 's introduction in the series as one of the cons from the volume . She praised his first fight in the series as very entertaining , meant to " whet readers ' appetites for future fights between Konoha ninja and the Akatsuki " . James Musgrove commented that Itachi and his partner Kisame " make a dramatic and well @-@ timed entrance into the story " . However , Jason Van Horn criticised the first battle between Itachi and Sasuke , as " good " but not " as epic as it should 've been " . His last fight with Sasuke before dying was considered " epic " by Casey Brienza from ANN . She found to be " a battle of minds " since , even after Itachi 's death , Sasuke changes his mind about him when he learns about his past . She also anticipated the impact of Itachi 's past revelations on the future storyline of Naruto .
= Italian ironclad Castelfidardo =
Castelfidardo was the third of four Regina Maria Pia @-@ class ironclad warships built in French shipyards for the Italian Regia Marina ( Royal Navy ) in the 1860s . Castelfidardo was laid down in July 1862 , was launched in August 1863 , and was completed in May 1864 . She and her three sister ships were broadside ironclads , mounting a battery of four 8 @-@ inch ( 200 mm ) and twenty @-@ two 164 mm ( 6 @.@ 5 in ) guns on the broadside .
Castelfidardo participated in the Battle of Lissa during the Third Italian War of Independence in 1866 . She was stationed in the van of the Italian fleet , which became separated from the rest of the fleet and was not heavily engaged . Her career was limited after the war , owing to the emergence of more modern ironclads and a severe reduction in the Italian naval budget following their defeat at Lissa . She was rebuilt as a central battery ship some time after Lissa , and was modernized several more times in the 1870s and 1880s . From 1900 to 1910 she served as a training ship before being broken up for scrap .
= = Design = =
Castelfidardo was 81 @.@ 8 meters ( 268 ft ) long overall ; she had a beam of 15 @.@ 16 m ( 49 @.@ 7 ft ) and an average draft of 6 @.@ 35 m ( 20 @.@ 8 ft ) . She displaced 4 @,@ 192 metric tons ( 4 @,@ 126 long tons ; 4 @,@ 621 short tons ) normally and up to 4 @,@ 527 t ( 4 @,@ 456 long tons ; 4 @,@ 990 short tons ) at full load . She had a crew of 480 – 485 officers and men . Castelfidardo was a broadside ironclad , and she was initially armed with a main battery of four 8 in ( 203 mm ) guns and twenty @-@ two 164 mm ( 6 @.@ 5 in ) guns , though her armament changed throughout her career . The ship was protected by iron belt armor that was 4 @.@ 3 in ( 109 mm ) thick and extended for the entire length of the hull at the waterline . The side armor extended up to the battery deck with the same thickness of iron plate .
Her propulsion system consisted of one single @-@ expansion steam engine that drove a single screw propeller , with steam supplied by eight coal @-@ fired , rectangular boilers . Her engine produced a top speed of 12 @.@ 1 knots ( 22 @.@ 4 km / h ; 13 @.@ 9 mph ) from 2 @,@ 125 indicated horsepower ( 1 @,@ 585 kW ) . She could steam for 2 @,@ 600 nautical miles ( 4 @,@ 800 km ; 3 @,@ 000 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . The ship was initially schooner @-@ rigged to supplement the steam engine , though her masts were later reduced to a barque rig . Ultimately , she lost her sailing rig completely , having it replaced with a pair of military masts with fighting tops .
= = Service history = =
Castelfidardo was laid down on 27 July 1862 at the Gouin et Guibert shipyard in St. Nazaire , France . She was launched on 1 August 1863 and completed in May 1864 . In June 1866 , Italy declared war on Austria , as part of the Third Italian War of Independence , which was fought concurrently with the Austro @-@ Prussian War . The Italian fleet commander , Admiral Carlo Pellion di Persano , initially adopted a cautious course of action ; he was unwilling to risk battle with the Austrian Navy , despite the fact that the Austrian fleet was much weaker than his own . Persano claimed he was simply waiting on the ironclad ram Affondatore , en route from Britain , but his inaction weakened morale in the fleet , with many of his subordinates openly accusing him of cowardice .
Rear Admiral Wilhelm von Tegetthoff brought the Austrian fleet to Ancona on June 27 , in an attempt to draw out the Italians . At the time , many of the Italian ships were in disarray ; several ships did not have their entire armament , and several others had problems with their engines . Castelfidardo was one of the few ironclads fit for action , so she , Regina Maria Pia , San Martino , and Principe di Carignano formed up to prepare to attack Tegetthoff 's ships . Persano held a council of war aboard Principe di Carignano to determine whether he should sortie to engage Tegetthoff , but by that time , the Austrians had withdrawn , making the decision moot . The Minister of the Navy , Agostino Depretis , urged Persano to act and suggested the island of Lissa , to restore Italian confidence after their defeat at the Battle of Custoza the previous month . On 7 July , Persano left Ancona and conducted a sweep into the Adriatic , but encountered no Austrian ships and returned on the 13th .
= = = Battle of Lissa = = =
On 16 July , Persano took the Italian fleet out of Ancona , bound for Lissa , where they arrived on the 18th . With them , they brought troop transports carrying 3 @,@ 000 soldiers ; the Italian warships began bombarding the Austrian forts on the island , with the intention of landing the soldiers once the fortresses had been silenced . In response , the Austrian Navy sent the fleet under Tegetthoff to attack the Italian ships . Castelfidardo was at that time assigned to the 1st Division , commanded by Admiral Giovanni Vacca , along with the ironclads Ancona and Principe di Carignano , the divisional flagship . After arriving off Lissa on the 18th , Persano ordered the 1st Division to bombard the Austrian fortresses protecting the island , but Vacca informed him that his ships ' guns could not elevate high enough to hit the high fortifications . Persano then sent Vacca 's division to Vis to force the harbor defenses , but by the time they arrived , night was approaching , and so he cancelled the attack .
The next morning , Persano ordered the ironclad Formidabile to enter the harbor Vis and attack the Madonna battery , supported by Castelfidardo and the rest of the 1st Division . Vacca found it impossible to employ his ships in the confined waters , and so he left Formidabile to handle the battery . With the day 's attacks again having yielded no results , Persano decided to make another attempt on the 20th . Vacca would take his three ships to patrol to the north @-@ east of the island while the rest of the fleet would again try to land the soldiers . Before the Italians could begin the attack , the dispatch boat Esploratore arrived , bringing news of Tegetthoff 's approach . Persano 's fleet was in disarray ; Vacca 's ships were three miles to the northeast from Persano 's main force , and three other ironclads were further away to the west . Persano immediately ordered his ships to form up with Vacca 's , first in line abreast formation , and then in line ahead formation . Castelfidardo initially reported trouble with her engines , but her crew was able to repair them before the battle began .
Shortly before the action began , Persano left his flagship , Re d 'Italia , and transferred to the turret ship Affondatore , though none of his subordinates on the other ships were aware of the change . They there thus left to fight as individuals without direction . More dangerously , by stopping Re d 'Italia , he allowed a significant gap to open up between Vacca 's three ships and the rest of the fleet . Tegetthoff took his fleet through the gap between Vacca 's and Persano 's ships , in an attempt to split the Italian line and initiate a melee . He failed to ram any Italian vessels on the first pass , so he turned back toward Persano 's ships , and took Re d 'Italia , San Martino , and Palestro under heavy fire . Vacca turned Principe di Carignano and Castelfidardo to port , taking them away from the Austrian ships hammering Persano 's division . He briefly attempted to engage the Austrian wooden ships in the rear , but was driven off by heavy fire from three steam frigates .
Castelfidardo , Principe di Carignano , and the coastal defense ship Varese engaged the wooden ship of the line Kaiser , but failed to inflict fatal damage to her before she withdrew . By this time , Re d 'Italia had been rammed and sunk , and Palestro had been set on fire , soon to be destroyed by a magazine explosion . Persano broke off the engagement , and though his ships still outnumbered the Austrians , Persano refused to counter @-@ attack with his badly demoralized forces . The Italian fleet began to withdraw , followed by the Austrians ; as night began to fall , the opposing fleets disengaged completely , heading for Ancona and Pola , respectively . Castelfidardo had emerged from the battle relatively unscathed , though the captain 's cabin had been set on fire by an Austrian shell . After the battle , Vacca replaced Persano ; he was ordered to attack the main Austrian naval base at Pola , but the war ended before the operation could be carried out .
= = = Later career = = =
For the rest of her long career , Castelfidardo served in a variety of roles , both in the main fleet and in Italy 's colonial empire . After the end of the war , the government lost confidence in the fleet and drastically reduced the naval budget . The cuts were so severe that the fleet had great difficulty in mobilizing its ironclad squadron to attack the port of Civitavecchia in September 1870 , as part of the wars of Italian unification . Instead , the ships were laid up and the sailors conscripted to man them were sent home . Some time after 1866 , the ship was rebuilt as a central battery ship , with most of her guns located in a central , armored casemate . Two other guns were placed in the bow as chase guns , with a third mounted as a stern chaser . Around 1871 , her armament was also revised , to two 10 in ( 250 mm ) guns in the bow and eight 8 in guns , four on each broadside . By 1880 , her armament had been changed another time , with two 220 mm ( 8 @.@ 7 in ) guns replacing the 10 in guns , and a ninth 8 in gun being added in the stern . The ship was modernized in 1884 , with her armament replaced with eight 6 in ( 150 mm ) guns , six 4 @.@ 7 in ( 120 mm ) guns , four 57 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) quick firing ( QF ) guns , and eight 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) Hotchkiss revolver cannons .
For the annual fleet maneuvers held in 1885 , Castelfidardo served in the " Eastern Squadron " , joined by the ironclad Principe Amedeo , the corvette Amerigo Vespucci , a sloop , and four torpedo boats . The " Eastern Squadron " defended against an attacking " Western Squadron " , simulating a Franco @-@ Italian conflict , with operations conducted off Sardinia . By 1899 , Castelfidardo had been assigned to the 2nd Division , which also included the ironclads Affondatore and Sicilia and the torpedo cruisers Partenope and Urania . The following year , she was converted into a torpedo training ship . Her armament now consisted of one 3 in ( 76 mm ) QF gun , one 75 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) gun , four 57 mm guns , one 47 mm ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) gun , two of the 37 mm revolver cannons , and two torpedo tubes . She served in this capacity until she was stricken from the naval register in 1910 , thereafter being broken up for scrap .
= All things =
" all things " is the 17th episode of the seventh season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . Written and directed by lead actress Gillian Anderson , it first aired on April 9 , 2000 , on the Fox network . The episode is unconnected to the wider mythology of The X @-@ Files and functions as a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story . Watched by 12 @.@ 18 million people , the initial broadcast had a Nielsen household rating of 7 @.@ 1 . The episode received mixed reviews from critics ; many called the dialogue pretentious and criticized the characterization of Scully . However , viewer response was generally positive .
The series centers on Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called " X @-@ Files " . Mulder is a believer in the paranormal . The skeptical Scully was initially assigned to debunk his work , but the two have developed a deep friendship . In this episode , a series of coincidences lead Scully to meet Dr. Daniel Waterston ( Nicolas Surovy ) , a married man with whom she had an affair while at medical school . After Waterston slips into a coma , Scully puts aside her skepticism and seeks out alternative medicine to save Waterston .
The script for " all things " , the only episode of the series written by Anderson , was originally fifteen pages too long with no fourth act . It was only after Anderson worked with series creator Chris Carter and executive producer Frank Spotnitz that the script was finished . The cast and crew helped Anderson adjust to her directorial debut — the first time a woman directed an episode of The X @-@ Files . The episode makes heavy use of " The Sky Is Broken " , a song from Moby 's 1999 album Play , as well as a gong . The episode has been analyzed for its themes of pragmatism and feminist philosophy .
= = Plot = =
FBI special agent Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) is getting dressed in front of a mirror . As she leaves , her colleague Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) lies in his bed , half of his body covered by bedsheets . The narrative flashes back to a few days earlier : Scully arrives at a hospital and , after a series of coincidences , meets her former professor , Daniel Waterston ( Nicolas Surovy ) , with whom she had an affair while attending medical school . He is ill and suffering from an undiagnosed heart condition . She questions whether she made the right decision to leave him and abandon her medical career to pursue a career in the FBI . She meets Waterston 's daughter , Maggie ( Stacy Haiduk ) , who is extremely resentful of Scully for the effect she had on Waterston 's family .
Mulder — on his way to England investigating heart chakra @-@ shaped crop circles — calls Scully and asks her to meet a contact of his , Colleen Azar ( Colleen Flynn ) , to obtain some information . As Scully speaks to Mulder on her cellphone while driving her car , a woman appears on a crosswalk . Scully brakes hard to avoid hitting the woman . As she does so , she narrowly avoids colliding with a diesel truck . She realizes that , had the woman not stepped in her path , the truck would have killed her . When she later arrives at the house of Azar , she observes that Scully is going through a personal crisis and tries to offer her guidance , but Scully is dismissive .
Later , Scully returns to apologize to Azar and agrees to listen to her ideas . Azar shares her knowledge of Buddhism , the concept of the collective unconscious , and the idea of personal auras . Azar believes these concepts might explain these strange occurrences . After a confrontation with Maggie at the hospital , Scully walks through Chinatown . Seeing the woman who appeared earlier at the crosswalk , she follows her to a small Buddhist temple before the mysterious woman seemingly vanishes . Inside the temple , Scully has a vision of what is ailing Waterston . She returns to the hospital with Azar to visit Waterston .
Azar and a healer provide alternative treatment for Waterston , who fully recovers . He announces that he still wants a relationship with Scully , but she realizes she is no longer the same person she was those many years ago and rejects him . As she sits outside the hospital on a bench , Scully thinks that she sees the mysterious woman again , but it turns out to be Mulder . Later , the two agents sit in Mulder 's apartment talking about the events of the last few days . Mulder begins to speak more existentially about what transpired , implying that fate has brought them together but , when he turns to look at Scully , he sees that she has fallen asleep .
= = Production = =
= = = Conception and writing = = =
Sometime during the sixth season of The X @-@ Files , Anderson approached series creator Chris Carter and asked to write an episode . Anderson 's own beliefs in the power of spiritual healing and Buddhism provided inspiration ; she wanted to write a script in which Scully pursued a " deeply personal X @-@ File , one in which [ she ] is taken down a spiritual path when logic fails her " . She wrote the basic outline of what became " all things " in one sitting , and pitched the script to Carter the next day ; he later approved of the " personal and quiet " characteristics of the story .
The first draft of the script was 72 pages — 15 pages too long — and did not feature a fourth act . Carter and executive producer Frank Spotnitz worked closely with Anderson to finish the episode , although Carter and Spotnitz later acknowledged that the majority of the script " was all Gillian " . Despite her satisfaction with the final version , Anderson regrets a handful of the " necessary " script changes , most notably , the addition that Scully and Waterston 's affair was intimate . In the original script , the two came close to having an affair , but Scully ended the relationship when she discovered that Waterston was married .
In the commentary for the episode , Anderson elaborated on Scully and Waterston 's original backstory : after Scully and Waterston came close to having an affair , Scully left to study at Quantico to become an FBI agent . After she left , Waterston become depressed , and his family began to suspect the affair . The emotional turmoil was too much for Waterston 's wife , who killed herself , which made Waterston 's daughter , Maggie , resent Scully , as shown in the finished episode . Anderson felt that the removal of this backstory made it hard for the audience to understand why Maggie was so angry at Scully .
When Anderson first wrote the episode , she did not hint that Scully and Mulder had had sex . Spotnitz and the production crew , however , felt it was natural to suggest that Scully and Mulder 's relationship may have evolved into a romantic one . The idea of heart chakra crop circles was included because Anderson wanted " whatever Mulder was involved in that took him away from me , away from Washington , to somehow tie into what it was that I was going through — the journey that I was going through " . As such , Anderson dedicated much of her time researching both crop circles and heart chakras , but she later gave additional credit to Spotnitz , who she noted was also heavily involved during the researching process .
= = = Directing and music = = =
Around the same time that she approached Carter about writing an episode , Anderson was also receiving offers from several television networks to direct shows . She , however , had never directed before , and decided that she would first attempt to helm an episode of The X @-@ Files before branching out into other series . Anderson thus expressed her wish to direct the episode when she pitched the original idea for " all things " . Carter accepted her story , but did not appoint her as director until all the revisions and rewrites had been completed . Anderson worked with series director Kim Manners for the majority of the episode , later noting that if she had any questions , she would approach Manners first . To help Anderson , Manners gave her directing exercises , such as making a list of shots for every scene . The episode also marked the first time that a woman had helmed the direction of an episode of The X @-@ Files .
Anderson 's directing helped to energize the production , and the cast and crew worked more than usual to make sure that everything was in order for her . Production designer Corey Kaplan made sure that the episode featured a Buddhist temple at Anderson 's request , and casting director Rick Millikan helped Anderson choose the appropriate actors and actresses . Millikan later said that he particularly enjoyed working with Anderson , because it was " fun " for him to watch her go through the casting process , which was entirely new to her . On set , Anderson 's directing style was described as " right on the money " by Marc Shapiro in his book all things : The Official Guide to The X @-@ Files , Volume 6 . He later wrote that " Anderson wielded a deft hand in her directorial debut , prodding the actors to her will , making decisions on the fly , and handling the complex special effects sequences " . Fans of the show later wrote to express their appreciation of Anderson 's directing abilities . Anderson was also involved in post @-@ production editing , during which she was forced to cut the final conversation scene between Scully and Daniel Waterston by 10 minutes in order to meet the allotted episode length .
The meditation scene required clips from previous episodes to appear in flashback . Initially , Paul Rabwin and the special effects crew cut the necessary scenes and placed them in animated bubbles . According to Rabwin , at this point , the crew was just experimenting with ideas . Eventually , the crew decided that the bubbles were too " hokey " , so they adopted a more standard slit @-@ scan effect . In order to create the sequence of Scully visualizing Waterston 's heart condition , Nicolas Surovy had to lie naked on a platform surrounded by a blue screen . A sphere was matched via motion control as a marker for a prosthetic beating heart that was crafted and filmed separately . The two shots were then combined .
Anderson wanted to include " The Sky Is Broken " , a song from Moby 's 1999 album Play in the episode , having heard it while driving home from work . She later explained that the song 's lyrics " fit with [ the ] idea that was unfolding for the script " . Anderson crafted the first shot after the opening credits , which involved Scully getting ready while water dripped from a sink , to create a " continuation of sound , rhythmic sound " , because it was important to the show 's musical aspect . Anderson and series composer Mark Snow worked together in post @-@ production ; after filming , she sent Snow several CDs of music and asked him for compositions that were similar in style and feel . A certain melody that the two worked on later became " Scully 's Theme " , which was not broadcast until the eighth season episode " Within " . " all things " also featured the use of the gong , an instrument that Anderson called " very Tibetan " and " appropriate for this episode " .
= = Themes = =
In the chapter " Scully as a Pragmatist Feminist " of the book The Philosophy of The X @-@ Files , Erin McKenna argues that " all things " represents an " important shift " in Scully 's approach to science , knowledge acquisition , and the pursuit of the truth . She reasons that the events of the episode open Scully 's mind to new ways of knowing , specifically citing " auras , chakras , visions ... and the importance of coincidence " . McKenna notes that Scully 's shift in perspective is a shift to American pragmatism , a belief that reality is ever @-@ changing . Pragmatists believe " the truth is out there " — the motto of the series — in a manner similar to Mulder 's . In " all things " , Scully begins to embrace pragmatism , although she still clings to her skeptic roots . Mixing the two , Scully evolves from a mere skeptic who demands proof to validate a truth , to an empiricist who wants proof , but is open to other perspectives .
In addition , McKenna reasons that " all things " is heavily influenced by feminist philosophy and epistemology , schools of thought that try to criticize or re @-@ evaluate the ideas of traditional philosophy and epistemology from within a feminist framework . According to McKenna , feminism rejects dualistic ways of thinking , especially " typical male / female dualism " . Feminist philosophy , instead , calls for a pluralistic way of thinking , noting that there are many consistent sets of truths about the world . In the episode , Scully starts out " sure of her more rational scientific view and approach " . As the episode progresses , however , she decides to branch out . Eventually , she brings in a spirit healer to " corroborate or nullify the new beliefs she is encountering " . Despite dabbling in mysticism , a field generally stereotyped as feminine by the patriarchy , Scully engages in " protracted inquiry " , examining all sides of the issue , in order to return Waterston to health .
When Mulder and Scully talk at the end of the episode , Mulder questions the fact that he left " town for two days and [ Scully ] spoke to God in a Buddhist temple and God spoke back " . Scully retorts that , " I didn 't say God spoke back " . McKenna proposes that this is an example of Scully 's rational scientific approach meshing with her newer , feministic pragmatism . The two modes of understanding are not " to be seen ... as competing systems , but as complementary , as are Scully and Mulder themselves " . McKenna concludes that this is represented in the opening scene , in which Mulder and Scully are implied to have had sex . This is meant as a metaphor , showing the full merging of Scully 's and Mulder 's different philosophies into pragmatic feminism .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
The episode originally aired in the United States on the Fox network on April 9 , 2000 , and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on Sky1 on July 9 , 2000 . In the U.S. , " all things " was watched by 12 @.@ 18 million viewers . It earned a Nielsen household rating of 7 @.@ 5 , with an 11 share , meaning that roughly 7 @.@ 5 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 11 percent of households watching television , tuned into the episode . In the U.K. , " all things " was seen by 580 @,@ 000 viewers , making it the seventh @-@ most watched program on Sky1 for that week . On May 13 , 2003 , the episode was released on DVD as part of the complete seventh season .
Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club awarded the episode a " C " and called it " a curious failure " . He felt that the writing was " pretentious " and composed of " some weird , weird bullshit " . VanDerWerff wrote that , although the episode was unsuccessful , there was something so " pure and unadorned at its center that I can 't outright hate it " . Furthermore , he admired the show and Anderson for " making the attempt " . Kevin Silber of Space.com gave the episode a negative review , critical of the script and characterization . He said , " nothing much seems to happen , and what does occur is substantially driven by coincidence and arbitrariness " . He did not like Azar and disapproved of Scully 's philosophical " reverie " , calling it " facile , and hard to reconcile with the determined rationalism she 's displayed over the years in the face of events no less strange than those that occur here " .
In their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson rated the episode one star out of five , calling the premise and characters dull . The two criticized Anderson for looking at the " minutiae of life too intensely " , which made many of the actors and actresses come off as ciphers . Furthermore , Shearman and Pearson were critical of Anderson 's directing style , calling it " pretentious " , noting that the plot 's significance was drowned out by unnecessary artistic flourishes and needless pizzazz . Paula Vitaris from CFQ gave the episode a negative review , awarding it one star out of four . She called Anderson 's directing " heavy @-@ handed " and bemoaned the storyline because it " plays havoc with Scully 's motivations and character as established in the past seven years " .
Not all reviews were negative . Tom Kessenich , in his book Examinations , gave the episode a largely positive review and called it " wonderful " . He praised Anderson 's tenacity in presenting a darker moment from Scully 's past and favorably compared the episode to " The Sixth Extinction II : Amor Fati " in terms of character development . Kinney Littlefield of The Orange County Register wrote that the " wistful , meditative episode " was " not bad for Anderson 's first directing effort " . He did , however , comment that it was not as " sly as the episode about an alien baseball player that Duchovny directed " . The Michigan Daily writer Melissa Runstrom , in a review of the seventh season , called the episode " interesting " .
While the episode received lukewarm reviews from critics , fans of the show reacted generally positively to " all things " , and the show 's producers received calls and letters from viewers stating that they " loved the vulnerability and quiet determination that Scully revealed in the unusual episode " .
= Rabiosa ( song ) =
" Rabiosa " ( English : " Rabid " ) is a song by Colombian singer @-@ songwriter Shakira , taken from her ninth studio album Sale el Sol . It was written by Armando Pérez , Edward Bello , and Shakira , and released by Epic Records as the third single from the album , on 8 April 2011 . Two versions of the song exist ; the English @-@ language version , which features American rapper Pitbull , and the Spanish @-@ language version , which features Dominican rapper El Cata . It is heavily influenced by merengue and dance music . Shakira and El Cata , or Pitbull , sing about each other 's sex appeal in the song .
Upon its release , " Rabiosa " received generally favourable reviews from music critics , some of whom deemed it as one of the strongest tracks on Sale el Sol . Commercially , the English version of the song became a worldwide success , peaking atop record charts of countries like Portugal and Spain , and reaching the top ten in Belgium , France , Italy , and Switzerland . In the United States , it was successful on the Latin record charts and peaked at number eight on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart . " Rabiosa " was certified double @-@ platinum in Mexico and platinum in Italy and Spain .
An accompanying music video for the song was directed by Jaume de Laiguana and features Shakira enjoying herself in an underground party ; scenes of her pole dancing are interspersed throughout the video . Critics were positive towards the video , and many noted its similarity to the music video of Shakira 's 2009 single " She Wolf " . The video went viral on video @-@ sharing website YouTube two days after its release and was later marked " Vevo Certified " by joint venture music video website Vevo for reaching more than 100 million views .
= = Background and composition = =
" Rabiosa " was written by American rapper Armando Pérez , better known by his stage name Pitbull , Dominican rapper Edward Bello , and Shakira , for the singer 's ninth studio album Sale el Sol ( 2010 ) . The album marked the first time she worked with Bello , who is better known by his stage name El Cata , and their collaboration started after Shakira expressed her desire to experiment with merengue music , saying " I grew up listening to merengue — that was a big part of my life , and I was missing it " . Merengue is a type of music and dance originating in the Dominican Republic , and after being referred to Bello by Pitbull , Shakira travelled to the country and began recording sessions with him in his " tiny " studio in Santo Domingo . Bello talked about his collaboration with Shakira , saying " If I was thinking that this little studio was going to be in the world ’ s vision at this time , I wouldn 't believe it " .
Two versions of the song are present on the album ; the English @-@ language version features verses from Pitbull , while the Spanish @-@ language version features El Cata . " Rabiosa " was chosen to be the third single from the album by Epic Records , and Shakira 's official website revealed the artwork for the single on 18 April 2011 , the day it was sent to radio stations . Both versions were released for digital download on 8 April 2011 . Worldwide , the English version was released as a CD single on 27 May 2011 .
Primarily an uptempo latin pop track , " Rabiosa " additionally borrows influences from merengue and dance music . In the song , Shakira and Pitbull / El Cata trade verses regarding each other 's sex appeal . English and Spanish words are mixed together in various lines , such as when Shakira sings " Oye papi , if you like it mocha / Come get a little closer and bite me en la boca " . Jennifer Schaffer from The Stanford Daily described Shakira and Pitbull 's vocals as " sultry " and " raspy , " respectively .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
The song received generally favourable reviews from music critics . James Reed from The Boston Globe appreciated Shakira 's " sly and vampy " vocals , and termed " Rabiosa " an " irresistible merengue hybrid " . Michelle Morgante from Boston.com called the track a " new merengue @-@ rock hybrid that lays down bare horn riffs over a driving beat in a groove that is irresistible " . Jennifer Schaffer from The Stanford Daily deemed it one of the " best tracks on the album " , praising its dance beats and calling it an " undeniably sexy song you ’ d expect from a Shakira / Pitbull collaboration " . Allison Stewart from The Washington Post also recommended the track , labelling it " giddy , rapid @-@ fire Latin pop " . Likewise , Mikael Wood from Entertainment Weekly picked the song as a highlight from Sale el Sol . Carlos Macias from Terra USA , however , gave the song a negative review , writing it off as a " cheaper version of " Loca " " and criticising Pitbull 's collaboration . In 2014 , Emily Exton of VH1 placed the track on her list of Shakira 's best duets , summarizing " It 's been scientifically proven that Mr. 305 cannot not make a hit " .
At the 2011 Los Premios 40 Principales awards ceremony , " Rabiosa " was nominated for " Mejor Canción Internacional en Español " ( " Best International Song in Spanish " ) . At the 2012 American Society of Composers , Authors and Publishers ( ASCAP ) Awards ceremony , Bello won an award for his composition of the song . At the 27th Annual International Dance Music Awards , " Rabiosa " was nominated for " Best Latin / Reggaeton Track " , but lost to Sak Noel 's " Loca People " . At the 2012 Latin Billboard Music Awards , " Rabiosa " was nominated for " Canción del Año , Digital " ( " Digital Song of the Year " ) , but lost to Don Omar 's " Danza Kuduro " . At the 2012 Premio Lo Nuestro awards ceremony , " Rabiosa " was nominated for " Colaboración del Año " ( " Collaboration of the Year " ) and " Canción Pop Del Año " ( " Pop Song of the Year " ) , and won in the latter category .
= = = Chart performance = = =
The English version of " Rabiosa " was a worldwide commercial success . In Austria , the song entered the Austrian Singles chart at number 36 and peaked at number six , spending a total of 17 weeks in the region . In both the Dutch @-@ speaking Flanders and French @-@ speaking Wallonia regions of Belgium , " Rabiosa " peaked at number five on the Ultratop charts , staying on the charts for a total of 16 and 19 weeks , respectively . In this region , it was certified gold by the Belgian Entertainment Association ( BEA ) for sales of 10 @,@ 000 units . In France , " Rabiosa " entered the French Singles chart at number 94 and peaked at number six for two weeks , and spent a total of 33 weeks on the chart . In Italy , the song entered the Italian Singles chart at number nine and peaked at number six , spending a total of seven weeks inside the top 20 of the chart . In this region , " Rabiosa " was certified platinum by the Federazione Industria Musicale Italiana ( FIMI ) for sales of 60 @,@ 000 units . In Mexico , the single was certified double @-@ platinum by the Asociación Mexicana de Productores de Fonogramas y Videogramas ( AMPROFON ) for shipments of 120 @,@ 000 units . In Spain , the song entered the Spanish Singles chart at number 23 and peaked at number one for a total of five weeks , and spent a total of 33 weeks on the chart . In this region , it was certified platinum by the Productores de Música de España ( PROMUSICAE ) for shipments of 40 @,@ 000 units . In Switzerland , after initially charting at number 28 on the Swiss Singles chart , " Rabiosa " peaked at number three and spent a total of 21 weeks on the chart . In this region , the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry ( IFPI ) certified it gold for selling 10 @,@ 000 units .
In the United States , " Rabiosa " was successful on the Latin record charts . It peaked at number eight on the US Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart , spending a total of 25 weeks on the chart . It also reached number eight on the Latin Pop Airplay chart , spending a total of 28 weeks on the chart . On the Tropical Songs chart , it peaked at number 13 and spend a total of 20 weeks on the chart .
= = Music video = =
The accompanying music video for " Rabiosa " was directed by Jaume de Laiguana and was shot on 24 April 2011 , in Barcelona . Laiguana had also directed the videos for the two previous single releases from the album , " Loca " and " Sale el Sol " . The music video premiered on Shakira 's official website on 7 June 2011 , and the English @-@ language version was made available for digital download on 8 June . The Spanish version was made available for digital download a day later . The video begins with Shakira walking into an underground party while sporting a brown bob haircut . Amidst " a party full of silly @-@ string and confetti @-@ flinging fun " , she begins dancing and flirting with a man , and at one point lies in a bathtub full of colourful balls . Scenes of Shakira pole dancing while wearing a black string bra and knickers and sporting her normal long blonde hair are inter @-@ cut throughout the video . The video ends with Shakira doing a split while holding onto the pole , and back inside the party she crowd surfs away . Neither Pitbull or El Cata appear in both versions of the video .
Upon its release , the music video went viral on video @-@ sharing website YouTube two days after its release and was the most @-@ viewed video of that day , gaining almost four million views in less than 48 hours . Critical reception towards the video was favourable . Jeff Benjamin from Billboard commented that Shakira continues " the fantasies that she started in her " She Wolf " video " and praised Shakira 's brunette hairstyle , concluding that " the Latin songstress brings the heat both musically and visually " . Becky Bain from Idolator found Shakira 's pole dancing sequence similar to the video of Britney Spear 's 2007 single " Gimme More " , but joked that it is " not terribly depressing and certainly not shot in about 15 minutes " . Ann Lee from Metro also found the video similar to the one for " She Wolf " and commended Shakira 's pole dancing ability , noting that she " ups the raunch factor " and " gets pulses racing " . Sadao Turner from Ryan Seacrest.com praised Shakira 's " phenomenal " figure . The video was marked " Vevo Certified " by joint venture music video website Vevo for reaching more than 100 million views on YouTube .
= = Formats and track listing = =
= = Charts = =
= = = Weekly charts = = =
= Recurrent laryngeal nerve =
The recurrent laryngeal nerve ( RLN ) is a branch of the vagus nerve ( cranial nerve X ) that supplies all the intrinsic muscles of the larynx , with the exception of the cricothyroid muscles . There are two recurrent laryngeal nerves , right and left , in the human body . The right and left nerves are not symmetrical , with the left nerve looping under the aortic arch , and the right nerve looping under the right subclavian artery then traveling upwards.They both travel alongside of the trachea . Additionally , the nerves are one of few nerves that follow a recurrent course , moving in the opposite direction to the nerve they branch from , a fact from which they gain their name .
The recurrent laryngeal nerves supply sensation to the larynx below the vocal cords , gives cardiac branches to the deep cardiac plexus , and branches to the trachea , esophagus and the inferior constrictor muscles . The posterior cricoarytenoid muscles , the only muscles that can open the vocal cords , are innervated by this nerve .
The recurrent laryngeal nerves are the nerves of the sixth pharyngeal arch . The existence of the recurrent laryngeal nerve was first documented by the physician Galen .
= = Structure = =
The recurrent laryngeal nerves branch from the vagus nerve , relative to which they get their names ; the term " recurrent " from Latin : re- ( back ) and currere ( to run ) , indicates they run in the opposite direction to the vagus nerves from which they branch . The vagus nerves run down into the thorax , and the recurrent laryngeal nerves run up to the larynx .
The vagus nerves , from which the recurrent laryngeal nerves branch , exit the skull at the jugular foramen and travel within the carotid sheath alongside the carotid arteries through the neck . The recurrent laryngeal nerves branch off the vagus , the left at the aortic arch , and the right at the right subclavian artery . The left RLN passes in front of the arch , and then wraps underneath and behind it . After branching , the nerves typically ascend in a groove at the junction of the trachea and esophagus . They then pass behind the posterior , middle part of the outer lobes of the thyroid gland and enter the larynx underneath the inferior constrictor muscle , passing into the larynx just posterior to the cricothyroid joint . The terminal branch is called the inferior laryngeal nerve .
Unlike the other nerves supplying the larynx , the right and left RLNs lack bilateral symmetry . The left RLN is longer than the right , because it crosses under the arch of the aorta at the ligamentum arteriosum .
= = = Nucleus = = =
The somatic motor fibers that innervate the laryngeal and pharyngeal muscles are located in the nucleus ambiguus and emerge from the medulla in the cranial root of the accessory nerve . Fibers cross over to and join the vagus nerve in the jugular foramen . Sensory cell bodies are located in the inferior jugular ganglion , and the fibers terminate in the solitary nucleus . Parasympathetic fibers to segments of the trachea and esophagus in the neck originate in the dorsal nucleus of the vagus nerve .
= = = Development = = =
During human and all vertebrate development , a series of pharyngeal arch pairs form in the developing embryo . These project forward from the back of the embryo towards the front of the face and neck . Each arch develops its own artery , nerve that controls a distinct muscle group , and skeletal tissue . The arches are numbered from 1 to 6 , with 1 being the arch closest to the head of the embryo , and the fifth arch only existing transiently .
Arches 4 and 6 produce the laryngeal cartilages . The nerve of the sixth arch becomes the recurrent laryngeal nerve . The nerve of the fourth arch gives rise to the superior laryngeal nerve . The arteries of the fourth arch , which project between the nerves of the fourth and sixth arches , become the left @-@ sided arch of the aorta and the right subclavian artery . The arteries of the sixth arch persists as the ductus arteriosus on the left , and is obliterated on the right .
After birth , the ductus arteriosus regresses to form the ligamentum arteriosum . During growth , these arteries descend into their ultimate positions in the chest , creating the elongated recurrent paths .
= = = Variation = = =
In roughly 1 out of every 100 – 200 people , the right inferior laryngeal nerve is nonrecurrent , branching off the vagus nerve around the level of the cricoid cartilage . Typically , such a configuration is accompanied by variation in the arrangement of the major arteries in the chest ; most commonly , the right subclavian artery arises from the left side of the aorta and crosses behind the esophagus . A left nonrecurrent inferior laryngeal nerve is even more uncommon , requiring the aortic arch be on the right side , accompanied by an arterial variant which prevents the nerve from being drawn into the chest by the left subclavian .
In about four people out of five , there is a connecting branch between the inferior laryngeal nerve , a branch of the RLN , and the internal laryngeal nerve , a branch of the superior laryngeal nerve . This is commonly called the anastomosis of Galen ( Latin : ansa galeni ) , even though anastamosis usually refers to a blood vessel , and is one of several documented anastamosis between the two nerves .
As the recurrent nerve hooks around the subclavian artery or aorta , it gives off several branches . There is suspected variability in the configuration of these branches to the cardiac plexus , trachea , esophagus and inferior pharyngeal constrictor muscle .
= = Function = =
The recurrent laryngeal nerves control all intrinsic muscles of the larynx except for the cricothyroid muscle . These muscles act to open and close the vocal cords , and include the posterior cricoarytenoid muscles , the only muscle to open the vocal cords . The nerves supply muscles on the same side of the body , with the exception of the interarytenoid muscle , which is innervated from both sides .
The nerves also carry sensory information from the mucous membranes of the larynx below the lower surface of the vocal fold , as well as sensory , secretory and motor fibres to the cervical segments of the esophagus and the trachea .
= = Clinical significance = =
= = = Injury = = =
The recurrent laryngeal nerves may be injured as a result of trauma , during surgery , as a result of tumour spread , or due to other means . Injury to the recurrent laryngeal nerves can result in a weakened voice ( hoarseness ) or loss of voice ( aphonia ) and cause problems in the respiratory tract . Injury to the nerve may paralyze the posterior cricoarytenoid muscle on the same side . This is the sole muscle responsible for opening the vocal cords , and paralysis may cause difficulty breathing ( dyspnea ) during physical activity . Injury to both the right and left nerve may result in more serious damage , such as the inability to speak . Additional problems may emerge during healing , as nerve fibres that re @-@ anastamose may result in vocal cord motion impairment , uncoordinated movements of the vocal cord .
= = = Surgery = = =
The nerve receives close attention from surgeons since during neck surgery , especially thyroid and parathyroid surgery , the nerve is at risk for injury . Nerve damage can be assessed by laryngoscopy , during which a stroboscopic light confirms the absence of movement in the affected side of the vocal cords . The right recurrent laryngeal nerve is more susceptible to damage during thyroid surgery because it is close to the bifurcation of the right inferior thyroid artery , variably passing in front of , behind , or between the branches . The nerve is permanently damaged in 0 @.@ 3 – 3 % of thyroid surgery , and transiently in 3 – 8 % of surgeries , and is one of the leading causes of medicolegal issues for surgeons .
= = = Tumors = = =
The RLN may be compressed by tumors . Studies have shown that 2 – 18 % of lung cancer patients develop hoarseness because of recurrent laryngeal nerve compression , usually left @-@ sided . This is associated with worse outcomes , and when found as a presenting symptom , often indicates inoperable tumors . The nerve may be severed intentionally during lung cancer surgery in order to fully remove a tumor .
= = = Other disease = = =
In Ortner 's syndrome or cardiovocal syndrome , a rare cause of left recurrent laryngeal nerve palsy , expansion of structures within the heart or major blood vessels impinges upon the nerve , causing symptoms of unilateral nerve injury .
= = Other animals = =
Horses are subject to equine recurrent laryngeal neuropathy , a disease of the axons of the recurrent laryngeal nerves . The cause is not known , although a genetic predisposition is suspected . The length of the nerve is a factor since it is more common in larger horses , and the left side is affected almost exclusively . As the nerve cells die , there is a progressive paralysis of the larynx , causing the airway to collapse . The common presentation is a sound , ranging from a musical whistle to a harsh roar or heaving gasping noise ( stertorous ) , accompanied by worsening performance . The condition is incurable , but surgery can keep the airway open . Experiments with nerve grafts have been tried .
Although uncommon in dogs , bilateral recurrent laryngeal nerve disease may be the cause of wheezing ( stridor ) when middle @-@ aged dogs inhale .
In sauropod dinosaurs , the vertebrates with the longest necks , the total length of the vagus nerve and recurrent laryngeal nerve would have been up to 28 metres ( 92 ft ) long in Supersaurus , but these would not be the longest neurons that ever existed : the neurons reaching the tip of the tail would have exceeded 30 metres ( 98 ft ) .
= = = Evidence of evolution = = =
The extreme detour of the recurrent laryngeal nerves , about 4 @.@ 6 metres ( 15 ft ) in the case of giraffes , is cited as evidence of evolution . The nerve 's route would have been direct in the fish @-@ like ancestors of modern tetrapods , traveling from the brain , past the heart , to the gills ( as it does in modern fish ) . Over the course of evolution , as the neck extended and the heart became lower in the body , the laryngeal nerve was caught on the wrong side of the heart . Natural selection gradually lengthened the nerve by tiny increments to accommodate , resulting in the circuitous route now observed .
= = History = =
Roman physician Galen demonstrated the nerve course and the clinical syndrome of recurrent laryngeal nerve paralysis , noting that pigs with the nerve severed were unable to squeal . Galen named the nerve the recurrent nerve , and described the same effect in two human infants who had undergone surgery for goiter . In 1838 , five years before he would introduce the concept of homology to biology , anatomist Richard Owen reported upon the dissection of three giraffes , including a description of the full course of the left recurrent laryngeal nerve . Anatomists Andreas Vesalius and Thomas Willis described the nerve in what is now regarded as an anatomically standard description , and doctor Frank Lahey documented a way for its interoperative identification during thyroid operations .
= St. Joseph 's Church , Semarang =
St. Joseph 's Church ( Indonesian : Gereja Santo Yosef ) , also known as Gedangan Church , is a Catholic church in Semarang , Indonesia , the first such church in the city . Administratively , it is part of the St. Joseph 's Parish in the Archdiocese of Semarang .
Constructed between 1870 and 1875 to meet the needs of Semarang 's growing Catholic population , the red @-@ brick church building was designed by the Dutch architect W. I. van Bakel and built at a cost of 110 @,@ 000 gulden . The church grew extensively over the following fifty years , at first dominated by ethnic Europeans and persons of mixed descent but later having a majority indigenous congregation . As the Catholic population grew , the size of the parish diminished as new ones were established .
The church complex consists of , among other things , the church building , a presbytery , and a convent . St. Joseph 's itself is highly decorated , including nineteen stained glass windows ( including three dedicated to church 's patron saint , Joseph ) , carvings showing the fourteen Stations of the Cross , and an altar imported from Germany . The single tower is home to two bells produced by Petit & Fritsen .
= = History = =
= = = Catholicism in Semarang = = =
The Roman Catholic Church first entered Semarang , Dutch East Indies , in what is now Central Java , Indonesia , in the early 19th century . In 1808 Father Lambertus Prinsen ( 1777 – 1840 ) was sent from the Netherlands to the Indies as the pastor for Semarang and several surrounding settlements , including Salatiga and Klaten . He quickly established a council for handling religious duties , and baptisms began the following year ; fourteen people , mostly Dutch , were baptised in 1809 . However , this congregation did not have a church in which they could pray . Until 1815 the congregation used the nearby Immanuel Church , a building intended for Protestants . Between 1815 and 1822 services were held at the homes of members of the congregation , then from 7 August 1822 Mass was held at Prinsen 's new home ( near Immanuel ) .
The congregation required its own church building , and already owned land which could be used : in 1828 the Catholics had purchased a former hospital and the surrounding land in Gedangan , near the harbour , and established an orphanage there . However , there were insufficient clergy for further development . Mgr . Joseph Lijnen ( 1815 – 82 ) , who had become the congregation 's pastor in 1858 , left the Indies for Heythuysen , Netherlands . There , he convinced several Franciscan nuns to join him in the Indies and develop the congregation through education and ministry . Upon returning to the Indies , designs were made for a church building across from the orphanage and convent established for the nuns .
= = = A new church = = =
The church was designed by Dutch architect W. I. van Bakel in a neogothic style . The construction costs of 110 @,@ 000 gulden were funded partly by the colonial government , as well as the sale of unused land and donations from Catholics throughout the colony . The first stone was laid by the pastor Lijnen on 1 October 1870 , and construction continued smoothly until 12 May 1873 , when the nearly completed tower collapsed ; various reasons have been put forward , including an insufficient frame and poor quality bricks . After the collapse , the design of the church was modified to be lower , and further construction was undertaken using bricks imported from the Netherlands as ballast for ships . The construction of the building was completed on 12 December 1875 , and the church was blessed by Lijnen . It was the first Catholic church in the city , and served mostly those of European or mixed descent .
Further additions to the interior were made over the next quarter @-@ century . A new Gothic altar , produced in Düsseldorf , Germany , was installed in 1880 . Two years later a communion bench was installed . The tower was also given a clock and bells during this period ; the clock was removed in 1978 since the machinery was broken . Lijden died in 1882 , and the Jesuit Joannes de Vries became the parish priest , the first in an unbroken line of Jesuit pastors which continues until the present day . De Vries was soon after elected provincial superior for the province , and thus he spent much of his time away from the church . By 1885 there were 1 @,@ 620 Catholics in Semarang , up from approximately a thousand four years earlier . Many of these were in the colonial military .
J. Keijzer replaced de Vries after the latter 's death in 1887 and headed the church for seven years . During his tenure , the church and surrounding grounds were expanded significantly . Construction of a multi @-@ story presbytery began in the 1880s and completed on 1 August 1890 . Across the street , in 1888 the nuns established an elementary school , and they also began construction of a chapel for the convent , which was opened on 6 August 1892 . During this period the church building received stained glass windows and new pews . Further construction continued into the 20th century . A pipe organ was installed in 1903 ; it was restored in 1993 , but remains in poor condition . Also installed that year were carvings depicting the fourteen Stations of the Cross .
= = = Growth and evangelism among the indigenous population = = =
At the close of the 19th century the Catholic church in the Indies began targeting the majority @-@ Muslim indigenous population . They were not alone ; Protestant missionaries such as Sierk Coolsma of the Netherlands Missionary Union and Mattheus Teffer of the Netherlands Missionary Society had had some success with the Sundanese in Cianjur and Javanese in Ambarawa , respectively . Keijzer , before stepping down as head pastor in 1894 , sent a letter to the Netherlands asking that men be sent to learn the Javanese language , in order to enable them to preach to the people and translate the catechism and some prayer books .
Three Jesuits were sent - P. Hebrans in 1895 and P. Hoevanaars and Frans van Lith ( 1863 @-@ 1926 ) in 1896 . The three studied Javanese in Gedangan over a period of a year . Ultimately van Lith was the most successful , establishing a school in Muntilan to train teachers , who were hoped to further spread Catholicism through their teaching duties . This eventually led to the establishment of the Kanisius Foundation , which established a number of Catholic schools throughout Java . Furthermore , in 1904 he spearheaded a mass baptism at Kalibawang , Kulon Progo , near Yogyakarta . A total of 168 Javanese were baptised . Van Lith 's efforts eventually returned to Semarang , where he established a Kanisius school in the parish of Gedangan in 1924 .
By the early 20th century the Catholic population of Semarang had become large enough to support multiple parishes . In 1915 the chapel in Karangpanas , in the southern part of Semarang , was elevated to the status of parish church and dedicated to St. Athanasius . A third church , in the Randusari area of western Semarang , was established in 1927 and became a parish church in 1930 . Further parishes were established over the following decades , until in 2000 St. Joseph 's Church was one of nine parish churches in the city , serving the subdistricts of East Semarang , Genuk , Sayung , and parts of North Semarang .
In 1940 , under recommendation of Mgr . Petrus Willekens , the Apostolic Vicariate of Batavia was divided in two ; Semarang became the capital of the new vicariate . The newly appointed vicar apostolic , Mgr . Albertus Soegijapranata ( 1896 – 1963 ) , had his seat at the church in Randusari , but lived in the presbytery in Gedangan .
= = = After the colonial period = = =
In March 1942 the Indies were occupied by the Empire of Japan . The occupation government captured numerous ( mostly Dutch ) men and women , both clergy and laymen , and instituted policies that changed how services were held . They forbade the use of Dutch in services and in writing , and seized several church properties ; several others , including the presbytery at Gedangan , were protected by the clergy . After two European head pastors , G. Schoonhoff and G. de Quay , were confined , ultimately on 27 August 1943 the ethnic Javanese Soegijapranata took on parish duties in addition to his work as vicar apostolic . Although he promoted non @-@ compliance with Japanese demands considered damaging to the church , Soegijapranata also endorsed some collaboration . For instance , on 28 February 1944 a Latin @-@ language Mass was delivered at Gedangan by Paul Aijiro Yamaguchi , bishop of Nagasaki .
On 17 August 1945 , shortly after the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki and with Japan 's defeat an increasing certainty , President Sukarno proclaimed the independence of the Indonesian state . During the ongoing revolution against returning Dutch forces , Europeans were detained ( although the Dutch head pastors remained ) . These detentions , and post @-@ revolution politics which decimated the European population in independent Indonesia , ensured that the congregation remained dominated by the Javanese and other indigenous peoples .
Throughout the 1950s and 1960s Gedangan remained a center of Catholic activity in Semarang . The Jesuit provincial superior continued to be placed in the Gedangan presbytery until 1949 , when he was moved to the church in Karangpanas , then again from 1954 to 1962 ( when he was sent to Karangpanas again ) . The central offices of the Kanisius Foundation remained on the church grounds until a new office was opened in 1970 . Further construction has continued as well : an office building , named Bintang Laut , was completed on 6 August 1988 , and renovations to the church building took place in the early 1990s . The church continues to hold regular services , including five on Sundays .
= = Description = =
St. Joseph 's Church is located on the east side of Ronggo Warsito Street in Semarang , Central Java . Administratively , it is part of the parish of St. Joseph in the Archdiocese of Semarang . The red @-@ brick building can seat 800 people . It faces west and has windows on all sides , as well as five entrances ( two on the north side , two on the south side , and one on the west side ) . The roof is a white cross @-@ ribbed vault supported by ionic columns .
The interior of the church has nineteen stained glass windows , three behind the altar and eight along each side of the church building . The windows behind the altar focus on St. Joseph and depict , from right to left , the sojourn of the Holy Family in Egypt ; the daily lives of the Holy Family ; and the death of Joseph . Four of the sixteen windows on the sides of the church ( those closest to the altar and those closest to the doors ) depict lilies . The remaining twelve windows each depict a single saint , including Ignatius of Loyola , Stanislaus Kostka , and Saint Cecilia . Further ornamentation of the walls includes carvings depicting the fourteen Stations of the Cross as well as twelve triforiums holding paintings illustrating the Lord 's Prayer , the Bread of Life Discourse , and praise to Christ and Mary . On top of the altar , at the eastern end of the church , is a tabernacle . The altar , imported from Germany in 1880 , is decorated with statues of Abraham , Peter , Paul , and Melchizedek .
The tower is home to two cast iron bells , one measuring 93 @.@ 5 centimetres ( 36 @.@ 8 in ) in height and 90 centimetres ( 35 in ) wide at the base , and the other measuring 75 centimetres ( 30 in ) in height and 70 centimetres ( 28 in ) in diameter at the base . The bells were produced by Petit & Fritsen in April 1882 and exported from Rotterdam by the Caminada brothers . Both are inscribed with a dedication , in Latin , stating that the bells were donated by a Semarang @-@ born Frenchman named Joseph Andrieux . The bells are further decorated with engraved plants and crosses . When the bells were installed in 1882 , they were accompanied by a clock . However , over the years the machinery wore down , and in 1978 it was replaced with a round face decorated with the Christogram IHS ( short for " Iesus Hominum Salvator " , meaning " Jesus , Saviour of Men " ) .
To the north of the church proper is a presbytery , established on 1 August 1890 . The two @-@ story building has a high foundation and marble flooring . Both stories have high ceilings , 4 metres ( 13 ft ) above the floor . Further to the north is the Bintang Laut building , containing offices for the parish council and other administrative needs . On the west side of Ronggo Warsito Street is a convent for the Franciscan nuns , which has a neo @-@ Gothic chapel .
= In Your Honor =
In Your Honor is the fifth studio album by American alternative rock band Foo Fighters , released on June 14 , 2005 by RCA Records . It is a double album , with one disc containing heavy rock songs and a second disc with mellower acoustic songs . Frontman Dave Grohl decided to do a diverse blend of songs as he felt that after ten years of existence , the band had to break new ground with their music . The album was recorded at a newly built studio in Northridge , Los Angeles , and featured guests such as John Paul Jones , Norah Jones and Josh Homme . The lyrics deal with both resonating and introspective themes , with a major influence from Grohl 's involvement on the campaign trail with John Kerry during the 2004 presidential election .
The promotional tour for the album included both rock shows in stadiums and acoustic gigs in smaller venues . Reviews for In Your Honor were mostly positive , praising the composition and sound , although some critics found the album overlong and inconsistent . The album was also nominated for five Grammy Awards , and topped the charts in five countries — including Australia — and reached the top five in five more , including number two in both the United States and the United Kingdom . In Your Honor also broke the band 's consecutive streak of Grammy Award for Best Rock Album wins that began in 1999 with There Is Nothing Left to Lose .
= = Background = =
After touring in support of One by One , Dave Grohl was uncertain on what to do next with the Foo Fighters . He felt that rushing to do another record would not be creatively rewarding . Grohl considered a possible film score , and began writing acoustic songs , eventually amassing a full album 's worth of songs . Grohl , not wanting to make a solo album and accepting the drift from his usual style , brought the songs to the Foo Fighters - " who 's to say what we should sound like ? " . Bassist Nate Mendel replied that the songs ' uncharacteristic sound was " why [ they ] should go on the record . " Grohl decided against an acoustic record , saying " I have to have loud rock music in my life somewhere " , and decided to make a double album , with " one CD that 's all the really heavy rock shit " and another " that 's really beautiful , acoustic @-@ based , lower dynamic stuff " , which Grohl described as " the bottle and the hangover " , and also with the rock record being " my Jack and Coke record " with songs that " I realise I cannot live without that " , and the acoustic being " my Sapphire @-@ and @-@ Martini @-@ with @-@ Kylie record " . Grohl also stated a decisive moment in making a double album was uploading demos to his computer and realizing he had five hours of music , adding that " we 've been a band for 10 years now , this is our fifth record , and I thought it would be boring to just keep making album after album and making videos and playing festivals , so I wanted to do something special . "
The album was recorded in a new recording studio built in a warehouse in Northridge , California , named Studio 606 West in contrast to the original Studio 606 in Grohl 's basement in Alexandria , Virginia . Development for In Your Honor took nine months with three and a half months installing equipment in the studio , and songs being written throughout 2004 . While waiting for 606 to get finished , the band rehearsed on North Hollywood 's Mates Rehearsal Studios , where " we ended up with three or four different versions of about 30 songs " , according to Raskulinecz who added that " it got to the point where I didn 't want them to play the rock songs anymore . I was afraid they were going to get stale . "
= = Recording = =
The recording sessions ran from January to March 200
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in the interiors of larger nickel – iron meteorites that were not exposed to oxygen when outside Earth 's atmosphere .
Meteoric nickel is found in combination with iron , a reflection of the origin of those elements as major end products of supernova nucleosynthesis . An iron – nickel mixture is thought to compose Earth 's inner core .
Use of nickel ( as a natural meteoric nickel – iron alloy ) has been traced as far back as 3500 BCE . Nickel was first isolated and classified as a chemical element in 1751 by Axel Fredrik Cronstedt , who initially mistook the ore for a copper mineral . The element 's name comes from a mischievous sprite of German miner mythology , Nickel ( similar to Old Nick ) , that personified the fact that copper @-@ nickel ores resisted refinement into copper . An economically important source of nickel is the iron ore limonite , which often contains 1 – 2 % nickel . Nickel 's other important ore minerals include garnierite , and pentlandite . Major production sites include the Sudbury region in Canada ( which is thought to be of meteoric origin ) , New Caledonia in the Pacific , and Norilsk in Russia .
Nickel oxidizes slowly at room temperature and is considered corrosion @-@ resistant . Historically , it has been used for plating iron and brass , coating chemistry equipment , and manufacturing certain alloys that retain a high silvery polish , such as German silver . About 6 % of world nickel production is still used for corrosion @-@ resistant pure @-@ nickel plating . Nickel @-@ plated objects sometimes provoke nickel allergy . Nickel has been widely used in coins , though its rising price has led to some replacement with cheaper metals in recent years .
Nickel is one of four elements that are ferromagnetic around room temperature . Alnico permanent magnets based partly on nickel are of intermediate strength between iron @-@ based permanent magnets and rare @-@ earth magnets . The metal is valuable in modern times chiefly in alloys ; about 60 % of world production is used in nickel @-@ steels ( particularly stainless steel ) . Other common alloys and some new superalloys comprise most of the remainder of world nickel use , with chemical uses for nickel compounds consuming less than 3 % of production . As a compound , nickel has a number of niche chemical manufacturing uses , such as a catalyst for hydrogenation . Nickel is an essential nutrient for some microorganisms and plants that have enzymes with nickel as an active site .
= = Properties = =
= = = Atomic and physical properties = = =
Nickel is a silvery @-@ white metal with a slight golden tinge that takes a high polish . It is one of only four elements that are magnetic at or near room temperature , the others being iron , cobalt and gadolinium . Its Curie temperature is 355 ° C ( 671 ° F ) , meaning that bulk nickel is non @-@ magnetic above this temperature . The unit cell of nickel is a face @-@ centered cube with the lattice parameter of 0 @.@ 352 nm , giving an atomic radius of 0 @.@ 124 nm . This crystal structure is stable to pressures of at least 70 GPa . Nickel belongs to the transition metals and is hard and ductile .
= = = = Electron configuration dispute = = = =
The nickel atom has two electron configurations , [ Ar ] 3d8 4s2 and [ Ar ] 3d9 4s1 , which are very close in energy – the symbol [ Ar ] refers to the argon @-@ like core structure . There is some disagreement on which configuration has the lowest energy . Chemistry textbooks quote the electron configuration of nickel as [ Ar ] 4s2 3d8 , which can also be written [ Ar ] 3d8 4s2 . This configuration agrees with the Madelung energy ordering rule , which predicts that 4s is filled before 3d . It is supported by the experimental fact that the lowest energy state of the nickel atom is a 3d8 4s2 energy level , specifically the 3d8 ( 3F ) 4s2 3F , J = 4 level .
However , each of these two configurations gives rise to several energy levels , and the two sets of energy levels overlap . The average energy of states with configuration [ Ar ] 3d9 4s1 is actually lower than the average energy of states with configuration [ Ar ] 3d8 4s2 . For this reason , the research literature on atomic calculations quotes the ground state configuration of nickel as [ Ar ] 3d9 4s1 .
= = = Isotopes = = =
The isotopes of nickel range in atomic weight from 48 u ( 48Ni ) to 78 u ( 78Ni ) .
Naturally occurring nickel is composed of five stable isotopes ; 58Ni , 60Ni , 61Ni , 62Ni and 64Ni , with 58Ni being the most abundant ( 68 @.@ 077 % natural abundance ) . Isotopes heavier than 62Ni cannot be formed by nuclear fusion without losing energy .
Nickel @-@ 62 has the highest nuclear binding energy of any nuclide , at 8 @.@ 7946 MeV / nucleon . Its binding energy is greater than both 56Fe , often incorrectly cited as the most tightly @-@ bound nuclide , and it is also more tightly bound than 58Fe .
Stable isotope nickel @-@ 60 is the daughter product of the extinct radionuclide 60Fe , which decays with a half @-@ life of 2 @.@ 6 million years . Because 60Fe has such a long half @-@ life , its persistence in materials in the solar system may generate observable variations in the isotopic composition of 60Ni . Therefore , the abundance of 60Ni present in extraterrestrial material may provide insight into the origin of the solar system and its early history .
Some 18 nickel radioisotopes have been characterised , the most stable being 59Ni with a half @-@ life of 76 @,@ 000 years , 63Ni with 100 @.@ 1 years , and 56Ni with 6 @.@ 077 days . All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half @-@ lives that are less than 60 hours and the majority of these have half @-@ lives that are less than 30 seconds . This element also has one meta state .
Radioactive nickel @-@ 56 is produced by the silicon burning process and later set free in large quantities during type Ia supernovae . The shape of the light curve of these supernovae at intermediate to late @-@ times corresponds to the decay via electron capture of nickel @-@ 56 to cobalt @-@ 56 and ultimately to iron @-@ 56 . Nickel @-@ 59 is a long @-@ lived cosmogenic radionuclide with a half @-@ life of 76 @,@ 000 years . 59Ni has found many applications in isotope geology . 59Ni has been used to date the terrestrial age of meteorites and to determine abundances of extraterrestrial dust in ice and sediment . Nickel @-@ 78 's half @-@ life was recently measured at 110 milliseconds , and is believed an important isotope in supernova nucleosynthesis of elements heavier than iron . The nuclide 48Ni , discovered in 1999 , is the most proton @-@ rich heavy element isotope known . With 28 protons and 20 neutrons 48Ni is " double magic " ( like 208Pb ) and therefore unusually stable .
= = = Occurrence = = =
On Earth , nickel occurs most often in combination with sulfur and iron in pentlandite , with sulfur in millerite , with arsenic in the mineral nickeline , and with arsenic and sulfur in nickel galena . Nickel is commonly found in iron meteorites as the alloys kamacite and taenite .
The bulk of the nickel is mined from two types of ore deposits . The first is laterite , where the principal ore minerals are nickeliferous limonite : ( Fe , Ni ) O ( OH ) and garnierite ( a hydrous nickel silicate ) : ( Ni , Mg )
3Si
2O
5 ( OH )
4 . The second is magmatic sulfide deposits , where the principal ore mineral is pentlandite : ( Ni , Fe )
9S
8 .
Australia and New Caledonia have the biggest estimate reserves ( 45 % all together ) .
Identified land @-@ based resources throughout the world averaging 1 % nickel or greater comprise at least 130 million tons of nickel ( about the double of known reserves ) . About 60 % is in laterites and 40 % in sulfide deposits .
On geophysical evidence , most of the nickel on Earth is believed to be in the Earth 's outer and inner cores . Kamacite and taenite are naturally occurring alloys of iron and nickel . For kamacite , the alloy is usually in the proportion of 90 : 10 to 95 : 5 , although impurities ( such as cobalt or carbon ) may be present , while for taenite the nickel content is between 20 % and 65 % . Kamacite and taenite are also found in nickel iron meteorites .
= = Compounds = =
The most common oxidation state of nickel is + 2 , but compounds of Ni0 , Ni + , and Ni3 + are well known , and the exotic oxidation states Ni2 − , Ni1 − , and Ni4 + have been produced and studied .
= = = Nickel ( 0 ) = = =
Nickel tetracarbonyl ( Ni ( CO )
4 ) , discovered by Ludwig Mond , is a volatile , highly toxic liquid at room temperature . On heating , the complex decomposes back to nickel and carbon monoxide :
Ni ( CO )
4 ⇌ Ni + 4 CO
This behavior is exploited in the Mond process for purifying nickel , as described above . The related nickel ( 0 ) complex bis ( cyclooctadiene ) nickel ( 0 ) is a useful catalyst in organonickel because the cod ligands are easily displaced .
= = = Nickel ( I ) = = =
Nickel ( I ) complexes are uncommon , but one example is the tetrahedral complex NiBr ( PPh3 ) 3 . Many nickel ( I ) complexes feature Ni @-@ Ni bonding , such as the dark red diamagnetic K
4 [ Ni
2 ( CN )
6 ] prepared by reduction of K
2 [ Ni
2 ( CN )
6 ] with sodium amalgam . This compound is oxidised in water , liberating H
2 .
It is thought that the nickel ( I ) oxidation state is important to nickel @-@ containing enzymes , such as [ NiFe ] -hydrogenase , which catalyzes the reversible reduction of protons to H
2 .
= = = Nickel ( II ) = = =
Nickel ( II ) forms compounds with all common anions , including sulfide , sulfate , carbonate , hydroxide , carboxylates , and halides . Nickel ( II ) sulfate is produced in large quantities by dissolving nickel metal or oxides in sulfuric acid , forming both a hexa- and heptahydrates useful for electroplating nickel . Common salts of nickel , such as the chloride , nitrate , and sulfate , dissolve in water to give green solutions of the metal aquo complex [ Ni ( H
2O )
6 ] 2 + .
The four halides form nickel compounds , which are solids with molecules that feature octahedral Ni centres . Nickel ( II ) chloride is most common , and its behavior is illustrative of the other halides . Nickel ( II ) chloride is produced by dissolving nickel or its oxide in hydrochloric acid . It is usually encountered as the green hexahydrate , the formula of which is usually written NiCl2 • 6H2O . When dissolved in water , this salt forms the metal aquo complex [ Ni ( H
2O )
6 ] 2 + . Dehydration of NiCl2 • 6H2O gives the yellow anhydrous NiCl
2 .
Some tetracoordinate nickel ( II ) complexes , e.g. bis ( triphenylphosphine ) nickel chloride , exist both in tetrahedral and square planar geometries . The tetrahedral complexes are paramagnetic , whereas the square planar complexes are diamagnetic . In having properties of magnetic equilibrium and formation of octahedral complexes , they contrast with the divalent complexes of the heavier group 10 metals , palladium ( II ) and platinum ( II ) , which form only square @-@ planar geometry .
Nickelocene is known ; it has an electron count of 20 , making it relatively unstable .
= = = Nickel ( III ) and ( IV ) = = =
Numerous Ni ( III ) compounds are known , with the first such examples being Nickel ( III ) trihalophosphines ( NiIII ( PPh3 ) X3 ) . Further , Ni ( III ) forms simple salts with fluoride or oxide ions . Ni ( III ) can be stabilized by σ @-@ donor ligands such as thiols and phosphines .
Ni ( IV ) is present in the mixed oxide BaNiO
3 , while Ni ( III ) is present in nickel ( III ) oxide , which is used as the cathode in many rechargeable batteries , including nickel @-@ cadmium , nickel @-@ iron , nickel hydrogen , and nickel @-@ metal hydride , and used by certain manufacturers in Li @-@ ion batteries . Ni ( IV ) remains a rare oxidation state of Nickel and very few compounds are known to date .
= = History = =
Because the ores of nickel are easily mistaken for ores of silver , understanding of this metal and its use dates to relatively recent times . However , the unintentional use of nickel is ancient , and can be traced back as far as 3500 BCE . Bronzes from what is now Syria have been found to contain as much as 2 % nickel . Some ancient Chinese manuscripts suggest that " white copper " ( cupronickel , known as baitong ) was used there between 1700 and 1400 BCE . This Paktong white copper was exported to Britain as early as the 17th century , but the nickel content of this alloy was not discovered until 1822 .
In medieval Germany , a red mineral was found in the Erzgebirge ( Ore Mountains ) that resembled copper ore . However , when miners were unable to extract any copper from it , they blamed a mischievous sprite of German mythology , Nickel ( similar to Old Nick ) , for besetting the copper . They called this ore Kupfernickel from the German Kupfer for copper . This ore is now known to be nickeline ( aka niccolite ) , a nickel arsenide . In 1751 , Baron Axel Fredrik Cronstedt tried to extract copper from kupfernickel at a cobalt mine in the Swedish village of Los , and instead produced a white metal that he named after the spirit that had given its name to the mineral , nickel . In modern German , Kupfernickel or Kupfer @-@ Nickel designates the alloy cupronickel .
Originally , the only source for nickel was the rare Kupfernickel . Beginning in 1824 , nickel was obtained as a byproduct of cobalt blue production . The first large @-@ scale smelting of nickel began in Norway in 1848 from nickel @-@ rich pyrrhotite . The introduction of nickel in steel production in 1889 increased the demand for nickel , and the nickel deposits of New Caledonia , discovered in 1865 , provided most of the world 's supply between 1875 and 1915 . The discovery of the large deposits in the Sudbury Basin , Canada in 1883 , in Norilsk @-@ Talnakh , Russia in 1920 , and in the Merensky Reef , South Africa in 1924 , made large @-@ scale production of nickel possible .
Nickel has been a component of coins since the mid @-@ 19th century . Birmingham forged nickel coins in about 1833 for trading in Malaya . In the United States , the term " nickel " or " nick " originally applied to the copper @-@ nickel Flying Eagle cent , which replaced copper with 12 % nickel 1857 – 58 , then the Indian Head cent of the same alloy from 1859 – 1864 . Still later , in 1865 , the term designated the three @-@ cent nickel , with nickel increased to 25 % . In 1866 , the five @-@ cent shield nickel ( 25 % nickel , 75 % copper ) appropriated the designation . Along with the alloy proportion , this term has been used to the present in the United States . Coins of nearly pure nickel were first used in 1881 in Switzerland , and 99 @.@ 9 % nickel five @-@ cent coins were struck in Canada ( the world 's largest nickel producer at the time ) during non @-@ war years from 1922 – 1981 ; the metal content made these coins magnetic . During the wartime period 1942 – 45 , most or all nickel was removed from Canadian and U.S. coins to save it for strategic armor . Canada used 99 @.@ 9 % nickel from 1968 in its higher @-@ value coins until 2000 . In the 21st century , the high price of nickel has led to some replacement of the metal in coins around the world . Coins still made with nickel alloys include one- and two @-@ euro coins , 5 ¢ , 10 ¢ , 25 ¢ and 50 ¢ U.S. coins , and 20p , 50p , £ 1 and £ 2 UK coins . Nickel @-@ alloy in 5p and 10p UK coins was replaced with nickel @-@ plated steel began in 2012 , causing allergy problems for some people and public controversy .
= = World production = =
The Philippines , Indonesia , Russia , Canada and Australia are the world 's largest producers of nickel , as reported by the US Geological Survey . The largest deposits of nickel in non @-@ Russian Europe are located in Finland and Greece . Identified land @-@ based resources averaging 1 % nickel or greater contain at least 130 million tons of nickel . About 60 % is in laterites and 40 % is in sulfide deposits . In addition , extensive deep @-@ sea resources of nickel are in manganese crusts and nodules covering large areas of the ocean floor , particularly in the Pacific Ocean .
The one locality in the United States where nickel has been profitably mined is Riddle , Oregon , where several square miles of nickel @-@ bearing garnierite surface deposits are located . The mine closed in 1987 . The Eagle mine project is a new nickel mine in Michigan 's upper peninsula . Construction was completed in 2013 , and operations began in the third quarter of 2014 . In the first full year of operation , Eagle Mine produced 18 @,@ 000 tonnes .
= = Extraction and purification = =
Nickel is obtained through extractive metallurgy : it is extracted from the ore by conventional roasting and reduction processes that yield a metal of greater than 75 % purity . In many stainless steel applications , 75 % pure nickel can be used without further purification , depending on the impurities .
Traditionally , most sulfide ores have been processed using pyrometallurgical techniques to produce a matte for further refining . Recent advances in hydrometallurgical techniques resulted in significantly purer metallic nickel product . Most sulfide deposits have traditionally been processed by concentration through a froth flotation process followed by pyrometallurgical extraction . In hydrometallurgical processes , nickel sulfide ores are concentrated with flotation ( differential flotation if Ni / Fe ratio is too low ) and then smelted . The nickel matte is further processed with the Sherritt @-@ Gordon process . First , copper is removed by adding hydrogen sulfide , leaving a concentrate of cobalt and nickel . Then , solvent extraction is used to separate the cobalt and nickel , with the final nickel content greater than 99 % .
= = = Electrorefining = = =
A second common refining process is leaching the metal matte into a nickel salt solution , followed by the electro @-@ winning of the nickel from solution by plating it onto a cathode as electrolytic nickel .
= = = Mond process = = =
The purest metal is obtained from nickel oxide by the Mond process , which achieves a purity of greater than 99 @.@ 99 % . The process was patented by Ludwig Mond and has been in industrial use since before the beginning of the 20th century . In this process , nickel is reacted with carbon monoxide in the presence of a sulfur catalyst at around 40 – 80 ° C to form nickel carbonyl . Iron gives iron pentacarbonyl , too , but this reaction is slow . If necessary , the nickel may be separated by distillation . Dicobalt octacarbonyl is also formed in nickel distillation as a by @-@ product , but it decomposes to tetracobalt dodecacarbonyl at the reaction temperature to give a non @-@ volatile solid .
Nickel is obtained from nickel carbonyl by one of two processes . It may be passed through a large chamber at high temperatures in which tens of thousands of nickel spheres , called pellets , are constantly stirred . The carbonyl decomposes and deposits pure nickel onto the nickel spheres . In the alternate process , nickel carbonyl is decomposed in a smaller chamber at 230 ° C to create a fine nickel powder . The byproduct carbon monoxide is recirculated and reused . The highly pure nickel product is known as " carbonyl nickel " .
= = = Metal value = = =
The market price of nickel surged throughout 2006 and the early months of 2007 ; as of April 5 , 2007 , the metal was trading at US $ 52 @,@ 300 / tonne or $ 1 @.@ 47 / oz . The price subsequently fell dramatically , and as of September 19 , 2013 , the metal was trading at $ 13 @,@ 778 / tonne , or $ 0 @.@ 39 / oz .
The US nickel coin contains 0 @.@ 04 ounces ( 1 @.@ 1 g ) of nickel , which at the April 2007 price was worth 6 @.@ 5 cents , along with 3 @.@ 75 grams of copper worth about 3 cents , with a total metal value of more than 9 cents . Since the face value of a nickel is 5 cents , this made it an attractive target for melting by people wanting to sell the metals at a profit . However , the United States Mint , in anticipation of this practice , implemented new interim rules on December 14 , 2006 , subject to public comment for 30 days , which criminalized the melting and export of cents and nickels . Violators can be punished with a fine of up to $ 10 @,@ 000 and / or imprisoned for a maximum of five years .
As of September 19 , 2013 , the melt value of a U.S. nickel ( copper and nickel included ) is $ 0 @.@ 0450258 , which is 90 % of the face value .
= = Applications = =
The global production of nickel is presently used as follows : 46 % in nickel steel ; 34 % nonferrous alloys and superalloys ; 14 % electroplating , and 6 % other uses .
Nickel is used in many specific and recognizable industrial and consumer products , including stainless steel , alnico magnets , coinage , rechargeable batteries , electric guitar strings , microphone capsules , plating on plumbing fixtures , and special alloys . It is used for plating and as a green tint in glass . Nickel is preeminently an alloy metal , and its chief use is in nickel steels and nickel cast irons , of which there are many varieties . It is widely used in many other alloys , including nickel brasses and bronzes and alloys with copper , chromium , aluminium , lead , cobalt , silver , and gold ( Inconel , Incoloy , Monel , Nimonic ) .
Because it is resistant to corrosion , nickel was occasionally used as a substitute for decorative silver . Nickel was also occasionally used in some countries after 1859 as a cheap coinage metal ( see above ) , but in the later years of the 20th century was replaced by cheaper stainless steel ( i.e. , iron ) alloys , except in the United States and Canada .
Nickel is an excellent alloying agent for certain precious metals and is used in the fire assay as a collector of platinum group elements ( PGE ) . As such , nickel is capable of fully collecting all 6 PGE elements from ores , and of partially collecting gold . High @-@ throughput nickel mines may also engage in PGE recovery ( primarily platinum and palladium ) ; examples are Norilsk in Russia and the Sudbury Basin in Canada .
Nickel foam or nickel mesh is used in gas diffusion electrodes for alkaline fuel cells .
Nickel and its alloys are frequently used as catalysts for hydrogenation reactions . Raney nickel , a finely divided nickel @-@ aluminium alloy , is one common form , though related catalysts are also used , including Raney @-@ type catalysts .
Nickel is a naturally magnetostrictive material , meaning that , in the presence of a magnetic field , the material undergoes a small change in length . The magnetostriction of nickel is on the order of 50 ppm and is negative , indicating that it contracts .
Nickel is used as a binder in the cemented tungsten carbide or hardmetal industry and used in proportions of 6 % to 12 % by weight . Nickel makes the tungsten carbide magnetic and adds corrosion @-@ resistance to the cemented parts , although the hardness is less than those with a cobalt binder .
= = Biological role = =
Although not recognized until the 1970s , nickel plays important roles in the biology of some microorganisms and plants . The plant enzyme urease ( an enzyme that assists in the hydrolysis of urea ) contains nickel . The NiFe @-@ hydrogenases contain nickel in addition to iron @-@ sulfur clusters . Such [ NiFe ] -hydrogenases characteristically oxidise H
2 . A nickel @-@ tetrapyrrole coenzyme , Cofactor F430 , is present in the methyl coenzyme M reductase , which powers methanogenic archaea . One of the carbon monoxide dehydrogenase enzymes consists of an Fe @-@ Ni @-@ S cluster . Other nickel @-@ bearing enzymes include a rare bacterial class of superoxide dismutase and glyoxalase I enzymes in bacteria and several parasitic eukaryotic trypanosomal parasites ( this enzyme in higher organisms , including yeast and mammals , contains divalent zinc , Zn2 + ) .
Nickel is implicated in the catalytic formation of the hard calcium carbonate plates of the spiny tests on larval sea urchins .
Nickel can affect human health through infections by nickel @-@ dependent bacteria . Nickel released from Siberian Traps volcanic eruptions ( site of the modern city of Norilsk ) is suspected of assisting the growth of Methanosarcina , a genus of euryarchaeote archaea that produced methane during the biggest extinction event on record .
= = Toxicity = =
The major source of nickel exposure is oral consumption . Nickel is found naturally in both food and water , and may be increased by human pollution . For example , nickel @-@ plated faucets may contaminate water and soil ; mining and smelting may dump nickel into waste @-@ water ; nickel – steel alloy cookware and nickel @-@ pigmented dishes may release nickel into food . The atmosphere may be polluted by nickel metal refining and fossil fuel combustion . Humans may absorb nickel directly from tobacco smoke and skin contact with jewelry , shampoos , detergents , and coins . A less @-@ common form of chronic exposure is through hemodialysis as traces of nickel ions may be absorbed into the plasma from the chelating action of albumin .
The average daily exposure does not pose a threat to human health . Most of the nickel absorbed every day by humans is removed by the kidneys and passed out of the body through urine or is eliminated through the gastrointestinal tract without being absorbed . Nickel is not a cumulative poison , but larger doses or chronic exposure may be toxic , even carcinogenic , and constitute an occupational hazard .
In the US , the minimal risk level of nickel and its compounds is set to 0 @.@ 2 µg / m3 for inhalation during 15 – 364 days . Nickel sulfide fume and dust are believed carcinogenic , and various other nickel compounds may be as well . Nickel carbonyl [ Ni ( CO )
4 ] is an extremely toxic gas . The toxicity of metal carbonyls is a function of both the toxicity of the metal and the off @-@ gassing of carbon monoxide from the carbonyl functional groups ; nickel carbonyl is also explosive in air .
People can be exposed to nickel in the workplace by inhalation , ingestion , and contact with skin or eye . The Occupational Safety and Health Administration ( OSHA ) has set the legal limit ( permissible exposure limit ) for the workplace at 1 mg / m3 per 8 @-@ hour workday , excluding nickel carbonyl . The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health ( NIOSH ) specifies the recommended exposure limit ( REL ) of 0 @.@ 015 mg / m3 per 8 @-@ hour workday . At 10 mg / m3 , nickel is immediately dangerous to life and health .
In the US , the Tolerable Upper Limit of dietary nickel is 1000 µg / day , while estimated average ingestion is 69 – 162 µg / day . Large amounts of nickel ( and chromium ) – comparable to the estimated average ingestion above – leach into food cooked in stainless steel . For example , the amount of nickel leached after 10 cooking cycles into one serving of tomato sauce averages 88 µg .
Sensitized individuals may show a skin contact allergy to nickel known as a contact dermatitis . Highly sensitized individuals may also react to foods with high nickel content . Sensitivity to nickel may also be present in patients with pompholyx . Nickel is the top confirmed contact allergen worldwide , partly due to its use in jewelry for pierced ears . Nickel allergies affecting pierced ears are often marked by itchy , red skin . Many earrings are now made without nickel or low @-@ release nickel to address this problem . The amount allowed in products that contact human skin is now regulated by the European Union . In 2002 , researchers found that the nickel released by 1 and 2 Euro coins was far in excess of those standards . This is believed to be the result of a galvanic reaction . Nickel was voted Allergen of the Year in 2008 by the American Contact Dermatitis Society . In August 2015 , the American Academy of Dermatology adopted a position statement on the safety of nickel : " Estimates suggest that contact dermatitis , which includes nickel sensitization , accounts for approximately $ 1 @.@ 918 billion and affects nearly 72 @.@ 29 million people " .
Reports show that both the nickel @-@ induced activation of hypoxia @-@ inducible factor ( HIF @-@ 1 ) and the up @-@ regulation of hypoxia @-@ inducible genes are caused by depletion of intracellular ascorbate . The addition of ascorbate to the culture medium increased the intracellular ascorbate level and reversed both the metal @-@ induced stabilization of HIF @-@ 1- and HIF @-@ 1α @-@ dependent gene expression .
= The Circus Starring Britney Spears =
The Circus Starring Britney Spears , commonly referred to as the Circus Tour , was the seventh concert tour by American singer Britney Spears . It was launched in support of her sixth studio album , Circus ( 2008 ) . Rumors of a tour arose as early as October 2007 , after Spears released her fifth studio album Blackout ; however , it was cancelled due to unknown reasons . The tour was officially announced in December 2008 , with dates for American and British venues revealed . The stage was composed of three rings and set in @-@ the @-@ round to resemble an actual circus . Fashion designers Dean and Dan Caten created the costumes . A giant cylinder screen was set above the stage to showcase videos and backdrops . Effects were provided by Solotech . Magician Ed Alonzo joined Spears during the second act . The setlist was composed generally from her albums In the Zone , Blackout and Circus . Spears announced she would tour Australia for the first time in June 2009 .
The Circus Starring Britney Spears was described as a " pop extravaganza " . It was divided into five segments . The Circus featured a metamorphosis of Spears from as a ringmaster to a slave , while being surrounded by different performers . House of Fun ( Anything Goes ) displayed a series of upbeat numbers with different themes , including magic and military . It ended with a Bollywood @-@ inspired performance and a ballad in which Spears performed while floating on a giant umbrella . Freakshow / Peepshow featured a video interlude set to heavy metal music , and continued with dark and sexual performances . Electro Circ displayed energetic dance routines , and the encore consisted of a video montage of Spears 's music videos and a police @-@ themed performance . Some changes were made to the show throughout the tour . Several songs were remixed ; Spears also performed " Mannequin " in selected European shows and covers of Duffy and Alanis Morissette songs on some North American dates .
The Circus Starring Britney Spears generated positive to mixed reception from critics . While some praised its aesthetics and deemed it as an entertaining show , others criticized Spears ' lack of involvement during some segments . The tour was a commercial success , with a total gross of $ 131 @.@ 8 million . A great number of tickets were sold within a week of the tour 's announcement , which prompted supporters to add more dates . The tour also broke attendance records in many cities and all the North American shows were sold out . It became the fifth highest grossing tour of 2009 , and the sixth highest grossing tour ever by a female artist . The show generated controversy on the Australian leg after a reporter said that a great number of fans had walked out during the performances .
= = Background = =
On September 9 , 2007 , Spears performed " Gimme More " , the lead single from her fifth studio album Blackout ( 2007 ) at the MTV Video Music Awards . Her last live performance had been during The M + M 's Tour in May of the same year . Her singing , her dancing and even her wardrobe were all commented on extensively , and it was considered hurtful for her career . In October 2007 , it was reported that Spears was planning to go on tour to promote the album and was holding open dance auditions , but this was later denied by Jive Records . In February 2008 , similar reports surfaced that Spears had already rehearsed in private for a month at Millennium Dance Complex in Los Angeles , and would be leaving to Europe during the following weeks for a worldwide tour . However , it was finally cancelled due to unknown reasons . In September 2008 , after New York City radio station Z100 premiered her single " Womanizer " , Spears made a surprise appearance on the show and announced she would be going on a worldwide tour during 2009 to support her sixth studio album , Circus ( 2008 ) . The concert promoter was AEG Live . Former director of the tour , Australian choreographer Wade Robson , said that the tour would visit the United States , the United Kingdom , and would also reach Australia .
After her live performances in the Big Apple Circus tent at Lincoln Center for Good Morning America on December 2 , 2008 , Spears officially announced a first leg of twenty @-@ five dates in the US and two dates in the UK , with the tour launching on March 3 , 2009 , in New Orleans . Big Apple Circus performers supported Spears during her performance , and ultimately went on to open for her throughout the tour . The Pussycat Dolls were also selected in October 2008 as the opening act of the first North American leg . Spears 's manager Larry Rudolph claimed that the show would " blow people 's minds and promises to show Britney 's fans something they will never forget . " He later added , " she goes full @-@ speed the whole show – about an hour and a half . It 's pretty intense . This is a full @-@ blown , full @-@ out Britney Spears show . It is a pop extravaganza . It is everything everybody expects from her — and more ! " On April 28 , 2009 , eight European dates were added . The following day , four more dates were announced in Russia , Poland and Germany . On June 9 , 2009 , Spears announced that she would tour Australia for the first time in November . Six dates were initially announced . Spears stated , " I 've wanted to tour Australia for quite some time and now it 's finally happening . My Circus tour is the best show I have ever created and I can 't wait to perform it for all of my Australian fans . See you guys soon ! " The following day , it was announced on her official website that she would return to North America for a second leg , visiting twenty cities . The Circus Starring Britney Spears was also rumored to reach South America , however , Spears 's manager Adam Leber denied this despite their efforts to do so .
= = Development = =
In October 2008 , Spears hired Wade Robson , who had previously worked as director for her Dream Within a Dream Tour , to direct the tour ; he announced that rehearsals would start in January . His wife , Amanda Robson , was also hired as co @-@ creative director . Andre Fuentes was chosen as the lead choreographer . However , on December 23 , 2008 , the Robsons and Fuentes were replaced due to unknown reasons by Jamie King , who previously collaborated with Spears in her Oops ! ... I Did It Again World Tour . He did the casting of the dancers and acrobats , and worked with Spears on the setlist and the choreography . King described the show saying it was " sexy , fun , explosive , and full of surprises . While avoiding such traditional circus elements as live animals , we 've created something innovative and exciting using contortionists , dancers , lighting , fire and other special effects " . Simon Ellis was hired as the musical director . The production design was done by Road Rage , a formed alliance between Nick Whitehouse , Bryan Leitch , William Baker and Steve Dixon . Lightning design was done by Visual Light , conformed by Whitehouse and Leitch . The stage was designed by Road Rage and set in @-@ the @-@ round , with a big stage in the center painted to look like a target . There were also two satellite stages in the sides unified by small catwalks , to resemble an actual three @-@ ring circus . The stage was built by Tait Towers and included nine lifts , which had a cost of $ 10 million . It traveled in 3 @,@ 000 rolling cases packed into 32 semis and a crew of 150 people was needed to set it up . There was a semi @-@ transparent Element Labs Stealth cylinder screen above the stage , comprising 960 panels that Solotech built into custom frames . The backdrops were designed by Dirk Decooedt . There were three new film sequences shot exclusively for the tour : an opening video featuring Perez Hilton , a video of Spears set to Marilyn Manson 's " Sweet Dreams Are Made of This " and a final montage . The three videos were created by Veneno . Props , including swings , couches , unicycles , stripper poles , a gold cage and giant picture frames , were designed by ShowFX Inc . ; they also provided custom VIP couch seating that lined the perimeter of the stage . VYV provided the video control , which included two Photon Show media servers and two Photon Controllers . The servers took timecode for the show and wrapped the images around the Stealth screen . Emric Epstein of VYV explained , " The servers and software permits us to control a large number of video layers on the 360 ˚ LED screen , composite the layers in realtime , and transform the final output so that everything look seamless after going through the LED controllers . There is also an astounding 3D preview of the stage and video screens in the software so you can control or re @-@ program the show without being inside the arena bowl " .
The sound was provided by Solotech . Front of house engineer Blake Suib explained that , " [ Me ] and Solotech were asked to come up with a design that blocked the least amount of seats but provided the quality and coverage that [ Spears ] expects and that we were looking for " . The public address ( PA ) was made of 64 Milos that split into four hangs of 16 per hang . Two at the 50 yard line pointed one way and directly behind , two at the 50 yard line pointed the opposite way . Also present were 32 Micas ; 16 per hang , pointing to the sides . Each one of the four hangs had its own equalization ( EQ ) and level control , so in case one of the speakers were louder there would be a separate EQ to compensate for any change in the tone due to the distance . All the components and tools used in the public address were designed by Meyer Sound Laboratories , including a software called Mapp , used to decide where to point the PA ; the Simm , to analyze and time align the PA accurately ; and the Galileo , used to EQ and balance all the sections of the PA . The speakers were self @-@ powered with amplifiers also built by Meyer Sounds . There were 24 HP700 subwoofers positioned all over the arena floor , and the Simm and Galileo were used to time align . Spears used a Crown CM @-@ 311AE headset microphone wearing the mic 's beltpack ( usually hidden in color matching material ) on her top or pants , she did not use in @-@ ear monitors ; instead 12 Meyer CQs were positioned , eight flown around the center ring and two on each of the smaller stages . Spears specifically asked Suib to make the show sound similar to a dance club . Solotech provided the lighting package , including a mostly Vari @-@ Lite rig , with 80 each VL3000s and VL3500s in various positions , and 60 VL500s built into the stage deck . Whitehouse also had 18 PRG Bad Boy luminaires , 16 of which sat in pods that hung in various positions lower than the rest of the rig , with two more at either end of the stage . Each of the eight pods housed two Bad Boys , two of the VL3500s , one Robert Juliat Ivanhoe followspot with scroller under DMX control , and a Molefay . Fifty Martin Professional Atomic Color strobes and four front of house Robert Juliat Aramis followspots rounded out the lighting package . The lightning team had to rehearse for a month to prepare . The tour was also the first to use the touring version of the PRG Virtuoso V676 console to control the system , which was used from the beginning of the European leg until the end of the tour . Pyrotechnics and jets of smoke used in the show were created by Lorenzo Cornacchia of Pyrotek Special Effects and Tait Towers .
Spears explained that since she did not tour to promote Blackout , she was excited about having to include songs from that album into the setlist . The finished setlist would include three songs from Circus , six songs from Blackout and five songs from In the Zone ( 2003 ) ; other parts of the setlist consist of a medley of " Breathe on Me " and " Touch of My Hand " , both from In the Zone ; and a remix of " ... Baby One More Time " , the only song performed off the album of the same name ( 1998 ) . " Everytime " was the only song not included in the released setlist but was performed regularly on the show . Magician Ed Alonzo joined Spears in one of the acts , and she played as his assistant . Alonzo stated , " We 're going to be doing the classics of magic but a little high @-@ tech . We 'll be doing a little dissection , transposition , a vanish , an appearance — and if I do a trick , she doesn 't just hold the props , she 's actually getting inside the big boxes or I am slicing her up . ... Some of it 's pretty scary , but she gets right in there with no reservations . " The costumes were designed by Dean and Dan Caten from DSquared2 . They recreated classic circus outfits , like clowns , jugglers and trapeze artists in a more provocative way . They commented that ,
" We are enormous fans of Britney , and have been waiting for the perfect moment to collaborate with her . It 's going to be wild . We wanted to create something much more provoking and indecent ... something animalistic and primal . We are confident that this tour partnership , an autobiographical tribute for one who has always been in the spotlight : scrutinized , watched , imitated , photographed , criticized and loved , will be an enormous success " .
The costumes of the first segment were selected to show a metamorphosis . The cheetah headdress represented an animal . The jacket and whip represented both a ringmaster and a lion tamer . She took the headdress off at the end of the first song to reveal a Swarovski @-@ crystal corset , fishnets , and boots and entered the cage to represent a slave . The wardrobe for the song " Mannequin " included black jeans from True Religion and a yellow tank top with rhinestones designed by Spears herself . Spears 's outfits had a duplicate set in case of any problem and were numbered in sequence . The total number of costumes was approximately 350 , kept in order by six full @-@ time women . The wardrobe was also revealed to have $ 150 @,@ 000 worth of Swaroski crystals .
= = Concert synopsis = =
The show was mainly divided into four acts with different themes : The Circus , House of Fun ( Anything Goes ) , Freakshow – Peepshow , Electro Circ and ended with the encore . It began with " Welcome to the Circus " , a video introduction featuring Perez Hilton as Queen Elizabeth I. In the middle of the video , the cylinder screen started to rise , while Spears appeared on the video and shot Hilton with a crossbow , causing him to fall backwards onto the floor . As the video ended , Spears descended from the ceiling on a suspended platform , wearing the headdress , a ringmaster jacket , black shorts , high @-@ heeled boots and carrying a whip . She started with a performance of " Circus " , which featured acrobats taking the stage and spun on giant rings in the air . The song ended with Spears taking off her ringleader jacket to reveal the Swaroski @-@ crystal corset and running into the center of the main stage , as she was surrounded by jets of smoke . She entered a golden cage , where she performed " Piece of Me " , dancing and attempting to escape from her dancers . A brief interlude followed , featuring a performance by acrobats twirling from suspended fabric , simulating a thunderstorm. before Spears went into " Radar " which featured her pole dancing on each of the stage 's rings . The first intermezzo showcased her dancers doing a martial arts inspired dance to the LAZRtag remix of " Gimme More " . In the next section , Ed Alonzo took the stage and Spears played her assistant in " Ooh Ooh Baby " entering a box and being sawed in half . After she came out , she entered another box in the middle of the stage and the performance ended with Alonzo dropping the curtains and showing that Spears had escaped from it , while the top of the box exploded in a shower of sparks . At the same time , Spears reappeared with four female dancers in one of the satellite stages , dancing to " Hot as Ice " . The next song was the Co @-@ Ed Remix of " Boys " , which Spears performed wearing a military costume , while surrounded by her dancers , some of them riding bicycles . At the end of the song she performed a military drill with her male dancers before moving into " If U Seek Amy " , which featured her pushing them with a giant pink mallet , in a similar way to Whac @-@ A @-@ Mole . After a brief interlude , she returned to continue the act with a Bollywood @-@ inspired remix of " Me Against the Music " . She briefly talked with the audience before she sat on a giant umbrella and was lifted into the air to perform " Everytime " .
The show continued with a video interlude featuring Marilyn Manson 's cover of " Sweet Dreams ( Are Made of This ) " , showing Spears in a classically decadent party @-@ setting , in which everyone except her was wearing masks . A distorted voice welcomed spectators to the third act and Spears appeared onstage to perform " Freakshow " and " Get Naked ( I Got a Plan ) " . A video spoofing late @-@ night chat lines featuring " Britney 's Hotline " played , while clowns took a person from the audience and goofed around with them . Spears returned to perform " Breathe on Me " , dancing on a giant picture frame , and " Touch of My Hand " , in which she sported a blindfold while being lifted on the air sitting in the backs of two aerialists . In the fourth section , there was a band interlude , and Spears appeared on stage to perform " Do Somethin ' " , with a gun that shot sparks in her hand . This was followed by a remix of " I 'm a Slave 4 U " , in which she was raised on a platform as a ring of fire started below her . In the " Heartbeat " interlude , the dancers showcased their individual moves . Spears performed " Toxic " with moving jungle gyms and surrounded by green sci @-@ fi lightning effects . The act ended with Spears and her dancers performing a remix of " ... Baby One More Time " . After a brief pause , the encore began with the " Break the Ice " video interlude , which included various clips of Spears 's music videos . Spears returned for a performance of " Womanizer " dressed as a policewoman . Spears and the dancers bowed to each side of the arena and left with " Circus " playing in the background . Some changes were made to the setlist throughout the tour . During opening night in New Orleans , Spears was supposed to perform a cover of Duffy 's " I 'm Scared " after " Everytime " . However , the lyric sheet went missing onstage and she started performing from below the stage , leaving two backup singers in the main stage . It was later dropped from the show . " Mannequin " was added on the second Paris date and performed after " Get Naked ( I Got a Plan ) " , with a brief lightshow introduction . The song was performed until July 26 , 2009 . A cover of " You Oughta Know " by Alanis Morissette was performed on select shows during the second North American leg , starting on September 5 , 2009 . In addition , " Piece of Me " , " Radar " , " Ooh Ooh Baby " , " Do Somethin ' " , " I 'm a Slave 4 U " , " ... Baby One More Time " and " Womanizer " were remixed at the beginning of the European leg .
= = Critical reception = =
After Spears 's premiere performance , the tour received mixed to positive reviews from several critics . Stacey Plaisance of the Associated Press commented that the tour was " another strong step in the right direction " and that Spears delivered " a tightly choreographed , if perfunctory performance " . Ann Powers of the Los Angeles Times stated , " despite that first @-@ night stumble and several numbers in which her dancing was no more than adequate , Spears can safely call this performance a success " . Jon Caramanica of The New York Times said that " [ the show ] was less a concert than a Las Vegas @-@ style revue of intimidating complexity . Throughout , though she spoke little , Ms. Spears appeared radiant and unfettered , often smiling and never uncommitted " . Dixie Reid of The Sacramento Bee commented that the show was " a mesmerizingly big production with entertaining videos ( including the infamous Spears @-@ Madonna kiss ) , confetti , sparklers and even a stilt @-@ walker . Who could ask for more ? Everyone seemed to have a good time at the circus " . Neil McCormick of The Daily Telegraph said Spears is " the queen of production line pop and reclaims that diamanté crown with the most perfectly plastic pop show ever staged " .
People writer Chuck Arnold wrote that Spears " never really hit her old stride [ .. ] there was a lot more strutting than real choreographic feats from [ her ] " . Jeff Montgomery of MTV both praised and dismissed Spears 's performance saying , " Yes , welcome to Britney 's Circus , a big , huge , loud , funny , nonsensical three @-@ ring affair ... She looks great in her myriad of outfits , and she can still move with the best of them . [ ... ] It 's just , well , she 's almost lost in the sheer hugeness of the production around her " . Jane Stevenson of Toronto Sun gave Spears 's performance three out of five stars stating there was " so much was going on – there were also martial artists , bicyclists , etc . – there was no time to really assess Spears other than to note that she looked great . [ .. ] She could lip @-@ synch the words ( one can assume ) and strut around the stage well enough , but there was little in the way of genuine passion , joy , or excitement on her part " . The Hollywood Reporter 's Craig Rosen claimed that " in the end , Britney and company delivered an entertaining spectacle , but one couldn 't help but wish that she would strip it all down and show a little more of herself " . Sean Daly of St. Petersburg Times summed up all the reviews by stating , " When Britney , touring behind her new Circus album , plays the Times Forum , there will be as many people rooting for her success as her failure . [ .. ] But in the end , we 're all envious and thankful , jealous and applauding . We like them / us and hate them / us for the very same reasons " .
= = Commercial response = =
A week after The Circus Britney Spears was announced , 400 @,@ 000 tickets were purchased for the North American shows , which prompted promoters to add seven more dates in Los Angeles , Toronto , New Jersey , Chicago , Long Island , Anaheim and Montreal . Due to demand in the UK , six more shows were added to the initial two , selling more than 100 @,@ 000 tickets in a week . Spears performance at the American Airlines Arena broke the attendance record previously held by Celine Dion , with a crowd of 18 @,@ 644 people . The first North American leg , which was sold out , resulted in an average of 20 @,@ 498 tickets per show and a gross of $ 61 @.@ 6 million , becoming the highest grossing tour of the first semester of 2009 in the continent . In addition , the tour grossed $ 13 million from the London , Manchester and Dublin shows , with a total gross of $ 74 @.@ 6 million , ranking as the third highest grossing tour worldwide . The Copenhagen show at Parken gathered 40 @,@ 000 people , Spears 's largest audience since her 2002 concerts in Mexico City .
The second North American leg was also sold out , with a gross of $ 21 @.@ 4 million and it was reported that the tour had grossed $ 94 million . Her first three shows in Melbourne were also sold out . The four shows at Acer Arena in Sydney sold 66 @,@ 247 tickets , making Spears the highest selling act ever in the arena . The tour was ranked at number seven on Billboard 's Top 25 Tours of 2009 , with a previously reported gross of $ 94 million . However , only 70 of the 97 shows were counted . The Circus Starring Britney Spears also made Spears rank at number twenty one on the Top Touring Artists of the Decade , becoming the youngest artist in the list and also the fourth female artist , behind Madonna , Celine Dion and Cher . The tour was also ranked as the fourth highest grossing tour of the year in North America , becoming the highest grossing tour of the year by a solo artist . In February 2010 , Pollstar released their Top 50 Worldwide Concert Tours of 2009 . The tour ranked as the fifth highest @-@ grossing tour , worldwide , of the year , with a gross of $ 131 @.@ 8 million . In May 2010 , Hollyscoop ranked the tour at the fifth position in their 15 Most Profitable Female Tours Ever list .
= = Australian leg controversies = =
Before the first of the Australian shows , Minister for Fair Trading for New South Wales Virginia Judge , said she was aware that Spears would lipsync during the concerts and was considering to include disclaimers on promotional materials and tickets , indicating that portions of the show would be pre @-@ recorded . This measures would mean a change in the country 's legislation similar to the debacle of the 2008 Summer Olympics opening ceremony . Judge further explained her position saying , " Let 's be clear – live means live . If you are spending up to $ 200 I think you deserve better than a film clip " . Tour director Steve Dixon defended Spears , claiming , " This is a pop spectacular , this is a showband show . You come for the experience . There is a lot to see about this show , there 's nothing like this in the world . Britney Spears will entertain you , that 's what people come for . We absolutely give them a show " . After opening night in Perth , The Advertiser writer Rebekah Devlin reported that a number of fans had walked out of the show . They were apparently " disappointed " and " outraged " regarding Spears 's lip syncing and subdued dancing . Australian tour promoter Paul Dainty talked about the situation saying ,
" It 's the biggest lie I 've ever heard . I 'm so angry . We can take heat if there 's something wrong and people can review shows badly – that 's something you have to live with – but to say people stormed out of the show was an absolute fabrication . Britney is aware of all this and she 's extremely upset by it . She 's a human being . I 'm embarrassed , with such a big international entourage here with Britney , to be part of the Australian media when I see that kind of totally inaccurate reporting . It 's been all over the internet for nine months , the inference is that we tried to hide this . It 's been the opposite . This show is about an incredible spectacle , which it is " .
Spears 's manager Adam Leber responded in his Twitter account , saying , " It 's unfortunate that one journalist in Perth didn 't enjoy the show last night . Fortunately the other 18 @,@ 272 fans in attendance did " . Spears 's official website also posted a list of positive reviews from a number of fans . Burswood Dome also issued a statament reading , " Last night 's concert ( Friday ) saw record crowds turn out for her first performance in Perth and from Burswood 's perspective the event was a huge success . Early media reports that hundreds of fans left the concert early cannot be substantiated and Burswood has received no complaints about the concert " . Finally , Spears addressed the situation according to BBC Online . She was quoted as saying , " I hear there is a lot of controversy in the media about my show . Some reporters have said they love it and some don 't . I came to Australia for my fans " . The negative media attention continued after her show in Melbourne when it was alleged that fans had placed tickets for the remaining Australian shows on sale on the online shopping website eBay , for as little as 99 cents . However , Dainty said that the holders of the tickets were not Spears 's fans , stating " They 're just profiteers . They buy tickets for $ 200 and think they that when the concerts sell @-@ out they will offload them for $ 500 " .
= = Broadcast and recordings = =
During the tour , there were many speculations that the shows in Las Vegas on September 26 , 27 , 2009 would be recorded in 3D . Professional footage also surfaced online of the Copenhagen show . On November 12 , 2009 , Britney 's manager , Adam Leber , posted on his Twitter account that there were " ... No plans for a Circus Tour DVD at the moment . " On June 26 , 2012 , rumours arose on celebrity blogger Perez Hilton 's website stating that there was a DVD to be released after what appeared to be a trailer of unseen concert footage surfaced online . Despite this , no official DVD or recording has been released of the concert tour .
= = Set list = =
The set list for the tour , as revealed by Spears ' official website on March 2 , 2009 . It is not representative of all concerts for the duration of the tour .
Other songs performed in select dates include : " Mannequin " , " You Oughta Know " and " I 'm Scared " .
" Touch of My Hand " was removed in the middle of the tour .
= = Shows = =
= = Cancelled shows = =
= 47 Ursae Majoris =
47 Ursae Majoris ( abbreviated 47 UMa ) , also named Chalawan ( Thai : ชาละวัน , pronounced [ t ͡ ɕʰāː.lā.wān ] ) , is a yellow dwarf star approximately 46 light @-@ years from Earth in the constellation of Ursa Major . As of 2011 , three extrasolar planets ( designated 47 Ursae Majoris b , c and d ; the first two later named Taphao Thong and Taphao Kaew ) are believed to orbit the star .
The star is located fairly close to the Solar System : according to astrometric measurements made by the Hipparcos astrometry satellite , it exhibits a parallax of 71 @.@ 11 milliarcseconds , corresponding to a distance of 45 @.@ 913 light @-@ years . With an apparent magnitude of + 5 @.@ 03 , it is visible to the naked eye and its absolute magnitude of + 4 @.@ 29 implies a visual luminosity around 60 % greater than the Sun . A solar analog , with a spectral type of G1V , it has a similar mass to that of the Sun but is slightly hotter at around 5 @,@ 882 K. and slightly more metal @-@ rich with around 110 % of the solar abundance of iron .
Like the Sun , 47 Ursae Majoris is on the main sequence , converting hydrogen to helium in its core by nuclear fusion . Based on its chromospheric activity , the star may be around 6 @,@ 000 million years old , though evolutionary models suggest an older age of around 8 @,@ 700 million years . Other studies have yielded estimates of 4 @,@ 400 and 7 @,@ 000 million years for the star .
= = Nomenclature = =
47 Ursae Majoris is the Flamsteed designation . On their discoveries the planets were successively designated 47 Ursae Majoris b , c and d . In July 2014 the International Astronomical Union launched a process for giving proper names to certain exoplanets and their host stars . The process involved public nomination and voting for the new names . In December 2015 , the IAU announced the winning names were Chalawan for this star and Taphao Thong and Taphao Kaew for two of the planets ( b and c , respectively ) .
The winning names were submitted by the Thai Astronomical Society , Thailand . Chalawan is a mythological crocodile king from a Thai folktale and Taphaothong and Taphaokaeo are two sisters associated with the tale .
Chalawan is also the name give an extinct genus of crocodylian . It contains a single species , Chalawan thailandicus .
= = Planetary system = =
In 1996 an exoplanet ( 47 UMa b ) was announced in orbit around 47 Ursae Majoris by Geoffrey Marcy and R. Paul Butler . The discovery was made by observing the Doppler shift of the star 's spectrum corresponding to changes in the star 's radial velocity as the planet 's gravity pulled it around . The planet was the first long @-@ period extrasolar planet discovered . Unlike the majority of known such planets , it has a low @-@ eccentricity orbit . The planet is at least 2 @.@ 53 times the mass of Jupiter and takes 1 @,@ 078 days or 2 @.@ 95 years to orbit its star . If it were to be located in the Solar System , it would lie between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter .
In 2001 , preliminary astrometric measurements made by the Hipparcos probe suggested the orbit of 47 UMa b is inclined at an angle of 63 @.@ 1 ° to the plane of the sky , implying the planet 's true mass is around 2 @.@ 9 times that of Jupiter . However , subsequent analysis suggested the Hipparcos measurements were not precise enough to accurately determine the orbits of substellar companions , and the inclination and true mass remain unknown .
A second planet ( 47 UMa c ) was announced in 2002 by Debra Fischer , Geoffrey Marcy , and R. Paul Butler . The discovery was made using the same radial velocity method . According to Fischer et al . , the planet takes around 2 @,@ 391 days or 6 @.@ 55 years to complete an orbit . This configuration is similar to the configuration of Jupiter and Saturn in the Solar System , with the orbital ratio ( close to 5 : 2 ) , and mass ratio roughly similar . Subsequent measurements failed to confirm the existence of the second planet , and it was noted that the dataset used to determine its existence left the planet 's parameters " almost unconstrained " . Analysis of a longer dataset spanning over 6 @,@ 900 days suggests that while a second planet in the system is likely , periods near 2 @,@ 500 days have a high false alarm probability , and the best fit model gives an orbital period of 7 @,@ 586 days at a distance of 7 @.@ 73 AU from the star . Nevertheless , the parameters of the second planet are still highly uncertain . On the other hand , the Catalog of Nearby Exoplanets gives a period of 2 @,@ 190 days , which would put the planets close to a 2 : 1 ratio of orbital periods , though the reference for these parameters is uncertain : the original Fischer et al. paper is cited as a reference in spite of the fact that it gives different parameters , though this solution has been adopted by the Extrasolar Planets Encyclopaedia .
In 2010 , the discovery of a third planet ( 47 UMa d ) was made by using the Bayesian Kepler Periodogram . Using this model of this planetary system it was determined that it is 100 @,@ 000 times more likely to have three planets than two planets . This discovery was announced by Debra Fischer and P.C. Gregory . This 1 @.@ 64 MJ planet has an orbital period of 14 @,@ 002 days or 38 @.@ 33 years and a semi @-@ major axis of 11 @.@ 6 AU with a moderate eccentricity of 0 @.@ 16 . It would be the longest @-@ period planet discovered by the radial velocity method , although longer @-@ period planets had previously been discovered by direct imaging and pulsar timing .
Simulations suggest that the inner part of the habitable zone of 47 Ursae Majoris could host a terrestrial planet in a stable orbit , though the outer regions of the habitable zone would be disrupted by the gravitational influence of the planet 47 UMa b . However , the presence of a giant planet within 2 @.@ 5 AU of the star may have disrupted planet formation in the inner system , and reduced the amount of water delivered to inner planets during accretion . This may mean any terrestrial planets orbiting in the habitable zone of 47 Ursae Majoris are likely to be small and dry . As of 2008 , there have been two METI messages sent to 47 Ursae Majoris . Both were transmitted from Eurasia 's largest radar — 70 @-@ meter ( 230 @-@ foot ) Eupatoria Planetary Radar . The first message , the Teen Age Message , was sent on September 3 , 2001 , and it will arrive at 47 Ursae Majoris in July 2047 . The second message , Cosmic Call 2 , was sent on July 6 , 2003 , and it will arrive at 47 Ursae Majoris in May 2049 .
Because of its planetary system , 47 Ursae Majoris was listed as one of the top 100 target stars for NASA 's former Terrestrial Planet Finder mission .
= 1879 Navy Midshipmen football team =
The 1879 Navy Midshipmen football team represented the United States Naval Academy in the 1879 college football season . The team was the first intercollegiate football squad to represent the United States Naval Academy . The team had no coach , as it was entirely student @-@ operated ; however , it was captained by squad member Bill Maxwell . The team played just a single game , which was a scoreless tie with the Baltimore Athletic Club . The team was entirely student operated , and was not supported by the Naval Academy 's faculty . The school would not have another football squad until 1882 .
= = Background = =
It is widely believed by football researchers that the playing of intercollegiate football began in November 1869 , when a player at Rutgers University challenged another player at the nearby College of New Jersey ( now Princeton ) . The contest more closely resembled soccer , with teams scoring by kicking a ball into the opponent 's net , and lacked a uniform rules structure . The game developed slowly ; the first rules were drafted in October 1873 , and only consisted of twelve guidelines . Even though the number of teams participating in the sport increased , the game was still effectively controlled by the College of New Jersey , who claimed eight national championships in ten years . Only Yale presented any form of challenge , claiming four national championships in the same time period .
The birth of football at the Naval Academy is debated among historians . The most accepted occurrence was in 1869 , when a midshipman ( a student ) returned from his leave with a football . While throwing the ball with a friend , it was dropped and a group of fellow midshipmen attempted to take it . A contest was eventually organized , which ended abruptly when the ball was kicked into the Severn River . However , biographer C. Douglas Kroll stated that the first evidence of a form of football at the United States Naval Academy came in 1857 , but the school 's cadets lost interest in the game shortly afterward , a theory supported by journalist Jack Clary . Regardless , the sport had been banned for several years prior to 1879 .
= = Schedule = =
= = Season summary = =
There were two separate efforts to establish a Naval Academy football team in 1879 . The first was guided by first @-@ classman J.H. Robinson , who developed it as a training regiment to help keep the school 's baseball team in shape . The team played the sport under rules that made it much closer to soccer , where the players were permitted only to kick the ball in order to advance it . The second effort , headed by first @-@ classman William John Maxwell was more successful in its efforts . Maxwell met with two of his friends , Tunstall Smith and Henry Woods , who played for the Baltimore Athletic Club and officially challenged their team to a game with the Naval Academy . A team was formed from academy first @-@ classmen , which Maxwell led as a manager , trainer , and captain . The team would wake up and practice before reveille and following drill and meals . The squad received encouragement from some of the faculty , who allowed them to eat a late dinner and skip final drill for additional practicing . This was against the direct orders of the school superintendent , who had banned football and similar activities .
The year 's sole contest was played on December 11 against the Baltimore Athletic Club . The opposition 's team was reportedly composed of players from Princeton , Yale , Pennsylvania , and Johns Hopkins . The Naval Academy hosted the Baltimore team on a temporary field drawn on part of the superintendent 's cow pasture . Rules decided upon between the teams established that the game was to be played under rugby rules . The Baltimore American and Chronicle , which covered the contest , described it as such :
The game , played under rugby rules , was a battle from beginning to end — a regular knock down and drag out fight . Both sides became immediately excited and the audience was aroused to the highest pitch of enthusiasm by the spirited contest . The ball oscillated backward and forward over the ground without any material result .
The scrimmages were something awful to witness — living , kicking , scrambling masses of humanity surging to and fro , each individual after the leather oval . If a Baltimorean got the ball and started for a run , he was unfailingly caught by one of the brawny Cadets and dashed to earth with five or six men falling on him .
The game was closely fought and was finally declared a scoreless tie by the referee about an hour after it began . Navy reportedly never gained possession of the ball . However , the Naval Academy managed to keep the Baltimore Athletic Club from ever being in a scoring position . On three separate occasions , Navy forced Baltimore back into its own end zone for a safety ; these were not worth any points until 1882 , however , so they offered Navy no benefit . The American and Chronicle reported that Maxwell , Craven , and Sample of Navy gave the strongest performances , but were also reckless in their play and were repeatedly penalized for jumping offside or kicking the ball out of play , a form of delay of game .
Some time after the game , Walter Camp , known as the " Father of American Football " , credited Maxwell as the inventor of the first football uniform . After he was informed that the Baltimore team he was playing outweighed his by an average of ten pounds , Maxwell looked for a way to make the teams more evenly matched . Using his knowledge of sailing , he decided to design a sleeveless canvas jacket which would make his players " difficult to grasp when they began to sweat " . He presented the design to the academy 's tailor , who created the double @-@ lined jackets which " were laced down the front and drawn tightly to fit snugly around a player 's body " . The weighted suits were worn by the team , which was confused by the " strangle , heavy , newfangled getups " .
= = Players = =
The 1879 Naval Academy team was made up of fifteen players at four different positions . The squad consisted of ten forwards , two halfbacks , two wholebacks , and one three @-@ quarterback . Maxwell , in addition to playing as a rusher , served as team manager and captain . John F. Luby , a first @-@ classman , served as an unofficial assistant coach . Only first @-@ classmen were asked to participate on the team . The age of the players , however , ranged several years due to the academy 's admission policy ; the school allowed for men between the ages of 14 and 18 to be admitted as first year students , which future player John B. Patton remarked made it " just a boys ' school " .
= = Postseason and aftermath = =
The first postseason college football game would not be played until 1902 , with the Pasadena Tournament of Roses ' establishment of the east @-@ west tournament game , later known as the Rose Bowl . The Midshipmen would not participate in their first Rose Bowl until the 1923 season , when they went 5 – 1 – 2 and tied with the Washington Huskies 14 – 14 in the match . According to statistics compiled by the National Championship Foundation , Parke Davis , and the Billingsley college football research center , Yale was declared the 1882 season champion , giving them their eighth overall .
The Naval Academy would not produce another football team until the 1882 season . The 1882 team would be the first with a coach , being supported by Academy officials . The 1879 season was the last time that a Navy squad would play the Baltimore Athletic Club . Navy would finish the 1880s with four winning seasons , and an overall record of 14 – 12 – 2 , with one of those ties being the game against the Baltimore Athletic Club . Navy would outscore their opponents 292 – 231 , and would finish the 19th century with an overall record of 54 – 19 – 3 . The lack of a coach for the 1879 season was one of the two times the Naval Academy squad lacked one , the other time being from 1883 through 1891 .
= Early life of Ricky Ponting =
Ricky Ponting is an Australian Test cricketer who was born on 19 December 1974 . He made his One Day International ( ODI ) debut for the Australian cricket team against the South Africa cricket team in New Zealand at the age of 20 on 15 February 1995 . The eldest of three children , Ponting emulated the feats of his father , playing cricket in summer and Australian rules football in winter , before breaking his arm while playing the latter sport for a junior North Launceston Football Club team as a 14 @-@ year @-@ old . He was educated in the Tasmanian state school system , studying at Mowbray Heights Primary and Brooks High School .
Ponting received a bat sponsorship with Kookaburra Sport at 14 , before being acclaimed the best 17 @-@ year @-@ old batsman that Australian Cricket Academy coach Rod Marsh had ever seen . At 17 years and 337 days , Ponting made his first @-@ class cricket debut for Tasmania , breaking David Boon 's record as the youngest player to represent the state . Later in the season , he became the youngest Tasmanian to score a first @-@ class century at 18 years and 40 days , eclipsing Boon 's record of 19 years and 356 days . Further into the 1992 – 93 season , Ponting scored two centuries in a match against Western Australia — the youngest player in Sheffield Shield history to do so . He played non @-@ international games against national teams for Australia A in the 1994 – 95 World Series Cup , before making his Australian debut .
= = Birth = =
Born in Launceston , Tasmania , on 19 December 1974 , Ricky Thomas Ponting is the eldest of Graeme and Lorraine Ponting 's three children . His brother Drew is two years younger , while sister Renee was born when Ponting was six . Their uncle Greg Campbell played cricket for Australia in 1989 and 1990 . Graeme was " a good club cricketer " and played Australian rules , while Lorraine was a state vigoro champion . " Fiercely contested " in the 1950s and 1960s , vigoro is a mix between cricket and baseball , primarily played in the Australian states of Tasmania , New South Wales and Queensland . Ponting 's parents first lived in Prospect 4 @.@ 1 km ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) south of the city centre , before moving into the working @-@ class area of Newnham , 6 km ( 3 @.@ 7 mi ) north of central Launceston . The suburb is near York Park , Tasmania 's largest capacity stadium and its only Australian Football League venue . Residents of the area were generally known as " swampies " because the land was previously swamp on the banks of the Tamar River .
= = Junior ranks = =
Introduced to cricket by father Graeme and uncle Greg , Ponting was able to play for the Mowbray Under – 13s team at the age of 11 in 1985 – 86 . In January 1986 , he took part in the five @-@ day annual Northern Tasmania junior cricket competition . On the Monday , he struggled to trouble the scorers , however , he bounced back with a century on Tuesday . Wednesday saw him make 117 not out and he continued his form into Thursday and Friday , scoring centuries on both days . Afterwards , bat manufacturer Kookaburra gave Ponting a sponsorship contract when he was still only 14 years old . Ponting took this form into the Under @-@ 16s week @-@ long competition less than a month later , scoring an even century on the final day . Ted Richardson , the former head of the Northern Tasmanian Schools Cricket Association said : " Ricky is certainly the equal of David Boon at this level . At his age he 's the best I 've seen in the north . His technique , application , and temperament are all excellent and he has the modesty he will need to progress further . "
Australian Rules football was also a big part of Ponting 's sporting life ; during winter he played junior football for North Launceston and until he was 14 , it could have become a possible sporting option , before he broke the humerus in his right arm playing for North Launceston Under – 17s . Ponting 's arm was so badly damaged that it had to be pinned . Told to endure a 14 @-@ week lay @-@ off , he never played competitive football again . He later wrote : " At one stage I was concerned that the arm injury might also stop me from playing cricket but they [ the doctors ] did a pretty good job on pinning the bones — and it hasn 't bothered me since . "
In 1986 , Ponting said : " I 'd love to play for Australia [ ... ] I look up to David Boon because he 's from here [ Launceston ] . " During Tasmanian Sheffield Shield matches at the Northern Tasmanian Cricket Association Ground ( NTCA Ground ) , Ponting served as a scoreboard assistant , thereby surrounding himself with first @-@ class and international cricketers . After leaving school at the end of year 10 as a 16 @-@ year @-@ old in 1990 , he began work as a groundsman at Scotch Oakburn College , a private school in Launceston . In 1991 , the Northern Tasmanian Cricket Association sponsored Ponting so that he could attend a fortnight 's training at the Australian Institute of Sport 's Cricket Academy in Adelaide . The two weeks turned into a full two @-@ year scholarship as he was acclaimed to be the best 17 @-@ year @-@ old batsman Academy coach Rod Marsh had ever seen .
Playing five games for Tasmania in the 1992 Under – 19 tournament in Perth , Ponting scored 350 runs , earning him selection in the 13 @-@ man national Under – 19 development squad for the upcoming tour of South Africa — the first Australian cricket team to make an official tour to the country since Bill Lawry 's team in 1970 ; South Africa were banned from international sport soon after because of their government 's policy of apartheid , and were not readmitted until the 1990s . Under the captaincy of Adam Gilchrist , the Australians played four one @-@ day and four three @-@ day games , winning five and drawing three . Ponting scored 430 runs at an average of 45 @.@ 67 . Later recalling the excitement of the experience , Ponting wrote :
It dawned on me when I was being fitted for my traveling uniform that I was about to represent my country . When that hit home it was a very proud moment in my life . Even though it was not a real representative tour it felt like it to me [ ... ] It wasn 't until we all gathered at the airport that I got the real rush of excitement because there I was , this sixteen year @-@ old kid about to take off and play cricket in a strange country , and from what we had been told it would be in conditions like we had never experienced before . We were all excited with the prospect of taking on the South Africans and we had been told about the wickets being bouncy and fast , similar to the WACA strip in Perth .
= = Early Australian domestic career = =
After scoring 114 not out in a club match against Riverside , Ponting became the youngest player to appear for Tasmania in a Sheffield Shield match , breaking Boon 's record by 14 days . In November 1992 , at the age of 17 years and 337 days , he batted at number four in the order against South Australia at the Adelaide Oval . Despite scoring 56 in a 127 @-@ run partnership with Boon , he could not prevent defeat , scoring just four in Tasmania 's second innings . In his first match in Tasmania — this time against New South Wales — Ponting contributed 32 and 18 in a draw , before scoring 25 against Western Australia in a narrow loss . His first match in Sydney also marked the debut of future Australian opening bowler Glenn McGrath . At the end of the first day 's play , Tasmania were 6 / 200 , and Ponting was the only player to resist , reaching 98 not out . He eventually reached three figures the next morning , having endured three rain breaks and 54 minutes in the nineties . The century made him the youngest Tasmanian to score a first @-@ class century , at 18 years and 40 days , eclipsing Boon 's record of 19 years and
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attending school , he was drinking beer when his father was not looking . Some accounts say that , after a violent incident at his father 's saloon , the city authorities decided this environment was unsuitable for a small child . At St. Mary 's , which George Jr. entered on June 13 , 1902 , he was recorded as " incorrigible " ; he spent much of the next twelve years there .
Although St. Mary 's inmates received an education , students were also expected to learn work skills and help operate the school , particularly once the boys turned 12 . Ruth became a shirtmaker , and was also proficient as a carpenter . He would adjust his own shirt collars , rather than having a tailor do it , even during his well @-@ paid baseball career . The boys , aged 5 to 21 , did most work around the facility , from cooking to shoemaking , and renovated St. Mary 's in 1912 . The food was simple , and the Xaverian Brothers who ran the school insisted on strict discipline ; corporal punishment was common . Ruth 's nickname there was " Niggerlips " , as he had large facial features and was darker than most boys at the all @-@ white reformatory .
Ruth was sometimes allowed to rejoin his family , or was placed at St. James 's Home , a supervised residence with work in the community , but he was always returned to St. Mary 's . He rarely was visited by his family ; his mother died when he was 12 and by some accounts , he was permitted to leave St. Mary 's only to attend the funeral . How Ruth came to play baseball there is uncertain : according to one account , his placement at St. Mary 's was due in part to repeatedly breaking Baltimore 's windows with long hits while playing street ball ; by another , he was told to join a team on his first day at St. Mary 's by the school 's athletic director , Brother Herman , becoming a catcher even though left @-@ handers rarely play that position . During his time there he also played third base and shortstop , again unusual for a left @-@ hander , and was forced to wear mitts and gloves made for right @-@ handers . He was encouraged in his pursuits by the school 's Prefect of Discipline , Brother Matthias Boutlier , a native of Nova Scotia . A large man , Brother Matthias was greatly respected by the boys both for his strength and for his fairness . For the rest of his life , Ruth would praise Brother Matthias , and his running and hitting styles closely resembled his teacher 's . Ruth stated , " I think I was born as a hitter the first day I ever saw him hit a baseball . " The older man became a mentor and role model to George ; biographer Robert W. Creamer commented on the closeness between the two :
Ruth revered Brother Matthias ... which is remarkable , considering that Matthias was in charge of making boys behave and that Ruth was one of the great natural misbehavers of all time . ... George Ruth caught Brother Matthias ' attention early , and the calm , considerable attention the big man gave the young hellraiser from the waterfront struck a spark of response in the boy 's soul ... [ that may have ] blunted a few of the more savage teeth in the gross man whom I have heard at least a half @-@ dozen of his baseball contemporaries describe with admiring awe and wonder as " an animal . "
The school 's influence remained with Ruth in other ways : a lifelong Catholic , he would sometimes attend Mass after carousing all night , and he became a well @-@ known member of the Knights of Columbus . He would visit orphanages , schools , and hospitals throughout his life , often avoiding publicity . He was generous to St. Mary 's as he became famous and rich , donating money and his presence at fundraisers , and spending $ 5 @,@ 000 to buy Brother Matthias a Cadillac in 1926 — subsequently replacing it when it was destroyed in an accident . Nevertheless , his biographer Leigh Montville suggests that many of the off @-@ the @-@ field excesses of Ruth 's career were driven by the deprivations of his time at St. Mary 's .
Most of the boys at St. Mary 's played baseball , with organized leagues at different levels of proficiency . Ruth later estimated that he played 200 games a year as he steadily climbed the ladder of success . Although he played all positions at one time or another ( including infield positions generally reserved for right @-@ handers ) , he gained stardom as a pitcher . According to Brother Matthias , Ruth was standing to one side laughing at the bumbling pitching efforts of fellow students , and Matthias told him to go in and see if he could do better . After becoming the best pitcher at St. Mary 's , in 1913 , when Ruth was 18 , he was allowed to leave the premises to play weekend games on teams drawn from the community . He was mentioned in several newspaper articles , for both his pitching prowess and ability to hit long home runs .
= = Professional baseball = =
= = = Minor league , Baltimore Orioles = = =
In early 1914 , Ruth was signed to a professional baseball contract by Jack Dunn , owner and manager of the minor @-@ league Baltimore Orioles , an International League team . The circumstances of Ruth 's signing cannot be stated with certainty , with historical fact obscured by stories that cannot all be true . By some accounts , Dunn was urged to attend a game between an all @-@ star team from St. Mary 's and one from another Xaverian facility , Mount St. Mary 's College . Some versions have Ruth running away before the eagerly awaited game , to return in time to be punished , and then pitching St. Mary 's to victory as Dunn watched . Others have Washington Senators pitcher Joe Engel , a Mount St. Mary 's graduate , pitching in an alumni game after watching a preliminary contest between the college 's freshmen and a team from St. Mary 's , including Ruth . Engel watched Ruth play , then told Dunn about him at a chance meeting in Washington . Ruth , in his autobiography , stated only that he worked out for Dunn for a half @-@ hour , and was signed . According to biographer Kal Wagenheim , there were legal difficulties to be straightened out as Ruth was supposed to remain at the school until he turned 21 .
The train journey to spring training in Fayetteville , North Carolina , in early March was likely Ruth 's first outside the Baltimore area . The rookie ballplayer was the subject of various pranks by the veterans , who were probably also the source of his famous nickname . There are various accounts of how Ruth came to be called Babe , but most center on his being referred to as " Dunnie 's babe " or a variant . " Babe " was at that time a common nickname in baseball , with perhaps the most famous to that point being Pittsburgh Pirates pitcher and 1909 World Series hero Babe Adams , who appeared younger than he was .
Babe Ruth 's first appearance as a professional ballplayer was in an intersquad game on March 7 , 1914 . Ruth played shortstop , and pitched the last two innings of a 15 – 9 victory . In his second at bat , Ruth hit a long home run to right , which was reported locally to be longer than a legendary shot hit in Fayetteville by Jim Thorpe . His first appearance against a team in organized baseball was an exhibition against the major @-@ league Philadelphia Phillies : Ruth pitched the middle three innings , giving up two runs in the fourth , but then settling down and pitching a scoreless fifth and sixth . The following afternoon , Ruth was put in during the sixth inning against the Phillies and did not allow a run the rest of the way . The Orioles scored seven runs in the bottom of the eighth to overcome a 6 – 0 deficit , making Ruth the winning pitcher .
Once the regular season began , Ruth was a star pitcher who was also dangerous at the plate . The team performed well , yet received almost no attention from the Baltimore press . A third major league , the Federal League , had begun play , and the local franchise , the Baltimore Terrapins , restored that city to the major leagues for the first time since 1902 . Few fans visited Oriole Park , where Ruth and his teammates labored in relative obscurity . Ruth may have been offered a bonus and a larger salary to jump to the Terrapins ; when rumors to that effect swept Baltimore , giving Ruth the most publicity he had experienced to date , a Terrapins official denied it , stating it was their policy not to sign players under contract to Dunn .
The competition from the Terrapins caused Dunn to sustain large losses . Although by late June the Orioles were in first place , having won over two @-@ thirds of their games , the paid attendance dropped as low as 150 . Dunn explored a possible move by the Orioles to Richmond , Virginia , as well as the sale of a minority interest in the club . These possibilities fell through , leaving Dunn with little choice other than to sell his best players to major league teams to raise money . He offered Ruth to the reigning World Series champions , Connie Mack 's Philadelphia Athletics , but Mack had his own financial problems . The Cincinnati Reds and New York Giants expressed interest in Ruth , but Dunn sold his contract , along with those of pitchers Ernie Shore and Ben Egan , to the Boston Red Sox of the American League ( AL ) on July 4 . The sale price was announced as $ 25 @,@ 000 but other reports lower the amount to half that , or possibly $ 8 @,@ 500 plus the cancellation of a $ 3 @,@ 000 loan . Ruth remained with the Orioles for several days while the Red Sox completed a road trip , and reported to the team in Boston on July 11 .
= = = Boston Red Sox ( 1914 – 19 ) = = =
= = = = Developing star = = = =
Ruth arrived in Boston on July 11 , 1914 , along with Egan and Shore . Ruth later told of meeting the woman he would first marry , Helen Woodford , that morning — she was then a 16 @-@ year @-@ old waitress at Landers Coffee Shop , and Ruth related that she served him when he had breakfast there . Other stories , though , suggest the meeting happened on another day , and perhaps under other circumstances . Regardless of when he began to woo his first wife , he won his first game for the Red Sox that afternoon , 4 – 3 , over the Cleveland Naps . He pitched to catcher Bill Carrigan , who was also the Red Sox manager . Shore was given a start by Carrigan the next day ; he won that and his second start and thereafter was pitched regularly . Ruth lost his second start , and was thereafter little used . As a batter , in his major @-@ league debut , Ruth went 0 @-@ for @-@ 2 against left @-@ hander Willie Mitchell , striking out in his first at bat , before being removed for a pinch hitter in the seventh inning . Ruth was not much noticed by the fans , as Bostonians watched the Red Sox 's crosstown rivals , the Braves , begin a legendary comeback that would take them from last place on the Fourth of July to the 1914 World Series championship .
Egan was traded to Cleveland after two weeks on the Boston roster . During his time as a Red Sox , he kept an eye on the inexperienced Ruth , much as Dunn had in Baltimore . When he was traded , no one took his place as supervisor . Ruth 's new teammates considered him brash , and would have preferred him , as a rookie , to remain quiet and inconspicuous . When Ruth insisted on taking batting practice despite his being both a rookie who did not play regularly , and a pitcher , he arrived to find his bats sawn in half . His teammates nicknamed him " the Big Baboon " , a name the swarthy Ruth , who had disliked the nickname " Niggerlips " at St. Mary 's , detested . Ruth had received a raise on promotion to the major leagues , and quickly acquired tastes for fine food , liquor , and women , among other temptations .
Manager Carrigan allowed Ruth to pitch two exhibition games in mid @-@ August . Although Ruth won both against minor @-@ league competition , he was not restored to the pitching rotation . It is uncertain why Carrigan did not give Ruth additional opportunities to pitch . There are legends — filmed for the screen in The Babe Ruth Story ( 1948 ) — that the young pitcher had a habit of signaling his intent to throw a curveball by sticking out his tongue slightly , and that he was easy to hit until this changed . Creamer pointed out that it is common for inexperienced pitchers to display such habits , and the need to break Ruth of his would not constitute a reason to not use him at all . The biographer suggested that Carrigan was unwilling to use Ruth due to poor behavior by the rookie .
On July 30 , 1914 , Boston owner Joseph Lannin had purchased the minor @-@ league Providence Grays , members of the International League . The Providence team had been owned by several people associated with the Detroit Tigers , including star hitter Ty Cobb , and as part of the transaction , a Providence pitcher was sent to the Tigers . To soothe Providence fans upset at losing a star , Lannin announced that the Red Sox would soon send a replacement to the Grays . This was intended to be Ruth , but his departure for Providence was delayed when Cincinnati Reds owner Garry Herrmann claimed him off waivers . After Lannin wrote to Herrmann explaining that the Red Sox wanted Ruth in Providence so he could develop as a player , and would not release him to a major league club , Herrmann allowed Ruth to be sent to the minors . Carrigan later stated that Ruth was not sent down to Providence to make him a better player , but to help the Grays win the International League pennant ( league championship ) .
Ruth joined the Grays on August 18 , 1914 . What was left of the Baltimore Orioles after Dunn 's deals had managed to hold on to first place until August 15 , after which they continued to fade , leaving the pennant race between Providence and Rochester . Ruth was deeply impressed by Providence manager " Wild Bill " Donovan , previously a star pitcher with a 25 – 4 win – loss record for Detroit in 1907 ; in later years , he credited Donovan with teaching him much about pitching . Ruth was called upon often to pitch , in one stretch starting ( and winning ) four games in eight days . On September 5 in Toronto , Ruth pitched a one @-@ hit 9 – 0 victory , and hit his first professional home run , his only one as a minor leaguer , off Ellis Johnson . Recalled to Boston after Providence finished the season in first place , he pitched and won a game for the Red Sox against the New York Yankees on October 2 , getting his first major league hit , a double . Ruth finished the season with a record of 2 – 1 as a major leaguer and 23 – 8 in the International League ( for Baltimore and Providence ) . Once the season concluded , Ruth married Helen in Ellicott City , Maryland . Creamer speculated that they did not marry in Baltimore , where the newlyweds boarded with George Ruth , Sr. , to avoid possible interference from those at St. Mary 's — both bride and groom were not yet of age and Ruth remained on parole from that institution until his 21st birthday .
Ruth reported to his first major league spring training in Hot Springs , Arkansas , in March 1915 . Despite a relatively successful first season , he was not slated to start regularly for the Red Sox , who had two stellar left @-@ handed pitchers already : the established stars Dutch Leonard , who had broken the record for the lowest earned run average ( ERA ) in a single season ; and Ray Collins , a 20 @-@ game winner in both 1913 and 1914 . Ruth was ineffective in his first start , taking the loss in the third game of the season . Injuries and ineffective pitching by other Boston pitchers gave Ruth another chance , and after some good relief appearances , Carrigan allowed Ruth another start , and he won a rain @-@ shortened seven inning game . Ten days later , the manager had him start against the New York Yankees at the Polo Grounds . Ruth took a 3 – 2 lead into the ninth , but lost the game 4 – 3 in 13 innings . Ruth , hitting ninth as was customary for pitchers , hit a massive home run into the upper deck in right field off of Jack Warhop . At the time , home runs were rare in baseball , and Ruth 's majestic shot awed the crowd . The winning pitcher , Warhop , would in August 1915 conclude a major league career of eight seasons , undistinguished but for being the first major league pitcher to give up a home run to Babe Ruth .
Carrigan was sufficiently impressed by Ruth 's pitching to give him a spot in the starting rotation . Ruth finished the 1915 season 18 – 8 as a pitcher ; as a hitter , he batted .315 and had four home runs . The Red Sox won the AL pennant , but with the pitching staff healthy , Ruth was not called upon to pitch in the 1915 World Series against the Philadelphia Phillies . Boston won in five games ; Ruth was used as a pinch hitter in Game Five , but grounded out against Phillies ace Grover Cleveland Alexander . Despite his success as a pitcher , Ruth was acquiring a reputation for long home runs ; at Sportsman 's Park against the St. Louis Browns , a Ruth hit soared over Grand Avenue , breaking the window of a Chevrolet dealership .
In 1916 , there was attention focused on Ruth for his pitching , as he engaged in repeated pitching duels with the ace of the Washington Senators , Walter Johnson . The two met five times during the season , with Ruth winning four and Johnson one ( Ruth had a no decision in Johnson 's victory ) . Two of Ruth 's victories were by the score of 1 – 0 , one in a 13 @-@ inning game . Of the 1 – 0 shutout decided without extra innings , AL President Ban Johnson stated , " That was one of the best ball games I have ever seen . " For the season , Ruth went 23 – 12 , with a 1 @.@ 75 ERA and nine shutouts , both of which led the league . Ruth 's nine shutouts in 1916 set a league record for left @-@ handers that would remain unmatched until Ron Guidry tied it in 1978 . The Red Sox won the pennant and World Series again , this time defeating the Brooklyn Superbas ( as the Dodgers were then known ) in five games . Ruth started and won Game 2 , 2 – 1 , in 14 innings . Until another game of that length was played in 2005 , this was the longest World Series game , and Ruth 's pitching performance is still the longest postseason complete game victory .
Carrigan retired as player and manager after 1916 , returning to his native Maine to be a businessman . Ruth , who played under four managers who are in the National Baseball Hall of Fame , always maintained that Carrigan , who is not enshrined there , was the best skipper he ever played for . There were other changes in the Red Sox organization that offseason , as Lannin sold the team to a three @-@ man group headed by New York theatrical promoter Harry Frazee . Jack Barry was hired by Frazee as manager .
= = = = Emergence as a hitter = = = =
Ruth went 24 – 13 with a 2 @.@ 01 ERA and six shutouts in 1917 , but the Sox finished in second place in the league , nine games behind the Chicago White Sox in the standings . On June 23 at Washington , Ruth made a memorable pitching start . When the home plate umpire ' Brick ' Owens called the first four pitches as balls , Ruth threw a punch at him , and was ejected from the game and later suspended for ten days and fined $ 100 . Ernie Shore was called in to relieve Ruth , and was allowed eight warm @-@ up pitches . The runner who had reached base on the walk was caught stealing , and Shore retired all 26 batters he faced to win the game . Shore 's feat was listed as a perfect game for many years ; in 1991 , Major League Baseball 's ( MLB ) Committee on Statistical Accuracy caused it to be listed as a combined no @-@ hitter . In 1917 , Ruth was used little as a batter , other than his plate appearances while pitching , and hit .325 with two home runs .
The entry of the United States into World War I occurred at the start of the season , and overshadowed the sport . Conscription was introduced in September 1917 , and most baseball players in the big leagues were of draft age . This included Barry , who was a player @-@ manager , and who joined the Naval Reserve in an attempt to avoid the draft , only to be called up after the 1917 season . Frazee hired International League President Ed Barrow as Red Sox manager . Barrow had spent the previous 30 years in a variety of baseball jobs , though he never played the game professionally . With the major leagues shorthanded due to the war , Barrow had many holes in the Red Sox lineup to fill .
Ruth also noticed these vacancies in the lineup , and , dissatisfied in the role of a pitcher who appeared every four or five days , wanted to play every day at another position . Barrow tried Ruth at first base and in the outfield during the exhibition season , but as the team moved towards Boston and the season opener , restricted him to pitching . At the time , Ruth was possibly the best left @-@ handed pitcher in baseball ; allowing him to play another position was an experiment that could have backfired .
Inexperienced as a manager , Barrow had player Harry Hooper advise him on baseball game strategy . Hooper urged his manager to allow Ruth to play another position when he was not pitching , arguing to Barrow , who had invested in the club , that the crowds were larger on days when Ruth played , as they were attracted by his hitting . Barrow gave in early in May ; Ruth promptly hit home runs in four consecutive games ( one an exhibition ) , the last off of Walter Johnson . For the first time in his career ( disregarding pinch @-@ hitting appearances ) , Ruth was allowed a place in the batting order higher than ninth .
Although Barrow predicted that Ruth would beg to return to pitching the first time he experienced a batting slump , that did not occur . Barrow used Ruth primarily as an outfielder in the war @-@ shortened 1918 season . Ruth hit .300 , with 11 home runs , enough to secure him a share of the major league home run title with Tillie Walker of the Philadelphia Athletics . He was still occasionally used as a pitcher , and had a 13 – 7 record with a 2 @.@ 22 ERA .
The Red Sox won their third pennant in four years , and faced the Chicago Cubs in the 1918 World Series , beginning on September 5 , the earliest in history . The season was shortened as the government had ruled that baseball players eligible for the military would have to be inducted or work in critical war industries , such as armaments plants . Ruth pitched Game One for the Red Sox , a 1 – 0 shutout . Before Game Four , Ruth injured his left hand in a fight ; he pitched anyway . He gave up seven hits and six walks , but was helped by outstanding fielding behind him and by his own batting efforts , as a fourth @-@ inning triple by Ruth gave his team a 2 – 0 lead . The Cubs tied the game in the eighth inning , but the Red Sox scored to take a 3 – 2 again in the bottom of that inning . After Ruth gave up a hit and a walk to start the ninth inning , he was relieved on the mound by Joe Bush . To keep Ruth and his bat in the game , he was sent to play left field . Bush retired the side to give Ruth his second win of the Series , and the third and last World Series pitching victory of his career , against no defeats , in three pitching appearances . Ruth 's effort gave his team a three @-@ games @-@ to @-@ one lead , and two days later the Red Sox won their third Series in four years , four games to two . Before allowing the Cubs to score in Game Four , Ruth pitched 29 2 ⁄ 3 consecutive scoreless innings , a record for the World Series that stood for more than 40 years until 1961 , broken by Whitey Ford after Ruth 's death . Ruth was prouder of that record than he was of any of his batting feats .
With the World Series over , Ruth gained exemption from the war draft by accepting a nominal position with a Pennsylvania steel mill . Many industrial establishments took pride in their baseball teams and sought to hire major leaguers . The end of the war in November set Ruth free to play baseball without such contrivances .
During the 1919 season , Ruth pitched in only 17 of his 130 games , compiling an 8 – 5 record as Barrow used him as a pitcher mostly in the early part of the season , when the Red Sox manager still had hopes of a second consecutive pennant . By late June , the Red Sox were clearly out of the race , and Barrow had no objection to Ruth concentrating on his hitting , if only because it drew people to the ballpark . Ruth had hit a home run against the Yankees on Opening Day , and another during a month @-@ long batting slump that soon followed . Relieved of his pitching duties , Ruth began an unprecedented spell of slugging home runs , which gave him widespread public and press attention . Even his failures were seen as majestic — one sportswriter noted , " When Ruth misses a swipe at the ball , the stands quiver " .
Two home runs by Ruth on July 5 , and one in each of two consecutive games a week later , raised his season total to 11 , tying his career best from 1918 . The first record to fall was the AL single @-@ season mark of 16 , set by Ralph " Socks " Seybold in 1902 . Ruth matched that on July 29 , then pulled ahead toward the major league record of 24 , set by Buck Freeman in 1899 . Ruth reached this on September 8 , by which time , writers had discovered that Ned Williamson of the 1884 Chicago White Stockings had hit 27 — though in a ballpark where the distance to right field was only 215 feet ( 66 m ) . On September 20 , " Babe Ruth Day " at Fenway Park , Ruth won the game with a home run in the bottom of the ninth inning , tying Williamson . He broke the record four days later against the Yankees at the Polo Grounds , and hit one more against the Senators to finish with 29 . The home run at Washington made Ruth the first major league player to hit a home run at all eight ballparks in his league . In spite of Ruth 's hitting heroics , the Red Sox finished sixth , 20 1 ⁄ 2 games behind the league champion White Sox .
= = = Sale to New York = = =
As an out @-@ of @-@ towner from New York City , Frazee had been regarded with suspicion by Boston 's sportswriters and baseball fans when he bought the team . He won them over with success on the field and a willingness to build the Red Sox by purchasing or trading for players . He offered the Senators $ 60 @,@ 000 for Walter Johnson , but Washington owner Clark Griffith was unwilling . Even so , Frazee was successful in bringing other players to Boston , especially as replacements for players in the military . This willingness to spend for players helped the Red Sox secure the 1918 title . The 1919 season saw record @-@ breaking attendance , and Ruth 's home runs for Boston made him a national sensation . In March 1919 Ruth was reported as having accepted a three @-@ year contract for a total of $ 27 @,@ 000 , after protracted negotiations Nevertheless , on December 26 , 1919 , Frazee sold Ruth 's contract to the New York Yankees .
Not all of the circumstances concerning the sale are known , but brewer and former congressman Jacob Ruppert , the New York team 's principal owner , reportedly asked Yankee manager Miller Huggins what the team needed to be successful . " Get Ruth from Boston " , Huggins supposedly replied , noting that Frazee was perennially in need of money to finance his theatrical productions . In any event , there was precedent for the Ruth transaction : when Boston pitcher Carl Mays left the Red Sox in a 1919 dispute , Frazee had settled the matter by selling Mays to the Yankees , though over the opposition of AL President Johnson .
According to one of Ruth 's biographers , Jim Reisler , " why Frazee needed cash in 1919 — and large infusions of it quickly — is still , more than 80 years later , a bit of a mystery " . The often @-@ told story is that Frazee needed money to finance the musical No , No , Nanette , which was a Broadway hit and brought Frazee financial security . That play did not open until 1925 , however , by which time Frazee had sold the Red Sox . Still , the story may be true in essence : No , No , Nanette was based on a Frazee @-@ produced play , My Lady Friends , which opened in 1919 .
There were other financial pressures on Frazee , despite his team 's success . Ruth , fully aware of baseball 's popularity and his role in it , wanted to renegotiate his contract , signed before the 1919 season for $ 10 @,@ 000 per year through 1921 . He demanded that his salary be doubled , or he would sit out the season and cash in on his popularity through other ventures . Ruth 's salary demands were causing other players to ask for more money . Additionally , Frazee still owed Lannin as much as $ 125 @,@ 000 from the purchase of the club .
Although Ruppert and his co @-@ owner , Colonel Tillinghast Huston , were both wealthy , and had aggressively purchased and traded for players in 1918 and 1919 to build a winning team , Ruppert faced losses in his brewing interests as Prohibition was implemented , and if their team left the Polo Grounds , where the Yankees were the tenants of the New York Giants , building a stadium in New York would be expensive . Nevertheless , when Frazee , who moved in the same social circles as Huston , hinted to the colonel that Ruth was available for the right price , the Yankees owners quickly pursued the purchase .
Frazee sold the rights to Babe Ruth for $ 100 @,@ 000 , the largest sum ever paid for a baseball player . The deal also involved a $ 350 @,@ 000 loan from Ruppert to Frazee , secured by a mortgage on Fenway Park . Once it was agreed , Frazee informed Barrow , who , stunned , told the owner that he was getting the worse end of the bargain . Cynics have suggested that Barrow may have played a larger role in the Ruth sale , as less than a year after , he became the Yankee general manager , and in the following years made a number of purchases of Red Sox players from Frazee . The $ 100 @,@ 000 price included $ 25 @,@ 000 in cash , and notes for the same amount due November 1 in 1920 , 1921 , and 1922 ; Ruppert and Huston assisted Frazee in selling the notes to banks for immediate cash .
The transaction was contingent on Ruth signing a new contract , which was quickly accomplished — Ruth agreed to fulfill the remaining two years on his contract , but was given a $ 20 @,@ 000 bonus , payable over two seasons . The deal was announced on January 6 , 1920 . Reaction in Boston was mixed : some fans were embittered at the loss of Ruth ; others conceded that the slugger had become difficult to deal with . The New York Times suggested presciently , " The short right field wall at the Polo Grounds should prove an easy target for Ruth next season and , playing seventy @-@ seven games at home , it would not be surprising if Ruth surpassed his home run record of twenty @-@ nine circuit clouts next Summer . " According to Reisler , " The Yankees had pulled off the sports steal of the century . "
According to Marty Appel in his history of the Yankees , the transaction , " changed the fortunes of two high @-@ profile franchises for decades " . The Red Sox , winners of five of the first sixteen World Series , those played between 1903 and 1919 , would not win another pennant until 1946 , or another World Series until 2004 , a drought attributed in baseball superstition to Frazee 's sale of Ruth and sometimes dubbed the " Curse of the Bambino " . The Yankees , on the other hand , had not won the AL championship prior to their acquisition of Ruth . They won seven AL pennants and four World Series with Ruth , and lead baseball with 40 pennants and 27 World Series titles in their history .
= = = New York Yankees ( 1920 – 34 ) = = =
= = = = Initial success ( 1920 – 23 ) = = = =
As a Yankee , Ruth 's transition from a pitcher to a power @-@ hitting outfielder became complete . In his fifteen @-@ season Yankee career , consisting of over 2 @,@ 000 games , Ruth broke many batting records , while making only five widely scattered appearances on the mound , winning all of them .
At the end of April 1920 , the Yankees were 4 – 7 , with the Red Sox leading the league with a 10 – 2 mark . Ruth had done little , having injured himself swinging the bat . Both situations began to change on May 1 , when Ruth hit a home run with the ball going completely out of the Polo Grounds , a feat believed only to have been previously accomplished by Shoeless Joe Jackson . The Yankees won , 6 – 0 , taking three out of four from the Red Sox . Ruth hit his second home run on May 2 , and by the end of the month had set a major league record for home runs in a month with 11 , and promptly broke it with 13 in June . Fans responded with record attendance : on May 16 , Ruth and the Yankees drew 38 @,@ 600 to the Polo Grounds , a record for the ballpark , and 15 @,@ 000 fans were turned away . Large crowds jammed stadiums to see Ruth play when the Yankees were on the road .
The home runs kept coming ; Ruth tied his own record of 29 on July 15 , and broke it with home runs in both games of a doubleheader four days later . By the end of July , he had 37 , but his pace slackened somewhat after that . Nevertheless , on September 4 , he both tied and broke the organized baseball record for home runs in a season , snapping Perry Werden 's 1895 mark of 44 in the minor Western League . The Yankees played well as a team , battling for the league lead early in the summer , but slumped in August in the AL pennant battle with Chicago and Cleveland . The championship was won by Cleveland , surging ahead after the Black Sox Scandal broke on September 28 and led to the suspension of many of the team 's top players , including Joe Jackson . The Yankees finished third , but drew 1 @.@ 2 million fans to the Polo Grounds , the first time a team had drawn a seven figure attendance . The rest of the league sold 600 @,@ 000 more tickets , many fans there to see Ruth , who led the league with 54 home runs , 158 runs , and 137 runs batted in ( RBIs ) .
Ruth was aided in his exploits , in 1920 and afterwards , by the fact that the A.J. Reach Company , maker of baseballs used in the major leagues , was using a more efficient machine to wind the yarn found within the baseball . When these went into play in 1920 , the start of the live @-@ ball era , the number of home runs increased by 184 over the previous year across the major leagues . Baseball statistician Bill James points out that while Ruth was likely aided by the change in the baseball , there were other factors at work , including the gradual abolition of the spitball ( accelerated after the death of Ray Chapman , struck by a pitched ball thrown by Mays in August 1920 ) and the more frequent use of new baseballs ( also a response to Chapman 's death ) . Nevertheless , James theorizes that Ruth 's 1920 explosion might have happened in 1919 , had a full season of 154 games been played rather than 140 , had Ruth refrained from pitching 133 innings that season , and if he were playing with any other home field but Fenway Park , where he hit only 9 of 29 home runs .
Yankees business manager Harry Sparrow had died early in the 1920 season ; to replace him , Ruppert and Huston hired Barrow . Ruppert and Barrow quickly made a deal with Frazee for New York to acquire some of the players who would be mainstays of the early Yankee pennant @-@ winning teams , including catcher Wally Schang and pitcher Waite Hoyt . The 21 @-@ year @-@ old Hoyt became close to Ruth :
The outrageous life fascinated Hoyt , the don 't @-@ give @-@ a @-@ shit freedom of it , the nonstop , pell @-@ mell charge into excess . How did a man drink so much and never get drunk ? ... The puzzle of Babe Ruth never was dull , no matter how many times Hoyt picked up the pieces and stared at them . After games he would follow the crowd to the Babe 's suite . No matter what the town , the beer would be iced and the bottles would fill the bathtub .
Ruth hit home runs early and often in the 1921 season , during which he broke Roger Connor 's mark for home runs in a career , 138 . Each of the almost 600 home runs Ruth hit in his career after that extended his own record . After a slow start , the Yankees were soon locked in a tight pennant race with Cleveland , winners of the 1920 World Series . On September 15 , Ruth hit his 55th home run , shattering his year @-@ old single season record . In late September , the Yankees visited Cleveland and won three out of four games , giving them the upper hand in the race , and clinched their first pennant a few days later . Ruth finished the regular season with 59 home runs , batting .378 and with a slugging percentage of .846 .
The Yankees had high expectations when they met the New York Giants in the 1921 World Series , and the Yankees won the first two games with Ruth in the lineup . However , Ruth badly scraped his elbow during Game 2 , sliding into third base ( he had walked and stolen both second and third bases ) . After the game , he was told by the team physician not to play the rest of the series . Despite this advice , he did play in the next three games , and pinch @-@ hit in Game Eight of the best @-@ of @-@ nine series , but the Yankees lost , five games to three . Ruth hit .316 , drove in five runs and hit his first World Series home run .
After the Series , Ruth and teammates Bob Meusel and Bill Piercy participated in a barnstorming tour in the Northeast . A rule then in force prohibited World Series participants from playing in exhibition games during the offseason , the purpose being to prevent Series participants from replicating the Series and undermining its value . Baseball Commissioner Kenesaw Mountain Landis suspended the trio until May 20 , 1922 , and fined them their 1921 World Series checks . In August 1922 , the rule was changed to allow limited barnstorming for World Series participants , with Landis 's permission required .
On March 6 , 1922 , Ruth signed a new contract , for three years at $ 52 @,@ 000 a year . The largest sum ever paid a ballplayer to that point , it represented 40 % of the team 's player payroll . Despite his suspension , Ruth was named the Yankees ' new on @-@ field captain prior to the 1922 season . During the suspension , he worked out with the team in the morning , and played exhibition games with the Yankees on their off days . He and Meusel returned on May 20 , to a sellout crowd at the Polo Grounds , but Ruth batted 0 @-@ for @-@ 4 , and was booed . On May 25 , he was thrown out of the game for throwing dust in umpire George Hildebrand 's face , then climbed into the stands to confront a heckler . Ban Johnson ordered him fined , suspended , and stripped of his captaincy . In his shortened season , Ruth appeared in 110 games , batted .315 , with 35 home runs , and drove in 99 runs , but compared to his previous two dominating years , the 1922 season was a disappointment . Despite Ruth 's off @-@ year , Yankees managed to win the pennant to face the New York Giants for the second straight year in the World Series . In the Series , Giants manager John McGraw instructed his pitchers to throw him nothing but curveballs , and Ruth never adjusted . Ruth had just two hits in seventeen at bats , and the Yankees lost to the Giants for the second straight year , by 4 – 0 ( with one tie game ) . Sportswriter Joe Vila called him , " an exploded phenomenon " .
After the season , Ruth was a guest at an Elks Club banquet , set up by Ruth 's agent with Yankee team support . There , each speaker , concluding with future New York mayor Jimmy Walker , censured him for his poor behavior . An emotional Ruth promised reform , and , to the surprise of many , followed through . When he reported to spring training , he was in his best shape as a Yankee , weighing only 210 pounds ( 95 kg ) .
The Yankees 's status as tenants of the Giants at the Polo Grounds had become increasingly uneasy , and in 1922 Giants owner Charles Stoneham stated that the Yankees 's lease , expiring after that season , would not be renewed . Ruppert and Huston had long contemplated a new stadium , and had taken an option on property at 161st Street and River Avenue in the Bronx . Yankee Stadium was completed in time for the home opener on April 18 , 1923 , at which the Babe hit the first home run in what was quickly dubbed " the House that Ruth Built " . The ballpark was designed with Ruth in mind : although the venue 's left @-@ field fence was further from home plate than at the Polo Grounds , Yankee Stadium 's right @-@ field fence was closer , making home runs easier to hit for left @-@ handed batters . To spare Ruth 's eyes , right field – his defensive position – was not pointed into the afternoon sun , as was traditional ; left fielder Meusel was soon suffering headaches from squinting toward home plate .
The Yankees were never challenged , leading the league for most of the 1923 season and winning the AL pennant by 17 games . Ruth finished the season with a career @-@ high .393 batting average and major @-@ league leading 41 home runs ( tied with Cy Williams ) . Another career high for Ruth in 1923 was his 45 doubles , and he reached base 379 times , then a major league record . For the third straight year , the Yankees faced the Giants in the World Series , which Ruth dominated . He batted .368 , walked eight times , scored eight runs , hit three home runs and slugged 1 @.@ 000 during the series , as the Yankees won their first World Series championship , four games to two .
= = = = Batting title and " bellyache " ( 1924 – 25 ) = = = =
In 1924 , the Yankees were favored to become the first team to win four consecutive pennants . Plagued by injuries , they found themselves in a battle with the Senators . Although the Yankees won 18 of 22 at one point in September , the Senators beat out the Yankees by two games . Ruth hit .378 , winning his only AL batting title , with a league @-@ leading 46 home runs .
Ruth had kept up his efforts to stay in shape in 1923 and 1924 , but by early 1925 weighed nearly 260 pounds ( 120 kg ) . His annual visit to Hot Springs , Arkansas , where he exercised and took saunas early in the year , did him no good as he spent much of the time carousing in the resort town . He became ill while there , and suffered relapses during spring training . Ruth collapsed in Asheville , North Carolina , as the team journeyed north . He was put on a train for New York , where he was briefly hospitalized . A rumor circulated that he had died , prompting British newspapers to print a premature obituary . In New York , Ruth collapsed again and was found unconscious in his hotel bathroom . He was taken to a hospital where he suffered multiple convulsions . After sportswriter W. O. McGeehan wrote that Ruth 's illness was due to binging on hot dogs and soda pop before a game , it became known as " the bellyache heard ' round the world " . However , the exact cause of his ailment has never been confirmed and remains a mystery . Glenn Stout , in his history of the Yankees , notes that the Ruth legend is " still one of the most sheltered in sports " ; he suggests that alcohol was at the root of Ruth 's illness , pointing to the fact that Ruth remained six weeks at St. Vincent 's Hospital but was allowed to leave , under supervision , for workouts with the team for part of that time . He concludes that the hospitalization was behavior @-@ related . Playing just 98 games , Ruth had his worst season as a Yankee ; he finished with a .290 average and 25 home runs . The Yankees finished next to last in the AL with a 69 – 85 record , their last season with a losing record until 1965 .
= = = = Murderer 's Row ( 1926 – 28 ) = = = =
Ruth spent part of the offseason of 1925 – 26 working out at Artie McGovern 's gym , getting back into shape . Barrow and Huggins had rebuilt the team , surrounding the veteran core with good young players like Tony Lazzeri and Lou Gehrig . But New York was not expected to win the pennant .
Babe Ruth returned to his normal production during 1926 , batting .372 with 47 home runs and 146 RBIs . The Yankees built a ten @-@ game lead by mid @-@ June , and coasted to win the pennant by three games . The St. Louis Cardinals had won the National League with the lowest winning percentage for a pennant winner to that point ( .578 ) and the Yankees were expected to win the World Series easily . Although the Yankees won the opener in New York , St. Louis took Games Two and Three . In Game Four , Ruth hit three home runs , the first time this had been done in a World Series game , to lead the Yankees to victory ; in the fifth game Ruth caught a ball as he crashed into the fence , described by baseball writers as a defensive gem . New York took that game , but Grover Cleveland Alexander won Game Six for St. Louis to tie the Series at three games each , then got very drunk . He was nevertheless inserted into Game Seven in the seventh inning and shut down the Yankees to win the game , 3 – 2 , and win the Series . Ruth had hit his fourth home run of the Series earlier in the game , and was the only Yankee to reach base off Alexander , walking in the ninth inning before being caught stealing to end the game . Although Ruth 's attempt to steal second is often deemed a baserunning blunder , Creamer pointed out that the Yankees ' chances of tying the game would have been greatly improved with a runner in scoring position .
The 1926 Series was also known for Ruth 's promise to Johnny Sylvester , a hospitalized 11 @-@ year @-@ old , that he would hit a home run on his behalf . Sylvester had been injured in a fall from a horse , and a friend of Sylvester 's father gave the boy two autographed baseballs signed by Yankees and Cardinals , and relayed a promise from Ruth , who did not know the boy , to hit a home run for him . After the Series , Ruth visited the boy in the hospital . When the matter became public , the press greatly inflated it , and by some accounts , Ruth saved a dying boy 's life by visiting him , emotionally promising to hit a home run , and doing so .
The 1927 New York Yankees team is considered one of the greatest squads that ever took the field . Known as Murderer 's Row because of the power of its lineup , the team won a then @-@ AL @-@ record 110 games , and took the AL pennant by 19 games , clinching first place on Labor Day . With little suspense as to the pennant race , the nation 's attention turned to Ruth 's pursuit of his own single @-@ season home run record of 59 . He was not alone in this chase : Gehrig proved to be a slugger capable of challenging Ruth for his home run crown , tying Ruth with 24 home runs late in June . Through July and August , they were never separated by more than two home runs . Gehrig took the lead , 45 – 44 , in the first game of a doubleheader at Fenway Park early in September ; Ruth responded with two of his own to take the lead , as it proved permanently — Gehrig finished with 47 . Even so , as of September 6 , Ruth was still several games off his 1921 pace , and going into the final series against the Senators , had only 57 . He hit two in the first game of the series , including one off of Paul Hopkins , facing his first major league batter , to tie the record . The following day , September 30 , he broke it with his 60th homer , in the eighth inning off Tom Zachary to break a 2 – 2 tie . " Sixty ! Let 's see some son of a bitch try to top that one " , Ruth exulted after the game . In addition to his career @-@ high 60 home runs , Ruth batted .356 , drove in 164 runs and slugged .772 . In the 1927 World Series , the Yankees swept the Pittsburgh Pirates in four games ; the National Leaguers were disheartened after watching the Yankees take batting practice before Game One , with ball after ball leaving Forbes Field . According to Appel , " The 1927 New York Yankees . Even today , the words inspire awe ... all baseball success is measured against the ' 27 team . "
Before the 1928 season , Ruth signed a new contract for an unprecedented $ 80 @,@ 000 per year . The season started off well for the Yankees , who led the league in the early going . But the Yankees were plagued by injuries , erratic pitching and inconsistent play . The Philadelphia Athletics , rebuilding after some lean years , erased the Yankees ' big lead and even took over first place briefly in early September . The Yankees , however , regained first place when they beat the Athletics three out of four games in a pivotal series at Yankee Stadium later that month , and clinched the pennant in the final weekend of the season . Ruth 's play in 1928 mirrored his team 's performance . He got off to a hot start and on August 1 , he had 42 home runs . This put him ahead of his 60 home run pace from the previous season . He then slumped for the latter part of the season , and he hit just twelve home runs in the last two months . Ruth 's batting average also fell to .323 , well below his career average . Nevertheless , he ended the season with 54 home runs . The Yankees swept the favored Cardinals in four games in the World Series , with Ruth batting .625 and hitting three home runs in Game Four , including one off Alexander .
= = = = " Called shot " and final Yankee years ( 1929 – 34 ) = = = =
Before the 1929 season , Ruppert , who had bought out Huston in 1923 , announced that the Yankees would wear uniform numbers to allow fans at cavernous Yankee Stadium to tell one player from another . The Cardinals and Indians had each experimented with uniform numbers ; the Yankees were the first to use them on both home and away uniforms . As Ruth batted third , he was given number 3 . According to a long @-@ standing baseball legend , the Yankees adopted their now @-@ iconic pinstriped uniforms in hopes of making Ruth look slimmer . In truth , though , they had been wearing pinstripes since Ruppert bought the team in 1915 .
Although the Yankees started well , the Athletics soon proved they were the better team in 1929 , splitting two series with the Yankees in the first month of the season , then taking advantage of a Yankee losing streak in mid @-@ May to gain first place . Although Ruth performed well , the Yankees were not able to catch the Athletics — Connie Mack had built another great team . Tragedy struck the Yankees late in the year as manager Huggins died of erysipelas , a bacterial skin infection , on September 25 , only ten days after he had last led the team . Despite past differences , Ruth praised Huggins and described him as a " great guy " . The Yankees finished second , 18 games behind the Athletics . Ruth hit .345 during the season , with 46 home runs and 154 RBIs .
The Yankees hired Bob Shawkey as manager , their fourth choice . Ruth politicked for the job of player @-@ manager , but was not seriously considered by Ruppert and Barrow ; Stout deems this the first hint Ruth would have no future with the Yankees once he was done as a player . Shawkey , a former Yankees player and teammate of Ruth , was unable to command the slugger 's respect . The Athletics won their second consecutive pennant and World Series , as the Yankees finished in third place , sixteen games back . During that season Ruth was asked by a reporter what he thought of his yearly salary of $ 80 @,@ 000 being more than President Hoover 's $ 75 @,@ 000 . His response was , " I know , but I had a better year than Hoover . " In 1930 , Ruth hit .359 with 49 home runs ( his best in his years after 1928 ) and 153 RBIs , and pitched his first game in nine years , a complete game victory . At the end of the season , Shawkey was fired and replaced with Cubs manager Joe McCarthy , though Ruth again unsuccessfully sought the job .
McCarthy was a disciplinarian , but chose not to interfere with Ruth , and the slugger for his part did not seek conflict with the manager . The team improved in 1931 , but was no match for the Athletics , who won 107 games , 13 1 ⁄ 2 games in front of the Yankees . Ruth , for his part , hit .373 , with 46 home runs and 163 RBIs . He had 31 doubles , his most since 1924 . In the 1932 season , the Yankees went 107 – 47 and won the pennant . Ruth 's effectiveness had decreased somewhat , but he still hit .341 with 41 home runs and 137 RBIs . Nevertheless , he twice was sidelined due to injury during the season .
The Yankees faced the Cubs , McCarthy 's former team , in the 1932 World Series . There was bad blood between the two teams as the Yankees resented the Cubs only awarding half a World Series share to Mark Koenig , a former Yankee . The games at Yankee Stadium had not been sellouts ; both were won by the home team , with Ruth collecting two singles , but scoring four runs as he was walked four times by the Cubs pitchers . In Chicago , Ruth was resentful at the hostile crowds that met the Yankees 's train and jeered them at the hotel . The crowd for Game Three included New York Governor Franklin D. Roosevelt , the Democratic candidate for president , who sat with Chicago Mayor Anton Cermak . Many in the crowd threw lemons at Ruth , a sign of derision , and others ( as well as the Cubs themselves ) shouted abuse at Ruth and other Yankees . They were briefly silenced when Ruth hit a three @-@ run home run off Charlie Root in the first inning , but soon revived , and the Cubs tied the score at 4 – 4 in the fourth inning . When Ruth came to the plate in the top of the fifth , the Chicago crowd and players , led by pitcher Guy Bush , were screaming insults at Ruth . With the count at two balls and one strike , Ruth gestured , possibly in the direction of center field , and after the next pitch ( a strike ) , may have pointed there with one hand . Ruth hit the fifth pitch over the center field fence ; estimates were that it traveled nearly 500 feet ( 150 m ) . Whether or not Ruth intended to indicate where he planned to ( and did ) hit the ball , the incident has gone down in legend as Babe Ruth 's called shot . The Yankees won Game Three , and the following day clinched the Series with another victory . During that game , Bush hit Ruth on the arm with a pitch , causing words to be exchanged and provoking a game @-@ winning Yankee rally .
Ruth remained productive in 1933 , as he batted .301 , with 34 home runs , 103 RBIs , and a league @-@ leading 114 walks , as the Yankees finished second , seven games behind the Senators . He was selected to play right field by Athletics manager Connie Mack in the first Major League Baseball All @-@ Star Game , held on July 6 , 1933 , at Comiskey Park in Chicago . He hit the first home run in the All @-@ Star Game 's history , a two @-@ run blast against Bill Hallahan during the third inning , which helped the AL win the game 4 – 2 . During the final game of the 1933 season , as a publicity stunt organized by his team , Ruth was called upon and pitched a complete game victory against the Red Sox , his final appearance as a pitcher . Despite unremarkable pitching numbers , Ruth had a 5 – 0 record in five games for the Yankees , raising his career totals to 94 – 46 .
In 1934 , Ruth played in his last full season . By this time , years of high living were starting to catch up with him . His conditioning had deteriorated to the point that he could no longer field or run . He accepted a pay cut from Ruppert to $ 35 @,@ 000 , but was still the highest @-@ paid player in the major leagues . He could still handle a bat , recording a .288 batting average with 22 home runs , statistics Reisler described as " merely mortal " . Ruth was selected to the AL All @-@ Star team for the second consecutive year . During the game , New York Giants pitcher Carl Hubbell struck out Ruth and four other future Hall @-@ of @-@ Famers consecutively . The Yankees finished second again , seven games behind the Tigers .
= = = Boston Braves ( 1935 ) = = =
Although Ruth knew he was nearly finished as a player , he desired to remain in baseball as a manager . He was often spoken of as a possible candidate as managerial jobs opened up , but in 1932 , when he was mentioned as a contender for the Red Sox position , Ruth stated that he was not yet ready to leave the field . There were rumors that Ruth was a likely candidate each time when the Cleveland Indians , Cincinnati Reds , and Detroit Tigers were looking for a manager , but nothing came of them .
Just before the 1934 season , Ruppert offered to make Ruth the manager of the Yankees ' top minor @-@ league team , the Newark Bears , but he was talked out of it by his wife , Claire , and his business manager , Christy Walsh . Shortly afterward , Tigers owner Frank Navin made a proposal to Ruppert and Barrow — if the Yankees traded Ruth to Detroit , Navin would name Ruth player @-@ manager . Navin believed Ruth would not only bring a winning attitude to a team that had not finished higher than third since 1923 , but would also revive the Tigers ' sagging attendance figures . Navin asked Ruth to come to Detroit for an interview . However , Ruth balked , since Walsh had already arranged for him to take part in a celebrity golf tournament in Hawaii . Ruth and Navin negotiated over the phone while Ruth was in Hawaii , but those talks foundered when Navin refused to give Ruth a portion of the Tigers ' box office proceeds .
Early in the 1934 season , Ruth began openly campaigning to become manager of the Yankees . However , the Yankee job was never a serious possibility . Ruppert always supported McCarthy , who would remain in his position for another 12 seasons . Ruth and McCarthy 's relationship had been lukewarm at best , and Ruth 's managerial ambitions further chilled their relations . By the end of the season , Ruth hinted that he would retire unless Ruppert named him manager of the Yankees . For his part , Ruppert wanted his slugger to leave the team without drama and hard feelings when the time came .
During the 1934 – 35 offseason , Ruth circled the world with his wife , including a barnstorming tour of the Far East . At his final stop before returning home , in the United Kingdom , Ruth was introduced to cricket by Australian player Alan Fairfax , and after having little luck in a cricketer 's stance , stood as a baseball batter and launched some massive shots around the field , destroying the bat in the process . Although Fairfax regretted that he could not have the time to make Ruth a cricket player , Ruth had lost any interest in such a career upon learning that the best batsmen made only about $ 40 per week .
Also during the offseason , Ruppert had been sounding out the other clubs in hopes of finding one that would be willing to take Ruth as a manager and / or a player . However , the only serious offer came from Athletics owner @-@ manager Connie Mack , who gave some thought to stepping down as manager in favor of Ruth . However , Mack later dropped the idea , saying that Ruth 's wife would be running the team in a month if Ruth ever took over .
While the barnstorming tour was under way , Ruppert began negotiating with Boston Braves owner Judge Emil Fuchs , who wanted Ruth as a gate attraction . Although the Braves had enjoyed modest recent success , finishing fourth in the National League in both 1933 and 1934 , the team performed poorly at the box office . Unable to afford the rent at Braves Field , Fuchs had considered holding dog races there when the Braves were not at home , only to be turned down by Landis . After a series of phone calls , letters , and meetings , the Yankees traded Ruth to the Braves on February 26 , 1935 . Ruppert had stated that he would not release Ruth to go to another team as a full @-@ time player . For this reason , it was announced that Ruth would become a team vice president and would be consulted on all club transactions , in addition to playing . He was also made assistant manager to Braves skipper Bill McKechnie . In a long letter to Ruth a few days before the press conference , Fuchs promised Ruth a share in the Braves ' profits , with the possibility of becoming co @-@ owner of the team . Fuchs also raised the possibility of Ruth succeeding McKechnie as manager , perhaps as early as 1936 . Ruppert called the deal " the greatest opportunity Ruth ever had " .
There was considerable attention as Ruth reported for spring training . He did not hit his first home run of the spring until after the team had left Florida , and was beginning the road north in Savannah . He hit two in an exhibition against the Bears . Amid much press attention , Ruth played his first home game in Boston in over 16 years . Before an opening @-@ day crowd of over 25 @,@ 000 , including five of New England 's six state governors , Ruth accounted for all of the Braves ' runs in a 4 – 2 defeat of the New York Giants , hitting a two @-@ run home run , singling to drive in a third run and later in the inning scoring the fourth . Although age and weight had slowed him , he made a running catch in left field that sportswriters deemed the defensive highlight of the game .
Ruth had two hits in the second game of the season , but it quickly went downhill both for him and the Braves from there . The season soon settled down to a routine of Ruth performing poorly on the few occasions he even played at all , and the Braves losing most games . As April passed into May , Ruth 's deterioration became even more pronounced . While he remained productive at the plate early on , he could do little else . His condition had deteriorated to the point that he could barely trot around the bases . His fielding had become so poor that three Braves pitchers told McKechnie that they would not take the mound if he was in the lineup . Before long , Ruth stopped hitting as well . He grew increasingly annoyed that McKechnie ignored most of his advice . For his part , McKechnie later said that Ruth 's huge salary and refusal to stay with the team while on the road made it nearly impossible to enforce discipline .
Ruth soon realized that Fuchs had deceived him , and had no intention of making him manager or giving him any significant off @-@ field duties . He later stated that his only duties as vice president consisted of making public appearances and autographing tickets . Ruth also found out that far from giving him a share of the profits , Fuchs wanted him to invest some of his money in the team in a last @-@ ditch effort to improve its balance sheet . As it turned out , both Fuchs and Ruppert had known all along that Ruth 's non @-@ playing positions were meaningless .
By the end of the first month of the season , Ruth concluded he was finished even as a part @-@ time player . As early as May 12 , he asked Fuchs to let him retire . Ultimately , Fuchs persuaded Ruth to remain at least until after the Memorial Day doubleheader in Philadelphia . In the interim was a western road trip , at which the rival teams had scheduled days to honor him . In Chicago and St. Louis , Ruth performed poorly , and his batting average sank to .155 , with only three home runs . In the first two games in Pittsburgh , Ruth had only one hit , though a long fly caught by Paul Waner probably would have been a home run in any other ballpark besides Forbes Field .
Ruth played in the third game of the Pittsburgh series on May 25 , 1935 , and added one more tale to his playing legend . Ruth went 4 @-@ for @-@ 4 , including three home runs , though the Braves lost the game 11 – 7 . The last two were off Ruth 's old Cubs nemesis , Guy Bush . The final home run , both of the game and of Ruth 's career , sailed over the upper deck in right field and out of the ballpark , the first time anyone had hit a fair ball completely out of Forbes Field . Ruth was urged to make this his last game , but he had given his word to Fuchs and played in Cincinnati and Philadelphia . The first game of the doubleheader in Philadelphia — the Braves lost both — was his final major league appearance . On June 2 , after an argument with Fuchs , Ruth retired . He finished 1935 with a .181 average — easily his worst as a full @-@ time position player — and the final six of his 714 home runs . The Braves , 10 – 27 when Ruth left , finished 38 – 115 , at .248 the worst winning percentage in modern National League history . Insolvent like his team , Fuchs gave up control of the Braves before the end of the season ; the National League took over the franchise at the end of the year .
= = Retirement = =
= = = 1935 – 46 = = =
Although Fuchs had given Ruth his unconditional release , no major league team expressed an interest in hiring him in any capacity . Ruth still hoped to be hired as a manager if he could not play anymore , but only one managerial position , Cleveland , became available between Ruth 's retirement and the end of the 1937 season . Asked if he had considered Ruth for the job , Indians owner Alva Bradley replied negatively .
The writer Creamer believed Ruth was unfairly treated in never being given an opportunity to manage a major league club . The author believed there was not necessarily a relationship between personal conduct and managerial success , noting that McGraw , Billy Martin , and Bobby Valentine were winners despite character flaws . Team owners and general managers assessed Ruth 's flamboyant personal habits as a reason to exclude him from a managerial job ; Barrow said of him , " How can he manage other men when he can 't even manage himself ? "
Ruth played much golf and in a few exhibition baseball games , demonstrating a continuing ability to draw large crowds . This appeal contributed to the Dodgers hiring him as first base coach in 1938 . But Brooklyn general manager Larry MacPhail made it clear when Ruth was hired that he would not be considered for the manager 's job if , as expected , Burleigh Grimes retired at the end of the season . Although much was said about what Ruth could teach the younger players , in practice , his duties were to appear on the field in uniform and encourage base runners — he was not called upon to relay signs . He got along well with everyone except team captain Leo Durocher , who was hired as Grimes ' replacement at season 's end . Ruth returned to retirement , never again to work in baseball .
On July 4 , 1939 , Ruth spoke on Lou Gehrig Appreciation Day at Yankee Stadium as members of the 1927 Yankees and a sellout crowd turned out to honor the first baseman , forced into premature retirement by ALS disease , which would kill him in two years . The next week , Ruth went to Cooperstown , New York , for the formal opening of the Baseball Hall of Fame . Three years earlier he was one of the first five players elected to it . As radio broadcasts of baseball became popular , Ruth sought a job in that field , arguing that his celebrity and knowledge of baseball would assure large audiences , but he received no offers . During World War II , he made many personal appearances to advance the war effort , including his last appearance as a player at Yankee Stadium , in a 1943 exhibition for the Army – Navy Relief Fund . He hit a long fly ball off Walter Johnson ; the blast left the field , curving foul , but Ruth circled the bases anyway . In 1946 , he made a final effort to gain a job in baseball , contacting new Yankees boss MacPhail , but was sent a rejection letter .
= = Personal life = =
Ruth met Helen Woodford ( 1897 – 1929 ) , by some accounts , in a coffee shop in Boston where she was a waitress , and they were married on October 17 , 1914 ; he was 19 and she was 17 . They adopted a daughter , Dorothy ( 1921 – 1989 ) , in 1921 . Ruth and Helen separated around 1925 , reportedly due to his repeated infidelities . Their last public appearance together came during the 1926 World Series . Helen died in January 1929 at age 31 in a house fire in Watertown , Massachusetts , in a house owned by Edward Kinder , a dentist with whom she had been living as " Mrs. Kinder " . In her book , My Dad , the Babe , Dorothy claimed that she was Ruth 's biological child by a mistress named Juanita Jennings . She died in 1989 .
On April 17 , 1929 , only three months after the death of his first wife , Ruth married actress and model Claire Merritt Hodgson ( 1897 – 1976 ) and adopted her daughter Julia ; he was 34 and she was 31 . It was the second and final marriage for both parties . By one account , Julia and Dorothy were , through no fault of their own , the reason for the seven @-@ year rift in Ruth 's relationship with teammate Lou Gehrig . Sometime in 1932 , Gehrig 's mother , during a conversation which she assumed was private , remarked , " It 's a shame [ Claire ] doesn 't dress Dorothy as nicely as she dresses her own daughter . " When the comment inevitably got back to Ruth , he angrily told Gehrig to tell his mother to mind her own business . Gehrig in turn took offense at what he perceived as Ruth 's comment about his mother . The two men reportedly never spoke off the field until they reconciled at Yankee Stadium on Lou Gehrig Appreciation Day in 1939 .
Although Ruth was married through most of his baseball career , when Colonel Huston asked him to tone down his lifestyle , the player said , " I 'll promise to go easier on drinking and to get to bed earlier , but not for you , fifty thousand dollars , or two @-@ hundred and fifty thousand dollars will I give up women . They 're too much fun . "
= = Cancer and death ( 1946 – 48 ) = =
As early as the war years , doctors had cautioned Ruth to take better care of his health , and he grudgingly followed their advice , limiting his drinking and not going on a proposed trip to support the troops in the South Pacific . In 1946 , Ruth began experiencing severe pain over his left eye , and had difficulty swallowing . In November 1946 , he entered French Hospital in New York for tests , which revealed that Ruth had an inoperable malignant tumor at the base of his skull and in his neck . It was a lesion known as nasopharyngeal carcinoma , or " lymphoepithelioma . " His name and fame gave him access to experimental treatments , and he was one of the first cancer patients to receive both drugs and radiation treatment simultaneously . He was discharged from the hospital in February , having lost 80 pounds ( 36 kg ) , and went to Florida to recuperate . He returned to New York and Yankee Stadium after the season started . The new commissioner , Happy Chandler ( Judge Landis had died in 1944 ) , proclaimed April 27 , 1947 , Babe Ruth Day around the major leagues , with the most significant observance to be at Yankee Stadium . A number of teammates and others spoke in honor of Ruth , who briefly addressed the crowd of almost 60 @,@ 000 .
Around this time , developments in chemotherapy offered some hope . The doctors had not told Ruth that he had cancer because of his family 's fear that he might do himself harm . They treated him with teropterin , a folic acid derivative ; he may have been the first human subject . Ruth showed dramatic improvement during the summer of 1947 , so much so that his case was presented by his doctors at a scientific meeting , without using his name . He was able to travel around the country , doing promotional work for the Ford Motor Company on American Legion Baseball . He appeared again at another day in his honor at Yankee Stadium in September , but was not well enough to pitch in an old @-@ timers game as he had hoped .
The improvement was only a temporary remission , and by late 1947 , Ruth was unable to help with the writing of his autobiography , The Babe Ruth Story , which was almost entirely ghostwritten . In and out of the hospital in New York , he left for Florida in February 1948 , doing what activities he could . After six weeks he returned to New York to appear at a book @-@ signing party . He also traveled to California to witness the filming of the book .
On June 5 , 1948 , a " gaunt and hollowed out " Ruth visited Yale University to donate a manuscript of The Babe Ruth Story to its library . On June 13 , Ruth visited Yankee Stadium for the final time in his life , appearing at the 25th anniversary celebrations of " The House that Ruth Built " . By this time he had lost much weight and had difficulty walking . Introduced along with his surviving teammates from 1923 , Ruth used a bat as a cane . Nat Fein 's photo of Ruth taken from behind , standing near home plate and facing " Ruthville " ( right field ) became one of baseball 's most famous and widely circulated photographs , and won the Pulitzer Prize .
Ruth made one final trip on behalf of American Legion Baseball , then entered Memorial Hospital , where he would die . He was never told he had cancer , but before his death , had surmised it . He was able to leave the hospital for a few short trips , including a final visit to Baltimore . On July 26 , 1948 , Ruth left the hospital to attend the premiere of the film The Babe Ruth Story . Shortly thereafter , Ruth returned to the hospital for the final time . He was barely able to speak . Ruth 's condition gradually became worse ; only a few visitors were allowed to see him , one of whom was National League president and future Commissioner of Baseball Ford Frick . " Ruth was so thin it was unbelievable . He had been such a big man and his arms were just skinny little bones , and his face was so haggard " , Frick said years later .
Thousands of New Yorkers , including many children , stood vigil outside the hospital in Ruth 's final days . On August 16 , 1948 , at 8 : 01 p.m. , Ruth died in his sleep at the age of 53 . Instead of a wake at a funeral home , his casket was taken to Yankee Stadium , where it remained for two days ; 77 @,@ 000 people filed past to pay him tribute . His funeral Mass took place at St. Patrick 's Cathedral ; a crowd estimated at 75 @,@ 000 waited outside . Ruth was buried on a hillside in Section 25 at the Gate of Heaven Cemetery in Hawthorne , New York . An epitaph by Cardinal Spellman appears on his headstone . His second wife , Claire Merritt Ruth , would be interred with him 28 years later in 1976 .
= = Memorial and museum = =
On April 19 , 1949 , the Yankees unveiled a granite monument in Ruth 's honor in center field of Yankee Stadium . The monument was located in the field of play next to a flagpole and similar tributes to Huggins and Gehrig until the stadium was remodeled from 1974 – 1975 , which resulted in the outfield fences moving inward and enclosing the monuments from the playing field . This area was known thereafter as Monument Park . Yankee Stadium , " the House that Ruth Built " , was replaced after the 2008 season with a new Yankee Stadium across the street from the old one ; Monument Park was subsequently moved to the new venue behind the center field fence . Ruth 's uniform number 3 has been retired by the Yankees , and he is one of five Yankees players or managers to have a granite monument within the stadium .
The Babe Ruth Birthplace Museum is located at 216 Emory Street , a Baltimore row house where Ruth was born , and three blocks west of Oriole Park at Camden Yards , where the AL 's Baltimore Orioles play . The property was restored and opened to the public in 1973 by the non @-@ profit Babe Ruth Birthplace Foundation , Inc . Ruth 's widow , Claire , his two daughters , Dorothy and Julia , and his sister , Mamie , helped select and install exhibits for the museum .
= = Contemporary impact = =
Ruth was the first baseball star to be the subject of overwhelming interest by the public . Baseball had developed star players before , such as Cobb and " Shoeless Joe " Jackson , but both men had uneasy relations with fans , in Cobb 's case sometimes marked by violence . Ruth 's biographers agree that he benefited from the timing of his ascension to " Home Run King " , with an America hit hard by both the war and the 1918 flu pandemic longing for something to help put these traumas behind it . He also resonated in a country which felt , in the aftermath of the war , that it took second place to no one . Montville argues that as a larger @-@ than @-@ life figure capable of unprecedented athletic feats in the nation 's largest city , Ruth became an icon of the significant social changes which marked the early 1920s . Glenn Stout notes in his history of the Yankees , " Ruth was New York incarnate — uncouth and raw , flamboyant and flashy , oversized , out of scale , and absolutely unstoppable " .
Ruth became such a symbol of the United States during his lifetime that during World War II , Japanese soldiers yelled in English , " To hell with Babe Ruth " , to anger American soldiers . ( Ruth replied that he hoped that " every Jap that mention [ ed ] my name gets shot " ) . Creamer recorded that " Babe Ruth transcended sport , moved far beyond the artificial limits of baselines and outfield fences and sports pages " . Wagenheim stated , " He appealed to a deeply rooted American yearning for the definitive climax : clean , quick , unarguable . " According to Glenn Stout , " Ruth 's home runs were exalted , uplifting experience that meant more to fans than any runs they were responsible for . A Babe Ruth home run was an event unto itself , one that meant anything was possible . "
Ruth 's penchant for hitting home runs altered how baseball is played . Prior to 1920 , home runs were unusual , and managers tried to win games by getting a runner on base and bringing him around to score through such means as the stolen base , the bunt , and the hit and run . Advocates of what was dubbed " inside baseball " , such as Giants manager McGraw , disliked the home run , considering it a blot on the purity of the game . According to sportswriter W. A. Phelon after the 1920 season , Ruth 's breakout performance that season and the response in excitement and attendance , " settled , for all time to come , that the American public is nuttier over the Home Run than the Clever Fielding or the Hitless Pitching . Viva el Home Run and two times viva Babe Ruth , exponent of the home run , and overshadowing star . " Bill James noted , " When the owners discovered that the fans liked to see home runs , and when the foundations of the games were simultaneously imperiled by disgrace [ in the Black Sox Scandal ] , then there was no turning back . " While a few , such as McGraw and Cobb , decried the passing of the old @-@ style play , teams quickly began to seek and develop sluggers .
According to contemporary sportswriter Grantland Rice , only two sports figures of the 1920s approached Ruth in popularity — boxer Jack Dempsey and racehorse Man o ' War . One of the factors that contributed to Ruth 's broad appeal was the uncertainty about his family and early life . Ruth appeared to exemplify the American success story , that even an uneducated , unsophisticated youth , without any family wealth or connections , can do something better than anyone else in the world . Montville notes that " the fog [ surrounding his childhood ] will make him forever accessible , universal . He will be the patron saint of American possibility . " Similarly , the fact that Ruth played when a relatively small portion of his fans had the opportunity to see him play , in the era before television coverage of baseball , allowed his legend to grow through word of mouth and the hyperbole of sports reporters . Reisler notes that recent sluggers who surpassed Ruth 's 60 @-@ home run mark , such as Mark McGwire and Barry Bonds , generated much less excitement than when Ruth repeatedly broke the single @-@ season home run record in the 1920s ; Ruth dominated a relatively small sports world , while Americans of the present era have many sports available to watch .
= = Legacy = =
Creamer termed Ruth " a unique figure in the social history of the United States " . Ruth has even entered the language : a dominant figure in a field , whether within or outside sports , is often referred to as " the Babe Ruth " of that field . Similarly , " Ruthian " has come to mean in sports , " colossal , dramatic , prodigious , magnificent ; with great power . "
More books , Montville noted in 2006 , have been written about Ruth than about any other member of the Baseball Hall of Fame . At least five of these books ( including Creamer 's and Wagenheim 's ) were written in 1973 and 1974 , timed to capitalize on the increase in public interest in Ruth as Henry Aaron approached his career home run mark , which he broke on April 8 , 1974 . Aaron stated as he approached Ruth 's record , " I can 't remember a day this year or last when I did not hear the name of Babe Ruth . "
Montville suggests that Ruth is probably even more popular today than he was when his career home run record was broken by Aaron . The longball era that Ruth started continues in baseball , to the delight of the fans . Owners build ballparks to encourage home runs , which are featured on SportsCenter and Baseball Tonight each evening during the season . The questions of performance @-@ enhancing drug use , which have dogged recent home run hitters such as McGwire and Bonds , do nothing to diminish Ruth 's reputation ; his overindulgences with beer and hot dogs seem part of a simpler time .
Ruth has been named the greatest baseball player of all time in various surveys and rankings . In 1998 , The Sporting News ranked him number one on the list of " Baseball 's 100 Greatest Players " . In 1999 , baseball fans named Ruth to the Major League Baseball All @-@ Century Team . He was named baseball 's Greatest Player Ever in a ballot commemorating the 100th anniversary of professional baseball , in 1969 . The Associated Press reported in 1993 that Muhammad Ali was tied with Babe Ruth as the most recognized athletes in America . In a 1999 ESPN poll , he was ranked as the second @-@ greatest U.S. athlete of the century , behind Michael Jordan . In 1983 , the United States Postal Service honored Ruth with the issuance of a twenty @-@ cent stamp .
One long @-@ term survivor of the craze over Ruth may be the Baby Ruth candy bar . The original company to market the confectionery , the Curtis Candy Company , maintained that the bar was named after Ruth Cleveland , daughter of former president Grover Cleveland . She died in 1904 and the bar was first marketed in 1921 , at the height of the craze over the slugger . The slugger later sought to market candy bearing his name ; he was refused a trademark because of the Baby Ruth bar . Corporate files from 1921 are no longer extant ; the brand has changed hands several times and is now owned by the Nestlé company . The Ruth estate licensed his likeness for use in an advertising campaign for Baby Ruth in 1995 . Due to a marketing arrangement , in 2005 , the Baby Ruth bar became the official candy bar of Major League Baseball .
Montville notes the continuing relevance of Babe Ruth in American culture , over three @-@ quarters of a century after he last swung a bat in a major league game :
The fascination with his life and career continues . He is a bombastic , sloppy hero from our bombastic , sloppy history , origins undetermined , a folk tale of American success . His moon face is as recognizable today as it was when he stared out at Tom Zachary on a certain September afternoon in 1927 . If sport has become the national religion , Babe Ruth is the patron saint . He stands at the heart of the game he played , the promise of a warm summer night , a bag of peanuts , and a beer . And just maybe , the longest ball hit out of the park .
= John Davis ( Massachusetts governor ) =
John Davis ( January 13 , 1787 – April 19 , 1854 ) was an American lawyer , businessman and politician from Massachusetts . He spent 25 years in public service , serving in both houses of the United States Congress and for three non @-@ consecutive years as Governor of Massachusetts . Because of his reputation for personal integrity he was known as " Honest John " Davis .
Born in Northborough , Massachusetts , Davis attended Yale College before studying law in Worcester , Massachusetts , where he established a successful law practice . He spent 10 years ( 1824 – 34 ) in the United States House of Representatives as a National Republican ( later Whig ) , where he supported protectionist tariff legislation . He won election as Governor of Massachusetts in a three @-@ way race in 1833 that was decided by the state legislature . After two terms he was elected to the United States Senate , where he served most of one term , resigning early in 1841 after he was once again elected governor .
His second term as governor was undistinguished , but he split with fellow Whig Daniel Webster over a variety of issues , and lost the 1843 election to Democrat Marcus Morton . He was reelected to the Senate in 1845 , where he served until 1851 . He opposed the Mexican @-@ American War , and worked to prevent the extension of slavery to the territories , although he did not take a hard line on the matter , voting for most of the provisions of the Compromise of 1850 . He retired from public service in 1853 , and died the next year .
= = Early life = =
John Davis was born in Northborough , Massachusetts to Deacon Isaac Davis and Anna ( Brigham ) Davis . He attended local schools and then Leicester Academy before attending Yale College . He graduated in 1812 , and then studied law with Worcester lawyer Francis Blake , gaining admission to the bar three years later .
He was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1821 .
= = Lawyer and Congressman = =
Davis first practiced law in Spencer , Massachusetts , but soon returned to Worcester , where he eventually took over Blake 's practice . He was briefly in partnership with Levi Lincoln , Jr. before the latter was appointed to the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court in 1824 . Davis also entered politics in 1824 , winning election to the United States Congress . He represented Massachusetts from 1825 to 1833 in the House of Representatives in the 19th , 20th , 21st , 22nd and 23rd Congresses . He supported John Quincy Adams in his successful bid for the presidency , and favored conservative fiscal policies . In keeping with the state 's ( and Worcester 's ) increasingly industrial character , he favored protectionist tariff legislation ; his speeches in support of the Tariff of 1828 were widely reprinted . He opposed the policies of President Andrew Jackson , and was politically aligned with Henry Clay , although he was against Clay 's proposed compromise tariff of 1833 .
= = Governor and Senator = =
In 1833 Davis was encouraged by National Republican Party leaders to run for Governor of Massachusetts , against former President John Quincy Adams , who was running on the Anti @-@ Masonic ticket , and Democrat Marcus Morton . His political support came from textile interests and a faction of the National Republicans ( later Whigs ) led by Abbott Lawrence , as well as outgoing Governor Levi Lincoln , Jr . In the election Davis gained a plurality of votes , but not the majority that was then required . As a result , the state legislature decided the election , choosing Davis when Adams withdrew , preferring him over Morton . The Whig @-@ controlled legislature did nothing to reward the Anti @-@ Masons for Adams ' move , breaking up any chance that the two parties would form a working relationship . Davis was reelected in 1834 , aided by a general dislike in Massachusetts for President Jackson 's attacks on the Second Bank of the United States . During these two terms , Davis made no particular initiatives of his own , continuing Lincoln 's business @-@ friendly fiscal and economic policies . The state continued to grow economically , expanding its transportation infrastructure and industry .
Senator Nathaniel Silsbee , whose term ended in 1835 , decided not to run for reelection . Davis was approached by Whig leader Daniel Webster about running for the seat in December 1834 , as part of a bid to oppose Adams , who had announced his interest in the seat . The idea was that Davis , a strong candidate , would be positioned against Adams ( a long @-@ standing rival of Webster who was again running as an Anti @-@ Mason ) in the vote , which would be made by the state legislature , while Edward Everett would have the opportunity to run for governor when Davis vacated that seat . The state house and senate deadlocked on the two choices until a speech by Adams in Congress arguing in favor of Jackson 's foreign policies alarmed enough senators to change their votes in favor of Davis . The deadlock was not resolved until February 1835 ; Davis , who had been reelected governor , resigned that post to assume the Senate seat . Everett went on to win the governor 's seat in the next election . ( Adams ' son Charles Francis believed that Webster and Everett conspired to achieve this end , but there is no evidentiary support for the idea . ) Webster , in exchange for his advocacy on behalf of Davis , expected Davis ' faction in the Whig Party to support him in a future bid for the presidency .
Davis ' term in the Senate was unexceptional , except for the notably hard line he took on the question of the nation 's northeastern boundary . This dispute with the United Kingdom concerned the boundary between Maine and the British ( now Canadian ) province of New Brunswick , and had only been partially resolved after the 1794 Jay Treaty . In the 1830s both sides pushed development into the disputed area , leading to petty conflicts ( and by 1839 the possibility of war ) . Massachusetts , which Maine had been a part of prior to 1820 , maintained a property interest in some of the disputed land ; Davis took a hard line on the matter , insisting that the United States should not surrender any of the territory it claimed .
In 1836 Davis sat on a special committee formed to consider legislative responses to a flood of allegedly inflammatory abolitionist materials being sent into southern slave states from northern anti @-@ slavery organizations . Davis , the only northerner on the committee , opposed any sort of legislation , and the committee was unable to reach a consensus . When John C. Calhoun introduced legislation criminalizing the mailing of such materials , Davis spoke out against it , pointing out that it would effectively act as an unconstitutional gag on people seeking to speak out against slavery . The bill was rendered moot by administrative actions in the United States Post Office .
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side or prevent it from coming at all , but Thucydides further speculates that the real reason was to flaunt his new position to Tissaphernes and try to gain some real influence over him . According to the historian , Alcibiades had long known that Tissaphernes never meant to bring the fleet at all .
= = = Battles of Abydos and Cyzicus = = =
For more details on this topic , see Battle of Abydos and Battle of Cyzicus
Alcibiades was recalled by the " intermediate regime " of The Five Thousand , the government which succeeded the Four Hundred in 411 , but it is most likely that he waited until 407 BC to actually return to the city . Plutarch tells us that , although his recall had already been passed on motion of Critias , a political ally of his , Alcibiades was resolved to come back with glory . While this was certainly his goal , it was again a means to an end , that end being avoiding prosecution upon his return to Athens .
The next significant part he would play in the war would occur at the Battle of Abydos . Alcibiades had remained behind at Samos with a small force while Thrasybulus and Thrasyllus led the greater part of the fleet to the Hellespont . During this period , Alcibiades succeeded in raising money from Caria and the neighboring area , with which he was able to pay the rowers and gain their favor . After the Athenian victory at Cynossema , both fleets summoned all their ships from around the Aegean to join them for what might be a decisive next engagement . While Alcibiades was still en route , the two fleets clashed at Abydos , where the Peloponnesians had set up their main naval base . The battle was evenly matched , and raged for a long time , but the balance tipped towards the Athenians when Alcibiades sailed into the Hellespont with eighteen triremes . The Persian satrap Pharnabazus , who had replaced Tissaphernes as the sponsor of the Peloponnesian fleet , moved his land army to the shore to defend the ships and sailors who had beached their ships . Only the support of the Persian land army and the coming of night saved the Peloponnesian fleet from complete destruction .
Shortly after the battle , Tissaphernes had arrived in the Hellespont and Alcibiades left the fleet at Sestos to meet him , bringing gifts and hoping to once again try to win over the Persian governor . Evidently Alcibiades had gravely misjudged his standing with the satrap , and he was arrested on arrival . Within a month he would escape and resume command . It was now obvious , however , that he had no influence with the Persians ; from now on his authority would depend on what he actually could accomplish rather than on what he promised to do .
After an interlude of several months in which the Peloponnesians constructed new ships and the Athenians besieged cities and raised money throughout the Aegean , the next major sea battle took place the spring of 410 BC at Cyzicus . Alcibiades had been forced to flee from Sestos to Cardia to protect his small fleet from the rebuilt Peloponnesian navy , but as soon as the Athenian fleet was reunited there its commanders led it to Cyzicus , where the Athenians had intelligence indicating that Pharnabazus and Mindarus , the Peloponnesian fleet commander , were together plotting their next move . Concealed by storm and darkness , the combined Athenian force reached the vicinity without being spotted by the Peloponnesians . Here the Athenians devised a plot to draw the enemy into battle . According to Diodorus Siculus , Alcibiades advanced with a small squadron in order to draw the Spartans out to battle , and , after he successfully deceived Mindarus with this ploy , the squadrons of Thrasybulus and Theramenes came to join him , cutting off the Spartans ' retreat .
The Spartan fleet suffered losses in the flight and reached the shore with the Athenians in close pursuit . Alcibiades 's troops , leading the Athenian pursuit , landed and attempted to pull the Spartan ships back out to sea . The Peloponnesians fought to prevent their ships from being towed away , and Pharnabazus 's troops came up to support them . Thrasybulus landed his own force to temporarily relieve pressure on Alcibiades , and meanwhile ordered Theramenes to join up with Athenian land forces nearby and bring them to reinforce the sailors and marines on the beach . The Spartans and Persians , overwhelmed by the arrival of multiple forces from several directions , were defeated and driven off , and the Athenians captured all the Spartan ships which were not destroyed . A letter dispatched to Sparta by Hippocrates , vice @-@ admiral under Mindarus , was intercepted and taken to Athens ; it ran as follows : " The ships are lost . Mindarus is dead . The men are starving . We know not what to do " . A short time later Sparta petitioned for peace , but their appeals were ultimately rejected by the Athenians .
= = = Further military successes = = =
After their victory , Alcibiades and Thrasybulus began the siege of Chalcedon in 409 BC with about 190 ships . Although unable to attain a decisive victory or induce the city to surrender , Alcibiades was able to win a small tactical land battle outside of the city gates and Theramenes concluded an agreement with the Chalcedonians . Afterwards they concluded a temporary alliance with Pharnabazus which secured some much needed immediate cash for the army , but despite this Alcibiades was still forced to depart in search for more booty to pay the soldiers and oarsmen of the fleet .
In pursuit of these funds he traveled to the Thracian Chersonese and attacked Selymbria . He plotted with a pro @-@ Athenian party within the city and offered the Selymbrians reasonable terms and imposed strict discipline to see that they were observed . He did their city no injury whatsoever , but merely took a sum of money from it , set a garrison in it and left . Epigraphical evidence indicates the Selymbrians surrendered hostages until the treaty was ratified in Athens . His performance is judged as skillful by historians , since it saved time , resources , and lives and still fully achieved his goal .
From here Alcibiades joined in the siege of Byzantium along with Theramenes and Thrasyllus . A portion of the citizens of the city , demoralized and hungry , decided to surrender the city to Alcibiades for similar terms as the Selymbrians had received . On the designated night the defenders left their posts , and the Athenians attacked the Peloponnesian garrison in the city and their boats in the harbor . The portion of the citizenry that remained loyal to the Peloponnesians fought so savagely that Alcibiades issued a statement in the midst of the fighting which guaranteed their safety and this persuaded the remaining citizens to turn against the Peloponnesian garrison , which was nearly totally destroyed .
= = Return to Athens , dismissal , and death = =
= = = Return to Athens = = =
It was in the aftermath of these successes that Alcibiades resolved to finally return to Athens in the spring of 407 BC . Even in the wake of his recent victories , Alcibiades was exceedingly careful in his return , mindful of the changes in government , the charges still technically hanging over him , and the great injury he had done to Athens . Thus Alcibiades , instead of going straight home , first went to Samos to pick up 20 ships and proceeded with them to the Ceramic Gulf where he collected 100 talents . He finally sailed to Gytheion to make inquiries , partly about the reported preparations of the Spartans there , and partly about the feelings in Athens about his return . His inquiries assured him that the city was kindly disposed towards him and that his closest friends urged him to return .
Therefore , he finally sailed into Piraeus where the crowd had gathered , desiring to see the famous Alcibiades . He entered the harbor full of fear till he saw his cousin and others of his friends and acquaintance , who invited him to land . Upon arriving on shore he was greeted with a hero 's welcome . Nevertheless , some saw an evil omen in the fact that he had returned to Athens on the very day when the ceremony of the Plynteria ( the feast where the old statue of Athena would get cleansed ) was being celebrated . This was regarded as the unluckiest day of the year to undertake anything of importance . His enemies took note of this and kept it in mind for a future occasion .
All the criminal proceedings against him were canceled and the charges of blasphemy were officially withdrawn . Alcibiades was able to assert his piety and to raise Athenian morale by leading the solemn procession to Eleusis ( for the celebration of the Eleusinian Mysteries ) by land for the first time since the Spartans had occupied Decelea . The procession had been replaced by a journey by sea , but this year Alcibiades used a detachment of soldiers to escort the traditional procession . His property was restored and the ecclesia elected him supreme commander of land and sea ( strategos autokrator ) .
= = = Defeat at Notium = = =
In 406 BC Alcibiades set out from Athens with 1 @,@ 500 hoplites and a hundred ships . He failed to take Andros and then he went on to Samos . Later he moved to Notium , closer to the enemy at Ephesus . In the meanwhile Tissaphernes had been replaced by Cyrus the Younger ( son of Darius II of Persia ) who decided to financially support the Peloponnesians . This new revenue started to attract Athenian deserters to the Spartan navy . Additionally the Spartans had replaced Mindarus with Lysander , a very capable admiral . These factors caused the rapid growth of the Peloponnesian fleet at the expense of the Athenian . In search of funds and needing to force another decisive battle , Alcibiades left Notium and sailed to help Thrasybulus in the siege of Phocaea . Alcibiades was aware the Spartan fleet was nearby , so he left nearly eighty ships to watch them under the command of his personal helmsman Antiochus , who was given express orders not to attack . Antiochus disobeyed this single order and endeavored to draw Lysander into a fight by imitating the tactics used at Cyzicus . The situation at Notium , however , was radically different from that at Cyzicus ; the Athenians possessed no element of surprise , and Lysander had been well informed about their fleet by deserters . Antiochus 's ship was sunk , and he was killed by a sudden Spartan attack ; the remaining ships of the decoy force were then chased headlong back toward Notium , where the main Athenian force was caught unprepared by the sudden arrival of the whole Spartan fleet . In the ensuing fighting , Lysander gained an entire victory . Alcibiades soon returned and desperately tried to undo the defeat at Notium by scoring another victory , but Lysander could not be compelled to attack the fleet again .
Responsibility for the defeat ultimately fell on Alcibiades , and his enemies used the opportunity to attack him and have him removed from command , although some modern scholars believe that Alcibiades was unfairly blamed for Antiochus 's mistake . Diodorus reports that , in addition to his mistake at Notium , Alcibiades was discharged on account of false accusations brought against him by his enemies . According to Anthony Andrewes , professor of ancient history , the extravagant hopes that his successes of the previous summer had created were a decisive element in his downfall . Consequently , Alcibiades condemned himself to exile . Never again returning to Athens , he sailed north to the castles in the Thracian Chersonese , which he had secured during his time in the Hellespont . The implications of the defeat were severe for Athens . Although the defeat had been minor , it occasioned the removal of not only Alcibiades but also his allies like Thrasybulus , Theramenes and Critias . These were likely the most capable commanders Athens had at the time , and their removal would help lead to the Athenian surrender only two years later , after their complete defeat at Aegospotami .
= = = Death = = =
With one exception , Alcibiades 's role in the war ended with his command . Prior to the Battle of Aegospotami , in the last attested fact of his career , Alcibiades recognized that the Athenians were anchored in a tactically disadvantageous spot and advised them to move to Sestus where they could benefit from a harbor and a city . Diodorus , however , does not mention this advice , arguing instead that Alcibiades offered the Generals Thracian aid in exchange for a share in the command . In any case , the Generals of the Athenians , " considering that in case of defeat the blame would attach to them and that in case of success all men would attribute it to Alcibiades " , asked him to leave and not come near the camp ever again . Days later the fleet would be annihilated by Lysander .
After the Battle of Aegospotami , Alcibiades crossed the Hellespont and took refuge in Phrygia , with the object of securing the aid of Artaxerxes against Sparta .
Much about Alcibiades 's death is now uncertain , as there are conflicting accounts . According to the oldest of these , the Spartans and specifically Lysander were responsible . Though many of his details cannot be independently corroborated , Plutarch 's version is this : Lysander sent an envoy to Pharnabazus who then dispatched his brother to Phrygia where Alcibiades was living with his mistress , Timandra . In 404 BC , as he was about to set out for the Persian court , his residence was surrounded and set on fire . Seeing no chance of escape he rushed out on his assassins , dagger in hand , and was killed by a shower of arrows . According to Aristotle , the site of Alcibiades 's death was Elaphus , a mountain in Phrygia .
= = Assessments = =
= = = Political career = = =
In ancient Greece , Alcibiades was a polarizing figure . According to Thucydides , Alcibiades , being " exceedingly ambitious " , proposed the expedition in Sicily in order " to gain in wealth and reputation by means of his successes " . Alcibiades is not held responsible by Thucydides for the destruction of Athens , since " his habits gave offence to every one , and caused the Athenians to commit affairs to other hands , and thus before long to ruin the city " . Plutarch regards him as " the least scrupulous and most entirely careless of human beings " . On the other hand , Diodorus argues that he was " in spirit brilliant and intent upon great enterprises " . Sharon Press of Brown University points out that Xenophon emphasizes Alcibiades 's service to the state , rather than the harm he was charged with causing it . Demosthenes defends Alcibiades 's achievements , saying that he had taken arms in the cause of democracy , displaying his patriotism , not by gifts of money or by speeches , but by personal service . For Demosthenes and other orators , Alcibiades epitomized the figure of the great man during the glorious days of the Athenian democracy and became a rhetorical symbol . One of Isocrates ' speeches , delivered by Alcibiades the Younger , argues that the statesman deserved the Athenians ' gratitude for the service he had given them . Lysias , on the other hand , argued in one of his orations that the Athenians should regard Alcibiades as an enemy because of the general tenor of his life , as " he repays with injury the open assistance of any of his friends " . In the Constitution of the Athenians , Aristotle does not include Alcibiades in the list of the best Athenian politicians , but in Posterior Analytics he argues that traits of a proud man like Alcibiades are " equanimity amid the vicissitudes of life and impatience of dishonor " . Alcibiades excited in his contemporaries a fear for the safety of the political order . Therefore , Andocides said of him that " instead of holding that he ought himself to conform with the laws of the state , he expects you to conform with his own way of life " . Central to the depiction of the Athenian statesman is Cornelius Nepos ' famous phrase that Alcibiades " surpassed all the Athenians in grandeur and magnificence of living " .
Even today , Alcibiades divides scholars . For Malcolm F. McGregor , former head of the Department of Classics in the University of British Columbia , Alcibiades was rather a shrewd gambler than a mere opportunist . Evangelos P. Fotiadis , a prominent Greek philologist , asserts that Alcibiades was " a first class diplomat " and had " huge skills " . Nevertheless , his spiritual powers were not counterbalanced with his magnificent mind and he had the hard luck to lead a people susceptible to demagoguery . K. Paparrigopoulos , a major modern Greek historian , underlines his " spiritual virtues " and compares him with Themistocles , but he then asserts that all these gifts created a " traitor , an audacious and impious man " . Walter Ellis believes that his actions were outrageous , but they were performed with panache . For his part , David Gribble argues that Alcibiades 's actions against his city were misunderstood and believes that " the tension which led to Alcibiades 's split with the city was between purely personal and civic values " . Russell Meiggs , a British ancient historian , asserts that the Athenian statesman was absolutely unscrupulous despite his great charm and brilliant abilities . According to Meiggs his actions were dictated by selfish motives and his feud with Cleon and his successors undermined Athens . The same scholar underscores the fact that " his example of restless and undisciplined ambition strengthened the charge brought against Socrates " . Even more critically , Athanasios G. Platias and Constantinos Koliopoulos , professors of strategic studies and international politics , state that Alcibiades 's own arguments " should be sufficient to do away with the notion that Alcibiades was a great statesman , as some people still believe " . Writing from a different perspective , psychologist Anna C. Salter cites Alcibiades as exhibiting " all the classic features of psychopathy . " A similar assessment is made by Hervey Cleckley at the end of chapter 5 in his The Mask of Sanity .
= = = Military achievements = = =
Despite his critical comments , Thucydides admits in a short digression that " publicly his conduct of the war was as good as could be desired " . Diodorus and Demosthenes regard him as a great general . According to Fotiadis , Alcibiades was an invincible general and , wherever he went , victory followed him ; had he led the army in Sicily , the Athenians would have avoided disaster and , had his countrymen followed his advice at Aegospotami , Lysander would have lost and Athens would have ruled Greece . On the other hand , Paparrigopoulos believes that the Sicilian Expedition , prompted by Alcibiades , was a strategic mistake . In agreement with Paparrigopoulos , Platias and Koliopoulos underscore the fact that the Sicilian expedition was a strategic blunder of the first magnitude , resulting from a " frivolous attitude and an unbelievable underestimation of the enemy " . For his part , Angelos Vlachos , a Greek Academician , underlines the constant interest of Athens for Sicily from the beginning of the war . According to Vlachos the expedition had nothing of the extravagant or adventurous and constituted a rational strategic decision based on traditional Athenian aspirations . Vlachos asserts that Alcibiades had already conceived a broader plan : the conquest of the whole West . He intended to conquer Carthage and Libya , then to attack Italy and , after winning these , to seize Italy and Peloponnesus . The initial decision of the ecclesia provided however for a reasonable military force , which later became unreasonably large and costly because of Nicias 's demands . Kagan criticizes Alcibiades for failing to recognize that the large size of the Athenian expedition undermined the diplomatic scheme on which his strategy rested .
Kagan believes that while Alcibiades was a commander of considerable ability , he was no military genius , and his confidence and ambitions went far beyond his skills . He thus was capable of important errors and serious miscalculations . Kagan argues that at Notium , Alcibiades committed a serious error in leaving the fleet in the hands of an inexperienced officer , and that most of the credit for the brilliant victory at Cyzicus must be assigned to Thrasybulus . In this judgement , Kagan agrees with Cornelius Nepos , who said that the Athenians ' extravagant opinion of Alcibiades 's abilities and valor was his chief misfortune .
Press argues that " though Alcibiades can be considered a good General on the basis of his performance in the Hellespont , he would not be considered so on the basis of his performance in Sicily " , but " the strengths of Alcibiades 's performance as a General outweigh his faults " .
= = = Skill in oratory = = =
Plutarch asserts that " Alcibiades was a most able speaker in addition to his other gifts " , while Theophrastus argues that Alcibiades was the most capable of discovering and understanding what was required in a given case . Nevertheless , he would often stumble in the midst of his speech , but then he would resume and proceed with all the caution in the world . Even the lisp he had , which was noticed by Aristophanes , made his talk persuasive and full of charm . Eupolis says that he was " prince of talkers , but in speaking most incapable " ; which is to say , more eloquent in his private discourses than when orating before the ecclesia . For his part , Demosthenes underscores the fact that Alcibiades was regarded as " the ablest speaker of the day " . Paparrigopoulos does not accept Demosthenes 's opinion , but acknowledges that the Athenian statesman could sufficiently support his case . Kagan acknowledges his rhetorical power , whilst Thomas Habinek , professor of Classics at the University of Southern California , believes that the orator Alcibiades seemed to be whatever his audience needed on any given occasion . According to Habinek , in the field of oratory , the people responded to Alcibiades 's affection with affection of their own . Therefore , the orator was " the institution of the city talking to — and loving — itself " . According to Aristophanes , Athens " yearns for him , and hates him too , but wants him back " .
= National Press Monument =
The National Press Monument ( Indonesian : Monumen Pers Nasional ) is a monument and museum to the national Indonesian press . Formally established in 1978 , more than 20 years after it was first proposed , the monument is located in Surakarta , Central Java , and operated by the Ministry of Communications and Information . The complex consists of an old society building , which was constructed in 1918 and used for the first meeting of the Reporters Association of Indonesia ( Persatuan Wartawan Indonesia , or PWI ) , as well as several subsequent expansions ; it is listed as a Cultural Property of Indonesia .
The National Press Monument has a collection of over a million newspapers and magazines , as well as a variety of exhibitions and artefacts related to the history of the press in Indonesia . Facilities include a multimedia room , free @-@ to @-@ read newspapers , and a library . It is promoted as a site for educational tourism through various exhibitions and Facebook , and in 2013 it was visited by over 26 @,@ 000 people .
= = History = =
The building in which the National Press Monument is now housed was constructed in 1918 under the orders of Mangkunegara VII , Prince of Mangkunegaran Palace , as a society building and meeting hall . It was known as Sociëteit " Sasana Soeka " and designed by Mas Abu Kasan Atmodirono . In 1933 R.M. Sarsito Mangunkusumo and several other engineers met in the building and formed the basis of the Soloche Radio Vereeniging ( SRV ) , the first public radio operated by native Indonesians . Thirteen years later , on 9 February 1946 , the Reporters Association of Indonesia ( Persatuan Wartawan Indonesia , or PWI ) was formed in the building ; the date is commemorated in Indonesia as National Press Day . During the Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies the building housed a clinic to treat troops , and during the Indonesian National Revolution it was used as an office of the Indonesian Red Cross Society .
On 9 February 1956 , during an event celebrating ten years of the PWI , high @-@ profile reporters such as Rosihan Anwar , B.M. Diah , and S. Tahsin suggested that a foundation be established which could manage a national press museum . This foundation was formalised on 22 May 1956 , with its collection mostly being donated by Soedarjo Tjokrosisworo . Only some fifteen years later did the foundation begin plans for establishing a physical museum , the plans for which were formally announced by Minister of Information Budiarjo on 9 February 1971 . The name " National Press Monument " was formalised in 1973 , and in 1977 the land was donated to the government . The museum was formally opened on 9 February 1978 , after several new buildings were added . In his dedication speech , President Suharto warned the press about the dangers of freedom , stating " exercising freedom for freedom 's sake is a luxury we cannot afford " .
In 2012 the museum was headed by Sujatmiko . That year David Kristian Budhiyanto of Petra Christian University wrote that the museum was rarely visited and in some places poorly maintained . He posited this to be based on a popular view of museums as unexciting or boring places . In order to attract new visitors , the museum has initiated several competitions in 2012 and 2013 , including a photography contest on the museum 's Facebook page . It has also undertaken mobile exhibitions , showing some of its collection in cities such as Yogyakarta and Magelang . Between January and September 2013 the museum received 26 @,@ 249 visitors , an increase of 250 per cent over the previous year 's target ; this was credited to the various promotional efforts undertaken . The museum is now promoted as a site for educational tourism and accepts donations of materials related to the press in Indonesia .
= = Description = =
The National Press Monument is located at 59 Gajah Mada Street in Surakarta , Central Java , at the corner of Gajah Mada and Yosodipuro Streets . It is west of Mangkunegaran Palace . The complex consists of the original Sasana Soeka building , two two @-@ story buildings , as well as a four @-@ story building ; these additions were constructed much later . At the front of the museum is a parking area and two public boards where the latest editions of local newspapers ( in 2013 , Solo Pos , Suara Merdeka , and Republika ) can be read freely . The front façade is decorated with a naga design symbolising the year 1980 , the year in which construction was completed .
Management of the museum is handled by the Ministry of Communications and Information ( Kementerian Komunikasi dan Informatika ) . The administrative structure consists of the museum head and administrative manager , as well as divisions for customer service , conservation and preservation , and day @-@ to @-@ day activities . As of 2013 , the museum employs 24 civil servants . The building is listed as a Cultural Property of Indonesia .
The museum includes a media centre , where the general public can access the internet without charge on one of nine computers ; a library , with a collection of approximately 12 @,@ 000 books ; and a room in which digitalised copies of old newspapers and magazines can be read . Digitalisation of this media is completed on @-@ site . A microfilm room is available , though it is no longer used .
The National Press Monument regularly conducts seminars regarding the press , media , and communications . It holds themed exhibitions of media based on national holidays , including Independence Day , the anniversary of the Youth Pledge , and National Press Day ; the museum may also take some of its collection on a mobile exhibition . The digital collection and library is accessible to the general public , while researchers may access paper copies of the newspapers and magazines .
= = Holdings = =
The museum holds over a million newspapers and magazines published in various parts of the Indonesian archipelago from colonial times until the present day . It also has numerous pieces of communications technology and technology used in reporting , including aerials , typewriters , transmitters , telephones , and a large kenthongan . The front of the main entrance hall holds ten busts of important figures in the history of journalism in Indonesia . This includes Tirto Adhi Soerjo , Djamaluddin Adinegoro , Sam Ratulangi , and Ernest Douwes Dekker .
In the rear of the main entrance hall is a series of six dioramas illustrating communications and the press throughout Indonesian history . The first diorama shows various forms of communication and news @-@ sharing in pre @-@ colonial Indonesia . The second diorama shows the press in the colonial period , including the first newspaper in the Indies under the Dutch East India Company , Memories der Nouvelles ( 1615 ) ; the first printed newspaper in the Indies , the Bataviasche Nouvelles ( 1744 ) , and the first Javanese newspaper in the Indies , Bromartani ( 1855 ) . The third diorama depicts the press during the Japanese occupation , whereas the fourth depicts the press during the National Revolution – including the formation of the PWI . The fifth diorama shows the state of the press during the New Order under President Suharto , a time of great press censorship . The final diorama depicts the press after the beginning of Reformasi in 1998 , in which greater freedom of the press has been granted .
The museum also holds various artefacts which belonged to journalists from pre- and post @-@ independence Indonesia . This includes an Underwood typewriter which once belonged to Bakrie Soeriatmadja , a vocal journalist for the Bandung @-@ based Sipatahoenan ; a shirt in which Hendro Subroto was shot while covering the Indonesian occupation of East Timor in 1975 ; parachuting equipment used by Trisnojuwono in covering the solar eclipse of 11 June 1983 ; and a camera used by Fuad Muhammad Syafruddin , a journalist for the Yogyakarta @-@ based Bernas who was killed after covering a corruption scandal in 1995 . More artefacts , from journalists such as Mochtar Lubis , were still being acquired as of October 2013 .
= Blade Runner =
Blade Runner is a 1982 American tech noir science fiction film directed by Ridley Scott , and starring Harrison Ford , Rutger Hauer , Sean Young , and Edward James Olmos . The screenplay , written by Hampton Fancher and David Peoples , is a modified film adaptation of the 1968 novel Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep ? by Philip K. Dick .
The film depicts a dystopian Los Angeles in which genetically engineered replicants , which are visually indistinguishable from adult humans , are manufactured by the powerful Tyrell Corporation . The use of replicants on Earth is banned and they are exclusively utilized for dangerous or menial work on off @-@ world colonies . Replicants who defy the ban and return to Earth are hunted down and killed ( " retired " ) by special police operatives known as " Blade Runners " . The plot focuses on a group of recently escaped replicants hiding in L.A. and the burnt @-@ out expert Blade Runner , Rick Deckard ( Harrison Ford ) , who reluctantly agrees to take on one more assignment to hunt them down .
Blade Runner initially polarized critics : some were displeased with the pacing , while others enjoyed its thematic complexity . The year following its release , the film won the prestigious Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation . Blade Runner underperformed in North American theaters , but has since become a cult film . Hailed for its production design , depicting a " retrofitted " future , it remains a leading example of the neo @-@ noir genre . It brought the work of Philip K. Dick to the attention of Hollywood and several later films were based on his work . Ridley Scott regards Blade Runner as " probably " his most complete and personal film . In 1993 , the film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being " culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant " . Blade Runner is now regarded by many critics as one of the best science fiction films ever made .
Seven versions of the film have been shown for various markets as a result of controversial changes made by film executives . A Director 's Cut was released in 1992 after a strong response to workprint screenings . This , in conjunction with its popularity as a video rental , made it one of the first films released on DVD , resulting in a basic disc with mediocre video and audio quality . In 2007 , Warner Bros. released The Final Cut , a 25th anniversary digitally remastered version , which is the only one on which Scott had complete artistic freedom and was shown in selected theaters and subsequently released on DVD , HD DVD , and Blu @-@ ray .
= = Plot = =
In Los Angeles in November 2019 , ex @-@ police officer Rick Deckard ( Harrison Ford ) is detained by officer Gaff ( Edward James Olmos ) and brought to his former supervisor , Bryant ( M. Emmet Walsh ) . Deckard , whose job as a " Blade Runner " was to track down bioengineered beings known as replicants and " retire " ( a euphemism for killing ) them , is informed that four have come to Earth illegally . As Tyrell Corporation Nexus @-@ 6 models , they have only a four @-@ year lifespan and may have come to Earth to try to extend their lives .
Deckard watches a video of a Blade Runner named Holden administering the " Voight @-@ Kampff " test designed to distinguish replicants from humans based on their emotional response to questions . The test subject , Leon ( Brion James ) , shoots Holden after Holden asks about Leon 's mother . Bryant wants Deckard to retire Leon and the other three replicants : Roy Batty ( Rutger Hauer ) , Zhora ( Joanna Cassidy ) , and Pris ( Daryl Hannah ) . Deckard initially refuses , but after Bryant ambiguously threatens him , he reluctantly agrees .
Deckard begins his investigation at the Tyrell Corporation to ensure that the test works on Nexus @-@ 6 models . While there , he discovers that Dr. Eldon Tyrell 's ( Joe Turkel ) assistant Rachael ( Sean Young ) is an experimental replicant who believes herself to be human . Rachael has been given false memories to provide an " emotional cushion " . As a result , a more extensive test is required to determine whether she is a replicant .
Events are then set into motion that pit Deckard 's search for the replicants against their search for Tyrell to force him to extend their lives . Roy and Leon investigate a replicant eye @-@ manufacturing laboratory and learn of J.F. Sebastian ( William Sanderson ) , a gifted genetic designer who works closely with Tyrell . Rachael visits Deckard at his apartment to prove her humanity by showing him a family photo , but after Deckard reveals that her memories are implants from Tyrell 's niece , she leaves his apartment in tears . Meanwhile , Pris locates Sebastian and manipulates him to gain his trust .
While searching Leon 's hotel room , Deckard finds a photo of Zhora and a synthetic snake scale that leads him to a strip club where Zhora works . Deckard kills Zhora and shortly after is told by Bryant to also retire Rachael , who has disappeared from the Tyrell Corporation . After Deckard spots Rachael in a crowd , he is attacked by Leon , but Rachael kills Leon using Deckard 's dropped pistol . The two return to Deckard 's apartment , and during an intimate discussion , he promises not to hunt her ; as she abruptly tries to leave , Deckard physically restrains her , forcing her to kiss him .
Arriving at Sebastian 's apartment , Roy tells Pris the others are dead . Sympathetic to their plight , Sebastian reveals that because of " Methuselah Syndrome " , a genetic premature aging disorder , his life will also be cut short . Sebastian and Roy gain entrance into Tyrell 's secure penthouse , where Roy demands more life from his maker . Tyrell tells him that it is impossible . Roy confesses that he has done " questionable things " which Tyrell dismisses , praising Roy 's advanced design and accomplishments in his short life . Roy kisses Tyrell , then kills him . Sebastian runs for the elevator followed by Roy , who then rides the elevator down alone . Though not shown , it is implied by Bryant via police radio that Roy also kills Sebastian .
Upon entering Sebastian 's apartment , Deckard is ambushed by Pris , but he manages to kill her just as Roy returns . As Roy starts to die , he chases Deckard through the building , ending up on the roof . Deckard tries to jump to an adjacent roof , but misses and is left hanging precariously between buildings . Roy makes the jump with ease , and as Deckard 's grip loosens , Roy hoists him onto the roof , saving him . As Roy 's life runs out , he delivers a monologue about how his memories " will be lost like tears in rain " ; Roy dies in front of Deckard , who watches silently . Gaff arrives and shouts across to Deckard , " It 's too bad she won 't live , but then again , who does ? " Deckard returns to his apartment and finds the door ajar , but Rachael is safe , asleep in his bed . As they leave , Deckard notices a small tin @-@ foil origami unicorn on the floor , a familiar calling card that brings back to him Gaff 's final words . Deckard and Rachael quickly leave the apartment block .
= = Themes = =
Although Blade Runner is ostensibly an action film , it operates on multiple dramatic and narrative levels . It is indebted to film noir conventions : the femme fatale ; protagonist @-@ narration ( removed in later versions ) ; dark and shadowy cinematography ; and the questionable moral outlook of the hero – in this case , extended to include reflections upon the nature of his own humanity . It is a literate science fiction film , thematically enfolding the philosophy of religion and moral implications of human mastery of genetic engineering in the context of classical Greek drama and hubris . It also draws on Biblical images , such as Noah 's flood , and literary sources , such as Frankenstein . Linguistically , the theme of mortality is subtly reiterated in the chess game between Roy and Tyrell , based on the famous Immortal Game of 1851 , though Scott has said that was coincidental .
Blade Runner delves into the implications of technology on the environment and on society by reaching to the past , using literature , religious symbolism , classical dramatic themes , and film noir . This tension between past , present , and future is mirrored in the retrofitted future of Blade Runner , which is high @-@ tech and gleaming in places but decayed and old elsewhere . Ridley Scott described the film as : " extremely dark , both literally and metaphorically , with an oddly masochistic feel " , in an interview by Lynn Barber for the British Sunday newspaper The Observer in 2002 . Scott " liked the idea of exploring pain " in the wake of his brother 's skin cancer death : " When he was ill , I used to go and visit him in London , and that was really traumatic for me . "
An aura of paranoia suffuses the film : corporate power looms large ; the police seem omnipresent ; vehicle and warning lights probe into buildings ; and the consequences of huge biomedical power over the individual are explored – especially the consequences for replicants of their implanted memories . Control over the environment is depicted as taking place on a vast scale , hand in hand with the absence of any natural life , with artificial animals substituting for their extinct predecessors . This oppressive backdrop explains the frequently referenced migration of humans to extra @-@ terrestrial ( " off @-@ world " ) colonies . The dystopian themes explored in Blade Runner are an early example of cyberpunk concepts expanding into film . Eyes are a recurring motif , as are manipulated images , calling into question reality and our ability to accurately perceive and remember it .
These thematic elements provide an atmosphere of uncertainty for Blade Runner 's central theme of examining humanity . In order to discover replicants , an empathy test is used , with a number of its questions focused on the treatment of animals – seemingly an essential indicator of someone 's " humanity " . The replicants appear to show compassion and concern for one another and are juxtaposed against human characters who lack empathy while the mass of humanity on the streets is cold and impersonal . The film goes so far as to put in doubt whether Deckard is human , and forces the audience to re @-@ evaluate what it means to be human .
The question of whether Deckard is intended to be a human or a replicant has been an ongoing controversy since the film 's release . Both Michael Deeley and Harrison Ford wanted Deckard to be human while Hampton Fancher preferred ambiguity . Ridley Scott has confirmed that in his vision Deckard is a replicant .
Deckard 's unicorn dream sequence , inserted into the Director 's Cut , coinciding with Gaff 's parting gift of an origami unicorn is seen by many as showing that Deckard is a replicant – as Gaff could have accessed Deckard 's implanted memories . The interpretation that Deckard is a replicant is challenged by others who believe the unicorn imagery shows that the characters , whether human or replicant , share the same dreams and recognize their affinity , or that the absence of a decisive answer is crucial to the film 's main theme . The inherent ambiguity and uncertainty of the film , as well as its textual richness , have permitted viewers to see it from their own perspectives .
= = Production = =
= = = Casting = = =
Casting the film proved troublesome , particularly for the lead role of Deckard . Screenwriter Hampton Fancher envisioned Robert Mitchum as Deckard and wrote the character 's dialogue with Mitchum in mind . Director Ridley Scott and the film 's producers spent months meeting and discussing the role with Dustin Hoffman , who eventually departed over differences in vision . Harrison Ford was ultimately chosen for several reasons , including his performance in the Star Wars films , Ford 's interest in the Blade Runner story , and discussions with Steven Spielberg who was finishing Raiders of the Lost Ark at the time and strongly praised Ford 's work in the film . Following his success in films like Star Wars ( 1977 ) and Raiders of the Lost Ark ( 1981 ) , Ford was looking for a role with dramatic depth . According to production documents , several actors were considered for the role , including Gene Hackman , Sean Connery , Jack Nicholson , Paul Newman , Clint Eastwood , Tommy Lee Jones , Arnold Schwarzenegger , Al Pacino , and Burt Reynolds .
One role that was not difficult to cast was Rutger Hauer as Roy Batty , the violent yet thoughtful leader of the replicants . Scott cast Hauer without having met him , based solely on Hauer 's performances in Paul Verhoeven 's movies Scott had seen ( Katie Tippel , Soldier of Orange and Turkish Delight ) . Hauer 's portrayal of Batty was regarded by Philip K. Dick as , " the perfect Batty — cold , Aryan , flawless " . Of the many films Hauer has done , Blade Runner is his favorite . As he explained in a live chat in 2001 , " Blade Runner needs no explanation . It just [ is ] . All of the best . There is nothing like it . To be part of a real masterpiece which changed the world 's thinking . It 's awesome . " Hauer rewrote his character 's " tears in rain " speech himself and presented the words to Scott on set prior to filming .
Blade Runner used a number of then @-@ lesser @-@ known actors : Sean Young portrays Rachael , an experimental replicant implanted with the memories of Tyrell 's niece , causing her to believe she is human ; Nina Axelrod auditioned for the role . Daryl Hannah portrays Pris , a " basic pleasure model " replicant ; Stacey Nelkin auditioned for the role , but was given another part in the film , which was ultimately cut before filming . Casting Pris and Rachael was challenging , requiring several screen tests , with Morgan Paull playing the role of Deckard . Paull was cast as Deckard 's fellow bounty hunter Holden based on his performances in the tests . Brion James portrays Leon Kowalski , a combat replicant , and Joanna Cassidy portrays Zhora , an assassin replicant .
Edward James Olmos portrays Gaff . Olmos used his diverse ethnic background , and personal research , to help create the fictional " Cityspeak " language his character uses in the film . His initial address to Deckard at the noodle bar is partly in Hungarian and means , " Horse dick [ bullshit ] ! No way . You are the Blade ... Blade Runner . " M. Emmet Walsh plays Captain Bryant , a hard @-@ drinking , sleazy , and underhanded police veteran typical of the film noir genre . Joe Turkel portrays Dr. Eldon Tyrell , a corporate mogul who built an empire on genetically manipulated humanoid slaves . William Sanderson was cast as J. F. Sebastian , a quiet and lonely genius who provides a compassionate yet compliant portrait of humanity . J. F. sympathizes with the replicants , whom he sees as companions , and shares their shorter lifespan due to his rapid aging disease ; Joe Pantoliano was considered for the role . James Hong portrays Hannibal Chew , an elderly geneticist specializing in synthetic eyes , and Hy Pyke portrays the sleazy bar owner Taffey Lewis with ease and in a single take , something almost unheard @-@ of with Scott whose drive for perfection resulted at times in double @-@ digit takes .
= = = Development = = =
Interest in adapting Philip K. Dick 's novel Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep ? developed shortly after its 1968 publication . Director Martin Scorsese was interested in filming the novel , but never optioned it . Producer Herb Jaffe optioned it in the early 1970s , but Dick was unimpressed with the screenplay written by Herb 's son Robert : " Jaffe 's screenplay was so terribly done ... Robert flew down to Santa Ana to speak with me about the project . And the first thing I said to him when he got off the plane was , ' Shall I beat you up here at the airport , or shall I beat you up back at my apartment ? ' "
The screenplay by Hampton Fancher was optioned in 1977 . Producer Michael Deeley became interested in Fancher 's draft and convinced director Ridley Scott to film it . Scott had previously declined the project , but after leaving the slow production of Dune , wanted a faster @-@ paced project to take his mind off his older brother 's recent death . He joined the project on February 21 , 1980 , and managed to push up the promised Filmways financing from US $ 13 million to $ 15 million . Fancher 's script focused more on environmental issues and less on issues of humanity and religion , which are prominent in the novel and Scott wanted changes . Fancher found a cinema treatment by William S. Burroughs for Alan E. Nourse 's novel The Bladerunner ( 1974 ) , titled Blade Runner ( a movie ) . Scott liked the name , so Deeley obtained the rights to the titles . Eventually he hired David Peoples to rewrite the script and Fancher left the job over the issue on December 21 , 1980 , although he later returned to contribute additional rewrites .
Having invested over $ 2 @.@ 5 million in pre @-@ production , as the date of commencement of principal photography neared , Filmways withdrew financial backing . In 10 days Deeley had secured $ 21 @.@ 5 million in financing through a three @-@ way deal between The Ladd Company ( through Warner Bros. ) , the Hong Kong @-@ based producer Sir Run Run Shaw and Tandem Productions .
Philip K. Dick became concerned that no one had informed him about the film 's production , which added to his distrust of Hollywood . After Dick criticized an early version of Hampton Fancher 's script in an article written for the Los Angeles Select TV Guide , the studio sent Dick the David Peoples ' rewrite . Although Dick died shortly before the film 's release , he was pleased with the rewritten script and with a 20 @-@ minute special effects test reel that was screened for him when he was invited to the studio . Despite his well known skepticism of Hollywood in principle , Dick enthused to Ridley Scott that the world created for the film looked exactly as he had imagined it . He said , " I saw a segment of Douglas Trumbull 's special effects for Blade Runner on the KNBC @-@ TV news . I recognized it immediately . It was my own interior world . They caught it perfectly . " He also approved of the film 's script , saying , " After I finished reading the screenplay , I got the novel out and looked through it . The two reinforce each other , so that someone who started with the novel would enjoy the movie and someone who started with the movie would enjoy the novel . " The motion picture was dedicated to Dick . Principal photography of Blade Runner began on March 9 , 1981 and ended four months later .
In 1992 , Ford revealed , " Blade Runner is not one of my favorite films . I tangled with Ridley . " Apart from friction with the director , Ford also disliked the voiceovers : " When we started shooting it had been tacitly agreed that the version of the film that we had agreed upon was the version without voiceover narration . It was a f * * king [ sic ] nightmare . I thought that the film had worked without the narration . But now I was stuck re @-@ creating that narration . And I was obliged to do the voiceovers for people that did not represent the director 's interests . " " I went kicking and screaming to the studio to record it . " The narration monologues were written by an uncredited Roland Kibbee .
In 2006 , Scott was asked " Who 's the biggest pain in the arse you 've ever worked with ? " , he replied : " It 's got to be Harrison ... he 'll forgive me because now I get on with him . Now he 's become charming . But he knows a lot , that 's the problem . When we worked together it was my first film up and I was the new kid on the block . But we made a good movie . " Ford said of Scott in 2000 : " I admire his work . We had a bad patch there , and I 'm over it . " In 2006 Ford reflected on the production of the film saying : " What I remember more than anything else when I see Blade Runner is not the 50 nights of shooting in the rain , but the voiceover ... I was still obliged to work for these clowns that came in writing one bad voiceover after another . " Ridley Scott confirmed in the summer 2007 issue of Total Film that Harrison Ford contributed to the Blade Runner Special Edition DVD , having already done his interviews . " Harrison 's fully on board " , said Scott .
The Bradbury Building in downtown Los Angeles served as a filming location , and a Warner Bros. backlot housed the LA 2019 streets . Other locations included Ennis @-@ Brown House and the 2nd Street Tunnel . Test screenings resulted in several changes including adding a voice over , a happy ending and the removal of a Holden hospital scene . The relationship between the filmmakers and the investors was difficult , which culminated in Deeley and Scott being fired but still working on the film . Crew members created T @-@ shirts during filming saying , " Yes Guv 'nor , My Ass " that mocked Scott 's unfavorable comparison of U.S. and British crews ; Scott responded with a T @-@ shirt of his own , " Xenophobia Sucks " making the incident known as the T @-@ shirt war .
= = = Design = = =
Ridley Scott credits Edward Hopper 's painting Nighthawks and the French science fiction comic magazine Métal Hurlant ( " Heavy Metal " ) , to which the artist Moebius contributed , as stylistic mood sources . He also drew on the landscape of " Hong Kong on a very bad day " and the industrial landscape of his one @-@ time home in northeast England . The visual style of the movie is influenced by the work of Futurist Italian architect , Antonio Sant 'Elia . Scott hired Syd Mead as his concept artist who , like Scott , was influenced by Métal Hurlant . Moebius was offered the opportunity to assist in the pre @-@ production of Blade Runner , but he declined so that he could work on René Laloux 's animated film Les Maîtres du temps – a decision that he later regretted . Production designer Lawrence G. Paull and art director David Snyder realized Scott 's and Mead 's sketches . Douglas Trumbull and Richard Yuricich supervised the special effects for the film .
Blade Runner has numerous deep similarities to Fritz Lang 's Metropolis , including a built @-@ up urban environment , in which the wealthy literally live above the workers , dominated by a huge building – the Stadtkrone Tower in Metropolis and the Tyrell Building in Blade Runner . Special effects supervisor David Dryer used stills from Metropolis when lining up Blade Runner 's miniature building shots .
The extended end scene in the original theatrical release shows Rachel and Deckard traveling into daylight with pastoral aerial shots filmed by director Stanley Kubrick . Ridley Scott contacted Kubrick about using some of his surplus helicopter aerial photography from The Shining .
" Spinner " is the generic term for the fictional flying cars used in the film . A spinner can be driven as a ground @-@ based vehicle , and take off vertically , hover , and cruise using jet propulsion much like vertical take @-@ off and landing ( VTOL ) aircraft . They are used extensively by the police to patrol and survey the population , and it is clear that despite restrictions wealthy people can acquire spinner licenses . The vehicle was conceived and designed by Syd Mead who described the spinner as an " aerodyne " — a vehicle which directs air downward to create lift , though press kits for the film stated that the spinner was propelled by three engines : " conventional internal combustion , jet , and anti @-@ gravity " Mead 's conceptual drawings were transformed into 25 working vehicles by automobile customizer Gene Winfield . A spinner is on permanent exhibit at the Science Fiction Museum and Hall of Fame in Seattle , Washington .
= = = = Voight @-@ Kampff machine = = = =
The Voight @-@ Kampff machine is a fictional interrogation tool , originating in the novel where it is spelled Voigt @-@ Kampff . The Voight @-@ Kampff is a polygraph @-@ like machine used by Blade Runners to determine whether an individual is a replicant . It measures bodily functions such as respiration , blush response , heart rate and eye movement in response to questions dealing with empathy . In the film two replicants take the test , Leon and Rachael , and Deckard tells Tyrell that it usually takes 20 to 30 cross @-@ referenced questions to distinguish a replicant ; in contrast with the book , where it is stated it only takes " six or seven " questions to make a determination . In the film it takes more than one hundred questions to determine that Rachael is a replicant .
= = = Music = = =
The Blade Runner soundtrack by Vangelis is a dark melodic combination of classic composition and futuristic synthesizers which mirrors the film @-@ noir retro @-@ future envisioned by Ridley Scott . Vangelis , fresh from his Academy Award winning score for Chariots of Fire , composed and performed the music on his synthesizers . He also made use of various chimes and the vocals of collaborator Demis Roussos . Another memorable sound is the haunting tenor sax solo " Love Theme " by British saxophonist Dick Morrissey , who performed on many of Vangelis 's albums . Ridley Scott also used " Memories of Green " from the Vangelis album See You Later , an orchestral version of which Scott would later use in his film Someone To Watch Over Me .
Along with Vangelis ' compositions and ambient textures , the film 's soundscape also features a track by the Japanese ensemble Nipponia – " Ogi No Mato " or " The Folding Fan as a Target " from the Nonesuch Records release Traditional Vocal and Instrumental Music – and a track by harpist Gail Laughton from " Harps of the Ancient Temples " on Laurel Records .
Despite being well received by fans and critically acclaimed and nominated in 1983 for a BAFTA and Golden Globe as best original score , and the promise of a soundtrack album from Polydor Records in the end titles of the film , the release of the official soundtrack recording was delayed for over a decade . There are two official releases of the music from Blade Runner . In light of the lack of a release of an album , the New American Orchestra recorded an orchestral adaptation in 1982 which bore little resemblance to the original . Some of the film tracks would , in 1989 , surface on the compilation Vangelis : Themes , but not until the 1992 release of the Director 's Cut version would a substantial amount of the film 's score see commercial release .
These delays and poor reproductions led to the production of many bootleg recordings over the years . A bootleg tape surfaced in 1982 at science fiction conventions and became popular given the delay of an official release of the original recordings , and in 1993 " Off World Music , Ltd " created a bootleg CD that would prove more comprehensive than Vangelis ' official CD in 1994 . A set with three CDs of Blade Runner @-@ related Vangelis music was released in 2007 . Titled Blade Runner Trilogy , the first disc contains the same tracks as the 1994 official soundtrack release , the second features previously unreleased music from the movie , and the third disc is all newly composed music from Vangelis , inspired by , and in the spirit of the movie .
= = = Special effects = = =
The film 's special effects are generally recognized to be among the best of all time , using the available ( non @-@ digital ) technology to the fullest . In addition to matte paintings and models , the techniques employed included multipass exposures . In some scenes , the set was lit , shot , the film rewound , and then rerecorded over with different lighting . In some cases this was done 16 times in all . The cameras were frequently motion controlled using computers . Many effects utilised techniques which had been developed during the production of Close Encounters of the Third Kind .
= = Release = =
Blade Runner was released in 1 @,@ 290 theaters on June 25 , 1982 . That date was chosen by producer Alan Ladd , Jr. because his previous highest @-@ grossing films ( Star Wars and Alien ) had a similar opening date ( May 25 ) in 1977 and 1979 , making the date his " lucky day " . Blade Runner grossed reasonably good ticket sales according to contemporary reports ; earning $ 6 @.@ 1 million during its first weekend in theaters . The film was released in close proximity to The Thing , Star Trek II : The Wrath of Khan , Conan the Barbarian and , most significantly , E.T. the Extra @-@ Terrestrial . These big @-@ budget science fiction / fantasy films all released in 1982 undoubtedly glutted the market .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Initial reactions among film critics were mixed . Some wrote that the plot took a back seat to the film 's special effects , and did not fit the studio 's marketing as an action / adventure movie . Others acclaimed its complexity and predicted it would stand the test of time . Negative criticism in the United States cited its slow pace . Sheila Benson from the Los Angeles Times called it " Blade Crawler , " and Pat Berman in The State and Columbia Record described it as " science fiction pornography " . Pauline Kael praised Blade Runner as worthy of a place in film history for its distinctive sci @-@ fi vision , yet criticized the film 's lack of development in " human terms " .
Academics began writing analyses of the film almost as soon as it was released , in particular its dystopic aspects , its questions regarding " authentic " humanity , its ecofeminist aspects , in genre studies and in recent years , popular culture . The film has been the subject of academic interest over decades .
Since its original release , the film has become a science fiction classic . Roger Ebert praised the visuals of both the original and the Director 's Cut versions and recommended it for that reason ; however , he found the human story clichéd and a little thin . He later added The Final Cut to his " Great Movies " list . Critic Chris Rodley and Janet Maslin theorized that Blade Runner changed cinematic and cultural discourse through its image repertoire , and subsequent influence on films . Blade Runner holds an 89 % rating on Rotten Tomatoes , a website that rates films based on published reviews by critics , averaging a score of 8 @.@ 5 out of 10 from 104 reviews . The site 's main consensus reads " Misunderstood when it first hit theaters , the influence of Ridley Scott 's mysterious , neo @-@ noir Blade Runner has deepened with time . A visually remarkable , achingly human sci @-@ fi masterpiece . " Denis Villeneuve , who is to direct the Blade Runner sequel , cites the movie as a huge influence for him and many others .
= = = Accolades = = =
Blade Runner has won and been nominated for the following awards :
= = = Versions = = =
Several different versions of Blade Runner have been shown . The original workprint version ( 1982 , 113 minutes ) was shown for audience test previews in Denver and Dallas in March 1982 . Negative responses to the previews led to the modifications resulting in the U.S. theatrical version . The workprint was shown as a director 's cut without Scott 's approval at the Los Angeles Fairfax Theater in May 1990 , at an AMPAS showing in April 1991 , and in September and October 1991 at the Los Angeles NuArt Theater and the San Francisco Castro Theatre . Positive responses pushed the studio to approve work on an official director 's cut . A San Diego Sneak Preview was shown only once , in May 1982 , and was almost identical to the U.S. theatrical version but contained three extra scenes not shown in any other version , including the 2007 Final Cut .
Two versions were shown in the film 's 1982 theatrical release : the U.S. theatrical version ( 117 minutes ) , known as the original version or Domestic Cut , released on Betamax , CED Videodisc and VHS in 1983 and Laserdisc in 1987 ; and the International Cut ( 117 minutes ) , also known as the " Criterion Edition " or " uncut version " , which included more violent action scenes than the U.S. version . Although initially unavailable in the U.S. , and distributed in Europe and Asia via theatrical and local Warner Home Video Laserdisc releases , it was later released on VHS and Criterion Collection Laserdisc in North America , and re @-@ released in 1992 as a " 10th Anniversary Edition " .
Scott 's Director 's Cut ( 1991 , 116 minutes ) was made available on VHS and Laserdisc in 1993 , and on DVD in 1997 . Significant changes from the theatrical version include : the removal of Deckard 's voice @-@ over ; re @-@ insertion of the unicorn sequence ; and removal of the studio @-@ imposed happy ending . Scott provided extensive notes and consultation to Warner Bros. through film preservationist Michael Arick , who was put in charge of creating the Director 's Cut . Scott 's The Final Cut ( 2007 , 117 minutes ) was released by Warner Bros. theatrically on October 5 , 2007 , and subsequently released on DVD , HD DVD , and Blu @-@ ray Disc in December 2007 . This is the only version over which Scott had complete editorial control .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Cultural impact = = =
While not initially a success with North American audiences , the film was popular internationally and garnered a cult following . The film 's dark style and futuristic designs have served as a benchmark and its influence can be seen in many subsequent science fiction films , anime , video games , and television programs . For example , Ronald D. Moore and David Eick , the producers of the re @-@ imagining of Battlestar Galactica , have both cited Blade Runner as one of the major influences for the show . Blade Runner continues to reflect modern trends and concerns , and an increasing number consider it one of the greatest science fiction films of all time . It was voted the best science fiction film ever made in a poll of 60 eminent world scientists conducted in 2004 . Blade Runner is also cited as an important influence to both the style and story of the Ghost in the Shell film series , which itself has been highly influential to the future @-@ noir genre .
The film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry in 1993 and is frequently used in university courses . In 2007 it was named the second most visually influential film of all time by the Visual Effects Society .
Blade Runner is one of the most musically sampled films of the 20th century . The 2009 album , I , Human , by Singaporean band Deus Ex Machina makes numerous references to the genetic engineering and cloning themes from the film , and even features a track titled " Replicant " .
Blade Runner has influenced adventure games such as the 2012 graphical text adventure Cypher , Rise of the Dragon , Snatcher , Beneath a Steel Sky , Flashback : The Quest for Identity , Bubblegum Crisis ( and its original anime films ) , the role @-@ playing game Shadowrun , the first @-@ person shooter Perfect Dark , and the Syndicate series of video games . The film is also cited as a major influence on Warren Spector , designer of the computer @-@ game Deus Ex , which displays evidence of the film 's influence in both its visual rendering and plot . The look of the film , darkness , neon lights and opacity of vision , is easier to render than complicated backdrops , making it a popular choice for game designers .
Blade Runner has also been the subject of parody , such as the comics Blade Bummer by Crazy comics , Bad Rubber by Steve Gallacci , and the Red Dwarf 2009 three @-@ part miniseries , " Back to Earth " .
Among the folklore that has developed around the film over the years has been the belief that the film was a curse to the companies whose logos were displayed prominently as product placements in some scenes . While they were market leaders at the time , Atari , Bell , Cuisinart and Pan Am experienced setbacks after the film 's release . The Coca @-@ Cola Company suffered losses during its failed introduction of New Coke in 1985 , but soon afterwards regained its market share .
Media recognitions for Blade Runner include :
= = = = American Film Institute recognition = = = =
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movies – Nominated
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Thrills – # 74
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Heroes & Villains : Roy Batty ( Villain ) – Nominated
Rick Deckard ( Hero ) – Nominated
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movie Quotes : " I 've seen things you people wouldn 't believe . Attack ships on fire off the shoulder of Orion . I watched C @-@ beams glitter in the dark near the Tannhauser gate . All those moments will be lost in time , like tears in rain . Time to die . " – Nominated
AFI 's 100 Years of Film Scores – Nominated
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movies ( 10th Anniversary Edition ) – # 97
AFI 's 10 Top 10 – # 6 Science Fiction Film
= = = In other media = = =
Before filming began , Cinefantastique magazine commissioned Paul M. Sammon to write an article about Blade Runner 's production which became the book Future Noir : The Making of Blade Runner . The book chronicles Blade Runner 's evolution , focusing on film @-@ set politics , especially the British director 's experiences with his first American film crew ; of which producer Alan Ladd , Jr. has said , " Harrison wouldn 't speak to Ridley and Ridley wouldn 't speak to Harrison . By the end of the shoot Ford was ' ready to kill Ridley ' , said one colleague . He really would have taken him on if he hadn 't been talked out of it . " Future Noir has short cast biographies and quotations about their experiences , and photographs of the film 's production and preliminary sketches . A second edition of Future Noir was published in 2007 .
Philip K. Dick refused a $ 400 @,@ 000 offer to write a Blade Runner novelization , saying : " [ I was ] told the cheapo novelization would have to appeal to the twelve @-@ year @-@ old audience " and " [ it ] would have probably been disastrous to me artistically . " He added , " That insistence on my part of bringing out the original novel and not doing the novelization – they were just furious . They finally recognized that there was a legitimate reason for reissuing the novel , even though it cost them money . It was a victory not just of contractual obligations but of theoretical principles . " Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep ? was eventually reprinted as a tie @-@ in , with the film poster as a cover and the original title in parentheses below the Blade Runner title . Archie Goodwin scripted the comic book adaptation , A Marvel Super Special : Blade Runner , published in September 1982 .
There are two video games based on the film , one from 1985 for Commodore 64 , Sinclair ZX Spectrum and Amstrad CPC by CRL Group PLC based on the music by Vangelis ( due to licensing issues ) , and another action adventure PC game from 1997 by Westwood Studios . The 1997 video game featured new characters and branching storylines based on the Blade Runner world . Eldon Tyrell , Gaff , Leon , Rachael , Chew , and J.F. Sebastian appear , and their voice files are recorded by the original actors . The player assumes the role of McCoy , another replicant @-@ hunter working at the same time as Deckard .
The PC game featured a non @-@ linear plot , non @-@ player characters that each ran in their own independent AI , and an unusual pseudo @-@ 3D engine ( which eschewed polygonal solids in favor of voxel elements ) that did not require the use of a 3D accelerator card to play the game .
The television film Total Recall 2070 was initially planned as a spin @-@ off of the film Total Recall , and would eventually be transformed into a hybrid of Total Recall and Blade Runner . The Total Recall film was also based on a Philip K. Dick story , " We Can Remember It for You Wholesale " ; many similarities between Total Recall 2070 and Blade Runner were noted , as well as apparent inspiration from Isaac Asimov 's The Caves of Steel and the TV series Holmes & Yo @-@ Yo .
The film has been the subject of several documentaries . On the Edge of Blade Runner ( 2000 , 55 minutes ) was directed by Andrew Abbott and hosted / written by Mark Kermode . Interviews with production staff , including Scott , give details of the creative process and the turmoil during preproduction . Insights into Philip K. Dick and the origins of Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep ? are provided by Paul M. Sammon and Hampton Fancher . Future Shocks ( 2003 , 27 minutes ) is a documentary by TVOntario . It includes interviews with executive producer Bud Yorkin , Syd Mead , and the cast , and commentary by science fiction author Robert J. Sawyer and from film critics . Dangerous Days : Making Blade Runner ( 2007 , 213 minutes ) is a documentary directed and produced by Charles de Lauzirika for The Final Cut version of the film . It was culled from over 80 interviews , including Ford , Young , and Scott . The documentary consists of eight chapters , each covering a portion of the film @-@ making – or in the case of the final chapter , the film 's controversial legacy . All Our Variant Futures : From Workprint to Final Cut ( 2007 , 29 minutes ) , produced by Paul Prischman , appears on the Blade Runner Ultimate Collector 's Edition and provides an overview of the film 's multiple versions and their origins , as well as detailing the seven @-@ year @-@ long restoration , enhancement and remastering process behind The Final Cut .
= = Sequels = =
Dick 's friend , K. W. Jeter , wrote three authorized Blade Runner novels that continue Deckard 's story , attempting to resolve the differences between the film and Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep ? : Blade Runner 2 : The Edge of Human ( 1995 ) , Blade Runner 3 : Replicant Night ( 1996 ) , and Blade Runner 4 : Eye and Talon ( 2000 ) . By 1999 , Stuart Hazeldine had written a sequel to Blade Runner based on The Edge of Human , titled Blade Runner Down ; the project was shelved due to rights issues . Blade Runner co @-@ author David Peoples wrote the 1998 action film Soldier , which was referred to by him as a " sidequel " or spiritual successor to the original film , set in the same shared universe .
Scott considered developing a sequel , tentatively titled Metropolis . At the 2007 Comic @-@ Con , Scott again announced that he was considering a sequel to the film . Eagle Eye co @-@ writer Travis Wright worked with producer Bud Yorkin for several years on the project . His colleague John Glenn , who left the project by 2008 , stated the script explores the nature of the off @-@ world colonies as well as what happens to the Tyrell Corporation in the wake of its founder 's death .
In June 2009 , The New York Times reported that Scott and his brother Tony Scott were working on a Blade Runner prequel , set in 2019 . The prequel , Purefold , was planned as a series of 5 – 10 minute shorts , aimed first at the web and then perhaps television . Due to rights issues , the proposed series was not to be linked too closely to the characters or events of the 1982 film . On February 7 , 2010 , it was announced that production on Purefold had ceased , due to funding problems . On March 4 , 2011 , io9 reported that Yorkin was developing a new Blade Runner film . It was also reported that month that director Christopher Nolan was the desired choice to make the film .
It was announced on August 18 , 2011 , that Scott was to direct a new Blade Runner film , with filming to begin no earlier than 2013 . Indications from producer Andrew Kosove were that Ford was unlikely to be involved in the project . Scott later said that the film was " liable to be a sequel " but without the previous cast , and that he was close to finding a writer that " might be able to help [ him ] deliver " . On February 6 , 2012 , Kosove denied that any casting considerations had been made in response to buzz that Ford might reprise his role , saying , " It is absolutely , patently false that there has been any discussion about Harrison Ford being in Blade Runner . To be clear , what we are trying to do with Ridley now is go through the painstaking process of trying to break the back of the story ... The casting of the movie could not be further from our minds at this moment . " When Scott was asked about the possibility of a sequel in October 2012 , he said , " It 's not a rumor — it 's happening . With Harrison Ford ? I don 't know yet . Is he too old ? Well , he was a Nexus @-@ 6 so we don 't know how long he can live . And that 's all I 'm going to say at this stage . "
In November 2014 , Variety magazine reported that Scott was no longer the director for the film and would only fulfill a producer 's role . Scott also revealed that Ford 's character will only appear in " the third act " of the sequel . In February 2015 , Alcon Entertainment confirmed that Scott will not be back to direct , and they were negotiating with Prisoners director Denis Villeneuve . Ford , however , will return , as will original writer Hampton Fancher , and the film is expected to enter production in mid @-@ 2016 . The sequel is set decades after the first film . Besides Ford , the film will also star Ryan Gosling in a currently undisclosed role . It is to be directed by Villeneuve and executive produced by Scott . Oscar @-@ nominated cinematographer Roger Deakins is also attached . On November 16 , 2015 , Gosling told Collider.com that he will be starring in the sequel .
Principal photography began in July 2016 . Warner Bros. will handle its domestic release , while Sony ( through Columbia Pictures ) will be releasing the film in all overseas territories . On March 31 , 2016 , Variety reported that Robin Wright was cast in a role , and in April Dave Bautista , Ana de Armas and Sylvia Hoeks joined the cast . In June 2016 , Mackenzie Davis and Barkhad Abdi were cast , with David Dastmalchian and Hiam Abbass joining in July . Originally slated for release in North America January 2018 , Alcon Entertainment has now set a global release for October 6 , 2017 .
= Who Said =
" Who Said " is a pop song by American recording artist and actress Miley Cyrus . She is performing as Hannah Montana – the alter ego of Miley Stewart , a character she plays on the Disney Channel television series Hannah Montana . The song was written by Matthew Gerrard , Robbie Nevil , and Jay Landers and produced by Gerrard . It was released on July 11 , 2006 by Walt Disney Records as a promotional single from the series ' first soundtrack , Hannah Montana . " Who Said " bears teen pop aspects musically , while its lyrics are about individualism .
In the United States , the song peaked at number eighty @-@ three on the Billboard Hot 100 and within the top seventy on the Pop 100 . Its appearance on the Billboard Hot 100 made Cyrus the first act to have seven songs appear on the chart in the same week . A music video for " Who Said " was released , taken from footage of a concert performance .
= = Background and composition = =
" Who Said " was composed by Matthew Gerrard with the aid of Robbie Nevil and Jay Landers . Gerrard co @-@ wrote a total of six songs on Hannah Montana while Nevil co @-@ wrote four and Landers two . A karaoke version appears on Disney 's Karaoke Series : Hannah Montana ( 2007 ) , while a remixed version appears on Hits Remixed ( 2008 ) . The song first premiered on Radio Disney on March 10 , 2006 in order to promote the series and was afterward released as a promotional single from Hannah Montana on July 11 , 2006 to digital retailers . The album artwork for the release was the same as the soundtrack 's .
" Who Said " is pop song with a length of three minutes and fifteen seconds . The song incorporates various teen pop styles within its music , according to Allmusic . The song is set in common time and has a moderate tempo of 120 beats per minute . It is written in the key of E major and Cyrus ' vocals span two octaves , from B3 to C ♯ 5 . " Who Said " follows the chord progression of E – A. Chris William of Entertainment Weekly perceived the lyrics of " Who Said " pertained to individualism , noting the lines " I 'm individual / I 'm not like anyone " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Chris William of Entertainment Weekly described " Who Said " ' s style as a simultaneous mimic of the styles of Avril Lavigne , Ashlee Simpson , and Britney Spears , which he felt contracted its lyrical theme .
= = = Chart performance = = =
As it was not released as a single , " Who Said " received exclusive airplay on Radio Disney , thus its chart appearances consisted mainly of digital downloads . On the week ending August 5 , 2006 , the song debuted at number ninety @-@ two on the Billboard Hot 100 ; succeeding the appearance , the song dropped from the chart . Following the release of the Hannah Montana soundtrack , the song entered Billboard 's Hot Digital Songs Chart at number forty @-@ four , which led to a reappearance on the Billboard Hot 100 on the week ending November 11 , 2006 . " Who Said " re @-@ entered the Billboard Hot 100 at its peak of eighty @-@ three , thus becoming one of the songs to make Cyrus the female act with the most songs charting in the same week . The record was later duplicated by Taylor Swift . The song also peaked at number sixty @-@ three on the now @-@ defunct Pop 100 Chart . " Who Said " peaked at number sixty @-@ five on the Hot Canadian Digital Singles chart .
= = Live performances = =
Cyrus , costumed as Montana , first performed " Who Said " , along with six other songs , at the concert taping for the first season of Hannah Montana . In the performance , Cyrus dressed in a white tank top embroidered with a rhinestone cross , blue jeans with a loose , black miniskirt on top of it , black leather boots , and silver leather jacket . It began with Cyrus entering from behind a huge , illuminated sign that spelled " Hannah Montana " . She then roamed throughout the stage singing the number . The performance was later released as the song 's music video on April 10 , 2006 on Disney Channel . Cyrus also performed the song on twenty dates in the fall of 2006 , when she opened for the Cheetah Girls ' 2006 and 2007 concert tour The Party 's Just Begun Tour .
= = Track listings = =
U.S. Digital Download
" Who Said " ( Radio Edit ) – 3 : 17
U.S. iTunes Digital Download
" Who Said " ( Radio Edit ) – 3 : 17
" Radio Disney Interview " – 1 : 25
= = Charts = =
= Batman : The Ride =
Batman : The Ride is a steel inverted roller coaster found in Six Flags theme parks . Built by consulting engineers Bolliger & Mabillard , it rises to a height of between 100 and 105 feet ( 30 and 32 m ) and reaches top speeds of 50 miles per hour ( 80 km / h ) . The original roller coaster at Six Flags Great America was partially devised by the park 's general manager Jim Wintrode . Batman : The Ride was the world 's first inverted roller coaster when it opened in 1992 , and has since been awarded Coaster Landmark status by the American Coaster Enthusiasts . Its decorative theme is based on the first Batman film . Clones of the ride exist at amusement parks around the world .
= = History = =
The concept of an inverted roller coaster with inversions was developed by Jim Wintrode , the general manager of Six Flags Great America , in the 1990s . To develop the idea , Wintrode worked with Walter Bolliger and Claude Mabillard – from Swiss roller coaster manufacturer Bolliger & Mabillard – and engineer Robert Mampe . The ride soft opened to the public on May 2 , 1992 , with an official opening one week later . Although the full cost of the ride was never disclosed , it was the single biggest investment made by Six Flags Great America on one attraction .
Clones of the original ride , at Six Flags Great America in Gurnee , Illinois , became a staple at Six Flags theme parks around the world , and were opened in Six Flags Great Adventure ( 1993 ) , Six Flags Magic Mountain ( 1994 ) , and Six Flags St. Louis ( 1995 ) . Installation of the ride followed at Six Flags Over Georgia ( 1997 ) , and Six Flags Over Texas ( 1999 ) .
In 2002 La Ronde amusement park , Montreal , opened a clone of the ride under the name Le Vampire ( The Vampire ) , and Warner Bros. Movie World Madrid , under the name Batman : La Fuga ( Batman : The Escape ) . As La Ronde is not a branded Six Flags park , the licensing agreement with Warner Bros. and DC Comics for the name Batman : The Ride was not allowed . The La Ronde ride was expected to become Batman : The Ride when the park was scheduled to be converted to a Six Flags @-@ branded park in the mid @-@ 2000s , however , these changes were never initiated .
Other non @-@ Six Flags parks that installed Batman : The Ride clones are Diavlo at Himeji Central Park in Japan ( 1994 ) , The Great White at SeaWorld in San Antonio , Texas ( 1997 ) , and Lightning at Entertainment City in Kuwait ( 2004 ) .
One of the last installations of the ride was at Six Flags New Orleans in 2003 , having been relocated from the Japanese park Thrill Valley where it operated as Gambit from 1995 to 2002 . In 2005 the effects of Hurricane Katrina caused Six Flags to abandon its New Orleans park , and after standing but not operating for two years , the ride there was relocated to Six Flags Fiesta Texas , where it was refurbished and repainted . The ride reopened as Goliath on April 18 , 2008 .
On February 21 , 2013 , Six Flags Great America announced that their Batman : The Ride roller coaster would run backwards for a limited time during the 2013 season . Six Flags Magic Mountain and Six Flags Over Texas did the same during the 2014 season . Six Flags Over Georgia and Six Flags Great Adventure followed suit running theirs backwards for a limited time in 2015 .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Structure = = =
The original installation of the ride at Six Flags Great America featured a maximum height of 100 feet ( 30 m ) while the installations to follow reached 105 feet ( 32 m ) . Each installation of Batman : The Ride has a track length of approximately 2 @,@ 700 feet ( 820 m ) . The rides reach a top speed of 50 miles per hour ( 80 km / h ) and exert up to four times the force of gravity .
Batman : The Ride clones operate with two steel and fiberglass trains , each containing eight cars . Each car seats four riders in a single row for a total of 32 riders per train .
= = = Ride layout = = =
The ride 's layout was specifically designed to fit in the Yankee Harbor themed area at Six Flags Great America , although the layout for each successive attraction is identical or a mirror image of the original .
Batman : The Ride begins with the track floor descending . The train moves out of the station and up a chain lift hill . At the top of the hill the train dips down through a Bolliger & Mabillard " kicker " , coasts down a 190 @-@ degree swoop to the left , and drops into the first 360 @-@ degree vertical loop . It then flips through a Heartline Spin to the right , followed by another vertical loop . The train then travels upward around a tight spiral to the left , then through a wider turn to the right , drops slightly , and quickly turns through the first flatspin . Following this is a tight right turn and another flatspin , then a tight left turnaround before the train enters the final brake run .
= = = Color scheme = = =
While some Batman : The Ride clones opened with dark blue track and supports , others featured gray and yellow . Over the years there have been modifications in Batman : The Ride color schemes , with more incorporating yellows , blues , and purples . The original ride at Six Flags Great America retained the original black color scheme until 2004 , when the track was painted yellow , and supports dark purple . Six Flags over Texas originally featured a black color scheme with yellow rails until 2004 , when the track was repainted yellow . For the 2010 season , the clone at Six Flags Magic Mountain was repainted medium blue with black supports .
= = = Experience = = =
Six Flags designers ' decorative theme attempts to capture the spirit of Batman 's world for those queuing to board the ride . As the queue moves through Gotham City Park , the theme becomes more ominous . Modeled after Anton Furst 's award @-@ winning set design for the original Batman film , the atmosphere indicates a crime @-@ ridden and dirty environment , with wrecked cars , discarded pieces of equipment , crumbling concrete , and a Gotham City Police car riddled with bullet holes . The queue then enters the ride structure . The ride passenger loading area is modeled on Batman 's Batcave , and features a replica of the Batsuit from the 1989 film .
= = Incidents = =
On May 26 , 2002 , 58 @-@ year @-@ old park employee working in the roller coaster 's restricted area at Six Flags Over Georgia was killed after being struck in the head by the dangling leg of a 14 @-@ year @-@ old girl riding in the front . The girl was hospitalized with a leg injury .
On June 28 , 2008 , a 17 @-@ year @-@ old South Carolina teenager was decapitated after being struck by the Batman roller coaster at Six Flags Over Georgia . The teen , who was on a trip to the park with his church 's youth group , scaled two fences with a friend into a restricted area and walked into the ride 's path . Although witnesses stated he was trying to retrieve his hat , a Cobb County police spokesman reported the teens were attempting to take a shortcut into the park .
= = Reception = =
Batman : The Ride has generally received positive reviews . The Dallas Morning News stated the ride " is proof that new thrills on the cutting edge of technology generate excitement " . They also praise the theme of the " smooth @-@ riding coaster " stating " the mysterious crime @-@ fighter is a proven crowd @-@ pleaser " . American Coaster Enthusiasts have also praised the ride , awarding it Coaster Landmark status in 2005 . They describe the ride as a " revolutionary design " which offers " unprecedented intensity , while maintaining remarkable smoothness , comfort , and pacing " . Ultimate Rollercoaster describes Batman : The Ride as " the ride of your life " . They state " the sensation created by an inverted coaster is very different from that of traditional roller coasters . It is a sensation that every coaster fan must experience " .
= = = Awards = = =
In Amusement Today 's Golden Ticket Awards for Best Steel Roller Coasters , Batman : The Ride ranked reasonably in the late 1990s before dropping off the poll , and returning once in 2005 . The original installation at Six Flags Great America was ranked 23 and 25 in 1998 and 1999 , respectively , before returning in 2005 at position 45 . In 1998 , the Six Flags Great Adventure and Six Flags St. Louis installations ranked 19 and 21 , respectively .
In Mitch Hawker 's worldwide Best Roller Coaster Poll , Batman : The Ride peaked at position 21 in 1999 ( the first year of the poll ) . The ride 's ranking dropped in subsequent polls and is summarised in the table below .
Notes :
= M @-@ 117 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 117 is a 14 @.@ 479 @-@ mile ( 23 @.@ 302 km ) state trunkline highway in the eastern Upper Peninsula ( UP ) of the US state of Michigan . The highway connects US Highway 2 ( US 2 ) with M @-@ 28 west of Newberry . The designation has been used twice in the UP , once in 1941 for a former section of US 2 between Rexton and Epoufette , and the second in 1949 for the current corridor . The second version included a section that ran north of Newberry along what is now M @-@ 123 , but it was truncated to its current routing in the 1960s . Since 1993 , the trunkline has been dedicated to the 117th Quartermaster Battalion , a former National Guard unit from Kingsford .
= = Route description = =
The highway begins at US 2 , one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) south of Engadine and crosses the Canadian National Railway line before entering town . In Engadine , M @-@ 117 meets the western terminus of H @-@ 40 which runs on Hiawatha Trail . The trunkline passes a small pond in town and some farm fields north of Engadine . The terrain transitions to forest as the highway crosses into Luce County . The route angles slightly to the northeast to avoid Kaks Lake south of M @-@ 28 near Newberry . M @-@ 117 provides an important connection between two of the main highways in the UP . This connection is listed on the National Highway System , a network of roadways important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility . Of the ten state trunklines that connect M @-@ 28 and US 2 , M @-@ 117 is one of three that do not overlap either . The others are US 45 and Interstate 75 .
As part of the state 's maintenance of M @-@ 117 , the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) tracks the volume of traffic that uses the roadway . These volumes are expressed using a metric called annual average daily traffic , which is a statistical calculation of the average daily number of vehicles on a segment of roadway . MDOT 's surveys in 2010 showed that between 1 @,@ 392 and 1 @,@ 986 vehicles used the highway per day .
= = History = =
US 2 was rerouted in 1941 between Gould City and Epoufette , with the previous routing between Epoufette and Rexton becoming a new M @-@ 117 . The route of M @-@ 117 was replaced by a realigned M @-@ 48 in 1949 . The M @-@ 117 designation was transferred to a new routing between Engadine and Newberry at that time , and extended east concurrent along M @-@ 28 and north through Newberry on Business M @-@ 28 ( BUS M @-@ 28 ) , replacing a section of M @-@ 48 . North of town , M @-@ 117 extended past BUS M @-@ 28 to Four Mile Corner along the former M @-@ 48 .
M @-@ 117 in Mackinac County was shifted to a new routing along Country Avenue in 1957 . The previous routing was transferred to local control at the same time . M @-@ 117 was truncated to M @-@ 28 west of Newberry in late 1961 or early 1962 . The section of highway north of M @-@ 28 through Newberry to Four Mile Corner was included in an extension of M @-@ 123 between Newberry and Paradise . M @-@ 117 was dedicated in 1993 to the deactivated 117th Quartermaster Battalion based out of Kingsford .
= = Major intersections = =
= Poland in Antiquity =
Poland in Antiquity is characterized by peoples belonging to numerous archeological cultures living in and migrating through various parts of the territory that now constitutes Poland in an era that dates from about 400 BC to 450 – 500 AD . These people are identified as Celtic , Germanic , Baltic and Thracian tribes . Other groups , difficult to identify , were most likely also present , as ethnic composition of archeological cultures is often poorly recognized . While lacking use of a written language to any appreciable degree , many of them developed relatively advanced material culture and social organization , as evidenced by the archeological record , for example judged by the presence of richly furnished , dynastic " princely " graves . Characteristic of the period was high geographical migration rate of large groups of people , even equivalents of today 's nations . This article covers the continuation of the Iron Age ( see Bronze and Iron Age Poland ) , the La Tène and Roman influence and Migration periods . La Tène period is subdivided into La Tène A , 450 to 400 BC ; La Tène B , 400 to 250 BC ; La Tène C , 250 to 150 BC ; La Tène D , 150 to 0 BC . 400 to 200 BC is also considered the early pre @-@ Roman period and 200 to 0 BC the younger pre @-@ Roman period ( A ) . It was followed by the period of Roman influence , of which the early stage had lasted from 0 to 150 AD ( 0 – 80 B1 , 80 – 150 B2 ) , and the late stage from 150 to 375 AD ( 150 – 250 C1 , 250 – 300 C2 , 300 – 375 C3 ) . 375 to 500 AD constituted the ( pre @-@ Slavic ) Migration Period ( D and E ) .
The Celtic peoples established a number of settlement centers , beginning in the early 4th century BC , mostly in southern Poland , which was at the outer edge of their expansion . Through their highly developed economy and crafts , they exerted lasting cultural influence disproportional to their small numbers in the region .
Expanding and moving out of their homeland in Scandinavia and northern Germany , the Germanic peoples had lived in today 's Poland for several centuries , during which period many of their tribes also migrated out in the southern and eastern directions ( see Wielbark culture ) . With the expansion of the Roman Empire , the Germanic tribes came under the Roman cultural influence . Some written remarks by Roman authors that are relevant to the developments on Polish lands have been preserved ; they provide additional insight when compared with the archeological record . In the end , as the Roman Empire was nearing its collapse and the nomadic peoples invading from the east destroyed , damaged or destabilized the various Germanic cultures and societies , the Germanic people left eastern and central Europe for the safer and wealthier southern and western parts of the European continent .
The northeast corner of contemporary Poland 's territory was and remained populated by Baltic tribes . They were at the outer limits of significant cultural influence of the Roman Empire .
= = Celtic peoples = =
= = = Archeological cultures and groups = = =
The first Celtic people arrived in Poland , coming from Bohemia and Moravia , around or after 400 BC , just a few decades after their La Tène culture was born . They formed several enclaves mostly in the southern part of the country , within the Pomeranian or Lusatian populations or in areas abandoned by those people . The cultures or groups that were Celtic , or had a Celtic element in them ( mixed Celtic and autochthonous ) , lasted at their furthest extent to 170 AD ( the Púchov culture ) . After the Celts moved in , and during their tenure ( they had always remained only a small minority ) , the bulk of the population had begun acquiring the traits of archaeological cultures with a dominant Proto @-@ Germanic or Germanic component . In Europe the expansion of Rome and the Germanic pressure checked and reversed the Celtic expansion .
At first two groups established themselves on fertile grounds in Silesia : One on the left bank of the Oder River south of Wrocław , in the area that included Mount Ślęża , and one around the Głubczyce highlands ; both stayed in their respective regions during the 400 – 120 BC period . Burial and other significant Celtic sites in Głubczyce County were investigated in Kietrz and nearby Nowa Cerekiew . The Ślęża group disintegrated eventually within the local population , while the one at Głubczyce Upland apparently migrated out in the southern direction . More recent discoveries include Celtic settlements in Wrocław County , where in Wojkowice a well @-@ preserved 3rd century BC grave of a woman with bronze and iron bracelets , brooches , rings and chains was found .
In another hundred years or more two groups arrived and settled the upper San River basin ( 270 – 170 BC ) and the Kraków area respectively . This last one , together with the local population developing at about that time the Przeworsk culture characteristics ( see the next section ) , formed the mixed Tyniec group , in existence 270 – 30 BC . The rise of the Tyniec group took place in particular about 80 – 70 BC , when the existing settlements received Celtic reinforcements from the more southern populations being displaced from Slovakia by the Dacians . In the 1st century BC another small group settled probably much further north , in Kujawy . And finally there was the long @-@ lasting ( 270 BC - 170 AD ) mixed Púchov culture , associated based on Roman sources with the Celtic Cotini , whose northern reaches included parts of the Beskids mountain range and even the Kraków area .
= = = Economy and crafts , trade and contacts , art = = =
The Celts practiced advanced agriculture and favored fertile lands ; they brought with them and disseminated the inventions , including a variety of tools , and other achievements of La Tène culture . Celtic farmers used plows with iron shares and fertilized fields with animal manure . Their livestock consisted of selected breeds , especially sheep and large cattle . The rotational querns that they invented had a stationary lower stone and an upper one rotated by a lever . Iron was obtained in greater quantities from locally available turf ores ; its metallurgy and processing were improved , resulting in the manufacturing of stronger and more resistant tools and weapons . The ceramic shops used the potter 's wheel and produced with great precision ( especially the Tyniec group ) baked , thin walled , painted vessels , one of the best in Europe . Domed bilevel furnaces were used , the pots being placed on a perforated clay shelf , with the hearth underneath . Glass and enamel were produced , gold and semi @-@ precious stones were processed for jewelry .
The Celtic communities kept extensive trade contacts with the Greek cities , Etruria and then Rome . They were involved in the amber trade , whose route ran between the Baltic and Adriatic seas , but amber was also worked on in local shops . Metal coins were used and minted ( made of gold and silver in addition to the more common metals ) around Kraków in the 1st century BC and elsewhere . In Gorzów near Oświęcim a whole treasure of Celtic coins was discovered . Original Celtic art found its expression in numerous decorations , where plant , animal and anthropomorphic motifs were used . The various Celtic achievements were adopted by the native populations , but usually with considerable delay .
= = = Prominent settlements and burial sites = = =
The settlement in Nowa Cerekiew functioned from the beginning of 4th to the end of the 2nd century BC . One hundred people lived in over twenty houses supported by pillars , with walls made of beams , finished with clay and painted . They were positioned on an elevated area , but the Celtic settlements in Poland had no defensive reinforcements . After the Celts evacuated the area the Nowa Cerekiew settlement remained uninhabited for 150 years , before being reoccupied by the Przeworsk culture people and later the Slavs . Objects recently found at Nowa Cerekiew include a collection of gold and silver coins minted by the Boii tribe ( 3rd - 2nd century BC ) , Greek coins from Sicily and other colonies , and various metal decorative items . Clay containers , jewelry and tools were recovered in the past . Nowa Cerekiew was a major Celtic trade and political centre , one of the very few in central Europe , a source of great profits and northernmost of their Amber Road stations .
Among the most significant Celtic finds in Lesser Poland are the extensive and wealthy settlement in Podłęże and its associated cemetery in Zakrzowiec , both in Wieliczka County , and a multi @-@ period settlement complex in Aleksandrowice , Kraków County . The Podłęże site was occupied from the mid @-@ 3rd century BC on and yielded many metal objects , coins and coin blank molds , large collection of glass bracelets . The Zakrzowiec Celtic graves have the form of large ( several metres long ) dugout rectangular enclosures containing the ashes and grave offerings , such as pottery and personal ornaments . Graves of the same type but of a later period , 1st to 2nd century AD , are also found around Kraków , which demonstrates continuation of the Celtic tradition even after the arrival of Germanic tribes in the area . The Celtic burial site investigated in Aleksandrowice contains a rich 2nd century BC assemblage of funerary gifts including iron weapons and decorative elements . The unique fancy decorations , including a sheath with a recurring dragon motif , relate the findings only to the Celtic settlement area in Slovenia and western Croatia .
= = = Spiritual life and cult sites = = =
Within the Celtic spiritual sphere there is considerable variation . The 4th and early 3rd century BC burials in Wrocław and Ślęża region are skeletal . Sometimes a man and a woman were buried together , suggesting the known Celtic practice of killing the wife during her husband 's funeral , but women were usually buried separately , with their jewelry . Some of the dead were given meat and a knife for cutting it . From the 3rd century on the bodies were cremated , which was also the case in all of the Lesser Poland burials . There in Iwanowice the graves of Celtic warriors ( 3rd century BC ) contain a very rich assortment of weapons and decorations .
Mount Ślęża formation is believed by many to have been a place of exceptional cult significance , over many centuries , possibly going back all the way to the Lusatian times , but especially for the Celts . Chronicler Thietmar of Merseburg mentions in the early 11th century the mountain as a place surrounded by adoration because of its size and the " cursed " pagan ceremonies carried out there . The summits of this and of the neighboring mountains are circled by stone rings and monumental sculptures . Diagonalized cross signs found on many of the stone objects may have had their origin in the Hallstatt - Lusatian solar cult . Such signs can also be seen on the massive " monk " stone sculpture ( actually looking more like a simple chess figure or a skittles pin ) that was located inside the largest stone ring on Mount Ślęża itself and is therefore believed to originate from the Hallstatt cultural circles . The stone rings also contain fragments of Lusatian ceramics . The younger sculptures ( " Maiden with a fish " , " Mushroom " and the bear figures ) have their distant counterparts in the Iberian Peninsula Celtic art and are thought to be the work of the Celtic people , who developed the Ślęża cult center further . After that the Mount Ślęża area cult was probably revived by the Slavs , who arrived here in early Middle Ages .
= = Early Germanic peoples = =
= = = La Tène and Jastorf cultures and their role = = =
The Proto @-@ Germanic or Germanic cultures on Polish lands developed gradually and in a diverse way , beginning with the old local Lusatian and Pomeranian stock , influenced and augmented first by La Tène culture and the Celtic people , and then by the Jastorf culture and its tribes , which settled northwestern Poland beginning in the 4th century BC , and later migrated in the southeastern direction through and past the main stretch of Polish lands ( mid @-@ 3rd century BC and afterwards ) . The disappearing Celtic people made a big impact in central Europe and left a lasting legacy . Their advanced culture catalyzed economic and other progress within the contemporary as well as future populations , which had often had little of no ethnic Celtic component . The archeological period is considered " La Tène " until the beginning of the Common Era . The beginnings of the powerful ascent of the Germanic people , who replaced the Celts , are not easy to discern ( e.g. to what degree the Pomeranian culture lands became the Przeworsk culture lands by internal evolution , external population influx or just permeation by the new regional cultural trends ) .
The early Germanic Jastorf cultural sphere was in the beginning an impoverished continuation of the North German Urnfield culture and the Nordic circle cultures . It formed around 700 – 550 BC in northern Germany and Jutland under the Hallstatt influence and in Jastorf 's early stages its funeral customs resembled a lot those of the contemporary Pomeranian culture . From the Jastorf culture , which rapidly expanded from around 500 BC on , two groups sprang and settled the western borderlands of Poland during the 300 – 100 BC period : The Oder group in western Pomerania and the Gubin group further south . These peripheral for the Jastorf culture groups very likely originated as Pomeranian culture populations influenced by the Jastorf cultural model . Jastorf communities established large burial grounds , separate for men and women . The dead were cremated and the ashes placed in urns , which were covered by bowls turned upside down . Funeral gifts were modest and rather uniform , indicating a society that was neither affluent nor socially diversified .
The above @-@ mentioned migration was undertaken by a part of the Jastorf population , which probably included the tribes later called Bastarnae and Scirii in Greek written sources , noted because of their military exploits around Greece and Greek colonies in the later part of the 3rd century BC . Their route went along the Warta and Noteć rivers , then crossed Kujawy and Masovia , turned south along the Bug River and continued on to what today is Moldavia , where they settled and developed the Poienesti @-@ Lukasevka culture . The route is marked by archeological findings , especially the characteristic bronze crown @-@ shaped necklaces .
= = = Oksywie culture and Przeworsk culture = = =
While it is not clear whether , and to what degree or for what duration some of the passing Jastorf culture people settled at that time on Polish lands , their migration catalyzed , together with the accelerated at this point La Tène culture influence , the emergence of the Oksywie and Przeworsk cultures . Both new cultures were under a strong Jastorf circles influence . The increasingly common within the Przeworsk culture area presence of objects made by the Jastorf people reflects penetration by their population . Both the Oksywie and Przeworsk cultures fully utilized iron processing technologies , and , unlike their predecessor cultures , they show no regional differentiation .
The Oksywie culture , so named after a village ( now within the city of Gdynia ) where a burial site was found , lasted from 250 BC to 30 AD and originally occupied the Vistula delta region , then the rest of eastern Pomerania , expanded west up to the Jastorf Oder group area , in the 1st century BC also including partially what was before that group 's territory . It had basically , like other cultures of this period , La Tène cultural characteristics , with traits typical of the Baltic cultures . Oksywie culture 's ceramics and burial customs indicate strong ties with the Przeworsk culture . Men only had their ashes placed in well made black urns with fine finish and a decorative band around . Their graves were supplied ( unlike those of the Jastorf culture ) with utensils and weapons , including typical for this culture swords with one @-@ sided edge , and were often covered or marked by stones . Women 's ashes were buried in hollows and supplied with feminine items . A clay vessel with relief animal images found in Gołębiowo Wielkie in Gdańsk County ( 2nd half of the 1st century BC ) is among the finest in all of the Germanic cultural zone .
The Przeworsk culture , named after a town in Lesser Poland , near which another burial ground was found , originated like the Oksywie culture around 250 BC , but lasted a long time . In its course it went through many changes , formed tribal and political structures , fought wars , also with the Romans , until in the 5th century AD its highly developed society of farmers , artisans , warriors and chiefs left for the temptations of the fallen empire lands ( for many of them it happened possibly rather quickly , during the first half of that century ) .
The Przeworsk culture initially became established in Lower Silesia , Greater Poland , central Poland , and western Masovia and Lesser Poland , gradually replacing , moving eastbound , the Pomeranian culture and the Cloche Grave culture , coexisting with the older cultures for a while ( in some cases well into the younger pre @-@ Roman period , 200 to 0 BC ) and assimilating in process some of their characteristics , for example the Cloche Grave funerary practice and ceramics . The Przeworsk people must have originated from the above two local cultures , because of the lack of any other archeologically viable possibility , but in respect to their predecessors they represent a striking cultural discontinuity ( different cremation rite and pottery ) .
In the 2nd and 1st century BC ( late La Tène period ) they followed the lead of the more advanced Celts , who had established population enclaves in southern and middle Poland . The Przeworsk culture developed as a result of the local populations ' adoption of the La Tène culture models . The passage of the Bastarnae and Scirii and the associated unrest likely functioned as the outside catalyzing agent : Jastorf culture archeological material has been found in pre @-@ Przeworsk artifact assemblages and in some of the early Przeworsk range . The Przeworsk people mastered and implemented the various achievements of the Celts , most importantly developing large scale production of iron . Local bog ores were used for that purpose . They sometimes formed mixed groups and cooperated within common settlements with the Celts , of which the Tyniec group in the Kraków region and another one in Kujawy are the known examples . Arms , clothes and ornaments were patterned after the Celtic products . In the early stages the Przeworsk people displayed no social distinction , their graves were alike and flat , and ashes together with funeral gifts buried usually without urns . Religious practices of pagan Germanic people included offering ceremonies performed in swamp areas , involving man @-@ made objects , produce , farm animals , or even human sacrifice , as was the case at a site near Słowikowo in Słupca County ; another such investigated site is in Otalążka , Grójec County . Dog burials within or around a homestead were another form of protective offerings .
As the Celtic domination in this part of Europe was coming to an end and the borders of the Roman Empire had gotten much closer , the Przeworsk culture people were being subjected to the Greco @-@ Roman world 's influence with a rapidly growing intensity .
= = Cultures and tribes in Roman times = =
= = = Early Roman wars and movement of tribes = = =
Much circumstantial evidence points to the participation of Germanic people from Polish lands in the events that took place in the first half of the 1st century BC and found their culmination in Gaul in 58 BC , as related in Caesar 's Commentarii de Bello Gallico . At the time of the Suebi tribal confederation led by Ariovistus arrival in Gaul , a rapid decrease of settlement density can be observed in the areas of the upper and middle Oder River basin . In fact the Gubin group of the Jastorf culture disappeared then entirely , which may indicate this group 's identity with one of the Suebi tribes . The western regions of the Przeworsk culture were also vacated ( Lower Silesia , Lubusz Land and western Greater Poland ) , which is where the tribes accompanying the Suebi tribes must have come from . Burial sites and artifacts characteristic of the Przeworsk culture have been found in Saxony , Thuringia and Hesse , on the route of the Suebi offensive . The above @-@ mentioned regions of western Poland had not become repopulated and economically developed again until in the 2nd century AD .
As a result of the consequent Roman efforts to subjugate all of Germania , the member tribes of the Suebi alliance became displaced , moved east , conquered the Celtic tribes that stood in their way and settled , the Quadi in Moravia , and the Marcomanni in Bohemia . The latter tribe , under Marbod , formed a quasi @-@ state with a huge army and was able to conquer the Lugii tribal association among others . What archeologists see as the Przeworsk culture , by this period ( early 1st century AD ) is believed to consist first of all of the Lugii tribes . A Roman defeat in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest ( 9 AD ) stabilized the situation at the periphery of the Empire to some degree . The Lugii and other tribes on Polish lands increasingly became involved in trade and other contacts , through the Marcomanni and Quadi intermediaries , with the Danubian provinces of Rome . The Lugii , according to Tacitus , was a very large union of tribes . In 50 AD they invaded and pillaged the Quadi state created by Vannius , contributing to its fall . The motivation for the expedition were the rumours of the enormous riches that Vannius had accumulated by plunder and charging duties . In 93 AD the Lugii , fighting a war with the Suebi , asked Emperor Domitian for help , and received one hundred mounted soldiers .
= = = Amber Road = = =
Operations of the ancient Amber Road - a trans @-@ European , north @-@ south amber trade route , continued and intensified during the Roman Empire times . From the 1st century BC the Amber Road connected the Baltic Sea shores and Aquileia , an important amber processing center . This route was controlled first by the Celts , and later by the Romans south of the Danube , by Germanic tribes north of that river , and was used for transporting a variety of traded merchandise ( and slaves ) besides amber . As told in Naturalis Historia by Pliny the Elder , during the reign of Nero an equestrian of unknown name led an expedition to the Baltic shorelines , from where he brought a huge quantity of amber , which was subsequently used for propaganda purposes during public games - gladiator fights . The infrastructure of the Amber Road was destroyed by Germanic and Sarmatian attacks in the second half of the 3rd century AD ; to a lesser degree it was still used intermittently until the mid @-@ 6th century . The Przeworsk culture sites provide a rich assortment of Amber Road traded objects .
= = = Gustow group and Lubusz group = = =
From the beginning of the new era until 140 AD two local groups existed in northwest Poland . The Gustow group ( named after Gustow on Rügen ) people lived in the area settled in the past by the Oder group , and south of there , by the middle section of the Oder River was the Lubusz group , in the area previously inhabited by the Gubin group . Those were of an intermediate character , between the Elbe cultural circle to the west , and the Przeworsk and Wielbark cultures to the east ( the last one replaced the Oksywie culture after 30 AD ) .
= = = Przeworsk culture settlements and burial sites = = =
The Przeworsk culture people of the earlier Roman period lived in small , unprotected villages , populated each by a few dozen residents at most , made up of several houses , usually set partially below the ground level ( semi @-@ sunken ) , each covering an area of 8 – 22 square meters . They knew how to dig and build wells , so the settlements didn 't have to be located near bodies of water . Thirteen 2nd century wells with variously constructed timber lined walls were found at a settlement in Stanisławice , Bochnia County . Fields were being used for crop cultivation for a while and then as pastures , when animal excrement helped the soil regain fertility . Once iron share plows were introduced the fields were alternated between tillage and grazing .
Several or more settlements made up a micro @-@ region , within which the residents cooperated economically and buried their dead in a common cemetery , but which was separated from other micro @-@ regions by undeveloped areas . A number of such micro @-@ regions possibly made up a tribe , with these separated by empty space , zones " of mutual fear " , as Tacitus put it . The tribes in turn , especially if they were culturally closely related , would at times form larger structures , such as temporary alliances for waging wars , or even early statehood forms .
A Przeworsk culture turn of the millennium industrial complex for the extraction of salt from salt springs was discovered in Chabsk near Mogilno .
Examinations of the burial grounds , of which even the largest used continuously over periods of up to several centuries , contains no more than several hundreds graves , shows that the overall population density was low . The dead were cremated and the ashes sometimes placed in urns , which had the mid @-@ part in the form of an engraved bulge . In the 1st century AD this was replaced with a sharp @-@ profiled ( with a horizontal ridge around the circumference ) shape .
In Siemiechów a grave of a warrior who must have taken part in the Ariovistus expedition during the 70 – 50 BC period was found ; it contains Celtic weapons and an Alpine region manufactured helmet used as an urn , together with local ceramics . The burial gifts were often , for unknown reasons , bent or broken , and then burned with the body . The burials range from " poor " to " rich " , the latter ones supplied with fancy Celtic and then Roman imports , reflecting a considerably by this time developed social stratification .
= = = Wielbark culture and its burials = = =
The Wielbark culture , named after Wielbark in Malbork County , where a large cemetery was found , replaced in Pomerania the Oksywie culture rather suddenly and over its entire territory . While the Oksywie culture was closely related to the Przeworsk culture , its successor the Wielbark culture shows only minimal contacts with the Przeworsk areas , indicating a clear tribal and geographical separation . The Wielbark culture lasted on Polish lands from 30 to 400 AD , although most of its people left Poland long before that later date . Some of this culture 's burials are skeletal - the dead were inhumed in solid wood log coffins , while other crematory , both identically equipped . The cremated remains were either placed in urns , or just buried in dents . No weapons or tools were put there , but clay vessels , decorations , attire elements and spurs , if the deceased was well @-@ positioned enough to possess a horse . Those various items , and especially the 1st and 2nd century AD jewelry , made of bronze , silver and gold , are the works of highest quality and exceed the comparable products of the Przeworsk culture . This craftsmanship reached its apex in the 2nd century finesse of " baroque " jewelry , beautiful by any standards , placed in graves of women in ( as the Wielbark culture expanded south ) Poznań Szeląg and Kowalewko , Oborniki County , among other places .
The Kowalewko cemetery in Greater Poland is one of the largest in Poland and is distinguished by a great number of beautiful relics , made locally or imported from the Empire . The total number of burials is estimated at over 500 , most of which have been excavated . 60 percent of the bodies were not cremated and typically placed in wooden coffins constructed of board or plank pieces . The burial ground was in use from the mid @-@ 1st century AD to about 220 , which gives approximately 80 area inhabitants per generation . Remnants of settlements in the region have also been investigated . At Rogowo near Chełmno a Wielbark settlement , an industrial production site and a 2nd to 3rd century bi @-@ ritual cemetery with very richly furnished graves have been discovered . In the area of Ulkowy , Gdańsk County a settlement consisting of both sunken floor and post construction dwellings , as well as a burial ground in use from the mid @-@ 1st century to the second half of the 3rd century were found . Only a part of the cemetery was excavated on the occasion of a motorway construction , but it yielded 110 inhumations ( 11 in hollowed @-@ out log coffins ) and 15 cremations ( 8 of them in urns ) and a rich collection of decorative objects , mostly from the graves of women . Those include fancy jewelry and accessories made of gold , silver , bronze , amber , glass and enameled plates . Ceramics , utility items and tools including weaving equipment were recovered from the settlement site . Other significant Wielbark settlements in the area were encountered in Swarożyn and Stanisławie , both in Tczew County .
Many Wielbark graves were flat , but kurgans are also characteristic and common . In the case of kurgans the grave was covered with stones , which were surrounded by a circle made of larger stones . More earth material was piled to cover all that , with a solitary stone , or stela often put on top . Such a kurgan could include one or several individual burials , have a diameter of up to a dozen or so meters and be up to one meter high . On some burial grounds large stone circles are found . These consist of massive boulders or rock pieces , up to 1 @.@ 7 meters high , separated by several meters wide spaces , sometimes connected by smaller stones , the whole structure having a 10 to 40 meter diameter . In the middle of the circles one to four stelae were placed , and sometimes a single grave . The stone circles are believed to be the locations of meetings of Scandinavian ( see below ) tings - assemblies or courts . The single graves inside the circles are probably of people sacrificed and buried there - human offerings to the gods , to assure their support for the deliberations . A stone kurgans cemetery was found in Węsiory , Kartuzy County ; another burial site with ten large stone circles was discovered in Odry , Chojnice County , both dated 2nd century AD .
= = = Origins and expansion of the Wielbark culture = = =
This brings the issue of the mysterious origin of the Wielbark culture , and why it so immediately replaced the Oksywie culture . According to the legend quoted in The Origin and Deeds of the Goths by the 6th century Gothic historian Jordanes , the ancestors of that Germanic tribe arrived from Scandinavia ( under King Berig ) in two boatloads and landed on the South Baltic shores , followed by a third boat carrying the ancestors of the Gepids . Supposedly they conquered the native people of that region , and then , some years later ( under King Filimer , the fifth one counting from Berig ) , continued their migration toward the Black Sea . This story , in the past dismissed , is now seen as containing basic elements of the true sequence of events and the Wielbark culture is in part identified with Germanic ancestors of the Goths indeed . The idea of an arrival in the mouth of the Vistula region of culturally different ( although related ) people , who mixed with the Oksywie culture population , and being more advanced possibly dominated it ( at least culturally ) to some degree , is not at odds with the state of archeological findings and may explain the change of cultures in Pomerania around 30 AD .
Archeology nevertheless shows the evolution of the Oksywie culture to be the fundamental source of the Wielbark culture , as the two cultures extended over exactly the same territory and continuously used the same cemeteries . The locally present Veneti and Rugians became influenced by the Goths or their Scandinavian protoplasts . It is presently believed that the Scandinavian arrivals directly settled the areas where the great cult kurgan and stone burial grounds are found . They are referred to as the Odry @-@ Węsiory @-@ Grzybnica type , were established in the second half of 1st century AD and occur in parts of Pomerania west of the Vistula , up to the Koszalin area . The contemporary and rather closely related Wielbark culture in ( previously settled by the Przeworsk culture ) Greater Poland , represented by the Kowalewko cemetery , lacks however for the most part the kurgans and the stone structures . The Wielbark people came here from Pomerania .
In the course of the 1st and 2nd century AD the Wielbark culture expanded south , towards Greater Poland and Masovia , partially at the expense of the Przeworsk culture . Around the mid @-@ 1st century the Wielbark culture people forced out the Przeworsk population from northern Greater Poland and settled the area for about 150 years . The Przeworsk culture itself also expanded in the southern , eastern and south @-@ western directions .
= = " Barbarians " , Late Roman Empire and the Great Migration of Peoples = =
= = = Marcomannic Wars and movement of tribes = = =
The Marcomannic Wars fought during 166 – 180 AD were caused by the pressure exerted by the northern Germanic peoples ( settled around the area of today 's Poland ) on the tribes located in the vicinity of Roman limes , the Empire 's defended border . Expansion of the Proto @-@ Gothic Wielbark culture displaced from northern Greater Poland and Masovia the Przeworsk culture people ; they in turn , moving south and east , crossed during the third quarter of the 2nd century the Carpathian Mountains . The ethnic composition of the Przeworsk population at this stage is not known , as the Lugii tribes no longer seem to be mentioned . Related to the Przeworsk culture was the Wietrzno @-@ Solina type , a cultural unit with Celtic and then Dacian elements , situated within the more eastern part of the Beskids range ( San River basin ) during the 100 – 250 AD period . The Kotins tribe Celtic survivors with their Púchov culture disappeared now for good , as a result of their migration and involvement in the Marcomannic Wars . There were also changes in northwest Poland , on the border of the Elbe cultural sphere region . The Lubusz group there was absorbed by the new Luboszyce culture ( Luboszyce , Krosno Odrzańskie County ) , that occupied the middle Oder basin during the 140 – 430 AD period . Its birth was related to the arrival from the east of population groups strongly influenced by the Przeworsk and Wielbark cultures . Gradually a new branch of Germanic people , the Burgundians , whose origins are traced back to Scandinavia and the Bornholm island in particular and whose ancestors then migrated to the northwest Przework culture area , developed and evolved under new favorable conditions here . On the other hand , the Gustow group left western Pomerania , to be replaced after 70 years by the Dębczyn group ( Dębczyn , Wschowa County ) , established by the arrivals from the Elbe cultures and lasting between 210 and 450 AD .
= = = Economic development and currency = = =
The economic development of what to the Romans were barbarian lands ( also called " Barbaricum " , regions populated mostly by Germanic peoples , north and northeast of the Empire ) benefited greatly from the skills of the prisoners taken during the protracted Marcomannic Wars , Roman legionaries and craftsmen , some of whom undoubtedly stayed beyond the limes and made their contribution there . Contacts with the wealthy Danubian Roman provinces during the wars were also quite active and intensive . Because of all that , from the end of the 2nd century AD on , the Roman @-@ originated and based technical expertise and inventions were becoming increasingly widespread within the Germanic societies . For example , besides traditional houses supported by pillars , framework houses were being built , lathe machines were used for amber and other jewelry work . The barbarian societies were getting more wealthy and , especially during the last centuries of imperial Rome , more socially polarized .
An estimated 70 @,@ 000 Roman coins from all periods were found in Poland , starting with the 2nd century BC silver denarii . A treasure of these and other coins , some as early as the 1st century AD , was found in Połaniec , Staszów County , probably a booty captured around 19 AD from King Marbod of the Marcomanni . Greater waves of Roman money found their way to Poland throughout 1st and 2nd centuries and then again during 4th and 5th centuries , this time as bronze and golden solidi . The barbarians did not use them for commerce ; they were being accumulated in dynastic treasuries of rulers and occasionally used for ceremonial gift exchange . The chiefs also kept large golden Roman medallions or their local imitations . The largest barbarian medallion , an equivalent of 48 solidii , is a part of the gold and silver treasure found in Zagórzyn near Kalisz .
= = = Princely burials = = =
The evolution of the power structure within the Germanic societies in Poland and elsewhere can be traced to some degree by examining the " princely " graves - burials of chiefs , and even hereditary princes , as the consolidation of power progressed . Those appear from the beginning of the Common Era and are located away from ordinary cemeteries , singly or in small groups . The bodies were inhumed in wooden coffins and covered with kurgans , or interred in wooden or stone chambers . Luxurious Roman @-@ made gifts and fancy barbarian emulations ( such as silver and gold clasps with springs , created with an unsurpassed attention to detail , dated 3rd century AD from Wrocław Zakrzów ) , but not weapons , were placed in the graves . The 1st and 2nd century burials of this type , occurring all the way from Jutland to Lesser Poland , are referred to as princely graves Lubieszewo type , after Lubieszewo , Gryfice County in western Pomerania , where six such burials were found . On the 3rd and 4th century sites two types of princely graves are distinguished . The Zakrzów type , named after the location of three very rich stone chamber burials found in Wrocław Zakrzów occur in southern Poland , while in the northern and central parts of the country the Rostołty ( Białystok County ) type kurgans are rather common . At some sites , believed to be dynastic necropolises , the princes were buried in generation long time increments . During the late Roman period the princely burials are fewer in number , but they get increasingly more elaborate .
= = = Ceramics and metallurgy = = =
The pottery as well as iron mining and processing industries kept developing in Poland throughout the Roman periods , until terminated in the 5th century or so by the Great Migration . Clay pots were still often formed manually and these were more crude , while the better ones were made with the potter 's wheel , used beginning in the early 3rd century . Some had inscriptions engraved , but their meaning , if any , is not known ( Germanic people had occasionally used the runic alphabets ) . Wide @-@ open , vase type Przeworsk culture urn from the 2nd century AD found in Biała , Zgierz County is covered with representations from Celtic and Germanic mythology , such as deer , horse riders , crosses and swastikas . The 3rd and 4th century buckets were made of wood and reinforced with bronze braces and sheets . Przeworsk culture 's large globular clay storage containers from the 3rd and 4th century were 60 cm to
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) . The placement of these flows suggest that they were generated by splatter emitted by fountains in the cone . On the sides of the mountain are bands of palagonite , a clay formed from iron @-@ rich tephra making up the body of the volcano . Basalt taken from the volcano contained pyroxene , hypersthene material , and feldspars .
Other notable formations in the vicinity include Howlock Mountain , Windigo Butte , and Tolo Mountain . Other than Crater Lake , little water flows on the surface . In canyons excavated by glaciers , small streams have formed .
= = = Composition = = =
The volcanic cone of Mount Thielsen sits atop prior shield volcanoes , and has a volume of 2 cubic miles ( 8 @.@ 3 km3 ) . The cone was built from basaltic andesite , a common component of other shield volcanoes in the Oregon Cascades , breccia , and tuff , and it is intruded by dikes . A coalesced volcanic cone , it formed as pyroclastics erupted and fountains spewed lava . Glaciers cut and deformed the cone , eroding its upper sector . This erosion opened the interior of Thielsen for observation . Within the cone , lava flows , pyroclastic flow deposits , and strata of tephra , and volcanic ash , are easily visible . Potassium @-@ argon dating of deposits in the cone suggests that Thielsen is at least 290 @,@ 000 years old . Since its eruption stopped about 250 @,@ 000 to 100 @,@ 000 years ago , the period of eruptive activity was short in time . The eruptions of the cone came in three phases : a period where lava flows built up its cone , one where more explosive pyroclastic eruptions took place , and the final period , in which pyroclastic and material of lava @-@ based origin were erupted together forming a weak cone encircled by long deposits .
= = = Glaciation = = =
Glaciers were present on the volcano until the conclusion of the Little Ice Age , at the beginning of the 20th century . Pleistocene glaciers have largely eroded Thielsen 's caldera — leading to exposure of its contents . The small Lathrop Glacier in the northern cirque of the volcano is the only extant glacier on Mount Thielsen . While the glaciation was extensive , volcanic ash from eruptive activity at Mount Mazama has almost certainly masked contents .
= = = Fulgurites = = =
Fulgurites ( substances that form when lightning melts rock ) on the volcano are restricted to the very pinnacle of the mountain , and are only found between the top 5 feet ( 2 m ) and 10 feet ( 3 m ) of its summit . Lightning strikes the summit regularly , creating patches of " brownish black to olive @-@ black glass " that resemble " greasy splotches of enamel paint " . These range from a few centimeters in diameter to long , narrow lines up to 30 centimeters ( 12 in ) long . Their appearance also varies : while some patches are rough and spongy , others are flat . Inspection of the fulgurite reveals a homogenous glass over a layer of basalt ; in between , a stratum made of materials such as feldspar , pyroxene , and olivine exists .
= = Ecology = =
A grove of enormous incense cedars exists near Diamond Lake , and there is a forest of ponderosa pine at the nearby Emile Big Tree Trail . The Umpqua National Forest features swordferns and Douglas firs . Rocky Mountain elks , pronghorns , and mule deer , bobcats , black bears , and mountain lions live in the Fremont – Winema National Forest . The forest 's rivers support populations of trout , and the lakes contain fish such as the largemouth bass . The forest is inhabited by avian species such as mallards , American bald eagles , Canada geese , and whistling swans . Peregrine falcons and Warner suckers also infrequently enter its boundaries .
The lower slopes of Mount Thielsen are heavily forested , with low diversity of plant species . A forest of mountain hemlock and fir grows up to the timberline at about 7 @,@ 200 feet ( 2 @,@ 200 m ) . Near the peak of the volcano , whitebark pine prevails .
= = Recreation = =
Mount Thielsen lies in the southern section of the Mount Thielsen Wilderness , which is part of the Deschutes , Umpqua and Fremont – Winema national forests . On the west , the wilderness borders the Oregon Cascades Recreation Area , a 157 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ mile ( 406 @,@ 628 km2 ) area set aside by Congress in 1984 . The wilderness and forests offer several activities related to the mountain , such as hiking and skiing . The wilderness covers 55 @,@ 100 acres ( 86 @.@ 1 sq mi ) around the volcano , featuring lakes and alpine parks . It also contains 26 miles ( 42 km ) of the Pacific Crest National Scenic Trail , accessible from a trailhead along Oregon Highway 138 . In 2009 the trail was selected as Oregon 's best hike . Three skiing trails exist on the mountain , all of black diamond rating . They follow several trails through the wilderness from the bowl of the mountain .
= Last Night in Twisted River =
Last Night in Twisted River is a 2009 novel by American writer John Irving , his 12th since 1968 . It was first published ( in English ) in the Netherlands by De Bezige Bij on September 1 , 2009 , in Canada by Knopf Canada on October 20 , 2009 , and in the United States by Random House on October 27 , 2009 . The novel spans five decades and is about a boy and his father who flee the logging community of Twisted River on the Androscoggin River in northern New Hampshire after a tragic accident . While on the run , the boy grows up to become a famous writer , writing eight semi @-@ autobiographical novels . The book was included in Time 's 2009 list of " the fall 's most anticipated movies , books , TV shows , albums and exhibits " .
Last Night in Twisted River took 20 years to conceive and write , and is a story within a story that shows the development of a novelist and the writing process . It uses many of the themes and plot devices that have already seen treatment in other works by the author . The career of the novelist in the book closely tracks the career of Irving himself , making it Irving 's most overtly autobiographical novel .
The book received mixed reviews in the press . The Independent called it Irving 's most powerful work to date , while The Dallas Morning News admired Irving 's modern version of the traditional flight and revenge theme . The New York Times was not as impressed and felt that with better editing it could have equaled some of Irving 's more powerful works . The St. Petersburg Times described the novel as a " loose and baggy tale in search of a center " .
= = Plot = =
" The young Canadian , who could not have been more than fifteen , had hesitated too long . "
The novel opens in 1954 in the small logging settlement of Twisted River on the Androscoggin River in northern New Hampshire . A log driving accident on the river has just claimed the life of a young logger , Angel , who slipped and fell under the logs . Dominic Baciagalupo is the camp 's Italian @-@ American cook who lives above the kitchen with his 12 @-@ year @-@ old son , Daniel . Dominic lost his wife , Rosie , 10 years previously when a drunk Dominic , Rosie and a logger and mutual friend , Ketchum , were dancing on the frozen river , and the ice broke and Rosie went under . Later another accident happens that changes the lives of Dominic , Daniel and Ketchum . " Injun Jane " , the kitchen 's dishwasher and girlfriend of the local law officer , Constable Carl , is having an affair with Dominic . One night , mistaking her for a bear attacking his father , Daniel kills her with an eight @-@ inch cast @-@ iron skillet . Dominic takes Jane 's body and deposits it on the kitchen floor of Carl 's house , knowing that Carl will be passed out drunk and will probably believe he killed her , as he often beat her up . Early the next morning Dominic and Daniel tell Ketchum what happened and flee Twisted River in case the bad @-@ tempered Carl finds out what really happened .
Dominic and Daniel head for a restaurant in the Italian North End of Boston to tell Angel 's mother of her son 's death . Dominic gets a job as a cook in the restaurant and changes his surname to Del Popolo ( Angel 's mother 's surname ) to hide from Carl . During this time Daniel attends Exeter , a private school in southern New Hampshire , followed by the University of New Hampshire . While at university Daniel starts writing his first novel . He also meets Katie Callahan , a radical art student , whom he agrees to marry . Katie has one mission in life : to make potential Vietnam War draftees fathers , thus enabling them to apply for paternity deferment . Daniel and Katie have a son Joe , but when Joe is 2 , Katie leaves Daniel to find another young man to rescue from the war . Daniel moves to Iowa with Joe , where he enrolls in the Iowa Writers ' Workshop . He also changes his name to Danny Angel to hide from Carl , and uses this nom de plume to publish his novels . After graduating from the Writers ' Workshop in 1967 , Danny and Joe move to Putney , Vermont .
Ketchum keeps in touch with both Dominic and Danny via telephone and letters , and warns them that Carl is looking for them . On Ketchum 's advice , Dominic leaves Boston to join Danny in Vermont . He changes his name to Tony Angel , father of the writer Danny Angel . While Danny teaches writing at Windham College , Tony opens and runs his own restaurant . After the publication of his fourth and most successful novel , Kennedy Fathers ( based on Katie ) , Danny stops teaching and focuses on writing . Then in 1983 , two of the sawmill 's wives in Twisted River are passing through Vermont and stop for a meal at Tony 's restaurant . They recognize Tony and later tell Carl where " Cookie " is . Again , on Ketchum 's advice , the father and son are forced to flee , this time to Toronto .
With their cover blown , Tony and Danny revert to their original names . Dominic finds another restaurant to work in , while Danny continues writing , still under his pseudonym . Joe remains in the United States while at the University of Colorado in Boulder . Danny meets a Canadian screenwriter named Charlotte Turner , who is writing the screenplay of Danny 's abortion novel East of Bangor . They decide to marry , but only after Joe graduates . When Joe dies in a car accident in 1987 , Danny decides he cannot face the possibility of ever losing another child , and he and Charlotte part ways . He retains the right to a lonely cabin on an island in Georgian Bay at Pointe au Baril , owned by Charlotte , which he uses for his writing .
In 2001 , Ketchum gets careless and unwittingly leads Carl to Dominic and Danny 's house in Toronto . Carl shoots and kills Dominic and Danny retaliates by shooting and killing Carl . Ketchum is devastated at having failed to protect his friends and takes his own life at Twisted River . Danny , who has now lost his mother , father , son and their friend , tries to focus on writing his next book , a follow @-@ up to his previous eight semi @-@ autobiographical novels . Then his last hope , Amy ( " Lady Sky " ) , arrives on his doorstep . When Joe was 2 , Amy had parachuted naked onto a pig farm Danny and Joe were visiting . Danny rescued Amy from the pig pen and Joe , awe @-@ struck by this event , called her " Lady Sky " . Amy in turn offered to help Danny whenever he needed it . Having read all about the famous writer and his misfortunes , Amy tracks Danny down and moves in with him . Happy now , Danny finds the opening sentence of his new book : " The young Canadian , who could not have been more than fifteen , had hesitated too long . "
= = Main characters = =
Dominic Baciagalupo ( " Cookie " ) / Dominic Del Popolo / Tony Angel – An Italian @-@ American logging company cook in Twisted River in northern New Hampshire . His father , who had absconded before he was born , had the name " Capodilupo " ( " Head of the Wolf " ) , but his mother named him " Baciacalupo " ( " Kiss of the Wolf " ) , which later became " Baciagalupo " due to a clerical error . He damaged his ankle in a logging accident at the age of 12 , giving him a permanent limp , after which his mother taught him how to cook to keep him away from the logs . He changes his name to " Del Popolo " in Boston , and to " Tony Angel " ( father of the famous writer ) in Vermont , to escape the attentions of Constable Carl from whom he and his son are fleeing . He is overprotective of his son , Daniel , and later his grandson , Joe .
Daniel Baciagalupo / Danny Angel – Dominic 's son and kitchen assistant in Twisted River . He is a " Kennedy father " and a famous writer of eight semi @-@ autobiographical novels . He writes under the pseudonym of Danny Angel ( after Angel , the young logger who died in Twisted River ) , a name he also assumed in real life to foil Constable Carl . He is attracted to large older women and is overprotective of his father , Dominic , and his son , Joe .
Ketchum – A logger in Twisted River who lives permanently in the northern New Hampshire logging camps . His first name is never revealed . He was once married , but is estranged from his children , and had no education beyond the age of 12 . He is Dominic 's best friend , and is overprotective of Dominic and Daniel ; he is their self @-@ appointed " advisor " at Twisted River , and when they are abroad , via telephone , letters , and later , fax ( he never discovered email ) .
Rosina Calogero ( " Rosie " ) – Dominic 's mother 's cousin 's daughter and his " not @-@ really @-@ a @-@ cousin " wife . She was exiled to Berlin , New Hampshire by her family because she was pregnant , and taken in by Dominic 's mother . After his mother died , Dominic ( aged 17 , he lied about his age to be married while still a minor ) and Rosie ( aged 24 ) married and moved to Twisted River . She was a teacher college graduate , and taught at the school in nearby Paris , Maine .
" Injun Jane " – A 300 @-@ pound American Indian dishwasher in the Twisted River cookhouse and Daniel 's part @-@ time " babysitter " . Her real name is not known . She lost her own son years previously and is fond of Daniel . She is Constable Carl 's girlfriend and he regularly beats her up when he is drunk .
Constable Carl ( " Cowboy " ) – The local law officer in Twisted River who spends his time breaking up bar @-@ fights and sending French Canadians looking for work back to Quebec . He is often drunk and foul @-@ mouthed , and he regularly beats up his girlfriends . He acquired the nickname " Cowboy " because of his erratic and unpredictable behavior .
Katie Callahan – Daniel 's wife while at the University of New Hampshire . They met while posing nude as models in life @-@ drawing classes when Daniel was a junior undergraduate and Katie a senior . She is an anti @-@ war activist and a sexual anarchist . She " rescues " young men from the Vietnam War by marrying and fathering a child with them . She sleeps around and is not a dedicated mother .
Joe Baciagalupo – Daniel and Katie 's son , named after Joe Polcari , the maître d ' at the Vicino di Napoli restaurant in Boston where Dominic worked as a cook . He retained the Baciagalupo name , despite his father and grandfather changing theirs . He inherited his mother 's " wild side " and is known to be careless and take risks .
Charlotte Turner – Daniel 's intended wife in Toronto . She is a Canadian screenwriter Danny meets while she is writing the screenplay for his abortion novel , East of Bangor . After they split up , she goes on to win an Oscar for Best Adapted Screenplay of Danny 's novel .
Amy Martin ( " Lady Sky " ) – Daniel 's last love in Toronto . She is given the name " Lady Sky " by Daniel 's 2 @-@ year @-@ old son Joe after she parachuted naked into a pig pen in Iowa . " Martin " is her maiden name , which she reverted to after a failed marriage and the death of her son .
= = Background = =
Although this was his 12th published novel , Irving said that Last Night in Twisted River was " 20 years in the making " . The idea for a novel about a cook and his son on the run had been in the back of his mind for as long ago as 1986 . Irving , who likes to start his novels with the last sentence , said in an interview with The Independent in October 2009 : " For the longest time the last sentence eluded me , but 20 years ago I imagined a novel about a cook and his young son who become fugitives ; who have to run from some violent act that will follow them . And it was always in a kind of frontier town — a place where there was one law , and it was one man , who was single @-@ minded and bad . " Irving did not start writing the novel until 2005 . Speaking to the BBC World Service in October 2009 , Irving explained that he found that last sentence on his way to a doctor 's appointment . He said an old Bob Dylan CD was playing " Tangled Up in Blue " in his car , and when he heard the lyrics :
I had a job in the great north woods
Working as a cook for a spell
But I never did like it all that much
And one day the ax just fell
the last sentence suddenly came to him . That was in January 2005 , and by August 2005 he had worked his way back to the first sentence and was able to start writing the novel .
The career of the character Daniel Baciagalupo / Danny Angel in the novel bears numerous similarities to that of John Irving . In an October 2009 interview with the New York magazine , Irving stated : " I tried to have fun with the self @-@ referential stuff . I felt the need to be a little playful , because there were autobiographical parts of the last novel that were difficult for me . " In his last novel , Until I Find You ( 2005 ) Irving had alluded to his sexual initiation when he was 11 , by a woman in her 20s .
Irving is well known to have been influenced by Victorian authors such as Dickens and Hardy , and American novelists of the same period , including Melville . For Last Night in Twisted River , Irving acknowledges two other sources : The Theban Plays of Sophocles , and the Western movie genre . To make the novel as authentic as possible , Irving used a cousin in the logging business to help locate " an old @-@ time log @-@ driver alive , alert and literate enough in English to read [ his ] manuscript " ( many loggers in New Hampshire were French @-@ speaking Québécois ) . Irving also researched the restaurant business and its menus and ingredients , calling on the help of friends in the industry . The Toronto restaurant where part of the novel is set , whose address is given as 1158 Yonge Street , was based on the real @-@ life restaurant at that address , Pastis Express .
Last Night in Twisted River was included in Time magazine 's 2009 list of " the fall 's most anticipated movies , books , TV shows , albums and exhibits " .
= = Analysis = =
Last Night in Twisted River is John Irving 's 12th novel and his " most ambitious " , spanning five decades from 1954 to 2005 and taking place mostly in the northeastern United States and southern Ontario in Canada . It is about the relationship between three men : Dominic Baciagalupo , an Italian @-@ American cook with " the look of a man long resigned to his fate " , his son Daniel ( Danny ) , who grows up to be a famous novelist , and Ketchum , a " foul @-@ mouthed logger with a heart of gold " . The novel is built around its characters and their idiosyncrasies . The father @-@ son relationship between Dominic and Danny is " the heart of the book " , and is a departure from Irving 's previous novels which generally feature mother @-@ son relationships in the absence of a father .
Last Night in Twisted River is a story within a story that shows , through Danny Angel , the development of a novelist and the writing process . Irving modelled Danny 's career loosely on his own : both are the same age ; both get a scholarship to Phillips Exeter Academy ; both are taught by Kurt Vonnegut at the University of Iowa and go on to become famous novelists ; both are " Kennedy fathers " enabling them to claim paternity deferment during the Vietnam war ; both have their first success with their fourth novel ( Kennedy Fathers and The World According to Garp ) . Danny and Irving 's sixth books , East of Bangor and The Cider House Rules are both abortion novels set in a Maine orphanage which both later win an Oscar for Best Adapted Screenplay . Danny and Irving 's fiction are " both autobiographical and not autobiographical at the same time " , but Last Night in Twisted River is Irving 's most overtly autobiographical novel .
Irving has explored what motivates novelists to write in many of his previous novels , but here , " [ a ] s he moves into what might be termed his late period " , Irving examines these issues far more closely , and bares his soul more than ever before . Rene Rodriguez wrote in the Los Angeles Times that this is Irving 's " most personal and revealing exploration of the writing process " . In The Times Helen Rumbelow said Irving " almost rivals Paul Auster for the mischievous way he inserts a thinly fictionalized version of himself into the tale " .
Many themes present in Irving 's earlier works are recycled in this book : the story begins in New England , it features a fractured family , a main character is a writer , sudden tragedy , a young boy is sexually initiated by an older women , and bears . It contains Irving 's usual fare of " melancholic humor and comic absurdity " , " grotesque deaths and grisly accidents " , plus " lots and lots of coincidences " . As in Irving 's writings , Danny 's novels are full of " fairy @-@ tale exaggerations " and " melodramatic worst @-@ case scenarios " . Daniel Mallory in the Los Angeles Times said that while Irving " loots his own canon " , so do other writers , for example Philip Roth , Richard Ford and Don DeLillo . Lucy Daniel wrote in The Daily Telegraph that while such " predictable eccentricities " might disadvantage a writer , they are " part of the charm " of Irving 's works . As in The Hotel New Hampshire , incestuous relationships take place in this book : here Danny has sex with some of his cousins and an aunt . But while Irving presents it in a naughty @-@ but @-@ nice manner , it has serious undertones : it was revealed after Irving 's 11th novel , Until I Find You ( 2005 ) , that he was sexually abused as a child .
English author Giles Foden in The Guardian called Last Night in Twisted River " a very playful novel " : it toyed with character and the " fluidity of identity " , suggesting that someone may " perform [ their ] identity rather than be defined by it " . Foden said that the whole novel could be seen as a performance of Irving 's own literary identity . More of Irving 's " playfulness " manifests itself at the end of the book when the first sentence of Danny 's new book is the same as the first sentence of Last Night in Twisted River — Danny is writing the very book we have been reading . And the book cover of a wind @-@ bent pine tree ( photographed by Irving 's son , Everett ) is the same tree Danny and Irving see from the window of their writing shacks in Pointe au Baril Station in Ontario .
The narrative moves back and forth in time , with each new section leaping forward 10 to 30 years , and then backtracking , in " fits and starts " to fill in the missing details . Michael Berry said in the San Francisco Chronicle that this " hopscotching strategy allows for multiple layers of suspense and irony " . Rodriguez said these " sudden shifts in points of view that give new meaning to the passage you have just read and leaps in chronology that keep crucial incidents offstage " makes it an " agile , sometimes tricky novel " , and the closest Irving has come to writing metafiction .
= = Reception = =
Last Night in Twisted River received mixed reviews from a number of critics . Simmy Richman wrote in The Independent that it is " the most poetic and powerful of Irving 's work to date " , and called Irving " the only modern American writer able to seamlessly merge the small detail with the significant event , while writing books that balance literary authority with mass @-@ market appeal " . Lucy Daniel in The Daily Telegraph called the book " Moralistic , perverse , funny and uplifting " , but added that it was debatable if it was " clever metafiction " , or a " thinly disguised memoir " . Colette Bancroft in the St. Petersburg Times described the novel as a " loose and baggy tale in search of a center " .
Several reviewers of the book were impressed by Irving 's characters . English author Giles Foden wrote in The Guardian that Ketchum is " [ a ] magnificent creation , he 's like something out of The Last of the Mohicans " , while Ron Charles said in The Washington Post that he is " one of Irving 's most endearing and memorable characters " , a cross between Shakespeare 's Falstaff and Louise Erdrich 's Nanapush . Literary critic Michiko Kakutani in The New York Times described Constable Carl , the policeman who pursues Dominic and Danny , as not unlike Victor Hugo ’ s obsessive Inspector Javert in Les Misérables . Foden said Irving 's manipulation of the character 's identities was " nothing less than show @-@ stopping " .
Bancroft felt that the central character of Danny is not as interesting as those that surround him . He is often a passive observer rather than a participant ; many of the important events happen " offstage " , only to be recalled later by Danny , resulting in a " leaching of emotion and immediacy " . Bancroft complained that " digressions multiply and go nowhere " , and that even the restaurant menus , though interesting , are historically dubious " . Kakutani was also critical of the novel , saying that with some " diligent editing " it could have equaled some of Irving 's more powerful works , in particular The World According to Garp ( 1978 ) and A Widow for One Year ( 1998 ) . She said while it was at times a " deeply felt and often moving story " , it was tarnished by a " gimmicky plot ; cartoony characters ; absurd contrivances ; cheesy sentimentality ; and a thoroughly preposterous ending " . She complained about the same " odd little leitmotifs " that appear in many of Irving 's works , and the inflated plot with its " gothic tinsel " and " pointless digressions " . She called it an " entertaining " but " messy and long @-@ winded , commentary on the fiction @-@ making process itself " .
English novelist and critic Stephanie Merritt wrote in The Observer that once Carl finds Dominic and Danny , the novel " loses momentum and becomes more didactic " , and that the " sheer exuberance of detail [ ... ] at times threatens to overwhelm the story " . But overall she was impressed with the book , saying that it is " a big , old @-@ fashioned novel in the best sense " . Joanna Scott wrote in The New York Times that she liked the sensory sensations Irving evoked in the book , in particular those brought on by Dominic 's cooking . She also found some of the book 's comical scenes , including the naked female skydiver landing in a pigpen , " among the most memorable that Irving has written " . Writer and critic Alan Cheuse in The Dallas Morning News enjoyed the book . He found the flight of the father and son a " brilliant plot device " , and was fascinated by the details of the restaurant business and the process of writing novels . " As a writer , I had nothing but admiration for Irving 's modern version of the old flight and revenge motif . "
Michael Berry in the San Francisco Chronicle called it Irving 's " most controlled novel since A Widow for One Year " . Despite covering five decades and numerous settings , it still " cohere [ s ] into a satisfying tale of loss and redemption " . He said " It 's an impressive feat of sustained narrative craftsmanship " . Robert Wiersema wrote in the National Post that this is one of Irving 's " most rewarding and satisfying novels " . He said he performs " the most death @-@ defying of literary feats : negotiat [ ing ] the delicate line between familiarity and novelty in such impressive style as to create a work that is at once comfortable , vintage Irving yet wholly new and unique " . Ron Charles in The Washington Post praised the opening section of the book and its " vibrant " Twisted River community , but was critical of the rest of the novel saying it is " scrambled across many blurry cities and restaurants and different times in a way that deadens the novel 's momentum " . He said that as soon as Dominic and his son flee Twisted River , the story " disintegrates in what must be the most disappointing wipeout of Irving 's career " . Charles was particularly critical of the fact that the book dwelt excessively on Danny 's writing career , which mirrored Irving 's , saying that it was " shorthand for real storytelling , for creating colorful places full of well @-@ developed characters " .
William Kowalski in The Globe and Mail questioned why the book was not released as a memoir as there are times when Irving appears to have modeled Danny " literally after himself " . He complained that it was these passages that tended to " bog down " the story . Kowalski called the novel " a flawed but mature work by one of our most accomplished writers " . For Rene Rodriguez in the Los Angeles Times , the highlight of the book was the attention it gave to the bond between Dominic and his son , but she did feel that the details of the creative process should have been relegated to an essay .
= = Work cited = =
Irving , John ( October 2009 ) . Last Night in Twisted River ( paperback ed . ) . London : Bloomsbury Publishing . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 4088 @-@ 0214 @-@ 4 .
= Adventure Time ( season 3 ) =
The third season of American animated television series Adventure Time , created by Pendleton Ward , originally aired on Cartoon Network in the United States . The series is based on a short produced for Frederator 's Nicktoons Network animation incubator series Random ! Cartoons . The season debuted on July 11 , 2011 , and the season finale was aired on February 13 , 2012 . The season follows the adventures of Finn , a human boy , and his best friend Jake , a dog with the magical powers to change shape , grow , and shrink at will . Finn and Jake live in the post @-@ apocalyptic Land of Ooo . Along the way , they interact with the other main characters of the show : Princess Bubblegum , The Ice King , and Marceline the Vampire Queen .
The first episode of the season , " Conquest of Cuteness " was watched by 2 @.@ 686 million viewers ; this marked an increase in viewers watching Cartoon Network when compared to the previous season 's debut . The season ended with the cliffhanger " Incendium " , which was resolved at the start of season four . The season was met with largely positive critical reception . In addition , several episodes and writers were nominated for awards ; the episode " Thank You " was nominated for an Annie Award as well as an award at the Sundance Film Festival . " Too Young " was nominated for an Emmy Award . Storyboard artist Rebecca Sugar was also nominated for an Annie Award .
This season saw the series grow and progress , featuring the first of the popular Fionna and Cake episodes , as well as marking the first time that fan @-@ submitted content was canonized . Ward also noted that the storyboard artists affected the overall tone of the show , moving it towards more bizarre and spiritual matters . The season was storyboarded and written by Ako Castuera , Tom Herpich , Adam Muto , Rebecca Sugar , Jesse Moynihan , Bert Youn , Kent Osborne , Somvilay Xayaphone , Pendleton Ward , and Natasha Allegri , while being produced by Cartoon Network Studios and Frederator Studios . Several compilation DVDs that contained episodes from the season were released after the season finished airing . The full season set was released on February 25 , 2014 on DVD and Blu @-@ ray .
= = Development = =
= = = Concept = = =
The season follows the adventures of Finn the Human , a human boy , and his best friend Jake , a dog with magical powers to change shape and grow and shrink at will . Finn and Jake live in the post @-@ apocalyptic Land of Ooo . Along the way , they interact with the other main characters of the show : Princess Bubblegum , The Ice King , and Marceline the Vampire Queen . Common storylines revolve around : Finn and Jake discovering strange creatures , battling the Ice King , and battling monsters in order to help others . Various other episodes deal with Finn attempting to understand his attraction towards Bubblegum , as well as his development of a crush on Flame Princess .
= = = Production = = =
After the increasing success of the series , on November 29 , 2010 Deadline.com announced that Cartoon Network had renewed the series for a third season . The episode titles were released on April 6 , 2011 by Frederator Studios , while the show was nearing the end of its second season . Based on production numbers , " Conquest of Cuteness " was the first episode that underwent production , which was also the first episode aired . In April 2011 , the storyboards for season three were nearing completion , and much of the production staff shifted its focus to the show 's fourth season .
The ninth episode , entitled " Fionna and Cake " takes place in a gender bent version of Ooo . The premise of this episode is that the Ice King has created a fan fiction wherein all the main characters of Adventure Time appear in the opposite gender . For instance , Finn the Human has become Fionna the Human , and Jake the Dog is now Cake the Cat . The genesis for the episode were drawings that storyboard artist Natasha Allegri posted onto the internet during her free time . Her creations were eventually canonized by the show 's producers . Allegri even re @-@ rerecorded the show 's theme — which had originally been sung by series creator Pendleton Ward — for the episode . The episode had a sequel during the fifth season , focusing on Marceline 's male counterpart , Marshall Lee , who is voiced by Donald Glover .
Before the third season , Ward cautioned fans that , due to legal reasons , he was unable to accept fan creations for characters and stories . However , the sixteenth episode , " Jake vs. Me @-@ Mow " features the titular character Me @-@ Mow , which was drawn by Gunnar Gilmore , aged 14 . Gilmore had sketched the character and showed his mother , who forwarded it to Cartoon Network . Ward decided to include the character solely because the character was " so cute " . Gilmore 's original drawing was used for the episode 's title card . So far , this appears to be the only fan @-@ created character that Ward has allowed on the show .
This season 's episodes were produced in a process similar to previous seasons ' episodes . First , all of the episodes began as simple two @-@ to @-@ three @-@ page outline that contained the necessary plot information . These outlines were then handed off to storyboard artists , who would then expand the rough outline into a full storyboard . The episodes ' design and coloring were done in Burbank , California . Animation was handled overseas in South Korea , either by Rough Draft Korea or by Saerom Animation . The season was storyboarded and written by Ako Castuera , Tom Herpich , Adam Muto , Rebecca Sugar , Jesse Moynihan , Bert Youn , Osborne , Somvilay Xayaphone , Ward , and Allegri . Pendleton Ward referred to many of the writers during the third season as " really smart , smartypants people " who were responsible for inserting weirder and more spiritual ideas into the series . He attributed much of this to the background of the writers , many of whom were formerly involved in indie comics . The season was produced by Cartoon Network Studios and Frederator Studios .
= = Cast = =
The voice actors include voice acting veterans John DiMaggio ( who portrays Jake the Dog ) , Tom Kenny ( who plays The Ice King ) , and Hynden Walch ( who voices Princess Bubblegum ) . In addition , Jeremy Shada portrays the voice of Finn the Human , and Olivia Olson portrays Marceline the Vampire Queen . Ward himself provides the voice for several minor characters , as well as Lumpy Space Princess . Former storyboard artist Niki Yang voices the sentient video game console BMO , as well as Jake 's girlfriend Lady Rainicorn in Korean . Polly Lou Livingston , a friend of Pendleton Ward 's mother , Bettie Ward , plays the voice of the small elephant Tree Trunks . Season three would also introduce Flame Princess , voiced by Jessica DiCicco ; Flame Princess would go on to have a larger role in the fourth and fifth seasons of the show , as well as become Finn 's new romantic interest . The Adventure Time cast records their lines together in group recordings as opposed to different recording sessions with each voice actor . This is to record more natural sounding dialogue among the characters . Hynden Walch has described these group recordings as akin to " doing a play reading — a really , really out there play . "
The series also regularly employs guest voices for various characters . For instance , Jackie Buscarino appears as the Cute King in " Conquest of Cuteness " . Steve Agee voices Ash , Marceline 's ex @-@ boyfriend , and Ava Acres as young Marceline in " Memory of a Memory " . Isabella Acres reprises her role as a young Princess Bubblegum , and Justin Roiland makes his debut as Lemongrab in the episode " Too Young " . Lemongrab would soon becoming a recurring character . Steve Little voices the character Abracadaniel , and Maurice LaMarche appears as the Grand Master Wizard in the episode " Wizard Battle " . For the gender bent episode " Fionna and Cake " , Madeleine Martin voiced Fionna , Roz Ryan played the part of Cake the Cat , Grey DeLisle appeared as the Ice Queen , and Neil Patrick Harris voiced Prince Gumball . Rich Fulcher appears as Jaybird and Ron Lynch voices the character Pig in " Apple Thief " . Jackie Buscarino reprises her role as Susan Strong in the episode " Beautopia " . Kyla Rae Kowalewski voices the character Me @-@ Mow in the episode " Jake vs. Me @-@ Mow " . Musical parodist " Weird Al " Yankovic appears as the Banana Man in the episode " The New Frontier " ; the character was originally supposed to voiced by Jonathan Katz before Yankovic was chosen after Katz was unable to . Peter Browngardt voices the eponymous character in " Paper Pete " . Gregg Turkington appears as the Talking Shrub in " Another Way " . Sam Marin voices Clarence in " Ghost Princess " . In the episode " Incendium " , Keith David makes his debut as Flame King .
Various other characters are voiced by Tom Kenny , Dee Bradley Baker , Maria Bamford , Little , and Kent Osborne .
= = Reception and release = =
= = = Ratings = = =
The season debuted on July 11 , 2011 , with the episode " Conquest of Cuteness " . The episode was watched by 2 @.@ 686 million viewers . This marked an increase from the second season premiere , which had been viewed by 2 @.@ 001 million viewers , and it marked a drastic increase from the second season finale , which was watched by only 1 @.@ 975 million viewers . " Conquest of Cuteness " also marked gains when compared to the same timeslot a year prior ; growth in kids and boys aged 6 – 11 , 2 @-@ 11 and 9 @-@ 14 ranged between 13 and 40 percent . The season hit a high with its ninth episode , " Fionna and Cake " , which was watched by 3 @.@ 315 million viewers . This made the episode , at the time , the highest @-@ rated entry in the series in its three season run . The season finale , " Incendium " , aired on February 13 , 2012 ranked as the number one telecast of the week among boys aged 6 – 11 on all of television .
= = = Reviews and accolades = = =
Mike LeChevallier of Slate magazine award the third season four stars out of five . In his review , LeChevallier wrote that the series " scores relatively high marks for storytelling , artwork , music , voice acting , and realization with its neatly wrapped , 11 @-@ minute packages of multicolored awesomeness . " He further complimented the show because he felt that " it scarcely appears to be trying too hard to attract attention , yet it does just that " . He did note that " the short @-@ form format leaves some emotional substance to be desired " , although he noted this was inevitable for a series with such short episodes .
" Fionna and Cake " was particularly successful with the fans of the series ; according to Entertainment Examiner , after the episode aired , " fans of the series loved the new interpretation and clamored for more Fionna and Cake " . Ward has revealed that he is particularly pleased with the episode " Thank You " ; he elaborated , " I think it 's awesome that with a show called Adventure Time with Finn and Jake , we can just forget about Finn and Jake for a little bit and the network will just let us follow this creature around " .
The series was nominated for two separate Annie Awards : one for Best Animated Special Production for " Thank You " , and another for Best Storyboarding in a Television Production for Rebecca Sugar . The series , however , failed to win either . The episode " Too Young " was nominated for a 2012 Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Short @-@ format Animated Program , although the episode did not win . The episode " Thank You " was also purposely screened in a movie theatre so that it could qualify for the Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film . Although it made the award 's short list , it did not make the final list of ten nominees . " Thank You " was later in the running for the Animated Short Film award at the Sundance Film Festival in early 2013 , although it did not win the award .
= = = Home media = = =
Warner Home Video released multiple DVDs , consisting of region 1 and region 2 formats . It Came from the Nightosphere , Jake vs. Me @-@ Mow , Fionna and Cake , The Suitor , Princess Day , Finn the Human , Frost & Fire , and The Enchiridion were created for Region 1 markets containing some episodes from the third season . The complete season was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray on February 25 , 2014 . By March 9 , 2014 , the DVD release had sold 32 @,@ 056 copies , and the Blu @-@ ray set had sold 8 @,@ 577 copies . All DVD releases can be purchased on the Cartoon Network Shop , and the individual episodes can be downloaded from both the iTunes Store and Amazon.com.
= = Episodes = =
= = DVD release = =
= Nikephoros Phokas Barytrachelos =
Nikephoros Phokas ( Greek : Νικηφόρος Φωκᾶς ) , surnamed Barytrachelos ( Βαρυτράχηλος , " heavy @-@ neck " ; Armenian : Cṙ [ a ] viz , Georgian : წარვეზი Ts 'arvezi , " wry @-@ neck " ) , was a Byzantine aristocrat and magnate , the last major member of the Phokas family to try and claim the imperial throne . He was a son of the general Bardas Phokas the Younger and great @-@ nephew of Emperor Nikephoros II Phokas , and played an active role in his father 's failed rebellion against Basil II in 987 – 989 . After the death of his father , he sought and received Basil 's pardon . Nothing further is known of him until 1022 when , along with the general Nikephoros Xiphias , he launched another rebellion . The revolt gathered widespread support , but mistrust between the two leaders led to Phokas ' assassination by Xiphias on 15 August 1022 . The rebellion collapsed quickly after that .
= = Life = =
Nikephoros Phokas Barytrachelos was a son of the general Bardas Phokas the Younger , and had one older brother , Leo . In spring 970 , following the murder of Barytrachelos ' great @-@ uncle Emperor Nikephoros II Phokas by John I Tzimiskes , his father tried to raise a rebellion against the new regime in the family 's base at Cappadocia . Tzimiskes dispatched his lieutenant Bardas Skleros against Bardas Phokas . Skleros was able to lure away many of Phokas ' supporters , until he was forced to surrender . Although not explicitly mentioned in the sources , Nikephoros probably shared his father 's fortune , being exiled to the Aegean island of Chios with the rest of his family .
= = = Role in the revolts of Bardas Phokas and Bardas Skleros = = =
In 978 , after Tzimiskes ' death and the rise of Basil II to the throne , Bardas Phokas was recalled to lead the imperial forces against his old rival Bardas Skleros , who had rebelled and seized much of Asia Minor . After early reverses , the loyalist forces under Phokas proved victorious in spring 979 , forcing Skleros to flee to Byzantium 's eastern Muslim neighbours , finding refuge in the Buyid court at Baghdad . In 987 , however , Bardas Skleros was released from Baghdad and tried to raise another revolt . He contacted Bardas Phokas for a common undertaking against Basil II , but Phokas deceived and imprisoned Skleros , before finally launching his own uprising by proclaiming himself emperor in August / September 987 . It is here that Nikephoros is named for the first time in the sources : his father sent him to David III of Tao to secure military aid , and to confront the loyalist general Gregory Taronites , who had landed in the Phokades ' rear at Trebizond and had raised an army of Armenians in the eastern provinces . Nikephoros secured 1 @,@ 000 Georgian soldiers from David and defeated Taronites , but soon after that news reached him of the death of his father at the Battle of Abydos on 13 April 989 . Bardas Phokas ' demise led to the immediate collapse of the rebellion : the Georgians returned to their country , and Nikephoros ' troops dispersed to their homes . Nikephoros fled to the fortress of Tyropoion , where his mother resided and where the imprisoned Bardas Skleros was held . Along with his brother Leo , Nikephoros now supported Skleros ' candidacy as emperor , but the latter , old and weary , preferred to give up the struggle and submit to the emperor in exchange for leniency . Like Bardas Skleros , Nikephoros received a pardon , and was allowed to retain his privileges . Leo on the other hand tried to resist from his base at Antioch , but the city 's inhabitants surrendered him to Basil .
= = = Rebellion with Nikephoros Xiphias and death = = =
Nothing is heard of Nikephoros Phokas Barytrachelos until the summer of 1022 , when he conspired with the general Nikephoros Xiphias against Basil II , who since spring had been engaged in a campaign against the Georgian king George I. The two conspirators aimed to overthrow Basil and have one of them replace him , but the issue of who would have precedence was unresolved , and would lead to the rebellion 's quick downfall . Although Xiphias held the prestigious post of strategos of the Anatolic Theme and Phokas held no office but the title of patrikios , according to the report of the contemporary Christian Arab historian Yahya of Antioch , great numbers of aristocrats flocked to him due to his family 's influence , provoking Xiphias ' envy .
The rebellion of the two men was particularly threatening to the emperor , as it took control over Cappadocia and threatened to cut off his rear and leave him stranded between two enemies . Indeed , the conspirators are said to have been in contact with George I for that purpose . Basil first withdrew to the safety of the fortress of Mazdat , and according to John Skylitzes sent an envoy to the rebel leaders aiming to sow distrust between them , while according to Yahya the emperor appointed as the new governor of the Anatolic Theme Theophylact Dalassenos and sent him to suppress the revolt . Whether the envoy accomplished his task is unknown , but on 15 August 1022 , Xiphias arranged a meeting with Phokas , where the latter was murdered by one of Xiphias ' servants . Armenian sources however report , rather dubiously , that Phokas was killed by the former king of Vaspurakan , Senekerim @-@ Hovhannes , or his son David , or one of their followers . The severed head was sent to Basil , who mounted it on a stake and put it on public display at Mazdat .
Following the death of Phokas , the rebellion collapsed , and Xiphias was arrested and forced to become a monk . Released from the threat to his rear , Basil II swiftly and decisively defeated George I , and imposed his terms on him . The other supporters of the uprising were imprisoned and released in 1025 , after the death of Basil II and the succession of his younger brother , Constantine VIII . In 1026 , however , Constantine VIII accused the last surviving member of the once great family , Bardas Phokas ( possibly a son or nephew of Nikephoros Barytrachelos ) , of plotting against the throne , and had him blinded .
= Counter Logic Gaming =
Counter Logic Gaming ( CLG ) is an American eSports organization headquartered in Los Angeles , California . It was founded in April 2010 by George " HotshotGG " Georgallidis and Alexander " Vodoo " Beutel as a League of Legends team , and has since branched out into other games .
CLG fields the oldest League of Legends team still active , having competed in every split of the North American League of Legends Championship Series ( LCS ) since it began in Spring 2013 . CLG has won two NA LCS splits , the 2015 Summer NA LCS and 2016 Spring NA LCS . The team has also attended the 2012 and 2015 League of Legends World Championships , and was eliminated in the group stage on both occasions .
The organization also fields Halo , Counter @-@ Strike : Global Offensive ( CS : GO ) , Super Smash Bros. , and Call of Duty teams , and previously included a Dota 2 team . The organization was also one of the first in North America to implement a multi @-@ team gaming house , and the current residence is able to house all their major divisions and the management staff on a permanent basis .
= = History = =
= = = Organization = = =
Counter Logic Gaming was founded to compete in League of Legends tournaments by George " HotshotGG " Georgallidis and Alexander " Vodoo " Beutel in April 2010 . In December 2011 , Counter Logic Gaming merged with the Absolute Legends organization . Although the two organizations decided to separate a month later , the ex @-@ AbsoluteLegends roster chose to stay with CLG , as Counter Logic Gaming Europe . On 2 February 2012 , the organization announced that it had acquired the Dota 2 roster of Swedish team eXperience Gaming . In May of that year , Georgallidis created a CLG League of Legends B team , known as Counter Logic Gaming Black . On 2 July 2012 , HotshotGG stepped down from the position of active CEO of Counter Logic Gaming , citing a wish to focus more on his game @-@ play , and was replaced by his mother , Helen Georgallidis .
In October 2012 , CLG 's Dota 2 team officially disbanded , with most of the players having left weeks before . Less than three months later , in late December , CLG.EU elected not to re @-@ sign their contracts , instead signing with Evil Geniuses . The organization also disbanded CLG Black , leaving the original League of Legends team as the only roster under the Counter Logic Gaming banner . CEO Helen Georgallidis and COO Robert " CyberBob " Del Papa resigned with these announcements , and Kelby May was promoted to General Manager for the organization . Kelby remained at CLG for two years until September 2014 , when he stepped down ; Matthew " MaTTcom " Marikian was promoted to General Manager , while Bryan " bchenN " Chen was hired as the Director of Finance and Operations .
On 10 November 2014 , Counter Logic Gaming announced that they had acquired the Shoot to Kill Halo roster , including professional Halo veteran Tom " OGRE 2 " Ryan , branded under the name Counter Logic Gaming Halo . In January 2015 , the organization also acquired the ex @-@ mouseSpaz Counter @-@ Strike : Global Offensive roster as CLG.CS , and reestablished the CLG Black brand that same month . On 14 June 2015 , the organization expanded into Super Smash Bros. Melee , picking up Kevin " PewPewU " Toy . On 7 July 2015 , the all @-@ female ex @-@ Ubinite roster was announced as CLG Red , a second Counter @-@ Strike : Global Offensive team , and on 6 August 2015 , the organization announced that Devin “ Mylixia ” Nash had become the new CEO , while HotshotGG became the President / Owner of Counter Logic Gaming .
On 2 December 2015 , the organization announced that they had expanded into Call of Duty by acquiring the roster of Denial eSports .
= = = Controversies = = =
= = = = Major League Gaming = = = =
On 8 November 2011 , Counter Logic Gaming was disqualified from the MLG Providence 2011 Qualifiers . Having won their qualification match against RFLXGaming , it transpired that the team had fielded Luis " Lapaka " Perez in place of Ho @-@ jin " Lilac " Jeon . Lapaka was registered as the team leader for AbsoluteLegends , another team in the tournament , and had played in a match between AbsoluteLegends and Team SoloMid . MLG ruled that CLG 's decision to illegally use Lapaka as a ringer for their match against RFLXGaming warranted disqualification and confiscation of all prize money .
= = = = LCS Fines and Punishments = = = =
On 12 August 2014 , Riot Games ' ( Riot ) Nick Allen announced that four members of Counter Logic Gaming 's League of Legends team were to be fined US $ 1 @,@ 250 for violating the League of Legends Championship Series rule associated with account sharing during their stay in Korea . These same players were also banned from Ongamenet ( OGN ) and Korean e @-@ Sports Association @-@ owned tournaments for two years . On 10 December 2014 CLG was fined US $ 10 @,@ 000 by Riot , after being found guilty of soliciting Team Dignitas ' William " Scarra " Li without acquiring his current team 's approval . Additionally , Scarra was prohibited from serving as CLG 's head coach on stage for the first three weeks of the 2015 NA LCS Spring Split . On 6 January 2015 , after this first ruling , CLG ’ s management voluntarily revealed a similar violation regarding the recruitment of Darshan " ZionSpartan " Upadhyaya . CLG was fined $ 2 @,@ 000 by Riot , while Yiliang " Doublelift " Peng was fined US $ 2 @,@ 500 for encouraging the violation . Furthermore , the team was restricted from fielding ZionSpartan for the first week of the 2015 LCS .
= = = League of Legends = = =
= = = = Original Team = = = =
Counter Logic Gaming began as a group of ten League of Legends players in April 2010 , originally including Andy " Reginald " Dinh , among others , but solidified as a formal five @-@ man roster , made up of " HotshotGG " , Michael " bigfatjiji " Tang , Steve " Chauster " Chau , Sam " Kobe24 " Hartman @-@ Kenzler , and Cody " Elementz " Sigfusson . The team 's first offline accomplishment was a win at World Cyber Games 2010 , taking the final series against European powerhouse SK Gaming . Shortly afterwards in April 2011 , Kobe24 retired from professional gaming , and Brandon " Saintvicious " DiMarco took his place on the team . Shortly afterwards , bigfatjiji was forced to change his name to bigfatlp by Riot Games . In June 2011 , CLG attended the Riot Games Season 1 World Championship in Sweden . Despite a loss to Team SoloMid , they advanced from the group stage , but were knocked out of championship contention by FnaticMSI , and forced to fight for an eventual fifth @-@ place finish .
In August 2011 , after a string of domestic victories , CLG participated in their second international LAN tournament , IEM Season VI Cologne . The team defeated Team SoloMid in the Grand Final , and claimed victory . In November 2011 , after a disappointing domestic run , including disqualification from MLG Providence 2011 , CLG benched Elementz , adding Yiliang " Doublelift " Peng to their active roster . However , in order to participate in the nation @-@ locked 2011 World Cyber Games , CLG formed a temporary all @-@ Canadian team . Elementz returned to the roster for the event , and Team Solomid players Shan " Chaox " Huang and Brian " TheOddOne " Wiley made up the rest of this temporary roster , alongside CLG members bigfatlp and HotshotGG . CLG was beaten by the Polish team in the semifinals , but was able to triumph over French team Millenium in the third place match .
After a fairly successful domestic run , including victory in Season 2 of the National ESL Premier League , CLG participated in the IEM Season VI World Championship in March 2012 . Placing second in the group stage and losing to Russian team Moscow Five in the semifinals , CLG narrowly defeated aAa in the third place match . On 12 March 2012 , CLG moved into a temporary gaming house in South Korea to participate in the 2012 OGN Spring Championship . Having qualified for the playoffs , CLG fell in the first round to eventual champions MiG Blaze , and on 25 April 2012 , the team moved back to North America . Citing internal tensions between players Saintvicious , HotshotGG , and Chauster , CLG made a roster change in May 2012 , removing Saintvicious , and adding Joedat " Voyboy " Esfahani from Team Dignitas . Two days later , the team announced a name change from Counter Logic Gaming to Counter Logic Gaming Prime , to differentiate themselves from the organization 's second North American League of Legends team , Counter Logic Gaming Black . In June 2012 , the newly named CLG Prime attended MLG Anaheim 2012 , falling to rivals Team SoloMid in the finals .
CLG Prime was one of two North American teams to be invited to compete in the 2012 OGN Summer Championship . The team lost in their first group stage game to Counter Logic Gaming Europe . Despite this early loss , they qualified for the playoffs , and were eliminated by Korean team Azubu Frost . Despite no longer competing in Korea , CLG Prime remained the country to practice for the upcoming North American Regional Finals . There , after falling to Team SoloMid and defeating Team Curse in the third place match , CLG Prime became the last North American team to qualify for the Riot Games Season 2 World Championship .
At October 's Riot Games Season 2 World Championship , CLG Prime was knocked out in the group stage , taking home a ninth / tenth @-@ place finish and US $ 50 @,@ 000 . Following their disappointing World Championship performance , Voyboy left the team , and former MiG Frost player Yoon @-@ sub " Locodoco " Choi was picked up . On November 29 , CLG Prime entered IPL 5 . Despite surprisingly strong showings against Curse EU , FnaticRC , and Moscow Five , the team placed fifth / sixth . After the event , Locodoco expressed in an interview that " coming to America was a mistake " , but added that it did not indicate he would be leaving the team . However , on 4 December CLG announced the departure of Locodoco , and on 28 December , Zaqueri " Aphromoo " Black was announced as their starting support player , while Austin " LiNk " Shin , formerly of CLG Black , joined as a substitute player . The team also dropped the Prime suffix from their name , due to the departure of Counter Logic Gaming Europe and disbanding of Counter Logic Gaming Black . On 15 January 2013 , bigfatlp announced that he would be stepping down from the starting roster to a substitute position , citing lack of confidence in his own play , while LiNk stepped up to the starting roster .
As one of the top three teams from the North American region , CLG auto @-@ qualified for the newly created Riot Games NA League of Legends Championship Series ( NA LCS ) , the Spring Split of which began 27 February 2013 . Following a regular season placement of forth with a record of 13 @-@ 15 , the team was knocked into the Summer Promotion Tournament following defeat in the playoffs . CLG won their promotion match against bigfatlp 's challenger team , Azure Cats , and was allowed to remain in the 2013 NA LCS for the Summer Split . Following this unsatisfactory split , HotshotGG decided to step down , and Aphromoo left . Bigfatlp rejoined the active roster , and Zachary " Nientonsoh " Malhas was acquired to fill the other vacant position . CLG also announced on 24 July 2013 that OGN caster Christopher " MonteCristo " Mykles would be joining CLG as a coach .
The Summer Split proved no better for the revamped CLG roster , who ended the regular season in sixth place with a record of 13 @-@ 15 , scraping into playoffs . A loss in their first series against long @-@ time rivals Team SoloMid meant they could no longer qualify for the Season 3 World Championship . The team claimed fifth / sixth place in the playoffs by beating Team Curse , and secured requalification for the next season of the NA LCS . On October 23 , Chauster announced his retirement from competitive play , while bigfatlp moved back to a sub position . On 7 November it was announced that Aphromoo and Brian " TrickZ " Ahn would temporarily fill CLG 's vacancies for the upcoming Intel Extreme Masters Season VIII Cologne . CLG took fourth at the event , falling in the semifinals to Fnatic . The organization announced that TrickZ would not remain with the team coming into 2014 . Before the start of the 2014 Spring Split , CLG solidified their roster by picking up Marcel " dexter " Feldkamp , formerly of European team Lemondogs , and also offered a permanent roster spot to Aphromoo .
In the 2014 NA LCS Spring Split , CLG ended the regular season with the record of 18 @-@ 10 , placing third below rivals Cloud9 and Team SoloMid . CLG finished third at playoffs after losing to Team SoloMid and defeating Team Curse . Following this performance , Nientonsoh decided to step down from the starting line up , stating that he was unable to handle the heavy criticism from the public . On 19 May 2014 , after considerable speculation , Korean import Wu @-@ Yeong " Seraph " Shin was officially announced as the team 's fifth member .
With its third @-@ place finish in the Spring , CLG was able to compete in the 2014 NA LCS Summer Split . For five weeks in the mid @-@ season , CLG held first place and peaked at a 13 @-@ 7 record . However , toward the end of the split their form began to decline , and days before Week 11 of the split began , coach MonteCristo announced that the team would spend a number of weeks " bootcamping " in Korea to prepare for playoffs and a prospective World Championship spot . In the 2014 NA LCS Summer Playoffs , CLG entered with considerable expectations after their stint in South Korea . The team was heavily favored to take their initial series from Team Curse , but was cleanly beaten , and eliminated from contention for a Riot Games Season 4 World Championship seed . Following a second loss to Team Dignitas , CLG dropped into the following split 's promotion tournament , where they defeated Curse Academy in an extremely close series . Shortly afterwards , on 13 October 2014 , dexter announced that he would not renew his contract for the following split .
On 31 October 2014 , the organization announced that William " Scarra " Li would be joining as the team 's head coach , while also announcing that tryouts had begun for all positions . Eight days later , Darshan " ZionSpartan " Upadhyaya was announced as the newest addition to the lineup , replacing Seraph , whose contract the organization had decided not to renew . A month later , in December , it was announced that LiNk would return to the starting lineup for the forthcoming split , alongside Jake " Xmithie " Puchero , formerly of Team Vulcun . On 19 December CLG attended IEM IX Cologne with their new roster , aside from Xmithie , who was unable to attend due to visa issues ; the team played with a substitute and finished second , behind Gambit Gaming .
The new roster made a remarkably strong start to the 2015 Spring Split , and just missed out on a playoff bye after losing a second @-@ place regular season tiebreaker to Cloud9 . Despite looking strong going into the 2015 Spring Playoffs , CLG was once again unable to perform , losing in the quarterfinals to Team Liquid , and ended up in fifth place . Shortly after the playoffs ended , Scarra resigned as head coach on 17 April 2015 . Less than a month later , LiNk also left , releasing a public statement about his time with CLG , in which he criticized almost every player , as well as the management and the coaching staff . The next day , the organization announced that they had replaced LiNk with two players , Eugene " Pobelter " Park and Jae @-@ hyun " HuHi " Choi , with the plan being to alternate between the two . On 28 May 2015 , Chris " Blurred Limes " Ehrenreich was announced as the new head coach of the team , while existing analyst Tony " Zikz " Gray was moved to a new position , Strategic Coach .
CLG had their best regular NA LCS split yet in the Summer of 2015 , finishing in second place with a record of 13 @-@ 5 . Their record gave the team an automatic playoff bye into the semifinals , where they were able to sweep Team Impulse , matching CLG against rivals Team SoloMid in their first NA LCS final . In the final , Counter Logic Gaming swept their long @-@ term rivals , and became NA LCS champions for the first time , while Doublelift won the first LAN event of his five @-@ year career . The team also secured the first North American seed to the 2015 League of Legends World Championship .
Although they were drawn into what was considered to be the easiest group , CLG finished below Flash Wolves and KOO Tigers , and so failed to progress to the tournament 's knockout stage . Despite having their most successful NA LCS season , the organization made large changes to the championship winning roster . On 23 October 2015 , it was announced that HuHi would be stepping up to the active roster , having fulfilled the role of a sub for the entirely of the previous split , while Pobelter left the team shortly afterwards . On 28 October , it was announced that Blurred Limes had been released from the organization , with " a breach of trust " cited as the mean reason behind the decision . On 31 October , it was announced that Doublelift had been released after four years of being involved with the organization . Attitude problems and conflict within the team were cited as the main motivators . Doublelift was announced as the newest member of Team SoloMid shortly afterwards .
On 11 November 2015 , former analyst and strategic coach Zikz was announced as CLG 's new head coach , and on 20 November 2015 , the organization announced that Trevor " Stixxay " Hayes , formerly of CLG Black , would be the fifth player for the team at IEM San Jose , although he was not announced as the starter for 2016 . At the tournament , CLG would beat out both Unicorns of Love and Jin Air Green Wings 2 @-@ 0 , before falling to Origen in the final , marking the first time a North American team had beaten a Korean team in a series .
On 17 April 2016 , CLG won their second consecutive NA LCS championship , defeating longtime rivals Team Solomid 3 @-@ 2 in the grand finals .
= = = = CLG.EU = = = =
On 20 December 2011 , Counter Logic Gaming and European organization Absolute Legends announced a merger . The roster of Mike " Wickd " Petersen , Stephen " Snoopeh " Ellis , Henrik " Froggen " Hansen , Peter " Yellowpete " Wüppen , and Mitch " Krepo " Voorspoels became Counter Logic Gaming Europe . A month later , on 30 January 2012 , the two organizations decided to separate , but the European roster elected to stay under the Counter Logic Gaming brand . The team 's first challenge would be in the Kings of Europe online tournament , placing first after defeating Russian juggernauts Moscow Five in the final . The team experienced immense regional success over the next few months , consistently beating top European teams FnaticRC , Moscow Five , against All authority , and SK Gaming , and winning several tournaments , including the Corsair Vengeance Cup , In2LOL Kickoff EU , and Absolute Pro League March .
On 10 June 2012 , Counter Logic Gaming Europe flew to Anaheim , California to participate in the 2012 MLG Spring Championships . Beaten out of the Winners Bracket by Team SoloMid , CLG.EU defeated both Team Curse EU and Orbit Gaming to advance to round six of the Losers Bracket , where they fell to Counter Logic Gaming Prime , going home with a fifth / sixth @-@ place finish . After only six days of rest , the team flew out to Jönköping , Sweden to participate in DreamHack Summer 2012 . In the group stage , CLG.EU placed first , defeating Moscow Five , Absolute Legends , and Mebdi 's Minions , and then defeated FnaticRC to advance to the Grand Final . There , CLG.EU defeated Moscow Five once again in dominating fashion , securing their first major offline title .
After a successful year in the European Challenger Circuit , accruing a large number of circuit points , Counter Logic Gaming Europe was one of eight European teams to qualify for the Riot Season 2 European Regionals in August 2012 , and flew out to Germany to compete for a spot at the Riot Games Season 2 World Championship . Despite being the heavy favorites coming into the event , CLG.EU fell to SK Gaming , dropping down in the bracket to play for the final worlds seed against Fnatic . The team took a clean victory , and secured themselves a spot in the Season 2 World Championship . Later that month Counter Logic Gaming EU was one of two European teams invited to attend the 2012 OGN Summer Championship . The team went undefeated in group play , going 3 @-@ 0 against CLG Prime , LG @-@ IM , and MVP Blue . CLG.EU defeated World Elite in the quarterfinals and NaJin Sword in the semifinals . Matched up against Azubu Frost in the final series of the tournament , CLG.EU almost took victory before losing three games in a row , and was only able to take home second place .
Counter Logic Gaming EU traveled to Los Angeles in October 2012 to compete in the Riot Games Season 2 World Championship . In the group stage , CLG.EU looked dominant while taking games off of Team Dignitas and Saigon Jokers . Advancing out of Group B as the second seed , the team faced World Elite in the round of eight . This match was marred by technical issues and had to be postponed due to power failures and connection problems . In the deciding third game , CLG.EU were finally able to secure victory . The team maintained their form through the first game of their semifinal against Azubu Frost , but were outmatched in games two and three , losing out overall . They finished in third / fourth place and were awarded prize money of $ 150 @,@ 000 .
On 29 November 2012 , Counter Logic Gaming EU attended IPL 5 in Las Vegas , and began the tournament with a winning streak against North American teams CLG Prime , Team FeaR , and Team SoloMid . The eventual winners of the tournament , World Elite , pushed CLG.EU into the Losers Bracket , where they faced Season 2 World Champions , Taipei Assassins , who beat the Europeans and eliminated them from the tournament , leaving them with a disappointing final placement of fifth / sixth . In December 2012 , just before the new year , CLG.EU decided not to renew their contract , and parted ways with the Counter Logic Gaming organization . On 25 January 2013 , the team announced that they had joined Evil Geniuses .
= = = = CLG Black = = = =
On 30 April 2012 , Counter Logic Gaming announced that it was looking for players to form a League of Legends B team . The roster for this team , Counter Logic Gaming Black , was finalised on 12 May 2012 , made up of Devon " Hoodstomp " Mark and Austin " LiNk " Shin of Orbit Gaming , Lyubomir " Bloodwater " Spasov of 4Not.Fire , Christopher " Zuna " Buechter of mTw.NA , and Benny " Sycho Sid " Hung . After strong showings in various online events , CLG Black attended their first offline tournament , the GIGABYTE Esports LAN on 15 June 2012 . Despite a loss to Team SoloMid in the group stages , strong showings against Team Green Forest and Team Curse allowed the team to advance to the playoffs . There , after reaching the finals , CLG Black lost to Team SoloMid once again , taking second place . On 14 July 2012 , CLG Black participated in Leaguecraft ggClassic # 2 . Having advanced to the playoffs , they defeated Curse Gaming , but lost to Team Dynamic , dropping into the Losers Bracket . The team fought through the Losers Bracket , and faced Team Dynamic in the finals , losing once again , and finishing second .
On 25 August 2012 , after a second round loss to Team Dignitas , Counter Logic Gaming Black faced Team Dynamic once more in the quarterfinals of the 2012 MLG Summer Championship , using Jason " WildTurtle " Tran in place of LiNk , who was unable to attend , and were beaten . This was the last major tournament for this short @-@ lived CLG Black lineup ; Hoodstomp announced his retirement on 16 October , and on 28 December 2012 , CLG Black officially disbanded . Bloodwater , Zuna , and Sycho Sid went on to play for Team Vulcun , while LiNk was moved up to the Counter Logic Gaming Prime roster , eventually replacing Michael " bigfatlp " Tang .
In January 2015 , CLG formed a new secondary League of Legends team , under the moniker CLG Black , made up of Jonathan " Westrice " Nguyen , Thomas " Thinkcard " Slotkin , Brandon " Easy " Doyle , Trevor " Stixxay " Hayes , and Kenny " I KeNNy u " Nguyen . The team defeated Rock Bottom Gorillas and Team Liquid Academy In the North American Challenger Series Spring Qualifier , successfully qualifying for the Spring Split of the Riot Games NA Challenger Series , the second tier of professional League of Legends in North America . Westrice announced his retirement from professional play on 24 February 2015 before the start of the split , and was replaced by Samson " Lourlo " Jackson . After placing last in Spring , CLG Black was forced to participate in the qualifier for the Summer Split . William " Scarra " Li replaced Easy in the off @-@ season , playing his first
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began painting .
In April 1925 , back in Paris , Scott met Ernest Hemingway , whose career he did much to promote . Hemingway and Scott Fitzgerald became firm friends , but Zelda and Hemingway disliked each other from their very first meeting , and she openly described him as " bogus , " " that fairy with hair on his chest " and " phoney as a rubber check . " She considered Hemingway 's domineering macho persona to be merely a posture ; Hemingway in turn , told Scott that Zelda was crazy . Her dislike was probably not helped by Scott 's repeated insistence that she recount the story of her affair with Jozan to Hemingway and his wife , Hadley . In an embellishment , the Fitzgeralds told the Hemingways that the affair ended when Jozan committed suicide . It was through Hemingway , however , that the Fitzgeralds were introduced to much of the Lost Generation expatriate community : Gertrude Stein , Alice B. Toklas , Robert McAlmon and others .
One of the most serious rifts occurred when Zelda told Scott that their sex life had declined because he was " a fairy " and was likely having a homosexual affair with Hemingway . There is no evidence that either was homosexual , but Scott nonetheless decided to have sex with a prostitute to prove his heterosexuality . Zelda found condoms that he had purchased before any encounter occurred , and a bitter fight ensued , resulting in lingering jealousy . She later threw herself down a flight of marble stairs at a party because Scott , engrossed in talking to Isadora Duncan , was ignoring her .
Literary critic Edmund Wilson , recalling a party at the Fitzgerald home in Edgemoor , Delaware , in February 1928 , described Zelda as follows :
I sat next to Zelda , who was at her iridescent best . Some of Scott 's friends were irritated ; others were enchanted , by her . I was one of the ones who were charmed . She had the waywardness of a Southern belle and the lack of inhibitions of a child . She talked with so spontaneous a color and wit — almost exactly in the way she wrote — that I very soon ceased to be troubled by the fact that the conversation was in the nature of a ' free association ' of ideas and one could never follow up anything .
I have rarely known a woman who expressed herself so delightfully and so freshly : she had no ready @-@ made phrases on the one hand and made no straining for effect on the other . It evaporated easily , however , and I remember only one thing she said that night : that the writing of Galsworthy was a shade of blue for which she did not care .
= = Obsession and illness = =
Though Scott drew heavily upon his wife 's intense personality in his writings , much of the conflict between them stemmed from the boredom and isolation Zelda experienced when Scott was writing . She would often interrupt him when he was working , and the two grew increasingly miserable throughout the 1920s . Scott had become severely alcoholic , Zelda 's behavior became increasingly erratic and neither made any progress on their creative endeavors .
Zelda had a deep desire to develop a talent that was entirely her own , perhaps a reaction to Scott 's fame and success as a writer . At age 27 , she became obsessed with ballet , which she had studied as a girl . She had been praised for her dancing skills as a child , and although the opinions of their friends vary as to her skill , it appears that she did have a fair degree of talent . But Scott was totally dismissive of his wife 's desire to become a professional dancer , considering it a waste of time .
She rekindled her studies too late in life to become a truly exceptional dancer , but she obsessively insisted on grueling daily practice ( up to eight hours a day ) that contributed to her subsequent physical and mental exhaustion . In September 1929 she was invited to join the ballet school of the San Carlo Opera Ballet Company in Naples , but , as close as this was to the success she desired , she declined . While the public still believed the Fitzgeralds to live a life of glamor , friends noted that the partying of the Fitzgeralds had somewhere gone from fashionable to self @-@ destructive — both had become unpleasant company .
In April 1930 , Zelda was admitted to a sanatorium in France where , after months of observation and treatment and a consultation with one of Europe 's leading psychiatrists , Doctor Eugen Bleuler , she was diagnosed as a schizophrenic . Initially admitted to a hospital outside Paris , she was later moved to a clinic in Montreux , Switzerland . The clinic primarily treated gastrointestinal ailments , and as a result of her profound psychological problems , she was moved to a psychiatric facility in Prangins on the shores of Lake Geneva . She was released in September 1931 , and the Fitzgeralds returned to Montgomery , Alabama , where her father , Judge Sayre , was dying . Amid her family 's bereavement , Scott announced that he was leaving for Hollywood . Her father died while Scott was gone , and her health again deteriorated . By February 1932 , she had returned to living in a psychiatric clinic .
= = Save Me the Waltz = =
In 1932 , while being treated at the Phipps Clinic at Johns Hopkins Hospital in Baltimore , Zelda had a swell of creativity . Over the course of her first six weeks at the clinic , she wrote an entire novel and sent it to Scott 's publisher , Maxwell Perkins .
When Scott finally read Zelda 's book , a week after she 'd sent it to Perkins , he was furious . The book was a semi @-@ autobiographical account of the Fitzgeralds ' marriage . In letters Scott berated her and fumed that the novel had drawn upon the autobiographical material that he planned to use in Tender Is the Night , which he 'd been working on for years , and which would finally see publication in 1934 .
Scott forced Zelda to revise the novel , removing the parts that drew on shared material he wished to use . Though the Great Depression had struck America , Scribner agreed to publish her book , and a printing of 3 @,@ 010 copies were released on October 7 , 1932 .
The parallels to the Fitzgeralds were obvious . The protagonist of the novel was Alabama Beggs , like Zelda , the daughter of a Southern judge , who marries David Knight , an aspiring painter who abruptly becomes famous for his work . They live the fast life in Connecticut , before departing to live in France . Dissatisfied with her marriage , Alabama throws herself into ballet . Though told she has no chance , she perseveres and after three years becomes the lead dancer in an opera company . Alabama becomes ill from exhaustion , however , and the novel ends when they return to her family in the South , as her father is dying .
Thematically , the novel portrayed Alabama 's struggle ( and hence Zelda 's as well ) to rise above being " a back @-@ seat driver about life " and to earn respect for her own accomplishments — to establish herself independently of her husband . Zelda 's style was quite different from Scott 's . The language used in Save Me the Waltz was filled with verbal flourishes and complex metaphors . The novel was also deeply sensual ; as literary scholar Jacqueline Tavernier @-@ Courbin would write in 1979 , " The sensuality arises from Alabama 's awareness of the life surge within her , the consciousness of the body , the natural imagery through which not only emotions but simple facts are expressed , the overwhelming presence of the senses , in particular touch and smell , in every description . "
In its time , however , the book was not well received by critics . To Zelda 's dismay it sold only 1 @,@ 392 copies , for which she earned $ 120 @.@ 73 . The failure of Save Me the Waltz , and Scott 's scathing criticism of her having written it — he called her " plagiaristic " and a " third @-@ rate writer " — crushed her spirits . It was the only novel she ever published .
= = Remaining years = =
From the mid @-@ 1930s , Zelda spent the rest of her life in various stages of mental distress . Some of the paintings that she had drawn over the previous years , in and out of sanatoriums , were exhibited in 1934 . As with the tepid reception of her book , Zelda was disappointed by the response to her art . The New Yorker described them merely as " Paintings by the almost mythical Zelda Fitzgerald ; with whatever emotional overtones or associations may remain from the so @-@ called Jazz Age . " No actual description of the paintings was provided . She became in turns violent and reclusive . In 1936 , Scott placed her in the Highland Hospital in Asheville , North Carolina , writing ruefully to friends :
Zelda now claims to be in direct contact with Christ , William the Conqueror , Mary Stuart , Apollo and all the stock paraphernalia of insane @-@ asylum jokes ... For what she has really suffered , there is never a sober night that I do not pay a stark tribute of an hour to in the darkness . In an odd way , perhaps incredible to you , she was always my child ( it was not reciprocal as it often is in marriages ) ... I was her great reality , often the only liaison agent who could make the world tangible to her .
Zelda remained in the hospital while Scott returned again to Hollywood for a $ 1 @,@ 000 a week job with MGM in June 1937 . Without Zelda 's knowledge , he began a serious affair with the movie columnist Sheilah Graham . Despite the excitement of the affair , Scott was bitter and burned out . When their daughter Scottie was thrown out of her boarding school in 1938 , he blamed Zelda . Though Scottie was subsequently accepted to Vassar College , his resentment of Zelda was stronger than ever before . Of Scott 's mindset , Milford wrote , " The vehemence of his rancor toward Zelda was clear . It was she who had ruined him ; she who had made him exhaust his talents ... He had been cheated of his dream by Zelda . "
After a drunken and violent fight with Graham in 1938 , Scott returned to Asheville . A group from Zelda 's hospital had planned to go to Cuba , but Zelda had missed the trip . The Fitzgeralds decided to go on their own . The trip was a disaster even by their standards : Scott was beaten up when he tried to stop a cockfight and returned to the United States so intoxicated and exhausted that he was hospitalized . The Fitzgeralds never saw each other again .
Scott returned to Hollywood and Graham ; Zelda returned to the hospital . She nonetheless made progress in Asheville , and in March 1940 , four years after admittance , she was released . She was nearing forty now , her friends were long gone , and the Fitzgeralds no longer had much money . Scott was increasingly bitter at his own failures and his old friend Hemingway 's continued success . They wrote each other frequently until his death in December 1940 . Zelda was unable to attend his funeral in Rockville , Maryland .
Zelda read the unfinished manuscript of the novel Scott was writing upon his death , The Love of the Last Tycoon . She wrote to the literary critic Edmund Wilson , who had agreed to edit the book , musing on his legacy . Zelda believed , her biographer Milford said , that Scott 's work contained " an American temperament grounded in belief in oneself and ' will @-@ to @-@ survive ' that Scott 's contemporaries had relinquished . Scott , she insisted , had not . His work possessed a vitality and stamina because of his indefatigable faith in himself . "
After reading The Last Tycoon , Zelda began working on a new novel of her own , Caesar 's Things . As she missed Scott 's funeral , so she missed Scottie 's wedding . By August 1943 she returned to the Highland Hospital . She worked on her novel while checking in and out of the hospital . She did not get better nor did she finish the novel . On the night of March 10 , 1948 , a fire broke out in the hospital kitchen . Zelda was locked into a room , awaiting electroshock therapy . The fire moved through the dumbwaiter shaft , spreading onto every floor . The fire escapes were wooden , and caught fire as well . Nine women , including Zelda , died .
Their daughter , Scottie , wrote after their deaths :
I think ( short of documentary evidence to the contrary ) that if people are not crazy , they get themselves out of crazy situations , so I have never been able to buy the notion that it was my father 's drinking which led her to the sanitarium . Nor do I think she led him to the drinking .
Scott and Zelda were buried in Rockville , Maryland — originally in the Rockville Union Cemetery , away from his family plot . In 1975 , however , Scottie successfully campaigned for them to be buried with the other Fitzgeralds at Saint Mary 's Catholic Cemetery . Inscribed on their tombstone is the final sentence of The Great Gatsby : " So we beat on , boats against the current , borne back ceaselessly into the past . "
= = Legacy = =
Scott believed himself a failure when he died suddenly in 1940 and Zelda 's death in 1948 , too , was little noted . However , posthumously , interest in the Fitzgeralds resurged . In 1950 , screenwriter Budd Schulberg , who knew Scott from his Hollywood years , wrote The Disenchanted , which presented an F. Scott Fitzgerald @-@ inspired character who was an alcoholic failure . It was followed in 1951 when Cornell University professor Arthur Mizener wrote The Far Side of Paradise , a biography of F. Scott Fitzgerald , which rekindled interest in the couple among scholars . Mizener 's biography was serialized in The Atlantic Monthly , and a story about the work written in Life magazine , then one of America 's most read and discussed periodicals . Scott was viewed as a fascinating failure ; Zelda 's mental health was largely blamed for his lost potential .
A play of The Disenchanted opened on Broadway in 1958 . Also that year , Scott 's Hollywood mistress Sheilah Graham published a memoir , Beloved Infidel , about his last years . Beloved Infidel became a bestseller and later a film starring Gregory Peck as Scott and Deborah Kerr as Graham . The book and movie painted him in a more sympathetic light than the earlier works . In 1970 , however , Scott and Zelda 's marriage saw its most profound revision , when Nancy Milford , a graduate student at Columbia University , published Zelda : A Biography , the first book @-@ length treatment of Zelda 's life . It was a finalist for the Pulitzer Prize and the National Book Award , and figured for weeks on The New York Times best @-@ seller list . The book recast Zelda as an artist in her own right , whose talents were belittled by a controlling husband . Thus Zelda became an icon of the feminist movement in the 1970s — a woman whose unappreciated potential had been suppressed by patriarchal society . When Tennessee Williams dramatized their lives in the 1980s Clothes for a Summer Hotel , he drew heavily on Milford 's account . A caricature of Scott and Zelda emerged : as epitomizing the Jazz Age 's glorification of youth , as representatives of the Lost Generation , and as parable about the pitfalls of too much success .
Zelda was the inspiration for " Witchy Woman " the song of seductive enchantresses written by Don Henley and Bernie Leadon for the Eagles , after Henley read Zelda 's biography , of the muse , the partial genius behind her husband F. Scott Fitzgerald , the wild , bewitching , mesmerizing , quintessential " flapper " of the Jazz Age and the Roaring Twenties embodied in The Great Gatsby as the uninhibited and reckless personality of Daisy Buchanan . Zelda 's behavior in the lyrics of " Witchy Woman " refer to her partying excesses that were detrimental to her psyche : " She drove herself to madness with the silver spoon , " is a reference to Zelda 's time in a mental institution and the absinthiana , slotted silver spoon used to dissolve sugar cubes with absinthe .
Zelda 's name served as inspiration for Princess Zelda , the eponymous character of the The Legend of Zelda series of video games . Series co @-@ creator Shigeru Miyamoto explained , " [ Fitzgerald ] was a famous and beautiful woman from all accounts , and I liked the sound of her name . So I took the liberty of using her name for the very first Zelda title . " New York City 's borough of Manhattan 's Battery Park 's resident wild turkey Zelda ( d . 2014 ) was also named after her , because according to legend during one of Fitzgerald 's nervous breakdowns , she went missing and was found in Battery Park , apparently having walked several miles downtown . Of Zelda 's legacy in popular culture , biographer Cline wrote , " Recently myth has likened Zelda to those other twentieth @-@ century icons , Marilyn Monroe and Princess Diana . With each she shares a defiance of convention , intense vulnerability , doomed beauty , unceasing struggle for a serious identity , short tragic life and quite impossible nature . " In 1989 , the F. Scott and Zelda Fitzgerald museum opened in Montgomery , Alabama . The museum is in a house they briefly rented in 1931 and 1932 . The museum is one of the few places where some of Zelda 's paintings are kept on display .
= = = Critical reappraisal = = =
Following Milford 's biography , scholars and critics began to look at Zelda 's work in a new light . In a 1968 edition of Save Me the Waltz , F. Scott Fitzgerald scholar Matthew Bruccoli wrote , " Save Me the Waltz is worth reading partly because anything that illuminates the career of F. Scott Fitzgerald is worth reading — and because it is the only published novel of a brave and talented woman who is remembered for her defeats . " But as Save Me the Waltz was increasingly read alongside Milford 's biography , a new perspective emerged . In 1979 , scholar Jacqueline Tavernier @-@ Courbin wrote rebutting Bruccoli 's position : " Save Me the Waltz is a moving and fascinating novel which should be read on its own terms equally as much as Tender Is the Night . It needs no other justification than its comparative excellence . "
Save Me the Waltz became the focus of many literary studies that explored different aspects of her work : how the novel contrasted with Scott 's take on the marriage in Tender Is the Night ; how the commodity culture that emerged in the 1920s placed stress on modern women ; and how these attitudes led to a misrepresentation of " mental illness " in women .
Zelda Fitzgerald 's collected writings ( including Save Me the Waltz ) , edited by Matthew J. Bruccoli , were published in 1991 . New York Times literary critic Michiko Kakutani wrote , " That the novel was written in two months is amazing . That for all its flaws it still manages to charm , amuse and move the reader is even more remarkable . Zelda Fitzgerald succeeded , in this novel , in conveying her own heroic desperation to succeed at something of her own , and she also managed to distinguish herself as a writer with , as Edmund Wilson once said of her husband , a ' gift for turning language into something iridescent and surprising . ' "
Scholars continue to examine and debate the role that Scott and Zelda may have had in stifling each other 's creativity . Zelda 's biographer Cline wrote that the two camps are " as diametrically opposed as the Plath and Hughes literary camps " — a reference to the heated controversy about the relationship of husband – wife poets Ted Hughes and Sylvia Plath .
Zelda 's artwork also has been reappraised as interesting in its own right . After spending much of the 1950s and ' 60s in family attics — Zelda 's mother even had much of the art burned because she disliked it — scholars began to examine the art . Exhibitions of her work have toured the United States and Europe . A review of the exhibition by curator Everl Adair noted the influence of Vincent van Gogh and Georgia O 'Keeffe on her paintings and concluded that her surviving corpus of art " represents the work of a talented , visionary woman who rose above tremendous odds to create a fascinating body of work — one that inspires us to celebrate the life that might have been . "
In 1992 , Zelda was inducted into the Alabama Women 's Hall of Fame .
= Spinning Around =
" Spinning Around " is a song recorded by Australian singer Kylie Minogue for her seventh studio album , Light Years ( 2000 ) . It won the 2000 ARIA Music Award for Best Pop Release . Written by Ira Shickman , Osborne Bingham , Kara DioGuardi , and Paula Abdul , " Spinning Around " was initially meant to be recorded by Abdul for her own album , but was given to Minogue after the plan never came to fruition . Produced by Mike Spencer , the disco @-@ influenced dance @-@ pop song was then released as the lead single from Light Years on 19 June 2000 . Lyrically , the song addresses the theme of reinvention , with Minogue claiming that she has changed as a person and learned from the past .
Upon its release , " Spinning Around " received favourable reviews from music critics , who singled it out as one of the highlights from the album and praised Minogue for returning to her signature musical style . Commercially , the song was a success and became Minogue 's " comeback " single following the critical and commercial disappointment of her sixth studio album Impossible Princess ( 1997 ) . It entered the Australian Singles Chart at number one , becoming the singer 's first chart @-@ topper since " Confide in Me " ( 1994 ) . The song also debuted at number one in the United Kingdom , where it became her first single to peak atop the chart since " Tears on My Pillow " in 1990 . Elsewhere , it reached the top five in Ireland and New Zealand . " Spinning Around " was certified platinum and silver in Australia and the United Kingdom , respectively .
The accompanying music video for " Spinning Around " was directed by Dawn Shadforth , and features Minogue dancing and enjoying herself in a disco . It became popular for the gold hotpants she sported in most of the scenes and led to her bottom gaining extensive coverage from the media . The hotpants are considered to be " iconic " and have been displayed in exhibitions of Minogue 's fashion . " Spinning Around " has been performed by Minogue during all of her concert tours , with the exception of the Anti Tour .
= = Background and recording = =
In 1997 , Minogue released her sixth studio album , Impossible Princess . The album represented a drastic change in the singer 's musical direction , shifting from her signature dance @-@ pop styles to incorporate elements of electronica and pop rock . It was her second album to be released on British record label Deconstruction and became a success in her native Australia , peaking at number four on the ARIA Albums Chart . In the United Kingdom Impossible Princess was less successful than Minogue 's previous albums and peaked at number ten on the UK Albums Chart . The album also suffered from poor reviews in the UK as commentators criticised its different musical approach ; many also considered that Minogue 's career was over . Despite embarking on a successful promotional tour , Minogue was dropped by Deconstruction in 1999 . Minogue then signed to Parlophone , another British record label .
After various discussions , Minogue decided to do what she did " best " and record a simple pop album inspired by disco and Europop , entitled Light Years . " Spinning Around " was included as the opening track of the album and was written by Ira Shickman , Osborne Bingham , Kara DioGuardi and Paula Abdul , and produced by Mike Spencer . Abdul had based the song on her divorce from clothing designer Brad Beckerman and had originally intended to record it for her own studio album , but it was given to Minogue after the album failed to materialise . The song was the first major songwriting project for DioGuardi , who had not been offered any notable projects previously . In an interview discussing the development of Light Years , Minogue revealed that the song had initially been found as a demo in New York by her A & R executive Jamie Nelson , who believed it would be " perfect " for the singer . After listening to the demo , Minogue agreed to record it and felt the song had the potential to be a hit . " Spinning Around " was then released as the lead single from the album on 13 June 2000 in Australia , and 19 June in the United Kingdom . Minogue was photographed by Liz Collins for the artwork of the record . In her 2012 fashion retrospective book Kylie / Fashion , she wrote of the collaboration : " With ' Spinning Around ' it was time to be pop @-@ tastic again . Liz Collins 's aesthetic was very much about a natural beauty . "
= = Composition = =
Similar to most of the songs from Light Years , " Spinning Around " is a " string @-@ laden " dance @-@ pop track with prominent influences from disco music . According to the sheet music of the song published by BMG Rights Management at Musicnotes.com , it is composed in the key of F ♯ minor and features a moderate tempo of 120 beats per minute . Minogue 's vocal range spans from the low note of F3 to the high note of C5 . Addressing the theme of reinvention , the lyrics declare that Minogue has changed and learned from her past mistakes ; it contains lines like " I 'm spinning around / Move out of my way ... I 'm not the same " and " Mistakes that I made have given me the strength to really believe . " In an analysis of the lyrics of the song , Pom Avoledo from Blogcritics wrote that Minogue demands attention in the chorus towards the changes in her personality and asserts that people appreciate them , in the line " I know you 're feelin [ g ] me [ be ] cause you like it like this . " The first verse deals with Minogue ridding herself of items and symbols from her past and starting afresh , evidenced in lines like " Threw away my old clothes , got myself a better wardrobe . " The critic felt that in the second verse Minogue faces her mistakes and accepts herself as she is . The bridge of the song features the repetition of the hook " You know you like it like this , " with Minogue 's voice being vocoded . Chris True from AllMusic felt that through the lyrics , Minogue was admitting that releasing Impossible Princess in 1997 was not the best decision .
= = Critical reaction = =
" Spinning Around " received favourable reviews from music critics . Chris True from AllMusic selected it as a highlight from the album and said it was a " fun and string @-@ laden declaration that she may have made a mistake back in 1997 . " Pom Avoledo praised Minogue for returning to her signature dance @-@ pop style and complimented her for giving " Spinning Around " an " air of elegance and sensuality which was lacking in her early material . " A very positive review came from Siobhan Grogan of NME , who favoured the chorus of the song and commended Minogue for coming back to " what she knows best . " The critic felt the song would become a hit in gay clubs and commented that " [ Spinning Around ] is made of the same fizzing , giddy disco @-@ pop that made Kylie famous in the first place . " Gary Crossing from Yahoo ! Music , who gave Light Years a mixed review , felt that " Spinning Around " was one of the better tracks from the album and called it a " slinky little number . " In his review of Minogue 's 2004 greatest hits album Ultimate Kylie , Jason Shawahn from About.com praised the inclusion of songs like " Spinning Around " and other tracks from Light Years , calling them " a blessing for domestic music consumers , since that disc has never found its way onto official US release , though with any collection of Minogue hits , one simply has to look at what they have in their collection versus what they don 't . " At the 14th ARIA Music Awards ceremony in 2000 , " Spinning Around " won the award for " Best Pop Release " .
= = Commercial performance = =
The song was a commercial success . In Australia it was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) prior to its release on the strength of pre @-@ orders . On the chart date of 2 July 2000 , it debuted at number one on the ARIA Singles Chart . The following week , it dropped to number five and it stayed in the top ten for four consecutive weeks in total . It was Minogue 's first number one single in the country since " Confide in Me " , which was released six years earlier . " Spinning Around " charted for a total of 12 weeks and was later certified platinum by the ARIA for shipments of 70 @,@ 000 units . The song also performed well in New Zealand , entering the RIANZ Singles Chart at number eight and peaking at number two . It spent a total of 17 weeks on the chart and was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) for sales of 7 @,@ 500 units .
With first @-@ week sales of over 80 @,@ 000 units , " Spinning Around " debuted atop the UK Singles Chart on the chart date of 1 July 2000 , becoming Minogue 's first number one single in a decade . Her previous chart @-@ topping single was " Tears on My Pillow " from her second studio album Enjoy Yourself ( 1989 ) . " Spinning Around " was Minogue 's fifth number one single in the United Kingdom . Minogue became one of only two artists to have a number one single in three consecutive decades , achieving this in the 1980s , 1990s , and 2000s . The other artist to hold this distinction is Madonna , whose song " American Pie " topped the UK singles chart in March 2000 . " Spinning Around " charted inside the top ten for two weeks and inside the top forty for eight weeks . The British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) certified the song silver for shipments of 200 @,@ 000 units . As of March 2014 , the single has sold 300 @,@ 000 units in the country according to the Official Charts Company . " Spinning Around " was deemed a successful " comeback " single for Minogue and , along with parent album Light Years , helped relaunch her career .
= = Music video = =
= = = Development and synopsis = = =
The accompanying music video for " Spinning Around " was directed by Dawn Shadforth . As the song was meant to be Minogue 's " comeback " single and mark a " decisive return " to pop music following Impossible Princess , the video did not contain any dark themes and put the " emphasis firmly upon dance , fun , and freedom . " The video begins with a shot of Minogue 's feet as she enters a disco @-@ like setting . She is then shown dancing on the floor with a man , whom she later flirts with on a sofa . Scenes of her performing a dance routine on and in front of a bar and laying on neon blue and gold lights are interspersed throughout the video . Most of the shots are focused on Minogue 's body and various scenes feature her wearing gold lamé hotpants .
= = = Legacy = = =
Following its release , the music video became popular for the gold hotpants Minogue sported . It resulted in a media sensation regarding her bottom . British national broadsheet newspaper The Sunday Times deemed her bottom a " wonder of nature " and The Sun sponsored a campaign to " have Kylie Minogue 's rear @-@ end heritage @-@ listed , preserved for " posteriority " on the grounds that it 's an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty . " Readers were requested by the tabloid newspaper to persuade the government to make sure " [ Minogue 's ] bum remains in safe hands - by turning it into a national institution . " Rumours and speculations claiming Minogue had undergone plastic surgery to make her bottom look more appealing also began to arise during this time . In the same year , English broadcaster and journalist Johnny Vaughan commented " if an alien landed on Earth he would think Kylie 's arse is the world 's leader . " Minogue 's stylist and close friend William Baker explained his decision to " showcase " her bottom in the video , saying " Kylie 's bottom is like a peach - sex sells and her best asset is her bum . " The singer 's response to the attention regarding her bottom was " dry , " claiming " You never know what the future holds . It could become a pear . " It was reported that Minogue had her bottom insured for five million dollars .
The hotpants were deemed " iconic " and were said to be the reason behind " Spinning Around " becoming a " musical and visual anthem in 2000 . " According to the catalogue entry for the hotpants at the Performing Arts Collection at the Arts Centre , Melbourne , British artist and photographer Katerina Jebb bought them for fifty pence from a flea market and they were only selected for use in the video the night before the shoot , though Minogue had worn them previously for a website photoshoot . She was surprised by the attention they attracted , commenting " I never imagined what impact a 50p pair of hotpants would have . " She also said that the revealing nature of the hotpants made her feel insecure during the shooting , saying " I actually wasn 't confident [ in them ] , that 's the crazy thing . I remember feeling quite self @-@ conscious and kept wrapping a robe around me on set and would discard [ it ] right before the take . " The garment is often referred to as " those hotpants , " and have become a symbol for the singer 's vitality and youthfulness . Considered to be one of her trademark looks , the attire she wore in the music video was put on display at Kylie : The Exhibition , an exhibition that featured " costumes and memorabilia collected over Kylie 's career " , held at the Victoria and Albert Museum in London , England , and at Kylie : An Exhibition , a similar exhibition held at the Powerhouse Museum in Sydney , Australia . It was also included in Minogue 's official fashion photography book Kylie / Fashion , which was released on 19 November 2012 by Thames and Hudson to celebrate Minogue 's completion of 25 years in music . In February 2014 , Minogue donated the hotpants to the Performing Arts Collection museum at the Arts Centre in her hometown of Melbourne .
= = Live performances = =
On 30 June 2000 , Minogue performed " Spinning Around " on British music chart television programme Top of the Pops . She performed the song for the second time on the programme on 7 July . On 2 August 2001 , Minogue performed " Spinning Around " at the BBC Radio 1 One Big Sunday show held at Leicester , in the United Kingdom , along with " Can 't Get You Out of My Head " ; for the performance , she wore a black trilby hat , sleeveless T @-@ shirt ( with a picture of Marilyn Monroe printed on it ) , knee length black boots , and trousers with open zips placed on both the thighs . " Spinning Around " was included on the " On Yer Bike " act of Minogue 's one @-@ off concert show Money Can 't Buy , which was held on 15 November 2003 . On 4 July 2012 , she sang " Spinning Around " at the Diamond Jubilee Concert in front of the Buckingham Palace , held in honour of Elizabeth II . Minogue 's wardrobe consisted of a pearl @-@ studded black jacket and hat . Dance troupe Flawless , finalists of British television talent show Britain 's Got Talent , served as Minogue 's backup dancers . To promote her 2012 album The Abbey Road Sessions , Minogue headlined at Proms in the Park event in Hyde Park , London . Clad in a red satin gown , she sang an orchestral @-@ version of " Spinning Around " . This version of the song was exclusively performed at the event , as it was not included on the tracklist of the album .
Since its release , " Spinning Around " has been included in the set list of each of Minogue 's concert tours , except the 2012 Anti Tour . It was the final performance of the encore segment of the On a Night Like This tour , which was launched to promote Light Years in 2001 . Minogue and her back @-@ up dancers dressed in mid 1980s @-@ inspired outfits while performing the song . The song was performed during the " Droogie Nights " act of the KylieFever2002 tour . In 2005 , she performed the song on her Showgirl : The Greatest Hits Tour . This version of the song featured the piano riff of " Finally " , a 1991 song by American recording artist CeCe Peniston . Minogue was unable to complete the tour as she was diagnosed with early breast cancer and had to cancel the Australian leg of the tour . After undergoing treatment and recovery , she resumed the concert tour in the form of Showgirl : The Homecoming Tour in 2007 , and performed " Spinning Around " with combined elements of her previous singles " Shocked " and " What Do I Have to Do " . The song was performed as part of the " Beach Party " act of the KylieX2008 tour , during which Minogue was dressed as a " sequinned sailor . " A medley of " Spinning Around " , " Shocked " , " What Do I Have to Do " and " Step Back in Time " was performed during the For You , For Me tour in 2009 , Minogue 's first North American tour . Dressed in a top hat and a black crinoline , Minogue performed " Spinning Around " during her Aphrodite : Les Folies Tour in 2011 . Minogue performed " Spinning Around " as part of her seven song set at the closing ceremony of the 2014 Commonwealth Games . More recently , the song was performed on Minogue 's Kiss Me Once Tour and Kylie Summer 2015 Tour , in 2014 and 2015 respectively , following a performance of " Step Back in Time " , where Minogue wore a sparkly corset and jacket paired with a tie and thigh @-@ high boots .
= = Track listing = =
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= Hang with Me =
" Hang with Me " is a song by Swedish recording artist Robyn , taken from her sixth studio album , Body Talk Pt . 2 ( 2010 ) . It was released as the album 's lead single via digital download on 16 August 2010 , in Sweden , and one day later in the United States . An acoustic version of the song had previously been included on Body Talk Pt . 1 , in June 2010 . The song was written and produced by Klas Åhlund , who wrote it for Swedish singer Paola Bruna who originally recorded it in 2002 . Åhlund re @-@ wrote it , added a chorus and made it more uptempo for Robyn 's version . The electropop song carries a club beat , with synth arpeggios and energetic bass . Lyrically , it speaks of falling in love and being scared , and trust in a relationship .
The song was met with generally positive reviews from critics , who compared it to her previous singles " With Every Heartbeat " and " Dancing on My Own " . The single reached number two on the Sverigetopplistan chart , becoming Robyn 's eighth top ten hit in her native country . It also reached the top ten on the Norwegian chart , and the Hot Dance Club Songs chart in the US . The accompanying music video was directed by Max Vitali when Robyn was on tour in the United Kingdom . The clip shows scenes from concerts , her tour bus , in @-@ store appearances and Robyn 's sightseeing in London . The concept behind the video was Robyn wanting to make a simple video to show all the touring she had done in 2010 . Robyn performed the acoustic version of the song on an episode of Gossip Girl , and included it on the set list for the Body Talk Tour ( 2010 – 11 ) .
= = Background = =
" Hang with Me " was written and produced by Klas Åhlund , and was originally recorded by Åhlund 's then @-@ wife , Paola Bruna , for her debut studio album Stockcity Girl ( 2002 ) . Åhlund played some of his old songs for Robyn , and re @-@ wrote " Hang with Me " for her . Originally , the song did not have a chorus and Robyn noted that Bruna 's version " sounded very different " from her own . Robyn 's version was one of the first songs recorded for the Body Talk series , but she decided to save it for a later release to give it a chance of becoming a single . In an interview with Gary Graff of The Macomb Daily , she spoke of covering Bruna 's song and altering the lyrics , " It didn ’ t have a chorus when we started working on it . It had a shorter verse and it was a ballad , so I decided if I could make Klas [ Åhlund ] turn it into a more uptempo and bring the BPM up , it could work . So we started there and he kept writing the song while we were recording , and it came out great . " Robyn felt that she could be " seductive and sweet in a [ sic ] uncompromising way " on the song .
The song was announced as the first single from Body Talk Pt . 2 , on 19 July 2010 . The single artwork was posted on Robyn 's official website on the same date , and the song premiered online the following day . An acoustic version of the song was previously featured on the preceding album , Body Talk Pt . 1 . The single was released digitally in Sweden on 16 August 2010 , and one day later in the United States . A CD single was released in Germany on 3 September 2010 .
= = Composition = =
" Hang with Me " is an electropop song , written and produced by Klas Åhlund , and a reworked version of Paola Bruna 's song . Genevieve Koski of The A.V. Club noted the similar " anthemic , emotional beats " of " Cry When You Get Older " from Body Talk Pt . 1 . Tom Ewing of The Guardian compared its musical style to that of the Pet Shop Boys . Comparisons were also drawn towards her previous singles , " With Every Heartbeat " , " Be Mine ! " and " Dancing on My Own " . " Hang with Me " carries a " fierce , club @-@ wrecking beat " , with " relentlessly energetic bass " and synth arpeggios . According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Universal Music Publishing Group , " Hang with Me " is set in common time with a metronome of 115 beats per minute . It is composed in the key of D major and has the sequence of Bm – A ( add4 ) – D as its chord progression . Robyn 's vocals in the song span from the note of B3 to the note of B4 .
Lyrically , the song speaks of trust in a relationship . Fraser McAlpine of BBC Music called the song a " fairly straightforward early @-@ days relationship song about trust , from the perspective of someone who 's a bit too tightly buttoned @-@ up to let her defences down . " In the chorus , Robyn sings " Just don 't fall recklessly , headlessly in love with me . " According to Nick Levine of Digital Spy , Robyn " urges on this ode to friendship , mutual support and generally not being a fool who rushes in . " Tyler Grisham of Pitchfork noted that Robyn 's " vocals are echoed by a robotic self @-@ harmony " and that " she seems to be encouraging herself twice as hard to believe the song 's words . " Speaking of the song , Robyn said , " It ’ s a sweet song . Beautiful and bitter sweet , It ’ s about falling in love and being scared . "
= = Critical reception = =
Erika Berlin of Rolling Stone said that the song proves that Robyn " can crank out catchy jams as fast as pop 's biggest hitmakers . " Tyler Grisham of Pitchfork noted Robyn 's ability to synthesize " disparate moods and feelings in a single track . " He concluded by saying that " it would take lesser pop artists an entire album to explore the wide spectrum of emotions that she can express in less than four minutes . " Robert Ballantyne of music website Popjournalism described it as " both a peppy pop track and a ballad " , and called it Robyn 's best single yet , stating , " Producer and long @-@ time Robyn collaborator Klas Åhlund adds just the right amount of au courant electro @-@ pop into the mix , but not too much to doom the track to the dance @-@ club ghetto . " Nick Levine of Digital Spy gave the song four out of five stars , and wrote that " What began life as a subdued @-@ but @-@ beautiful strings ' n ' piano ballad is now a strident electropop tune that percolates as enviably as your next door neighbour 's brand new coffee maker . "
In her review for Daily Star , Sarah @-@ Louise James wrote that the " rousing pop gem could be the sequel to the tearduct @-@ tickling [ With ] Every Heartbeat . " Tom Ewing of The Guardian referred it to as the " perfect counterpoint " to " Dancing on My Own " , and praised it for " sound [ ing ] like the best Pet Shop Boys record in 15 years . " MTV News named the song the twenty @-@ first best of 2010 , with James Montgomery calling it a " rather fragile , heartbreaking exploration of those first tentative steps into ( or out of ) love " . Montgomery pointed out that " Robyn cautions us not to fall “ recklessly , headlessly ” in love with her , but when she makes songs as good as “ Hang With Me , ” it 's sort of difficult not to . "
= = Chart performance = =
" Hang with Me " debuted at number seven on the Sverigetopplistan chart , the issue dated 27 August 2010 , becoming Robyn 's eighth top ten hit on the chart . Eight weeks later , on the issue dated 22 October 2010 , it reached its peak of number two . In Denmark , the song debuted at number thirty @-@ nine on the issue dated 10 September 2010 . The following week , it rose to number eleven , which became its peak . In Norway , it debuted at number twenty and fell off the chart once , before reaching its peak of number seven . The song charted moderately in mainland Europe , reaching number fifty @-@ three on Billboard European Hot 100 Singles . On the UK Singles Chart , the song debuted and peaked at number fifty @-@ four . The song also reached number sixty @-@ eight in Germany , and number ten on the US Hot Dance Club Songs chart .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Hang with Me " was filmed over a two @-@ week period in June 2010 , in London . It was directed by Max Vitali , who previously worked with Robyn on the music video for " Dancing on My Own " ( 2010 ) . In an interview with MTV UK , Robyn explained the main concept behind the video , stating , " I wanted to see if it could be organic too , Like Twitter and my website . We decided to make something simple that gives the feeling of touring intensity . [ ... ] I wanted a video which connected back through the touring which I ’ m doing all year . " The video shows clips of Robyn 's everyday life , including the tour bus , hotel rooms and in @-@ store appearances , additionally Coco Sumner features briefly in the video. as well as concerts at Rough Trade Records and the nightclub Heaven .
The video premiered via Robyn 's official Vimeo account on 26 July 2010 . Jason Lipshutz of Billboard commented on the clip , " The video matches Robyn 's gorgeous pop vocals with a fast @-@ moving account of her life on the road , which includes riding roller coasters , prettying up for photo shoots and jamming out with her headphones on in a hotel room . It all culminates with a thrilling depiction of the singer 's live show at the end of the clip . " In what Kyle Anderson of MTV Newsroom considered the " clip 's key scene " , Robyn " sits at a nondescript restaurant and nibbles on an English breakfast while people look on curiously . " Ron Slomowicz of About.com said that the simple video proves that " Robyn videos are more like a “ gift with purchase ” than what really sells her music . "
= = Live performances = =
On 13 August 2010 , Robyn performed the acoustic version of the song on Iheartradio . On 18 December 2010 , she performed the song alongside " With Every Heartbeat " at the Swedish event Musikhjälpen . After the performance , her denim jacket was auctioned for charity . She also performed the song during the Body Talk Tour . She performed the acoustic version during a birthday party on the 1 November 2010 episode of Gossip Girl . The show 's producers asked if she could perform the song . She spoke of the appearance with Entertainment Weekly , saying , " [ I have ] no lines , but there 's a little bit of interaction with me and someone — it was more reacting , because we didn ’ t really act too much . "
= = Formats and track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Klas Åhlund – songwriting , production , instruments and programming
Niklas Flyckt – mixing
Tom Coyne – mastering
Source
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= Melbourne Airport =
Melbourne Airport ( IATA : MEL , ICAO : YMML ) , also known as Tullamarine Airport , is the primary airport serving the city of Melbourne , and the second busiest airport in Australia . It was opened in 1970 to replace the nearby Essendon Airport . Melbourne Airport is the sole international airport of the four airports serving the Melbourne metropolitan area .
The airport is 23 km ( 14 mi ) from the city centre . The airport has its own postcode — Melbourne Airport , Victoria ( postcode 3045 ) . This is adjacent to the suburb of Tullamarine .
The Melbourne – Sydney air route is the third most @-@ travelled passenger air route in the world . The airport features direct flights to 33 domestic destinations of Australia in addition to destinations in the Pacific , London , Asia and North America . Melbourne Airport is the number one arrival / departure point for the airports of four of Australia 's seven other capital cities.N1 Melbourne serves as a major hub for Qantas and Virgin Australia , while Jetstar Airways and Tiger Airways Australia utilise the airport as home base . There is no rail link from the airport to the city centre , a regular coach service provides public transport to and from the city . Melbourne is the busiest airport for international export freight as of August 2011 , while second busiest for import freight . Domestically , Melbourne serves as headquarters for Australian air Express and Toll Priority and handles more domestic freight than any other airport in the nation .
In 2003 , Melbourne received the International Air Transport Association Eagle Award for service and two National Tourism Awards for tourism services . The airport comprises four terminals : one international terminal , two domestic terminals and one budget domestic terminal . Most recently Melbourne Airport was awarded by Skytrax for having the best Airport hotel in the Australia / Pacific in the World Airport Awards . Melbourne Airport was also ranked the 43rd best airport for 2012 . Melbourne reached 30 million passengers for the first time in the 12 months ending July 2013 . This increased to 33 @.@ 1 million passengers per annum by July 2015 .
= = History = =
= = = Establishment = = =
Before the opening of Melbourne Airport , Melbourne 's main airport was Essendon Airport which was officially designated an international airport in 1950 . In the mid @-@ 1950s , over 10 @,@ 000 passengers were using Essendon Airport and the limitations of Essendon Airport were beginning to become apparent . Essendon Airport 's facilities were insufficient to meet the increasing demand for air travel ; the runways were too short to handle the then new jet airliners and the terminals failed to handle the increase in passengers , by the mid @-@ 1950s , an international overflow terminal was built in a new northern hangar . Due to the encroachment of the urban boundary , the airport had become surrounded by residential housing , meaning that expansion of Essendon Airport was not possible .
The search for a replacement for Essendon commenced in February 1958 , when a panel was appointed to assess Melbourne 's civil aviation needs .
In 1959 the Commonwealth Government acquired 5 @,@ 300 ha ( 13 @,@ 000 acres ) of grassland in then @-@ rural Tullamarine .
In May 1959 it was announced that a new airport would be built at Tullamarine , with Prime Minister Robert Menzies announcing on 27 November 1962 a five @-@ year plan to provide Melbourne with a A $ 45 million " jetport " by 1967 . The first sod at Tullamarine was turned two years later in November 1964 . In line with the five @-@ year plan , the runways at Essendon were expanded to handle larger aircraft , with Ansett Australia launching the Boeing 727 there in October 1964 , the first jet aircraft used for domestic air travel in Australia .
On 1 July 1970 , Melbourne Airport was opened to international operations by Prime Minister John Gorton , ending Essendon 's near 2 @-@ decade run as Melbourne 's international airport . Essendon still was home to domestic flights for one year , until they were transferred to Melbourne Airport on 26 June 1971 , with the first arrival of a Boeing 747 occurring later that year . In the first year of operations , Melbourne handled six international airlines and 155 @,@ 275 international passengers .
Melbourne Airport was originally called ' Melbourne International Airport ' . It is at Tullamarine , a name derived from the indigenous name Tullamareena . Locally , the airport is commonly referred to as Tullamarine or simply as Tulla to distinguish the airport from the other three Melbourne airports : Avalon , Essendon and Moorabbin .
On opening , Melbourne Airport consisted of three connected terminals : International in the centre , with Ansett to the South and Trans Australia Airlines to the North . The design capacity of the airport was eight Boeing 707s at a rate of 500 passengers per hour , with minor expansion works completed in 1973 allowing Boeing 747s to serve the airport . By the late 1980s peak passenger flows at the airport had reached 900 per hour , causing major congestion .
In late 1989 , Federal Airports Corporation Inspector A. Rohead was put in charge of a bicentennial project to rename streets in Melbourne Airport to honour the original inhabitants , European pioneers and aviation history . Information on the first two categories was provided by Ian Hunter , Wurundjeri researcher , and Ray Gibb , local historian . The project was completed but was shelved , with the only suggested name , Gowrie Park Drive , being allocated , named after the farm at the heart of the airport . During the 1920s , the farm had been used as a landing site for aircraft , which were parked at night during World War II in case Essendon Aerodrome was bombed .
= = = Expansion and privatisation = = =
In 1988 , the Australian Government formed the Federal Airports Corporation ( FAC ) , placing Melbourne Airport under the operational control of the new corporation along with 21 other airports around the nation . In April 1994 , the Australian Government announced that all airports operated by Federal Airports Corporation would be privatised in several phases . Melbourne Airport was included in the first phase , being acquired by the newly formed Australia Pacific Airports Corporation Limited for $ 1 @.@ 3 billion . The transfer was completed on 30 June 1997 on a 50 @-@ year long @-@ term lease , with the option for a further 49 years . Melbourne Airport is categorised as a Leased Commonwealth Airport .
In July 1997 , the Melbourne Airport website was launched , providing Australia 's first real @-@ time flight operations data over the internet .
The first major upgrades at the airport were carried out at the domestic terminals , with an expansion of the Ansett domestic terminal approved in 1989 and completed in 1991 , adding a second pier for use by smaller regional airlines . Work on an upgrade of the international terminal commenced in 1991 , with the ' SkyPlaza ' retail complex completed in late 1993 on a site flanking the main international departure gates . The rest of the work was completed in 1995 , when the new three @-@ level satellite concourse was opened at the end of the existing concourse . Diamond shaped and measuring 80 m ( 260 ft ) on each side , the additional 10 aerobridges provided by the expansion doubled the international passenger handing capacity at Melbourne Airport .
Since privatisation , further improvements to infrastructure have begun at the airport , including expansion of runways , car parks and terminals . The multi @-@ storey carpark outside the terminal was completed between 1995 and August 1997 at a cost of $ 49 million , providing 3 @,@ 100 parking spaces , the majority undercover . This initially four @-@ level structure replaced the previous open air carpark outside the terminal . Work commenced on the six @-@ story 276 @-@ room Hilton Hotel ( now Park Royal ) above the carpark in January 1999 , which was completed in mid @-@ 2000 at a cost of $ 55 million . Expansion of the Qantas domestic terminal was completed in 1999 , featuring a second pier and 9 additional aircraft stands .
In December 2000 , a fourth passenger terminal was opened : the Domestic Express Terminal , located to the south of the main terminal building at a cost of $ 9 million . It was the first additional passenger terminal facility to be built at Melbourne Airport since 1971 .
Expansion of carparks has also continued with a $ 40 million project commenced in 2004 , doubling the size of the short term carpark with the addition of 2 @,@ 500 spaces over six levels , along with 1 @,@ 200 new spaces added to the 5 @,@ 000 already available in the long term carpark . Revenue from retail operations at Melbourne Airport broke the $ 100 million mark for the first time in 2004 , this being a 100 per cent increase in revenue since the first year of privatisation .
Widening of the main north – south runway by 15 m ( 49 ft ) was completed over a 29 @-@ day period in May 2005 , enabling the operation of the Airbus A380 . The works were followed in March 2006 by a 5 @,@ 000 m2 ( 54 @,@ 000 sq ft ) expansion of Terminal 2 , and the construction of an additional level of airline lounges above the terminal . In 2008 a further 25 @,@ 000 m2 ( 270 @,@ 000 sq ft ) expansion of Terminal 2 commenced , costing $ 330 million with completion in 2011 . The works added 5 additional aerobridges on a new passenger concourse , and a new 5 @,@ 000 m2 ( 54 @,@ 000 sq ft ) outbound passenger security and customs processing zone .
= = Terminals = =
Melbourne Airport 's terminals have 56 gates : 40 domestic and 16 international . There are five dedicated freighter parking positions on the Southern Freighter Apron . The current terminal numbering system was introduced in July 2005 ; they were previously known as Qantas Domestic , International , and South ( formerly Ansett Domestic ) .
= = = Terminal 1 = = =
Terminal 1 hosts domestic and regional services for Qantas Group airlines , Qantas and QantasLink ( which is located to the northern end of the building ) . Departures are located on the first floor , while arrivals are located on the ground floor . The terminal has 16 parking bays served by aerobridges ; 12 are served by single aerobridges whilst four are served by double aerobridges . There are another five non @-@ aerobridge gates , which are used by QantasLink .
Opened with Melbourne Airport in 1970 for Trans Australia Airlines , the terminal passed to Qantas in 1992 when they acquired the airline . Work on improving the original terminal commenced in October 1997 and was completed in late 1999 at a cost of $ 50 million , featuring a second pier , stands for 9 additional aircraft , an extended access roadway and the expansion of the terminal .
Today , a wide range of shops and food outlets are situated at the end of the terminal near the entrance into Terminal 2 . Qantas has a Qantas Club , Business Class and a chairman 's lounge in the terminal .
= = = Terminal 2 = = =
Terminal 2 handles all international , and limited domestic , flights out of Melbourne Airport , and was opened in 1970 . The terminal has 20 gates with aerobridges . Cathay Pacific , Malaysia Airlines , Qantas ( which includes two lounges in Terminal 2 , a First lounge and a Business lounge / Qantas Club ) , Singapore Airlines , Air New Zealand , United Airlines and Emirates Airline all operate airline lounges in the terminal .
The international terminal contains works by noted Australian Indigenous artists including Daisy Jugadai Napaltjarri and Gloria Petyarre .
A $ 330 million expansion programme for Terminal 2 was announced in 2007 and was completed in 2012 . The objectives of this project include new lounges and retail facilities , a new satellite terminal , increased luggage capacity and a redesign of customs and security areas . A new satellite terminal features floor @-@ to @-@ ceiling windows offers views of the North @-@ South runway . The new concourse includes three double @-@ decker aerobridges which are gates 16 , 18 and 20 , each accommodating an A380 aircraft or two smaller aircraft and one single aerobridge . The baggage handling capacity will be increased , and two new baggage carousels will cater to increased A380 traffic . Work commenced in November 2007 and will be completed in 2011 but was opened in 2012 .
Although described as a satellite terminal , the terminal building is connected by an above @-@ ground corridor to Terminal 2 . Departures take place on the lower deck ( similar to the A380 boarding lounges currently in use at Gates 9 and 11 ) , with arrivals streamed on to the first floor to connect with the current first floor arrivals deck . All gates including 18 and 20 are now handling passengers .
= = = Terminal 3 = = =
Terminal 3 – opened with the airport as the Ansett Australia terminal , but is now owned by Melbourne Airport . Terminal 3 is home to Virgin Australia and Virgin Australia Regional Airlines . It currently has eleven parking bays served by single aerobridges and eight parking bays not equipped with aerobridges .
An expansion of the terminal was approved in 1989 and completed in 1991 when a second pier was added by Ansett to the south for use by smaller regional airline Kendell . The terminal was used exclusively by the Ansett Group for all its domestic activities until its collapse in 2001 . It was intended to be used by the " New " Ansett , under ownership of Tesna – however , following the Tesna group 's withdrawal of the purchase of Ansett in 2002 , the terminal was sold back to Melbourne Airport by Ansett 's administrators . As a result , Melbourne Airport undertook a major renovation and facelift of the terminal , following which Virgin Australia ( then Virgin Blue ) moved in from what was then called Domestic Express ( now Terminal 4 ) , and has since began operating The Lounge in the terminal , using the former Ansett Australia Golden Wing Lounge area . Regional Express also operates an airline lounge in the terminal .
= = = Terminal 4 = = =
Terminal 4 – originally called the Domestic Express or South Terminal – is dedicated to budget airlines and is the first facility of its kind at a conventional airport in Australia . It was originally constructed for Virgin Blue ( Virgin Australia ) and Impulse Airlines . Virgin Blue eventually moved into Terminal 3 following the demise of Ansett . A $ 5 million refit began in June 2007 along the lines of the budget terminal model at Singapore Changi Airport and Kuala Lumpur International Airport . Lower landing and airport handling fees are charged to airlines due to the basic facilities , lack of jet bridges , and fewer amenities and retail outlets compared to a conventional terminal . However , the terminal is located next to the main terminal building , unlike in Singapore and Kuala Lumpur . The terminal was rebuilt by Tiger Airways Australia , which has used it as its main hub since it operated its first domestic flight on 23 November 2007 .
Jetstar Airways confirmed its involvement in discussions with Melbourne Airport regarding the expansion of terminal facilities to accommodate for the growth of domestic low @-@ cost services . The expansion of Terminal 4 includes infrastructure to accommodate Tiger Airways Australia and Jetstar Airways flights . The development cost hundreds of millions of dollars . In March 2012 it was announced that in October the same year T4 is to break ground , an expected completion of July 2014 was released , but was pushed back to late August 2015 and opened on 18 August 2015 . The new T4 terminal is 35 @,@ 000 m2 ( 380 @,@ 000 sq ft ) and linked " under one roof " with T3 . Terminal 4 is currently used by Tigerair Australia , Regional Express Airlines , Jetstar and Airnorth .
= = = Southern Freighter Apron = = =
The Southern Freighter Apron has five dedicated freighter parking positions which host 21 dedicated freighter operations a week . In August 1997 , the fifth freighter parking position and the apron was extended .
= = = Other facilities = = =
Melbourne Airport is served by four hotels . A Parkroyal Hotel is located 100 m ( 330 ft ) from Terminal 2 atop the multi @-@ level carpark . Work commenced on the six @-@ story 280 @-@ room hotel in January 1999 , which was completed in mid @-@ 2000 . The hotel was originally a Hilton but was relaunched as the Parkroyal on 4 April 2011 . Holiday Inn has an outlet located 400 m ( 1 @,@ 300 ft ) from the terminal precinct . Ibis Budget offers lodgings located 600 m ( 2 @,@ 000 ft ) from the terminals . Mantra Tullamarine opened in 2009 , 2 km ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) from the terminal precinct .
= = Operations = =
= = = Overview = = =
Melbourne is the second busiest airport in Australia . The airport is curfew @-@ free and operates 24 hours a day , although between 2 am and 4 am , freight aircraft are more prevalent than passenger flights . In 2004 , the environmental management systems were accredited ISO 14001 , the world 's best practice standard , making it the first airport in Australia to receive such accreditation .
= = = Airbus A380 = = =
Construction works were undertaken to prepare the airport for the arrival of the double @-@ decker Airbus A380 . The A380 has been purchased by several airlines using the airport , namely Malaysia Airlines , Qantas , Qatar Airways , Thai Airways , China Southern Airlines , Singapore Airlines , Etihad Airways and Emirates . The improvements included the construction of dual airbridges ( Gates 9 and 11 ) with the ability to board both decks simultaneously to reduce turnaround times , the widening of the North @-@ South runway and remote stands and taxiways by 15 m ( 49 ft ) , the extension of the international terminal building by 20 m ( 66 ft ) to include new penthouse airline lounges , and the construction of an additional baggage carousel in the arrivals hall . As a result , the airport was the first in Australia to be capable of handling the A380 . The A380 made its first test flight into the airport on 14 November 2005 . On 15 May 2008 the A380 made its first passenger flight into the airport when a Singapore Airlines Sydney @-@ bound flight was diverted from Sydney Airport because of fog .
Beginning services in October 2008 , Qantas was the first airline to operate the A380 from the airport , flying nonstop to Los Angeles International Airport twice a week . This was the inaugural route for the Qantas A380 .
= = = Runways = = =
Melbourne Airport has two intersecting runways : one 3 @,@ 657 m ( 11 @,@ 998 ft ) north – south and one 2 @,@ 286 m ( 7 @,@ 500 ft ) east – west . Due to increasing traffic , several runway expansions are planned , including an 843 m ( 2 @,@ 766 ft ) extension of the north @-@ south runway to lengthen it to 4 @,@ 500 m ( 14 @,@ 764 ft ) , and a 1 @,@ 214 m ( 3 @,@ 983 ft ) extension of the east – west runway to a total of 3 @,@ 500 m ( 11 @,@ 483 ft ) . Two new runways are also planned : a 3 @,@ 000 m ( 9 @,@ 843 ft ) runway parallel to the current north – south runway and a 3 @,@ 000 m ( 9 @,@ 843 ft ) runway south of the current east – west runway . The 3rd runway is expected to cost $ 500 million and will be open by 2020 . Traffic movement is expected to reach 248 @,@ 000 per annum by 2017 , necessitating a third runway .
On 5 June 2008 , it was announced that the airport would install a Category III landing system , allowing planes to land in low visibility conditions , such as fog . This system will be the first of its kind in Australia , and was commissioned March 2010 at a cost of $ 10 million .
= = = Melbourne Centre = = =
In addition to the onsite control tower , the airport is home to Melbourne Centre , an air traffic control facility that is responsible for the separation of aircraft in Australia 's busiest flight information region , Melbourne FIR . Melbourne FIR monitors airspace over Victoria , Tasmania , southern New South Wales , most of South Australia , the southern half of Western Australia and airspace over the Indian and Southern Ocean . In total , the centre controls 6 % of the world 's airspace . The airport is also the home of the Canberra approach and Melbourne approach facilities , which provide control services to aircraft arriving and departing at those airports .
= = Airlines and destinations = =
= = = Passenger = = =
= = = Cargo = = =
The following airlines operate cargo @-@ only services from Melbourne Airport 's Southern Freighter Apron :
= = Traffic and statistics = =
Melbourne Airport recorded more than 29 @.@ 9 million passengers in 2012 – 13 . 6 @.@ 2 million of those were international , with the remaining 21 @.@ 7 million being domestic . There were 206 @,@ 798 aircraftmovements , the vast majority being domestic passenger services . In the long term , the compounded average annual growth rate ( CAAGR ) for passengermovements is between 3 @.@ 3 % and 4 @.@ 3 % . For aircraftmovements , the CAAGR is between 1 @.@ 8 % and 2 @.@ 6 % . This firmly entrenches Melbourne as Australia 's second busiest airport , ahead of Brisbane
The following table lists passenger statistics for Melbourne Airport .
= = Ground transport = =
= = = Car = = =
Melbourne Airport is 23 km ( 14 mi ) from the city centre and is accessible via the Tullamarine Freeway . One freeway offramp runs directly into the airport grounds , and a second to the south serves freight transport , taxis , buses and airport staff . In June , 2015 , the Airport Drive extension was completed , creating a second major link to the airport . The link starts at the M80 Western Ring Road and provides direct access to Melrose Drive 1 @.@ 5 kilometres from the terminal area . Melbourne Airport has five car parks , all of which operate 24 hours a day , 7 days a week . The short @-@ term , multi @-@ level long @-@ term , business and express carparks are covered , while the long @-@ term parking is not . The main multi @-@ level carpark in front of the terminal was built in the late 1990s , replacing the pre @-@ existing ground @-@ level car parking . It has been progressively expanded ever since .
= = = Public transport = = =
The Skybus Super Shuttle bus service is the main public transport link to the airport , taking approximately 20 minutes to reach Southern Cross Station in the Melbourne central business district . From Southern Cross , travellers can access V / Line regional and Metro Trains Melbourne suburban trains , Yarra Trams and interstate train and bus services .
There are local bus services to Melbourne Airport . The route 901 SmartBus service was introduced in September 2010 , as a frequent local bus service .
There are nine other bus companies serving the airport , with services to Ballarat , Bendigo , Dandenong , Frankston , Mornington Peninsula , Geelong , Melbourne 's suburbs , Shepparton and the Riverina . These provide alternatives to transfer onto V / Line services .
= = = = Proposed Melbourne Airport Rail Link = = = =
There is no railway connection between the airport and the city . The possibility of installing a rail link from what was known as the Broadmeadows ( now the Craigieburn Suburban Line ) to the airport was debated in the 1960s , but little progress was made .
In 2001 , the state government investigated the construction of a heavy rail link to the airport under the Linking Victoria programme . Two options were considered ; the first branched off the Craigieburn Suburban Line to the east , and the second branched off the Albion Goods Line , which passes close to the airport 's boundary to the south . The second option was preferred . Market research concluded most passengers preferred travelling to the airport by taxi or car , and poor patronage of similar links in Sydney and Brisbane cast doubt on the viability of the project . This led to the project being deferred until at least 2012 . On 21 July 2008 , the Premier of Victoria reaffirmed the government 's commitment to a rail link and said that it would be considered within three to five years . To maximise future development options , the airport is lobbying for the on @-@ grounds section of the railway to be underground .
In 2010 , Martin Pakula of the Labor Party , newly appointed State Minister for Public Transport announced that the rail link had been taken off the agenda with new freeway options being explored instead , however a change of government at the 2010 Victorian State Election to Liberals , saw policy for the introduction of the rail link return to the agenda , with a promise by the incoming Coalition government to undertake planning for its construction .
Proposals in January 2013 to improve the bus service to the airport involving turning emergency lanes into bus lanes on the freeway and the Bolte Bridge and putting SkyBus on a myki fare , were challenged by CityLink operator Transurban , because it would limit its toll revenue , and by Melbourne Airport , because it would reduce its car parking profits . Similar objections would apply to a rail link .
On 13 March 2013 , the Victorian Liberal government under the newly installed Premier , Denis Napthine , announced that the Melbourne Airport Rail Link ( MARL ) would be constructed sometime in the future running from the CBD via Sunshine station and the Albion – Jacana railway line .
= = Accidents and incidents = =
On 29 May 2003 , Qantas Flight 1737 from Melbourne to Launceston Airport was hijacked shortly after takeoff . The hijacker , a passenger named David Robinson , intended to fly the aircraft into the Walls of Jerusalem National Park , located in central Tasmania . The flight attendants and passengers successfully subdued and restrained the hijacker , and the aircraft returned to Melbourne .
On 20 March 2009 , Emirates Airline Flight 407 , an Airbus A340 @-@ 500 , was taking off from Melbourne Airport on Runway 16 for a flight to Dubai International Airport and failed to become airborne in the normal distance . When the aircraft was nearing the end of the runway , the crew commanded nose @-@ up sharply , causing its tail to scrape along the runway as it became airborne , during which smoke was observed in the cabin . The crew dumped fuel and returned to the airport . The damage caused to the aircraft was considered substantial . The aircraft damaged a strobe light at the end of the runway as well as an antenna on the localiser , which led to the ILS being out of service for some time causing some disruptions to the airport 's operation .
= = Awards and accolades = =
Melbourne Airport has received numerous awards . The International Air Transport Association ranked Melbourne among the top five airports in the world in 1997 and 1998 and , in 2003 , presented it with the Eagle Award . The Australian Airport Association named it the Airport of the Year in 1999 , while Business Traveller Magazine and Airports Council International have ranked Melbourne in the top ten every year from 1996 to 2000 and in the top five for airports that handle between 15 and 25 million passengers .
The airport has received recognition in other areas . It has won national and state tourism awards , and Singapore Airlines presented the airport with the Service Partner Award and Premier Business Partner Award in 2002 and 2004 , respectively . In 2006 , the airport won the Australian Construction Achievement Award for the runway widening project , dubbed " the most outstanding example of construction excellence for 2006 " . Most recently Melbourne Airport was awarded by Skytrax for having the best Airport hotel in the Australia / Pacific in the WORLD AIRPORT AWARDS . Melbourne Airport was also ranked the 43rd best airport for 2012 .
= Blair Swannell =
Major Blair Inskip Swannell ( 20 August 1875 – 25 April 1915 ) was an English @-@ born international rugby union forward who played club rugby for Northampton , and internationally for the British Isles and later Australia . He was invited to tour with the British Isles on their 1899 tour of Australia and then their 1904 tour of Australia and New Zealand . He played a total of seven Test matches on these tours , and scored one Test try – against Australia during the 1904 tour . After settling in Australia , Swannell played a single game for his new home when they faced New Zealand . He was viewed as a violent player , and this made his unpopular with other players . Former Australian captain Herbert Moran said of him that " ... his conception of rugby was one of trained violence " .
During the Second Boer War , Swannell served in the British Army in South Africa , rising to the rank of lieutenant . During the First World War he joined the Australian Imperial Force and was appointed with the rank of major , serving with the 1st Battalion . He was killed on 25 April 1915 while taking part in the Landing at Anzac Cove , during the first day of the Gallipoli Campaign .
= = Personal history = =
Swannell was born in Weston Underwood , Buckinghamshire on 20 August 1875 to William and Charlotte Swannell , and was the third child of at least five siblings . His father was a farmer , who ran a 423 @-@ acre ( 1 @.@ 71 km2 ) farm which employed 17 adults and children . He was home schooled as an infant before beginning his formal education at Repton School . After leaving school he attended the Thames Nautical Training College where he gained qualifications as a second mate . He remained single throughout his life .
In 1897 he made his first visit to Australia , as a mate on a schooner . On his return to Britain , Swannell joined the British Army and served in South Africa during the Second Boer War , where he was commissioned as a lieutenant in the 35th Battalion ( Buckinghamshire ) Imperial Yeomanry on 20 January 1902 . He retained the rank of honorary lieutenant when he resigned his commission on 3 February 1903 . It was reported that during his time in South Africa , he was personally recommended on the field for a commission by General Lord Methuen .
Swannell was a keen self @-@ promoter , claiming a number of exploits that were so abounding , that his adventures were " too numerous to be recorded " . These claims included : fighting among the insurrectionists in Uruguay , to have hunted seal down the South American coast and around Cape Horn as well as Labrador , and to have played rugby in France , Germany , South Africa , India and North and South America . Many of these claims are unsubstantiated . One claim that is problematic , was made by the Fielding Star newspaper in 1909 , that he took part in the Cape Frontier war . This cannot be a reference to the Xhosa Wars as the last of that series of wars ended in 1879 , when he was merely the age of four . An article from 1925 , claimed he represented Wales and Argentina .
After touring Australia with the British Isles team for the second time in 1904 , he settled in Sydney . A keen all @-@ round sportsman he coached not only rugby but also hockey , was vice @-@ president of the Sydney Swimming Club , and training senior military cadets for surf life @-@ saving examinations . He also joined the Australian Militia , and by 1914 had reached the rank of captain and had passed the promotion exams for the rank of major .
= = Rugby career = =
Swannell played as a forward , and in his last Test specifically at number eight . He was an unconventional and hard rugby player , known for his violent play . He would turn up for training in unwashed kit , and wore the same pair of breeches for every game , again unwashed . His poor personal hygiene and overly violent playing style , made him an unpopular character in the eyes of other players .
Swannell first came to note as a rugby player when he represented English club team Northampton . It was while with Northampton that Swannell was invited to tour with Matthew Mullineux 's British Isles team , on their 1899 tour of Australia . Swanell played in 17 matches of the tour including three of the four Tests against the Australian national team , missing only the opening defeat . Swannell scored in only one game on the tour , a try in a win over the New South Wales Waratahs on 29 July 1899 .
Swannell returned to Britain with the touring team , and was reselected for the 1904 tour , this time taking in Australia and New Zealand . Swannell played in 15 games , including all four Test Matches , three against Australia and the final Test against New Zealand . In the third Test , Swannell scored his first and only international points , a try against Australia in Sydney . The British Isles were victorious over the Australians , but lost the New Zealand match , this was the first international game that Swannell had been on the losing side . In the New Zealand clash , Swannell 's violent playing style , was targeted by countering with equally rough play . He left the field at the end of the match with two black eyes , and bleeding , but with his spirit undaunted .
When the touring British team returned home after the 1904 campaign , Swannell along with team @-@ mates David Bedell @-@ Sivright , and Dr. Sidney Crowther decided to remain in Australia , to begin new lives , although Crowther later returned to England . Swannell joined club team Northern Suburbs , based in Sydney . In 1905 he was selected to play for the Australian national team , even though he had already faced them as an opponent on six occasions . The match was against New Zealand , and was the first overseas tour the Australians had undertaken ; Australia lost 14 – 3 . Wallaby captain Herbert Moran didn 't mince words when speaking of Swannell in Viewless Winds saying " Swannell was , for a number of years , a bad influence in Sydney football ... his conception of rugby was one of trained violence "
With his playing career behind him , Swannell continued his involvement with the sport by coaching at youth and school level , namely at St Joseph 's College where he coached the team to a number of championships . He was an advocate for team training and in particular for forwards to rehearse scrummaging and break @-@ down techniques . He argued that the forwards won or lost the game . In 1909 , he became Secretary of the Metropolitan Rugby Union , and in 1910 the club raised his salary from £ 200 to £ 250 . Financial stress on the club lead him to resign in 1911 to save expense , but he continued in an ' honorary position ' . He also served as a referee from 1911 to 1914 , earning praise for his ability to control the game .
While in Australia , Swannell was often approached by the sporting press for his opinion on rugby matters . Particularly on clashes between British and Antipodean teams , including the 1905 New Zealand tour . He was vocal in his support for maintaining the amateur nature of rugby , but did not side with Bedell @-@ Sivright in denying that a stipend had been paid during the 1904 tour . In 1908 he was also hired to write a series of articles for the Star on the topic of forward play , and scrummaging .
= = Gallipoli and death = =
With the outbreak of the First World War , Swannell enlisted in the Australian Imperial Force , was appointed to the rank of major and posted to Egypt , travelling on the SS Afric . In April 1915 , Swannell was part of the Australian forces sent to partake in the Gallipoli Campaign ; an attempt to capture the Ottoman city of Istanbul . Swannell and his men from D Company of the 1st Battalion , transported on the troopship SS Minewasska , landed at the peninsula on 25 April , and were immediately involved in heavy fighting after being diverted to reinforce the 12th Battalion . In the buildup to the assault on the hill known as Baby 700 , Swannell and his men were pinned down under heavy enemy fire , and while attempting to show his men the best method of aiming their rifles , he was shot in the head and killed . He is commemorated at Baby 700 Cemetery in Gallipoli , and also with a plaque on the walls at Weston @-@ Underwood church in Buckinghamshire .
In April 2015 for the centenary of the Gallipoli landings , fellow Northampton Saints and England rugby international Ben Foden , was featured narrating tributes to Swannell on both BBC TV regional news and Radio Northampton . Foden penned and read the following message at the grave of Blair Swannell in Turkey :
From the turf of Franklin 's Gardens where you stood ,
To the shores of Gallipoli where you fell ,
A truer Saintsman I know not ,
Forever bleeding green , black and gold .
Rest in peace
= The Piper at the Gates of Dawn =
The Piper at the Gates of Dawn is the debut studio album by the English rock band Pink Floyd , and the only one made under founder member Syd Barrett 's leadership . The album , named after the title of chapter seven of Kenneth Grahame 's The Wind in the Willows and featuring a kaleidoscopic cover photo of the band taken by Vic Singh , was recorded from February to May 1967 and released on 5 August 1967 . It was produced by Beatles engineer Norman Smith and released in 1967 by EMI Columbia in the United Kingdom and Tower in the United States , in August and October respectively .
The release of the album in the US was timed with the band 's tour of the US . In the UK , no singles were released from the album , but in the US " Flaming " was offered as a single . The US version of the album has a rearranged track list , and contains the UK non @-@ album single , " See Emily Play " . Two of the album 's songs , " Astronomy Domine " and " Interstellar Overdrive " , became long @-@ term mainstays of the band 's live setlist , while other songs were performed live only a handful of times .
Since its release , the album has been hailed as one of the best ever psychedelic rock albums . In 1973 , it was packaged with the band 's second album , A Saucerful of Secrets , and released as A Nice Pair to introduce new fans to the band 's early work after the success of The Dark Side of the Moon . Special limited editions of The Piper at the Gates of Dawn were issued to mark its thirtieth and fortieth anniversaries in 1997 and 2007 , respectively , with the latter release containing bonus tracks . In 2012 , The Piper at the Gates of Dawn was voted 347th on Rolling Stone magazine 's list of the " 500 Greatest Albums of All Time " .
= = Background = =
Architecture students Roger Waters , Nick Mason and Richard Wright and art student Syd Barrett had performed under various group names since 1962 , and began touring as " The Pink Floyd Sound " in 1965 . They turned professional on 1 February 1967 when they signed with EMI , with an advance fee of £ 5 @,@ 000 . Their first single , a song about a kleptomaniac transvestite titled " Arnold Layne " , was released on 11 March to mild controversy , as Radio London refused to air it . About three weeks later the band were introduced to the mainstream media . EMI 's press release claimed that the band were " musical spokesmen for a new movement which involves experimentation in all the arts " , but EMI attempted to put some distance between them and the underground scene from which the band originated by stating that " the Pink Floyd does not know what people mean by psychedelic pop and are not trying to create hallucinatory effects on their audiences . " The band returned to Sound Techniques studio to record their next single , " See Emily Play " , on 18 May . The single was released almost a month later , on 16 June , and reached number six in the charts . Pink Floyd picked up a tabloid reputation for making music for LSD users . The popular broadsheet News of the World printed a story nine days before the album 's recording sessions began , saying that " The Pink Floyd group specialise in ' psychedelic music ' , which is designed to illustrate LSD experiences . " Contrary to this image , only Barrett was known to be taking LSD ; authors Ray B. Browne and Pat Browne contend that he was the " only real drug user in the band " .
= = Recording = =
The band 's record deal was relatively poor for the time : a £ 5 @,@ 000 advance over five years , low royalties and no free studio time . However , it did include album development and EMI , unsure of exactly what kind of band they had signed , gave them free rein to record whatever they wanted . They were obliged to record their first album at EMI 's Abbey Road Studios in London , overseen by producer Norman Smith , a central figure in Pink Floyd 's negotiations with EMI . Balance engineer Pete Bown , who had mentored Smith , helped ensure that the album had a unique sound , through his experimentation with equipment and recording techniques . Bown , assisted by studio manager David Harris , set up microphones an hour before the sessions began . Bown 's microphone choices were mostly different from those used by Smith to record the Beatles ' EMI sessions . Because of Barrett 's quiet voice , he was placed in a vocal isolation booth to sing his parts . Automatic double tracking ( ADT ) was used to add layers of echo to the vocals and to some instruments . The album featured an unusually heavy use of echo and reverberation to give it its own unique sound . Much of the reverberation effect came from a set of Elektro @-@ Mess @-@ Technik plate reverberators – customised EMT 140s containing thin metal plates under tension – and the studio 's tiled echo chamber built in 1931 .
The album is made up of two different classes of songs : lengthy improvisations from the band 's live performances and shorter songs that Barrett had written . Barrett 's LSD intake escalated part @-@ way through the album 's recording sessions . Although in his 2005 autobiography Mason recalled the sessions as relatively trouble @-@ free , Smith disagreed and claimed that Barrett was unresponsive to his suggestions and constructive criticism . In an attempt to build a relationship with the band , Smith played jazz on the piano while the band joined in . These jam sessions worked well with Waters , who was apparently helpful , and Wright , who was " laid @-@ back " . Smith 's attempts to connect with Barrett were less productive : " With Syd , I eventually realised I was wasting my time . " Smith later admitted that his traditional ideas of music were somewhat at odds with the psychedelic background from which Pink Floyd had come . Nevertheless , he managed to " discourage the live ramble " , as band manager Peter Jenner called it , guiding the band toward producing songs with a more manageable length . Barrett would end up writing eight of the album 's songs and contributing to two instrumentals credited to the whole band , with Waters creating the sole remaining composition " Take Up Thy Stethoscope and Walk " . Mason recalled how the album " was recorded in what one might call the old @-@ fashioned way : rather quickly . As time went by we started spending longer and longer . "
Recording started on 21 February with six takes of " Matilda Mother " , then called " Matilda 's Mother " . The following week , on the 27th , the band recorded five takes of " Interstellar Overdrive " , and " Chapter 24 " . On 16 March , the band had another go at recording " Interstellar Overdrive " , in an attempt to create a shorter version , and " Flaming " ( originally titled " Snowing " ) , which was recorded in a single take with one vocal overdub . On 19 March , six takes of " The Gnome " were recorded . The following day , the band recorded Waters ' " Take Up Thy Stethoscope and Walk " . On 21 March , the band were invited to watch the Beatles record " Lovely Rita " . The following day , they recorded " The Scarecrow " in one take . The next three tracks - " Astronomy Domine " , " Interstellar Overdrive " and " Pow R. Toc H. " – were worked on extensively between 21 March and 12 April , having originally been lengthy instrumentals . Between 12 and 18 April , the band recorded " Percy the Rat Catcher " and a currently unreleased track called " She Was a Millionaire " .
" Percy the Rat Catcher " received overdubs across five studio sessions and then was mixed in late June , eventually being given the name " Lucifer Sam " . Songwriting for the majority of the album is credited solely to Barrett , with tracks such as " Bike " having been written in late 1966 before the album was started . " Bike " was recorded on 21 May 1967 and originally entitled " The Bike Song " . By June , Barrett 's increasing LSD use during the recording project left him looking visibly debilitated .
= = Release = =
In June 1967 before the album was released , the single " See Emily Play " was sold as a 7 @-@ inch 45 rpm record , with " The Scarecrow " on the B @-@ side , listed as " Scarecrow " . The full album was released on 5 August 1967 , including " The Scarecrow " . The album contains whimsical lyrics about space , scarecrows , gnomes , bicycles and fairy tales , along with psychedelic instrumental music . Pink Floyd continued to perform at the UFO Club , drawing huge crowds , but Barrett 's deterioration caused them serious concern . The band initially hoped that his erratic behaviour was a phase that would pass , but others , including manager Peter Jenner and his secretary June Child , were more realistic :
... I found him in the dressing room and he was so ... gone . Roger Waters and I got him on his feet , we got him out to the stage ... and of course the audience went spare because they loved him . The band started to play and Syd just stood there . He had his guitar around his neck and his arms just hanging down .
To the band 's consternation , they were forced to cancel their appearance at the prestigious National Jazz and Blues Festival , informing the music press that Barrett was suffering from nervous exhaustion . Jenner and Waters arranged for Barrett to see a psychiatrist – a meeting he did not attend . He was sent to relax in the sun on the Spanish island of Formentera with Waters and Sam Hutt ( a doctor well @-@ established in the underground music scene ) , but this led to no visible improvement .
The original UK LP ( with a monaural mix ) was released on 5 August 1967 , and one month later it was released in stereophonic mix . It reached number six on the UK charts . The Canadian LP had the same title and track listing as the UK version . The original US album appeared on the Tower division of Capitol on 26 October 1967 . This version was officially titled simply Pink Floyd , though the original album title did appear on the back cover as on the UK issue . The US album featured an abbreviated track listing , and reached number 131 on the Billboard charts . The UK single , " See Emily Play " , was substituted for " Astronomy Domine " , " Flaming " and " Bike " . Released in time for the band 's US tour , " Flaming " was released as a single , backed with " The Gnome " . The Tower issue of the album also faded out " Interstellar Overdrive " and broke up the segue into " The Gnome " to fit the re @-@ sequencing of the songs . Later US issues on compact disc had the same title and track list as the UK version . The album was certified Gold in the US on 11 March 1994 .
About being handled on Tower Records , Jenner commented that : " In terms of the U.K. and Europe it was always fine . America was always difficult . Capitol couldn 't see it . You know , ' What is this latest bit of rubbish from England ? Oh Christ , it 'll give us more grief , so we 'll put it out on Tower Records ' , which was a subsidiary of Capitol Records [ ... ] It was a very cheapskate operation and it was the beginning of endless problems The Floyd had with Capitol . It started off bad and went on being bad . "
= = = Packaging = = =
Up @-@ and @-@ coming society photographer Vic Singh was hired to photograph the band for the album cover . Singh shared a studio with photographer David Bailey , and he was friends with Beatles guitarist George Harrison . Singh asked Jenner and King to dress the band in the brightest clothes they could find . Vic Singh then shot them with a prism lens that Harrison had given him . The cover was meant to resemble an LSD trip , a style that was favoured at the time .
Barrett came up with the album title The Piper at the Gates of Dawn ; the album was originally titled Projection up to as late as July 1967 . The title was taken from that of chapter seven of Kenneth Grahame 's The Wind in the Willows which contains a visionary encounter with the god Pan , who plays his pan pipe at dawn . It was one of Barrett 's favourite books , and he often gave friends the impression that he was the embodiment of Pan . The moniker was later used in the song " Shine On You Crazy Diamond " , in which Barrett is called " you Piper " . The cover for the album was one of several Pink Floyd album covers used on a series of Royal Mail stamps issued in May 2016 to commemorate 50 years of Pink Floyd .
= = = Reception = = =
At the time of release , the album was received positively , and the record is now recognised as one of the seminal psychedelic rock albums of the 1960s . In 1967 , both Record Mirror and NME gave the album four stars out of five . Record Mirror commented that " the psychedelic image of the group really comes to life on this LP , which is a fine showcase for both their talent and the recording technique . Plenty of mindblowing sound . " Cash Box called it " a particularly striking collection of driving , up @-@ to @-@ date rock ventures " . Paul McCartney and Pink Floyd 's past producer Joe Boyd both rated the album highly . Some voiced the opinion of the underground fans , by suggesting that the album did not reflect the band 's live performances .
In recent years , The Piper at the Gates of Dawn has gained even more recognition . The album is hailed not only as a psychedelic masterpiece but LSD is named as a direct influence . In 1999 Rolling Stone magazine gave the album 4 @.@ 5 stars out of 5 , calling it " the golden achievement of Syd Barrett " . Q magazine described the album as " indispensable " and included it in their list of the best psychedelic albums ever . It was also ranked 40th in Mojo magazine 's " The 50 Most Out There Albums of All Time " list . In 2000 Q magazine placed The Piper at the Gates of Dawn at number 55 in its list of the 100 greatest British albums ever . In 2012 , The Piper at the Gates of Dawn was voted 347th on Rolling Stone magazine 's list of the 500 greatest albums ever . James E. Perone says that Piper became known as a concept album in later years , because listeners wanted to play it all the way through rather than pick out a favourite song . While Beatles biographer Philip Norman agrees that Piper is a concept album , other authors contend that Pink Floyd did not start making concept albums until 1973 's The Dark Side of the Moon . Author George Reisch called Pink Floyd the " undisputed " kings of the concept album , but only starting from Dark Side . In July 2006 , Billboard described The Piper at the Gates of Dawn as " one of the best psychedelic rock albums ever , driven by Barrett 's oddball narratives and the band 's skill with both long jams and perfect pop nuggets " .
= = = Reissues = = =
The Piper at the Gates of Dawn was reissued in the UK in 1979 as a stereo vinyl album , and on CD in the UK and US in 1985 . A digitally remastered stereo CD , with new artwork , was released in the US in 1994 , and in 1997 limited edition 30th anniversary mono editions were released in the UK , on CD and vinyl . These limited editions were in a hefty digipak with 3 @-@ D box art for continental Europe and the world outside the United States . This mono CD included a slightly edited version of " Flaming " . A six @-@ track bonus CD , 1967 : The First Three Singles , was given away alongside the 1997 30th @-@ anniversary edition of the album .
In 1973 , the album , along with A Saucerful of Secrets , was released as a two @-@ disc set on Capitol / EMI 's Harvest Records label , titled A Nice Pair to introduce fans to the band 's early work after the success of The Dark Side of the Moon . ( On the American version of that compilation , the original four @-@ minute studio version of " Astronomy Domine " was replaced with the eight @-@ minute live version found on Ummagumma . ) The American edition of A Nice Pair also failed to properly restore the segue between " Interstellar Overdrive " and " The Gnome " .
For the 40th anniversary , a two @-@ disc edition was released on 4 September 2007 , and a three @-@ disc set was released on 11 September 2007 . The packaging – designed by Storm Thorgerson – resembles a cloth @-@ covered book , along with a twelve @-@ page reproduction of a Syd Barrett notebook . Discs one and two contain the full album in its original mono mix ( disc one ) , as well as the alternative stereo version ( disc two ) . Both have been newly remastered by James Guthrie . The third disc includes several Piper @-@ era outtakes from the Abbey Road vaults , along with the band 's first three mono singles . Unreleased material includes an alternative , shorter take of " Interstellar Overdrive " that was previously thought lost , the pre @-@ overdubbed abridged mix of " Interstellar Overdrive " previously only available on an EP in France , an alternative mix of " Matilda Mother " as it appeared early in the sessions and also the 1967 stereo mix of " Apples and Oranges " , which features extra untrimmed material at the beginning and end .
Piper was remastered and re @-@ released on 26 September 2011 as part of the Why Pink Floyd ... ? reissue campaign . It is available in this format as either a stand @-@ alone album , or as part of the Why Pink Floyd ... ? Discovery box set , along with the 13 other studio albums and a new colour booklet . Then the album was re @-@ released on the band 's own Pink Floyd Records label in 3 June 2016 for the world outside Europe .
= = Live performances = =
Although there was never an official tour of the album , the band gigged in the UK to promote the album . They played dates in Ireland and Scandinavia , and in late October the band was to embark on their first tour of the United States . It was unsuccessful , mainly because of the mental breakdown of Barrett . In his capacity as tour manager Andrew King travelled to New York to begin preparations , but he ran into serious problems . Visas had not arrived , prompting the cancellation of the first six dates . The band finally flew across the Atlantic on 1 November , but work permits were not yet obtained , so they settled into a hotel in Sausalito , California , just north of San Francisco . After a number of cancellations , the first US performance was given 4 November at Winterland Ballroom , following Janis Joplin fronting Big Brother and the Holding Company .
For the American tour , many numbers such as " Flaming " and " The Gnome " were dropped , while others such as " Astronomy Domine " and " Interstellar Overdrive " remained , and were central to the band 's setlist during this period , often performed as encores until around 1971 . " Astronomy Domine " was later included on the live disc of Ummagumma , and adopted by the post @-@ Waters Pink Floyd during the 1994 Division Bell tour , with a version included on the 1995 live album Pulse . David Gilmour , though not a member of Pink Floyd at the time the song was originally recorded , resurrected " Astronomy Domine " for his On an Island and Rattle That Lock tours .
Communication between company and band was almost non @-@ existent , and Pink Floyd 's relationship with Tower and Capitol was therefore poor . Barrett 's mental condition mirrored the problems that King encountered ; when the band performed at Winterland , he detuned his guitar during " Interstellar Overdrive " until the strings fell off . His odd behaviour grew worse in subsequent performances , and during a television recording for The Pat Boone Show he confounded the director by lip @-@ syncing " Apples and Oranges " perfectly during the rehearsal , and then standing motionless during the take . King quickly curtailed the band 's US visit , sending them home on the next flight .
Shortly after their return from the US , beginning 14 November , the band supported Jimi Hendrix on a tour of England , but on one occasion Barrett failed to turn up and they were forced to replace him with singer / guitarist David O 'List borrowed from the opening band the Nice . Barrett 's depression worsened the longer the tour continued . Longtime Pink Floyd psychedelic lighting designer Peter Wynne @-@ Willson left at the end of the Hendrix tour , though he sympathised with Barrett , whose position as frontman was increasingly insecure . Wynne @-@ Willson , who had worked for a percentage , was replaced by his assistant John Marsh who collected a lesser wage . Pink Floyd released " Apples and Oranges " ( recorded prior to the US tour on 26 and 27 October ) , but for the rest of the band Barrett 's condition had reached a crisis point , and they responded by adding David Gilmour to their line @-@ up , initially to cover for Syd 's lapses during live performances .
Tracks 8 – 11 on the UK album edition were played the least during live performances . The success of " See Emily Play " and " Arnold Layne " meant that the band were forced to perform some of their singles for a limited period in 1967 , but they were eventually dropped after Barrett left the band . " Flaming " and " Pow R. Toc H. " were also played regularly by the post @-@ Barrett Pink Floyd in 1968 , even though these songs were in complete contrast to the band 's other works at this time . Some of the songs from Piper would be reworked and rearranged for The Man and The Journey live show in 1969 ( " The Pink Jungle " was taken from " Pow R. Toc H. " , and part of " Interstellar Overdrive " was used for " The Labyrinths of Auximines " ) .
Beginning in September 1967 , the band played several new compositions . These included " One in a Million " , " Scream Thy Last Scream " , " Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun " and " Reaction in G " , the last of which was a song created by the band in response to crowds asking for their hit singles " See Emily Play " and " Arnold Layne " .
Barrett resurrected the track Lucifer Sam with his short @-@ lived 1972 band Stars
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Syd Barrett , except where noted .
UK release
US release
40th anniversary edition
= = Personnel = =
= = Charts and certifications = =
= 2001 – 02 South @-@ West Indian Ocean cyclone season =
The 2001 – 02 South @-@ West Indian Ocean cyclone season had the earliest named storm since 1992 . Many storms formed in the north @-@ east portion of the basin , and several more originated around Australia . The basin is defined as the waters of the Indian Ocean west of longitude 90 ° E to the coast of Africa and south of the equator . Eleven tropical storms formed , compared to an average of nine . Tropical systems were present during 73 days , which was significantly higher than the average of 58 .
Tropical cyclones in this basin are monitored by the Regional Specialized Meteorological Center ( RSMC ) in Réunion . The season started on November 1 , 2001 , and ended on April 30 , 2002 ; for Mauritius and the Seychelles , the season continued until May 15 . These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the basin ; however , storms formed both before and after the designated season . The first storm was Andre , which emerged from the Australian basin as Tropical Cyclone Alex in late October . The strongest storm , Cyclone Hary , was the first very intense tropical cyclone since 2000 ; it hit Madagascar , where it caused lighter damage than expected but three deaths . In January , Cyclone Dina left heavy damage in the Mascarene Islands , particularly on Réunion , where it dropped 2 @,@ 102 mm ( 82 @.@ 8 in ) of rainfall . The final storm was Cyclone Kesiny , which killed 33 people when it struck Madagascar in the midst of a political crisis .
= = Season summary = =
Météo @-@ France 's meteorological office in Réunion ( MFR ) is the official Regional Specialized Meteorological Center for the South @-@ West Indian Ocean , tracking all tropical cyclones from the east coast of Africa to 90 ° E. The Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) , which is a joint United States Navy – United States Air Force task force that issues tropical cyclone warnings for the region , also issued advisories for storms during the season . Following the season , the start of the tropical cyclone year was changed to July 1 , which defines the boundary between tropical cyclone seasons .
Although the previous season was tame , the 2001 – 02 season was very active and featured several intense tropical cyclones . During the season , eleven systems were named , which was slightly above the average of nine . However , nine of the systems attained cyclone intensity , the second highest total in 30 years . In terms of both the number of systems and number of " cyclone days " , the season was considered comparable by MFR to the 1993 – 94 season . In this season , there were 73 days on which tropical cyclones were active , which was more than twice as much as the previous season and 19 days above the average . A system of cyclone intensity was active on 35 days , which was 15 days above the mean . Additionally , five of the systems attained " intense tropical cyclone " status , including one – Hary – that attained the " very intense tropical cyclone " stage . Activity was relatively distributed throughout the season and had the earliest start since 1992 . Like most seasons within the basin , activity reached a climax in late January . Several systems during the season developed in the eastern portion of the basin , similar to 1993 – 94 ; unlike that season , many storms in 2001 – 02 stayed at sea throughout their lifetime , thus reducing casualties and damage .
= = Storms = =
= = = Severe Tropical Storm Alex – Andre = = =
The Bureau of Meteorology ( BoM ) classified a tropical low as Tropical Cyclone Alex on October 26 in the Australian region . It was initially located in an area of strong wind shear , which prevented significant strengthening . However , convection over the system increased on October 27 , and it crossed into the South @-@ West Indian Ocean at around the same time . It was renamed Andre , becoming the earliest date for the first named storm since 1992 . After reaching 10 ‑ minute sustained winds of 100 km / h ( 65 mph ) , according to the MFR , Andre began slowly weakening , due to increasing shear . It moved generally to the west @-@ southwest before turning northwestward on October 29 , around which time the convection separated from the center . Moving slowly , Andre later turned to the southwest after weakening to a tropical depression . Late on October 31 , the system was no longer classifiable as a tropical system , and the remnants continued to the west @-@ southwest until being absorbed by a trough on November 8 .
= = = Tropical Cyclone Bessi – Bako = = =
The monsoon trough spawned a tropical low on November 24 in the Australian basin . It moved to the southwest , strengthening into Tropical Cyclone Bessi on November 27 . Two days later , it moved into the South @-@ West Indian Ocean , and was renamed Bako on December 1 . Located in a similar position to the previous storm , Bako strengthened into a severe tropical storm on December 1 , aided by warm waters and slack wind shear . The storm turned to the southeast on December 2 , despite predictions to the contrary , and later that day it intensified further into a tropical cyclone , the first of the season . However , on December 3 , Bako weakened back into a severe tropical storm due to much cooler sea surface temperatures and increasing northwesterly wind shear . It weakened into a tropical depression on December 5 , before transitioning into an extratropical cyclone the same day . RSMC La Reunion continued to track the remnants of Bako until December 9 .
= = = Severe Tropical Storm Cyprien = = =
On December 25 , a cold front dragged over the central Mozambique Channel . A weak circulation formed in the Channel and moderate convection appeared on December 27 . Then on December 30 , RSMC La Reunion designated this low pressure as a zone of disturbed weather and was classified as a tropical depression on January 1 , 2002 . The JTWC also issued a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert ( TCFA ) early on December 31 and designated it as Tropical Cyclone 08S the next day . As it moved further eastwards it strengthened quickly from a tropical depression into a severe tropical storm , with the Meteorological Services of Madagascar giving it the name Cyprien on January 1 . Cyprien soon became a serious threat to western Madagascar . Convection began to dissipate as wind shear increased and that resulted in quick weakening to a tropical depression . As it made landfall on western Madagascar , it dropped heavy rainfall . In all , Cyprien destroyed 841 homes in the towns of Morombe and Morondava . Damage in the towns was estimated at $ 180 @,@ 000 , but there were no deaths .
= = = Intense Tropical Cyclone Dina = = =
Cyclone Dina originated in a tropical disturbance first noted on January 15 near the Chagos Archipelago . By January 17 , the system had developed enough organized convection as it moved southwestward to be declared a tropical depression . Rapid intensification occurred shortly thereafter , with the system attaining winds in excess of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) on January 18 . Dina peaked in intensity on January 20 as an intense tropical cyclone with winds of 210 km / h ( 130 mph ) . Hours later , the storm bypassed Rodrigues Island about 150 km ( 93 mi ) to its north . On January 21 , the storm brushed Mauritius and Réunion as an intense tropical cyclone before turning southward . Once on a southward course , steady weakening ensued and the system eventually transitioned into an extratropical cyclone on January 25 . The remnants of the storm accelerated southeastward and were absorbed into a polar trough on January 28 .
Across Mauritius and Réunion , torrential rains and destructive winds from the cyclone resulted in extensive to " catastrophic " damage . The entire island of Mauritius lost power during the storm and widespread structural damage took place . Agricultural and property damage amounted to US $ 47 million and US $ 50 million respectively in the republic . Nine fatalities were attributed to the storm in Mauritius : five off the coast of Rodrigues Island and four on the main island . More extensive damage was seen on Réunion where up to 2 @,@ 102 mm ( 82 @.@ 8 in ) of rain fell over three days . Flooding destroyed many homes , washed out roads , and caused catastrophic agricultural damage . Destructive winds , measured at up to 280 km / h ( 170 mph ) , also crippled communications . In all , six people died on the island and losses were estimated at € 200 million ( US $ 190 million ) .
= = = Tropical Cyclone Eddy = = =
A system developed within a convergence zone on January 20 near the boundary between the South @-@ West Indian Ocean and the Australia region . Its circulation became better defined , and MFR initiated advisories on January 22 . With a ridge to the south , it drifted to the southeast , approaching 90 ° E , but turning to the southwest before crossing over . On January 23 , the system intensified into a tropical depression . Slowly intensifying , the depression became Tropical Storm Eddy on January 24 . That day , the JTWC initiated advisories on Tropical Cyclone 11S , and it turned toward the south . After having experienced moderate wind shear , Eddy entered an area of more favorable conditions , and its convection gradually organized . Early on January 26 , MFR upgraded it to a tropical cyclone , later estimating peak winds of 130 km / h ( 80 mph ) . After that time , increasing wind shear weakened Eddy to a tropical storm , causing it to curve to the west . By January 28 , the circulation was exposed from the convection , and Eddy weakened to a tropical depression . It turned to the southwest the next day , and dissipated fully on January 30 .
= = = Intense Tropical Cyclone Francesca = = =
The origins of Francesca were from a tropical low that formed in the Australia region on January 28 , east of the Cocos Islands . This was near the same place that Eddy had formed a week prior . The system that became Francesca moved west @-@ southwestward due to a ridge to the south . On January 30 it crossed into the South @-@ West Indian Ocean , where wind shear prevented significant development . On January 31 , the system intensified into a tropical depression , and late the next day the JTWC classified it as Tropical Cyclone 12S . Wind shear diminished on February 2 , which allowed the depression to strengthen into Tropical Storm Francesca after convection increased . It continued to intensify steadily , becoming a tropical cyclone on February 3 . The next day , the JTWC upgraded Francesca to the equivalent of a minimal hurricane .
An approaching trough turned the cyclone to the southeast , and Francesca quickly developed a well @-@ defined eye . It rapidly strengthened into an intense tropical cyclone , and reached peak winds of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) on February 4 , according to MFR . The JTWC estimated peak 1 ‑ minute winds of 215 km / h ( 135 mph ) when the storm was located about 1065 km ( 660 mi ) southeast of Diego Garcia . Shortly after peaking , Francesca began weakening , losing its eye , until being a minimal tropical cyclone on February 7 . That day , it re @-@ intensified slightly and redeveloped an eye , although it was short @-@ lived . Increasing shear again weakened Francesca , and on February 9 the cyclone deteriorated to a tropical storm . Cooler waters caused further weakening , which diminished convection over the center . On February 11 , Francesca became extratropical , and the remnants turned to the southwest , dissipating on February 14 .
= = = Intense Tropical Cyclone Guillaume = = =
On February 13 , several low pressure areas were located over east @-@ central Madagascar , with an area of convection that extended northwestward across the country toward Comoros . The system dropped heavy rainfall , reaching 250 mm ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) in Tamatave in a 12 ‑ hour period . In Mamoudzou , the capital of Mayotte , rainfall reached 195 mm ( 7 @.@ 7 in ) in 24 hours , which caused some damage on the island including a bridge collapse . A developing center gradually became better organized , and it took an unusual track offshore toward the northeast , steered by a ridge over Madagascar . On February 14 , MFR classified the system as a zone of disturbed weather , upgrading it to a tropical disturbance the next day . Late on February 15 , the JTWC initiated advisories on Tropical Cyclone 15S , and early the next day MFR upgraded it to Tropical Depression 10 . Shortly thereafter , the Meteorological Services of Madagascar upgraded the system to Tropical Storm Guillame .
Late on February 16 , Guillame began developing a small eye , turning to the east around the same time . With favorable conditions , including good outflow , the system quickly intensified into a compact tropical cyclone as it turned to the southeast . Strengthening briefly stopped on February 17 , possible due to an eyewall replacement cycle , although it resumed the following day . Guillame curved to the south and southwest , reaching peak winds of 195 km / h ( 120 mph ) late on February 18 ; this made it an intense tropical cyclone . The next day , the cyclone passed about 150 km ( 93 mi ) east of Mauritius before an approaching trough turned it to the southeast . Despite the storm 's proximity to the island , effects there were modest , marked by winds of 78 km / h ( 48 mph ) and 71 mm ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) of rain . The cyclone began weakening due to increased wind shear , and deteriorated below tropical cyclone status on February 21 . A strengthening ridge turned Guillame toward the northwest , and the storm dissipated on February 23 .
= = = Very Intense Tropical Cyclone Hary = = =
Cyclone Hary was the strongest tropical cyclone of the season . Developing on March 5 from the monsoon trough , the storm initially moved generally to the west and gradually intensified . With favorable conditions , Hary quickly intensified on March 7 , developing an eye and well @-@ defined outflow . After reaching an initial peak , the cyclone briefly weakened due to an eyewall replacement cycle , by which time the storm turned southwestward toward Madagascar . Hary re @-@ intensified and attained peak winds of 220 km / h ( 140 mph ) on March 10 just offshore of eastern Madagascar , which made it the first very intense tropical cyclone since 2000 .
After peaking , Hary weakened due to land interaction , and it struck Madagascar southeast of Antalaha . After turning south over land , Cyclone Hary quickly moved offshore . There were three deaths in the country , one of which was from electrocution . There was locally heavy crop damage , and four bridges were destroyed . However , the damage was considered minimal , given the intensity of the storm . After affecting Madagascar , Hary accelerated to the southeast , and the eastern periphery of the circulation moved over Réunion . On the mountain peaks of the island , rainfall reached 1 @,@ 344 mm ( 52 @.@ 9 in ) , although it was much less near the coast . The rainfall caused flooding , killing one person , and 20 @,@ 000 people were left without power . Hary became extratropical on March 13 , although its remnants continued for several days as a powerful mid @-@ latitude storm .
= = = Intense Tropical Cyclone Ikala = = =
On March 21 , a tropical disturbance quickly developed in the monsoon trough in the south @-@ central Indian Ocean , about 1250 km ( 775 mi ) east of Diego Garcia . A ridge to the south steered the system to the west @-@ southwest , and moderate wind shear in the region prevented significant strengthening . The convection slowly organized , and the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Ikala early on March 25 . By that time , the shear had decreased , although initially it was strong enough to prevent the convection from covering the center . An approaching cold front turned the storm to the southeast on March 25 , where upper @-@ level conditions became more favorable for strengthening . Thunderstorms increased over the center , and an eye began developing on March 26 . The next day , Ikala intensified into a tropical cyclone , reaching peak winds of 165 km / h ( 105 mph ) according to MFR ; the JTWC estimated peak 1 ‑ minute winds of 205 km / h ( 125 mph ) . Shortly after peaking , increased wind shear and drier air from the front quickly weakened Ikala , and it deteriorated below tropical cyclone status on March 28 . That day , the center became exposed from the convection , and on March 29 Ikala became extratropical . The remnants turned to the southwest before recurving to the southeast on March 31 , and Ikala was absorbed by a cold front on April 3 .
= = = Tropical Cyclone Dianne – Jery = = =
In early April , the monsoon trough spawned a tropical depression early on April 7 to the northeast of the Cocos Islands in the Australian basin . It moved to the southwest due to a ridge along the west coast of Australia , and quickly intensified into Tropical Cyclone Dianne . Favorable conditions allowed for continued strengthening , and the storm developed a small eye late on April 7 . The next day , the storm entered into South @-@ West Indian Ocean and was renamed Jery . Shortly thereafter it intensified into a tropical cyclone , although by that time , the conditions were no longer as favorable for rapid intensification . On April 9 , MFR estimated peak 10 ‑ minute winds of 150 km / h ( 90 mph ) ; around the same time , the JTWC estimated peak 1 ‑ minute winds of 195 km / h ( 120 mph ) .
While at peak intensity , Jery began turning to the south , due to reaching the western edge of a ridge . An approaching trough increased wind shear over the storm , causing the convection to diminish and expose the center . Late on April 10 it weakened below tropical cyclone status , and the next day Jery became extratropical . Shortly thereafter the remnants crossed into the Australian region , dissipating on April 13 .
= = = Tropical Cyclone Kesiny = = =
Cyclone Kesiny was the final named storm of the season , forming near the equator on May 2 , within a trough enhanced by a pulse of the Madden – Julian oscillation that sparked three other storms . Kesiny initially moved to the southeast , but later turned to the southwest due to a strengthening ridge . On May 6 , it intensified into a tropical cyclone , but later weakened and was not expected to re @-@ strengthen . However , Kesiny developed an eye and re @-@ intensified into a tropical cyclone on May 9 , reaching peak winds of 130 km / h ( 81 mph ) before striking Madagascar about 60 km ( 37 mi ) southeast of Antsiranana . This made it the first recorded tropical cyclone to make landfall in the month of May in the basin . It weakened while crossing the country , and after turning to the south it struck the country again before dissipating on May 11 .
Across Madagascar , Cyclone Kesiny dropped heavy rainfall , reaching 891 mm ( 35 @.@ 1 in ) in three days at Toamasina ( the second largest city in the country ) . The rains caused mudslides and flooding in the eastern portion of the country , wrecking the rice and maize crops and leaving 5 @,@ 000 people homeless . At least 33 bridges were destroyed , and many roads were damaged . A total of 33 people were killed , and 1 @,@ 200 people were injured . The cyclone struck in the midst of a political crisis , in which the top two candidates of the Malagasy presidential election in 2001 declared themselves the winner ; the incumbent , who lost , attempted to declare Toamasina the new capital city , and the political instability disrupted relief efforts .
= = = Other storms = = =
The first storm of the season originated from an area of convection east of Diego Garcia in early October 2001 . Moving southwestward , it slowly organized , with convection developing around a weak circulation . Late on October 3 , MFR classified the system as a zone of disturbed weather . On October 5 , the agency re @-@ classified it as a tropical disturbance and later as Tropical Depression 1 . The circulation was partially exposed due to wind shear , although it had good outflow . The JTWC initiated advisories on Tropical Cyclone 01S at 0600 UTC on October 6 , estimating winds of about 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) . Due to the shear , the convection gradually diminished , prompting the MFR to downgrade it to a tropical disturbance on October 7 . The next day , the JTWC issued its last advisory , noting that the system was dissipating .
A zone of disturbed weather formed on November 15 in the eastern part of the basin . It remained a zone of disturbed weather for a few days before briefly strengthening into a tropical depression on November 21 . It dissipated two days later . This system was also designated as tropical cyclone by the JTWC .
On February 5 , a tropical low developed in the Mozambique Channel . Classified as Tropical Disturbance 9 by MFR , the system moved southeastward , dissipating on February 6 . The season ended with a tropical disturbance , which formed on June 13 to the east @-@ southeast of Diego Garcia . It moved to the south , and was last monitored on June 15 .
= = Storm names = =
A tropical disturbance is named when it reaches moderate tropical storm strength . If a tropical disturbance reaches moderate tropical storm status west of 55 ° E , then the Sub @-@ regional Tropical Cyclone Advisory Centre in Madagascar assigns the appropriate name to the storm ; between 55 ° E and 90 ° E , the Sub @-@ regional Tropical Cyclone Advisory Centre in Mauritius is responsible for the same task . A new annual list is used every year so no names are retired .
= = Season effects = =
This table lists all of the tropical cyclones and subtropical cyclones that were monitored during the 2001 – 2002 South @-@ West Indian Ocean cyclone season . Information on their intensity , duration , name , and areas affected , primarily comes from RSMC La Reunion . Death and damage reports come from either press reports or the relevant national disaster management agency while the damage totals are given in 2002 USD .
= Quicksilver ( novel ) =
Quicksilver is a historical novel by Neal Stephenson , published in 2003 . It is the first volume of The Baroque Cycle , his late Baroque historical fiction series , succeeded by The Confusion and The System of the World ( both published in 2004 ) . Quicksilver won the Arthur C. Clarke Award and was nominated for the Locus Award in 2004 . Stephenson organized the structure of Quicksilver such that chapters have been incorporated into three internal books titled " Quicksilver " , " The King of the Vagabonds " , and " Odalisque " . In 2006 , each internal book was released in separate paperback editions , to make the 900 pages more approachable for readers . These internal books were originally independent novels within the greater cycle during composition .
The novel Quicksilver is written in various narrative styles , such as theatrical staging and epistolary , and follows a large group of characters . Though mostly set in late 17th century England , France , and the United Provinces , the first book includes a frame story set in early 18th century Massachusetts . In order to write the novel , Stephenson researched the period extensively and integrates events and historical themes important to historical scholarship throughout the novel . However , Stephenson alters details such as the members of the Cabal ministry , the historical cabinet of Charles II of England , to facilitate the incorporation of his fictional characters . Within the historical context , Stephenson also deals with many themes which pervade his other works , including the exploration of knowledge , communication and cryptography .
The plot of the first and third books focus on Daniel Waterhouse 's exploits as a natural philosopher and friend to the young Isaac Newton and his later observations of English politics and religion , respectively . The second book introduces the vagabond Jack Shaftoe ( " King of the Vagabonds " ) and Eliza ( a former member of a Turkish harem ) as they cross Europe , eventually landing in the Netherlands , where Eliza becomes entangled in commerce and politics . Quicksilver operates in the same fictional universe as Stephenson 's earlier novel Cryptonomicon , in which descendants of Quicksilver characters Shaftoe and Waterhouse appear prominently .
= = Background and development = =
During the period in which he wrote Cryptonomicon , Stephenson read George Dyson 's Darwin Amongst the Machines , which led him to Gottfried Leibniz 's interest in a computing machine , the Leibniz – Newton feud , and Newton 's work at the Royal Treasury . He considered this " striking when [ he ] was already working on a book about money and a book about computers , " and became inspired to write about the period . Originally intended to be included in Cryptonomicon , Stephenson instead used the material as the foundation for Quicksilver , the first volume of the Baroque Cycle . The research for the sprawling historical novel created what Stephenson called " data management problems " , and he resorted to a system of notebooks to record research , track characters , and find material during the writing process .
= = = Historicity = = =
In Quicksilver , Stephenson places the ancestors of the Cryptonomicon 's characters in Enlightenment Europe alongside a cast of historical individuals from Restoration England and the Enlightenment . Amongst the cast are some of the most prominent natural philosophers , mathematicians and scientists ( Newton and Leibniz ) , and politicians ( William of Orange and Nassau ) of the age . In an interview , Stephenson explained he deliberately depicted both the historical and fictional characters as authentic representatives of historical classes of people , such as the Vagabonds as personified by Jack , and the Barbary slaves as personified by Eliza . In his research for the characters , he explored the major scholarship about the period .
Stephenson did extensive research on the Age of Enlightenment , noting that it is accessible for English speaking researchers because of the many well documented figures such as Leibniz , Newton and Samuel Pepys . In the course of his research he noted historiographic inconsistencies regarding characters of the period which he had to reconcile . Especially prominent was the deification of Newton , Locke and Boyle and their scientific method by Enlightenment and Victorian scholars . He considers the scientific work done during the Baroque period as crucial to the Enlightenment . From his research he concluded that the Enlightenment in general " is and should be a controversial event because although it led to the flourishing of the sciences and political liberties and a lot of good stuff like that , one can also argue that it played a role in the French Revolution and some of the negative events of the time as well . " The portrayal of a confusing and uncertain era develops throughout the book .
Some reviewers commented that Stephenson seems to carry his understanding of the period a little too far at times , delving into too much detail . Nick Hasted of The Independent wrote that this research made " descriptions of Restoration London feel leaden , and intellectual discourses between Newton and his contemporaries textbook @-@ dry . " Despite the thorough examination of the period , however , Stephenson does take liberty in depicting the Enlightenment . Both main and secondary fictional characters become prominent members of society who advise the most important figures of the period and affect everything from politics to economics and science . For example , he repopulates the real Cabal Ministry with fictional characters .
= = Style = =
Quicksilver is a historical fiction novel that occasionally uses fantasy and science fiction techniques . The book is written in " an omniscient modern presence occasionally given to wisecracks , with extensive use of the continuous present " . Mark Sanderson of The Daily Telegraph and Steven Poole of The Guardian both describe the novel as in the picaresque genre , a genre common to 17th- and 18th @-@ century Europe . Humor permeates the text , both situational and in the language itself , which emulates the picaresque style .
The narrative often presents protracted digressions . These digressions follow a multitude of events and subjects related to history , philosophy and scientific subjects . For example , USA Today , commented on the length of discussion of Newton 's interest in the nature of gravity . With these digressions , the narrative also rapidly changes between multiple perspectives , first and third person , as well as using multiple writing techniques , both those familiar to the modern reader and those popular during the Early Modern period . These techniques include letters , drama , cryptographic messaging , genealogies and " more interesting footnotes than found in many academic papers . "
Stephenson incorporates 17th century sentence structure and orthography throughout Quicksilver , most apparent in his use of italicization and capitalization . He adapts a combination of period and anachronistic language throughout the books , mostly to good effect , while allowing diction from modern usage , such as " canal rage " an allusion to road rage . Stephenson chose not to adapt period language for the entire text ; instead he allowed such language to enter his writing when it was appropriate , often turning to modern English and modern labels for ideas familiar to modern readers . Stephenson said " I never tried to entertain the illusion that I was going to write something that had no trace of the 20th or the 21st century in it . "
= = Plot = =
= = = Quicksilver = = =
The first book is a series of flashbacks from 1713 to the earlier life of Daniel Waterhouse . It begins as Enoch Root arrives in Boston in October 1713 to deliver a letter to Daniel containing a summons from Princess Caroline . She wants Daniel to return to England and attempt to repair the feud between Isaac Newton and Gottfried Leibniz . While following Daniel 's decision to return to England and board a Dutch ship ( the Minerva ) to cross the Atlantic , the book flashes back to when Enoch and Daniel each first met Newton . During the flashbacks , the book refocuses on Daniel 's life between 1661 and 1673 .
While attending school at Trinity College , Cambridge , Daniel becomes Newton 's companion , ensuring that Newton does not harm his health and assisting in his experiments . However , the plague of 1665 forces them apart : Newton returns to his family manor and Daniel to the outskirts of London . Daniel quickly tires of the radical Puritan rhetoric of his father , Drake Waterhouse , and decides to join Reverend John Wilkins and Robert Hooke at John Comstock 's Epsom estate .
There Daniel takes part in a number of experiments , including the exploration of the diminishing effects of gravity with changes in elevation , the transfusion of blood between dogs and Wilkins ' attempts to create a philosophical language . Daniel soon becomes disgusted with some of the practices of the older natural philosophers ( which include vivisection of animals ) and visits Newton during his experiments with color and white light . They attempt to return to Cambridge , but again plague expels the students . Daniel returns to his father ; however , his arrival on the outskirts of London coincides with the second day of the Fire of London . Drake , taken by religious fervour , dies atop his house as the King blows it up to create a fire break to prevent further spread of the fire . Soon after Drake 's death , Newton and Daniel then return to Cambridge and begin lecturing .
A flashforward occurs in the narration , to find Daniel 's ship under attack by the fleet of Edward Teach ( Blackbeard ) in 1713 . Then the story returns to the past as Daniel and Newton return to London : Newton is under the patronage of Louis Anglesey , the Earl of Upnor , and Daniel becomes secretary of the Royal Society when Henry Oldenburg is detained by the King for his active foreign correspondence . During his stint in London , Daniel encounters a number of important actors from the period . Daniel remains one of the more prominent actors in the Royal Society , close to Royal Society members involved in court life and politics . By 1672 both Daniel and Newton become fellows at Trinity College where they build an extensive alchemical laboratory which attracts other significant alchemists including John Locke and Robert Boyle . Daniel convinces Newton to present his work on calculus to the Royal Society .
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of the National Highway System ( NHS ) , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
On October 9 , 1922 , a road located in the general location of MT 87 was added to the Montana State Highway system . By at least 1924 , an auto trail known as the Banff Grand Canyon Road ran along the highway in the general location of MT 87 . The next year , the highway had been given a graded dirt surface , and was designated as part of the Great White Way auto trail , as well as the Banff Grand Canyon Road . Between 1925 and 1927 , the auto trail designations were removed from the stretch of highway near present @-@ day MT 87 . By 1937 , the main highway had been shifted north of the location of MT 87 , and had been numbered as State Highway 1 . A road remained in the location of MT 87 , although it was unnumbered . This road had also been extended several miles northward to Lyon .
By 1951 , the highway had been reconstructed generally along MT 87 's present location , and it had been upgraded to an improved gravel road . In 1959 , the road in the location of MT 87 was rapidly improved in order to serve as an alternate routing to U.S. Route 287 . Portions of US 287 around Hebgen Lake collapsed and crumbled as a result of the 1959 Hebgen Lake earthquake . After US 287 was fixed , the highway 's importance decreased . In 1962 , the portions of the highway from the southern terminus to present @-@ day milepost 8 @.@ 395 were reconstructed along the current location . In 1967 , the rest of the highway was reconstructed along the present location . By 1987 , the highway had been numbered as MT 87 . The route had also been paved .
= = Major intersections = =
= Rudolf Caracciola =
Otto Wilhelm Rudolf Caracciola ( 30 January 1901 – 28 September 1959 ) , more commonly Rudolf Caracciola ( pronounced [ ʁuːdɔlf kaʁaːtʃiːɔlɑ ] ) , was a racing driver from Remagen , Germany . He won the European Drivers ' Championship , the pre @-@ 1950 equivalent of the modern Formula One World Championship , an unsurpassed three times . He also won the European Hillclimbing Championship three times – twice in sports cars , and once in Grand Prix cars . Caracciola raced for Mercedes @-@ Benz during their original dominating Silver Arrows period , named after the silver colour of the cars , and set speed records for the firm . He was affectionately dubbed Caratsch by the German public , and was known by the title of Regenmeister , or " Rainmaster " , for his prowess in wet conditions .
Caracciola began racing while he was working as apprentice at the Fafnir automobile factory in Aachen during the early 1920s , first on motorcycles and then in cars . Racing for Mercedes @-@ Benz , he won his first two Hillclimbing Championships in 1930 and 1931 , and moved to Alfa Romeo for 1932 , where he won the Hillclimbing Championship for the third time . In 1933 , he established the privateer team Scuderia C.C. with his fellow driver Louis Chiron , but a crash in practice for the Monaco Grand Prix left him with multiple fractures of his right thigh , which ruled him out of racing for more than a year . He returned to the newly reformed Mercedes @-@ Benz racing team in 1934 , with whom he won three European Championships , in 1935 , 1937 and 1938 . Like most German racing drivers in the 1930s , Caracciola was a member of the Nazi paramilitary group National Socialist Motor Corps ( NSKK ) , but never a member of the Nazi Party . He returned to racing after the Second World War , but crashed in qualifying for the 1946 Indianapolis 500 . A second comeback in 1952 was halted by another crash , in a sports car race in Switzerland .
After he retired , Caracciola worked as a Mercedes @-@ Benz salesman targeting North Atlantic Treaty Organization ( NATO ) troops stationed in Europe . He died in the German city of Kassel , after suffering liver failure . He was buried in Switzerland , where he had lived since the early 1930s . He is remembered as one of the greatest pre @-@ 1939 Grand Prix drivers , a perfectionist who excelled in all conditions . His record of six German Grand Prix wins remains unbeaten .
= = Early life and career = =
Rudolf Caracciola was born in Remagen , Germany , on 30 January 1901 . He was the fourth child of Maximilian and Mathilde , who ran the Hotel Fürstenberg . His ancestors had migrated during the Thirty Years ' War from Naples to the German Rhineland , where Prince Bartolomeo Caracciolo ( nephew of Spanish @-@ allegiance Field Marshal Tommaso Caracciolo ) had commanded the Ehrenbreitstein Fortress near Koblenz . Caracciola was interested in cars from a young age , and from his fourteenth birthday wanted to become a racing driver . He drove an early Mercedes during the First World War , and gained his driver 's license before the legal age of 18 . After Caracciola 's graduation from school soon after the war , his father wanted him to attend university , but when he died Caracciola instead became an apprentice in the Fafnir automobile factory in Aachen .
Motorsport in Germany at the time , as in the rest of Europe , was an exclusive sport , mainly limited to the upper classes . As the sport became more professional in the early 1920s , specialist drivers , like Caracciola , began to dominate . Caracciola enjoyed his first success in motorsport while working for Fafnir , taking his NSU motorcycle to several victories in endurance events . When Fafnir decided to take part in the first race at the Automobil @-@ Verkehrs- und Übungs @-@ Straße ( AVUS ) track in 1922 , Caracciola drove one of the works cars to fourth overall , the first in his class and the quickest Fafnir . He followed this with victory in a race at the Opelbahn in Rüsselsheim . He did not stay long in Aachen , however ; in 1923 , after punching a soldier from the occupying Belgian Army in a nightclub , he fled the city . He moved to Dresden , where he continued to work as a Fafnir representative . In April of that year , Caracciola won the 1923 ADAC race at the Berlin Stadium in a borrowed Ego 4 hp . In his autobiography , Caracciola said he only ever sold one car for Fafnir , but due to inflation by " the time the car was delivered the money was just enough to pay for the horn and two headlights " .
Later in 1923 , he was hired by the Daimler Motoren Gesellschaft as a car salesman at their Dresden outlet . Caracciola continued racing , driving a Mercedes 6 / 25 / 40 hp to victory in four of the eight races he entered in 1923 . His success continued in 1924 with the new supercharged Mercedes 1 @.@ 5 @-@ litre ; he won 15 races during the season , including the Klausenpass hillclimb in Switzerland . He attended the Italian Grand Prix at Monza as a reserve driver for Mercedes , but did not take part in the race . He drove his 1 @.@ 5 @-@ litre to five victories in 1925 , and won the hillclimbs at Kniebis and Freiburg in a Mercedes 24 / 100 / 140 hp . With his racing career becoming increasingly successful , he abandoned his plans to study mechanical engineering .
= = 1926 – 1930 : Breakthrough = =
Caracciola 's breakthrough year was in 1926 . The inaugural German Grand Prix was held at the AVUS track on 11 July , but the date clashed with a more prestigious race in Spain . The newly merged company Mercedes @-@ Benz , conscious of export considerations , chose the latter race to run their main team . Hearing this , Caracciola took a short leave from his job and went to the Mercedes office in Stuttgart to ask for a car . Mercedes agreed to lend Caracciola and Adolf Rosenberger two 1923 2 @-@ litre M218s , provided they enter not as works drivers but independents . Rosenberger started well in front of the 230 @,@ 000 spectators , but Caracciola stalled his engine . His riding mechanic , Eugen Salzer , jumped out and pushed the car to get it started , but by the time they began moving they had lost more than a minute to the leaders . It started to rain , and Caracciola passed many cars that had retired in the poor conditions . Rosenberger lost control at the North Curve on the eighth lap when trying to pass a slower car , and crashed into the timekeepers ' box , killing all three occupants ; Caracciola kept driving . In the fog and rain , he had no idea which position he was in , but resolved to keep driving so he could at least finish the race . When he finished the 20th and final lap , he was surprised to find that he had won the race . The German press dubbed him Regenmeister , or " Rainmaster " , for his prowess in the wet conditions .
Caracciola used the prize money — 17 @,@ 000 Reichsmarks — to set up a Mercedes @-@ Benz dealership on the prestigious Kurfürstendamm in Berlin . He also married his girlfriend , Charlotte , whom he had met in 1923 while working at the Mercedes @-@ Benz outlet in Dresden . He continued racing in domestic competitions , returning again to Freiburg to compete in the Flying Kilometre race where he set a new sports car record in the new Mercedes @-@ Benz 2 @-@ litre Model K , and finished first . Caracciola entered the Klausenpass hillclimb and set a new touring car record ; he also won the touring car class at the Semmering hillclimb before driving a newly supercharged 1914 Mercedes Grand Prix car over the same route to set the fastest time of the day for any class . The recently completed Nürburgring was the host of the 1927 Eifelrennen , a race which had been held on public roads in the Eifel mountains since 1922 . Caracciola won the first race on the track , and returned to the Nürburgring a month later for the 1927 German Grand Prix , but his car broke down and the race was won by Otto Merz . However , he won 11 competitions in 1927 , almost all of them in the Ferdinand Porsche @-@ developed Mercedes @-@ Benz Model S.
Caracciola regained his German Grand Prix title at the Nürburgring at the 1928 German Grand Prix , driving the new 7 @.@ 1 @-@ litre Mercedes @-@ Benz SS . He shared the driving with Christian Werner , who took over Caracciola 's car when the latter collapsed with heat exhaustion at a pit stop . The German Grand Prix , like many other races at the time , ignored the official Grand Prix racing rules set by the Association Internationale des Automobile Clubs Reconnus ( International Association of Recognized Auto Clubs , or AIACR ) , which limited weight and fuel consumption , and instead ran races under a Formula Libre , or free formula . As a result , Mercedes @-@ Benz focused less on producing Grand Prix cars and more on sports cars , and Caracciola drove the latest incarnation of this line , the SSK , at the Semmering hillclimb , and further reduced his own record on the course by half a second .
The inaugural Monaco Grand Prix was held on 14 April 1929 . Caracciola , driving a 7 @.@ 1 @-@ litre Mercedes @-@ Benz SSK , started from the back row of the grid ( which was allocated randomly ) , and battled Bugatti driver William Grover @-@ Williams for the lead early on . However , his pit stop , which took four and a half minutes to refill his car with petrol , left him unable to recover the time , and he eventually finished third . He won the RAC Tourist Trophy in slippery conditions , and confirmed his reputation as a specialist in wet track racing . He partnered Werner in the Mille Miglia and Le Mans endurance races in 1930 ; they finished sixth in the former but were forced to retire after leading for most of the race in the latter after their car 's generator burnt out . Caracciola took victory in the 1930 Irish Grand Prix at Phoenix Park , and won four hillclimbs to take the title of European Hillclimb Champion for the first time . However , he was forced to close his dealership in Berlin after the firm went bankrupt .
= = 1931 – 1932 : Move to Alfa Romeo = =
Mercedes @-@ Benz officially withdrew from motor racing in 1931 — citing the global economic downturn as a reason for their decision — although they continued to support Caracciola and a few other drivers covertly , retaining manager Alfred Neubauer to run the ' independent ' operation . In part because of the financial situation , Caracciola was the only Mercedes driver to appear at the 1931 Monaco Grand Prix , driving an SSKL ( a shorter version of the SSK ) . Caracciola and Maserati driver Luigi Fagioli challenged the Bugattis of Louis Chiron and Achille Varzi for the lead early in the race , but when the SSKL 's clutch failed Caracciola withdrew from the race . A crowd of 100 @,@ 000 turned out for the German Grand Prix at the Nürburgring . Rain began to fall before the race , and continued as Caracciola chased Fagioli for the lead in the early laps . The spray from Fagioli 's Maserati severely impaired Caracciola 's vision , but he was able to pass to take the lead at the Schwalbenschwanz corner . The track began to dry on lap six , and Chiron 's Bugatti , which was by then running second , began to catch the heavier Mercedes . Caracciola 's pit stop , completed in record time , kept him ahead of Chiron , and despite the Bugatti lapping 15 seconds faster than the Mercedes late in the race , Caracciola won by more than one minute .
Caracciola was lucky to escape from a crash in the Masaryk Grand Prix . He and Chiron were chasing Fagioli when Fagioli crashed into a wooden footbridge , bringing it crashing down onto the road . Caracciola and Chiron drove into a ditch at the side of the road to avoid the debris ; while Chiron drove out of the ditch and was able to continue , Caracciola drove into a tree and retired . Despite this accident , Caracciola again performed strongly in the Hillclimbing Championship ; he won eight climbs in his SSKL to take the title . Perhaps his most significant achievement of 1931 was his win in the Mille Miglia . The local fleet of Alfa Romeos battled for the lead early in the race , but when they fell back Caracciola was able to take control . His win , in record time , made him and his co @-@ driver Wilhelm Sebastian ( who allowed Caracciola to drive the entire race ) the first foreigners to win the Italian race . The only other foreigners to win the race on the full course were Stirling Moss and Denis Jenkinson in 1955 .
Mercedes @-@ Benz withdrew entirely from motor racing at the start of 1932 in the face of the economic crisis , so Caracciola moved to Alfa Romeo with a promise to return to Mercedes if they resumed racing . His contract stipulated he would begin racing for the Italian team as a semi @-@ independent . Caracciola later wrote that the Alfa Romeo manager was defensive when he questioned him about this clause ; Caracciola believed it was because the firm 's Italian drivers did not believe he could change from the huge Mercedes cars to the much smaller Alfa Romeos . His first race for his new team was at the Mille Miglia ; he led early in the race , but retired when a valve connection broke . Caracciola later wrote , " I can still see the expression on [ Alfa Romeo driver Giuseppe ] Campari 's face when I arrived back at the factory . He smiled to himself as if to say , Well , didn 't I tell you that one wasn 't going to make it ? "
The next race was the Monaco Grand Prix , where Caracciola was again entered as a semi @-@ independent . He ran fourth early in the race , but moved to second as Alfa Romeo driver Baconin Borzacchini pitted for a wheel change and the axle on Achille Varzi 's Bugatti broke . Tazio Nuvolari , in the other Alfa Romeo , found his lead reduced rapidly as Caracciola closed in ; with ten laps remaining in the race Caracciola was so close he could see Nuvolari changing gears . He finished the race just behind Nuvolari . The crowd jeered Caracciola : they believed he had deliberately lost for the team , denying them a fight for the win . However , on the strength of his performance , Caracciola was offered a full spot on the Alfa Romeo team , which he accepted .
Alfa Romeo dominated the rest of the Grand Prix season . Nuvolari and Campari drove the newly introduced Alfa Romeo P3 at the Italian Grand Prix , while Borzacchini and Caracciola drove much heavier 8Cs . Caracciola was forced to retired when his car broke down , but he took over Borzacchini 's car when the Italian was hit by a stone , and came third , behind Nuvolari and Fagioli . In the French Grand Prix , Caracciola , now driving a P3 , battled Nuvolari for the lead early on . Alfa Romeo 's dominance was so great and their cars so far ahead the team could choose the top three finishing positions , thus Nuvolari won from Borzacchini and Caracciola , with the two Italians ahead of the German . The order was different at the 1932 German Grand Prix , where Caracciola won from Nuvolari and Borzacchini .
Caracciola performed strongly in other races ; he won the Polish and Monza Grands Prix and the Eifelrennen at the Nürburgring , and took five more hillclimbs to win that Championship for the third and final time . He was , however , beaten by the Mercedes @-@ Benz of Manfred von Brauchitsch at the Avusrennen ( the yearly race at the AVUS track ) . Von Brauchitsch drove a privately entered SSK with streamlined bodywork , and beat Caracciola 's Alfa Romeo , which finished in second place . Caracciola was seen by the German crowd as having defected to the Italian team and was booed , while von Brauchitsch 's all German victory drew mass support .
= = 1933 – 1934 : Injury and return for Mercedes = =
Alfa Romeo withdrew its factory team from motor racing at the start of the 1933 season , leaving Caracciola without a contract . He was close friends with the Monegasque driver Louis Chiron , who had been fired from Bugatti , and while on vacation in Arosa in Switzerland the two decided to form their own team , Scuderia C.C. ( Caracciola @-@ Chiron ) . They bought three Alfa Romeo 8Cs ( known as Monzas ) , and Daimler @-@ Benz provided a truck to transport them . Chiron 's car was painted blue with a white stripe , and Caracciola 's white with a blue stripe . The new team 's first race was at the Monaco Grand Prix . On the second day of practice for the race , while Caracciola was showing Chiron around the circuit ( it was Chiron 's first time in an Alfa Romeo ) , the German lost control heading into the Tabac corner . Three of the four brakes failed , which destabilised the car . Faced with diving into the sea or smashing into the wall , Caracciola instinctively chose the latter . Caracciola later recounted what happened after the impact :
Only the body of the car was smashed , especially around my seat . Carefully I drew my leg out of the steel trap . Bracing myself against the frame of the body , I slowly extricated myself from the seat ... I tried to hurry out of the car . I wanted to show that nothing had happened to me , that I was absolutely unhurt . I stepped to the ground . At that instant the pain flashed through my leg . It was a ferocious pain , as if my leg were being slashed by hot , glowing knives . I collapsed , Chiron catching me in his arms .
Caracciola was carried on a chair to the local tobacco shop , and from there he went to the hospital . He had sustained multiple fractures of his right thigh , and his doctors doubted he would race again . He transferred to a private clinic in Bologna , where his injured leg remained in a plaster cast for six months . Caracciola defied the predictions of his doctors and healed faster than expected , and in the winter Charlotte took her husband back to Arosa , where the altitude and fresh air would aid his recovery .
The rise to power of the Nazi Party on 30 January 1933 gave German motor companies , notably Mercedes @-@ Benz and Auto Union , an opportunity to return to motor racing . Having secured promises of funding shortly after the Nazis ' rise to power , both companies spent the better part of 1933 developing their racing projects . Alfred Neubauer , the Mercedes racing manager , travelled to the Caracciolas ' chalet in Lugano in November with a plan to sign him for the 1934 Grand Prix season if he was fit . Neubauer challenged Caracciola to walk , and although the driver laughed and smiled while he did so Neubauer was not fooled : Caracciola was not yet fit . Nevertheless , he offered him a contract , provided he prove his fitness in testing at the AVUS track early in the next year . Caracciola agreed and went to Stuttgart to sign the contract . The trip wore him out so much he spent much of his time lying on his hotel bed recuperating .
Upon his return to Lugano , another tragedy befell him . In February , Charlotte died when the party she was skiing with in the Swiss Alps was hit by an avalanche . Caracciola withdrew almost entirely from public life while he mourned , almost deciding to retire completely from motor racing . A visit from Chiron encouraged him to return to racing , and despite his initial reservations he was persuaded to drive the lap of honour before the 1934 Monaco Grand Prix . Although his leg still ached while he drove , the experience convinced him to return to racing .
Caracciola tested the new Mercedes @-@ Benz W25 at the AVUS track in April , and despite his injuries — his right leg had healed five 5 centimetres ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) shorter than his left , leaving him with a noticeable limp — he was cleared to race . However , Neubauer withdrew the Mercedes team from their first race , also at the AVUS track , as their practice times compared too unfavourably to Auto Union 's . Caracciola was judged not fit to race for the Eifelrennen at the Nürburgring , but made the start for the German Grand Prix at the same track six weeks later . He took the lead from Auto Union driver Hans Stuck on the outside of the Karussel on the 13th lap , but retired a lap later when his engine failed . He had better luck at the 1934 Italian Grand Prix in September . In very hot weather , Caracciola started from fourth and moved to second , where he trailed Stuck . After 59 laps , the pain in his leg overwhelmed him , and he pitted , letting teammate Fagioli take over his car . Fagioli won from Stuck 's car which by then had been taken over by Nuvolari . His best results in the rest of the season were a second place in the Spanish Grand Prix — he led before Fagioli passed him , much to the anger of Neubauer , who had ordered the Italian to hold position — and first at the Klausenpass hillclimb .
= = 1935 – 1936 : First Championship and rivalry with Rosemeyer = =
Caracciola took the first of his three European Drivers ' Championships in 1935 . Five Grands Prix — the Belgian , German , Swiss , Italian and Spanish — would be included for Championship consideration . He opened the Championship season with a win in Belgium , ahead of Fagioli and von Brauchitsch , who shared the other Mercedes @-@ Benz W25 . Nuvolari won a surprise victory at the Nürburgring in his Alfa Romeo P3 , ahead of Stuck and Caracciola . The Swiss Grand Prix was held at the Bremgarten Circuit in Bern , and Caracciola won from Fagioli and the new Auto Union star Bernd Rosemeyer . Caracciola won the Spanish Grand Prix from Fagioli and von Brauchitsch ; although his transmission failed at the Italian Grand Prix and he was forced to retire , his three wins allowed him to take the Championship .
In the other races of the 1935 season , Caracciola won the Eifelrennen at the Nürburgring and finished second at the Penya Rhin Grand Prix in Barcelona . He also won the Tripoli Grand Prix , organised by the Libyan Governor @-@ General Italo Balbo . The Grand Prix was held in the desert , around a salt lake , and because of the intense heat Neubauer was concerned that the tyres on the Mercedes @-@ Benz cars would not last . Caracciola started poorly , but moved to third , after four pit stops to change tyres , by lap 30 of 40 . He inherited the lead from Nuvolari and Varzi when the two Italians pitted , and held it to the finish , despite a late charge from Varzi . Caracciola later wrote that this was the race where he began to feel he had recovered from his crash in Monaco two years before , and he was now back among the contenders .
Remaining in such a position would require Mercedes @-@ Benz to produce a competitive car for the 1936 season . Although the chassis of the W25 was shortened , and the engine was significantly upgraded to 4 @.@ 74 litres , the car proved inferior to the Type C developed by Auto Union . Mercedes had not improved the chassis to match the engine , and the W25 proved uncompetitive and unreliable . Despite this , Caracciola opened the season with a win in the rain at the Monaco Grand Prix , after starting from third position . He led the Hungarian Grand Prix early but retired with mechanical problems . At the German Grand Prix , he retired with a failed fuel pump , before taking over his teammate Hermann Lang 's car ; he later retired that car with supercharger problems . Caracciola led the Swiss Grand Prix for several laps , Rosemeyer trailing him closely , but the Clerk of the Course ordered Caracciola to cede the lead to Rosemeyer on the ninth lap after he was found to be blocking the Auto Union . The two had a heated argument after the race despite Caracciola 's later retirement with a rear axle problem . Mercedes were so uncompetitive in 1936 — Caracciola won only twice , in Monaco and Tunis — that Neubauer withdrew the team mid @-@ season , leaving Rosemeyer to take the Championship for Auto Union .
= = 1937 : Second Championship = =
Mercedes @-@ Benz returned to Grand Prix racing at the start of the 1937 season with a new car . The W125 was a vast improvement on its predecessor , its supercharged eight cylinder 5 @.@ 6 @-@ litre engine delivered significantly more power than the W25 : 650 brake horsepower compared to 500 . The first major race of 1937 was the Avusrennen where 300 @,@ 000 people turned out to see the cars race on the newly re @-@ constructed track . In order to keep speeds consistently high , the north curve was turned into a steeply banked turn , apparently at the suggestion of Adolf Hitler . Driving a streamlined Mercedes @-@ Benz , Caracciola won his heat against Rosemeyer , averaging around 250 kilometres per hour ( 160 mph ) , although a transmission failure forced him to retire in the final . Following the AVUS race , Caracciola , along with Rosemeyer , Nuvolari and Mercedes ' new driver , Richard Seaman , went to race in the revived Vanderbilt Cup in America , and in doing so missed the Belgian Grand Prix , which took place six days later . Caracciola led until lap 22 , when he retired with a broken supercharger .
Caracciola started from the second row of the grid at the German Grand Prix , but was into the lead soon after the start . There he remained to the finish , in front of von Brauchitsch and Rosemeyer . He took pole position at the Monaco Grand Prix three weeks later , and was soon engaged in a hard fight with von Brauchitsch . The Mercedes @-@ Benz drivers took the lead from each other several times , but von Brauchitsch won after a screw fell into Caracciola 's induction system during a pit stop , costing him three and a half minutes . Caracciola won his second race of the season at the Swiss Grand Prix . Despite heavy rain which made the Bremgarten Circuit slippery and hazardous , Caracciola set a new lap record , at an average speed of 169 kilometres per hour ( 105 mph ) , and cemented his reputation as the Regenmeister .
For the first time , the Italian Grand Prix was held at the Livorno Circuit rather than the traditional venue of Monza . Caracciola took pole position , and despite two false starts caused by spectators pouring onto the track , held his lead for the majority of the race and won from his teammate Lang by just 0 @.@ 4 seconds . In doing so Caracciola clinched the European Championship for the second time . He backed up the win with another at the Masaryk Grand Prix two weeks later . He trailed Rosemeyer for much of the race until the Auto Union skidded against a kerb and allowed the Mercedes into the lead .
Caracciola married for the second time in 1937 , to Alice Hoffman @-@ Trobeck , who worked as a timekeeper for Mercedes @-@ Benz . He had met her in 1932 , when she was having an affair with Chiron . She was , at that time , married to Alfred Hoffman @-@ Trobeck , a Swiss businessman and heir to a pharmaceutical empire . She had taken care of Caracciola after Charlotte died , and shortly after began an affair with him , unbeknownst to Chiron . They were married in June in Lugano , just before the trip to America .
= = 1938 : Speed records and third Championship = =
On 28 January 1938 Caracciola and the Mercedes @-@ Benz record team appeared on the Reichs @-@ Autobahn A5 between Frankfurt and Darmstadt , in an attempt to break numerous speed records set by the Auto Union team . The system of speed records at the time used classes based on engine capacity , allowing modified Grand Prix cars , in this case a W125 , to be used to break records . Caracciola had broken previous records — he reached 311 @.@ 985 kilometres per hour ( 193 @.@ 858 mph ) in 1935 — but these had been superseded by Auto Union drivers , first Stuck and then Rosemeyer . Driving a Mercedes @-@ Benz W125 Rekordwagen , essentially a W125 with streamlined bodywork and a larger engine , Caracciola set a new average speed of 432 @.@ 7 kilometres per hour ( 268 @.@ 9 mph ) for the flying kilometre and 432 @.@ 4 kilometres per hour ( 268 @.@ 7 mph ) for the flying mile , speeds which remain to this day as some of the fastest ever achieved on public roads . The day ended in tragedy however ; Rosemeyer set off in his Auto Union in an attempt to break Caracciola 's new records , but his car was struck by a violent gust of wind while he was travelling at around 400 kilometres per hour ( 250 mph ) , hurling the car off the road , where it rolled twice , killing its driver . Rosemeyer 's death had a profound effect on Caracciola , as he later wrote :
What was the sense in men chasing each other to death for the sake of a few seconds ? To serve progress ? To serve mankind ? What a ridiculous phrase in the face of the great reality of death . But then — why ? Why ? And for the first time , at that moment , I felt that every life is lived according to its own laws . And that the law for a fighter is : to burn oneself up to the last fibre , no matter what happens to the ashes .
The Grand Prix formula was changed again in 1938 , abandoning the previous system of weight restrictions and instead limiting piston displacement . Mercedes @-@ Benz ' new car , the W154 , proved its abilities at the French Grand Prix , where von Brauchitsch won ahead of Caracciola and Lang to make it a Mercedes 1 – 2 – 3 . Caracciola won two races in the 1938 season : the Swiss Grand Prix and the Coppa Acerbo ; finished second in three : the French , German and Pau Grands Prix ; and third in two : the Tripoli and Italian Grands Prix , to take the European Championship for the third and final time . The highlight of Caracciola 's season was his win in the pouring rain at the Swiss Grand Prix . His teammate Seaman led for the first 11 laps before Caracciola passed him ; he remained in the lead for the rest of the race , despite losing the visor on his helmet , severely reducing visibility , especially given the spray thrown up by tyres of the many lapped cars .
= = 1939 : Claims of favouritism towards Lang = =
The 1939 season took place under the looming shadow of the coming Second World War , and the schedule was only halted with the Invasion of Poland in September . The Championship season began with the Belgian Grand Prix in June . In heavy rain , Caracciola spun at La Source , got out and pushed his car off into the safety of the trees . Later in the race , Seaman left the track at the same corner , his car bursting into flames upon impact with the trees , where he was burnt alive in the cockpit . He died that night in hospital , after briefly regaining consciousness . The entire Mercedes team travelled to London for his burial . In the rest of the season , Caracciola won the German Grand Prix for the sixth and final time , again in the rain , after starting third on the grid . He finished second behind Lang at the Swiss and Tripoli Grands Prix . The latter race was seen as a major win for Mercedes @-@ Benz . In an effort to halt German dominance at the event , the Italian organisers decided to limit engine sizes to 1 @.@ 5 litres ( the German teams at the time ran 3 @-@ litre engines ) , and announce the change at the last moment . The change was , however , leaked to Mercedes @-@ Benz well in advance , and in just eight months the firm developed and built two W165s under the new restrictions ; both of them beat the combined might of 28 Italian cars , much to the disappointment of the organisers . Caracciola believed that the Mercedes @-@ Benz team were favouring Lang during the 1939 season ; in a letter sent to Mercedes ' brand owner Daimler @-@ Benz CEO Dr. Wilhelm Kissel , he wrote :
I see little chance of the situation changing at all . Starting with Herr Sailer [ Max Sailer , then the head of the Mercedes racing division ] through Neubauer , down to the mechanics , there is an obsession with Lang . Herr Neubauer admitted frankly to Herr von Brauchitsch that he was standing by the man who has good luck , and whom the sun shines on ... I really enjoy racing and want to go on driving for a long time . However , this presupposes that I fight with the same weapons as my stablemates . Yet this will be hardly possible in the future , as almost all the mechanics and engine specialists in the racing division are on Lang 's side ...
Despite Caracciola 's protests , Lang was declared the 1939 European Champion by the NSKK ( Nationalsozialistisches Kraftfahrkorps , or National Socialist Motor Corps ) — although this was never ratified by the AIACR , and Auto Union driver Hermann Paul Müller may have a valid claim to the title under the official scoring system — and motor racing was put on hold upon the outbreak of war .
= = War , comeback and later years = =
Caracciola and his wife Alice returned to their home in Lugano . For the duration of the war he was unable to drive ; the rationing of petrol meant motor racing was unfeasible . The pain in his leg grew worse , and they went back to the clinic in Bologna to consult a specialist . Surgery was recommended , but Caracciola decided against that option , deterred by the minimum three months it would take to recover from the operation . He spent much of the last part of the war — from 1941 onwards — attempting to gain possession of the two W165s used at the 1939 Tripoli Grand Prix , with a view to maintaining them for the duration of the hostilities . When they finally arrived in Switzerland in early 1945 , they were confiscated as German property by the Swiss authorities .
He was invited to participate in the 1946 Indianapolis 500 , and originally intended to drive one of the W165s , but was unable to have them released in time . Nevertheless , he headed to America to watch the race . Joe Thorne , a local team owner , offered him one of his Thorne Engineering Specials to drive , but during a practice session before the race Caracciola was hit on the head by an object , believed to be a bird , and crashed into the south wall . His life was saved by a tank driver 's helmet the organisers insisted he wear , in spite of which he suffered a severe concussion and was in a coma for several days .
Caracciola returned to racing in 1952 , when he was recalled to the Mercedes @-@ Benz factory team to drive the new Mercedes @-@ Benz W194 in sports car races . The first major race with the car was the Mille Miglia , alongside Karl Kling and his old teammate Hermann Lang . Kling finished second in the race , Caracciola fourth . It later emerged that Caracciola had been given a car with an inferior engine to his teammates , perhaps because of a lack of time to prepare for the race . Caracciola 's career ended with his third major crash ; during a support race for the 1952 Swiss Grand Prix , the brakes on his 300SL locked and he skidded into a tree , fracturing his left leg .
After his retirement from racing , he continued to work for Daimler @-@ Benz as a salesman , targeting NATO troops stationed in Europe . He organised shows and demonstrations which toured military bases , leading in part to an increase in Mercedes @-@ Benz sales during that period . In early 1959 , he became sick and developed signs of jaundice , which worsened despite treatment . Later in the year he was diagnosed with advanced cirrhosis . On 28 September 1959 , in Kassel , Germany , he suffered liver failure and died , aged 58 . He was buried in his home town of Lugano .
= = Nazi connections = =
Caracciola first met Adolf Hitler , the leader of the Nazi Party , in 1931 . Hitler had ordered a Mercedes @-@ Benz 770 , at that point Mercedes ' most expensive car , but due to the amount of time spent upgrading the car in line with the Nazi leader 's wishes , the delivery was late . To mollify Hitler 's anger , Caracciola was dispatched by Mercedes to deliver the car to the Brown House in Munich . Caracciola drove Hitler and his niece Geli Raubal around Munich to demonstrate the car . He later wrote ( after the fall of the Nazi Party ) that he was not particularly awed by Hitler : " I could not imagine that this man would have the requirements for taking over the government someday . "
Like most German racing drivers in Nazi Germany , Caracciola was a member of the NSKK , a paramilitary organisation of the Nazi Party devoted to motor racing and motor cars ; during the Second World War it handled transport and supply . In reports on races by German media Caracciola was referred to as NSKK @-@ Staffelführer Caracciola , the equivalent of a Squadron Leader . After races in Germany the drivers took part in presentations to the crowd coordinated by NSKK leader Adolf Hühnlein and attended by senior Nazis . Although he wrote after the fall of the Nazi regime that he found such presentations dull and uninspiring , Caracciola occasionally used his position as a famous racing driver to publicly support the Nazi regime ; for example , in 1938 , while supporting the Nazi platform at the Reichstag elections , he said , " [ t ] he unique successes of these new racing cars in the past four years are a victorious symbol of our Führer 's ( Hitler 's ) achievement in rebuilding the nation . "
Despite this , when Caracciola socialised with the upper Nazi echelons he did so merely as an " accessory " , not as an active member , and at no time was he a member of the Nazi Party . According to his autobiography , he turned down a request from the NSKK in 1942 to entertain German troops , as he " could not find it in myself to cheer up young men so that they would believe in a victory I myself could not believe in " . Caracciola lived in Switzerland from the early 1930s , and despite strict currency controls , his salary was paid in Swiss francs . During the war , he continued to receive a pension from Daimler @-@ Benz , until the firm ceased his payments under pressure from the Nazi party in 1942 .
= = Legacy = =
Caracciola is remembered — along with Nuvolari and Rosemeyer — as one of the greatest pre @-@ 1939 Grand Prix drivers . He has a reputation of a perfectionist , who very rarely had accidents or caused mechanical failures in his cars , who could deliver when needed regardless of the conditions . His relationship with Mercedes racing manager Alfred Neubauer , one of mutual respect , is often cited as a contributing factor to his success . After Caracciola 's death , Neubauer described him as :
... the greatest driver of the twenties and thirties , perhaps even of all time . He combined , to an extraordinary extent , determination with concentration , physical strength with intelligence . Caracciola was second to none in his ability to triumph over shortcomings .
His trophy collection was donated to the Indianapolis Hall of Fame Museum , and he was inducted into the International Motorsports Hall of Fame in 1998 . In 2001 , on the 100th anniversary of his birth , a monument to Caracciola was erected in his birth town of Remagen , and on the 50th anniversary of his death in 2009 Caracciola Square was dedicated off of the town 's Rheinpromenade . Karussel corner at the Nürburgring was renamed after him , officially becoming the Caracciola Karussel . As of 2014 , Caracciola 's record of six German Grand Prix victories remains unbeaten .
During the inaugural official meeting of the 200 Mile Per Hour Club on 2 September 1953 , Caracciola was inducted as one of the original three foreigners who met the club 's requirements of achieving an average of over 200 mph over two runs for his past achievements prior to the club 's foundation .
= = Complete European Championship results = =
= Ex parte Crow Dog =
Ex parte Crow Dog , 109 U.S. 556 ( 1883 ) , is a decision of the Supreme Court of the United States that followed the death of one member of a Native American tribe at the hands of another on reservation land . Crow Dog was a member of the Brulé band of the Lakota Sioux . On August 5 , 1881 he shot and killed Spotted Tail , a Lakota chief ; there are different accounts of the background to the killing . The tribal council dealt with the incident according to Sioux tradition , and Crow Dog paid restitution to the dead man 's family . However , the U.S. authorities then prosecuted Crow Dog for murder in a federal court . He was found guilty and sentenced to hang . The Supreme Court held that unless authorized by Congress , federal courts had no jurisdiction to try cases where the offense had already been tried by the tribal council . Crow Dog was therefore released . This case was the first time in history that an Indian was held on trial for the murder of another Indian . The case led to the Major Crimes Act in 1885 , which placed some major crimes ( initially seven , now 15 ) under federal jurisdiction if committed by an Indian against another Indian on a reservation or tribal land . This case was the beginning of the plenary power legal doctrine that has been used in Indian case law to limit tribal sovereignty .
= = Background = =
= = = Treaties and statutes = = =
Crow Dog was a Brulé subchief who lived on the Great Sioux Reservation , in the part that is now the Rosebud Indian Reservation in south @-@ central South Dakota on its border with Nebraska . The tribe had made several treaties with the United States , the most significant being the 1868 Treaty of Fort Laramie . This treaty provided that Indians agreed to turn over those accused of crimes to the Indian agent , a representative of the U.S. government in Indian affairs . The treaty also stipulated that tribal members would stay on the reservation provided ( which included the Black Hills ) unless three @-@ fourths of the adult male tribal members agreed otherwise . In 1874 , Colonel George Armstrong Custer led a party into the Black Hills to investigate rumors of gold . Once he announced the discovery of gold on French Creek , the Black Hills Gold Rush brought prospectors into that area in violation of the Fort Laramie treaty . The Lakota protested in 1875 to no avail , as the United States demanded that the Lakota sell the Black Hills . The United States then declared the Lakota as hostile , which started the Black Hills War . The war included the Battle of the Rosebud , the Battle of the Little Bighorn and the Battle of Slim Buttes , among others . The war ended in 1877 . Crow Dog fought in this war , while the man he later killed , Spotted Tail , did not . Congress passed a law later in 1877 ( 19 Stat . 176 ) that took the Black Hills away from the tribe , contrary to the language of the treaty .
= = = Murder of Spotted Tail = = =
On August 5 , 1881 Crow Dog shot and killed Spotted Tail , who was the uncle of Oglala Lakota war leader Crazy Horse . Spotted Tail had not been selected as a chief by the tribe , but instead had been appointed by General George Crook in 1876 , which hurt him in the view of many of the tribe . He was viewed as an accommodationist and the Bureau of Indian Affairs ( BIA ) referred to him as the " great peace chief . " He also supervised the tribal police of about 300 men . In contrast , Crow Dog was a traditionalist and although he had been a captain in the tribal police , he was fired by Spotted Tail sometime after a July 4 , 1881 , confrontation during which Crow Dog pointed a rifle at Spotted Tail .
On August 5 , tensions further escalated at a tribal meeting where a number of tribal members criticized Spotted Tail for taking Light @-@ in @-@ the @-@ Lodge , the wife of Medicine Bear , a crippled man , into his household as his second wife . It was believed that the killing occurred that day as the result of Crow Dog and Spotted Tail meeting , both armed , and mistaking the other man 's intentions . In another version of the story , Crow Dog was appointed by the tribal council to head the tribal police , which undermined the authority of Spotted Tail . Crow Dog discovered that Spotted Tail was taking money from ranchers for " grazing rights " and he denounced him for it , while Spotted Tail defended the practice . A later conflict with the Indian agent forced the tribal police to disband , and Crow Dog lost his position . This version makes no mention of another man 's wife being the reason for the killing , and states that Crow Dog ambushed Spotted Tail to gain power in the tribe . There is no consensus among historians as to which events happened as described .
In either case , the matter was settled within the tribe , following longstanding tribal custom , by Crow Dog making a restitution payment of $ 600 , eight horses , and one blanket to Spotted Tail 's family .
= = = Trial = = =
Following the killing and the settlement under tribal customs , the Indian agent had Crow Dog arrested and taken to Fort Niobrara , Nebraska . Within 20 days , the U.S. Attorney General and the Secretary of the Interior concluded that the Federal Enclave Act of 1854 as modified by the Assimilative Crimes Act allowed the territorial death penalty to be applied to Crow Dog . In September 1881 , Crow Dog was indicted by a federal grand jury for murder and manslaughter under the laws of the Dakota Territory . In March 1882 the case was heard by Judge Gideon C. Moody at the First Judicial District Court of Dakota , located in Deadwood , South Dakota . The court appointed A. J. Plowman to represent Crow Dog , who claimed that he had been punished and made reparations according to the customs of the Brulé Sioux tribe . According to a contemporary news report of the Deadwood Times it was the first time " in the history of the country , [ that ] an Indian is held for trial for the murder of another Indian . " The trial was viewed at the time as a sham , and despite testimonies from Indian witnesses stating that Spotted Tail had killed a rival once before , that Spotted Tail drew a pistol on Crow Dog , and that Spotted Tail 's intention was to kill Crow Dog , Crow Dog was convicted and sentenced to be hanged on May 11 , 1882 . The prosecution had presented five Indian witnesses who stated that Spotted Tail was ambushed , and some witnesses stated he was unarmed . In an unusual move for a death penalty case , Moody released Crow Dog , allowing him to go home pending his appeal to the territorial Supreme Court . Surprising many of the white citizens of the area , Crow Dog returned to court as required . In May 1882 , the territorial Supreme Court affirmed the conviction , and the execution was rescheduled for May 11 , 1883 . Crow Dog then petitioned the United States Supreme Court for a writ of habeas corpus and the Supreme Court accepted the case .
= = Opinion of the Court = =
Justice Stanley Matthews delivered the opinion of the unanimous court . Matthews noted that Crow Dog was indicted for murder under a statute prohibiting murder on federal land . Matthews then looked at the federal laws dealing with Indians , including a statute that applied the prohibition on murder to Indian reservations and another covering exceptions to prosecution . The first statute prohibited murder on federal land , the second statute applied the first statute to reservations , and the last had specific exceptions to prosecution . Matthews felt that this last section was the most critical one in the case , with the section stating unequivocally that federal law : " shall not be construed to extend to [ crimes committed by one Indian against the person or property of another Indian , nor to ] any Indian committing any offense in the Indian country who has been punished by the local law of the tribe " ( brackets in original ) . Matthews rejected the contention of the United States that the 1868 Treaty of Fort Laramie implicitly repealed the exceptions to prosecution . He stated that since the law had not been amended or changed , and since implied repeals are not favored unless the implication is necessary , to allow such a repeal would be to reverse the general policy of the United States . Matthews said that such a repeal required a " clear expression of the intention of Congress , " which was not present in the case . In a clear evocation of the principle of tribal sovereignty , Matthews stated :
" It tries them , not by their peers , nor by the customs of their people , nor the law of their land , but by superiors of a different race , according to the law of a social state of which they have an imperfect conception , and which is opposed to the traditions of their history , to the habits of their lives , to the strongest prejudices of their savage nature ; one which measures the red man 's revenge by the maxims of the white man 's morality . "
As a result , the Court concluded , the First Judicial District Court of Dakota was without jurisdiction to hear the case . The writ of habeas corpus was issued , discharging Crow Dog from federal custody .
= = Subsequent developments = =
= = = Major Crimes Act of 1885 = = =
Shocked by the Supreme Court 's decision and under strong pressure from the BIA , Congress passed the Major Crimes Act in response . The Major Crimes Act placed seven serious felony offenses ( with amendments over the years , now fifteen ) under the jurisdiction of the federal government . Those wishing to assimilate Indians into mainstream white society wanted to do away with the " heathen " tribal laws and apply white laws to the tribes . The BIA had also been attempting since 1874 to extend federal jurisdiction over major crimes to reservations , without any success . Beginning in 1882 , the Indian Rights Association ( IRA ) also tried to extend federal jurisdiction , but in a different manner . The IRA believed that the tribes would be better served by a completely separate court system , modeled after U.S. courts and called agency courts . The only appeal would be to the Commissioner of Indian Affairs . The BIA opposed that approach , preferring to try only major crimes in the nearest federal court . Ex parte Crow Dog provided the BIA a perfect example of why this was needed , along with an incident involving Spotted Tail 's son , Spotted Tail , Jr . , in which the younger Spotted Tail participated in a fight during which three Brulé were killed . The younger Spotted Tail was also confined pending murder charges , and it took a direct order of the Secretary of the Interior for the local BIA agents to comply with the Supreme Court decision before he was released . The BIA also implemented regulations in 1883 criminalizing traditional tribal practices such as war dances and polygamy . Between the BIA 's efforts and the IRA efforts , the law was passed in 1885 , making seven offenses federal crimes . Many members of the Indian tribes were bitter with this outcome for decades afterwards . Wayne Ducheneaux , president of the National Congress of American Indians , testified before Congress on the matter in 1968 :
" Before all this came about we had our own method of dealing with law @-@ breakers and in settling disputes between members . That all changed when Crow Dog killed Spotted Tail . Of course , our method of dealing with that was Crow Dog should go take care of Spotted Tail 's family , and if he didn 't do that we 'd banish him from the tribe . But that was considered too barbaric , and thought perhaps we should hang him like civilized people do , so they passed the Major Crimes Act that said we don 't know how to handle murderers and they were going to show us . "
In 2000 , Larry Echo Hawk , a Pawnee who had been the Attorney General of Idaho and was later the Assistant Secretary of the Interior for Indian Affairs , noted that : " The Major Crimes Act was designed to give the federal government authority to criminally prosecute seven specific major crimes committed by Indians in Indian Country . It was a direct assault on the sovereign authority of tribal government over tribal members . "
= = = Tribal sovereignty = = =
Crow Dog had a tremendous impact on tribal sovereignty . The decision recognized two distinct concepts in addition to those related to criminal law . First , Justice Matthews had noted that under Cherokee Nation v. Georgia , ( 1831 ) the Brulé tribe had a right to its own law in Indian country . Part of this ruling was based on American constitutional tradition – at that time , Indians were not U.S. citizens and according to Matthews did not have a " voice in the selection of representatives and the framing of the laws . " The case held that Indian tribes retain sovereignty , and is still valid law . For example , United States v. Lara , ( 2004 ) cited Crow Dog when holding that both a tribe and the federal government could prosecute Lara , as they were separate sovereigns . Subsequent cases have supported the concept " that tribal Indians living in Indian country are citizens of the United States first ( under the plenary power doctrine ) , the tribes second , and the states third , and then only to the extent that Congress chooses . "
Currently the tribes are authorized to operate their own courts , not as a right of tribal sovereignty , but under a federal law . As of 2007 , about half of the federally recognized tribes have tribal courts . The power of these courts was limited to minor crimes with a maximum punishment of a $ 5 @,@ 000 fine and imprisonment of no more than one year until the passage of the Tribal Law and Order Act of 2010 . Under this new act , tribes may sentence offenders for up to three years per offense and a $ 15 @,@ 000 fine . As a result of Crow Dog and ensuing legislation , jurisdiction in Indian country is complex , as shown by the following table :
= = = Plenary power doctrine = = =
The court also created the plenary power doctrine , holding that the federal court did not have jurisdiction because Congress had not passed a law giving jurisdiction to the federal courts or taking away the rights of the tribe . Crow Dog was the last in a line of sovereignty cases that began with Cherokee Nation ; the next major case , United States v. Kagama , ( 1886 ) , upheld the plenary power of Congress to enact the Major Crimes Act . The plenary power doctrine allowed Congress to enact any law that it wanted to pass , over the opposition of the tribe or tribes affected . Congress subsequently used this power to breach the Medicine Lodge Treaty with the Kiowa by reducing the size of the Kiowa reservation without their consent . The use of this power led to complaints of being subject to a lawmaking body without representation , especially prior to being granted U.S. citizenship in 1924 .
= Gas metal arc welding =
Gas metal arc welding ( GMAW ) , sometimes referred to by its subtypes metal inert gas ( MIG ) welding or metal active gas ( MAG ) welding , is a welding process in which an electric arc forms between a consumable wire electrode and the workpiece metal ( s ) , which heats the workpiece metal ( s ) , causing them to melt and join .
Along with the wire electrode , a shielding gas feeds through the welding gun , which shields the process from contaminants in the air . The process can be semi @-@ automatic or automatic . A constant voltage , direct current power source is most commonly used with GMAW , but constant current systems , as well as alternating current , can be used . There are four primary methods of metal transfer in GMAW , called globular , short @-@ circuiting , spray , and pulsed @-@ spray , each of which has distinct properties and corresponding advantages and limitations .
Originally developed for welding aluminium and other non @-@ ferrous materials in the 1940s , GMAW was soon applied to steels because it provided faster welding time compared to other welding processes . The cost of inert gas limited its use in steels until several years later , when the use of semi @-@ inert gases such as carbon dioxide became common . Further developments during the 1950s and 1960s gave the process more versatility and as a result , it became a highly used industrial process . Today , GMAW is the most common industrial welding process , preferred for its versatility , speed and the relative ease of adapting the process to robotic automation . Unlike welding processes that do not employ a shielding gas , such as shielded metal arc welding , it is rarely used outdoors or in other areas of air volatility . A related process , flux cored arc welding , often does not use a shielding gas , but instead employs an electrode wire that is hollow and filled with flux .
= = Development = =
The principles of gas metal arc welding began to be understood in the early 19th century , after Humphry Davy discovered the short pulsed electric arcs in 1800 . Vasily Petrov independently produced the continuous electric arc in 1802 ( followed by Davy after 1808 ) . It was not until the 1880s that the technology became developed with the aim of industrial usage . At first , carbon electrodes were used in carbon arc welding . By 1890 , metal electrodes had been invented by Nikolay Slavyanov and C. L. Coffin . In 1920 , an early predecessor of GMAW was invented by P. O. Nobel of General Electric . It used a bare electrode wire and direct current , and used arc voltage to regulate the feed rate . It did not use a shielding gas to protect the weld , as developments in welding atmospheres did not take place until later that decade . In 1926 another forerunner of GMAW was released , but it was not suitable for practical use .
In 1948 , GMAW was developed by the Battelle Memorial Institute . It used a smaller diameter electrode and a constant voltage power source developed by H. E. Kennedy . It offered a high deposition rate , but the high cost of inert gases limited its use to non @-@ ferrous materials and prevented cost savings . In 1953 , the use of carbon dioxide as a welding atmosphere was developed , and it quickly gained popularity in GMAW , since it made welding steel more economical . In 1958 and 1959 , the short @-@ arc variation of GMAW was released , which increased welding versatility and made the welding of thin materials possible while relying on smaller electrode wires and more advanced power supplies . It quickly became the most popular GMAW variation .
The spray @-@ arc transfer variation was developed in the early 1960s , when experimenters added small amounts of oxygen to inert gases . More recently , pulsed current has been applied , giving rise to a new method called the pulsed spray @-@ arc variation .
GMAW is one of the most popular welding methods , especially in industrial environments . It is used extensively by the sheet metal industry and , by extension , the automobile industry . There , the method is often used for arc spot welding , thereby replacing riveting or resistance spot welding . It is also popular for automated welding , in which robots handle the workpieces and the welding gun to speed up the manufacturing process . GMAW can be difficult to perform well outdoors , since drafts can dissipate the shielding gas and allow contaminants into the weld ; flux cored arc welding is better suited for outdoor use such as in construction . Likewise , GMAW 's use of a shielding gas does not lend itself to underwater welding , which is more commonly performed via shielded metal arc welding , flux cored arc welding , or gas tungsten arc welding .
= = Equipment = =
To perform gas metal arc welding , the basic necessary equipment is a welding gun , a wire feed unit , a welding power supply , a welding electrode wire , and a shielding gas supply .
= = = Welding gun and wire feed unit = = =
The typical GMAW welding gun has a number of key parts — a control switch , a contact tip , a power cable , a gas nozzle , an electrode conduit and liner , and a gas hose . The control switch , or trigger , when pressed by the operator , initiates the wire feed , electric power , and the shielding gas flow , causing an electric arc to be struck . The contact tip , normally made of copper and sometimes chemically treated to reduce spatter , is connected to the welding power source through the power cable and transmits the electrical energy to the electrode while directing it to the weld area . It must be firmly secured and properly sized , since it must allow the electrode to pass while maintaining electrical contact . On the way to the contact tip , the wire is protected and guided by the electrode conduit and liner , which help prevent buckling and maintain an uninterrupted wire feed . The gas nozzle directs the shielding gas evenly into the welding zone . Inconsistent flow may not adequately protect the weld area . Larger nozzles provide greater shielding gas flow , which is useful for high current welding operations that develop a larger molten weld pool . A gas hose from the tanks of shielding gas supplies the gas to the nozzle . Sometimes , a water hose is also built into the welding gun , cooling the gun in high heat operations .
The wire feed unit supplies the electrode to the work , driving it through the conduit and on to the contact tip . Most models provide the wire at a constant feed rate , but more advanced machines can vary the feed rate in response to the arc length and voltage . Some wire feeders can reach feed rates as high as 30 @.@ 5 m / min ( 1200 in / min ) , but feed rates for semiautomatic GMAW typically range from 2 to 10 m / min ( 75 – 400 in / min ) .
= = = Tool style = = =
The most common electrode holder is a semiautomatic air @-@ cooled holder . Compressed air circulates through it to maintain moderate temperatures . It is used with lower current levels for welding lap or butt joints . The second most common type of electrode holder is semiautomatic water @-@ cooled , where the only difference is that water takes the place of air . It uses higher current levels for welding T or corner joints . The third typical holder type is a water cooled automatic electrode holder — which is typically used with automated equipment .
= = = Power supply = = =
Most applications of gas metal arc welding use a constant voltage power supply . As a result , any change in arc length ( which is directly related to voltage ) results in a large change in heat input and current . A shorter arc length causes a much greater heat input , which makes the wire electrode melt more quickly and thereby restore the original arc length . This helps operators keep the arc length consistent even when manually welding with hand @-@ held welding guns . To achieve a similar effect , sometimes a constant current power source is used in combination with an arc voltage @-@ controlled wire feed unit . In this case , a change in arc length makes the wire feed rate adjust to maintain a relatively constant arc length . In rare circumstances , a constant current power source and a constant wire feed rate unit might be coupled , especially for the welding of metals with high thermal conductivities , such as aluminum . This grants the operator additional control over the heat input into the weld , but requires significant skill to perform successfully .
Alternating current is rarely used with GMAW ; instead , direct current is employed and the electrode is generally positively charged . Since the anode tends to have a greater heat concentration , this results in faster melting of the feed wire , which increases weld penetration and welding speed . The polarity can be reversed only when special emissive @-@ coated electrode wires are used , but since these are not popular , a negatively charged electrode is rarely employed .
= = = Electrode = = =
Electrode selection is based primarily on the composition of the metal being welded , the process variation being used , joint design and the material surface conditions . Electrode selection greatly influences the mechanical properties of the weld and is a key factor of weld quality . In general the finished weld metal should have mechanical properties similar to those of the base material with no defects such as discontinuities , entrained contaminants or porosity within the weld . To achieve these goals a wide variety of electrodes exist . All commercially available electrodes contain deoxidizing metals such as silicon , manganese , titanium and aluminum in small percentages to help prevent oxygen porosity . Some contain denitriding metals such as titanium and zirconium to avoid nitrogen porosity . Depending on the process variation and base material being welded the diameters of the electrodes used in GMAW typically range from 0 @.@ 7 to 2 @.@ 4 mm ( 0 @.@ 028 – 0 @.@ 095 in ) but can be as large as 4 mm ( 0 @.@ 16 in ) . The smallest electrodes , generally up to 1 @.@ 14 mm ( 0 @.@ 045 in ) are associated with the short @-@ circuiting metal transfer process , while the most common spray @-@ transfer process mode electrodes are usually at least 0 @.@ 9 mm ( 0 @.@ 035 in ) .
= = = Shielding gas = = =
Shielding gases are necessary for gas metal arc welding to protect the welding area from atmospheric gases such as nitrogen and oxygen , which can cause fusion defects , porosity , and weld metal embrittlement if they come in contact with the electrode , the arc , or the welding metal . This problem is common to all arc welding processes ; for example , in the older Shielded @-@ Metal Arc Welding process ( SMAW ) , the electrode is coated with a solid flux which evolves a protective cloud of carbon dioxide when melted by the arc . In GMAW , however , the electrode wire does not have a flux coating , and a separate shielding gas is employed to protect the weld . This eliminates slag , the hard residue from the flux that builds up after welding and must be chipped off to reveal the completed weld .
The choice of a shielding gas depends on several factors , most importantly the type of material being welded and the process variation being used . Pure inert gases such as argon and helium are only used for nonferrous welding ; with steel they do not provide adequate weld penetration ( argon ) or cause an erratic arc and encourage spatter ( with helium ) . Pure carbon dioxide , on the other hand , allows for deep penetration welds but encourages oxide formation , which adversely affect the mechanical properties of the weld. lts low cost makes it an attractive choice , but because of the reactivity of the arc plasma , spatter is unavoidable and welding thin materials is difficult . As a result , argon and carbon dioxide are frequently mixed in a 75 % / 25 % to 90 % / 10 % mixture . Generally , in short circuit GMAW , higher carbon dioxide content increases the weld heat and energy when all other weld parameters ( volts , current , electrode type and diameter ) are held the same . As the carbon dioxide content increases over 20 % , spray transfer GMAW becomes increasingly problematic , especially with smaller electrode diameters .
Argon is also commonly mixed with other gases , oxygen , helium , hydrogen and nitrogen . The addition of up to 5 % oxygen ( like the higher concentrations of carbon dioxide mentioned above ) can be helpful in welding stainless steel , however , in most applications carbon dioxide is preferred . Increased oxygen makes the shielding gas oxidize the electrode , which can lead to porosity in the deposit if the electrode does not contain sufficient deoxidizers . Excessive oxygen , especially when used in application for which it is not prescribed , can lead to brittleness in the heat affected zone . Argon @-@ helium mixtures are extremely inert , and can be used on nonferrous materials . A helium concentration of 50 – 75 % raises the required voltage and increases the heat in the arc , due to helium 's higher ionization temperature . Hydrogen is sometimes added to argon in small concentrations ( up to about 5 % ) for welding nickel and thick stainless steel workpieces . In higher concentrations ( up to 25 % hydrogen ) , it may be used for welding conductive materials such as copper . However , it should not be used on steel , aluminum or magnesium because it can cause porosity and hydrogen embrittlement .
Shielding gas mixtures of three or more gases are also available . Mixtures of argon , carbon dioxide and oxygen are marketed for welding steels . Other mixtures add a small amount of helium to argon @-@ oxygen combinations , these mixtures are claimed to allow higher arc voltages and welding speed . Helium also sometimes serves as the base gas , with small amounts of argon and carbon dioxide added . However , because it is less dense than air , helium is less effective at shielding the weld than argon — which is denser than air . It also can lead to arc stability and penetration issues , and increased spatter , due to its much more energetic arc plasma . Helium is also substantially more expensive than other shielding gases . Other specialized and often proprietary gas mixtures claim even greater benefits for specific applications .
The desirable rate of shielding @-@ gas flow depends primarily on weld geometry , speed , current , the type of gas , and the metal transfer mode . Welding flat surfaces requires higher flow than welding grooved materials , since gas disperses more quickly . Faster welding speeds , in general , mean that more gas must be supplied to provide adequate coverage . Additionally , higher current requires greater flow , and generally , more helium is required to provide adequate coverage than if argon is used . Perhaps most importantly , the four primary variations of GMAW have differing shielding gas flow requirements — for the small weld pools of the short circuiting and pulsed spray modes , about 10 L / min ( 20 ft ³ / h ) is generally suitable , whereas for globular transfer , around 15 L / min ( 30 ft ³ / h ) is preferred . The spray transfer variation normally requires more shielding @-@ gas flow because of its higher heat input and thus larger weld pool . Typical gas @-@ flow amounts are approximately 20 – 25 L / min ( 40 – 50 ft ³ / h ) .
= = = = Flux @-@ cored wire @-@ fed = = = =
Flux @-@ cored , self @-@ shielding or gasless wire @-@ fed welding had been developed for simplicity and portability . This avoids the gas system of conventional GMAW and uses a cored wire containing a solid flux . This flux vaporises during welding and produces a plume of shielding gas . Although described as a ' flux ' , this compound has little activity and acts mostly as an inert shield . The wire is of slightly larger diameter than for a comparable gas @-@ shielded weld , to allow room for the flux . The smallest available is 0 @.@ 8 mm diameter , compared to 0 @.@ 6 mm for solid wire . The shield vapor is slightly active , rather than inert , so the process is always MAGS but not MIG ( inert gas shield ) . This limits the process to steel and not aluminium .
Vaporising the additional flux requires greater heat in the wire , so these gasless machines operate as DCEP , rather than the DCEN usually used for GMAW to give deeper penetration . DCEP , or DC Electrode Positive , makes the welding wire into the positively @-@ charged anode , which is the hotter side of the arc . Provided that it is switchable from DCEN to DCEP , a gas @-@ shielded wire @-@ feed machine may also be used for flux @-@ cored wire .
Flux @-@ cored wire is considered to have some advantages for outdoor welding on @-@ site , as the shielding gas plume is less likely to be blown away in a wind than shield gas from a conventional nozzle . A slight drawback is that , like SMAW ( stick ) welding , there may be some flux deposited over the weld bead , requiring more of a cleaning process between passes .
Flux @-@ cored welding machines are most popular at the hobbyist level , as the machines are slightly simpler but mainly because they avoid the cost of providing shield gas , either through a rented cylinder or with the high cost of disposable cylinders .
= = Operation = =
For most of its applications gas metal arc welding is a fairly simple welding process to learn requiring no more than a week or two to master basic welding technique . Even when welding is performed by well @-@ trained operators weld quality can fluctuate since it depends on a number of external factors . All GMAW is dangerous , though perhaps less so than some other welding methods , such as shielded metal arc welding .
= = = Technique = = =
The basic technique for GMAW is quite simple , since the electrode is fed automatically through the torch ( head of tip ) . By contrast , in gas tungsten arc welding , the welder must handle a welding torch in one hand and a separate filler wire in the other , and in shielded metal arc welding , the operator must frequently chip off slag and change welding electrodes . GMAW requires only that the operator guide the welding gun with proper position and orientation along the area being welded . Keeping a consistent contact tip @-@ to @-@ work distance ( the stick out distance ) is important , because a long stickout distance can cause the electrode to overheat and also wastes shielding gas . Stickout distance varies for different GMAW weld processes and applications . The orientation of the gun is also important — it should be held so as to bisect the angle between the workpieces ; that is , at 45 degrees for a fillet weld and 90 degrees for welding a flat surface . The travel angle , or lead angle , is the angle of the torch with respect to the direction of travel , and it should generally remain approximately vertical . However , the desirable angle changes somewhat depending on the type of shielding gas used — with pure inert gases , the bottom of the torch is often slightly in front of the upper section , while the opposite is true when the welding atmosphere is carbon dioxide .
= = = Quality = = =
Two of the most prevalent quality problems in GMAW are dross and porosity . If not controlled , they can lead to weaker , less ductile welds . Dross is an especially common problem in aluminium GMAW welds , normally coming from particles of aluminium oxide or aluminum nitride present in the electrode or base materials . Electrodes and workpieces must be brushed with a wire brush or chemically treated to remove oxides on the surface . Any oxygen in contact with the weld pool , whether from the atmosphere or the shielding gas , causes dross as well . As a result , sufficient flow of inert shielding gases is necessary , and welding in volatile air should be avoided .
In GMAW the primary cause of porosity is gas entrapment in the weld pool , which occurs when the metal solidifies before the gas escapes . The gas can come from impurities in the shielding gas or on the workpiece , as well as from an excessively long or violent arc . Generally , the amount of gas entrapped is directly related to the cooling rate of the weld pool . Because of its higher thermal conductivity , aluminum welds are especially susceptible to greater cooling rates and thus additional porosity . To reduce it , the workpiece and electrode should be clean , the welding speed diminished and the current set high enough to provide sufficient heat input and stable metal transfer but low enough that the arc remains steady . Preheating can also help reduce the cooling rate in some cases by reducing the temperature gradient between the weld area and the base material .
= = = Safety = = =
Gas metal arc welding can be dangerous if proper precautions are not taken . Since GMAW employs an electric arc , welders wear protective clothing , including heavy leather gloves and protective long sleeve jackets , to avoid exposure to extreme heat and flames . In addition , the brightness of the electric arc is a source of the condition known as arc eye , an inflammation of the cornea caused by ultraviolet light and , in prolonged exposure , possible burning of the retina in the eye . Conventional welding helmets contain dark face plates to prevent this exposure . Newer helmet designs feature a liquid crystal @-@ type face plate that self @-@ darken upon exposure to high amounts of UV light . Transparent welding curtains , made of a polyvinyl chloride plastic film , are often used to shield nearby workers and bystanders from exposure to the UV light from the electric arc .
Welders are also often exposed to dangerous gases and
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anniversary of its first live performance as a band . Vedder took the opportunity to thank the many people who had helped the band come together and make it to 10 years . He noted that " I would never do this accepting a Grammy or something . " The tour 's final night took place on November 6 , 2000 , in Seattle , Washington at KeyArena where the band performed for more than three hours . The European and North American tours were documented by a long series of official bootlegs , all of which were available in record stores as well as through the band 's fan club . The band released 72 live albums in 2000 and 2001 , and set a record for most albums to debut in the Billboard 200 at the same time . Following the conclusion of the 2000 tour , the band released Touring Band 2000 , a DVD which featured select performances from the North American legs of the tour .
Binaural was played in its entirety at the May 10 , 2016 show in Toronto at the Air Canada Centre , as a block and in sequence , during the first set of a longer performance .
= = Track listing = =
All lyrics written by Eddie Vedder , except where noted .
^ I " Parting Ways " contains the hidden track " Writer 's Block " at 6 : 49 .
^ * Asterisk denote the use of binaural recording techniques
Japanese bonus disc
All lyrics written by Vedder .
^ * Live tracks recorded at the 1999 Bridge School Benefit .
= = = Original track listing = = =
When the track listing for Binaural was first released in late March 2000 , it was quite different from the final version . Some tracks that were originally on the album were dropped and not released until the 2003 rarities compilation , Lost Dogs , and " Gods ' Dice " was added to the final version . The original version is as follows :
" Breakerfall "
" Insignificance "
" Evacuation "
" Letter to the Dead "
Later renamed to " Sad "
" Rival "
" Grievance "
" Light Years "
" Of the Girl "
" Thin Air "
" Nothing as It Seems "
" Fatal "
" Sleight of Hand "
" Soon Forget "
" In the Moonlight "
" Parting Ways "
" Education "
= = Personnel = =
= Monarch @-@ class coastal defense ship =
The Monarch class was a class of three coastal defence ships , built by Austria @-@ Hungary at the end of the 19th century . The Monarchs were the first ships of their type to utilize turrets . The class comprised three ships : SMS Monarch , SMS Wien , and SMS Budapest , each armed with four 240 mm ( 9 in ) L / 40 guns in two turrets and capable of 15 @.@ 5 knots ( 28 @.@ 7 km / h ; 17 @.@ 8 mph ) at full speed . Budapest was fitted with slightly more modern and powerful engines , giving her a top speed of 17 @.@ 5 knots ( 32 @.@ 4 km / h ; 20 @.@ 1 mph ) .
Monarch was launched on 9 May 1895 , Wien on 7 July 1895 , and Budapest just over a year later on 24 July 1896 . The ships saw very little service during World War I in the V Division of the Austro @-@ Hungarian fleet . Budapest and Wien took part in the bombardment of Italian positions along the Adriatic coast in 1915 and 1917 , but the three battleships went largely inactive for the remainder of war .
In 1917 , Wien was struck by Italian torpedoes and sank in her home port of Trieste . The remaining two ships were ceded to Great Britain following the end of the war and were scrapped between 1920 and 1922 .
= = Construction = =
In the 1890s the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy consisted of two obsolescent ironclads , SMS Kronprinz Erzherzog Rudolf and SMS Kronprinzessin Erzherzogin Stephanie . By 1893 , sufficient funds were available to build three replacement ships , but the Hungarian and Austrian parliaments authorized only the construction of a smaller class of coastal defense ships , as Austro @-@ Hungarian naval policy at that time was primarily concerned with coastal defense . The three new ships — Budapest , Wien , and Monarch — weighed about 5 @,@ 600 tonnes ( 5 @,@ 512 long tons ) , half the size of the battleships of other navies . Budapest was fitted with more powerful engines than her sister ships , giving her a higher top speed . Budapest and Wien were built in the Stabilimento Tecnico Triestino yards in Trieste , and Monarch was constructed at the Naval Arsenal in Pula .
The first ship of the class , Wien , was laid down on 16 February 1893 . She was launched on 7 July 1895 , about a month after Monarch . Despite this , Wien was the first ship of the new class to be commissioned into the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy , on 13 May 1897 . The second ship of the class , Monarch , was laid down on 31 July 1893 , launched on 9 May 1895 , and was commissioned into the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy on 11 May 1898 . Budapest was the third and final ship of the class . She was laid down on the same day as Wien , on 16 February 1893 , and launched from the Naval Arsenal in Pula on 24 July 1896 . She was commissioned on 12 May 1898 , a day after Monarch .
= = Design = =
= = = Armament and armor = = =
The members of the Monarch class displaced 5 @,@ 878 tonnes ( 5 @,@ 785 long tons ) . Their armament consisted of four 240 mm ( 9 in ) L / 40 guns with two guns in each of the two turrets , six 150 mm ( 6 in ) L / 40 guns , 10 47 mm ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) L / 44 guns , four 47 mm ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) L / 33 guns , one 8 mm ( 0 @.@ 31 in ) MG gun , and four torpedo tubes .
Ships of the Monarch class were fitted with Harvey armour throughout . Their belt armor was 270 mm ( 11 in ) thick except for the turrets , which had 203 mm ( 8 @.@ 0 in ) . The conning tower was protected by armor 220 mm ( 8 @.@ 7 in ) thick , and the deck by 64 mm ( 2 @.@ 5 in ) ; the redoubt and casemates had 76 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) of armor .
= = = Propulsion and crew = = =
Monarch @-@ class ships normally carried 300 tons of coal , but could hold up to 500 tons . Budapest was fitted with 12 coal @-@ fired Belleville boilers without economizers , giving an output of 9 @,@ 180 hp ( 6 @,@ 846 kW ) . Wien and Monarch had coal @-@ fired cylindrical boilers and vertical triple expansion engines with an output of 8 @,@ 500 hp ( 6 @,@ 338 kW ) . Wien and Monarch had a maximum speed of 15 @.@ 5 knots ( 28 @.@ 7 km / h ; 17 @.@ 8 mph ) , compared to Budapest 's top speed of 17 @.@ 5 knots ( 32 @.@ 4 km / h ; 20 @.@ 1 mph ) . Each ship was manned by 26 officers and 397 crewmen , a total of 423 personnel per ship .
= = Service history = =
= = = Peace time = = =
Upon being commissioned into the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy , the three ships of the Monarch class were used for a variety of purposes . All three ships of the Monarch class partook in a cruise around the Adriatic and Aegean in 1899 , to display the Austro @-@ Hungarian flag in foreign waters . The Monarch class formed the I Battleship Division of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy . The battleship Wien participated in the Diamond Jubilee of the crowning of Queen Victoria in 1897 , as well as the international blockade off Crete during the Greco @-@ Turkish War of 1897 . However , less than five years after their completion , the Monarch @-@ class battleships were rendered obsolete by the newly commissioned Habsburg class . The newly completed SMS Habsburg conducted a training cruise with the three Monarch @-@ class battleships in January 1903 ; they were joined by SMS Árpád the following year . During the 1904 training exercises , the three Habsburg @-@ class battleships engaged the three Monarchs in simulated combat ; the maneuver marked the first time two homogeneous squadrons consisting of modern battleships operated in the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy . The three Habsburg @-@ class ships took over the position of the I Division while the Monarchs formed the newly created II Division . With other new classes of pre @-@ dreadnoughts being built such as the Erzherzog Karl class , and later the Radetzky class , the Monarchs were demoted even further , and ended up in the V Battleship Division . They were serving as coastal defense ships by the beginning of World War I.
= = = World War I = = =
At the outbreak of World War I in July 1914 , the three ships of the Monarch class were serving as the V Battleship Division , deployed as coastal defense ships . They also served as training ships , and were used to bombard coastal positions during the early years of the war . In August 1914 , Budapest was transferred from Pula to Cattaro to shell Mount Lovcen . On 9 August 1914 Monarch shelled the French radio station at Budva . She also bombarded the Montenegrin radio station off Bar on 17 August and another station off Volovica Point on 19 August where she attacked the local radio station and barracks . Following these operations , Monarch served as a harbor defense ship . On 28 – 29 December 1915 Budapest supported the cruisers and destroyers of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy that were to raid Durazzo , but the detachment returned to port without having opened fire on the enemy . On 9 January 1916 , Budapest again bombarded the fortifications on Mount Lovcen , and helped to capture the enemy @-@ held mountain . In late 1917 Budapest and Wien were sent to Trieste , and participated in shelling Italian troops in the Gulf of Trieste . On 10 December 1917 , two Italian torpedo boats managed to penetrate the port of Trieste undetected , and fired torpedoes at the battleships Budapest and Wien . The torpedo fired at Budapest missed , but Wien was hit twice and sank in less than five minutes in the shallow water of the Trieste harbor . Forty @-@ six men serving on Wien were killed in the attack . Budapest was subsequently given the task that Monarch had been performing for over three years , and was demoted to a floating barrack for German U @-@ boat crews . In June 1918 Budapest was renovated and had a 380 mm ( 15 in ) L / 17 howitzer installed in her bow to use for coastal bombardment , but she never saw action with the new gun in place . At the end of the war in 1918 , the remaining Monarch @-@ class battleships , Budapest and Monarch , were handed over to Great Britain as war reparations . In 1920 the two ships were sold for scrap to Italy , and were broken up between 1920 and 1922 .
= Spike Spiegel =
Spike Spiegel ( Japanese : スパイク ・ スピーゲル , Hepburn : Supaiku Supīgeru ) is the central protagonist of the 1998 anime series Cowboy Bebop . Spike is a former member of the criminal Red Dragon Syndicate , who left by faking his death after falling in love with a woman called Julia . He is first introduced as the partner of Jet Black , captain of the spaceship Bebop : the two are legalized bounty hunters pursuing criminals across the populated worlds . During his adventures on board the Bebop , he is drawn back into a bitter feud with Vicious , a rival from the Syndicate who seeks to kill him .
Spike was created by Shinichirō Watanabe and Toshihiro Kawamoto as part of the production entity Hajime Yatate . Created as a mirror image of Watanabe and based on Yusaku Matsuda 's character in Tantei Monogatari , he was designed as someone who would expect others to follow his lead . Kawamoto deliberately designed him to appear " uncool " to create the opposite effect for viewers . His final confrontation with Vicious was planned well in advance . His portrayal in the later movie adaptation displayed the character 's softer side and inner thoughts . Spike is voiced in Japanese by Kōichi Yamadera . In the English dub , he is voiced by Steven Blum .
In addition to the series , Spike has been featured in two manga adaptations , and been the main protagonist of two video game adaptations . Reception of Spike has been positive in Japan and the West , with multiple reviewers praising his portrayal . He has appeared on multiple reader and critic lists of the best anime characters . In addition to the series , many reviewers of the movie positively noted his expanded portrayal in The Movie . Both actors have been praised for their performances , with Blum commenting that it boosted his voice acting career .
= = Characteristics = =
Spike is a fictional bounty hunter who was born on Mars on June 26 , 2044 : he is 27 years old , has fluffy dark @-@ green hair and brown eyes . His right eye is artificial , and consequently lighter than the other . He stands 6 ' 1 " and weighs 155 lbs . Spike is a heavy smoker , and is frequently seen smoking despite rain or " no smoking " signs . A skilled martial artist who practices Jeet Kune Do , he is a devote follower of the philosophies of Bruce Lee . He also owns a converted antique Asteroid racer called the Swordfish II . During gunfights , he most often uses a Jericho 941 . In his younger days before joining the Bebop , Spike was part of the Red Dragon Syndicate , a Chinese criminal organization : during his time there , he was impetuous and volatile , but after leaving he became a calm and collected character with a love for combat . While holding little value in money or justice , he always holds true to his own values and fulfills his obligations . He also generally does this his way rather than following orders , which generally gets him into trouble . Watanabe has said that Spike has a habit of being very indirect with his emotions ; for example , he may behave antagonistically towards someone he actually likes . He says that this could apply to Spike 's relationship with Faye Valentine .
= = Appearances = =
= = = In Cowboy Bebop = = =
Years before the beginning of the series , Spike is a rising member of the Red Dragon crime syndicate . While there , he becomes a partner and friend of Vicious , another member of the Syndicate . Wounded from a gun battle , Spike is nursed back to health by Vicious ' girlfriend Julia , and the two fall in love . They plan to elope and escape the Syndicate , but Vicious finds out and attempts to force Julia to kill Spike or risk her own death . After Spike fakes his death to escape the Syndicate , Julia goes into hiding and does not meet up with him . Spike eventually met and teamed up with former Inter Solar System Police officer Jet Black . As legalized bounty hunters , they travel the Solar System 's inhabited worlds hunting criminals .
During his time on the Bebop , he and Jet are joined by Ein , an intelligent Welsh corgi ; Faye Valentine , a gambler and original resident of Earth woken from cryogenic sleep ; and Edward " Ed " Wong Hau Pepelu Tivruski IV , an eccentric girl from Earth who is a master hacker . Spike also has run @-@ ins with Vicious on two occasions : in " Ballad of Fallen Angels " , while pursuing a Red Dragon executive , Spike and Vicious battle in a derelict church and Spike is nearly killed . Later , in " Jupiter Jazz " , Spike hears that Julia was seen on Callisto and abandons the Bebop to look for her . Once there , he stumbles into a drug deal orchestrated by Gren , a man Vicious betrayed who is seeking revenge . During their confrontation , a three @-@ way battle ensues : Vicious escapes , and Gren is fatally injured , but he succeeds in telling Spike that Julia is alive and in hiding .
During the final story of the series , " The Real Folk Blues " , Julia comes out of hiding and sends a message to Spike through Faye : the two meet and resolve to flee as originally planned . Vicious , having staged a coup d 'état and taken over the Red Dragon Syndicate , sends assassins after the two . During a battle , Julia is shot and killed . After saying his goodbyes to Jet and Faye , Spike storms the headquarters of the Syndicate and has a final confrontation with Vicious : Spike is severely wounded and Vicious is killed . Shortly after this , Spike walks into and collapses in the entrance hall . Spike 's ultimate fate was deliberately left ambiguous , with Watanabe eventually unable to say whether he lived or died .
= = = In other media = = =
Spike is the main protagonist of Cowboy Bebop : The Movie , a story set between Episodes 22 and 23 of the original series while the Bebop crew are still working together . The crew of the Bebop take on a massive bounty for Vincent Volaju , who releases a cloud of deadly protean @-@ based nanomachines in Mars ' capital city . During his pursuit , Spike initially fights then allies with Elektra Ovirowa , a former comrade of Vincent 's .
Spike appears along with the other main characters in the manga adaptation of Cowboy Bebop and the alternate manga Cowboy Bebop : Shooting Star . In the PlayStation Cowboy Bebop , players control Spike as he pilots the Swordfish II during aerial battles through pre @-@ set courses . Spike appears as one of the playable characters in the PlayStation 2 action / beat ' em up video game Cowboy Bebop : Tsuioku no Serenade , a game set within the continuity of the series .
= = Creation and conception = =
During the first work by Shinichirō Watanabe on Cowboy Bebop , the first image that came to him was of Spike . Prior to that , Watanabe had the character of Spike in mind for a long time beforehand . From that point on , Watanabe " tried to build a story around him , trying to make him cool . " Watanabe created Spike as a mirror image of himself : in Watanabe 's words , " I don 't smoke or drink or fight , but I want to – so Spike does . " Spike forms the main focus on the series , with the central theme being his past and its karmic effect on him . Spike was portrayed as a very old @-@ fashioned type of man , who would simply do what he wanted and expect others to follow his lead and watch him from the sidelines . Spike 's artificial eye was included as Watanabe wanted his characters to have flaws . He was originally going to give Spike an eye patch , but the producers vetoed it . In order to portray him as cool , Toshihiro Kawamoto designed Spike to look " uncool " : when he stands still , he has a hunched appearance . This meant that when the character was moving vigorously , he came across as " extra cool " . Spike 's appearance was primarily based on the main protagonist of Tantei Monogatari , portrayed by famous Japanese actor Yusaku Matsuda . Spike 's Swordfish II spaceship was created by mecha designer Kimitoshi Yamane . Yamane liked the English biplane torpedo @-@ bomber Fairey Swordfish , which led him to name the Swordfish II after the bomber . The conclusion of Spike 's story and his final battle with Vicious were planned by Watanabe well in advance , with each episode featuring them meant to shadow their final confrontation . Some of the staff were unhappy about this approach as a continuation of the series would be difficult . While he considered altering the ending , he eventually settled with his original idea .
Spike 's Japanese voice actor , Kōichi Yamadera , was pleased to have gotten the part , but Unshō Ishizuka , Jet 's voice actor , was surprised that Yamadera was not cast as Jet . Spike and Jet were designed to be opposites , with Spike being thin and wearing smart attire , while Jet was bulky and wore more casual clothing . His English voice actor , Steven Blum , used film noir imagery to get himself in the right frame of mind to voice the character convincingly . Blum had some difficulty portraying the character in scenes where he was showing vulnerability . He called Spike an " example of a character [ he ] didn 't fully appreciate until the series was over " , also adding that he would like to reprise his role as the character if given the chance . Spike 's portrayal was expanded in Cowboy Bebop : The Movie . Specifically , according to Yamadera , the character displayed more of his inner thoughts and showed a gentler side than he did in the series . This was because the team had more time available to express such details . Blum found his performance in the movie one of his most difficult from an emotional standpoint , as there were scenes where Spike was portrayed quite differently from the version he had been playing in the series .
= = Reception = =
Spike 's character has been well received in Japan . He won first place in the Best Male Character category at Animage 's annual Anime Grand Prix awards two consecutive times in 1998 and 1999 . In the August 2001 issue of Newtype , Spike was ranked first on the magazine 's list of " Top 10 Most Popular Male Anime Characters in Japan " . The next year in July 2002 , Spike was again placed at number one on Newtype 's anime list of " Favorite Male Character " . In a Newtype poll from March 2010 , Spike was voted by readers as the eighteenth most popular male anime character from the 1990s . In 2014 , Kōichi Yamadera was voted by fans as the third coolest " old guy " voice actor in a Goo Ranking poll , with his portrayal of Spike cited as one of the contributing factors .
Western critics have also directed significant praise towards Spike . In his review of Cowboy Bebop , Anime News Network 's Mike Crandol praised the character portrayals , especially Spike 's , stating that " Spike 's character in particular runs the gamut from goofy to blasé to teeth @-@ gnashing tough ; he is one of most three @-@ dimensional anime leads in recent memory . " Christi of THEM Anime Review 4 @.@ 0 complimented Spike 's story arc in the series , saying that " the underlying theme of Spike Spiegel and his motivations for what he does is absolutely intriguing . " DVDTalk 's Kyle Mills called Spike the epitome of a good lead protagonist , referring to him as " composed , always cool , and is essentially the ultimate badass " , although his true nature is gradually shown throughout the series . In an article in The Atlantic , writer Alex Suskind was positive about Spike 's portrayal and development , saying that the word " cool " was the most apt way of describing him and referring to him as " a space @-@ age samurai @-@ cum @-@ Marlboro Man " . Richard Eisenbeis of Kotaku , writing a retrospective on the series , praised the relationship between Spike and Faye , especially the way it evolved through the series without overt verbal expressions of affection .
His portrayal in The Movie has also received praise : IGN 's Andy Patrizio said that Spike " opens up his soul a little " during the film , while Chris Beveridge of Mania.com found Spike more likable in the film than in some parts of the series , comparing him to Lupin III and praising the moments where he could be himself and show more of his inner self . Carlos Ross of THEM Anime Review said that Spike 's portrayal was one of the things that worked in the film , and DVD Talk 's Neil Lumbard , alongside general praise of the characters , positively noted the further exploration of his personality . Anime News Network 's Mike Crandol was less enthusiastic , saying that while Spike was the only one who got much attention during the film , some sequences felt like they could work without him .
Blum 's portrayal as Spike has also drawn praise . Isler stated that " Steve Blum launched his career into new heights when he gave the performance of a lifetime in the English dub of the series , giving Spike a sense of smooth , effortless cool that many argue surpassed the original Japanese version . " While praising the whole principal cast of the series as one of the best English dubs , Serdar Yegulalp of About.com highlighted Blum as Spike as the standout performance of the series , stating that " Cynicism never sounded this suave or self @-@ assured " . Blum himself has called Spike a " gigantic benchmark " in his career and life , saying that " Spike changed everything " for him . He stated that his role as Spike opened up new opportunities for voicing characters , including T.O.M. on Toonami and Jamie on Megas XLR .
In 2009 and 2014 , IGN ranked Spike among the best anime characters of all time . In 2009 , Chris Mackenzie ranked Spike as the fourth greatest anime character behind Goku , Astro Boy , and Speed Racer . In 2014 , Ramsey Isler ranked him as second greatest behind Shinji Ikari of Neon Genesis Evangelion . At the 2005 Anime Awards from About.com , Spike was nominated in the category " Best Lead Male Character " , though he lost to Goku . In 2010 , Wired included Spike on its list of the " 6 Genre @-@ Tripping Gunfighters Jonah Hex Must Duel FTW ! " , with writer Scott Thill complimenting his abilities , while also commenting on his presence of heart compared to other equivalent protagonists . In 2013 , Complex ranked Spike the fourth most stylish anime character ever , with writer Jian DeLeon commenting that " The Mars @-@ born bounty hunter knows the benefit of a good uniform " . In 2014 , WatchMojo.com named Spike an honorable mention on its list of the " Top 10 Anime Anti @-@ Heroes " , and also ranked him at number nine on its list of the " Top 10 Anime Heroes " .
= Ramblin ' Wreck from Georgia Tech =
" ( I 'm a ) Ramblin ' Wreck from Georgia Tech " is the fight song of the Georgia Institute of Technology , better known as Georgia Tech . The composition is based on " Son of a Gambolier " , composed by Charles Ives in 1895 , the lyrics of which are based on an old English and Scottish drinking song of the same name . It first appeared in print in the 1908 Blueprint , Georgia Tech 's yearbook . The song was later sung by the Georgia Tech Glee Club on The Ed Sullivan Show in 1953 , and by Richard Nixon and Nikita Khrushchev during the 1959 Kitchen Debate .
" Ramblin ' Wreck " is played after every Georgia Tech score in a football game , directly after a field goal or safety , and preceded by " Up With the White and Gold " after a touchdown . It is also frequently played during timeouts at the team 's basketball games .
The term " Ramblin ' Wreck " has been used to refer to students and alumni of Georgia Tech much longer than the Model A now known as the Ramblin ' Wreck has been in existence . The expression has its origins in the late 19th century and was used originally to refer to the makeshift motorized vehicles constructed by Georgia Tech engineers employed in projects in the jungles of South America . Other workers in the area began to refer to these vehicles and the men who drove them as " Rambling Wrecks from Georgia Tech . "
= = Lyrics = =
= = Previous adaptations = =
The earliest rendition of the song is " Son of a Gambolier " ( also known as " A Son of a Gambolier " and " The Son of a Gambolier " ) , which is a lament to one 's own poverty ; a gambolier is " a worthless individual given to carousing , gambling , and general moral depravity . " The chorus goes :
The tune was first adapted as a school song by Dickinson College in southern Pennsylvania in the 1850s . Students at the college modified it to include a reference to their college bell by adding the following lyrics :
In 1857 , the Delta Kappa Epsilon Fraternity published a songbook that contained a heavily modified version of the song . The adapted chorus used the following lyrics :
The song was subsequently adapted by the Colorado School of Mines in the late 1870s and entitled " The Mining Engineer . " This version is the closest adaptation to " Ramblin ' Wreck from Georgia Tech . "
The Mines version also includes :
The song is also used by the South Dakota School of Mines and Technology , entitled " Ramblin ' Wreck " although on campus it is referred to simply as the " School Song . " This version is almost identical to the first four lines of " Ramblin ' Wreck from Georgia Tech . "
In the early 1890s , Ohio State University adapted it and called it " If I had a Daughter " . At the time Ohio Wesleyan University was their arch rival , hence the references to Delaware , Ohio and Methodists . One verse follows :
In 1895 , Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute adapted it and called it " A Son of Old R.P.I. " This version includes the lyrics :
Two different sources are claimed to have been the origin for the song 's music . The first is the marching tune " The Bonnie Blue Flag " , published in 1861 by Harry McCarthy . The second , and more widely cited , is Charles Ives ' composition of " Son of a Gambolier " in 1895 .
= = Creation at Georgia Tech = =
Georgia Tech 's use of the song is said to have come from an early baseball game against rival Georgia . Some sources credit Billy Walthall , a member of the school 's first four @-@ year graduating class , with the lyrics . According to a 1954 article in Sports Illustrated , " Ramblin ' Wreck " was written around 1893 by a Tech football player on his way to an Auburn game .
The " Rambling Wreck " had its beginning during the first year or two after Tech opened . Some of the frills were afterward added . We had no football team during the early days , but football was played on the campus . A round rubber ball was used and it was strictly football @-@ no holding the ball and running with it . We had a good baseball team and I remember on one occasion almost the whole school went over to Athens to play Georgia . Duke Black of Rome pitched and we brought home the bacon . This was the beginning of the Rambling Wreck .
In 1905 , Georgia Tech adopted the tune as its official fight song , though it had already been the unofficial fight song for several years . It was published for the first time in the school 's first yearbook , the 1908 Blueprint . Entitled " What causes Whitlock to Blush " , words such as " hell " and " helluva " were censored as " certain words [ are ] too hot to print " .
After Michael A. Greenblatt , Tech 's first bandmaster , heard the Georgia Tech band playing the song to the tune of Charles Ives 's " A Son of a Gambolier " , he wrote a modern musical version . In 1911 , Frank Roman succeeded Greenblatt as bandmaster ; Roman embellished the song with trumpet flourishes and publicized it . Roman copyrighted the song in 1919 .
= = Rise to fame = =
In 1920 , dance instructor Arthur Murray organized the world 's first " radio dance " while he attended Tech . A band on campus played " Ramblin ' Wreck " and other songs , which were broadcast to a group of about 150 dancers ( mostly Tech students ) on the roof of the Capital City Club in downtown Atlanta . Murray also opened the first Arthur Murray Dance Studio while in Atlanta . It was located at the Georgian Terrace Hotel . In 1925 , the Columbia Gramophone Company began selling a recording of Tech songs ( including " Ramblin ' Wreck " ) ; Tech was one of the first colleges in the Southern United States to have its songs recorded . The song became immensely popular and was known nationally because of its extensive radio play . In 1947 , the song was performed by The Gordonaires in a Soundie entitled " Let 's Sing A College Song " .
On October 11 , 1953 , the Georgia Tech Glee Club sang " Ramblin ' Wreck " on Ed Sullivan 's " Toast of the Town " program ( later known as The Ed Sullivan Show ) on CBS . The performance reached a television audience of approximately 30 million viewers . Because only 28 seats were available on the train to the show , Glee Club members auditioned for the available spots . The group prepared three songs — " Ramblin ' Wreck , " There 's Nothin ' Like a Dame , and the alma mater . Sullivan made them sing " heck " and " heckuva " instead of " hell " and " helluva , " and would not let them sing " dames . " According to The Technique , " The club sang ' Dames ' at rehearsal and brought down the house , only to have Sullivan give it the axe . "
Then @-@ Vice President Richard Nixon and Soviet premier Nikita Khrushchev sang the song together when they met in Moscow in 1959 to reduce the tension between them during the Kitchen Debate . As the story goes , Nixon did not know any Russian songs , but Khrushchev knew that one American song as it had been sung on the Ed Sullivan show .
" Ramblin ' Wreck " has had many other notable moments in history , including being the first school song played in space . Gregory Peck sang the song while strumming a mandolin in the movie The Man in the Gray Flannel Suit . John Wayne whistled it in The High and the Mighty . Tim Holt 's character sings a few bars of it in the movie His Kind of Woman . Gordon Jones sings a few stanzas several times in the movie My Sister Eileen . There are numerous stories of commanding officers in Higgins boats crossing the English Channel on the morning of D @-@ Day leading their men in the song to calm their nerves .
= = Modern history = =
The Edwin H. Morris & Company obtained a copyright to Roman 's version in 1931 ; that company was later acquired by Paul McCartney 's holding company , MPL Communications in 1976 . The copyright to that version expired in 1952 , so Greenblatt wrote a new arrangement and applied for a new copyright . In 1953 , Greenblatt sold the copyright for the new version to Georgia Tech for one dollar . There was some controversy when MPL Communications acquired the old copyright ; a law firm commissioned by Georgia Tech in 1984 , Newton , Hopkins & Ormsby , concluded that while there were copyrighted versions of the song , the version used by the school was not copyrighted and falls in the public domain .
Over the years , a few variations of the song have been created at Georgia Tech . In 1998 , a 19 @-@ member " Diversity Task Force " proposed that changes be made to the fight song because it discriminated against women . The proposal was widely and strongly opposed by students and alumni , and it was dropped . A different request to change the word cheer to join with respect to alumni daughters surfaced in 2015 . At the conclusion of the song there is a call of " Go Jackets ! " responded to with " Bust their ass ! " Following three of these calls and responses , the song was ended with a call of " Go Jackets ! Fight ! Win ! " Recently , however , the student body has yelled " Fight ! Win ! Drink ! Get Naked ! "
= Rostral migratory stream =
The rostral migratory stream ( RMS ) is a specialized migratory route found in the brain of some animals along which neuronal precursors that originated in the subventricular zone ( SVZ ) of the brain migrate to reach the main olfactory bulb ( OB ) . The importance of the RMS lies in its ability to refine and even change an animal 's sensitivity to smells , which explains its importance and larger size in the rodent brain as compared to the human brain , as our olfactory sense is not as developed . This pathway has been studied in the rodent , rabbit , and both the squirrel monkey and rhesus monkey . When the neurons reach the OB they differentiate into GABAergic interneurons as they are integrated into either the granule cell layer or periglomerular layer .
Although it was originally believed that neurons could not regenerate in the adult brain , neurogenesis has been shown to occur in mammalian brains , including those of primates . However , neurogenesis is limited to the hippocampus and SVZ , and the RMS is one mechanism neurons use to relocate from these areas .
= = Brief history = =
The RMS was named and discovered by J. Altman in 1969 using 3H @-@ thymidine autoradiography in the rat brain . He traced the migration of labeled cells from the SVZ , which is situated throughout the lateral walls of the lateral ventricles , rostrally to the main olfactory bulb . He also quantitatively studied the effect of age on the size of the RMS . There is still some ongoing debate about the extent of the RMS and adult SVZ neurogenesis of new neurons in humans .
= = Cell biology = =
= = = Vascular cells = = =
Vascular cells are known to play a prominent role in regulating proliferation of adult neural precursors . In the adult subgranular zone ( SGZ ) , dense clusters of dividing cells were found to be anatomically close to the vasculature , especially capillaries . Contacts between adult SVZ neuronal precursors and blood vessels are unusually permeable and frequently devoid of astrocyte and pericyte interferences , suggesting that blood @-@ derived cues are gaining direct access to adult neural precursors and their progeny . The vasculature also provides the substrate for new neuron migration after injury in the adult striatum . In the RMS , vascular cells are arranged parallel to the route of the migrating cells and provide a scaffolding . Glial cells are also associated with the blood vessels ; communication between these cells may be important for RMS migration , for example , in BDNF ( brain @-@ derived neurotrophic factor ) , a growth factor that is thought to module RMS migration .
= = = Astrocytes = = =
Astrocytes form gap junctions and are closely associated with the vasculature and its basal lamina in the adult SVZ and subsequently in the RMS . They may serve as an interface to modulate influences of endothelial and circulation @-@ derived factors as well as the availability of cytokines and growth factors in this system . In addition , astrocytes derived from the neurogenic hippocampus and SVZ , but not from the non @-@ neurogenic spinal cord , promote proliferation and neuronal fate commitment of multipotent adult neural stem cells in culture , suggesting a role in the RMS . Astrocytes express a number of secreted and membrane @-@ attached factors both in vitro and in vivo that are known to regulate proliferation and fate specification of adult neural precursors as well as neuronal migration , maturation , and synapse formation . In the adult SVZ , astrocytes express Robo receptors and regulate the rapid migration of SLIT1 @-@ expressing neuroblasts through the RMS . Additionally , it has been proposed that the neuroblasts themselves play a role in modulating the astrocytes through Slit @-@ Robo interactions . In the absence of Slit , astrocytic processes do not align correctly , or create the " tubes " , instead running across the migrating neurons . Adult SVZ astrocytes also appear to release glutamate to regulate the survival of neuroblasts . Unique to the adult SVZ , ependymal cells lining the ventricular wall are in close association with neural precursors and their progeny , acting like a shield to protect the " neurogenic niche " , a zone in which stem cells are retained after embryonic development for the production of new cells of the nervous system .
= = = Other glial cells = = =
Ependymal cells actively regulate neuronal fate specification of adult neural precursors through release of Noggin . Beating of the cilia of ependymal cells appears to set up concentration gradients of guidance molecules , such as cytokines TNF @-@ α ( tumor necrosis factor ) and IGF @-@ 1 ( insulin @-@ like growth factor ) , to direct migration of neuroblasts , such as in the RMS . Microglia also actively regulate adult neurogenesis . Under basal conditions , apoptotic corpses of newly generated neurons are rapidly phagocytosed from the niche by unactivated microglia in the adult SGZ . Under inflammatory conditions , reactivated microglia can have both beneficial and detrimental effects on different aspects of adult neurogenesis , depending on the balance between secreted molecules with pro- and anti @-@ inflammatory action . In one study , the activation of microglia and recruitment of T cells were suggested to be required for enriched environment @-@ induced SGZ neurogenesis , suggesting a possible role in the RMS .
= = Migration mechanics = =
Cells in the RMS are believed to move by " chain migration " . These neuroblasts are connected by membrane specializations including gap junctions and adherens junctions , moving along each other towards the olfactory bulb through glial tubes . The pathway and mechanisms behind this movement are a ventriculo @-@ olfactory neurogenic system ( VONS ) , a glial framework , and a chemotaxic cell signalling system .
= = = Ventriculo @-@ olfactory neurogenic system ( VONS ) = = =
The olfactory system is made up in part of the RMS which stretches from the subventricular zone in the wall of the lateral ventricle , through the basal forebrain , to the olfactory bulb ( OB ) . VONS is the name given to this pathway , and it consists of the subventricular zone , the RMS , the olfactory tract and the olfactory bulb . Developing neurons leave the subventricular zone and enter the RMS and travel caudally and ventrally along the undersurface of the caudate nucleus ; this is referred to as the descending limb . Upon reaching the ventral side of the caudate nucleus , the neurons follow the rostral limb and travel ventrally and rostrally , entering the anterior olfactory cortex ( AOC ) . The AOC gives rise to the olfactory tract , which ends in the olfactory bulb .
= = = Glial framework = = =
Developing neurons travel toward the olfactory bulb along the RMS via glial tubes , which mark the division between the differentiated nervous tissue and the tissue with embryonic characteristics . Uniquely , the cells travel tangential to the brain surface , parallel to the pial surfaces rather than radially like most developing neurons . Neurons that migrate tangentially are typically believed to migrate independently of radial glia but in the RMS researchers believe this is not the case . Adult rat glial tubes have been observed via light and electron microscopy and described as a meshwork of astrocytic bodies and processes . They have been determined to be astrocytes based on the typical expression of GFAP ( glial fibrillary acidic protein ) and more specifically as protoplasmic astrocytes based on their morphology . Furthermore , these glial cells were found to be positive for vimentin expression , a protein commonly found in embryonic or immature glial cells . The developing neurons are identified by their expression of the cell surface molecule , a polysialylated ( PSA ) embryonic form of the neural cell adhesion molecule ( NCAM ) called PSA @-@ NCAM , as well as β @-@ tubulin , a protein often found in postmitotic neuroblasts , proving the cells of RMS are committed to developing into neurons and will do so upon entry into the olfactory bulb . With the removal of NCAM , the neuroblasts scatter , proving the importance of NCAM in chain formation . The neurons form both clusters and chains along the lumen of these glial tubes . Once the developing neurons reach the core of the olfactory bulb , they detach from the RMS , which is initiated by Reelin and tenascin and move radially toward glomeruli , this migration is dependent on tenascin @-@ R , and differentiate into subtypes of interneurons . These neurons have been studied in vivo via electrophysiology and confocal imaging .
= = = Cell signaling = = =
The nature of the molecular cues involved in the correct targeting of the migrating precursors remains a question . The secretion of a chemoattractant factor by the OB appears as a possibility . Chemoattractants and repellants act on the migrating neurons by inducing changes in the growth cone to direct them . Nevertheless , tissue derived from this structure had no directive influence on the migration . On the other hand , a septum @-@ derived secreted factor showed a repulsive effect on the SVZ cells . More recently , it has been shown that the secreted molecule SLIT shows such a repelling effect on SVZ @-@ derived precursors . Furthermore , integrins have been demonstrated to have a regulatory influence on precursor cell chain @-@ migration and regulation of their divisions . PSA @-@ NCAM appears as another candidate . Mice lacking NCAM show a dramatically size @-@ reduced OB and an accumulation of migrating precursors along the RMS . It is possible that lack of NCAM results in agitation of neuron – glia interactions , and modifications in these interactions might in turn be responsible for the inhibition of migration in the RMS . It has been demonstrated that a cross talk exists between neurons and glial cells and data in favor of an active role of PSA – NCAM in this process has been presented . The lack of PSA – NCAM on the surface of migrating precursors might alter the proliferative properties of this glial cell population , a scenario that appears reminiscent of astrogliosis occurring in neurodegenerative diseases even before any signs of neuronal damage .
= = Current research = =
= = = Existence in humans = = =
The presence of an analogous RMS in humans has been difficult to identify , possibly because the olfactory bulb is significantly less developed in humans than in rodents and thus harder to study , and much of the previous scientific work has been called into question concerning the RMS in humans . In the developing fetal brain and in young postnatal infants , chains of immature neurons typical of the RMS were observed . However , there was little evidence for the existence of a migrating chain along the SVZ or olfactory peduncle to the bulb in the adult human brain , even though there was a distinct population of adult neuronal stem cells in the SVZ . These researchers studied subjects from 0 to 84 years of age by analyzing brain sections that had been removed during surgery or during autopsies . They discovered that cells that expressed DCX ( doublecortin ) and PSA @-@ NCAM are present in the brain sections taken from infants , but have disappeared by 18 months . Yet further studies indicated the presence of a small population of migrating immature neurons , which originate solely from the SVZ . These neuroblasts appear singly or in pairs without forming chains , in contrast to the elongated chains of neuroblasts observed in the rodent RMS . This suggests that the RMS is drastically reduced beyond infancy and especially into adulthood , but is not absent . However , a direct correlation between stem cell quiescence and age has not yet been defined due to a high level of variability between individuals . Thus an RMS analogous structure in the adult human brain remains highly controversial .
= = = Age @-@ related decline = = =
The extent of age @-@ related RMS decline in humans has been the subject of significant debate . The decline of neurogenesis in and migration from the hippocampus in humans has already been well documented . Furthermore , age @-@ related declines in the activities of SVZ stem cells , which migrate to the OB via the RMS , are in place by middle age in rodents . In elderly mice , studies showed that the population of actively dividing SVZ cells and the rate of interneuron replacement in the OB are both drastically reduced , indicating an age @-@ related decline in neuronal proliferation and migration through the RMS . This decline was shown to be due to neuronal stem cell quiescence in the SVZ even by middle age , and not destruction , much like in the hippocampus .
= = = Pharmaceuticals = = =
Another topic in current RMS research pertains to pharmaceuticals . Scientists are still trying to tackle the difficult task of administering drugs into the brain and getting them past the selective blood – brain barrier . In a recent study , researchers tested the role of the RMS in “ intranasal delivery of drugs into the CNS ” . In this study , the experimenters disrupted the RMS in mice , which obstructed “ the uptake of intranasally administered radioligands into the CNS . ” Fluorescent tracers were also used to track the medicine throughout the brain . It was found that the medicine spread to all regions of the brain , including the olfactory bulb . The study concluded that the RMS was extremely prevalent and necessary in the central nervous system in order to deliver drugs intranasally . The study also noted that this research on the RMS is not sufficient , but instead needs to be expanded . Some of the limits and capabilities of the RMS are still unknown , as well as some of the hazards of it . If drugs are to be administered into the CNS through the RMS , all of the details of the RMS must be known in order to ensure safe delivery of the drugs to the brain .
= = = α6β1 integrin = = =
A study was conducted testing a specific integrin , alpha @-@ six @-@ beta @-@ one , and the role it plays in the RMS . The study researched the principle that chemoattractive molecules may play an important role in neuroblast migration in the RMS . The study of this one particular integrin was conducted in mice . By using antibodies to bind to α6β1 integrin subunits , found on the neuroblasts , the researchers observed that the migration was disrupted . Furthermore , they investigated the mechanism through which α6β1 integrin functions and determined it was via the chemoattractant laminin . This was completed by injecting laminin perpendicular to the RMS and observing that doing so drew “ neuroblasts away from their normal course of migration ” . The researchers concluded with the idea that this research could prove useful for therapeutics purposes in that neuroblasts could potentially be drawn to locations of injury or disease .
= Magnificat ( Bach ) =
Johann Sebastian Bach 's Magnificat is a musical setting of the biblical canticle Magnificat . It is scored for five vocal parts ( two sopranos , alto , tenor and bass ) , and a Baroque orchestra including trumpets and timpani . It is the first major liturgical composition on a Latin text by Bach .
In 1723 , after taking up his post as Thomaskantor in Leipzig , Bach set the text of the Magnificat in a twelve movement composition in the key of E @-@ flat major . For a performance at Christmas he inserted four hymns ( laudes ) related to that feast . This version , including the Christmas interpolations , was given the number BWV 243a in the catalogue of Bach 's works .
For the feast of Visitation of 1733 , Bach produced a new version of his Latin Magnificat , without the Christmas hymns : instrumentation of some movements was altered or expanded , and the key changed from E @-@ flat major to D major , for performance reasons of the trumpet parts . This version of Bach 's Magnificat is known as BWV 243 .
After publication of both versions in the 19th century , the second became the standard for performance . It is one of Bach 's most popular vocal works .
= = History = =
In Leipzig , the Magnificat was regularly part of Sunday services , sung in German on ordinary Sundays but more elaborately and in Latin on the high holidays ( Christmas , Easter and Pentecost ) and on the three Marian feasts Annunciation , Visitation and Purification .
= = = Bach 's tenure as Thomaskantor in Leipzig = = =
All of Bach 's liturgical compositions in Latin were composed during his tenure as Thomaskantor in Leipzig , from 1723 until his death in 1750 . Compared to Lutheran practice elsewhere , an uncharacteristic amount of Latin was used in church services in Leipzig . An early account of Bach showing interest in liturgical practices in Leipzig dates from 1714 , when he noted down the order of the service on the first Sunday in Advent during a visit to the town . At the time Johann Kuhnau was the Cantor in Leipzig . When Kuhnau died in 1722 , one of the candidates applying for the post of Thomaskantor was Christoph Graupner , a former pupil of Kuhnau , who reused a Magnificat he had composed for Christmas 1722 as an audition piece in January 1723 , three weeks before Bach presented his audition cantatas Jesus nahm zu sich die Zwölfe , BWV 22 and Du wahrer Gott und Davids Sohn , BWV 23 . Bach assumed the position of Thomaskantor on 30 May 1723 , the first Sunday after Trinity , performing an ambitious cantata in 14 movements , Die Elenden sollen essen , BWV 75 , followed by a comparable cantata , Die Himmel erzählen die Ehre Gottes , BWV 76 the next Sunday .
= = = Traditional setting of the German Magnificat = = =
The traditional setting of Luther 's German translation of the Magnificat ( " Meine Seele erhebt den Herren " ) is a German variant of the tonus peregrinus , a rather exceptional psalm tone in Gregorian chant . The tonus peregrinus ( or ninth tone ) is associated with the ninth mode or Aeolian mode . For the traditional setting of Luther 's German Magnificat that is the minor mode for which the last note of the melodic formula is the tonic , a fifth below its opening note .
The tonus peregrinus variant that is associated with Luther 's German Magnificat appears in compositions by , among others , Johann Schein , Heinrich Schütz , Johann Pachelbel and Dietrich Buxtehude . Bach uses the melodic formula as an instrumental cantus firmus in movement 10 ( Suscepit Israel ) of his Latin Magnificat . He uses it again in his " German Magnificat " , i.e. the cantata Meine Seel erhebt den Herren BWV 10 composed for Visitation of 1724 , in the chorale harmonisations BWV 323 and 324 , and in the fourth Schübler Chorale BWV 648 . Also in BWV 733 , Fuga sopra il Magnificat , the melodic formula is used as a theme : this chorale prelude may however be the work of Bach pupil Johann Ludwig Krebs .
= = = Extended settings of the Magnificat = = =
Being a quintessential part of vespers , evensong or matins , the Magnificat was , already for over a century before Bach 's composition , the liturgical text that was most often set to music apart from the Mass ordinary . In Protestantism there was no Latin text more often set to music than the Magnificat . Also settings of the German text of the Magnificat were current from the early 17th century , without one form suppressing the other .
Extended settings of the Magnificat , also indicated as settings in a concertato sectional construction , that is in several movements with chorus , orchestra and vocal soloists , and a non @-@ linear treatment of the text ( parts of the text repeated multiple times by the singers ) , go back to the old Italian school of music . Such an example can be found in Claudio Monteverdi 's Magnificat a 7 voci , one of two alternative Magnificat settings included in his Vespro della Beata Vergine . In a Lutheran tradition there is for example Schütz ' Latin Magnificat , SWV 468 . Magnificat composers like Johann Levini , Antonio Lotti and Francesco Durante are cited as possible inspirations for Bach . Around Bach 's time there are also examples by Heinichen and by Vivaldi .
In many of these settings a single verse of the Magnificat can be sung by one or more soloists alternating with choral singing , as Bach does in his treatment of the third Magnificat verse : the soprano sings the first words of the verse , while the chorus concludes it . This particular split of the third verse , leaving only the last two words ( omnes generationes ) to the chorus , had been practised before by Ruggiero Fedeli , and in a Magnificat in G minor from 1720 which Bach probably knew ( that Magnificat in G minor used to be attributed to Tomaso Albinoni ) . Also Graupner 's 1722 Magnificat had this split .
Another characteristic of Bach 's Magnificat is that it is set for a five @-@ part chorus . Extending a standard SATB choir with more voice parts was however no novelty for Magnificat compositions : for example Johann Pachelbel , the teacher of Johann Sebastian 's eldest brother , had composed half a dozen Magnificats for SSATB choir , and one for soli , SSATB double choir and orchestra . Kuhnau 's Magnificat setting also used a SSATB choir . Bach had already composed for a SSATB choir in Weimar ( Der Himmel lacht ! Die Erde jubilieret , BWV 31 , an Easter cantata from 1715 ) . He did the same in the year his Magnificat premiered , in his funeral motet Jesu , meine Freude . Ten years later , around the time when the D major version of the Magnificat originated , he composed for the same extended chorus in his Mass for the Dresden court . Other extended choral settings by Bach include his Sanctus for six vocal parts ( SSSATB ) for Christmas 1724 , and compositions for double choir like the St Matthew Passion ( 1727 ) and the secular cantata Preise dein Glücke , gesegnetes Sachsen , BWV 215 ( 1734 ) . Such compositions with an extended choir are however outside Bach 's usual routine for liturgical music .
Bach was not the first to include mixed German / Latin Christmas interpolations in a Magnificat sung in Latin : Hieronymus Praetorius published a Magnificat with such interpolations in 1622 . Samuel Scheidt 's Geistliche Konzerte III ( 1635 ) contained three Magnificats with interpolations , the first of these ( SSWV 299 for SSATTB and basso continuo ) with the first stanza of " Vom Himmel hoch da komm ich her " as first interpolation .
= = = The Visitation version ( s ) = = =
In the Gospel of Luke the words of the Magnificat are spoken by Mary when she visits her cousin Elizabeth , both being pregnant , Mary with Jesus and Elisabeth with John the Baptist . In Christianity , the feast commemorating that visit is called Visitation . It is a chosen opportunity to give more than ordinary attention to the Magnificat canticle in liturgy , while the feast celebrates the event tied to its origin . In Bach 's time the feast day of Visitation fell on 2 July . The D major version of Bach 's Magnificat ( BWV 243 ) was first performed on 2 July 1733 , as part of the church service in the St. Thomas Church ( Thomaskirche ) in Leipzig . That year , Visitation fell on a Sunday ( fourth Sunday after Trinity ) and ended the period of mourning the death of the elector Augustus the Strong .
In 2003 Bach scholar Andreas Glöckner argued that the very first version of Bach 's Magnificat , that is the E ♭ major version before the four Christmas interpolations were added to the autograph , was first performed on 2 July 1723 . That would have been exactly ten years before the transposed version , and composed for the same Marian feast . Bach had taken up his post as Thomaskantor in Leipzig on 30 May , the first Sunday after Trinity in 1723 . Visitation was the first feast day of his tenure , which called for exceptionally festive music .
= = = The Christmas interpolations = = =
Before Glöckner 's 2003 article on the origin of the Magnificat , and for some authors still after that , it was generally assumed that Bach had composed his Magnificat in the quiet time of Advent 1723 for a first performance at the Christmas vespers . For that performance Bach composed four laudes , songs of praise partly in German , partly in Latin to be inserted at certain points in the E @-@ flat major version of the Magnificat . The E @-@ flat major version of the Magnificat including these interpolations is known as BWV 243a .
The text of these laudes had been used in Leipzig in a Christmas cantata by Bach 's predecessor Kuhnau . Possibly those settings in C major of the same four texts as the laudes Bach had included in his Christmas Magnificat were not a self @-@ contained cantata , but laudes Kuhnau had composed for insertion in his C major Magnificat when it was to be performed at Christmas . These laudes illustrate what the Gospels describe as the circumstances around Christ 's birth , and were embedded in an old tradition named Kindleinwiegen ( rocking of the cradle ) .
As these laudes were to be performed with a very limited accompaniment of instruments , they were supposedly performed from the small loft in the high choir of the Thomaskirche , opposite to the large organ loft where the other movements of the Magnificat were performed . The autograph of the E @-@ flat major version of the Magnificat ( BWV 243a ) suggests that Bach intended to perform the first version of his Magnificat also without the laudes , depending on circumstances , for example on other feasts than Christmas .
= = = Other Magnificats by Bach ? = = =
Bach 's Nekrolog , the 1754 obituary written by Johann Friedrich Agricola and the composer 's son Carl Philipp Emanuel , mentions that he would have composed several Magnificats . Apart from the extant copies of BWV 243 / 243a , of the German Magnificat BWV 10 and of the chorale harmonisation BWV 324 , a Magnificat for soprano solo was considered lost in the 19th century . The score of that so @-@ called " little " Magnificat ( Kleine Magnificat ) being retrieved in the 20th century , and listed as BWV Anh . 21 , its authenticity was doubted . In 1982 Melchior Hoffmann was indicated as the composer of this German Magnificat Meine Seel erhebt den Herren . A similar cantata on a German paraphrase of the Magnificat , Meine Seele rühmt und preist , BWV 189 for tenor solo and composed for Visitation , has also been attributed to Hoffmann .
Another German libretto paraphrasing the Magnificat , published by Picander in his 1728 – 29 cantata cycle for performance on 2 July 1728 , may have been set by Bach . Similarly , a Meine Seele erhebet den Herrn cantata by an unknown librettist for Visitation 1725 . Further , Bach copied Latin Magnificats by other composers :
in the early 1740s Bach copied Antonio Caldara 's Magnificat in C major , arranging its Suscepit Israel movement ( BWV 1082 ) .
BWV Anh . 30 is a Magnificat in C major for SSAATTBB choir and orchestra , copied by Bach around 1742 . The manuscript score indicates no composer , but according to a 2012 study it is a 17th @-@ century work , composed by Pietro Torri before his 25th birthday . An earlier attribution of the work had been to Antonio Lotti .
= = Structure and movements = =
Bach 's Magnificat consists of eleven movements for the text of Luke 1 : 46 – 55 , concluded by a twelfth doxology movement . Each verse of the canticle is assigned to one movement , except verse 48 ( the third verse of the Magnificat ) which begins with a soprano solo in the third movement and is concluded by the chorus in the fourth movement . The traditional division of the Magnificat , as used by composers since the late Middle Ages , was in 12 verses : it differs from Bach 's 12 movements in that Luke 's verse 48 is one verse in the traditional division , while the doxology is divided into two verses .
There is however no numbering of movements in Bach 's autographs , nor is there a caesura between the third and the fourth movement : the 25th measure of the Quia respexit ( where the soprano soloist sings her last note ) is the first measure of the Omnes generationes movement . The four Christmas interpolations are placed after the second , the fifth , the seventh and the ninth movement on the Magnificat text . These four laudes movements are usually indicated by the letters A to D , with these text sources :
A : Hymn by Martin Luther
B : Verse attributed to Sethus Calvisius
C : Luke 2 : 14
D : Fragment of a Christmas hymn
Performance time of the Magnificat lies typically between 25 and 30 minutes , with an additional five minutes for the Christmas interpolations . The duration of the version without Christmas hymns is comparable with that of an average Bach cantata . However , there are many differences : the Magnificat contains about twice as many movements as an average cantata , keeping it short by avoiding da capos in the arias , and altogether no recitatives . Also the text is in Latin ( not the usual language for a Bach cantata ) , the architecture of the movements is fairly complex , as opposed to the fairly simple structure of an average cantata , and the choral writing is in five parts , " outside the normal routine of Bach 's sacred vocal works " .
= = = Scoring and key signature = = =
The movements 1 ( Magnificat ) , 7 ( Fecit potentiam ) and 12 ( Gloria patri ) are the cornerstones of the composition : they are in the tonic key ( E ♭ major for BWV 243a , D major for BWV 243 ) , and are the only movements that feature a five @-@ part chorus as well as a tutti orchestra . The chorus also sings in movement 4 ( Omnes generationes ) , accompanied by an orchestra without trumpets and timpani . Each of these four choral movements are , in the version without the Christmas hymns , followed by two movements for a vocal soloist , the second one often with richer scoring . In the movements for vocal soloists the instrumentation is as usual in Bach 's cantata 's : the soloists are accompanied by an obbligato instrument , only strings and / or continuo . Movement A ( Vom Himmel hoch ) is the only a cappella movement .
As natural trumpets were usually tuned in D in Saxony , this is given as a reason why Bach transposed the initial E @-@ flat major version to D major .
= = = = Voices = = = =
Bach set the Magnificat for SSATB five @-@ part choir . Five vocal soloists are required : two sopranos ( sI , sII ) , alto ( a ) , tenor ( t ) and bass ( b ) . In movement 10 ( Suscepit Israel ) both sopranos sing together with the alto .
= = = = Orchestra = = = =
The Baroque orchestra for BWV 243a consists of " due violini , due oboe , tre trombi , tamburi , basson , viola e basso continuo " , i.e. two violins ( Vl ) , two oboes ( Ob ) , three trumpets ( Tr , tonic ) , timpani ( Ti , tonic and dominant ) , bassoon , viola ( Va ) and basso continuo ( Bc ) . Two recorders ( flauto dolce , Fl ) are required for aria No. 9 Esurientes , but are not part of the tutti .
For the 1733 version , Bach used a somewhat more extended orchestra : the recorders are replaced by traversos ( Fl ) and they get separate parts in all four choral movements . In movements three and four the oboes are replaced by oboes d 'amore ( Oa ) . In the 10th movement ( Suscepit Israel ) the oboes replace the trumpet for the obbligato instrumental part .
The continuo part is played by organ , bassoon , cello and violone in most movements . In the 1723 version movement 10 ( Suscepit Israel ) has a bassett ( Ba ) part played exclusively by violins and viola in unisono . In the 1733 version this continuo line is given to a continuo that includes cello , but not bassoon and violone .
= = = Symmetrical structure = = =
Bach 's Magnificat is built symmetrically around the 7th movement ( Fecit potentiam ) : Between the first and the 7th movement there are four verses of the Magnificat , between the 7th and the last there are also four . First , seventh and last movement are in the tonic key , with full orchestra and choir . The second and 11th movement are in the same major key , the third and the 10th movement are in the relative minor key . The movement preceding , and the one following , the central 7th movement are also in a minor key . The fifth and the ninth are in a major key , different from the tonic . The Christmas additions are separated by two Magnificat verses , the first addition being after the second verse . The Christmas hymns are always in the same key as the preceding movement . By verse , this is what the harmonic structure looks like :
Verse 1 and 2 ( movements 1 and 2 , followed by movement A in the Christmas version ) : tonic key ( major )
Verse 3 : starts in relative minor key ( movement 3 ) , moving to another minor key ( movement 4 )
Verse 4 ( movement 5 , followed by movement B in the Christmas version ) : major key different from tonic
Verse 5 ( movement 6 ) : minor key
Verse 6 ( movement 7 , followed by movement C in the Christmas version ) : tonic key
Verse 7 ( movement 8 ) : minor key
Verse 8 ( movement 9 , followed by movement D in the Christmas version ) : major key different from tonic
Verse 9 ( movement 10 ) : relative minor key
Verse 10 and doxology ( movements 11 and 12 ) : tonic key
Regarding voices and orchestration the four Magnificat verses between the first and the seventh movement , and those between the seventh and the last , have a less symmetrical build @-@ up : here the idea is rather that after a tutti movement there are two or three arias building up to the next choral movement :
movements two and three , both for solo soprano , build up to the Omnes generationes choral movement No. 4
movements five ( solo ) and six ( duet ) , build up to the 7th tutti movement
movements eight and nine ( both solo movements ) , followed by an aria for vocal trio , build up to the final two choral movements
The last aria in each of these sets of arias is first a solo , then a duet , then a terzet ( trio ) . When inserting the Christmas hymns , building up to the seventh movement alternates arias with choral movements , while in the second half of the composition the choral movements at the outer ends are separated by a set of four arias : solo → solo → duet → trio . In such sixteen @-@ movement performance there is however another symmetry : the third section ( movement A ) , and the third counting down from the last ( movement 10 ) both use a Lutheran chorale melody as cantus firmus : soprano voices in the first case ( " Vom Himmel hoch , da komm ich her " ) , instrumental in the second ( " Meine Seele erhebt den Herren " ) . The symmetry of the Christmas version can be pictured as follows :
Two movements ( 1 , 2 ) in tonic key → " cantus firmus " movement ( A )
Verse in minor key ( mvt . 3 , 4 ) → two movements in the same major key ( 5 , B )
Verse in minor key ( mvt . 6 ) → two movements in tonic key ( 7 , C )
Verse in minor key ( mvt . 8 ) → two movements in the same major key ( 9 , D )
Two movements in tonic key ( 11 , 12 ) ← " cantus firmus " movement ( 10 )
This is also 5 times two verses of the Magnificat followed by a movement with a text that comes from elsewhere , the only bible quote of these other texts ( movement C , also a doxology like the last movement ) being coupled with the central 7th movement .
The structure of Bach 's Magnificat has been compared with that of Kuhnau 's , which he probably knew , and with that of Johann Philipp Krieger 's Magnificat of 1685 , which Kuhnau probably knew . Kuhnau 's Magnificat , his largest extant vocal work , has a similar orchestration as the first version of Bach 's Magnificat ( differences : Kuhnau 's has a second viola , Bach 's has two recorders in one movement ) , and it has the same " expandability " with settings of the same laudes for a Christmas performance . Kuhnau 's Magnificat has standard SATB soloists , but like Bach 's , a SSATB choir . All three Magnificats set verses 1 , 6 , 10 and 12 of the Magnificat text for chorus . Kuhnau 's has five choral movements , like Bach 's , but his second is verse 4 ( instead of 3b for Bach ) , and his last is only verse 12 , where for Bach that final chorus sets both verse 11 and 12 . In all three Magnificats the other verses are set for soloists , as a single voice or combined into duets and trios .
= = = The twelve movements of the Magnificat canticle = = =
= = = = 1 . Magnificat = = = =
Magnificat anima mea Dominum ( " My spirit gives great praise to the Lord , " Luke 1 : 46 ) is the text used for the opening chorus . The movement consists of 6 blocks of 15 measures , totalling 90 bars of music , exactly half of them with choral singing :
Measure 1 – 30 : the orchestra presents itself with what looks like a ritornello , but is in fact rather a concerto tutti . The movement has the form of an Italian aria , modelled after the concerto style Bach had developed in Köthen : in that style the material is presented in an instrumental tutti.Measure 1 @-@ 15 : the motive played by oboe I in the first measure sets the jubilant tone of the tutti . It is the first of two main motives .
Measure 16 @-@ 30 : in measure 16 , almost imperceptible in the whirling movement of other instruments , violin I presents a new motive : it is the second main motive . The last measures before the entrance of the choir that motive is repeated by multiple instruments .
First motive ( as sung by sopranos I in measure 31 ) :
Second motive ( as sung by the tenors in measure 35 ) :
Measure 31 – 75 : accompanied by the continuo , the chorus enters as a concerto soloist , imitating the opening material.Measure 31 – 45 : The sopranos enter first , with the first main motive , and from measure 32 alto and tenor imitate the same . The basses enter from measure 33 while the full orchestra plays a short intervention for two measures . In measures 35 @-@ 36 the chorus sings the second main motive from the opening tutti . After that the orchestra dominates again , with the chorus following or giving contrasting melodies . From the end of measure 37 voices one after another start singing " anima mea " , until in the last three measures of this block all singers take the text Dominum ( the Lord ) once , all of them with the last syllable of that word on the first beat of the 45th measure , after which the orchestra , apart from the continuo , is silent till the beginning of measure 47 : the singers bridge the central barline between measures 45 and 46 with the first main motive sung by altos , sopranos I and sopranos II consecutively .
Measure 46 @-@ 60 : after the sopranos recapitulate the start of the movement with their voices , and a brief intervention by the orchestra in measures 47 @-@ 48 , the second main motive is sung again , first by the highest voices in measure 49 , followed by the lower voices in measure 50 . In this block the chorus takes a leading role , limited groups of instruments accompanying with short ideas taken from the opening tutti , until in the last two measures all instruments join , ending with the second main motive played by trumpet I in measure 60 . In this second of three blocks for the singers , the only text they sing is a repetition of the word " magnificat " .
Measure 61 – 75 : in the first measure of this block the altos sing the first main motive while all instruments halt for at least a few beats . The singers keep the leading role , while groups of instruments play additional motives . Later the orchestral writing thickens , returning from the subdominant to the tonic . The text remains magnificat for most of this block , the conclusion " anima mea " ( my soul ) is heard by the alto for the first time , in measure 67 , embedded in the other voices ' Magnificat . All parts sing " Dominum " once again , soprano II beginning with a long note continued by a melisma in measure 73 , the others in 74 .
Measure 76 – 90 : after 45 measures of choral singing follow fifteen measures of instrumental postlude , with material condensed from the opening tutti .
= = = = 2 . Et exultavit = = = =
Et exultavit spiritus meus is an aria sung by soprano II , accompanied by the strings . The aria continues the feelings of joy from the first movement , but in a less extrovert way . In the Christmas 1723 version , this movement is followed by the first interpolation , the hymn " Vom Himmel hoch da komm ich her " .
= = = = 3 . Quia respexit = = = =
Quia respexit humilitatem ( Because he has looked upon the humility ) is an aria sung by soprano I with an obbligato oboe ( oboe d 'amore in the D major version ) . It is the only movement for which Bach marked the tempo at the beginning : Adagio ( only D major version ) . Steinberg notes that voice and instrument first share the material in a " contemplative duet " , but on ecce enim ex hoc beatam ( from henceforth shall call me blessed ) the voice changes to a " simpler , more declamatory style " . Spitta notes : " Scarcely ever has the idea of virgin purity , simplicity , and humble happiness found more perfect expression than in this German picture of the Madonna , translated , as it were , into musical language . "
= = = = 4 . Omnes generationes = = = =
The continuation of the verse and completion of the sentence , Omnes generationes ( all generations ) , is given to the chorus . The setting has been likened to a turba chorus as used by Bach in his Passions . Some commentators see an atmosphere close to aggression , others rather an evocation of multitude . The sound in the E @-@ flat major version is somewhat harsher than in the D major version , for example the bass line in measure three , and in measure 24 where the first version has a dissonant dominant ninth which was changed to a less dissonant harmony in the later version .
= = = = 5 . Quia fecit = = = =
Quia fecit mihi magna ( Because he did great things for me ) is an aria sung by the bass , accompanied only by the continuo . The motif , again beginning with repeated notes , is introduced by four measures of the continuo , then repeated by the voice .
= = = = 6 . Et misericordia = = = =
Et misericordia ( And mercy ) , a duet for alto and tenor , begins with an undulating movement in 12 / 8 time , played by violins and violas . In the D major version these strings play con sordino , flutes doubling the violins .
= = = = 7 . Fecit potentiam = = = =
Fecit potentiam ( He shows strength ) shares key and scoring with the first movement . The tenor is the first voice to enter , followed by alto , SII , bass and SI , leading to two calls without melismas near the middle of the movement . Dispersit appears in various voices , but then isolated , in a sequence from the highest voice to the lowest . The conclusion , mente cordis sui , is marked Adagio and illustrates the text in long chords , with accents by the trumpets .
= = = = 8 . Deposuit = = = =
Deposuit potentes ( He hath put down the mighty ) is an aria for tenor , accompanied by continuo and unisono violins , presenting material in a 14 measure ritornello . The second thought of the verse , beginning with et exaltavit humiles ( and exalted the humble ) , is sung without introduction . After a shorter ritornello , the tenor sings the complete text again , the first part in a slightly modified version , but the exaltation considerably expanded after which the ritornello in full length is repeated at the end .
= = = = 9 . Esurientes = = = =
Esurientes ( The hungry ) is sung by the alto , accompanied by two flutes . The ritornello of eight measures introduces a motiv moving up , on a continuo of steady quarter note , for four measures , later sung on Esurientes implevit bonis ( He hath filled the hungry with good things ) , while downward lines and a continuo moving in eighth notes later go with et divites dimisit ( and the rich he hath sent away ) . In Latin , the last word is inanes ( empty @-@ handed ) .
= = = = 10 . Suscepit Israel = = = =
Suscepit Israel ( He hath holpen his servant Israel ) is scored for an unusual combination of the three highest voices and two oboes in unison ( a single trumpet in the E @-@ flat major version ) . The wind instrument ( s ) cite the tonus peregrinus as a cantus firmus , on a continuo line that most of the time only changes every measure , moving one step down or up . The voices imitate each other , in gentle movement . Almost the only leaps in the whole measure occur on the word recordatus , with a downward quart on each syllable .
= = = = 11 . Sicut locutus est = = = =
Sicut locutus est ( As he spake [ to our fathers , to Abraham , and to his seed for ever ] ) , the last line of the Magnificat has a theme in four distinct measures : the first repeated notes , the second flowing eighth notes , the third quarter notes in leaps , the fourth half notes leaping up a sixth . When the theme is developed the first time , four voices enter from bottom to top . In the second development , soprano I begins , followed by alto , tenor and bass . The movements ends with a more homophonic section in which the bass has the theme once more , while soprano I sings long suspended notes in a descending scale covering almost an octave .
= = = = 12 . Gloria patri = = = =
The work is concluded by the doxology , Gloria Patri ( Glory to the father ) , performed by the complete ensemble . The first part of the text ends in a long cadenza . After changing the time signature from common time to triple metre , the second part of the text , Sicut erat in principio ( as it was in the beginning ) , repeats material from the beginning of the work .
= = = The hymns added in the Christmas 1723 version = = =
The first time the Christmas hymns of the E @-@ flat major version of Bach 's Magnificat were printed was in the same volume as the D major version of the Magnificat , in the 1862 Bach Gesellschaft XI / 1 publication , which presented the hymns in an annex . In that publication the hymns were however not transposed to fit in the D major setting of the Magnificat . More recently publishers offer such transposed ( and completed ) versions of the hymns , so that they can be performed as part of the D major version of the Magnificat , for instance Novello in 2000 ( Neil Jenkins ) and Bärenreiter in 2014 .
= = = = A. Vom Himmel hoch = = = =
The text is the first stanza of " Vom Himmel hoch da komm ich her , " a hymn by Martin Luther paraphrasing the annunciation to and adoration of the shepherds from Luke 2 : 8 – 18 . Bach sets this first laudes a cappella in four parts , and , like the two preceding movements , in the tonic key . The form is a chorale fantasia , with all sopranos singing the 1539 chorale melody attributed to Luther as a cantus firmus , while the lower voices make the counterpoint by imitating sections of the melody line in diminished time . Where the Latin of the preceding movements may have been largely incomprehensible for the congregation in Bach 's time , here is a first movement that was not only recognizable for the words , but also for the melody : the Vom Himmel hoch chorale would have been sung by the congregation the preceding evening during the Christmas Eve service .
Quarter of a century later Bach returned to the chorale melody of " Vom Himmel hoch da komm ' ich her " , writing a set of five canonic variations on that theme ( BWV 769 ) , one of a few compositions printed during the composer 's lifetime . Bach also included three settings of the chorale melody in his Christmas Oratorio . BWV 606 ( in the Orgelbüchlein ) , 700 , 701 , 738 and 738a are chorale preludes based on the " Vom Himmel hoch " theme .
= = = = B. Freut euch und jubiliert = = = =
The text of this movement is " Freut euch und jubilirt , Zu Bethlehem gefunden wird Das herzeliebe Jesulein , Das soll euer Freud und Wonne sein " ( Rejoice with pious mind , To Bethlehem go now and find The fair and holy new @-@ born Boy , Who is your comfort peace , and joy ) , a verse by Sethus Calvisius .
For SSAT , B @-@ flat major , .
= = = = C. Gloria in excelsis = = = =
The text , " Gloria in excelsis Deo et in terra pax homínibus bona voluntas " , is a variant of the opening verse of the Gloria . The better known version from the Vulgate , ending on " ... bonae voluntatis , " is an incorrect rendering of the original Greek version of Luke 2 : 14 , there said by angels in the Christmas night . The Vulgate version translates as " Glory to God in the highest , and on earth peace to people of good will , " while the end of the Greek version is rendered more correctly as " Peace on earth , and good will towards men , " as it was understood by Luther ( " Friede auf Erden und den Menschen ein Wohlgefallen " ) . Lutheran theologians thus rejected the Vulgate version ( they would have the verse end on " ... bonae voluntes " in Latin ) , while composers were attached to the classic formula for its melodious rhythm . This Magnificat interpolation is the only place where Bach uses a version of the Gloria text that differs from the Vulgate , more or less catching the spirit of the theologian @-@ approved version .
For SSATB and violins , E @-@ flat major , . Text : .
= = = = D. Virga Jesse floruit = = = =
The text is " Virga Jesse floruit , Emanuel noster apparuit , Induit carnem Hominis , Fit puer delectabilis . Alleluja . " ( The stem of Jesse hath flourished , Our Emanuel hath appeared , And hath put on human flesh , And become a lovely child , Alleluja ! ) and is a fragment of a longer Christmas hymn that was printed in Gottfried Vopelius ' Neu Leipziger Gesangbuch .
For S B , F major , 12 / 8 .
= = Reception history = =
After the composer 's death the autographs of both the E @-@ flat major and the D major version of the Magnificat were owned by his son Carl Philipp Emanuel . Publication followed in the 19th century , including the Christmas hymns of the E @-@ flat major version , and a variety of vocal and instrumental scores adapted to contemporary performance practice for the D major version . By the end of that century " The Magnificat in D ( was ) considered one of the grandest illustrations of Bach 's genius . " Generally it was also the D major version without the Christmas hymns that was chosen for performance .
A new critical edition of both BWV 243 and 243a was published in 1955 as Series 2 , Volume 3 of the New Bach Edition . Although the D major version remained the standard for life performance and studio recordings , half a century later also the E @-@ flat major version had been published in new editions adapted to performance , it had been recorded several times , and its composition history had been further unravelled .
= = = 18th century = = =
In 1749 , a year before his father 's death , Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach 's Magnificat in D major had been performed in Leipzig , like his father 's an extended setting . When Johann Sebastian had died , Carl Philipp Emanuel owned the autograph of both versions of his father 's Magnificat , and staged the composition in Hamburg in 1786 .
Laudes A and B ( transposed to fit in a D major composition ) were combined with a movement of a cantate by Graun ( probably Carl Heinrich Graun ) to form a Christmas motet , Kündlich groß ist das gottselige Geheimnis , BWV Anh . 161 .
= = = 19th century = = =
The score of the E @-@ flat major version of Bach 's Magnificat was first published by Simrock in 1811 , edited by Georg Pölchau , however with printing errors , and without the Christmas hymns . It was the first composition of Bach for vocal soloists , chorus and orchestra that was printed in orchestral score , but at the time this publication had little success in sales . When in 1822 young Felix Mendelssohn composed a Magnificat in D major he showed that he knew Bach 's version .
The D major version of Bach 's Magnificat didn 't appear in print before the Bach @-@ revival that followed Mendelssohn 's 1829 performance of the St Matthew Passion . In the 1840s a piano reduction by Robert Franz of Bach 's D major version of the Magnificat appeared . In 1862 the orchestral and vocal score was published in Volume 11 / 1 of the Bach @-@ Gesellschaft edition . The same edition printed the Christmas interpolations for the first time . A year later Robert Franz complained the composition had still received too little attention from music critics and so remained virtually unknown to the general public . A year later he published the D major version of the Magnificat with an orchestral score in line with 19th century performance practice , for example expanding the " organ and continuo " single stave with annotated bass from the autograph and the Bach @-@ edition into several separate staves for organ , bassoon and celli .
Novello printed an Octavo edition of the D major Magnificat in 1874 , using a translation to English which John Troutbeck based on the text in The Book of Common Prayer . In 1880 , when Bach 's autographs of the composition were already kept in the Royal Library ( later State Library ) of Berlin , Philipp Spitta devoted many pages to the Magnificat in his Bach @-@ biography , considering it recognized as one of the greatest achievements of the composer 's genius . Bach 's Magnificat was performed several times in the last quarter of the 19th century , for instance in Germany and the Netherlands .
= = = 20th century = = =
In 1924 Arnold Schering edited the full orchestral score of the D major version of Bach 's Magnificat for publication by Ernst Eulenburg and Edition Peters . Performances of the Magnificat by , among others , Serge Koussevitzky and the Boston Symphony Orchestra were recorded in the 1940s and appeared on 78 rpm records . LP recordings of the early 1950s included live performances of the Magnificat directed by Otto Klemperer and by Herbert von Karajan , the last one with Elisabeth Schwarzkopf as soprano .
The Neue Bach Ausgabe published Bach 's Magnificat ( both BWV 243a and BWV 243 ) in 1955 , edited by Alfred Dürr . This Urtext score was reused in several ensuing publications by Bärenreiter , among which several with an English translation . More recordings of the Magnificat became available , for instance directed by Kurt Redel , Leonard Bernstein , Karl Richter and Karl Ristenpart . The second half of the 1960s saw the first recordings of the Christmas version of the Magnificat BWV 243a including the laudes , and new recordings of the D major version by von Karajan , Karl Münchinger and Daniel Barenboim .
The earliest LP @-@ releases that contained the Christmas laudes of BWV 243a inserted them , transposed , in the D major version BWV 243 of the Magnificat . In this form Helmuth Rilling 's recording with the Bach @-@ Collegium Stuttgart and the Figuralchor der Gedächtniskirche Stuttgart appeared in 1967 with a performance time of 40 : 06 . Wolfgang Gönnenwein 's Bach : Magnificat in D ( Including Christmas Interpolations ) , with the Deutsche Bachsolisten and the Süddeutscher Madrigalchor appeared in the 1970s .
Bruno Maderna recorded BWV 243a , with the choir and orchestra of the Südwestdeutscher Rundfunk , and Hedy Graf , Hildegard Laurich , Adalbert Kraus and Michael Schopper as vocal soloists , in 1971 . Its CD @-@ release as volume 8 of the Maderna Edition by Arkadia was in 1991 . The first recording on period instruments of Bach 's Magnificat , with the four choral Christmas interpolations ( BWV 243a ) , was released by Simon Preston and the Academy of Ancient Music in 1978 ( L 'Oiseau Lyre / Decca ) , coupled with Vivaldi 's Gloria . Nicolaus Harnoncourt 's first recording of the D major version followed in 1984 . Also Helmuth Rilling and John Eliot Gardiner had by then recorded the D major version of the Magnificat .
20th century Magnificat composers often refer to Bach 's composition in their new setting : Vaughan @-@ Williams ( 1932 ) and Rutter ( 1990 ) include hymns and songs outside the liturgical text in their extended settings , like Bach 's Christmas version ; Penderecki 's extended setting ( 1973 – 74 ) makes musical associations to Bach 's D major setting ; Pärt uses a SSATB choir in his a cappella setting ( 1989 ) .
Before the end of the century CD recordings of the D major version of Bach 's Magnificat by Sigiswald Kuijken , Robert Shaw , Andrew Parrott , Philippe Herreweghe , Neville Marriner , Peter Schreier , Harry Christophers , Ton Koopman , and by the Bach Collegium Japan had been released . Philip Pickett 's 1995 recording of the E @-@ flat major version appeared on L 'Oiseau Lyre . Other CD releases with BWV 243a that became available before the end of the century include a recording by Rilling and the Gächinger Kantorei , one with the Regensburger Domspatzen , and one with Rolf Schweizer , the Motettenchor Pforzheim and L 'arpa festante playing on period instruments .
Novello published both the E @-@ flat major and the D major version of the Magnificat in a single publication in 2000 , edited by Neil Jenkins . This edition also offered a transposed version of the Christmas 1723 laudes so that they could be fitted in performances of the D major version of the Magnificat . The last measures of the Virga Jesse , missing from the autograph score , were in this edition completed on the base of a similar composition by Bach .
= = = 21st century = = =
Philippe Herreweghe 's 2002 recording of BWV 243a with Collegium Vocale Gent was released by Harmonia Mundi in 2003 . In 2003 Ton Koopman recorded the Christmas version of Bach 's Magnificat with Amsterdam Baroque in the St. Thomas church in Leipzig . A DVD of the recording , which included a performance of Kuhnau 's Magnificat with his four Christmas interpolations , and of Bach 's German Magnificat BWV 10 , was released in 2004 . Thomas Hengelbrock 's recording of BWV 243a , with the Balthasar @-@ Neumann @-@ Chor and Ensemble , was released by Deutsche Harmonia Mundi in 2008 . In 2009 Philippe Pierlot performed the D major version of the Magnificat with the Ricercar Consort , with five vocal soloists without choir .
Facsimiles of Bach 's autographs of both versions of the Magnificat became available on @-@ line . Bärenreiter published a critical edition of all score versions , based on Dürr 's 1955 edition , again in 2014 / 15 . The " synthetic " D major version , that is the D major version of the Magnificat with the Christmas laudes transposed to fit in that version , now published both by Novello and Bärenreiter , found performers and audiences .
That the composition ranges among Bach 's most popular vocal works is illustrated by its regular appearance in classical music polls like Klara 's Top 75 / Top 100 .
= BP Pedestrian Bridge =
The BP Pedestrian Bridge , or simply BP Bridge , is a girder footbridge in the Loop community area of Chicago , Illinois , United States . It spans Columbus Drive to connect Maggie Daley Park ( formerly , Daley Bicentennial Plaza ) with Millennium Park , both parts of the larger Grant Park . Designed by Pritzker Prize @-@ winning architect Frank Gehry , it opened along with the rest of Millennium Park on July 16 , 2004 . Gehry had been courted by the city to design the bridge and the neighboring Jay Pritzker Pavilion , and eventually agreed to do so after the Pritzker family funded the Pavilion .
Named for energy firm BP , which donated $ 5 million toward its construction , it is the first Gehry @-@ designed bridge to have been completed . BP Bridge is described as snakelike because of its curving form . Designed to bear a heavy load without structural problems caused by its own weight , it has won awards for its use of sheet metal . The bridge is known for its aesthetics , and Gehry 's style is seen in its biomorphic allusions and extensive sculptural use of stainless steel plates to express abstraction .
The pedestrian bridge serves as a noise barrier for traffic sounds from Columbus Drive . It is a connecting link between Millennium Park and destinations to the east , such as the nearby lakefront , other parts of Grant Park and a parking garage . BP Bridge uses a concealed box girder design with a concrete base , and its deck is covered by hardwood floor boards . It is designed without handrails , using stainless steel parapets instead . The total length is 935 feet ( 285 m ) , with a five percent slope on its inclined surfaces that makes it barrier free and accessible . Although the bridge is closed in winter because ice cannot be safely removed from its wooden walkway , it has received favorable reviews for its design and aesthetics .
= = Design = =
= = = Preliminary plans = = =
Since the mid @-@ 19th century , Grant Park has been Chicago 's " front yard " , with Lake Michigan to the east and the Loop to the west . Columbus Drive runs north – south through Grant Park , with Daley Bicentennial Plaza in the northeast corner of the park . West of Columbus Drive , the northwest corner of the park had been Illinois Central rail yards and parking lots until 1997 , when it became available for development by the city as Millennium Park . Millennium Park is also north of Monroe Street and the Art Institute , east of Michigan Avenue , and south of Randolph Street . For 2007 , Millennium Park trailed only Navy Pier as a Chicago tourist attraction .
In February 1999 , the city announced it was negotiating with Frank Gehry to design a proscenium arch and orchestra enclosure for a band shell in the new park , as well as a pedestrian bridge crossing Columbus Drive between Millennium Park and Daley Bicentennial Plaza . The city also sought donors to cover the cost of Gehry 's work , which would eventually become Jay Pritzker Pavilion and the BP Pedestrian Bridge . At the time , the Chicago Tribune dubbed Gehry " the hottest architect in the universe " in reference to the acclaim for his Guggenheim Museum Bilbao . Millennium Park project manager Edward Uhlir said " Frank is just the cutting edge of the next century of architecture " , and noted that no other architect was being sought . Gehry was approached several times by Skidmore , Owings & Merrill architect Adrian Smith on behalf of the city . In April 1999 , the city announced that the Pritzker family had donated $ 15 million to fund Gehry 's band shell and an additional nine donors committed a total of $ 10 million more to the park . That same day , Gehry agreed to the design request .
In November 1999 , when he unveiled his initial plans for the bridge and band shell , Gehry admitted the bridge 's design was underdeveloped because funding for it was not yet committed . Even at this early point , the need for a sound barrier for Columbus Drive traffic noise was recognized , although Gehry indicated this might take the form of a berm , or raised barrier . The need to fund a bridge to span the eight @-@ lane Columbus Drive was evident , but some planning for the park was delayed in anticipation of details on the redesign of Soldier Field . In January 2000 , the city announced plans to expand the park to include features that became Cloud Gate , Crown Fountain , the McDonalds Cycle Center , and the BP Pedestrian Bridge . Later that month , Gehry unveiled his next design , which depicted a winding bridge .
While the neighboring Jay Pritzker Pavilion changed relatively little from Gehry 's 1999 design when built , the bridge went through several proposed designs . The proposal made in early 2000 , which was expected to be executed in 2002 , included a bridge that was a mere 170 feet ( 51 @.@ 8 m ) long and 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) wide . That design was not approved , and Chicago Mayor Richard M. Daley 's disapproval of Gehry 's subsequent design of an 800 – 900 @-@ foot ( 240 – 270 m ) bridge caused Gehry to come up with ten more designs . The first of these plans was for a Z @-@ shaped bridge that would have run northwest – southeast with western ramps in Millennium Park , leading south , and eastern ramps in the empty north section of Daley Bicentennial Plaza , leading north . It would have required elevators to conform to the Americans with Disabilities Act . This plan was abandoned because it would have segregated the handicapped . Gehry had only designed two bridges previously , both in the mid @-@ 1990s ( Pferdeturm USTRA Bridge in Hanover , Germany and Financial Times Millennium Bridge in London , United Kingdom ) but neither was built .
= = = Final plan = = =
The final design for the bridge was revealed in an exhibit at the Chicago Cultural Center on June 10 , 2000 . As designed and built , the bridge is 935 feet ( 285 @.@ 0 m ) long and 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) wide , with a 14 @-@ foot @-@ 6 @-@ inch ( 4 @.@ 42 m ) Columbus Drive clearance . The clearance was designed to slightly exceed the 14 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) standard set by the United States Department of Transportation Federal Highway Administration for urban area interstate bridge clearances , and to allow for additional future layers of pavement below . This height is also greater than the maximum vehicle height of 13 feet 6 inches ( 4 @.@ 1 m ) set by the Illinois Vehicle Code . According to the Chicago Tribune the width of the " trenchlike " area spanned is approximately 150 feet ( 46 m ) , while The New York Times reports the bridge is over ten times longer than Columbus Drive is wide .
BP Bridge begins in Millennium Park between the trellis system over the Jay Pritzker Pavilion 's great lawn and the Lurie Garden ; the design was changed so that the west ramp coincided with the boardwalk of the Lurie Garden seam . The bridge winds its way northward along the eastern edge of Millennium Park before crossing Columbus Drive in a C @-@ shaped curve , above underground parking garage entrances . In Daley Bicentennial Plaza the bridge has an S @-@ shape , then turns east . BP Bridge is designed so that its inclined surfaces have a continuous five percent slope rather than landings and switchback ramps , which provides easy access for the physically challenged . The gently sloped ramp eliminates the need for lifts or any of the other common types of ramps ( L @-@ shaped , switchback , U @-@ shaped , straight ) , and helped the park earn the 2005 Barrier @-@ Free America Award for its exemplary barrier @-@ free design .
Gehry had hoped to design the bridge so that it could be constructed without a support column in the center of Columbus Drive . However , Chicago Tribune architecture critic Blair Kamin notes that if he had done so , the bridge might not have been as sleek . Building the bridge without the column would have required load @-@ bearing cantilevers ( beams supported only on one side ) from structural positions on opposite sides of the street ; this would have been expensive and labor @-@ intensive , because it would have required excavating large portions of the parking garages on both sides of the street . Moreover , on the Daley Bicentennial Plaza side , the optimal location for the supporting cantilever would have been at the location of the Monroe Street Garage . Thus , the preferred bridge design was altered to avoid problems related to the underground parking garages .
The bridge is both a connector and a viewing platform for the park . It was designed to link the Historic Michigan Boulevard District and the entire Loop to the west with the Lake Michigan lakefront to the east . It was also designed to be a berm noise barrier blocking noise on the eight @-@ lane Columbus Drive from the Park 's outdoor band shell ( Jay Pritzker Pavilion ) , by deflecting traffic sounds upward .
The bridge , which uses steel girders , reinforced concrete abutments and deck slabs , hardwood deck , and a stainless steel veneer , cost between $ 12 @.@ 1 and $ 14 @.@ 5 million . It contains large sculptural plates of curvilinear stainless steel instead of more standard flat plates . The bridge 's curvilinear design gives it a flowing , natural look , instead of the linear , rigid form of standard bridges . Although its steel girders rest on concrete pylons and most of the bridge is solid concrete , the bridge uses a hollow box girder design to minimize weight
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was slain , as was Warwick 's father Salisbury . York 's son , however , later triumphed with Warwick 's assistance , and was crowned King Edward IV . Edward initially ruled with Warwick 's support , but the two later fell out over foreign policy and the king 's choice of Elizabeth Woodville as his wife . After a failed plot to crown Edward 's brother , George , Duke of Clarence , Warwick instead restored Henry VI to the throne . The triumph was short @-@ lived however : on 14 April 1471 Warwick was defeated by Edward at the Battle of Barnet , and killed .
Warwick had no sons . The elder of his two daughters , Isabel , married George , Duke of Clarence . His younger daughter Anne had a short @-@ lived marriage to King Henry 's son Edward of Westminster , who died in battle at the age of 17 . She then married King Edward 's younger brother Richard , Duke of Gloucester , who later became King Richard III .
Warwick 's historical legacy has been a matter of much dispute . Historical opinion has alternated between seeing him as self @-@ centred and rash , and regarding him as a victim of the whims of an ungrateful king . It is generally agreed , however , that in his own time he enjoyed great popularity in all layers of society , and that he was skilled at appealing to popular sentiments for political support .
= = Becoming Warwick = =
The Nevilles , an ancient Durham family , came to prominence in England 's fourteenth @-@ century wars against the Scots . In 1397 King Richard II made Ralph Neville Earl of Westmorland . Ralph 's son Richard , the later Earl of Warwick 's father , was a younger son by a second marriage , and not heir to the earldom . He received a favourable settlement , however , and became jure uxoris Earl of Salisbury through his marriage to Alice , daughter and heiress of Thomas Montacute , 4th Earl of Salisbury .
Salisbury 's son Richard , the later Earl of Warwick , was born on 22 November 1428 ; little is known of his childhood . At the age of six , Richard was betrothed to Anne Beauchamp , daughter of Richard de Beauchamp , 13th Earl of Warwick , and of his wife Isabel Despenser . This made him heir not only to the earldom of Salisbury , but also to a substantial part of the Montague , Beauchamp , and Despenser inheritance .
Circumstances would , however , increase his fortune even further . Beauchamp 's son Henry , who had married Richard 's sister Cecily , died in 1446 . When Henry 's daughter Anne died in 1449 , Richard also found himself jure uxoris Earl of Warwick . Richard 's succession to the estates did not go undisputed , however . A protracted battle over parts of the inheritance ensued , particularly with Edmund Beaufort , 1st Duke of Somerset , who had married a daughter from Richard Beauchamp 's first marriage . The dispute centred on land , not on the Warwick title , as Henry 's half @-@ sisters were excluded from the succession .
By 1445 Richard had become a knight , probably at Margaret of Anjou 's coronation on 22 April that year . He is visible in the historical record of service of King Henry VI in 1449 , which makes mention of his services in a grant . He performed military service in the north with his father , and might have taken part in the war against Scotland in 1448 – 1449 . When Richard , Duke of York , unsuccessfully rose up against the king in 1452 , both Warwick and his father rallied to the side of King Henry VI .
= = Civil War = =
In June 1453 , Somerset was granted custody of the lordship of Glamorgan – part of the Despenser heritage held by Warwick until then – and open conflict broke out between the two men . Then , in the summer of that year , King Henry fell ill . Somerset was a favourite of the king and Queen Margaret , and with the king incapacitated he was virtually in complete control of government . This put Warwick at a disadvantage in his dispute with Somerset , and drove him into collaboration with York . The political climate , influenced by the military defeat in France , then started turning against Somerset . On 27 March 1454 , a group of royal councillors appointed the Duke of York protector of the realm . York could now count on the support not only of Warwick , but also of Warwick 's father Salisbury , who had become more deeply involved in disputes with the Percys in the north of England .
York 's first protectorate did not last long . Early in 1455 the king rallied sufficiently to return to power , at least nominally , with Somerset again wielding real power . Warwick returned to his estates , as did York and Salisbury , and the three started raising troops . Marching towards London , they encountered the king at St Albans , where the two forces clashed . The battle was brief and not particularly bloody , but it was the first instance of armed hostilities between the forces of the Houses of York and Lancaster in the conflict known as the Wars of the Roses . It was also significant because it resulted in the capture of the king , and the death of Somerset .
York 's second protectorate that followed was even shorter @-@ lived than the first . At the parliament of February 1456 the king – now under the influence of Queen Margaret – resumed personal government of the realm . By this time Warwick had taken over Salisbury 's role as York 's main ally , even appearing at that same parliament to protect York from retributions . This conflict was also a pivotal period in Warwick 's career , as it was resolved by his appointment as Constable of Calais . The post was to provide him with a vital power base in the following years of conflict . The continental town of Calais , conquered from France in 1347 , was not only of vital strategic importance , it also held what was England 's largest standing army . There were some initial disputes , with the garrison and with the royal wool monopoly known as the staple , over payments in arrears , but in July Warwick finally took up his post .
After the recent events , Queen Margaret still considered Warwick a threat to the throne , and cut off his supplies . In August 1457 , however , a French attack on the English seaport of Sandwich set off fears of a full @-@ scale French invasion . Warwick was again funded to protect the garrison and patrol the English coast . In disregard of royal authority , he then conducted highly successful acts of piracy , against the Castilian fleet in May 1458 , and against the Hanseatic fleet a few weeks later . He also used his time on the Continent to establish relations with Charles VII of France and Philip the Good of Burgundy . Developing a solid military reputation and with good international connections , he then brought a part of his garrison to England , where he met up with his father and York in the summer of 1459 .
= = House of York triumphant = =
In September 1459 Warwick crossed over to England and made his way north to Ludlow to meet up with Salisbury , the latter fresh from his victory over Lancastrians at the battle of Blore Heath , and York . At nearby Ludford Bridge their forces were scattered by the king 's army , partly because of the defection of Warwick 's Calais contingent under the command of Andrew Trollope . As it turned out , the majority of the soldiers were still reluctant to raise arms against the king . Forced to flee the country , York left for Dublin , Ireland , with his second son Edmund , Earl of Rutland , while Warwick and Salisbury sailed to Calais , accompanied by the duke 's son , Edward , Earl of March ( the future King Edward IV ) . Henry Beaufort , Duke of Somerset , was appointed to replace Warwick as Captain of Calais , but the Yorkists managed to hold on to the garrison .
In March 1460 Warwick visited York in Ireland to plan the way ahead , and returned to Calais . Then , on 26 June , he landed at Sandwich with Salisbury and March , and from here the three earls rode north to London . Salisbury was left to besiege the Tower of London , while Warwick took March with him in pursuit of the king . At Northampton , on 10 July , King Henry was taken captive , while the Duke of Buckingham and others were killed in battle .
In September York arrived from Ireland , and at the parliament of October that year , the duke walked up to the throne and put his hand on it . The act , signifying usurpation , left the assembly in shock . It is unclear whether Warwick had prior knowledge of York 's plans , though it is assumed that this had been agreed upon between the two in Ireland the previous March . It soon became clear , however , that this regime change was unacceptable to the lords in parliament , and a compromise was agreed . The Act of Accord of 31 October 1460 stated that while Henry VI was allowed to stay on the throne for the remainder of his life , his son Edward , Prince of Wales , was to be disinherited . Instead , York would succeed the king , and act as protector .
This solution was not ideal to either party , and further conflict was inevitable . On 30 December , at the Battle of Wakefield , York was killed , as were York 's second son Edmund , Earl of Rutland , and Warwick 's younger brother Thomas . Salisbury was executed a day later . Warwick marched north to confront the enemy , but was defeated and forced to flee at the Second Battle of St Albans . He then joined forces with Prince Edward of York , the new Yorkist claimant to the crown , who had just won an important victory at the Battle of Mortimer 's Cross .
While Queen Margaret was hesitating to make her next move , Warwick and Edward hastened to London . The citizens of the capital were scared by the brutal conduct of the Lancastrian forces , and were sympathetic to the House of York . On 4 March the prince was proclaimed King Edward IV , by an assembly that gathered quickly . The new king now headed north to consolidate his title , and met with the Lancastrian forces at Towton in Yorkshire . Warwick had suffered an injury to the leg the day before , in the Battle of Ferrybridge , and may have played only a minor part in the battle that followed . The unusually bloody battle resulted in a complete victory for the Yorkist forces , and the death of many important men on the opposing side , such as Henry Percy , Earl of Northumberland , and Andrew Trollope . Queen Margaret managed to escape to Scotland , with Henry and Prince Edward . Edward IV returned to London for his coronation , while Warwick remained to pacify the north .
= = Warwick 's apex = =
Warwick 's position after the accession of Edward IV was stronger than ever . He had now succeeded to his father 's possessions , and in 1462 he also inherited his mother 's lands and the Salisbury title . Altogether he had an annual income from his lands of over £ 7 @,@ 000 far more than any other man in the realm but the king . Edward confirmed Warwick 's position as Captain of Calais , and made him Admiral of England and Steward of the Duchy of Lancaster , along with several other offices . His brothers also benefited : John Neville , Lord Montagu , was made Warden of the East March in 1463 , and the next year created Earl of Northumberland . George Neville , Bishop of Exeter , was confirmed in his post as chancellor by King Edward , and in 1465 promoted to the archbishopric of York .
By late 1461 , risings in the north had been put down , and in the summer of 1462 , Warwick negotiated a truce with Scotland . In October the same year , Margaret of Anjou invaded England with troops from France , and managed to take the castles of Alnwick and Bamburgh . Warwick had to organise the recapture of the castles , which was accomplished by January 1463 . The leaders of the rebellion , including Sir Ralph Percy , were pardoned and left in charge of the retaken castles . At this point , Warwick felt secure enough to travel south ; in February he buried the remains of his father and brother at Bisham Priory , and in March he attended parliament at Westminster .
That same spring , however , the north rose up in rebellion once more , when Ralph Percy laid siege to Norham Castle . Warwick returned to the north and rescued Norham , but the Lancastrians were left in possession of Northumberland , and the government decided on a diplomatic approach instead . Separate truces were negotiated with Scotland and France , which allowed Warwick to retake the Northumbrian castles held by the Lancastrian rebels . This time no clemency was given , and around thirty of the rebel leaders were executed .
= = Early tensions = =
At the negotiations with the French , Warwick had intimated that King Edward was interested in a marriage arrangement with the French crown , the intended bride being Louis XI 's sister @-@ in @-@ law , Bona , daughter of Louis , Duke of Savoy . This marriage was not to be , however , because in September 1464 , Edward revealed that he was already married , to Elizabeth Woodville . The marriage caused great offence to Warwick : not only due to the fact that his plans had been sabotaged , but also the secrecy with which the king had acted . The marriage – contracted on 1 May of the same year – was not made public before Warwick pressed Edward on the issue at a council meeting , and in the meanwhile Warwick had been unknowingly deceiving the French into believing the king was serious about the marriage proposal . For Edward the marriage may very well have been a love match , but in the long run he sought to build the Woodville family into a powerhouse independent of Warwick 's influence .
This was not enough to cause a complete fallout between the two men , though from this point on Warwick increasingly stayed away from court . The promotion of Warwick 's brother George to Archbishop of York shows that the earl was still in favour with the king . In July 1465 , when Henry VI was once more captured , it was Warwick who escorted the fallen king to his captivity in the Tower .
Then , in the spring of 1466 , Warwick was sent to the continent to carry out negotiations with the French and Burgundians . The negotiations centred around a marriage proposal involving Edward 's sister Margaret . Warwick increasingly came to favour French diplomatic connections . Meanwhile , Edward 's father @-@ in @-@ law , Richard Woodville , Earl Rivers , who had been created treasurer , was in favour of a Burgundian alliance . This set up internal conflict within the English court , which was not alleviated by the fact that Edward had signed a secret treaty in October with Burgundy , while Warwick was forced to carry on sham negotiations with the French . Later , George Neville was dismissed as chancellor , while Edward refused to contemplate a marriage between Warwick 's oldest daughter Isabel , and Edward 's brother George , Duke of Clarence . It became increasingly clear that Warwick 's position of dominance at court had been taken over by Rivers .
In the autumn of 1467 , there were rumours that Warwick was now sympathetic to the Lancastrian cause , but even though he refused to come to court to answer the charges , the king accepted his denial in writing . In July the same year , it was revealed that Warwick 's deputy in Calais , John , Lord Wenlock , was involved in a Lancastrian conspiracy , and early in 1469 another Lancastrian plot was uncovered , involving John de Vere , Earl of Oxford . It was becoming clear that the discontent with Edward 's reign was widespread , a fact that Warwick could exploit .
= = Rebellion and death = =
Warwick now orchestrated a rebellion in Yorkshire while he was away , led by a " Robin of Redesdale " . Part of Warwick 's plan was winning over Edward 's brother George , possibly with the prospect of installing him on the throne . The nineteen @-@ year @-@ old George had shown himself to share many of the abilities of his older brother , but was also jealous and overambitious . In July the two sailed over to Calais where George was married to Isabel . From there they returned to England , where they gathered the men of Kent to join the rebellion in the north . Meanwhile , the king 's forces were defeated at Edgecote , where William Herbert , Earl of Pembroke , was killed . The other commander , Humphrey Stafford , Earl of Devon , was caught in flight and lynched by a mob . Later , Earl Rivers and his son John were also apprehended and murdered . With his army now defeated , the king was taken under arrest by Archbishop Neville . He was imprisoned in Warwick , and in August taken north to Middleham Castle . In the long run , however , it proved impossible to rule without the king , and continuing disorder forced Warwick to release Edward in September 1469 .
A modus vivendi had been achieved between Warwick and the king for some months , but the restoration of Henry Percy to Montagu 's earldom of Northumberland prevented any chance of full reconciliation . A trap was set for the king when disturbances in Lincolnshire led him north , where he could be confronted by Warwick 's men . Edward , however , discovered the plot when Robert , Lord Welles , was routed at Losecote Field , and gave away the plan .
Warwick soon gave up , and once more fled the country with Clarence . Denied access to Calais , they sought refuge with King Louis XI of France . Louis arranged a reconciliation between Warwick and Margaret of Anjou , and as part of the agreement , Margaret and Henry 's son , Edward , Prince of Wales , would marry Warwick 's daughter Anne . The objective of the alliance was to restore Henry VI to the throne . Again Warwick staged an uprising in the north , and with the king away , he and Clarence landed at Dartmouth and Plymouth on 13 September 1470 . Among the many who flocked to Warwick 's side was his brother Montagu , who had not taken part in the last rebellion , but was disappointed when his loyalty to the king had not been rewarded with the restoration of his earldom . This time the trap set up for the king worked ; as Edward hurried south , Montagu 's forces approached from the north , and the king found himself surrounded . On 2 October he fled to the Netherlands . King Henry was now restored , with Warwick acting as the true ruler in his capacity as lieutenant . At a parliament in November , Edward was attainted of his lands and titles , and Clarence was awarded the Duchy of York .
At this point , international affairs intervened . Louis XI declared war on Burgundy , and Duke Charles responded by granting an expeditionary force to Edward IV , in order to reclaim his throne . On 14 March Edward landed at Ravenspurn in Yorkshire , with the acquiescence of the Earl of Northumberland . Warwick was still waiting for Queen Margaret and her son Edward , who were supposed to bring reinforcements from France , but were kept on the continent by bad weather . At this point Edward received the support of his brother Clarence , who realised that he had been disadvantaged by the new agreement with the Lancastrians . Clarence 's defection weakened Warwick , who nevertheless went in pursuit of Edward . On 14 April 1471 the two armies met at Barnet . Fog and poor visibility on the field led to confusion , and the Lancastrian army ended up attacking its own men . In the face of defeat Warwick attempted to escape the field , but was struck off his horse and killed .
= = Aftermath = =
Warwick 's body – along with that of his brother Montagu , who had also fallen at Barnet – was displayed in London 's St Paul 's Cathedral to quell any rumours of their survival . Then they were handed over to Archbishop Neville , to be buried in the family vault at Bisham Priory near the river Thames in Berkshire . No trace now remains of either the tomb or the church in which it was housed . On 4 May of the same year ( 1471 ) , Edward IV defeated the remaining Lancastrian forces of Queen Margaret and Prince Edward at the Battle of Tewkesbury , where the prince was killed . Soon afterwards , it was reported that King Henry VI had also died in the Tower . With the direct Lancastrian line exterminated , Edward could reign safely until his death in 1483 .
Warwick 's offices were divided between King Edward 's brothers George , Duke of Clarence { who had married Warwick 's daughter Isabel Neville } , and Richard , Duke of Gloucester , the future Richard III . Clarence received the chamberlainship of England and the lieutenancy of Ireland , while Gloucester was made Admiral of England and Warden of the West March . Clarence also received the earldoms of Warwick and Salisbury . The earl 's land had been forfeited and taken into the king 's custody . When Gloucester married Warwick 's younger daughter Anne in 1472 , who had been recently widowed by the death of Prince Edward , a dispute broke out between the two princes over the Beauchamp and Despenser inheritances . A compromise was eventually reached , whereby the land was divided , but Clarence was not pacified . In 1477 he once again plotted against his brother . This time the king could no longer act with lenience , and the next year the Duke of Clarence was executed .
= = Historical assessment = =
Early sources on Richard Neville fall into two categories . The first are the sympathetic chronicles of the early Yorkist years , or works based on these , such as the Mirror for Magistrates ( 1559 ) . The other category originates with chronicles commissioned by Edward IV after Warwick 's fall , such as the Historie of the arrivall of Edward IV , and take a more negative view of the earl . The Mirror portrayed Warwick as a great man : beloved by the people , and betrayed by the man he helped raise to the throne . The other perspective can be found in Shakespeare 's Henry VI trilogy : a man driven by pride and egotism , who created and deposed kings at will .
In time , however , it is the latter view that dominated . The Enlightenment , or Whig historians of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries , decried anyone who impeded the development towards a centralised , constitutional monarchy , the way Warwick did in his struggles with Edward . David Hume called Warwick " the greatest , as well as the last , of those mighty barons who formerly overawed the crown , and rendered the people incapable of any regular system of civil government . " Later writers were split between admiration for some of Warwick 's character traits , and condemnation of his political actions . The romantic novelist Lord Lytton picked up on Hume 's theme in his The Last of the Barons . Though Lytton portrayed Warwick as a tragic hero who embodied the ideals of chivalry , he was nevertheless one whose time was past . The late @-@ nineteenth century military historian Charles Oman acknowledged the earl 's ability to appeal to popular sentiments , yet pointed out his deficiencies as a military commander . Oman found Warwick a traditional strategist , " not attaining the heights of military genius displayed by his pupil Edward . " Paul Murray Kendall 's popular biography from 1957 took a sympathetic view of Warwick , but concluded that he had ultimately fallen victim to his own overreaching ambition .
More recent historians , such as Michael Hicks and A. J. Pollard , have tried to see Warwick in light of the standards of his own age , rather than holding him up to contemporary constitutional ideals . The insults Warwick suffered at the hands of King Edward – including Edward 's secret marriage , and the refusal of the French diplomatic channel – were significant . His claim to prominence in national affairs was not a product of illusions of grandeur ; it was confirmed by the high standing he enjoyed among the princes on the continent . Furthermore , Warwick 's cause was not considered unjust by his contemporaries , which can be seen by the earl 's popularity exceeding that of the king at the time of his first rebellion in 1469 . On the other hand , while Warwick could not easily suffer his treatment by the king , it was equally impossible for Edward to accept the earl 's presence on the political scene . As long as Warwick remained as powerful and influential as he was , Edward could not fully assert his royal authority , and eventual confrontation became inevitable .
= = Coat of arms = =
The Earl of Warwick 's coat of arms was unusually complex for the period , with seven different quarterings . The first quarter consists of the arms of his father @-@ in @-@ law , Richard de Beauchamp , 13th Earl of Warwick , who bore his arms with an escutcheon of De Clare quartering Despenser ( the arms of his wife Isabel le Despenser ) , which Warwick showed in the fourth quarter . The second quarter showed the arms of the Montacutes ( quartered with the Monthermer arms ) . The third quarter showed the arms of Neville differenced by a label for Lancaster to signify descent from Warwick 's father , the Earl of Salisbury , who was the eldest son and heir of Ralph Neville , 1st Earl of Westmorland and his wife , Lady Joan Beaufort , daughter of the Duke of Lancaster .
= = Neville family tree = =
The chart below shows , in abbreviated form , the family background of Richard Neville and his family connections with the houses of York and Lancaster . Dashed lines denote marriage and solid lines children . Anne Neville is shown with her two husbands , in order from right to left .
= = Ancestry = =
= = = Chronicles = = =
= One Day in History =
One Day in History was a single @-@ day initiative by several UK heritage organisations that aimed to provide a historical record of the everyday life of the British public in the early 21st century . Described as the " world 's biggest blog " , it encouraged UK citizens to write diary entries of 100 – 650 words of what they had done on 17 October 2006 , and then upload them to the official website of the initiative . The project formed a part of History Matters : Pass It On , a history campaign led by several UK heritage organisations . Submissions were received until 1 November , and 46 @,@ 000 entries were uploaded in this time , many of which were from students and celebrities . After being available to view on the History Matters website , the archive of the diary entries was moved to the UK Web Archive at the British Library and the library of the University of Sussex . The campaign received mixed reviews , with Institute of Historical Research 's David Cannadine and The Guardian 's Dave Hill speaking positively of it , whereas journalist John Plunkett termed it to be a " historical record of people with computers " .
= = Project = =
One Day in History was launched as a part of History Matters , a campaign led by several heritage organisations such as the National Trust , English Heritage and the Historic Houses Association , in order to draw attention towards the importance of history in everyday life . Its aim was to record for posterity what day @-@ to @-@ day life was like in the UK during 2006 . British people were invited to write a blog of what they did on 17 October 2006 , and to submit it to become a part of a large online diary . The project was open to all UK citizens and individuals of British origin , and was inspired by Mass Observation , a similar social research project founded in 1937 . The date was chosen to be 17 October by History Matters in the hope that it would be " an ordinary day much like any other of no particular national significance " , and would therefore reflect the everyday life of its participants . Historian Dan Snow explained that the project was intended to be " a detailed account of people 's normal lives when they 're doing nothing out of the ordinary . ... It 's those mundane details , those boring details that will seem extraordinary to people hundreds of years in the future . " The organisers hoped that the contributors could also discuss the impact of history or heritage on their lives that day in their submissions .
Each entry was limited to a length of 100 – 650 words . To allow some time for drafting and proofreading , participants were allowed to upload their diary entries until the end of the month . Schoolchildren were encouraged to take part , with all 29 @,@ 000 UK schools being invited to participate . On the day itself , the homepages of the 2 @,@ 000 computers in the easyCafe network were all set to the History Matters website , and several celebrities and public figures also voiced their support of the initiative , including Stephen Fry , Bob Geldof and Tony Robinson .
= = = Public response = = =
By the afternoon of 17 October , the One Day in History website had received more than 5 @,@ 000 submissions , at a rate of three per second , and by 1800 BST ( 1700 GMT ) this number grew to 8 @,@ 000 . Within three days , 41 @,@ 250 blogs were posted to the site , and by 1 November , a final total of 46 @,@ 000 submissions were received . The entries were briefly displayed on the History Matters website , before being archived in both the UK Web Archive at the British Library and in the library of the University of Sussex . The National Trust described the project and its response from the public as " hugely successful " .
= = = Media response = = =
David Cannadine of the Institute of Historical Research spoke positively of One Day in History , remarking : " The wonderful thing about these records is we don 't yet know what it is about them that will be interesting in the future . " In promotion of the project , Fiona Reynolds , the Director @-@ General of the National Trust , stated : " We want this day to have its own place in history and be a snapshot of everyday life at the beginning of the 21st century . " Journalist John Plunkett expressed scepticism of this aim , writing in The Guardian that , despite the intentions of the campaign , it was only going to be " a historical record of people with computers " . He was also critical of History Matters in general , saying that he had " no idea how history [ was ] going to impact on [ him ] " . Dave Hill , also writing for The Guardian , described the campaign as a " brilliant idea " . Following the publication of the diary entries , Robert Booth , a journalist for The Sunday Times , remarked that the " monotony of most of [ the British public 's ] lives was all too painfully obvious . "
= Blacktip reef shark =
Not to be confused with the blacktip shark , Carcharhinus limbatus .
The blacktip reef shark ( Carcharhinus melanopterus ) is a species of requiem shark , in the family Carcharhinidae , easily identified by the prominent black tips on its fins ( especially on the first dorsal fin and its caudal fin ) . Among the most abundant sharks inhabiting the tropical coral reefs of the Indian and Pacific Oceans , this species prefers shallow , inshore waters . Its exposed first dorsal fin is a common sight in the region . Most blacktip reef sharks are found over reef ledges and sandy flats , though they have also been known to enter brackish and freshwater environments . This species typically attains a length of 1 @.@ 6 m ( 5 @.@ 2 ft ) .
Blacktip reef sharks have extremely small home ranges and exhibit strong site fidelity , remaining within the same local area for up to several years at a time . They are active predators of small bony fishes , cephalopods , and crustaceans , and have also been known to feed on sea snakes and seabirds . Accounts of the blacktip reef shark 's life history have been variable and sometimes contradictory , in part reflecting geographical differences within the species . Like other members of its family , this shark is viviparous , with females giving birth to two to five young on a biennial , annual , or possibly biannual cycle . Reports of the gestation period range from 7 – 9 , through 10 – 11 , to possibly 16 months . Mating is preceded by the male following closely behind the female , likely attracted by her chemical signals . Newborn sharks are found further inshore and in shallower water than adults , frequently roaming in large groups over areas flooded by high tide .
Timid and skittish , the blacktip reef shark is difficult to approach and seldom poses a danger to humans unless roused by food . However , people wading through shallow water are at risk of having their legs mistakenly bitten . This shark is used for its meat , fins , and liver oil , but is not considered to be a commercially significant species . The International Union for Conservation of Nature has assessed the blacktip reef shark as Near Threatened . Although the species as a whole remains widespread and relatively common , overfishing of this slow @-@ reproducing shark has led to its decline at a number of locales .
= = Taxonomy = =
French naturalists Jean René Constant Quoy and Joseph Paul Gaimard originally described the blacktip reef shark during the 1817 – 1820 exploratory voyage of the corvette Uranie . In 1824 , their account was published as part of Voyage autour du monde ... sur les corvettes de S.M. l 'Uranie et la Physicienne , Louis de Freycinet 's 13 @-@ volume report on the voyage . The type specimen was a 59 cm ( 23 in ) -long juvenile male caught off the island of Waigeo , west of New Guinea . Quoy and Gaimard chose the name Carcharias melanopterus , from the Greek melas meaning " black " and pteron meaning " fin " or " wing " , in reference to this shark 's prominent fin markings .
Subsequent authors moved the blacktip reef shark to the genus Carcharhinus ; in 1965 the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature designated it as the type species for the genus . In some earlier literature , the scientific name of this shark was mistakenly given as C. spallanzani , now recognized as a synonym of the spottail shark ( C. sorrah ) . Other common names for this species include blackfin reef shark , black @-@ finned shark , blacktip shark , reef blacktip shark , and guliman .
= = Phylogeny = =
Like most other members of its genus , the phylogenetic position of the blacktip reef shark remains indeterminate . Based on morphology , Jack Garrick proposed in 1982 that the closest relative of the blacktip reef shark was the nervous shark ( C. cautus ) . Leonard Compagno 's 1988 morphological analysis suggested affinity not only between this species and the nervous shark , but also four other species , and could not resolve their relationships further . A 1998 allozyme analysis by Gavin Naylor again yielded ambiguous results , finding that the blacktip reef shark forms a polytomy ( irresolvable group ) with 10 other Carcharhinus species .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The blacktip reef shark is found throughout nearshore waters of the tropical and subtropical Indo @-@ Pacific . In the Indian Ocean , it occurs from South Africa to the Red Sea , including Madagascar , Mauritius , and the Seychelles , and from there eastward along the coast of the Indian Subcontinent to Southeast Asia , including Sri Lanka , the Andaman Islands , and the Maldives . In the Pacific Ocean , it is found from southern China and the Philippines to Indonesia , northern Australia and New Caledonia , and also inhabits numerous oceanic islands , including the Marshall , Gilbert , Society , and Hawaiian Islands and Tuamotu . Contrary to what most sources state , there are no confirmed records of this species from Japanese waters , and purported Japanese specimens likely came from Taiwan . A Lessepsian migrant , this shark has colonized the eastern Mediterranean Sea by way of the Suez Canal .
Although it has been reported from a depth of 75 m ( 246 ft ) , the blacktip reef shark is usually found in water only a few meters deep , and can often be seen swimming close to shore with its dorsal fin exposed . Younger sharks prefer shallow , sandy flats , while older sharks are most common around reef ledges and can also be found near reef drop @-@ offs . This species has also been reported from brackish estuaries and lakes in Madagascar , and freshwater environments in Malaysia , though it is not able to tolerate low salinity to the same degree as the bull shark ( C. leucas ) . At Aldabra in the Indian Ocean , blacktip reef sharks congregate in the channels between reef flats during low tide and travel to the mangroves when the water rises . There is equivocal evidence that sharks from the northern and southern extremes of its distribution are migratory .
= = Description = =
A robustly built species with a streamlined " typical shark " form , the blacktip reef shark has a short , wide , rounded snout and moderately large , oval eyes . Each nostril has a flap of skin in front that is expanded into a nipple @-@ shaped lobe . Not counting small symphysial ( central ) teeth , the tooth rows number 11 – 13 ( usually 12 ) on either side of the upper jaw and 10 – 12 ( usually 11 ) on either side of the lower jaw . The upper teeth are upright to angled and narrowly triangular in shape , bearing serrations that are more coarse on the bases ; the lower teeth are similar , but more finely serrated . The teeth of adult males are more abruptly curved than those of females .
The pectoral fins are large and narrowly falcate ( sickle @-@ shaped ) , tapering to points . The sizable first dorsal fin is high with a curving " S " -shaped rear margin , and originates over the free rear tips of the pectoral fins . The second dorsal fin is relatively large with a short rear margin , and is placed opposite the anal fin . There is no ridge between the dorsal fins . This shark is a pale grayish @-@ brown above and white below , with an obvious white band on the sides extending forward from above the anal fin . All the fins have black tips highlighted by lighter @-@ colored borders , which are especially striking on the first dorsal fin and lower caudal fin lobe . Most blacktip reef sharks are no more than 1 @.@ 6 m ( 5 @.@ 2 ft ) long , though rarely individuals may reach 1 @.@ 8 m ( 5 @.@ 9 ft ) or possibly 2 @.@ 0 m ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) . The maximum weight on record is 13 @.@ 6 kg ( 30 lb ) .
= = Biology and ecology = =
Along with the grey reef shark ( C. amblyrhinchos ) and the whitetip reef shark ( Triaenodon obesus ) , the blacktip reef shark is one of the three most common sharks inhabiting coral reefs in the Indo @-@ Pacific . This species predominates in shallow habitats , while the other two are mostly found deeper . Fast @-@ swimming and active , the blacktip reef shark may be encountered alone or in small groups ; large " social " aggregations have also been observed . For the most part , juvenile and adult sharks are not segregated by sex , save for the movements of pregnant females to give birth . Individuals exhibit strong fidelity to particular areas , where they may remain for several years .
A tracking study off Palmyra Atoll in the central Pacific has found the blacktip reef shark has a home range of around 0 @.@ 55 km2 ( 0 @.@ 21 sq mi ) , among the smallest of any shark species . The size and location of the range does not change with time of day . Within this range , 3 – 17 % of the area constitute favored hunting patches that are disproportionately occupied by the resident shark . The sharks spend most of their time swimming back and forth along reef ledges , making occasional short forays onto sandy flats . Their average swimming speed decreases when the tide rises at night , possibly because the influx of cooler water reduces their metabolism , or the accompanying movement of prey fishes makes foraging easier . Blacktip reef sharks at Aldabra tend to be more mobile than those at Palmyra , with recorded individual movements of up to 2 @.@ 5 km ( 1 @.@ 6 mi ) over 7 hours .
Blacktip reef sharks , particularly small individuals , fall prey to larger fishes , including groupers , grey reef sharks , tiger sharks ( Galeocerdo cuvier ) , and members of their own species . At Palmyra Atoll , adults avoid patrolling tiger sharks by staying out of the central , deeper lagoon . Their known parasites include the tapeworms Anthobothrium lesteri , Nybelinia queenslandensis , Otobothrium alexanderi , and Platybothrium jondoeorum , a myxosporidian in the genus Unicapsula , and the monogenean Dermophthirius melanopteri . One of the few documented examples of infectious disease in a shark was a fatal case of hemorrhagic septicemia in a blacktip reef shark , caused by the bacterium Aeromonas salmonicida subsp. salmonicida .
= = = Feeding = = =
As often the most abundant apex predator within its ecosystem , the blacktip reef shark plays a major role in structuring inshore ecological communities . Its diet is composed primarily of small teleost fishes , including mullet , groupers , grunters , jacks , mojarras , wrasses , surgeonfish , and smelt @-@ whitings . Groups of blacktip reef sharks in the Indian Ocean have been observed herding schools of mullet against the shore for easier feeding . Squid , octopus , cuttlefish , shrimp , and mantis shrimp are also taken , as well as carrion and smaller sharks and rays , though this is rare . Off northern Australia , this species is known to consume sea snakes , including Acrochordus granulatus , Hydrelaps darwiniensis , Hydrophis spp. and Lapemis hardwickii . Sharks off Palmyra Atoll have been documented preying on seabird chicks that have fallen out of their nests into the water . Miscellaneous items that have been found inside the stomachs of this species include algae , turtle grass , coral , hydrozoa , bryozoa , rats , and stones .
Researchers working at Enewetak Atoll in the Marshall Islands have found the blacktip reef shark can be readily attracted by splashing or striking metal tools against hard objects underwater , as well as by the scent of both healthy and injured fish . As with most sharks , the blacktip reef shark does not have any cone cells in its retina , limiting its ability to discriminate colors and fine details . Instead , its vision is adapted for sensitivity to movement or contrast under low light conditions , which is further enhanced by the presence of a reflective tapetum lucidum . Experiments have shown that this shark is capable of detecting small objects up to 1 @.@ 5 – 3 m ( 5 – 10 ft ) away , but is unable to clearly discern the shape of the object . Electroreception is another means by which this shark can locate prey ; its ampullae of Lorenzini have a sensitivity of approximately 4 nV / cm and an effective range of 25 cm ( 10 in ) . Similar to the grey reef shark , this species becomes more excited and " confident " in the presence of other individuals of its species , and in extreme situations can be roused into a feeding frenzy . Feeding activity may be greater at night than during the day .
= = Life history = =
Like the other members of its family , the blacktip reef shark is viviparous , though the details of its life history vary across its range . Its reproductive cycle is annual off northern Australia , with mating taking place from January to February , as well as off Moorea in French Polynesia , where mating occurs from November to March . The cycle is biennial off Aldabra , where intense competition within and between species for food may constrain females to only bearing young every other year . Earlier accounts from the Indian Ocean by Johnson ( 1978 ) , Madagascar by Fourmanoir ( 1961 ) , and the Red Sea by Gohar and Mazhar ( 1964 ) , indicated a biannual cycle in these regions with two breeding seasons per year from June to July and December to January . If accurate , the shorter reproductive cycles of these subpopulations may be a consequence of warmer water .
When receptive to mating , a female blacktip reef shark swims slowly in a sinusoidal pattern near the bottom with her head pointed down ; observations in the wild suggest female sharks release chemical signals that allow males to track them . Once the male finds her , he closes to around 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) and follows her with his snout oriented towards her vent . A courting male may also bite the female behind her gills or on her pectoral fins ; these mating wounds heal completely after 4 – 6 weeks . After a period of synchronous swimming , the male pushes the female on her side and positions her so her head is against the bottom and her tail is raised . Once the female is in position , the male inserts one of his claspers into her cloaca . Copulation lasts for several minutes , after which the sharks separate and resume their regular behavior . Off Moorea , individual older females mate and give birth at a consistent time every year , often to within a week 's precision , whereas younger females exhibit more variability in their timing . Younger females are also more likely to fail to become pregnant after mating .
The gestation period has been reported as 10 – 11 months long in the Indian Ocean and Pacific islands , and 7 – 9 months long off northern Australia . Earlier authors , such as Melouk ( 1957 ) , have estimated a gestation period as long as 16 months , though the validity of this figure has subsequently been challenged . The female has a single functional ovary ( on the right ) and two functional uteruses , divided into separate compartments for each embryo . Newly ovulated egg cases measure 3 @.@ 9 cm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) by 2 @.@ 6 cm ( 1 @.@ 0 in ) ; after hatching the embryos are sustained by a yolk sac during the first stage of development . After two months , the embryo measures 4 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) long and has well @-@ developed external gills . After four months , the yolk sac has begun to be converted into a placental connection that attaches to the uterine wall ; at this time , the embryo 's dark fin markings develop . By five months , the embryo measures 24 cm ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) and has resorbed its external gills ; the placenta is fully formed , though some yolk remains until seven months into gestation .
Parturition occurs from September to November , with females making use of shallow nursery areas interior of the reef . Newborn pups measure 40 – 50 cm ( 16 – 20 in ) long in the Indian Ocean and off northern Australia , while free @-@ swimming pups as small as 33 cm ( 13 in ) long have been observed in the Pacific islands . The litter size is 2 – 5 ( typically 4 ) , and is not correlated with female size . Young blacktip reef sharks commonly form large groups in water barely deep enough to cover their bodies , over sand flats or in mangrove swamps close to shore . During high tide , they also move onto flooded coral platforms or seaweed beds . Growth is initially rapid ; one documented captive shark grew an average of 23 cm ( 9 @.@ 1 in ) per year in its first two years of life . The growth rate slows to around 5 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) per year in juveniles and adults . Males and females mature sexually at lengths of 95 cm ( 37 in ) and 97 cm ( 38 in ) respectively off northern Australia , and 105 cm ( 41 in ) and 110 cm ( 43 in ) , respectively , off Aldabra . Males mature at 97 cm ( 38 in ) long off Palmyra Atoll .
= = Human interactions = =
Under most circumstances , the blacktip reef shark has a timid demeanor and is easily frightened away by swimmers . However , its inshore habitat preferences bring it into frequent contact with humans , and thus it is regarded as potentially dangerous . As of early 2009 , 11 unprovoked attacks and 21 attacks total ( none fatal ) were listed on the International Shark Attack File that are attributable to the blacktip reef shark . Most attacks involve sharks biting the legs or feet of waders , apparently mistaking them for their natural prey , and do not result in serious injury . In the Marshall Islands , native islanders avoid blacktip reef shark attacks by swimming rather than wading through shallow water , and a way of discouraging these sharks is to submerge one 's body . The blacktip reef shark has also been known to become aggressive in the presence of bait , and may pose a threat while attempting to steal the catches of spear fishers .
The blacktip reef shark is a regular catch of coastal fisheries , such as those operating off Thailand and India , but is not targeted or considered commercially important . The meat ( sold fresh , frozen , dried and salted , or smoked for human consumption ) , liver oil , and fins are used . The International Union for Conservation of Nature has assessed the blacktip reef shark as Near Threatened . Though it remains widespread and common overall , substantial local declines due to overfishing have now been documented in many areas . This species has a low reproductive rate , limiting its capacity for recovering from depletion . Blacktip reef sharks are popular subjects of public aquarium exhibits , because of their stereotypically " shark @-@ like " appearance and modest size , and are also attractions for ecotourism divers .
= Much Apu About Nothing =
Not to be confused with Much Apu About Something
" Much Apu About Nothing " is the 23rd episode of The Simpsons ' seventh season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on May 5 , 1996 . In the episode , a referendum is created that will require all illegal immigrants from Springfield to be deported . After learning that his friend Apu Nahasapeemapetilon will be deported , Homer decides to help Apu prepare for a United States citizenship test so that he can become a legal citizen .
The episode was written by David S. Cohen , and directed by Susie Dietter . Joe Mantegna guest stars in the episode as Fat Tony . The title of the episode is a parody of William Shakespeare 's play Much Ado About Nothing . Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from fans and television critics . It acquired a Nielsen rating of 8 @.@ 2 , and was the fourth highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network the week it aired .
The phrase " Won 't somebody please think of the children " was used by character Helen Lovejoy for the first time in this episode .
= = Plot = =
On an ordinary day , a brown bear strolls onto the streets of Springfield , frightening the town . The bear is eventually subdued by the police , who tranquilize it ( despite the bear being relatively docile ) . Homer convinces Springfield that something needs to be done to protect them from bears , and the town takes their complaint to Mayor Quimby , who gives in easily . Soon , the Bear Patrol is created . Homer is then shocked to see taxes have been raised five dollars to maintain the patrol , and this warrants another visit by the town to the Mayor 's office . To appease them , Mayor Quimby blames the high taxes on illegal immigrants . He then creates Proposition 24 , which will require all illegal immigrants in Springfield to be deported .
Springfield starts to harass and hate all immigrants . At the Kwik @-@ E @-@ Mart , Apu confides in Homer that he is an illegal immigrant . Apu explains that if Proposition 24 passes , he will have to leave the United States , as his visa expired many years earlier . Apu is forced to go to Fat Tony to obtain a false United States citizenship , and on Fat Tony 's advice , he starts acting American , by doing things like speaking with an American accent . However , feeling guilty and embarrassed about taking the fraudulent route and forging documents ( Apu is shown remembering his parents bidding him farewell , telling him to " make us proud , son , " as he set forth his journey to the USA , for his education and eventual Ph.D ) , he realizes he has disgraced his parents by turning his back on his Indian heritage , and tears up the fake passport .
After Homer sees how devastated was Apu about being deported , he changes his mind about the immigration proposition and vows that he and his family will help Apu . Lisa discovers that Apu will not have to leave if he can pass a United States citizenship test . Homer agrees to be Apu 's tutor to help prepare for the exam . Apu demonstrates excellent knowledge of the United States , but Homer is a terrible tutor and replaces Apu 's knowledge with false information . Apu falls asleep while studying Homer 's notes , but forgets it all when he wakes up which Lisa says is good . Apu then goes to take the test , and because he originally knew a lot about the history of the United States , he passes the test and becomes a citizen of the United States . At a congratulatory party , Homer tells his guests how terrible it would be if immigrants were deported , explaining they make the United States thrive . He inspires them to vote no on Proposition 24 , but it still passes , with 95 % of voters voting yes . After the ballot is passed , the only person deported is Groundskeeper Willie .
= = Production = =
" Much Apu About Nothing " was written by David S. Cohen and directed by Susie Dietter . Joe Mantegna guest stars in the episode as Fat Tony . Much of the inspiration for the episode came from news reports of bears roaming streets in Southern California around the time when the episode was in production . Cohen said that when a bear swims in somebody 's pool or goes in somebody 's garbage can , it becomes a popular news item in California . The show runner of The Simpsons at the time , Bill Oakley , commented that the news reports often create an anti @-@ bear hysteria , and that is one of the inspirations for the episode .
Another inspiration for the episode came from California 's Proposition 187 , which proposed the rescinding of employment rights and benefits from illegal immigrants . Cohen decided to name the referendum " Proposition 24 " because 24 was the number he had on his Little League Baseball uniform . Cohen commented that " the main theme of the episode is illegal immigration and anti @-@ immigration sentiment , which is a big issue here in California . So both the intro with the bear and the main theme are yanked from the California headlines . "
The final script of the episode was " very close " to Cohen 's first draft . " I was looking at the old drafts and this episode probably changed as little as any script I 've written from the original inception to the final aired version , " Cohen said . Oakley commented that some writer 's scripts get rewritten many times but Cohen 's " usually do not get rewritten that much because they are so good " . Oakley added that Cohen has a very distinctive comedy style so there are certain jokes in the episode that " just really sound like Cohen " .
Something Oakley and his partner Josh Weinstein wanted to do while they were show runners of The Simpsons was to explore side @-@ characters , such as Apu , " a little deeper " . Apu 's origin is revealed in this episode , and Oakley is proud of being the one who suggested that . Another character that was explored deeper in their period as show runners was Ned Flanders in the episode " Hurricane Neddy " .
= = Cultural references = =
The episode 's title is based on William Shakespeare 's play Much Ado About Nothing . The original title for the episode was going to be " The Anti @-@ Immigrant Song " , in reference to Led Zeppelin 's song " Immigrant Song " . A sign held by a protester outside the Kwik @-@ E @-@ Mart says " The only good foreigner is Rod Stewart ! " , a reference to the British singer . Brad Bird , an American director who has worked as executive consultant and director on The Simpsons , can briefly be seen in the crowd that complains to Mayor Quimby . One of the signs outside the citizenship exam reads " Homer Say Get Out " a reference to " Frankie Say Relax " T @-@ shirts that were sold following the release of Relax ( song ) .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " Much Apu About Nothing " finished 49th in the ratings for the week of April 29 to May 5 , 1996 , with a Nielsen rating of 8 @.@ 2 . The episode was the fourth @-@ highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , following The X @-@ Files , Beverly Hills , 90210 and Melrose Place .
Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics . DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson commented positively on the episode , and said that " if any show 's taken a more unusual path to a story about xenophobia , I 've not seen it . " He praised the bear scenes , which he thought was the episode 's most " amusing " part . The review continued , " The parts with the immigrants are also good , especially since they make their point deftly . Add to that the hilarious sound of ' American Apu ' and this is a strong program . " Jennifer Malkowski of DVD Verdict considered the best part of the episode to be when Homer tries to teach Apu American history , noting that you should watch for Homer 's " relevant and complex " diagram of a stovepipe hat . The website concluded its review by giving the episode a grade of B + . The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , wrote : " One of the most outspoken , and certainly angriest of episodes succeeds as a savage satire on the scapegoating of immigrants . Homer has never been so frighteningly dumb , although he does come through with a rousing liberal speech . " The episode is The Simpsons creator Matt Groening 's third favorite episode of the show . The episode received a negative review from Dave Foster of DVD Times . He considered " Much Apu About Nothing " to be one of the season 's most " tiring " episodes , " mostly because Apu is not a strong enough character to focus an episode on no matter how much writer David Cohen develops him " . Foster commented that the episode deals with a political issue which is " difficult to broach in twenty minutes and is therefore reached and sewn up in a rather haphazard manner " .
The episode has become study material for sociology courses at University of California Berkeley , where it is used to " examine issues of the production and reception of cultural objects , in this case , a satirical cartoon show " , and to figure out what it is " trying to tell audiences about aspects primarily of American society , and , to a lesser extent , about other societies . " Some questions asked in the courses include : " What aspects of American society are being addressed in the episode ? What aspects of them are used to make the points ? How is the satire conveyed : through language ? Drawing ? Music ? Is the behavior of each character consistent with his / her character as developed over the years ? Can we identify elements of the historical / political context that the writers are satirizing ? What is the difference between satire and parody ? "
In the episode , after the creation of the Bear Patrol , bear sightings decrease to zero , so Homer concludes that the Bear Patrol must be working . Lisa attempts to demonstrate Homer 's logical fallacy by the example of a tiger @-@ repellent rock , but it goes over his head . Scott Anthony of the Harvard Business Review describes this scene as a " classic example " of the informal fallacy of assuming that correlation implies causation . Mike Moffatt also called it " the best all @-@ time discussion of faulty reasoning " .
= William Henry Barlow =
William Henry Barlow FRS FRSE FICE MIMechE ( 10 May 1812 – 12 November 1902 ) was an English civil engineer of the 19th century , particularly associated with railway engineering projects . Barlow was involved in many engineering enterprises . He was engineer for the Midland Railway on its London extension and designed the company 's London terminus at St Pancras .
With John Hawkshaw , he completed Isambard Kingdom Brunel 's Clifton Suspension Bridge . Following the Tay Bridge disaster he sat on the commission which investigated the causes and designed the replacement Tay Bridge . Barlow was also an inventor and experimenter , patenting a design for a rail and carrying out investigations on the use and design of steel structures .
= = Early life and education = =
Barlow was born on 10 May 1812 in Woolwich , Kent ( now in south @-@ east London ) , the son of mathematician and physicist Professor Peter Barlow , who taught at the Royal Military Academy in Woolwich . William Barlow was the younger brother of Peter William Barlow . After a private education , Barlow began to study civil engineering with his father at the age of sixteen . After a year he , went on to a pupillage at the machinery department of the Royal Navy 's Woolwich Dockyard close to his family home . He then worked at the London Docks for Henry Robinson Palmer .
Barlow married Selina Crawford Caffin ( date unknown ) . The couple had four sons and two daughters . Their son Crawford Barlow became a civil engineer and was in practice with his father .
= = Career = =
From 1832 , he spent six years working as an engineer in Constantinople , Turkey , helping build an ordnance factory on behalf of machine tool manufacturers Maudslay , Sons & Field . He also produced a report for the Turkish government on lighthouses in the Bosphorus , which led to his first two scientific papers . For his services to the Turkish government he was awarded the Order of Nishan Iftikhar ( Order of Glory ) .
Barlow returned to Britain in 1838 to take up a post as assistant engineer on the Manchester and Birmingham Railway working for George W. Buck . In 1842 , he joined the Midland Counties Railway as resident engineer for the section between Rugby and Derby . When the Midland Counties Railway became part of the Midland Railway in 1844 , he retained the position , later becoming chief engineer of the larger railway . On 1 April 1845 , Barlow was elected a member of the Institution of Civil Engineers and on 6 June 1850 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society .
Whilst working on the Midland Railway 's main line , Barlow established that the replacement of sleepers was a larger part of the cost of track maintenance than the replacement of rails because the sleepers decayed more quickly than the rails wore @-@ out and needed renewal more often . To remove the cost of providing and replacing sleepers , he developed and patented his own rail design in 1849 . It had a wide flanged profile which could be laid directly on to track ballast without the need for sleepers , with just periodic tie @-@ bars to maintain the correct gauge . Known as the Barlow rail , it was widely used , especially by the Great Western Railway .
Joseph Paxton , designer of the cast iron and glass Crystal Palace for The Great Exhibition of 1851 , was a director of the Midland Railway and he asked Barlow for his help in the preparation of the structural calculations for the frame of the building .
In 1857 , Barlow left the Midland Railway to form his own consultant engineering practice in London , with the Midland Railway as a significant client . Following the death of Isambard Kingdom Brunel in 1859 , Barlow was commissioned with John Hawkshaw to complete the Clifton Suspension Bridge , Bristol , construction of which had been stalled since 1843 due to insufficient funds to finish it . Reusing the chains from Brunel 's earlier Hungerford Suspension Bridge in London , demolished in 1860 , Barlow and Hawkshaw completed the bridge in 1864 with a more robust deck than Brunel had planned and other variations caused by the reuse of the existing chains . Its 702 @-@ foot ( 214 m ) span was the longest in Britain at the time .
Between 1862 and 1869 , Barlow was consultant engineer for the Midland Railway 's southern extension from Bedford to London , including the layout of the London terminus station at St Pancras on Euston Road . To deal with the sloping site and the need to cross the Regent 's Canal a short distance to the north , the platforms were constructed on a raised structure supported on cast iron columns and girders . Under this storage was laid out for beer from the breweries at Burton upon Trent . With assistance from Rowland Mason Ordish , Barlow also designed the arched , cast iron station canopy which spans 240 feet ( 73 m ) across the platforms without intermediate support – then the widest of its kind in the world . It was designed as a cost effective and efficient means of avoiding the need for additional solid structure in the lower level . George Gilbert Scott designed the hotel in front of the train shed .
On 28 December 1879 , the central section of the North British Railway 's bridge across the River Tay near Dundee collapsed in the Tay Bridge disaster as an express train crossed it in a heavy storm . All 75 passengers and crew on the train were killed . As the newly elected President of the Institution of Civil Engineers , Barlow was appointed as a member of the Board of Trade 's Court of Inquiry into the disaster . He sat with Henry Cadogan Rothery and William Yolland , co @-@ authoring one of the final reports with Yolland recommending a commission be established to examine wind loads on bridges . In its report dated 30 June 1880 , the Court of Inquiry concluded that the bridge , designed by Sir Thomas Bouch and opened only the year before its collapse , had been " badly designed , badly built and badly maintained " . The entire central box truss section of the bridge known as the " High Girders " collapsed along with the thirteen trestles supporting it , leaving a gap of nearly half @-@ a @-@ mile in the 2 @-@ mile ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) long bridge .
His reputation destroyed , Bouch died in October 1880 . Work on the suspension bridge he had designed to cross the Firth of Forth was stopped after the Tay Bridge collapse and Barlow , Sir John Fowler and Thomas Elliot Harrison , consultant engineers for the three railway companies involved in the construction , were asked to choose a replacement design . The solution was the cantilevered Forth Bridge by Fowler and Sir Benjamin Baker .
In 1881 Barlow sat as member of the Wind Pressure ( Railway Structures ) Commission established at the recommendation of the Tay Bridge report . He led the design of the replacement Tay Bridge ( 1882 – 87 ) with his son Crawford Barlow as engineer . The new design used large monocoque piers to support a double railway track . The old brick and masonry piers from the first bridge were retained as breakwaters for the new piers upstream . They can still be seen today as a forlorn reminder of the tragedy of 1879 .
Barlow was an early experimenter with civil engineering uses for steel , carrying out research at Woolwich Arsenal in the 1850s and being a member of the Institution of Civil Engineers ' committee on the subject . From 1873 he was a member of a Board of Trade committee which produced the first recommendations on safe working loads for steel in railway structures in 1877 .
Barlow also experimented with sound recording . In February 1874 he presented the Royal Society with a talk On the Pneumatic Action which accompanies the Articulation of Sounds by the Human Voice , as exhibited by a Recording Instrument . He called his ' recording instrument ' a Logograph .
Barlow was a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh , a member of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers and the Society of Arts . He served as Vice President of the Royal Society in 1881 and was an honorary member of the Société des Ingénieurs Civil de France . He was also a Lieutenant @-@ Colonel in the Railway Volunteer Staff Corps .
With his health failing , he retired from practice in 1896 , along with his son . He died on 12 November 1902 from exhaustion after breaking his leg , and was buried in Charlton Cemetery in a plot adjacent to that of his father 's grave . His home " High Combe " , Charlton Road , Greenwich , is marked with a blue plaque .
= Jerk De Soleil =
" Jerk De Soleil " is the 8th episode of the first season of the animated television series Phineas and Ferb . In the episode , stepbrothers Phineas and Ferb and their friends host a cirque in their backyard , attracting much attention from the neighborhood . The boys ' sister , Candace , tries to expose the cirque to her mother while experiencing an allergic reaction to wild parsnips .
" Jerk De Soleil " was written by Bobby Gaylor and Martin Olson , and directed by series co @-@ founder Dan Povenmire . Povenmire additionally provided the voice for Candace on scenes where the character was experiencing an allergic reaction , as the crew was unable to lower the voice of her regular actress , Ashley Tisdale , to the necessary degree . The episode was originally broadcast on February 10 , 2008 , as part of the special marathon event " Phineas and Ferb @-@ urary . " It received generally positive reviews .
= = Plot summary = =
Plans for Phineas , his stepbrother Ferb , and their friends Isabella , Baljeet , Buford , and Django to go to the local circus , " Cirque de lune " are ruined after the performance is canceled after Baljeet comes from his mom 's car at the start of the episode . Undeterred , the boys and their friends decide to build their own circus in their backyard and have themselves and their other friends act as performers . The cirque tent is speedily put up and the group prepare their costumes .
Candace discovers the boy 's circus and has set out to tell their mother , Linda , when Jeremy , a boy who has romantic feelings for her , stops by to give her a basket of plants . Unfortunately they include some wild parsnips , which give Candace an allergic reaction : to hide her hives and deep , scratchy voice she dons a sweatsuit and a paper bag before going to the mall to tell Linda about the boys ' plans , and then sings E.V.I.L B.O.Y.S. where Linda , Vivian Garcia @-@ Shapiro , and Jeremy 's mom are .
Exasperated , Candace returns to the circus , where Jeremy has saved a spot for her , only for the boys to mistake her for Buford and include her in his act . She is sent flying through the roof of the tent , just as Doofenshmirtz and Perry are flying overhead . Doofenshmirtz 's machine activates , giving everyone in the cirque audience high @-@ pitched voices that cause the tent to rupture . The high velocity of Doofenshmirtz 's flying machine propels the tent up into the air , destroying the machine and sending Doofenshmirtz flying off ( with a high voice ) . Jeremy gives a CD to Candace , but Candace is not at the house , but Candace then gets the CD from Jeremy .
= = Production = =
" Jerk De Soleil " was written by Bobby Gaylor and Martin Olson . It was storyboarded by artists J.G. Quintel and Kim Roberson , and directed by Phineas and Ferb co @-@ creator Dan Povenmire . The crew was unable to lower the pitch of actress Ashley Tisdale 's delivery enough for the scenes in which allergies give Candace a deep voice ; instead , Povenmire voiced the character in her place .
" Jerk De Soleil " was originally broadcast in the United States on Disney Channel on February 10 , 2008 , as part of the special month @-@ long marathon event " Phineas and Ferb @-@ urary . " It was released on the DVD compilation The Daze of Summer on its first anniversary , alongside nine other episodes , including the previously unaired " Unfair Science Fair " and " Unfair Science Fair Redux ( Another Story ) . " E.V.I.L. B.O.Y.S. — the episode 's featured musical number — became available along with several other songs on the official Phineas and Ferb soundtrack later in 2009 .
= = Cultural references = =
Phineas and Ferb 's elaborate backyard cirque is a parody of Cirque du Soleil , a real @-@ life Canadian traveling company which performs circus arts and street entertainment . The scene where Candace jumps onto the stage and sings about her hardships , mainly concerning her inability to successfully tattle on her brothers , references a scene in the film Adventures in Babysitting ( 1987 ) in which Elisabeth Shue 's character sings about her hardships in a similar manner .
= = Reception = =
" Jerk De Soleil " received generally positive reviews from television critics . The Kidzworld website called Phineas and Ferb 's cirque " magical . " Writing for DVD Town , reviewer James Plath wrote that the subplot with Doofenshmirtz and Perry " absolutely evokes the old Boris and Natasha plans on Rocky and Bullwinkle . " USA Today blogger Whitney Matheson , reviewing the episode , described the entire series as " a short ' toon that zooms all over the place in 15 minutes " and " an animated version of Parker Lewis Can 't Lose , " calling the writing " clever without being too cute . "
The song " E.V.I.L. B.O.Y.S. " also received a generally favorable reception . Wired magazine called it an " ever @-@ pleasing blues banger . " Fan reaction to the song was also positive , and in the 2009 television event " Phineas and Ferb 's Musical Cliptastic Countdown , " voters ranked it the series ' sixth best musical feature .
= Thompson Capper =
Major General Sir Thompson Capper KCMG CB DSO ( 20 October 1863 – 27 September 1915 ) was a highly decorated and senior British Army officer who served with distinction in the Second Boer War and was a divisional commander during the First World War . At the Battle of Loos in 1915 , Capper was shot by a sniper as he reconnoitred the front line during an assault by his division on German positions . He died the next day in a casualty clearing station from wounds to both lungs ; his grave is in the nearby Lillers Communal Cemetery .
Capper was an active and vigorous soldier who had been wounded just six months before his death in an accidental grenade detonation . Shortly before this wound he had been knighted by King George V for his service in command of his division during the First Battle of Ypres . Field Marshal Sir John French commented upon his death that " he was a most distinguished and capable leader and his death will be severely felt . " He was also a keen military historian and his collected papers are currently stored at the Liddell Hart Centre for Military Archives at King 's College London .
= = Early career = =
Thompson Capper was born in October 1863 to William and Sarah Capper ( neé Copeland ) . William Capper was a civil servant with the Bengal Civil Service and Sarah was the daughter of industrialist William Copeland . Thompson and his elder brother John were born in Lucknow but at a young age were sent to England for their education . Thompson Capper attended Haileybury and Imperial Service College and the Royal Military College , Sandhurst before being commissioned into the East Lancashire Regiment as a junior officer in 1882 .
He was employed on home service for the next ten years and whilst serving as regimental adjutant was made up to captain in 1891 , attending Staff College before being transferred with his unit to India . It was in India that Capper saw his first action , when in 1895 his regiment was attached to a force sent to the Indian @-@ Afghan border to relieve a trapped British force in Chitral . Three years later as a Brevet major , he was again in action as an advisor to an Egyptian unit of the Anglo @-@ Egyptian army under Horatio Kitchener which travelled down the Nile in the final campaign of the Mahdist War . During these operations , Capper participated in the battle of Atbara and was with the force which fought in the culminating Battle of Omdurman .
= = = South African service = = =
The following year , 1899 , Capper and his regiment were again engaged in Africa , being transported to South Africa to serve in the Second Boer War . There Capper performed his duties with distinction for the next three years , being heavily engaged at the defeat of Spion Kop and participating in the relief of Ladysmith in 1900 . He remained in South Africa engaged in guerilla operations against the Boer forces until the armistice of 1902 , commanding a flying column in the Cape Colony . He was promoted to substantive major in December 1901 . Following the war 's conclusion , Capper was promoted and awarded the Distinguished Service Order on his return home . He was also awarded the Queen 's South Africa Medal with six clasps and the King 's South Africa Medal with two clasps in recognition of his long service in the colony , and was twice Mentioned in Despatches .
= = = Staff career = = =
As an experienced staff officer , he was given a post as a professor at the Staff College , Camberley from 1902 to 1904 . He was promoted to Brevet Colonel on 11 December 1904 . He was then transferred to the Staff College , Quetta in India as commandant ( and substantive colonel ) . It has been suggested that this move was initiated by jealous colleagues at the college due to his ability as a teacher and tactician . He retained this position until 1911 , teaching the lessons of the Russo @-@ Japanese War and emphasising the importance of " attacking dash " as the best means of overcoming entrenched positions . He came into contact with numerous important figures of the First World War through this work , including Douglas Haig , with whom he did not get on and Hubert Gough , who admired his " spirit of self @-@ sacrifice and duty , instead of the idea of playing for safety and seeking only to avoid getting into trouble " . He also amassed a prodigious collection of military literature during his research and teaching .
In 1906 he was promoted to temporary Brigadier – General and in 1908 he married Winifride Mary , with whom he would have one son . In 1910 his work at the staff college was recognised with the award of the Companion of the Order of the Bath ( CB ) in the King 's Birthday Honours . In 1911 , after a brief period of half @-@ pay in his permanent rank of Colonel , Capper was transferred from India to Ireland , where he commanded the 13th Infantry Brigade until 1913 . He returned to Ireland briefly a year later in the aftermath of the Curragh Incident , to support his friend Hubert Gough . During early 1914 , Capper was briefly the Inspector of Infantry but in the emergency of the summer of 1914 he was promoted to substantive Major @-@ General and posted to the regular 7th Division , which was sent to the Western Front .
= = First World War = =
During the opening months of the war , Capper busied himself with organising the new division placed under his command ; the work involved in this task meant that the division was not ready for action until October 1914 . On 6 October 7th Division arrived at Zeebrugge just as the German forces began to push into that area as part of the " Race for the Sea " . Initially forced back , Capper 's division covered the Belgian withdrawal to the Yser and then held the line near the town of Ypres . For the next two months , the 7th Division was embroiled in bitter fighting at the First Battle of Ypres , when they were crucial in stopping the German advance but lost over 10 @,@ 000 men . The Times later stated that " no one but Capper himself could , night after night , by the sheer force of his personality , have reconstituted from the shattered fragments of battalions a fighting line that could last through tomorrow " . For the service he and his men provided during the battle , Capper was awarded a knighthood as a Knight Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George in early 1915 .
Remaining on the front lines during the winter of 1914 – 1915 , Capper 's men held the German advance and were given some respite in early 1915 with the arrival of territorial divisions . It was during one of these rest periods that Capper was seriously wounded when in April 1915 he was struck in the shoulder by shrapnel from a " Jam @-@ tin bomb " during a demonstration of improvised grenades being held behind the lines . He was temporarily replaced by General Gough and returned to England to convalesce , but was back with the 7th Division on 19 July 1915 .
= = = Battle of Loos = = =
In late September 1915 , the division was assigned to participate in the Battle of Loos against fortified German positions at Loos @-@ en @-@ Gohelle and Hulluch . Advancing on 26 September against furious German opposition , the 7th Division was held up several times and Capper visited the frontline to view the enemy for himself from the captured trenches . Urging his men into a final assault , Capper stayed behind to view the field and was struck by a sniper 's bullet fired from houses along the line of advance which were thought to have been abandoned . The assault failed and Capper was discovered by his retreating units and taken to Number 6 Casualty Clearing Station to the rear of British lines . The bullet had penetrated both lungs , and doctors gave no hope of survival . Major @-@ General Sir Thompson Capper died the following day , on 27 September 1915 in the casualty clearing station . His division had lost over 5 @,@ 200 men killed or wounded in just three days of fighting .
Following his death , a rumour abounded that he had been killed charging the German lines on horseback . This story has persisted despite eye @-@ witness accounts to the contrary . Capper was buried in Lillers Communal Cemetery behind British lines and his grave is surmounted by a Commonwealth War Graves Commission headstone . He is also commemorated on the War Memorial in Rayne , Essex , where he spent much of his boyhood with his uncle , the Rector of Rayne , Rev W S Hemming . His collected papers were donated to King 's College in 1971 , where they are still available to researchers and contain a wide selection of primary materials concerning the warfare of the early twentieth century .
= Angie Bolen =
Angela de Luca , known in the series by the alias Angie Bolen , is a fictional character played by Drea de Matteo on the ABC television series Desperate Housewives . The character was created by television producer and screenwriter Marc Cherry and appeared throughout the series ' sixth season from September 27 , 2009 to May 16 , 2010 . Cherry describes Angie as a " loving but tough Italian woman . " Her gritty and blunt demeanor contrasts from the domesticated leading characters .
Angie 's storylines mostly deal with her family — husband Nick Bolen ( Jeffrey Nordling ) and son Danny Bolen ( Beau Mirchoff ) — and their attempts to escape their mysterious past , which is explored throughout the season . Although critics initially welcomed the character as a diverse addition to the cast , they grew frustrated with the slow pace of her storyline as the season progressed . Critics compared Angie to Betty Applewhite ( Alfre Woodard ) , a character whose lagging storyline was slow in developing during the series ' second season .
= = Development and departure = =
While developing new characters for the sixth season of Desperate Housewives , showrunner Marc Cherry and his writing staff aimed to create a housewife who would be different from the other female characters on the series . Cherry stated that he " wanted someone who didn 't seem suburban , who has a tough , blue @-@ collar exterior . " The staff ultimately decided upon an Italian New Yorker . Cherry stated that part of his inspiration for the character came from his childhood neighbors . He explained , " When I was growing up in Huntington , Calif . , two Italian families from the Bronx moved in across the street . We were so WASPy , so middle American . They had their own ethnic identity . It was an interesting juxtaposition . " Cherry insisted that Angie was not replacing the deceased Edie Britt character ( Nicollette Sheridan ) as a main housewife but would instead be the focus of the season 's mystery .
Drea de Matteo , known for her role on The Sopranos , an HBO television series about the Italian @-@ American Mafia , was immediately offered the role in July 2009 . De Matteo did not know the character 's name or storyline when she accepted the role . She acknowledged that the character was similar to her previous television roles and admitted that while she initially feared being typecast , she decided to accept the role . She explained , " Now that I am old and don 't really care , and remember how much fun I had playing that character — I 'd rather be playing a character like that than some straight , normal , non @-@ accented person . " The character 's name was reported by several media outlets as Angie Vitale following the news of de Matteo 's casting .
In November 2009 , rumors surfaced that de Matteo was being released from her contract due to budgetary concerns . However , Cherry denied them and the actress appeared in 20 of the season 's 23 episodes . However , de Matteo did depart from the series in May 2010 after one season . Cherry explained , " Part of the deal when we hired Drea was she was only interested in doing one season . She has a baby and is eager to get back to her life in New York . "
= = Personality and characteristics = =
Before the character 's debut , de Matteo described Angie as " brassy " and a " liberal New Yorker , " which she said contrasts with the more conservative nature of the other characters . She commented that Angie " is less of a housewife than the rest of them . She 's a real broad . " However , de Matteo also noted that Angie is " not just the brassy smart @-@ talker " and has a vulnerable side , which would be explored in the show . Cherry boosted Angie as " a loving but tough Italian woman ... who will do what she has to protect her family . " He also described her as " brilliant " and " shielded , " which leaves her largely detached from the other women on the series . Michael Ausiello of Entertainment Weekly described the character as " icy . " Entertainment Weekly 's Tanner Stransky wrote that Angie was " very real and very gritty , " noting that the character was capable " of doing what they need to survive , no matter what the price . " Within the series , Bree Hodge ( Marcia Cross ) describes Angie as blunt and tactless .
= = History = =
= = = Past = = =
The character 's backstory is explored throughout the sixth season of Desperate Housewives . Angela de Luca lived in New York City with her mother , Rose De Luca ( Suzanne Costallos ) . At age eighteen , she dropped out of college , where she was enrolled as an engineering major , and joined a band of eco @-@ terrorists , led by Patrick Logan ( John Barrowman ) , with whom she became romantically involved . Patrick asked her to build a bomb that would be used against a corporate company . On November 10 , 1991 , the eco @-@ terrorist group bombed a building that was supposedly empty ; however , they unintentionally killed a man named Shawn . Angela sustained a large scar on her back as a result of the explosion . Consumed with guilt over having killed an innocent man , Angela agreed to run away with a private investigator ( Jeffrey Nordling ) who had been pursuing the terrorist group . Later , Angie discovered she was pregnant with Patrick 's child . She and the private investigator raised Patrick 's son as their own and moved several times , living under various aliases , in an attempt to evade both Patrick and the FBI .
= = = Season 6 = = =
In the sixth season premiere , the fugitive couple , now under the aliases of Angie and Nick Bolen , buys a house on Wisteria Lane in Fairview , Eagle State , with their nineteen @-@ year @-@ old son , Danny ( Beau Mirchoff ) . While Angie hesitantly befriends the other women on the street , Danny takes a liking to Julie Mayer ( Andrea Bowen ) , a neighbor who eventually rejects his attempts to form a romantic relationship . When Julie falls into a coma after being strangled , Danny is the prime suspect , thus creating tension between Angie and Julie 's mother , Susan Mayer ( Teri Hatcher ) . However , Danny is cleared of all charges when his alibi is validated . Meanwhile , neighbor Katherine Mayfair ( Dana Delany ) befriends Angie while experiencing a nervous breakdown as a result of Mike Delfino ( James Denton ) marrying Susan rather than her . When Katherine begins to question Angie 's past , Angie tells Susan that Katherine may have strangled Julie as an act of revenge .
Angie takes a job at the catering company of her neighbor , Bree Hodge ( Marcia Cross ) , and a friendship develops . Later , Angie learns that Nick had an affair with Julie prior to her attack , but she forgives him for this betrayal . When Julie rejects Danny once more , he attempts suicide by swallowing a large amount of pills . Angie and Nick admit him to the hospital , where he awakens with temporary memory loss and tells Nurse Mona Clark ( Maria Cominis ) , that his name is Tyler . Mona assumes that the family is in the witness relocation program , but Danny fully reveals his family 's secret . Mona demands $ 67 @,@ 000 from the Bolens in return for her silence but is killed by a plane that makes an emergency landing on Wisteria Lane soon after .
Later , Danny begins to date Ana Solis ( Maiara Walsh ) , the fun @-@ loving niece of Gabrielle ( Eva Longoria Parker ) and Carlos Solis ( Ricardo Antonio Chavira ) . Gabrielle and Carlos overhear Angie and Nick fighting about their secret , which prompts them to send Ana to a modeling academy in New York for her safety . Danny follows Ana without his parents ' knowledge . Angie and Gabrielle travel to New York to bring Danny home and Angie confesses her past to Gabrielle in confidence . Patrick tracks Angie back to Fairview , where he hits Nick with his car . While Nick is in the hospital , Patrick moves into the Bolen home and takes Angie and Danny hostage and forces Angie to build him a second bomb . He plants the bomb inside the house and activates it with a detonator from down the street . However , the bomb in the house was a decoy ; Angie had planted the actual bomb in the detonator . Patrick dies in the explosion and Angie and Nick , still on the run from the FBI , relocate to Atlanta , Georgia while Danny moves to New York to be closer to his grandmother and Ana .
= = Reception = =
Both Drea de Matteo 's performance and the Angie character received positive reviews upon the season premiere . Stransky said " it 's great to see Drea de Matteo back on screen " and praised the contrast between Angie and the other characters . In her review of the season premiere , Isabelle Carreau of TV Squad called the character promising . TV Guide 's Mickey O 'Connor noted that the chemistry between Angie and the other characters was " a little off , " but predicted it would improve throughout the season . Four episodes into the season , Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly declared that Angie 's storyline was suffering from the lack of interaction between the character and the other leading women , similar to the Betty Applewhite ( Alfre Woodard ) storyline of season two .
By the middle of the season , Gael Fashingbauer Cooper of MSNBC complained that the Angie storyline was lagging , opining that the revelation that Angie is an eco @-@ terrorist " sounds like a plot summary dreamed up by The Onion wanting to spoof the ultimate suburban show . " Stransky declared that he was " tired of even wondering what 's up with the Bolens , " as their " who @-@ cares @-@ anyway mystery " storyline continued to move too slowly . However , his interest in the storyline was renewed when John Barrowman joined the show as Patrick Logan , stating that the storyline had " finally gotten hotter and , subsequently , better . " Stransky praised the " sweet vendiction " of the conclusion to Angie 's storyline in the season finale . Cooper also enjoyed the conclusion of Angie 's storyline , scoring her plot in the season finale with a ' B. ' She wrote that de Matteo " brought some needed fire and Italian backbone to a very bland street " and was disappointed that the character was written off the series . However , Robert Bianco of USA Today dismissed the finale 's devotion to resolving the Bolen family storyline , stating that the audience and other characters were not invested enough in the Bolens to care about their life @-@ threatening predicament or departure . Following the announcement of de Matteo 's departure , Ausiello reported that fans had not " warmed to " the character of Angie .
= Flight 19 =
Flight 19 was the designation of five Grumman TBM Avenger torpedo bombers that disappeared over the Bermuda Triangle on December 5 , 1945 during a United States Navy overwater navigation training flight from Naval Air Station Fort Lauderdale , Florida . All 14 airmen on the flight were lost , as were all 13 crew members of a Martin PBM Mariner flying boat that subsequently launched from Naval Air Station Banana River to search for Flight 19 . The PBM aircraft was known to collect flammable aviation gasoline vapors in its bilges and professional investigators have assumed that the PBM most likely exploded in mid @-@ air while searching for the flight . Navy investigators could not determine the cause of the loss of Flight 19 , but said the airmen may have become disoriented and ditched in rough seas after running out of fuel .
= = Navigation training flight = =
Flight 19 undertook a routine navigation and combat training exercise in TBM @-@ type aircraft . The assignment was called " Navigation problem No. 1 " , a combination of bombing and navigation , which other flights had completed or were scheduled to undertake that day . The flight leader was United States Navy Lieutenant Charles Carroll Taylor , who had about 2 @,@ 500 flying hours , mostly in aircraft of this type , while his trainee pilots each had 300 total , and 60 flight hours in the Avenger . Taylor had completed a combat tour in the Pacific theatre as torpedo bomber pilot on the aircraft carrier USS Hancock and had recently arrived from NAS Miami where he had also been a VTB instructor . The student pilots had recently completed other training missions in the area where the flight was to take place . They were US Marine Captains Edward Joseph Powers and George William Stivers , US Marine Second Lieutenant Forrest James Gerber and USN Ensign Joseph Tipton Bossi ; their callsigns started with ' Fox Tare ' .
The aircraft were four TBM @-@ 1Cs , BuNo 45714 , ' FT3 ' , BuNo 46094 , ' FT36 ' , BuNo 46325 , ' FT81 ' , BuNo 73209 , ' FT117 ' , and one TBM @-@ 3 , BuNo 23307 , ' FT28 ' . Each was fully fueled , and during pre @-@ flight checks it was discovered they were all missing clocks . Navigation of the route was intended to teach dead reckoning principles , which involved calculating among other things elapsed time . The apparent lack of timekeeping equipment was not a cause for concern as it was assumed each man had his own watch . Takeoff was scheduled for 13 : 45 local time , but the late arrival of Taylor delayed departure until 14 : 10 . Weather at NAS Fort Lauderdale was described as " favorable , sea state moderate to rough . " Taylor was supervising the mission , and a trainee pilot had the role of leader out front .
Called " Naval Air Station , Fort Lauderdale , Florida , navigation problem No. 1 , " the exercise involved three different legs , but the actual flight should have flown four . After take off , they flew on heading 091 ° ( almost due east ) for 56 nmi ( 64 mi ; 104 km ) until reaching Hen and Chickens Shoals where low level bombing practice was carried out . The flight was to continue on that heading for another 67 nmi ( 77 mi ; 124 km ) before turning onto a course of 346 ° for 73 nmi ( 84 mi ; 135 km ) , in the process over @-@ flying Grand Bahama island . The next scheduled turn was to a heading of 241 ° to fly 120 nmi ( 140 mi ; 220 km ) at the end of which the exercise was completed and the Avengers would turn left to then return to NAS Ft . Lauderdale .
Radio conversations between the pilots were overheard by base and other aircraft in the area . The practice bombing operation is known to have been carried out because at about 15 : 00 a pilot requested and was given permission to drop his last bomb . Forty minutes later , another flight instructor , Lieutenant Robert F. Cox in FT @-@ 74 , forming up with his group of students for the same mission , received an unidentified transmission .
An unidentified crew member asked Powers , one of the students , for his compass reading . Powers replied : " I don 't know where we are . We must have got lost after that last turn . " Cox then transmitted ; " This is FT @-@ 74 , plane or boat calling ' Powers ' please identify yourself so someone can help you . " The response after a few moments was a request from the others in the flight for suggestions . FT @-@ 74 tried again and a man identified as FT @-@ 28 ( Taylor ) came on . " FT @-@ 28 , this is FT @-@ 74 , what is your trouble ? " " Both of my compasses are out " , Taylor replied , " and I am trying to find Fort Lauderdale , Florida . I am over land but it 's broken . I am sure I 'm in the Keys but I don 't know how far down and I don 't know how to get to Fort Lauderdale . "
FT @-@ 74 informed the NAS that aircraft were lost , then advised Taylor to put the sun on his port wing and fly north up the coast to Fort Lauderdale . Base operations then asked if the flight leader 's aircraft was equipped with a standard YG ( IFF transmitter ) , which could be used to triangulate the flight 's position , but the message was not acknowledged by FT @-@ 28 . ( Later he would indicate that his transmitter was activated . ) Instead , at 16 : 45 , FT @-@ 28 radioed : " We are heading 030 degrees for 45 minutes , then we will fly north to make sure we are not over the Gulf of Mexico . " During this time no bearings could be made on the flight , and IFF could not be picked up . Taylor was told to broadcast on 4805 kilocycles . This order was not acknowledged so he was asked to switch to 3 @,@ 000 kilocycles , the search and rescue frequency . Taylor replied – " I cannot switch frequencies . I must keep my planes intact . "
At 16 : 56 , Taylor was again asked to turn on his transmitter for YG if he had one . He did not acknowledge but a few minutes later advised his flight " Change course to 090 degrees ( due east ) for 10 minutes . " About the same time someone in the flight said " Dammit , if we could just fly west we would get home ; head west , dammit . " This difference of opinion later led to questions about why the students did not simply head west on their own . It has been explained that this can be attributed to military discipline .
As the weather deteriorated , radio contact became intermittent , and it was believed that the five aircraft were actually by that time more than 200 nmi ( 230 mi ; 370 km ) out to sea east of the Florida peninsula . Taylor radioed " We 'll fly 270 degrees west until landfall or running out of gas " and requested a weather check at 17 : 24 . By 17 : 50 several land @-@ based radio stations had triangulated Flight 19 's position as being within a 100 nmi ( 120 mi ; 190 km ) radius of 29 ° N 79 ° W ; Flight 19 was north of the Bahamas and well off the coast of central Florida , but nobody transmitted this information on an open , repetitive basis .
At 18 : 04 , Taylor radioed to his flight " Holding 270 , we didn 't fly far enough east , we may as well just turn around and fly east again " . By that time , the weather had deteriorated even more and the sun had since set . Around 18 : 20 , Taylor 's last message was received . ( It has also been reported that Taylor 's last message was received at 19 : 04 . ) He was heard saying " All planes close up tight ... we 'll have to ditch unless landfall ... when the first plane drops below 10 gallons , we all go down together . "
= = PBM @-@ 5 ( Bureau Number 59225 ) = =
As it became obvious the flight was lost , air bases , aircraft , and merchant ships were alerted . A Consolidated PBY Catalina departed after 18 : 00 to search for Flight 19 and guide them back if they could be located . After dark , two Martin PBM Mariner seaplanes originally scheduled for their own training flights were diverted to perform square pattern searches in the area west of 29 ° N 79 ° W. PBM @-@ 5 BuNo 59225 took off at 19 : 27 from Naval Air Station Banana River ( now Patrick Air Force Base ) , called in a routine radio message at 19 : 30 and was never heard from again .
At 21 @.@ 15 , the tanker SS Gaines Mills reported it had observed flames from an apparent explosion leaping 100 ft ( 30 m ) high and burning for 10 minutes , at position 28 @.@ 59 ° N 80 @.@ 25 ° W / 28 @.@ 59 ; -80.25 . Captain Shonna Stanley reported unsuccessfully searching for survivors through a pool of oil and aviation gasoline . The escort carrier USS Solomons also reported losing radar contact with an aircraft at the same position and time .
= = Investigation = =
A 500 @-@ page Navy board of investigation report published a few months later made several observations :
Flight leader Lt. Charles C. Taylor had mistakenly believed that the small islands he passed over were the Florida Keys , so his flight was over the Gulf of Mexico and heading northeast would take them to Florida . It was determined that Taylor had passed over the Bahamas as scheduled , and he did in fact lead his flight to the northeast over the Atlantic . The report noted that some subordinate officers did likely know their approximate position as indicated by radio transmissions stating that flying west would result in reaching the mainland .
Taylor was not at fault because the compasses stopped working .
The loss of PBM @-@ 5 BuNo 59225 was attributed to an explosion .
This report was subsequently amended " cause unknown " by the Navy after Taylor 's mother contended that the Navy was unfairly blaming her son for the loss of five aircraft and 14 men , when the Navy had neither the bodies nor the airplanes as evidence .
Had Flight 19 actually been where Taylor believed it to be , landfall with the Florida coastline would have been reached in a matter of 10 to 20 minutes or less , depending on how far down they were . However , a later reconstruction of the incident showed that the islands visible to Taylor were probably the Bahamas , well northeast of the Keys , and that Flight 19 was exactly where it should have been . The board of investigation found that because of his belief that he was on a base course toward Florida , Taylor actually guided the flight farther northeast and out to sea . Further , it was general knowledge at NAS Fort Lauderdale that if a pilot ever became lost in the area to fly a heading of 270 ° west ( or in evening hours toward the sunset if the compass had failed ) . By the time the flight actually turned west , they were likely so far out to sea they had already passed their aircraft 's fuel endurance . This factor combined with bad weather , and the ditching characteristics of the Avenger , meant that there was little hope of rescue , even if they had managed to stay afloat .
It is possible that Taylor overshot Castaway Cay and instead reached another land mass in southern Abaco Island . He then proceeded northwest as planned . He fully expected to find the Grand Bahama Island lying in front of him as planned . Instead , he eventually saw a land mass to his right side , the northern part of Abaco Island . Believing that this landmass to his right was the Grand Bahama Island and his compass was malfunctioning , he set a course to what he thought was southwest to head straight back to Fort Lauderdale . However , in reality this changed his course farther northwest , toward open ocean .
To further add to his confusion , he encountered a series of islands north of Abaco Island , which looks very similar to the Key West Islands , but he was still over the ocean instead of over Fort Lauderdale . The control tower then suggested that Taylor 's team should fly west , which would have taken them to the landmass of Florida eventually . Taylor headed for what he thought was west , but in reality was northwest , almost parallel to Florida .
After trying that for a while and no land in sight , Taylor decided that it was impossible for them to fly so far west and not reach Florida . He believed that he might have been near the Key West Islands . What followed was a series of serious confusions between Taylor , his team and the control tower . Taylor was not sure whether he was near Bahama or Key West , and he was not sure which direction was which due to compass malfunction . The control tower informed Taylor that he could not be in Key West since the wind that day did not blow that way . Some of his teammates believed that their compass was working . Taylor then set a course northeast according to their compass , which should take them to Florida if they were in Key West . When that failed , Taylor set a course west according to their compass , which should take them to Florida if they were in Bahama . If Taylor stayed this course he would have reached land before running out of fuel . However , at some point Taylor decided that he had tried going west enough . He then once again set a course northeast , thinking they were near Key West after all . Finally , his flight ran out of fuel and may have crashed into the ocean somewhere north of Abaco Island and east of Florida .
= = Unrelated Avenger wreckage = =
In 1986 , the wreckage of an Avenger was found off the Florida coast during the search for the wreckage of the Space Shuttle Challenger . Aviation archaeologist Jon Myhre raised this wreck from the ocean floor in 1990 . He mistakenly believed it was one of the missing planes .
In 1991 , a treasure @-@ hunting expedition led by Graham Hawkes announced that the wreckage of five Avengers had been discovered off the coast of Florida , but that tail numbers revealed they were not Flight 19 . In 2004 a BBC documentary showed Hawkes returning with a new submersible 12 years later and identifying one of the planes by its bureau number ( a clearly readable 23990 ) as a flight lost at sea on 9 October 1943 , over two years before Flight 19 ( its crew all survived ) , but he was unable to definitively identify the other planes ; the documentary concluded that " Despite the odds , they are just a random collection of accidents that came to rest in the same place 12 miles from home . " But in March 2012 Hawkes was reported as stating that it had suited both him ( and indirectly his investors ) and the Pentagon to make the story go away because it was an expensive and time @-@ consuming distraction , and that , while admitting he had found no conclusive evidence , he now thought he had in fact found Flight 19 .
Records showed training accidents between 1942 and 1945 accounted for the loss of 95 aviation personnel from NAS Fort Lauderdale In 1992 , another expedition located scattered debris on the ocean floor , but nothing could be identified . In the last decade , searchers have been expanding their area to include farther east , into the Atlantic Ocean , but the remains of Flight 19 have still never been confirmed found .
In the mid @-@ 1960s near Sebastian , Florida , wreckage was found of a warplane with two bodies inside . The Navy retrieved the aircraft and bodies , saying it was from Flight 19 . However , the Navy later recanted its statement and has not identified the bodies , even after Freedom of Information Act requests in 2013 .
= = Crews of Flight 19 and PBM @-@ 5 BuNo 59225 = =
= = = Charles Carroll Taylor = = =
The flight leader , Lieutenant Charles Carroll Taylor ( born October 25 , 1917 ) , graduated from Naval Air Station Corpus Christi in February 1942 and became a flight instructor in October of that year .
= = In popular culture = =
The pulp magazine Argosy published an account of the incident in 1974 .
The 1977 science fiction film Close Encounters of the Third Kind featured a depiction of the Flight 19 planes being discovered in the desert and later their pilots are returned to Earth by peaceful alien captors . In the film , the returned fliers are depicted at the age they would have been at the time of their disappearance , but have fictional names .
In 1977 , the English experimental rock band 801 wrote and recorded the song " Flight 19 " , with the chorus : " Saint Serene , get me on Flight 19 " .
In The Invincible Iron Man # 504 ( July 2011 ) , Bethany Cabe finds a plane on the ocean floor while diving , a find she referred to as " Flight 19 " .
In 1980 , Scottish singer / songwriter B. A. Robertson released a single , " Flight 19 " .
In a chapter of a 1980 work of science fiction by Peter J. Hammond , Corporal Allan Kosnar , who had successfully asked to be excused from Flight 19 , has been said to have done so because he had had a strong premonition of danger .
The supporters group of the Fort Lauderdale Strikers is named after Flight 19 .
= USS Osage ( 1863 ) =
USS Osage was a single @-@ turreted Neosho @-@ class monitor built for the Union Navy during the American Civil War . After completion in mid @-@ 1863 , the ship patrolled the Mississippi River against Confederate raids and ambushes as part of Rear Admiral David Porter 's Mississippi Squadron . Osage participated in the Red River Campaign in March – May 1864 , during which she supported the capture of Fort DeRussy in March and participated in the Battle of Blair 's Landing in April . The ship was grounded on a sandbar for six months after the end of the campaign and badly damaged . Osage , after being refloated and repaired , was transferred to the West Gulf Blockading Squadron in early 1865 for the campaign against Mobile , Alabama . During the Battle of Spanish Fort in March 1865 she struck a mine and rapidly sank . The ship was later salvaged and sold in 1867 .
= = Design and description = =
The steam @-@ powered gun turret of the Osage was at the bow and she had a deckhouse between the funnel and the sternwheel , although another was later added between the turret and the funnel . Her pilothouse was positioned above the rear deckhouse , next to the forward face of the sternwheel . The ship was 180 feet ( 54 @.@ 9 m ) long overall and had a beam of 45 feet ( 13 @.@ 7 m ) . When launched she proved to have a draft 1 foot ( 0 @.@ 3 m ) deeper than planned and she measured 523 tons burthen . Osage had four steam boilers powering a two @-@ cylinder , western steamboat @-@ type engine that drove the sternwheel . The ship had a maximum speed of 12 miles per hour ( 19 km / h ) in service and she carried 50 long tons ( 51 t ) of coal . Her crew numbered 100 officers and enlisted men .
Osage 's main armament consisted of two smoothbore 11 @-@ inch ( 279 mm ) Dahlgren guns mounted in a single turret that had an arc of fire of 300 ° . Firing the guns tended to jam the turret until modifications were made to the guns ' recoil system . Each gun weighed approximately 16 @,@ 000 pounds ( 7 @,@ 300 kg ) . They could fire a 136 @-@ pound ( 61 @.@ 7 kg ) shell up to a range of 3 @,@ 650 yards ( 3 @,@ 340 m ) at an elevation of 15 ° . The turret was protected by 6 inches ( 152 mm ) of wrought iron while the hull had 2 @.@ 5 inches ( 64 mm ) of armor . The armor plates of the deck and paddle housing were 1 @.@ 25 inches ( 32 mm ) thick .
= = Service = =
Osage , named after the American Indian tribe , was laid down in mid @-@ 1862 and launched 13 January 1863 by James Eads at his Union Iron Works , Carondelet , Missouri . She was commissioned at Cairo , Illinois on 10 July 1863 , with Acting Volunteer Lieutenant Joseph Pitty Couthouy in command .
After completion , the ship was assigned to Rear Admiral David Porter 's Mississippi Squadron and patrolled the Mississippi River against Confederate raids and ambushes . During the Red River Campaign Osage was commanded by Lieutenant Commander Thomas O. Selfridge , Jr . She supported the Union Army when it captured Fort DeRussy and captured Alexandria , Louisiana by herself on 15 March 1864 without firing a shot . She successfully defended the navy transports attacked during the Battle of Blair 's Landing on 12 April , driving off the Confederate forces with heavy losses after having run aground and freed herself . After the end of the campaign in May she was assigned to patrol the Mississippi River . During that month she grounded on a sandbar near Helena , Arkansas and could not be refloated due to the rapidly falling water level even when some of her armor was removed . As the water receded Osage began to hog at the ends because only her middle was supported by the sand . This caused her longitudinal bulkheads to split and broke many rivets in her hull and on her deck . She was repaired in place before being refloated at the end of November .
After being towed to Mound City for more permanent repairs , Osage was transferred to the West Gulf Blockading Squadron on 1 February 1865 for the attack on Mobile , Alabama . She participated in the Battle of Spanish Fort , defending Mobile from the east , but struck a mine in a previously swept channel and sank rapidly on 29 March . Two crewmen were killed and some others wounded . The ship was later refloated and sold at auction at New Orleans on 22 November 1867 , along with three ex @-@ Confederate ships , for $ 20 @,@ 467 .
= Orphanotrophos =
Orphanotrophos ( Greek : ὀρφανοτρόφος ) was a Byzantine title for the curator of an orphanage ( ὀρφανοτροφεῖον , orphanotropheion ) . The director of the most important orphanage , the imperial orphanage in Constantinople , established in the 4th century and lasting until the 13th century , eventually rose to become an office of particular significance and ranked among the senior ministers of the Byzantine state .
= = History = =
In the spirit of Christian philanthropy , the Byzantine world showed particular care towards the weaker members of society , including widows , orphans , the sick or the elderly . Orphans were either adopted by foster parents , or sheltered in monasteries or in orphanages , the latter often run by monasteries .
In Constantinople , the Byzantine capital , there was a particularly large orphanage in the northeastern corner of the city , at the site of the ancient acropolis of Byzantium , which eventually came under imperial patronage . According to the Patria of Constantinople , it traced its antecedents to a series of charitable establishments founded in the reign of Constans II ( ruled 337 – 361 ) by the patrikios and protovestiarios Zotikos , for which the latter was canonized by the Church . According to a novel by Emperor Leo I the Thracian in 469 , Zotikos was the first to bear the title of orphanotrophos . In the 5th century , the priest Nikon and Acacius , later Patriarch of Constantinople ( 472 – 488 ) , are known to have been successively orphanotrophoi in the capital , while another future patriarch , Euphemius ( 489 – 495 ) held the post in the provincial town of Neapolis .
The legislation of Justinian I ( r . 527 – 565 ) often mentions the orphanages and the office of orphanotrophos , but it was not until the reign of his successor Justin II ( r . 565 – 578 ) that the institution in the capital acquired its definite characteristics : Justin and his wife Sophia , with the aid of a protovestiarios also named Zotikos , built an orphanage near the Church of St. Paul ( or SS . Peter and Paul according to Theophanes the Confessor ) — probably the church of the same name near the Gate of Eugenios on the sea @-@ wall of the Golden Horn mentioned by Nikephoros Gregoras — and restored the foundation of the first Zotikos , which was possibly converted into a leprosarium . Justin bequeathed an annual stipend of 443 nomismata to the orphanage and made its possessions inalienable . It was probably then that the capital 's orphanotrophos began to be appointed by the emperors . As a result , while in the provinces , the post of orphanotrophos continued to be occupied by clergymen , in the capital , it soon became a formal office and was held by members of the secular administrative hierarchy .
In the 9th – 11th centuries , the orphanotrophos ' role seems to have been limited to the imperial orphanage in the capital , while the provincial charitable foundations were under the supervision of two other officials , the chartoularios tou sakelliou and the megas kourator . The orphanotrophos was responsible for his wards and steward of their fortune until the age of 20 , unless they married earlier ; he was forbidden from selling his wards ' possessions unless by special authorisation ; and in case of maladministration was answerable to the Eparch of the City . According to the 10th @-@ century De ceremoniis , the orphanotrophos had the following subordinate officials :
the secretaries of the house ( χαρτουλάριοι τοῦ οἴκου , chartoularioi tou oikou ) , probably administering the new orphanage founded by Justin II and Sophia
the secretaries of the saint ( χαρτουλάριοι τοῦ ὁσίου , chartoularioi tou hosiou ) , probably in charge of the original orphanage founded by Zotikos
a treasurer ( ἀρκάριος , arkarios ) , apparently in common for both establishments
a number of curators ( κουράτωρες , kouratores ) of unspecified function , perhaps administering affiliated institutions
In the Taktikon Uspensky of ca . 843 , the orphanotrophos holds the exalted rank of patrikios and comes 37th in precedence , immediately after the chartoularios tou vestiariou , while in the Kletorologion of 899 he comes in 56th place among the dignities conferred by decree , after the epi ton deeseon . The De ceremoniis describes the orphanotrophos ' role in certain imperial ceremonies , often along with his wards , who were led to the Emperor 's presence , sung chants and received gifts from him . The court ranks conferred to the orphanotrophoi in the 9th – 11th centuries were those of anthypatos , patrikios and protospatharios ; this was restricted to the secular holders of the office , however , since as a rule , ecclesiastics did not hold a court rank . Several holders of the office , however , combined it with other secular administrative offices . Most famously , the eunuch John the Orphanotrophos rose to become the virtual regent of the Empire in the late reign of Romanos III Argyros ( r . 1028 – 34 ) , before raising his brother Michael IV ( r . 1034 – 41 ) and nephew Michael V ( r . 1041 – 42 ) to the throne . John was named orphanotrophos already under Romanos III , and after becoming a monk soon after , he divested himself of his other secular titles and maintained only the former , by which he is known .
The imperial orphanage was restored after being damaged by earthquakes in the late reign of Romanos III Argyros , but had once more fallen into disrepair by the time of Alexios I Komnenos ( r . 1081 – 1118 ) , whose manifold charitable activities included its restoration and the foundation of a veritable township of charitable institutions around it for the blind , lamed and crippled , or elderly . Alexios endowed the institution with considerable revenue , and founded a school where the orphans could receive a free tuition . Alexios ' son and successor , John II Komnenos ( r . 1118 – 43 ) , enlarged it further . During the period of the Latin Empire , its fate is unknown , but it is likely that like most Byzantine public buildings it fell into disrepair . As part of his wide @-@ scale reconstruction of the city following its reconquest in 1261 , Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos ( r . 1259 – 82 ) erected a school " on the grounds of the old orphanotropheion " , likely indicating that it had ceased to function for some time by then .
Despite the dissolution of the imperial orphanage , the office of the orphanotrophos survived into the Palaiologan period in its fiscal capacity . As early as the Kletorologion , the orphanotrophos was classed among the fiscal secretaries , the sekretikoi ( occupying the 11th place among them ) , and he apparently succeeded an earlier fiscal official , the " kourator of the Mangana " , in his functions . In the early 14th century , Manuel Philes still calls him " the treasurer of imperial means " , but the mid @-@ 14th century Book of Offices of pseudo @-@ Kodinos records that the office , although still occupying the 56th place in the palace hierarchy , no longer had a particular function . According to Kodinos , his court dress consisted of a long silk kabbadion , and a domed skaranikon hat covered in velvet and topped by a small red tassel .
= = List of known orphanotrophoi = =
A number of seals of otherwise unidentified holders of the office have also survived . One records a Datos , " orphanotrophos and vestarches " , while the others cannot be certainly dated . Two seals also survive of subordinate officials , one of the deacon Michael Tetrapolites , clerk and functionary of the orphanage , and another , dated to the 13th century , of Niketas , Bishop of Ionopolis and chartoularios of the mega orphanotropheion ( " great orphanage " ) .
= The Temple at Thatch =
The Temple at Thatch was an unpublished novel by the British author Evelyn Waugh , his first adult attempt at full @-@ length fiction . He began writing it in 1924 at the end of his final year as an undergraduate at Hertford College , Oxford , and continued to work on it intermittently in the following 12 months . After his friend Harold Acton commented unfavourably on the draft in June 1925 , Waugh burned the manuscript . In a fit of despondency from this and other personal disappointments he began a suicide attempt before experiencing what he termed " a sharp return to good sense " .
In the absence of a manuscript or printed text , most information on the novel 's subject comes from Waugh 's diary entries and later reminiscences . The story was evidently semi @-@ autobiographical , based on Waugh 's Oxford experiences . The protagonist was an undergraduate and the work 's main themes were madness and black magic . Some of the novel 's ideas may have been incorporated into Waugh 's first commercially published work of fiction , his 1925 short story " The Balance " , which includes several references to a country house called " Thatch " and is partly structured as a film script , as apparently was the lost novel . " The Balance " contains characters , perhaps carried over from The Temple at Thatch , who appear by name in Waugh 's later fiction .
Acton 's severe judgement did not deter Waugh from his intention to be a writer , but it affected his belief that he could succeed as a novelist . For a time he turned his attention away from fiction , but with the gradual recovery of his self @-@ confidence he was able to complete his first novel , Decline and Fall , which was published with great success in 1928 .
= = Background = =
Evelyn Waugh 's literary pedigree was strong . His father , the publisher Arthur Waugh ( 1866 – 1943 ) , was a respected literary critic for the Daily Telegraph ; his elder brother Alec ( 1899 – 1981 ) was a successful novelist whose first book The Loom of Youth became a controversial best seller in 1917 . Evelyn wrote his first extant story " The Curse of the Horse Race " in 1910 , when he was seven years old . In the years before the First World War he helped to edit and produce a handwritten publication called The Pistol Troop Magazine , and also wrote poems . Later , as a schoolboy at Lancing College , he wrote a parody of Katherine Mansfield 's style , entitled " The Twilight of Language " . He also tried to write a novel , but soon gave this up to concentrate on a school @-@ themed play , Conversion , which was performed before the school in the summer of 1921 .
At Hertford College , Oxford , where Waugh arrived in January 1922 to study history , he became part of a circle that included a number of future writers and critics of eminence — Harold Acton , Christopher Hollis , Anthony Powell and Cyril Connolly , among others . He also formed close personal friendships with aristocratic and near @-@ aristocratic contemporaries such as Hugh Lygon and Alastair Graham , either of whom may have been models for Sebastian Flyte in Waugh 's later novel Brideshead Revisited . From such companions Waugh acquired the fascination with the aristocracy and country houses that would embellish much of his fiction . At Oxford Waugh did little work and dedicated himself largely to social pleasures : " The record of my life there is essentially a catalogue of friendships " . However , he developed a reputation as a skilful graphic artist , and contributed articles , reviews and short stories to both the main university magazines , The Isis and The Cherwell . One of the Isis stories , " Unacademic Exercise : A Nature Story " , describes the performance of a magical ceremony by which an undergraduate is transformed by his fellows into a werewolf . Waugh 's interest in the occult is further demonstrated by his involvement , in the summer of 1924 , in an amateur film entitled 666 , in which he certainly appeared and which he may have written . He appears to have been in a state of some mental confusion or turmoil ; the writer Simon Whitechapel cites a letter from Waugh to a friend , written at this time : " I have been living very intensely the last three weeks . For the past fortnight I have been nearly insane . I am a little saner now . " However , most scholars take this as a referring to Waugh 's homosexuality rather than black magic .
= = Composition = =
The earliest record of Waugh 's intention to attempt a novel appears in a letter dated May 1924 , to his schoolfriend Dudley Carew . Waugh writes : " Quite soon I am going to write a little book . It is going to be called The Temple at Thatch and will be all about magic and madness " . This writing project may have been a reaction to Waugh 's immediate circumstances ; he was in the last weeks of his Oxford career , contemplating failure in his examinations and irritated by the fact that most of his contemporaries appeared to be on the verge of brilliant careers . On 22 June 1924 he spent time working out the plot , a continuation of the supernatural theme explored in " Unacademic Exercise " . The basic premise was an undergraduate inheriting a country house of which nothing was left except an 18th @-@ century folly , where he set up house and practised black magic .
Waugh 's diary indicates that he began writing the story on 21 July , when he completed a dozen pages of the first chapter ; he thought it was " quite good " . He appears to have done no more work on the project until early September , when he confides to his diary that it is " in serious danger of becoming dull " , and expresses doubts that it will ever be finished . However , Waugh apparently found fresh inspiration after reading A Cypress Grove , an essay by the 17th @-@ century Scots poet William Drummond of Hawthornden , and considered retitling his story The Fabulous Paladins after a passage in the essay .
The autumn of 1924 was spent largely in the pursuit of pleasure until , shortly before Christmas , the pressing need to earn money led Waugh to apply for teaching jobs in private schools . His diary entry for 17 December 1924 records : " Still writing out letters in praise of myself to obscure private schools , and still attempting to rewrite The Temple " . He eventually secured a job as assistant master at Arnold House Preparatory School in Denbighshire , North Wales , at a salary of £ 160 a year , and left London on 22 January to take up his post , carrying with him the manuscript of The Temple .
During his first term at Arnold House Waugh found few opportunities to continue his writing . He was tired by the end of the day , his interest in The Temple flagged , and from time to time his attention wandered to other subjects ; he contemplated a book on Silenus , but he admitted that it " may or may not ... be written " . After the Easter holidays he felt more positively about The Temple : " I am making the first chapter a cinema film , and have been writing furiously ever since . I honestly think that it is going to be rather good " . He sometimes worked on the book during classes , telling any boys who dared to ask what he was doing that he was writing a history of the Eskimos . By June he felt confident enough to send the first few chapters to his Oxford friend Harold Acton , " asking for criticism and hoping for praise " . Earlier that year Waugh had commented warmly on Acton 's book of poems , An Indian Ass , " which brought back memories of a life [ at Oxford ] infinitely remote " .
= = Rejection = =
While waiting for Acton 's reply , Waugh heard that his brother Alec had arranged a job for him based in Pisa , Italy , as secretary to the Scottish writer Charles Kenneth Scott Moncrieff who was working on the first English translation of Marcel Proust 's novel sequence À la recherche du temps perdu . Waugh promptly resigned his position at Arnold House , in anticipation of " a year abroad drinking Chianti under olive trees . " Then came Acton 's " polite but chilling " response to The Temple at Thatch . This letter has not survived ; its wording was recalled by Waugh 40 years later , in his biography A Little Learning . Acton wrote that the story was " too English for my exotic taste ... too much nid @-@ nodding over port . " He recommended , facetiously , that the book be printed " in a few elegant copies for the friends who love you " , and gave a list of the least elegant of their mutual acquaintances . Many years later Acton wrote of the story : " It was an airy Firbankian trifle , totally unworthy of Evelyn , and I brutally told him so . It was a misfired jeu d 'esprit .
Waugh did not query his friend 's judgement , but took his manuscript to the school 's furnaces and unceremoniously burnt it . Immediately afterwards he received the news that the job with Scott Moncrieff had fallen through . The double blow affected Waugh severely ; he wrote in his diary in July : " The phrase ' the end of the tether ' besets me with unshakeable persistence " . In his biography Waugh writes : " I went down alone to the beach with my thoughts full of death . I took off my clothes and began swimming out to sea . Did I really intend to drown myself ? That was certainly in my mind " . He left a note with his clothes , a quotation from Euripides about the sea washing away all human ills . A short way out , after being stung by jellyfish , he abandoned the attempt , turned round and swam back to the shore . He did not , however , withdraw his resignation from the school , returning instead to London .
= = " The Balance " = =
Although he had destroyed his novel , Waugh still intended to be a writer , and in the late summer of 1925 completed a short story , called " The Balance " . This became his first commercially published work when Chapman and Hall , where his father was managing director , included it in a short stories collection the following year . " The Balance " has no magical themes , but in other respects has clear references to The Temple at Thatch . Both works have Oxford settings , and the short story is written in the film script format that Waugh devised for the first chapter of the novel . There are several references in " The Balance " to a country house called " Thatch " , though this is a fully functioning establishment in the manner of Brideshead rather than a ruined folly . Imogen Quest , the protagonist Adam 's girlfriend , lives at Thatch ; a watercolour of the house is displayed in Adam 's undergraduate 's rooms ; the end of the story describes a house party at Thatch , during which the guests gossip maliciously about Adam . The names " Imogen Quest " and " Adam " were used by Waugh several years later in his novel Vile Bodies , leading to speculation as to whether these names , like that of the house , originated in The Temple at Thatch .
= = Afterwards = =
Acton 's dismissal of The Temple at Thatch had made Waugh nervous of his potential as an imaginative writer — he deferred to Acton 's judgement on all literary issues — and he did not for the time being attempt to write another novel . After " The Balance " he wrote a humorous article , " Noah , or the Future of Intoxication " , which was first accepted and then rejected by the publishers Kegan Paul . However , a short story called " A House of Gentle Folks " , was published in The New Decameron : The Fifth Day , edited by Hugh Chesterman ( Oxford : Basil . Blackwell , 1927 ) . Thereafter , for a time , Waugh devoted himself to non @-@ fictional work . An essay on the Pre @-@ Raphaelites was published in a limited edition by Waugh 's friend Alastair Graham ; this led to the production of a full @-@ length book , Rossetti , His Life and Works , published in 1928 .
The desire to write fiction persisted , however , and in the autumn of 1927 Waugh began a comic novel which he entitled Picaresque : or the Making of an Englishman . The first pages were read to another friend , the future novelist Anthony Powell , who found them very amusing , and was surprised when Waugh told him , just before Christmas , that the manuscript had been burned . This was not in fact the case ; Waugh had merely put the work aside . Early in 1928 he wrote to Harold Acton , asking whether or not he should finish it . On this occasion Acton was full of praise ; Waugh resumed work , and completed the novel by April 1928 . It was published later that year under a new title , Decline and Fall . According to his recent biographer Paula Byrne , Waugh had " found his vocation as a writer , and over the next few years his career would rise spectacularly . " The Temple of Thatch was quickly forgotten , and as Whitechapel points out , has failed to arouse much subsequent interest from scholars . Whitechapel , however , considers it a loss to literature , and adds : " Whether or not it matched the quality of his second novel , Decline and Fall , if it were still extant it could not fail
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to be of interest to both scholars and general readers . "
= Cyril Stanley Smith =
Cyril Stanley Smith ( 4 October 1903 – 25 August 1992 ) was a British metallurgist and historian of science . He is most famous for his work on the Manhattan Project where he was responsible for the production of fissionable metals . A graduate of the University of Birmingham and Massachusetts Institute of Technology ( MIT ) , Smith worked for many years as a research metallurgist at the American Brass Company . During World War II he worked in the Chemical @-@ Metallurgical Division of the Los Alamos Laboratory , where he purified , cast and shaped uranium @-@ 235 and plutonium , a metal hitherto available only in microgram amounts , and whose properties were largely unknown . After the war he served on the Atomic Energy Commission 's influential General Advisory Committee , and the President 's Science Advisory Committee .
Smith founded the Institute for the Study of Metals at the University of Chicago , the first interdisciplinary academic organization devoted to the study of metals in the United States . He studied the details of faults and grain boundaries in metals , and developed theoretical models of them . In 1961 , he moved to MIT as an Institute Professor with appointments in both the Departments of Humanities and Metallurgy . He applied the techniques of metallurgy to the study of the production methods used to create artefacts such as samurai swords .
= = Early life = =
Smith was born in Birmingham , England , on 4 October 1903 , the third of four children of Joseph Seymour Smith , a commercial traveller for Camp Coffee , and his wife , Frances , née Norton . He was educated at Bishop Vesey 's Grammar School in Sutton Coldfield . He read metallurgy at the University of Birmingham , having not met the requirements in mathematics to study his first choice , which was physics , and was awarded a second @-@ class BSc in 1924 .
That year Smith entered the Massachusetts Institute of Technology ( MIT ) , where he earned a ScD in 1926 . He was a research associate at MIT from 1926 to 1927 , then left to take up a position as a research metallurgist at the American Brass Company . His research there was mainly involved with the electrical , thermal , and mechanical and magnetic properties of copper alloys . He published numerous papers , and was awarded 20 patents .
He married Alice Marchant Kimball , a student of English social history at Yale University , from which she earned a PhD in 1936 , on 16 March 1931 . Of the marriage , Alice 's sister remarked that : " If he didn 't go to Oxford or Cambridge , isn 't Church of England , and doesn 't like sports , you might as well marry an American " . He became a naturalized American citizen in 1939 . His wife sparked an interest in history , a subject that he had disliked at school . He acquired old texts , and in 1945 he produced a translation of a classic metallurgical text , Vannocio Biringuccio 's Pirotechnia ( 1540 ) .
= = World War II = =
In 1942 , during World War II , he was called into service at the War Metallurgy Committee in Washington , D.C. In April 1943 he went to work on the Manhattan Project , joining the Chemical @-@ Metallurgical Division at the Los Alamos Laboratory as the head of its Metallurgy Group . When the laboratory was reorganized in April 1944 , he became the Associate Division Leader in charge of metallurgy . His first task was recruiting metallurgists , who were in great demand by the war effort . He also had to arrange for the transport of their metallurgical equipment to Los Alamos under wartime conditions .
Smith 's metallurgists found ways of fabricating boron , producing beryllium bricks , and heat @-@ treating steel . They also had to work with uranium . Frank Spedding had developed a large @-@ scale process for producing pure uranium metal at the Ames Laboratory which was fine for producing tons of feed for the nuclear reactors , but enriched uranium could not be handled in this way , as it would form a critical mass . Smith was initially asked to produce cubes of uranium hydride , which he did , but a uranium hydride bomb was found to be inefficient , and the idea was set aside for the duration , although further work was carried out after the war . By July 1944 , they were producing pure uranium metal in 200g amounts with a newly devised process .
But by far the biggest challenge for Smith and his group was plutonium , a metal hitherto available only in microgram amounts , and whose properties were largely unknown . It was initially assumed that plutonium would have properties similar to that of uranium , but this assumption turned out to be invalid . Plutonium proved to be " the most complicated metal known to man " . There were found to be six allotropes of plutonium , more than any other metal , and its melting point turned out to be hundred of degrees lower than uranium . The metallurgists found that at around 125 ° C , plutonium expanded in volume by 20 percent , which is unusual .
Plutonium was delivered to Los Alamos in the form of what was found to be a mixture of plutonium trifluoride ( PuF3 ) and plutonium tetrafluoride ( PuF4 ) . Work with plutonium was carried out in gloveboxes for safety reasons . The metallurgists figured out how to purify the plutonium , and found that heating it to 250 ° allowed them to work it in the malleable γ phase . It was also found that alloying it with 3 percent gallium would stabilize it in the δ phase . When plutonium at last began to arrive in quantity from the Hanford Site in February 1945 , they were ready for production . In a race against the clock , the metallurgists produced plutonium spheres for the Trinity nuclear test by July 23 , 1945 .
Smith was awarded the Medal for Merit by President Harry S. Truman for these activities in 1946 .
= = University of Chicago = =
After the war Smith founded the Institute for the Study of Metals at the University of Chicago , the first interdisciplinary academic organization devoted to the study of metals in the United States . He considered it " a natural outgrowth of the close association of metallurgists with chemists and physicists on the Manhattan Project . " He developed methods for deriving the three @-@ dimensional shapes of the crystalline structures of metals from the two @-@ dimensional microscope images of the grains of the metals . He also studied the propagation of induced phase changes in metals . He was fascinated by the details of faults and grain boundaries in metals , and developed theoretical models of them . Perhaps his most influential paper was on " Grain Shapes and Other Metallurgical Applications of Topology " ( 1952 ) , an explanation of metallic microstructure . He was awarded a Guggenheim Fellowship in 1955 to study the History of Science and Technology .
From 12 December 1946 to 10 January 1952 , Smith served on the influential General Advisory Committee of the Atomic Energy Commission ( AEC ) . Chaired by Robert Oppenheimer , the wartime director of the Los Alamos Laboratory , the General Advisory Committee provided policy as well as technical advice to the commissioners . One of Smith 's first papers for the commission recommended that it concentrate on the development of fast breeder reactors and high flux reactors . A 1948 visit to England to discuss plutonium metallurgy with British scientists nearly escalated into an international incident , as Senator Bourke Hickenlooper and Secretary of Defense James Forrestal feared that he would give atomic secrets away to the British . Smith did no such thing ; but AEC Commissioner Sumner Pike faced severe criticism for authorizing Smith 's visit . In common with other members of the General Advisory Committee , Smith opposed the development of the hydrogen bomb on technical and moral grounds . He also served on the National Academy of Sciences ' Committee on Science , Engineering , and Public Policy and the President 's Science Advisory Committee .
= = Massachusetts Institute of Technology = =
In 1961 , Smith moved to MIT as an Institute Professor with appointments in both the Departments of Humanities and Metallurgy . His focus was to transplant the techniques of metallurgy into the study of the production methods used to create artefacts discovered by archaeologists such as samurai swords . In his role of teaching the history of science , he argued that important advances were often the result of curiosity rather than the pursuit of defined goals . He was interested in the scientific aspects of fine arts , and published several works linking the arts with the sciences . He lectured about this at the Smithsonian Institution 's Freer Gallery of Art and the Arthur M. Sackler Gallery in Washington , DC .
Smith received numerous awards , including the Franklin Institute 's Francis J. Clamer Medal in 1952 , and the History of Science Society 's Pfizer Medal and American Society for Metals ' Gold Medal in 1961 . He was awarded the Society for the History of Technology 's Leonard da Vinci Medal in 1966 , and the Institute of Metals ' Platinum Medal in 1970 . In 1991 he received the American Institute of Physics ' Andrew Gemant Award for " pioneering the use of solid state physics in the study of ancient art and artefacts to reconstruct their cultural , historical and technological significance . " He was also a member of the editorial board of the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists .
On retirement from MIT in 1969 , Smith became a professor emeritus of the History of Science and Technology , professor emeritus of Metallurgy and Humanities and Institute Professor Emeritus , an unusual title " reserved for only a few whose work transcends the boundaries of traditional departments and disciplines " . He died of colonic cancer in his Cambridge , Massachusetts home on 25 August 1992 . He was survived by his wife of sixty years , Alice Kimball Smith , his two children , Anne Smith Denman , chair of the Department of Anthropology at Central Washington University , and Stuart Marchant Smith , a marine geologist at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography , and a sister , Mary Smith . His papers are in the Niels Bohr Library in College Park , Maryland . His collection of antiquarian metallurgical texts was left to the Burndy Library at the Dibner Institute for the History of Science and Technology .
= = Selected works = =
Smith , Cyril S. ( 1952 ) . " Grain Shapes and Other Metallurgical Applications of Topology " . Metal interfaces : a seminar on metal interfaces held during the Thirty @-@ third National Metal Congress and Exposition , Detroit , October 13 to 19 , 1951 ; sponsored by the American Society for Metals . Cleveland : American Society for Metals. pp. 65 – 108 .
Smith , Cyril S. ( 1968 ) . Sources for the History of the Science of Steel 1532 – 1786 . Cambridge , Massachusetts : Society for the History of Technology .
Smith , Cyril S. ( 1980 ) . From Art to Science . Cambridge , Massachusetts : MIT Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 262 @-@ 19181 @-@ 4 .
Smith , Cyril S. ( 1981 ) . A Search for Structure : Selected Essays on Science , Art and History . Cambridge , Massachusetts : MIT Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 262 @-@ 19191 @-@ 1 .
Smith , Cyril S. ( 1988 ) . History of Metallography : The Development of Ideas on the Structure of Metals Before 1890 . Cambridge , Massachusetts : MIT Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 262 @-@ 69120 @-@ 5 .
Vannocio Biringuccio . The Pirotechnia of Vanoccio Biringuccio ( in Italian ) . Dover . ISBN 0 @-@ 486 @-@ 26134 @-@ 4 . 20th Century translation by Cyril Stanley Smith and Martha Teach Gnudi
= Mana ( series ) =
The Mana series , known in Japan as Seiken Densetsu ( 聖剣伝説 , lit . " Legend of the Sacred Sword " ) , is a medieval @-@ fantasy action role @-@ playing game series from Square ( now Square Enix ) , created by Koichi Ishii . The series began as a handheld side story to Square 's flagship franchise Final Fantasy , though the Final Fantasy @-@ inspired elements were subsequently dropped starting with the second installment , Secret of Mana , as the games became their own series . It has since grown to include games of various genres within the fictional world of Mana , with recurring stories involving a world tree , its associated holy sword , and the fight against forces that would steal their power . Several character designs , creatures , and musical themes reappear frequently .
Four games were released in the series between 1991 and 1999 : the original Seiken Densetsu ( 1991 ) — Final Fantasy Adventure in North America and Mystic Quest in Europe — for the Game Boy , Secret of Mana ( 1993 ) for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System , Seiken Densetsu 3 ( 1995 ) for the Super Famicom , and Legend of Mana for the PlayStation , though Seiken Densetsu 3 was not released outside Japan . A remake of the original game , Sword of Mana ( 2003 ) , was published for the Game Boy Advance . All of the original games were action role @-@ playing games , though they included a wide variety of gameplay mechanics , and the stories of the games were connected only thematically . In 2006 and 2007 , four more games were released as part of the World of Mana subseries , an attempt by Square Enix to release games in a series over a variety of genres and consoles . These were Children of Mana ( 2006 ) , an action @-@ oriented dungeon crawler game for the Nintendo DS ; Dawn of Mana ( 2006 ) , a 3D action @-@ adventure game for the PlayStation 2 ; Friends of Mana ( 2006 ) , a Japan @-@ only multiplayer role @-@ playing game for mobile phones ; and Heroes of Mana ( 2007 ) , a real @-@ time strategy game for the DS . Children was developed by Nex Entertainment and Heroes by Brownie Brown , founded by several developers of Legends , though Ishii oversaw development of all four games . Three more games have been released since the World of Mana subseries ended : Circle of Mana ( 2013 ) , a Japan @-@ only card battle game for the GREE mobile platform , Rise of Mana ( 2014 ) , a Japan @-@ only free @-@ to @-@ play action role @-@ playing game for iOS , Android , and PlayStation Vita , and Adventures of Mana ( 2016 ) , a 3D remake of Final Fantasy Adventure for the PlayStation Vita , iOS , and Android . In addition to the games , four manga series and one novelization have been released in the Mana franchise .
The Mana series reception has been very uneven , with early games rated higher by critics than more recent titles . Secret of Mana and Seiken Densetsu 3 have been regarded as some of the best 2D action role @-@ playing games ever made , and their music has inspired several orchestral concerts , while the games from the World of Mana series have been rated considerably lower . As of March 2011 , Mana series titles have sold over 6 million units .
= = Development = =
= = = History = = =
Square trademarked Seiken Densetsu in 1989 , intending to use it for a game project subtitled The Emergence of Excalibur , and led by Kazuhiko Aoki for the Famicom Disk System . According to early advertisements , the game would consist of an unprecedented five floppy disks , making it one of the largest titles developed for the Famicom up until that point . Although Square solicited pre @-@ orders for the game , Kaoru Moriyama , a former Square employee , affirms that management canceled the ambitious project before it advanced beyond the early planning stages . In October 1987 , customers who had placed orders were sent a letter informing them of the cancellation and had their purchases refunded . The letter also suggested to consider placing an order on another upcoming Square role @-@ playing game in a similar vein : Final Fantasy .
In 1991 , Square reused the Seiken Densetsu trademark for an unrelated Game Boy action role @-@ playing game directed by Koichi Ishii . Originally developed under the title Gemma Knights , the game was renamed Seiken Densetsu : Final Fantasy Gaiden ( published in North America as Final Fantasy Adventure and in Europe as Mystic Quest ) . Beginning with the sequel , Secret of Mana , Seiken Densetsu was subsequently " spun off " into its own series of action role @-@ playing games distinct from Final Fantasy , named the Mana series outside Japan . Four titles in the series were released between 1993 and 2003 . Secret of Mana was originally intended to be a launch title for the Super NES CD @-@ ROM Adapter , but when the add @-@ on was cancelled it was cut down into a standard Super NES cartridge , with many of the cut ideas appearing in other Square titles . It was followed in 1995 by the Japan @-@ only Seiken Densetsu 3 ; the game was originally planned to be released in English as Secret of Mana 2 , but technical issues and localization costs prohibited the release . The final new game in the series ' initial run was the 1999 Legend of Mana , developed for the PlayStation . Legend was a 2D game like its predecessors , despite the PlayStation 's 3D focus , because the console could not handle the full 3D world Ishii envisioned where one could interact with natural shaped objects . 2003 saw the release of Sword of Mana , a remake of the original Seiken Densetsu for the Game Boy Advance . The remake was outsourced to Brownie Brown , which was composed of many of the Square employees who had worked on Legend .
In 2003 , Square , now Square Enix , began a drive to begin developing " polymorphic content " , a marketing and sales strategy to " [ provide ] well @-@ known properties on several platforms , allowing exposure of the products to as wide an audience as possible " . The first of these was the Compilation of Final Fantasy VII , and Square Enix intended to have campaigns for other series whereby multiple games in different genres would be developed simultaneously . Although no such project for the Mana series had been announced by this point , it was announced in late 2004 that an unnamed Mana game was in development for the upcoming Nintendo DS platform . In early 2005 , Square Enix announced a " World of Mana " project , the application of this " polymorphic content " idea to the Mana franchise , which would include several games across different genres and platforms . These games , as with the rest of the series , would not be direct sequels or prequels to one another , even if appearing so at first glance , but would instead share thematic connections . The first release in this project and the sixth release in the Mana series was announced in September 2005 as Children of Mana for the DS . Four games were released in 2006 and 2007 in the World of Mana subseries : Children of Mana , Dawn of Mana , and Friends of Mana in 2006 , and Heroes of Mana in 2007 .
Each game in the World of Mana series was different , both from each other and from the previous games in the series . Children is an action @-@ oriented dungeon crawler game for the DS , developed by Nex Entertainment ; Dawn is a 3D action @-@ adventure game for the PlayStation 2 ; Friends is a Japan @-@ only multiplayer role @-@ playing game for mobile phones ; and Heroes is a real @-@ time strategy game for the DS , developed by Brownie Brown . While Ishii was the designer for all four games , he served as the director and producer for Dawn , which was considered the main game of the four and was released as Seiken Densetsu 4 in Japan . The theme of the subseries for Ishii , especially Dawn , was about exploring how to add " the feeling of touch " to a game . He had held off on designing new Mana games after Legend was unable to meet his desires , until he felt that technology had improved enough to let him create what he envisioned . A fifth game for the subseries was considered for the Wii in 2006 , but did not enter development . In April 2007 , a month after the release of the final game of the World of Mana , Ishii left Square Enix to lead his own development company , named Grezzo .
No further games were made in the Mana series until 2013 , when Square Enix released Circle of Mana , a Japan @-@ only card battle game for the GREE mobile platform . It was followed in 2014 by Rise of Mana , a Japan @-@ only free @-@ to @-@ play action role @-@ playing game for iOS , Android , and PlayStation Vita , and in 2016 by Adventures of Mana , a 3D remake of Final Fantasy Adventure for the PlayStation Vita , iOS , and Android .
= = = Creation and design = = =
The Mana series is the result of Koichi Ishii 's desire to create a fictional world . In Ishii 's opinion , Mana is not a series of video games , but rather a world which is illustrated by and can be explored through video games . When working on the series , Koichi Ishii draws inspiration from abstract images from his memories of childhood , as well as movies and fantasy books that captivated him as a child . Ishii takes care to avoid set conventions , and his influences are correspondingly very wide and non @-@ specific . Nonetheless , among his literary influences , he acknowledges Tove Jansson 's Moomin , Lewis Carroll 's Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland , and J. R. R. Tolkien 's Lord of the Rings .
While some titles of the World of Mana series do share direct connections with other installments , the games of the series have few concrete links . There is no overall explicit in @-@ game chronological order . Further , according to Koichi Ishii in 2006 the games do not take place in exactly the same world , and characters or elements who appear in different titles are best considered alternate versions of each other . Instead , the connections between each title are more abstract than story @-@ based , linked only on the karmic level . Contradicting this assertion , Ishii has also said in an interview that Children is set ten years after Dawn , while Heroes is set one generation prior to Seiken Densetsu 3 .
= = Games = =
= = Common elements = =
A common element of the series is its seamless , real @-@ time battle system . The system was developed by Koichi Ishii and improved upon by Hiromichi Tanaka , out of a desire to create a system different from the one featured in the first few Final Fantasy titles . While action @-@ based , the Mana battle system is intended to be playable even by newcomers as well as veterans . The system is coupled with the distinctive hierarchical " Ring Command " menu system , featured prominently in Secret of Mana and Seiken Densetsu 3 , and to a lesser extent in later installments . Each ring is a set of icons with a textual infobox explanation which , upon selection , allow the player to use an item , cast a spell , look up in @-@ game statistics , or change the game 's settings . Navigation within a menu is achieved by rotating the ring through the cursor left or right , while switching to a different menu is achieved by pressing the up or down buttons . Although not part of the series , the spin @-@ off Secret of Evermore , developed by the North American Square Soft , was also built upon the " Ring Command " system .
The Mana series features several recurring characters and beings , including Final Fantasy creatures such as Chocobos in Final Fantasy Adventure and Legend of Mana , as well as Moogles in Secret of Mana and as a status ailment in Seiken Densetsu 3 and Sword of Mana . Watts is a dwarf blacksmith wearing a horned helmet who upgrades the player 's weaponry . Usually , an anthropomorphic cat merchant is found outside of town areas and allows a player to save the game and buy supplies at high prices . This role is played by Neko in Secret of Mana , and Niccolo in Legend of Mana and Sword of Mana . In the Japanese games these merchants share the name Nikita .
The Mana Tree and the Mana Sword , called Excalibur in Final Fantasy Adventure 's English version , are recurring plot devices which have been featured in every game of the series . The mystical Mana Tree is a source of magic which sustains the balance and nature of the series ' world . The Mana Sword is typically used to restore this balance when it becomes lost in the games . Final Fantasy Adventure explains that if the Mana Tree dies , a member of the Mana Family will become the " seed " of a new Tree . A sprout of the Mana Tree is called a Gemma , while protectors of the Tree , who wield the Mana Sword , are called Gemma Knights . In Seiken Densetsu 3 , a Goddess is said to have turned into the Mana Tree after creating the world with the Mana Sword . The Mana Tree is destroyed near the game ending in Final Fantasy Adventure and Secret of Mana , but a character becomes the new Mana Tree in the former game .
Elemental Spirits , also called Mana Spirits , are beings who govern the magic elements of the series ' world , and are at the core of the games ' magic system as they are used to cast magic spells . Eight types of spirits have appeared in the series since Secret of Mana , and each embodies a different element . Their names are homonyms of mythological beings or phenomena . In Secret of Mana and Seiken Densetsu 3 , usage of their power is enabled upon the main characters ' meeting with them . In Legend of Mana , the spirits serve as factors in the Land Creation System . In Legend of Mana and Sword of Mana , multiple spirits of the same elemental type appear . In terms of storyline , in Seiken Densetsu 3 and Heroes of Mana , the spirits are charged to protect the Mana Stones in which the Mana Goddess sealed eight elemental benevodons ( God @-@ Beasts in the fan @-@ translation of SD3 ) . In Dawn of Mana 's North American version , each spirit speaks with a particular European accent , such as French or Scottish .
Rabites , known as Rabi ( ラビ ) in the Japanese versions of the games , are cute , fictional , rabbit @-@ like creatures appearing as a common enemy in the series since its beginning . The Rabite has become a sort of mascot for the Mana series , much the same way as the Chocobo represents Final Fantasy , and is one of its most recognizable icons . The Rabite resembles a bodiless , one @-@ toothed rabbit with large ears that curve upward and form a point at the tip , and a round , puffy pink tail that moves by hopping along the ground . It is most commonly yellow colored , but also pink , lilac , black , and white , and are variously minor enemies , " superboss " characters and even friendly units and pets . Rabites are also mentioned in Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 with an accessory comically named " Rabite 's Foot " , which increases a character 's luck statistic ; as well as Final Fantasy Tactics Advance , where they appear in the description of one of the game 's optional missions as an endangered species due to being poached for good luck charms . Rabites have appeared prevalently in several pieces of Mana merchandise , including plush dolls , cushions , lighters , mousepads , straps , telephone cards , and T @-@ shirts .
Flammie , sometimes spelled Flammy , is the name of a fictional species of flying dragons , as well as the proper name of some its members , featured in several games of the series . A Flammie 's appearance is a mixture of draconian , mammalian , and reptilian features , and its coloring has varied throughout the series . Flammies typically serve as a means of transportation in the game by allowing a player 's characters to ride on a Flammie 's back to different locations in the game 's world . In Secret of Mana and Seiken Densetsu 3 , the Super NES 's Mode 7 graphic capabilities allows the player to control a Flammie from either a " behind the back " third @-@ person or top @-@ down perspective , and fly over the landscape as it scrolls beneath them . In terms of story , the Flammies were created by the Moon Gods , and are part of an endless cycle of destruction and rebirth as the stronger versions of Flammies — known as Mana Beasts , or God Beasts ( 神獣 , Shinjū ) in Japanese — destroy the world and the Mana Sword and Tree restore the world .
= = Music = =
The Mana series has had several different composers . Final Fantasy Adventure was composed by Kenji Ito ; it was his second original score . Ito 's music is mainly inspired by images from the game rather than outside influences . The scores for Secret of Mana and Seiken Densetsu 3 were both composed by Hiroki Kikuta . Despite difficulties in dealing with the hardware limitations , Kikuta tried to express , in the music of Secret of Mana , two " contrasting styles " , namely himself and the game . This was to create an original score which would be neither pop music nor standard game music . Kikuta worked on the music for the two games mostly by himself , spending nearly 24 hours a day in his office , alternating between composing and editing to create an immersive three @-@ dimensional sound . Kikuta considers the score for Secret of Mana his favorite creation . His compositions for Secret of Mana and Seiken Densetsu 3 were partly inspired by natural landscapes . In 1995 , Kikuta released an experimental album of arranged music from the two installments , titled Secret of Mana + , which features one 50 @-@ minute long track .
Legend of Mana 's score was composed by Yoko Shimomura , and of all her compositions , she considers it the one that best expresses herself . Kenji Ito returned to the series with Sword of Mana . He also composed roughly one third of the Children of Mana soundtrack , while the rest was composed by Masaharu Iwata and Takayuki Aihara . Ito was the main composer for Dawn of Mana , assisted by Tsuyoshi Sekito , Masayoshi Soken , and Junya Nakano , as well as main theme composer Ryuichi Sakamoto . In North America , purchasers of Dawn of Mana from participating retailers were offered a sampler disc , titled Breath of Mana , which features a selection of tracks from the game . Shimomura has returned to the series with Heroes of Mana , while also contributing one song to Rise of Mana .
= = Printed adaptations = =
A five @-@ volume manga based on Legend of Mana was drawn by Shiro Amano and published in Japan by Enterbrain between 2000 and 2002 . It features a comedic story about the game 's main character , here named Toto . A German version was published by Egmont Manga & Anime in 2003 . A collection of four @-@ panel comic strips , drawn by various authors and titled Sword of Mana Yonkoma Manga Theatre , was published in Japan by Square Enix on January 16 , 2004 . It included a questionnaire that , if sent back , allowed participants to win illustrations signed by Koichi Ishii and Shinichi Kameoka , as well as special T @-@ shirts . Enterbrain also published a Sword of Mana manga adaptation in Japan on February 25 , 2004 , drawn by a collaboration of authors led by Shiro Amano . Two days later , Square Enix published a two @-@ volume novelization of Sword of Mana in Japan written by Matsui Oohama . An original manga , named Seiken Densetsu : Princess of Mana , was drawn by Satsuki Yoshino and published in the Japanese magazine Gangan Powered on February 22 , 2007 .
= = Reception = =
The Mana series has been mostly well received , though each title has seen varied levels of success . RPGFan called Final Fantasy Adventure one of the best things to happen to the Game Boy , while IGN considered it the best action RPG on the console after The Legend of Zelda : Link 's Awakening . GameSpot referred to Secret of Mana as " one of Square 's masterpieces on the SNES " . The game has appeared on several list of top games , including ranked number 97 on Famitsu 's top 100 games of all time . Seiken Densetsu 3 was called " easily one of the best RPGs to come out of the 16 @-@ bit era " by Nintendo Life . Famitsu rated Legend of Mana at 31 / 40 and Heroes of Mana at 32 / 40 . The NPD Group ranked Legend of Mana as the top seller the week of its release , and in 2006 was re @-@ released as part of the Ultimate Hits series .
Many of the World of Mana titles have not been as critically successful as the original five games in the series , and though the franchise has been praised for their attempts at trying new ways of experiencing the games ' fictional world , there have been various gameplay design flaws that have hindered the later games . 1UP.com commented that despite the game 's excellent presentation and storytelling , Dawn of Mana did not match the level of gameplay of the early Mana games . Prior to the World of Mana games , RPGamer called the series a " treasured favorite " . After the release of Heroes of Mana , they commented that the World of Mana series is " cursed " , and the future of the series looked " bleak " .
The music of the Mana series , especially Secret of Mana , has received wide acclaim and fan enthusiasm . The Secret of Mana soundtrack was one of the first official soundtracks of video games music released in the United States and thus before fully mainstream interest in RPGs . The Secret of Mana 's opening theme , " Angel 's Fear " , was rated at number 7 on IGN 's Top Ten RPG Title tracks , calling it a " magical title song that captures our hearts " . It was also featured in the third Orchestral Game Concert . Secret of Mana is also the number 6 most remixed soundtrack on the popular video game music site OverClocked ReMix , with Seiken Densetsu 3 tied at 18 . The music of the other titles have also been well received . RPGFan called the music to Final Fantasy Adventure " addictive " , despite its low , MIDI @-@ like quality . GameSpy called Children of Mana 's music some of the best Nintendo DS music yet and referred to it as " beautiful " . Game Informer complimented Dawn of Mana 's music , calling it good . IGN referred to Legend of Mana 's music as " beautiful " and stated the background music brought " intensity " , " suspense " , and " subtle nuance " to the game . Other reviewers echoed similar praise with GameSpot calling it " excellently orchestrated " and RPGFan calling the music one of the game 's good points .
The Mana series has sold well overall , and as of March 2011 , series titles have sold over 6 million units . The original Seiken Densetsu sold over 700 @,@ 000 units , and its remake Sword of Mana sold over 277 @,@ 000 copies in Japan . Secret of Mana has shipped over 1 @.@ 83 million copies worldwide , Legend of Mana sold over 400 @,@ 000 units in its first week alone as the highest @-@ selling release that week in Japan. and over 700 @,@ 000 copies in Japan by the end of the year . Children of Mana sold over 281 @,@ 000 copies in Japan , and Dawn of Mana sold over 410 @,@ 000 copies worldwide . Heroes of Mana sold over 178 @,@ 000 copies iworldwide . The PlayStation Vita version of Rise of Mana downloaded over 100 @,@ 000 times .
= Fallen Angel ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Fallen Angel " is the tenth episode of the first season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network on November 19 , 1993 . It was written by Howard Gordon and Alex Gansa , and directed by Larry Shaw . The episode featured the first of three guest appearances by Scott Bellis as Max Fenig , and saw Jerry Hardin reprise his role as Deep Throat . The episode helped explore the series ' overarching mythology . The episode was mostly well received .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) , who work on cases called X @-@ Files , which are linked to the paranormal . When Mulder and Scully investigate a mysterious crash site , they find that the official reports of the incident may be covering up the crash of a UFO . Meanwhile , Mulder meets a ufologist who he believes may be a former abductee .
The episode introduced the UFO fanatic character Max Fenig , who would go on to be a minor recurring character . Fenig would later appear in the fourth season episodes " Tempus Fugit " and " Max " . In addition , Fenig also laid the template for the introduction of The Lone Gunmen in the later first @-@ season episode " E.B.E. "
= = Plot = =
Near Townsend , Wisconsin , a UFO crashes in the woods . When the deputy sheriff arrives on the scene , he is killed by an invisible figure while surrounded by bright white light . As the Air Force monitors the crash , Colonel Calvin Henderson , the military 's UFO reclamations expert , launches an operation to clean up the site .
After consulting with Deep Throat , Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) travels to Townsend and takes photos of the crash site , only to be captured . After being interrogated by Henderson , Mulder is detained alongside an eccentric NICAP member named Max Fenig ( Scott Bellis ) , who was also captured in the woods . The next morning , Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) arrives to retrieve Mulder , telling him that FBI Section Chief Joseph McGrath is threatening to shut down the X @-@ Files because of his behavior . She also claims that the wreckage has been identified as a downed Libyan fighter jet ; Mulder dismisses this explanation . Meanwhile , the invisible occupant of the UFO passes through an electronic fence set up around the crash site , escaping into the outside world .
The agents return to Mulder 's motel room , finding it ransacked by Max . He turns out to be a fan of Mulder 's , having followed NICAP 's research into his work on the X @-@ Files . Max brings the agents to his Airstream trailer , where he shows them audio transmissions from the deputy , as well as a fire crew that arrived at the crash site . Mulder and Scully visit the deputy 's widow , who claims the government won 't release her husband 's body and has threatened her into silence . They also meet a doctor who treated the deputy and the fire crew , revealing that they died of abnormally severe burns ; he claims that he was also threatened . Henderson arrives at the hospital with a group of burned soldiers , who were attacked after they cornered the invisible alien at their base .
Mulder returns to the motel and finds Max inside his trailer , having an apparent epileptic seizure . As Mulder tends to Max , he discovers a mysterious scar behind Max 's ear . Mulder reviews earlier X @-@ Files , discovering similar scars on two reported alien abductees . Scully believes that whatever abduction experience Max had was a schizophrenic delusion , having noticed medication in his trailer . But Mulder believes that Max , despite his interest in UFOs , is completely unaware of his experiences and was guided to Townsend by his abductors on the night of the crash .
The Air Force tracks a larger UFO as it hovers over Townsend . The invisible alien enters Max 's trailer and abducts him . When the agents visit the trailer and find Max missing , an Army radio transmission reveals that he has been transported to a waterfront . They race to save Max as Henderson 's men scour the area searching for him . The alien kills two soldiers who encounter Max , causing him to flee into a warehouse . As Mulder finds Max inside , the building is surrounded by Henderson 's forces . Mulder tries to comfort Max , but is attacked and injured by the alien . Mulder then sees Max floating in a pillar of light before vanishing . When Henderson finds that Max is missing , he orders Mulder arrested .
Back in Washington , both Scully and Mulder report to Section Chief McGrath , who does not believe their claims . McGrath offers an especially harsh reprimand to Mulder , and presents written testimony by Henderson claiming that Max 's body was found in a cargo container . McGrath and his disciplinary board decide to shut down the X @-@ Files and dismiss Mulder from the FBI , but the decision is vetoed by Deep Throat , who feels it would be more dangerous for them to allow Mulder to turn whistleblower than to let him continue his work .
= = Production = =
" Fallen Angel " was written by Howard Gordon and Alex Gansa , and directed by Larry Shaw . The episode foreshadows the closing of the X @-@ Files , which would occur in the season finale of the first season , " The Erlenmeyer Flask " . The UFO fanatic character Max Fenig also laid the template for the introduction of The Lone Gunmen in the later first season episode " E.B.E. " . Scott Bellis would reprise his role as Max in the fourth season episodes " Tempus Fugit " and " Max " , which explained the fate of the character after his disappearance in this episode . Max 's NICAP baseball cap would make a brief appearance in Mulder 's office in " Beyond the Sea " , later in the first season .
The scenes depicting Washington , D.C. in the episode were filmed at Simon Fraser University on Burnaby Mountain in British Columbia . Shooting at this location was made difficult by the confined space available in which to set up the necessary equipment . The invisible alien featured in this episode appears to be inspired by the movie Predator . The alien was deliberately made invisible in order for it to be scarier to the audience , with series creator Chris Carter noting that " what you don 't see is scarier than what you do see " . Casting director Lynne Carrow was proud of Scott Bellis ' performance as Max , calling him in 1995 perhaps her proudest find in casting the show , saying that he " Just knocked our socks off " . Carter also praised the performance of guest star Marshall Bell as Colonel Henderson and was proud that the episode permitted the producers to expand the role of Deep Throat . Actor Brent Stait , who plays Corporal Taylor in the episode , teaches alongside series regular William B. Davis at the William Davis Centre for Actors Study in Vancouver .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Fallen Angel " premiered on the Fox network on November 19 , 1993 , and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC Two on September 24 , 1994 . This episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 5 @.@ 4 , with a nine share , meaning that in the United States , roughly 5 @.@ 4 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and nine percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . It was viewed by 5 @.@ 1 million households . It was , and would thereafter permanently remain , the lowest @-@ rated episode of the series ever broadcast .
The episode was mostly well @-@ received , with a retrospective of the first season in Entertainment Weekly rating it a B + , describing it as " A very cool @-@ looking episode that does the best job so far of illuminating the agents ' position with relation to the government " ; also noting the character of Max Fenig as a precursor to those of The Lone Gunmen . Keith Phipps , writing for The A.V. Club , also rated the episode a B + , calling it " a strong entry " , finding that it served as a " slow reveal " of the series ' themes . Phipps also noted the importance of Max Fenig as a sign of " the human toll exacted by all the dark goings on " in the series , claiming that " without Max we just get Mulder and Scully chasing a mysterious downed object and coming up empty @-@ handed . With Max , we start to realize the stakes for which they 're playing " . Matt Haigh , writing for Den of Geek , reviewed the episode negatively , calling it " a mundane forty minutes " that " really fails to impress " , and noting that the plot follows " more or less the same pattern " , as the series ' previous mythology episodes . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode three stars out of five . Shearman described " Fallen Angel " as having been produced " with style and wit " , feeling that it featured a relatively static plot but was nevertheless entertaining . He found Duchovny 's performance in the episode , and its final scene featuring Deep Throat 's ambiguous motivations , to have been the highlights of an episode otherwise filled with " smoke and mirrors " ; comparing it to the earlier episode " Conduit " in this regard .
= History of Western role @-@ playing video games =
Western role @-@ playing video games are role @-@ playing video games developed in the Western world , including North America and , in more recent years , Europe . They originated on mainframe university computer systems in the 1970s , were later popularized by titles such as Ultima and Wizardry in the early- to mid @-@ 1980s , and continue to be produced for modern home computer and video game console systems . The genre 's " Golden Age " occurred in the mid- to late @-@ 1980s , and its popularity suffered a downturn in the mid @-@ 1990s as developers struggled to keep up with hardware changes and increasing development costs . A later series of isometric role @-@ playing games , published by Interplay Productions and Blizzard Entertainment , was developed over a longer time period and set new standards of production quality .
Computer role @-@ playing games ( CRPGs ) are once again popular . Recent titles , such as BioWare 's Mass Effect series and Bethesda Softworks ' The Elder Scrolls series , have been produced for console systems and have received multi @-@ platform releases , although independently developed games are frequently created as personal computer ( PC ) exclusives . Developers of role @-@ playing games have continuously experimented with various graphical perspectives and styles of play , such as real @-@ time and turn @-@ based time @-@ keeping systems , axonometric and first @-@ person graphical projections , and single @-@ character or multi @-@ character parties . Subgenres include action role @-@ playing games , roguelikes and tactical role @-@ playing games .
= = Early American computer RPGs ( late 1970s – mid @-@ 1980s ) = =
= = = Mainframe computers ( late 1970s – early 1980s ) = = =
The earliest role @-@ playing video games were created in the mid @-@ to @-@ late 1970s , as offshoots of early university mainframe text @-@ based RPGs that were played on PDP @-@ 10 , PLATO and Unix @-@ based systems . These included Dungeon , written in 1975 or 1976 , pedit5 , created in 1975 , and dnd , also from 1975 . These early games were inspired by pen @-@ and @-@ paper role @-@ playing games , particularly Dungeons & Dragons , which was published in 1974 , and J. R. R. Tolkien 's The Lord of the Rings trilogy . Some of the first graphical computer RPGs ( CRPGs ) after pedit5 and dnd included orthanc ( 1978 ) , which was named after Saruman 's tower in Lord of the Rings , avathar ( 1979 ) , later renamed avatar , oubliette ( 1977 ) , named after the French word for " dungeon " , moria ( 1975 ) , dungeons of degorath , baradur , emprise , bnd , sorcery , and dndworld . All of these were developed and became popular on the PLATO system during the late 1970s , in large part due to PLATO 's speed , fast graphics , and large number of players with access to its nationwide network of terminals . PLATO was a mainframe system that supported multiple users and allowed them to play simultaneously , a feature not commonly available to owners of home personal computer systems at the time . These were followed by games on other platforms , such as Temple of Apshai , written in 1979 for the TRS @-@ 80 and followed by two add @-@ ons ; Akalabeth : World of Doom ( 1980 ) , which gave rise to the well @-@ known Ultima series ; Wizardry ( 1981 ) , and Sword of Fargoal ( 1982 ) . Games of this era were also influenced by text adventures such as Colossal Cave Adventure ( 1976 ) and Zork ( 1976 ) ; early MUDs , tabletop wargames such as Chainmail ( 1971 ) , and sports games such as Strat @-@ O @-@ Matic .
The popular dungeon crawler Rogue was developed in 1980 , for Unix @-@ based systems , by two students at Berkeley . It used ASCII graphics , and featured a deep system of gameplay and a multitude of randomly generated items and locations . Rogue was later distributed as free software with the BSD operating system , and was followed by an entire genre of " roguelikes " that were inspired by and emulated the original game 's mechanics , and by later titles such as Diablo . Later examples of roguelikes include Angband ( 1990 ) , Ancient Domains of Mystery ( 1993 ) and Linley 's Dungeon Crawl ( 1997 ) .
The keyboard was frequently the only input supported by these games , and their graphics were simple and often monochromatic . Some titles , like Rogue , represented objects through text characters , such as ' @ ' for the main character and ' Z ' for zombies . No single game featured all of the characteristics expected in a modern CRPG , such as exploration of subterranean dungeons , use of weapons and items , " leveling up " and quest completion , but it is possible to see the evolution of these features during this era and that which followed .
= = = Ultima and Wizardry ( early – mid @-@ 1980s ) = = =
The early Ultima and Wizardry were definitive games which began to build the genre . Although simplified for use with the console gamepad , many innovations of the early Ultimas — in particular Ultima III : Exodus ( 1983 ) by developer Richard Garriott — became standard among later RPGs in both the personal computer and console markets . These ideas included the use of tiled graphics and party @-@ based combat , a mix of fantasy and science @-@ fiction elements , and time travel . The game 's written narrative was an innovative feature that allowed it to convey a larger story than was found in the minimal plots common at the time . Most games , including Garriott 's own Akalabeth , focused primarily on basic gameplay mechanics like combat , and paid little attention to story and narrative .
Garriott introduced a system of chivalry and code of conduct in Ultima IV : Quest of the Avatar ( 1985 ) that persisted throughout later Ultimas . The player 's Avatar tackles such problems as fundamentalism , racism and xenophobia , and based on his or her actions is tested periodically in ways that are sometimes obvious and sometimes unseen . This code of conduct was in part a response to the efforts among some Christian groups to mitigate the rising popularity of Dungeons & Dragons . Continuing until Ultima IX : Ascension ( 1999 ) , it covered a range of virtues that included compassion , justice , humility and honor . This system of morals and ethics was unique at the time , as other video games allowed players to be lauded as " heroes " by the game worlds ' denizens , no matter what the player 's actions had been . In Ultima IV , on the other hand , players were forced to consider the moral consequences of their actions . According to Garriott , Ultima was now " more than a mere fantasy escape . It provided a world with a framework of deeper meaning [ , ] a level of detail [ , and ] diversity of interaction [ , ] that is rarely attempted . " " I thought people might completely reject this game because some folks play just to kill , kill , kill . To succeed in this game , you had to radically change the way you 'd ever played a game before . "
Ultima III is considered by many to have been the first modern CRPG . It was originally published for the Apple II , but was ported to many other platforms and influenced the development of later titles , including such console RPGs as Excalibur ( 1983 ) and Dragon Quest ( 1986 ) . The series went on to span over a dozen titles , including the spin @-@ off series Worlds of Ultima ( 1990 – 1991 ) and Ultima Underworld ( 1992 – 1993 ) , and the multiplayer online series , Ultima Online ( 1997 ) . Ultima Underworld : The Stygian Abyss ( 1992 ) offered players a full 360 degree view of the game world . Ultima VII : The Black Gate ( 1992 ) was the first real @-@ time title in the series , and was fully playable with the computer mouse . Garriott later left Origin Systems and Electronic Arts to form Destination Games , under publisher NCsoft . He was involved with a number of NCsoft 's MMORPGs , including Lineage ( 1998 ) and Tabula Rasa ( 2007 ) , before his 2009 departure .
The Wizardry series was created for the Apple II at roughly the same time , in 1981 . Wizardry featured a 3D , first @-@ person view , an intuitive interface , party @-@ based combat , and pre @-@ constructed levels that encouraged players to draw their own maps . It allowed players to import characters from previous games , albeit with reduced experience levels , and introduced a moral alignment feature that limited the areas players could visit . The series was extremely difficult when compared to other RPGs of the time , possibly because they were modeled after pen @-@ and @-@ paper role @-@ playing games of similar difficulty . Wizardry IV ( 1986 ) in particular is considered one of the most difficult CRPGs ever created . It is unique in that the player controls the villain of the first game in an attempt to escape his prison dungeon and gain freedom in the above world . Unlike Ultima , which evolved with each installment , the Wizardry series retained and refined the same style and core mechanics over time , and improved only its graphics and level design as the years progressed . The series ' most famous titles did not appear until years later , and installments were published as recently as 2001 . Wizardry VII ( 1992 ) has been said to possess one of the best character class systems of any CRPG .
By June 1982 , Temple of Apshai had sold 30 @,@ 000 copies , Wizardry 24 @,@ 000 copies , and Ultima 20 @,@ 000 . Ultima and Wizardry dominated the industry in the early 1980s ; a historian later wrote that " there seemed to be very little oxygen for anyone else ; their serious competition during this period was largely limited to one another . Otherwise there were only ... workmanlike derivatives " like Questron and Phantasie " that all but advertised themselves as ' games to play while you wait for the next Ultima or Wizardry ' " . Garriott even discussed collaborating with Wizardry 's Andrew C. Greenberg on " the ultimate fantasy role @-@ playing game " . The first Wizardry outsold ( more than 200 @,@ 000 copies sold in its first three years ) the first Ultima and received better reviews , but over time Ultima became more popular by improving its technology and making games more friendly , while Wizardry required new players to play the first game before its first two sequels , and the very difficult Wizardry IV sold poorly .
Telengard , a BASIC port of the earlier PDP @-@ 10 game DND , and Dungeons of Daggorath , both released in 1982 , introduced real @-@ time gameplay . Earlier dungeon crawl games had used turn @-@ based movement , in which the enemies only moved when the adventuring party did . Tunnels of Doom , produced the same year , introduced separate screens for exploration and combat . Dragon Quest is most commonly claimed as the first role @-@ playing video game produced for a console , though journalist Joe Fielder cites the earlier Dragonstomper .
= = Golden Age ( late 1980s – early 1990s ) = =
The Might and Magic series , highly popular in the 1980s and onward , began with the 1986 release of Might and Magic Book One : The Secret of the Inner Sanctum for the Apple II . It encompasses a total of ten games , the most recent of which was released in 2014 , as well as the popular turn @-@ based strategy series Heroes of Might and Magic . The series featured a mix of complex statistics , large numbers of weapons and spells , and enormous worlds in which to play . It was among the longest @-@ lived CRPG series , alongside Ultima and Wizardry , It is also notable for making race and gender an important aspect of gameplay .
Strategic Simulations , Inc . ' s series of " Gold Box " CRPGs , which began in 1988 with Pool of Radiance for the Apple II and Commodore 64 , was the first widely successful official video game adaptation of TSR 's Advanced Dungeons & Dragons license and rules . These games featured a first @-@ person display for movement and exploration , combined with an overhead tactical display for combat that tried to model D & D 's turn @-@ based mechanics . Better known for producing computer wargames , SSI created one of the defining series of the period . The games spawned a series of novels , and titles continued to be published until the game engine was retired in 1993 , although users who had purchased Forgotten Realms : Unlimited Adventures were able to create their own adventures and play them using the Gold Box engine . The later titles were developed by Stormfront Studios , who also produced Neverwinter Nights , a multi @-@ player implementation of the Gold Box engine which ran on America Online from 1991 to 1997 . As in the Wizardry series , characters could be imported from one game into another .
SSI had already published many RPGs based on original properties . Its " hardcore " RPG Wizard 's Crown ( 1985 ) presaged the Gold Box games ' design , with eight @-@ character parties , a skill @-@ based experience system , highly detailed combat mechanics , dozens of commands , injuries and bleeding , and strengths and weaknesses versus individual weapon classes . The game did not , however , offer much in terms of role @-@ playing or narrative beyond buying , selling and killing . Wizard 's Crown was followed by The Eternal Dagger in 1987 , a similar game that removed some of its predecessor 's more complicated elements .
Interplay Productions developed a string of hits in the form of The Bard 's Tale ( 1985 ) and its sequels under publisher Electronic Arts , originally for the Apple II and Commodore 64 . The series became the first outside Wizardry to challenge Ultima 's sales . It combined colorful graphics with a clean interface and simple rules , and was one of the first CRPG series to reach a mainstream audience . It spawned a series of novels by authors such as Mercedes Lackey , something that arguably did not occur again until the release of Diablo in 1997 . The series allowed players to explore cities in detail , at a time when many games relegated them to simple menu screens with " buy " / " sell " options . A construction set released in 1991 allowed players to create their own games , and Interplay re @-@ used the engine in its 1988 post @-@ apocalyptic CRPG Wasteland .
FTL Games ' Dungeon Master ( 1987 ) for the Atari ST introduced several user @-@ interface innovations , such as direct manipulation of objects and the environment using the mouse . Unusually for the era , it features the real @-@ time , first @-@ person viewpoint now common in first @-@ person shooters and more recent games such as The Elder Scrolls IV : Oblivion . The game 's complex magic system used runes that could be combined in specific sequences to create magical spells . These sequences were not detailed in the game manual , instead players were required to discover them through trial and error . Sequels followed in 1989 and 1993 . The game 's first @-@ person , real @-@ time mechanics were copied in SSI 's " Black Box " series , from Eye of the Beholder ( 1990 ) onward . Dungeon Master sold 40 @,@ 000 copies in its first year of release , and became the best @-@ selling Atari ST title .
Times of Lore , released by Origin Systems in 1988 , introduced the action @-@ adventure and action role @-@ playing game formula of console titles such as The Legend of Zelda to the American computer RPG market . Times of Lore directly inspired several later titles by Origin Systems , including the 1990 games Bad Blood , an action RPG based on the same engine , and Ultima VI : The False Prophet , which used the same interface .
Quest for Glory ( 1992 ) was produced by Sierra Entertainment , known for point @-@ and @-@ click adventure games , and combined CRPG and adventure @-@ game mechanics into a unique , genre @-@ bending mix . The series featured involved stories , complex puzzles , and arcade @-@ like combat . The last of its five titles was released in 1998 . It was originally conceived as a tetralogy built around the themes of the four cardinal directions , the four classical elements , the four seasons and the four mythologies . The designers felt that the series ' storyline made Shadows of Darkness too difficult , and so inserted a fifth game , Wages of War , into the canon and renumbered the series .
Legends of Valour ( 1992 ) provided an early example of open @-@ world , non @-@ linear gameplay in an RPG . It was cited as an influence on The Elder Scrolls series .
Sierra 's Betrayal at Krondor ( 1993 ) was based upon author Raymond E. Feist 's Midkemia setting . It featured turn @-@ based , semi @-@ tactical combat , a skill @-@ based experience system , and a magic system similar to that of Dungeon Master , but suffered due to outdated , polygonal graphics . Feist was heavily consulted during development , and later created his own novelization based upon the game . The sequel Betrayal in Antara ( 1997 ) re @-@ used the first game 's engine but — as Sierra had lost its license for Krondor — was set in a different universe . Return to Krondor ( 1998 ) used a new game engine , but returned to Feist 's setting .
Westwood Studios 's Lands of Lore series ( 1993 ) featured a story @-@ based approach to RPG design . It served as a stylistic " mirror " to Japanese RPGs of the time , with brightly colored , cheerful graphics , a simple combat system borrowed from Dungeon Master , and a semi @-@ linear story . These elements contrasted with Western RPGs ' stereotype as dark , gritty and rules @-@ centric games .
= = Decline ( mid @-@ 1990s ) = =
Western RPGs faced a sharp decline circa 1995 , as developers lost their ability to keep up with hardware advances . RPGs had been at or near the forefront of gaming technology , but the improved computer graphics and increased storage space facilitated by CD @-@ ROM technology created expectations that developers struggled to meet . This caused lengthy delays between releases , and closures among less popular franchises . A few years later , one magazine wrote that " [ d ] uring the now @-@ infamous mid @-@ nineties CRPG lull , the toughest dungeons were the bottomless pits of failed designs , and the fiercest beasts the deadly @-@ dull CRPG releases . "
Increases in development budgets and team sizes meant that sequels took three or more years to be released , instead of the almost @-@ yearly releases seen in SSI 's Gold Box series . The growth of development teams increased the likelihood that software bugs would appear , as code produced by programmers working in different teams was merged into a whole . A lack of technical standards among hardware manufacturers forced developers to support each manufacturer 's implementation , or risk losing players .
Competition arose from other genres . Players turned away from RPGs , flight simulators and adventure games in favor of action @-@ oriented titles , such as first @-@ person shooters and real @-@ time strategy games . Later RPGs would draw influences from action genres , but would face new challenges in the form of massively multiplayer online role @-@ playing games ( MMORPGs ) , a late @-@ 1990s trend that may have siphoned players away from single @-@ player RPGs . They also faced competition from Japanese console RPGs , which were becoming increasingly dominant around that time , for reasons such as more accessible , faster @-@ paced action @-@ adventure @-@ oriented gameplay , and a stronger emphasis on storytelling and character interactions .
Western RPGs changed following this period . Non @-@ player characters were given more dialogue , as in Baldur 's Gate , party sizes became smaller , as in Fallout , and combat became faster , as in Diablo . Games became more accessible . Their feel became more cinematic rather than novelistic , and they focused on a single player @-@ made character who progressed through the game as the player 's sole avatar . Video games became darker and more thematically consistent . Designers abandoned or reconciled some of the eccentric elements and pastiche of the 8 @-@ bit and 16 @-@ bit titles . Diablo , for instance , displayed a consistent Gothic style throughout the series , and the Elder Scrolls series downplayed its cat- and lizard @-@ people in favor of the more recognizable Dark Elves and Nords .
= = North American computer RPGs ( late 1990s ) = =
= = = Diablo and action RPGs = = =
The dark fantasy @-@ themed RPG Diablo was released by Blizzard Entertainment on December 31 , 1996 , in the midst of a stagnant PC RPG market . Diablo is set in the fictional kingdom of Khanduras , in the world of Sanctuary , and has the player take control of a lone hero who battles to rid the world of Diablo , the Lord of Terror . Its development was influenced by Moria and Angband , and Diablo resembles a roguelike due to its focus on dungeon crawling , and its procedurally generated levels . Major differences include the commercial quality of the game 's graphics , its simplified character development , and its fast , real @-@ time action . A factor in Diablo 's success was its support for online , collaborative play over a local area network or through its Battle.net online service . This greatly extended its replay value , though cheating was a problem . While not the first RPG to feature real @-@ time combat , Diablo 's effect on the market was significant , a reflection of the changes that took place in other genres following the release of the action titles , Doom and Dune II . It had many imitators , and its formula of simple , fast combat and replayability were used by what were later referred to as " Diablo clones " , and more broadly " action RPGs " .
Action RPGs typically give each player real @-@ time control of a single character . Combat and action are emphasized , while plot and character interaction are kept to a minimum , a formula referred to as " the Fight , Loot , and Level cycle " . The inclusion of any content beyond leveling up and killing enemies becomes a challenge in these " hack and slash " games , because the sheer number of items , locations and monsters makes it difficult to design an encounter that is unique and works regardless of how a character has been customized . On the other hand , a game that omits technical depth can seem overly streamlined . The result in either case is a repetitive experience that does not feel tailored to the player .
RPGs can suffer in the area of exploration . Traditional RPGs encourage exploration of every detail of the game world , and provide for a more organic experience in which NPCs are distributed according to the internal logic of the game world or plot . Action games reward players for quick movement from location to location , and tend to ensure that no obstacles occur along the way . Games such as Mass Effect streamline the player 's movements across the game world by indicating which NPCs can be interacted with , and by making it easier for players to find locations and shopkeepers who can exchange items for money or goods . Some of the best characteristics of RPGs can be lost when these road blocks are eliminated in the name of streamlining the player 's experience .
One action RPG that avoided these limitations is Deus Ex ( 2000 ) , which offered multiple solutions to problems through intricately layered dialogue choices , a deep skill tree , and hand @-@ crafted environments . Players were challenged to act in character through dialog choices appropriate to his or her chosen role , and by intelligent use of the surrounding environment . This produced a unique experience that was tailored to each player .
Diablo was followed by the Diablo : Hellfire expansion pack in 1997 , and a sequel , Diablo II , in 2000 . Diablo II received its own expansion , Diablo II : Lord of Destruction , in 2001 . Diablo , Diablo II , Diablo II : Lord of Destruction and the Diablo II strategy guide are sold together as the Diablo Battle Chest , and are still sold over a decade later . A third game , Diablo III , was announced on June 28 , 2008 , and released on May 15 , 2012 . Examples of " Diablo clones " include Fate ( 2005 ) , Sacred ( 2004 ) , Torchlight ( 2009 ) , Din 's Curse ( 2011 ) and Hellgate : London ( 2007 ) . Like Diablo and Rogue before them , Torchlight , Din 's Curse , Hellgate : London and Fate use procedural generation to create new game levels dynamically .
= = = Interplay , BioWare , and Black Isle = = =
Interplay , now known as Interplay Entertainment and a publisher in its own right , produced several late 1990s RPG titles through two new developers , Black Isle Studios and BioWare . Black Isle released the groundbreaking Fallout ( 1997 ) which , reminiscent of Interplay 's earlier Wasteland , was set in an alternate history future America following a nuclear holocaust . One of the few successful late @-@ 1990 video game RPGs not set in a swords @-@ and @-@ sorcery environment , Fallout was notable for its open @-@ ended and largely non @-@ linear gameplay and quest system , tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek humor , and pervasive sense of style and imagery . Players were afforded numerous moral choices to shape the game world based on how NPCs reacted to the player , much like the original Ultimas . Fallout was nearly as influential on post @-@ crash RPGs as Ultima was on Golden Age RPGs , and is considered by some to be the first " modern " CRPG . Black Isle produced a sequel , Fallout 2 , in 1998 . Third @-@ party developer Micro Forté produced Fallout Tactics : Brotherhood of Steel , a tactical RPG based on the franchise , which was published in 2001 under Interplay 's strategy division 14 Degrees East .
BioWare 's Baldur 's Gate series was no less important , the most significant D & D series to be released since the Gold Box era . The games created the most accurate and in @-@ depth D & D simulation yet , and featured support for up to six @-@ players in cooperative mode . Baldur 's Gate ( 1998 ) provided an epic story with NPC followers and written dialogue that continued through both titles and two expansion packs . Black Isle produced a more combat @-@ oriented series , Icewind Dale , soon thereafter .
The critically acclaimed D & D title , Planescape : Torment , was developed by Black Isle and published by Interplay in 1999 , and became known for its moody , artistic air and extensive writing . Interplay 's Fallout , Planescape : Torment and particularly , Baldur 's Gate are considered by critics to be some of the finest RPGs ever made .
Black Isle 's games during this time period often shared engines to cut down on development time and costs , and most feature an overhead axonometrically projected third @-@ person interface . Their titles , apart from the two Fallout games , used various versions of the Infinity Engine that had been developed by BioWare for Baldur 's Gate . Interplay 's collapse resulted in the shutdown of Black Isle and the cancellation of the third games in both the Fallout and Baldur 's Gate series , as well as of an original title , Torn . Instead , they published a trio of console @-@ only action RPGs based on the two franchises : Baldur 's Gate : Dark Alliance ( 2001 ) , Baldur 's Gate : Dark Alliance II ( 2004 ) , and Fallout : Brotherhood of Steel ( 2004 ) . One of the last CRPGs released before Interplay seemingly went defunct was the poorly received Lionheart : Legacy of the Crusader ( 2003 ) by developer Reflexive Entertainment , notable for using the SPECIAL system introduced in Fallout .
Interplay announced in 2008 that money from its sale of the Fallout intellectual property to Bethesda Softworks and the sale of its controlling interests to a Luxembourg @-@ based firm would be used to relaunch its game development studio . The plan was to develop Wii Virtual Console and sequel versions of some of its classic console series , including Baldur 's Gate : Dark Alliance and Earthworm Jim . A massively multiplayer online game based on the Fallout franchise has been in development , a project for which Interplay retained the creation rights , though Bethesda has filed several injunctions against Interplay in an attempt to prevent this . Development of the game is on hold , pending the outcome of the dispute .
= = Resurgence ( 2000s – present ) = =
The new century saw an increasing number of multi @-@ platform releases . The move to 3D game engines , along with constant improvements in graphic quality , led to progressively detailed and realistic game worlds .
BioWare produced Neverwinter Nights ( 2002 ) for Atari , the first CRPG to fuse the third @-@ edition Dungeons & Dragons rules with a 3D display in which the user could vary the viewing angle and distance . New game content could be generated using the Aurora toolset supplied as part of the game release , and players could share their modules and play cooperatively with friends online . Based in part on experiences while playing Ultima Online , one of the goals during development was to reproduce the feel of a live pen @-@ and @-@ paper RPG experience , complete with a human Dungeon Master . Neverwinter Nights ( NWN ) was very successful commercially , and spawned three official expansion packs and a sequel developed by Obsidian Entertainment . BioWare later produced the acclaimed Star Wars : Knights of the Old Republic , which married the d20 system with the Star Wars franchise ; as well as the original titles Jade Empire ( 2005 ) , Mass Effect ( 2007 ) , Dragon Age : Origins ( 2009 ) , Mass Effect 2 ( 2010 ) , Dragon Age II ( 2011 ) , Mass Effect 3 ( 2012 ) , and Dragon Age Inquisition ( 2014 ) all which were released for multiple platforms . With the Mass Effect and the Dragon Age titles , Bioware also utilized a save import system where decisions in the earlier games impact the story in the later games .
During the production of Fallout 2 , some of Black Isle 's key members left the studio to form Troika Games , citing disagreements the development team structure . The new studio 's first title was Arcanum : Of Steamworks and Magick Obscura ( 2001 ) , an original , nonlinear steampunk @-@ themed RPG with fantasy elements . Several Arcanum designers worked on Fallout , and the two titles share an aesthetic and sense of irony and humor . Arcanum was followed by The Temple of Elemental Evil ( 2003 ) , based on the Dungeons & Dragons 3 @.@ 5 Edition rules and set in the Greyhawk universe ; and Vampire : The Masquerade – Bloodlines ( 2004 ) , based on White Wolf 's Vampire : The Masquerade . All three games received positive reviews — as well as a cult following in the case of Arcanum — but were criticized for shipping with numerous bugs . Troika 's reputation became " Great Ideas . Never Enough Testing " , and by 2005 the studio was in financial trouble , no longer able to secure funding for additional titles . Most of the developers left for other studios .
When Black Isle closed down , several employees formed Obsidian Entertainment , who released Star Wars : Knights of the Old Republic II – The Sith Lords ( 2005 ) , a sequel to BioWare 's successful Star Wars : Knights of the Old Republic . Obsidian later created a sequel to another BioWare game : Neverwinter Nights 2 was released on Halloween of 2006 , and featured the 3 @.@ 5 Edition D & D ruleset . It was followed by two expansions and an " adventure pack " , in 2007 and 2008 . Obsidian Entertainment began development of a role @-@ playing game based on the Alien film franchise in 2006 , but it was canceled , along with an original title under the working name of Seven Dwarves . Obsidian 's most recent RPGs are Alpha Protocol ( 2010 ) , a modern @-@ day spy thriller released for multiple platforms , and Fallout : New Vegas ( 2010 ) , the latest installment in the Fallout franchise . The company released Dungeon Siege III on June 17 , 2011 .
The Gothic series , by German developer Piranha Bytes , began with the first title in 2001 . Lauded for its complex interaction with other in @-@ game characters and attractive graphics , it was criticized for its difficult control scheme and high system requirements . The third game in particular was notable for a " ton of quests " , rewarding exploration , and approachable combat , but also for its high system requirements , unfinished feel and " atrocious " voice acting . Piranha Bytes split from publisher JoWood Productions in 2007 , and due to a contract between the two companies , JoWooD retained some rights to the Gothic name and to current and future games released under that trademark . Piranha Bytes have since developed Risen , with publisher Deep Silver . A fourth , " casual " installment of the Gothic series , this time by developer Spellbound Entertainment , was released by JoWood in 2010 . The rights to the Gothic series may revert to Piranha Bytes following the release of Risen II .
= = = Bethesda = = =
Bethesda Softworks has developed RPGs since 1994 , in its The Elder Scrolls series . Daggerfall ( 1996 ) is notable as a 3D first @-@ person RPG with an expansive world . The series drew attention to sandbox gameplay , which gives the player wide choices of free @-@ roaming activities unrelated to the game 's main storyline . The Elder Scrolls series was seen as an alternative to the " highly linear , story @-@ based games " that dominated the computer RPG genre at the time , and the series ' freedom of play inspired comparisons to Grand Theft Auto III . According to Todd Howard , " I think [ Daggerfall is ] one of those games that people can ' project ' themselves on . It does so many things and allows [ for ] so many play styles that people can easily imagine what type of person they 'd like to be in game . "
The series ' popularity exploded with the release of The Elder Scrolls III : Morrowind ( 2002 ) , for the Xbox and PC . Morrowind became a successful and award @-@ winning RPG due to its open @-@ ended play , richly detailed game world , and flexibility in character creation and advancement . Two expansions were released : Tribunal in 2002 and Bloodmoon in 2003 . The Elder Scrolls IV : Oblivion ( 2006 ) , released for the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 as well as the PC , was a much @-@ enhanced sequel that featured scripted NPC behaviors , significantly improved graphics , and the company 's first foray into micro transactions , a recent trend among Western RPG makers . Two expansion packs , Shivering Isles and Knights of the Nine , were developed , as were several smaller downloadable packages that each cost between $ 1 – 3 . Oblivion 's immediate successor , The Elder Scrolls V : Skyrim , was released to critical acclaim on 11 November 2011 and remains one of the most successful , favourably reviewed RPGs ( or video games in general ) to date .
Interplay 's decision to scrap plans for Fallout 3 and Bethesda 's subsequent acquisition of the Fallout brand created mixed feelings among that series ' fan community . Bethesda released Fallout 3 in North America on October 28 , 2008 , to critical acclaim and much fanfare , and the game was followed by five " content packs " . The sequel Fallout : New Vegas , created by Obsidian Entertainment , used the same engine as Fallout 3 and was released to generally favorable reviews in 2010 .
= = = Video game consoles and multi @-@ platform titles = = =
Multi @-@ platform releases were common in the early days of RPGs , but there was a period during the 1990s when this was not generally the case . The sixth generation of home gaming consoles led many game developers to resume the practice , and some opted to develop primarily or exclusively for consoles . The combination of the Xbox and DirectX technologies proved especially popular due to the two systems ' architectural similarities , as well as their common set of programming tools . Multimedia and art assets , which account for a greater proportion of the development budget than in the past , are easily transferable between multiple platforms .
This affected several major PC RPG releases , mostly due to console exclusivity publishing deals with Microsoft . BioWare 's Star Wars : Knights of the Old Republic was developed primarily for the Xbox , and ported to the PC several months later . Their original IP , Jade Empire ( 2005 ) was also an Xbox exclusive , and did not receive a Windows version until Jade Empire – Special Edition ( which included bonus content ) was released on Feb 26 , 2007 . Obsidian 's KOTOR sequel was released in December 2004 for the Xbox and followed by a PC version in February 2005 , and Fable ( 2004 ) by Lionhead Studios received a PC port along with its reissue as a Platinum Hit in 2005 .
Sequels to many of the above titles were also developed for next @-@ gen systems , including Lionhead 's Fable II ( 2008 ) and Fable III ( 2010 ) . The Fallout and Baldur 's Gate series of PC RPGs spawned console @-@ friendly , Diablo @-@ style action titles for the PS2 and Xbox as their respective PC series ended . Bethesda 's Oblivion was released simultaneously for console and PC , but was considered a major launch title for the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 .
The change of focus from the PC platform to console systems has been criticized , due to the concessions required to adapt games to the altered interfaces and control systems , as well as a need to appeal to a wider demographic . Developer Josh Sawyer lamented the decline of high @-@ profile computer @-@ exclusive RPGs , and claimed that the collapse of Troika Games meant that there were " no pure CRPG developers left " , outside of small companies like Spiderweb Software . Other criticisms include the increasing emphasis on video quality and voiceovers , and their effect on development budgets and the amount and quality of dialogue offered . BioWare was considered the " savior " of the Western RPG following the drought in the mid @-@ 1990s , but its prominent Mass Effect series now sheds the novel @-@ like writing style , and other conventions of Western RPGs , in favor of the cinematic style and streamlined action of Japanese console RPGs and other video game genres . These changes raise debate as to whether games such as Mass Effect and its sequels are truly RPGs . On the other hand , BioWare 's success has been attributed to successfully " marrying western mechanics with Japanese @-@ style character interactions " .
There have been more subtle shifts away from the core influences of Dungeons & Dragons that existed in the 1980s and 1990s . Games were originally closely tied to the system 's basic mechanics such as dice rolls and turn @-@ based tactical combat , but are now moving in the direction of real @-@ time modes , simplified mechanics and skill @-@ based interfaces . Dungeons & Dragons itself is diverging from its roots , as the 4th Edition D & D rules have been compared to role @-@ playing video games like World of Warcraft and Fire Emblem . Even as some non @-@ role @-@ playing games adopt RPG elements , developers and publishers are concerned that the term " role @-@ playing game " might alienate non @-@ RPG gamers .
Development for multiple platforms is profitable , but difficult . Optimizations needed for one platform architecture do not necessarily translate to others . Individual platforms such as the Sega Genesis and PlayStation 3 are seen as difficult to develop for compared to their competitors , and developers are not yet fully accustomed to new technologies such as multi @-@ core processors and hyper @-@ threading . Multi @-@ platform releases are increasingly common , but not all differences between editions on multiple platforms can be fully explained by hardware alone , and there remain franchise stalwarts that exist solely on one system . Developers for new platforms such as handheld and mobile systems do not have to operate under the pressure of $ 20 million budgets and the scrutiny of publishers ' marketing experts .
= = = Independent games and European game studios = = =
The technical sophistication required to make modern video games and the high expectations of players make it difficult for independent developers to impress audiences viscerally , to the degree that large game makers with extensive budgets and development teams are able to , but innovation and quality need not necessarily be stymied . Europe , and Germany in particular , remains more receptive to PC @-@ exclusives and , in general , to older , more " hardcore " design decisions . Like the movie industry , the indie video game scene plays a crucial role in formulating new ideas and concepts that mainstream publishers and marketing departments , stuck in their old ways , might otherwise deem unworkable or too radical . There are many examples that movies that never gained approval with the corporate decision makers were financially successful or became iconic on the film industry . Indie video game developers can provide more development time and effort whereas larger corporate enterprises are constrained by the expenses and expectations of voice @-@ overs and advanced graphics . Independent developers can be successful in focusing on niche markets .
The new millennium saw a number of independently published RPGs for the PC , as well as a number of CRPGs developed in Europe and points farther east , which led some to call Eastern Europe a hotbed of RPG development in recent years . Examples of independently produced RPGs include Spiderweb Software 's Geneforge ( 2001 – 2009 ) and Avernum ( 2000 – 2010 ) series , Pyrrhic Tales : Prelude to Darkness ( 2002 ) by Zero Sum Software , Eschalon : Book I ( 2007 ) and Book II ( 2010 ) by Basilisk Games , Depths of Peril ( 2007 ) and Din 's Curse ( 2010 ) by Soldak Entertainment , and Knights of the Chalice ( 2009 ) . Examples of Eastern and Central European RPGs include Belgian developer Larian Studios ' Divinity series , starting with Divine Divinity ( 2002 ) ; Russian developer Nival Interactive 's series of tactical RPGs , starting with Silent Storm ( 2003 ) ; German developer Ascaron Entertainment 's Sacred series of action RPGs , starting with Sacred ( 2004 ) ; Polish developer CD Projekt RED 's The Witcher ( 2007 ) , The Witcher 2 : Assassins of Kings ( 2011 ) , The Witcher 3 : Wild Hunt ( 2015 ) , and another Polish developer Reality Pump 's Two Worlds ( 2007 ) and Two Worlds 2 ( 2010 ) . Hybrid RPGs include Russian developer Elemental Games ' multi @-@ genre Space Rangers ( 2002 ) and Space Rangers 2 : Dominators ( 2004 ) , Ukrainian developer GSC Game World 's hybrid RPG / first @-@ person shooter S.T.A.L.K.E.R. : Shadow of Chernobyl ( 2007 ) , and Turkish developer TaleWorlds ' hybrid RPG / medieval combat simulator , Mount & Blade ( 2008 ) .
The Finnish independent development studio Almost Human released Legend of Grimrock , a Dungeon Master @-@ inspired game , in 2012 . A reboot of the long @-@ abandoned tile @-@ based dungeon @-@ crawler subgenre , it was a commercial success that reached the top of Steam 's " Top Sellers list " in April 2012 . Examples exist in which developers leave larger studios to form their own , independent development houses . For instance , in 2009 , a pair of developers left Obsidian to form DoubleBear Productions , and began development of a post @-@ apocalyptic zombie RPG , Dead State , using Iron Tower Studios ' The Age of Decadence game engine . Three employees left BioWare in 2012 to form Stoic Studio and develop the tactical RPG The Banner Saga ( TBA ) . Dead State and The Banner Saga are both supported in part by the public , through the crowd funding website Kickstarter , a recent trend in independent gaming .
= Uncle Tom 's Cabin ( 1910 Thanhouser film ) =
Uncle Tom 's Cabin is a 1910 American silent short drama produced by the Thanhouser Company . The film was adapted by from the 1852 novel Uncle Tom 's Cabin by Harriet Beecher Stowe . The plot of the Thanhouser production streamlined the actual story to portray the film over the course of a single reel . The film was released on July 26 , 1910 , on the same day that Vitagraph released the first reel of their own three reel version of Uncle Tom 's Cabin . This prompted the Thanhouser Company to advertise against the Vitagraph film by referring to the other as being overly drawn out . The film garnered mixed , but mostly positive reception in trade publications . The film is presumed lost .
= = Plot = =
Though the film is presumed lost , a synopsis survives in The Moving Picture World from July 30 , 1910 . It states : " The story opens in winter when Mr. Shelby has to sell some of his slaves due to business problems . Until this time they have lived all their lives with him , and he has been noted for his kindness to them .... Unfortunately the person to whom he was compelled to sell is the slave owner of the other sort , brutal , heartless , and a hard master - Simon Legree . Legree agrees to buy as many slaves as he desires , provided that Mr. Shelby gives him his choice . The slaves are passed and reviewed , and Legree selects Uncle Tom , one of the oldest and trusted , and the young son of Eliza , also a slave who has been with Shelby for many years . Despite the protestations of Mr. Shelby and the entreaties of the slaves themselves , these two are heartlessly taken from their homes and families . Legree refuses to buy any of the others , and as Shelby needs immediate money , he is forced to sell these two . The small boy is torn from his mother 's arms and placed in Uncle Tom 's care to be taken with him to Legree 's plantation . But Uncle Tom cannot resist a mother 's pleading , and when Eliza entreats him to give her back her child he does so and aids her to escape with him . "
" For this deed he is beaten by Legree and forced to join the bloodhounds in which Legree institutes to recover the slave . Eliza , with her boy in her arms , escapes over the Kentucky border to Ohio , a free state , making a perilous crossing on one block of ice to another on the Ohio River . Terribly overcome by the cold and faint from exposure , Eliza is carried unconscious to the home of Senator Bird of Ohio . Tracked down by the purchaser , Simon Legree , to Bird 's home , Mr. Bird out of goodness buys the boy and , giving him his freedom , gives him to his mother . Uncle Tom is not fortunate enough to find another purchaser and is taken by Legree to the plantation in Mississippi , finding on the trip that the new owner has taken a dislike to him and treats him with great brutality . "
During his journey , while waiting for a Mississippi steamboat , Uncle Tom first meets little Eva , who with her father is also taking the boat south . Tom is at once attracted to the beautiful little girl , and she in turn talks to the kindly old darkey . While looking at the boats , the little one accidentally falls into the swiftly flowing river and escapes drowning only through the bravery of Uncle Tom . He of all the crowd has the courage to jump in and rescue the little girl . Eva 's father to reward Tom for his bravery , buys him from Legree , and once more Tom knows what it is to be treated kindly . He lives happily as little Eva 's special bodyguard until the little one is seized with a sudden sickness and dies . She had become greatly attached to Uncle Tom , and the last act of her life was to present him with a little locket containing her picture . Once more Uncle Tom is sold and again falls into the hands of Simon Legree . He is taken to Legree 's plantation in Mississippi , where he is overworked and ill treated to the point of death . Just before he dies he presses to his lips the locket with the picture of his beloved little girl and in a vision sees her in the clouds holding out her arms to him that he , too , may enter with her the pearly gates , inside of which all souls are equal , and all free . The comedy of the story is furnished by little Eva 's Aunt Ophelia , a queer old lawyer named Marx , and his stubborn donkey , to say nothing of Topsy , a wicked little colored girl , who Aunt Ophelia tries hard to convert . "
= = Cast = =
Frank H. Crane as Uncle Tom
Anna Rosemond as Eliza
Marie Eline as Little Eva
Grace Eline as Topsy
= = Production = =
The 1852 publication of Uncle Tom 's Cabin by Harriet Beecher Stowe was the best @-@ selling novel of the 19th century and the second best @-@ selling book of that century , following the Bible . It is credited with helping fuel the abolitionist cause in the 1850s . The writer of the adapted scenario is unknown , but it was most likely Lloyd Lonergan . He was an experienced newspaperman employed by The New York Evening World while writing scripts for the Thanhouser productions . The director of the film was Barry O 'Neil , whose real name was Thomas J. McCarthy . He would direct many important Thanhouser pictures , including its first two @-@ reeler , Romeo and Juliet .
Marie Eline , popularly known as " The Thanhouser Kid " played the role of Little Eva . Marie Eline would also play this role in the five @-@ reel World Film Corporation version of Uncle Tom 's Cabin , released on August 10 , 1914 . The role of Eliza was played by Anna Rosemond , one of two leading ladies of the Thanhouser company in this era . Frank H. Crane , cast in the role of Tom , was a leading male actor of the company . Crane was also involved in the very beginnings of the Thanhouser Company and would later become a director at Thanhouser . Surviving film stills , from advertisements in Moving Picture World , show Crane in blackface in order to portray the part of Uncle Tom . The other players in the production are uncredited because their identities are unknown . Bowers states that most of the credits are fragmentary for 1910 Thanhouser productions . The cast and credits of this film are sometimes erroneously given because of confusion with other films of the same name . Robert K. Klepper , Silent Films , 1877 @-@ 1996 : A Critical Guide to 646 Movies , misidentifies the Thanhouser release as " Thanhouser / Minot " and lists the director as William Robert Daly . The 1914 Minot Films Inc. release was not produced by Thanhouser .
= = Release and reception = =
The one reel drama , approximately 1000 feet long , was released on July 26 , 1910 . The release of the film fell on the same date of Vitagraph 's Uncle Tom 's Cabin . Vitagraph had previously released multi @-@ reel works , but a three reel drama was considered a bold innovation by The New York Dramatic Mirror . The Mirror article stated the multi @-@ reel release was risky because Pathé 's two reel adaptation of Drink was not followed by other two reel releases . The sudden competition prompted Thanhouser to advertise against Vitagraph 's production in The Moving Picture World by declaring the three reel film as being overly drawn out and that audiences could get the full story in a single reel from Thanhouser . Edward Wagenknecht , author of The Movies in the Age of Innocence , refers to Thanhouser advertising against a two reel version with , " You can see the whole thing in one reel - why buy two ? " This is actually an erroneous reference to the three reel Vitagraph version by Edwin Thanhouser that was published in The Moving Picture World on March 10 , 1917 . H. Philip Bolton , author of Women Writers Dramatized : A Calendar of Performances from Narrative Works Published in English to 1900 , would identify the Thanhouser and Vitagraph release , but is unable to identify and attribute the directorial and casting credits to the productions . A third 1910 adaptation , also named Uncle Tom 's Cabin , release by Pathé is cited in the The Complete Index to Literary Sources in Film . According to Bowers , most Thanhouser posters of this era were of one @-@ sheet size , but an additional six @-@ sheet format poster was created for Uncle Tom 's Cabin . The film likely had a wide national release , but specific identification of the Thanhouser film is muddied by the prevalence of Vitagraph 's production and stage plays . Two advertisements in Indiana and Kansas specifically note that the film to be shown will be the Thanhouser production .
By the time of the film 's release , the quality of the Thanhouser films in general stood out amongst the Independent producers . An editorial by " The Spectator " in the Mirror contained specific praise for Thanhouser productions by stating , " ... practically all other Independent American companies , excepting Thanhouser , show haste and lack of thought in their production . Crude stories are crudely handled , giving the impression that they are rushed through in a hurry - anything to get a thousand feet of negative ready for the market . Such pictures , of course , do not cost much to produce , but they are not of a class to make reputation . The Thanhouser company , alone of the Independents , shows a consistent effort to do things worthwhile ... " The editorial was written by Frank E. Woods of the American Biograph Company , a Licensed company , and like the publication itself had a considerable slant to the Licensed companies .
Still , the film received mixed praise from trade publications . The Mirror commended the film for the clever adaptation which preserved coherency in the story , the good acting and adequate costuming despite a few flaws in the production . Among the errors highlighted by the Mirror was Eliza 's ice scene and another scene where the black actors wore inaccurate attire such as a laborer who wore a fine shirt and tie . The The Morning Telegraph reviewer did not care for the production much , finding issues with the adaptation , the acting and the scenes . The Moving Picture News was more positive in its review , praising the photography and the sensible adaptation of the book to the film format . Three different reviews in The Moving Picture World were published , each of which were positive . In contrast to the fault found in the Mirror , one of the reviewers specifically praised the ice scene by stating , " This part of the picture seems to have been conceived and carried out with extraordinary realism . You see the snow falling , the ice floes cracking and moving , you felt the danger that the woman and child were running as they made their escape across the ice , pursued by their remorseless enemy through the blinding snowstorm . This is one of the finest effects I have seen on the moving picture screen , and the whole story , so far as I have seen it , is worked out with wonderful realism , effect and verisimilitude . It 's as good a rendering of the subject as I have ever seen , and I have seen Uncle Tom 's Cabin played several times . " The Leavenworth Times of Leavenworth , Kansas had an article reviewing the production and offered much praise for adaptation .
= Sun =
The Sun is the star at the center of the Solar System . It is a nearly perfect sphere of hot plasma , with internal convective motion that generates a magnetic field via a dynamo process . It is by far the most important source of energy for life on Earth . Its diameter is about 109 times that of Earth , and its mass is about 330 @,@ 000 times that of Earth , accounting for about 99 @.@ 86 % of the total mass of the Solar System . About three quarters of the Sun 's mass consists of hydrogen ; the rest is mostly helium , with much smaller quantities of heavier elements , including oxygen , carbon , neon , and iron .
The Sun is a G @-@ type main @-@ sequence star ( G2V ) based on spectral class and is informally referred to as a yellow dwarf . It formed approximately 4 @.@ 6 billion years ago from the gravitational collapse of matter within a region of a large molecular cloud . Most of this matter gathered in the center , whereas the rest flattened into an orbiting disk that became the Solar System . The central mass became so hot and dense , that it eventually initiated nuclear fusion in its core . It is thought that almost all stars form by this process .
The Sun is roughly middle @-@ aged and has not changed dramatically for over four billion years , and will remain fairly stable for more than another five billion years . However , after hydrogen fusion in its core has stopped , the Sun will undergo severe changes and become a red giant . It is calculated that the Sun will become sufficiently large to engulf the current orbits of Mercury , Venus , and possibly Earth .
The enormous effect of the Sun on Earth has been recognized since prehistoric times , and the Sun has been regarded by some cultures as a deity . The synodic rotation of Earth and its orbit around the Sun are the basis of the solar calendar , which is the predominant calendar in use today .
= = Name and etymology = =
The English proper noun Sun developed from Old English sunne and may be related to south . Cognates to English sun appear in other Germanic languages , including Old Frisian sunne , sonne , Old Saxon sunna , Middle Dutch sonne , modern Dutch zon , Old High German sunna , modern German Sonne , Old Norse sunna , and Gothic sunnō . All Germanic terms for the Sun stem from Proto @-@ Germanic * sunnōn .
The English weekday name Sunday stems from Old English ( Sunnandæg ; " Sun 's day " , from before 700 ) and is ultimately a result of a Germanic interpretation of Latin dies solis , itself a translation of the Greek ἡμέρα ἡλίου ( hēméra hēlíou ) . The Latin name for the Sun , Sol , is not common in general English language use ; the adjectival form is the related word solar . The term sol is also used by planetary astronomers to refer to the duration of a solar day on another planet , such as Mars . A mean Earth solar day is approximately 24 hours , whereas a mean Martian ' sol ' is 24 hours , 39 minutes , and 35 @.@ 244 seconds .
= = = Religious aspects = = =
Solar deities and Sun worship can be found throughout most of recorded history in various forms , including the Egyptian Ra , the Hindu Surya , the Japanese Amaterasu , the Germanic Sól , and the Aztec Tonatiuh , among others .
From at least the 4th Dynasty of Ancient Egypt , the Sun was worshipped as the god Ra , portrayed as a falcon @-@ headed divinity surmounted by the solar disk , and surrounded by a serpent . In the New Empire period , the Sun became identified with the dung beetle , whose spherical ball of dung was identified with the Sun . In the form of the Sun disc Aten , the Sun had a brief resurgence during the Amarna Period when it again became the preeminent , if not only , divinity for the Pharaoh Akhenaton .
The Sun is viewed as a goddess in Germanic paganism , Sól / Sunna . Scholars theorize that the Sun , as a Germanic goddess , may represent an extension of an earlier Proto @-@ Indo @-@ European Sun deity because of Indo @-@ European linguistic connections between Old Norse Sól , Sanskrit Surya , Gaulish Sulis , Lithuanian Saulė , and Slavic Solntse .
In ancient Roman culture , Sunday was the day of the Sun god . It was adopted as the Sabbath day by Christians who did not have a Jewish background . The symbol of light was a pagan device adopted by Christians , and perhaps the most important one that did not come from Jewish traditions . In paganism , the Sun was a source of life , giving warmth and illumination to mankind . It was the center of a popular cult among Romans , who would stand at dawn to catch the first rays of sunshine as they prayed . The celebration of the winter solstice ( which influenced Christmas ) was part of the Roman cult of the unconquered Sun ( Sol Invictus ) . Christian churches were built with an orientation so that the congregation faced toward the sunrise in the East .
= = Characteristics = =
The Sun is a G @-@ type main @-@ sequence star that comprises about 99 @.@ 86 % of the mass of the Solar System . The Sun has an absolute magnitude of + 4 @.@ 83 , estimated to be brighter than about 85 % of the stars in the Milky Way , most of which are red dwarfs . The Sun is a Population I , or heavy @-@ element @-@ rich , star . The formation of the Sun may have been triggered by shockwaves from one or more nearby supernovae . This is suggested by a high abundance of heavy elements in the Solar System , such as gold and uranium , relative to the abundances of these elements in so @-@ called Population II , heavy @-@ element @-@ poor , stars . The heavy elements could most plausibly have been produced by endothermic nuclear reactions during a supernova , or by transmutation through neutron absorption within a massive second @-@ generation star .
The Sun is by far the brightest object in the sky , with an apparent magnitude of − 26 @.@ 74 . This is about 13 billion times brighter than the next brightest star , Sirius , which has an apparent magnitude of − 1 @.@ 46 . The mean distance of the Sun 's center to Earth 's center is approximately 1 astronomical unit ( about 150 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 km ; 93 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 mi ) , though the distance varies as Earth moves from perihelion in January to aphelion in July . At this average distance , light travels from the Sun 's horizon to Earth 's horizon in about 8 minutes and 19 seconds , while light from the closest points of the Sun and Earth takes about two seconds less . The energy of this sunlight supports almost all life on Earth by photosynthesis , and drives Earth 's climate and weather .
The Sun does not have a definite boundary , and in its outer parts its density decreases exponentially with increasing distance from its center . For the purpose of measurement , however , the Sun 's radius is considered to be the distance from its center to the edge of the photosphere , the apparent visible surface of the Sun . By this measure , the Sun is a near @-@ perfect sphere with an oblateness estimated at about 9 millionths , which means that its polar diameter differs from its equatorial diameter by only 10 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) . The tidal effect of the planets is weak and does not significantly affect the shape of the Sun . The Sun rotates faster at its equator than at its poles . This differential rotation is caused by convective motion due to heat transport and the Coriolis force due to the Sun 's rotation . In a frame of reference defined by the stars , the rotational period is approximately 25 @.@ 6 days at the equator and 33 @.@ 5 days at the poles . Viewed from Earth as it orbits the Sun , the apparent rotational period of the Sun at its equator is about 28 days .
= = Sunlight = =
The solar constant is the amount of power that the Sun deposits per unit area that is directly exposed to sunlight . The solar constant is equal to approximately 1 @,@ 368 W / m2 ( watts per square meter ) at a distance of one astronomical unit ( AU ) from the Sun ( that is , on or near Earth ) . Sunlight on the surface of Earth is attenuated by Earth 's atmosphere , so that less power arrives at the surface ( closer to 1 @,@ 000 W / m2 ) in clear conditions when the Sun is near the zenith . Sunlight at the top of Earth 's atmosphere is composed ( by total energy ) of about 50 % infrared light , 40 % visible light , and 10 % ultraviolet light . The atmosphere in particular filters out over 70 % of solar ultraviolet , especially at the shorter wavelengths . Solar ultraviolet radiation ionizes Earth 's dayside upper atmosphere , creating the electrically conducting ionosphere .
The Sun 's color is white , with a CIE color @-@ space index near ( 0 @.@ 3 , 0 @.@ 3 ) , when viewed from space or when the Sun is high in the sky . When measuring all the photons emitted , the Sun is actually emitting more photons in the green portion of the spectrum than any other . When the Sun is low in the sky , atmospheric scattering renders the Sun yellow , red , orange , or magenta . Despite its typical whiteness , most people mentally picture the Sun as yellow ; the reasons for this are the subject of debate . The Sun is a G2V star , with G2 indicating its surface temperature of approximately 5 @,@ 778 K ( 5 @,@ 505 ° C , 9 @,@ 941 ° F ) , and V that it , like most stars , is a main @-@ sequence star . The average luminance of the Sun is about 1 @.@ 88 giga candela per square metre , but as viewed through Earth 's atmosphere , this is lowered to about 1 @.@ 44 Gcd / m2 . However , the luminance is not constant across the disk of the Sun ( limb darkening ) .
= = Composition = =
The Sun is composed primarily of the chemical elements hydrogen and helium ; they account for 74 @.@ 9 % and 23 @.@ 8 % of the mass of the Sun in the photosphere , respectively . All heavier elements , called metals in astronomy , account for less than 2 % of the mass , with oxygen ( roughly 1 % of the Sun 's mass ) , carbon ( 0 @.@ 3 % ) , neon ( 0 @.@ 2 % ) , and iron ( 0 @.@ 2 % ) being the most abundant .
The Sun inherited its chemical composition from the interstellar medium out of which it formed . The hydrogen and helium in the Sun were produced by Big Bang nucleosynthesis , and the heavier elements were produced by stellar nucleosynthesis in generations of stars that completed their stellar evolution and returned their material to the interstellar medium before the formation of the Sun . The chemical composition of the photosphere is normally considered representative of the composition of the primordial Solar System . However , since the Sun formed , some of the helium and heavy elements have gravitationally settled from the photosphere . Therefore , in today 's photosphere the helium fraction is reduced , and the metallicity is only 84 % of what it was in the protostellar phase ( before nuclear fusion in the core started ) . The protostellar Sun 's composition is believed to have been 71 @.@ 1 % hydrogen , 27 @.@ 4 % helium , and 1 @.@ 5 % heavier elements .
Today , nuclear fusion in the Sun 's core has modified the composition by converting hydrogen into helium , so the innermost portion of the Sun is now roughly 60 % helium , with the abundance of heavier elements unchanged . Because heat is transferred from the Sun 's core by radiation rather than by convection ( see Radiative zone below ) , none of the fusion products from the core have risen to the photosphere .
The reactive core zone of " hydrogen burning " , where hydrogen is converted into helium , is starting to surround an inner core of " helium ash " . This development will continue and will eventually cause the Sun to leave the main sequence , to become a red giant .
The solar heavy @-@ element abundances described above are typically measured both using spectroscopy of the Sun 's photosphere and by measuring abundances in meteorites that have never been heated to melting temperatures . These meteorites are thought to retain the composition of the protostellar Sun and are thus not affected by settling of heavy elements . The two methods generally agree well .
= = = Singly ionized iron @-@ group elements = = =
In the 1970s , much research focused on the abundances of iron @-@ group elements in the Sun . Although significant research was done , until 1978 it was difficult to determine the abundances of some iron @-@ group elements ( e.g. cobalt and manganese ) via spectrography because of their hyperfine structures .
The first largely complete set of oscillator strengths of singly ionized iron @-@ group elements were made available in the 1960s , and these were subsequently improved . In 1978 , the abundances of singly ionized elements of the iron group were derived .
= = = Isotopic composition = = =
Various authors have considered the existence of a gradient in the isotopic compositions of solar and planetary noble gases , e.g. correlations between isotopic compositions of neon and xenon in the Sun and on the planets .
Prior to 1983 , it was thought that the whole Sun has the same composition as the solar atmosphere . In 1983 , it was claimed that it was fractionation in the Sun itself that caused the isotopic @-@ composition relationship between the planetary and solar @-@ wind @-@ implanted noble gases .
= = Structure = =
= = = Core = = =
The core of the Sun extends from the center to about 20 – 25 % of the solar radius . It has a density of up to 150 g / cm3 ( about 150 times the density of water ) and a temperature of close to 15 @.@ 7 million kelvins ( K ) . By contrast , the Sun 's surface temperature is approximately 5 @,@ 800 K. Recent analysis of SOHO mission data favors a faster rotation rate in the core than in the radiative zone above . Through most of the Sun 's life , energy is produced by nuclear fusion in the core region through a series of steps called the p – p ( proton – proton ) chain ; this process converts hydrogen into helium . Only 0 @.@ 8 % of the energy generated in the Sun comes from the CNO cycle , though this proportion is expected to increase as the Sun becomes older .
The core is the only region in the Sun that produces an appreciable amount of thermal energy through fusion ; 99 % of the power is generated within 24 % of the Sun 's radius , and by 30 % of the radius , fusion has stopped nearly entirely . The remainder of the Sun is heated by this energy as is transferred outwards through many successive layers , finally to the solar photosphere where it escapes into space as sunlight or the kinetic energy of particles .
The proton – proton chain occurs around 9 @.@ 2 × 1037 times each second in the core , converting about 3 @.@ 7 × 1038 protons into alpha particles ( helium nuclei ) every second ( out of a total of ~ 8 @.@ 9 × 1056 free protons in the Sun ) , or about 6 @.@ 2 × 1011 kg / s . Fusing four free protons ( hydrogen nuclei ) into a single alpha particle ( helium nuclei ) releases around 0 @.@ 7 % of the fused mass as energy , so the Sun releases energy at the mass – energy conversion rate of 4 @.@ 26 million metric tons per second , for 384 @.@ 6 yottawatts ( 3 @.@ 846 × 1026 W ) , or 9 @.@ 192 × 1010 megatons of TNT per second . Theoretical models of the Sun 's interior indicate a power density of approximately 276 @.@ 5 W / m3 , a value that more nearly approximates reptile metabolism than a thermonuclear bomb .
The fusion rate in the core is in a self @-@ correcting equilibrium : a slightly higher rate of fusion would cause the core to heat up more and expand slightly against the weight of the outer layers , reducing the density and hence the fusion rate and correcting the perturbation ; and a slightly lower rate would cause the core to cool and shrink slightly , increasing the density and increasing the fusion rate and again reverting it to its present rate .
= = = Radiative zone = = =
From the core out to about 0 @.@ 7 solar radii , thermal radiation is the primary means of energy transfer . The transfer of energy through this zone is by radiation not by thermal convection . The temperature drops from approximately 7 million to 2 million kelvins with increasing distance from the core . This temperature gradient is less than the value of the adiabatic lapse rate and hence cannot drive convection , hence , energy is transferred by radiation . Ions of hydrogen and helium emit photons , which travel only a brief distance before being reabsorbed by other ions . The density drops a hundredfold ( from 20 g / cm3 to only 0 @.@ 2 g / cm3 ) from 0 @.@ 25 solar radii to the 0 @.@ 7 radii , the top of the radiative zone .
= = = Tachocline = = =
The radiative zone and the convective zone are separated by a transition layer , the tachocline . This is a region where the sharp regime change between the uniform rotation of the radiative zone and the differential rotation of the convection zone results in a large shear between the two — a condition where successive horizontal layers slide past one another . The fluid motion of the convection zone above , slowly disappears from the top of this layer to its bottom where it matches that of the radiative zone . Presently , it is hypothesized ( see Solar dynamo ) that a magnetic dynamo within this layer generates the Sun 's magnetic field .
= = = Convective zone = = =
The Sun 's convection zone extends from 0 @.@ 7 solar radii ( 200 @,@ 000 km ) to near the surface . In this layer , the temperature is lower than in the radiative zone and heavier atoms are not fully ionized . As a result , radiative heat transport is less effective and convection moves the Sun 's energy outward through this layer . The density of the plasma is low enough to allow convective currents to develop . Material heated at the tachocline picks up heat and expands , thereby reducing its density and allowing it to rise . As a result , an orderly motion of the mass develops into thermal cells that carry the majority of the heat outward to the Sun 's photosphere above . Once the material diffusively and radiatively cools just beneath the photospheric surface , its density increases , and it sinks to the base of the convection zone , where it again picks up heat from the top of the radiative zone and the convective cycle continues . At the photosphere , the temperature has dropped to 5 @,@ 700 K and the density to only 0 @.@ 2 g / m3 ( about 1 / 6 @,@ 000 the density of air at sea level ) .
The thermal columns of the convection zone form an imprint on the surface of the Sun giving it a granular appearance called the solar granulation at the smallest scale and supergranulation at larger scales . Turbulent convection in this outer part of the solar interior sustains " small @-@ scale " dynamo action over the near @-@ surface volume of the Sun . The Sun 's thermal columns are Bénard cells and take the shape of hexagonal prisms .
= = = Photosphere = = =
The visible surface of the Sun , the photosphere , is the layer below which the Sun becomes opaque to visible light . Above the photosphere visible sunlight is free to propagate into space , and its energy escapes the Sun entirely . The change in opacity is due to the decreasing amount of H − ions , which absorb visible light easily . Conversely , the visible light we see is produced as electrons react with hydrogen atoms to produce H − ions . The photosphere is tens to hundreds of kilometers thick , and is slightly less opaque than air on Earth . Because the upper part of the photosphere is cooler than the lower part , an image of the Sun appears brighter in the center than on the edge or limb of the solar disk , in a phenomenon known as limb darkening . The spectrum of sunlight has approximately the spectrum of a black @-@ body radiating at about 6 @,@ 000 K , interspersed with atomic absorption lines from the tenuous layers above the photosphere . The photosphere has a particle density of ~ 1023 m − 3 ( about 0 @.@ 37 % of the particle number per volume of Earth 's atmosphere at sea level ) . The photosphere is not fully ionized — the extent of ionization is about 3 % , leaving almost all of the hydrogen in atomic form .
During early studies of the optical spectrum of the photosphere , some absorption lines were found that did not correspond to any chemical elements then known on Earth . In 1868 , Norman Lockyer hypothesized that these absorption lines were caused by a new element that he dubbed helium , after the Greek Sun god Helios . Twenty @-@ five years later , helium was isolated on Earth .
= = = Atmosphere = = =
During a total solar eclipse , when the disk of the Sun is covered by that of the Moon , parts of the Sun 's surrounding atmosphere can be seen . It is composed of four distinct parts : the chromosphere , the transition region , the corona and the heliosphere .
The coolest layer of the Sun is a temperature minimum region extending to about 500 km above the photosphere , and has a temperature of about 4 @,@ 100 K. This part of the Sun is cool enough to allow the existence of simple molecules such as carbon monoxide and water , which can be detected via their absorption spectra .
The chromosphere , transition region , and corona are much hotter than the surface of the Sun . The reason is not well understood , but evidence suggests that Alfvén waves may have enough energy to heat the corona .
Above the temperature minimum layer is a layer about 2 @,@ 000 km thick , dominated by a spectrum of emission and absorption lines . It is called the chromosphere from the Greek root chroma , meaning color , because the chromosphere is visible as a colored flash at the beginning and end of total solar eclipses . The temperature of the chromosphere increases gradually with altitude , ranging up to around 20 @,@ 000 K near the top . In the upper part of the chromosphere helium becomes partially ionized .
Above the chromosphere , in a thin ( about 200 km ) transition region , the temperature rises rapidly from around 20 @,@ 000 K in the upper chromosphere to coronal temperatures closer to 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 K. The temperature increase is facilitated by the full ionization of helium in the transition region , which significantly reduces radiative cooling of the plasma . The transition region does not occur at a well @-@ defined altitude . Rather , it forms a kind of nimbus around chromospheric features such as spicules and filaments , and is in constant , chaotic motion . The transition region is not easily visible from Earth 's surface , but is readily observable from space by instruments sensitive to the extreme ultraviolet portion of the spectrum .
The corona is the next layer of the Sun . The low corona , near the surface of the Sun , has a particle density around 1015 m − 3 to 1016 m − 3 . The average temperature of the corona and solar wind is about 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 – 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 K ; however , in the hottest regions it is 8 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 – 20 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 K. Although no complete theory yet exists to account for the temperature of the corona , at least some of its heat is known to be from magnetic reconnection . The corona is the extended atmosphere of the Sun , which has a volume much larger than the volume enclosed by the Sun 's photosphere . A flow of plasma outward from the Sun into interplanetary space is the solar wind .
The heliosphere , the tenuous outermost atmosphere of the Sun , is filled with the solar wind plasma . This outermost layer of the Sun is defined to begin at the distance where the flow of the solar wind becomes superalfvénic — that is , where the flow becomes faster than the speed of Alfvén waves , at approximately 20 solar radii ( 0 @.@ 1 AU ) . Turbulence and dynamic forces in the heliosphere cannot affect the shape of the solar corona within , because the information can only travel at the speed of Alfvén waves . The solar wind travels outward continuously through the heliosphere , forming the solar magnetic field into a spiral shape , until it impacts the heliopause more than 50 AU from the Sun . In December 2004 , the Voyager 1 probe passed through a shock front that is thought to be part of the heliopause . In late 2012 Voyager 1 recorded a marked increase in cosmic ray collisions and a sharp drop in lower energy particles from the solar wind , which suggested that the probe had passed through the heliopause and entered the interstellar medium .
= = = Photons and neutrinos = = =
High @-@ energy gamma @-@ ray photons initially released with fusion reactions in the core are almost immediately absorbed by the solar plasma of the radiative zone , usually after traveling only a few millimeters . Re @-@ emission happens in a random direction and usually at a slightly lower energy . With this sequence of emissions and absorptions , it takes a long time for radiation to reach the Sun 's surface . Estimates of the photon travel time range between 10 @,@ 000 and 170 @,@ 000 years . In contrast , it takes only 2 @.@ 3 seconds for the neutrinos , which account for about 2 % of the total energy production of the Sun , to reach the surface . Because energy transport in the Sun is a process that involves photons in thermodynamic equilibrium with matter , the time scale of energy transport in the Sun is longer , on the order of 30 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 years . This is the time it would take the Sun to return to a stable state , if the rate of energy generation in its core were suddenly changed .
Neutrinos are also released by the fusion reactions in the core , but , unlike photons , they rarely interact with matter , so almost all are able to escape the Sun immediately . For many years measurements of the number of neutrinos produced in the Sun were lower than theories predicted by a factor of 3 . This discrepancy was resolved in 2001 through the discovery of the effects of neutrino oscillation : the Sun emits the number of neutrinos predicted by the theory , but neutrino detectors were missing 2 ⁄ 3 of them because the neutrinos had changed flavor by the time they were detected .
= = Magnetism and activity = =
= = = Magnetic field = = =
The Sun has a magnetic field that varies across the surface of the Sun . Its polar field is 1 – 2 gauss ( 0 @.@ 0001 – 0 @.@ 0002 T ) , whereas the field is typically 3 @,@ 000 gauss ( 0 @.@ 3 T ) in features on the Sun called sunspots and 10 – 100 gauss ( 0 @.@ 001 – 0 @.@ 01 T ) in solar prominences .
The magnetic field also varies in time and location . The quasi @-@ periodic 11 @-@ year solar cycle is the most prominent variation in which the number and size of sunspots waxes and wanes .
Sunspots are visible as dark patches on the Sun 's photosphere , and correspond to concentrations of magnetic field where the convective transport of heat is inhibited from the solar interior to the surface . As a result , sunspots are slightly cooler than the surrounding photosphere , and , so , they appear dark . At a typical solar minimum , few sunspots are visible , and occasionally none can be seen at all . Those that do appear are at high solar latitudes . As the solar cycle progresses towards its maximum , sunspots tend form closer to the solar equator , a phenomenon known as Spörer 's law . The largest sunspots can be tens of thousands of kilometers across .
An 11 @-@ year sunspot cycle is half of a 22 @-@ year Babcock – Leighton dynamo cycle , which corresponds to an oscillatory exchange of energy between toroidal and poloidal solar magnetic fields . At solar @-@ cycle maximum , the external poloidal dipolar magnetic field is near its dynamo @-@ cycle minimum strength ,
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place barn owls from their traditional nesting sites in buildings .
= = In culture = =
The tawny owl , like its relatives , has often been seen as an omen of bad luck ; William Shakespeare used it as such in Julius Caesar ( Act 1 Scene 3 ) : " And yesterday the bird of night did sit / Even at noon @-@ day upon the market @-@ place / Hooting and shrieking . " John Ruskin is quoted as saying " Whatever wise people may say of them , I at least have found the owl 's cry always prophetic of mischief to me " .
Wordsworth described the technique for calling an owl in his poem There was a Boy .
= Manta ( SeaWorld Orlando ) =
Manta is a steel flying roller coaster at SeaWorld Orlando . The attraction allows guests to encounter numerous species of ray before boarding a manta ray @-@ shaped train that takes them on a 3 @,@ 359 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 1 @,@ 024 m ) roller coaster ride above the park , reaching top speeds of 56 miles per hour ( 90 km / h ) . Designed by Swiss firm Bolliger & Mabillard , Manta restrains riders in the prone position and features four inversions . The well @-@ received attraction officially opened to the public on May 22 , 2009 . Their slogan is " Dive deep , fly high … " .
= = History = =
SeaWorld Orlando revealed the concept that was to become Manta to a gathering of travel industry representatives and community leaders on April 2 , 2008 , although it had been in the planning stages for years . The exact specifications were not immediately revealed , but the park said it would be their largest single investment in an attraction , and that it would open sometime in 2009 . The park also announced that the attraction would include a roller coaster , but that it would be more than just a roller coaster . Joseph Couceiro — vice president of sales and marketing — described the ride as " the next generation SeaWorld attraction " that would immerse guests in elements of marine life .
Artists ' concepts of the new attraction were leaked onto the Internet in April 2008 ; however , SeaWorld officials would not confirm whether the images were accurate representations of the final design , but said that the roller coaster would have a gliding sensation . Searches of trademark applications uncovered an entry for the use of the term " Manta " as an amusement ride , and construction on a large site within the park had already begun . On May 29 , 2008 , park officials confirmed that the attraction would be named Manta , and announced additional details about the attraction .
Construction of the roller coaster track and attraction buildings began in September 2008 . Superior Rigging & Erection built the supports and track . The ride 's layout was completed in December 2008 , and construction on other parts of the roller coaster continued into early 2009 . SeaWorld began previewing the attraction in early May 2009 , before it was officially opened on May 22 .
= = Design = =
= = = Theme and surrounding experience = = =
Manta is an attraction which encompasses a themed queue and a roller coaster . The queue is designed to resemble a seaside village decorated with mosaics and artwork inspired by rays . Within the attraction 's 4 @-@ acre ( 16 @,@ 000 m2 ) site are ten aquaria containing 184 @,@ 000 US gallons ( 700 @,@ 000 l ; 153 @,@ 000 imp gal ) of water . Approximately 3 @,@ 000 animals representing over 60 species are visible — including over 300 rays , such as cownose rays and spotted eagle rays . Other creatures on display include sea horses , leafy seadragons and tropical fish .
Portions of the aquarium exhibit can be viewed by guests who do not wish to ride the roller coaster . Non @-@ riding guests can use a second entrance to the attraction area , which is separated from those waiting for the roller coaster . Guests in the ride 's queue have access to special exhibit components , such as a Plexiglas " pop @-@ up " window into the aquarium . Manta 's rails , supports , and track are filled with sand to reduce noise .
= = = Trains and loading procedure = = =
Manta is a flying roller coaster , which simulates the sensation of flight . It is designed to resemble the way rays — mantas in particular — appear to fly through seawater . Guests are initially seated upright on the trains in one of eight rows that hold four passengers each , accommodating up to 32 riders . Manta operates with three trains . Before departure , mechanisms in the station raise the cars up to the track , such that the riders ' spines are parallel to the track . Guests are secured in their seats using a locking lap bar , a vest @-@ like harness , and flaps at the riders ' ankles to hold their feet in place .
The cars are highly stylized . The lead car is shaped like a manta ray with a wingspan of 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) . In the original plans , the wing of the car was intended to make contact with water at a certain point of the ride , but Bolliger & Mabillard said the idea would not work and a fountain was used instead . The roller coaster 's wings appear to skim the water 's surface . Water jets in the attraction 's main lagoon create a splash effect as the train passes . SeaWorld can adjust several features of the splash effect , including its duration and the train 's speed when it enters the area . The roller coaster 's color scheme includes deep purple , ultramarine blue and cobalt .
= = = Track = = =
The steel track of Manta is 3 @,@ 359 feet ( 1 @,@ 024 m ) long and lift hill is 140 feet ( 43 m ) high . There are four inversions ; a pretzel loop , two inline twists and one corkscrew . The track is dark blue and the supports are light blue . Sand is placed inside some sections of track to reduce the noise produced by the trains . Friction brakes are used to control the speed of the train . The track was fabricated at the Ohio @-@ based Clermont Steel Fabricators . In 2015 , a clone of Manta opened at Nagashima Spa Land under the name of Acrobat .
= = Ride experience = =
Manta features a dual station configuration , which allows two trains to be loaded at the same time , thus increasing the ride 's capacity . After departing from the station , the train will make either a slight left or right turn — depending on which station it leaves — into the 140 @-@ foot ( 43 m ) chain lift hill . From the top of the lift hill , the train makes a 113 @-@ foot ( 34 m ) downward right turn into a 98 @-@ foot ( 30 m ) -tall pretzel loop , after which it turns left , leading into the first of two inline twists . The train then makes a right turn followed by a slight upward left turn into a corkscrew , before turning right into the mid @-@ course brake run . The train then drops to a point just above a body of water , at the same time making a 270 @-@ degree right turn , where water jets spray up near the train to produce the effect of the train actually hitting the water . After exiting the turn , the train goes by a waterfall , goes through the second inline twist , makes a left turn into the final brake run , then makes a left turn into one of the two stations where the next riders board .
= = Reception = =
Manta has been lauded by the mainstream media and industry press since its debut in May 2009 . Busch Entertainment Corporation , SeaWorld Orlando 's parent company , credited Manta with improving park attendance . In July 2009 , ThemeParkInsider.com named Manta " best new attraction " . In September 2009 , Manta placed third in Amusement Today magazine 's poll for the Best New Ride of 2009 .
In Mitch Hawker 's worldwide Best Roller Coaster Poll , Manta peaked at position 23 in its debut year . The ride 's ranking in subsequent polls is shown in the table below .
= Gevingåsen Tunnel =
Gevingåsen Tunnel is a 4 @.@ 4 @-@ kilometer ( 2 @.@ 7 mi ) single track railway tunnel between Hommelvik and Hell , Norway , on the Nordland Line . Blasting started in 2009 , and the tunnel opened on 15 August 2011 , having cost 635 million Norwegian krone ( NOK ) . Built by the Norwegian National Rail Administration , the tunnel has shortened travel time south of Stjørdal by five minutes and increased the capacity of the Trondheim – Stjørdal to four trains per hour in each direction .
The tunnel was the first stage in a project to reduce travel time between Steinkjer and Trondheim to one hour . The tunnel section will not be suitable for high @-@ speed trains , as it was built with curves with too small a diameter , notwithstanding political debate about both these tight curves and the possibility of double track . The whole project involved 5 @.@ 7 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 5 mi ) of new tracks and permanent way . The blasted rock is used to build a new apron at Trondheim Airport , Værnes .
= = Background = =
The tunnel was built between Hommelvik and Hell on the Nordland Line , through the hill Gevingåsen . The tunnel is 4 @.@ 4 kilometers ( 2 @.@ 7 mi ) long , although the whole project consists of 5 @.@ 7 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 5 mi ) of track . The tunnel carries a single track , reducing travel time by five minutes . It has also created the same distance between all passing loops between Trondheim and Stjørdal , allowing the capacity to increase from 5 @.@ 4 to 8 trains per hour ( both directions combined ) . The old right @-@ of @-@ way , located on a ledge over the sea and prone to landslides , is to be closed . In addition , 92 houses are projected to enjoy reduced noise pollution after the closing . Gevingsåsen was the first part of the plan to reduce rail travel time from Trondheim to Steinkjer to one hour . Politicians have suggested that after the tunnel is completed , they want to electrify the tracks from Trondheim to Steinkjer . The E6 motorway runs parallel through Gevingåsen in the Hell Tunnel .
= = Construction = =
Construction of the tunnel was done by drilling and blasting . During planning , use of a tunnel boring machine was considered , but the conventional drilling and blasting method was chosen because it was both cheaper and faster . At Hommelvik , the new section of track starts at the river of Homla , where it will run in a curve towards the tunnel entrance at Solbakken . Just within the entrance , there will be built a pool and pump to collect surface water . A crosscut is located at Muruvik , close to the quarry . At this point it is 275 meters ( 902 ft ) to the tunnel and blasting will be performed in both directions from the tunnel 's interception with the crosscut . Muruvik will also serve as the operational hub ; transport of the masses to the airport will run along the old E6 . The third point of entry for blasting is the entrance at Hell . The works include replacing the level crossing at Hell Station with an overpass .
The builder is the Norwegian National Rail Administration , and construction of the tunnel is financed through state funding , with the project costing NOK 635 million . The construction will be undertaken at the same time as Avinor is expanding the nearby Trondheim Airport , Værnes , and the spoil from the tunnel will be used to build a new apron . Planning of the tunnel was completed at the end of 2008 . The tender for construction was completed in March 2009 , and won by Mika . The construction will extract 400 @,@ 000 cubic metres ( 14 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cu ft ) of blasted rock , that is transported out of the tunnel . The last blast was detonated on 12 August 2010 , completing the tunneling proper on time and on budget without injuries . The first revenue train ran through the tunnel on 15 August 2011 . But because schedules only change twice a year , the time saving cannot be incorporated until 2012 . Further plans include building a second track at Trondheim Airport Station . Due to the capacity increase created by the tunnel , this will allow dedicated airport trains to operate from Trondheim .
= = Controversy = =
The Trøndelag Council , an unofficial coordination council consisting of representatives from Nord @-@ Trøndelag County Municipality , Sør @-@ Trøndelag County Municipality and Trondheim Municipality , originally stated that they wanted a double @-@ track tunnel . In 2006 , the Norwegian National Rail Administration stated that it was not certain that a double @-@ track in a single tunnel would meet European Union regulations , and that they might have to delay construction while looking into the matter . Costs for a double track would be about 50 % higher than for a single track . Constructing a second barrel later for the a new track would cost as much as the first barrel . Trøndelag Council member Alf Daniel Moen ( Labour ) stated that the council abandoned the demand for a double @-@ track tunnel so the airport expansion and tunnel construction could be coordinated and because there was not sufficient funding at the time to build both tracks .
The tunnel has raised criticism for not being in line with the goals to build a high @-@ speed railway in Trøndelag . This plan requires double track from Trondheim to Stjørdal , but such a solution through the tunnel has been disregarded . Norsk Bane , which is working on plans for a high @-@ speed rail from Oslo to Steinkjer , has criticized the tunnel route for having curves that are too tight . With a radius of 320 metres ( 1 @,@ 050 ft ) , this will only allow 110 kilometres per hour ( 68 mph ) at Hommelvik Station and 60 kilometres per hour ( 37 mph ) at Hell Station . So although the tunnel itself is straight enough to allow speeds of 210 kilometres per hour ( 130 mph ) , limitations at both ends of the tunnel will not allow trains to reach a higher maximum speed of 160 kilometres per hour ( 99 mph ) and an average speed of more than 130 kilometres per hour ( 81 mph ) . Because of this , Gevingåsen Tunnel would not be able to allow high speeds , defined by parliament as minimum 250 kilometres per hour ( 160 mph ) , and could not be part of a future high @-@ speed line north of Trondheim . Norsk Bane stated that part of the cause is that although the National Rail Administration has plans to build a high @-@ speed line from Trondheim to Steinkjer , no complete plans , nor any plans for the trackage on either side of the tunnel , have been made .
In January 2009 , just before construction commenced , the Nord @-@ Trøndelag County Cabinet , fronted by Chair Alf Daniel Moen and Councilor of Transport Tor Erik Jensen ( Conservative ) , stated that they did not want the tunnel to run along its planned route , but instead a less curved line that would allow it to be used as a high @-@ speed line in the future . This was rejected by the Ministry of Transport and Communications , who stated that they were building a " modern railway for the future " .
It could be added that most trains are regional trains which stop in both Hell and Hommelvik . For them high @-@ speed curves are meaningless .
= Japanese aircraft carrier Akagi =
Akagi ( Japanese : 赤城 ) was an aircraft carrier built for the Imperial Japanese Navy ( IJN ) , named after Mount Akagi in present @-@ day Gunma Prefecture . Though she was laid down as an Amagi @-@ class battlecruiser , Akagi was converted to an aircraft carrier while still under construction to comply with the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty . The ship was rebuilt from 1935 to 1938 with her original three flight decks consolidated into a single enlarged flight deck and an island superstructure . The second Japanese aircraft carrier to enter service , and the first large or " fleet " carrier , Akagi figured prominently in the development of the IJN 's new carrier striking force doctrine that grouped carriers together , concentrating their air power . This doctrine enabled Japan to attain its strategic goals during the early stages of the Pacific War from December 1941 until mid @-@ 1942 .
Akagi 's aircraft served in the Second Sino @-@ Japanese War in the late 1930s . Upon the formation of the First Air Fleet or Kido Butai ( Striking Force ) in early 1941 , she became its flagship , and remained so for the duration of her service . With other fleet carriers , she took part in the Attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941 and the invasion of Rabaul in the Southwest Pacific in January 1942 . The following month , her aircraft bombed Darwin , Australia , and assisted in the conquest of the Dutch East Indies . In March and April 1942 , Akagi 's aircraft helped sink a British heavy cruiser and an Australian destroyer in the Indian Ocean Raid .
After a brief refit , Akagi and three other fleet carriers of the Kido Butai participated in the Battle of Midway in June 1942 . After bombarding American forces on the atoll , Akagi and the other carriers were attacked by aircraft from Midway and the carriers Enterprise , Hornet , and Yorktown . Dive bombers from Enterprise severely damaged Akagi . When it became obvious she could not be saved , she was scuttled by Japanese destroyers to prevent her from falling into enemy hands . The loss of Akagi and three other IJN carriers at Midway was a crucial strategic defeat for Japan and contributed significantly to the Allies ' ultimate victory in the Pacific .
= = Design = =
= = = Construction and launch = = =
Akagi was laid down as an Amagi @-@ class battlecruiser at Kure , Japan , on 6 December 1920 . The ship was named after Mount Akagi , following the Japanese ship @-@ naming conventions for battlecruisers . Construction was halted , however , when Japan signed the Washington Naval Treaty on 6 February 1922 . The treaty placed restrictions on the construction of battleships and battlecruisers although it authorized conversion of two battleship or battlecruiser hulls under construction into aircraft carriers of up to 33 @,@ 000 long tons ( 34 @,@ 000 t ) displacement . The IJN had decided , following the launch of its first aircraft carrier , Hōshō , to construct two larger , faster carriers for operations with major fleet units . The incomplete hulls of Amagi and Akagi were thus selected for completion as the two large carriers under the 1924 fleet construction program . ¥ 24 @.@ 7 million was originally budgeted to complete Akagi as a battlecruiser and an estimated ¥ 8 million had been expended when construction stopped in February 1922 . Shortly thereafter , the Diet approved an additional ¥ 90 million to complete Akagi and Amagi as carriers .
Construction of Akagi as an aircraft carrier began on 19 November 1923 . Amagi 's hull was damaged beyond economically feasible repair in the Great Kantō earthquake of 1 September 1923 and was broken up and scrapped . Akagi , the only remaining member of her class , was launched as a carrier on 22 April 1925 and commissioned at Kure Naval Arsenal on 25 March 1927 , although trials continued through November 1927 . She was the second carrier to enter service with the IJN , after Hōshō and before Kaga ( which replaced Amagi ) .
Since Akagi was initially conceived as a battlecruiser , the prevailing ship naming conventions dictated that she ( like her sister ships ) be named after a mountain . Akagi came from Mount Akagi , a dormant volcano in the Kantō region ( the name literally means " red castle " ) . After she was redesignated as an aircraft carrier , her mountain name remained , in contrast to ships like Sōryū that were originally built as aircraft carriers , which were named after flying creatures . Her name was previously given to the Maya @-@ class gunboat Akagi .
Akagi was completed at a length of 261 @.@ 21 meters ( 857 ft 0 in ) overall . She had a beam of 31 meters ( 101 ft 8 in ) and , at deep load , a draft of 8 @.@ 08 meters ( 26 ft 6 in ) . She displaced 26 @,@ 900 long tons ( 27 @,@ 300 t ) at standard load , and 34 @,@ 364 long tons ( 34 @,@ 920 t ) at full load , nearly 7 @,@ 000 long tons ( 7 @,@ 100 t ) less than her designed displacement as a battlecruiser . Her complement totaled 1 @,@ 600 crewmembers .
= = = Flight deck arrangements = = =
Akagi and Kaga were completed with three superimposed flight decks , the only carriers ever to be designed so . The British carriers converted from " large light cruisers " , HMS Glorious , HMS Courageous , and HMS Furious , each had two flight decks , but there is no evidence that the Japanese copied the British model . It is more likely that it was a case of convergent evolution to improve launch and recovery cycle flexibility by allowing simultaneous launch and recovery of aircraft . Akagi 's main flight deck was 190 @.@ 2 meters ( 624 ft 0 in ) long , her middle flight deck ( beginning right in front of the bridge ) was only 15 meters ( 49 ft 3 in ) long and her lower flight deck was 55 @.@ 02 meters ( 180 ft 6 in ) long . The utility of her middle flight deck was questionable as it was so short that only some lightly loaded aircraft could use it , even in an era when the aircraft were much lighter and smaller than during World War II . The upper flight deck sloped slightly from amidships toward the bow and toward the stern to assist landings and takeoffs for the underpowered aircraft of that time .
As completed , the ship had two main hangar decks and a third auxiliary hangar , giving a total capacity of 60 aircraft . The third and lowest hangar deck was only used for storing disassembled aircraft . The two main hangars opened onto the middle and lower flight decks to allow aircraft to take off directly from the hangars while landing operations were in progress on the main flight deck above . The upper and middle hangar areas totaled about 80 @,@ 375 square feet ( 7 @,@ 467 @.@ 1 m2 ) , the lower hangar about 8 @,@ 515 square feet ( 791 @.@ 1 m2 ) . No catapults were fitted . Her forward aircraft lift was offset to starboard and 11 @.@ 8 by 13 meters ( 38 ft 9 in × 42 ft 8 in ) in size . Her aft lift was on the centerline and 12 @.@ 8 by 8 @.@ 4 meters ( 42 ft 0 in × 27 ft 7 in ) . The aft elevator serviced the upper flight deck and all three hangar decks . Her arresting gear was an unsatisfactory British longitudinal system used on the carrier Furious that relied on friction between the arrester hook and the cables . The Japanese were well aware of this system 's flaws , as it was already in use on their first carrier , Hōshō , but had no alternatives available when Akagi was completed . It was replaced during the ship 's refit in 1931 with a Japanese @-@ designed transverse cable system with six wires and that was replaced in turn before Akagi began her modernization in 1935 by the Kure Model 4 type ( Kure shiki 4 gata ) . There was no island superstructure when the carrier was completed ; the carrier was commanded from a space below the forward end of the upper flight deck . The ship carried approximately 150 @,@ 000 US gallons ( 570 @,@ 000 l ) of aviation fuel for her embarked aircraft .
As originally completed , Akagi carried an air group of 28 Mitsubishi B1M3 torpedo bombers , 16 Nakajima A1N fighters and 16 Mitsubishi 2MR reconnaissance aircraft .
= = = Armament and armor = = =
Akagi was armed with ten 50 @-@ caliber 20 cm 3rd Year Type No. 1 guns , six in casemates aft and the rest in two twin gun turrets , one on each side of the middle flight deck . They fired 110 @-@ kilogram ( 240 lb ) projectiles at a rate of 3 – 6 rounds per minute with a muzzle velocity of 870 m / s ( 2 @,@ 900 ft / s ) ; at 25 ° , this provided a maximum range between 22 @,@ 600 and 24 @,@ 000 meters ( 24 @,@ 700 and 26 @,@ 200 yd ) . The turrets were nominally capable of 70 ° elevation to provide additional anti @-@ aircraft fire , but in practice the maximum elevation was only 55 ° . The slow rate of fire and the fixed 5 ° loading angle minimized any real anti @-@ aircraft capability . This heavy gun armament was provided in case she was surprised by enemy cruisers and forced to give battle , but her large and vulnerable flight deck , hangars , and superstructure made her more of a target in any surface action than a fighting warship . Carrier doctrine was still evolving at this time and the impracticality of carriers engaging in gun duels had not yet been realized .
The ship carried dedicated anti @-@ aircraft armament of six twin 45 @-@ caliber 12 cm 10th Year Type gun mounts fitted on sponsons below the level of the funnels , where they could not fire across the flight deck , three mounts per side . These guns fired 20 @.@ 3 @-@ kilogram ( 45 lb ) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 825 – 830 m / s ( 2 @,@ 710 – 2 @,@ 720 ft / s ) ; at 45 ° , this provided a maximum range of 16 @,@ 000 meters ( 17 @,@ 000 yd ) , and they had a maximum ceiling of 10 @,@ 000 meters ( 11 @,@ 000 yd ) at 75 ° elevation . Their effective rate of fire was 6 – 8 rounds per minute .
Akagi 's waterline armored belt was reduced from 254 to 152 mm ( 10 to 6 in ) and placed lower on the ship than originally designed . The upper part of her torpedo bulge was given 102 mm ( 4 in ) of armor . Her deck armor was also reduced from 96 to 79 mm ( 3 @.@ 8 to 3 @.@ 1 in ) . The modifications improved the ship 's stability by helping compensate for the increased topside weight of the double hangar deck .
= = = Propulsion = = =
In Akagi 's predecessor , Hōshō , the hot exhaust gases vented by swivelling funnels posed a danger to the ship , and wind @-@ tunnel testing had not suggested any solutions . Akagi and Kaga were given different solutions to evaluate in real @-@ world conditions . Akagi was given two funnels on the starboard side . The larger , forward funnel was angled 30 ° below horizontal with its mouth facing the sea , and the smaller one exhausted vertically a little past the edge of the flight deck . The forward funnel was fitted with a water @-@ cooling system to reduce the turbulence caused by hot exhaust gases and a cover that could be raised to allow the exhaust gases to escape if the ship developed a severe list and the mouth of the funnel touched the sea . Kaga adopted a version of this configuration when she was modernized during the mid @-@ 1930s .
Akagi was completed with four Gihon geared steam turbine sets , each driving one propeller shaft , that produced a total of 131 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 98 @,@ 000 kW ) . Steam for these turbines was provided by nineteen Type B Kampon boilers with a working pressure of 20 kg / cm2 ( 1 @,@ 961 kPa ; 284 psi ) . Some boilers were oil @-@ fired , and the others used a mix of fuel oil and coal . As a battlecruiser , she was expected to achieve 28 @.@ 5 knots ( 52 @.@ 8 km / h ; 32 @.@ 8 mph ) , but the reduction in displacement from 41 @,@ 200 to 34 @,@ 000 long tons ( 41 @,@ 900 to 34 @,@ 500 t ) increased her maximum speed to 32 @.@ 5 knots ( 60 @.@ 2 km / h ; 37 @.@ 4 mph ) , which was reached during her sea trials on 17 June 1927 . She carried 3 @,@ 900 long tons ( 4 @,@ 000 t ) of fuel oil and 2 @,@ 100 long tons ( 2 @,@ 100 t ) of coal that gave her a range of 8 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 15 @,@ 000 km ; 9 @,@ 200 mi ) at 14 knots ( 26 km / h ; 16 mph ) .
= = Early service = =
Akagi joined the Combined Fleet in August 1927 and was assigned to the First Carrier Division upon its formation on 1 April 1928 , serving as the division 's flagship under Rear Admiral Sankichi Takahashi . The carrier 's early career was uneventful , consisting of various training exercises . From 10 December 1928 to 1 November 1929 , the ship was captained by Isoroku Yamamoto , future commander of the Combined Fleet .
Akagi was reduced to second @-@ class reserve status on 1 December 1931 in preparation for a short refit in which her arresting gear was replaced and her radio and ventilation systems were overhauled and improved . After completion of the refit , Akagi became a first @-@ class reserve ship in December 1932 . On 25 April 1933 , she resumed active service and joined the Second Carrier Division and participated in that year 's Special Fleet Maneuvers .
At this time , the IJN 's carrier doctrine was still in its early stages . Akagi and the IJN 's other carriers were initially given roles as tactical force multipliers supporting the fleet 's battleships in the IJN 's " decisive battle " doctrine . In this role , Akagi 's aircraft were to attack enemy battleships with bombs and torpedoes . Aerial strikes against enemy carriers were later ( beginning around 1932 – 1933 ) deemed of equal importance , with the goal of establishing air superiority during the initial stages of battle . The essential component in this strategy was that the Japanese carrier aircraft must be able to strike first with a massed , preemptive aerial attack . In fleet training exercises , the carriers began to operate together in front of or with the main battle line . The new strategy emphasized maximum speed from both the carriers and the aircraft they carried as well as larger aircraft with greater range . Thus , longer flight decks on the carriers were required in order to handle the newer , heavier aircraft which were entering service . As a result , on 15 November 1935 Akagi was placed in third @-@ class reserve to begin an extensive modernization at Sasebo Naval Arsenal .
= = Reconstruction = =
Akagi 's modernization involved far less work than that of Kaga , but took three times as long due to financial difficulties related to the Great Depression . The ship 's three flight decks were judged too small to handle the larger and heavier aircraft then coming into service . As a result , the middle and lower flight decks were eliminated in favor of two enclosed hangar decks that extended almost the full length of the ship . The upper and middle hangar areas ' total space increased to about 93 @,@ 000 square feet ( 8 @,@ 600 m2 ) ; the lower hangar remained the same size . The upper flight deck was extended to the bow , increasing its length to 249 @.@ 17 meters ( 817 ft 6 in ) and raising aircraft capacity to 86 ( 61 operational and 25 in storage ) . A third elevator midships , 11 @.@ 8 by 13 meters ( 38 ft 9 in × 42 ft 8 in ) in size , was added . Her arrester gear was replaced by a Japanese @-@ designed , hydraulic , Type 1 system with 9 wires . The modernization added an island superstructure on the port side of the ship , which was an unusual arrangement ; the only other carrier to share this feature was a contemporary , the Hiryū . The port side was chosen as an experiment to see if that side was better for flight operations by moving the island away from the ship 's exhaust outlets . The new flight deck inclined slightly fore and aft from a point about three @-@ eighths of the way aft .
Akagi 's speed was already satisfactory and the only changes to her machinery were the replacement of the mixed coal / oil @-@ fired boilers with modern oil @-@ fired units and the improvement of the ventilation arrangements . Although the engine horsepower increased from 131 @,@ 200 to 133 @,@ 000 , her speed declined slightly from 32 @.@ 5 to 31 @.@ 2 knots ( 60 @.@ 2 to 57 @.@ 8 km / h ; 37 @.@ 4 to 35 @.@ 9 mph ) on trials because of the increase in her displacement to 41 @,@ 300 long tons ( 42 @,@ 000 t ) . Her bunkerage was increased to 7 @,@ 500 long tons ( 7 @,@ 600 t ) of fuel oil which increased her endurance to 10 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 18 @,@ 520 km ; 11 @,@ 510 mi ) at 16 knots ( 30 km / h ; 18 mph ) . The rear vertical funnel was changed to match the forward funnel and incorporated into the same casing .
The two twin turrets on the middle flight deck were removed and fourteen twin 25 mm ( 1 in ) Type 96 gun mounts were added on sponsons . They fired .25 @-@ kilogram ( 0 @.@ 55 lb ) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 900 m / s ( 3 @,@ 000 ft / s ) ; at 50 ° , this provided a maximum range of 7 @,@ 500 m ( 8 @,@ 200 yd ) , and an effective ceiling of 5 @,@ 500 m ( 18 @,@ 000 ft ) . The maximum effective rate of fire was only between 110 – 120 rounds per minute due to the frequent need to change the 15 @-@ round magazines . Six Type 95 directors were fitted to control the new 25 mm guns and two new Type 94 anti @-@ aircraft directors replaced the outdated Type 91s . After the modernization , Akagi carried one Type 89 director for the 20 cm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) guns ; it is uncertain how many were carried before then . The ship 's crew increased to 2 @,@ 000 after the reconstruction .
The ship 's anti @-@ aircraft guns were grouped amidships and placed relatively low on the hull . Thus , the guns could not be brought to bear directly forward or aft . Also , the island blocked the forward arcs of the port battery . As a result , the ship was vulnerable to attack by dive bombers . The ship 's 12 cm 10th Year Type guns were scheduled to be replaced by more modern 12 @.@ 7 cm ( 5 @.@ 0 in ) Type 89 mounts in 1942 . The anti @-@ aircraft sponsons were to be raised one deck to allow them some measure of cross @-@ deck fire as was done during Kaga 's modernization . However , the ship was lost in combat before the upgrade could take place .
Several major weaknesses in Akagi 's design were not rectified . Akagi 's aviation fuel tanks were incorporated directly into the structure of the carrier , meaning that shocks to the ship , such as those caused by bomb or shell hits , would be transmitted directly to the tanks , resulting in cracks or leaks . Also , the fully enclosed structure of the new hangar decks made firefighting difficult , at least in part because fuel vapors could accumulate in the hangars . Adding to the danger was the requirement of the Japanese carrier doctrine that aircraft be serviced , fueled , and armed whenever possible on the hangar decks rather than on the flight deck . Furthermore , the carrier 's hangar and flight decks carried little armor protection , and there was no redundancy in the ship 's fire @-@ extinguishing systems . These weaknesses would later be crucial factors in the loss of the ship .
= = Lead @-@ up to World War II = =
Akagi 's modernization was completed on 31 August 1938 . She was reclassified as a first reserve ship on 15 November , but did not rejoin the First Carrier Division until the following month . In her new configuration , the carrier embarked 12 Mitsubishi A5M Type 96 " Claude " fighters with 4 disassembled spares , 19 Aichi D1A " Susie " dive bombers with 5 spares , and 35 Yokosuka B4Y " Jean " horizontal / torpedo bombers with 16 spares . She sailed for southern Chinese waters on 30 January 1939 and supported ground operations there , including attacks on Guilin and Liuzhou , until 19 February , when she returned to Japan . Akagi supported operations in central China between 27 March and 2 April 1940 . She was reclassified as a special purpose ship ( Tokubetse Ilomokan ) on 15 November 1940 , while she was being overhauled .
The Japanese experiences off China had helped further develop the IJN 's carrier doctrine . One lesson learned in China was the importance of concentration and mass in projecting naval air power ashore . Therefore , in April 1941 , the IJN formed the First Air Fleet , or Kido Butai , to combine all of its fleet carriers under a single command . On 10 April , Akagi and Kaga were assigned to the First Carrier Division as part of the new carrier fleet , which also included the Second ( with carriers Hiryū and Sōryū ) , and Fifth ( with Shōkaku and Zuikaku ) carrier divisions . The IJN centered its doctrine on air strikes that combined the air groups of entire carrier divisions , rather than individual carriers . When multiple carrier divisions were operating together , the divisions ' air groups were combined . This doctrine of combined , massed , carrier @-@ based air attack groups was the most advanced of its kind in the world . The IJN , however , remained concerned that concentrating all of its carriers together would render them vulnerable to being wiped out all at once by a massive enemy air or surface strike . Thus , the IJN developed a compromise solution in which the fleet carriers would operate closely together within their carrier divisions but the divisions themselves would operate in loose rectangular formations , with approximately 7 @,@ 000 meters ( 7 @,@ 700 yd ) separating each carrier .
The Japanese doctrine held that entire carrier air groups should not be launched in a single massed attack . Instead , each carrier would launch a " deckload strike " of all its aircraft that could be spotted at one time on each flight deck . Subsequent attack waves consisted of the next deckload of aircraft . Thus , First Air Fleet air attacks would often consist of at least two massed waves of aircraft . The First Air Fleet was not considered to be the IJN 's primary strategic striking force . The IJN still considered the First Air Fleet an integral component in the Combined Fleet 's Kantai Kessen or " decisive battle " task force centered on battleships . Akagi was designated as the flagship for the First Air Fleet , a role the ship retained until her sinking 14 months later .
Although the concentration of so many fleet carriers into a single unit was a new and revolutionary offensive strategic concept , the First Air Fleet suffered from several defensive deficiencies that gave it , in Mark Peattie 's words , a " ' glass jaw ' : it could throw a punch but couldn 't take one . " Japanese carrier anti @-@ aircraft guns and associated fire @-@ control systems had several design and configuration deficiencies that limited their effectiveness . Also , the IJN 's fleet combat air patrol ( CAP ) consisted of too few fighter aircraft and was hampered by an inadequate early warning system , including lack of radar . In addition , poor radio communications with the fighter aircraft inhibited effective command and control of the CAP . Furthermore , the carriers ' escorting warships were not trained or deployed to provide close anti @-@ aircraft support . These deficiencies , combined with the shipboard weaknesses previously detailed , would eventually doom Akagi and other First Air Fleet carriers .
= = World War II = =
= = = Pearl Harbor and subsequent operations = = =
In preparation for the attack , the ship was anchored at Ariake Bay , Kyushu beginning in September 1941 while its aircraft were based at Kagoshima to train with the other 1st Air Fleet air units for the Pearl Harbor operation . Once preparations and training were completed , Akagi assembled with the rest of the First Air Fleet at Hitokappu Bay in the Kuril Islands on 22 November 1941 . The ships departed on 26 November 1941 for Hawaii .
Commanded by Captain Kiichi Hasegawa , Akagi was Vice Admiral Chūichi Nagumo 's flagship for the striking force for the attack on Pearl Harbor that attempted to cripple the United States Pacific Fleet . Akagi and the other five carriers , from a position 230 nautical miles ( 430 km ; 260 mi ) north of Oahu , launched two waves of aircraft on the morning of 7 December 1941 . In the first wave , 27 Nakajima B5N " Kate " torpedo bombers from Akagi torpedoed the battleships Oklahoma , West Virginia , and California while 9 of the ship 's Mitsubishi A6M Zeros attacked the air base at Hickam Field . In the second wave , 18 Aichi D3A " Val " dive bombers from the carrier targeted the battleships Maryland and Pennsylvania , the light cruiser Raleigh , the destroyer Shaw , and the fleet oiler Neosho while nine " Zeros " attacked various American airfields . One of the carrier 's Zeros was shot down by American anti @-@ aircraft guns during the first wave attack , killing its pilot . In addition to the aircraft which participated in the raid , three of the carrier 's fighters were assigned to the CAP . One of the carrier 's Zero fighters attacked a Boeing B @-@ 17 Flying Fortress heavy bomber that had just arrived from the mainland , setting it on fire as it landed at Hickam , killing one of its crew .
In January 1942 , together with the rest of the First and Fifth Carrier Divisions , Akagi supported the invasion of Rabaul in the Bismarck Archipelago , as the Japanese moved to secure their southern defensive perimeter against attacks from Australia . She provided 20 B5Ns and 9 Zeros for the initial airstrike on Rabaul on 20 January 1942 . The First Carrier Division attacked Allied positions at nearby Kavieng the following day , of which Akagi contributed 9 A6M Zeros and 18 D3As . On the 22nd , Akagi 's D3As and Zeros again attacked Rabaul before returning to Truk on 27 January . The Second Carrier Division , with Sōryū and Hiryū , had been detached to support the invasion of Wake Island on 23 December 1941 and did not reunite with the rest of the carrier mobile striking force until February 1942 .
Akagi , along with Kaga and the carrier Zuikaku , sortied in search of American naval forces raiding the Marshall Islands on 1 February 1942 , before being recalled . On 7 February Akagi and the carriers of the First and Second Carrier Divisions were ordered south to the Timor Sea where , on 19 February , from a point 100 nautical miles ( 190 km ; 120 mi ) southeast of the easternmost tip of Timor , they launched air strikes against Darwin , Australia , in an attempt to destroy its port and airfield facilities to prevent any interference with the invasion of Java . Akagi contributed 18 B5Ns , 18 D3As , and 9 Zeros to the attack , which caught the defenders by surprise . Eight ships were sunk , including the American destroyer Peary , and fourteen more were damaged . None of the carrier 's aircraft were lost in the attack and the attack was effective in preventing Darwin from contributing to the Allied defense of Java . On 1 March , the American oiler Pecos was sunk by D3As from Sōryū and Akagi . Later that same day the American destroyer Edsall was attacked and sunk by D3As from Akagi and Sōryū , in combination with gunfire from two battleships and two heavy cruisers of the escort force . Akagi and her consorts covered the invasion of Java , although her main contribution appears to have been providing 18 B5Ns and 9 Zeros for the 5 March air strike on Tjilatjap . This group was very successful , sinking eight ships in the harbor there and none of Akagi 's aircraft were lost . Most of the Allied forces in the Dutch East Indies surrendered to the Japanese later in March . The Kido Butai then sailed for Staring Bay on Celebes Island to refuel and recuperate .
= = = Indian Ocean raid = = =
On 26 March , Akagi set sail for the Indian Ocean raid with the rest of the Kido Butai . The Japanese intent was to defeat the British Eastern Fleet and destroy British airpower in the region in order to secure the flank of their operations in Burma . On 5 April 1942 , Akagi launched 17 B5Ns and 9 Zeros in an air strike against Colombo , Ceylon , which damaged the port facilities . None of the aircraft were lost and the Zero pilots claimed to have shot down a dozen of the defending British fighters . Later that day , 17 D3As from Akagi helped to sink the British heavy cruisers Cornwall and Dorsetshire . On 9 April , she attacked Trincomalee with 18 B5Ns , escorted by 6 Zeros which claimed to have shot down 5 Hawker Hurricane fighters ( only two of which can be confirmed from Allied records ) without loss to themselves . Meanwhile , a floatplane from the battleship Haruna spotted the small aircraft carrier Hermes , escorted by the Australian destroyer Vampire , and every available D3A was launched to attack the ships . Akagi contributed 17 dive bombers and they helped to sink both ships ; they also spotted the oil tanker RFA Athelstone , escorted by the corvette Hollyhock , as well and sank both without loss . During the day 's actions , the carrier narrowly escaped damage when nine British Bristol Blenheim bombers from Ceylon penetrated the CAP and dropped their bombs from 11 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 400 m ) , just missing the carrier and the heavy cruiser Tone . Four of the Blenheims were subsequently shot down by CAP fighters and one was shot down by aircraft from the carriers ' returning air strike . After the raid , the carrier mobile striking force returned to Japan to refit and replenish .
On 19 April 1942 , while near Taiwan during the transit to Japan , Akagi , Sōryū , and Hiryū were sent in pursuit of the American carriers Hornet and Enterprise , which had launched the Doolittle Raid . They found only empty ocean , however , for the American carriers had immediately departed the area to return to Hawaii . Akagi and the other carriers shortly abandoned the chase and dropped anchor at Hashirajima anchorage on 22 April . On 25 April , Captain Taijiro Aoki relieved Hasegawa as skipper of the carrier . Having been engaged in constant operations for four and a half months , the ship , along with the other three carriers of the First and Second Carrier Divisions , was hurriedly refitted and replenished in preparation for the Combined Fleet 's next major operation , scheduled to begin one month hence . The Fifth Carrier Division , with Shōkaku and Zuikaku , had been detached in mid @-@ April to support Operation Mo , resulting in the Battle of the Coral Sea . While at Hashirajima , Akagi 's air group was based ashore in Kagoshima and conducted flight and weapons training with the other First Air Fleet carrier units .
= = = Midway = = =
Concerned by the US carrier strikes in the Marshall Islands , Lae @-@ Salamaua , and the Doolittle raids , Yamamoto determined to force the US Navy into a showdown to eliminate the American carrier threat . He decided to invade and occupy Midway Island , which he was sure would draw out the American carrier forces to battle . The Japanese codenamed the Midway invasion Operation MI .
On 25 May 1942 , Akagi set out with the Combined Fleet 's carrier striking force in the company of carriers Kaga , Hiryū , and Sōryū , which constituted the First and Second Carrier Divisions , for the attack on Midway Island . Once again , Nagumo flew his flag on Akagi . Because of damage and losses suffered during the Battle of the Coral Sea , the Fifth Carrier Division with carriers Shōkaku and Zuikaku was absent from the operation . Akagi 's aircraft complement consisted of 24 Zeros , 18 D3As , and 18 B5Ns .
With the fleet positioned 250 nautical miles ( 460 km ; 290 mi ) northwest of Midway Island at dawn ( 04 : 45 local time ) on 4 June 1942 , Akagi 's portion of the 108 @-@ plane combined air raid was a strike on the airfield on Eastern Island with 18 dive bombers escorted by nine Zeros . The carrier 's B5Ns were armed with torpedoes and kept ready in case enemy ships were discovered during the Midway operation . The only loss during the raid from Akagi 's air group was one Zero shot down by AA fire and three damaged ; four dive bombers were damaged , of which one could not be repaired . Unbeknownst to the Japanese , the US Navy had discovered the Japanese MI plan by breaking the Japanese cipher and had prepared an ambush using its three available carriers , positioned northeast of Midway .
One of Akagi 's torpedo bombers was launched to augment the search for any American ships that might be in the area . The carrier contributed three Zeros to the total of 11 assigned to the initial combat air patrol over the four carriers . By 07 : 00 , the carrier had 11 fighters with the CAP which helped to defend the Kido Butai from the first US attackers from Midway Island at 07 : 10 .
At this time , Nagumo 's carriers were attacked by six US Navy Grumman TBF Avengers from Torpedo Squadron 8 ( VT @-@ 8 ) and four United States Army Air Forces ( USAAF ) B @-@ 26 Marauders , all carrying torpedoes . The Avengers went after Hiryū while the Marauders attacked Akagi . The 30 CAP Zeroes in the air at this time , including the 11 from Akagi , immediately attacked the American aircraft , shooting down five of the Avengers and two of the B @-@ 26s . One of Akagi 's Zeroes , however , was shot down by defensive fire from the B @-@ 26s . Several of the Marauders dropped their torpedoes , but all missed . One , piloted by Lieutenant James Muri , strafed Akagi after dropping its torpedo , killing two men . Another , either attempting a suicide ramming , unflyable due to battle damage , or because of an incapacitated pilot , narrowly missed crashing into Akagi 's bridge , where Nagumo was standing , before it cartwheeled into the sea .
At 07 : 15 , Admiral Nagumo ordered the B5Ns on Kaga and Akagi rearmed with bombs for another attack on Midway itself . This process was limited by the number of ordnance carts ( used to handle the bombs and torpedoes ) and ordnance elevators , preventing torpedoes from being struck below until after all the bombs were moved up from their magazine , assembled , and mounted on the aircraft . This process normally took about an hour and a half ; more time would be required to bring the aircraft up to the flight deck , warm up and launch the strike group . Around 07 : 40 , Nagumo reversed his order when he received a message from one of his scout aircraft that American warships had been spotted . Three of Akagi 's CAP Zeroes landed aboard the carrier at 07 : 36 . At 07 : 40 , her lone scout returned , having sighted nothing .
= = = = Sinking = = = =
At 07 : 55 , the next American strike from Midway arrived in the form of 16 Marine SBD @-@ 2 Dauntless dive bombers of VMSB @-@ 241 under Major Lofton R. Henderson . Akagi 's three remaining CAP fighters were among the nine still aloft that attacked Henderson 's planes , shooting down six of them as they executed a fruitless glide bombing attack on Hiryū . At roughly the same time , the Japanese carriers were attacked by 12 USAAF B @-@ 17 Flying Fortresses , bombing from 20 @,@ 000 feet ( 6 @,@ 100 m ) . The high altitude of the B @-@ 17s gave the Japanese captains enough time to anticipate where the bombs would land and successfully maneuver their ships out of the impact area . Four B @-@ 17s attacked Akagi , but missed with all their bombs .
Akagi reinforced the CAP with launches of three Zeros at 08 : 08 and four at 08 : 32 . These fresh Zeros helped defeat the next American air strike from Midway , 11 Vought SB2U Vindicator from VMSB @-@ 241 , which attacked the battleship Haruna starting around 08 : 30 . Three of the Vindicators were shot down , and Haruna escaped damage . Although all the American air strikes had thus far caused negligible damage , they kept the Japanese carrier forces off @-@ balance as Nagumo endeavored to prepare a response to news , received at 08 : 20 , of the sighting of American carrier forces to his northeast .
Akagi began recovering her Midway strike force at 08 : 37 and finished shortly after 09 : 00 . The landed aircraft were quickly struck below , while the carriers ' crews began preparations to spot aircraft for the strike against the American carrier forces . The preparations , however , were interrupted at 09 : 18 when the first American carrier aircraft to attack were sighted . These consisted of 15 Douglas TBD Devastator torpedo bombers of VT @-@ 8 , led by John C. Waldron from the carrier Hornet . The six airborne Akagi CAP Zeroes joined the other 15 CAP fighters currently aloft in destroying Waldron 's planes . All 15 of the American planes were shot down as they attempted a torpedo attack on Soryū , leaving one surviving aviator treading water .
Shortly afterwards 14 Devastators from VT @-@ 6 from the carrier Enterprise , led by Eugene E. Lindsey , attacked . Lindsey 's aircraft tried to sandwich Kaga , but the CAP , reinforced by an additional eight Zeros launched by Akagi at 09 : 33 and 09 : 40 , shot down all but four of the Devastators , and Kaga dodged the torpedoes . Defensive fire from the Devastators shot down one of Akagi 's Zeros .
Minutes after the torpedo plane attacks , American carrier @-@ based dive bombers arrived over the Japanese carriers almost undetected and began their dives . It was at this time , around 10 : 20 , that in the words of Jonathan Parshall and Anthony Tully , the " Japanese air defenses would finally and catastrophically fail . " Twenty @-@ eight dive bombers from Enterprise , led by C. Wade McClusky , began an attack on Kaga , hitting her with at least four bombs . At the last minute , one of McClusky 's elements of three bombers from VB @-@ 6 , led by squadron commander Richard Best who deduced Kaga to be fatally damaged , broke off and dove simultaneously on Akagi . At approximately 10 : 26 , the three bombers hit her with one 1 @,@ 000 @-@ pound ( 450 kg ) bomb and just missed with two others . The first near @-@ miss landed 5 – 10 m ( 16 – 33 ft ) to port , near her island . The third bomb just missed the flight deck and plunged into the water next to the stern . The second bomb , likely dropped by Best , landed at the aft edge of the middle elevator and detonated in the upper hangar . This hit set off explosions among the fully armed and fueled B5N torpedo bombers that were being prepared for an air strike against the American carriers , starting large fires .
At 10 : 29 , Captain Aoki ordered the ship 's magazines flooded . The forward magazines were promptly flooded , but the aft magazines were not due to valve damage , likely caused by the near miss aft . The ship 's main water pump also appears to have been damaged , greatly hindering fire fighting efforts . On the upper hangar deck , at 10 : 32 damage control teams attempted to control the spreading fires by employing the one @-@ shot CO2 fire @-@ suppression system . Whether the system functioned or not is unclear , but the burning aviation fuel proved impossible to control , and serious fires began to advance deeper into the interior of the ship . At 10 : 40 , additional damage caused by the near @-@ miss aft made itself known when the ship 's rudder jammed 30 degrees to starboard during an evasive maneuver .
Shortly thereafter , the fires broke through the flight deck and heat and smoke made the ship 's bridge unusable . At 10 : 46 , Admiral Nagumo transferred his flag to the light cruiser Nagara . Akagi stopped dead in the water at 13 : 50 and her crew , except for Captain Taijiro Aoki and damage @-@ control personnel , was evacuated . She continued to burn as her crew fought a losing battle against the spreading fires . The damage @-@ control teams and Captain Aoki were evacuated from the still floating ship later that night .
At 04 : 50 on 5 June , Yamamoto ordered Akagi scuttled , saying to his staff , " I was once the captain of Akagi , and it is with heartfelt regret that I must now order that she be sunk . " Destroyers Arashi , Hagikaze , Maikaze , and Nowaki each fired one torpedo into the carrier and she sank , bow first , at 05 : 20 at 30 ° 30 ′ N 178 ° 40 ′ W. Two hundred and sixty @-@ seven men of the ship 's crew were lost , the fewest of any of the Japanese fleet carriers lost in the battle . The loss of Akagi and the three other IJN carriers at Midway , comprising two thirds of Japan 's total number of fleet carriers and the experienced core of the First Air Fleet , was a crucial strategic defeat for Japan and contributed significantly to Japan 's ultimate defeat in the war . In an effort to conceal the defeat , Akagi was not immediately removed from the Navy 's registry of ships , instead being listed as " unmanned " before finally being struck from the registry on 25 September 1942 .
= Effects of Hurricane Isaac in Florida =
The Effects of Hurricane Isaac in Florida were severe local flooding in South Florida and tornadoes in the central and northern portions of the state in August 2012 . Hurricane Isaac formed from a tropical wave while located east of the Lesser Antilles on August 21 , 2012 . The storm moved westward , crossed through the Leeward Islands , and entered the Caribbean Sea on August 22 . Isaac initially struggled to intensify and defied predictions of it strengthening into a hurricane ] . The storm made its first landfall in Haiti as a midgrade tropical storm prior to making a second one in Cuba later that day . It remained somewhat disorganized while moving through the Straits of Florida and passed near the Florida Keys on August 27 . The storm threatened to strike the Tampa Bay Area during the 2012 Republican National Convention and move ashore in the Florida Panhandle as a major hurricane . However , it continued northwestward and avoided landfall in the state . The storm finally became a hurricane late on August 28 . Isaac made two landfalls in Louisiana on August 29 , the first near the mouth of the Mississippi River and the other near Port Fourchon . The storm steadily weakened and eventually dissipated over Missouri on September 1 .
Despite passing closest to the Florida Keys , impact was minimal , limited to tropical storm @-@ force winds and light rainfall . The outerbands of Isaac produced heavy precipitation further north , especially in Palm Beach , St. Lucie and Indian River counties . In the former , the resultant flooding left numerous residents in Royal Palm Beach and Loxahatchee isolated . There was extensive street flooding , and water entered a few houses . Damage in Palm Beach County alone was nearly $ 71 @.@ 6 million ( 2012 USD ) . Inland flooding was also reported in several other counties , though losses were generally minor . A tornado in Indian River County damaged 118 mobile homes and 15 single family homes . Further north in Central Florida and the Panhandle , the storm spawned four other tornadoes . Tides along the Gulf Coast of Florida caused erosion and coastal flooding in Bay , Collier , Franklin , Gulf , and Wakulla counties . Though winds caused little damage , around 113 @,@ 000 customers were left without electricity in South Florida . The storm resulted in two indirect fatalities , both caused by vehicles driving on slick roads in Palm Beach and Okeechobee counties . Throughout the state , damage reached approximately $ 91 @.@ 45 million .
= = Background = =
Hurricane Isaac originated from a tropical wave that moved off the western coast of Africa on August 17 . Moving generally westward , the low @-@ pressure area initially did not have a well @-@ defined center until three days later . Convection associated with the system organized and intensified , and the tropical wave quickly strengthened into a tropical depression . In favorable conditions , the depression was upgraded to Tropical Storm Isaac by the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) on August 21 . Quickly accelerating westward due to a subtropical ridge located to the northwest , Isaac later moved past the Lesser Antilles between Guadeloupe and Dominica by August 23 , where it caused numerous mudslides and power outages . Maintaining tropical storm intensity , Isaac later made its first landfall on the southern coast of Haiti early on August 25 as a result of southeast flow . There , the storm directly killed 24 people , worsening conditions still remaining after the 2010 Haiti earthquake .
Isaac began to curve northwestward due to its location between a large deep @-@ layer low pressure area in the northwestern Caribbean Sea and a mid @-@ tropospheric ridge over the western Atlantic . After briefly moving into the Gulf of Gonâve , the tropical storm made a second landfall near Cajobabo , Guantánamo , in Cuba at 1500 UTC later on August 25 , where damages were comparatively less severe than in Haiti . The storm paralleled the northern coast of the island prior to making a close pass of Key West , Florida , where it caused minor flood damage across the Florida Keys and South Florida upon entry into the Gulf of Mexico . The threat of tropical cyclone impacts in Tampa forced the postponing of the 2012 Republican National Convention . In the gulf , the tropical storm curved to the northwest and attained hurricane strength on August 27 near the southern Louisiana coast . Another ridge of high pressure caused Isaac to move towards the west and slow down as it made two landfalls on the state . Once it moved inland , the hurricane weakened before dissipating over Missouri on September 1 .
= = Preparations = =
At 2100 UTC on August 24 , a tropical storm watch was issued for all of Florida south of the Jupiter Inlet on the east coast and south of Bonita Springs on the west coast ; it also included Lake Okeechobee and the Florida Keys . Early on the next day , the tropical storm watch was upgraded to a warning , while the Florida Keys and the mainland from Ocean Reef to Bonita Springs were placed under a hurricane watch . Further north , a tropical storm watch was issued from the Jupiter Inlet to the Sebastian Inlet . Later on August 25 , the hurricane watch was switched to a warning , while a separate hurricane watch was issued from Golden Beach southward . At 1500 UTC on August 25 , the tropical storm warning was extended northward to Sebastian Inlet . In addition , a tropical storm watch was issued further north from Sebastian Inlet to Flagler Beach on the east coast and Bonita Springs to Tarpon Springs on the west coast . About six hours later , the tropical storm watch along the west coast of Florida was extended northward to the mouth of the Suwannee River on August 25 . The tropical storm watch , which now stretched from Bonita Springs to Tarpon Springs , was extended to Indian Pass on August 26 . Simultaneously , a hurricane watch was issued from the mouth of the Mississippi River in Louisiana to Indian Pass , Florida .
After Isaac crossed the Florida Keys on August 26 , the hurricane warning was downgraded to a tropical storm warning , and the tropical storm watch from Sebastian Inlet to Flagler Beach was discontinued . Simultaneously , the hurricane watch on the Gulf Coast of the United States was upgraded to a hurricane warning along the portion from Morgan City , Louisiana , to Destin , Florida . Additionally , the tropical storm warning was discontinued from the mouth of the Suwannee River to Tarpon Springs . Early on August 27 , the tropical storm warning on the east coast of Florida was discontinued for areas lying north of the Jupiter Inlet . Six hours later , the tropical storm warning on the east coast of Florida was lifted from the Jupiter Inlet southward to Ocean Reef , including Lake Okeechobee . At 1500 UTC , all of the remaining watches and warnings for South Florida were cancelled . On August 28 , the tropical storm warning in the Florida Panhandle was discontinued for areas east of Destin . By 1500 UTC on August 29 , all tropical storm and hurricane watches and warnings were no longer in effect for the state of Florida .
During the week of August 27 , the 2012 Republican National Convention was held in Tampa , Florida . Isaac threatened to force the cancellation or postponement of the convention ; there was also potential to move the event 's location . According to the Republican National Convention spokesman James Davis , officials had been coordinating with the United States Secret Service , should the 50 @,@ 000 politicians , delegates , and reporters require evacuation . The Republican National Convention was pushed to August 28 , with the storms threatening the coast of Tampa . Chairman of the Republican National Convention Reince Priebus announced on August 25 that the convention would only convene for a short amount of time on August 27 and " immediately recess until Tuesday afternoon , August 28 " . At the same time , Governor of Florida Rick Scott announced he would not be attending the convention , together with Governor of Alabama Robert J. Bentley . On August 25 , Governor Scott declared a state of emergency for the state of Florida ahead of Tropical Storm Isaac . Amtrak suspended the Silver Meteor and Silver Star train service from Orlando to Miami on Sunday , August 26 . In Miami @-@ Dade County , evacuations were ordered for residents living in mobile homes . Additionally , the bridges across the Port of Miami were closed during the height of Isaac . Orange juice prices increased due to the threat of the storm in Florida , which produces more than 75 percent of orange crops in the United States .
The Florida Division of Emergency Management was put into partial activation , and Florida Power & Light brought in at least 4 @,@ 300 workers to help with expected power outages . Key West International Airport suspended all flights in preparation of Isaac , while all cruises and many theme parks were delayed . The United States Coast Guard activated hurricane condition " whiskey " , restricting the transportation of watercraft until the storm passed . In South Florida , specifically in Monroe County , many schools were used as shelters . In Miami @-@ Dade County , all public schools and universities – including Florida International University and the University of Miami – cancelled classes . While the airport in the county remained open , it cancelled hundreds of flights and delayed many others . As the storm passed , regular services became available once again . Across the remainder of the state , especially in coastal counties , most schools and government buildings were closed . In Escambia County , a mandatory evacuation was ordered for zones A , B , and C. Many shelters were opened for those who had nowhere to go , and all county schools were shut down . At Naval Air Station Pensacola , many planes were either evacuated from the base or placed into secure hangars . Farther east in Santa Rosa County , a mandatory evacuation was also ordered for zones A , B , and C , including all mobile home parks , campgrounds , low @-@ lying areas , and RV parks . In Walton County , special needs and general shelters were opened to the public , and all schools and government offices were to be shut down throughout the duration of the storm . The Clyde B. Wells Bridge was also shut down in anticipation of tropical storm @-@ force winds .
= = Impact = =
The storm impacted nearly all of Florida , despite not making landfall in the state . Due to the weak intensity and path offshore , damage was caused primarily by flooding , rather than winds . Persistent rainbands brought heavy precipitation to much of east @-@ central and southeast Florida . In central Palm Beach County , the highest observed total precipitation was 15 @.@ 86 inches ( 403 mm ) , though radars estimated that as much as 18 to 20 inches ( 460 to 510 mm ) fell in some areas . The resultant flooding left entire neighborhoods isolated and caused damage to homes , businesses , and roads in Palm Beach County . Other areas , such as Broward , Indian River , Martin , Miami @-@ Dade , and St. Lucie counties , were also impacted by flooding , albeit less severely .
Tides along the Gulf Coast of Florida caused erosion and coastal flooding in Bay , Collier , Franklin , Gulf , and Wakulla counties . Though winds caused little damage , around 113 @,@ 000 customers were left without electricity in South Florida alone . Further north in Central Florida and the Panhandle , Isaac spawned five tornadoes , one each in Hillsborough , Holmes , Indian River , Jackson , and Osceola counties . All of them ranked as only F0 on the Fujita scale . The worst twister occurred in Indian River County , damaging 133 buildings , most of which were mobile homes . Throughout the state , two indirect fatalities were reported and losses reached approximately $ 91 @.@ 54 million .
= = = Southern Florida = = =
Despite the Florida Keys being the closest to the path of the storm , effects there were minimal . In Molasses Reef , sustained winds reached 44 mph ( 71 km / h ) , while winds peaked at 41 mph ( 66 km / h ) in Sombrero Key . Rainfall in the Florida Keys was light , peaking at 1 @.@ 61 inches ( 41 mm ) at the National Weather Service Office in Key West . Winds were stronger in Miami @-@ Dade County , reaching 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) at the Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory ( AOML ) headquarters in Virginia Key . Many trees and power lines were downed throughout the county , with an estimated 33 @,@ 000 residences experiencing power outages . Tides reaching up to 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) caused major beach erosion and minor coastal flooding in Naples . Between Everglades City and Chokoloskee , up to 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) of tidal inundation occurred , leaving roads flooded , stranding some people . In Goodland , water entered a few homes but was mainly confined to streets , yards , and marinas . Less than 2 @,@ 000 people were left without electricity in Collier County . Damage within that county was estimated to have reached $ 6 million . Throughout southeastern Florida , 113 @,@ 000 people were left without electricity .
Heavy rainfall fell in portions of Broward County , peaking at 11 @.@ 21 inches ( 285 mm ) at the intersection of State Road 997 and Interstate 75 near Weston . Other significant precipitation totals include 10 @.@ 86 inches ( 276 mm ) in Miramar , and 10 @.@ 41 in ( 264 mm ) in Coral Springs , with 7 to 10 in ( 180 to 250 mm ) reported at numerous other locations in the county . Moderate to severe flooding occurred over parts of northern Broward County . In Lauderhill , canals overflowed their banks and streets were flooded for a few days . Additionally , a few homes sustained minor water damage . Water also entered a few homes and businesses in Tamarac . Standing water also forced the closure of a few on @-@ ramps to the Sawgrass Expressway . Losses in Broward County reached $ 1 million .
= = = = Palm Beach County = = = =
The outerbands produced relatively strong winds in Palm Beach County . Wind gusts were estimated to have reached 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) in Tequesta , where the shutters were ripped from a life guard stand and also moved the structure about 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) from its original location . Additionally , winds in the area blew significant amounts of sand away , exposing rocks and creating 8 – 10 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 4 – 3 @.@ 0 m ) drops . Slightly further south , waves of 8 – 10 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 – 3 @.@ 0 m ) pounded the beaches of Jupiter , though only minimal beach erosion was reported . Nonetheless , hundreds of sea turtle nests were swept away , though 100 hatchlings were brought to the Loggerhead Marinelife Center in Juno Beach . In Palm Beach County , the outerbands dropped significant amounts of rainfall , with radar estimates as high as 20 inches ( 510 mm ) in some areas . The highest observed precipitation total , measured in that vicinity , was 15 @.@ 86 inches ( 403 mm ) at Lion Country Safari in Loxahatchee , while 13 @.@ 754 inches ( 349 @.@ 4 mm ) fell in Boynton Beach , 13 @.@ 1 inches ( 330 mm ) fell in Greenacres and 12 @.@ 55 inches ( 319 mm ) fell in Wellington . Nearly all of the eastern half of Palm Beach County experienced at least 10 inches ( 250 mm ) of precipitation .
Due to heavy rainfall , widespread flooding was reported , especially in the central and western portions of the county . Whole neighborhoods in The Acreage , Loxahatchee , Royal Palm Beach , and Wellington were left stranded for up to several days . In some areas , flooding was considered the worst since Hurricane Irene in 1999 . At the post office in Loxahatchee , the parking lot was flooded , forcing the building to close for several days . A major washout was reported in West Palm Beach at the intersection of State Roads 80 and 882 . Also in West Palm Beach , a road collapsed and fire rescue crews quickly closed the road . On State Road 704 , a portion of it became inaccessible to low @-@ clearance vehicles . A man died in West Palm Beach after driving through the storm and crashing into a concrete wall along Interstate 95 . Several major and minor roads were also inundated by water in Wellington . Additionally , there was flooding at the intersections of Meadow Avenue and Greenview Shores Boulevard , and Indian Mound Road and South Shore Boulevard . Heavy rainfall left several leaking roofs at an apartment complex in Pahokee .
In the southern portion of Palm Beach County , flooding and wind damage was also reported . Residents reported an unconfirmed tornado in Lake Worth . It knocked over some trees and damage a shed and some roofs , as well as cause a few power outages . The entrance to the gated community of Lawrence Grove in Boynton Beach was flooded by about 1 foot ( 300 mm ) of water and passable only by large pickup trucks . In Delray Beach , lightning struck a tree , causing part of it to fall through an awning , break a window , and slice into a house . Streets were littered with small branches and palm fronds in Boca Raton , while low @-@ lying roads and swales were flooded with several inches of water . One small tree was uprooted across the street from City Hall . Initially , schools throughout the county were to remain open . However , in response to flooding , all Palm Beach County schools were closed on August 27 and August 28 . Thereafter , all but eight county public schools – located in Loxahatchee and The Acreage – were opened . Damage estimates for Palm Beach County reached $ 71 @.@ 59 million , $ 40 million of which was incurred to the Indian Trail Improvement District .
= = = Central Florida = = =
Precipitation amounts ranging from 4 to 8 inches ( 100 to 200 mm ) were common throughout Okeechobee County . The most significant impacts occurred in the city of Okeechobee and adjacent areas , such as Taylor Creek . Overflowing creeks and canals caused major flood damage to 14 homes , while another 146 had minor water intrusion . Several roads were temporarily closed due to standing water . One indirect fatality occurred along State Road 78 in Okeechobee , after a 62 ‑ year ‑ old man lost control of his vehicle and crashed . Winds were relatively light , with gusts between 30 and 40 mph ( 48 and 64 km / h ) along the northern shores of Lake Okeechobee . In nearby Martin County , rainfall averaged between 5 and 10 inches ( 130 and 250 mm ) . As a result , several roads in the county were temporarily impassable , while water entered one business complex in Palm City . Further north in St. Lucie County , rainfall amounts were similar . Standing water was reported on roads in Fort Pierce , Lakewood Park , Port St. Lucie , and White City .
The storm also produced heavy rainfall in Indian River County , with 16 @.@ 5 in ( 420 mm ) reported in Vero Beach . This was the highest observed precipitation total in the state of Florida during Isaac . Elsewhere in Indian River County , rainfall amounts were generally between 7 and 10 inches ( 180 and 250 mm ) . Throughout Indian River County , 27 homes and 2 single – family homes were flooded , while 20 roads were temporarily closed due to standing water . An EF0 tornado touched down in Vero Beach for about two minutes , damaging 118 mobile homes and 15 single family houses . According to Indian River County Emergency Management Coordinator Dale Justice , that tornado caused $ 850 @,@ 000 in losses . At the Vero Beach Municipal Airport , sustained winds reached 43 mph ( 69 km / h ) . In Highlands County , up to 6 inches ( 150 mm ) of rain forced the closure of a small portion of U.S. Route 98 between Cowhouse Road and County Road 621 in Lorida . The inundation was caused by Arbuckle Creek overflowing and washing a few inches of water on the road .
A damage survey conducted by the National Weather Service indicates that a tornado was spawned near St. Cloud in Osceola County . It destroyed an abandoned mobile home , leaving only a floor attachment to the frame . The tornado moved across a citrus grove , causing damage to trees and shrubs . Thereafter , it removed shingles and broke a window at one residence , while some fences nearby were toppled . Additionally , rainfall amounts ranging from 3 to 6 inches ( 76 to 152 mm ) left several roads impassable . The Myakka River overflowed in Sarasota County , flooding the Ramblers Mobile Home Park . Water rose up to the doorsteps of several units , while parking lots and grassy areas were inundated by water . Due to its weaker and further westward track than initially anticipated , impact in Hillsborough County and the city of Tampa was minimal during the Republican National Convention . On the first day of the convention , August 27 , Isaac dropped 2 @.@ 03 inches ( 52 mm ) of precipitation and brought sustained winds of 21 mph ( 34 km / h ) to Tampa International Airport , with gusts up to 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) . A waterspout moved onshore near Tampa , damaging 6 houses in addition to the fences and trees on those properties .
= = = North Florida and Florida Panhandle = = =
Although it passed further west and was weaker than anticipated , the outerbands and fringe of the storm produced light rainfall and two tornadoes in the Florida Panhandle . The first tornado in the region was spawned near Greenwood in Jackson County , but caused no damage . The other tornado touched down near Graceville in Holmes County and ripped off the front porch of a mobile home and downed numerous trees . Rainfall was reported for a 3 day period in Flagler County from August 26 to August 28 . In Palm Coast , communities measured between 2 and 3 @.@ 5 inches ( 51 and 89 mm ) of precipitation . Some minor flooding occurred in parking lots . Gusty winds of 40 to 50 mph ( 64 to 80 km / h ) felled isolated trees in the western part of the county . A few trees were also blown down in Alachua County , one of which fell onto Main Street in Gainesville . Losses in Escambia and Santa Rosa Counties amounted to $ 10 @.@ 4 million and $ 1 @.@ 2 million respectively .
Some coastal flooding occurred across portions of Bay , Franklin , Gulf , and Wakulla counties due to storm surge . Erosion was most significant in Franklin County , where storm surge was measured at 3 @.@ 45 feet ( 1 @.@ 05 m ) in Apalachicola , while tides were 6 to 8 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 to 2 @.@ 4 m ) above normal . Water Street in Apalachicola was inundated with over 1 foot ( 0 @.@ 30 m ) of water in some places . At St. George Island State Park , waves pushed pass the dune line and flooded parking areas . Losses were estimated at about $ 500 @,@ 000 . In Bay County , storm surge reached 2 @.@ 5 feet ( 0 @.@ 76 m ) at Panama City , while tides were 8 to 10 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 to 3 @.@ 0 m ) above normal . The depth of inundation along 7th Avenue in Panama City ranged from a few inches to about one foot , while other roads in Lynn Haven and West Bay were also flooded . Tides along the coast of Gulf County flooded a road in Indian Pass and the access road to St. Joseph Peninsula State Park , causing closure of the park . In Wakulla County , minor coastal flooding was reported around St. Marks , with 2 to 4 inches ( 51 to 102 mm ) of water in a few businesses . The area experienced tidal flooding only about two months earlier during Tropical Storm Debby . One vacant home experienced minor water intrusion around the time of highest tide in Shell Point .
= = Aftermath = =
Following the storm , Governor of Florida Rick Scott attended a briefing at the South Florida Water Management District before boarding a helicopter to tour flooded areas of Palm Beach County . Scott said
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, " We 've got to take care of everybody 's needs but we 've got to get our state back to work , " and also encouraged tourists to return to the state , especially in Key West , where hotel owners were considering cancelling reservations for Labor Day . A Florida state fund known as Neighbors to the Rescue – with the purpose of distributing money to help recovery efforts for victims of Isaac – was activated by the governor . The area already qualified for small business loans due to a state of emergency and after the Federal Emergency Management Agency ( FEMA ) reviewed damage assessments , President of the United States Barack Obama considered a disaster declaration . Initially , FEMA denied a disaster declaration . In response , Governor Scott mailed a letter of appeal to FEMA Administrator Craig Fugate . The appeal was accepted , and on October 18 , 2012 , President Obama issued a disaster declaration for Bay , Collier , Escambia , Franklin , Gulf , Martin , Monroe , Okaloosa , Palm Beach , St. Lucie , and Santa Rosa counties .
= AC / DC =
AC / DC are an Australian rock band , formed in 1973 by brothers Malcolm and Angus Young . A hard rock / blues rock band , they have also been considered a heavy metal band , although they have always dubbed their music simply " rock and roll " .
AC / DC underwent several line @-@ up changes before releasing their first album , High Voltage , in 1975 ; Malcolm and Angus were the only original members left in the band . Membership subsequently stabilised until bassist Mark Evans was replaced by Cliff Williams in 1977 for the album Powerage . Within months of recording the album Highway to Hell , lead singer and co @-@ songwriter Bon Scott died on 19 February 1980 after a night of heavy alcohol consumption . The group considered disbanding , but buoyed by support from Scott 's parents , decided to continue and set about finding a new vocalist . Ex @-@ Geordie singer Brian Johnson was auditioned and selected to replace Scott . Later that year , the band released the new album , Back in Black , which was made as a tribute to Bon Scott . The album launched them to new heights of success and became their all @-@ time best @-@ seller .
The band 's next album , For Those About to Rock We Salute You , was their first album to reach number one in the United States . Drummer Phil Rudd was fired in 1983 and replaced by ex @-@ A II Z drummer Simon Wright , who left to join Dio in 1989 . The band experienced a resurgence in the early 1990s with the release of The Razors Edge . Phil Rudd returned in 1994 after Chris Slade , who was with the band from 1989 to 1994 , was asked to leave in favour of him , and contributed to the band 's 1995 album Ballbreaker . Stiff Upper Lip , released in 2000 , was well received by critics . The band 's studio album , Black Ice , released in 2008 , was the second @-@ highest @-@ selling album of that year , and their biggest chart hit since For Those About to Rock , eventually reaching No.1 on all charts worldwide . The band 's line @-@ up remained the same until 2014 with Malcolm Young 's retirement and Rudd 's legal troubles . In 2016 , Johnson was advised to stop touring on account of worsening hearing loss and Guns N ' Roses frontman Axl Rose stepped in as the band 's vocalist for the remainder of that year 's dates .
AC / DC have sold more than 200 million records worldwide , including 71 @.@ 5 million albums in the United States alone , making them the tenth @-@ best @-@ selling band in the United States and one of the world 's best @-@ selling bands of all time . Back in Black has sold an estimated 50 million units worldwide , making it the fifth @-@ highest @-@ selling album by any artist – and the third @-@ highest @-@ selling album by any band . The album has sold 22 million units in the US alone , where it is the sixth @-@ highest @-@ selling album of all time . AC / DC ranked fourth on VH1 's list of the " 100 Greatest Artists of Hard Rock " and were named the seventh " Greatest Heavy Metal Band of All Time " by MTV . In 2004 , AC / DC ranked No. 72 on the Rolling Stone list of the " 100 Greatest Artists of All Time " . Producer Rick Rubin , who wrote an essay on the band for the Rolling Stone list , referred to AC / DC as " the greatest rock and roll band of all time . " In 2010 , AC / DC were ranked number 23 in the VH1 list of the " 100 Greatest Artists of All Time " .
= = History = =
= = = Background and name = = =
Brothers Malcolm , Angus , and George Young were born in Glasgow , Scotland , and moved to Sydney with most of their family in 1963 . George was the first to learn to play the guitar . He became a member of the Easybeats , one of Australia 's most successful bands of the 1960s . In 1966 , they became the first local rock act to have an international hit , with the song " Friday on My Mind " . Malcolm followed in George 's footsteps by playing with a Newcastle , New South Wales , band called the Velvet Underground ( not to be confused with the New York @-@ based Velvet Underground ) . Their oldest brother Alex Young chose to remain in Britain to pursue musical interests . In 1967 , Alexander formed and played bass in the London @-@ based band Grapefruit — initially called " The Grapefruit " — with three former members of Tony Rivers and the Castaways , John Perry , Geoff Swettenham , and Pete Swettenham .
Malcolm and Angus Young developed the idea for the band 's name after their sister , Margaret Young , saw the initials " AC / DC " on a sewing machine . " AC / DC " is an abbreviation meaning " alternating current / direct current " electricity . The brothers felt that this name symbolised the band 's raw energy , power @-@ driven performances of their music . " AC / DC " is pronounced one letter at a time , though the band are colloquially known as " Acca Dacca " in Australia . The AC / DC band name is stylised with a high voltage sign separating the " AC " and " DC " and has been used on all studio albums , with the exception of the international version of Dirty Deeds Done Dirt Cheap .
= = = Early years = = =
In November 1973 , Malcolm and Angus Young formed AC / DC and recruited bassist Larry Van Kriedt , vocalist Dave Evans , and Colin Burgess , ex @-@ Masters Apprentices drummer . Pushing hard for the band 's success were Australia 's legendary roadie Ray Arnold and his partner Alan Kissack . Gene Pierson booked the band to play at Bondi Lifesaver on New Year 's Eve , 1973 .
By this time , Angus Young had adopted his characteristic school @-@ uniform stage outfit . The idea was his sister Margaret 's . Angus had tried other costumes : Spider @-@ Man , Zorro , a gorilla , and a parody of Superman , named Super @-@ Ang . In its early days , most members of the band dressed in some form of glam or satin outfit but this approach was abandoned seeing as Melbourne band Skyhooks had already adopted this approach to their stage presentation .
The Young brothers decided that Evans was not a suitable frontman for the group because they felt he was more of a glam rocker like Gary Glitter . On stage , Evans was occasionally replaced by the band 's first manager , Dennis Laughlin , who was the original lead singer with Sherbet prior to Daryl Braithwaite . Evans did not get along with Laughlin , which also contributed to the band 's ill feeling toward Evans .
= = = The Bon Scott era ( 1974 – 80 ) = = =
= = = = The journey begins ( 1974 – 77 ) = = = =
In September 1974 , Ronald Belford " Bon " Scott , an experienced vocalist and friend of George Young , replaced Dave Evans after friend Vince Lovegrove recommended him to George Young . Like the Young brothers , Scott had been born in Scotland before emigrating to Australia in his childhood . The band had recorded only one single with Evans , " Can I Sit Next To You , Girl " / " Rockin ' in the Parlour " ; eventually , the song was re @-@ written and re @-@ recorded with Bon Scott as " Can I Sit Next to You Girl " [ Track 7 on the Australian album TNT ( 1975 ) , and Track 6 on the international release of High Voltage ( 1976 ) ] .
By October 1974 , the Australia @-@ only album High Voltage had been recorded . It took only ten days and was based on instrumental songs written by the Young brothers , with lyrics added by Scott . Within a few months , the band 's line @-@ up had stabilised , featuring Scott , the Young brothers , bassist Mark Evans and drummer Phil Rudd . Later that year they released the single " It 's a Long Way to the Top " , which became their perennial rock anthem . It was included on their second album , TNT ( 1975 ) , which was also released only in Australia and New Zealand . T.N.T. featured the song " High Voltage " , which was the first song written and recorded for the album . Because " High Voltage " was released as a single before T.N.T. was released , some people thought it was the title track to AC / DC 's debut album .
Between 1974 and 1977 , aided by regular appearances on Molly Meldrum 's Countdown , the ABC 's nationally broadcast pop @-@ music television show , AC / DC became one of the most popular and successful acts in Australia . Their performance on 3 April 1977 was their last live TV appearance for more than 20 years .
= = = = International success ( 1976 – 80 ) = = = =
In 1976 , the band signed an international deal with Atlantic Records and toured extensively throughout Europe , including their first UK tour sponsored by Sounds magazine , called the ' Lock Up Your Daughters Summer Tour ' . They gained invaluable experience of the stadium circuit , supporting leading rock acts such as Black Sabbath , Aerosmith , Kiss , Styx , UFO , and Blue Öyster Cult , and co @-@ headlined with Cheap Trick .
The first AC / DC album to gain worldwide distribution was a 1976 compilation of tracks taken from the High Voltage and T.N.T. LPs . Also titled High Voltage , and released on the Atlantic Records label , the album , which has to date sold three million copies worldwide , gained the band a following among the then @-@ substantial British punk audience . The track selection was heavily weighted toward the more recent T.N.T. , and included only two songs from their first LP . The band 's next album , Dirty Deeds Done Dirt Cheap , was released in the same year in both Australian and international versions , like its predecessor . Track listings varied worldwide , and the international version of the album also featured the T.N.T. track " Rocker " , which had previously never been released internationally . The original Australian version included " Jailbreak " ( now more readily available on the 1984 compilation EP ' 74 Jailbreak or as a live version on the 1992 Live album ) . Dirty Deeds was not released in the US until 1981 , by which time the band were at the peak of their popularity .
Following the 1977 recording Let There Be Rock , bassist Mark Evans was fired ; purportedly to find someone who could sing backup vocals . Evans described disagreement with Angus and Malcolm as a contributing factor . He was replaced by Cliff Williams . Neither of the Young brothers has elaborated on the departure of Evans , though Richard Griffiths , the CEO of Epic Records and a booking agent for AC / DC in the mid @-@ 1970s , later commented , " You knew Mark wasn 't going to last , he was just too much of a nice guy . " Mark Evans ' autobiography , DIRTY DEEDS : My Life Inside / Outside of AC / DC , released in 2011 , predominantly dealt with his time in AC / DC , including being fired .
AC / DC were a somewhat formative influence on new wave of British heavy metal bands who emerged in the late 1970s , such as Saxon and Iron Maiden , in part as a reaction to the decline of traditional early 1970s hard rock bands . In 2007 , critics noted that AC / DC , along with Thin Lizzy , UFO , Scorpions and Judas Priest , were among " the second generation of rising stars ready to step into the breach as the old guard waned . "
AC / DC 's first American exposure was through the Michigan radio station AM 600 WTAC in 1977 . The station 's manager , Peter C. Cavanaugh , booked the band to play at Flint 's Capitol Theater . The supporting act was MC5 , who had just briefly reunited and agreed to play at the event . The band opened with their popular song " Live Wire " and closed with " It 's a Long Way to the Top ( If You Wanna Rock ' n ' Roll ) " .
AC / DC came to be identified with the punk rock movement by the British press . Their reputation , however , managed to survive the punk upheavals of the late 1970s , and they maintained a cult following in the UK throughout this time . Angus Young gained notoriety for mooning the audience during live performances .
The 1978 release of Powerage marked the debut of bassist Cliff Williams , and with its harder riffs , followed the blueprint set by Let There Be Rock . Only one single was released from Powerage , " Rock ' n ' Roll Damnation / Sin City " . An appearance at the Apollo Theatre , Glasgow during the Powerage tour was recorded and released as If You Want Blood You 've Got It , featuring such songs as " Whole Lotta Rosie " , " Problem Child " , and " Let There Be Rock " , as well as lesser @-@ known album tracks like " Riff Raff " . Powerage was the last album produced by Harry Vanda and George Young that had lead vocals by Bon Scott , and is claimed to be AC / DC 's most under @-@ rated album .
The major breakthrough in the band 's career came in their collaboration with producer " Mutt " Lange on the album Highway to Hell , released in 1979 . Eddie Van Halen notes this to be his favourite AC / DC record , along with Powerage . It became the first AC / DC LP to break into the US top 100 , eventually reaching No. 17 , and it propelled AC / DC into the top ranks of hard rock acts . Highway to Hell had lyrics that shifted away from flippant and comical toward more central rock themes , putting increased emphasis on backing vocals but still featured AC / DC 's signature sound : loud , simple , pounding riffs and grooving backbeats . The final track , " Night Prowler " , has two breaths in quick succession at the start of the song , intended to create a tone of fear and loathing .
= = = = Scott 's death ( 1980 ) = = = =
As 1980 began , the band began work on a new album that would eventually become Back in Black , but Bon Scott would not live to see it finished . On 19 February 1980 , Scott passed out in the car on the way back to friend Alistair Kinnear 's house after a night of heavy drinking at the Music Machine club in London . Upon arrival at his home , Kinnear was unable to move Scott from the car into his home for the night , so he left him in the car overnight to sleep off the effects of the alcohol . Unable to wake Scott late the next morning , Kinnear rushed him to King 's College Hospital in Camberwell , where Scott was pronounced dead on arrival . Pulmonary aspiration of vomit was the cause of Scott 's death , and the official cause was listed as " acute alcohol poisoning " . Scott 's family buried him in Fremantle , Western Australia , the area they emigrated to when he was a boy .
Inconsistencies in the official accounts of Scott 's death have been cited in conspiracy theories , which suggest that Scott died of a heroin overdose , or was killed by exhaust fumes redirected into the car , or that Kinnear did not exist . Additionally , Scott was asthmatic , and the temperature was below freezing on the morning of his death .
= = = The Brian Johnson era ( 1980 – 2016 ) = = =
= = = = Rebirth ( 1980 – 83 ) = = = =
Following Scott 's death the band briefly considered quitting , but encouraged by the insistence from Scott 's parents that he would have wanted them to go on , they eventually decided to continue and went about finding a new frontman . Various candidates were considered for his replacement , including : Buzz Shearman , ex @-@ Moxy member , who was not able to join because of voice problems , ex @-@ Back Street Crawler vocalist Terry Slesser and then Slade vocalist , Noddy Holder . The remaining AC / DC members finally decided on ex @-@ Geordie singer Brian Johnson .
Angus Young later recalled , " I remember the first time I had ever heard Brian 's ( Johnson ) name was from Bon . Bon had mentioned that he had been in England once touring with a band and he had mentioned that Brian had been in a band called Geordie and Bon had said ' Brian Johnson , he was a great rock and roll singer in the style of Little Richard . ' And that was Bon 's big idol , Little Richard . I think when he saw Brian at that time , to Bon it was ' Well he 's a guy that knows what rock and roll is all about . ' He mentioned that to us in Australia . I suppose when we decided to continue , Brian was the first name that Malcolm and myself came up with , so we said we should see if we can find him . "
For the audition , Johnson sang " Whole Lotta Rosie " from Let There Be Rock and Ike & Tina Turner 's " Nutbush City Limits " . He was hired a few days after the audition . With Johnson the band completed the songwriting that they had begun with Scott for the album Back in Black . Recording took place at Compass Point Studios in The Bahamas a few months after Scott 's death . Back in Black , produced by Mutt Lange and recorded by Tony Platt , became their biggest @-@ selling album and a hard @-@ rock landmark ; hits include " Hells Bells " , " You Shook Me All Night Long " , " Rock and Roll Ain 't Noise Pollution " and the title track . The album reached No.1 in the UK and No.4 in the US , where it spent 131 weeks on the Billboard 200 album chart .
The follow @-@ up album , 1981 's For Those About to Rock We Salute You , also sold well and was positively received by critics . The album featured two of the band 's most popular singles : " Let 's Get It Up " and the title track , " For Those About to Rock " , which reached No.13 and No.15 in the UK , respectively . The band split with Lange for their self @-@ produced 1983 album , Flick of the Switch , in an effort to recover the rawness and simplicity of their early albums .
= = = = Departure of Rudd and commercial decline ( 1983 – 87 ) = = = =
After having problems with drugs and alcohol , drummer Phil Rudd 's friendship with Malcolm Young deteriorated and eventually escalated to a physical confrontation after which Rudd was fired . Session drummer B.J. Wilson was drafted in to help complete the recordings , but his drum parts were eventually not used , as Rudd had already completed his drum parts . Rudd was replaced by Simon Wright in the summer of 1983 after the band held over 700 auditions in the US and UK . Simon Kirke of Free and Bad Company fame , and Paul Thompson of Roxy Music were two of the drummers auditioned .
Later in the year , AC / DC released the self @-@ produced album Flick of the Switch , which was less successful than their previous albums , and was considered underdeveloped and unmemorable . One critic stated that the band " had made the same album nine times " . AC / DC were voted the eighth @-@ biggest disappointment of the year in the 1984 Kerrang ! readers ' poll . However , Flick of the Switch eventually reached No.4 on the UK charts , and AC / DC had minor success with the singles " Nervous Shakedown " and " Flick of the Switch " . Fly on the Wall , produced by the Young brothers in 1985 , was also regarded as uninspired and directionless . A music concept video of the same name featured the band at a bar , playing five of the album 's ten songs .
In 1986 , the group returned to the charts with the made @-@ for @-@ radio " Who Made Who " . The album Who Made Who was the soundtrack to Stephen King 's film Maximum Overdrive ; it brought together older hits , such as " You Shook Me All Night Long " and " Ride On " , with newer songs such as title track " Who Made Who " , and two new instrumentals , " D.T. " and " Chase the Ace " .
In February 1988 , AC / DC were inducted into the Australian Recording Industry Association 's Hall of Fame .
= = = = Back to commercial success ( 1987 – 90 ) = = = =
AC / DC 's 1988 album , Blow Up Your Video , was recorded at Studio Miraval in Le Val ( Occitania ) , France , and reunited the band with their original producers , Harry Vanda and George Young . The group recorded nineteen songs , choosing ten for the final release ; though the album was later criticised for containing excessive " filler " , it was a commercial success . Blow Up Your Video sold more copies than the previous two studio releases combined , reaching No.2 on the UK charts — AC / DC 's highest position since " Back in Black " in 1980 . The album featured the UK top @-@ twenty single " Heatseeker " and popular songs such as " That 's the Way I Wanna Rock ' n ' Roll " . The Blow Up Your Video World Tour began in February 1988 , in Perth , Australia . That April , following live appearances across Europe , Malcolm Young announced that he was taking time off from touring , principally to begin recovery from his alcoholism . Another member of the Young family , Stevie Young , temporarily took Malcolm 's place .
Following the tour , Wright left the group to work on the upcoming Dio album Lock Up the Wolves , and was replaced by session veteran Chris Slade . Johnson was unavailable for several months while finalising his divorce , so the Young brothers wrote all the songs for the next album , a practice they continued for all subsequent releases through Rock or Bust in 2014 .
= = = = Popularity regained ( 1990 – 1994 ) = = = =
The next album , The Razors Edge , was recorded in Vancouver , British Columbia , Canada , and was mixed and engineered by Mike Fraser and produced by Bruce Fairbairn , who had previously worked with Aerosmith and Bon Jovi . Released in 1990 , it was a major comeback for the band , and included the hits " Thunderstruck " and " Are You Ready " , which reached No.5 and No.16 respectively on Billboards Mainstream Rock Tracks Chart , and Moneytalks , which peaked at No.23 on the Billboard Hot 100 . The album went multi @-@ platinum and reached the US top ten . Several shows on the Razors Edge tour were recorded for the 1992 live album , titled Live . Live was produced by Fairbairn , and is considered one of the best live albums of the 1990s . AC / DC headlined the Monsters of Rock show during this tour , which was released on DVD as Live at Donington . During The Razors Edge tour three fans were killed at a concert at the Salt Palace in Salt Lake City , Utah in January 1991 . When the concert began fans rushed the stage crushing the three and injuring others . It took 20 minutes before venue security and the group understood the severity of the situation and stopped the concert . AC / DC settled with the victims ' families out of court . As a result of this incident , the Salt Palace eliminated festival seating from future events . A year later , AC / DC recorded " Big Gun " for the soundtrack of the Arnold Schwarzenegger movie Last Action Hero , and was released as a single , reaching No.1 on the US Mainstream Rock chart , the band 's first No.1 single on that chart .
= = = = Popularity confirmed ( 1994 – 2008 ) = = = =
In 1994 , Angus and Malcolm invited Rudd to several jam sessions . He was eventually rehired to replace Slade , whose amicable departure arose in part because of the band 's strong desire to again work with Rudd . Recorded at the Ocean Way Studios in Los Angeles by the reunited 1980 – 83 line @-@ up and produced by Rick Rubin , Ballbreaker was released in 1995 . The first single from the album was " Hard as a Rock " . Two more singles were released from the album : " Hail Caesar " and " Cover You in Oil " .
In 1997 , a box set named Bonfire was released . It contained four albums ; a remastered version of Back in Black ; Volts ( a disc with alternate takes , outtakes , and stray live cuts ) and two live albums , Live from the Atlantic Studios and Let There Be Rock : The Movie . Live from the Atlantic Studios was recorded on 7 December 1977 at the Atlantic Studios in New York . Let There Be Rock : The Movie was a double album recorded in 1979 at the Pavillon de Paris and was the soundtrack of a motion picture , AC / DC : Let There Be Rock . The US version of the box set included a colour booklet , a two @-@ sided poster , a sticker , a temporary tattoo , a keychain bottle opener , and a guitar pick .
In 2000 , the band released Stiff Upper Lip , produced by brother George Young at the Warehouse Studio , again in Vancouver . The album was better received by critics than Ballbreaker but was considered lacking in new ideas . The Australian release included a bonus disc with three promotional videos and several live performances recorded in Madrid , Spain in 1996 . Stiff Upper Lip reached No.1 in five countries , including Argentina and Germany ; No.2 in three countries , Spain , France and Switzerland ; No.3 in Australia ; No.5 in Canada and Portugal ; and No.7 in Norway , the US and Hungary . The first single , " Stiff Upper Lip " , remained at No.1 on the US Mainstream Rock charts for four weeks . The other singles released also did very well ; " Satellite Blues " and " Safe in New York City " reached No.7 and No.31 on Billboard 's Mainstream Rock Tracks , respectively .
In 2002 , AC / DC signed a long @-@ term , multi @-@ album deal with Sony Music , who went on to release a series of remastered albums as part of their AC / DC remasters series . Each release contained an expanded booklet featuring rare photographs , memorabilia , and notes . In 2003 , the entire back @-@ catalogue ( except Ballbreaker and Stiff Upper Lip ) was remastered and re @-@ released . Ballbreaker was eventually re @-@ released in October 2005 ; Stiff Upper Lip was later re @-@ released in April 2007 . Also in 2003 , the band was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame .
On 30 July 2003 , the band performed with the Rolling Stones and Rush at Molson Canadian Rocks for Toronto . The concert , held before an audience of half a million , was intended to help the city overcome the negative publicity stemming from the effects of a 2003 SARS epidemic . The concert holds the record for the largest paid music event in North American history . The band came second in a list of Australia 's highest @-@ earning entertainers for 2005 , and sixth for 2006 , despite having neither toured since 2003 nor released an album since 2000 . Verizon Wireless has gained the rights to release AC / DC 's full albums and the entire Live at Donington concert to download in 2008 .
On 16 October 2007 , Columbia Records released a double and triple DVD titled Plug Me In . The set consists of five and seven hours of rare footage , and even a recording of AC / DC at a high school performing " School Days " , " TNT " , " She 's Got Balls " , and " It 's a Long Way to the Top " . As with Family Jewels , disc one contains rare shows of the band with Bon Scott , and disc two is about the Brian Johnson era . The collector 's edition contains an extra DVD with 21 more rare performances of both Scott and Johnson and more interviews .
AC / DC made their video game debut on Rock Band 2 , with " Let There Be Rock " included as a playable track . The setlist from their Live at Donington live album was released as playable songs for the Rock Band series by means of a Wal @-@ Mart @-@ exclusive retail disc titled AC / DC Live : Rock Band Track Pack .
No Bull : The Directors Cut , a newly edited , comprehensive Blu @-@ ray and DVD of the band 's July 1996 Plaza De Toros de las Ventas concert in Madrid , Spain , was released on 9 September 2008 .
= = = = Black Ice ( 2008 – 11 ) = = = =
On 18 August 2008 , Columbia Records announced 18 October Australian release , and 20 October worldwide release , of the studio album Black Ice . The 15 @-@ track album was the band 's first studio release in eight years , was produced by Brendan O 'Brien and was mixed and engineered by Mike Fraser . Like Stiff Upper Lip , it was recorded at The Warehouse Studio in Vancouver , British Columbia . Black Ice was sold in the US exclusively at Walmart and Sam 's Club and the band 's official website .
" Rock ' n ' Roll Train " , the album 's first single , was released to radio on 28 August . On 15 August , AC / DC recorded a video for a song from the new album in London with a special selection of fans getting the chance to be in the video . Black Ice debuted at No.1 on album charts in 29 countries and also was Columbia Records ' biggest debut album ( since Nielsen SoundScan began tracking sales data for Billboard in March 1991 ) . Black Ice has been certified Multi Platinum in eight countries , including the US , Australia , Canada , Switzerland , Sweden , Norway , Germany and the Czech Republic . Additionally Black Ice has achieved Platinum status in twelve countries ( Austria , Belgium , Denmark , Finland , France , Hungary , Ireland , Italy , UK , Argentina , Singapore and New Zealand ) and Gold status in four countries ( The Netherlands , Spain , Poland and Brazil ) . The 18 @-@ month Black Ice World Tour supporting the new album was announced on 11 September and began on 28 October in Wilkes @-@ Barre , Pennsylvania .
On 15 September 2008 , AC / DC Radio debuted on Sirius Channel 19 and XM channel 53 . The channel plays AC / DC music along with interviews with the band members .
With the North American release of Black Ice on 20 October 2008 , Columbia Records and Walmart created " Rock Again AC / DC Stores " to promote the album . In October 2008 , MTV , Walmart , and Columbia created " AC / DC Rock Band Stores " in New York City , at Times Square , and in Los Angeles . " Black Ice " trucks were also dispatched on the streets of these two cities after the release , playing AC / DC music aloud and making various stops each day to sell merchandise .
In late September 2009 , the band rescheduled six shows when Brian Johnson underwent an operation for ulcers . On 29 September , the band announced a collection of studio and live rarities , Backtracks , which was released on 10 November 2009 as a 3 @-@ CD / 2 @-@ DVD / 1 @-@ LP box @-@ set .
On 4 November AC / DC were announced as the Business Review Weekly top Australian earner ( entertainment ) for 2009 with earnings of $ 105 million . This displaced The Wiggles from the number one spot for the first time in four years .
On 19 April 2010 , AC / DC released Iron Man 2 , the soundtrack for the eponymous film . One month later , the band headlined Download Festival at Donington Park , and closed the Black Ice World Tour in Bilbao , Spain on 28 June 2010 , after 20 months in which AC / DC went to 108 cities in over 28 countries , with an estimated audience of over five million people . Three concerts in December 2009 at the River Plate Stadium in Argentina were released as the DVD Live at River Plate on 10 May 2011 . An exclusive single from the DVD , featuring the songs " Shoot to Thrill " and " War Machine " , was issued on Record Store Day . In 2011 , the band also issued on DVD and Blu @-@ ray the concert movie AC / DC : Let There Be Rock , which had its theatrical release in 1980 .
= = = Multiple lineup changes ( 2011 – present ) = = =
Angus stated in an interview in early May 2011 that the band was beginning to plan another world tour , saying , " Now we 're thinking , ' How can we ever better the ' Black Ice ' world tour ? ' But we will . " At the band 's Live at River Plate DVD premiere on 6 May 2011 at the Hammersmith Apollo in London , England , Angus said that there were plans for the group to release a new studio album " within the next couple of years " , which the tour would support .
In May 2012 , Malcolm Young confirmed that the band are working on a potential follow @-@ up to 2008 's Black Ice . But he warned that fans were in for a longer wait than expected , after lead singer Brian Johnson suggested there would be new material next year . Malcolm stated , " You know what Brian 's like . He just says things and then walks away . It 'll be a little while – a year or two anyway . I 've been doing some jamming on some song ideas but I do that all the time , as do the rest of the band . We are still working . But we had a long rest between Stiff Upper Lip and Black Ice , so I think we need a couple of years to recuperate and work on it a bit more . "
On 19 November 2012 , AC / DC released Live at River Plate , their first live album in 20 years .
= = = = Malcolm Young 's retirement = = = =
On 16 April 2014 , in response to earlier reports that the band may be retiring due to Malcolm Young being seriously ill and unable to perform , Brian Johnson commented that AC / DC are not retiring , stating " We are definitely getting together in May in Vancouver . We 're going to pick up guitars , have a plonk and see if anybody has got any tunes or ideas . If anything happens we 'll record it . " AC / DC subsequently announced in an official statement on their Facebook page that Malcolm Young would be taking a break from the band due to his ill health . It ended : " The band will continue to make music . " In June , Johnson announced that AC / DC are " very likely " to be on the road again before the end of 2014 . In July 2014 , AC / DC confirmed that they have finished recording their next album and that Malcolm 's nephew , Stevie Young replaced Malcolm in the studio .
Drummer Phil Rudd released his first solo album , Head Job , on 29 August 2014 . He confirmed that there would be another AC / DC tour , and stated that the band had no intention of retiring , adding , " We 'll all have to be dead before it stops . "
= = = = " Rock or Bust " = = = =
On 23 September 2014 , Alberts management confirmed that founding member Malcolm Young had officially departed from the band and revealed that their new record entitled Rock or Bust featuring eleven new tracks would be released on 28 November 2014 as the first AC / DC album in the band 's history without Malcolm Young on the recordings . The band also announced plans for a world tour to promote the new album with Malcolm and Angus ' nephew Stevie Young as Malcolm 's replacement .
= = = = Phil Rudd 's replacement = = = =
On 6 November 2014 Rudd was charged with attempting to procure a murder , threatening to kill , possession of methamphetamine and possession of cannabis , following a police raid on his home . The charge of attempting to procure a murder was withdrawn the following day , but the other charges remained . AC / DC released a statement clarifying that the tour promoting Rock or Bust would continue , but did not say whether or not Rudd would participate , or if he was still a member of the band .
In an interview on 13 November , Angus Young stated that the band had experienced problems with Rudd earlier in the year when recording Rock or Bust , and that his situation had taken the band by surprise . Rudd had also missed video and photo shoots , and with reference to Rudd 's future in the band , Young added , " So , at this stage , it 's a pretty tough call for us . " He also said the band would continue : " He 's got to sort himself out I think ... At this point it 's kind of a question mark . But if we 're touring , there will be a drummer in place , put it that way . "
At the charity signing before the Grammy awards , the band was photographed together with former drummer Chris Slade . It was later confirmed that he had rejoined the band for the Grammys and upcoming tour . In April 2015 , Rudd pleaded guilty to drug charges and threatening to kill a former assistant . Shortly thereafter , the band 's web site removed Rudd as the band 's drummer and replaced him with Slade . On 9 July 2015 Rudd was sentenced to eight month 's home detention despite seeking to be discharged without conviction .
= = = = Brian Johnson 's hearing loss and departure = = = =
On 7 March 2016 , the band announced that the final ten dates of the Rock or Bust World Tour would be rescheduled as Johnson 's doctors had ordered him to stop touring immediately , as his hearing loss had accelerated and he risked complete deafness if he persisted on the road . The ten cancelled dates would be performed " likely with a guest vocalist " later in the year , leaving Johnson 's future in touring with the group uncertain . Johnson himself later stated on The Howard Stern Show that his hearing loss didn 't come from having performed for 36 years with AC / DC , but rather his love of auto racing and having forgotten to put on ear plugs in during one race left him with a busted ear drum in his left ear .
However , on 15 March 2016 , American comedian Jim Breuer ( a friend of Johnson ) revealed on his podcast that Johnson had received a second opinion on his hearing and it was not as bad as initially thought . Nonetheless , Breuer mentioned that Johnson told him that he was essentially fired from AC / DC and that he hadn 't heard from the band since the announcement of the tour being postponed , adding that Angus Young wants to continue the band for at least another ten years and do at least one more studio album and world tour . Breuer later clarified his comments on Facebook that did not end speculation on Johnson 's future with the band .
On 19 April 2016 , Johnson made an official statement regarding his health problems and inability to tour . In the statement , he acknowledged his ongoing hearing difficulties but stated his intentions to continue recording and potentially resume touring if his health improves sufficiently . He also specifically thanked Angus Young and Cliff Williams for their support during his AC / DC tenure .
= = = = Guest vocalist Axl Rose = = = =
On 16 April 2016 , AC / DC released a statement announcing the addition of Guns N ' Roses frontman Axl Rose as the band 's lead vocalist for the remainder of their 2016 tour dates , and apparently confirming Johnson 's departure . The statement reads : " AC / DC band members would like to thank Brian Johnson for his contributions and dedication to the band throughout the years . We wish him all the best with his hearing issues and future ventures . As much as we want this tour to end as it started , we understand , respect and support Brian 's decision to stop touring and save his hearing . We are dedicated to fulfilling the remainder of our touring commitments to everyone that has supported us over the years , and are fortunate that Axl Rose has kindly offered his support to help us fulfill this commitment . AC / DC will resume their Rock or Bust World Tour with Axl Rose joining on vocals . "
= = = = Planned Departure of Cliff Williams = = = =
On 8 July 2016 , Cliff Williams announced he would leave the group at the end of its 2016 touring commitments ; he cited the departures of Malcolm Young , Phil Rudd and Brian Johnson as a contributing factor in his decision .
= = Legacy = =
AC / DC were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame on 10 March 2003 . During the ceremony the band performed " Highway to Hell " and " You Shook Me All Night Long " , with guest vocals provided by host Steven Tyler of Aerosmith . He described the band 's power chords as " the thunder from down under that gives you the second most powerful surge that can flow through your body . " During the acceptance speech , Brian Johnson quoted their 1977 song " Let There Be Rock " .
On 22 March 2000 , the municipality of Leganés ( near Madrid ) named a street in honour of the band as " Calle de AC / DC " ( " AC / DC Street " ) . Malcolm and Angus attended the inauguration with many fans . Later that day , the plaque with the name of the group was stolen , perhaps by an enthusiast or collector . The plaque was replaced two hours later , and stolen once again a mere three days after the fact . The plaque had since been stolen numerous times , forcing the municipality of Leganés to begin selling replicas of the official street plaque .
In May 2003 , the Young brothers accepted a Ted Albert Award for Outstanding Service to Australian Music at the 2003 Music Winners Awards , during which Malcolm paid special tribute to Bon Scott , who was also a recipient of the award .
On 1 October 2004 , a central Melbourne thoroughfare , Corporation Lane , was renamed ACDC Lane in honour of the band . However , the City of Melbourne forbade the use of the slash character in street names , so the four letters were combined . The lane is near Swanston Street where , on the back of a truck , the band recorded their video for the 1975 hit " It 's a Long Way to the Top " .
They sold over 1 @.@ 3 million CDs in the US during 2007 despite not having released a new album since 2000 at that point . Additionally , the group 's commercial success continues to flourish despite their choice to refrain from selling albums in digital online formats for many years . However , in November 2012 , the entire catalogue ( excluding the TNT album and the Australian versions of the High Voltage , Dirty Deeds Done Dirt Cheap and Let There Be Rock albums ) became available on the iTunes Store .
In 2009 the Recording Industry Association of America upgraded the group 's US sales figures from 69 million to 71 million , making AC / DC the fifth @-@ best @-@ selling band in US history and the tenth @-@ best @-@ selling artist , selling more albums than Madonna and Mariah Carey . The RIAA also certified Back in Black as double Diamond ( 20 million ) in US sales , and by 2007 the album had sold 22 million copies , which made it the fifth @-@ best @-@ selling album of all @-@ time in the US . It is currently the second @-@ best @-@ selling album worldwide .
= = Band members = =
Current members
Angus Young – lead guitar ( 1973 – present )
Cliff Williams – bass guitar , backing vocals ( 1977 – present )
Stevie Young – rhythm guitar , backing vocals ( 1988 [ touring member ] , 2014 – present )
Chris Slade – drums ( 1989 – 1994 , 2015 – present )
Current touring member
Axl Rose – lead vocals ( 2016 )
Former members
Malcolm Young – rhythm guitar , backing vocals ( 1973 – 2014 )
Dave Evans – lead vocals ( 1973 – 1974 )
Bon Scott – lead vocals ( 1974 – 1980 )
Mark Evans – bass guitar ( 1975 – 1977 )
Phil Rudd – drums ( 1975 – 1983 , 1994 – 2015 )
Brian Johnson – lead and backing vocals ( 1980 – 2016 [ Indefinite Hiatus ] )
Simon Wright – drums ( 1983 – 1989 )
Note : Before their debut album , High Voltage ( 1975 ) , AC / DC had several line up changes . For a more comprehensive list of members that were part of the band before 1975 , see List of AC / DC band members .
= = = Timeline = = =
= = Tours = =
= = Discography = =
= = = Studio albums = = =
= = Awards and nominations = =
= Persona ( series ) =
Persona ( Japanese : ペルソナ , Hepburn : Perusona ) , also known as Shin Megami Tensei : Persona , is a series of role @-@ playing video games developed and primarily published by Atlus . The series is a spin @-@ off from Atlus ' Megami Tensei franchise , and was originally based on the high school setting of Shin Megami Tensei If .... The first entry in the series , Revelations : Persona , was released in 1996 . There have since been eight further console titles ( four main entries and four spin @-@ off titles ) , with another ( Persona 5 ) in development . The series takes its title from the beings used by characters in battle , manifested from a character 's personality .
Persona began as a spin @-@ off based on the positively @-@ received setting of If .... Its trademark features include a high school setting , a group of students as the protagonists , a silent protagonist similar to the mainline Megami Tensei franchise , and combat using Personas . Since the release of Persona 3 in 2006 , the main series has used a social simulation function called Social Links , which is directly linked to how Personas evolve . Central character designs are by series co @-@ creator Kazuma Kaneko ( Persona and the Persona 2 games ) and Shigenori Soejima ( Persona 3 onwards ) . Its overall theme is exploration of the human psyche and how the characters find their true selves . The series ' recurring concepts and design elements draw on Jungian psychology and archetypes , along with multiple world mythologies and popular literature .
Revelations : Persona was the first role @-@ playing Megami Tensei title to be released in the West . Beginning with Persona 2 : Eternal Punishment , the English localizations began to remain faithful to the Japanese versions , at the insistence of Atlus . The series is highly popular internationally , becoming the best @-@ known Megami Tensei spin @-@ off and establishing Atlus and the Megami Tensei franchise in North America . Following the release of Persona 3 and 4 , the series also established a strong following in Europe . Since the release of the first Persona game , the series has sold six million units worldwide , forming a substantial part of the Megami Tensei franchise 's total sales . There have been numerous adaptations , including anime television and theatrical series , novelizations , manga , and stage plays .
= = Titles = =
= = = Main series = = =
Revelations : Persona is the first entry in the series , was released in 1996 in Japan and North America for the PlayStation . A port to Microsoft Windows was released in Japan in 1999 . The game was later ported to the PlayStation Portable ( PSP ) : it was published in 2009 in Japan and North America as physical and digital releases , and 2010 in Europe as a digital release . Set in the town of Mikage @-@ cho , it follows a group of high school students from St. Hermelin High , who are forced to confront an outbreak of demons in their hometown .
Persona 2 : Innocent Sin is the second entry in the series , released in Japan in 1999 for the PlayStation . After the success of Persona 's PSP port , a port of Innocent Sin was greenlit . For this version , adjustments were made so that it played more like its sequel , along with added features and a new scenario . The port was released in 2011 in all regions . Set in the coastal city of Sumaru , the story follows Tatsuya Suou , a student of Seven Sisters High , as he confronts phenomena generated by reality @-@ altering rumors .
Persona 2 : Eternal Punishment is the third entry in the main series , released in 2000 in Japan and North America for the PlayStation . Like Innocent Sin , it was remade for PSP , and included a new scenario by the game 's original writer . The remake released in Japan in 2012 , but did not reach the West . The original version was re @-@ released worldwide on PlayStation Network ( PSN ) in 2013 in response to this . Set shortly after the ending of Innocent Sin , the story follows Maya Amano , a supporting character from the previous game , as she confronts a similar rumor @-@ created threat along with Tatsuya .
Shin Megami Tensei : Persona 3 is the fourth entry in the main series . Developed for PlayStation 2 ( PS2 ) , it released in 2006 in Japan , 2007 in North America , and 2008 in Europe . Persona 3 FES , a director 's cut featuring new content and an epilogue , was released in 2007 in Japan and 2008 in North America and Europe . The main portion of FES was later ported to the PSP as Persona 3 Portable : it featured a few enhancements such as a female playable character and the ability to control all characters in battle , and some content was adjusted or removed so it could fit on a portable platform . The story takes place in the town of Iwatodai , following a group of students known as " SEES " who fight monsters that appear during a time known as the Dark Hour .
Shin Megami Tensei : Persona 4 is the fifth entry in the main series , released on the PS2 in 2008 in Japan and North America , and 2009 in Europe . The success of Persona 3 Portable inspired the creation of a portable version of Persona 4 . As using the PSP would result in cutting too much content , it was instead developed for PlayStation Vita , which allowed for new features and content . This version was titled Persona 4 Golden . Persona 4 takes place in the rural town of Inaba , where a group of students investigate a series of killings related to a realm known as the Midnight Channel .
Persona 5 is the sixth entry in the main series , currently in production for PlayStation 3 and PlayStation 4 . It is set for release in 2016 in Japan and internationally in 2017 . Persona 5 will be set in Tokyo and will follow a group of students as they adopt the guises of thieves to tackle the city 's corruption and attain freedom from imposed societal pressures .
= = = Spin @-@ offs = = =
Persona 3 received a Japan @-@ exclusive spin @-@ off online game titled Persona 3 : The Night Before ; it follows a similar cycle of daytime activities and night time combat as the original game , with one player being chosen as the party leader each night . After its closure in 2008 , a new free @-@ to @-@ play browser game titled Persona Ain Soph was released that year ; the gameplay focused on players fusing Personas and confronting a threat known as the Qliphoth . Staying exclusive to Japan , it closed down in June 2010 . A fighting game sequel to Persona 4 , Persona 4 Arena , was released in arcades in Japan in 2012 . Console versions were released in 2012 in Japan and North America , and 2013 in Europe . A sequel , Persona 4 Arena Ultimax , was similarly released in Japanese arcades in 2013 , then released in 2014 in all regions for consoles . A standalone spin @-@ off for the Nintendo 3DS , Persona Q : Shadow of the Labyrinth , was released worldwide in 2014 ; it features the full casts of Persona 3 and 4 , and is classed by Atlus as an official entry in the Persona canon . A rhythm game set after the events of Persona 4 Arena Ultimax , Persona 4 : Dancing All Night , was released worldwide in 2015 .
Several Persona mobile games have been made in partnership with other Japanese mobile companies such as Bbmf . Their first partnership was in 2006 with the development and release of Megami Ibunroku Persona : Chapter of the Foreign Tower of Emptiness , a 3D dungeon crawler set within the environments of the first Persona game . The companies later collaborated on two mobile titles based on the Persona 2 games : Persona 2 : Innocent Sin - Lost Memories in 2007 , and Persona 2 : Eternal Punishment - Infinity Mask in 2009 . Both titles carried over the basic gameplay functions of the original games tailored for mobile phones . Many mobile spin @-@ offs are related to Persona 3 : there is an RPG side @-@ story titled Persona 3 Em , an action game prequel set ten years prior to Persona 3 titled Aegis : The First Mission , and an alternate version of Persona 3 featuring different characters titled Persona 3 Social . Multiple Persona 3 @-@ themed puzzle games have also been developed . An online mobile RPG set around the high school featured in Persona 3 , titled Persona Mobile Online , was released in 2009 . Persona 4 likewise received a mobile spin @-@ off , this time a card game titled Persona 4 The Card Battle .
= = Common elements = =
= = = Gameplay = = =
The gameplay of the Persona series revolves around combat against various enemy types : Demons , Shadows and Personas . Main combat takes place during dungeon crawling segments within various locations . The way battles initiate varies between random encounters ( Persona , Persona 2 ) or running into models representing enemy groups ( Persona 3 onwards ) . Battles are governed by a turn @-@ based system , where the player party and enemies each attack the opposing side . Actions in battle include standard physical attacks using short @-@ range melee or long @-@ range projectile weapons , magical attacks , using items , guarding , and under certain conditions escaping from battles . During battle , either side can strike an enemy 's weakness , which deals more damage than other attacks . For Persona 3 and 4 , a key element in battle is " One More Turn " : should a party member or enemy land a critical hit , they gain an extra turn . If all enemies are knocked down by critical hits , the party can perform an " All Out Attack " , with all party members attacking at once and dealing high damage . Each party member is manually controlled by the player in all but one Persona title : in Persona 3 , all the party apart from the main character are controlled by an AI @-@ based command system . The general gameplay has remained consistent across all Persona games .
Each Persona game also includes elements unique to them . In Persona , battles take place on a grid @-@ based battlefield , with characters ' and enemies ' movements dictated by their placement on the battlefield . This system was abandoned for the Persona 2 games : the party has free movement across the battlefield , and is assigned a set of moves which can be changed in the menu during and in between battles . In Persona and Persona 3 , there is a lunar phase tied to gameplay , time progression , and the plot . In Persona 4 , this was changed to a weather @-@ based system , where changes in the weather keyed to the story affected enemy behavior . Persona 5 introduces elements such as platforming and stealth gameplay to dungeon exploration .
= = = = Personas = = = =
A defining aspect of the series is the Personas , manifestations of a person 's psyche . Many Personas used up to Persona 3 are inspired by Graeco @-@ Roman mythology . In Persona 4 they are based on Japanese deities ; Persona 5 will use characters inspired by popular fictional and historical outlaws . The summoning ritual for Personas in battle varies throughout the series : in early games , the party gains the ability to summon through a short ritual after playing a parlor game ; in Persona 3 , they fire a gun @-@ like device called an Evoker at their head ; in Persona 4 , they summon their Personas using Tarot cards ; in Persona 5 , they will be summoned through the characters ' masks .
Personas are used for types of physical attack and magical attacks , along with actions such as healing and curing or inflicting status ailments . For all Persona games , all playable characters start out with an initial Persona , which evolves through story @-@ based events and use during battle . In multiple Persona titles , two or more Personas can be summoned at once to perform a powerful Fusion Spell . In Persona 3 and 4 , only the main character can wield and change between multiple Personas ; the other characters use a single Persona . During the course of the game , the player acquires more Personas through a system of Skill Cards , represented by Major Arcana Tarot cards . Each skill card represents a different Persona family , which in turn hold their own abilities inherent to that family . Multiple Personas can be fused together to create a new Persona with improved and inherited abilities : these range from fusing two Personas in the Persona 2 duology , to fusing up to twelve in Persona 4 .
A system introduced in Persona 3 is Social Links , a form of character interaction tied to the growth of Personas . During their time outside battle , the main character can interact with and grow a particular Social Link , which acts as an independent character growth system tied to a Persona family or Arcanum . As the main character 's relationship with the character representing a Social Link grows , its rank is raised and more powerful Personas related to the Social Link 's assigned Arcanum can be summoned and fused . Attributes related to the main character 's social life can also be used to improve their Persona abilities , such as their academic abilities and social aptitude . An updated version of Social Links will be featured in Persona 5 . In Persona and the Persona 2 duology , there is a Negotiation mechanic carried over from the Megami Tensei series , in which player characters can talk with enemies and provoke certain actions depending on their dialogue choices . Some responses yield Skill Cards for use in creating new Personas . Negotiation was removed from later Persona titles , although Atlus staff considered the Social Link system and aspects of Persona Fusion to be a " disguised " version of it .
= = = Setting and themes = = =
The Persona series takes place in modern @-@ day Japan , and almost always focuses on a group of high school students . The exception to this is Eternal Punishment , which instead focused on a group of adults . The setting has been described as urban fantasy , with extraordinary events happening in otherwise normal locations . The typical setting used is a city , with a noted exception being the rural town setting of Persona 4 . Although they are typically stand @-@ alone titles that only share thematic elements , the Persona games share a continuity , with elements from previous titles turning up in later ones . Persona and the Persona 2 games shared narrative elements which were concluded with Eternal Punishment , so Persona 3 started out with a fresh setting and characters . The first in the series is Persona , set in the year 1996 . This is followed by the events of Innocent Sin and Eternal Punishment in 1999 . At the end of Innocent Sin , the main characters rewrote events to avert the destruction of Earth , creating the Eternal Punishment reality , with the original reality becoming an isolated Other Side . Persona 3 and subsequent titles stem from Eternal Punishment . Persona 3 is set in 2009 to 2010 , and Persona 4 is set two years later in 2011 to 2012 . The Persona 4 Arena games and Dancing All Night take place in the months following Persona 4 . Persona Q takes place in a separate enclosed world which the characters of Persona 3 and 4 are drawn into from their respective time periods . The main character of each Persona game is a silent protagonist representing the player , with a manner described by the series ' director as " silent and cool " . When the writer for new story content in Eternal Punishment 's PSP version wished for the main character to have spoken dialogue , this was vetoed as it went against the series tradition .
A central concept for the series is the Collective Unconscious , a place generated by the hearts of humanity and from which Personas are born . According to the official Persona Club P3 book , the Collective Unconscious was generated by the primitive life on Earth as a means of containing the spiritual essence of Nyx , a space @-@ born being whose presence would cause the death of all life on Earth . Her body was damaged by the impact and became the moon , while her psyche was left on the surface and locked away at the heart of the Collective Unconscious . The fragments of Nyx 's psyche , known as " Shadows " , are both a threat and a crucial part of humanity 's existence . To further help defend against hostile Shadows , people generated the deities that exist within the Collective Unconscious , many of which manifest as Personas . Nyx appears in Persona 3 as the antagonist . Two recurring characters generated by the Collective Unconscious are Philemon and Nyarlathotep , the respective representatives of the positive and negative traits of humanity . In Innocent Sin , the two reveal that they are engaged in a proxy contest as to whether humanity can embrace its contradictory feelings and find a higher purpose before destroying itself . Philemon makes appearances in later Persona titles as a blue butterfly . A recurring location is the Velvet Room , a place between reality and unconsciousness that changes form depending on the psyche of its current guest . Its inhabitants , especially an enigmatic old man called Igor , aid the main characters by helping them hone their Persona abilities .
The central theme of the Persona series is exploration of the human psyche and the main characters discovering their true selves . The stories generally focus on the main cast 's interpersonal relationships and psychologies . There is also an underlying focus on " the human soul " . Many of the concepts and characters within the series ( Personas , Shadows , Philemon ) use Jungian psychology and archetypes . A recurring motif are the " masks " people wear during everyday life , which ties back to their Personas . This motif will be more overtly expressed in Persona 5 through the main casts ' use of masks in their thief guises . Each game also includes specific themes and motifs . Persona 2 focuses on the effect of rumors on the fabric of reality ( referred to by the developers as " the power of Kotodama " ) ; Persona 3 employs themes involving depression and the darkness within people ; Persona 4 focuses on how gossip and the media influences people 's views of others ; and Persona 5 will show how the main characters pursue personal freedom in a restrictive modern society . A recurring element in the earlier entries is " The Butterfly Dream " , a famous story by the Chinese philosopher Zhuang Zhou . It ties in with the series ' themes , and also with Philemon 's frequent appearances as a butterfly . Philemon 's original appearance was based on Zhuang Zhou . The character Nyarlathotep is based on the character of the same name from H. P. Lovecraft 's Cthulhu Mythos , and the Mythos as a whole is frequently referenced in Persona 2 . The Velvet Room was based on the Black Lodge from Twin Peaks .
= = Development = =
The Persona series was first conceived after the release of Shin Megami Tensei If ... for the Super Famicom . As the high school setting of If ... had been positively received , Atlus decided to create a dedicated subseries focusing on the inner struggles of young adults . The focus on high school life was also decided upon due to the experiences of the series ' creators , Kouji Okada and Kazuma Kaneko : according to them , as nearly everyone experiences being a student at some point in their lives , it was something everyone could relate to , representing a time of both learning and personal freedom . In their view , this approach helped players accept the series ' themes and the variety of ideas included in each title . Kaneko in particular tried to recreate his experiences and the impact it had on him during his time with the series . The main concept behind the first game was a Megami Tensei title that was more approachable for new and casual players than the main series . The abundance of casual games on the PlayStation reinforced this decision . The game 's title , Megami Ibunroku , represented the title 's status as a direct spin @-@ off from the series . It was later dropped to further define Persona as a standalone series . After the success of Persona , Innocent Sin began development , retaining many of the original staff . During the writing of Innocent Sin , it was decided that the world of Persona 2 needed a different perspective than that of the current protagonist . This decision laid the groundwork for Eternal Punishment .
The conceptual Persona 3 was submitted to Atlus in 2003 by Katsura Hashino , who had worked as a designer for multiple Megami Tensei titles and had been the director for Shin Megami Tensei : Nocturne . Gaining Atlus ' approval of the concept , development started in the same year , after the completion of Nocturne and the Digital Devil Saga duology . Ideas were being passed around about Persona 4 , but the title did not begin official development until after the release of Persona 3 . Preparations for Persona 5 's development began in 2010 . The team decided to shift towards more challenging story themes , saying that the shift would be more drastic than that experienced with Persona 3 . Persona 4 Arena and its sequel were the first non @-@ RPG collaborative project in the series : its success inspired the creation of both Persona Q and Dancing All Night . Beginning with Persona 3 , a dedicated team originally referred to as " 2nd Creative Production Department " has handled development for the series . The team was later dubbed " P @-@ Studio " . Aside from Atlus , other developers have helped develop entries in the Persona series . During the pre @-@ production stage of Persona 4 Arena , Hashino approached Arc System Works after being impressed by their work on the BlazBlue series . For Dancing All Night , development was initially handled by Dingo , who were well known for the Hatsune Miku : Project DIVA series . Citing quality concerns , Atlus took over development .
= = = Art design = = =
The two character artists for the Persona series are Kazuma Kaneko , a central artist in the main Megami Tensei series who designed characters for the first three Persona games , and Shigenori Soejima , who worked in a secondary capacity alongside Kaneko and took Kaneko 's place as the character designer from Persona 3 onwards . While designing the characters for Persona , Kaneko was inspired by multiple notable celebrities and fictional characters of the time , along with members of Atlus staff . In Persona and Innocent Sin , the main characters all wore the same school uniforms , so Kaneko differentiated them using accessories . For Eternal Punishment , the main cast were adults , so Kaneko needed to rethink his design procedure . Eventually , he adopted the concept of ordinary adults , and gave them designs that would stand out in @-@ game .
Soejima 's first major work for the series was working on side characters for Persona 2 alongside Kaneko . Kaneko put Soejima in charge of the series ' art direction after Persona 2 as Kaneko did not want to imprint his drawing style on the Persona series , and also wanted Soejima to gain experience . Soejima felt a degree of pressure when he was given his new role , as the series had accumulated a substantial following during Kaneko 's tenure . In a later interview , Soejima said that although he respected and admired Kaneko , he never consciously imitated the latter 's work , and eventually settled into the role of pleasing the fans of the Persona series , approaching character designs with the idea of creating something new rather than referring back to Kaneko 's work . For his character designs , Soejima uses real people he has met or seen , looking at what their appearance says about their personality . If his designs come too close to the people he has seen , he does a rough sketch while keeping the personality of the person in mind . For his work on Persona Q , his first time working with a deformed Chibi style due to its links with the Etrian Odyssey series , Soejima took into account what fans felt about the characters . A crucial part of his design technique was looking at what made a character stand out , then adjusting those features so they remained recognizable even with the redesign .
Starting with Persona 3 , each Persona game has been defined by a different aesthetic and key color . It is one of the first artistic decisions made by the team : Persona 3 has a dark atmosphere and serious characters , so the primary color was chosen as blue to reflect these and the urban setting . In contrast , Persona 4 has a lighter tone and characters but also sports a murder @-@ mystery plot , so the color yellow was chosen to represent both the lighter tones and to evoke a " warning " signal . According to Soejima , blue was the " color of adolescence " , and yellow was the " color of happiness " . For Persona 5 , the color chosen was red , to convey a harsh feeling in contrast to the previous Persona titles and tie in with the game 's story themes . Its art style was described as a natural evolution from where Persona 4 left off .
= = = Music = = =
The music of the Persona series has been handled by multiple composers . The one most associated with the series is Shoji Meguro , who began working on Persona shortly before he officially joined Atlus . His very first composition for the game was " Aria of the Soul " , the theme for the velvet room and a recurring tune within the series . During his initial work on the series , Meguro felt restricted by the limited storage space of the PlayStation 's disc system , and so when he began composing for Persona 3 , which allowed for sound streaming due to increased hardware capacity , he was able to fully express his musical style . His main worry for his music in Persona 3 and 4 was the singers ' pronunciation of the English lyrics . He was unable to work on the Persona 2 titles as he was tied up with other projects , including Maken X. The music for Innocent Sin and Eternal Punishment was handled by Toshiko Tasaki , Kenichi Tsuchiya , and Masaki Kurokawa . Tsuchiya had originally done minor work on Persona , and found composing for the titles a strenuous experience . Meguro returned to work on the series in Persona 5 . For this game , Meguro used its themes for inspiration , and used elements of acid jazz to achieve the right mood . Meguro also wrote the theme song for Persona Q ; the rest of the soundtrack was handled by Atsushi Kitajoh and Toshiki Konishi .
= = Release = =
The series consists of ten games ( main titles and spin @-@ offs ) , not counting re @-@ releases and mobile titles . Persona was the first role @-@ playing entry in the Megami Tensei franchise to be released in the West , as previous entries had been considered ineligible due to possibly controversial content . As examples of this content were in a milder form for Persona , the restrictions did not apply . According to Atlus , Persona and its sequel were to test player reactions to the Megami Tensei series in the West . The greater majority of Persona titles were either first released on or exclusive to PlayStation platforms . This trend was broken with the release of Persona Q for the 3DS in 2014 . All the Persona titles have been published by Atlus in Japan and North America . An exception in Japan was the Windows port of Persona , which was published by ASCII Corporation . After 2016 , due to Atlus USA 's merger with Sega of America , Sega took over North American publishing duties , although the Atlus brand remained intact .
Due to the company not having a European branch , Atlus has generally given publishing duties to other third @-@ party publishers with branches in Europe . This frequently results in a gap between North American and European release dates ranging from a few months to a year or more . For Persona 3 , Atlus gave publishing duties to Koei . For Persona 4 , European publishing was handled by Square Enix . Persona 4 Arena was originally published in Europe by Zen United after a long delay , but the digital rights were eventually returned to Atlus , resulting in the title being removed from PSN . Atlus ended up re @-@ publishing the digital PlayStation version in Europe . They had previously digitally published the PSP port of Persona in Europe and Australia . Arena Ultimax was published in Europe by Sega , who had recently purchased Atlus ' parent company . It was speculated that this could lead to a new trend that would shorten the release gap between North America and Europe . A regular publishing partner was Ghostlight , whose relations with Atlus went back to the European release of Nocturne . A more recent partner was NIS America , which published Persona 4 Golden , Persona Q , and Dancing All Night . Atlus ' partnership with NIS America ended in 2016 , with NIS America citing difficulties with the company since its acquisition by Sega as reasons for the split . As part of their statement , NIS America said that Atlus had become " very picky " about European partners , selecting those which could offer the highest minimal sales guarantee on their products . Sega of America and Atlus USA eventually entered into a partnership with European publishing company Deep Silver to publish multiple titles in the region , including Persona 5 .
= = = Localization = = =
The localizations for the Persona series are generally handled by translator Yu Namba of Atlus USA , who also handles localization for multiple other Megami Tensei games . Another prominent staff member was Nich Maragos , who worked with Namba on multiple Persona games until moving to Nintendo of America prior to 2015 . The localization of Persona was handled by a small team , which put a lot of pressure on them as they needed to adjust the game for Western audiences : the changes implemented included altering names , changing the appearance of characters , and removing numerous cultural references . An entire alternate main quest was also removed . After Persona , it was decided that future Persona games should be as faithful as possible to their original releases . Namba 's first localization project for the series was Eternal Punishment . For the release of Innocent Sin , there was a debate over whether to release it , as it contained potentially controversial content including allusions to Nazism . In the end , due to staff and resource shortages , Innocent Sin was passed over for localization in favor of its sequel Eternal Punishment . Later , when the company developed the PSP ports , the team released the ports of Persona and Innocent Sin overseas so fans attracted by Persona 3 and 4 would be able to easily catch up with the rest of the series . The localization for Persona was completely redone , reverting and restoring all the previously altered or cut content . The port of Eternal Punishment was not localized due to " unusual circumstances " , so the company released the original version on PSN instead .
For the localizations of Persona 3 and 4 , the team incorporated as much of the original content as possible , such as using Japanese honorifics and keeping the game 's currency as yen rather than changing it . As a general rule , they incorporate cultural elements from the original versions unless they would not be understood by the player , such as with certain jokes . Nevertheless , some changes had to be made . In one instance , the character Mitsuru Kirijo was originally an English speaker , but her second language for the localized version was changed to French due to her cultured appearance . School tests also needed to be changed due to similar language @-@ based issues . The Social Links were originally called " Community " , but this was changed as the word " Community " had a very specific meaning in English . The new name was inspired by the way the character Igor made reference to the concept using words such as " society " and " bonds " . Some in @-@ game Easter egg references were also changed : in Persona 3 references to Shin Megami Tensei by a character in an in @-@ game MMORPG were changed to reference earlier Persona games , while mentions of a fictional detective in Persona 4 were altered to reference the Kuzunoha family from Eternal Punishment and the Devil Summoner series . Character names have also needed adjustment , such as the stage name of Persona 4 character Rise Kujikawa , and the way characters referred to each other was adjusted to appeal more to a western audience . Persona 5 is planned to be localized in this fashion .
The titles of games have also been altered . The banner title for Persona was changed from Megami Ibunroku to Revelations , principally because the team thought the latter title sounded " cool " . The Revelations title was removed for Innocent Sin and Eternal Punishment . After the successful release of Nocturne , the " Shin Megami Tensei " moniker was added to the series title to help with Western marketing . This has not been the case for some titles : Persona 4 Arena 's original title , Persona 4 : The Ultimate in Mayonaka Arena , was shortened as it sounded awkward , and the " Shin Megami Tensei " moniker was dropped as it would have made the title too long . The same change was made for Persona 4 Golden , with the team also dropping the " The " present in the Japanese title as it would have looked and sounded odd in Western territories . Persona 5 was also released in the West without the moniker .
= = Reception = =
Since the release of Persona in 1996 , the series has sold 6 @.@ 2 million units worldwide by the end of the 2014 / 2015 fiscal year , forming a large part of the total sales of the Megami Tensei franchise . The first Persona was referred to at the time as a sleeper hit , and the success of it and Eternal Punishment helped establish both Atlus and Megami Tensei in North America . In Europe , the series did not become established prior to the release of Persona 3 and 4 , both of which were highly successful in the region . According to Atlus CEO Naoto Hiraoka , the main turning point for the franchise was the release of Persona 3 , which was a commercial success and brought the series to the attention of the mainstream gaming community . Persona 4 received an even better reception . The Persona series ' success has allowed Atlus to build a strong player base in the West , contributing to the success of other titles such as Catherine .
The Persona series has been referred to as the most popular spin @-@ off from the Megami Tensei franchise , gaining notoriety and success in its own right . According to io9 's James Whitbrook , the series has become notable due to its balance of normal life and fantastic elements , commenting that " that 's much less common [ in the West ] , and the way the series portrays urban fantasy through that lens is what makes it so different , especially from what you would normally expect from Japanese RPGs " . Nintendo Power , in an article concerning the Megami Tensei series , cited the Persona series ' " modern @-@ day horror stories " and " teams of Japanese high @-@ school kids " as the perfect example of the franchise . Persona was mentioned in 1999 by GameSpot 's Andrew Vestal as a game that deserved attention despite not aging well , saying " Examining Persona reveals three of the traits that make the series so popular - and unique - amongst RPG fans : demonology , negotiation , and psychology " . The game has been named as a cult classic . Persona 3 was named by RPGamer as the greatest RPG of the past decade in 2009 , and RPGFan listed Persona 3 and 4 in second and fourth place respectively in their similar 2011 list . Persona 3 was listed by Gamasutra as one of the 20 essential RPGs for players of the genre . Persona 4 was also listed by Famitsu as one of the greatest games of all time in a 2010 list .
As well as gaining critical acclaim , the series has been the subject of controversy over its content . This controversy began with the localized banner title of the original Persona , which raised concerns due to its religious implications . Kurt Katala , writing for 1UP.com in 2006 about the controversial content of the Megami Tensei franchise as a whole , mentioned Innocent Sin 's references to homosexuality , schoolyard violence , and Nazism , considering them possible reasons why the title was not originally released in the West . In 1UP.com 's 2007 game awards , which ran in the March 2008 issue of Electronic Gaming Monthly , Persona 3 was given the " Most controversial game that created no controversy " award : the writers said " Rockstar 's Hot Coffee sex scandal and Bully 's boy @-@ on @-@ boy kissing 's got nothing on this PS2 role @-@ player 's suicide @-@ initiated battles or subplot involving student @-@ teacher dating " . Persona 4 has in turn been examined by multiple sites over its portrayal of character sexuality and gender identity .
= = Related media = =
The first anime adaptation of the Persona series , a television series titled Persona : Trinity Soul , aired in 2008 . It was animated by A @-@ 1 Pictures , directed by Jun Matsumoto , written by a team that included Yasuyuki Muto , Shogo Yasukawa , and Shinsuke Onishi , and composed for by Taku Iwasaki . Its characters were designed by Soejima and Yuriko Ishii , while Persona designs were done by Nobuhiko Genma . It was distributed internationally by NIS America . Trinity Soul takes place in an alternate setting ten years after Persona 3 , making it a non @-@ canon entry in the franchise . An anime adaptation of the original Persona 4 , Persona 4 : The Animation , was aired in 2011 . The 25 @-@ episode series was produced by AIC ASTA and directed by Seiji Kishi . In 2014 , a series based on Persona 4 Golden , titled Persona 4 : The Golden Animation , was produced by A @-@ 1 Pictures . This series , which retains the cast of the original adaptation , dramatizes the new material included in Persona 4 Golden , focusing on the protagonist 's encounters with new character Marie . A standalone prequel anime created by A @-@ 1 Pictures , Persona 5 The Animation : The Day Breakers , is set for release in September 2016 prior to the game 's release .
The original Persona 4 anime series was made into a condensed film adaptation titled Persona 4 : The Animation - The Factor of Hope ; it was released in Japanese cinemas in 2012 . Persona 3 has also been adapted into a series of anime films produced by AIC ASTA and featuring staff from Persona 4 : The Animation , released in cinemas in Japan and licensed for release overseas by Aniplex . The four films are titled # 1 Spring of Birth , # 2 Midsummer Knight 's Dream , # 3 Falling Down , and # 4 Winter of Rebirth . They were released from 2013 through to 2016 . For both Persona 4 : The Animation and the Persona 3 film series , one of the main concerns was the portrayal of the lead characters , which were originally dictated by player actions .
Persona was adapted into an eight @-@ issue manga series titled Megami Ibunroku Persona , originally serialized in 1996 and later reissued in 2009 . A second spin @-@ off manga , Persona : Tsumi to Batsu , was released to tie in with the release of the Persona 2 games . Set within the same setting of the Persona 2 games , it follows a separate story . In its 2011 reissue , new material was added that connected the manga to the events of Innocent Sin . Persona 3 and Persona 4 have both received manga adaptations , serialized in Dengeki Maoh . Another manga based on Persona Q was also serialized : two separate manga storylines , based on the two storylines featured in the game , were written and dubbed Side : P3 and Side : P4 . Multiple novels based on Persona 3 and 4 have also been released .
Three stage plays based on Persona 3 have been produced under the banner Persona 3 the Weird Masquerade . They received limited runs and featured separate performances for the male and female versions of the game 's protagonists . The three plays are titled Ao no Kakusei , Gunjō no Meikyū , and Sōen Kesshō . Persona 4 was also adapted into two stage plays , both produced by Marvelous AQL and receiving limited runs in 2012 : Visualive and Visualive the Evolution . A stage play based on Persona 4 Arena was likewise given a limited run in December 2014 , and one based on Persona 4 Arena Ultimax is planned to run in July 2016 .
Atlus has created or hosted media dedicated to the Persona series . A dedicated magazine originally ran for ten issues between 2011 and 2012 , and has been irregularly revived since then . An official talk show released on the official Persona website and Niconico , Persona Stalkers Club , began in February 2014 . Hosted by freelance writer Mafia Kajita and actress Tomomi Isomura , it was designed to deepen the connection between Atlus and the Persona fanbase . Concerts featuring music from the Persona series have also been performed , and some have received commercial releases on home media in Japan . Action figures and merchandise such as clothing related to Persona 3 and 4 have also been produced .
= Rejoined =
" Rejoined " is the 78th episode of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : Deep Space Nine , the sixth of the fourth season . It originally aired on October 30 , 1995 , in broadcast syndication . The episode received a record volume of feedback from viewers for the series , both positive and negative , as it marked one of the first televised lesbian kisses .
Set in the 24th century , the series follows the adventures on Deep Space Nine , a space station located near a stable wormhole between the Alpha and Gamma quadrants of the Milky Way Galaxy . The plot of " Rejoined " expands on the Trill species , of which Jadzia Dax is a member . They are formed of a host and a symbiont , with the symbiont passed from host to host as the previous one dies . In the episode , Dax is reunited with Lenara Kahn , the ex @-@ wife of one of its former hosts . The two struggle with their feelings for one another because of the taboo in their species against reuniting with loved ones of former hosts .
The episode was the first that writers Ronald D. Moore and René Echevarria wrote together , and it was directed by main cast member Avery Brooks . In the first draft , Dax 's former partner was written as male , but after this was changed , the story was cleared through studio executives . The Trill taboo was intended to be an allegory for homosexuality and homophobia . " Rejoined " received a Nielsen rating of seven percent on the first broadcast in syndication . Reviews have been mostly positive towards the episode because of its message , but there was criticism that the plot was not exciting enough and there was a negative reaction from some viewers .
= = Plot = =
Captain Benjamin Sisko ( Avery Brooks ) notifies Lieutenant Commander Jadzia Dax ( Terry Farrell ) that a group of Trill scientists will be arriving soon at Deep Space Nine to perform experiments related to wormhole physics . The Trill are a species formed of both a humanoid host and a symbiont , which are implanted into them . The symbionts live far longer than the hosts , and are moved into a new host when the old one dies . Jadzia is the eighth host of the Dax symbiont . Sisko tells Dax that the head scientist is Lenara Kahn ( Susanna Thompson ) , and offers to grant Dax a leave of absence while the Trill scientists are aboard , but she turns it down . Upon Dax and Kahn 's first meeting , Major Kira Nerys ( Nana Visitor ) notices that they are very familiar with each other ; Dax tells her that Kahn used to be her wife . Dr. Julian Bashir ( Alexander Siddig ) later informs Kira about the non @-@ association rules that Trill follow regarding the family and friends of former hosts , and says that hosts of the Dax and Kahn symbionts have previously been married to each other .
A party is held for the team , and Dax and Kahn warm to one another 's company once more . Afterward , they begin to socialize as they work together on Kahn 's wormhole experiment aboard USS Defiant . They agree to have dinner , but to also bring Bashir along as a chaperone . At the dinner , Bashir feels out of place and is effectively ignored by the two Trills . Returning to the tests , Kahn creates the first artificial wormhole in history and Dax hugs her in celebration . Kahn 's brother Bejal ( Tim Ryan ) , who is on the science team , speaks to her separately and highlights his concerns regarding her contact with Dax . Despite this , Kahn goes to Dax 's quarters and a discussion between the two leads to a kiss
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; Kahn leaves before it goes any further .
Dax confides in Sisko that she knows she is in love with her former wife . He tells her that Trill customs mean that if they resumed their relationship , then they would be exiled from their homeworld and their symbionts would never be joined with a new host , but that she will have his support either way . Kahn and Dax continue to work on the experiment , but it goes wrong and Defiant is severely damaged . Kahn is injured in the explosion , but Dax rigs a force field across a plasma fire that allows her to reach Kahn , coming to the realization that the relationship is worth exile . After returning to the station , Kahn recuperates from her injuries . She decides against resuming her relationship with Dax , and — with the experiments complete — departs with the science team , leaving Dax heartbroken .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing and directing = = =
" Rejoined " marked the first time that longtime Star Trek writers Ronald D. Moore and René Echevarria wrote a script together . They had been hired by executive producer Michael Piller following separate unsolicited manuscripts submitted during the third season of Star Trek : The Next Generation , and had remained on the staff of the franchise since . In Echevarria 's first draft of the story , there was no lesbian element as Dax 's former lover was male . The Trill taboo against reuniting relationships from past hosts was suggested by Piller early on in the creation of Deep Space Nine , in order for the society to prevent an " aristocracy of the joined " , where joined hosts never met anyone that they did not already know .
It was Moore 's suggestion to make Dax 's former partner a woman in order to tackle the taboo against homosexuality by way of the on @-@ screen taboo against re @-@ association . At that stage , they intended to make no reference in the script to any characters having a concern about Dax 's relationship with a woman so as to focus the story . Clearance was sought for the plot , first from showrunner Ira Steven Behr , then executive producer Rick Berman , and finally from the studio executives . Moore later explained that they agreed to the idea , saying that Star Trek stood for making statements like those in " Rejoined " .
Terry Farrell was happy with the story line , saying that it made sense for Dax to have this issue because the symbiont had been in both male and female hosts , adding that " Gender wasn 't the issue . For the worm / symbiont , it was a matter of the being it was embodied in . " She was pleased to be able to " stand up " for the LGBT community . A similar story had been approached during the first appearance of the Trill in The Next Generation episode " The Host " . In this story , however , when the symbiont is transferred from a male to a female host , the Trill is rejected by the character who was the Trill 's female partner , Beverly Crusher . The subplot featuring Kahn 's artificial wormhole was described as a " macguffin " by Moore , and simply a way to get the character into " Rejoined " . This was not the first subplot to be considered for the episode , with the main plot from " Bar Association " originally thought of as being suitable to appear in either " Rejoined " or " Crossfire " . Instead , the plot , which involved Rom forming a trade union , was expanded into the main plot of its own episode .
The episode was directed by main cast member Avery Brooks , who played Benjamin Sisko in the series , who later said that " Rejoined " was his favourite of the episodes he directed . He said that the episode was about love , and the choices that result from that , and that it was an extraordinary story about losing someone you love and having that person restored to you some time afterward . Following the death of Jadzia in the sixth season finale , " Tears of the Prophets " , Farrell suggested that the symbiont could be moved to a male character resulting in a similar situation as " Rejoined " between the new Dax host and Worf , as the two were in a relationship at that point . Instead , the symbiont was placed in a new female host called Ezri , as the producers did not want Kira Nerys to be the only female main character . The prejudice against re @-@ association first highlighted in " Rejoined " was mentioned in the seventh season episodes such as " Afterimage " .
= = = Visual effects and guest stars = = =
Visual effect supervisors Gary Hutzel and Glenn Neufeld were busy completing post @-@ production work on the opening episode of the fourth season , " The Way of the Warrior " . In their place , visual effects coordinator David Takemura led on the visual effects work on both " Rejoined " and " The Visitor " . For this episode , his two main tasks were the creation of the artificial wormhole and the sequence where Dax uses a forcefield as a walkway to reach a trapped Kahn . Takemura was relieved that the wormhole was intended to be artificial in nature , as it meant that he did not have to attempt to re @-@ create the detail already seen in the Bajoran wormhole on the series . Once he came up with the basic design , visual effects company VisionArt completed it .
For the forcefield scene , Farrell was shot " skating " down a board painted blue against a blue screen . A mixture of liquid nitrogen and hot water was used to create a fog around the ground . VisionArt combined these shots with the force field and footage of the engineering set on board the Defiant , while a staff animator added a " plasma glow " around her feet as she made contact with the field .
Before appearing in " Rejoined " , Susanna Thompson had previously appeared in two The Next Generation episodes ; " The Next Phase " and " Frame of Mind " . She later appeared in Star Trek : Voyager as the Borg Queen , previously portrayed by Alice Krige in the film Star Trek : First Contact . Farrell praised Thompson 's part in " Rejoined " , calling her a " wonderful actress and a joy to work with . "
= = Themes = =
Writers on Deep Space Nine had previously hinted at a potential same @-@ sex relationship in the first season episode " Dax " , when Jadzia Dax says goodbye to Enina Tandro , a former lover of Dax 's previous male host , Curzon . The first take of the scene resulted in a situation in which it was unclear whether Dax and Enina were about to kiss . It was decided at the time that it was not appropriate , although the writers had hoped that there would be a time when the viewers would accept such a relationship . This theme was eventually realised in " Rejoined " . Allen Kwan has argued that Deep Space Nine is the only series of Star Trek that resists the heteronormativity typical of the franchise , citing both " Rejoined " and the Mirror Universe episodes as examples , even if the presented bisexuality is problematized .
During that 1995 / 96 television season there had been an increase in the number of homosexual characters appearing in major television series , and so the same @-@ sex kiss in " Rejoined " was reviewed in this context . An article published by the Associated Press suggested that the kiss in Deep Space Nine was not truly a same @-@ sex kiss due to " extenuating circumstances " ; namely , one of the characters was an " alien who used to be a man " . A similar opinion was offered by Jan Johnson @-@ Smith , author of American Science Fiction TV , who said that the situation was " ambiguous " as , despite presenting a same @-@ sex kiss , the episode was clear that Jadzia was " actually kissing the symbiont who has the memories of the former host , her male lover , not the current female host " .
For film studies scholar Jean Bruce , the ambiguity of the kiss is foreshadowed in an early scene revolving around a magic trick . On the one hand , the magic trick produces a " pleasurable surprise " , while , on the other , this mirrors the deception necessary , due to Trill norms , in the reacquaintance of the characters . At the same time , the juxtaposition of very different shots serves to " convey physical distance and the desire to bridge it " , which mirrors the fact that the Trills ' love for one another transcends gender , identity and death . Though the kiss is " informed by the fact that Dax was a man in her past life " , once it occurs , it can " never be taken back " , and remains the queer image of two women kissing .
Nonetheless , " Rejoined " was still considered controversial because of its subject matter , which depicts two women who engage in a same @-@ sex romantic relationship , and included one of the first televised lesbian kisses . During the course of the episode , no characters register concern about Dax being involved with a woman , only that she was an ex @-@ spouse . David Greven , literary critic and author of Gender and Sexuality in Star Trek , said that " Rejoined " was one of the better @-@ received episodes of Star Trek that dealt with homosexuality as a theme , but that the franchise overall had typically avoided LGBT issues . Bryan Fuller , who also wrote for Deep Space Nine , said that the franchise had usually avoided those story lines because of the paranoia of the studio regarding homosexuality . Dale Palmer , in an essay on gender and sexual politics , suggested that the choice was made to have a female same @-@ sex kiss on screen because a male one would have alienated the main viewer demographic for the series .
= = Reception and legacy = =
= = = Broadcast = = =
" Rejoined " was first broadcast on October 30 , 1995 , in broadcast syndication . It received Nielsen ratings of 7 percent , placing it in eighth place in its timeslot . This was lower than the share received by " Indiscretion " , broadcast in the week prior with a 7 @.@ 2 percent share and " Little Green Men " in the week afterward with 7 @.@ 7 percent .
= = = Fan , cast and crew response = = =
When the episode was originally broadcast , there was a strong negative reaction from some viewers . As Deep Space Nine was shown in syndication , one channel in the Southern United States took the step of editing out the kiss from the initial broadcast . Echevarria 's mother told him that they should have issued a parental guidance warning before broadcasting it . More responses were received at the production office from viewers than for any other episode of the series , resulting in several staff members having to take turns on the phones in order to cover the load . The staff found that although the majority of the phone calls were negative about " Rejoined " , the letters were mostly positive . Terry Farrell said in a 2015 interview that " Rejoined " was her favourite episode of all time and that she still had people thanking her for the episode , because " it gave them strength , and that it made them feel like they weren 't alone , it inspired them to be themselves — all the things I was hoping it would do . "
= = = Critical response = = =
Zack Handlen reviewed the episode for The A.V. Club in 2013 , praising the natural manner in which the romance was progressed , saying that this was " refreshing " to see . He felt that the relationship did not appear to be manipulative for the sake of male viewers , but added that the ending was expected and that the episode never communicated to the audience the need to care about the duo . Handlen wrote that the overall story itself was " shallow " , as the episode suffered from an " enervating lack of fun " which was only saved from " complete tedium " through " strong acting and an admirable lack of stigma " . Jordon Hoffman , reviewing the episode on his website , commented that Farrell 's acting " really steps up to the plate " for this episode , and gave " Rejoined " a rating of five out of five .
Keith DeCandido , in 2014 review on Tor.com , compared " Rejoined " structurally to The Next Generation episode " Lessons " , which also had a " love @-@ interest @-@ in @-@ danger climax " . He praised the episode , saying that at the time of broadcast it was considered " radical " and said that both Farrell and Thompson managed to get across the romantic message . He called it a " Trek message " episode , but said that it was one of the better ones as it " shines a light on an inadequacy in our own culture via an alien culture , but in this case it muddies the waters a bit because the taboo actually makes sense on the face of it . " He gave " Rejoined " a rating of eight out of ten .
= = = alien kisses = = =
Dara Gellman , an independent Canadian video artist , used the kiss sequence in " Rejoined " as the basis of her 3 @-@ minute 1999 project alien kisses . In this piece , the kiss scene is manipulated — the video is slowed , the image enlarged and digitized — and trance music is added . New media scholar Carolyn Guertin argues that this serves to make the footage " even more alien " , presenting queerness as " unearthly " . Jean Bruce argues that , despite the inherent ambiguity of the scene in the episode , " the image is still one of two women kissing , which opens up the possibilities of queer desire on its own terms " . Similarly , Guertin argues that Gellman translates the ( not truly queer ) scene into an " expression of gay love that is alien and apart , but no less erotic for being so " . In using the scene in isolation , alien kisses , Bruce argues , " strips away the gender equivocation by imposing a new queer vision " . She suggests that alien kisses works as an " antidote " to the " ultimately tame treatment " Star Trek has offered of queer themes , and as a " suggestion " that Star Trek acknowledge the desires of queer viewers and fans " beyond the occasional titillating episode " .
= = Home media release = =
The first home media release of " Rejoined " was on a VHS cassette alongside " Indiscretion " on March 25 , 1996 , in the United Kingdom . The first release within the United States was on a single @-@ episode VHS release on August 1 , 2000 . It was released on DVD as part of the season four box set on August 5 , 2003 .
= New History Warfare Vol . 3 : To See More Light =
New History Warfare Vol . 3 : To See More Light is the fourth studio album by Canada @-@ based saxophonist Colin Stetson , released by Constellation Records in 2013 . It is the final part of a trilogy of albums that also encompasses New History Warfare Vol . 1 ( 2007 ) and New History Warfare Vol . 2 : Judges ( 2011 ) .
Stetson , whose contributions to the album were recorded live without overdubs or loops , is the sole musical performer on the album , with Bon Iver 's Justin Vernon later providing vocals on four tracks . Production on the album was undertaken by Stetson in collaboration with Ben Frost . New History Warfare Vol . 3 : To See More Light was met with critical acclaim upon its release in April 2013 and was shortlisted for the 2013 Polaris Music Prize three months later .
= = Background and recording = =
Stetson 's original concept for the New History Warfare trilogy was largely skeletal , and developed as the albums were recorded . New History Warfare Vol . 1 was released in 2008 and had a narrative concept of a story of people who had been living at sea for generations . New History Warfare Vol . 2 : Judges , released in 2011 , told the story of one of these people finally arriving on land . New History Warfare Vol . 3 : To See More Light expanded on this , with Stetson stating that " it ’ s a war story . It ’ s finding your way to this shining beacon on the mountaintop , " and that it " deals with death and love . "
Stetson 's playing technique includes multiphonics and overblowing , and he uses circular breathing to produce continuous tones without interruption , allowing him to perform an extended stream of notes . The physical and technical demands of this style of playing require Stetson to adhere to a fitness routine that includes running , yoga , breathing exercises and meditation . During the course of his career , his playing proficiency had been developing and each album in the New History Warfare trilogy marked a musical progression from the last . By the time he recorded New History Warfare Vol . 3 : To See More Light , Stetson 's playing capability had improved to such a level that he claimed " there ’ s almost nothing in there that I could have played when I recorded Vol . 2 . "
Stetson 's parts on Vol . 3 were performed and recorded live without overdubs or loops in various studios in Montreal , where he had wanted to use the large rooms to provide more reverb . Using an arrangement of microphones placed in strategic places including on the side of the saxophone , on his own throat , hanging from the ceiling and at different points around the studio , Stetson captured not only the sounds of the instrument but also the percussive sound of the keys and the sounds of his own breathing and vocalizing through the horn . Producer Ben Frost , whom Stetson had previously worked with on New History Warfare Vol . 2 : Judges , mixed between fifteen and twenty recordings of the same performance into a cohesive piece of music at Greenhouse Studios in Iceland . The vocals of Justin Vernon were recorded at April Base studios in Fall Creek , Wisconsin , and were overdubbed later in the recording process .
= = Musical content = =
New History Warfare Vol . 3 : To See More Light contains eleven tracks with a total running time of fifty @-@ two minutes . Ten tracks were written by Stetson , with three of these featuring additional writing from Justin Vernon . The track " What are They Doing in Heaven Today ? " is a cover version of a gospel song written by Charles Albert Tindley in 1901 and recorded by Washington Phillips in 1928 .
Stetson has stated that the songs are " based in traditional American song , " and the music was described by AllMusic reviewer Fred Thomas as containing " elements of jazz , modern composition , and ... aspects of repetition and textural drone found in certain branches of electronic music and noise . " Fact called the album " a rich , multi @-@ layered sonic world " and noted that the presence of Vernon 's vocals meant that " Stetson ’ s approach feels considerably poppier this time around . " Pitchfork Media opined that Stetson has " plowed a unique path through the music landscape in the last five years , " stating that " his music is heady but always rooted in the body . " Jeremy D. Larson concurred with this idea , claiming that Stetson 's music is " alien but human , technically astounding but filled with passion – the saxophone acts as a medium of expression tied to his whole body " , but admitted that " to most ears , Stetson ’ s music is hard to classify . " Reviewer Daniel Paton also found classification of the music difficult , saying that it " doesn ’ t really meet even the most open @-@ minded definitions of jazz , neither is it really an example of free improvised music . "
In his review for Drowned in Sound , Alexander Tudor observed the album 's " abrasiveness , brute force , and determination to push the instrument to its limits , " describing a " relentless pummelling of metal in motion ; often aggressive or chaotic , but using scales to evoke a sense of discipline " while noting that Stetson was " equally at home with classical minimalism . " Exclaim ! reviewer Vincent Pollard noted how Vol . 3 " organically and coherently blends Stetson 's avant @-@ garde playing and dark , complex themes with accessible and compelling compositions , " while MusicOMH commented that Stetson was " finding guttural , fuzzy , violent sounds from his saxophone ... but also finding a disarming warmth where necessary . " In his review for No Ripcord , Stephen Wragg stated that " there ’ s such a polyphonic richness to these recordings that it sounds , at times , like five people are present " and noted that the techniques employed in the recording of the album " creates this heady , vertiginous rush – adrenaline @-@ inducing in its deftness ; and that ’ s an effect that strikes me as incredibly difficult to recreate in music . " Spin 's Richard Gehr suggested that the music was " densely multiphonic , often claustrophobic , and reeks of fear and flight " but that it " offers at least a slight sense of salvation , " and concluded that the final album in the trilogy was " music of the moment , a work of granular epiphanies that accrete , finally , into a magnificent whole . "
= = Release = =
At the announcement of the album in January 2013 , the track " High Above a Grey Green Sea " was made available for streaming on the Constellation Records Soundcloud website . In March , four more tracks from the album ( " And in Truth " , " Hunted " , " Who the Waves Are Roaring For " and " Part of Me Apart From You " ) were able to be streamed following their premiere on the Belgian radio station Radio Scorpio . A short film made to accompany the tracks " In Mirrors " and " And in Truth " was released on 5 April 2013 , directed by Kurtis Hough , Dan Huiting and Tabb Firchau .
New History Warfare Vol . 3 : To See More Light was released on 29 April 2013 in Europe and the following day in North America . The album was released on compact disc , 180g vinyl and digital download . Following the release of the album , a promotional video was made for the track " Who the Waves Are Roaring For " , created by videographers Isaac Gale and David Jensen .
In July 2013 , New History Warfare Vol . 3 : To See More Light was shortlisted for the Polaris Music Prize , which was Stetson 's second nomination for the award after Vol . 2 : Judges in 2011 .
= = Reception = =
Upon its release , New History Warfare Vol . 3 : To See More Light received critical acclaim . At Metacritic , which assigns a weighted average score out of 100 to reviews and ratings from mainstream critics , the album has received a metascore of 81 , based on 18 reviews , indicating " universal acclaim . "
AllMusic rated New History Warfare Vol . 3 : To See More Light four stars out of five with reviewer Fred Thomas commenting that " Stetson explores scorched landscapes and heavenly scenes alike with his stylized playing . " In his review for Consequence of Sound , Jeremy D. Larson lauded Stetson 's album as " his strongest and most cohesive collection in his career " and suggested that " you ’ ve never heard anything like it " , giving a mark of four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five . Vol . 3 received an eight out of ten review from Drowned in Sound , where Alexander Tudor found the album to be " essential listening and another triumph . " Exclaim ! magazine 's Vincent Pollard awarded the album a perfect ten out of ten score , praising its " accessible and compelling compositions " and dubbing it a " masterpiece . " Angus Finlayson of FACT magazine was more critical , rating the album three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half out of five and commenting that Vernon 's vocals " run the risk of taming Stetson ’ s playing . "
A favorable review from musicOMH 's Daniel Paton described Vol . 3 's " unpredictable and challenging but frequently awe @-@ inspiring terrain " and gave the album four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five . No Ripcord reviewer Stephen Wragg was less impressed , rating it a seven out of ten , but offered that the album was " stacked with jaw @-@ dropping moments , underpinned by seismic emotional shifts . " Mark Richardson , writing for Pitchfork Media , awarded Vol . 3 8 @.@ 1 out of 10 @.@ 0 and noted Stetson ’ s " impressive achievement " before concluding that " the result is a sound that could come only from one person on earth . " Spin magazine 's Richard Gehr described the music as " peerless at conveying isolation , loneliness , and alienation " and scored the album eight out of ten . Rob Young of The Wire praised the album 's " extraordinary aural illusionism " , noting that Stetson 's playing technique finds " timbres in the saxophone 's tubing that are rarely brought out . "
= = Track listing = =
All songs written by Colin Stetson except where noted .
= = Personnel = =
Performers
Colin Stetson – alto saxophone , tenor saxophone , bass saxophone , vocals , production
Justin Vernon – vocals
Recording personnel
Mell Dettmer – mastering
Ben Frost – mixing , production
Jon Ottosen – mixing
Vid Cousins – recording
Marcus Paquin – recording
BJ Burton – recording
Brian Joseph – recording
Mark Lawson – engineering , recording
Additional personnel
Tracy Maurice – artwork , design
Matt Moroz – artwork , design
= Helen Lee ( director ) =
Helen Lee ( Korean : 헬렌 리 ; born circa 1965 ) is a Korean @-@ Canadian film director . Born in Seoul , South Korea , she emigrated to Canada at the age of four and grew up in Scarborough , Ontario . Interested in film at a young age , she took film studies at the University of Toronto and , later , New York University . While in university she was influenced by gender and minority theories , as reflected in her first film , the short Sally 's Beauty Spot ( 1990 ) . While continuing her studies she produced two more films before taking a five @-@ year hiatus to live in Korea beginning in 1995 . After her return , she released another short film and her feature film debut , The Art of Woo ( 2001 ) . She continues to produce short films , although at a reduced rate . Lee 's films often deal with gender and racial issues , reflecting the state of East Asians in modern society ; a common theme in her work is sexuality , with several films featuring interracial relationships .
= = Early life = =
Helen Lee was born in Seoul , South Korea , around 1965 , but came to Canada when she was four , a year after her parents . She was raised in Scarborough , Ontario , having moved there in the mid @-@ 1970s . As a child , she became interested in black @-@ and @-@ white films from the Golden Age of Hollywood . She later wrote that the 1960 film The World of Suzie Wong spoke to her racial identity as an Asian Canadian , an experience she found to have influenced her filmmaking ; excerpts from the film were included in her first short .
Lee began her tertiary studies at the University of Western Ontario , taking business , before transferring to the University of Toronto ; there she majored in English literature and film studies . By 1989 she was attending New York University ( NYU ) , studying under Homi K. Bhabha , Faye Ginsburg , and Mick Taussig , with a scholarship . During this period she was influenced by Trinh T. Minh @-@ ha 's paradigms on women and ethnicity , as expressed in the 1989 book Woman , Native , Other : Writing Postcoloniality and Feminism ; these were later expressed in Lee 's first film . She later described Minh @-@ ha as at one point being her " ultimate role model " .
= = Early film career = =
Lee made Sally 's Beauty Spot , a 12 @-@ minute long short film focusing on a mole on her sister 's right breast , for a film editing class at NYU in 1990 . For the film she used a second @-@ hand Bolex camera and edited it with a Steenbeck editing suite . She later recalled that she recorded the film while in her pyjamas . The production cost a total of $ 4 @,@ 000 . Fellow Canadian filmmaker David Weaver described it as sexualizing Sally 's body , something that Lee had not intended . The film was first screened at the Festival of Festivals in Toronto . After graduation , Lee spent time as a curator at the Whitney Museum of American Art before returning to Canada .
In 1992 Lee made the forty @-@ minute long film My Niagara , which featured scenes shot in Japan that were reminiscent of home movies ; the effect was obtained by filming in Super 8 Kodachrome , then transferring it to 16 mm film . Filmed in Etobicoke , Ontario , at the childhood home of co @-@ writer Kerri Sakamoto , the film detailed a young Asian @-@ Canadian woman living alone with her father after the death of her mother . Scenes were also shot at the R. C. Harris Water Treatment Plant in Toronto . Fransisca Duran in LIFT writes that the film , which had a budget of $ 80 @,@ 000 , had a theme of cultural displacement , and Lee states that My Niagara was well received . That year she also released the three @-@ minute To Sir With Love .
After My Niagara , Lee took a position as a director observer on the set of Atom Egoyan 's Exotica , while led her to enrol with the Canadian Film Centre ( CFC ) . Meanwhile , she worked as a film and music critic for Now and extensively wrote about films for other publications . She took further studies at the Banff Centre for the Arts in Banff , Alberta , before returning to the CFC as a director residency . She continued to be involved with the American company Women Make Movies , a distributor of feminist media , which she had become involved with while at NYU .
In 1995 Lee released the 26 @-@ minute long Prey , starring Adam Beach and Sandra Oh ; she described the film as a " cross @-@ cultural comedy " . The film , which followed a young Korean woman who falls in love with a drifter , was a collaboration with Cameron Bailey and dealt with themes of racial differences , immigration , and social class . The Canadian film critic and experimental filmmaker Mike Hoolboom compared the themes to those of the 1989 Hollywood film Do the Right Thing , writing that had short films been respected it would have been a watershed mark . That year she also released the three @-@ minute M. Nourbese Philip . She then took a five @-@ year hiatus , which she spent in Korea .
= = Post Korea = =
In 2000 Lee released the 22 @-@ minute short Subrosa , following a woman 's search for her mother in Seoul . Intended as a prequel for an undeveloped film entitled Priceless , the film was shot in several formats with a fifteen @-@ person crew , hurriedly recording scenes in public locations . It extensively used character @-@ centred shots , leading to what Lee described as an organic understanding of the character . It also featured on @-@ screen sexual intercourse , framed in a medium shot , which Lee intended as a sign and not simply a sex scene . Although Priceless , meant as a sequel to Subrosa , went through more than thirty drafts , it was ultimately cancelled despite interest from Alliance Atlantis and Citytv .
Anita Lee , co @-@ producer of Priceless , then suggested that Helen Lee make The Art of Woo , a romantic comedy sponsored by the Canadian Film Centre ; it was Lee 's feature film debut . Starring Adam Beach and Sook Yin Lee , the film followed a Korean @-@ Canadian art dealer who finds herself interested in a native artist but considers him unworthy as he is poor . Released in 2001 , the film was " slashed " by critics . For example , Jonathan Crow , writing for the Rovi Corporation , found the film " less fun and less accomplished than a third grade theater production " . However , its soundtrack – by Ron Sexsmith and Kurt Swinghammer – won a Genie Award for Best Achievement in Music – Original Song . That year she also released the three @-@ minute Star .
After The Art of Woo , Lee announced that intended to adapt Kerri Sakamoto 's novel The Electrical Field and a " romantic thriller " . However , neither film has yet been released . In 2002 she showed the video installation Cleaving at the Werkleitz Biennale in Germany . She married around 2008 , and that same year released the short Hers at Last , about the interactions of two women in Korea . The short was premiered at the Seoul International Women 's Film Festival as part of an omnibus entitled Ten Ten , in celebration of the festival 's tenth anniversary . The omnibus also featured works by fellow directors Byun Young @-@ joo and Lee Su @-@ yeon .
= = Themes = =
Race , gender issues , and racial identity often feature in Lee 's works . The main characters , up through The Art of Woo , are Asian women that are " caught up in some cross cultural encounter " . She writes that she attempts to address these issues through her films in non @-@ didactic ways , such that the " racial melancholia ... are like seepages in the more obvious dramatic or comedic content " . She contrasts her films with the 1993 drama The Joy Luck Club , which she considers a film with obvious , easily consumable , ethnic content . She considers the stereotype of Asian women as seductresses , either demure " lotus blossoms " or vociferous " dragon ladies " , to be a degenerative one which is " sometimes extremely offensive " , but one that has " a cultural memory that demands [ the viewer 's ] attention . "
Lee 's works often include elements of sexuality in their characterizations . She writes that the main characters of My Niagara and Subrosa reach a greater understanding of themselves and their relationships after sexual encounters . She considers sex as " never the culmination or end point " , but a signifier for intimacy . As such , she feels that the more intimate aspects of sex are best conveyed wordlessly , through how it is presented , although she concedes that " talky sex " can be appropriate for romantic comedies .
= = Filmography = =
All of the below are short films unless noted .
Sally 's Beauty Spot ( 1990 )
My Niagara ( 1992 )
Prey ( 1995 )
Subrosa ( 2000 )
The Art of Woo ( 2001 ; feature film debut )
Hers at Last ( 2008 )
= McDonnell Douglas F @-@ 4 Phantom II in Australian service =
The Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) operated 24 McDonnell Douglas F @-@ 4E Phantom II fighter @-@ bomber aircraft in the ground attack role between 1970 and 1973 . The Phantoms were leased from the United States Air Force ( USAF ) as an interim measure owing to delays in the delivery of the RAAF 's 24 General Dynamics F @-@ 111C bombers . The F @-@ 4Es were considered successful in this role , but the government did not agree to a proposal from the RAAF to retain the aircraft after the F @-@ 111s entered service in 1973 .
The F @-@ 4C variant of the Phantom II was among the aircraft evaluated by the RAAF in 1963 as part of the project to replace its English Electric Canberra bombers . The F @-@ 111 was selected , but when that project was delayed in the late 1960s due to long @-@ running technical faults with the aircraft , the RAAF determined that the F @-@ 4E Phantom II would be the best alternative . As a result of continued problems with the F @-@ 111s , the Australian and United States Governments negotiated an agreement in 1970 whereby the RAAF leased 24 F @-@ 4Es and their support equipment from the USAF .
The RAAF 's F @-@ 4Es entered service in September 1970 , and proved to be highly effective . Used in the air @-@ to @-@ ground role , they prepared aircrew to operate the sophisticated F @-@ 111s , and the intensive training program undertaken using the aircraft improved the RAAF 's professional standards . One of the Phantoms was destroyed in a flying accident in June 1971 , and another was repaired by the RAAF after it sustained heavy damage during a crash landing . The 23 surviving aircraft were returned to the USAF in two batches during October 1972 and June 1973 .
= = Acquisition = =
The McDonnell Douglas F @-@ 4C Phantom II was one of the aircraft types evaluated by the RAAF as a potential replacement for its aging English Electric Canberra bombers in the early 1960s . In mid @-@ 1963 a team of senior RAAF officers headed by the Chief of the Air Staff , Air Marshal Valston Hancock , travelled to the United States to evaluate the General Dynamics F @-@ 111 ( then known as the " TFX " ) , North American A @-@ 5 Vigilante and F @-@ 4C Phantom II strike aircraft . While in the United States , the team also inspected the Boeing KC @-@ 135 Stratotanker , which was considered necessary to support these aircraft . In addition , the RAAF officers travelled to the United Kingdom and France to evaluate the BAC TSR @-@ 2 and Dassault Mirage IV , respectively . In its final report , the team rejected the F @-@ 4C on the grounds that the aircraft lacked the range , performance at low altitude and reconnaissance capability that the RAAF required . The F @-@ 111 was considered to be the most suitable aircraft of those considered , but the team proposed that the RAAF acquire 36 Vigilantes as they also met the force 's requirements and could be delivered within a shorter time frame . The Australian Government rejected this advice , and decided to purchase 24 F @-@ 111s . At the time the order was placed in late 1963 these aircraft were scheduled to be delivered in 1967 ; the delivery date was pushed back to 1968 after Australia decided to order the unique F @-@ 111C variant . In late 1963 the United States Government offered to lend Australia 24 Boeing B @-@ 47 Stratojet bombers until the F @-@ 111s were delivered . The RAAF 's Air Board opposed acquiring these aircraft on the grounds that they were obsolete and would be expensive to operate . Instead , it recommended to Cabinet that a package of F @-@ 4C strike aircraft , the RF @-@ 4C reconnaissance variant of this design , and KC @-@ 135 tankers be leased from the United States if an interim force was considered necessary . Cabinet considered the two options during 1964 , and rejected both of them . Between 1965 and 1970 six Australian pilots serving on exchange postings to the United States Air Force ( USAF ) flew Phantoms in combat during the Vietnam War .
The F @-@ 111 program experienced significant problems during the late 1960s . As a result of delays to the development of the RF @-@ 111 reconnaissance variant of the F @-@ 111 , of which Australia had ordered four , the RAAF considered purchasing eight RF @-@ 4C or RF @-@ 4E reconnaissance aircraft and two tankers in early 1968 . The Air Force and government eventually concluded that it was too early to make a decision on this matter , and no action was taken . The RAAF accepted all 24 F @-@ 111Cs at a ceremony held at Fort Worth , Texas , on 4 September 1968 . At this time the F @-@ 111 program was in crisis owing to technical problems with the design of the aircraft 's wing assembly , and all F @-@ 111s were grounded after an American F @-@ 111 crashed on 23 September . Subsequent testing revealed further problems with F @-@ 111 components not meeting their intended lifespan , and the Australian aircraft were placed in storage at Fort Worth until these flaws could be rectified . The RAAF subsequently evaluated the F @-@ 4E Phantom II , Blackburn Buccaneer , LTV A @-@ 7 Corsair II and Grumman A @-@ 6 Intruder as possible replacements for the F @-@ 111 . Only the F @-@ 4E was considered to come close to meeting the RAAF 's requirements , though its relatively short range and lack of terrain @-@ following radar and electronic countermeasures were considered problematic .
By 1970 the F @-@ 111Cs were still not airworthy , and the Australian Government was under pressure to cancel the order or acquire an interim design . In April of that year Minister for Defence Malcolm Fraser signed an agreement with his American counterpart , Melvin R. Laird , which specified the conditions under which the Australian Government would accept the F @-@ 111s . As part of the negotiations leading to this agreement , Laird offered to lease Australia 24 F @-@ 4E Phantoms at a reduced price . The Cabinet agreed to Fraser 's recommendation that this offer be taken up , a move supported by the Air Board . The RAAF remained committed to the F @-@ 111C , however , and the Air Board issued a statement during May arguing that these aircraft would " meet the RAAF operational requirement more effectively than the F @-@ 4E by a decisive margin " .
An RAAF team headed by the Deputy Chief of the Air Staff , Air Vice Marshal Charles Read , was sent to the United States in May 1970 to negotiate the lease arrangements . After considering the proposed deal , Read recommended that it go ahead ; according to RAAF historian Alan Stephens this decision " delighted RAAF senior officers and aircrews " . The Cabinet subsequently approved the lease of 24 Phantoms for two years at a total cost of $ US 41 @.@ 554 million ( including training , spare parts and technical advice ) and the formal agreement to do so was signed on 29 June 1970 . The USAF designated this project Peace Reef . The terms of the lease agreement allowed the Australian Government to purchase the Phantoms outright if the F @-@ 111C program was cancelled , but also allowed the USAF to demand the immediate return of the aircraft and their support equipment in the event of a national emergency . Laird provided Fraser with a written commitment that this option would not be exercised , and it was never publicised . Laird also promised that USAF tankers would be made available to support the Australian Phantoms during crises , subject to American national requirements and the terms of relevant agreements between the two countries .
= = Operational service = =
The RAAF 's Phantoms were delivered soon after the lease agreement was completed . Australian pilots and navigators from the two units that were to operate the aircraft , No. 1 and No. 6 Squadrons , began to arrive in the United States for conversion training in July 1970 . Most of this training was provided by the 4530th Tactical Training Squadron , 1st Tactical Fighter Wing , at MacDill Air Force Base in Florida , and involved 32 hours of flying . USAF personnel were also posted to RAAF Base Amberley in Queensland , where the F @-@ 4Es were to be based , to train Australian ground crew . The Australian Phantoms were diverted from USAF orders and were brand new . The RAAF accepted all 24 aircraft in September 1970 , and they were subsequently ferried to Amberley in four groups of six aircraft ; the first three groups arrived on 14 , 19 and 26 September , and the final group arrived on 3 October . The Phantom was allocated the RAAF serial number prefix " A69 " , but this was never applied to the aircraft , and they retained their USAF serials .
The Phantom represented a significant improvement to the RAAF 's ground attack capabilities . The F @-@ 4Es were more technologically advanced than the Canberra , as they could fly at supersonic speeds , were equipped with air @-@ to @-@ air radar and missiles , and had an inertial navigation system , ground @-@ attack computer and a cannon . The Phantoms were capable of operating in several roles ; the RAAF primarily used them as strike aircraft . This role was selected to prepare aircrew to operate F @-@ 111s , and most training exercises were focused on tasks that the F @-@ 111s would also be able to perform .
Aircrew training using the F @-@ 4Es began three days after the aircraft first arrived at Amberley . The aircraft were initially operated as a pool controlled by No. 82 Wing ( the parent headquarters for No. 1 and No. 6 Squadrons ) and were allocated between the two squadrons only after all the Phantoms , aircrew and ground crew had arrived in Australia . The training program gradually increased in complexity , with night flying beginning in October , practice @-@ bombing sorties commencing in late November and air @-@ to @-@ air sorties being flown from January 1971 . Ground attack missions were practiced from February 1971 , and in June that year the Phantoms began dropping live bombs during exercises . The introduction of several of the aircraft into service was delayed by an initial shortage of spare parts , but all were operational by the end of 1970 .
During their service with the RAAF , the Phantoms were operated alongside the RAAF 's Dassault Mirage III fighters and the Royal Australian Navy 's Douglas A @-@ 4 Skyhawk ground attack aircraft . In addition to routine training flights , the Phantoms participated in major air defence exercises and also flew practice sorties against warships . The F @-@ 4Es also took part in airshows , including four that formed part of the flying displays conducted in different parts of Australia to mark the RAAF 's 50th anniversary during March and April 1971 .
Maintenance of the Phantoms was undertaken by No. 482 Squadron and No. 3 Aircraft Depot , both of which were located at Amberley . In addition to routine servicing , these units modified the Phantoms ' AN / APQ @-@ 120 radars during early 1971 . In response to problems detected during maintenance , RAAF technical personnel checked all the aircraft for defects to their emergency flap system in September 1971 and used X @-@ ray testing to detect any cracks in their stabilators during early 1972 .
The RAAF 's Phantoms suffered several accidents . The first occurred on 19 October 1970 when the systems needed to power the brake skid and nosewheel steering on board Phantom A69 @-@ 7234 failed during flight . It was decided to use Amberley 's arresting equipment to slow the aircraft as it landed , but this system failed after A69 @-@ 7234 's tail hook engaged the wires , causing the Phantom to slide off the runway . The pilot only suffered minor injuries and the navigator was unhurt , but A69 @-@ 7234 was badly damaged . The aircraft was subsequently rebuilt by No. 3 Aircraft Depot and returned to service on 30 September 1971 ; at the time this was the most complex Phantom repair task to have been undertaken by military personnel in any of the countries operating the aircraft . The next serious accident occurred on the night of 16 June 1971 when A69 @-@ 7203 crashed into the sea during an exercise near Evans Head , New South Wales , resulting in the death of the aircraft 's pilot and navigator . The cost of this aircraft was written off against that of an Australian Lockheed P @-@ 3B Orion that had crashed in the United States during 1968 before being delivered to the RAAF . Other accidents involving the Phantom included A67 @-@ 7220 being over @-@ stressed in flight during February 1971 ( which led to its engines being sent back to the United States for repairs ) and A69 @-@ 7206 's nosewheel collapsing during takeoff in January 1972 .
The RAAF was highly satisfied with the performance of the F @-@ 4Es , and they played an important role in preparing No. 82 Wing to operate the F @-@ 111 . Many personnel in the Air Force believed that it would have been very difficult for the wing to have transitioned directly from the Canberra to the much more complicated F @-@ 111 . In particular , the Phantoms gave RAAF personnel experience operating aircraft fitted with sophisticated avionics and capable of using a wide range of weapons , and the intensive training program undertaken by No. 82 Wing during this period significantly improved its professionalism . In his book Going Solo : The Royal Australian Air Force 1946 – 1971 , Alan Stephens also argued that the speed with which the Air Force 's aircrew and technical personnel adapted to operating Phantoms " illustrated the RAAF 's exceptional technical competence " .
= = Return to the USAF = =
Repairs to the RAAF 's F @-@ 111Cs were undertaken from late 1971 , and all 24 were accepted on 15 March 1973 . The RAAF considered retaining the Phantoms after the F @-@ 111s entered service , and the US Government offered to sell the 23 remaining aircraft to Australia for $ 54 million . Studies found that the upfront cost of keeping the F @-@ 4Es would be $ 77 million , and that one of the Mirage III squadrons would need to be disbanded to man the Phantom @-@ equipped units . Nevertheless , the Air Board recommended that the aircraft be retained , but a proposal to do so was rejected by the Cabinet in 1972 on advice from the Treasury . If the Phantoms had remained in service they would have been used to provide close air support for the Army .
The Phantoms began to be returned to the USAF in 1972 . No. 6 Squadron ceased operating the aircraft on 4 October 1972 . Six F @-@ 4Es departed for the United States on 25 October that year , followed by a further five in early November . The first six F @-@ 111s arrived at Amberley on 1 June 1973 , and six Phantoms left for the United States five days later . The final RAAF Phantom flight was made on 20 June , and four of the aircraft departed the next day . The last two Phantoms left Amberley on 21 June . All but two of the former RAAF Phantoms were subsequently converted to specialist Wild Weasel aircraft .
A former USAF F @-@ 4E is on display at the RAAF Museum in Melbourne . This aircraft , which did not serve with the RAAF , was presented to the RAAF by the National Museum of the United States Air Force in 1990 , and is painted as one of the Phantoms operated by No. 82 Wing .
= Sandakan =
Sandakan ( Malaysian pronunciation : [ ˈsan daˈkan ] , Jawi : سنداکن , Chinese : 山打根 ; pinyin : Shān Dǎ Gēn ) formerly known at various times as Elopura , is the second @-@ largest town in Sabah after Kota Kinabalu City , on the north @-@ eastern coast of Borneo in Malaysia . It is located on the east coast of the island in the administrative centre of Sandakan Division and was the former capital of British North Borneo . The town has an estimated population of 157 @,@ 330 while the surrounding municipal area has a total population of 396 @,@ 290 .
Before the founding of Sandakan , Sulu Archipelago was the source of dispute between Spain and the Sultanate of Sulu for economic dominance in the region . By 1864 , Spain had blockaded the Sultanate possessions in the Sulu Archipelago . The Sultanate of Sulu awarded a German consular service ex @-@ member a piece of land in the Sandakan Bay to seek protection from Germany . In 1878 , the Sultanate sold north @-@ eastern Borneo to an Austro @-@ Hungarian consul who later left the territory to a British colonial merchant . The German presence over the area raised concern among the British . As a result , a protocol was signed between the British , German and the Spanish to recognise Spanish sovereignty over the Sulu Archipelago , in return for the Spanish not intervening in British affairs in northern Borneo .
Sandakan began to prosper when the British North Borneo Company ( BNBC ) started to build a new settlement in 1879 , developing it into an active commercial and trading centre as well as making it the main administrative centre for North Borneo . The British also encouraged the migration of the Chinese from British Hong Kong to develop the economy of Sandakan . However , the prosperity halted when the Japanese occupied the area . As the war continued and Allied bombing started in 1944 , the town was totally destroyed . Unable to fund the costs of the reconstruction , the administrative powers of North Borneo were handed over to the Crown Colony government . Subsequently , the administrative capital of North Borneo was moved to Jesselton . As part of the 1948 – 1955 Colonial Office Reconstruction and Development Plan , the crown colony government began to develop the fishing industry in Sandakan . Today , Sandakan contains illegal immigrants from the southern Philippines .
Sandakan is one of the main ports for oil , tobacco , coffee , sago , and timber exports . Other economic activities include fishing , ship building , eco @-@ tourism , and manufacturing . Among the tourist attractions in Sandakan are Sandakan Heritage Museum , Sandakan Cultural Festival , Sandakan War Memorial , Sepilok Orang Utan Sanctuary , Turtle Islands National Park , and Gomantong Caves .
= = Etymology = =
A first European settlement was built by a Scottish arms smuggler from Glasgow named William Clark Cowie who named the settlement " Sandakan " , ( which in the Suluk language means " The place that was pawned " ) . It was soon renamed Kampong German ( Kampung Jerman ) , due to the presence of several German bases there . When another new settlement was built shortly after the previous Cowie settlement had been destroyed by a fire , it was called as Elopura , meaning " beautiful town " . The name was given by the British North Borneo Company but the locals persisted to use the old name and later it was changed back to Sandakan . Besides Elopura , it was also nicknamed Little Hong Kong due to a strong presence of ethnic Chinese migration from Hong Kong ( mainly Cantonese and Hakka ) . It was Pryer who gave the settlement the name Elopura meaning " beautiful town " . Several years later the settlement was again renamed Sandakan . The name Elopura , however , is still used for some local government functions of the Sabah State Legislative Assembly , including elections . The town is usually referred as " Sandakan " nowadays instead of " Elopura " or " Little Hong Kong " . However , efforts have been made to develop Sandakan so that the town is fitting to have the name of " Little Hong Kong " again .
= = History = =
Like most of Borneo , this area was once under the control of the Bruneian Empire in the 15th century before been ceded to the Sultanate of Sulu between the 1600s and 1700s as a gift for helping the Bruneian forces during the Brunei Civil War . In 1855 , when Spanish power began to expand in the Philippine archipelago , they began to restrict the trade of foreign nations with Sulu by establishing a port in Zamboanga and issuing a ruling which declared that ships wanting to engage in trade with the Sulu Archipelago must first visit the Spanish port . In 1860 , the Sultanate of Sulu became important to the British as their archipelago could allow the British to dominate trade routes from Singapore to Mainland China . But in 1864 , William Frederick Schuck , a German ex @-@ member for the German consular service arrived in Sulu and met Sultan Jamal ul @-@ Azam , who encouraged him to remain in Jolo . Schuck associated himself with the Singapore @-@ German trading firm of Schomburg and began working in the interest of the Sultan and Datu Majenji , who was an overlord in the island of Tawi @-@ Tawi . While he continued his voyage to Celebes , he decided to open his first headquarters at Jolo . Large quantities of arms , opium , textiles and tobacco from Singapore were shipped to Tawi @-@ Tawi in exchange for slaves from the Sultanate .
In November 1871 , Spanish gunboats bombarded Samal villages in Tawi @-@ Tawi islands and blockaded Jolo . As war in the waters of Sulu began to escalate , the Sultanate came to rely on Singapore 's market for assistance . When the Sultanate increased their close trade relations with the British trading ports of Labuan and Singapore , this forced the Spanish to take another major step to conquer the Sulu Archipelago . The arrival of German warship Nymph at the Sulu Sea in 1872 to investigate the Sulu @-@ Spanish conflict made the Sultanate believe Schuck was connected with the German government , thus the Sultanate granted Schuck an area of land in the Sandakan Bay to establish a trading port to monopolise the rattan trade in the northeast coast where Schuck could operate freely without the Spanish blockade . The intervention of Germans on the Sulu issue caught the British ' attention and made them suspicious , especially when the Sultanate had asked for protection from them . Schuck then established warehouses and residences in the Sandakan Bay , along with the arrival of two steamers under the German flag and it served as a base for the running of gunpowder and firearms . When another German warship Hertha visited Sandakan Bay , its commander described the activity in Kampung Jerman :
... during our stay , two small steamers under German flag , ostensibly coming from Labuan , ran in ; also third , of about the same size , with a flag of all yellow , the property and flag , as I was told of the Datu Alum . Judging from the stores in the settlement , cotton goods , arms and especially firearms , appears to be the articles of trade with the natives of Sulu .
In 1878 , the Sultanate of Sulu sold their land in north @-@ eastern Borneo to an Austro @-@ Hungarian consul named Baron von Overbeck . After efforts by Overbeck to sell northern Borneo to the German Empire , Austria @-@ Hungary and the Kingdom of Italy for use as a penal colony were unsuccessful , he withdrew in 1880 . This left Alfred Dent to manage and establish the British North Borneo Company ( BNBC ) , as Sandakan became the capital of North Borneo in 1884 .
As the capital of North Borneo , Sandakan become an active commercial and trading centre . The main trading partners were Hong Kong and Singapore . Many Hong Kong traders eventually settled in Sandakan and in time the town was called the ' Little Hong Kong of North Borneo ' . The Cowie settlement was accidentally burnt down on 15 June 1879 and was never thereafter rebuilt . The first British Resident , William B. Pryer then moved the administration to a new settlement on 21 June 1879 to a residence in what is today known as Buli Sim Sim near Sandakan Bay .
During Pryer 's tenure of being the first resident of Sandakan , one of his first tasks was to establish law and order . But since the local natives , although cowed by the guns of the British Navy , considered the British as transgressors in their land , they were hostile towards the authority of the British North Borneo Company . Hence , Pryer had to import his police from India and Singapore . His first contingent of police was made up of Indian Sikhs with a large body stature . The Indian police were probably from the Sepoy Company in India and were generally called ' Sipai ' by the locals .
Meanwhile , the Spanish continued to strengthen their blockade of trade activities in the Sulu Archipelago , resulting in the blockade 's opposition by Germans when many of their trading ships were seized by Spain . Both Berlin and London stated the archipelago should remain open to world trade route . Soon , the British began to co @-@ operate with German when rumours about the seizure of their trading ship by the Spanish began arriving to Great Britain which lead the British to oppose the Spanish action . British and Germans then refused to recognise the Spanish sovereignty over Sulu . But with strong opposition from Germans over the illegal seizures of their ships and the British fear of the German presence ( which was stronger than the Spanish during the time ) , a protocol known as Madrid Protocol was then signed in Madrid to secure Spanish sovereignty over the archipelago , making the Spanish free to wage any war with the Sultanate of Sulu without the fear of other foreign western powers intervening and as a return the Spanish would not intervene in the affairs of British in northern Borneo .
The prosperity of Sandakan as the capital of North Borneo was however ended when the Japanese occupied the town on 19 January 1942 . During their occupation , the Japanese restored the town 's previous name , Elopura and established a prisoner of war camp to hold their captive enemies . Allied planes started to raid Sandakan in September 1944 . As the Japanese feared further retaliation from the Allied forces , they began to move all prisoners and forced them to march to Ranau . Thousands of British and Australian soldiers lost their lives during this forced march in addition to Javanese labourers from the Dutch East Indies . Only six Australian soldiers survived from this camp , all after escaping . Sandakan was completely destroyed both by bombing from Allied forces and by the Japanese occupation .
At the end of the war , the British North Borneo Company returned to administer the town but were unable to finance the costs of reconstruction . They gave control of North Borneo to the British Crown on 18 July 1946 . The new colonial government chose to move the capital of North Borneo to Jesselton instead of rebuilding it as the cost of reconstruction was higher due to the damage . Although Sandakan was no longer the administrative capital , it still remained as the " economic capital " with its port activities related to the export of timber and other agricultural products in the east coast . To improve the facilities , the Crown Colony administration designed a plan , later known as the " Colonial Office Reconstruction and Development Plan for North Borneo : 1948 – 1955 ” . This plan established the Sandakan Fisheries Department on April 1948 . As a first step towards the development of Sandakan 's fishing industry , the Crown Colony devised the " Young Working Plan " through the " Colonial Development and Welfare Scheme " . Through this plan , the British administration were given the responsibility to import basic materials from Hong Kong for fishermen and distribute the materials at a price lower than the one offered by the capitalists . As a result , Hong Kong towkays ( bosses ) were involved with the fishing industry in Sandakan .
= = Government and International relations = =
The town has twin town arrangements with Burwood , Australia and Zamboanga , Philippines .
There are three members of parliament ( MPs ) representing the three parliamentary constituencies in the district : Libaran ( P.184 ) , Batu Sapi ( P.185 ) , and Sandakan ( P.186 ) .
The town is administered by the Sandakan Municipal Council ( Majlis Perbandaran Sandakan ) . The current President of Sandakan Municipal Council is Datuk Ir . James Wong , who took over from Mr. Yeo Boon Hai in 2009 . The area under the jurisdiction of the Sandakan District covers the town area ( 46 square miles ) , half @-@ town area ( 56 square miles ) , rural areas and islands ( 773 square miles ) with all the total area are 875 square miles .
= = = Security = = =
Today , Sandakan is one of the six districts that is involved in the eastern Sabah sea curfew that have been enforced since 19 July 2014 by the Malaysian government to repel attacks from militant groups in the Southern Philippines .
= = Geography = =
Sandakan is located on the eastern coast of Sabah facing the Sulu Sea , with the town is known as one of the port towns in Malaysia . The town is located approximately 1 @,@ 900 kilometres from the Malaysia 's capital Kuala Lumpur , 28 kilometres from the international border with the Philippines and 319 kilometres from the capital of Sabah . The district itself is surrounded by Beluran ( known as Labuk @-@ Sugut District before ) and Kinabatangan district . Not far from the town , there are the three Malaysian Turtle Islands , Selingaan , Gulisaan and Bakkungan Kechil . The nearest islands to the town are Berhala , Duyong , Nunuyan Darat , Nunuyan Laut , and Bai island .
= = = Climate = = =
Sandakan has a tropical rainforest climate under the Köppen climate classification . The climate is relatively hot and wet with average shade temperature about 32 ° C , with around 32 ° C at noon falling to around 27 ° C at night . The town sees precipitation throughout the year , with a tendency for October to February to be the wettest months , while April is the driest month . Its mean rainfall varies from 2184 mm to 3988 mm .
= = Demography = =
= = = Ethnicity and religion = = =
According to the Malaysian Census in 2010 , the whole town municipality 's area has a total population of 396 @,@ 290 . Non @-@ Malaysian citizens form the majority of the town population with 144 @,@ 840 people followed by other Bumiputras ( 100 @,@ 245 ) , Chinese ( 63 @,@ 201 ) , Bajau / Suluk ( 38 @,@ 897 ) , Malay ( 22 @,@ 244 ) , Kadazan @-@ Dusun ( 16 @,@ 616 ) , Indian ( 974 ) , Murut ( 519 ) and others ( 8 @,@ 754 ) .
Most of the non @-@ Malaysian citizens are from the southern Philippines . The Chinese , like other places in Sabah , are mostly Cantonese and Hakka who arrived during the British period and had their original settlements before in the town which is now known as the Chinese Farm River Village . The Bajau , Suluk and Malays are majority Muslims , Kadazan @-@ Dusuns and Muruts mainly practice Christianity with some of them having become Muslims while the Chinese are mainly Buddhists , Taoist and some Christians . There is also a small number of Hindus , Sikhs , Animists , and secularists .
The large group of non @-@ citizens have been identified as a majority Muslims and there is some Christian Filipinos women who converted to Islam to marry Muslim Filipinos here . Like in Kota Kinabalu , the first wave of these immigrants arrived in the late 15th century during the Spanish colonisation , while the others arriving in the early 1970s because of the troubles in southern Philippines . They consist of migrant workers with many of them being naturalised as Malaysian citizens , however there are still many who live without proper documentation as illegal immigrants in the town with their own illegal settlement .
= = = Languages = = =
Like the national language , the people of Sandakan mainly speak Malay , with a distinct Sabahan creole . The Malay language in Sandakan are different from the Malay language in the west coast which resembles Brunei Malay . In Sandakan , this language has been influenced by many words from the Suluk language . As Sandakan had also been dominated by the Hakka and Cantonese Chinese , Hakka and Cantonese widely spoken and taught as official language in the school back then . While for the east coast Bajau , their language has similarities with the Sama language in the Philippines and also borrowed many words from the Suluk language which is different from the west coast Bajau who had been influenced by the Malayic languages of Brunei Malay .
= = Economy = =
During the British period , Sandakan grew quickly as one of the largest British settlements on the east coast of North Borneo including having been the former capital of the territory . It grew rapidly due to the export activities as a port town . The port is important for palm oil , tobacco , cocoa , coffee , manila hemp and sago exports . In the mid @-@ 1930s , the export of tropical timber from Sandakan recorded a level of 180 @,@ 000 cubic metres which made the town as the world 's largest exporter of hardwood . Many Sandakan wood logs are now found in Beijing 's Temple of Heaven . Sandakan also enjoyed modern developments such as telegraph service to London and paved streets before Hong Kong and Singapore .
The overseas Chinese have contributed to the development of the town since their immigration in the late 19th century . The immigrants to Sandakan were farmers and labourers while some of them worked as businessmen and entrepreneurs . In the modern days , Sandakan have been poised to become one of Sabah business hubs . The town itself is one of Sabah 's major port , other than in Kota Kinabalu , Sepanggar Bay , Tawau , Lahad Datu , Kudat , Semporna and Kunak . Sandakan district is known for its eco @-@ tourism centres , such as the orangutan rehabilitation station in Sepilok Rehabilitation Centre , the Turtle Islands Park , the Kinabatangan River and the Gomantong Caves which are famous for their edible bird 's nest . Due to Sandakan geographical proximity to Southern Philippines , there is also a barter trade connection and Sandakan is considered as a transit point for food entering the Southern Philippines . The state government has been assisting traders to improve their trading system and providing infrastructure facilities .
Sandakan main industrial zones are basically based on three areas such as the Kamunting area known for its oil depots , edible oil refinery and glue factories . In Batu Sapi , a shipyard , fertiliser oxygen gas and wood @-@ based factories are situated . The main highway , Batu Sapi Road , had been upgraded by 2014 . A grand specialised industrial park , Majulah Industrial Centre have also started operating in 2015 . The proposed Seguntor industrial area consists of 1 @,@ 950 hectares ( 4 @,@ 833 acres ) is originally an agricultural area and the area is now in the process to be re @-@ zoning into an industrial area . 2 @,@ 531 acres will be for wood @-@ based industries while another 2 @,@ 302 will be used for general industries . At present , 55 wood @-@ based factories have been approved , of which 35 has been into operation . While another total of 340 hectares area for general industries and 30 hectares for service industries are located in various parts of Sandakan .
But in recent years , many businessmen have shifted their operations away from the town centre to other suburbs due to a large presence of illegal immigrants from Mindanao islands in the Philippines which has caused trouble , mostly crime such as theft and vandalism on public facility and also solid waste pollution in marine and coastal areas . But later in January 2003 , an urban renewal project , was launched to revive the town centre as a commercial hub in Sandakan and since 2013 , the Government of Malaysia has launched a major crackdown on illegal immigrants .
= = Transportation = =
All the internal roads linking different parts of the town are generally state roads constructed and maintained by the state 's Public Works Department , while the local council ( Sandakan Municipal Council ) oversees the housing estates roads . Currently , most roads in Sandakan are undergoing major upgrades due to issues like the lack of road networks and overloading . There is only one federal arterial road which links Sandakan to the west coast of Sabah , the Federal Route 22 , while other roads including the internal roads are called state roads . Most major internal roads are dual @-@ carriageways . The only highway route from Tawau connects : Sandakan – Telupid – Ranau – Kundasang – Tamparuli – Tuaran – Kota Kinabalu , as well Lahad Datu – Kunak – Semporna – Tawau ( part of the Pan Borneo Highway )
Regular bus services with minivans and taxis also can be found . There are three bus terminals operating in the town such as the Buses to Sepilok , Local Bus Terminal and the Long Distance Bus Terminal . The long @-@ distance bus terminal is located about 4 km north of the town while the local bus connects with the centre of the town .
Sandakan Airport ( SA ) ( ICAO Code : WBKS ) provides flights linking the town to other domestic destinations . To boost the twin town relationship with Zamboanga City and for the ASEAN spirit in the BIMP @-@ EAGA region , there is an international route from Sandakan to Zamboanga International Airport . Local destinations for the airport including Kota Kinabalu , Kuching , Kuala Lumpur and many others . It is also one of the destinations for MASWings , which serves flights to other smaller towns or rural areas in East Malaysia . As of 2014 , the airport is being upgraded and expanded to accommodate additional travellers .
There is a ferry terminal which connects the town with some parts in the Southern Philippines such as Zamboanga City , the Sulu Archipelago and Tawi @-@ Tawi . The state government have tried to proposed a new ferry terminal in the town to attract more tourist particularly from the Philippines and also from Indonesia . But the proposal was turned down due to the trouble in the southern Philippines which could spread to the state and there is a call from the former Chief Minister of Sabah and the Current President of Sabah Progressive Party Yong Teck Lee to suspend the ferry service to counter the high level of people migration from the Philippines which now has become the major problem to Sabah as they are overstaying in the state and becoming an illegal immigrants .
= = Public services = =
The current court complex is located along Lebuh Empat . It contains the High Court , Sessions Court , and the Magistrate Court . Another court for the Sharia law was also located in the town .
The district police headquarters is also located at Lebuh Empat , along with the town police station located not far from the court beside the Wisma Sandakan . Other police station can be found throughout the district such as in KM52 , Ulu Dusun and in Seguntor . Police substations ( Pondok Polis ) are found in Sg . Manila , Suan Lamba , Sibuga and Kim Fong BT4 areas , and the Sandakan Prison is located in the town centre .
There are one public hospital , eight public health clinics , one child and mother health clinic , eight village clinics , three mobile clinics and two 1Malaysia clinics in Sandakan . The Duchess of Kent Hospital , which is located along North Street ( Jalan Utara ) , is the main and second largest public hospital in Sabah after the Queen Elizabeth Hospital with 400 beds . Build in 1951 , it is also become the first modern and one of the important hospital in Sabah .
In 2008 , a private hospital was proposed to be built at the North Street . The Fook Kuin Medical Centre would be the largest private hospital in Sabah with 276 beds surpassing the Sabah Medical Centre with 134 beds in Kota Kinabalu once it finished in 2011 . The Sandakan Regional Library is located in the town and is one of three regional libraries in Sabah , the other in Keningau and Tawau . All these libraries are operated by the Sabah State Library department .
= = Education = =
There are many government or state schools in and around the town . The first primary school in the town was St. Mary Town Primary School which was opened by Rev. Fr . A. Prenger who became the first headmaster along with Rev. Fr . Pundleider , who is a Mill Hill 's priests . It is an all boys Catholic Mission School and have been opened since 24 July 1883 , making it as the oldest school in Borneo . For the secondary schools , there are Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Elopura , Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Elopura II , Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Batu Sapi , Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Datu Pengiran Galpam , Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Gum @-@ Gum , Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Muhibbah , Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Taman Fajar , Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Perempuan , Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Paris , Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Merpati , Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Segaliud , Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Libaran , Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Sandakan , Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Sandakan II , Sekolah Menengah Tiong Hua , Sekolah Menengah Cecilia Convent , Sekolah Menengah St. Mary , Sekolah Menengah St. Michael , Sekolah Menengah Sung Siew , Sekolah Menengah Teknik Sandakan and Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Agama Sandakan . One independent private school is also present in the town called the Yu Yuan Secondary School .
For higher / tertiary education , there are Sandakan Polytechnic , ILP Sandakan , GIATMARA Sandakan and Kinabalu Commercial College . Universities such as the University of Malaysia Sabah , Open University Malaysia and Universiti Putra Malaysia have a campus here .
= = Culture and leisure = =
Several cultural venues are located in Sandakan . The Sandakan Heritage Museum , situated at the Lebuh Empat Road , is the main museum of Sandakan . The museum is located on the right @-@ hand side of the ground and on the first floor of the Wisma Warisan Building which is next to the municipal building . Besides that , a cultural festival known as Sandakan Festival is celebrated once a year in the town , after having been introduced in 2000 by the Sandakan Municipal Council .
Another museum in Sandakan is the Agnes Keith House which is located on top of the hill along Istana Street . The house is known as the former home to Harry Keith and his wife Agnes Newton Keith . Other historical attractions include the Malaysia Fountain , Chartered Company Memorial , Chong Tain Vun Memorial , North Borneo Scout Movement Memorial , Sandakan Japanese Cemetery , Sandakan Liberation Monument , Sandakan Massacre Memorial , Sandakan Memorial Park , Sandakan War Memorial and the William Pryer Memorial . The oldest religious buildings are the Parish of St. Michael 's and All Angels , the Sam Sing Kung Temple and the Jamek Mosque , which was opened by a Muslim cloth merchant from India , known as Damsah , in 1890 .
A number of leisure spots and conservation areas are available around Sandakan . The Sepilok Orang Utan Sanctuary is a place where orphaned or injured orangutans are brought to be rehabilitated to return to forest life . Established in 1964 , it is one of only four orangutan sanctuaries in the world . Other conservation areas are the Malaysian Turtle Islands where many turtles lay their eggs on the islands . They cover an area of 1 @,@ 740 hectares which includes the surrounding reefs and seas . The islands are also ideal for swimming , snorkelling and scuba diving .
Another attraction is the Gomantong Caves , which is home to hundreds of thousands of swifts who build their nests high on cave walls and roofs . Other than swifts , the caves are also inhabited by millions of bats . Furthermore , the Sandakan Orchid House has a collection of rare orchids . Along the Labuk Road from Sandakan , there is a crocodile farm which houses about 1 @,@ 000 crocodiles of various sizes .
The main shopping area in Sandakan is the Harbour Mall . Launched in 2003 , it is located in Sandakan 's new central business district and built on a bay of reclaimed land . It is part of the Sandakan Harbour Square and considered as the first modern shopping mall in the town . In 2014 , a new mall project with 341 units of store has been launched and will become the second main shopping destination for Sandakan once it gets finished .
Rugby is very popular in Sandakan . Eddie Butler , a former Welsh Rugby Union captain described it as the " Limerick of the tropics " . In 2008 , the Borneo Eagles @-@ Sabahans ( a team which included a few professional Fijians ) at the newly built Sandakan Rugby Club hosted a 10 @-@ a @-@ side tournament for the eighth and last time . In 2009 , the tournament was changed to seven @-@ a @-@ side .
Other than rugby , a sports complex containing a badminton court , swimming pool , weightlifting room , hockey stadium , football stadium , cricket field , boxing facility and field archery is available in the town .
= = Notable residents = =
Political
Juhar Mahiruddin : Current Yang di @-@ Pertua Negeri of Sabah
Liew Vui Keong : Malaysian politician
Entertainment
Fung Bo Bo : Hong Kong actress
Sports
Alex Lim : Malaysian swimmer
David Johnny : Malaysian football player
Elvin Chia : Malaysian swimmer
Razlan Oto : Malaysian football player
Shahran Abdul Samad : Malaysian football player
= Connie Dion =
Joseph Conrad Étienne Dion ( August 11 , 1918 – November 7 , 2014 ) was a professional ice hockey player who played two seasons in the National Hockey League ( NHL ) for the Detroit Red Wings . One of thirteen children , Dion got his start as a goaltender with the Junior Verdun Maple Leafs in 1937 and had his first full season as a senior with the team the following year . After several seasons in the Quebec Senior and Professional Hockey Leagues , he was recruited by the Red Wings in 1943 as a potential replacement for Johnny Mowers , who had enlisted to fight in World War II . He spent two years with the team , earning a win @-@ loss @-@ tie record of 23 – 11 – 4 and taking part in the most lopsided shutout ( 15 – 0 ) in NHL history as the goalie for the winning side .
After being traded down to the American Hockey League ( AHL ) in 1945 , Dion continued to play professional hockey for nearly a decade , primarily with the Buffalo Bisons , and earned the Harry Hap Holmes Memorial Award in 1950 by being the goaltender with the lowest goals against average in the league . He retired from active competition in 1954 and moved to Asbestos , Quebec , where he was active in the local ice hockey and golf scenes . The arena in Asbestos , Aréna Connie Dion , is named in his honor .
= = Early life = =
Dion was born on August 11 , 1918 in Saint @-@ Rémi @-@ de @-@ Tingwick , Quebec and had twelve siblings : six brothers and six sisters . He got his start as an ice hockey goaltender with the Junior Verdun Maple Leafs of the Quebec Junior Hockey League in 1937 and was selected as one of the goaltenders for the 1938 Memorial Cup All @-@ Star team . He also played one game with the senior Maple Leafs that season . He served briefly in the Canadian Army in Cornwall , Ontario and also worked as an asbestos miner for Johns Manville prior to quitting that job to play professional hockey .
= = Hockey career = =
Dion had his first full season in ice hockey as a senior as a member of the Lachine Rapides of the Quebec Provincial Hockey League in 1938 – 39 , and joined the league 's Sherbrooke Red Raiders the following year . With the Red Raiders he took part in two playoff games for the 1940 Allan Cup , but lost them both after allowing 16 goals . Reporting to the Army for World War II service , he suited up for the Cornwall Flyers of the Quebec Senior Hockey League ( QSHL ) for three seasons ( the team was renamed Cornwall Army in 1942 ) . He was traded to the Washington Lions of the American Hockey League in 1941 , but did not report .
In 1943 Dion , after being discharged from the army , was among those selected to help replace Vezina Trophy @-@ winning goalie Johnny Mowers of the National Hockey League 's Detroit Red Wings , who had enlisted in the army to fight in World War II . He played a total of 38 NHL games with the Red Wings between 1943 and 1945 , exiting the league with a record of 23 – 11 – 4 and having allowed 119 goals . He recorded a 15 – 0 shutout against the New York Rangers on January 23 , 1944 , two days before being signed as a free agent with Detroit . This remains , as of 2015 , the most lopsided shutout in NHL history . He also took part in all five of Detroit 's games in the 1944 Stanley Cup playoffs , where the Red Wings were eliminated four games to one in the opening round by the eventual runner @-@ up , the Chicago Black Hawks . Dion spent much of the 1944 – 45 season , meanwhile , with the Red Wings ' AHL affiliate Indianapolis Capitals . In August 1945 , after the Red Wings decided to replace Mowers permanently with Harry Lumley , Dion was traded to the St. Louis Flyers of the AHL , and then to the league 's Buffalo Bisons just over two months later . He remained with the Bisons through 1951 and won the Harry Hap Holmes Memorial Award in 1950 , given annually to goaltenders with the lowest goals @-@ against average in the AHL . He was also selected to the league 's Second All @-@ Star Team three times .
During his time with the Bisons , Dion appeared intermittently for other teams including the Houston Huskies ( 1947 – 48 ) and Louisville Blades ( 1949 – 50 ) of the United States Hockey League , and the New York Rovers ( 1948 – 49 ) of the QSHL ( during the Eastern Hockey League 's season @-@ long hiatus ) . He took the 1951 – 52 season off before returning with the Sherbrooke Saints of the Quebec Major Hockey League in 1952 . He finished his career with the Glace Bay Miners of the Maritime Major Hockey League in 1953 – 54 . During his playing career he stood 5 feet , 4 inches ( 163 centimeters ) and weighed 140 pounds ( 64 kilograms ) , making him the second @-@ shortest player in NHL history , behind Roy Worters .
= = Later life = =
Dion moved to Asbestos , Quebec after the conclusion of his hockey career and became involved in the local minor hockey movement , often in the capacity of a referee . He helped establish an arena in the city , the Centre Récréatif d 'Asbestos , in 1954 , which was later renamed Aréna Connie Dion . Since 1991 , the Asbestos Minor Hockey Association has held an annual tournament at the arena in his honor . He also became involved in golf , designing several courses and helping lay foundations for the sport in Asbestos . He had a local tournament named after him in this sport as well , the inaugural edition of which was held in 1973 . He was married to Muriel Flanigan , who died in 2011 , and had four sons , Paul , Skip , Bob , and Mickey , and one daughter , Carol @-@ Ann . He died on November 7 , 2014 at the age of 96 at the Centre de Santé et Service Sociaux in Asbestos , following a two @-@ week period of hospitalization .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season = = =
= = = Playoffs = = =
= The Boat Race 1912 =
The 69th Boat Race took place on 30 March 1912 with a re @-@ row on 1 April . Held annually , the event is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . Oxford went into the race as reigning champions , having won the previous year 's race . Umpired by former Cambridge rower Frederick I. Pitman , this year 's race ended with Cambridge sinking and Oxford waterlogged . Pitman declared the result as " No Race " and in the subsequent re @-@ row on the following Monday , the race was won by Oxford by six lengths . The Dark Blues ' fourth consecutive victory took the overall record in the event to 38 – 30 in their favour .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities ; it is followed throughout the United Kingdom and , as of 2014 , broadcast worldwide . Oxford went into the race as reigning champions , having won the previous year 's race by three @-@ and @-@ three @-@ quarter lengths . Oxford , however , held the overall lead with 37 victories to Cambridge 's 30 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) .
Oxford 's coaches were G. C. Bourne who had rowed for the university in the 1882 and 1883 races , Harcourt Gilbey Gold ( Dark Blue president for the 1900 race and four @-@ time Blue ) , and W. F. C. Holland who had rowed for Oxford four times between 1887 and 1890 . Cambridge were coached by John Houghton Gibbon who rowed for the Light Blues in the 1899 and 1900 races . For the ninth year the umpire was old Etonian Frederick I. Pitman who rowed for Cambridge in the 1884 , 1885 and 1886 races .
Author and former Oxford rower George Drinkwater noted that the Dark Blue crew was " by no means so quick in the water , but they possessed greater ease of movement " . Despite being struck by influenza , the training was never really hampered . Conversely , Cambridge suffered " misfortune after misfortune " . They persisted with D. C. Collins at stroke " in spite of his inexperience " but he was replaced by Sidney Swann . F. E. Hellyer was selected to row at number seven yet was forced to depart , suffering from influenza ; his replacement in L. S. Lloyd was considered " far too light " . C. F. Burnand was also forced to leave the crew through illness . Despite this , upon arrival at Putney , the Light Blues " made astonishing improvement " , and it was " only on account of their weight " that Oxford went into the race as favourites .
= = Crews = =
The Oxford crew weighed an average of 12 st 5 @.@ 875 lb ( 78 @.@ 7 kg ) , 7 @.@ 625 pounds ( 3 @.@ 5 kg ) per rower more than their opponents . Cambridge saw five competitors return to the boat , including R. W. M. Arbuthnot at stroke , rowing in his fourth consecutive race . Oxford 's crew also contained five participants with Boat Race experience , including Robert Bourne who was making his fourth appearance in the event . Seven of the Oxford crew were educated at Eton College . Three participants in the race were registered as non @-@ British : Oxford 's Charles Littlejohn was Australian while Cambridge 's cox C. A. Skinner hailed from South Africa and their number two D. C. Collins came from New Zealand .
= = Race = =
Oxford won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station , handing the Middlesex side of the river to Cambridge . In very rough conditions , Pitman started the race at 11 : 43 a.m. , with both coxes initially steering their crews away from each other . The Light Blues started better before Oxford passed them to lead after the first minute , their cox Henry Bensley @-@ Wells opposite the Cambridge stroke Swann . By the end of Fulham wall , the Dark Blues were clear of Cambridge but both crews had taken on board a large volume of water . Bensley @-@ Wells steered his boat close to the shore for shelter , moving out only to pass below the centre arch of Hammersmith Bridge before heading back towards the shore once again . Following discussion with his stroke Robert Bourne , Bensley @-@ Wells steered into the shore whereupon the crew disembarked to empty their vessel of the river water . After getting back onto the river , the Oxford boat was approached by the umpire 's launch and informed by Pitman that Cambridge had sunk off Harrods Furniture Depository and that he was declaring " No Race " . Despite this , Oxford finished the course and paddled to Mortlake . Prior to this year 's event , there had been one sinking in the history of the race : Cambridge sank in the 1859 race . Author Gordon Ross described the aborted race as " a fiasco of some magnitude " , while Drinkwater described it as " the greatest fiasco in the history of the race . " With the agreement of the Port of London Authority , it was agreed to hold a re @-@ row the following Monday .
According to Bensley @-@ Wells " the weather on the Monday was again bad ... the wind was even stronger but ... had changed direction slightly . " Oxford again won the toss and elected to start from the Middlesex station , handing the Surrey side of the river to Cambridge . Pitman got the race under way at 12 : 40 p.m. The Dark Blues made a better start and took advantage of the shelter once again provided by the Middlesex side of the river . Although out @-@ rating the Dark Blues by up to six strokes per second , Cambridge could not overhaul the deficit and when Oxford passed the Crab Tree pub , Bensley @-@ Wells made for " the shortest way home " and steered over towards the Surrey station in water that " looked to be fairly good . " Oxford passed the finishing post with a lead of six lengths in a time of 22 minutes 5 seconds . It was the largest winning margin since the 1903 race and the slowest winning time since the 1901 race . The victory took the overall record in the event to 38 – 30 in Oxford 's favour .
= Capon Chapel =
Capon Chapel ( pronunciation : / ˈkeɪpən / KAY @-@ pən ) , also historically known as Capon Baptist Chapel and Capon Chapel Church , is a mid @-@ 19th century United Methodist church located near to the town of Capon Bridge , West Virginia in the United States . Capon Chapel is one of the oldest existing log churches in Hampshire County , along with Mount Bethel Church and Old Pine Church .
A Baptist congregation was gathering at the site of the present @-@ day church by at least 1756 . Primitive Baptist minister John Monroe ( 1750 – 1824 ) is credited for establishing a place of worship at this site ; he is interred in the church 's cemetery . The land on which Capon Chapel was built originally belonged to William C. Nixon ( 1789 – 1869 ) , a member of the Virginia House of Delegates ; later , it was transferred to the Pugh family . The first documented mention of a church at the Capon Chapel site was in March 1852 , when Joseph Pugh allocated the land to three trustees for the construction of a church and cemetery .
During the early years of Capon Chapel , no Protestant denomination was the exclusive owner or occupant , and the church was probably utilized as a " union church " for worship by any Christian denomination . Capon Chapel was used as a place of worship by Baptists until the late 19th or early 20th century . In the 1890s , Capon Chapel was added as a place of worship on the Capon Bridge Methodist circuit of the Southern Methodist Episcopal Church . As of 2015 , Capon Chapel remains a Methodist church , now a part of the United Methodist Church , holding Methodist services twice a month .
Capon Chapel 's cemetery is surrounded by a wrought iron fence made by Stewart Iron Works , and contains the remains of John Monroe , William C. Nixon , West Virginia House of Delegates member Captain David Pugh ( 1806 – 1899 ) , American Civil War veterans from the Union and the Confederacy , and free and enslaved African Americans . Capon Chapel , along with its cemetery , was added to the National Register of Historic Places on December 12 , 2012 , in recognition of its representation of the rural religious architecture of the Potomac Highlands region , and for its service as an important rural church in Hampshire County .
= = Geography and setting = =
Capon Chapel and its associated cemetery are located to the east Christian Church Road ( West Virginia Secondary Route 13 ) , approximately 2 @.@ 01 miles ( 3 @.@ 23 km ) south of Capon Bridge and 1 @.@ 14 miles ( 1 @.@ 83 km ) northeast of the unincorporated community of Bubbling Spring in southeastern Hampshire County . Capon Chapel is 894 feet ( 272 m ) east of the Cacapon River , from which the church derives its name . The church and cemetery are situated atop a grassy hill on a 0 @.@ 96 acres ( 0 @.@ 39 ha ) plot of land , at an elevation of 869 feet ( 265 m ) , in a rural agricultural area within the Cacapon River Valley . Dillons Mountain , a forested and narrow anticlinal mountain ridge , rises to the west of the Cacapon River Valley , while the forested , rolling foothills of the anticlinal Timber Ridge rise to the valley 's east .
The church and cemetery are accessible through a gravel driveway to the north ; to the west , a cluster of tall oak trees blocks access to the road . Capon Chapel is landscaped with boxwoods on its north and south sides , a single holly on its east side , and forsythias along its west side . The Capon Chapel property consists of the church structure ( c . 1852 ) , and its associated cemetery , which is enclosed partly by the historic wrought iron fence and partly by a chain link fence . A flagpole stands at the center of the cemetery 's eastern perimeter .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
The land on which Capon Chapel is located was originally part of the Northern Neck Proprietary , a land grant that Charles II of England awarded to seven of his supporters in 1649 and renewed by an official patent in 1688 . One of these seven supporters , Thomas Colepeper , 2nd Baron Colepeper , acquired the entire area in 1681 ; his grandson , Thomas Fairfax , 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron , inherited it in 1719 . Under Lord Fairfax 's ownership , the Cacapon River Valley was predominantly inhabited by English @-@ speaking settlers as early as the late 1730s . The majority of these settlers had come from Pennsylvania and New Jersey , many of whom were either Quakers or former Quakers who were attracted to the Baptist and Methodist denominations .
= = = Baptist affiliation = = =
The Baptists established the oldest extant churches in Hampshire County . After the end of the American Revolutionary War , Baptist preachers continued their attempt to gain a foothold in what is now the Eastern Panhandle region . During the Baptists ' early growth in Hampshire County , the best known Baptist ministers were John Monroe ( 1750 – 1824 ) and Benjamin Stone ( 1743 – 1842 ) . Monroe preached at the North River , Crooked Run , and Patterson 's Creek churches during the early 19th century . According to historians Hu Maxwell and Howard Llewellyn Swisher in History of Hampshire County , West Virginia ( 1897 ) , Monroe was a minister for Primitive Baptists , who were adherent to a strict interpretation of the Calvinist theology of the Ketocton Association . Monroe probably established a Baptist church on the site of the present @-@ day Capon Chapel , where he is buried in the church 's cemetery . However , other sources claim that a Baptist congregation began gathering at the Capon Chapel site as early as 1756 .
Increased settlement and the arrival of other religious denominations in the Cacapon River Valley were further facilitated following the completion of the Northwestern Turnpike in the 1830s , which connected Parkersburg with Winchester . A small community began to develop near the turnpike 's Cacapon River crossing , 2 @.@ 01 miles ( 3 @.@ 23 km ) north of Capon Chapel 's present @-@ day location . The community later became the town of Capon Bridge .
The land on which Capon Chapel was built belonged to William C. Nixon ( 1789 – 1869 ) , a member of the Virginia House of Delegates . Nixon 's mother @-@ in @-@ law , Elizabeth Caudy ( 1773 – 1816 ) , was the first person to be buried in the church 's cemetery . While various sources estimate that Capon Chapel was built around the 1750s , there is no physical or documentary evidence to support this claim . The first documented mention of a church at the Capon Chapel site was in March 1852 , when Joseph Pugh allocated 88 and one @-@ half poles , or approximately 0 @.@ 55 acres ( 2 @,@ 200 m2 ) , to three trustees : David Pugh , another David Pugh , and Robert Pugh . The Pugh family , which was of Welsh descent , were early settlers in the Cacapon River Valley , and were one of the families that came from Wales through Pennsylvania in the late 17th century . The grant 's deed told the trustees to conceive " a Graveyard and for a house for the Public Worship of Almighty God for the use of all orthodox Christians " , and specified that the land was only to be used for religious worship and " for no other purpose " . The deed further stipulated that inheritors of the land had to be Pugh 's descendants .
During the church 's early years , no Protestant denomination was the exclusive owner or occupant of Capon Chapel , which indicates that the church was probably utilized as a " union church " for worship by any Christian denomination . Since no single denomination oversaw the church during this early period , few records of its early activities and construction exist . Later records suggest that Capon Chapel was used as a place of worship by Baptists until the late 19th or early 20th century . While it remains unclear why or how the church became associated with the Baptists , its use by the denomination is possibly associated with the Second Great Awakening , a Protestant revival movement during the early @-@ to @-@ mid 19th century that gained momentum throughout the United States . According to the December 1904 issue of The Baptist Home Mission Monthly , the Baptist Little Cacapon Church contributed one dollar to the general fund of Capon Chapel , demonstrating that the Baptist community still continued to operate from or associate with the church in 1904 .
= = = Methodist affiliation = = =
In addition to the Baptist faith , Methodists started coming to the Cacapon River Valley during the latter half of the 18th century . Methodist Episcopal Church circuit rider Francis Asbury traveled through the Capon Bridge area in 1781 . In 1890 , the Southern Methodist Episcopal Church established its presence in the Capon Bridge area under the leadership of G. O. Homan . According to Maxwell and Swisher , the Capon Bridge Methodist circuit consisted of the following places in 1897 : Capon Bridge , North River Mills , Green Mound , Augusta , Sedan , Park 's Hollow , Sandy Ridge , and Capon Chapel . Capon Chapel was not commonly used as a Baptist place of worship by the early 20th century , and developed into a permanent stop along the Capon Bridge Methodist circuit , which later grew to include Central Church at Loom and Bethel Church at Neals Run . In 1976 , the circuit 's pastor was Thomas Malcolm .
Capon Chapel remains a Methodist church , now a part of the United Methodist Church . As of 2015 , Capon Chapel 's congregation numbers five . The church 's Methodist circuit pastor is M. Christopher Duckworth ; and it offers services four Sundays a month . A small group of committed congregants maintain the historic church and cemetery grounds . Brenda Hiett is the church 's caretaker , as of 2015 . Throughout its existence , Capon Chapel has been known by various names , including " Capon Baptist Chapel " and " Capon Chapel Church " .
= = = Preservation = = =
According to the church 's caretaker , Brenda Hiett , the church 's roof and siding were installed around 1900 . A wrought iron fence , made by Stewart Iron Works in Cincinnati , Ohio , was installed around the church 's cemetery . Electrical conduits were added to the interior of the church when it was electrified around 1930 , and further electrical updates were made in 2011 . The church 's perimeter foundation of concrete blocks replaced the original stone piers in the early 1970s , and its wide , heart pine plank floors were sanded and re @-@ lacquered . Around 1990 , the Stewart Iron Works fence and gate were restored by White ’ s Ornamental Ironworks .
In 2008 , following surveys of historic properties throughout the county , the Hampshire County Historic Landmarks Commission and the Hampshire County Commission embarked upon an initiative to place structures and districts on the National Register of Historic Places . The county received funding for the surveys from the State Historic Preservation Office of the West Virginia Division of Culture and History . Capon Chapel was one of the first of eight historic properties to be considered for placement on the register . The other seven properties were Fort Kuykendall , Hickory Grove , Hook Tavern , North River Mills Historic District , Old Pine Church , Springfield Brick House , and Valley View . According to the Hampshire County Commission 's compliance officer , Charles Baker , places of worship were not typically selected for inclusion in the register ; however , Capon Chapel and Old Pine Church were exceptions , because both " started out as meeting houses " . Capon Chapel is among the earliest existing log churches in Hampshire County , along with Mount Bethel Church and Old Pine Church . Capon Chapel was added to the National Register of Historic Places on December 12 , 2012 , in recognition of its representation of the rural religious architecture of the Potomac Highlands region , and for its service as an important rural church in Hampshire County .
= = Architecture = =
Capon Chapel is a single @-@ story , rectangular , front gable log building , covered with white @-@ painted wooden clapboard siding , and topped with a green standing seam metal roof , along with metal snow guards .
= = = Exterior = = =
The church 's main façade is located on its east side , facing toward Timber Ridge , and away from the Cacapon River and Christian Church Road . The east side consists of a front gable façade of white @-@ painted clapboard siding . The church has one entryway , which is a centrally @-@ located , four @-@ paneled wooden door , topped by wooden dentil molding and a rectangular , four @-@ light transom window . The transom is the only window on the church 's east side . Unpainted wooden railings are on each side of the entryway . The clapboard siding on the church 's east side is horizontal , and varies between 5 and 7 inches ( 13 and 18 cm ) in width . The overhanging eave of the church 's roof is accentuated by a single wooden drop pendant at the top of the gable . The modern electricity meter is located to the right of the main entrance . The non @-@ loadbearing concrete block perimeter wall on this side is concealed by a stone veneer .
The west elevation is covered with white @-@ painted clapboarding and is undecorated , with the exception of an off @-@ center concrete block chimney and a single drop pendant similar to the one located at the top of the gable . The concrete block perimeter foundation is visible on the south side of the church , as is the metal embankment doors that allow access to the church 's basement .
The church 's north and south sides consist of two symmetrically placed six @-@ over @-@ six double @-@ hung sash wooden windows , along with operable green @-@ painted louvered wooden window shutters . The clapboard sidings vary between 3 and 6 inches ( 7 @.@ 6 and 15 @.@ 2 cm ) in width . At the base of the church 's north side , concrete blocks are visible under the foundation . On the church 's south side , a small strip of the roof 's eave confirms the original location of the chimney .
= = = Interior = = =
The interior of the church consists of a large , open floor plan , with wooden pews lined perpendicular to the north and south sides , thus creating a central aisle . The altar is a small wooden pulpit , which serves as a lectern that is accessible by a small wooden step ; the altar is accented by a large wooden backdrop of casing with dentil molding . Each of the church 's interior walls is covered with pine wainscot panelling and wallpaper , and topped with wooden crown molding . Wooden swag moldings accentuate the four symmetrically @-@ placed six @-@ over @-@ six double @-@ hung sash wooden windows , the doorway 's wooden casing , and the transom window . The wooden pews are simple , with cushions added for comfortable seating . The original ceiling is obscured by a dropped ceiling , which also conceals the electrical conduits for the church 's brass chandeliers . Prior to the church 's electrification , kerosene lanterns were used for light , and the lanterns remain in the church for decorative purposes . The church 's floor consists of the original heart pine planks . Concrete blocks and cut stone border the building 's perimeter to prevent animals from entering the church 's crawl space . Within the crawl space , log carrier beams support the building , on which the bark remains extant .
= = Cemetery = =
The cemetery is less than an acre in size and is located to the immediate east of the church , surrounded by a wrought iron fence manufactured by Stewart Iron Works . As of 2012 , the cemetery contains approximately 270 interments , including John Monroe ( 1750 – 1824 ) , Virginia House of Delegates member William C. Nixon ( 1789 – 1869 ) , West Virginia House of Delegates member Captain David Pugh ( 1806 – 1899 ) , American Civil War veterans from the Union and the Confederacy , and free and enslaved African Americans . Gertrude Ward ( 1896 – 1988 ) , a local historian and orchardist , is also interred in the cemetery . Captain David Pugh was an elected representative Hampshire County , who voted to secede from the Union in 1861 .
Older gravestones in the cemetery are generally cut from limestone , and the gravestones placed after 1900 are predominantly made of polished granite . Most of the gravestones have weathered significantly . The gravestones are generally rounded or rectangular in shape , and are placed on small stone foundations . The gravestones of prominent local leaders are more ornate in character , including that of Captain David Pugh and his family , who are buried under a large obelisk that lists the names of his three wives and their respective children . Nixon 's gravestone is deteriorating due to advanced weathering ; it is made of limestone and contains a carving of an open book . Following the purchase of a rectangular land tract around 1990 , the cemetery was expanded on the east side . This section of the cemetery is excluded from the church 's historically @-@ recognized boundaries , as it was not associated with the church during the period of its greatest significance .
The cemetery perimeter is lined on three sides by a cast wrought iron fence , accessible by a gate 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) in width at its western entryway . The wrought iron fence is 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) in height , and has approximately 1 @-@ inch ( 2 @.@ 5 cm ) diameter tubular fence posts , which are supported by three horizontal metal rails . The fence posts are capped with white @-@ painted stylized arrows , with a ball at the tip . A shield with the emblem reading , " The Stewart Iron Works , Cincinnati , Ohio " , is emblazoned on the fence 's gate . The cemetery 's eastern extension is surrounded by chain @-@ link fencing .
= Turkey =
Turkey ( / ˈtɜːrki / ; Turkish : Türkiye [ ˈtyɾcije ] ) , officially the Republic of Turkey ( Turkish : Türkiye Cumhuriyeti ; pronounced [ ˈtyɾcije d ͡ ʒumˈhuɾijeti ] ) , is a parliamentary republic in Eurasia , mainly on the Anatolian peninsula in Western Asia , with a smaller portion on the Balkan peninsula in Southeast Europe . Turkey is a democratic , secular , unitary , constitutional republic with a diverse cultural heritage .
Turkey is bordered by eight countries : Syria and Iraq to the south ; Iran , Armenia , and the Azerbaijani exclave of Nakhchivan to the east ; Georgia to the northeast ; Bulgaria to the northwest ; and Greece to the west . The Black Sea is to the north , the Mediterranean Sea to the south , and the Aegean Sea to the west . The Bosphorus , the Sea of Marmara , and the Dardanelles , which together form the Turkish Straits , divide Thrace and Anatolia ; they also separate Europe and Asia . Turkey 's location between Europe and Asia makes it strategically important .
Turkey has been inhabited since the paleolithic age by various ancient Anatolian civilizations : Aeolian , Dorian and Ionian Greeks , Thracians , Armenians , and Assyrians . After Alexander the Great 's conquest , the area was Hellenized , a process which continued under the Roman Empire and its transition into the Byzantine Empire . The Seljuk Turks began migrating into the area in the 11th century , starting the process of Turkification , which was accelerated by the Seljuk victory over the Byzantines at the Battle of Manzikert in 1071 . The Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm ruled Anatolia until the Mongol invasion in 1243 , when it disintegrated into small Turkish beyliks .
In the mid 14th century the Ottomans started uniting Anatolia and created an empire encompassing much of Southeastern Europe , Western Asia and North Africa , becoming a major power in Eurasia and Africa during the early modern period . The empire reached the peak of its power in the 16th century , especially during the reign ( 1520 – 1566 ) of Suleiman the Magnificent . After the second Ottoman siege of Vienna in 1683 and the end of the Great Turkish War in 1699 , the Ottoman Empire entered a long period of decline . The Tanzimat reforms of the 19th century , which aimed to modernize the Ottoman state , proved to be inadequate in most fields , and failed to stop the dissolution of the empire .
Effectively controlled by the Three Pashas after the 1913 coup d 'état , the Ottoman Empire entered World War I ( 1914 – 1918 ) on the side of the Central Powers and was ultimately defeated . During the war , the Ottoman government committed ethnic cleansing or genocide against its Armenian , Assyrian and Pontic Greek citizens . Following the war , the conglomeration of territories and peoples that formerly comprised the Ottoman Empire was divided into several new states .
The Turkish War of Independence ( 1919 – 1922 ) , initiated by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk and his colleagues in Anatolia , resulted in the establishment of the modern Republic of Turkey in 1923 , with Atatürk as its first president .
Turkey 's official language is Turkish , a Turkic language , spoken by 85 % of the population . 72 @.@ 5 % of the population are ethnic Turks ; and 27 @.@ 5 % are legally recognized ( Armenians , Greeks , Jews ) and unrecognized ( Kurds , Circassians , Arabs , Albanians , Bosniaks , Georgians , etc . ) ethnic minorities . Kurds are the largest minority group . The vast majority of the population is Sunni Muslim , with Alevis making up the largest religious minority .
Turkey is a charter member of the UN , early member of NATO , and a founding member of the OECD , OSCE , OIC and G @-@ 20 . After becoming one of the first members of the Council of Europe in 1949 , Turkey became an associate member of the EEC in 1963 , applied for full EEC membership in 1987 , joined the EU Customs Union in 1995 and started accession negotiations with the European Union in 2005 . Turkey 's growing economy and diplomatic initiatives have led to its recognition as a regional power .
= = Etymology = =
The name of Turkey ( Turkish : Türkiye ) is based on the ethnonym Türk . The first recorded use of the term " Türk " or " Türük " as an autonym is contained in the Old Turkic inscriptions of the Göktürks ( Celestial Turks ) of Central Asia ( c . 8th century ) . The English name Turkey first appeared in the late 14th century and is derived from Medieval Latin Turchia .
The Greek cognate of this name , Tourkia ( Greek : Τουρκία ) was used by the Byzantine emperor and scholar Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus in his book De Administrando Imperio , though in his use , " Turks " always referred to Magyars . Similarly , the medieval Khazar Empire , a Turkic state on the northern shores of the Black and Caspian seas , was referred to as Tourkia ( Land of the Turks ) in Byzantine sources . The Ottoman Empire was sometimes referred to as Turkey or the Turkish Empire among its contemporaries .
= = History = =
= = = Prehistory of Anatolia and Eastern Thrace = = =
The Anatolian peninsula , comprising most of modern Turkey , is one of the oldest permanently settled regions in the world . Various ancient Anatolian populations have lived in Anatolia , from at least the Neolithic period until the Hellenistic period . Many of these peoples spoke the Anatolian languages , a branch of the larger Indo @-@ European language family . In fact , given the antiquity of the Indo @-@ European Hittite and Luwian languages , some scholars have proposed Anatolia as the hypothetical center from which the Indo @-@ European languages radiated . The European part of Turkey , called Eastern Thrace , has also been inhabited since at least forty thousand years ago , and is known to have been in the Neolithic era by about 6000 BC .
Göbekli Tepe is the site of the oldest known man @-@ made religious structure , a temple dating to 10 @,@ 000 BC , while Çatalhöyük is a very large Neolithic and Chalcolithic settlement in southern Anatolia , which existed from approximately 7500 BC to 5700 BC . It is the largest and best @-@ preserved Neolithic site found to date and in July 2012 was inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site . The settlement of Troy started in the Neolithic Age and continued into the Iron Age .
The earliest recorded inhabitants of Anatolia were the Hattians and Hurrians , non @-@ Indo @-@ European peoples who inhabited central and eastern Anatolia , respectively , as early as ca . 2300 BC . Indo @-@ European Hittites came to Anatolia and gradually absorbed the Hattians and Hurrians ca . 2000 – 1700 BC . The first major empire in the area was founded by the Hittites , from the 18th through the 13th century BC . The Assyrians conquered and settled parts of southeastern Turkey as early as 1950 BC until the year 612 BC . Urartu re @-@ emerged in Assyrian inscriptions in the 9th century BC as a powerful northern rival of Assyria .
Following the collapse of the Hittite empire c . 1180 BC , the Phrygians , an Indo @-@ European people , achieved ascendancy in Anatolia until their kingdom was destroyed by the Cimmerians in the 7th century BC . Starting from 714 BC , Urartu shared the same fate and dissolved in 590 BC , when it was conquered by the Medes . The most powerful of Phrygia 's successor states were Lydia , Caria and Lycia .
= = = Antiquity and Byzantine Period = = =
Starting around 1200 BC , the coast of Anatolia was heavily settled by Aeolian and Ionian Greeks . Numerous important cities were founded by these colonists , such as Miletus , Ephesus , Smyrna ( now İzmir ) and Byzantium ( now Istanbul ) , the latter founded by Greek colonists from Megara in 657 BC . The first state that was called Armenia by neighbouring peoples was the state of the Armenian Orontid dynasty , which included parts of eastern Turkey beginning in the 6th century BC . In Northwest Turkey , the most significant tribal group in Thrace was the Odyrisians , founded by Teres I.
All of modern @-@ day Turkey was conquered by the Persian Achaemenid Empire during the 6th century BC . The Greco @-@ Persian Wars started when the Greek city states on the coast of Anatolia rebelled against Persian rule in 499 BC . The territory of Turkey later fell to Alexander the Great in 334 BC , which led to increasing cultural homogeneity and Hellenization in the area .
Following Alexander 's death in 323 BC , Anatolia was subsequently divided into a number of small Hellenistic kingdoms , all of which became part of the Roman Republic by the mid @-@ 1st century BC . The process of Hellenization that began with Alexander 's conquest accelerated under Roman rule , and by the early centuries AD the local Anatolian languages and cultures had become extinct , being largely replaced by ancient Greek language and culture . From the 1st century BC up to the 3rd century AD , large parts of modern @-@ day Turkey were contested between the Romans and neighboring Parthians through the frequent Roman @-@ Parthian Wars .
In 324 , Constantine I chose Byzantium to be the new capital of the Roman Empire , renaming it New Rome . Following the death of Theodosius I in 395 and the permanent division of the Roman Empire between his two sons , the city , which would popularly come to be known as Constantinople , became the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire . This , which would later be branded by historians as the Byzantine Empire , ruled most of the territory of present @-@ day Turkey until the Late Middle Ages ; although the eastern regions remained in firm Sasanian hands up to the first half of the 7th century AD . The frequent Byzantine @-@ Sassanid Wars , as part of the centuries long @-@ lasting Roman @-@ Persian Wars , fought between the neighboring rivaling Byzantines and Sasanians , took place in various parts of present @-@ day Turkey and decided much of the latters history from the 4th century AD up to the first half of the 7th century AD .
= = = Seljuks and the Ottoman Empire = = =
The House of Seljuk was a branch of the Kınık Oğuz Turks who resided on the periphery of the Muslim world , in the Yabghu Khaganate of the Oğuz confederacy , to the north of the Caspian and Aral Seas , in the 9th century . In the 10th century , the Seljuks started migrating from their ancestral homeland into Persia , which became the administrative core of the Great Seljuk Empire .
In the latter half of the 11th century , the Seljuk Turks began penetrating into medieval Armenia and the eastern regions of Anatolia . In 1071 , the Seljuks defeated the Byzantines at the Battle of Manzikert , starting the Turkification process in the area ; the Turkish language and Islam were introduced to Armenia and Anatolia , gradually spreading throughout the region . The slow transition from a predominantly Christian and Greek @-@ speaking Anatolia to a predominantly Muslim and Turkish @-@ speaking one was underway . Alongside the Turkification of the territory , the culturally Persianized Seljuks set the basis for a Turko @-@ Persian principal culture in Anatolia , which their eventual successors , the Ottomans would take over .
In 1243 , the Seljuk armies were defeated by the Mongols , causing the Seljuk Empire 's power to slowly disintegrate . In its wake , one of the Turkish principalities governed by Osman I would , over the next 200 years , evolve into the Ottoman Empire . In 1453 , the Ottomans completed their conquest of the Byzantine Empire by capturing its capital , Constantinople .
In 1514 , Sultan Selim I ( 1512 – 1520 ) successfully expanded the empire 's southern and eastern borders by defeating Shah Ismail I of the Safavid dynasty in the Battle of Chaldiran . In 1517 , Selim I expanded Ottoman rule into Algeria and Egypt , and created a naval presence in the Red Sea . Subsequently , a competition started between the Ottoman and Portuguese empires to become the dominant sea power in the Indian Ocean , with a number of naval battles in the Red Sea , the Arabian Sea and the Persian Gulf . The Portuguese presence in the Indian Ocean was perceived as a threat for the Ottoman monopoly over the ancient trading routes between East Asia and Western Europe ( later collectively named the Silk Road ) . This important monopoly was increasingly compromised following the discovery of a sea route around Africa by Portuguese explorer Bartolomeu Dias in 1488 , which had a considerable impact on the Ottoman economy .
The Ottoman Empire 's power and prestige peaked in the 16th and 17th centuries , particularly during the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent . The empire was often at odds with the Holy Roman Empire in its steady advance towards Central Europe through the Balkans and the southern part of the Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth . At sea , the Ottoman Navy contended with several Holy Leagues , such as those in 1538 , 1571 , 1684 and 1717 ( composed primarily of Habsburg Spain , the Republic of Genoa , the Republic of Venice , the Knights of St. John , the Papal States , the Grand Duchy of Tuscany and the Duchy of Savoy ) , for the control of the Mediterranean Sea . In the east , the Ottomans were often at war with Safavid Persia over conflicts stemming from territorial disputes or religious differences between the 16th and 18th centuries . The Ottoman wars with Persia continued as the Zand , Afsharid , and Qajar dynasties succeeded the Safavids in Iran , until the first half of the 19th century . From the 16th to the early 20th centuries , the Ottoman Empire also fought many wars with the Russian Tsardom and Empire . These were initially about the Ottoman territorial expansion and consolidation in southeastern and eastern Europe ; but starting from the latter half of the 18th century , they became more about the survival of the Ottoman state , which began to lose its strategic territories on the northern Black Sea coast to the advancing Russians . Between the 18th and the early 20th centuries , the Ottoman , Persian and Russian empires were neighbouring rivals of each other .
From the beginning of the 19th century onwards , the Ottoman Empire began to decline . As it gradually shrank in size , military power and wealth , many Balkan Muslims migrated to the Empire 's heartland in Anatolia , along with the Circassians fleeing the Russian conquest . The decline of the Ottoman Empire led to a rise in nationalist sentiment among the various subject peoples , leading to increased ethnic tensions which occasionally burst into violence , such as the Hamidian massacres of Armenians .
The Ottoman Empire entered World War I on the side of the Central Powers and was ultimately defeated . During the war , the empire 's Armenians were deported to Syria as part of the Armenian Genocide . As a result , an estimated 800 @,@ 000 to 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 Armenians were killed . The Turkish government has refused to acknowledge the events as genocide and claims that Armenians were only relocated from the eastern war zone . Large @-@ scale massacres were also committed against the empire 's other minority groups such as the Assyrians and Greeks . Following the Armistice of Mudros on 30 October 1918 , the victorious Allied Powers sought to partition the Ottoman state through the 1920 Treaty of Sèvres .
= = = Republic of Turkey = = =
The occupation of Constantinople and Smyrna by the Allies in the aftermath of World War I prompted the establishment of the Turkish National Movement . Under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal Pasha , a military commander who had distinguished himself during the Battle of Gallipoli , the Turkish War of Independence was waged with the aim of revoking the terms of the Treaty of Sèvres .
By 18 September 1922 the occupying armies were expelled , and the Ankara @-@ based Turkish regime , which had declared itself the legitimate government of the country on 23 April 1920 , started to formalize the legal transition from the old Ottoman into the new Republican political system . On 1 November 1922 , the Turkish Parliament in Ankara formally abolished the Sultanate , thus ending 623 years of monarchical Ottoman rule . The Treaty of Lausanne of 24 July 1923 led to the international recognition of the sovereignty of the newly formed " Republic of Turkey " as the successor state of the Ottoman Empire , and the republic was officially proclaimed on 29 October 1923 in Ankara , the country 's new capital . The Lausanne treaty stipulated a population exchange between Greece and Turkey , whereby 1 @.@ 1 million Greeks left Turkey for Greece in exchange for 380 @,@ 000 Muslims transferred from Greece to Turkey .
Mustafa Kemal became the republic 's first President and subsequently introduced many radical reforms with the aim of transforming the old religion @-@ based and multi @-@ communal Ottoman state system ( constitutional monarchy ) into an essentially Turkish nation state ( parliamentary republic ) with a secular constitution . With the Surname Law of 1934 , the Turkish Parliament bestowed upon Mustafa Kemal the honorific surname " Atatürk " ( Father of the Turks ) .
Turkey remained neutral during most of World War II , but entered the closing stages of the war on the side of the Allies on 23 February 1945 . On 26 June 1945 , Turkey became a charter member of the United Nations . Difficulties faced by Greece after the war in quelling a communist rebellion , along with demands by the Soviet Union for military bases in the Turkish Straits , prompted the United States to declare the Truman Doctrine in 1947 . The doctrine enunciated American intentions to guarantee the security of Turkey and Greece , and resulted in large @-@ scale U.S. military and economic support . Both countries were included in the Marshall Plan and OEEC for rebuilding European economies in 1948 , and subsequently became founding members of the OECD in 1961 .
After participating with the United Nations forces in the Korean War , Turkey joined NATO in 1952 , becoming a bulwark against Soviet expansion into the Mediterranean . Following a decade of Cypriot intercommunal violence and the coup in Cyprus on 15 July 1974 staged by the EOKA B paramilitary organization , which overthrew President Makarios and installed the pro @-@ Enosis ( union with Greece ) Nikos Sampson as dictator , Turkey invaded Cyprus on 20 July 1974 . Nine years later the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus , which is recognized only by Turkey , was established .
The single @-@ party period ended in 1945 . It was followed by a tumultuous transition to multiparty democracy over the next few decades , which was interrupted by military coups d 'état in 1960 , 1971 , and 1980 , as well as a military memorandum in 1997 . In 1984 , the PKK , a Kurdish separatist group , began an insurgency campaign against the Turkish government . The Kurdish @-@ Turkish conflict to date has claimed over 40 @,@ 000 lives . Over 3 @,@ 000 Kurdish villages were burned by Turkish security forces and hundreds of thousands of Kurds displaced , and Kurdish political parties were banned . Peace talks were launched in 2012 , but hostilities restarted in 2015 following the Suruc bombing . Since the liberalization of the Turkish economy during the 1980s , the country has enjoyed stronger economic growth and greater political stability . In 2013 , widespread protests erupted in many Turkish provinces , sparked by a plan to demolish Gezi Park but growing into general anti @-@ government dissent .
On 15 @-@ 16 July 2016 , an unsuccessful coup attempt tried to oust the government .
= = Administrative divisions = =
Turkey has a unitary structure in terms of administration and this aspect is one of the most important factors shaping the Turkish public administration . When three powers ( executive , legislative and judiciary ) are taken into account as the main functions of the state , local administrations have little power . Turkey is a unitary not a federal system , and the provinces are subordinated to the centre . Local administrations were established to provide services in place and the government is represented by the governors and city governors . Besides the governors and the city governors , other senior public officials are also appointed by the central government rather than appointed by mayors or elected by constituents .
Turkey is subdivided into 81 provinces for administrative purposes . Each province is divided into districts , for a total of 923 districts .
Turkey is also subdivided into 7 regions and 21 subregions for geographic , demographic and economic purposes ; this does not refer to an administrative division .
= = Politics = =
Turkey is a parliamentary representative democracy . Since its foundation as a republic in 1923 , Turkey has developed a strong tradition of secularism . Turkey 's constitution governs the legal framework of the country . It sets out the main principles of government and establishes Turkey as a unitary centralized state . The President of the Republic is the head of state and has a largely ceremonial role . The president is elected for a five @-@ year term by direct elections and Tayyip Erdoğan is the first president elected by direct voting .
Executive power is exercised by the Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers which make up the government , while the legislative power is vested in the unicameral parliament , the Grand National Assembly of Turkey . The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature , and the Constitutional Court is charged with ruling on the conformity of laws and decrees with the constitution . The Council of State is the tribunal of last resort for administrative cases , and the High Court of Appeals for all others .
The prime minister is elected by the parliament through a vote of confidence in the government and is most often the head of the party having the most seats in parliament . The prime minister is Binali Yıldırım , who replaced Ahmet Davutoğlu on 24 May 2016 .
Universal suffrage for both sexes has been applied throughout Turkey since 1933 , and every Turkish citizen who has turned 18 years of age has the right to vote . There are 550 members of parliament who are elected for a four @-@ year term by a party @-@ list proportional representation system from 85 electoral districts . The Constitutional Court can strip the public financing of political parties that it deems anti @-@ secular or separatist , or ban their existence altogether . The electoral threshold is 10 percent of the votes .
Supporters of Atatürk 's reforms are called Kemalists , as distinguished from Islamists , representing two extremes on a continuum of beliefs about the proper role of religion in public life . The Kemalist position generally combines a kind of democracy with a laicist constitution and westernised secular lifestyle , while supporting state intervention in the economy , education , and other public services . Since the 1980s , a rise in income inequality and class distinction has given rise to Islamic populism , a movement that in theory supports obligation to authority , communal solidarity and social justice , though what that entails in practice is often contested .
= = = Human rights = = =
Human rights in Turkey have been the subject of some controversy and international condemnation . Between 1998 and 2008 the European Court of Human Rights made more than 1 @,@ 600 judgements against Turkey for human rights violations , particularly regarding the right to life , and freedom from torture . Other issues , such as Kurdish rights , women 's rights , LGBT rights , and press freedom , have also attracted controversy . Turkey 's human rights record continues to be a significant obstacle to future membership of the EU . According to the Committee to Protect Journalists , the AKP government has waged one of the world 's biggest crackdowns on press freedoms . A large number of journalists have been arrested using charges of " terrorism " and " anti @-@ state activities " such as the Ergenekon and Balyoz cases , while thousands have been investigated on charges such as " denigrating Turkishness " or " insulting Islam " in an effort to sow self @-@ censorship . In 2012 , the CPJ identified 76 jailed journalists in Turkey , including 61 directly held for their published work , ranking 1st in the world , more than in Iran , Eritrea or China while Freemuse identified 9 musicians imprisoned for their work , ranking 3rd after Russia and China . A former U.S. State Department spokesman , Philip J. Crowley , said that the United States had " broad concerns about trends involving intimidation of journalists in Turkey . " Turkey has a ' Not Free ' rating by Freedom House .
In its resolution " The functioning of democratic institutions in Turkey " on 22 June 2016 , the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe warned that " recent developments in Turkey pertaining to freedom of the media and of expression , erosion of the rule of law and the human rights violations in relation to anti @-@ terrorism security operations in south @-@ east Turkey have ( ... ) raised serious questions about the functioning of its democratic institutions . "
= = = Law = = =
Turkey has a legal system which has been wholly integrated with the system of continental Europe . For instance , the Turkish Civil Law has been modified by incorporating elements mainly of the Swiss Civil Code , the Code of Obligations and the German Commercial Code . The Administrative Law bears similarities with its French counterpart , and the Penal Code with its Italian counterpart .
Turkey has adopted the principle of the separation of powers . In line with this principle , judicial power is exercised by independent courts on behalf of the Turkish nation . The independence and organization of the courts , the security of the tenure of judges and public prosecutors , the profession of judges and prosecutors , the supervision of judges and public prosecutors , the military courts and their organization , and the powers and duties of the high courts are regulated by the Turkish Constitution .
According to Article 142 of the Turkish Constitution , the organization , duties and jurisdiction of the courts , their functions and the trial procedures are regulated by law . In line with the aforementioned article of the Turkish Constitution and related laws , the court system in Turkey can be classified under three main categories ; which are the Judicial Courts , Administrative Courts and Military Courts . Each category includes first instance courts and high courts . In addition , the Court of Jurisdictional Disputes rules on cases that cannot be classified readily as falling within the purview of one court system .
Law enforcement in Turkey is carried out by several departments ( such as the General Directorate of Security and Gendarmerie General Command ) and agencies , all acting under the command of the Prime Minister of Turkey or mostly the Minister of Internal Affairs . According to figures released by the Justice Ministry , there are 100 @,@ 000 people in Turkish prisons as of November 2008 , a doubling since 2000 .
In the years of government by
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the AKP and Tayyip Erdoğan , particularly since 2013 , the independence and integrity of the Turkish judiciary has increasingly been considered in doubt by institutions , parliamentarians and journalists both within and outside of Turkey ; due to political interference in the promotion of judges and prosecutors , and in their pursuit of public duty . The Turkey 2015 report of the European Commission stated that " the independence of the judiciary and respect of the principle of separation of powers have been undermined and judges and prosecutors have been under strong political pressure . "
= = = Foreign relations = = =
Turkey is a founding member of the United Nations ( 1945 ) , the OECD ( 1961 ) , the OIC ( 1969 ) , the OSCE ( 1973 ) , the ECO ( 1985 ) , the BSEC ( 1992 ) , the D @-@ 8 ( 1997 ) and the G @-@ 20 major economies ( 1999 ) . Turkey was a member of the United Nations Security Council in 1951 – 1952 , 1954 – 1955 , 1961 and 2009 – 2010 . In September 2013 , Turkey became a member of the Asia Cooperation Dialogue ( ACD ) .
In line with its traditional Western orientation , relations with Europe have always been a central part of Turkish foreign policy . Turkey became one of the first members of the Council of Europe in 1949 , applied for associate membership of the EEC ( predecessor of the European Union ) in 1959 and became an associate member in 1963 . After decades of political negotiations , Turkey applied for full membership of the EEC in 1987 , became an associate member of the Western European Union in 1992 , joined the EU Customs Union in 1995 and has been in formal accession negotiations with the EU since 2005 . Today , EU membership is considered as a state policy and a strategic target by Turkey . Turkey 's support for Northern Cyprus in the Cyprus dispute complicates Turkey 's relations with the EU and remains a major stumbling block to the country 's EU accession bid .
The other defining aspect of Turkey 's foreign policy was the country 's long @-@ standing strategic alliance with the United States . The common threat posed by the Soviet Union during the Cold War led to Turkey 's membership of NATO in 1952 , ensuring close bilateral relations with Washington . Subsequently Turkey benefited from the United States ' political , economic and diplomatic support , including in key issues such as the country 's bid to join the European Union . In the post – Cold War environment , Turkey 's geostrategic importance shifted towards its proximity to the Middle East , the Caucasus and the Balkans .
The independence of the Turkic states of the Soviet Union in 1991 , with which Turkey shares a common cultural and linguistic heritage , allowed Turkey to extend its economic and political relations deep into Central Asia , thus enabling the completion of a multi @-@ billion @-@ dollar oil and natural gas pipeline from Baku in Azerbaijan to the port of Ceyhan in Turkey . The Baku – Tbilisi – Ceyhan pipeline forms part of Turkey 's foreign policy strategy to become an energy conduit to the West . However Turkey 's border with Armenia , a state in the Caucasus , was closed by Turkey in support of Azerbaijan during the Nagorno @-@ Karabakh War and remains closed .
Under the AKP government , Turkey 's influence has grown in the formerly Ottoman territories of the Middle East and the Balkans , based on the " strategic depth " doctrine ( a terminology that was coined by Ahmet Davutoğlu for defining Turkey 's increased engagement in regional foreign policy issues ) , also called Neo @-@ Ottomanism . Following the Arab Spring in December 2010 , the choices made by the AKP government for supporting certain political opposition groups in the affected countries have led to tensions with some Arab states , such as Turkey 's neighbour Syria since the start of the Syrian civil war , and Egypt after the ousting of President Mohamed Morsi . As of 2016 , Turkey doesn 't have an ambassador in Syria and Egypt . Diplomatic relations with Israel were also severed after the Gaza flotilla raid in 2010 , but were normalized following a deal in June 2016 . These political rifts have left Turkey with few allies in the East Mediterranean , where rich natural gas fields have recently been discovered ; in sharp contrast with the original goals that were set by the former Foreign Minister ( later Prime Minister ) Ahmet Davutoğlu in his " zero problems with neighbours " foreign policy doctrine . In 2015 , Turkey , Saudi Arabia and Qatar formed a " strategic alliance " against Syrian President Bashar al @-@ Assad .
Turkey has maintained forces in international missions under the United Nations and NATO since 1950 , including peacekeeping missions in Somalia and former Yugoslavia , and support to coalition forces in the First Gulf War . Turkey maintains 36 @,@ 000 troops in Northern Cyprus , though their presence is controversial , and assists Iraqi Kurdistan with security . Turkey has had troops deployed in Afghanistan as part of the United States stabilization force and the UN @-@ authorized , NATO @-@ commanded International Security Assistance Force ( ISAF ) since 2001 . Since 2003 , Turkey contributes military personnel to Eurocorps and takes part in the EU Battlegroups .
= = = Military = = =
The Turkish Armed Forces consists of the Land Forces , the Naval Forces and the Air Force . The Gendarmerie and the Coast Guard operate as parts of the Ministry of Internal Affairs in peacetime , although they are subordinated to the Army and Navy Commands respectively in wartime , during which they have both internal law enforcement and military functions .
The Chief of the General Staff is appointed by the President and is responsible to the Prime Minister . The Council of Ministers is responsible to the Parliament for matters of national security and the adequate preparation of the armed forces to defend the country . However , the authority to declare war and to deploy the Turkish Armed Forces to foreign countries or to allow foreign armed forces to be stationed in Turkey rests solely with the Parliament .
Turkey has the second largest standing military force in NATO , after the U.S. Armed Forces , with an estimated strength of 495 @,@ 000 deployable forces , according to a 2011 NATO estimate . Turkey is one of five NATO member states which are part of the nuclear sharing policy of the alliance , together with Belgium , Germany , Italy , and the Netherlands . A total of 90 B61 nuclear bombs are hosted at the Incirlik Air Base , 40 of which are allocated for use by the Turkish Air Force in case of a nuclear conflict , but their use requires the approval of NATO .
Every fit male Turkish citizen otherwise not barred is required to serve in the military for a period ranging from three weeks to a year , dependent on education and job location . Turkey does not recognise conscientious objection and does not offer a civilian alternative to military service .
= = Geography = =
Turkey is a transcontinental Eurasian country . Asian Turkey , which includes 97 percent of the country , is separated from European Turkey by the Bosphorus , the Sea of Marmara , and the Dardanelles . European Turkey comprises 3 percent of the country . The territory of Turkey is more than 1 @,@ 600 kilometres ( 990 miles ) long and 800 kilometres ( 500 miles ) wide , with a roughly rectangular shape . It lies between latitudes 35 ° and 43 ° N , and longitudes 25 ° and 45 ° E. Turkey 's land area , including lakes , occupies 783 @,@ 562 square kilometres ( 302 @,@ 535 square miles ) , of which 755 @,@ 688 square kilometres ( 291 @,@ 773 square miles ) are in Southwest Asia and 23 @,@ 764 square kilometres ( 9 @,@ 175 square miles ) in Europe . Turkey is the world 's 37th @-@ largest country in terms of area . The country is encircled by seas on three sides : the Aegean Sea to the west , the Black Sea to the north and the Mediterranean to the south . Turkey also contains the Sea of Marmara in the northwest .
The European section of Turkey , East Thrace ( the easternmost region of the Balkan peninsula ) , forms the borders of Turkey with Greece and Bulgaria . The Asian part of the country is comprised mostly by the peninsula of Anatolia , which consists of a high central plateau with narrow coastal plains , between the Köroğlu and Pontic mountain ranges to the north and the Taurus Mountains to the south . Eastern Turkey , located within the western plateau of the Armenian Highlands , has a more mountainous landscape and is home to the sources of rivers such as the Euphrates , Tigris and Aras , and contains Mount Ararat , Turkey 's highest point at 5 @,@ 137 metres ( 16 @,@ 854 feet ) , and Lake Van , the largest lake in the country . Southeastern Turkey is located within the northern plains of Upper Mesopotamia .
Turkey is divided into seven geographical regions : Marmara , Aegean , Black Sea , Central Anatolia , Eastern Anatolia , Southeastern Anatolia and the Mediterranean . The uneven north Anatolian terrain running along the Black Sea resembles a long , narrow belt . This region comprises approximately one @-@ sixth of Turkey 's total land area . As a general trend , the inland Anatolian plateau becomes increasingly rugged as it progresses eastward .
Turkey 's varied landscapes are the product of complex earth movements that have shaped the region over thousands of years and still manifest themselves in fairly frequent earthquakes and occasional volcanic eruptions . The Bosphorus and the Dardanelles owe their existence to the fault lines running through Turkey that led to the creation of the Black Sea . The North Anatolian Fault Line runs across the north of the country from west to east , along which major earthquakes took place in history . The latest of those big earthquakes was the 1999 İzmit earthquake .
= = = Biodiversity = = =
Turkey 's extraordinary ecosystem and habitat diversity has produced considerable species diversity . Anatolia is the homeland of many plants that have been cultivated for food since the advent of agriculture , and the wild ancestors of many plants that now provide staples for humankind still grow in Turkey . The diversity of Turkey 's fauna is even greater than that of its flora . The number of animal species in the whole of Europe is around 60 @,@ 000 , while in Turkey there are over 80 @,@ 000 ( over 100 @,@ 000 counting the subspecies ) .
The Northern Anatolian conifer and deciduous forests is an ecoregion which covers most of the Pontic Mountains in northern Turkey , while the Caucasus mixed forests extend across the eastern end of the range . The region is home to Eurasian wildlife such as the Eurasian sparrowhawk , golden eagle , eastern imperial eagle , lesser spotted eagle , Caucasian black grouse , red @-@ fronted serin , and wallcreeper . The narrow coastal strip between the Pontic Mountains and the Black Sea is home to the Euxine @-@ Colchic deciduous forests , which contain some of the world 's few temperate rainforests . The Turkish pine is mostly found in Turkey and other east Mediterranean countries . Several wild species of tulip are native to Anatolia , and the flower was first introduced to Western Europe with species taken from the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century .
There are 40 national parks , 189 nature parks , 31 nature preserve areas , 80 wildlife protection areas and 109 nature monuments in Turkey such as Gallipoli Peninsula Historical National Park , Mount Nemrut National Park , Ancient Troya National Park , Ölüdeniz Nature Park and Polonezköy Nature Park .
Ankara , the capital of Turkey , is renowned for the Angora cat , Angora rabbit and Angora goat . Another national cat breed of Turkey is the Van cat . The national dog breeds are the Anatolian Shepherd , Kangal , Malaklı and Akbaş .
The last confirmed death of an Anatolian leopard , closely related to the Persian ( Caucasian ) leopard and native to the western regions of Anatolia , took place in the Bağözü village of the Beypazarı district in Ankara Province on 17 January 1974 . The Persian ( Caucasian ) leopard is still found in very small numbers in the northeastern and southeastern regions of Turkey . The Caspian tiger is an extinct tiger subspecies ( closely related to the Siberian tiger ) which lived in the easternmost regions of Turkey until the latter half of the 20th century , with the last confirmed death in Uludere , February 1970 . The Eurasian lynx and the European wildcat are other felid species which are currently found in the forests of Turkey .
= = = Climate = = =
The coastal areas of Turkey bordering the Aegean and Mediterranean Seas have a temperate Mediterranean climate , with hot , dry summers and mild to cool , wet winters . The coastal areas bordering the Black Sea have a temperate oceanic climate with warm , wet summers and cool to cold , wet winters . The Turkish Black Sea coast receives the greatest amount of precipitation and is the only region of Turkey that receives high precipitation throughout the year . The eastern part of that coast averages 2 @,@ 200 millimetres ( 87 in ) annually which is the highest precipitation in the country .
The coastal areas bordering the Sea of Marmara , which connects the Aegean Sea and the Black Sea , have a transitional climate between a temperate Mediterranean climate and a temperate oceanic climate with warm to hot , moderately dry summers and cool to cold , wet winters . Snow falls on the coastal areas of the Sea of Marmara and the Black Sea almost every winter , but usually melts in no more than a few days . However snow is rare in the coastal areas of the Aegean Sea and very rare in the coastal areas of the Mediterranean Sea .
Mountains close to the coast prevent Mediterranean influences from extending inland , giving the central Anatolian plateau of the interior of Turkey a continental climate with sharply contrasting seasons .
Winters on the eastern part of the plateau are especially severe . Temperatures of − 30 to − 40 ° C ( − 22 to − 40 ° F ) can occur in eastern Anatolia . Snow may remain at least 120 days of the year . In the west , winter temperatures average below 1 ° C ( 34 ° F ) . Summers are hot and dry , with temperatures often above 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) in the day . Annual precipitation averages about 400 millimetres ( 15 in ) , with actual amounts determined by elevation . The driest regions are the Konya plain and the Malatya plain , where annual rainfall is often less than 300 millimetres ( 12 in ) . May is generally the wettest month , whereas July and August are the driest .
= = Economy = =
Turkey has the world 's 17th largest GDP by PPP and 18th largest nominal GDP . The country is among the founding members of the OECD and the G @-@ 20 major economies .
The EU – Turkey Customs Union in 1995 led to an extensive liberalization of tariff rates , and forms one of the most important pillars of Turkey 's foreign trade policy . Turkey 's exports were $ 143 @.@ 5 billion in 2011 and reached $ 163 billion in 2012 ( main export partners in 2012 : Germany 8 @.@ 6 % , Iraq 7 @.@ 1 % , Iran 6 @.@ 5 % , UK 5 @.@ 7 % , UAE 5 @.@ 4 % ) . However , larger imports which amounted to $ 229 billion in 2012 threatened the balance of trade ( main import partners in 2012 : Russia 11 @.@ 3 % , Germany 9 % , China 9 % , US 6 % , Italy 5 @.@ 6 % ) .
Turkey has a sizeable automotive industry , which produced over a million motor vehicles in 2012 , ranking as the 17th largest producer in the world . Turkish shipbuilding exports were worth US $ 1 @.@ 2 billion in 2011 . The major export markets are Malta , Marshall Islands , Panama and the United Kingdom . Turkish shipyards have 15 floating docks of different sizes and one dry dock . Tuzla , Yalova , and İzmit have developed into dynamic shipbuilding centres . In 2011 , there were 70 active shipyards in Turkey , with another 56 being built . Turkish shipyards are highly regarded both for the production of chemical and oil tankers up to 10 @,@ 000 dwt and also for their mega yachts .
Turkish brands like Beko and Vestel are among the largest producers of consumer electronics and home appliances in Europe , and invest a substantial amount of funds for research and development in new technologies related to these fields .
Other key sectors of the Turkish economy are banking , construction , home appliances , electronics , textiles , oil refining , petrochemical products , food , mining , iron and steel , and machine industry . In 2010 , the agricultural sector accounted for 9 percent of GDP , while the industrial sector accounted for 26 percent and the services sector for 65 percent . However , agriculture still accounted for a quarter of employment . In 2004 , it was estimated that 46 percent of total disposable income was received by the top 20 percent of income earners , while the lowest 20 percent received only 6 percent . The rate of female employment in Turkey was 30 percent in 2012 , the lowest among all OECD countries .
Foreign direct investment ( FDI ) was $ 8 @.@ 3 billion in 2012 , a figure expected to rise to $ 15 billion in 2013 . In 2012 , Fitch Group upgraded Turkey 's credit rating to investment grade after an 18 @-@ year gap ; this was followed by a ratings upgrade by Moody 's in May 2013 , as the service lifted Turkey 's government bond ratings to the lowest investment grade Baa3 .
= = = History = = =
In the early decades of the Turkish Republic , the government ( or banks established and owned by the government , such as Türkiye İş Bankası ( 1924 ) , Sanayi ve Maadin Bankası ( 1925 ) , Emlak ve Eytam Bankası ( 1926 ) , Central Bank of Turkey ( 1930 ) , Sümerbank ( 1933 ) , İller Bankası ( 1933 ) , Etibank ( 1935 ) , Denizbank ( 1937 ) , Halk Bankası ( 1938 ) , etc . ) had to subsidize most of the industrial projects , due to the lack of a strong private sector . However , in the period between the 1920s and 1950s , a new generation of Turkish entrepreneurs such as Nuri Demirağ , Vehbi Koç , Hacı Ömer Sabancı and Nejat Eczacıbaşı began to establish privately owned factories , some of which evolved into the largest industrial conglomerates that dominate the Turkish economy today , such as Koç Holding , Sabancı Holding and Eczacıbaşı Holding .
During the first six decades of the republic , between 1923 and 1983 , Turkey generally adhered to a quasi @-@ statist approach with strict government planning of the budget and government @-@ imposed limitations over foreign trade , flow of foreign currency , foreign direct investment and private sector participation in certain fields ( such as broadcasting , telecommunications , energy , mining , etc . ) . However , in 1983 , Prime Minister Turgut Özal initiated a series of reforms designed to shift the economy from a statist , insulated system to a more private @-@ sector , market @-@ based model .
The reforms , combined with unprecedented amounts of funding from foreign loans , spurred rapid economic growth ; but this growth was punctuated by sharp recessions and financial crises in 1994 , 1999 ( following the earthquake of that year ) , and 2001 ; resulting in an average of 4 percent GDP growth per annum between 1981 and 2003 . Lack of additional fiscal reforms , combined with large and growing public sector deficits and widespread corruption , resulted in high inflation , a weak banking sector and increased macroeconomic volatility . Since the economic crisis of 2001 and the reforms initiated by the finance minister of the time , Kemal Derviş , inflation has dropped to single @-@ digit figures for the first time in decades ( 8 % in 2005 ) , investor confidence and foreign investment have soared , and unemployment has fallen ( 10 % in 2005 ) .
Turkey has gradually opened up its markets through economic reforms by reducing government controls on foreign trade and investment and the privatization of publicly owned industries , and the liberalization of many sectors to private and foreign participation has continued amid political debate . The public debt @-@ to @-@ GDP ratio peaked at 75 @.@ 9 percent during the recession of 2001 , falling to an estimated 26 @.@ 9 percent by 2013 .
The real GDP growth rate from 2002 to 2007 averaged 6 @.@ 8 percent annually , which made Turkey one of the fastest growing economies in the world during that period . However , growth slowed to 1 percent in 2008 , and in 2009 the Turkish economy was affected by the global financial crisis , with a recession of 5 percent . The economy was estimated to have returned to 8 percent growth in 2010 . According to Eurostat data , Turkish GDP per capita adjusted by purchasing power standard stood at 52 percent of the EU average in 2011 .
In the early years of the 21st century , the chronically high inflation was brought under control ; this led to the launch of a new currency , the Turkish new lira ( Yeni Türk Lirası ) in 2005 , to cement the acquisition of the economic reforms and erase the vestiges of an unstable economy . In 2009 , after only four years in circulation , the Turkish new lira was renamed back to the Turkish lira with the introduction of new banknotes and coins ( and the withdrawal of the Turkish new lira banknotes and coins that were introduced in 2005 ) , but the ISO 4217 code of the Turkish new lira ( TRY ) remains in use for the current Turkish lira in the foreign exchange market .
= = = Tourism = = =
Tourism in Turkey has experienced rapid growth in the last twenty years , and constitutes an important part of the economy . In 2013 , 37 @.@ 8 million foreign visitors arrived in Turkey , which ranked as the 6th most popular tourism destination in the world ; they contributed $ 27 @.@ 9 billion to Turkey 's revenues . In 2012 , 15 percent of the tourists were from Germany , 11 percent from Russia , 8 percent from the United Kingdom , 5 percent from Bulgaria , 4 percent each from Georgia , the Netherlands and Iran , 3 percent from France , 2 percent each from the United States and Syria , and 40 percent from other countries .
Turkey has 13 UNESCO World Heritage Sites , such as the " Historic Areas of Istanbul " , the " Rock Sites of Cappadocia " , the " Neolithic Site of Çatalhöyük " , " Hattusa : the Hittite Capital " , the " Archaeological Site of Troy " , " Pergamon and its Multi @-@ Layered Cultural Landscape " , " Hierapolis – Pamukkale " , and " Mount Nemrut " ; and 51 World Heritage Sites in tentative list , such as the archaeological sites or historic urban centers of Göbekli Tepe , Gordion , Ephesus , Aphrodisias , Perga , Lycia , Sagalassos , Aizanoi , Zeugma , Ani , Harran , Mardin , Konya and Alanya .
Turkey hosts two of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World : the Mausoleum in Halicarnassus and the Temple of Artemis in Ephesus .
= = = Infrastructure = = =
In 2013 there were 98 airports in Turkey , including 22 international airports . As of 2015 , Istanbul Atatürk Airport is the 11th busiest airport in the world , serving 31 @,@ 833 @,@ 324 passengers between January and July 2014 , according to Airports Council International . The new ( third ) international airport of Istanbul is planned to be the largest airport in the world , with a capacity to serve 150 million passengers per annum . Turkish Airlines , flag carrier of Turkey since 1933 , was selected by Skytrax as Europe 's best airline for five consecutive years in 2011 , 2012 , 2013 , 2014 and 2015 . With 435 destinations ( 51 domestic and 384 international ) in 126 countries worldwide , Turkish Airlines is the largest carrier in the world by number of countries served as of 2016 .
As of 2014 , the country has a roadway network of 65 @,@ 623 kilometres ( 40 @,@ 776 miles ) . The total length of the rail network was 10 @,@ 991 km in 2008 , including 2 @,@ 133 kilometres ( 1 @,@ 325 miles ) of electrified and 457 kilometres ( 284 miles ) of high @-@ speed track . The Turkish State Railways started building high @-@ speed rail lines in 2003 . The Ankara @-@ Konya line became operational in 2011 while the Ankara @-@ Istanbul line entered service in 2014 .
In 2008 , 7 @,@ 555 kilometres ( 4 @,@ 694 mi ) of natural gas pipelines and 3 @,@ 636 kilometres ( 2 @,@ 259 mi ) of petroleum pipelines spanned the country 's territory . The Baku @-@ Tbilisi @-@ Ceyhan pipeline , the second longest oil pipeline in the world , was inaugurated on 10 May 2005 . The Blue Stream , a major trans @-@ Black Sea gas pipeline , delivers natural gas from Russia to Turkey . New undersea pipeline , with an annual capacity around 63 billion cubic metres ( bcm ) , will allow Turkey to resell Russian gas to Europe .
In 2013 , the energy consumption was 240 billion kilowatt hours . As Turkey imported 72 percent of its energy in 2013 , the government decided to invest in nuclear power to reduce imports . Three nuclear power stations are to be built by 2023 . Turkey has the fifth highest direct utilization and capacity of geothermal power in the world . Turkey is a partner country of the EU INOGATE energy programme .
Turkey 's first nuclear power plants are planned to be built in Mersin 's Akkuyu district on the Mediterranean coast ; in Sinop 's İnceburun district on the Black Sea coast ; and in Kırklareli 's İğneada district on the Black Sea coast . Turkey has the fifth highest direct utilization and capacity of geothermal power in the world . Turkey is a partner country of the EU INOGATE energy programme , which has four key topics : enhancing energy security , convergence of member state energy markets on the basis of EU internal energy market principles , supporting sustainable energy development , and attracting investment for energy projects of common and regional interest .
Turkey 's internet , which has 35 million active users , holds a ' Partly Free ' ranking in Freedom House 's index .
Water supply and sanitation in Turkey is characterized by achievements and challenges . Over the past decades access to drinking water has become almost universal and access to adequate sanitation has also increased substantially . Autonomous utilities have been created in the 16 metropolitan cities of Turkey and cost recovery has been increased , thus providing the basis for the sustainability of service provision . Intermittent supply , which was common in many cities , has become less frequent . In 2004 , 61 % of the wastewater collected through sewers was being treated .
Remaining challenges include the need to further increase wastewater treatment , to reduce the high level of non @-@ revenue water hovering around 50 % and to expand access to adequate sanitation in rural areas . The investment required to comply with EU standards in the sector , especially in wastewater treatment , is estimated to be in the order of Euro 2 billion per year , more than double the current level of investment .
= = = Science and technology = = =
TÜBİTAK is the leading agency for developing science , technology and innovation policies in Turkey . TÜBA is an autonomous scholarly society acting to promote scientific activities in Turkey . TAEK is the official nuclear energy institution of Turkey . Its objectives include academic research in nuclear energy , and the development and implementation of peaceful nuclear tools .
Turkish government companies for research and development in military technologies include Turkish Aerospace Industries , Aselsan , Havelsan , Roketsan , MKE , among others . Turkish Satellite Assembly , Integration and Test Center ( UMET ) is a spacecraft production and testing facility owned by the Ministry of National Defence and operated by the Turkish Aerospace Industries ( TAI ) . The Turkish Space Launch System ( UFS ) is a project to develop the satellite launch capability of Turkey . It consists of the construction of a spaceport , the development of satellite launch vehicles as well as the establishment of remote earth stations .
In 2015 , Aziz Sancar , a Turkish professor at the University of North Carolina , won the Nobel Chemistry Prize along with Tomas Lindahl and Paul Modrich , for their work on how cells repair damaged DNA .
= = Demographics = =
According to the Address @-@ Based Population Recording System of Turkey , the country 's population was 74 @.@ 7 million people in 2011 , nearly three @-@ quarters of whom lived in towns and cities . According to the 2011 estimate , the population is increasing by 1 @.@ 35 percent each year . Turkey has an average population density of 97 people per km ² . People within the 15 – 64 age group constitute 67 @.@ 4 percent of the total population ; the 0 – 14 age group corresponds to 25 @.@ 3 percent ; while senior citizens aged 65 years or older make up 7 @.@ 3 percent . In 1927 , when the first official census was recorded in the Republic of Turkey , the population was 13 @.@ 6 million . The largest city in Turkey , Istanbul , is also the largest city in Europe in population , and the third @-@ largest city in Europe in terms of size .
Article 66 of the Turkish Constitution defines a " Turk " as " anyone who is bound to the Turkish state through the bond of citizenship " ; therefore , the legal use of the term " Turkish " as a citizen of Turkey is different from the ethnic definition . However , the majority of the Turkish population are of Turkish ethnicity . They are estimated at 70 – 75 percent . Reliable data on the ethnic mix of the population is not available , because Turkish census figures do not include statistics on ethnicity . The three " Non @-@ Muslim " minority groups claimed to be officially recognized in the Treaty of Lausanne are Armenians , Greeks and Jews . Officially unrecognized ( mostly Muslim ) ethnic groups include Albanians , Arabs , Assyrians , Azeris , Bosniaks , Circassians , Georgians , Lazs , Persians , Pomaks ( Bulgarians ) , Yazidis and Roma . The Kurds , a distinct ethnic group , are the largest non @-@ Turkic ethnicity , around 18 – 25 percent of the population . Kurds are concentrated in the east and southeast of the country , in what is also known as Turkish Kurdistan . Kurds make up a majority in the provinces of Tunceli , Bingöl , Muş , Ağrı , Iğdır , Elâzığ , Diyarbakır , Batman , Şırnak , Bitlis , Van , Mardin , Siirt and Hakkari , a near majority in Şanlıurfa province ( 47 % ) , and a large minority in Kars province ( 20 % ) . In addition , due to internal migration , Kurdish communities exist in all major cities in central and western Turkey , particularly in Istanbul , where there are an estimated 3 million Kurds , making Istanbul the city with the largest Kurdish population in the world . Minorities besides the Kurds are thought to make up an estimated 7 – 12 percent of the population . Minorities other than the three officially recognized ones do not have any minority rights . The term " minority " itself remains a sensitive issue in Turkey , while the Turkish government is frequently criticized for its treatment of minorities . Although minorities are not recognised , state @-@ run Turkish Radio and Television Corporation ( TRT ) broadcasts television and radio programs in minority languages . Also , some minority language classes can be chosen in elementary schools .
An estimated 2 @.@ 5 percent of the population are international migrants . Turkey hosts the largest number of refugees in the world , including 2 @.@ 2 million Syrian refugees , as of September 2015 .
The country 's official language is Turkish , which is spoken by 85 @.@ 54 percent of the population as mother tongue . 11 @.@ 97 percent of the population speaks the Kurmanji dialect of Kurdish as mother tongue . Arabic and Zaza are the mother tongues of 2 @.@ 39 percent of the population , and several other languages are the mother tongues of smaller parts of the population . Endangered languages in Turkey include Abaza , Abkhaz , Adyge , Cappadocian Greek , Gagauz , Hértevin , Homshetsma , Kabard @-@ Cherkes , Ladino ( Judesmo ) , Laz , Mlahso , Pontic Greek , Romani , Suret , Turoyo , Ubykh , and Western Armenian .
= = = Religion = = =
Turkey is a secular state with no official state religion ; the Turkish Constitution provides for freedom of religion and conscience . The role of religion has been a controversial debate over the years since the formation of Islamist parties . For many decades , the wearing of the hijab was banned in schools and government buildings because it was viewed as a symbol of political Islam . However , the ban was lifted from universities in 2011 , from government buildings in 2013 , and from schools in 2014 .
= = = = Islam = = = =
Islam is the dominant religion of Turkey with 99 @.@ 8 percent of the population being registered as Muslim ( although some sources give a slightly lower estimate of 96 @.@ 4 percent ) with the most popular sect being the Hanafite school of Sunni Islam . The highest Islamic religious authority is the Presidency of Religious Affairs ( Turkish : Diyanet İşleri Başkanlığı ) ; it interprets the Hanafi school of law , and is responsible for regulating the operation of the country 's 80 @,@ 000 registered mosques and employing local and provincial imams . Academics suggest the Alevi population may be from 15 to 20 million while the Alevi @-@ Bektaşi Federation claims that there are around 25 million and according to Aksiyon magazine , the number of Shiite Twelvers ( excluding Alevis ) is 3 million ( 4 @.@ 2 percent ) . There are also some Sufi Muslims . Roughly 2 percent are non @-@ denominational Muslims .
The percentage of non @-@ Muslims in Turkey fell from 19 percent in 1914 to 2 @.@ 5 percent in 1927 , due to events which had a significant impact on the country 's demographic structure , such as the Armenian Genocide , the population exchange between Greece and Turkey , and the emigration of non @-@ Muslims ( such as Levantines , Greeks , Armenians , Jews , etc . ) to foreign countries ( mostly in Europe and the Americas ) that actually began in the late 19th century and gained pace in the first quarter of the 20th century , especially during World War I and after the Turkish War of Independence . The Wealth Tax on non @-@ Muslims in 1942 , the emigration of a portion of Turkish Jews to Israel after 1948 , and the ongoing Cyprus dispute which damaged the relations between Turks and Greeks ( culminating in the Istanbul pogrom of 6 – 7 September 1955 ) were other important events that contributed to the decline of Turkey 's non @-@ Muslim population .
= = = = Christianity = = = =
Today there are more than 120 @,@ 000 people of different Christian denominations , representing less than 0 @.@ 2 percent of Turkey 's population , including an estimated 80 @,@ 000 Oriental Orthodox , 35 @,@ 000 Roman Catholics , 18 @,@ 000 Antiochian Greeks , 5 @,@ 000 Greek Orthodox and smaller numbers of Protestants . Currently there are 236 churches open for worship in Turkey . The Eastern Orthodox Church has been headquartered in Istanbul since the 4th century .
= = = = Judaism = = = =
There are about 26 @,@ 000 people who are Jewish , the vast majority of whom are Sephardi . There have been Jewish communities in Asia Minor since at least the 5th century BC and many Spanish and Portuguese Jews expelled from Spain were welcomed into the Ottoman Empire in the late 15th century , twenty centuries later . Despite emigration during the 20th century , modern @-@ day Turkey continues to have a small Jewish population .
= = = = Agnosticism and atheism = = = =
According to a 2010 Eurobarometer poll 94 % of Turks believed in God while only 1 % did not . This indicates that 5 % of the population are agnostic with another 1 % being explicitly atheist . However , according to another poll by KONDA the percentage of atheism is 2 @.@ 9 % .
= = = Education = = =
The Ministry of National Education is responsible for pre @-@ tertiary education . This is compulsory and lasts twelve years : four years each of primary school , middle school and high school . Less than half of 25- to 34 @-@ year @-@ old Turks have completed at least high school , compared with an OECD average of over 80 percent . Basic education in Turkey is considered to lag behind other OECD countries , with significant differences between high and low performers . Turkey is ranked 32nd out of 34 in the OECD 's PISA study . Access to high @-@ quality school heavily depends on the performance in the secondary school entrance exams , to the point that some students begin taking private tutoring classes when they are 10 years old . The overall adult literacy rate in 2011 was 94 @.@ 1 percent ; 97 @.@ 9 percent for males and 90 @.@ 3 percent for females .
By 2011 , there were 166 universities in Turkey . Entry to higher education depends on the Student Selection Examination ( ÖSS ) . In 2008 , the quota of admitted students was 600 @,@ 000 , compared to 1 @,@ 700 @,@ 000 who took the ÖSS exam in 2007 . Except for the Open Education Faculty ( Turkish : Açıköğretim Fakültesi ) at Anadolu University , entrance is regulated by the national ÖSS examination , after which high school graduates are assigned to universities according to their performance . According to the 2012 – 2013 Times Higher Education World University Rankings , the top university in Turkey is Middle East Technical University ( in the 201 – 225 rank range ) , followed by Bilkent University and Koç University ( both in the 226 – 250 range ) , Istanbul Technical University and Boğaziçi University ( in the 276 – 300 bracket ) .
= = = Healthcare = = =
Health care in Turkey used to be dominated by a centralized state system run by the Ministry of Health . In 2003 , the government introduced a sweeping health reform programme aimed at increasing the ratio of private to state health provision and making healthcare available to a larger share of the population . Turkish Statistical Institute announced that 76 @.@ 3 billion TL was spent for healthcare in 2012 ; 79 @.@ 6 percent of which was covered by the Social Security Institution and 15 @.@ 4 percent of which was paid directly by the patients . In 2012 , there were 29 @,@ 960 medical institutions in Turkey , and on average one doctor per 583 people and 2 @.@ 65 beds per 1000 people .
Life expectancy ( as of 2010 ) was 71 @.@ 1 years for men and 75 @.@ 3 for women , with an overall average of 73 @.@ 2 .
= = Culture = =
Turkey has a very diverse culture that is a blend of various elements of the Oğuz Turkic , Anatolian , Ottoman ( which was itself a continuation of both Greco @-@ Roman and Islamic cultures ) and Western culture and traditions , which started with the Westernisation of the Ottoman Empire and still continues today . This mix originally began as a result of the encounter of Turks and their culture with those of the peoples who were in their path during their migration from Central Asia to the West . Turkish culture is a product of efforts to be a " modern " Western state , while maintaining traditional religious and historical values .
= = = Arts = = =
Turkish painting , in the Western sense , developed actively starting from the mid 19th century . The very first painting lessons were scheduled at what is now the Istanbul Technical University ( then the Imperial Military Engineering School ) in 1793 , mostly for technical purposes . In the late 19th century , human figure in the western sense was being established in Turkish painting , especially with Osman Hamdi Bey . Impressionism , among the contemporary trends , appeared later on with Halil Paşa . The young Turkish artists sent to Europe in 1926 came back inspired by contemporary trends such as Fauvism , Cubism and even Expressionism , still very influential in Europe . The later " Group D " of artists led by Abidin Dino , Cemal Tollu , Fikret Mualla , Fahrünnisa Zeid , Bedri Rahmi Eyüboğlu , Adnan Çoker and Burhan Doğançay introduced some trends that had lasted in the West for more than three decades . Other important movements in Turkish painting were the " Yeniler Grubu " ( The Newcomers Group ) of the late 1930s ; the " On 'lar Grubu " ( Group of Ten ) of the 1940s ; the " Yeni Dal Grubu " ( New Branch Group ) of the 1950s ; and the " Siyah Kalem Grubu " ( Black Pen Group ) of the 1960s .
Turkish music and literature are examples of a mix of cultural influences . Interaction between the Ottoman Empire and the Islamic world along with Europe contributed to a blend of Turkic , Islamic and European traditions in modern @-@ day Turkish music and literary arts . Turkish literature was heavily influenced by Persian and Arabic literature during most of the Ottoman era . The Tanzimat reforms introduced previously unknown Western genres , primarily the novel and the short story . Many of the writers in the Tanzimat period wrote in several genres simultaneously : for instance , the poet Nâmık Kemal also wrote the important 1876 novel İntibâh ( Awakening ) , while the journalist Şinasi is noted for writing , in 1860 , the first modern Turkish play , the one @-@ act comedy " Şair Evlenmesi " ( The Poet 's Marriage ) . Most of the roots of modern Turkish literature were formed between the years 1896 and 1923 . Broadly , there were three primary literary movements during this period : the Edebiyyât @-@ ı Cedîde ( New Literature ) movement ; the Fecr @-@ i Âtî ( Dawn of the Future ) movement ; and the Millî Edebiyyât ( National Literature ) movement . The first radical step of innovation in 20th century Turkish poetry was taken by Nâzım Hikmet , who introduced the free verse style . Another revolution in Turkish poetry came about in 1941 with the Garip Movement . The mix of cultural influences in Turkey is dramatized , for example , in the form of the " new symbols of the clash and interlacing of cultures " enacted in the novels of Orhan Pamuk , recipient of the 2006 Nobel Prize in Literature .
Turkey has a diverse folkloric dance culture . Hora is performed in East Thrace ; Zeybek in the Aegean Region , Southern Marmara and East @-@ Central Anatolia Region ; Teke in the Western Mediterranean Region ; Kaşık Oyunları and Karşılama in West @-@ Central Anatolia , Western Black Sea Region , Southern Marmara Region and Eastern Mediterranean Region ; Horon in the Central and Eastern Black Sea Region ; Halay in Eastern Anatolia and the Central Anatolia Region ; and Bar and Lezginka in the Northeastern Anatolia Region .
= = = Architecture = = =
The architecture of the Seljuk Turks combined the elements and characteristics of the Turkic architecture of Central Asia with those of Persian , Arab , Armenian and Byzantine architecture . The transition from Seljuk architecture to Ottoman architecture is most visible in Bursa , which was the capital of the Ottoman State between 1335 and 1413 . Following the Ottoman conquest of Constantinople ( Istanbul ) in 1453 , Ottoman architecture was significantly influenced by Byzantine architecture . Topkapı Palace in Istanbul is one of the most famous examples of classical Ottoman architecture and was the primary residence of the Ottoman Sultans for approximately 400 years . Mimar Sinan ( c.1489 – 1588 ) was the most important architect of the classical period in Ottoman architecture . He was the chief architect of at least 374 buildings which were constructed in various provinces of the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century .
Since the 18th century , Turkish architecture has been increasingly influenced by European styles , and this can be particularly seen in the Tanzimat era buildings of Istanbul like the Dolmabahçe , Çırağan , Feriye , Beylerbeyi , Küçüksu , Ihlamur and Yıldız palaces , which were all designed by members of the Balyan family of Ottoman court architects . The Ottoman era waterfront houses ( yalı ) on the Bosphorus also reflect the fusion between classical Ottoman and European architectural styles during the aforementioned period . The First National Architectural Movement ( Birinci Ulusal Mimarlık Akımı ) in the early 20th century sought to create a new architecture , which was based on motifs from Seljuk and Ottoman architecture . The movement was also labelled Turkish Neoclassical or the National Architectural Renaissance . The leading architects of this movement were Vedat Tek ( 1873 – 1942 ) , Mimar Kemaleddin Bey ( 1870 – 1927 ) , Arif Hikmet Koyunoğlu ( 1888 – 1982 ) and Giulio Mongeri ( 1873 – 1953 ) . Notable buildings from this era are the Grand Post Office in Istanbul ( 1905 – 1909 ) , Tayyare Apartments ( 1919 – 1922 ) , Istanbul 4th Vakıf Han ( 1911 – 1926 ) , State Art and Sculpture Museum ( 1927 – 1930 ) , Ethnography Museum of Ankara ( 1925 – 1928 ) , the first Ziraat Bank headquarters in Ankara ( 1925 – 1929 ) , the first Türkiye İş Bankası headquarters in Ankara ( 1926 – 1929 ) , Bebek Mosque , and Kamer Hatun Mosque .
= = = Sports = = =
The most popular sport in Turkey is association football ( soccer ) . Galatasaray won the UEFA Cup and UEFA Super Cup in 2000 . The Turkish national football team finished 3rd and won the bronze medal at the 2002 FIFA World Cup and at the 2003 FIFA Confederations Cup ; while also reaching the semi @-@ finals ( finishing 3rd by goals difference ) at the UEFA Euro 2008 .
Other mainstream sports such as basketball and volleyball are also popular . The Turkish men 's national basketball team finished 2nd and won the silver medal at the 2010 FIBA World Championship and at EuroBasket 2001 , which were both hosted by Turkey . They also won two gold medals ( 1987 and 2013 ) , one silver medal ( 1971 ) and three bronze medals ( 1967 , 1983 and 2009 ) at the Mediterranean Games . Turkish basketball club Anadolu Efes S.K. won the 1995 – 96 FIBA Korać Cup , finished 2nd at the 1992 – 93 FIBA Saporta Cup , and made it to the Final Four of Euroleague and Suproleague in 2000 and 2001 , finishing 3rd on both occasions . Another Turkish basketball club , Beşiktaş , won the 2011 – 12 FIBA EuroChallenge . Galatasaray won the 2015 – 16 Eurocup , while in the same season , Fenerbahçe finished second in the 2015 – 16 Euroleague . The Final of the 2013 – 14 EuroLeague Women basketball championship was played between two Turkish teams , Galatasaray and Fenerbahçe , and won by Galatasaray .
The Turkish women 's national volleyball team won the silver medal at the 2003 European Championship , the bronze medal at the 2011 European Championship , and the bronze medal at the 2012 FIVB World Grand Prix . They also won a gold medal ( 2005 ) , six silver medals ( 1987 , 1991 , 1997 , 2001 , 2009 , 2013 ) and a bronze medal ( 1993 ) at the Mediterranean Games . Women 's volleyball clubs in Turkey , namely Fenerbahçe , Eczacıbaşı and Vakıfbank , have won numerous European championship titles and medals . Fenerbahçe won the 2010 FIVB Women 's Club World Championship and the 2012 CEV Women 's Champions League . Representing Europe as the winner of the 2012 – 13 CEV Women 's Champions League , Vakıfbank also became the world champion by winning the 2013 FIVB Women 's Club World Championship .
The traditional Turkish national sport has been yağlı güreş ( oiled wrestling ) since Ottoman times . Edirne has hosted the annual Kırkpınar oiled wrestling tournament since 1361 . International wrestling styles governed by FILA such as Freestyle wrestling and Greco @-@ Roman wrestling are also popular , with many European , World and Olympic championship titles won by Turkish wrestlers both individually and as a national team .
= = = Cuisine = = =
Turkish cuisine is regarded as one of the most prominent in the world , its popularity is largely owed to the cultural influences of the Ottoman Empire and partly because of its major tourism industry . It is largely the heritage of Ottoman cuisine , which can be described as a fusion and refinement of Central Asian , Caucasian , Middle Eastern , Mediterranean and Balkan cuisines .
The country 's position between the East and the Mediterranean Sea helped the Turks gain complete control of major trade routes , and an ideal environment allowed plants and animals to flourish . Turkish cuisine was well established by the mid @-@ 1400s , the beginning of the Ottoman Empire 's six hundred @-@ year reign . Yogurt salads , fish in olive oil , and stuffed and wrapped vegetables became Turkish staples . The empire , eventually spanning from Austria to northern Africa , used its land and water routes to import exotic ingredients from all over the world . By the end of the 16th century , the Ottoman court housed over 1 @,@ 400 live @-@ in cooks and passed laws regulating the freshness of food . Since the fall of the empire in World War I ( 1914 – 1918 ) and the establishment of the Turkish Republic in 1923 , foreign food such as French hollandaise sauce and western fast food have made their way into the modern Turkish diet .
= = = Media = = =
Hundreds of television channels , thousands of local and national radio stations , several dozen newspapers , a productive and profitable national cinema and a rapid growth of broadband internet use all make up a very vibrant media industry in Turkey . In 2003 a total of 257 television stations and 1 @,@ 100 radio stations were licensed to operate , and others operated without licenses . Of those licensed , 16 television and 36 radio stations reached national audiences . The majority of the audiences are shared among public broadcaster TRT and the network @-@ style channels such as Kanal D , Show TV , ATV and Star TV . The broadcast media have a very high penetration as satellite dishes and cable systems are widely available . The Radio and Television Supreme Council ( RTÜK ) is the government body overseeing the broadcast media . By circulation , the most popular daily newspapers are Zaman , Posta , Hürriyet , Sözcü , Sabah and Habertürk . Turkish television dramas are increasingly becoming popular beyond Turkey 's borders and are among the country 's most vital exports , both in terms of profit and public relations . Freedom House lists Turkey 's media as " partly free " .
= U.S. Route 25 in Michigan =
US Highway 25 ( US 25 ) was a part of the United States Numbered Highway System in the state of Michigan that ran from the Ohio state line near Toledo and ended at the tip of The Thumb in Port Austin . The general routing of this state trunkline highway took it northeasterly from the state line through Monroe and Detroit to Port Huron . Along this southern half , it followed undivided highways and ran concurrently along two freeways , Interstate 75 ( I @-@ 75 ) and I @-@ 94 . Near the foot of the Blue Water Bridge in Port Huron , US 25 turned north and northwesterly along the Lake Huron shoreline to Port Austin .
Created with the initial US Highway System on November 11 , 1926 , US 25 replaced several previous state highway designations . Some of the preceding highways followed roadways created in the 19th and the early 20th centuries . It initially was only routed as far north as Port Huron ; the northern extension to Port Austin happened in 1933 . By the end of the 1950s , the entire route was paved . Starting in the early 1960s , segments of I @-@ 75 and I @-@ 94 were built , and US 25 was shifted to follow them south of Detroit to Port Huron . A business loop was created when the main highway bypassed downtown Port Huron , and then in 1973 , the entire designation was removed from the state . The final routing of the highway is still maintained by the state under eight different designations , some unsigned .
= = Route description = =
= = = State line to Downriver = = =
In its final configuration before it was decommissioned in the state , US 25 entered Michigan south of Erie and followed Dixie Highway north @-@ northeasterly away from the state line . The highway ran parallel to US 24 ( Telegraph Road ) about 2 ⁄ 3 mile ( 1 @.@ 1 km ) to the east of that roadway . At LaSalle , the roadway turned more to the northeast toward Monroe . US 25 then turned back to the north @-@ northeast and followed Monroe Street next to Lake Monroe and through downtown Monroe over the River Raisin . North of town , Dixie Highway turned due north and terminated at an intersection with US 24 ; US 25 merged onto Telegraph Road , and the two highways ran concurrently northeasterly through rural Monroe County . At the crossing of the Huron River , US 24 / US 25 entered Flat Rock and Wayne County .
The highway followed Telegraph Road through downtown Flat Rock and continued into the suburban area of Downriver . At the intersection with Dix – Toledo Road near Woodhaven , US 25 separated from US 24 and continued northeasterly for about two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) to an interchange with I @-@ 75 where it merged onto the freeway . I @-@ 75 / US 25 continued on the Fisher Freeway through the Downriver suburbs of Taylor , Southgate , Allen Park , Lincoln Park , and Melvindale before entering the city of Detroit . The freeway curved to run east @-@ northeasterly and passed through an industrial area of the city , crossing the River Rouge . At Clark Avenue , US 25 left the freeway to turn a block south and run along Fort Street parallel to I @-@ 75 . The highway continued along Fort Street running under the approaches to the Ambassador Bridge and into downtown .
= = = Downtown Detroit to Port Huron = = =
In Downtown Detroit , Fort Street ended at Campus Martius Park at M @-@ 1 ( Woodward Avenue ) . US 25 looped around the park and followed the street named Cadillac Square over to Randolph Street , turning north to connect to Gratiot Avenue , a major thoroughfare on the east side of Detroit . The highway followed Gratiot through the east side of Detroit running north @-@ northeasterly . US 25 intersected the eastern end of the there @-@ unnumbered Fisher Freeway . Gratiot Avenue carried the highway through residential neighborhoods and connected it to the Detroit City Airport . East of the airport , the highway intersected the southern end of M @-@ 97 as well . At M @-@ 102 ( 8 Mile Road ) , US 25 exited Detroit and entered East Detroit , a suburb in Macomb County . The highway continued , roughly parallel to I @-@ 94 through Roseville and Mount Clemens . At Hall Road near Selfridge Air National Guard Base , M @-@ 59 merged with US 25 to follow Gratiot Avenue . At 23 Mile Road west of New Baltimore , US 25 / M @-@ 59 turned eastward onto 23 Mile to an interchange with I @-@ 94 . At that interchange , US 25 turned northeasterly onto the I @-@ 94 freeway while M @-@ 59 terminated ; 23 Mile continued eastward as M @-@ 29 into New Baltimore .
I @-@ 94 / US 25 ran northeasterly through rural areas of Macomb County , intersecting the southern end of M @-@ 19 near New Haven . The freeway crossed into rural southern St. Clair County south of Richmond and continued northeastward to Marysville , where it turned northward , crossing Gratiot Avenue . A business loop , Business US 25 ( Bus . US 25 ) ran northeasterly from the freeway along Gratiot Avenue to run parallel to the St. Clair River . From Marysville , the freeway skirted the western side of the Port Huron area , intersecting the M @-@ 21 freeway immediately east of the city before turning eastward to curve around the north side of town . After the freeway crossed the Black River , US 25 turned northward to separate from I @-@ 94 .
= = = Along Lake Huron = = =
North of downtown Port Huron , US 25 followed Pine Grove Avenue to the eastern terminus of M @-@ 136 and then followed 24th Avenue out of town . South of Lakeport , the highway changed names to Lakeshore Road and ran along the Lake Huron shoreline in The Thumb region of the state . US 25 stayed close to the shoreline and passed Lakeport State Park in the town of the same name . North of the park , the highway crossed into southern Sanilac County and followed the shoreline to the community of Lexington where it intersected the eastern end of M @-@ 90 . Further north , the highway intersected the eastern end of M @-@ 46 in Port Sanilac .
North of the community of Richmondville , US 25 passed Sanilac State Park , and then north of Forestville , it crossed into Huron County . On the other side of the county line , the highway passed through the community of White Rock and continued along the lake to Harbor Beach . There , US 25 intersected the eastern end of M @-@ 142 and began to curve around to the northwest to follow the northern tip of The Thumb . About 8 miles ( 13 km ) north of Harbor Beach , the highway passed through Port Hope and turned even more to the northwest on Lakeshore Road . US 25 turned due west at Huron City and passed south of Grindstone City on Grindstone Road . The highway was further inland on this east – west segment as it ran south of Pointe Aux Barques to Port Austin . At an intersection with M @-@ 53 ( Van Dyke Road ) , US 25 merged with M @-@ 53 to run five blocks north along Lake Street to the waterfront in Port Austin . At the intersection with Spring Street just south of the marina , US 25 / M @-@ 53 jointly terminated while M @-@ 25 continued westward along Spring Street .
= = History = =
= = = Before the state highways = = =
The chief transportation routes in 1701 were the Indian trails that crossed the future state of Michigan ; the one connecting what are now Detroit and Port Huron was one of these 13 trails at the time . Detroit created 120 @-@ foot ( 37 m ) rights @-@ of @-@ way for the principal streets of the city , the modern Gratiot Avenue included , in 1805 . This street plan was devised by Augustus Woodward and others following a devastating fire in Detroit . Gratiot Avenue , then also called Detroit – Port Huron Road , was authorized by the US Congress on March 2 , 1827 , as a supply road from Detroit to Port Huron for Fort Gratiot . Construction started in Detroit in 1829 , and the roadway was completed in the same year to Mount Clemens . The rest was finished in 1833 . The road was named for the fort near Port Huron , which was in turn named for Colonel Charles Gratiot , the supervising engineer in charge of construction of the structure in the aftermath of the War of 1812 .
Telegraph lines were first installed from the Detroit area south to the Monroe area in the mid @-@ 19th century with additional lines north to Pontiac completed around 1868 . As these communication lines were installed , roadways were added as needed to provide access for maintenance . The parallel road from Dearborn south was named for these lines , becoming Telegraph Road . In 1915 , the Dixie Highway , an auto trail that ran south from Detroit to Miami , Florida , was extended to Detroit , and later in 1919 northward to the Straits of Mackinac .
= = = Initial state highways to US Highway = = =
When the state highway system was first signed in 1919 , five separate highways were designated along US 25 's general route from the state line north through Detroit and Port Huron to Port Austin . From the state line north to Monroe , the roadway was given the first M @-@ 56 designation . From there northward , there was no state highway that corresponded to the future US 25 , but the first M @-@ 10 followed the future US 24 into the Detroit area . Near Dearborn , M @-@ 10 ran further inland than the future US 25 and included a concurrency with M @-@ 17 into Detroit . From Detroit northward , Gratiot Avenue was assigned the M @-@ 19 number into the Port Huron area . Through downtown Port Huron , the future US 25 was numbered as the first M @-@ 27 and along the lakeshore north to Harbor Beach , the highway was M @-@ 31 . From Harbor Beach into Port Austin , M @-@ 27 took over the route .
When the US Highway System was created on November 11 , 1926 , US 25 was included in Michigan 's section of the system . The US Highway designation was assigned to run along Dixie Highway replacing that segment of M @-@ 56 . From Monroe northward , US 25 overlapped US 24 on Telegraph Road to the Dearborn area and then followed M @-@ 17 ( Ecorse Road ) to Fort Street and into Downtown Detroit . From there , the highway replaced M @-@ 19 to Marysville and overlapped M @-@ 29 into Port Huron to an intersection with M @-@ 21 ; the remainder of the highway to Port Austin was numbered M @-@ 29 only . The highway was rerouted off Telegraph Road along Dix – Toledo Highway into downtown Detroit in 1929 . By the end of 1932 , US 25 was rerouted from downtown Monroe along Dixie Highway north to US 24 instead of turning westward in the city . The next year , US 25 was extended northward from Port Huron to Port Austin , replacing that section of M @-@ 29 in the process . The remainder of M @-@ 29 westward to Bay City was renumbered M @-@ 25 .
In 1936 , US 25 was changed to traffic along a one @-@ way pairing of streets on the southwest side of Port Huron . Northbound traffic remained on Military Avenue while southbound traffic was diverted to Electric Avenue . Two US 25A routings were created in the late 1930s and early 1940s . The first , near Erie , was numbered in 1937 , and renumbered US 24A by 1945 . The second in Port Huron provided access to the Blue Water Bridge from the mainline of the highway starting in 1940 . That last segment of US 25 to be paved was completed near Port Hope at the end of the 1950s .
= = = Freeway era = = =
With the completion of a segment of I @-@ 94 between Roseville and Marysville in 1963 , US 25 was rerouted to follow I @-@ 94 from the Mount Clemens area north to Marysville . The next year , an additional freeway from the northern end of I @-@ 94 at Marysville to Port Huron was completed . I @-@ 94 / US 25 was extended north and east , replacing part of M @-@ 146 to the Blue Water Bridge . The former route of US 25 through downtown was redesignated Bus . US 25 while US 25A became a part of the mainline highway to connect to I @-@ 94 . In 1967 , another segment , this time south of Detroit , was rerouted to follow another freeway , I @-@ 75 .
Six years later , the US 25 designation was decommissioned in Michigan , although all sections of it are still state highways . The southern section from the state line northward through Monroe was renumbered M @-@ 125 and the US 25 designation was removed from US 24 ( Telegraph Road ) . In the Detroit area , the connection between US 24 and I @-@ 75 in Woodhaven was redesignated as an unsigned connector highway ( now Connector 24 ) . The US 25 designation was removed from I @-@ 75 northward into Detroit , while the routing along Clark Street became an unsigned connector highway ( now Connector 850 ) . The routing along Fort Street and Gratiot Avenue was numbered as M @-@ 3 . The US 25 designation was removed from I @-@ 94 , and the routing through Port Huron and northward to Port Austin became part of an extended M @-@ 25 . One segment of highway near Port Huron became an unsigned highway now designed Connector 25 .
= = Major intersections = =
All exits are unnumbered .
= = Related trunklines = =
There were three additional trunkline highways related to US 25 in Michigan , two alternate routes and a business loop .
= = = Erie alternate route = = =
US Highway 25A ( US 25 ) was an alternate route that started at the Michigan – Ohio state line south of Erie and ran northward along Summit Street to an intersection with US 25 near Erie . The highway was designated in 1937 , and it was replaced by US 24A in 1945 . The southern half of the highway was later designated as part of I @-@ 75 in 1959 , and the northern half is now an unsigned highway designated Connector 75 by MDOT .
= = = Port Huron alternate route = = =
US Highway 25A ( US 25A ) was an alternate route near Port Huron that provided a connection to the Blue Water Bridge to Canada . The highway split from its parent north of Port Huron and followed 24th Avenue south to connect to M @-@ 51 ( Pine Grove Avenue ) while US 25 followed Lakeshore Road and Gratiot Avenue into Port Huron . The parent highway crossed under the approaches to the Blue Water Bridge , and the alternate route , along with M @-@ 51 , provided a signed path between US 25 and the bridge . The designation was created in early 1940 and was deleted when US 25 was rerouted in 1963 through Port Huron and over the alternate route .
= = = Port Huron business loop = = =
Business US 25 ( Bus . US 25 ) was an 8 @.@ 4 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 13 @.@ 5 km ) business loop serving the cities of Marysville and Port Huron . It started southwest of Marysville near St. Clair County International Airport at I @-@ 94 / US 25 and ran northeasterly along Gratiot Avenue into Marysville . It then passed through the city 's downtown area and turned northward along Gratiot Boulevard near the St. Clair River . North of Ravenswood Road , Bus . US 25 split into the one @-@ way pairing of Military Street ( northbound ) and Electric Avenue ( southbound ) until the two directions merged on the south side of Port Huron . The business loop continued northward along through downtown Port Huron and across the Black River near its mouth . North of the river. the business loop followed Huron Avenue through the northern side of downtown Port Huron and turned northwesterly onto Pine Grove Avenue . The business loop passed under the approaches to the Blue Water Bridge before terminating at an intersection with US 25 .
In 1963 , the route of US 25 through the Port Huron area was realigned . In the process , that highway replaced its alternate route , and the former alignment through downtown was redesignated as a business loop . This arrangement lasted until 1973 when US 25 itself was decommissioned in Michigan . The former routing of Bus . US 25 through downtown Port Huron became part of an extended M @-@ 25 . In 1986 , the former business loop was redesignated Business Loop I @-@ 94 .
= Unhalfbricking =
Unhalfbricking is the third album by the British folk rock band Fairport Convention and their second album released in 1969 . It is seen as a transitional album in their history and marked a further musical move away from American influences towards more traditional English folk songs that had begun on their previous album , What We Did on Our Holidays and arguably reached its peak on the follow @-@ up , Liege & Lief , released later the same year .
Although featuring several at the time unreleased Bob Dylan songs , the album also marked Sandy Denny 's maturation as a singer and songwriter , including " Who Knows Where the Time Goes ? " , a song covered by many other performers and now regarded as a classic . The only traditional song on the album , " A Sailor 's Life " , is seen as pivotal in the development of English folk rock music .
Changes in the line @-@ up of the band , due not only to its musical direction but also to external events , mark this album as a turning point in the band 's history . 1969 was a prolific year for Fairport Convention ; from What We Did on Our Holidays to Liege & Lief within twelve months represented a major development .
The album also gave the band their first UK chart success , reaching number 12 in the UK album chart ( the second highest position in the band 's entire career ) , while the single release , " Si tu dois partir " , achieved number 21 in the UK singles chart .
= = Background = =
On 11 May 1969 , two months before the album was released , drummer Martin Lamble and guitarist Richard Thompson 's girlfriend , Jeannie Franklyn , were killed in a car crash as the band were returning from a concert in Birmingham . Simon Nicol later said :
That was a big watershed , I think . In the aftermath , we thought a lot about what to do , whether to call it a day . It had been fun while it lasted but it took a definite effort of will to continue . It had given us a lot but now it had taken away a lot : was it worth it if it was going to cost people their lives ? Martin was only 18 or 19 years old . He would have gone on to have been so much more than just another drummer , another musician : there was something very special about him .
Ashley Hutchings also said in relation to the album cover photograph :
My memory of it is bound up with the terrible car crash . On the back cover we 're all eating around a table . The shirt and the leather waistcoat I 'm wearing are what I had on when the crash happened . I can clearly remember them being bloodstained . You don 't forget things like that .
Unhalfbricking appeared , therefore , at a difficult time for the group , but was enthusiastically received . After a period of intense reflection about their future they decided to pursue the folk rock idea further and violinist Dave Swarbrick was invited to join full @-@ time for the follow @-@ up , Liege & Lief .
= = Production = =
Fairport Convention had been invited to Bob Dylan 's London music publishers to hear then @-@ unreleased tracks from The Basement Tapes sessions . The band 's bassist , Ashley Hutchings , said " We loved it all . We would have covered all the songs if we could . " In the event , versions of " Percy 's Song " , " Million Dollar Bash " and " If You Gotta Go , Go Now " ( retitled " Si Tu Dois Partir " ) were used on the album . The French lyrics for the latter were created during the interval of a performance at the Middle Earth Club . " Percy 's Song " and " Million Dollar Bash " had never been released before . According to guitarist Simon Nicol " I think the boredom factor was one of the reasons we came up with this wacky idea . Three or four punters joined us in the dressing room ; they were either French visitors or students of French working in London , and happened to be there that night . "
The band 's male vocalist Iain Matthews left during the recordings for Unhalfbricking to make his own album Matthews ' Southern Comfort , after recording just one track , " Percy 's Song " . Sandy Denny sang lead vocals on all the other songs , including her own compositions , " Autopsy " , and " Who Knows Where the Time Goes ? " . The latter was covered by many artists and is now viewed to be a classic . The lengthy " A Sailor 's Life " , a traditional English folk song collected by A. L. Lloyd , was already part of Denny 's club repertoire . In particular , the version on Unhalfbricking has been described as " the turning point of Fairport 's history from earlier contemporary Americana to English songs " and by Allmusic 's Richie Unterberger as a " clear signpost to the future " .
Guitarist Richard Thompson contributed two compositions to the album . The opening track , " Genesis Hall " , is a slow 3 / 4 waltz , on which he played dulcimer , while Sandy Denny provided the vocals ; it was the B @-@ Side of the single release . Genesis Hall was the nickname of the former Bell Hotel in Drury Lane , which had become a squat in early 1969 and later became noted for a mass eviction by the police . In the view of Mojo magazine reviewer Mike Baines " Thompson 's writing reached maturity on ' Genesis Hall ' " . " Cajun Woman " , which opens the second side of the album , features Dave Swarbrick 's fiddle @-@ playing in his first work with Fairport .
= = Title and cover = =
The title arose from the band playing the word game Ghost while travelling to and from gigs . Its object was to " avoid completing a real word " , and " Unhalfbricking " was Sandy Denny 's creation .
Eric Hayes took the photo on the sleeve design for the UK release , which featured neither album title nor band name . The photo captured Denny 's parents , Neil and Edna Denny , standing outside the family home in Arthur Road , Wimbledon , south London , with the band distantly visible through the garden fence . St Mary 's Church , Wimbledon , can be seen in the background . Joe Boyd later said " Unhalfbricking , then , that cover shot was taken in the early spring , right before the crash , I think ; and that record came out in June " .
Unhalfbricking 's cover in the US , released by A & M Records , was even less informative . It consisted of a picture of circus elephants with a small inset image of the band , allegedly because " the group apparently so upset their American label that they replaced it with an image of trampolining elephants " .
= = Reception = =
Allmusic 's Richie Unterberger described Unhalfbricking as " a transitional album for the young Fairport Convention , in which the group shed its closest ties to its American folk @-@ rock influences and started to edge toward a more traditional British folk @-@ slanted sound " .
Rolling Stone 's John Mendelsohn , reviewing Unhalfbricking alongside Liege and Lief , was supportive , describing it as " Fairport Convention at its best " and singling out " Percy 's Song " in particular as " the album 's gem " . He was less complimentary about " A Sailor 's Life " , regarding it as overlong .
The album also gave the band their first UK chart success , spending a total of eight weeks in the UK album chart and reaching number 12 . The single " Si tu dois partir " spent nine weeks on the UK singles chart and
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2 . He was placed on active duty just before the attack on Pearl Harbor and the United States ' entry into World War II . Completing his initial pilot training and transferring to Naval Air Station Jacksonville , Florida for the next phase , he started flight training in the AT @-@ 6 Texan . He also qualified to fly in the N3N Canary trainer aircraft . His final phase of flight lessons occurred in Naval Air Station Miami in Miami , Florida , where he flew the Grumman F3F , a biplane which was the Navy 's most advanced trainer at the time . Bolt completed this training on 18 July 1942 , and was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the U.S. Marine Corps , receiving his aviator wings that day as well .
Around this time , Bolt began dating Dorothy E. Wiggins , whom he knew from Sanford . The two married after two years of dating , and they eventually had two children together , Robert and Barbara . Years later , during the Korean War , Bolt had the words " Darling Dottie " stencilled on the side of his North American F @-@ 86 Sabre jet as a tribute to this wife .
After commissioning , Bolt was assigned as a cadet training instructor , training aviation cadets at Naval Air Station Jacksonville and at Naval Auxiliary Air Station Green Cove Springs , Florida , until December 1942 , when the unit was deactivated . Until May 1943 he was trained on the F4F Wildcat , a carrier @-@ based aircraft , in preparation for movement to a front @-@ line combat unit . Over the next few months , Bolt was stationed at Naval Air Station Glenview in Glencoe , Illinois , where he trained for 60 hours aboard the paddlewheel aircraft carrier USS Wolverine . After qualifying to operate carrier @-@ based aircraft , he was assigned to Marine Corps Air Station Miramar in San Diego , California , until June 1943 , when he and his class departed for the Pacific Theater aboard the USS Rochambeau .
= = = Formation of VMF @-@ 214 = = =
On his way to the front lines , Bolt traveled to a number of islands as the Rochambeau stopped at New Caledonia and New Hebrides to avoid Japanese submarines . Upon arrival at Espiritu Santo , Bolt was placed in a pool of new officers who were intended to replace casualties in several squadrons . Casualties at this time proved to be less than expected , so the replacement pool was used to form a new squadron . The new unit was designated VMF @-@ 214 , and became known as the " Black Sheep " because its pilots had originally not been assigned to a squadron . Under the command of Major Pappy Boyington , the unit was equipped with F4U Corsairs . Moved after several months to the Russell Islands , they were ready for combat by 13 September . Bolt flew the aircraft every chance he got , and although new to the war in the Pacific , Bolt had over 700 hours flying in the F4U Corsair by September , more than many combat pilots accrued in two combat tours .
On 14 September , the squadron began flying missions to escort B @-@ 24 Liberator bombers . The Japanese had 200 aircraft at Kahili Airfield and Balalae Island , opposed by only 50 aircraft from the U.S. squadrons in the area . The first couple of missions that the squadron undertook were relatively quiet but , on 16 September , VMF @-@ 214 was attacked by a group of 35 Japanese A6M Zeros . The squadron repelled the strike , destroying 11 Japanese aircraft for the loss of only one of their own . Several costly engagements with the strong Japanese forces in the area followed . Bolt did not score any victories during this time , but was promoted to first lieutenant that month .
= = = Marshall Islands = = =
Bolt got his first victories of the deployment on 23 September when he was with a flight of 15 VMF @-@ 214 aircraft escorting B @-@ 24 Liberators back from a raid on Kahili . The bombers had been followed by 20 to 30 Zeros , and a dogfight quickly ensued . During the course of the engagement over Bougainville , Bolt scored two victories . His wingman , Ed Harper , also claimed a victory . For the next several weeks , the squadron operated out of Munda in the Solomon Islands .
A self @-@ described " workaholic " Bolt was considered by the other pilots to be the most energetic member of the squadron . He took to collecting and sending home keepsakes from daily life on the front lines ; he and two other pilots were known as the " Quartermaster Kids " because they collected so many souvenirs and shipped them home . He could often be found in the harbor near their airstrip dynamiting fish and was known to organize many of the squadron 's pig roasts and beer parties . Bolt also took it upon himself to test out many different ammunition configurations for the .50 caliber guns on the F4U during his free time . His research was conducted by firing rounds into 50 @-@ gallon drums partially filled with gasoline and at abandoned aircraft in the Espiritu Santo boneyard . He found that incendiary rounds were more effective , and convinced his squadron , and eventually most of the aircraft squadrons in the Pacific Theater , to begin firing six incendiary rounds for every one armor @-@ piercing or tracer round , rather than firing one for one .
Bolt became well known — but also drew the ire of his squadron 's commanding officer — during what began as an escort mission for B @-@ 24 Liberators . The bombers were lost in the clouds and the flight ran into poor weather , forcing them to turn back . During the flight home , the U.S. pilots noticed much Japanese surface traffic but did not engage because of the weather . On their way back to Munda one of the aircraft had a mechanical problem , and a group including Bolt had to land at Barakoma Airfield on Vella Lavella . He tried to convince others to go with him to attack the ships they had seen , but they refused . He refueled and took off , against Boyington 's orders , and destroyed four enemy barges and strafed several ground concentrations in the vicinity of Tonolei Harbor before returning to Munda . Disobeying a direct order drew Boyington 's wrath until the next day , when a telegram was received from Admiral William " Bull " Halsey : " That one man war ... conducted by Lieut Bolt against Jap stuff in Tonolei , warm heart ( stop ) Halsey . "
On 17 October , during a mission over Kahili Airfield , Bolt 's squadron was ambushed by Japanese fighters . Bolt downed one of the Japanese aircraft in his last mission before a scheduled rest and recuperation ( R & R ) in Sydney , Australia .
= = = Vela Lavella = = =
When the squadron returned from its R & R , Bolt had been promoted to captain and the squadron had been relocated to Vella Lavella . The new base was within 150 miles ( 240 km ) of Rabaul , which was the center of Japanese activity on New Britain , and was the squadron 's next primary target . Defended by 98 @,@ 000 Japanese troops , the island was of great strategic importance as it had a harbor and several airfields and was within striking distance of the Marshall Islands , defended by 400 Japanese aircraft .
On 23 December , 16 Corsairs from VMF @-@ 214 formed part of a force of 120 U.S. fighters and bombers that undertook a mission over Rabaul . The strike against the city and harbor areas was countered by a large force of Japanese aircraft . While defending the bombers , Bolt shot down two more Japanese aircraft , making him the squadron 's sixth flying ace . Two days later , he took part in another mission during which his squadron mates claimed four victories , bringing VMF @-@ 214 's tally of confirmed aerial victories to 76 .
On 3 January 1944 , VMF @-@ 214 was among 75 U.S. aircraft raiding near Rabaul when they were surprised by 300 Japanese aircraft . Boyington was shot down and parachuted into the St. George 's Channel . The next day , Bolt led a flight of four Corsairs from VMF @-@ 214 in search of Boyington . Despite hazy weather and the need to take an indirect route to avoid Japanese radar , Bolt managed to lead the flight to the area where the battle had taken place the day before . Although they did not spot Boyington , they discovered and engaged a flotilla of Japanese barges , destroying six of them . Bolt also claimed his sixth victory against a Japanese aircraft attempting to defend the barges .
Bolt 's tour , along with the rest of VMF @-@ 214 , came to an end on 8 January 1944 , five days after Boyington was shot down and captured by the Japanese . VMF @-@ 214 was disbanded and its pilots assigned to other units . In his time with VMF @-@ 214 , Bolt developed a reputation among his peers as a leader and an accomplished pilot . He was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross twice , and scored a total of six confirmed victories and one probable victory and two aircraft damaged in his 92 missions with the squadron .
= = = Subsequent assignments = = =
Bolt was reassigned to VMF @-@ 211 , at an airfield on Nissan Island in the Green Islands , 75 miles ( 121 km ) north of Bougainville and 100 miles ( 160 km ) west of Rabaul . The aircraft there were primarily concerned with the destruction of convoys and ships . The missions , nicknamed " Truck Busters " , were very successful , but at the cost of damaged aircraft and wounded crewmen , including Bolt 's wingman . This tour lasted until May 1944 when Bolt returned to Marine Corps Air Station Santa Barbara with his squadron .
Reassigned , Bolt flew to Hawaii , then to Long Beach , California . He reunited with Dorothy Wiggins in San Francisco , and the two married on 23 May 1944 in Oakland , before going on a one @-@ month honeymoon . His next assignment was with the newly formed VMF @-@ 471 at Marine Corps Air Station El Toro . While posted to VMF @-@ 471 , he attended the Aviation Ground Officer 's School at Marine Corps Air Station Quantico , Virginia , from November 1944 through February 1945 . He saw no combat for the rest of the war , but did manage to break the Corsair endurance record by keeping an aircraft aloft for 14 hours and 9 seconds . After briefly returning to VMF @-@ 471 , Bolt was reassigned to VMF @-@ 215 in March 1945 , tasked with training pilots for new carrier @-@ based aircraft . He remained in this role until V @-@ J Day , the end of hostilities .
Following the war , Bolt served in various units around El Toro . He was at various times assigned to MASG @-@ 46 , VMF @-@ 512 , VMF @-@ 323 , VMF @-@ 312 , VMF @-@ 452 , and Marine Aircraft Group 12 ( MAG @-@ 12 ) , before transferring to Quantico again in November 1949 to attend the Aircraft Maintenance Course . Diving in Florida 's Tampa Bay on leave , Bolt ( then a captain ) set a world spearfishing record when he caught an Atlantic goliath grouper weighing hundreds of pounds .
= = Korean War = =
In May 1950 , Bolt was reassigned to VMF @-@ 224 at Marine Corps Air Station Cherry Point , North Carolina , and he remained there until May 1951 . The squadron flew the F2H Banshee and within three months of joining the unit he had flown more hours on the aircraft than any other pilot in the squadron . This was followed by a quick four @-@ month tour on the staff at the 2nd Marine Aircraft Wing . During this time , the US Air Force was operating its first squadron of F @-@ 86 Sabre aircraft . The Sabres were the only U.S. aircraft which performed well against the MiG @-@ 15s operated by China and North Korea in the Korean War . Bolt used his connections to enter an exchange program with the USAF in September 1951 , becoming an exchange officer with the 318th Fighter @-@ Interceptor Squadron at McChord Air Force Base in Washington flying the F @-@ 94 Starfire . Soon after , he began piloting the F @-@ 86F Sabre which had been transferred to the squadron . He continued training with the squadron and was promoted to major in December 1951 .
= = = Fighter @-@ bomber missions = = =
In November 1952 , Bolt transferred to squadron VMF @-@ 115 , an element of the 1st Marine Aircraft Wing flying F9F Panther fighter @-@ bomber aircraft in South Korea . He flew 94 combat missions with the squadron , all of them in bombing runs and close air support and air strike missions against ground targets . He did not enjoy this duty , preferring instead to fly the Sabre in air @-@ to @-@ air combat . As his squadron headed to Japan for R & R , he traveled to Seoul to visit the 4th Fighter @-@ Interceptor Wing at Kimpo Airfield .
At the 4th Wing , Bolt met with its commander , Colonel Royal N. Baker , who refused his request to fly in combat units . He then went to the 51st Fighter @-@ Interceptor Wing at Suwon Air Base to observe its operations , where he met with George I. Ruddell , an acquaintance from El Toro , who was commanding the 39th Fighter @-@ Interceptor Squadron . Ruddell agreed to let Bolt join his unit as part of another officer exchange . This apparently angered some of his commanders in VMF @-@ 115 , and Bolt only completed a requisite six weeks of duty with the wing prior to its next R & R.
= = = Exchange and combat = = =
Six weeks later , Bolt again turned down his R & R and joined the 39th Fighter @-@ Interceptor Squadron , flying the F @-@ 86 Sabre . Ruddell assigned him to First Lieutenant Joseph C. McConnell , who would be the top ace in the war . Bolt and McConnell quickly established a close friendship in spite of Bolt 's superior rank , and he attributed his success in Korea to McConnell 's guidance . Ruddell sent a request to Lieutenant General Glenn O. Barcus , commander of the Fifth United States Air Force , that Bolt 's tour with the squadron be extended . The request was granted , and McConnell and Bolt began going on combat missions together as wingmen in MiG Alley , the area in northwestern Korea where air @-@ to @-@ air combat was most frequent . Bolt 's Sabre , tail number 52 @-@ 2582 , was named Darling Dottie .
By May , McConnell was rotated back to the United States and Bolt was given charge of the flight ; in 16 combat missions and 27 combat hours , his flight had never engaged any MiG fighters . This changed on 16 May , when the flight was attacked by a group of MiG fighters at 45 @,@ 000 feet ( 14 @,@ 000 m ) . He was quickly tailed by one of the aircraft , but managed to avoid its fire and tail another MiG himself . With several well placed shots , Bolt forced its pilot to bail out . Six days later on 22 May , MiG aircraft attacked again , and he managed to outmaneuver a fighter which had been attacking his wingman and shoot it down at 7 @,@ 000 feet ( 2 @,@ 100 m ) . On 24 June , he flew his 31st combat mission , during which he engaged a single MiG and shot it down after a quick battle in the vicinity of the Yalu River . A week later on 30 June , he was flying another mission in the same area when he spotted and quickly shot down another MiG . By the end of the month , he had credit for four victories and two aircraft " damaged " .
On 11 July , Bolt led another flight of four fighters in a reconnaissance mission above Sinuiju , his 37th combat mission of the deployment . Two of the aircraft departed after their fuel tanks were depleted , leaving him with one wingman to continue the patrol . Soon after , the two pilots spotted a formation of four MiGs taking off from Antung airfield on the Chinese side of the Yalu River . Despite being low on fuel , Bolt ordered an attack . He made a head @-@ on dive toward the formation , which was attempting to gain altitude , and downed the leading airplane with four machine gun bursts . He then banked his aircraft and aimed for the second aircraft in the formation , continuing the attack and scoring hits on its fuselage . The pilot bailed out , and the remaining two MiGs fled . Within five minutes of the engagement , Bolt had shot down two of the MiGs after firing only 1 @,@ 200 rounds of ammunition , an exceptional feat . This brought his tally of confirmed victories during the war to six . For these actions he became the final Marine aviator to be awarded the Navy Cross during the war . Bolt is the only non @-@ USAF pilot to become an ace in the F @-@ 86 and the only naval aviator to become an ace in two wars . Shortly after this final mission , his tour of duty ended and he was rotated back to the United States for an extended rest and vacation , which he spent with his family .
= = Later Marine Corps career = =
Following his return from Korea , Bolt was assigned to the U.S. Navy Bureau of Aeronautics in Washington , D.C. as an aircraft design engineer . In this duty , he was detailed to The Pentagon and a board which reported on aircraft performance and tactics . A press conference was held in September 1953 to welcome him to the position , and during this he recounted stories from his service in Korea for the first time to local newspapers . Bolt 's experiences in World War II and the Korean War were used to help shape air combat doctrine . He worked in this assignment for around a year , until 1954 when he was promoted to lieutenant colonel and moved to the Naval Pilot Test Center at Naval Air Station Patuxent River , in St. Mary 's County , Maryland . During this time , he took evening classes at the University of Maryland , eventually earning a Bachelor of Science in Military History .
In 1957 , Bolt was ordered to Marine Corps Base Quantico to attend a one @-@ year course at the Senior School of Amphibious Warfare as part of a program which would later be incorporated into the accredited curriculum of the Marine Corps University . On 5 November , after this one @-@ year stint , he was assigned to command VMF @-@ 214 , his World War II squadron , at Marine Corps Air Station Kaneohe Bay on the Hawaiian Islands . The squadron , which was part of Marine Aircraft Group 13 , flew the FJ @-@ 4 Fury ; Bolt remained in command of it until 14 August 1959 . His final assignment as an instructor was at the Senior School of Amphibious Warfare at Quantico . He taught at this school for the final three years of his career , before retiring from the Marine Corps on 31 March 1962 .
= = Later life = =
After retiring from the Marine Corps , Bolt , then 40 years old , began a new career in agriculture . He and his wife moved back to Sanford , Florida , where he worked for Chase & Co . He remained in that position for five years , until 1967 . That year , he decided to follow his original career aspirations to be a lawyer . He enrolled in the College of Law at the University of Florida , where his son Robert was also in attendance . The two formed an American handball team during their spare time , and won several tournaments . Bolt 's program had a three @-@ year curriculum , but he completed the degree in 27 months , graduating with a Juris Doctor degree in December 1969 . For two years after graduation , he stayed with the university to teach , and from 1969 to 1971 he was a law professor as well as the president of the Board of Trustees of Alpha Tau Omega , the fraternity he had joined while an undergraduate at the university .
After this stint as an instructor , Bolt and his wife moved to New Smyrna Beach , a place both of them had enjoyed in their childhoods . He began a private law practice and became a local property owner . During this time he was described as a " softspoken , kind , gentle person who would go out of his way to help a friend or a stranger . " He specialized in real estate law and was the attorney for the city 's utilities commission for 13 years . He retired from law in 1991 .
Bolt subsequently lived a quiet life and kept frequent contact with his children . Robert became a lawyer in Tampa , Florida , and Barbara wrote for Reader 's Digest . In May 1993 , Bolt attended the 50th reunion of the original " Black Sheep " or the 8th Fighter Squadron in New Orleans , Louisiana , and gave the toast at the beginning of the festivities . In 2003 , he was inducted into the American Combat Airman Hall of Fame at the American Airpower Heritage Museum in Midland , Texas .
Bolt died of acute leukemia in Tampa on 8 September 2004 after fleeing the approaching Hurricane Frances . At the time of his death , he was the last surviving of the seven Americans to become aces in both World War II and Korea . He was survived by his wife and children , as well as two grandchildren .
= = Aerial victory credits = =
Bolt scored a total of 12 confirmed aerial victories during his career , with an additional " probable " victory and two aircraft damaged . He was the only U.S. Marine Corps pilot to become an ace in the Korean War , and remains the only U.S. Marine Corps pilot to be an ace in two wars . Bolt was one of 1 @,@ 297 World War II aces from the United States with six confirmed victories during that war . He later became one of 40 Korean War aces from the United States with six more confirmed victories during that war .
Bolt is one of seven U.S. pilots who achieved ace status as both a piston @-@ engined pilot in World War II and as a jet pilot in Korea . The others are all USAF pilots : Francis S. Gabreski , James P. Hagerstrom , William T. Whisner , Vermont Garrison and Harrison Thyng , as well as George A. Davis , Jr .
= = Military awards = =
Bolt was decorated during World War II and the Korean War . His military decorations and awards include :
= = = Navy Cross citation = = =
The Navy Cross is presented to John F. Bolt . ( 0 @-@ 13522 ) Lt Colonel , U.S. Marine Corps for extraordinary heroism in connection with military operations against an armed enemy of the united Nations while attached to the First Marine Aircraft Wing and serving as a pilot of a plane in the THIRTY NINTH Fighter @-@ Interceptor Squadron , Fifth Air Force , in action against enemy aggressor forces in the Republic of Korea on 11 July 1953 . Sighting four hostile jet interceptors immediately after the second section of his four @-@ plane flight was forced to retire from the area because of a low fuel supply during a reconnaissance mission deep in enemy territory . Major Bolt quickly maneuvered his aircraft and that of his wingman into attack position and deliberately engaged the numerically superior enemy in a head @-@ on firing run , destroying one of the hostile planes with his initial burst of fire . Although his fuel supply was dangerously low , he initiated repeated attacks on the remaining enemy aircraft and severely damaging the engine section of the lead interceptor , routinely pressed his attack against the crippled plane until the enemy pilot was forced to bail out . By his exceptional courage and superb airmanship in destroying the two aircraft , Major Bolt raised his total of enemy jet planes destroyed during the Korean War to six , thereby becoming the first jet ace in Marine Corps aviation . His inspiring leadership and great personal valor reflect the highest credit upon himself and was in keeping with the highest traditions of the United States Naval Service .
For the President , / S / Robert Bernard Anderson , Secretary of the Navy .
= Whitey Wistert =
Francis Michael " Whitey " Wistert ( February 20 , 1912 – April 23 , 1985 ) was an American football and baseball player . He played college football and college baseball at the University of Michigan . Wistert was the first of the three Wistert brothers — he was succeeded by Albert ( Al ) and Alvin — who were named All @-@ American tackles at Michigan and later inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame . He was elected to the College Football Hall of Fame in 1967 . During his time at Michigan , Wistert played on three consecutive Big Ten Conference football championships teams , including two that won back @-@ to @-@ back national championships . He was also Big Ten Conference MVP in baseball in college and later played for Major League Baseball 's Cincinnati Reds . The Wistert brothers all wore jersey No. 11 at Michigan and are among the seven players who have had their numbers retired by the Michigan Wolverines football program . Their number will be put back into circulation starting on November 10 , 2012 before a Michigan home game against Northwestern as part of the Michigan Football Legend program .
= = Early years = =
Wistert was born in 1912 in Chicago . His parents , Kazimir J. Wistert and Josephine ( Shukis ) Wistert , immigrated to the United States from Lithuania in 1894 and were married at Chicago in 1907 . His father was a policeman in Chicago from at least 1910 to 1927 . At the time of the 1920 United States Census , Wistert 's family lived at 5647 Waveland Avenue in Chicago 's 27th Ward and consisted of parents , Kazimir and Josephine , and five children : Josephine ( age 11 ) , Isabelle ( age 10 ) , Francis ( age 7 ) , Evelyn ( age 6 ) , and Alvin ( age 3 @-@ 1 / 2 ) .
Wistert 's father was shot while on duty and pursuing a robbery suspect in July 1926 . By the spring of 1927 , Wistert 's father , who had served in the U.S. Army from 1898 to 1901 , was disabled due to " chest emphysema with draining sinus " and was admitted to the U.S. National Home for Disabled Volunteer Soldiers in Milwaukee , Wisconsin . He died in June 1927 when Whitey was 15 years old .
At the time of the 1930 United States Census , Wistert 's family continued to live at 5647 Waveland Avenue in Chicago . The household at that time consisted of Wistert 's mother , Josephine , and five children : Josephine ( age 22 , employed as a bookkeeper ) , Francis ( age 18 , employed as a tube maker for a radio company ) , Evelyn ( age 16 , employed as a " saleslady " at a variety store ) , Alvin ( age 13 ) , and Albert ( age 8 ) .
= = College athletics = =
After graduating from Chicago 's Schurz High School in 1929 , Wistert attended the University of Michigan where he was a star athlete in both football and baseball from 1931 to 1933 .
= = = The Wistert brothers of Michigan = = =
Wistert was the first of three brothers to play for Michigan . The other two are Al Wistert and Alvin Wistert . All three Wistert brothers wore number 11 for the Wolverines football team , and all three were All @-@ Americans . Interviewed by The Detroit News in 2004 , Alvin recalled : " And if I 'm not mistaken I think this is unprecedented in the annals of college football : that three brothers all would go to the same school , all played football . All played tackle , all wore the same number 11 , all made All @-@ American . Two of us played on four national championship teams . And all were inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame . "
The Wistert brothers grew up on the northwest side of Chicago and were the sons of a Lithuanian family . Their father was a Spanish – American War veteran who was later killed in the line of duty while working for the Chicago Police Department . According to brother Alvin Wistert , their father " was born Casmir Vistertus and he Anglicized it when he came to America to Wistert . "
The story of the Wistert brothers at Michigan began when Whitey 's Carl Schurz High School classmate John Kowalik was invited to visit the University of Michigan . At the time , Whitey Wistert " was working in a factory building Majestic radios . " Kowalik took Whitey with him on his visit to Ann Arbor , and according to Alvin , " that 's how it started : the Wisterts of Michigan . "
= = = Football = = =
As a football player , Wistert played for consecutive undefeated national championship teams in 1932 and 1933 and was a consensus All @-@ American in 1933 . The 1934 University of Michigan yearbook , the Michiganensian , included the following quote from Grantland Rice : " Wistert was unanimously selected as the best tackle in the Middle @-@ West this year . He was the key to Michigan 's defensive line play . He was a sure tackler and it was next to impossible to fool him on trick maneuvers . He was keen , quick , and accurate in diagnosing plays . "
Wistert and Chuck Bernard were the leaders of the 1933 offensive line when the team went 7 – 0 – 1 with a tie to the Minnesota Golden Gophers .
One of Wistert 's teammates on the 1932 and 1933 Michigan football teams was future U.S. President Gerald Ford . In an interview in the February 1974 issue of " Michigan Alumnus " , Wistert said of Ford : " He was a real good competitor – a real bulldog type . Even during a losing year , he was voted MVP by his teammates . They felt he was one guy who could stay and fight for a losing cause . "
In 1936 , he was a member Michigan football coaching staff under Coach Harry Kipke .
= = = Baseball = = =
Wistert also earned varsity letters in baseball three years and was selected as the Most Valuable Player in the Big Ten Conference in 1934 . The 1934 Michiganensian yearbook reports that the final game of the baseball season was a 4 – 0 shutout by Wistert against the University of Chicago Maroons . " Wistert , for the Wolves , allowed only five well @-@ scattered hits during the game . Although Whitey Wistert walked four men , he more than off @-@ set this by striking out nine of the Maroons to face him . " Wistert also pitched a four @-@ hitter against Ohio State .
= = = Honors = = =
Wistert was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame in 1967 , one year before his brother Albert . In 1981 , he was named to the University of Michigan Hall of Honor in the fourth class of inductees alongside his brothers . Only five Michigan football players earned this honor before him .
= = Professional baseball = =
Wistert had a short cup of coffee in Major League Baseball , appearing in three games for the Cincinnati Reds between September 11 , 1934 and September 25 , 1934 . In two appearances as a pitcher , Wistert allowed only one run in eight innings , for a career ERA of 1 @.@ 13 . However , in three plate appearances , he went hitless and struck out twice . Although he only played briefly at the major league level , Wistert played five years of professional baseball . Fellow 1933 Michigan Wolverines football All @-@ American , Ted Petoskey also debuted for the Reds in September 1934 .
= = Late life = =
After retiring from sports , Wistert became a New York lawyer . He went on to become a vice @-@ president of an industrial relations firm in Toledo , Ohio . He served in the United States Navy as a lieutenant during World War II .
= Akmal Shaikh =
Akmal Shaikh ( 5 April 1956 – 29 December 2009 ) was a Pakistani @-@ British businessman who was convicted and executed in China for drug trafficking . The trial and execution attracted significant media attention in the UK .
Shaikh was born in Pakistan and moved to the United Kingdom as a child . After a couple of failed businesses , Shaikh moved to Poland with his second wife in 2005 with the dream of starting an airline , and later of becoming a pop star . He travelled from Poland to China and was arrested by Chinese customs officers at Ürümqi Diwopu International Airport on 12 September 2007 with 4 kilograms ( 9 lb ) of heroin hidden in a compartment in his baggage . Shaikh 's defence team pleaded ignorance of the existence of the drugs , although his lawyers said that the evidence against Shaikh was " overwhelming " . Reprieve , an anti @-@ death penalty organisation , argued that Shaikh suffered from mental illness which was exploited by criminals who tricked him into transporting the heroin on the promise of a recording contract .
Shaikh , who had never been assessed by mental health experts , denied he was mentally ill . He had requested a psychiatric evaluation to prove he was sane , but the requests were refused by Chinese authorities on the grounds that PRC laws required defendants to first provide past medical records showing evidence of a mental disorder before such evaluations could be undertaken . Appeals for clemency were made by his family and by British government officials . After two appeals , the Supreme Court confirmed the death sentence he was given at his first trial in October 2008 , and Shaikh was executed by lethal injection in Ürümqi on 29 December 2009 . It was reported that Shaikh was the first European national to be executed in China since Antonio Riva in 1951 . Lau Fat @-@ wai , a Portuguese citizen , also faced drug trafficking charges back in 2006 , before Akmal Shaikh , but Mr. Lau 's death sentence was only carried out early in 2013 .
Britain made 27 official representations to the Chinese government ; the Chinese ambassador to London was summoned twice to meet British Foreign Office ministers , once after the execution . Senior British politicians strongly condemned the execution , and were disappointed that clemency was not granted , while human rights groups and some Western legal experts in Chinese law criticised the lack of due process ; United Nations Special Rapporteur Philip Alston said the refusal to assess Shaikh 's mental health was a violation of international law . The Chinese embassy in Britain said Shaikh had no " previous medical record " of mental illness and that his " rights and interests were properly respected and guaranteed " . It said the Chinese stance underlined the " strong resentment " felt by its public to drug traffickers , in part based on " the bitter memory of history " – a reference to the First and Second Opium Wars . A professor of criminal law at the East China University of Political Science and Law said the administration of the death penalty related to a country 's history , culture and other conditions : " It 's human nature to plead for a criminal who is from the same country or the same family , but judicial independence should be fully respected and everyone should be equal before the law . "
= = Biography = =
Shaikh , a Muslim , was a Pakistani migrant to the United Kingdom with his parents during his childhood . His first wife had converted from Hinduism to Islam when they married ; they had two sons and a daughter . In the 1980s , Shaikh was an estate agent in the United States . They moved back to London when the business stumbled . He then started a mini @-@ cab business in Kentish Town called ' Teksi ' which prospered for a time ; even so , he fell into bankruptcy for more than two years during the 1990s .
In 2003 , Shaikh sexually harassed and unfairly dismissed a 24 @-@ year @-@ old female employee ; he also failed to pay more than half her wages . In 2004 , an Employment Tribunal awarded her £ 10 @,@ 255 @.@ 97 damages and unpaid wages , which he subsequently never paid . Shaikh and his son , Abdul @-@ Jabbar , both failed to attend the tribunal hearings for the harassment case and sold the business to another minicab firm . Shaikh 's first marriage ended in divorce in 2004 .
He married his Polish secretary – who was then pregnant with his child – and moved to Poland permanently in 2005 , reportedly with ambitions to start an airline . He had been going to Lublin frequently since autumn 2004 . Following the 7 July 2005 London bombings , Shaikh sent a text message to two people in London saying : " Now everybody will understand who Muslims are and what jihad is , " and was consequently investigated as a terror suspect for five months by British intelligence and Poland 's Internal Security Agency . In December 2005 , the MI5 investigation was discontinued due to insufficient evidence .
His Polish wife is reported in the Daily Mail as saying that he began to act in a ' really silly and crazy way ' when he finally settled in Poland ; although they had a second child , a daughter , the marriage broke down and he became homeless . In 2006 , by which time his former wife had remarried and had another baby with her new husband , Shaikh 's ex @-@ wife reported him to Polish police for using threatening behaviour against her and her children ; she later withdrew her statement , and the case never went to court . In 2006 he was sentenced by a Polish court to one year in jail ( suspended for four years ) for driving under the influence of alcohol , and prohibited from driving for three years . He was wanted in 2007 by a Lublin court for not paying alimonies .
In 2007 , he joined in a month @-@ long demonstration for nurses outside the Warsaw office of the Prime Minister of Poland , and met British musician Gareth Saunders , according to whom Shaikh was destitute , living off handouts and ate at a soup kitchen . Chinese press reports that Saunders was told by Shaikh that he had started a business in Poland , before they met , but which he was forced to abandon due to a conspiracy against him . Shaikh wrote a song , " Come Little Rabbit " , [ a ] which Saunders said Shaikh pestered him and fellow Briton Paul Newberry into recording . Reprieve , an organisation working against the death penalty , campaigned for his release following his arrest in China . It cites Saunders and Newberry saying that Shaikh had no musical talent and appeared to entertain delusional ideas about stardom . Newberry reportedly said : " I can 't imagine anyone singing worse than he did on that recording and we told him so , but he was on such a high , convinced that he would have a huge hit ... We told him that he was crazy , that it was the worst thing we had ever heard , but he just laughed in our face and repeated that it would be huge . " A recording of this ' out of tune ' song , whose lyrics include a refrain ' Only one world , only one people , only one God ' , was released by Reprieve to raise awareness for their campaign to save him .
= = Drug trafficking , trials and execution = =
Reprieve said Shaikh met a man in Poland named " Carlos " sometime in 2007 who he believed had contacts in the music industry and could help make him famous ; Shaikh travelled to Kyrgyzstan , where a man named " Okole " promised Shaikh an opportunity to perform at a " huge nightclub " in China he purportedly owned . " Okole " and Shaikh travelled together to China , stopping in Tajikistan , where they stayed in a five @-@ star hotel . On 12 September 2007 , Shaikh flew from Dushanbe in Tajikistan , to Ürümqi in north @-@ west China . Shaikh claimed he was told he would have to travel alone to China as the flight was full ; " Okole " allegedly gave him a suitcase to carry , and promised he would take the next flight . Shaikh was arrested on his arrival at Ürümqi Airport the same day , when a baggage search revealed he was carrying 4 kilograms ( 9 lb ) of heroin of 84 @.@ 2 % purity ; Alerted by Shaikh 's nervous and circumspect behaviour , customs officers searched and found the drugs hidden in a compartment of his case , which was " practically empty " but for a few clothes ; he only had US $ 100 and 100 Chinese yuan on his person . Reprieve said that Shaikh claimed the suitcase was not his ; and he cooperated with the Chinese authorities in an attempt to catch " Okole " , who was supposed to arrive on the next plane , but who never turned up . According to the British media , the British Government was informed of the arrest almost a year later .
First trial – November 2007
Chen Dong , Director of the Ürümqi Legal Aid Center , was appointed to represent Shaikh , who was tried in November 2007 . Defence asserted to the court that Shaikh knew nothing of the drugs , and that he did not knowingly smuggle the narcotics . Shaikh was found guilty . On 29 October 2008 , after two failed appeals , he was sentenced to death by the Intermediate People 's Court of Ürümqi according to the section of the Chinese criminal code which provides the death penalty for smuggling heroin in quantities of more than 50 grams ( 2 oz ) . The Supreme People 's Court validated the sentence as being in accordance with Articles 48 and 347 of China 's Criminal Law . Prospect says the judgement was made public in October 2008 .
Second trial – May 2009
His case was heard in the second instance on 26 May 2009 . At his second trial , Reprieve said Shaikh defended himself with a " rambling and often incoherent " speech lasting 50 minutes and which was " greeted with incredulity and sometimes mirth by court officials . " According to the Sanlian Living Weekly article , one of the two lawyers representing Shaikh during his second trial , Mr. Cao Hong , said that the key defence argument was Shaikh 's ignorance of the drug he was transporting . Cao said the official documents , baggage examination reports from the record of his arrest , as well as pictures and video footage taken during the baggage check was " overwhelmingly against Shaikh " ; he did not play in court some of the video footage recorded because it was too incriminating . Cao advised Shaikh to undergo a mental evaluation , which he initially refused , arguing that he was not mentally ill . Upon his lawyer 's insistence , he made a statement requesting an evaluation to prove that he was mentally sound , but which also said that neither he nor his family had any history of mental illnesses .
The Supreme People 's Court ruled that documents provided by the British Embassy in Beijing and Reprieve in support of the request for a psychiatric assessment did not prove that Shaikh had a mental disorder ; nor was there a history of mental disease in his family . His lawyer , Cao , confirmed that the documents he received from Reprieve contained " medical information about bipolar disorder , and a list of symptoms and case studies " not specific to Shaikh . According to Professor Jerome A. Cohen , professor emeritus at New York University School of Law , Shaikh 's November trial lasted half an hour ; he also said that the trial court initially agreed to allow a psychiatric evaluation of Shaikh , but subsequently refused it . Xinhua stated that the court 's decision to refuse a mental assessment was based on PRC laws requiring defendants to first provide past medical records showing evidence of a mental disorder before such evaluations could be undertaken . Xinhua also reported the Supreme People 's Court 's view that medical records provided by the British Embassy contained no documentary evidence to support claims of Shaikh 's condition . Although the Chinese authorities state he was provided with interpretation during his trials , The Guardian alleges there was none ; and the Foreign Secretary , David Miliband , too intimated that interpretation may have been inadequate .
A final appeal to the Supreme People 's Court for an independent assessment of his mental condition failed on 21 December 2009 , and his execution date was set for 29 December . Shaikh was not told of his impending execution throughout this time " for humanitarian reasons " . Shaikh was visited by two cousins and British consular officials in the hospital where he had been treated for a heart condition since August 2009 , and it was only then that he was informed that he would die in 24 hours .
Execution – December 2009
Shaikh was executed by lethal injection at 10 : 30 CST ( 02 : 30 GMT ) on 29 December 2009 at the Xishan Detention Centre in Ürümqi . Family members and British consular officials were refused access to Shaikh during the final hours by the Chinese authorities , and were not allowed to witness the execution . According to Reprieve , Shaikh was the first national of an EU member state to be executed in China in over 50 years . Officials say he was given a Muslim burial – his body intact – according to his family 's wishes , at the Guslay Muslim Cemetery ; his family was not allowed to attend .
= = Clemency campaign = =
Campaigners on his behalf were concerned at the apparent lack of due legal process . They did not dispute that he was carrying a large amount of heroin , but argued for the release of Shaikh based on their assertions that he was mentally ill at the time of the offence saying that the court did not take his condition into account during the trial . The case attracted support from Amnesty International ; and UN special rapporteur on extrajudicial executions , Philip Alston , who said there were " strong indications " that Shaikh may have been suffering from mental illness . He also said : " Both Chinese and international law clearly indicate that a person who committed a crime while suffering from significant mental illness should not be subjected to the death penalty , " and that " [ e ] xecuting a mentally ill man would be a major step backwards for China . "
His family , which had lost touch with him when he left for Poland , also pleaded for mercy : in a letter to the Chinese Ambassador , his elder brother Akbar wrote that his brother 's life had been destroyed by mental illness ; Akbar maintained that Shaikh was kind and harmless when healthy , and was much loved by his family . He was concerned at the effect his execution would have on their mother : " She is a frail woman , and our family have not been able to break the news to her that she may lose her youngest child next week . " Akmal 's children said their father had been " seriously ill for much of his life " , and pleaded for a reprieve .
Reprieve and his family all cite examples of Shaikh 's " erratic behaviour " and " questionable decisions " at least since 2001 . Reprieve interviewed people who had dealings with him to support their claims that he may have had bipolar disorder . Stephen Fry was one celebrity who joined the campaign for clemency . Reprieve also released hundreds of emails that Shaikh had sent in 2007 to embassy staff in Warsaw and to a group of 74 individuals and organisations including Tony Blair . Campaigners argued that Shaikh 's delusions of pop stardom were symptomatic of his condition , and may have made him especially susceptible to confidence tricks . Akmal 's former solicitor described his client as " charming and charismatic " , and said his client was sane as recently as 2003 . The lawyer said that " By the time he went over to Poland you could not even sit down and have a conversation with him . " Nevertheless , Shaikh had never been assessed by a psychiatrist in Britain or elsewhere .
Dr Peter Schaapveld , clinical and forensic psychologist engaged by Reprieve , was sent to China but was not allowed direct access to Shaikh . However , through 15 minutes ' access given to Foreign Office officials to interview Shaikh , Dr Schaapveld said he was able to deduce " with 99 per cent certainty " that Shaikh was suffering from a mental disorder , possibly bipolar or schizophrenia . In an op @-@ ed in the South China Morning Post , Professor Jerome A. Cohen suggested that China had failed to comply with its own and international legal standards that required a thorough mental evaluation of Shaikh before rendering a final judgment .
The China Daily said : " Intellectually challenged people do a lot of inexplicable things when they lose control ... But seldom have we heard of a mentally ill person hiding as much as 4 kg of heroin in his double @-@ layered suitcase . " It added that " the court had no reason not to consider the plaintiff 's alleged mental illness if he showed any signs of suffering from it while he was in jail . " It further asserted that the claims of his family were contradicted by Shaikh himself , who denied having a history of mental disorder . Wang Mingliang , professor of criminal law in Fudan University , and professor Xue Jinzhan , professor of criminal law at the East China University of Political Science and Law , stated that " the Chinese court 's decision to execute Akmal Shaikh was completely appropriate ... [ and ] the denial of mental evaluation was legitimate and consistent with legal precedent " . Xue Jinzhan said the administration of the death penalty related to a country 's history , culture and other conditions : " It 's human nature to plead for a criminal who is from the same country or the same family , but judicial independence should be fully respected and everyone should be equal before the law " ; Wang said it was understandable that British media ran emotional stories and local people reacted with sorrow or anger as Britain did not retain the death penalty . " But one country should respect judicial independence of another country , without any interference in internal affairs . "
Britain made 27 official representations to the Chinese government about the case . Gordon Brown reportedly wrote several times to Hu Jintao and pleaded the case personally to Wen Jiabao during the Copenhagen summit . The Chinese ambassador in London was summoned twice by the government over the case . The Chinese Embassy in London cited their country 's obligations to the United Nations Conventions against Illicit Drug Trafficking as justification for punishing the " grave crime " of drug smuggling . The embassy statement asserted that Shaikh 's rights and interests under Chinese law were " properly respected and guaranteed " .
When his cousins , Soohail and Nasir Shaikh , arrived in Ürümqi to spend time with him at the hospital in Ürümqi the day before the execution , they also made a last @-@ minute petition to the local court for a stay of execution ; they and British embassy officials delivered a plea for mercy to president Hu Jintao . It was during this visit that Akmal was informed of his impending death .
= = Reaction = =
Human rights organisations condemned China 's refusal to consider Shaikh 's alleged psychological illness as a denial of justice . However , some British commentators were largely sympathetic to , if not supportive of , the hard @-@ line Chinese stance against drug smuggling , and accepted there was little else the British Government could do ; some accused British leaders of hypocrisy in light of the country 's own drugs problem . Two British tabloids ( under the control of Rupert Murdoch and Trinity Mirror ) were supportive of the execution .
The Chinese authorities reacted angrily to the " foreign interference " , citing " the bitter memory " of China under foreign imperialism ; and stressing that all legal procedures to safeguard the defendant had been complied with . The Chinese public was cited as being overwhelmingly in support of the execution , further justified by endorsement of its action in the British press .
Reprieve , the group which mounted his campaign , said they had passed on new evidence and testimonials from six people who knew Akmal in Poland that they had received in the final 24 hours which the Chinese government had not acknowledged receiving at the time of the execution . Sally Rowan , their legal director , said that any talk of ' special treatment ' was " ridiculous " – as Chinese law has provisions to protect those with mental illness , but they chose not to invoke them . Rowan condemned the execution of an incompetent man as " barbaric " . Other mental health charities echoed the sentiments .
Shaikh 's family was saddened by the execution , but was split as to whether the UK establishment had done all it could to secure humanitarian treatment . Shaikh 's cousins Soohail and Nasir Shaikh praised the efforts of Gordon Brown , British ministers and Reprieve . Two other cousins , Amina and Ridwan Shaikh , attacked the government and the media in a scathing letter to The Guardian that questioned the effectiveness of the government 's approach . They criticised the " sporadic media attention " about their cousin 's plight for two years , and accused the government of acting out its powerlessness in the face of China 's economic might .
= = = United Kingdom = = =
Following the execution , there was a range of views in the British press , some agreed with the political leaders Gordon Brown , David Miliband and David Cameron , who expressed concerns that a mental health assessment was not done , and that clemency requests had not been granted ; others were critical of the UK government 's reaction ; and some were fairly neutral . Among the journalists who supported the UK government 's stance were Dominic Ziegler , author of The Economist 's Banyan column on Asian affairs , who felt that the issue raised questions about effective use of protections for defendants during judicial process ; and Daniel Korski , who wrote in The Spectator that he felt that China was " a revanchist power " seeking the status and rights of the Western world , though not the responsibilities – Prospect magazine held a similar opinion that the Chinese authorities wished to " stand up to its old oppressors " and show the Chinese people that they were " being led in the right direction . "
An editorial in The Independent noted that some other Asian countries impose the death penalty for drug @-@ smuggling , and commented that the execution " was less the arrogance of a rising power than evidence that China is still feeling its way in the wider world " . George Walden wrote in The Times that he felt if the British government had been more discreet Shaikh might have been reprieved , and that " if we wish to influence China on capital punishment , a little historical humility may be in order " British commentators critical of the UK government 's response were Josephine McDermott of The Daily Telegraph who compared the government 's " sabre @-@ rattling " approach to the British attitude during the First Opium War in 1839 ; Michael White of The Guardian , who felt that China would not be interested in " lectures from Europeans on the morality of the drugs trade " , and Leo McKinstry of the Daily Mail , who said the international clamour to denounce China was " hypocritical and insensitive " . McKinstry declared support for the execution , and condemned Britain 's weak stance on drugs and its " institutionalised tolerance " of drug use . In a discussion on the Daily Mail website , participants were overwhelmingly in favour of the execution . Other popular tabloids were unanimous : Jon Gaunt of The Sun criticised British politicians and the media for grossly overplaying the case , and linked the government 's reaction with the Labour Party 's " soft " stance on immigration and crime . Tony Parsons of the Daily Mirror supported China 's strong stance against drug peddling , and said the British government 's reaction was " shrill beyond belief " . Anna Smith of The News of the World commented on the irony that a drug smuggler was executed by a drug injection , and felt that the public didn 't really care " about the human rights of a drug smuggler " .
= = = People 's Republic of China = = =
= = = = Official view = = = =
Foreign Ministry Spokeswoman Jiang Yu said , " Nobody has the right to speak ill of China 's judicial sovereignty . We express our strong dissatisfaction and opposition to the British Government 's unreasonable criticism of the case . We urge the British to correct their mistake in order to avoid harming China – UK relations . " The Chinese Embassy in London said " The legal structures of China and UK may be different , but it should not stand in the way of enhancing our bilateral relations on the basis of mutual respect . " Further , the Embassy cited " the bitter memory " of the Opium trade of the 19th century as a reason for the " strong resentment " felt by the Chinese public to drug traffickers and foreign ( especially British ) interference . A biannual summit session between China and the UK on human rights scheduled for early January was " postponed " by China in what The Daily Telegraph said was " widely thought to be a rebuke to the UK for its public criticism of China over the execution of Akmal Shaikh " .
= = = = Other views = = = =
The majority of Chinese people supported Shaikh 's execution . A survey by China Daily showed 77 @.@ 5 % in favour of the execution and 16 % opposing . The Global Times said that China 's death penalty has strong public support and that it acts as a deterrent to serious crime . It observed the fact that Shaikh is the first European to be executed in China in 50 years is highly emotive and sensational : " But viewed in context , the uniform application of sentencing standards for both the Chinese and foreigners underscores the progress of China 's legal system , which is steadily building the principle of rule of law . " Vocal supporters included overseas Chinese , legal specialists , government officials as well as journalists . A professor at the Shanghai Institute for European Studies accused Labour politicians of trying to capitalise on the issue of China 's human rights for political advantage in the upcoming election . An academic at Fudan University said the British criticism lacked legal and moral basis ; their reaction was " unreasonable " and showed " considerable cultural arrogance " ; another one at Tsinghua University considered the British politicians ' reaction an attempt to " create sentiments and manipulate the public " . Wang Dawei , a professor at China People 's Public Security University , said that Britain and China should respect each other 's differences in ideology and moral standards , rather than " using their own moral standards to judge , condemn and demonise China . " Citing polls and comments on websites of British press , the Chinese media also reported how politicians ' outcry was " unrepresentative " of the vast majority of Britons ' understanding of and support for China 's action .
In an editorial published by China Daily , Han Dongping , Professor of History and Political Science at Warren Wilson College , hailed the execution , saying that the decision " upheld the dignity of Chinese law . " He suggested that to act otherwise as a result of international pressure would be a return to the extraterritorial privileges that had been granted to many foreign nationals in China in the latter half of the 19th and first half of the 20th century pursuant to the " unequal treaties " . Han said that a nation bending its laws under outside pressure " invites endless troubles in the future " , leading to a lack of respect for the laws of that country , and dismissed the criticism of China 's human rights record by Western governments as " an excuse to intervene in China ’ s internal affairs " .
= = = International reaction = = =
Some public organisations and individual experts media were critical of the judicial process . The United Nations Special Rapporteur , Philip Alston , a human rights spokesman , felt that the brevity of the initial conviction might not have allowed due process , and that not assessing Shaikh 's mental health was " in violation not only of Chinese law but also international law . " The European Union condemned the execution and regretted that its calls for the sentence to be commuted had not been heeded . Amnesty International felt the execution highlighted the injustice of the death penalty , particularly in China , and called on all countries to press the Chinese government to improve the legal proceedings for defendants , especially those facing the death penalty . Jerome Cohen , an expert in Chinese law , commented in the US @-@ Asia Law Institute that the main legal issue was the refusal of a psychiatric examination , and that China may review its judicial process in this regard both in light of international criticism , and internal pressure as the country " shares the world ’ s abhorrence of punishing mentally irresponsible people " and after the execution of Yang Jia , who was also refused a psychiatric examination , the public sympathy prompted " some Chinese experts to seek necessary law reforms " .
Reaction from the international media was broadly critical of the authorities , with Der Spiegel summarising German commentators as being universally critical of Beijing . Newsweek felt that the Chinese authorities had consolidated their position domestically by giving the impression to Chinese citizens that the government will " protect them the best way it knows how from the mentally unstable , whether they are carrying machetes or suitcases full of drugs " , and Ireland 's Sunday Independent felt that the West was being hypocritical for overlooking other human rights concerns in China while enjoying the Beijing Olympics .
= Cyclone Leon – Eline =
Cyclone Leon – Eline was the longest @-@ lived Indian Ocean tropical cyclone on record , traveling over 11 @,@ 000 km ( 6 @,@ 800 mi ) during its 29 day duration . It formed on February 1 , 2000 , in the Australian basin as Tropical Cyclone Leon . After crossing 90 ° E , the Météo @-@ France office in Réunion ( MFR ) began tracking the system as Tropical Storm Eline on February 8 . Late on February 17 , Eline made landfall near Mahanoro , Madagascar , with 10 ‑ minute winds of 165 km / h ( 103 mph ) . The storm rapidly weakened over land , but restrengthened in the Mozambique Channel to reach peak 10 ‑ minute winds of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) . On February 22 , Eline made landfall about 80 km ( 50 mi ) south of Beira , Mozambique , near peak intensity , and quickly weakened over land . The well @-@ defined circulation moved across southern African , finally dissipating over eastern Namibia on February 29 .
While moving across much of the Indian Ocean , Eline brought high waves , gusty winds , and rainfall to several islands . Later , Eline struck Madagascar while the country was in the midst of a cholera epidemic that had killed over 1 @,@ 000 people . The storm directly killed at least 64 people , although Tropical Storm Gloria struck shortly thereafter , compounding upon the damage and making it difficult to discern the individual damage totals . Damage from Eline was estimated at $ 9 million ( USD ) , and collectively the two storms killed 205 people and left another 10 @,@ 000 homeless . In the region around Vatomandry , where Eline made landfall , 65 % of houses were damaged , 90 % of crops were lost , and 75 % of health facilities were wrecked .
Before Eline 's final landfall , Mozambique was experiencing the worst floods since 1951 , killing about 150 people . The additional rainfall and flooding from Eline created the country 's worst natural disaster in a century . The combined effects destroyed over 250 @,@ 000 ha ( 620 @,@ 000 acres ) of crop fields and killed 40 @,@ 000 cattle . Eline 's passage disrupted ongoing relief efforts . High levels along the Limpopo River isolated the town of Xai @-@ Xai , with water levels along the river reaching as high as 11 m ( 36 ft ) above normal in some areas , as well as 15 km ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) wide . A dam broke along the river , flooding the town of Chokwe in the middle of the night and trapping several unprepared residents ; this accounted for nearly half of the death toll . About 55 people drowned in Sofala Province after rescue helicopters arrived too late to save them . Around 20 @,@ 000 people in the capital city of Maputo lost their homes . In addition to the floods , strong winds blew away many roofs and some entire houses made of mud . The combined effects of the preceding floods and Eline left about 329 @,@ 000 people displaced or homeless , about 700 deaths , and damage estimated at $ 500 million ( USD ) . The cyclone and the floods disrupted much of the economic progress Mozambique had made in the 1990s since the end of its civil war .
Elsewhere in southern Africa , Eline brought strong winds and heavy rainfall when it crossed into eastern Zimbabwe , maintaining a well @-@ defined structure . Rivers overflowed their banks in the country , damaging crops and houses while leaving 15 @,@ 000 people homeless . The storm killed 12 people in the country . Flooding from the storm extended southward into Swaziland and South Africa . In the latter country , Eline dropped 503 mm ( 19 @.@ 8 in ) of rainfall in Levubu over three days , causing the Limpopo River to reach its highest level in 15 years . Officials opened dams along the river to prevent structural damage , which caused higher levels along the river to the east . At least 21 people died in the country , and about 80 @,@ 000 people were left homeless , forcing many people into churches and schools . Damage in Limpopo Province alone was estimated at $ 300 million ( USD ) . To the north , Eline dropped about 90 mm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) of rainfall in southern Malawi , while gusty winds caused a power outage in Blantyre . Farther west , rainfall rates of 50 – 100 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 – 3 @.@ 9 in ) were also reported in Botswana .
= = Meteorological history = =
A low pressure area developed within the monsoon trough on February 1 about 250 km ( 160 mi ) south of the Indonesian island of Bali . Associated convection was initially sparse due to wind shear , although a developing anticyclone allowed the thunderstorms to persist . At 22 : 00 UTC on February 3 , the Perth Tropical Cyclone Warning Center ( PTCWC ) upgraded the low to a Category 1 on the Australian tropical cyclone scale , naming it Tropical Cyclone Leon . On February 4 , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) began issuing advisories on the storm as Tropical Cyclone 11S while southeast of Christmas Island . A ridge to the south steered the storm generally westward . Late on February 5 , the PTCWC estimated an initial peak of 140 km / h ( 87 mph ) , although increased shear caused weakening . Leon crossed 90 ° E on February 8 into the south @-@ west Indian Ocean , and was renamed Eline by the Mauritius Meteorological Service . Météo @-@ France ( MFR ) estimated 10 ‑ minute winds of 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) at that time .
On February 11 , wind shear began decreasing as convection refired . Early on February 14 , the JTWC upgraded Eline to the equivalent of a minimal hurricane . That day , the storm passed about 85 km ( 53 mi ) south of St. Brandon and 180 km ( 110 mi ) northwest of Mauritius , although its small structure limited the strongest winds . Early on February 16 , Eline attained tropical cyclone status while passing about 160 km ( 99 mi ) northwest of Réunion . The eye became better defined , and while approaching eastern Madagascar on February 17 , Eline intensified to reach 10 ‑ minute winds of 165 km / h ( 103 mph ) . Around that time , the cyclone made landfall near Mahanoro . Eline rapidly weakened into a tropical depression over land . After crossing Madagascar for 26 hours , Eline emerged into the Mozambique Channel near Belo , quickly re @-@ intensifying into a moderate tropical storm on February 19 . The storm rapidly intensified as it approached eastern Mozambique , becoming an intense tropical cyclone early on February 22 with 10 ‑ minute winds of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) . The JTWC estimated peak 1 ‑ minute winds of 215 km / h ( 134 mph ) , the equivalent of a Category 4 on the Saffir @-@ Simpson hurricane scale . While at peak intensity , Eline made landfall about 80 km ( 50 mi ) south of Beira , Mozambique with gusts of 260 km / h ( 160 mph ) , making it the strongest storm to hit the nation in several decades . Although the winds rapidly decreased after landfall , the storm maintained a well @-@ defined structure as it crossed into Zimbabwe late on February 22 and progressed across southern Africa . It eventually reached eastern Namibia , where the circulation dissipated on February 29 and merged with an approaching cold front .
Throughout its duration , Leon @-@ Eline lasted 29 days , a record longevity for a storm in the southern Indian Ocean . The track was over 11 @,@ 000 km ( 6 @,@ 800 mi ) , or about 25 % of the Earth 's circumference . However , Eline was in the south @-@ west Indian Ocean for 21 days , which is the third most on record since the start of satellite imagery . It was behind Cyclone Alibera in 1989 and Cyclone Georgette in 1968 , the latter of which lasted 24 days in the basin .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Early in its duration while it was still in the Australian basin , the cyclone produced high waves near Christmas Island , forcing a boat of about 500 refugees to be escorted to port . Later , Eline brought wind gusts of 76 km / h ( 47 mph ) to St. Brandon . On Mauritius , the cyclone produced wind gusts of 137 km / h ( 85 mph ) , along with heavy rainfall that peaked at 405 mm ( 15 @.@ 9 in ) at Sans Souci . This rainfall was about 70 % of the average February precipitation total . After Eline began restrengthening and turned more to the southwest , officials on Réunion declared a red alert , but this was dropped when the cyclone passed the island . Ultimately , the storm brushed the island with gusts of 101 km / h ( 63 mph ) along the coast , and 187 km / h ( 116 mph ) in the mountainous peak of Maïdo . Rainfall was heaviest in the mountainous peaks , as well , reaching 1 @,@ 500 mm ( 59 in ) at Bébourg . Significant wave heights remained below 3 m ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) .
= = = Madagascar = = =
Moving ashore in eastern Madagascar , Eline produced strong winds along its path , with gusts estimated at 250 km / h ( 160 mph ) by MFR at landfall . However , the storm blew away local weather stations , which made the true landfall intensity unknown . Winds remained strong farther inland ; Ivato International Airport near the capital Antananarivo reported winds of 100 km / h ( 62 mph ) , and winds in the capital were likely stronger . Eline also dropped heavy rainfall , with a 24 ‑ hour total of 131 mm ( 5 @.@ 2 in ) at Ivato airport . The rains also caused flooding along Madagascar 's west coast , which is usually spared from precipitation by mountains . Eline struck while Madagascar was in the midst of a cholera epidemic that had killed over 1 @,@ 000 people .
In Mahanoro , the biggest city near the cyclone 's landfall in Madagascar , Eline disrupted power and water supplies while also leaving the town isolated . About 80 % of buildings were damaged or destroyed there . In Marolambo , a village in eastern Madagascar , Eline killed six people . Heavy rainfall in the central portion of the nation caused landslides and flooding . Flooding also occurred in the west coast near Belo . The storm disrupted portions of at least three highways . The storm left about 10 @,@ 000 people homeless , with about 1 @,@ 500 people forced to stay in storm shelters . Damage to public buildings was estimated at $ 300 @,@ 000 ( 2000 USD ) , Nationwide , Eline killed at least 64 people and affected about a half @-@ million people affected .
Only 13 days after Eline struck the country , Cyclone Gloria also hit northeastern Madagascar , bringing additional damage and flooding . The two storms collectively killed at least 140 people , although there was initial uncertainty in the toll due to disrupted communications . Floods from the two storm inundated 70 % of homes and wrecked 70 % of the crops in the districts of Andapa , Sambava , Antalaha , and Vohemar . About 12 @,@ 000 people in 114 villages were isolated . Rice fields were flooded for over a week , and coffee and banana crops had severe losses . Collectively , 12 @,@ 230 people were left without access to clean water .
= = = Mozambique = = =
Before Eline struck Mozambique , storm warnings and later hurricane warnings were issued on February 21 . Flooding had affected the nation since January , with some areas receiving a year 's worth of rainfall in two weeks . Widespread areas were inundated , with about 220 @,@ 000 people displaced , and about 150 people killed . Eline moved ashore with very powerful winds , although there were no direct observations of the strongest winds . In Beira , the closest major city to the landfall point , winds reached storm force . However , the rainfall from Eline was the most impacting following the preexisting flooding , which were the worst since 1951 . The floods were beginning to recede by the time Eline arrived , and by the end of February 2000 , the situation was considered the country 's worst natural disaster in a century . Flooding continued for days after Eline moved through southern Africa due to waters flowing downstream from neighboring countries . By early March the floods were beginning to recede again , leaving behind a deep layer of mud , ponds of contaminated water , and piles of rotten corpses .
While Eline moved ashore , high winds knocked over coconut trees , destroying over 250 @,@ 000 ha ( 620 @,@ 000 acres ) of crop fields in conjunction with the floods . The floods killed 30 % of the cows in Gaza Province , and about 40 @,@ 000 cattle died nationwide , with many chickens and goats also killed . Many schools were closed after the storm , including 308 due to damage and others that housed storm victims . The storm knocked over telegraph power lines and caused widespread power and water outages from Inhambane to Beira , while also disrupting ongoing relief efforts . The cities of Chokwe , Chibuto , and Xai Xai all had damage to their water systems .
After the storm knocked over 90 power poles , about two @-@ thirds of Beira was without power and water , and two people were killed due to downed power lines . Flooding damaged the World Food Program warehouse in the city . Also in Beira , the combination of strong winds and waves sank five ships in the harbor , including one at the entrance ; this halted port traffic for about two weeks . Floods submerged the primary highway connecting the north and south of the country , and damaged several other roads and rail lines , halting the region 's economy by preventing movement of goods . About 4 km ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) of the rail line between Maputo and Zimbabwe was under water . The swollen Limpopo River isolated the town of Xai @-@ Xai after all connecting roads and the airport were inundated , and the bridge connecting the rest of the region to the south was damaged . Water levels along the river reached as high as 11 m ( 36 ft ) above normal in some areas , as well as 15 km ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) wide , which broke the record for highest crest by 3 m ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) . A dam broke along the river , flooding the town of Chokwe in the middle of the night and trapping several unprepared residents . Flooding there surpassed the previous water depth record by 2 m ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) , set in 1977 , thus inundating the town up to ceiling of one story buildings . In the city of Inhambane , the flooded Save River swept away several houses . Along the river , 50 @,@ 000 people were unaccounted for as of March 1 , many of whom were washed away . In nearby Nova Mambone , thousands of people became homeless due to storm flooding , killing at least ten people . About 55 people drowned in Sofala Province after rescue helicopters arrived too late to save them . Around 20 @,@ 000 people in the capital city of Maputo lost their homes .
In addition to the floods , strong winds blew away many roofs and some entire houses made of mud , leaving thousands of people homeless . The combined effects of the preceding floods and Eline left about 463 @,@ 000 people displaced or homeless , including 46 @,@ 000 children five years old or younger . Overall , the preceding floods and Eline caused about 700 deaths , half of whom in Chokwe. with damage estimated at $ 500 million ( 2000 USD ) . At least 17 people died directly due to Eline , although many bodies were washed away and unable to be counted . The cyclone and the floods disrupted much of the economic progress Mozambique had made in the 1990s since the end of its civil war .
= = = Elsewhere in mainland Africa = = =
The MFR issued a gale warning for Zimbabwe in anticipation of strong winds well inland . However , the Zimbabwe government did not issue any storm warnings until the storm moved over the country . Due to Eline maintaining a well @-@ defined structure , it brought strong winds and heavy rainfall when it crossed into eastern Zimbabwe . The heavy rains caused rivers to overflow their banks . Officials opened flood gates along several dams to maintain their integrity , which increased flooding downstream , including in Mozambique . However , eight dams were destroyed that were used for irrigation purposes . The storm destroyed over 3 @,@ 800 homes in the eastern portion of the country while killing 17 @,@ 000 heads of livestock . Flooding also washed away roads , bridges , and some power lines . Mutare , the country 's third largest city , lost power during Eline 's passage . Overall the storm killed 12 people in the country .
Flooding from the storm extended southward into Swaziland and South Africa . In the latter country , Eline dropped 503 mm ( 19 @.@ 8 in ) of rainfall in Levubu over three days , causing the Limpopo River to reach its highest level in 15 years . In Limpopo Province , a station recorded 284 mm ( 11 @.@ 2 in ) of rainfall in just 24 hours . Officials opened dams along the Limpopo River to prevent structural damage , which caused higher levels along the river to the east . However , 16 dams failed in the country , causing further damage to irrigation systems . The floodwaters isolated the town of Louis Trichardt after N1 road was covered , and most border crossings were closed . The floods covered roads and caused several houses to collapse , hospitalizing 12 people in Thohoyandou . Eline also damaged crops in the country , namely pulses , maize , and other vegetables . At least 21 people died in the country , and about 80 @,@ 000 people were left homeless , forcing many people into churches and schools . Damage in Limpopo Province alone was estimated at $ 300 million ( USD ) , with crop damage estimated at $ 11 million . Flooding began receding by the end of February .
To the north , Eline dropped about 90 mm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) of rainfall in southern Malawi . The storm 's gusty winds wrecked houses and knocked over trees , causing power outages in Blantyre . Farther west , rainfall rates of 50 – 100 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 – 3 @.@ 9 in ) were also reported in Botswana . In Namibia , Eline 's rainfall contributed to the third wettest summer in 50 years , as well as the wettest since 1976 . Several locations in the southern portion of the country reported daily rainfall rates of 60 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) .
= = Aftermath = =
Immediately after Eline struck Madagascar , the government began distributing relief items , such as rice , tents , and sheets . On February 21 , survey flights helped indicate the extent of damage across the nation . Supplies were distributed by road from Antananarivo to the worst affected areas , with helicopters dropping off aid to isolated communities . After receiving request from the Malagasy government , UNICEF flew 15 tons of supplies from Copenhagen , such as medicine , 10 @.@ 5 tons of food , and equipment to help coordinate relief work . The agency also transported thousands of blankets and water purification tablets from Antananarivo . However , UNICEF faced difficulties in distributing the supplies . The government of France sent two helicopters with teams of doctors to Madagascar , and Médecins Sans Frontières sent about 35 tons of supplies , such as medicine , water purifying devices , and food . The World Food Programme flew about 400 tons of food to affected residents across the country , including 25 tons to Mahanoro . Due to the combined impacts of Eline and Gloria , the government of Madagascar requested for international assistance on March 7 , which was coordinated through the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs . In response , the government of the United Kingdom donated £ 1 @.@ 3 million ( $ 1 @.@ 9 million USD ) to Madagascar . The Organisation of African Unity donated $ 200 @,@ 000 to Madagascar on March 10 . In addition to Cyclone Gloria striking the country in March , Cyclone Hudah hit eastern Madagascar in early April , causing additional deaths and damage .
The government of Zimbabwe declared a state of emergency in three provinces . Nearby Botswana donated 15 million litres of fuel to the country to help with their recovery . Although Botswana was affected by the floods , their government was able to provide food and relief to the storm victims . In South Africa , families were forced to keep corpses in their houses due to the ongoing flooding . The country 's government authorized R7.1 million ( ZAR , $ 1 @.@ 1 million USD ) to pay for emergency assistance . Limpopo Province was declared a disaster area . The South African government issued a warning on March 1 , stating they flood refugees from Mozambique would be deported if they entered illegally . The country of Australia donated $ 250 @,@ 000 to assist relief work in both Zimbabwe and South Africa .
= = = Mozambique = = =
By the time Eline struck Mozambique , there was already incoming assistance from the international community , responding to the earlier flooding . Mozambique 's president at the time , Joaquim Chissano , requested for additional aid after the storm struck , asking for $ 65 million for both reconstruction and emergency aid , and later increasing the request to $ 160 million . By the end of February 2000 , various countries had pledged $ 13 @.@ 5 million to Mozambique , well short of the required needs , but that rose to nearly $ 119 million by March 17 . By March 4 , 39 @.@ 6 tons of various relief goods reached the country , to be distributed from the towns of Bilene and Magul . The supplies nearly overwhelmed the small airport at Maputo , as lack of distribution caused food to decay in the sun .
The Mozambique government worked to evacuate residents in newly flooded areas using boats , and set up 121 camps for evacuees . By early March , there were 35 @,@ 000 people at camps in Chiaquelane , and another 10 @,@ 000 in Macia . However , the country had a limited capacity for widespread rescues due to insufficient helicopters . In some locations , the floodwaters were so strong that boats were unable to operate search and rescue missions . Residents left homeless by the storm were forced to stay in churches and schools , although some residents in the country 's capital , Maputo , provided a spare bedroom . Citizens in the city also provided clothing to those who lost their homes in the flood . About 2 @,@ 000 residents from the flooded town of Chokwe walked 40 km ( 25 mi ) to receive shelter in Macie . Following the storm , the residual floodwaters contributed to outbreaks of malaria and cholera , with malaria infections at four times the usual rate killing at least 11 people . Areas in southern Mozambique also lost access to clean water , furthering dehydration and illnesses . In addition , the United Nations Mine Action Service expressed concern that the floods shifted the locations of landmines leftover from the nation 's civil war . Later , the remnants of Cyclone Gloria halted relief work due to heavy rainfall .
Soon after the storm struck , CARE operated airlifts of food to flooded areas . The World Food Programme approved $ 2 million to help airlifting 53 @,@ 000 metric tons of food . A fleet of 29 helicopters had rescued 14 @,@ 204 people by March 7 as well as operating airlifting missions . This included 12 planes and helicopters from South Africa , six helicopters with crews along with 100 motorboats from the United Kingdom , ten helicopters from Germany , and two from Malawi . Many residents in flooded areas initially had to hold onto trees and roofs due to lack of helicopters , with 100 @,@ 000 people needing rescue as of March 1 . After the floodwaters receded , the need for rescue diminished , allowing families to return home , although helicopters were still required to airlift relief goods . Emergency road repairs allowed supplies to be delivered by road in some areas by March 5 . The United States sent a crew of 700 soldiers in what became Task Force Atlas Response , a $ 37 million operation to coordinate disaster relief , rebuild roads , deliver crop seed , and drop off aid . This was ordered by U.S. President Bill Clinton on March 2 after criticism that the international assistance was insufficient . The Save the Children organization helped reunited separated children from their families , while World Relief flew seeds and tools to help 26 @,@ 260 farmers regrow their damaged crops . The United Kingdom assisted by canceling the country 's $ 150 million debt earlier than scheduled , and urged other nations to follow suit ; Italy canceled its $ 500 million debt in March . On February 24 , the World Bank provided $ 2 @.@ 5 million to rebuild roads , and later provided an additional $ 15 million . The same agency delayed debt payments for one year . Portugal and Spain canceled $ 150 million and $ 20 million worth of debt , respectively . Through the Jubilee 2000 , most wealthy nations postponed debt payments for one year on March 16 .
= Rebirth ( sculpture ) =
Rebirth , nicknamed " Deer Baby " and " Twilight Zone Bambi " , was a proposed outdoor sculpture by American artist Seyed Alavi , considered for installation at the MAX Orange Line 's Southeast Park Avenue MAX Station in Oak Grove , an unincorporated area neighboring Milwaukie in Clackamas County , Oregon , in the United States . The design of the unfinished creative work , which featured a 30 @-@ foot ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) deer with a child 's face , was met with a mixed reception . Unable to meet TriMet 's standards and remain under budget , in November 2011 Alavi withdrew his design from the project .
= = Description = =
Seyed Alavi 's Rebirth was a proposed sculpture considered for installation at the MAX Orange Line 's Southeast Park Avenue MAX Station in Oak Grove , an unincorporated area neighboring Milwaukie . The design of the unfinished creative work called for a 30 @-@ foot ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) yellow @-@ painted deer with a child 's face and was intended to represent " the interaction between the nearby riparian forest and the people living in Oak Grove " . In its concept proposal , the art installation is described as :
A large , stylized deer with childlike face speaks to the community 's vision of renewal and the proximity of the station to the new Trolley Trail . Drawn from many traditions from NW Coast Native American carvings to colossal roadside sculpture , Rebirth is a monumental icon that creates a link between the natural environment and the commercial strip of McLoughlin Boulevard .
Two renderings of Alavi 's design were made available to the public ; the first computer @-@ generated image did not include context , which arguably provoked debate over its design , while the second was more " humanized " and illustrated how the installation could interact with people and the surrounding environment . TriMet confirmed at least two changes to the sculpture 's original design : a 15 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) move to the southeast to avoid crossing into the Trolley Trail or Milwaukie 's boundaries , and removal of its mosaic tile facade to reduce costs .
In October 2011 , the artist presented a revised concept to TriMet 's Public Art Advisory Committee . The sculpture 's color and dimensions were unchanged , but it would be made of glass @-@ reinforced concrete . Its surface treatment remained undetermined , but Alavi wanted one that would be " natural or inherent " to the material to achieve a " reflective , glowing , and magical " appearance . The committee preferred the reflective appearance seen in the artist 's original design and requested material samples at his final presentation , which was scheduled to take place in December .
= = History and public reaction = =
Upon public release , Rebirth 's design became a " target for ridicule " . In June 2011 , Milwaukie neighborhood association leaders sent a letter to the Public Art Advisory Committee expressing their disappointment with the proposed deer concept , hoping to see changes to its final design . Some residents thought the sculpture should be more accessible and less expensive ; conversely , the Oak Lodge Community Council chairwoman , who also served as a member of the art committee , hoped the sculpture could serve as a community space and reach " icon " status . In a formal letter , TriMet 's general manager responded to the neighborhood associations by encouraging residents to " communicate directly with the art committee by inviting members to neighborhood association leadership meetings " . The agency 's spokeswoman also told committee leaders that the public was welcome to share their preferences regarding the work 's dimensions , fabrication methods , form , and materials . Oak Grove and Milwaukie residents also disagreed about whether or not those in the latter city had a say about the sculpture , which would have been within the area 's boundaries according to the first design .
In October 2011 , at a public meeting to address TriMet 's projected budget gap , one Milwaukie resident asked the agency to abandon its plans to fund Rebirth , saying that " a lot of people think that thing 's just ugly . Why are they spending money on something that 's an unnecessary add @-@ on at the same time they 're talking about cutting bus routes again ? " The agency 's general manager responded that all possibilities would be considered , though TriMet officials confirmed that cuts to its public art program were not an option and the MAX Orange Line 's budget was separate from TriMet 's financial problems .
In November 2011 , TriMet 's public art coordinator confirmed Alavi 's withdrawal from the project , saying , " The artist for Park ( Avenue ) did his due diligence . He did everything possible to make that a reality , but sometimes it 's not realistic . " According to The Oregonian , Alavi was unable to meet the Public Art Advisory Committee 's technical requirements and remain under budget . One committee member admitted , " The form itself was something a lot of people out in the community weren 't happy with in the first place , so once the mosaic piece was taken away , it kind of devalued it . " Alavi released the following statement :
In honor of the death of the " Deer Baby / Twilight Zone Bambi " , I thought a quote by Rod Serling , might be appropriate ...
" For the record , prejudices can kill and suspicion can destroy ; and a thoughtless , frightened search for a scapegoat has a fallout all of its own for the children , and the children yet unborn . And the pity of it is , that these things cannot be confined to the Twilight Zone . "
From The Twilight Zone episode , " The Monsters Are Due on Maple Street " , March 6 , 1960
Thanks ,
Seyed Alavi
The debate over the sculpture 's proposed design by TriMet , the art committee , and members of the public reached " near @-@ yelling match " status , resulting in " animosity and general nastiness " . Following Alavi 's withdrawal , the art committee made plans to reconvene and consider other design proposals for the site .
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Moulineaux . The controls seemed too loose to me , so I injected fuel into the turbine . Too much ! In a moment I was surrounded by flames ! I had to cut back and reduce my power quickly . I worked the throttle and the flames subsided . Only then did I have opportunity to lift my head . I saw that the plane had gained speed , and that the walls of the ancient fortifications bordering the field were lunging toward me . I pulled back on the stick , only much too hard . In a moment the plane was airborne , lunging upward at a steep angle . I was flying — I felt the plane tipping — then slipping down on one wing . Instinctively , I cut the gas with my left hand and the jet fuel with my right . The next thing I knew , I found myself thrown free of the plane , which slowly came down , and burst into flames . It was impossible to determine from the wreckage whether the celluloid or the fuel was the cause of the fire . But the test was over . I had flown the first jet airplane . "
A collection of aviation stories was published in 1957 by Major Victor Houart , a friend of Coandă 's , who wrote that he was an eyewitness the day Coandă flew and crashed . One chapter of the book describes how Houart , together with a group of French dragoons , watched as Coandă taxied twice around the airfield , lifted off to avoid the ruins of an old fortification wall , started flames from the engine by applying too much power , and was thrown from the aircraft the moment it hit the wall , with Coandă " not badly hurt " . Houart 's version put the fuel tank in the overhead wing , which was metal . In further statements , Coandă said that his 1910 aircraft had movable leading edge slots , retractable landing gear and a fuel supply which was held in the overhead wing to reduce fuselage profile and thus drag . In 1965 , Coandă presented a set of drawings , photographs and specifications of the 1910 aircraft to the National Air and Space Museum ( NASM ) , prepared by Huyck Corporation and received by Director S. Paul Johnston and early aviation curator Louis Casey .
Rocket engineer G. Harry Stine worked alongside Coandă from 1961 to 1965 at Huyck Corporation , and interviewed him in 1962 . In 1967 , the magazine Flying printed an account written by Stine , which described the landing gear as retracting into the lower wing , with the fuel tank hidden in the upper wing . Stine wrote that Coandă flew on 10 December 1910 , and described the heat from the " two jet exhausts " as being " too much for me " after the powerplant was mounted in the aircraft . In the 1980s after Coandă 's death , Stine wrote a magazine article and a book mentioning the 1910 aircraft , including new details such as the name of master mechanic Pierre Clerget as the friend who helped build the turbo @-@ propulseur . Stine 's recounting of the 10 December flight included the group of eyewitness French dragoons , asbestos heat shields and metal deflector plates aft of the engine , intended taxiing with unintentional flight , a steep climb with a stall , Coandă thrown clear , and the aircraft crashing to the ground , burning . Stine gave his assessment that " Coanda 's turbopropulseur had elements of a true jet " , but that the patent application had no indication of the " critical stage — injection of fuel into the compressed air " . He wrote that " although there were several jet @-@ propelled aircraft in existence at an early time — the 1910 Coanda Jet and the 1938 Caproni Campini N.1 — the first pure jet aircraft flight was made in Germany in 1938 " .
In 1965 , Historian Emeritus Paul E. Garber of the NASM interviewed Coandă , who related that the December 1910 flight was no accident , that he had seated himself in the cockpit intending to test five factors : aircraft structure , the engine , the wing lift , the balance of controls , and the aerodynamics . He said that the heat from the engine was " fantastic " , but that he placed mica sheets and deflecting plates to direct the jet blast away from the wooden fuselage . Garber wrote that as Coandă 's aircraft began to move forward and rise from the ground , " the exhaust flame , instead of fanning outward , curved inward and ignited the aircraft . " In this interview Coandă said that he brought the aircraft back to earth under control , but the landing was " abrupt " and he was thrown clear of the airframe which was consumed completely by flame , the engine reduced to " a few handfuls of white powder . "
= = = Rebuttals = = =
In 1960 , Charles Harvard Gibbs @-@ Smith , aviation historian at the Science Museum in London , reacted to the mid @-@ 1950s assertion that Coandă built and flew the first jet engine aircraft . Gibbs @-@ Smith wrote that " there has recently arisen some controversy about this machine , designed by the Rumanian @-@ born and French @-@ domiciled Henri Coanda , which was exhibited at the Paris salon in October 1910 . Until recently it has been accepted as an all @-@ wood sesquiplane , with cantilever wings , powered by a 50 hp Clerget engine driving a ' turbo @-@ propulseur ' in the form of a large but simple ducted air fan . This fan was fitted right across the machine 's nose and the cowling covered the nose and part of the engine : the resulting ' jet ' of plain air was to propel the aeroplane . " He wrote that " no claims that it flew , or was even tested , were made at the time " , and that the story of it flying suddenly appeared in the 1950s — the aircraft was thus " disinterred from its obscurity . " He wrote that the airfield at Issy @-@ les @-@ Moulineaux , a former military exercise ground where the test supposedly took place , was under the constant observation of the French Army who owned it , by French aviation reporters and photographers , and by aviation experts from other countries . He said that the airfield was the " most famous , most used , most observed , and most reported @-@ on ' airfield ' in Paris " , and that all events , let alone an exciting crash and destruction by fire , would have been carried in local papers and described in military reports , but no contemporary accounts exist of the Coandă @-@ 1910 being tested , flown or destroyed . Gibbs @-@ Smith countered the Coandă assertions point by point , saying that the aircraft did not have a retractable undercarriage , did not have leading or trailing edge wing slots , did not have a fuel tank overhead in the wing , and did not have fuel injected into any turbine . Gibbs @-@ Smith pointed out that the pilot would have been killed by the heat if any combustion had been initiated in the engine 's air stream .
In 1970 Gibbs @-@ Smith wrote another account of the Coanda @-@ 1910 , using much the same phrasing as in 1960 :
" Another unsuccessful , but prophetic , machine was the Coanda biplane ( strictly speaking a sesquiplane ) exhibited at the Paris Salon in October . It was of all @-@ wood construction , with fully cantilevered wings — which did not look very robust — and an Antoinette @-@ like fuselage with obliquely cruciform tail @-@ unit ; it was equipped with a reaction propulsion unit consisting of a 50 hp Clerget engine driving a large ducted fan in front of it , the latter enclosed in a cowling which covered the nose of the machine and part of the engine : the fan was a simple air @-@ fan driving back the air to form the propulsive ' jet ' . Although inevitably earth @-@ bound , this aircraft stands as the first full @-@ size attempt at a jet @-@ propelled aeroplane . "
In 2010 , Antoniu wrote that he thought Gibbs @-@ Smith speculated on the basis of the evidence of absence that the aircraft was never tested or flown , but that Gibbs @-@ Smith did not find any concrete evidence to support his position . Similarly , Antoniu was unable to find concrete proof of a test flight . Antoniu also wrote that Gibbs @-@ Smith did not check the French patents claimed by Coandă in 1910 and 1911 , describing the retractable gear , leading edge wing slot and upper wing fuel tank , and that he did not see photographs from private collections demonstrating aspects about which he wrote .
In 1980 , NASM historian Frank H. Winter examined the 1965 drawings and specifications Coandă prepared while at Huyck Corporation and wrote an article about Coandă 's claim : " There is a wholly new description of the inner workings of the machine that does not occur in any of the accounts given [ in the 1910s ] and which defies all of the patent specifications . " He said Coandă told various conflicting stories about his claimed 1910 flight , and that Coandă produced a set of altered drawings as proof of his claims :
" The differences between this version of Coanda 's story and his earlier one are marked and hardly need to be pointed out ; though the obvious ones are : the planned versus the completely accidental and unintentional flight ; the immediate flight versus the busy taxiing about the field ; Coanda being thrown from the plane after it stalled versus Coanda pitched forward after landing , and so on . Apart from his personal recollections , Henri Coanda also bestowed upon the museum some drawings and illustrations of his turbo @-@ propulseur . The drawings , purporting to show internal details of the machine , are unfortunately modern . That is to say , they were obviously executed in the 1960s , not in 1910 or 1911 ; worse , the fuel injection outlet tubes into the aft end of the turbine seems to be an even later addition to the original drawings . In brief , the drawings by themselves do not constitute evidence in Coanda 's claim . "
In his article , Winter wondered why Coandă did not add the novel feature of fuel injection and air stream combustion to his May 1911 patent applications if that feature had been present during his supposed flying experience five months earlier . Rather , Winter noted that the August 1910 patent filings in French were essentially the same as the May 1911 ones in English , and that all the descriptions were applicable to air or water flowing through the device , meaning that the patents could not possibly include fuel combustion in the jet stream . He also noted that no mention was made in the early patents of asbestos or mica heat shields , or of any fuel injection or combustion .
While looking through aviation periodicals and Paris newspapers reporting for the month of December 1910 , Winter found that there was a spell of bad weather at Issy during which no flying took place . This situation occurred mid @-@ month , the period covering the conflicting dates ( 10 and 16 December ) that Coandă said his aircraft was tested , flown and crashed . In their regular " Foreign Aviation News " column , Flight magazine reported that the " blank period " of inclement weather at Issy ended on the 19th when Guillaume Busson tested a monoplane made by Armand Deperdussin . Other aircraft tests and piloting activities were listed , with no mention of Coandă or his machine .
Winter found that Camille ( or Cosimo ) Canovetti , an Italian civil and aviation engineer , had been working on a turbo @-@ propulseur @-@ style aviation engine before Coandă , and had attempted to show an aircraft with such an engine at the Aviation Exposition in Milan in 1909 . Canovetti took out patents on his machine in 1909 , and more in 1910 . Canovetti wrote in 1911 that the 1910 appearance of the Coandă engine " called general attention " to designs like his .
= = After Coandă 's death = =
Modern reference books about aviation history represent the Coandă @-@ 1910 in various ways , if they mention the machine or the inventor at all . Some acknowledge Coandă as the discoverer of the Coandă effect but give Hans von Ohain the honour of designing the first jet engine to power an aircraft in manned flight , and Frank Whittle the honour of completing and patenting the first jet engine capable of such flight . In their 1994 book American Aviation , authors Joe Christy and LeRoy Cook state that Coandă 's 1910 aircraft was the first jet .
Aviation author Bill Gunston changed his mind two years after publishing a 1993 book in which he gave Coandă credit for the first jet engine . Gunston 's 1995 description began : " Romanian Henri Coanda built a biplane with a Clerget inline piston engine which , instead of turning a propeller , drove a centrifugal compressor blowing air to the rear . The thrust was said to be 220 kilograms [ 490 lb ] , a figure the author disbelieves . On 10 December 1910 the aircraft thus powered inadvertently became airborne , crashed and burned . Often called ' a turbine aeroplane ' , this was of no more significance than the Campini aircraft mentioned later , and Coanda wisely decided to switch to a propeller . " In his publication of 1998 , World Encyclopedia of Aero Engines : All major aircraft power plants , from the Wright brothers to the present day , Gunston did not include Coanda ; nor did he include Coanda in 2005 's Jane 's Aero @-@ Engines or 2006 's World Encyclopedia of Aero Engines .
Walter J. Boyne , director of the National Air and Space Museum and a prolific aviation author , mentions Coandă in passing a few times in his works . Boyne discusses Coandă briefly in one of his books , The Leading Edge : " Professor Henri Coanda , whose scientific work was impeccable , designed and built a jet aircraft in 1910 ; it , like Martin 's Kitten [ the Martin KF @-@ 1 biplane ] , was superbly built and technically advanced — and could not fly . " In a later magazine article sidebar , Boyne described more details : " Romanian inventor Henri Coanda attempted to fly a primitive jet aircraft in 1910 , using a four @-@ cylinder internal combustion engine to drive a compressor at 4 @,@ 000 revolutions per minute . It was equipped with what today might be called an afterburner , producing an estimated 500 pounds [ 2 @.@ 3 kN or 230 kgf ] of thrust . Countless loyal Coanda fans insist that the airplane flew . Others say it merely crashed . "
In 1980 and 1993 , Jane 's Encyclopedia of Aviation included an entry on the 1910 aircraft , calling it the " Coanda turbine " and describing it as " the world 's first jet @-@ propelled aircraft to fly " . In 2003 , Winter co @-@ authored a book with fellow NASM curator F. Robert van der Linden : 100 Years of Flight : A Chronicle of Aerospace History , 1903 – 2003 . In the book the Coandă @-@ 1910 is described as an unsuccessful ducted fan aircraft lacking documentation to substantiate any flight test .
Citing Carl A. Brown 's 1985 A History of Aviation , Tim Brady , the Dean of Aviation at Embry – Riddle Aeronautical University , wrote in 2000 : " the development of the jet is , broadly , the story of three men : Henri Coanda , Sir Frank Whittle , and Pabst von Ohain ... " His description of Coandă 's disputed test flight agreed that fuel injection and combustion had been initiated in the rotary compressor 's vent , with the novel detail that the aircraft " flew for about a thousand feet [ 300 m ] before crashing into a wall . " In 1990 at the 24th Symposium of the International Academy of Astronautics , one of the papers presented included this sentence : " It is to Henri Coanda ( 1886 – 1972 ) , a world famous inventor and pioneer of jet flight , that space engineering owes — beside one of the first model planes provided with a rocket engine ( 1905 ) — the construction and engine experiment of the first jet aircraft , the ' Coanda @-@ 1910 ' . " In 2007 in his popular book Extreme Aircraft , Ron Miller wrote that the powerplant in the Coandă @-@ 1910 was one of the " earliest attempts " at a jet engine , but was unsuccessful — it was " incapable of actual flight " , unlike the engines designed by Whittle and Ohain . The question of the Coandă @-@ 1910 being the first jet aircraft does not appear to be resolved , supporting Stine 's view : " Whether Henri Coanda built the first true jet will probably be argued interminably . "
In the 2000s , Dan Antoniu and other Romanian aviation experts investigated existing photographs of the Coandă @-@ 1910 , leading them to believe that the aircraft presented at the exhibition was not finished , that it was exhibited with many improvisations . Antoniu published Henri Coandă and his technical work during 1906 – 1918 , a 2010 book in which he said that the unfinished state of the aircraft led to Coandă filing several extra patents and starting a new series of studies with the aim of making the machine airworthy . For instance , Antoniu wrote that the exhaust pipes of the Clergét engine appeared free ; there were no devices to redirect exhaust gases to the turbine as described in the patent , and there were no heat shields for crew protection . As well , the central attachment of the tubular struts holding the wings to the fuselage , with mere collars secured with screws , was judged by Antoniu as appearing potentially unsafe during take @-@ off or landing because of the " considerable loads on the struts " . The X @-@ shaped empennage was covered at high angles by the horizontal stabiliser making it unusable , and any high @-@ speed taxi would put the machine in danger of a nose @-@ over .
= = Memorials and models = =
A full @-@ size replica of the Coandă @-@ 1910 , built in 2001 , is displayed in Bucharest at the National Military Museum , and a scale model is displayed in the French Air and Space Museum at Paris – Le Bourget Airport . At the site of the historic Issy @-@ les @-@ Moulineaux airfield , a large plaque lists the three pioneers of flight most closely associated with the airfield : Louis Blériot , Alberto Santos @-@ Dumont and Henri Farman . Later , a plaque honouring Coandă and Romanian aviation engineer Traian Vuia was placed on a nearby building under the auspices of the mayor of Issy @-@ les @-@ Moulineaux , L 'Aéroclub de France , and the Romanian Association for Aviation History .
Construction on a full @-@ sized functional replica of the plane began in March 2010 at Craiova , Romania , by a team of engineers and former test pilots from I.R.Av. Craiova . The replica is based on plans that Coandă reworked in 1965 because the 1910 plans were lost . It uses metal for the fuselage rather than wood , and its intended engine is a true jet , the Motorlet M @-@ 701 , made for the 1960s @-@ era Aero L @-@ 29 Delfín military trainer .
In October 2010 the National Bank of Romania issued a commemorative silver coin for the centennial of the building of the first jet aircraft . The 10 @-@ leu piece is intended for coin collectors , with the official purchase price set at 220 leu . It represents the aircraft on the obverse side and a portrait of Coandă on the reverse , including Romanian words which translate to " first jet aircraft " . The same month the philatelic section of the Romanian Post , Romfilatelia , produced a limited edition philatelic folder and a stamp commemorating the centennial of jet aircraft . The stamp presents a modern internal schema of the Coandă @-@ 1910 , a drawing of the injectors and burners , and a quote from Gustave Eiffel : " This boy was born 30 if not 50 years too early " . At the European Parliament in December , president Jerzy Buzek opened a centennial exhibition celebrating the building and testing of the Coandă @-@ 1910 .
= = Specifications = =
Data from Contemporary pamphlet
General characteristics
Crew : 1
Length : 12 @.@ 5 m ( 41 ft 0 in )
Wingspan : 10 @.@ 3 m ( 33 ft 10 in )
Wing area : 32 m2 ( 350 ft2 )
Gross weight : 420 kg ( 920 lb )
Powerplant : 1 × Four @-@ cylinder , inline , water @-@ cooled engine developing 37 kW ( 50 hp ) at 1 @,@ 000 rpm driving a compressor , 0 @.@ 18 kN ( 38 lbf ) thrust
= Dartmouth College =
Dartmouth College ( / ˈdɑːrtməθ / DART @-@ məth ) is a private Ivy League research university in Hanover , New Hampshire , United States . Established in 1769 by Eleazar Wheelock , Dartmouth is one of the nine colonial colleges founded before the American Revolution .
Following a liberal arts curriculum , the university provides undergraduate instruction in 40 academic departments and interdisciplinary programs including 57 majors in the humanities , social sciences , natural sciences , and engineering , and enables students to design specialized majors and minors or engage in dual degree programs . Dartmouth comprises five constituent schools : the original undergraduate college , the Geisel School of Medicine , the Thayer School of Engineering , the Tuck School of Business , and the School of Graduate and Advanced Studies . With an undergraduate enrollment of 4 @,@ 307 and a total student enrollment of 6 @,@ 350 , Dartmouth is the smallest university in the Ivy League .
Dartmouth 's 269 @-@ acre campus is in the rural Upper Valley region of New Hampshire . The university functions on a quarter system , operating year @-@ round on four ten @-@ week academic terms . Dartmouth is known for its strong Greek culture and wide array of enduring campus traditions . Its 34 varsity sports teams compete intercollegiately in the Ivy League conference of the NCAA Division I.
Dartmouth has produced many prominent alumni , including 62 Rhodes Scholars , 13 Pulitzer Prize winners , over 164 members of the U.S. Senate and the U.S. House of Representatives , 22 U.S. Governors , 10 billionaire graduates , 8 U.S. Cabinet officials , 3 Nobel Prize laureates , 2 U.S. Supreme Court justices , and a U.S. Vice President . Other notable alumni include numerous MacArthur Genius fellows , Fulbright and Marshall scholarship recipients , CEOs and founders of Fortune 500 companies , high @-@ ranking U.S. diplomats , scholars in academia , literary and media figures , professional athletes , and Olympic medalists .
= = History = =
Dartmouth was founded by Eleazar Wheelock , a Congregational minister from Columbia , Connecticut , who had previously sought to establish a school to train Native Americans as Christian missionaries . Wheelock 's ostensible inspiration for such an establishment resulted from his relationship with Mohegan Indian Samson Occom . Occom became an ordained minister after studying under Wheelock from 1743 to 1747 , and later moved to Long Island to preach to the Montauks .
Wheelock founded Moor 's Indian Charity School in 1755 . The Charity School proved somewhat successful , but additional funding was necessary to continue school 's operations , and Wheelock sought the help of friends to raise money . Occom , accompanied by the Reverend Nathaniel Whitaker , traveled to England in 1766 to raise money from churches . With these funds , they established a trust to help Wheelock . The head of the trust was a Methodist named William Legge , 2nd Earl of Dartmouth .
Although the fund provided Wheelock ample financial support for the Charity School , Wheelock initially had trouble recruiting Indians to the institution , primarily because its location was far from tribal territories . In seeking to expand the school into a college , Wheelock relocated it to Hanover , in the Province of New Hampshire . The move from Connecticut followed a lengthy and sometimes frustrating effort to find resources and secure a charter . The Royal Governor of New Hampshire , John Wentworth , provided the land upon which Dartmouth would be built and on December 13 , 1769 , issued the charter in the name of King George III establishing the College . That charter created a college " for the education and instruction of Youth of the Indian Tribes in this Land in reading , writing & all parts of Learning which shall appear necessary and expedient for civilizing & christianizing Children of Pagans as well as in all liberal Arts and Sciences and also of English Youth and any others . " The reference to educating Native American youth was included to connect Dartmouth to the Charity School and enable use of the Charity School 's unspent trust funds . Named for William Legge , 2nd Earl of Dartmouth — an important supporter of Eleazar Wheelock 's earlier efforts but who , in fact , opposed creation of the College and never donated to it — Dartmouth is the nation 's ninth oldest college and the last institution of higher learning established under Colonial rule . The College granted its first degrees in 1771 .
Given the limited success of the Charity School , however , Wheelock intended his new college as one primarily for whites . Occom , disappointed with Wheelock 's departure from the school 's original goal of Indian Christianization , went on to form his own community of New England Indians called Brothertown Indians in New York .
In 1819 , Dartmouth College was the subject of the historic Dartmouth College case , which challenged New Hampshire 's 1816 attempt to amend the college 's royal charter to make the school a public university . An institution called Dartmouth University occupied the college buildings and began operating in Hanover in 1817 , though the college continued teaching classes in rented rooms nearby . Daniel Webster , an alumnus of the class of 1801 , presented the College 's case to the Supreme Court , which found the amendment of Dartmouth 's charter to be an illegal impairment of a contract by the state and reversed New Hampshire 's takeover of the college . Webster concluded his peroration with the famous words : " It is , Sir , as I have said , a small college . And yet there are those who love it . "
In 1866 , the New Hampshire College of Agriculture and the Mechanic Arts was incorporated in Hanover , in connection with Dartmouth College . The institution was officially associated with Dartmouth and was directed by Dartmouth 's president . The new college was moved to Durham , New Hampshire , in 1891 , and later became known as the University of New Hampshire .
Dartmouth emerged onto the national academic stage at the turn of the 20th century . Prior to this period , the college had clung to traditional methods of instruction and was relatively poorly funded . Under President William Jewett Tucker ( 1893 – 1909 ) , Dartmouth underwent a major revitalization of facilities , faculty , and the student body , following large endowments such as the $ 10 @,@ 000 given by Dartmouth alumnus and law professor John Ordronaux . 20 new structures replaced antiquated buildings , while the student body and faculty both expanded threefold . Tucker is often credited for having " refounded Dartmouth " and bringing it into national prestige .
Presidents Ernest Fox Nichols ( 1909 – 16 ) and Ernest Martin Hopkins ( 1916 – 45 ) continued Tucker 's trend of modernization , further improving campus facilities and introducing selective admissions in the 1920s . John Sloan Dickey , serving as president from 1945 until 1970 , strongly emphasized the liberal arts , particularly public policy and international relations . During World War II , Dartmouth was one of 131 colleges and universities nationally that took part in the V @-@ 12 Navy College Training Program which offered students a path to a navy commission .
In 1970 , longtime professor of mathematics and computer science John George Kemeny became president of Dartmouth . Kemeny oversaw several major changes at the college . Dartmouth , previously serving as a men 's institution , began admitting women as full @-@ time students and undergraduate degree candidates in 1972 amid much controversy . At about the same time , the college adopted its " Dartmouth Plan " of academic scheduling , permitting the student body to increase in size within the existing facilities . In 1988 , Dartmouth 's alma mater song 's lyrics changed from " Men of Dartmouth " to " Dear old Dartmouth " .
During the 1990s , the college saw a major academic overhaul under President James O. Freedman and a controversial ( and ultimately unsuccessful ) 1999 initiative to encourage the school 's single @-@ sex Greek houses to go coed . The first decade of the 21st century saw the commencement of the $ 1 @.@ 3 billion Campaign for the Dartmouth Experience , the largest capital fundraising campaign in the college 's history , which surpassed $ 1 billion in 2008 . The mid- and late first decade of the 21st century have also seen extensive campus construction , with the erection of two new housing complexes , full renovation of two dormitories , and a forthcoming dining hall , life sciences center , and visual arts center . In 2004 , Booz Allen Hamilton selected Dartmouth College as a model of institutional endurance " whose record of endurance has had implications and benefits for all American organizations , both academic and commercial , " citing Trustees of Dartmouth College v. Woodward and Dartmouth 's successful self @-@ reinvention in the late 19th century .
Since the election of a number of petition @-@ nominated trustees to the Board of Trustees starting in 2004 , the role of alumni in Dartmouth governance has been the subject of ongoing conflict . President James Wright announced his retirement in February 2008 and was replaced by Harvard University professor and physician Jim Yong Kim on July 1 , 2009 .
In May 2010 Dartmouth joined the Matariki Network of Universities ( MNU ) together with Durham University ( UK ) , Queen 's University ( Canada ) , University of Otago ( New Zealand ) , University of Tübingen ( Germany ) , University of Western Australia ( Australia ) and Uppsala University ( Sweden ) .
Dartmouth 's close association and involvement in the development of the downhill skiing industry is featured in the 2010 book Passion for Skiing as well as the 2013 documentary based on the book Passion for Snow .
= = Academics = =
Dartmouth , a liberal arts institution , offers a four @-@ year Bachelor of Arts and ABET @-@ accredited Bachelor of Engineering degree to undergraduate students . The college has 39 academic departments offering 56 major programs , while students are free to design special majors or engage in dual majors . In 2008 , the most popular majors were economics , government , history , psychological and brain sciences , English , biology , and engineering sciences . The Government Department , whose prominent professors include Stephen Brooks , Richard Ned Lebow , and William Wohlforth , was ranked the top solely undergraduate political science program in the world by researchers at the London School of Economics in 2003 . The Economics Department , whose prominent professors include David Blanchflower and Andrew Samwick , also holds the distinction as the top @-@ ranked bachelor 's @-@ only economics program in the world .
In order to graduate , a student must complete 35 total courses , eight to ten of which are typically part of a chosen major program . Other requirements for graduation include the completion of ten " distributive requirements " in a variety of academic fields , proficiency in a foreign language , and completion of a writing class and first @-@ year seminar in writing . Many departments offer honors programs requiring students seeking that distinction to engage in " independent , sustained work , " culminating in the production of a thesis . In addition to the courses offered in Hanover , Dartmouth offers 57 different off @-@ campus programs , including Foreign Study Programs , Language Study Abroad programs , and Exchange Programs .
Through the Graduate Studies program , Dartmouth grants doctorate and master 's degrees in 19 Arts & Sciences graduate programs . Although the first graduate degree , a PhD in classics , was awarded in 1885 , many of the current PhD programs have only existed since the 1960s . Furthermore , Dartmouth is home to three professional schools : the Geisel School of Medicine ( established 1797 ) , Thayer School of Engineering ( 1867 ) — which also serves as the undergraduate department of engineering sciences — and Tuck School of Business ( 1900 ) . With these professional schools and graduate programs , conventional American usage would accord Dartmouth the label of " Dartmouth University " ; however , because of historical and nostalgic reasons ( such as Dartmouth College v. Woodward ) , the school uses the name " Dartmouth College " to refer to the entire institution .
Dartmouth employs a total of 607 tenured or tenure @-@ track faculty members , including the highest proportion of female tenured professors among the Ivy League universities . Faculty members have been at the forefront of such major academic developments as the Dartmouth Conferences , the Dartmouth Time Sharing System , Dartmouth BASIC , and Dartmouth ALGOL 30 . In 2005 , sponsored project awards to Dartmouth faculty research amounted to $ 169 million .
Dartmouth serves as the host institution of the University Press of New England , a university press founded in 1970 that is supported by a consortium of schools that also includes Brandeis University , the University of New Hampshire , Northeastern University , Tufts University and the University of Vermont .
= = = Rankings = = =
Dartmouth was ranked 12th among undergraduate programs at national universities by U.S. News & World Report in its 2016 rankings . Dartmouth 's strength in undergraduate education is highlighted by U.S. News when in 2009 , 2010 , 2011 , 2012 , and 2013 it ranked Dartmouth first in undergraduate teaching at national universities . It was ranked 2nd in this area in the 2016 rankings . The institution also ranked 8th in High School Counselor Rankings in 2016 . The college ranks 7th in The Wall Street Journal 's ranking of top feeder schools .
In Forbes ' 2016 rankings of colleges , Dartmouth ranked 17th overall in the combined liberal arts college and national universities ranking and 2nd in " grateful graduates " , with a financial grade of A + .
The 2006 Carnegie Foundation classification listed Dartmouth as the only " majority @-@ undergraduate " , " arts @-@ and @-@ sciences focus [ ed ] " , " research university " in the country that also had " some graduate coexistence " and " very high research activity . " Internationally , Dartmouth College was ranked 113th in the world in the 2012 QS World University Rankings .
For its graduate programs , U.S. News ranks Dartmouth 's MBA program 9th overall and 6th for management . Among its other highly ranked graduate offerings , the school is ranked 40th in computer science , 29th in medicine for primary care , and 37th in medicine for research . Its global ranking places is at 242nd .
= = = Admissions = = =
Undergraduate admission to Dartmouth College is characterized by the Carnegie Foundation and U.S. News & World Report as " most selective " . The Princeton Review , in its 2016 edition , gave the university an admissions selectivity rating of 99 out of 99 .
In the 2015 @-@ 2016 cycle , 20 @,@ 675 applied and 2 @,@ 176 were accepted for a 10 @.@ 5 % admissions rate . Of those who reported class rank , 37 @.@ 1 % were valedictorians , with 94 @.@ 6 % ranking in the top decile of their class . The admitted students ’ academic profile showed average SAT scores of 737 in critical reading , 741 in math , and 741 in writing . The average composite ACT score was around 33 . More than 51 % identified as being students of color , 14 @.@ 7 % are among the first generation in their families to matriculate to college , 8 @.@ 2 % are international students , and 8 @.@ 1 % are legacies .
Dartmouth meets 100 % of students ' demonstrated financial need in order to attend the College , and currently admits all students , with the exception of internationals , on a need @-@ blind basis .
= = = Financial aid = = =
Dartmouth guarantees to meet 100 % of the demonstrated need of every admitted student who applies for financial aid at the time of admission . Dartmouth practices need @-@ blind admissions for all applicants who are U.S. citizens , permanent residents , and undocumented students in the U.S. These applicants are admitted to the college without regard to their financial circumstances . For international students , financial need is taken into consideration as one of many factors at the time of admission . At Dartmouth , free tuition is provided for students from families with total incomes of $ 100 @,@ 000 or less and possessing typical assets . In 2015 , $ 88 @.@ 8 million in need @-@ based scholarships were awarded to Dartmouth students .
= = = The Dartmouth Plan = = =
Dartmouth functions on a quarter system , operating year @-@ round on four ten @-@ week academic terms . The Dartmouth Plan ( or simply " D @-@ Plan " ) is an academic scheduling system that permits the customization of each student 's academic year . All undergraduates are required to be in residence for the fall , winter , and spring terms of their freshman and senior years , as well as the summer term of their sophomore year . However , students may petition to alter this plan so that they may be off during their freshman , senior , or sophomore summer terms . During all terms , students are permitted to choose between studying on @-@ campus , studying at an off @-@ campus program , or taking a term off for vacation , outside internships , or research projects . The typical course load is three classes per term , and students will generally enroll in classes for 12 total terms over the course of their academic career .
The D @-@ Plan was instituted in the early 1970s at the same time that Dartmouth began accepting female undergraduates . It was initially devised as a plan to increase the enrollment without enlarging campus accommodations , and has been described as " a way to put 4 @,@ 000 students into 3 @,@ 000 beds . " Although new dormitories have been built since , the number of students has also increased and the D @-@ Plan remains in effect . It was modified in the 1980s in an attempt to reduce the problems of lack of social and academic continuity .
= = = Board of Trustees = = =
Dartmouth is governed by a Board of Trustees comprising the college president ( ex officio ) , the state governor ( ex officio ) , 13 trustees nominated and elected by the board ( called " charter trustees " ) , and eight trustees nominated by alumni and elected by the board ( " alumni trustees " ) . The nominees for alumni trustee are determined by a poll of the members of the Association of Alumni of Dartmouth College , selecting from among names put forward by the Alumni Council or by alumni petition .
Although the board elected its members from the two sources of nominees in equal proportions between 1891 and 2007 , the board decided in 2007 to add several new members , all charter trustees . In the controversy that followed the decision , the Association of Alumni filed a lawsuit , although it later withdrew the action . In 2008 , the Board added five new charter trustees .
= = Campus = =
Dartmouth College is situated in the rural town of Hanover , New Hampshire , located in the Upper Valley along the Connecticut River in New England . Its 269 @-@ acre ( 1 @.@ 09 km2 ) campus is centered on a 5 @-@ acre ( 2 ha ) " Green " , a former field of pine trees cleared in 1771 . Dartmouth is the largest private landowner of the town of Hanover , and its total landholdings and facilities are worth an estimated $ 434 million . In addition to its campus in Hanover , Dartmouth owns 4 @,@ 500 acres ( 18 km2 ) of Mount Moosilauke in the White Mountains and a 27 @,@ 000 @-@ acre ( 110 km2 ) tract of land in northern New Hampshire known as the Second College Grant .
Dartmouth 's campus buildings vary in age from Wentworth and Thornton Halls of the 1820s ( the oldest surviving buildings constructed by the college ) to new dormitories and mathematics facilities completed in 2006 . Most of Dartmouth 's buildings are designed in the Georgian American colonial style , a theme which has been preserved in recent architectural additions . The College has actively sought to reduce carbon emissions and energy usage on campus , earning it the grade of A- from the Sustainable Endowments Institute on its College Sustainability Report Card 2008 .
A notable feature of the Dartmouth campus is its many trees which ( despite Dutch elm disease ) include some 200 American elms .
= = = Academic facilities = = =
The college 's creative and performing arts facility is the Hopkins Center for the Arts ( " the Hop " ) . Opened in 1962 , the Hop houses the College 's drama , music , film , and studio arts departments , as well as a woodshop , pottery studio , and jewelry studio which are open for use by students and faculty . The building was designed by the famed architect Wallace Harrison , who would later design the similar @-@ looking façade of Manhattan 's Metropolitan Opera House at Lincoln Center . Its facilities include two theaters and one 900 @-@ seat auditorium . The Hop is also the location of all student mailboxes ( " Hinman boxes " ) and the Courtyard Café dining facility . The Hop is connected to the Hood Museum of Art , arguably North America 's oldest museum in continuous operation , and the Loew Auditorium , where films are screened .
In addition to its 19 graduate programs in the arts and sciences , Dartmouth is home to three separate graduate schools . The Geisel School of Medicine is located in a complex on the north side of campus and includes laboratories , classrooms , offices , and a biomedical library . The Dartmouth – Hitchcock Medical Center , located several miles to the south in Lebanon , New Hampshire , contains a 396 @-@ bed teaching hospital for the Medical School . The Thayer School of Engineering and the Tuck School of Business are both located at the end of Tuck Mall , west of the center of campus and near the Connecticut River . The Thayer School presently comprises two buildings ; Tuck has seven academic and administrative buildings , as well as several common areas . The two graduate schools share a library , the Feldberg Business & Engineering Library .
Dartmouth 's nine libraries are all part of the collective Dartmouth College Library , which comprises 2 @.@ 48 million volumes and 6 million total resources , including videos , maps , sound recordings , and photographs . Its specialized libraries include the Biomedical Libraries , Evans Map Room , Feldberg Business & Engineering Library , Jones Media Center , Kresge Physical Sciences Library , Paddock Music Library , Rauner Special Collections Library , and Sherman Art Library . Baker @-@ Berry Library is the main library at Dartmouth , comprising a merger of the Baker Memorial Library ( opened 1928 ) and the Berry Library ( completed 2002 ) . Located on the northern side of the Green , Baker 's 200 @-@ foot ( 61 m ) tower is an iconic symbol of the College .
= = = Athletic facilities = = =
Dartmouth 's original sports field was the Green , where students played cricket and old division football during the 19th century . Today , two of Dartmouth 's athletic facilities are located in the southeast corner of campus . The center of athletic life is the Alumni Gymnasium , which includes the Karl Michael Competition Pool and the Spaulding Pool , a state of the art fitness center , a weight room , and a 1 / 13th @-@ mile ( 123 m ) indoor track . Attached to Alumni Gymnasium is the Berry Sports Center , which contains basketball and volleyball courts ( Leede Arena ) , as well as the Kresge Fitness Center . Behind the Alumni Gymnasium is Memorial Field , a 15 @,@ 600 @-@ seat stadium overlooking Dartmouth 's football field and track . The nearby Thompson Arena , designed by Italian engineer Pier Luigi Nervi and constructed in 1975 , houses Dartmouth 's ice rink . Also visible from Memorial Field is the 91 @,@ 800 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 8 @,@ 530 m2 ) Nathaniel Leverone Fieldhouse , home to the indoor track . The new softball field , Dartmouth Softball Park , was constructed in 2012 , sharing parking facilities with Thompson arena and replacing Sachem Field , located over a mile from campus , as the primary softball facility .
Dartmouth 's other athletic facilities in Hanover include the Friends of Dartmouth Rowing Boathouse and the old rowing house storage facility ( both located along the Connecticut River ) , the Hanover Country Club , Dartmouth 's oldest remaining athletic facility ( established in 1899 ) , and the Corey Ford Rugby Clubhouse . The college also maintains the Dartmouth Skiway , a 100 @-@ acre ( 0 @.@ 40 km2 ) skiing facility located over two mountains near the Hanover campus in Lyme Center , New Hampshire , that serves as the winter practice grounds for the Dartmouth ski team , which is a perennial contender for the NCAA Division I championship .
= = = Housing and student life facilities = = =
Beginning in the fall term of 2016 , Dartmouth will place all undergraduate students in one of six House communities , similar to residential colleges . Dartmouth previously had nine residential communities located throughout campus , instead of ungrouped dormitories or residential colleges . The dormitories varied in design from modern to traditional Georgian styles , and room arrangements range from singles to quads and apartment suites . Since 2006 , the College has guaranteed housing for students during their freshman and sophomore years . More than 3 @,@ 000 students elect to live in housing provided by College .
Campus meals are served by Dartmouth Dining Services , which operates 11 dining establishments around campus . Four of them are located at the center of campus in the Class of 1953 Commons , formerly Thayer Dining Hall .
The Collis Center is the center of student life and programming , serving as what would be generically termed the " student union " or " campus center . " It contains a café , study space , common areas , and a number of administrative departments , including the Academic Skills Centre . Robinson Hall , next door to both Collis and Thayer , contains the offices of a number of student organizations including the Dartmouth Outing Club and The Dartmouth daily newspaper .
Beginning in the fall term 2016 , all undergraduate students of Dartmouth will be members of one of the following six House communities , similar to residential colleges :
Allen House
East Wheelock House
North Park House
School House
South House
West House
Living Learning Communities
= = Student life = =
In 2006 , The Princeton Review ranked Dartmouth third in its " Quality of Life " category , and sixth for having the " Happiest Students . " Athletics and participation in the Greek system are the most popular campus activities . In all , Dartmouth offers more than 350 organizations , teams , and sports . The school is also home to a variety of longstanding traditions and celebrations and has a loyal alumni network ; Dartmouth ranked # 2 in " The Princeton Review " in 2006 for Best Alumni Network .
= = = Student safety = = =
In 2014 , Dartmouth College was the second highest in the nation in " total of reports of rape " on their main campus , with 42 reports of rape .
Dartmouth fraternities have an extensive history of hazing and alcohol abuse , leading to police raids and accusations of sexual harassment .
= = = Student groups = = =
Dartmouth 's more than 200 student organizations and clubs cover a wide range of interests . In 2007 , the college hosted eight academic groups , 17 cultural groups , two honor societies , 30 " issue @-@ oriented " groups , 25 performing groups , 12 pre @-@ professional groups , 20 publications , and 11 recreational groups . Notable student groups include the nation 's largest and oldest collegiate outdoors club , the Dartmouth Outing Club , which includes the nationally recognized Big Green Bus ; the campus 's oldest a cappella group , The Dartmouth Aires ; the controversial conservative newspaper The Dartmouth Review ; and The Dartmouth , arguably the nation 's oldest university newspaper . The Dartmouth describes itself as " America 's Oldest College Newspaper , Founded 1799 . "
Partially because of Dartmouth 's rural , isolated location , the Greek system dating from the 1840s is one of the most popular social outlets for students . Dartmouth is home to 32 recognized Greek houses : 17 fraternities , 12 sororities , and three coeducational organizations . In 2007 , roughly 70 % of eligible students belonged to a Greek organization ; since 1987 , students have not been permitted to join Greek organizations until their sophomore year . Dartmouth College was among the first institutions of higher education to desegregate fraternity houses in the 1950s , and was involved in the movement to create coeducational Greek houses in the 1970s . In the early first decade of the 21st century , campus @-@ wide debate focused on a Board of Trustees recommendation that Greek organizations become " substantially coeducational " ; this attempt to change the Greek system eventually failed . The fraternities have an extensive history of hazing and alcohol abuse , leading to police raids and accusations of sexual harassment .
Dartmouth also has a number of secret societies , which are student- and alumni @-@ led organizations often focused on preserving the history of the college and initiating service projects . Most prominent among them is the Sphinx society , housed in a prominent Egyptian tomb @-@ like building near the center of campus . The Sphinx has been the subject of numerous rumors as to its facilities , practices , and membership .
The college has an additional classification of social / residential organizations known as undergraduate societies .
= = = Athletics = = =
Approximately 20 % of students participate in a varsity sport , and nearly 80 % participate in some form of club , varsity , intramural , or other athletics . In 2007 , Dartmouth College fielded 34 intercollegiate varsity teams : 16 for men , 16 for women , and coeducational sailing and equestrian programs . Dartmouth 's athletic teams compete in the National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) Division I eight @-@ member Ivy League conference ; some teams also participate in the Eastern College Athletic Conference ( ECAC ) . As is mandatory for the members of the Ivy League , Dartmouth College does not offer athletic scholarships . In addition to the traditional American team sports ( football , basketball , baseball , and ice hockey ) , Dartmouth competes at the varsity level in many other sports including track and field , softball , squash , sailing , tennis , rowing , soccer , skiing , and lacrosse .
The college also offers 26 club and intramural sports such as fencing , rugby , water polo , figure skating , boxing , volleyball , ultimate frisbee , and cricket , leading to a 75 % participation rate in athletics among the undergraduate student body . The Dartmouth Fencing Team , despite being entirely self @-@ coached , won the USACFC club national championship in 2014 . The Dartmouth Men 's Rugby Team , founded in 1951 , has been ranked among the best collegiate teams in that sport , winning for example the Ivy Rugby Conference every year between 2008 and 2015 . The figure skating team won the national championship five straight times from 2004 through 2008 . In addition to the academic requirements for graduation , Dartmouth requires every undergraduate to complete a 50 @-@ yard ( 46 m ) swim and three terms of physical education .
= = = Native Americans at Dartmouth = = =
It is often pointed out that the charter of Dartmouth College , granted to Eleazar Wheelock in 1769 , proclaims that the institution was created " for the education and instruction of Youth of the Indian Tribes in this Land in reading , writing and all parts of Learning ... as well as in all liberal Arts and Sciences ; and also of English Youth and any others . " However , Wheelock primarily intended the college to educate White youth , and the few Native students that attended Dartmouth experienced much difficulty in an institution ostensibly dedicated to their education . The funds for the Charity School for Native Americans that preceded Dartmouth College were raised primarily by the efforts of a Native American named Samson Occom , and at least some of those funds were used to help found the college .
The college graduated only 19 Native Americans during its first two hundred years . In 1970 , the college established Native American academic and social programs as part of a " new dedication to increasing Native American enrollment . " Since then , Dartmouth has graduated over 1 @,@ 000 Native American students from over 200 different tribes , more than the other seven Ivy League universities combined .
= = = Traditions = = =
Dartmouth is well known for its fierce school spirit and many traditions . The college functions on a quarter system , and one weekend each term is set aside as a traditional celebratory event , known on campus as " big weekends " or " party weekends " . In the fall term , Homecoming ( officially called Dartmouth Night ) is marked by a bonfire on the Green constructed by the freshman class . Winter term is celebrated by Winter Carnival , a tradition started in 1911 by the Dartmouth Outing Club to promote winter sports . This tradition is the oldest in the United States , and subsequently went on to catch on at other New England colleges . In the spring , Green Key is a weekend mostly devoted to campus parties and celebration . Dartmouth has a historical connection and affiliation with Bates College of Lewiston , Maine , that includes similar traditions such as the Dartmouth Challenge , dual engineering programs , campus parallels and an athletic rivalry .
The summer term was formerly marked by Tubestock , an unofficial tradition in which the students used wooden rafts and inner tubes to float on the Connecticut River . Begun in 1986 , Tubestock was ended in 2006 by town ordinance . The Class of 2008 , during their summer term on campus in 2006 , replaced the defunct Tubestock with Fieldstock . This new celebration includes a barbecue , live music , and the revival of the 1970s and 1980s tradition of racing homemade chariots around the Green . Unlike Tubestock , Fieldstock is funded and supported by the College .
Another longstanding tradition is four @-@ day , student @-@ run Dartmouth Outing Club trips for incoming freshmen , begun in 1935 . Each trip concludes at the Moosilauke Ravine Lodge . In 2011 , over 96 % of freshmen elected to participate .
= = Insignia and other representations = =
= = = Motto and song = = =
Dartmouth 's motto , chosen by Eleazar Wheelock , is Vox clamantis in deserto . The Latin motto is literally translated as " A calling voice in the wilderness " , but is more often rendered as " A voice crying out in the wilderness " . The phrase appears five times in the Bible and is a reference to the college 's location on what was once the frontier of European settlement . Richard Hovey 's " Men of Dartmouth " was elected as the best of Dartmouth 's songs in 1896 , and became the school 's official song in 1926 . The song was retitled to " Alma Mater " in the 1980s when its lyrics were changed to refer to women as well as men .
= = = Seal = = =
Dartmouth 's 1769 royal charter required the creation of a seal for use on official documents and diplomas . The college 's founder Eleazar Wheelock designed a seal for his college bearing a striking resemblance to the seal of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel , a missionary society founded in London in 1701 , in order to maintain the illusion that his college was more for mission work than for higher education . Engraved by a Boston silversmith , the seal was ready by commencement of 1773 . The trustees officially accepted the seal on August 25 , 1773 , describing it as :
An Oval , circumscribed by a Line containing SIGILL : COL : DARTMUTH : NOV : HANT : IN AMERICA 1770 @.@ within projecting a Pine Grove on the Right , whence proceed Natives towards an Edifice two Storey on the left ; which bears in a Label over the Grove these Words " vox clamantis in deserto " the whole supported by Religion on the Right and Justice on the Left , and bearing in a Triangle irradiate , with the Hebrew Words [ El Shaddai ] , agreeable to the above Impression , be the common Seal under which to pass all Diplomas or Certificates of Degrees , and all other Affairs of Business of and concerning Dartmouth College .
On October 28 , 1926 , the trustees affirmed the charter 's reservation of the seal for official corporate documents alone . The College Publications Committee commissioned noted typographer W. A. Dwiggins to create a line drawing version of the seal in 1940 that saw widespread use . Dwiggins ' design was modified during 1957 to change the date from " 1770 " to " 1769 " , to accord with the date of the college charter . The trustees commissioned a new set of dies with a date of " 1769 " to replace the old dies , now badly worn after almost two hundred years of use . The 1957 design continues to be used under trademark number 2305032 .
= = = Shield = = =
On October 28 , 1926 , the trustees approved a " Dartmouth College Shield " for general use . Artist and engraver W. Parke Johnson designed this emblem on the basis of the shield that is depicted at the center of the original seal . This design does not survive . On June 9 , 1944 , the trustees approved another coat of arms based on the shield part of the seal , this one by Canadian artist and designer Thoreau MacDonald . That design was used widely and , like Dwiggins ' seal , had its date changed from " 1770 " to " 1769 " around 1958 . That version continues to be used under trademark registration number 3112676 and others .
College designer John Scotford made a stylized version of the shield during the 1960s , but it did not see the success of MacDonald 's design . The shield appears to have been used as the basis of the shield of Dartmouth Medical School , and it has been reproduced in sizes as small as 20 micrometers across . The design has appeared on Rudolph Ruzicka 's Bicentennial Medal ( Philadelphia Mint , 1969 ) and elsewhere .
= = = Nickname , symbol , and mascot = = =
Dartmouth has never had an official mascot . The nickname " The Big Green , " originating in the 1860s , is based on students ' adoption of a shade of forest green ( " Dartmouth Green " ) as the school 's official color in 1866 . Beginning in the 1920s , the Dartmouth College athletic teams were known by their unofficial nickname " the Indians " , a moniker that probably originated among sports journalists . This unofficial mascot and team name was used until the early 1970s , when its use came under criticism . In 1974 , the Trustees declared the " use of the [ Indian ] symbol in any form to be inconsistent with present institutional and academic objectives of the College in advancing Native American education . " Some alumni and students , as well as the conservative student newspaper , The Dartmouth Review , have sought to return the Indian symbol to prominence , but never succeeded in doing so .
Various student initiatives have been undertaken to adopt a mascot , but none has become " official . " One proposal devised by the college humor magazine the Dartmouth Jack @-@ O @-@ Lantern was Keggy the Keg , an anthropomorphic beer keg who makes occasional appearances at college sporting events . Despite student enthusiasm for Keggy , the mascot has received approval from only the student government . In November 2006 , student government attempted to revive the " Dartmoose " as a potential replacement amid renewed controversy surrounding the former unofficial Indian mascot .
= = Alumni = =
Dartmouth 's alumni are known for their devotion to the college . Most start by giving to the Senior Class Gift . According to a 2008 article in The Wall Street Journal , Dartmouth graduates also earn higher median salaries at least 10 years after graduation than alumni of any other American university surveyed .
By 2008 , Dartmouth had graduated 238 classes of students and has over 60 @,@ 000 living alumni in a variety of fields .
Nelson A. Rockefeller , 41st Vice President of the United States and 49th Governor of New York , graduated cum laude from Dartmouth with a degree in economics in 1930 . Over 164 Dartmouth graduates have served in the United States Senate and United States House of Representatives , such as Massachusetts statesman Daniel Webster . Cabinet members of American presidents include Attorney General Amos T. Akerman , Secretary of Defense James V. Forrestal , Secretary of Labor Robert Reich , former Secretary of the Treasury Henry Paulson , and former Secretary of the Treasury Timothy Geithner . C. Everett Koop was the Surgeon General of the United States under President Ronald Reagan . Two Dartmouth alumni have served as justices on the Supreme Court of the United States : Salmon P. Chase and Levi Woodbury . Eugene Norman Veasey ( class of 1954 ) served as the Chief Justice of Delaware . The 46th and current Governor of Pennsylvania Tom Wolf is also a Dartmouth alumnus .
In literature and journalism , Dartmouth has produced thirteen Pulitzer Prize winners : Thomas M. Burton , Richard Eberhart , Dan Fagin , Paul Gigot , Frank Gilroy , Jake Hooker , Nigel Jaquiss , Joseph Rago , Martin J. Sherwin , David K. Shipler , David Shribman , and Justin Harvey Smith .
Other authors and media personalities include ABC Senior White House correspondent Jake Tapper , novelist and founding editor of The Believer Heidi Julavits , " Dean of rock critics " Robert Christgau , National Book Award winner Louise Erdrich , novelist / screenwriter Budd Schulberg , political analyst Dinesh D 'Souza , radio talk show host Laura Ingraham , commentator Mort Kondracke , and journalist James Panero . Norman Maclean , a former professor at the University of Chicago and author of A River Runs Through It and Other Stories , graduated from Dartmouth in 1924 . Theodor Geisel , better known as children 's author Dr. Seuss , was a member of the class of 1925 .
In the area of religion and theology , Dartmouth alumni include priests and ministers Ebenezer Porter , Jonathan Clarkson Gibbs , Caleb Sprague Henry , Arthur Whipple Jenks , Solomon Spalding , and Joseph Tracy ; and rabbis Marshall Meyer , Arnold Resnicoff , and David E. Stern . Hyrum Smith , brother of Mormon Prophet Joseph Smith , attended the college in his teens . He was Patriarch of the LDS Church .
Dartmouth alumni in academia include Stuart Kauffman and Jeffrey Weeks , both recipients of MacArthur Fellowships ( commonly called " genius grants " ) . Dartmouth has also graduated three Nobel Prize winners : Owen Chamberlain ( Physics , 1959 ) , K. Barry Sharpless ( Chemistry , 2001 ) , and George Davis Snell ( Physiology or Medicine , 1980 ) . Educators include founder and first president of Bates College , Oren Burbank Cheney ( 1839 ) , the current chancellor of the University of California , San Diego , Marye Anne Fox ( PhD. in Chemistry , 1974 ) , founding president of Vassar College Milo Parker Jewett , founder and first president of Kenyon College Philander Chase , first professor of Wabash College Caleb Mills , and former president of Union College Charles Augustus Aiken . Nine of Dartmouth 's 17 presidents were alumni of the College .
Dartmouth alumni serving as CEOs or company presidents and executives include Charles Alfred Pillsbury , founder of the Pillsbury Company and patriarch of the Pillsbury family , Sandy Alderson ( San Diego Padres ) , John Donahoe ( eBay ) , Louis V. Gerstner , Jr . ( IBM ) , Charles E. Haldeman ( Putnam Investments ) , Donald J. Hall , Sr. ( Hallmark Cards ) , Jeffrey R. Immelt ( General Electric ) , Gail Koziara Boudreaux ( United Health Care ) , Grant Tinker ( NBC ) , and Brian Goldner ( Hasbro ) .
In film , entertainment , and television , Dartmouth is represented by Budd Schulberg , Academy Award @-@ winning screenwriter of On the Waterfront , Michael Phillips , who won the Academy Award for best picture as co @-@ producer of The Sting , Rachel Dratch , a cast member of Saturday Night Live , Shonda Rhimes creator of Grey 's Anatomy , Private Practice and Scandal , Chris Meledandri Executive Producer of Ice Age , Horton Hears a Who ! , and Despicable Me , and the title character of Mister Rogers ' Neighborhood , Fred Rogers . Other notable film and television figures include Sarah Wayne Callies ( Prison Break ) , Emmy Award winner Michael Moriarty , Andrew Shue of Melrose Place , Aisha Tyler of Friends and 24 , Connie Britton of Spin City , The West Wing and Friday Night Lights , and Mindy Kaling of The Office and The Mindy Project .
A number of Dartmouth alumni have found success in professional sports . In baseball , Dartmouth alumni include All @-@ Star and three @-@ time Gold Glove winner and manager Brad Ausmus and All @-@ Star Mike Remlinger . Professional football players include former Miami Dolphins quarterback Jay Fiedler , linebacker Reggie Williams , three @-@ time Pro Bowler Nick Lowery , quarterback Jeff Kemp , and Tennessee Titans tight end Casey Cramer . Dartmouth has also produced a number of Olympic competitors . Adam Nelson won the silver medal in the shotput in the 2000 Sydney Olympics and the gold medal at the 2004 Athens Olympics to go along with his gold medal in the 2005 World Championships in Athletics in Helsinki . Kristin King and Sarah Parsons were members of the United States ' 2006 bronze medal @-@ winning ice hockey team . Cherie Piper , Gillian Apps , and Katie Weatherston were among Canada 's ice hockey gold medalists in 2006 .
Dick Durrance and Tim Caldwell competed for the United States in skiing in the 1936 and 1976 Winter Olympics , respectively . Arthur Shaw , Earl Thomson , Edwin Myers , Marc Wright , Adam Nelson , Gerry Ashworth , and Vilhjálmur Einarsson have all won medals in track and field events . Former heavyweight rower Dominic Seiterle is a member of the Canadian national rowing team and won a gold medal at the 2008 Summer Olympics in the men 's 8 + event .
= = In popular culture = =
Dartmouth College has appeared in or been referenced by a number of popular media . Most notably , the 1978 comedy film National Lampoon 's Animal House was co @-@ written by Chris Miller ' 63 , and is based loosely on a series of stories he wrote about his fraternity days at Dartmouth . In a CNN interview , John Landis said the movie was " based on Chris Miller 's real fraternity at Dartmouth " , Alpha Delta Phi . Dartmouth 's Winter Carnival tradition was the subject of the 1939 film Winter Carnival starring Ann Sheridan and written by Budd Schulberg ' 36 and F. Scott Fitzgerald .
= Italian cruiser Urania =
Urania was a torpedo cruiser of the Partenope class built for the Italian Regia Marina ( Royal Navy ) in the 1880s . She was built by the Cantieri navali Odero shipyard ; her keel was laid in February 1889 , she was launched in June 1891 , and was commissioned in July 1893 . Her main armament were her six torpedo tubes , which were supported by a battery of ten small @-@ caliber guns . Urania spent most of her career in the main Italian fleet , where she was primarily occupied with training exercises . She was still in service at the outbreak of the Italo @-@ Turkish War in September 1911 , but she did not take part in any operations . Instead , she remained in Italian waters and was broken up for scrap in January 1912 .
= = Design = =
Urania was 73 @.@ 1 meters ( 239 ft 10 in ) long overall and had a beam of 8 @.@ 22 m ( 27 ft 0 in ) and an average draft of 3 @.@ 48 m ( 11 ft 5 in ) . She displaced 931 metric tons ( 916 long tons ; 1 @,@ 026 short tons ) normally . Her propulsion system consisted of a pair of horizontal triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each driving a single screw propeller , with steam supplied by four coal @-@ fired locomotive boilers . Specific figures for Urania 's engine performance have not survived , but the ships of her class had top speeds of 18 @.@ 1 to 20 @.@ 8 knots ( 33 @.@ 5 to 38 @.@ 5 km / h ; 20 @.@ 8 to 23 @.@ 9 mph ) at 3 @,@ 884 to 4 @,@ 422 indicated horsepower ( 2 @,@ 896 to 3 @,@ 297 kW ) . The ship had a cruising radius of about 1 @,@ 800 nautical miles ( 3 @,@ 300 km ; 2 @,@ 100 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . She had a crew of between 96 – 121 .
Urania was armed with a main battery of one 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) / 40 gun and six 57 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) / 43 guns mounted singly.α She was also equipped with three 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) / 20 guns in single mounts . Her primary offensive weapon was her six 450 mm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes . The ship was protected by an armored deck that was up to 1 @.@ 6 in ( 41 mm ) thick ; her conning tower was armored with the same thickness of steel plate .
= = Service history = =
Urania was laid down on 16 February 1889 at the Cantieri navali Odero ( Odero Shipyard ) in Genoa , and was launched on 18 June 1891 . After fitting @-@ out work was completed , the ship was commissioned into the fleet on 21 July 1893 . During the 1893 fleet maneuvers , Urania served with the 2nd Division of the Reserve Squadron , along with the ironclad Castelfidardo , the protected cruiser Stromboli , and four torpedo boats . During the maneuvers , which lasted from 6 August to 5 September , the ships of the Reserve Squadron defended against a simulated attack by the Active Squadron , which gamed a French attack on the Italian fleet . In 1895 , Urania was stationed in the 2nd Maritime Department , split between Taranto and Naples , along with most of the torpedo cruisers in the Italian fleet . These included her sister ships Partenope , Aretusa , Euridice , Iride , Minerva , and Caprera , the four Goito @-@ class cruisers , and Tripoli .
The ship was assigned to the 2nd Division of the main fleet in 1897 , along with the three Ruggiero di Lauria @-@ class ironclads and the protected cruisers Etna and Stromboli . In 1899 , Urania was assigned to the 2nd Division of the main fleet , which consisted of the ironclads Affondatore , Castelfidardo , and Sicilia and her sister ship Partenope . The 2nd Division was usually kept in reserve , which amounted to three months of active service per year , with the rest of the time spent in harbor with reduced crews . At the start of the Italo @-@ Turkish War in September 1911 , Urania was stationed in Italy , alternating between the ports of La Spezia and Naples , along with her sister ships Iride and Caprera . She did not see action during the war . In January 1912 , with the war still on @-@ going , the ship was sold for scrap and thereafter broken up .
= Space Cavern =
Space Cavern is a 1982 shooter video game for the Atari 2600 developed and released by Games by Apollo . Players control a spaceship commander who has landed on a planet and must defend the ship against its hostile creatures . Games by Apollo founder Pat Roper was impressed by the game Demon Attack and tasked Apollo member Dan Oliver with making a game very similar to it . The game was later rereleased as Space Canyon .
= = Gameplay = =
In Space Cavern , players control the commander of an intergalactic spaceship that is traveling through a previously unknown area in space . The spaceship lands on a mysterious planet inhabited by creatures known as Electrosauri and Marsupods , who attempt to attack the crew of the ship .
The player character is situated at the bottom of the screen . Leftward and rightward movements of the joystick correspond to leftward and rightward movements of the character . Moving the joystick upward and downward induces the character to fire left and right respectively . Pressing the controller button results in the character firing upward . The player must shoot enemy creatures that come from the top and bottom before they shoot the player character . Enemy creatures fire beams that cause the player to lose a life whenever contact is made with the character . An extra life is awarded every 2 @,@ 000 points ; points are earned by destroying enemies , with 115 or 165 points awarded for killing an Electrosaurus and 200 points for a Marsupod .
There are twenty @-@ four gameplay variations included in Space Cavern ; all are playable by one or two players and activated by modifying the 2600 's difficulty switches . The variations differ in the number of enemies , their speed , the direction of their lasers , and the inclusion of Marsupods .
= = Development = =
Space Cavern was developed by Games by Apollo . Company founder Pat Roper had flown programmer Ed Salvo to a Consumer Electronics Show to show him the Imagic video game Demon Attack . Impressed with Imagic 's game , Roper decided he wanted to produce one similar to it . He told developer Dan Oliver what he wanted in the game without disclosing his inspiration . Space Cavern was released in 1982 . Game publisher Panda rereleased an identical version of Space Cavern under the name Space Canyon the following year , and an Atari 5200 port was started but not completed .
As development neared completion , mounting financial pressures came to a head and Games by Apollo found itself owing nearly $ 5 million , half of which debt belonged to its advertising agency Benton & Bowles . Games by Apollo faced growing pressure from Benton & Bowles to repay its debts , and a few months after Space Cavern 's release , on November 12 , 1982 , Games by Apollo filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy . Although Roper expected Apollo to " return in smaller form " , the company closed in 1983 after reorganization attempts failed .
= = Reception = =
The reviewer for Arcade Express magazine was positive about Space Cavern . The review praised the graphics of the player 's death , while criticizing the design of the enemies , and finished the review by opining the game would be more suited for skilled players . TV Gamer 's review criticized it for being too simple and not requiring much brainpower .
Videogaming Illustrated compared the game positively to Phoenix , and believed that it was " arguably the best space game on the market " . The writer opined that it was Games by Apollo 's best game , and noted its suitability for both young and experienced players . In a review for Video magazine , Bill Kunkel and Arnie Katz did not agree whether Space Cavern 's control scheme was unnaturally " cumbersome " or " an exciting departure from the expected " . They wrote that the controls were " at least a little controversial " among arcade players . These comments were again reiterated in Video 's 1982 Guide to Electronic Games where the control scheme was described as " a little unusual " . In a follow @-@ up review for Electronic Games , Kunkel and Katz concluded that the game would entertain arcade players hundreds of times over but criticized the graphics of the enemies . Space Cavern was an honorable mention in the " Best Action Video Game " category at the 1983 Arkie Awards .
Brett Alan Weiss , writing for Allgame , gave the game two out of five stars . Weiss wrote the game was not " a particularly engaging gaming experience " and referred to it as " an interesting failure . The designers had a couple of good ideas , but the execution of those ideas in conjunction with the shoot- ' em @-@ up action is second rate " . In his book Classic Home Video Games , 1972 – 1984 , Weiss wrote that the game 's box art was better than the actual game .
= Simon of Southwell =
Simon of Southwell ( sometimes Simon of Sywell , or Simon of Siwell ) was a medieval English canon lawyer and canon who became treasurer of the cathedral chapter of Lichfield Cathedral . He served in the household of Hubert Walter , who was Archbishop of Canterbury from 1193 to 1205 . Pope Celestine III appointed Simon as a papal judge @-@ delegate , and Simon also served Walter in Rome on two legal cases . A number of the glosses on a late @-@ twelfth @-@ century copy of Gratian 's Decretum are ascribed to Simon .
= = Early career = =
Simon was treasurer of the cathedral chapter in 1203 . He also held a prebend at Lichfield until 1209 . Previously he had been a lecturer in canon law at Bologna , Paris and at Oxford . In Paris , Simon argued a case before Peter the Chanter that dealt with papal mandates , and his arguments won over Peter to his side of the discussion .
While at Oxford , Simon , along with John of Tynemouth , Honorius of Kent , and possibly Nicholas de Aquila are the first securely attested lecturers on law known for Oxford . Simon may also have studied canon law at Bologna .
= = Service to Hubert Walter = =
Simon served in the household of Hubert Walter , who was Archbishop of Canterbury from 1193 to 1205 . Simon served along with other canon lawyers including John of Tynemouth and Honorius of Kent . He had previously been with the household of Hugh , Bishop of Lincoln , transferring to Walter 's household about 1195 .
Pope Celestine III appointed Simon as a papal judge @-@ delegate , and Simon also served Walter in Rome on two legal cases . In 1202 , while Walter was on the continent , Simon was named as administrator of the diocese of Canterbury during the archbishop 's absence .
In 1203 , Thomas of Marlborough , who was a monk of Evesham Abbey , pleaded a case for Evesham before Archbishop Walter , and later , in his chronicle , he noted that Simon , John of Tynemouth , and Honorius , all canon lawyers from the archbishop 's household , sided with the abbey . He also described the three men as magistri mei in scholis . Surviving evidence shows that Simon and John frequently found themselves on opposing sides of cases , which suggests a rivalry between the two over their expositions of canon law . Thomas appears to have studied under Simon , John and Honorius at Oxford .
One of the cases that Simon pleaded for the archbishop was Walter 's case against Gerald of Wales , who had been elected to the Bishopric of St David 's in Wales . Walter opposed Gerald 's appointment , and Simon , along with John of Tynemouth and another canon lawyer , were sent to Rome to argue Walter 's case against Gerald .
= = Teachings = =
Like John of Tynemouth , a number of the glosses on a late @-@ twelfth @-@ century copy of Gratian 's Decretum are ascribed to Simon . These take the form of notes from his lectures that were later added to the margins of copies of the Decretum . This combined work is now at Gonville and Caius College at Cambridge University , catalogued as manuscript ( MS ) 283 / 676 . Another set of student notes from his lectures , this time entitled Quaestiones , survives as part of British Library MS Royal E.VII. This work includes lecture notes not only from Simon 's classes , but from John and Nicholas ' as well .
= Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum theft =
In the early hours of March 18 , 1990 , security guards at the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum in Boston , Massachusetts let in two men disguised as police officers who claimed they were responding to a disturbance call . Once inside , the pair revealed their true intentions , tied up the guards , and spent over an hour stealing art from the museum 's collection , which they loaded into their vehicle . It was found that they had taken 13 works of art , valued at $ 500 million , making it the largest private property theft in history . Despite efforts by the Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) and multiple probes across the world , no arrests have been made and no artwork has yet been recovered . The case remains open and unsolved , with the museum offering a reward of $ 5 million for information leading to recovery of the art .
The stolen works were originally purchased by art collector Isabella Stewart Gardner ( 1840 – 1924 ) and intended to be left on permanent display at the museum with the rest of her collection . Since the collection and its layout are permanent , empty frames remain hanging both in homage to the missing works and as placeholders for when they are returned . Experts are puzzled by the choice of paintings that were stolen , especially since more valuable artwork was untouched . Among the stolen works was The Concert , one of only 34 known works by Vermeer and thought to be the most valuable unrecovered painting at over $ 200 million . Also missing is The Storm on the Sea of Galilee , Rembrandt 's only known seascape . Other works by Rembrandt , Degas , Manet , and Flinck were also stolen .
According to the FBI , the stolen artwork was moved through the region and offered for sale in Philadelphia during the early 2000s . They believe the thieves were members of a criminal organization based in the mid @-@ Atlantic and New England . They also claim to have identified two suspects , although they have not been publicly identified and are now deceased . Boston gangster Bobby Donati has been cited as a possible collaborator in the heist . He was murdered in 1991 as a result of ongoing gang wars . Significant evidence suggests that Hartford , Connecticut gangster Robert Gentile knows the location of the works , although he denies involvement .
= = Robbery = =
Around midnight on Sunday morning , March 18 , 1990 , a red Dodge Daytona pulled up near the side entrance of the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum along Palace Road . Two men with fake police uniforms waited for at least an hour in the car , possibly trying to avoid being noticed by people leaving a St. Patrick 's Day party nearby . Later at around 1 : 00 a.m. , security guard Richard Abath returned to the front desk after patrolling the museum to switch positions with the other security guard . The two guards were the only people in the building . At this time , Abath opened and quickly shut the Palace Road door , claiming he was trained to do this to ensure the door was locked . He claimed security logs from other nights would show that he had done this many times previously . The FBI has seized the logs , but has not commented on the issue further .
At 1 : 24 a.m. , one of the two men outside pushed the buzzer near the door and told Abath they were policemen that heard of a disturbance in the courtyard , and requested to be let inside . Abath knew he should not let uninvited guests inside , but he was unsure on whether the rule applied to police officers . He could see the men and believed them to be police officers based on their uniforms . With his partner on patrol , Abath decided to buzz in the men . When the intruders arrived at the main security desk , one of them told Abath that he looked familiar and there was a default warrant out for his arrest . Abath stepped out from behind his desk , where the only alarm button to alert police could be accessed . He was quickly asked for his ID , ordered to face the wall , and then handcuffed . Abath believed the arrest was a misunderstanding , until he realized he hadn 't been frisked before being cuffed , and one officer 's mustache was made of wax . The second security guard arrived minutes later and was also handcuffed , after which he asked the intruders why he was being arrested . The thieves explained that they were not being arrested , but rather this was a robbery , and proceeded to take the guards to the museum 's basement . They handcuffed the guards to pipes and wrapped duct tape around their hands , feet , and heads .
Since the museum was equipped with motion detectors , the thieves ' movements throughout the museum were recorded . After tying up the guards , the thieves went upstairs to the Dutch Room . As one of them approached Rembrandt 's Self @-@ Portrait ( 1629 ) , a local alarm sounded , which they immediately smashed . They pulled the painting off the wall and attempted to take the wooden panel out of its heavy frame . Unsuccessful at the attempt , they left the painting on the floor . They cut Rembrandt 's The Storm on the Sea of Galilee out of the frame , as well as A Lady and Gentleman in Black . They also removed Vermeer 's The Concert and Govaert Flinck 's Landscape with an Obelisk from their frames . Additionally , they also took a Chinese bronze gu from the Shang Dynasty .
Elsewhere in the museum , they stole five Degas drawings and an eagle finial . The finial lay at the top of a Napoleonic flag , which they attempted to unscrew from the wall , but failed . Manet 's Chez Tortoni was also stolen from its location in the Blue Room . Motion detector records show that the only footsteps detected in the Blue Room that night were at 12 : 27 a.m. and again at 12 : 53 a.m. These times match to when Abath said he passed through on patrol . The frame for the painting was found on security chief Lyle W. Grindle 's chair near the front desk . The thieves made two trips to their car with artwork during the theft , which lasted 81 minutes . Before leaving , they visited the guards once more , telling them " You ’ ll be hearing from us in about a year , " although they were never heard from again . The guards remained handcuffed until police arrived at 8 : 15 a.m. later that morning .
= = Stolen artwork = =
Altogether , thirteen pieces were stolen at an estimated loss of $ 500 million , making the robbery the largest private property theft in history . Empty frames remain hanging in the museum , both in homage to the missing works and as placeholders for when they are returned . One of the paintings , The Concert , was Gardner 's first major acquisition and one of only 34 known Vermeer works in the world . It is thought to be the most valuable unrecovered stolen painting , with a value estimated at over $ 200 million . Another painting , The Storm on the Sea of Galilee , is Rembrandt 's only known seascape . The bronze finial was taken from the top of a Napoleonic flag , possibly appearing like gold to the thieves . The museum is offering a $ 100 @,@ 000 reward for this piece alone .
The museum stresses that the paintings be kept in good condition by whoever has them . Museum director , Anne Hawley has stated that the works should be kept in a stable environment of 50 % humidity and 70 ° F. Additionally , they should be kept away from light and stored in acid @-@ free paper . Hawley also noted to avoid rolling the paintings , which will crack the paint . If these guidelines are not followed , the paintings could be damaged and drop in value . More repainting would need to be done too , which hurts the paintings ' integrity .
The following are the thirteen stolen works , all of which are still missing .
Notes
= = Investigation = =
The Federal Bureau of Investigation took control of the case on the grounds that the artwork could likely cross state lines . They have conducted hundreds of interviews with probes stretching across the world involving Scotland Yard , Japanese and French authorities , private investigators , museum directors , and art dealers . The FBI believes the thieves were members of a criminal organization based in the mid @-@ Atlantic and New England , and that the stolen paintings were moved through Connecticut and the Philadelphia area in the years following the theft . Some of the art may have been offered for sale in Philadelphia in the early 2000s , including The Storm on the Sea of Galilee ; however , their knowledge of what happened to the works after the attempted sale is limited . The FBI stated it believed to know the identity of the thieves in 2013 , but in 2015 announced that they were now deceased . They have declined to identify the individuals .
No single motive or pattern has emerged through the thousands of pages of evidence gathered . The selection of works puzzles the experts , specifically since more valuable artworks were available . The FBI 's lead agent assigned to the case , Geoffrey J. Kelly , finds it difficult to understand why this assortment of items was stolen despite the thieves being in the museum for enough time to take whatever they wished . On their way to the finial , the thieves passed by two Raphaels and a Botticelli painting . Titian 's The Rape of Europa , which is one of the museum 's most well @-@ known and valuable pieces , was not stolen . Due to the brutish ways the criminals handled the robbery , cutting the painting from their frames and smashing frames for two Degas sketches , investigators believe the thieves were amateur criminals , not experts commissioned to steal particular works . Some investigators believe the works were destroyed , explaining why they have not reappeared . Theories on the theft include that it was organized the Irish Republican Army in order to raise money or bargain for the release of imprisoned comrades . Another theory states Whitey Bulger as the ringleader of the theft . At the time of the heist , he was Boston 's top crime boss and an FBI informant .
The museum first offered a reward of $ 1 million , but that was later increased to $ 5 million in 1997 . The reward is for " information that leads directly to the recovery of all of [ their ] items in good condition " , which remains on offer more than a quarter @-@ century later . Federal authorities have stated they will not charge anyone who voluntarily turns in the artwork , but anyone caught knowingly in possession of stolen items could be prosecuted . The thieves cannot face charges because the five @-@ year statute of limitations have expired .
= = = Leads = = =
In 1994 , the museum director Anne Hawley received a letter that promised the return of the pieces for $ 2 @.@ 6 million . If interested , the museum had to get the The Boston Globe to publish a coded message in a business story . The message was published , but the writer disappeared after law enforcement got involved .
Late one night in 1997 , Boston Herald reporter Tom Mashberg was driven to a warehouse in Red Hook , Brooklyn by William Youngworth to see what was purported to be The Storm on the Sea of Galilee . Youngworth was a career criminal and associate to New England art thief Myles Connor Jr . Mashberg had been investigating the theft and was briefly allowed to view the painting with a flashlight . He was given a vial of paint chips for authenticity . These were later confirmed by experts to be fragments of Dutch 17th century origin — but not from the stolen painting . It was never concretely determined to be real or fake , and the FBI quit speaking to Youngworth after not making any progress . The painting has since disappeared .
On August 6 , 2015 , police released a video from the night before the theft , that is believed to show a dry run of the robbery . Two men appear on the tape ; one of them remains unidentified , while the other has been confirmed as Richard Abath , a security guard on duty the night of the heist . The video appears to show Abath buzzing the unidentified man into the museum twice within a few minutes . The man stayed for about three minutes in the lobby , then returned to a car and drove off . Police say the video opens new lines of investigation , and The New York Times points out that it draws new attention to Abath as a potential collaborator . However , the guards have previously been interviewed and deemed too unimaginative to have pulled off the heist .
In December 2015 , over 20 FBI agents conducted a search of the Suffolk Downs horse racing track in East Boston , acting on a tip that the stolen works were stashed there . Agents searched the horse stables , parts of the grandstand that have been closed since the early 1990s , and drilled open two stand @-@ up safes . There were rumors among Suffolk Downs employees in the 1990s that the racetrack was a temporary hiding location for the paintings . The search at the racetrack did not reveal any of the stolen works .
= = = Potential collaborators = = =
Boston gangster Bobby Donati may have been involved in the heist . New England art thief Myles J. Connor Jr . , in prison at the time of the robbery , has stated that he and associate Bobby Donati eyed the museum in the 1980s and Donati oversaw the operation . Shortly before the robbery , Donati was seen at a night club with a sack of police uniforms . Donati worked under Boston crime boss Vincent Ferrara , and visited him in prison in the early 1990s . When Ferrara asked about the robbery , Donati said he " buried the stuff " and will find a way to negotiate his release . Donati was murdered in 1991 as a result of ongoing gang wars .
Hartford , Connecticut gangster Robert " Bobby the Cook " Gentile has been suggested on multiple occasions as knowing the location of the Gardner works . In May 2012 , FBI agents searched Gentile 's home in Manchester , Connecticut . They did not find any stolen works , despite searching his preferred hiding spot beneath a false floor with the help of his son . However , in the basement , they found a sheet of paper listing what each stolen piece might draw on the black market . In January 2016 , the FBI contrived gun charges against Gentile to force him to reveal the location of the missing works . During a hearing , a federal prosecutor revealed significant evidence tying Gentile to the crime . The prosecutor stated that Gentile and mob partner Robert Guarente attempted to use the return of two stolen pieces to reduce a prison sentence for one of their associates . Guarente 's wife told investigators in early 2015 that her husband once had possession of some of the art , and gave two paintings to Gentile before Guarente died of cancer in 2004 . Also , while in federal prison during 2013 – 2014 , Gentile told at least three people he had knowledge of the stolen art . In 2015 , Gentile submitted to a lie detector test , denying advanced knowledge of the heist or ever possessing any paintings . The result showed a 0 @.@ 1 % chance that he was truthful . According to Gentile 's lawyer , federal agents are convinced that Gentile has the stolen works . Gentile 's home was searched again by the FBI on May 2 , 2016 , even though his lawyer insists that if Gentile had the stolen artwork or knowledge of its whereabouts , he would have turned it in for the reward money a long time ago .
When the museum raised its bounty in 1997 , Myles J Connor Jr. said he could locate the missing artwork in exchange for legal immunity . Authorities rejected his offer . Connor now believes that the Gardner works have passed into other , unknown hands . “ I was probably told , but I don ’ t remember , ” he said , blaming a heart attack that affected his memory . Louis Royce , another Boston area gangster , claims he is still owed 15 % for devising the plan for two fake policemen to request access to the museum at night .
= = In popular culture = =
Due to the high profile of the museum theft , it has been referenced and parodied in many different works . The theft was the subject of the 2005 documentary Stolen , which first appeared in a slightly different version on Court TV . The more well @-@ known paintings have been referenced in multiple TV shows , including The Blacklist episode " The Courier " , The Simpsons episode " American History X @-@ cellent " , Drunk History episode " Boston " , and American Greed . Two books were written by former investigators including Artful Deception ( 2012 ) by James J McGovern and Stolen Masterpiece Tracker ( 2006 ) by Thomas McShane . Stephen Kurkjian , a recurrent Boston Globe reporter on the case has written a book about his experience titled Master Thieves : The Boston Gangsters Who Pulled Off the World ’ s Greatest Art Heist . The theft is central to the plot of the 2013 novel , Irreplaceable , by Charles Pinning .
= Blazing Lazers =
Blazing Lazers , known in Japan as Gunhed ( ガンヘッド ) , is a 1989 sci @-@ fi shoot ' em up video game developed by Hudson Soft and Compile . It was released in Japan on July 7 , 1989 ( 1989 @-@ 07 @-@ 07 ) for the PC Engine , and it was released in North America in November 1989 for the TurboGrafx @-@ 16 . It was later released on the Wii 's Virtual Console in North America on May 21 , 2007 ( 2007 @-@ 05 @-@ 21 ) , in Europe on May 25 , 2007 ( 2007 @-@ 05 @-@ 25 ) , in Australia on July 30 , 2007 ( 2007 @-@ 07 @-@ 30 ) , and in Japan on June 17 , 2008 ( 2008 @-@ 06 @-@ 17 ) . It was released for the PlayStation Network on July 21 , 2010 ( 2010 @-@ 07 @-@ 21 ) and on the Wii U 's Virtual Console on June 11 , 2014 ( 2014 @-@ 06 @-@ 11 ) both in Japan . It is based on the Japanese film Gunhed ( only referenced in the Japanese version ) . In the game , a fictional galaxy is under attack by an enemy space armada called the Dark Squadron , and this galaxy 's only chance for survival is the Gunhed Advanced Star Fighter , who must destroy the Dark Squadron and its Super Weapons . The gameplay features fast vertical scrolling and a wide array of weapons for the player to use .
Blazing Lazers was developed by the same personnel who developed other video game series such as Puyo Puyo and Super Bomberman as well as other games such as Zanac , The Guardian Legend , and DoReMi Fantasy : Milon 's DokiDoki Adventure . It was one of the first games released for the TurboGrafx @-@ 16 and has received critical praise for its graphical capabilities , lack of slowdown , intense gameplay , and sound .
= = Gameplay = =
The player takes control of the Gunhed Star Fighter through nine vertically scrolling areas . The player 's mission is to destroy the Dark Squadron and its eight enemy Super Weapons . Every area contains one or more bosses , all of which must be destroyed before continuing in the game . Players lose a life if they are hit by an enemy or projectile , with the game continuing at a previously – crossed checkpoint , unless they grab a flashing orb which destroys all on @-@ screen enemies and allows them to continue at the point where their previous ship was destroyed ( represented by the icon illustrating the remaining number of ships turning gold ) . The game ends when all lives have been lost , but the game awards 1 @-@ ups when the player scores a particular number of points . The game provides four continues in which players can restart the game at that level in which their previous game ended provided the system is not turned off .
The player controls a rapid @-@ fire main cannon , which can either be upgraded or changed to other types of weapons by collecting various numbered power @-@ ups and purple orbs called " gel capsules . " Players can collect optional power @-@ ups to help fight through the game such as " multibodies " that shadow their actions , homing missiles , shields , and enhanced firing capabilities known as " full fire " . The player carries a limited supply of " cluster bombs " that can be deployed , destroying large quantities of enemies and bosses within the player 's vicinity . Players have the function of selecting the speed of their ship , which can be toggled by pressing a button on the gamepad , among five different speeds ( the button cycles between them in order ) . The number of triangles that appear below the player 's score designate the speed of the player 's ship . This allows players to customize the behavior of their ship at any time , trading off freedom of movement against ease of control : a faster ship is more agile , a slower ship can be maneuvered precisely .
= = History = =
Blazing Lazers was co @-@ developed by Hudson Soft and Compile . The game was directed by Masamitsu " Moo " Niitani , president of Compile and creator of Zanac , The Guardian Legend and the Puyo Puyo series ; Mikio Ueyama , director of the Super Bomberman series for the Super NES , and Tadayuki Kawada , designer of the Super Famicom game DoReMi Fantasy . The game was released as Gunhed on July 7 , 1989 ( 1989 @-@ 07 @-@ 07 ) for the Japanese PC Engine console as a tie @-@ in to the live action film of the same name . It was subsequently released in North America as Blazing Lazers in November 198
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to make even die @-@ hard veterans of video game wars cringe in terror " . His only criticism of the game was its difficulty , especially in the game 's final level ; he says that the final level is near @-@ impossible if players have lost all their power @-@ ups . The game would be featured in a series of cheats in the magazine 's January 1990 issue . It was reviewed again in the magazine 's December 1989 issue by Harris and three other reviewers . In the review , Harris added that the game takes advantage of the TurboGrafx @-@ 16 's processors with its animation and gameplay . Ed Semrad appreciated the detailed backgrounds , difficulty , and action , but he criticized the game for being repetitive . Donn Nauert called Blazing Lazers the best game on the console , while Martin Alessi called it the best shoot ' em up on any console ; Alessi added that the gameplay , graphics , and sound are " near perfect " .
Blazing Lazers received further praise after it was released on the Virtual Console . Mike Fahey from Kotaku describes the game as the " best damn shooter on the TurboGrafx , if not best game overall " . Lucas Thomas from IGN referred to the game as superior to other shoot ' em up games such as Super Star Soldier , Gradius III , and the R @-@ Type series . Thomas further asserts that the game had " pushed the [ TurboGrafx @-@ 16 ] to its limits " . Frank Provo from GameSpot also gave positive reviews for Blazing Lazers , saying that the game , despite the plain graphics and aesthetics , compensates with intense gameplay and a " ridiculous orgy of firepower " . He also lauds the game for its diverse weaponry , lack of graphical slowdown seen in some older console games , and the superior , futuristic audio , which he says has an " optimistic quality " to it .
Jeremy Parish from the site 1UP.com praised Blazing Lazers , saying that the game is " drowned in goodness " . Justin Leeper from GameSpy especially praised the game also for its lack of slowdown , stating that prior to 1989 players could only experience the same in arcades . He claimed that the game surpassed any game on the Nintendo Entertainment System at that time . He lauds the smooth scrolling , lush background graphics , and " catchy tunes . " Paul Glancey from the UK @-@ based magazine Computer and Video Games gave it a score 96 % , praising the gameplay , difficulty , graphics and sound , calling it " utterly incredible " and stating " Anyone on the quest for the ultimate shoot ' em up — this is it ! THIS IS IT ! ! " .
= Darkness Falls ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Darkness Falls " is the twentieth episode of the first season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network on April 15 , 1994 . " Darkness Falls " was written by series creator Chris Carter , and directed by Joe Napolitano . It featured guest appearances by Jason Beghe and Titus Welliver . The episode is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , a stand @-@ alone plot that is unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . " Darkness Falls " earned a Nielsen household rating of 8 @.@ 0 , being watched by 7 @.@ 5 million households in its initial broadcast , and received positive reviews , earning an Environmental Media Award for its treatment of illegal logging .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . In this episode , Mulder and Scully are called in to investigate when a team of loggers disappear without a trace . Initially suspecting eco @-@ terrorism , the agents find themselves trapped by a seemingly ancient menace lurking in the woods .
Chris Carter was inspired to write this episode based on an interest in dendrochronology , a subject that involves analyzing annual growth rings found in non @-@ tropical tree species . Carter credits the episode 's ominous ending with his experience growing up in the era following the Watergate scandal , having spent his life coming to mistrust the government profoundly .
= = Plot = =
In Olympic National Forest in Washington state , a group of loggers flee through the woods , trying to escape from an unseen force . They are eventually killed by a large swarm of small glowing green insects .
Later , at FBI headquarters , Fox Mulder shows Dana Scully a photo of the missing loggers , telling her that another group of loggers disappeared in the forest in 1934 . The two agents head to the forest , where they meet Park Ranger Larry Moore and Steve Humphreys , head of security for the logging company . While driving through the forest , their truck hits caltrops left in the ground by eco @-@ terrorists , forcing them to walk the rest of the way . Upon arriving at the camp site , Mulder and Scully find the cabins abandoned and the communication equipment destroyed . Searching the forest , they find a corpse encased in a large cocoon hanging from a tree .
While repairing one of the heat generators , Humphreys catches an eco @-@ terrorist named Doug Spinney . He tells the group that there 's a deadly swarm of insects in the forest and that they must avoid darkness to stay alive . The next morning , they find an old @-@ growth tree cut down with an unexplained band of green contained within its growth rings . Spinney suspects that an organism that was dormant in the tree for centuries was disturbed when the tree was illegally cut down . Humphreys hikes down to Moore 's truck , but is killed by the swarm at nightfall . In the cabin , everyone else is kept safe by the light . The next morning , Spinney convinces Mulder to let him hike to his colleagues with gasoline so he can return with a Jeep to pick them up . Scully and Moore confront Mulder , since this will leave them with little fuel for the generator .
The night passes with only a single light bulb lighting the cabin , going out just as morning arrives . Mulder , Scully and Moore hike down to the truck with a busted tire from camp , hoping to patch it , put on the spare and escape . They find Humphreys dead . Spinney returns with the Jeep , telling the others his friends are all dead . The Jeep hits another spike left in the ground , and Spinney is killed when he leaves the Jeep after dark . Moore and the agents are engulfed by the insects , which enter the vehicle through the air conditioning . They are found soon after and brought to a quarantined facility in Winthrop , Washington , where one of the scientists tells Mulder that the forest is being bombarded with pesticides and controlled fire in the hopes of eradicating the insects .
= = Production = =
Chris Carter was inspired to write this episode based on an interest in dendrochronology , a subject that involves analyzing annual growth rings found in non @-@ tropical tree species , as he believed that trees that were " thousands of years old " might end up acting as " time capsules " that would shed light on past events or species . Carter also credits the episode 's ominous ending with his experience growing up in the era following the Watergate scandal , having spent his life coming to mistrust the government profoundly . The green insects in this episode were primarily computer @-@ generated and added in during the post @-@ production process . The close @-@ up shots of the bugs were done using microscopic photography of mites .
The episode was intended to be a bottle episode , meaning that it would be an episode that would be based in a single location and help save money , but bad weather plagued production , and it was one of the toughest episodes of the season for the crew . The episode was shot on location in Lynn Valley , British Columbia , in the Lower Seymour Conservation Reserve , known as the Seymour Demonstration Forest . The atmosphere amongst many of the crew had grown quite tense towards the end of the shooting schedule , and it culminated in a heated argument between director Joe Napolitano and first assistant director Vladimir Steffof , after which Napolitano did not appear on location again . " Darkness Falls " was the last episode of the series that Napolitano directed . The weather delayed production at the site so much that pick @-@ up shots and inserts had to be filmed at a later date to finish the episode . Delays were also caused by the inaccessibility of the location , as only generators , camera equipment , and first aid crew were able to stay on @-@ site , and time was wasted commuting staff in each day . Jason Beghe , who played Ranger Larry Moore , was a childhood friend of David Duchovny and helped convince him to pursue an acting career . The camaraderie between the two actors is said to have helped lighten the mood during the episode 's difficult production .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Darkness Falls " premiered on the Fox network on April 15 , 1994 , and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC Two on February 9 , 1995 . This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 8 @.@ 0 with a 14 share , meaning that roughly 8 percent of all television @-@ equipped households and 14 percent of households watching television were tuned in to the episode . It was viewed by 7 @.@ 5 million households .
In a retrospective of the first season in Entertainment Weekly , " Darkness Falls " was rated a B , with the episode being called an " eerie outing " set against a " torn @-@ from @-@ today 's @-@ headlines backdrop " . Zack Handlen , writing for The A.V. Club , called " Darkness Falls " an " excellent " episode that " hits the right notes " . He praised the episode 's setting , comparing it to the earlier first season episode " Ice " ; and felt that the " on @-@ the @-@ nose " approach to the environmental themes worked well . Matt Haigh , writing for Den of Geek , felt positively about the episode 's ambiguous resolution , feeling that its " open @-@ ended treatment " lent the episode " a real mysticism and strength " and finding that the episode held a sense of " weight , credibility , and intrigue " . Writers for IGN named the episode their fifth @-@ favorite standalone episode of the show , finding that it " boasts several interesting twists " and noting positively the episode 's " smart " environmental themes .
Although writer and series creator Chris Carter claims " Darkness Falls " was not written with an environmental message in mind , the episode was honored at the fourth annual Environmental Media Awards in 1994 , winning in the " Television Episodic Drama " category . The plot for " Darkness Falls " was also adapted as a novel for young adults in 1995 by Les Martin .
= Stockport County F.C. =
Stockport County Football Club is a semi @-@ professional football club in Stockport , Greater Manchester , England . Formed in 1883 as Heaton Norris Rovers , the team adopted their name in 1890 after the County Borough of Stockport . They have played at Edgeley Park since 1902 , traditionally in blue and white , and are nicknamed The Hatters after the town 's former hat @-@ making industry .
Stockport County joined the Football League in 1900 and competed in it continuously from 1905 to 2011 . The team spent most of their history in the lower reaches of the Football League , but the 1990s were more successful with the club competing in the First Division ( now known as the Championship ) for five seasons , whilst they also reached the League Cup semi @-@ finals in 1996 – 97 . However , instability on and off the pitch eventually led to Stockport falling back to the lower divisions . The club started the 2011 – 12 season in the Conference National , having been relegated from Football League Two at the end of 2010 – 11 . They are currently the longest surviving Football League team to drop out of the league , having played in the league for a total of 110 years . At the end of 2012 – 13 , Stockport were relegated to the Conference North .
= = History = =
= = = 1883 – 1930 = = =
Stockport County was formed in 1883 as Heaton Norris Rovers by members of the Wycliffe Congregational Church , and played their first recorded game in October the next year . The club adopted ' The Hatters ' as their nickname , owing to Stockport 's history as the centre of the Victorian hat @-@ making industry , a nickname that is shared with Luton Town . Stockport played in the Lancashire League until 1900 , when they gained admission to the Football League Second Division . Stockport 's first Football League match was against Leicester Fosse which ended in a 2 – 2 draw . Stockport left their Green Lane home in 1902 and moved to Edgeley Park where they currently reside .
The club finished in the bottom three for their first four seasons , and at the end of 1903 – 04 they failed to gain re @-@ election . They spent one year in the Lancashire Combination ( a league which they won ) and the Midland League . At the end of the season , they were re @-@ admitted to the Football League after being re @-@ elected through the Midland League . In their first season back in the Football League , Stockport reached the first round of the FA Cup for the first time ; however , they were knocked out by Lincoln City . Stockport finished the league in 10th position that season .
Stockport remained in Division 2 of the Football League for seven years until 1912 – 13 when they again had to seek re @-@ election . Stockport gained 22 votes and was therefore re @-@ elected . Despite an unsuccessful 1920 – 21 campaign that saw Stockport end the season bottom of the Second Division , which would normally have seen them face re @-@ election however , they were placed in the new Third Division North . After winning five of their first six matches ; along with going unbeaten from New Years Day 1921 to Easter Weekend 1922 ; Stockport set the standard for the division and gained their first Football League title when they beat Darlington in front of 18 @,@ 500 fans at Edgeley Park . Albert Williams ( the then manager ) was presented with the trophy seven days later before the home game with Lincoln City . This title win began a remarkable coincidence which has occurred in each of Stockport 's title winning seasons where Lincoln City have been the last opponents in each of those seasons . Joe O 'Kane ; who joined Stockport the previous season , was a major factor in the clubs promotion although he left the club at the end of the season .
Once Stockport returned to Division 2 , they struggled and survived an automatic relegation by one point . The 1923 – 24 season saw Stockport County finish 13th , one place above Manchester United . This is the only time in history Stockport has achieved better than Manchester United . During this campaign Stockport goalkeeper Harry Hardy was called up to play for the England national team and kept a clean sheet in a 4 – 0 win against Belgium . He is the only player to be capped at full level by England while on Stockport 's books . Two seasons later ( 1925 – 26 ) Stockport returned to the bottom division after finishing bottom of the league and only picking up 25 points . Stockport finished 6th the next season ( 1926 – 27 ) but suffered a 2 @-@ point deduction and £ 100 fine for fielding an ineligible player after the registration documents for Joe Smith were not received by the Football League .
Stockport closed out the 1920s in Division Three North with a 3rd @-@ placed finish in 1927 – 28 . Joe Smith was Stockport 's and the division 's leading goalscorer in this particular season contributing to 38 of Stockport 's 89 goals . Stockport also finished second on two occasions , one in 1928 – 29 ; Where Stockport amassed 62 points , scored over 100 goals in a season and averaged 10 @,@ 000 fans for the first time , it was a memorable season , but one that in the end had been disappointing after Stockport won nine of their last 11 matches it had still not been enough to win the league . Stockport also finished second the following season ; 1929 – 30 with an even better record than in the previous season , finishing four points behind the champions Port Vale despite beating them 2 – 1 away on Christmas Day and 4 – 2 on Boxing Day , 1929 . Frank Newton was Stockport 's and the division 's leading goalscorer in this particular season contributing to 36 of Stockport 's 106 goals .
= = = 1930 – 1950 = = =
From the start of the 1930s , Stockport County played in a home strip of white and black and were nicknamed the ' Lilywhites ' . The 1933 – 34 season saw them achieve 115 goals . These included a 13 – 0 home win over Halifax Town on 6 January 1934 ; Joe Hill made his debut for Stockport scoring twice to making the score 2 – 0 at half time . Hill completed his hat trick on 51 minutes also Percy Downes make a notable performance scoring four of Stockport 's goals on this day . This record victory still stands as a Football League record today . Over the course of the 1933 – 34 season Alf Lythgoe scored 46 goals for Stockport . Both of these records still stand in the club 's history . Another first for Stockport was also seen during this season when Stockport 's 2 – 1 home defeat to Crystal Palace in the second round of the FA Cup was shown on television . Stockport finished third in this season .
The Main Stand of Edgeley Park , which in 1935 was made of wood , burned down in a fire , destroying all of Stockport County 's records before 1935 . Besides having to rebuild a significant section of the ground , the club had to piece together historical information . The current Main Stand , was built a year later in 1936 and officially opened by Charles Sutcliffe , then President of the Football League . In 1936 – 37 County won the Third Division North , gaining 60 points and 23 wins . Towards the end of this season , Stockport had a ten @-@ game unbeaten run that included seven victories before a last @-@ day title decider against Lincoln City in which more than 27 @,@ 000 fans watched . The following season , Stockport finished 22nd out of 22 in the Second Division and were relegated to Division 3 ( North ) after only earning 31 points .
During the 1939 – 40 season football was stopped following Britain 's declaration of war and was not resumed until the end of World War II . This was because most British men were sent to the army . Stockport played only two matches in the 1939 – 40 season before war was declared , losing both and being bottom of the league . Regional league competitions were set up ; appearances in these tournaments do not count in players ' official records . Due to teams having a depleting number of players most teams resigned from football , the clubs that were left to complete used guest players to make up their numbers . The FA Cup was also suspended and replaced with the Football League War Cup .
In the first war league after the outbreak of World War II ( 1940 – 41 ) Stockport finished in 35th place overall in the Northern Regional League after playing 29 games . League standings were calculated by goal average over the course of games played , with some teams playing more than others . In 1945 – 46 , English football still did not have a football season ; however , The FA Cup competition was resumed . Stockport was eliminated from the 1945 – 46 FA Cup in the first round after a 3 – 2 aggregate loss to Rochdale . The first post @-@ war league season 1946 – 47 saw Stockport finish fourth in Division 3 ( North ) with 24 wins and 50 points .
= = = 1950 – 1999 = = =
The 1950s brought little league success , but were notable for goal @-@ scoring by Jack Connor , whose 140 goals in five seasons are still a club record . These included 13 hat @-@ tricks ( three of which were consecutive – once against Crewe Alexandra and twice against Chester ) , two instances of four goals in a match ( against Workington and Carlisle United ) , and two of five goals in a match ( against Bradford Park Avenue and the Tranmere Rovers ) . When the regional Third Divisions were to be combined into national Third and Fourth Divisions after the 1957 – 58 campaign , Stockport finished in the top half of the Third Division North and so were placed in the following season 's national Third Division .
Stockport spent one season at this level before the club was demoted . Stockport played in the first League Cup competition in 1960 – 61 , beating Carlisle United in the first round , but the club was eliminated in the second round after a 3 – 0 defeat against Manchester City . Stockport survived re @-@ election in the 1964 – 65 season . After finishing bottom of the league with 27 points , the club was re @-@ elected by gaining 45 votes . During the 1964 – 65 season , then Stockport Chairman Vic Bernard re @-@ introduced the royal blue strip , colours they still play in . Two seasons later Stockport returned to Third Division by winning the Fourth Division in 1966 – 67 after gaining 64 points .
After the club was relegated in 1969 – 70 , the 1970s and 1980s consisted of little other than mediocrity and struggling against re @-@ election.In February 1984 Stockport competed in their first Associate Members ' Cup match against Crewe Alexandra in a competition their chairman at the time ' Dragan Lukic ' helped create . The matched finished 2 – 2 after extra time and as so was decided in a penalty shoot @-@ out ; the first in Stockport 's history . Stockport went on to lose 3 – 0 on penalties . The introduction of automatic promotion and relegation between the Football League and the Conference was not a good sign for Stockport , and in 1986 – 87 they had just six points from 13 games and faced a real prospect of non @-@ League football , exemplified by being eliminated from the FA Cup by Caernarfon Town . Colin Murphy was brought in for his second spell as manager . Stockport gained 45 points from their final 31 games and survived , although Murphy left shortly after the end of the season .
Danny Bergara was appointed as manager in March 1989 , quickly transforming the team , and automatic promotion was gained in 1990 – 91 . The next three seasons saw Stockport make the play @-@ offs , but failed to result in another promotion . In March 1995 Bergara was sacked after an altercation with then @-@ chairman Brendan Elwood , and Dave Jones was appointed manager in April of that year . A new all @-@ seater , Cheadle End , holding just over 5 @,@ 000 in capacity , was opened at the start of the 1995 – 96 season . Although this particular season was unremarkable , the club reached the third round of the FA Cup , where they faced holders Everton . Stockport reached a 2 – 2 draw with Everton at Goodison Park , and for the replay ten days later over 11 @,@ 000 gathered at Edgeley Park to witness Everton 's late winner in a 3 – 2 victory .
The 1996 – 97 campaign proved to be the most successful in the club 's history . They finished second in the Second Division and reached the semi @-@ final of the League Cup , knocking out three Premiership teams ( Blackburn Rovers , Southampton and West Ham United ) on the way before losing to Middlesbrough 2 – 1 on aggregate . Before the start of the 1997 – 98 season , Dave Jones left for Southampton . Gary Megson left Blackpool to take over as manager and in his first season Stockport finished eighth , just two places off the playoffs to reach the Premiership – the club 's best ever league placing .
However , the following 1998 – 99 season saw Stockport finish 16th , winning just 3 of their final 14 matches . A 5 – 0 defeat at relegated Oxford United on the final day signaled the end of Megson 's time at Edgeley Park . The club decided to promote from within and Andy Kilner was soon put in charge . He had an encouraging start to his management at County having defeated Manchester City , 2 – 1 at Maine Road ; And by Boxing Day the club were sixth , holding a playoff spot .
= = = 2000 – 2010 = = =
After their win over Manchester City , the team then went a club @-@ record 19 games without a victory , eventually finishing the 1999 – 2000 season 17th , with two late wins helping stave off relegation . The 2000 – 01 season saw them again narrowly avoid relegation , finishing 19th overall . The 2001 – 02 season turned out to be the club 's worst ever season at the time . With Stockport already bottom of the league , a 4 – 0 home defeat to Millwall saw manager Kilner sacked . Former England international Carlton Palmer was appointed in November 2001 . Palmer subsequently failed to stop Stockport being relegated in 2001 – 02 or to build a team capable of challenging for a return the next season .
The summer of 2003 saw the club change ownership , as Elwood sold the club to Sale Sharks owner Brian Kennedy in a move that would see Sale play their home games at Edgeley Park . A new company was created , called ' Cheshire Sport ' , which would have ownership of Stockport County , Sale Sharks and the Edgeley Park stadium . The 2003 – 04 season saw Palmer sacked after another poor start to the season , following home defeats to Hartlepool and Blackpool in the space of a week . John Hollins , who had been Director of Football during Palmer 's reign , took over as caretaker manager , but was replaced full @-@ time by former Northern Ireland manager Sammy McIlroy . Following more relegation worries , an 11 @-@ match unbeaten run saw the club again climb to safety at the end of the season . Sammy McIlroy continued as manager in the 2004 – 05 season ; poor results led to his sacking and the appointment of Chris Turner one year later .
2005 – 06 saw Stockport County change owners again . After reportedly losing £ 4m , Cheshire Sports chairman Brian Kennedy handed ownership of the club to the Supporters Trust , whose aim was to rescue the club from revenue loss , eventually break even and turn Stockport County into a community based football club . However , another relegation followed , and Turner resigned after one year in charge after a 6 – 0 defeat to local rivals Macclesfield Town that left County five points adrift of safety and facing a third relegation in four years .
Former player Jim Gannon was placed in charge , initially as caretaker @-@ manager . He led the club to safety in 2005 – 06 , and County sustained a promotion challenge the next season , eventually missing out on the League Two playoffs on goal difference . The club also set a new Football League record on 3 March 2007 when they beat Swindon Town 3 – 0 , recording nine consecutive wins without conceding a goal .
At the start of the 2007 – 08 season it was learned that former manager Danny Bergara had died . Stockport County continued their success , despite losing an FA Cup first round replay away to non @-@ League Staines Town on penalties . The early months of 2008 saw Stockport equal a league record of eight consecutive away victories . Approaching the end of the season , they had an outside chance to qualify for promotion automatically but missed out , finishing the season in fourth place . However , after beating Wycombe Wanderers 2 – 1 on aggregate in the play @-@ off semi @-@ final , Stockport played Rochdale at Wembley in the final , coming from behind to secure a 3 – 2 victory and earn promotion to League One for the next season .
During the 2008 – 09 season , Stockport defied the odds by challenging for a play @-@ off place , but their form dipped during the final months of the season , which saw them slip to mid @-@ table . Gannon was approached by Brighton & Hove Albion and the approach was accepted by Stockport , but after talks with the chairman of Brighton , Gannon rejected the job and stayed at Stockport .
On 30 April 2009 , Stockport County was placed into administration following a battle to repay creditors . This followed a petition by a creditor to repay a loan of around £ 300 @,@ 000 . The club had also struggled to repay a tax debt of £ 250 @,@ 000 to Her Majesty 's Revenue and Customs . On 16 December 2009 the team 's training ground was put up for sale .
On 12 June 2009 , Leonard Curtis , administrator of Stockport County Football Club , announced that they had agreed to terms with the Melrose Consortium for the sale of the club . Paul Reeves , one of the joint administrators , commented that , " Whilst a deal has been agreed , it is subject to the Melrose Consortium obtaining landlord approval . This is a positive step to safeguarding the club 's future . " The Melrose Consortium , consisting of " a group of businessmen with a sporting background " headed by ex Manchester City player Jim Melrose said , " We look forward to developing a fruitful relationship with Sale Sharks and Stockport Metropolitan Borough Council which will provide the basis for a successful future for Stockport County Football Club . "
The immediate aims of the Melrose Consortium were described as being to " ... guarantee football at Edgeley Park next season and to secure the services of redundant manager , and Stockport legend , Jim Gannon " . On 3 July 2009 Administrators agreed to a Company Voluntary Arrangement ( CVA ) with previous shareholders and creditors . Gannon took over as manager at Scottish Premier League side Motherwell , causing Stockport fans to worry that he would be poaching Stockport 's young players in the forthcoming weeks . Gary Ablett , former manager of Liverpool reserves , was appointed manager on 8 July 2009 following talks with the ( prospective ) new owners , although they had still not taken over , and in fact never did take over the club . In March 2010 it was announced that a new consortium , the ' 2015 Group ' , had been given exclusivity to work towards a takeover of the club .
= = = 2010 – present = = =
The 2015 Group was approved by the Football League at its May 2010 meeting , On 17 June 2010 at an 11pm press conference , the takeover of Stockport County by the group was announced . It was also revealed that Ablett had been relieved of his duties as manager after one season in charge , which saw the club relegated from the third division of the English Football League , ( League One ) , with five wins from 46 league matches . It was widely reported that Gannon , who was made redundant in April 2009 , would return to the club , but he decided to take a break from the game . Following the takeover of the club by the 2015 Group , the consortium pledged to " rebuild the club from top to bottom " .
On 12 July 2010 , former Carlisle United manager Paul Simpson was unveiled as Ablett 's successor as the new manager of the club at a press conference at Edgeley Park . Simpson 's assistant manager was Peter Ward , who was previously assistant manager at the club between 2005 and 2009 under Gannon , and who also played over 100 games for the club in the 1990s . On 4 January 2011 Simpson was sacked , his place taken by Peter Ward on a caretaker basis . Ward was replaced by Ray Mathias after 12 games and two wins . Stockport 's relegation from the Football League after 106 years was confirmed after a 2 – 0 away defeat against Crewe Alexandra .
The 2011 – 12 season started with the team appointing Ray Mathias as permanent manager . However , before any matches took place , he was replaced by former Liverpool , Newcastle United , Bayern Munich and German international midfielder Dietmar Hamann . This was after Liverpool @-@ based businessman Tony Evans attempted an ultimately unsuccessful takeover of the club .
Hamann did poorly , winning just three games out of 19 , and resigned in November citing the failed takeover as the reason . He was replaced by Gannon , who returned to the club as Director of Football and First Team Manager through the ' Your Town Your Team ' Group .
In Gannon 's first match back at the club , the team lost a match 2 – 1 to joint @-@ leaders Fleetwood Town , who achieved a record attendance in the fixture at Highbury . Gannon managed Stockport to their first back @-@ to @-@ back wins in over three years , since his last stint as manager , with successive 1 – 0 victories over Wrexham and Darlington . Gannon steered Stockport away from the drop zone , winning eight of the last 15 league games – when the side had only managed to win nine games throughout the whole of the 2010 – 11 campaign – to finish 16th in the final table . Gannon again focused on youth development , inducing young players such as Danny Whitehead , Cameron Darkwah , Danny Hattersley and Ian Ormson into the starting eleven . County regained sole tenancy of their Edgeley Park stadium for the first time in nine years from the beginning of the 2012 – 13 season , after Sale Sharks relocated for a second time , this time sharing with Salford City Reds at Barton .
On 15 January 2013 former fcbusiness magazine editor Ryan McKnight was named as the new Chief Executive Officer at the club , becoming the youngest CEO in UK football . Fourteen months into his second spell at Edgeley Park and with County in the relegation zone , Gannon was fired as Stockport County boss following the 3 – 1 home defeat by Mansfield Town on 16 January 2013 . He was replaced by Darije Kalezić , who initially saw an upturn in results , but left the position himself two months later following a poor run that left the club in serious danger of relegation to the Conference North . Ian Bogie in turn succeeded Kalezić , but was unable to turn the club 's form around , and they were relegated to the Conference North on the final day after a defeat to title challengers Kidderminster Harriers .
Former Vice @-@ Chairman Spencer Fear made an offer to the shareholders in later August 2013 , claiming that he would " write off his loans to the club , in exchange for the remaining shareholders to do likewise " . The board took this proposal on board and stated it was a beneficiary of the football club . Stockport gained one point from their first four games of the 2013 – 14 season , which led to Bogie 's resignation as manager on 31 August , with the club second @-@ bottom of the Conference North . Alan Lord then took charge of the team in a caretaker capacity . Ryan McKnight announced his resignation from the position of CEO at the football club on 8 April 2014 , stating he would leave in early May 2014 . Alan Lord remained in the manager 's position until he stepped down to become the club director of football , three games before the end of the 2014 – 15 season .
In the summer of 2015 Neil Young was named as Stockport 's new permanent manager after having previous successes and experience in the Conference North . He would however be sacked on 12 January 2016 ( along with other members of his backroom staff ) after a poor recent record . A week later Jim Gannon returned to Edgeley Park for a third spell as manager , following a successful period at Northwich Victoria .
= = Future aspirations = =
In February 2015 , The Stockport County board of directors issued an open statement about the future aspirations of the football club , named as the ' Moving Forward ' Document . This document focused on four key points- stability , sustainability , stadium and success @-@ and outlined the following aspirations for the next five years :
Return to the football league and full @-@ time status by 2020 . Potentially consider full @-@ time status upon return to the Conference National
Generate £ 1.5m in commercial revenue in the next five years
Have a credible plan in place to again own Edgeley Park :
Edgeley Park was purchased by the local authority five months after the ' moving forward ' document was released . Stockport County are currently still renting the ground
Acquire and develop a permanent training ground before 2020
Maintain regular communication with the Supporters Group
Edgeley Park being a protected asset and as such not being used to leverage debt against the club
= = Colours , crests and traditions = =
Stockport County 's traditional kit colours are blue and white , although they have played in other colours throughout their history . Originally competing in blue and white striped jerseys and white shorts , they experimented with red and white stripes in the early 1900s and from the mid @-@ 1930s to mid @-@ 1960s played in white jerseys and black shorts . No set pattern has been established for the club 's use of blue and white as main colours , as they have played at various times in a white jersey with a blue band and blue shorts and a blue jersey with white pin stripes and white shorts . They made a short experiment with an Argentina @-@ style kit , light blue and white stripes with black shorts , after the 1978 World Cup . This was abandoned after the outbreak of the Falklands War , and the club returned to blue and white striped tops with blue shorts in the 1980s . County marked their 125th anniversary during 2008 by bringing in a third kit – a gold colour with black trim . The kit was worn on 17 occasions , all away trips . The strip was retired ' undefeated ' at the end of the year , having been worn for 13 victories and 4 draws . The kit was also worn during a match against Chester City which was abandoned after 59 minutes .
The club crest , which was used for many years until 2010 when the club exited administration , was based on the achievement of arms of the Metropolitan Borough of Stockport . It was altered in 2006 to resemble the town 's arms more closely , including the Latin motto Animo et Fide , which loosely translated , means With Courage and Faith . The blue shield is taken from the coat of arms of the ' de Stokeport ' family , from whom Stockport derives its name . The twin @-@ towered castle above the shield is Stockport Castle , which stood until 1775 .
After the completion by the 2015 Group takeover of the club , a new crest was adopted . It was still based on the Stockport coat of arms , though the Animo et Fide motto was removed , along with a patch of green at the base of the badge ; the flag of Cheshire , featuring a sword and three wheatsheaves , replaced the golden lozenges and crosslets in the shield . The medals hanging from the lion 's rampant ( which represented Cheshire and Lancashire , owing to Stockport 's location astride the Mersey which forms the historic border between the two counties ) were removed . It also saw the return of a football on the shield . This change was made in part because as of the 2010 – 11 season , Stockport County was sponsored by the Metropolitan Borough Council .
The crest was altered in 2011 to re @-@ include the town motto . The new version added two white ribbons – one at the top , with Animo et Fide , and one at the bottom with Stockport County F.C .. In addition , the football was again removed from the shield . The Stockport County Supporters ' Co - Operative used the blue on white cross symbol from the 1978 badge as the main identifier in their company logo . County 's kit was supplied by local manufacturer Umbro who supplied all three of County 's kit for the 2013 – 14 season , replacing Nike , thus making County the only senior club in the UK to wear the Umbro strip in the 2013 – 14 season . For the start of the 2014 – 15 season , County again changed their kit manufacturer , this time from Umbro to Spanish @-@ based manufacturer Joma which supplied County with a new Home , Away and Third kit along with training wear .
= = = Kit manufacturers and main shirt sponsors = = =
= = Grounds = =
Heaton Norris Rovers originally played home matches at the Heaton Norris Recreation Ground , then at various locations in Stockport until settling at a park on Green Lane , Heaton Norris , in 1889 . The nearby Nursery Inn served as the team 's home , with players using a barn as changing rooms . Green lane remained the clubs home for its first two seasons in the Football League .
In 1902 the club required a larger ground and moved to Edgeley Park , then home of the rugby league club Stockport , who went out of business three years later . Green Lane was retained for use by the club 's reserve team , and one further first team game was played at the ground on 18 April 1903 when Edgeley Park was being used by the rugby club . The site was later used for housing . Stockport County have played home games at Edgeley Park since the start of the 1902 – 03 season , celebrating the centenary in 2002 .
In late 2000 the chairman considered moving the club to Maine Road , the former home of rivals Manchester City . The potential move was unpopular with supporters , and protests were staged after it was suggested that the club would change its name to Man @-@ Stock County after the move . Ultimately Manchester City Council decreed that Sale Sharks would make better tenants . Maine Road has since been demolished to make way for a housing estate and Edgeley Park was then shared with Sale whose Parent Company Cheshire Sports owned the ground .
There was one again rumour that Stockport would leave Edgeley Park in 2012 ; which was dismissed by then chairman Lord Peter Snape , before Sale Sharks confirmed that they would be moving to Salford City Reds ' new stadium . This meant that Stockport County would again be the only tenants at Edgeley Park , having sole use of the pitch and various revenue @-@ generating aspects of the stadium . The Stockport County board then negotiated a 65 % rent reduction in November 2012 . On 23 May 2012 , it was announced that Stockport County were to rename the Main Stand " The Danny Bergara Stand " in honour of the late Danny Bergara who managed the team during a successful period in the 1990s .
In the summer of 2015 , Stockport Metropolitan Borough Council purchased the stadium in order to prevent it from being demolished and redeveloped . After a plea from fans to safeguard the stadium , an emergency council meeting was held and the stadium was purchased for £ 2 million . It is currently leased back to the football club .
= = Support = =
With both Manchester United and Manchester City around 7 miles ( 11 km ) from Edgeley Park , Stockport County has always struggled for local support . During the mid @-@ 1960s , the Football League introduced a minimum admission price for all clubs in all four divisions , attempting to help boost revenue for lower clubs . It had the desired effect only in small towns miles from big city teams . It had the opposite effect in places like Stockport , where people had the choice of paying the same price on Saturday afternoon to stand on the terraces and watch Stockport or to watch Manchester City or Manchester United . Stockport devised a solution , moving all their home games to Friday evening kick @-@ offs , which generated larger crowds and extra business in surrounding pubs and restaurants . Still , during the 1998 – 99 season , crowds averaged around 20 @,@ 000 less than local rivals Manchester City , who were a division below Stockport at the time .
In 2004 , when the club notably attracted a crowd of more than 20 @,@ 000 for one of its tour matches in China . Both Manchester United and Barcelona achieved less in their subsequent tour matches in the country in the same year . Stockport were watched by 22 @,@ 000 in Yingkou against their then sister side Stockport Tiger Star whom they beat 4 – 0 . It is possible that this high attendance was a result of Stockport County 's association with their affiliate team , and Tiger Stars ' name change to include ' Stockport ' two years previously .
Although the club has had notable defeats from 2000 – 01 onwards , crowds have continued to be healthy . During the 2005 – 06 season , home attendances ( that is , given attendances minus away support ) increased slightly on the season before , helped by a 10 @,@ 006 crowd against Carlisle on the final day of the season . That game in particular attracted a large crowd as the town of Stockport supported its team at Edgeley Park . If Stockport had lost that particular game , they would have been relegated for the second successive season , and more significantly , would have been relegated from the Football League for the first time , an embarrassment as the team has competed continuously in the Football League since 1900 . Stockport eventually drew the game with Carlisle and survived the drop , while Carlisle themselves gained the league championship .
The 2006 – 07 season saw the club average the fourth highest average attendance in League Two , and was the highest average since the club 's last season in the First Division . The 2007 – 08 season saw a further increase in attendance . Away support increased due to a combination of lower ticket prices , improved results and the proximity of sides such as Bury , Rochdale and Macclesfield Town . During these games Stockport 's away support outnumbering home supporters on a number of occasions . Stockport County had an average away attendance of over 900 , the highest in the league . Only two teams in the league above surpassed this figure . Despite the club 's significant fall from League One to the Conference North , Stockport still attracted a large following , home attendances totalling 66 @,@ 356 for the 2014 – 15 season and an average of 2 @,@ 655 , despite a poor 11th @-@ place finish . The following season the club set a National League North record league attendance with 4 @,@ 797 people attending County 's home fixture with FC United on 5 December .
Vocally , the support from Stockport fans has often been cited by managers and players as inspirational and a huge boost to the team during play , with their influence likened to having a twelfth player on the field . Stockport supporters often receive praise from other players and managers , both at home and away , for their vocal support . Between the 2006 – 07 and 2009 – 10 seasons the squad number 12 was allocated to the ' Blue & White Army ' , in reference to the supporters being the team 's 12th man on matchdays . However , for the 2010 – 11 season , the number reverted to one of the players .
Stockport fans also have a wide variety of songs , being ranked sixth on FootballChants.org for the number of individual chants . Stockport County fans are known for singing the club 's anthem , " The Scarf My Father Wore " , and similar to Tottenham Hotspur fans , the " Blue & White Army " . In this chant the supporters sing the manager 's name , followed by " blue & white army " , as the team play in blue and white . Songs of the Cheadle End was a CD that a group of Stockport County fans recorded , containing 46 popular fan chants that spanned over four decades . The CD also contained the club 's anthem which was re @-@ recorded in 2011 .
Some famous Stockport County fans include BDO darts player Tony O 'Shea , singer @-@ songwriter Daz Sampson and Robin Richards from the band Dutch Uncles . O 'Shea writes an article in the club programme every home match and also wears the club colours in all of his televised darts matches . Sampson became a life member of the Stockport County Supporters Trust after he released " The County Song " , which pays tribute to Stockport County 's Football League record of nine consecutive wins without conceding a goal .
= = = Supporters ' groups = = =
Currently there are two active supporters ' groups which work in conjunction with each other : Help the Hatters is a group of unpaid volunteers who raise money for the club and help the maintenance and upkeep of Edgeley Park . They also helped organise the Players Fund , which is a fund used to buy ( or help pay wages ) of young players . In the past The Players Fund has helped in the development of Rhys Turner ( who earned a move to Oldham Athletic ) , Scott Duxbury , Bobby Lofthouse , Chris Churchman , Matthew Todd and Connor Hancock . The players fund is also used to give the Stockport County Supporters Co @-@ Operative shares in the football club
The Stockport County Supporters Co @-@ Operative ( Formerly The Stockport County Supporters Trust ) is the other active supporters ' group where there is a £ 12 annual membership fee . The Supporters Co @-@ Operative 's aim is to give the club 's greatest asset – the fans – a voice ; as well as a stake in the football club through its Guardian Account . The Supporters Co @-@ Op also assists in running the Stockport County Appearance Number ( SCAN ) Scheme where every player who has played a senior professional game is recognised with a unique framed certificate and a number which show their position in the list of players to make their debut for the club .
= = Rivalries = =
" Stockport County FC is keen to maintain good relations with all clubs – including those which its supporters don 't like very much . So you 'll have to ask County fans to name their rivals . "
As the two nearby Manchester clubs have rarely been in the same division as Stockport , there is very little rivalry with either club . Despite the two Manchester clubs attracting a number of supporters from the Stockport area , Stockport County had a rivalry with Manchester City between 1997 and 2002 , when the two clubs spent three out of five seasons in the same division and for one season Stockport were actually a division higher than City .
The 1997 – 98 season saw Stockport County and Manchester City meet in a Football League game for the first time in 88 years ; Stockport County were victors at home , beating Manchester City 3 – 1 , due to goals from Paul Cook , Alun Armstrong and Brett Angell . Manchester City defeated Stockport County 4 – 1 at Maine Road in the return fixture ; however , this did not prevent them from being relegated to the third tier , meaning that the 1998 – 99 season became the first season in which Stockport County competed at a higher level than Manchester City .
Rivalries were renewed in 1999 – 2000 following Manchester City 's promotion back to the second tier . Stockport County beat Manchester City at Maine Road for the first time in history ( 1999 – 2000 ) due to an equaliser from ex @-@ City youngster Alan Bailey and the winning goal from the penalty spot by Tony Dinning . Manchester City were also defeated by Stockport County in 2001 – 02 , when 2 late goals from John Hardiker meant that City were prevented from gaining 100 points in their quest for the Division One title . Stockport County and Manchester City met six times between 1997 and 2002 , with Stockport County winning three times , losing once and drawing twice .
In their days in the Football League the club has had local rivalries with Oldham Athletic , Crewe Alexandra , Bury , Rochdale and Macclesfield Town . For historical reasons , County 's main rivalries are with more distant neighbours Burnley and Stoke City . The rivalries with Burnley and Stoke City are largely fueled by meetings in the early 1990s , including the Football League play @-@ offs final and Football League Trophy final being played against each club respectively – both of which Stockport lost .
According to the last Football Fans Census in 2003 , Burnley , Manchester City and Stoke City are cited as Stockport County fans ' biggest rivals . This would no longer be the case , as a little over a decade later Stockport has fallen into non @-@ league football whilst all three of their supposed rivals were in the Premier League ( Manchester City being champions in 2012 and 2014 ) . In the club 's present league , their closest geographical rivals would be Curzon Ashton , Stalybridge Celtic and FC United .
= = Players = =
As of 23 May 2016 .
= = = Current squad = = =
See also : Category : Stockport County F.C. players
Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality .
= = = Hall of Fame = = =
This list contains the names of all past players / club staff that have been inducted into the Stockport County Hall of Fame .
= = Owners and club board = =
= = = Club board = = =
1 ^ Steve Bellis and George Hudson are responsible for the day @-@ to @-@ day running of the football club in a voluntary capacity .
= = Technical staff = =
= = = Current coaching staff = = =
= = = Top 10 managers of the club 's history = = =
Based on win % in all competitions
* Stats correct as of 20 March 2016
= = First team honours = =
Honours are correct as of the end of the 2015 – 16 Season .
= = = Football League = = =
Football League Second Division / Football League One
Runners Up : 1996 @-@ 97
Football League Third Division North
Champions : 1921 – 22 , 1936 – 37
Runners up : 1928 @-@ 29 , 1929 – 30
Football League Fourth Division / Football League Two
Champions : 1966 – 67
Runners Up : 1990 @-@ 91
Play @-@ Off Winners : 2007 – 08
Division Three ( North ) Challenge Cup
Winners : 1934 – 35
= = = Other Competitions = = =
Lancashire League
Champions : 1899 – 1900
Lancashire Combination
Champions : 1904 – 05
Manchester Senior Cup
Winners : 1897 – 98 , 1898 – 99 , 1914 – 15 , 1922 – 23
Cheshire Medal Winners :
1922 – 23 , 1924 – 25 , 1928 – 29 , 1929 – 30 , 1930 – 31
Cheshire Bowl Winners :
1933 – 34 , 1948 – 49 , 1952 – 53 , 1955 – 56 , 1956 – 57 @,@ 1958 – 59 , 1960 – 61 , 1962 – 63
Cheshire Friendly Trophy Winners :
1965 – 66 , 1966 – 67
Cheshire Premier Cup
Winners : 1969 – 70 , 1970 – 71 , 2010 – 11
Cheshire Senior Cup
Winners : 1905 @-@ 06 , 1946 – 47 , 1948 – 49 , 1965 – 66 , 2015 – 16
= = = Youth Competitions = = =
Puma Football League Youth Alliance Cup
Winners : 2006 – 07
The Umbro Cup
Winners : 2007
Lancashire FA Under @-@ 18 Floodlit League
Winners : 2015 @-@ 16
= = Club records & Statistics = =
= = = Team records = = =
Biggest home win : 13 – 0 vs. Halifax Town , 6 January 1934 , also a Football League record
Biggest home defeat : 0 – 6 , twice , most recently 24 April 2010 vs. Huddersfield Town
Biggest away win : 7 – 1 at Bradford City , 18 September 1965
Biggest away defeat : 0 – 9 , vs. Everton Reserves
Consecutive wins : 9 , 2006 – 07
Consecutive away wins : 8 , 2007 – 08
Consecutive wins without conceding a goal : 9 , 2006 – 07 , also a Football League record
Consecutive defeats : 12 , 2009 – 10
Consecutive games scored in : 30 , 2007 – 08
Consecutive League games scored in : 26 , 2007 – 08
Highest attendance : 27 @,@ 833 vs. Liverpool , 11 February 1950
Highest attendance ( all @-@ seated ) : 10 @,@ 273 vs. Leeds United , 28 December 2008
Lowest attendance : 812 vs. Barrow , 19 November 2013
Longest match : 3 hours 23 minutes vs. Doncaster Rovers , 30 March 1946 , also a world record
Lowest number of paying spectators : 13 vs. Leicester City ( at Old Trafford , 7 May 1921 ) also a Football League record * .
* It is estimated that between 1 @,@ 000 and 2 @,@ 000 people actually attended the match ; Manchester United and Derby County had played immediately beforehand , and some spectators for that match had stayed on to watch the Stockport match for free . However , only 13 people paid at the gate to watch the Stockport match by itself .
= = = Player records = = =
Most goals ( season ) : 46 League by Alf Lythgoe , 1933 – 34
Most goals ( career ) : 132 by Jack Connor ( 1951 – 1956 )
Most appearances ( career ) : 555 Andy Thorpe ( 1978 – 1986 , 1988 – 1992 )
Most international appearances ( caps ) – 9 Jarkko Wiss , Finland ( 2000 – 2002 )
Youngest player : Paul Turnbull , aged 16 years 97 days v Wrexham , 30 April 2005
Oldest player : Alec Herd , aged 47 years 40 days vs. Crewe Alexandra , 25 December 1951
Most consecutive clean sheets : 9 by Wayne Hennessey , 2006 – 07 , coinciding with league record for consecutive wins
= = = League pyramid statistics = = =
As of season 2015 – 16
Seasons spent at Level 1 of the football league system : 0
Seasons spent at Level 2 of the football league system : 26
Seasons spent at Level 3 of the football league system : 40
Seasons spent at Level 4 of the football league system : 33
Seasons spent at Level 5 of the football league system : 2
Seasons spent at Level 6 of the football league system : 3
= = = Nine game winning run = = =
Stockport County hold the record for winning nine Football League matches without conceding a goal . This record ran from January to March 2007 , when manager Jim Gannon led the club to the best form shown by a football club in Football League history . This final match in this nine match run was a 3 – 0 home win against Swindon Town .
Wayne Hennessey , who was on loan to Stockport at the time from Wolves , kept all the clean sheets in his first nine games in professional football . He made his footballing debut against Boston United where Stockport won 2 – 0 . During this time , Hennessey received the League Two Player of the Month Award , The other players involved in matches during the record @-@ breaking run are as follows : Robert Clare , Michael Rose , Ashley Williams , Gareth Owen , Stephen Gleeson , Jason Taylor , Adam Griffin , David Poole , Damien Allen , Anthony Pilkington , Tony Dinning , Dominic Blizzard , Liam Dickinson , Adam Proudlock , Tes Bramble and Anthony Elding .
= Grand Crimean Central Railway =
The Grand Crimean Central Railway was a military railway built in 1855 during the Crimean War by Great Britain . Its purpose was to supply ammunition and provisions to Allied soldiers engaged in the siege of Sevastopol who were stationed on a plateau between Balaklava and Sevastopol . It also carried the world 's first hospital train .
The railway was built at cost and without any contract by a partnership of English railway contractors led by Samuel Morton Peto . Within three weeks of the arrival of the fleet carrying materials and men the railway had started to run and in seven weeks 7 miles ( 11 km ) of track had been completed . The railway was a major factor leading to the success of the siege . After the end of the war the track was sold and removed .
= = The start of the siege = =
Britain and France declared war on Russia on 28 March 1854 in support of the Ottoman Empire . By the late summer of 1854 the British , led by Lord Raglan , with their French and Turkish allies decided that a siege of the Black Sea port of Sevastopol , held by the Russians , would be the best method of forcing an end to the war .
After landing their forces to the north of Sevastopol , the British set up a base in the narrow harbour of Balaclava , about 8 miles ( 13 km ) south of Sevastopol , in September 1854 . Most of the land between Balaclava and Sevastopol was a plateau about 600 feet ( 183 m ) above sea level . The towns were connected by a road which was little more than a track . This travelled northwards , rising slightly to the village of Kadikoi about 1 mile ( 2 km ) from Balaclava . It then turned west , climbing steeply to the plateau via the Col of Balaclava . The French were supplied from the harbour at Kamiesch .
During the early part of October , the British troops with their supplies and artillery made their way with difficulty up the road to prepare for the siege . When they were all in place the First Bombardment took place , starting on October 17 . It had been expected that the bombardment would be effective and that the siege would be short @-@ lived ; certainly over before the winter . However , the Russians blew up one of the French magazines and the damage done by British gunfire was soon repaired . The British were running out of ammunition and supplies , winter was approaching and with the onset of bad weather the road became virtually impassable . Supplies were arriving at the crowded port of Balaclava but it was impossible to convey them to the besieging troops who were increasingly suffering from disease , frostbite and malnutrition . Conditions in Balaclava itself were also deteriorating .
= = Towards a railway = =
News of these conditions was relayed to Britain , mainly by William Howard Russell , special correspondent of The Times . Hearing the news , Samuel Morton Peto , one of the leading railway contractors of the day , offered with his partners Edward Betts and Thomas Brassey , to build at cost , without any contract or personal advantage , a railway to transport supplies from the port of Balaclava to the troops outside Sevastopol . They promised to have a railroad at work in three weeks after landing at Balaclava . The offer was accepted and the contractors began to obtain supplies , to purchase or hire ships , and to recruit the men , who included specialists and navvies . The fleet set sail on December 21 and arrived at the beginning of February .
Meanwhile , James Beatty , who had played an important part in working with Peto 's partnership to build the European and North American Railway , was recruited as chief engineer . The line was surveyed by Donald Campbell , who had also worked on the European and North American Railway . Campbell 's first task was to create a wharf at Balaclava where the railway materials could be unloaded , with a yard adjacent . He planned for the track to pass along the middle of the main street of the town . It then went through a gorge at the north of the town close to the water 's edge and over swampy ground to the village of Kadikoi . From here , the railway had to rise some 500 feet ( 152 m ) to the top of the plateau . Of the routes available , Campbell chose to follow the existing road . Although at parts its gradient was as steep as 1 in 7 , Campbell managed find a route with a maximum gradient of 1 in 14 . A stationary engine would be required at the top of this stretch to pull the railway carriages up the incline . Once on the plateau , the ground was rough but fairly level and here it presented fewer problems . Lord Raglan 's headquarters were at the top of the col , and it was decided that a depot should be constructed here .
= = Construction = =
By February 8 , 1855 , less than a week after landing , the navvies were laying the first rails in the main street of Balaclava . A trial assembly of the stationary engines ( two had been acquired in case of the failure of one of them ) was made and on February 10 they were working . By the 13th , the railway had reached a point 300 yards ( 274 m ) from the town and on the 19th it was at Kadikoi . It began to function on the 23rd when horse @-@ drawn supplies were taken from Balaclava to Kadikoi . This was 15 days after starting to lay the first rails and about three weeks after the arrival of the fleet in the port . The railway yard in Balaclava was being extended and accommodation was being built for the workers and for storage of materials . By March 26 the line was complete to the top of the col and the first load was taken to the headquarters depot . By this time , the line had been double tracked from Balaclava to Kadikol and various sidings had been constructed near the wharf . In less than seven weeks 7 miles ( 11 km ) of track had been laid .
During this time the pioneer photographer Roger Fenton had arrived and he recorded the railway and its progress . On April 2 , the railway was used to carry the sick and injured from the plateau down to Balaclava . It has been argued that this was the first hospital train ever to run . Also during this time , Colonel William McMurdo had been appointed to be in charge of a new department of the army , the Land Transport Corps . He arrived in the Crimea in early March , and one of his duties was to take over the operation of the railway from the contractors . It was finally handed over by Peto , Brassey and Betts in early July .
= = The war continues = =
The existence of the railway meant that sufficient supplies and armaments had been transported to the plateau for the allies to resume their attack . The Second Bombardment started on April 9 and continued for ten days . Initially , little progress seemed to have been made because again the Russians were able to repair the damage caused , and the Russians continued to deliver supplies to Sevastopol from the north . However , they had sustained heavy casualties . Following a period of stalemate , Allied forces cut off one of the main Russian supply lines at Kerch on May 24 .
The increased supply of ammunition meant that the Allies were able to mount the Third Bombardment on June 6 . This was much more intensive than the previous ones . It was followed by an assault on the 7th and 8th , which met with a limited degree of success . More supplies were brought by the railway and the Fourth Bombardment took place on June 17 . The subsequent attack was mismanaged and was a failure .
= = The end of the siege = =
The Russians suffered a significant defeat at the Battle of the Tchernaya on August 16 . The Fifth Bombardment took place for five days from the 17th with the intention of destroying as many Russian defence works as possible . The Sixth Bombardment was followed by a successful Allied attack on September 8 , bringing the siege to an end two days later .
During the summer , further surveys had been carried out with the intention of supplying not just the British forces , but also their French and Sardinian allies ( Sardinia had joined the war towards the end of 1854 ) by rail from Balaclava . At this time electric telegraphy by underwater cable was first used in warfare , connecting the Crimea to the Allies ' base at Varna in Bulgaria .
= = Locomotives and more lines = =
Locomotives were used , the first one running by November 8 , but this was too late to affect the outcome of the siege . The locomotives were not effective because they could not manage even the easy gradient from Balaclava to Kadikoi with more than a light load . Five second @-@ hand locomotives , purchased by the contractors from collieries and railway companies in England , are known to have arrived . Alliance and Victory were two small 0 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 saddle tanks built by E. B. Wilson & Co of Leeds in 1854 / 5 ; two from the London & North Western Railway , Nos 13 and 50 , were 2 @-@ 2 @-@ 0 Bury @-@ type passenger engines built by Benjamin Hick & Son of Bolton in 1838 and 1840 ; the fifth locomotive was Swan from the St Helens Canal & Railway Co , but its details remain obscure .
James Beatty left the Crimea in November to return to England , a sick man , and Donald Campbell took over . Earlier in September Her Majesty 's Floating Factory Chasseur arrived at Balaclava to provide an engineering service under the direction of Robert Frazer . A third stationary engine also arrived . Due to the haste in which the railway had been constructed , it was in danger of being severely damaged by the weather of the coming winter . William Doyne organised the building of new lines of a superior quality , again in a short time . By November 10 , 6 @.@ 5 miles ( 10 km ) of track had been laid between Balaclava and the British headquarters . The lines towards the Sardinian and French headquarters were also advancing .
= = Towards the end of the war = =
Towards and during the second winter , the supplies carried by the railway were different . The siege had ended , carriage of ammunition was less important , and the supplies related more to the accommodation and comfort of the troops . These included huts to replace tents , clothing , food , books and medical supplies . Colonel McMurdo also left the Crimea as a sick man on December 1 , passing the control of the railway to Colonel Edward Wetherall . Following the completion of the Sardinian branch , the railway had reached its limit . In all , it measured about 14 miles ( 23 km ) plus a few miles of sidings and loops .
Sevastopol lay in ruins after the end of the siege . Tsar Nicholas I died on 2 March 1855 , and peace negotiations were opened by the new Tsar , Alexander II . Hostilities ended between the Allies and the Russians on 29 February 1856 and the Treaty of Paris was signed on 30 March 1856 . The Russians sold the track to the Turks soon after the war ended . The rails had already been uprooted and taken away , and the railway ceased to exist
= = Argentina myth = =
A now @-@ discounted popular legend claims that two steam engines from the Crimean line went on to a new life on the newly started Buenos Ayres Western Railway in Argentina . According to the myth this is reason many railways in Argentina were built to " Indian Gauge " of 5 ' 6 " , which the builders of the Grand Crimean Central Railway had supposedly chosen as it enabled them to requisition for use in Crimea available engines and rolling stock which had already been built for lines in India . Research in the 1950s showed that this story is untenable . Contemporary information shows that the Crimean railway was standard gauge , despite subsequent rumours that it was 5 ' 3 " Irish gauge or 5 ' 6 " Indian gauge , while Argentina 's neighbours Chile and Paraguay had already adopted 5 ' 6 " gauge . The works number of the two Argentine steam engines , N ° 1 " La Porteña " ( on display at the Provincial Transport Museum in Luján , ) and N ° 2 " La Argentina " , show that they left manufacturer E. B. Wilson and Company of Leeds in 1856 , after the demolition of the Crimea railway had already begun . Their dimensions and characteristics would have been unsuitable for the steep gradients in Balaclava , and technical considerations would have prevented their conversion from standard to broad gauge .
On the other hand contemporary reports claim that engines from the GCCR went to Argentina ; see for instance Richard Francis Burton who mentions in his " Letters From the Battlefields of Paraguay " ( 1870 ) [ 1 ] that the train he travelled in was pulled by an " asthmatic little engine — which , after serving its time upon the Balaklava line , and being condemned as useless at Buenos Aires , had been shipped off to Paraguay "
= Beaune Altarpiece =
The Beaune Altarpiece ( c . 1445 – 50 ) , often called The Last Judgement , is a large polyptych altarpiece by the Flemish artist Rogier van der Weyden . It was painted in oil on oak panels , with parts later transferred to canvas . It consists of fifteen paintings on nine panels ; six are painted on both sides . It retains some of its original frames .
Six outer panels ( or shutters ) are hinged , when folded they show an exterior view of saints and the donors . The inner panels contain scenes from the Last Judgement and are arranged across two registers . The large central panel that spans both registers shows Christ seated on a rainbow in judgement , with his feet resting on a golden globe . Below him the Archangel Michael holds scales as he weighs souls . The panel on Christ 's far right shows the gates of Heaven , that to his far left the entrance to Hell . The panels of the lower register form a continuous landscape , with figures depicted moving from the central panel to their final destinations after receiving judgement .
The altarpiece was commissioned in 1443 for the Hospices de Beaune by Nicolas Rolin , Chancellor of the Duchy of Burgundy , and his wife Guigone de Salins , who is buried in front of the altarpiece 's original location in the hospice . It is one of van der Weyden 's most ambitious works , equal to his Prado Deposition and lost Justice of Trajan and Herkinbald . It remains in the hospice today , although not in its original position . It is in poor condition and was moved in the 20th century to shield it from sunlight and better protect it from the almost 300 @,@ 000 visitors it receives annually . It has suffered from extensive paint loss , the wearing and darkening of its colours , and an accumulation of dirt . In addition , a heavy layer of over @-@ paint was applied during restoration . The two painted sides of the outer panels have been separated so both can be shown simultaneously ; traditionally , the shutters would have been opened only on selected Sundays or church holidays .
= = Commission and hospice = =
Nicolas Rolin was appointed Chancellor of Burgundy by Philip the Good in 1422 , a position he held for the next 33 years . His tenure with the duke made him a wealthy man , and he donated a large portion of his fortune for the foundation of the Hôtel @-@ Dieu in Beaune . It is not known why he decided to build in Beaune rather than in his birthplace of Autun . He may have chosen Beaune because it lacked a hospital and an outbreak of the plague decimated the population between 1438 and 1440 . Furthermore , when in 1435 the Treaty of Arras failed to bring a cessation to the longstanding hostility and animosity between Burgundy and France , the town suffered brutal ravages and famine from écorcheurs ( marauding bands ) who roamed the countryside during the late 1430s and early 1440s . The hospice was built after Rolin gained permission from Pope Eugene IV in 1441 , and it was eventually consecrated on 31 December 1452 . In conjunction , Rolin established the religious order of " Les sœurs hospitalières de Beaune " . Rolin dedicated the hospice to St Anthony Abbot , who was commonly associated with sickness and healing during the Middle Ages .
In the hospice 's founding charter , signed in August 1443 , Rolin wrote that " disregarding all human concerns and in the interest of my salvation , desiring by a favourable trade to exchange for celestial goods temporal ones , that I might from divine goodness render those goods which are perishable for ones which are eternal ... in gratitude for the goods which the Lord , source of all wealth , has heaped upon me , from now on and for always , I found a hospital . " In the late 1450s , only a few years before he died , he added a provision to the hospital charter stipulating that the Mass for the Dead be offered twice daily . Rolin 's wife , Guigone de Salins , played a major role in the foundation , as probably did his nephew Jan Rolin . De Salins lived and served at the hospice until her own death in 1470 .
Documents regarding the artwork 's commissioning survive and , unusually for a Netherlandish altarpiece , the artist , patron , place of installation and date of completion are all known . It was intended as the centrepiece for the chapel , and Rolin approached van der Weyden around 1443 , when the hospital was founded . The altarpiece was ready by 1451 , the year the chapel was consecrated . Painted in van der Weyden 's Brussels workshop – most likely with the aid of apprentices – the completed panels were then transported to the hospice . The altarpiece is first mentioned in a 1501 inventory , when it was positioned on the high altar .
The polyptych was commissioned to provide both comfort and warning to the dying . It was intended to remind them of their faith , and direct their last thoughts towards the divine . This is evident in its positioning in the chapel , within view of the patients ' beds . Rolin specified that 30 beds be placed within sight of the altarpiece for those too ill to walk , where it was visible to them through a pierced screen . There were usually only two patients per bed , luxurious at a time when six to fifteen in a large bed was more common . Medical care was expensive and primitive in the 15th century ; the spiritual care of patients was as important as the treatment of physical ailments .
Saints Sebastian and Anthony represent healing . Both were associated with bubonic plague , and intended to reassure the dying as intercessors with the divine . St Michael developed a cult following in 15th @-@ century France , most likely because he was thought to have appeared to Joan of Arc . He was seen as a guardian of the dead , a crucial role given the disasters wrought by plague in the region . There was a severe outbreak in 1441 – 42 , just before Rolin founded the hospital . Pilgrimage to Mont Saint @-@ Michel , Normandy reached a peak around this time . According to Barbara Lane , patients were unlikely to survive their stay , yet St Michael offered consolation as they could " gaze on his figure immediately above the altar of the chapel every time the altarpiece was opened
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life achieve redemption through his child ? " Hanks described Sullivan as a man who achieved a comfortable status through violent means , whose likely repercussions he ignored . Sullivan is a good father and husband , but also has a job that requires him to be a violent killer . The film explores this paradoxical dichotomy . When Sullivan is faced with the consequences , Hanks says , " At the moment we 're dropped into the story , it is literally the last day of that false perspective . " To keep Sullivan from justifying his violent actions in the film , Mendes omitted scenes in the final cut that had Sullivan explaining his background to his son .
In the film , most of the numerous acts of violence are committed off @-@ screen . The violent acts were also designed to be quick , reflecting the actual speed of violence in the real world . The focus was not on the direct victims of the perpetuated violence , but the impact of violence on the perpetrators or witnesses to the act .
= = = Fathers and sons = = =
The film also explores father @-@ son relationships , not only between Michael Sullivan and his son , but between Sullivan and his boss , John Rooney , and between Rooney and Connor . Sullivan simultaneously idolizes and fears Rooney , and Sullivan 's son feels the same about his own father . Rooney 's son , Connor , has none of Sullivan 's redeeming qualities , and Rooney is conflicted about whom to protect : his biological son or his surrogate son . Connor is jealous of his father 's relationship with Sullivan , which fuels his actions , ultimately causing a domino effect that drives the film .
Because Sullivan shields his background from his son , his attempt to preserve the father @-@ son relationship is actually harmful . Tragedy brings Sullivan and his son together . Sullivan escapes from the old world with his son , and the boy finds an opportunity to strengthen the relationship with his father . Tyler Hoechlin , who portrayed Michael , Jr . , explained , " His dad starts to realize that Michael is all he has now and how much he 's been missing . I think the journey is of a father and son getting to know each other , and also finding out who they themselves are . "
= = = Water = = =
Water served as a motif in the film . It was developed after researching the wake scene at the beginning of the film informed the director that corpses were kept on ice in the 1920s to keep bodies from decomposing . The notion was interwoven into the film , which linked the presence of water with death . Mendes reflected on the theme , " The linking of water with death ... speaks of the mutability of water and links it to the uncontrollability of fate . These are things that humans can 't control . "
= = Release = =
When filming concluded in June 2001 , the studio intended a United States release for the following Christmas . But by September 2001 , Mendes requested more time . It was rescheduled for release on July 12 , 2002 , an unconventional move that placed the drama among the action @-@ oriented summer films .
= = = Box office = = =
Road to Perdition opened in 1 @,@ 798 theaters over its opening weekend , competing against several other new releases including Reign of Fire , Halloween : Resurrection , and The Crocodile Hunter : Collision Course , and grossed $ 22 @,@ 079 @,@ 481 , placing second to Men in Black II , which was in its second week of release . It eventually grossed $ 104 @,@ 454 @,@ 762 in the United States and $ 76 @,@ 546 @,@ 716 in other territories for a worldwide total of $ 181 @,@ 001 @,@ 478 .
= = = Reception = = =
The film received positive reviews and acclaim from critics , with the lead performances of Hanks and Newman being praised . Reviewer James Berardinelli , on his own ReelViews web site , praised Road to Perdition for its atmosphere and visuals , but he considered an emotional attachment to be lacking except for Sullivan 's son . Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times praised Hall 's cinematography and the thematic use of water . He , too , felt an emotional detachment from the characters , saying , " I knew I admired it , but I didn 't know if I liked it ... It is cold and holds us outside . "
Eleanor Ringel Gillespie of The Atlanta Journal @-@ Constitution enjoyed the film 's cinematography and Depression @-@ era setting , as well as the performances of Hanks and Newman . Gillespie expressed the wish that the film lasted a little longer to explore its emotional core further . Eric Harrison of the Houston Chronicle considered Road to Perdition " the most brilliant work in this [ gangster ] genre " since the uncut Once Upon a Time in America ( 1984 ) . Harrison considered Self 's script " so finely honed that the story can change directions in a heartbeat . "
Kirk Honeycutt of The Hollywood Reporter praised Hanks , Newman , and Craig but called Law 's performance " almost cartoonish " . Peter Travers of Rolling Stone also complimented Hanks and Newman : " [ They ] act together with the confidence of titans , their talents in the service of character , never star ego . " Travers cited Hall 's " breathtaking " cinematography and composer Thomas Newman 's " evocative " score .
Paul Clinton of CNN said : " While these deeply human issues are touched upon , they 're never fully explored , and that undermines the sense of greatness to which this movie obviously aspires . Clinton considered Craig 's character " one @-@ dimensional to the extreme " . He found the cinematography too overpowering for the film 's storyline , which he considered " weak " . J. Hoberman of The Village Voice described the film as " grim yet soppy . " He added : " The action is stilted and the tabloid energy embalmed . " Stephen Hunter of The Washington Post thought that the script lost its path when Sullivan and his son fled their old life .
Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a score of 81 % based on reviews from 210 critics , with an average score of 7 @.@ 5 / 10 . Metacritic , which assigns a weighted average score out of 100 from reviews by mainstream critics , gave a film rating of 72 / 100 based on 36 reviews .
= = = Accolades = = =
Road to Perdition was nominated for six Academy Awards : Best Supporting Actor ( Paul Newman ) , Best Art Direction , Best Cinematography ( Conrad L. Hall ) , Best Original Score ( Thomas Newman ) , Best Sound ( Scott Millan , Bob Beemer and John Pritchett ) , and Best Sound Editing ( Scott Hecker ) . The sole award went , posthumously , to Hall for Cinematography .
The film was also nominated for BAFTA Awards for Best Performance by an Actor in a Supporting Role ( Newman ) , Best Cinematography , and Best Production Design , winning awards for the latter two . Hall also won an award from the American Society of Cinematographers for Outstanding Achievement in Cinematography in Theatrical Releases . In April 2006 , Empire recognized Road to Perdition as number six in its list of the top 20 comic book films .
= = = Home media = = =
Max Allan Collins , who authored the graphic novel , was hired to write the novelization for the film adaptation . Collins initially turned in a draft that contained 90 @,@ 000 words , but the licensing at DreamWorks required the author to use only the dialogue from the film and no additional dialogue . Collins reluctantly edited the novelization down to 50 @,@ 000 words and later said he regretted taking on the task .
Road to Perdition was released on DVD on February 25 , 2003 , in both full screen and anamorphic widescreen versions . The DVD 's features included an audio commentary , deleted scenes , an HBO " Making of " documentary , and a photo gallery . Work on the DVD began on the same day the film 's production began , and a collaborative effort among the director , the studio , and the DVD production crew shaped the DVD 's content . Due to a limit of space on the DVD , the film 's deleted scenes were chosen over a DTS soundtrack . Instead , the DVD included a Dolby Digital 5 @.@ 1 soundtrack . A special edition DVD containing both DTS and Dolby Digital 5 @.@ 1 soundtracks was also released , excluding the " Making of " documentary to fit both soundtracks .
Road to Perdition was released on Blu @-@ ray Disc on August 3 , 2010 , featuring a widescreen transfer , a DTS @-@ HD Master Audio 5 @.@ 1 soundtrack , and all of the features from the DVD release .
= Andromeda ( constellation ) =
Andromeda is one of the 48 constellations listed by the 2nd @-@ century Greco @-@ Roman astronomer Ptolemy and remains one of the 88 modern constellations . Located north of the celestial equator , it is named for Andromeda , daughter of Cassiopeia , in the Greek myth , who was chained to a rock to be eaten by the sea monster Cetus . Andromeda is most prominent during autumn evenings in the Northern Hemisphere , along with several other constellations named for characters in the Perseus myth . Because of its northern declination , Andromeda is visible only north of 40 ° south latitude ; for observers farther south it lies below the horizon . It is one of the largest constellations , with an area of 722 square degrees . This is over 1 @,@ 400 times the size of the full moon , 55 % of the size of the largest constellation , Hydra , and over 10 times the size of the smallest constellation , Crux .
Its brightest star , Alpha Andromedae , is a binary star that has also been counted as a part of Pegasus , while Gamma Andromedae is a colorful binary and a popular target for amateur astronomers . Only marginally dimmer than Alpha , Beta Andromedae is a red giant , its color visible to the naked eye . The constellation 's most obvious deep @-@ sky object is the naked @-@ eye Andromeda Galaxy ( M31 , also called the Great Galaxy of Andromeda ) , the closest spiral galaxy to the Milky Way and one of the brightest Messier objects . Several fainter galaxies , including M31 's companions M110 and M32 , as well as the more distant NGC 891 , lie within Andromeda . The Blue Snowball Nebula , a planetary nebula , is visible in a telescope as a blue circular object .
In Chinese astronomy , the stars that make up Andromeda were members of four different constellations that had astrological and mythological significance ; a constellation related to Andromeda also exists in Hindu mythology . Andromeda is the location of the radiant for the Andromedids , a weak meteor shower that occurs in November .
= = History and mythology = =
The uranography of Andromeda has its roots most firmly in the Greek tradition , though a female figure in Andromeda 's location had appeared earlier in Babylonian astronomy . The stars that make up Pisces and the middle portion of modern Andromeda formed a constellation representing a fertility goddess , sometimes named as Anunitum or the Lady of the Heavens .
Andromeda is known as " the Chained Lady " or " the Chained Woman " in English . It was known as Mulier Catenata ( " chained woman " ) in Latin and al @-@ Mar 'at al Musalsalah in Arabic . It has also been called Persea ( " Perseus 's wife " ) or Cepheis ( " Cepheus 's daughter " ) , all names that refer to Andromeda 's role in the Greco @-@ Roman myth of Perseus , in which Cassiopeia , the queen of Ethiopia , bragged that her daughter was more beautiful than the Nereids , sea nymphs blessed with incredible beauty . Offended at her remark , the nymphs petitioned Poseidon to punish Cassiopeia for her insolence , which he did by commanding the sea monster Cetus to attack Ethiopia . Andromeda 's panicked father , Cepheus , was told by the Oracle of Ammon that the only way to save his kingdom was to sacrifice his daughter to Cetus . She was chained to a rock by the sea but was saved by the hero Perseus , who used the head of Medusa to turn the monster into stone ; Algol ( β Persei ) , the " Demon Star " , marks the head of Medusa . Perseus and Andromeda then married ; the myth recounts that the couple had nine children together – seven sons and two daughters – and founded Mycenae and its Persideae dynasty . After Andromeda 's death Athena placed her in the sky as a constellation , to honor her . Several of the neighboring constellations ( Perseus , Cassiopeia , Cetus , and Cepheus ) also represent characters in the Perseus myth . It is connected with the constellation Pegasus .
Andromeda was one of the original 48 constellations formulated by Ptolemy in his 2nd @-@ century Almagest , in which it was defined as a specific pattern of stars . She is typically depicted with α Andromedae as her head , ο and λ Andromedae as her chains , and δ , π , μ , Β , and γ Andromedae representing her body and legs . However , there is no universal depiction of Andromeda and the stars used to represent her body , head , and chains . Arab astronomers were aware of Ptolemy 's constellations , but they included a second constellation representing a fish at Andromeda 's feet . Several stars from Andromeda and most of the stars in Lacerta were combined in 1787 by German astronomer Johann Bode to form Frederici Honores ( also called Friedrichs Ehre ) . It was designed to honor King Frederick II of Prussia , but quickly fell into disuse . Since the time of Ptolemy , Andromeda has remained a constellation and is officially recognized by the International Astronomical Union , although like all modern constellations , it is now defined as a specific region of the sky that includes both Ptolemy 's pattern and the surrounding stars . In 1922 , the IAU defined its recommended three @-@ letter abbreviation , " And " . The official boundaries of Andromeda were defined in 1930 by Eugène Delporte as a polygon of 36 segments . Its right ascension is between 22h 57.5m and 2h 39.3m and its declination is between 53 @.@ 19 ° and 21 @.@ 68 ° in the equatorial coordinate system .
= = = In non @-@ Western astronomy = = =
In traditional Chinese astronomy , nine stars from Andromeda ( including Beta Andromedae , Mu Andromedae , and Nu Andromedae ) , along with seven stars from Pisces , formed an elliptical constellation called " Legs " ( 奎宿 ) . This constellation either represented the foot of a walking person or a wild boar . Gamma Andromedae and its neighbors were called " Teen Ta Tseang Keun " ( 天大将军 , heaven 's great general ) , representing honor in astrology and a great general in mythology . Alpha Andromedae and Gamma Pegasi together made " Wall " ( 壁宿 ) , representing the eastern wall of the imperial palace and / or the emperor 's personal library . For the Chinese , the northern swath of Andromeda formed a stable for changing horses ( tianjiu , 天厩 , stable on sky ) and the far western part , along with most of Lacerta , became Tengshe , a flying snake .
An Arab constellation called " al @-@ Hut " ( the fish ) was composed of several stars in Andromeda , M31 , and several stars in Pisces. ν And , μ And , β And , η And , ζ And , ε And , δ And , π And , and 32 And were all included from Andromeda ; ν Psc , φ Psc , χ Psc , and ψ Psc were included from Pisces .
Hindu legends surrounding Andromeda are similar to the Greek myths . Ancient Sanskrit texts depict Antarmada chained to a rock , as in the Greek myth . Scholars believe that the Hindu and Greek astrological myths were closely linked ; one piece of evidence cited is the similarity between the names " Antarmada " and " Andromeda " .
Andromeda is also associated with the Mesopotamian creation story of Tiamat , the goddess of Chaos . She bore many demons for her husband , Apsu , but eventually decided to destroy them in a war that ended when Marduk killed her . He used her body to create the constellations as markers of time for humans .
In the Marshall Islands , Andromeda , Cassiopeia , Triangulum , and Aries are incorporated into a constellation representing a porpoise . Andromeda 's bright stars are mostly in the body of the porpoise ; Cassiopeia represents its tail and Aries its head . In the Tuamotu islands , Alpha Andromedae was called Takurua @-@ e @-@ te @-@ tuki @-@ hanga @-@ ruki , meaning " Star of the wearisome toil " , and Beta Andromedae was called Piringa @-@ o @-@ Tautu .
= = Notable features = =
= = = Stars = = =
α And ( Alpheratz , Sirrah ) is the brightest star in this constellation . It is an A0p class binary star with an overall apparent visual magnitude of 2 @.@ 1 and a luminosity of 96 L ☉ . It is 97 light @-@ years from Earth . It represents Andromeda 's head in Western mythology , however , the star 's traditional Arabic names – Alpheratz and Sirrah , from the phrase surrat al @-@ faras – sometimes translated as " navel of the steed " . The Arabic names are a reference to the fact that α And forms an asterism known as the " Great Square of Pegasus " with three stars in Pegasus : α , β , and γ Peg . As such , the star was formerly considered to belong to both Andromeda and Pegasus , and was co @-@ designated as " Delta Pegasi ( δ Peg ) " , although this name is no longer formally used .
β And ( Mirach ) is a red @-@ hued giant star of type M0 located in an asterism known as the " girdle " . It is 198 light @-@ years away , has a magnitude of 2 @.@ 06 , and a luminosity of 115 L ☉ . Its name comes from the Arabic phrase al @-@ Maraqq meaning " the loins " or " the loincloth " , a phrase translated from Ptolemy 's writing . However , β And was mostly considered by the Arabs to be a part of al @-@ Hut , a constellation representing a larger fish than Pisces at Andromeda 's feet .
γ And ( Almach ) is an orange @-@ hued bright giant star of type K3 found at the southern tip of the constellation with an overall magnitude of 2 @.@ 14 . Almach is a multiple star with a yellow primary of magnitude 2 @.@ 3 and a blue @-@ green secondary of magnitude 5 @.@ 0 , separated by 9 @.@ 7 arcseconds . British astronomer William Herschel said of the star : " [ the ] striking difference in the colour of the two stars , suggests the idea of a sun and its planet , to which the contrast of their unequal size contributes not a little . " The secondary , described by Herschel as a " fine light sky @-@ blue , inclining to green " , is itself a double star , with a secondary of magnitude 6 @.@ 3 and a period of 61 years . The system is 358 light @-@ years away . Almach was named for the Arabic phrase ʿAnaq al @-@ Ard , which means " the earth @-@ kid " , an obtuse reference to an animal that aids a lion in finding prey .
δ And is an orange @-@ hued giant star of type K3 orange giant of magnitude 3 @.@ 3 . It is 105 light @-@ years from Earth .
ι And , κ , λ , ο , and ψ And form an asterism known as " Frederick 's Glory " , a name derived from a former constellation ( Frederici Honores ) . ι And is a blue @-@ white hued main @-@ sequence star of type B8 , 502 light @-@ years from Earth ; κ And is a white @-@ hued main @-@ sequence star of type B9 IVn , 168 light @-@ years from Earth ; λ And is a yellow @-@ hued giant star of type G8 , 86 light @-@ years from Earth ; ο And is a blue @-@ white hued giant star of type B6 , 679 light @-@ years from Earth ; and ψ And is a blue @-@ white hued main @-@ sequence star of type B7 , 988 light @-@ years from Earth .
μ And is a white @-@ hued main @-@ sequence star of type A5 and magnitude 3 @.@ 9 . It is 130 light @-@ years away .
υ And is a magnitude 4 @.@ 1 binary system that consists of one F @-@ type dwarf and an M @-@ type dwarf . The primary star has a planetary system with four confirmed planets , 0 @.@ 96 times , 14 @.@ 57 times , 10 @.@ 19 times and 1 @.@ 06 the mass of Jupiter . The system is 44 light @-@ years from Earth .
ξ And ( Adhil ) is a binary star 217 light years away . The primary is an orange @-@ hued giant star of type K0 .
π And is a blue @-@ white hued binary star of magnitude 4 @.@ 3 that is 598 light @-@ years away . The primary is a main @-@ sequence star of type B5 . Its companion star is of magnitude 8 @.@ 9 .
51 And was assigned by Johann Bayer to Perseus , where he designated it " Upsilon Persei ( υ Per ) " , but it was moved to Andromeda by the International Astronomical Union . It is 177 light @-@ years from Earth and is an orange @-@ hued giant star of type K3 .
54 And was a former designation for φ Per .
56 And is an optical binary star . The primary is a yellow @-@ hued giant star of type K0 with an apparent magnitude of 5 @.@ 7 that is 316 light @-@ years away . The secondary is an orange @-@ hued giant star of type K0 and magnitude 5 @.@ 9 that is 990 light @-@ years from Earth .
R And is a Mira @-@ type variable star with a period of 409 days . Its maximum magnitude is 5 @.@ 8 and its minimum magnitude is 14 @.@ 8 , and it is at a distance of 1250 light @-@ years . There are 6 other Mira variables in Andromeda .
Z And is the M @-@ type prototype for its class of variable stars . It ranges in magnitude from a minimum of 12 @.@ 4 to a maximum of 8 @.@ 0 . It is 2720 light @-@ years away .
Ross 248 ( HH Andromedae ) is the ninth closest star to Earth at a distance of 10 @.@ 3 light @-@ years . It is a red @-@ hued main @-@ sequence BY Draconis variable star of type M6 .
14 And is a yellow @-@ hued giant star of type G8 that is 251 light @-@ years away . It has a mass of 2 @.@ 2 M ☉ and a radius of 11 R ☉ . It has one planet , 14 Andromedae b , discovered in 2008 . It orbits at a distance of 0 @.@ 83 astronomical units from its parent star every 186 days and has a mass of 4 @.@ 3 MJ .
= = = Deep @-@ sky objects = = =
The constellation of Andromeda lies well away from the galactic plane , so it does not contain any of the open clusters or bright nebulae of the Milky Way . Because of its distance in the sky from the band of obscuring dust , gas , and abundant stars of our home galaxy , Andromeda 's borders contain many visible distant galaxies . The most famous deep @-@ sky object in Andromeda is the spiral galaxy cataloged as Messier 31 ( M31 ) or NGC 224 but known colloquially as the Andromeda Galaxy for the constellation . M31 is one of the most distant objects visible to the naked eye , 2 @.@ 2 million light @-@ years from Earth ( estimates range up to 2 @.@ 5 million light @-@ years ) ; it is seen under a dark , transparent sky as a hazy patch in the north of the constellation . M31 is the largest neighboring galaxy to the Milky Way and the largest member of the Local Group of galaxies . In absolute terms , M31 is approximately 200 @,@ 000 light @-@ years in diameter , twice the size of the Milky Way . It is an enormous – 192 @.@ 4 by 62 @.@ 2 arcminutes in apparent size – barred spiral galaxy similar in form to the Milky Way and at an approximate magnitude of 3 @.@ 5 , is one of the brightest deep @-@ sky objects in the northern sky . Despite being visible to the naked eye , the " little cloud " near Andromeda 's figure was not recorded until AD 964 , when the Arab astronomer al @-@ Sufi wrote his Book of Fixed Stars . M31 was first observed telescopically shortly after its invention , by Simon Marius in 1612 .
M31 is often referred to as a twin sister to the Milky Way , but it has only half the mass of the Milky Way despite being twice its diameter . The futures of the Andromeda and Milky Way galaxies may be interlinked : in about five billion years , the two could potentially begin an Andromeda – Milky Way collision that would spark extensive new star formation .
American astronomer Edwin Hubble included M31 ( then known as the Andromeda Nebula ) in his groundbreaking 1923 research on galaxies . Using the 100 @-@ inch Hooker Telescope at Mount Wilson Observatory in California , he observed Cepheid variable stars in M31 during a search for novae , allowing him to determine their distance by using the stars as standard candles . The distance he found was far greater than the size of the Milky Way , which led him to the conclusion that many similar objects were " island universes " on their own . Hubble originally estimated that the Andromeda Galaxy was 900 @,@ 000 light @-@ years away , but Ernst Öpik 's estimate in 1925 put the distance closer to 1 @.@ 5 million light @-@ years .
The Andromeda Galaxy 's two main companions , M32 and M110 ( also known as NGC 221 and NGC 205 , respectively ) are faint elliptical galaxies that lie near it . M32 , visible with a far smaller size of 8 @.@ 7 by 6 @.@ 4 arcminutes , compared to M110 , appears superimposed on the larger galaxy in a telescopic view as a hazy smudge , M110 also appears slightly larger and distinct from the larger galaxy ; M32 is 0 @.@ 5 ° south of the core , M32 is 1 ° northwest of the core . M32 was discovered in 1749 by French astronomer Guillaume Le Gentil and has since been found to lie closer to Earth than the Andromeda Galaxy itself . It is viewable in binoculars from a dark site owing to its high surface brightness of 10 @.@ 1 and overall magnitude of 9 @.@ 0 . M110 is classified as either a dwarf spheroidal galaxy or simply a generic elliptical galaxy . It is far fainter than M31 and M32 , but larger than M42 with a surface brightness of 13 @.@ 2 , magnitude of 8 @.@ 9 , and size of 21 @.@ 9 by 10 @.@ 9 arcminutes .
The Andromeda Galaxy has a total of 15 satellite galaxies , including M32 and M110 . Nine of these lie in a plane , which has caused astronomers to infer that they have a common origin . These satellite galaxies , like the satellites of the Milky Way , tend to be older , gas @-@ poor dwarf elliptical and dwarf spheroidal galaxies .
Along with the Andromeda Galaxy and its companions , the constellation also features NGC 891 ( Caldwell 23 ) , a smaller galaxy just east of Almach . It is a barred spiral galaxy seen edge @-@ on , with a dark dust lane visible down the middle . NGC 891 is incredibly faint and small despite its magnitude of 9 @.@ 9 , as its surface brightness of 14 @.@ 6 indicates ; it is 13 @.@ 5 by 2 @.@ 8 arcminutes in size . NGC 891 was discovered by the brother @-@ and @-@ sister team of William and Caroline Herschel in August 1783 . This galaxy is at an approximate distance of 30 million light years from Earth , calculated from its redshift of 0 @.@ 002 .
Andromeda 's most celebrated open cluster is NGC 752 ( Caldwell 28 ) at an overall magnitude of 5 @.@ 7 . It is a loosely scattered cluster in the Milky Way that measures 49 arcminutes across and features approximately twelve bright stars , although more than 60 stars of approximately 9th magnitude become visible at low magnifications in a telescope . It is considered to be one of the more inconspicuous open clusters . The other open cluster in Andromeda is NGC 7686 , which has a similar magnitude of 5 @.@ 6 and is also a part of the Milky Way . It contains approximately 20 stars in a diameter of 15 arcminutes , making it a tighter cluster than NGC 752 .
There is one prominent planetary nebula in Andromeda : NGC 7662 ( Caldwell 22 ) . Lying approximately three degrees southwest of Iota Andromedae at a distance of about 4 @,@ 000 light @-@ years from Earth , the " Blue Snowball Nebula " is a popular target for amateur astronomers . It earned its popular name because it appears as a faint , round , blue @-@ green object in a telescope , with an overall magnitude of 9 @.@ 2 . Upon further magnification , it is visible as a slightly elliptical annular disk that gets darker towards the center , with a magnitude 13 @.@ 2 central star . The nebula has an overall magnitude of 9 @.@ 2 and is 20 by 130 arcseconds in size .
= = = Meteor showers = = =
Each November , the Andromedids meteor shower appears to radiate from Andromeda . The shower peaks in mid @-@ to @-@ late November every year , but has a low peak rate of fewer than two meteors per hour . Astronomers have often associated the Andromedids with Biela 's Comet , which was destroyed in the 19th century , but that connection is disputed . Andromedid meteors are known for being very slow and the shower itself is considered to be diffuse , as meteors can be seen coming from nearby constellations as well as from Andromeda itself . Andromedid meteors sometimes appear as red fireballs . The Andromedids were associated with the most spectacular meteor showers of the 19th century ; the storms of 1872 and 1885 were estimated to have a peak rate of two meteors per second ( a zenithal hourly rate of 10 @,@ 000 ) , prompting one Chinese astronomer to compare the meteors to falling rain . The Andromedids had another outburst on December 3 – 5 , 2011 , the most active shower since 1885 , with a maximum zenithal hourly rate of 50 meteors per hour . The 2011 outburst was linked to ejecta from Comet Biela , which passed close to the Sun in 1649 . None of the meteoroids observed were associated with material from the comet 's 1846 disintegration . The observers of the 2011 outburst predicted outbursts in 2018 , 2023 , and 2036 .
= And Maggie Makes Three =
" And Maggie Makes Three " is the thirteenth television episode of The Simpsons ' sixth season . It originally aired on Fox in the United States on January 22 , 1995 . In the episode , Lisa notices that there are no photos of Maggie in the family photo albums . This leads to a recount of Maggie 's birth : having settled all his debts , Homer quit his job at the nuclear power plant , and took his dream job at a bowling alley . However , when Maggie was born , his salary was not enough to support three children , so he had to return to his old job at the plant . He explains that all of Maggie 's pictures are at his work station to inspire him .
The episode was written by Jennifer Crittenden , and directed by Swinton O. Scott III . This was both Crittenden 's and Scott 's first episode on The Simpsons . It features cultural references to television shows such as The Mary Tyler Moore Show and Knight Rider . Since airing , the episode has received many positive reviews from fans and television critics , and has been called " a touching look at fatherhood " by Kevin Wong at PopMatters . It acquired a Nielsen rating of 10 @.@ 3 , and was the fourth highest rated show on Fox the week it aired .
= = Plot = =
While the family is browsing through the family photo album , Lisa notices that there are no baby pictures of Maggie at all . Homer explains by recounting the story of Maggie 's birth . In 1993 , Homer hated working at the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant , and had a dream of working at a bowling alley . After he received a paycheck that cleared him of all his debts , he happily quit his job at the power plant , and went to get a job at the local bowling alley owned by Barney Gumble 's uncle Al .
When Homer and Marge celebrated this development with sex , she became pregnant . In the meantime , Homer did an excellent job working at the bowling alley , and got treated well by the staff and customers as a result . Meanwhile , upon learning of her pregnancy , Marge feared that the news would end Homer 's new lifestyle and happiness , because it meant he could no longer support his family on his bowling alley salary . Marge kept her pregnancy a secret as long as she could , but Patty and Selma , eager to ruin Homer 's life , spread the news quickly around town . As a result , several people congratulated Homer , who was unaware of Marge 's pregnancy until a baby shower was given to Marge back at the Simpson residence .
Realizing the truth , Homer became very unhappy and completely unenthusiastic about it . On Marge 's advice , he attempted to get a raise on his salary to alleviate his problem , but Al stated that the alley can 't do enough to make that much money unless the business was expanded . Homer then attempted to expand the business by using a shotgun to attract more customers , but this failed . Due to the financial problems caused by the pregnancy , Homer was forced to quit his job at the bowling alley and go back to the power plant . However , Mr. Burns made Homer beg for his job back , and in an attempt to break what is left of Homer 's spirit as punishment for quitting his job earlier , he placed a large plaque in front of Homer 's desk reading : " Don 't forget : you 're here forever " . Homer was once again unhappy at his work , but as with all the Simpson children , when Maggie was born , Homer instantly fell in love with her . Back in the present , Bart and Lisa still do not understand what that has to do with Maggie 's photos . Homer merely mentions that they are in the place where he needs them the most . The scene then cuts to his workplace where all of the photos of Maggie are positioned on the plaque on the wall , which now reads : " Do it for her " .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by Jennifer Crittenden , and directed by Swinton O. Scott III . This was the first episode Scott directed for the show . Crittenden also made her debut as a writer for The Simpsons in this episode . Crittenden was taking a beginners ' writing program at 20th Century Fox when former The Simpsons showrunner David Mirkin hired her on the show . Crittenden 's only writing experience before that had been as an intern on the Late Show with David Letterman . 20th Century Fox introduced Crittenden to Mirkin , and Mirkin read a script of hers that he liked . When Mirkin first talked to Crittenden , he thought she was a really nice woman who was very mature . Crittenden was only 23 years old at the time , but Mirkin liked her and he hired her .
After Homer quits his job at the power plant , he violently tosses his old boss Mr. Burns out of the cart he is driving . Homer then drives across a wooden bridge and tosses a match onto it — within a second the whole bridge is engulfed in flames . Mirkin came up with the joke , and said that the thing with animation is that you can stage almost anything and time it perfectly , something you would not be able to do in live action . He then said that the staff is always excited when the directors come in because they can , for example , make a bridge catch on fire instantly , just in the time of a single shot . As a live @-@ action director , Mirkin said he enjoys the amount of control they have in animation .
In the episode , Mr. Burns places a " de @-@ motivational plaque " in Homer 's station that says " Don 't forget : you 're here forever " . Homer then places photos of Maggie around the plaque to alter it into saying " Do it for her " , referring to Maggie . The Simpsons writer George Meyer , who enjoys writing jokes that involve anagrams or any other forms of word play , came up with the idea for this particular joke . The joke is also an homage to Al Jaffee 's Fold @-@ in features in the Mad magazine .
= = Cultural references = =
The couch gag is a reference to the James Bond gun barrel sequence . Homer 's flashback to saving the Nuclear Power Plant from freelance terrorists is a reference to Die Hard . Dr. Hibbert 's flashback hairstyle is modeled after Arsenio Hall 's . The family watches Knight Boat , a parody of Knight Rider . Homer spinning around with a bowling ball in his hand before throwing it into the air and exclaiming " I 'm gonna make it after all ! " is reminiscent of the opening of The Mary Tyler Moore Show where Mary throws her hat into the air .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " And Maggie Makes Three " finished 47th in the ratings for the week of January 16 to January 22 , 1995 , with a Nielsen rating of 10 @.@ 3 . The episode was the fourth highest rated show on the Fox network that week , beaten only by Melrose Place , Beverly Hills , 90210 and the Rock ' n ' Roll Skating Championship .
Since airing , the episode has received many positive reviews from fans and television critics . One @-@ time Simpsons writer and comedian Ricky Gervais named it his second favorite episode , and said : " Mr. Burns gives [ Homer ] this terrible plaque above his desk that says , ' Don 't forget : You 're here forever . ' It 's about how sometimes things don 't go the way you planned , which is pretty amazing in a cartoon . Homer then puts up all the pictures of Maggie he 's ever taken to strategically cover this horrible thing so it now reads , ' Do it for her . ' It gives me a lump in the throat thinking about it . " Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , the authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , said : " A surprisingly traditional episode . The flashback to 1993 seems a bit odd , but this is a good example of a story that doesn 't overly rely on set pieces and confounded expectations for its success . " In a review of the sixth season , Joshua Klein of the Chicago Tribune cited " And Maggie Makes Three " , " Treehouse of Horror V " , " Homer Badman " and " Lisa 's Rival " among his favorite episodes of the season .
TV Squad 's Adam Finley said the episode " manages to be both incredibly funny and incredibly touching , both signs of a great Simpsons episode . " He added that " the episode has some great gags in it , but the emotion is very real , too . Homer is not thrilled with the idea of having a baby , and the episode does a wonderful job of showing the dark side of having another mouth to feed . " Colin Jacobson at DVD Movie Guide said in a review of the sixth season DVD : " Flashback episodes of The Simpsons usually work well , and [ this episode ] is no exception to that rule . Actually , at this point it ’ s one of my favorites , but that ’ s partially because of overexposure to some of the other episodes . In any case , this one has many hilarious moments – such as the scene that explains Homer 's hair loss . " Kevin Wong at PopMatters said the episode is " a touching look at fatherhood " .
= HMS Lord Clyde ( 1864 ) =
HMS Lord Clyde was the name ship of the wooden @-@ hulled Lord Clyde class of armoured frigates built for the Royal Navy during the 1860s . She and her sister ship , Lord Warden , were the heaviest wooden ships ever built and were also the fastest steaming wooden ships . Lord Clyde was initially assigned to the Channel Fleet in 1866 , but was transferred to the Mediterranean Fleet in 1868 . The ship suffered engine problems throughout her career and it needed to be replaced after only two years of service . She rejoined the Mediterranean Fleet in 1871 , but was badly damaged when she ran aground the next year . When Lord Clyde was under repair , her hull was found to be rotten and she was sold for scrap in 1875
= = Design and description = =
HMS Lord Clyde was 280 feet ( 85 @.@ 3 m ) long between perpendiculars and had a beam of 58 feet 11 inches ( 18 @.@ 0 m ) . The ship had a draught of 23 feet 9 inches ( 7 @.@ 2 m ) forward and 27 feet 2 inches ( 8 @.@ 3 m ) aft . She displaced 7 @,@ 842 long tons ( 7 @,@ 968 t ) and had a tonnage of 4 @,@ 067 tons burthen .
Lord Clyde had a very low centre of gravity which meant that she rolled very badly ; she was said to be the worst roller in the Victorian fleet . This characteristic was so dramatic that when the rolling propensities of ships were compared , it was usual to say " as bad a roller as the Prince Consort " , the Lord Clydes being beyond compare . Lord Clyde generally performed worse than did her sister ship , Lord Warden . In sea trials in 1867 with Bellerophon , Lord Clyde was rolling her gun ports under , while Bellerophon could have fought her main armament in safety . She was , however , very handy and sailed well in all weathers under sail or steam ; her first captain reported that she was " as handy as a frigate " . Her crew consisted of 605 officers and enlisted men .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The ship had a single two @-@ cylinder trunk steam engine , made by Ravenhill and Hodgson , that drove a single propeller using steam provided by nine rectangular boilers . The engine , the largest and most powerful yet built , produced 6 @,@ 064 indicated horsepower ( 4 @,@ 522 kW ) which gave Lord Clyde a speed of 13 @.@ 4 knots ( 24 @.@ 8 km / h ; 15 @.@ 4 mph ) under steam . The severe vibration of the engine , coupled with the flexibility of the wooden hull , caused major problems during the ship 's career . After only two years , the engine was worn out and everything but the condensers and shafting had to be replaced . She carried a maximum of 600 long tons ( 610 t ) of coal .
Lord Clyde was ship @-@ rigged with three masts and had a sail area of 31 @,@ 000 square feet ( 2 @,@ 900 m2 ) . To reduce drag , the funnels were telescopic and could be lowered . Her best speed under sail alone was 10 @.@ 5 knots ( 19 @.@ 4 km / h ; 12 @.@ 1 mph ) , nearly the slowest of any British ironclad . The ship holds " the double record of being the largest ship of any type or of any nationality ever to enter Plymouth Sound or Spithead on sail alone " .
= = = Armament = = =
The ship was initially armed with 24 seven @-@ inch rifled muzzle @-@ loading ( RML ) guns . Four pairs of guns were positioned as fore and aft chase guns on the upper and main decks . The remaining 16 guns were mounted on the broadside amidships . The seven @-@ inch ( 178 mm ) gun weighed 6 @.@ 5 long tons ( 6 @.@ 6 t ) and fired a 112 @-@ pound ( 50 @.@ 8 kg ) shell that was able penetrate 7 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 196 mm ) of armour .
Lord Clyde 's original armament was replaced during her 1870 refit with a pair of RML nine @-@ inch guns and 14 RML eight @-@ inch guns ; she only retained a pair of her original seven @-@ inch guns . The latter guns remained in position as forward chase guns on the main deck ; one of the nine @-@ inch ( 229 mm ) guns became the chase gun on the upper deck and the other replaced the pair of seven @-@ inch aft chase guns on the main deck . Also on the upper deck were a pair of eight @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) guns on the broadside and the remaining 12 eight @-@ inch guns were mounted on the main deck on the broadside amidships .
The shell of the nine @-@ inch gun weighed 254 pounds ( 115 @.@ 2 kg ) while the gun itself weighed 12 long tons ( 12 t ) . It had a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 420 ft / s ( 430 m / s ) and was rated with the ability to penetrate 11 @.@ 3 inches ( 287 mm ) of wrought @-@ iron armour . The eight @-@ inch gun weighed nine long tons ( 9 @.@ 1 t ) ; it fired a 175 @-@ pound ( 79 @.@ 4 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 410 ft / s ( 430 m / s ) and was credited with the ability to penetrate 9 @.@ 6 inches ( 244 mm ) of armour .
= = = Armour = = =
The entire side of Lord Clyde 's hull , except for the side of the upper deck , was protected by wrought @-@ iron armour that tapered from 4 @.@ 5 inches ( 114 mm ) at the ends to 5 @.@ 5 inches ( 140 mm ) amidships . It extended 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) below the waterline . The forward chase guns on the upper deck were protected by 4 @.@ 5 @-@ inch armour plates on the sides of the hull and a 4 @.@ 5 @-@ inch transverse bulkhead to their rear protected them from raking fire . The armour was backed by 30 inches ( 762 mm ) of oak and the 1 @.@ 5 inches ( 38 mm ) iron skin of the ship .
= = Construction and service = =
Lord Clyde , named after the recently deceased Field Marshal Colin Campbell , 1st Baron Clyde , was ordered on 3 July 1863 from Pembroke Naval Dockyard . She was laid down on 29 September 1863 and launched on 13 October 1864 . The ship was commissioned in June 1866 to run her sea trials and completed on 15 September , for the cost of £ 285 @,@ 750 or £ 294 @,@ 481 , exclusive of armament .
Commanded by Captain Roderick Dew , the ship was initially assigned to the Channel Fleet where she spent three months as temporary flagship before she was transferred to the Mediterranean in 1868 . Lord Clyde made one cruise with the Mediterranean Fleet during which she fractured her steel mainyard in a squall . Her engines continued to deteriorate and they were condemned as no longer safe to use by the fleet engineer when she arrived in Naples . The ship was sent to the Malta Dockyard under sail for repair , but they could only make temporary repairs that would enable her to reach home .
Upon arrival at Plymouth , Lord Clyde was paid off and a new engine was built for her at Devonport Dockyard . In addition , her four @-@ bladed propeller was replaced by a lighter , two @-@ bladed propeller with less drag and the ship was rearmed . She remained in reserve until 1871 when she recommissioned under the command of Captain John Bythesea , an officer who had won the Victoria Cross during the Crimean War of 1854 – 55 . Lord Clyde rejoined the Mediterranean Fleet ; six months after her arrival , she ran aground herself whilst attempting to rescue a British steamship that had gone aground off the island of Pantellaria . Attempts to lighten the ship enough to float her off were futile and she remained stuck fast taking damage from wave action that strained her back and wrenched off her sternpost , rudder post and rudder . Lord Warden was able to pull her off and tow her to be repaired at Malta where the dockyard estimated repairs would take six months . Bythesea and his navigator were convicted during their court @-@ martial and neither ever served at sea again .
The Admiralty ordered that Lord Clyde be only repaired enough to allow for a passage home ; that required six months of work and the ship was escorted back to Plymouth by the ironclad Defence . She was again paid off upon arrival and her engines and boilers were removed to allow for her hull to be thoroughly inspected . The dockworkers found that her entire hull was colonized by a fungus , partly because unseasoned wood had been used in the ship 's construction , and they spent the next three years attempting to kill the fungus and stop the continuing deterioration . All efforts failed and Lord Clyde was sold for scrap before she lost all value in 1875 for £ 3 @,@ 730 .
= David Lucas ( composer ) =
David Lucas ( born David Helfman April 21 , 1937 ) is an American rock and roll composer , singer , and music producer . He has written a number of well @-@ known commercial jingles , such as AT & T 's " Reach Out and Touch Someone . " In 1981 , he received a Clio Award for composing the music to Pepsi 's " Catch That Pepsi Spirit . " As a record producer , he worked with many new artists such as Blue Öyster Cult . On the 1976 Blue Öyster Cult song " Don 't Fear the Reaper " which he co @-@ produced , Lucas sang backup vocals and came up with the idea for using a cowbell , which became a catchphrase in 2000 when it was parodied by Christopher Walken in the " More cowbell " skit on Saturday Night Live . In June 2011 , Lucas was inducted into Buffalo 's Music Hall of Fame .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early years ( 1940s – 1960s ) = = =
Lucas was born David Helfman on April 21 , 1937 in Buffalo , New York . By the age of four , he was singing with his parents in the Buffalo area , both at venues and on local radio . He briefly attended Bennett High School in Buffalo , where he sang in the choir , and then in 1951 transferred to Miami Beach Senior High School , graduating in 1955 .
At the age of nineteen , Lucas started promoting records , choosing artists such as the young Paul Anka , Frankie Avalon , Sam Cooke , and The Everly Brothers , and encouraging local DJs to play their music . He continued with record promotion until he was drafted into the United States Army , after which he moved to Miami Beach , where he was a social director and performer at the Attache Hotel . He made ends meet by selling vacuum cleaners during the day , and attending night school to learn about mutual funds . While in Miami , he met jazz drummer and bandleader Buddy Rich , and joined him for a world tour , after which Lucas moved to Los Angeles , where he worked as a songwriter and producer . In Las Vegas , he sang at the Sahara Hotel , where he was noticed by popular singer Doris Day , who was impressed , and signed Lucas to her record label , Arwin Records . Lucas then recorded " So Until I See You " , a song by composer Al Lerner which became the closing theme for Jack Paar 's The Tonight Show .
Lucas then moved to New York City where he took various odd jobs , including becoming a sound engineer for his cousin , jazz musician and writer Don Elliott . He worked with artists such as Laura Nyro , Ravi Shankar ( produced by Timothy Leary ) , Tim Rose , Cass Elliot , Janis Ian , Jimmy Smith , Bill Evans , Mel Tormé , and Terry Gibbs . In 1964 he joined a quintet formed by Dave Lambert , " Lambert and Co . " This quintet , though it never recorded any albums , was notable because it became the subject of a 15 @-@ minute documentary by D. A. Pennebaker ( later famous for working with Bob Dylan ) , called Audition at RCA . The scenes in the documentary were some of the last images recorded of Lambert , who , in 1966 , was killed in an auto accident .
= = = Jingle writer ( 1960s – 1990s ) = = =
In the late 1960s , Lucas began writing his own commercial jingle melodies , such as Macleans Toothpaste . He eventually passed off his engineer job to Jay Messina , and opened his own company , David Lucas Associates , to write jingles full @-@ time . In 1969 , Quincy Jones introduced Lucas to Cy Coleman , who signed him to Coleman 's Notable Music Publishing Company .
Along with writing jingles , Lucas continued with other projects as well . He was hired by Ahmet Ertegun as musical director for the first rock and roll musical , Tom Sankey 's The Golden Screw , which played at the Provincetown Playhouse and won the 1967 Obie Award for Sankey 's concept , writing , and performing . Lucas used a young tape dubber from Gotham Studios named Walter Carlos who had an early Moog synthesizer to compose music for William Claxton 's film Basic Black , a work that is credited as the first " fashion video " and is in the collection of the Museum of Modern Art in New York . He produced the first recordings of the blues band Raven , enabling them to secure a contract with Columbia Records . He composed the songs " Tell Me a Story " and " Blood " for The Magic Garden of Stanley Sweetheart ( the first movie by actor Don Johnson ) and also composed the theme music for the 1970s children 's series , Jabberwocky , a show which remained in syndication for decades .
In 1973 , Lucas formed a new partnership with Tom McFaul , and they took an unusual step for jingle writers , founding their own studio . Situated in an old spice warehouse , they called it the Warehouse Recording Studio , and it hosted such artists as Paul McCartney and Charlie Brown . They employed a dozen people , and Lucas composed and produced thousands of jingles for many national brands , and McFaul created the " Meow " theme for Meow Mix . Notable jingles Lucas wrote included AT & T 's " Reach Out and Touch Someone " ; Pepsi 's " Catch That Pepsi Spirit " and " Pepsi 's got your taste for life " ; " You look like you just heard from Dean Witter " ; Maxwell House " Coffee Made Your Way " ; Coca Cola 's " You Can 't Beat The Feeling " ( co @-@ written with Jayne Critelli ) ; " Give Your Cold To Contac " ; " G.E. We Bring Good Things To Life , " ; " Lipton puts Summer on Ice " ; and a jingle for Mercury Cougar . In 1979 , New York Magazine referred to Lucas and McFaul as " Jingle Giants " , two out of a handful of jingle writers , saying , " Two out of three major commercial jingles are written by the elite group . "
= = = Blue Öyster Cult ( 1970s ) = = =
In 1971 , Lucas produced a four @-@ song demo for the band Stalk @-@ Forrest , which led to them being signed by Columbia 's Clive Davis as Blue Öyster Cult . Lucas produced their first album at his Warehouse studio , and later as music producer for their 1976 album Agents of Fortune , including the song , " Don 't Fear the Reaper " . " Reaper " became a huge hit , and is listed at number 405 on Rolling Stone 's list of the top 500 songs of all time . In it , Lucas sang background vocals and came up with the idea and played the cowbell . This choice became legendary when it was parodied by Christopher Walken in a Saturday Night Live " More cowbell " comedy sketch on April 8 , 2000 . In 1977 Lucas produced Spectres which included the hit Godzilla .
= = = Current projects ( 1990s – present ) = = =
In 1998 , Lucas sold The Warehouse , which was subsequently sold to Wyclef Jean . Lucas moved back to Miami where he built a studio and is continuing to write songs and jingles .
In 2010 , Lucas wrote the song " Inside my Heart " , which was sung by actress Kyra Sedgwick for The Miracle Project of Hollywood to benefit autism .
Also an avid sailor , Lucas once had a yacht built by David Macfarlane , Alden Yachts , now the president of reliantyachts.com , Sisu was used in the company 's advertisements . In 1985 , Lucas refined a recipe of his grandfather 's and developed a brand of cocktail mix , " Bob 's No Problem , Bloody Mary maker " . The brand launched nationally in 2010 .
Lucas has four grown children . Lisa Lucas , a well @-@ known and award @-@ nominated child actress in the 1970s , played " Addie Mills " in several CBS holiday specials , and became a journalist as an adult . Jason Lucas is a composer and producer in Nashville , Cristopher Lucas is a composer and performer in Idaho , and David Lucas 's youngest daughter Lindsay Lucas is a singer and performer in Boston , who attended Berklee College of Music . He is also working on a musical with co @-@ writer Jayne Critelli , a writer / singer from Lucas / McFaul in the 1980s .
According to his website , Lucas spends a great deal of time in Portland Jamaica , sailing and working on environmental projects , such as trying to save Winnifred Beach for the local people. winnifredbeach.com He operated the legendary Frenchman 's Cove resort for several years in the ' 90 's . He also joined his friend , Frank Clark , in sustaining the beauty of the glorious " Reach Falls " and continues to support the revival of Portland Parrish .
= = Awards = =
Lucas has won Clio awards for his composing music for commercials for AT & T ( 1980 , Best Television / Cinema ) , Pepsi Cola 's " Catch that Pepsi Spirit " ( 1981 , U.S. Radio , Clio Winner ) , and Coca @-@ Cola 's " Masquerade on Skis " ( Television / Cinema , Special Citation , 1969 ) . In 2010 , Lucas was recognized at the 35th annual Friends of Old Time Radio Convention , with an award for his contributions to the Golden Age of Radio . In June 2011 , Lucas was inducted into the Buffalo , New York Music Hall of Fame .
= Frederick Stovin =
General Sir Frederick Stovin GCB KCMG ( 1783 – 16 August 1865 ) was a British Army officer who served throughout the Napoleonic Wars and the War of 1812 . After the end of the wars , he commanded colonial garrisons and served in administrative roles in Ireland , before retiring with the rank of colonel to take up a position at court as a Groom in Waiting under Queen Victoria . In retirement , he continued to rise through the ranks of general officers by seniority , dying a full general .
He originally joined the army as an ensign in the 52nd Foot in 1800 , and saw active service the same year in Spain . He later acquired a captaincy in the 28th Foot in 1803 ; he saw service in Germany and at the Battle of Copenhagen with the 28th , and then served on the staff under Sir John Moore until the Battle of Corunna . He was later an aide to General Alexander Mackenzie @-@ Fraser , then to General Thomas Picton , and a divisional adjutant through the later stages of the Peninsular War . In 1814 – 15 he served in the War of 1812 , as a staff officer with the expedition sent to New Orleans , and had he not been detained by prosecuting at a court @-@ martial , he would have served at the Battle of Waterloo .
After the war , he commanded the 92nd Gordon Highlanders at Jamaica — where he scandalised his regiment by ordering them to adopt trousers instead of the kilt — and the 90th Light Infantry in the Ionian Islands , before retiring from active duty in 1829 . He then held a number of administrative roles in Ireland , including the state secretary to the Lord @-@ Lieutenant and the commissioner of police in Ulster , and after the accession of Queen Victoria in 1837 became a palace courtier . His final military role was the ( ceremonial ) colonelcy of the 83rd ( County of Dublin ) Regiment , which he held from 1848 until his death .
= = Family and early career = =
Stovin was born at Whitgift , in the East Riding of Yorkshire , the son of James Stovin . He was the youngest son of a large family , by his father 's second marriage ; his eldest half @-@ brother , James , later became a clergyman , a fellow of Peterhouse , Cambridge and a magistrate in Yorkshire , whilst the younger half @-@ brother , Richard , would also join the army , rising to the rank of lieutenant @-@ general .
Stovin joined the army at the age of seventeen , when he was commissioned as an ensign in the 52nd Foot on 22 March 1800 . He served with the regiment in the expedition to Ferrol , and purchased promotion to lieutenant on 10 January 1801 , he purchased a captaincy in the 62nd Foot on 20 November 1802 , giving him command of a company . He was put on half @-@ pay after the Peace of Amiens , but on 19 July 1803 took a captaincy in the 28th Foot .
Stovin served with the 28th during garrison duties in Ireland , and in the brief German expedition of 1805 , before seeing service at the Battle of Copenhagen in 1807 . He served under Sir John Moore in Sweden and then in Spain , in the lead @-@ up to the Battle of Corunna . In 1809 he was the aide @-@ de @-@ camp to General Alexander Mackenzie @-@ Fraser in the Walcheren expedition , then served at Gibraltar and in southern Spain with the 28th , returning to England in September 1810 .
He briefly commanded the regimental depot , before returning to the peninsula in 1811 as General Thomas Picton 's aide @-@ de @-@ camp , and later assistant adjutant @-@ general ( AAG ) to Picton 's 3rd Division , he received a majority by brevet on 28 April 1812 , and a brevet lieutenant @-@ colonelcy on 26 August 1813 . He held the position of AAG until the end of the Peninsular War in 1814 , and received the Gold Cross with two clasps for his services . When an amphibious force was sent to North America in 1814 during the War of 1812 , Stovin was appointed its deputy adjutant @-@ general ; he was wounded at the Battle of New Orleans . He prosecuted the case of Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Thomas Mullins when the force returned to the United Kingdom — Mullins , commanding the 44th Foot , had been charged with neglecting orders during the battle . As a result , although he had been assigned to Picton 's staff , he missed the opportunity to serve with him in the Waterloo Campaign .
Stovin was appointed Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath on 2 January 1815 when the order was reorganised , and received the accolade and insignia of the order from the Prince Regent at Carlton House on 8 June . He married Anne Sitwell , daughter of Sir Sitwell Sitwell , 1st Baronet , on 4 October that year ; the two would remain married for forty years , until Anne 's death in 1856 , but had no children . Unusually , Anne was a relative of his by marriage ; Stovin 's sister Sarah Caroline had married Sir Sitwell after his first wife 's death , making Stovin 's new wife his step @-@ niece .
= = Regimental command = =
He received regimental promotion to major in the 28th Foot on 9 May 1816 . The regiment moved to a garrison posting in the Ionian islands in 1819 , and his time in the islands saw him command a force which put down a local rising on Santa Maura . On 2 September 1819 he purchased the substantive rank of lieutenant @-@ colonel and command of the 92nd Gordon Highlanders . His tenure at the 92nd was short and contentious ; since it was garrisoned in Jamaica , he did not actually join the regiment until October 1820 , and then scandalised his officers and men by his approach to regimental traditions . He appeared on parade in a cocked hat rather than the conventional highland bonnet , and attempted to order the regiment to wear trousers rather than the kilt . The Duke of York quickly arranged for his transfer to a less sensitive role , and he was transferred to command the 90th Light Infantry , a Lowland — and safely trousered — regiment , on 9 August 1821 . The 90th were in the Ionian Islands , where Stovin had been posted some years earlier , but his second tour was substantially quieter ; he saw no further active service before he retired from the 90th on half @-@ pay on 23 April 1829 . For his services there , he was appointed Knight Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George .
= = Ireland = =
He was appointed as the military secretary to Sir John Byng , the Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , Ireland , and in July 1831 became the State Secretary to the Marquess of Anglesey , the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland . He was promoted to colonel on 22 July 1830 . In 1834 he became the Inspector @-@ General of Police in Ulster , but was passed over for the position of Inspector @-@ General of the Irish constabulary in 1836 ; the possibility of his appointment to the latter post had caused some concern among Irish Tories , who felt he was too critical of the Orange Order . He was later rumoured to be a candidate for the governorship of Dominica , in the West Indies , though this post does not seem to have materialised . In 1838 he was ordered to Canada to act as adjutant @-@ general for the force garrisoned there after the Rebellions of 1837 . When Lord Hill was retiring from the post of Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Forces in 1839 , Anglesey was suggested as a replacement to succeed him , although he eventually turned down the job ; had he taken it up , Stovin was widely expected to become his personal secretary , the same capacity he had served in Dublin .
= = Royal service = =
On the accession of Queen Victoria , he took up roles in the Royal Household , becoming a groom @-@ in @-@ waiting on 27 July 1837 , and taking part in the coronation procession the following year . He still retained his army commission , and progressed steadily in rank through his retirement , becoming a major @-@ general on 23 November 1841 , lieutenant @-@ general on 11 November 1851 , and full general on 14 August 1859 ; on 1 September 1848 , he took the colonelcy of the 83rd ( County of Dublin ) Regiment of Foot . In 1855 , he accompanied the young Prince Alfred to Geneva to supervise his studies there . In 1858 he was appointed a member of the Royal Commission set up to look into the functioning of the militia . He resigned his role as groom in waiting on 18 November 1859 , because of ill @-@ health ; he was appointed an extra groom in waiting on 28 March 1860 , and promoted Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath on 18 May 1860 .
Stovin died on 16 August 1865 , at St James 's Palace , London .
= Chartered Institute of Public Relations =
The Chartered Institute of Public Relations ( CIPR ) is a professional body in the United Kingdom for public relations practitioners . Originally founded as the Institute for Public Relations in 1948 , CIPR was awarded Chartered status by the Privy Council of the United Kingdom in 2005 and added " Chartered " to its name . As of late 2012 , CIPR had 10 @,@ 095 members . The association provides training and education , publishes a code of conduct and hosts awards and events . It is governed by an executive board and a President that is elected each year .
= = History = =
Discussions at the first Public Relations Officers conference in November 1946 led to the foundation of the Institute of Public Relations ( IPR ) in February 1948 . It established a Professional Practices committee in 1956 and incorporated in 1962 . The Institute of Public Relations first discussed attaining chartered status , a professional recognition in the United Kingdom , with the Privy Council in 1956 . The Privy Council said that in order to be awarded chartered status , the organisation would have " adopt and publish professional ethical standards relevant to the practice of public relations and to maintain procedures for the regulation of members ' professional conduct and discipline . " The Institute 's first code of conduct was published seven years later in 1963 . As of 2003 few members have been expelled for breaches in the code .
To support its bid for chartered status , IPR created a joint report with the Department of Trade and Industry in 2003 based on a survey of 812 professionals . The following year the Privy Council told IPR it needed to do more for the public good and professional development to qualify . By 2005 , the privy council decided that IPR and its members act in a way that contributes to the public good and granted it chartered status . IPR added " Chartered " to its name . An analysis in the Journal of Communication Management in 2005 said that chartered status was needed in a time where public trust in businesses , institutions and governments was decreasing , but noted CIPR 's limited power to enforce ethics among its members .
In 2009 CIPR provided an official response to a report by the Public Administration Select Committee 's ( PASC ) that suggested the creation of a new government entity to oversee and regulate lobbyists . The report suggested the creation of a requirement for lobbyists to register themselves and record their activities . CIPR 's position was that regulation would complement CIPR 's code of ethics , but that it was more important to regulate members of the House of Lords that were being lobbied to . CIPR also said that lobbying regulation should focus on regulating individuals instead of companies .
CIPR changed its membership structure in 2011 . Affiliate @-@ level memberships were removed and the requirement for six years of experience to attain full membership status was reduced to two . That same year , CIPR responded to a report by the UK 's Intellectual Property Office . CIPR felt that copyright policy decisions were prioritizing commercial interests over the public good . They expressed concern that the Newspaper Licensing Agency ( NLA ) was both the most popular provider of newspaper clippings to public relations professionals in the UK and the organization that enforces the intellectual property rights of newspapers .
In December 2011 the Bureau of Investigative Journalism shot a covert video interview with Bell Pottinger executives , in which the executives referred to their " dark arts " for manipulating Wikipedia entries for their clients . The following month CIPR announced it would work with the Wikipedia community to create guidance for public relations professionals on how to participate ethically on Wikipedia . CIPR 's guidance was made available for editing by the Wikipedia community and published in June 2012 . According to PRWeek and CorpComms Magazine the most important aspect of CIPR 's guidance is that PR professionals not directly edit Wikipedia articles about their clients or employers . Instead , CIPR recommends they offer content and suggestions to the Wikipedia community .
In July 2013 , CIPR joined The Public Relations Consultants Association and the Association of Professional Political Consultants in criticizing the UK government 's definition of a lobbyist . CIPR 's Director of Policy said the definition of lobbying was so narrow it would be " self @-@ defeating " because few lobbyists would be defined as one . CIPR and other public relations trade associations support a registrar for lobbyists , though UK government estimates the cost of a registrar to be 500 @,@ 000 pounds its first year and 200 @,@ 000 every year thereafter .
= = Organization = =
The Chartered Institute of Public Relations is governed by a 50 @-@ member Council that meets four times a year and an Executive Board that meets every six weeks . A President is elected each year that is usually supported by their predecessor . CIPR has six membership grades and 15 regional groups . CIPR had approximately 3 @,@ 900 members in 1999 , 7 @,@ 000 by 2002 , and 7 @,@ 800 by 2004 . By the end of 2012 , CIPR had 10 @,@ 095 members . Prior to 1999 , applications for membership were processed over six weeks , before being ratified to an immediate acceptance system . CIPR is a member of the European PR Federation and a founding member of the Global Alliance for Public Relations and Communications Management . CIPR membership is bestowed in two categories : Associate CIPR member for new entrants to the field and full membership for those with at least two years of experience . It also has a Government Affairs Group dedicated to lobbyists .
= = Services = =
CIPR started hosting training and certification programmes in 1980 . By 1998 it awarded 5 @,@ 000 certificates and 3 @,@ 000 diplomas . CIPR publishes a code of conduct that encourages members to " deal honestly and fairly " with clients , employers , business partners and the public . The code sets standards in personal conduct , integrity and confidentiality . Violations in its code are reported to the Professional Practices Committee , which may pass cases on to the Disciplinary Committee for sanctions .
The Institute hosts the Excellence Awards and the PRide awards . The Excellence Awards are bestowed in 28 categories based on a scoring of a campaign in four categories : planning , creativity , measurement and evaluation . CIPR maintains a public database of members , information on legislation affecting public relations , case studies , and a career guide .
The organization also hosts networking , award and educational events . PR professionals don 't have to be a member to attend events or training . In 2003 , 2 @,@ 000 non @-@ members attended the organization 's training and 7 @,@ 000 non @-@ members attended events . CIPR has published Public Relations from 1952 to 1988 and IPR Newsletter intermittently from 1956 to 1983 , as well as other publications . It also publishes a series of books with case studies and tips from CIPR award @-@ winners called the " PR in practice series . "
= Drowned God =
Drowned God : Conspiracy of the Ages is a 1996 science fiction adventure game developed by Epic Multimedia Group and published by Inscape . The game propounds the conspiracy theory that all of human history is a lie and the human race 's development and evolution were aided by extra @-@ terrestrials . The player attempts to uncover the truth through the course of the game by traveling to a variety of different worlds , interacting with historical and fictional characters , and solving puzzles .
Drowned God is based on a forged manuscript written by Harry Horse in 1983 . After facing legal trouble and fines when he attempted to sell the text , Horse shelved it until playing Myst and 7th Guest in the mid @-@ 1990s , whereupon he decided a first person adventure game would be the best way to tell the manuscript 's story .
Producer Algy Williams hired a team of multimedia artists and programmers to help Horse develop Drowned God . Upon its release , the game sold well , but quickly faded in popularity due to bugs and a lack of patches . Drowned God 's concept and visuals were widely praised , while its gameplay , audio , and puzzles received more varied responses . A planned sequel never came to fruition .
= = Plot = =
= = = Background = = =
Drowned God 's concept centers around the idea that human history has been manipulated to cover up certain facts . The true history , according to the game , is that aliens from the Orion area of space seeded humanity on Earth thousands of years ago and have since guided its development . An ancient , highly developed civilization was lost millennia ago in the Great Flood . The library of Alexandria housed much of what game writer Harry Horse called " forbidden knowledge " before it was destroyed . The Knights Templar , whose membership included luminaries such as Leonardo da Vinci and Isaac Newton , preserved the information for centuries . In the 20th century , the Philadelphia Experiment opened a gateway into another dimension , first freeing the aliens Horse refers to as " the Legion " . An independent government group spent the subsequent decades in contact with the aliens following the Roswell UFO incident .
= = = Story = = =
The game 's plot begins in a chamber containing the Bequest Globe , a device which the player has recently inherited . The Globe is a giant brass cylinder full of gears , fronted by a clock face made of sliding and rotating plates comprising twenty @-@ two Roman numerals , which represent the Major Arcana , with the Jewish Kabbalah in its center . A voice welcomes the player and tells them the Globe is a gift , then explains that the player must unlock the secret of the drowned god .
The player initially must enter their name into the device , which then displays a series of past lives the player has lived . The name is converted into its numerological equivalent . Above and below the central chamber are two other areas , called Kether and Malchut , respectively , each of which houses a display screen with a mask @-@ like face that provides the player with information about the next task . The motivations of the two organizations represented by the faces are murky , although it becomes clear they are acting in opposition to each other . Both masks refer to the player by their assigned number .
The player must enter four different worlds through the Bequest Globe , each of which is an amalgamation of historical and fantastical elements and named after one of the sephirot on the kabbalistic Tree of Life . The player seeks to recover four lost artifacts : the Rod of Osiris , the Holy Grail , the Philosopher 's Stone , and the Ark of the Covenant . According to Horse , " The relics you 're searching for are not what you think they are " . The first world , Binah , includes aspects of Arthurian legend , including Morgan Le Fey and the Knights Templar , as well as Stonehenge . The second , Chesed , features Aztec ruins and a submarine interior . The third , Din , centers around an underground transit system , a steampunk carnival , and a mechanical maze . The final world , Chokmah , takes place outside Area 51 .
Throughout the game , the player finds and uses Tarot cards to unlock new areas and gain more information about the true history of the world . Upon returning to the Bequest Globe between worlds , the player sees the Roman numerals in its display light up in relation to the cards that have been recovered . After recovering three of the lost artifacts , the player fails to recover the last one , the Ark of the Covenant , which takes the form of a nuclear warhead . The player is able to choose one of three endings , depending on whether they decide to enter a final doorway in the chambers of one of the two opposing factions represented by Kether and Malchut , or enter a new central chamber via the Bequest Globe .
Choosing either of the two doors results in an ending in which the player is trapped in a dystopian world : either Kether 's , a technological police state , or Malchut 's , a society of forced genetic manipulation . Both have ominous men in black overseeing the proceedings . If the player instead chooses to open the central chamber , a scene with a group of grey aliens approaching is briefly shown , wherein they say , " We are coming , for we are Legion . " All three options lead to the same ending credits , which feature a voice @-@ over describing the murder of Osiris .
= = Gameplay = =
Drowned God uses a point @-@ and @-@ click interface and first person perspective typical of games similar to Myst of the mid- to late @-@ 1990s . The player navigates and interacts with the game world by clicking the mouse on different parts of the screen . The mouse cursor changes shape depending on the action clicking will perform : an arrow for moving to another location , a face with an arrow to pick up or place Tarot cards , and an Eye of Providence for activating or interacting with objects in the environment . Frequent cutscenes provide background information and advance the storyline .
The game is filled with a variety of puzzles that must be solved to advance the story . These include memory games and mazes . Others involve competing against a computer @-@ controlled opponent , completing a sequence in a limited number of moves , operating mechanisms , or using an inventory item . Puzzles do not all have to be completed in a precise order ; there is some flexibility in terms of being able to move through game areas and work on different challenges .
One of the best received puzzles in the game involves arranging the pieces of a dialogue between the sculpted heads of Isaac Newton and Albert Einstein . The player listens to the randomly ordered statements made by each head , then decides how to chronologically arrange the statements to form a coherent conversation based on context .
= = Development = =
Harry Horse conceived the game 's ancient planetwide conspiracy . Horse had previously written several children 's books and received the Scottish Arts Council Writer of the Year award for his 1983 book , The Ogopogo : My Journey with the Loch Ness Monster . He began forging documents that same year as a way to earn money . The story which became the basis for Drowned God was originally a phony manuscript Horse wrote in 1983 , ostensibly describing events after the destruction of the lost city of Atlantis . The manuscript , dated 1846 , was said to have been written by the English poet Richard Horne , who shares Horse 's birth name . Horse 's initiation into the concept of an alternate history came in the early 1980s , when he first encountered professor Ian Halpke , who explained to him that information from the Kabbalah and ancient Jewish texts " hide and encipher the secret " , namely , human evolution was aided by extraterrestrial intelligence . According to Horse , Halpke believed the Ark of the Covenant was a nuclear device , and that humans and pigs share compatible genes .
Initially , experts determined the manuscript was genuine , as the date Horse picked matched the time period Horne had been alive and active , and the manuscript 's topics matched the poet 's interests . Horse had written the manuscript without knowing any of these details . After his hoax was discovered , Horse held onto the text for the next decade , until he played Myst and 7th Guest and decided the point @-@ and @-@ click adventure genre was a good match for his conspiracy theory @-@ inspired ideas . He later said that while the story of Myst did not interest him , the game 's artwork and the sense of immersion inspired him to immediately begin working on Drowned God in 1994 .
The game was originally commissioned by a division of Time Warner and was later taken over by Inscape when that division closed . Horse worked with Inigo Orduna and Anthony McGaw for six months designing the game , then cooperated with the game 's artists and modelers until the project 's completion . The game 's producer , Algy Williams , hired puzzle expert Chris Maslanka , whose output he called " fiendishly difficult " , to design the game 's puzzles together with John Morris . Williams also employed sculptor Greg Boulton , who had previously worked on the Peter Gabriel video " Sledgehammer " . Drowned God 's music was written and performed by an ambient music duo operating under the name Miasma . William S. Burroughs was originally scheduled to narrate the game , but died just before he could begin recording . McGaw and Williams later founded the company Babel Media , which specializes in video game localization .
= = Release = =
Drowned God was released on October 31 , 1996 for the Windows 95 operating system . In its first two weeks , it sold 34 @,@ 000 copies in the United States . It was one of the top ten best @-@ selling video games in United States during the first month after its release , but bugs and poor support from the developers caused it to fall out of favor with gamers by December . By February 1998 , the game had sold over 60 @,@ 000 copies . Around the time of the game 's release , Horse stated that its story was incomplete , and that the rest of the story would be revealed in a sequel called CULT , planned to center around Area 51 . However , he killed himself a decade after the game 's release , and no sequel was ever completed .
= = Reception = =
Drowned God received mixed to positive reviews , with many critics complimenting the game 's ideas and imagery while giving a less favorable response to its audio , puzzles , and execution . GameSpot reviewer Vince Broady wrote that the game sounded very promising , and might " also raise awareness of the thread of deception that runs throughout recorded history . " Steve Ramsey of Quandary said Drowned God presented its massive assortment of conspiracy theories entertainingly . Ray Ivey of Just Adventure called Drowned God " the strangest , creepiest , most psychedelic adventure game I 've yet to come across . " Although Ivey did not understand much of the game , he found it enjoyable , because " it made sense to the game 's characters and creators . "
T. Liam McDonald of PC Gamer wrote that he was " fascinated by the strong sense of style and the intellectual approach to terrific subject matter " . Steven Levy and Patricia King of Newsweek found the game to be " richly detailed and original " . In 2012 , Andy Hughes of Topless Robot put the game at the top of his list of " 9 Surprising Literary References In Videogames " . Hughes wrote that the game was one that could be played from start to finish " without having any idea what the hell 's going on " , noting its references to a wide variety of subjects , including Egyptian mythology , The Man in the Iron Mask , and the Bermuda Triangle .
Boardy complimented the graphics , writing , " Drowned God is loaded with freaky animations and unexpected visual twists " . Ramsey praised the visuals and the audio , saying both contributed to the game 's " shadowy and secretive feelings " . His one significant criticism was that dialogue was difficult to hear , with no option to display text for it . Regarding the game 's audio aspect , Boardy said , " The soundtrack is less impressive , primarily because of overuse : The background effects drone on mercilessly , and many of the game 's narratives ( which are universally well @-@ written and finely acted ) must be listened to over and over again . "
The puzzles , according to Boardy , were of uneven quality . He called some " hopelessly difficult " and others extremely derivative . By contrast he considered the Albert Einstein and Isaac Newton dialogue puzzle " brilliant " , but said , " Ideas as original as Horse 's call for puzzles to match , not rehashes of things we 've seen far too many times already . " Ramsey thought the puzzles were challenging but not overly difficult , arguing " on almost every occasion I felt that I was making progress , and I never felt bogged down and hopelessly lost . " He considered the puzzles to be mostly well @-@ integrated , and found those that were not did not detract from his enjoyment . Ivey remarked , " For puzzle lovers , Drowned God is a treasure trove . ... This collection of tricky puzzlers are challenging and frequently innovative . "
Boardy panned the navigation for being confusing , counter @-@ intuitive , and requiring the player to revisit locations multiple times . He concluded his review by saying , " The net effect is that the story — which made this game so intriguing in the first place — is almost totally lost , and that is a shame . " GameSpot considered the game one of the most disappointing of 1996 in their annual recap , writing " the great premise is buried like the mysteries of the ages themselves under a mediocre Myst clone " . Bob Strauss of Entertainment Weekly opined that the game tried to be too many things , and quipped , " the result is a game so obscure , you 'd be better off perusing something more comprehensible — like the collected works of Zoroaster . " Mark Reece and Brooke Adams of Deseret News also had mixed feelings about the game , calling it both " clever and deep " and " frustrating and difficult " . McDonald wrote that he was " frustrated by the lack of good game play . " Hughes called the pace of the game and its puzzles both " tedious " and " ponderous " , but said it " had ambition out the genetically modified ears . "
= Ross Youngs =
Royce Middlebrook " Ross " Youngs ( April 10 , 1897 – October 22 , 1927 ) was a professional baseball player . Nicknamed " Pep " , he played ten seasons in Major League Baseball for the New York Giants from 1917 through 1926 , playing right field almost exclusively . Youngs was a part of the Giants teams that won four consecutive National League pennants and the 1921 and 1922 World Series .
From Shiner , Texas , Youngs excelled at baseball and American football at the West Texas Military Institute . After beginning his professional career in minor league baseball , the Giants signed him in 1916 . Youngs had a lifetime .322 batting average with the Giants and batted over .300 nine times in his career , including eight consecutive seasons . His career was cut short by illness , however , as he died at the age of 30 of Bright 's disease .
Known for his defense and hitting , he was elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1972 by the Veterans Committee . His election was not without controversy , however , as the Veterans Committee consisted of his former teammates , and charges of cronyism were leveled against the Veterans Committee .
= = Early life and minor leagues = =
Youngs was born in Shiner , Texas , the second of three children , all sons . His father was a railroad worker , but suffered disability and moved his family to San Antonio where he worked as a rancher . Youngs ' mother ran a small hotel in San Antonio and Youngs had a paper route .
Youngs was educated at West Texas Military Institute . He received offers for scholarships to play college football but passed on these , as he preferred baseball . He made his professional baseball debut for the Austin Senators of the Texas League in 1914 . Appearing in 17 games , he hit just .145 for the class @-@ B Senators and , in 1915 , found himself down in the Class @-@ D leagues , playing for Brenham of the Middle Texas League and the Waxahachie Athletics of the Central Texas League ; both leagues disbanded during the season . In 1916 , playing in the infield for the Sherman Lions of the Class @-@ D Western Association , he hit .362 as a switch @-@ hitter , drawing the attention of the New York Giants , who purchased his contract in August for $ 2 @,@ 000 ( $ 43 @,@ 492 in current dollar terms ) .
= = New York Giants = =
Youngs reported to spring training in Marlin , Texas with the Giants in 1917 . They initially assigned him to the Rochester Hustlers , a team in the International League with which the Giants had a working relationship . Giants manager John McGraw told Mickey Doolan , the manager of the Hustlers , " I 'm giving you one of the greatest players I 've ever seen . Play him in the outfield . If anything happens to him , I 'm holding you responsible . " In 140 games with Rochester , Youngs hit .356 , earning himself a late @-@ season promotion to the big league club . McGraw gave Youngs the nickname " Pep " due to his hustle and soon began to groom Youngs to become his successor as Giants ' manager .
Youngs made his major league debut on September 25 and played in seven of the last nine games of the season for the eventual National League ( NL ) pennant @-@ winners : six in center field and one in right . In those seven games he went 9 @-@ for @-@ 26 ( .346 ) with two doubles and three triples . In 1918 regular Giants right fielder Dave Robertson left the team to manage a local military ballclub , and Youngs was given the full @-@ time job out of spring training . Batting exclusively left @-@ handed , Youngs responded by batting .302 in 121 games , finishing sixth in the league . It would be the first of seven straight seasons in which he hit .300 as a regular , and the second of eight overall counting his brief stint in 1917 . He also finished sixth in the NL with a .368 on @-@ base percentage ( OBP ) . The next season Robertson was traded to the Chicago Cubs for pitcher Phil Douglas , leaving Youngs to become a fixture in right field for the Giants . Youngs finished third in the NL in 1919 with a .311 batting average . His .351 batting average in 1920 was second in the NL to Rogers Hornsby .
Youngs batted .327 in 1921 , good for ninth in the NL . In Game 3 of the 1921 World Series Youngs became the first player to record two hits in the same inning of a World Series game . The Giants defeated the New York Yankees as Youngs batted .280 in the series . Youngs hit for the cycle on April 29 , 1922 . He finished the regular season ninth in the NL in OBP ( .398 ) and tied for ninth in stolen bases ( 17 ) , proceeding to hit .375 in the 1922 World Series as the Giants again defeated the Yankees . Youngs led the NL in runs scored in 1923 , with 121 , and his .348 batting average was the eighth best in the league . Youngs batted .356 in the 1923 World Series , which the Giants lost to the Yankees .
Youngs batted .356 during the 1924 season , finishing third in the NL . In the final series of this season , the Giants were playing the Philadelphia Phillies at the Polo Grounds and battling for the pennant with the Brooklyn Dodgers . Jimmy O 'Connell , an outfielder for the Giants , offered Phillies shortstop Heinie Sand $ 500 to intentionally lose the games ( $ 6 @,@ 904 in current dollar terms ) . Sand rejected the bribe and reported it to Phillies manager Art Fletcher . It eventually led to the lifetime suspension of O 'Connell and Giants coach Crazy Dolan by Commissioner Kenesaw Mountain Landis . O 'Connell implicated teammates Youngs , George Kelly , and Frankie Frisch as co @-@ conspirators ; Landis , however , cleared the trio of any wrongdoing .
Youngs slumped to a .185 batting average during the 1924 World Series , which the Giants lost to the Washington Senators . Continuing to struggle in 1925 , Youngs batted .264 , his only season with a batting average below .300 , but improved to .306 in 95 games during the 1926 season . Toward the end of his career , Youngs taught Mel Ott , his eventual successor , how to play right field in the Polo Grounds .
= = Illness and death = =
Youngs 's career was abruptly cut short in 1926 when he was diagnosed with the kidney disorder that , at the time , was called Bright 's disease . He had been exposed to streptococcal infection in 1924 . Too ill to play after August 10 , 1926 , Youngs returned home on McGraw 's insistence and received a blood transfusion in March 1927 .
Youngs died of Bright 's disease on October 22 , 1927 at the age of 30 . He went from weighing 170 pounds ( 77 kg ) during his playing career to 100 pounds ( 45 kg ) by the time of his death . In The New York Times obituary , Giants manager John McGraw called Youngs the greatest outfielder he 'd ever seen , as well as " the greatest fighter I ever saw on a baseball field " and " the easiest man I ever knew to handle . " The Giants honored Youngs with a bronze plaque on the right field wall of the Polo Grounds ; although the Giants intended to pay for it , fans expressed their desire to contribute and , even though contributions were limited to $ 1 per person , donations paid for the plaque entirely .
= = Legacy = =
Over his abbreviated ten @-@ year career , Youngs posted 812 runs , 42 home runs , 592 runs batted in ( RBI ) , 153 stolen bases , a .322 career batting average , and .399 career on @-@ base percentage . He batted .300 or higher in every season until 1925 , and higher than .350 twice . Youngs scored 100 or more runs three times and posted a career high 102 RBI in 1921 and 10 home runs in 1924 . During his tenure with the team , the Giants went to the World Series four consecutive years ( 1921 – 1924 ) and won twice ( 1921 , 1922 ) . Youngs was a favorite of McGraw , who kept only two pictures in his office : one of Christy Mathewson and one of Youngs . Rosy Ryan , a teammate with the Giants , and Burleigh Grimes , who played against Youngs as a member of the Brooklyn Dodgers , considered Youngs the best player they ever saw .
Youngs was included in the inaugural balloting for the National Baseball Hall of Fame in 1936 , but received less than 5 % of the vote from the Baseball Writers ' Association of America ( BBWAA ) . Youngs remained on the ballot every year through 1956 , receiving his highest vote total in 1947 with 22 % . Ford C. Frick , Commissioner of Baseball , and former teammate Bill Terry both championed Youngs ' candidacy .
Former Giants teammates Terry and Frankie Frisch joined the Veterans Committee in 1967 and aided the elections of several of their former teammates , including Youngs in 1972 . In addition to Youngs , Terry and Frisch shepherded the selections of Giants teammates Jesse Haines in 1970 , Dave Bancroft and Chick Hafey in 1971 , George Kelly in 1973 , Jim Bottomley in 1974 , and Freddie Lindstrom in 1976 . Youngs died at the earliest age of any current Hall of Famer . Youngs is the only member of the National Baseball Hall of Fame from San Antonio and was inducted into the San Antonio Sports Hall of Fame in 1998 . Shiner , the town in which Youngs was born , hosted a baseball tournament in his honor at Clipper Field from 2001 through 2003 .
Youngs ' selection , along with some of the other selections made by Terry and Frisch , has been considered one of the weakest in some circles . According to the BBWAA , the Veterans Committee was not selective enough in choosing members , and charges of cronyism were later leveled against the committee . This led to the Veterans Committee having its powers reduced in subsequent years . Baseball statistician Bill James recognized this and wrote that Youngs does not belong in the Hall of Fame . In 1981 , however , Lawrence Ritter and Honig included Youngs in their book The 100 Greatest Baseball Players of All Time . They explained what they called " the Smoky Joe Wood Syndrome " , where a player of truly exceptional talent but a career curtailed by injury or illness should still — in spite of not owning career statistics that would quantitatively rank him with the all @-@ time greats — be included on their list of the 100 greatest players .
= = Personal life = =
Youngs married Dorothy Pienecke , a woman from Brooklyn who he met while vacationing in the Berkshires , in October 1924 . Their daughter Caroline was born in December 1925 . Dorothy feuded with Youngs ' mother , however , and the couple separated before the birth of Caroline , whom he never met . Youngs was considered friendly and generous , loaned money constantly , and was reportedly owed $ 16 @,@ 000 at the time of his death ( $ 217 @,@ 962 in current dollar terms ) . Youngs enjoyed playing golf and was considered the best golfer in the major leagues .
= Kowloon Walled City =
Kowloon Walled City was a densely populated , largely ungoverned settlement in Kowloon City , Hong Kong . Originally a Chinese military fort , the Walled City became an enclave after the New Territories were leased to Britain in 1898 . Its population increased dramatically following the Japanese occupation of Hong Kong during World War II . By 1987 , the Walled City contained 33 @,@ 000 residents within its 2 @.@ 6 @-@ hectare ( 6 @.@ 4 @-@ acre ) borders . From the 1950s to the 1970s , it was controlled by Triads and had high rates of prostitution , gambling , and drug use .
In January 1987 , the Hong Kong government announced plans to demolish the Walled City . After an arduous eviction process , demolition began in March 1993 and was completed in April 1994 . Kowloon Walled City Park opened in December 1995 and occupies the area of the former Walled City . Some historical artefacts from the Walled City , including its yamen building and remnants of its South Gate , have been preserved there .
= = History = =
= = = Military outpost = = =
The history of the Walled City can be traced back to the Song Dynasty ( 960 – 1279 ) , when an outpost was set up to manage the trade of salt . Little took place for hundreds of years afterward , although 30 guards were stationed there in 1668 . A small coastal fort was established around 1810 . In 1842 , during Qing Emperor Daoguang 's reign , Hong Kong Island was ceded to Britain by the Treaty of Nanjing . As a result , the Qing authorities felt it necessary to improve the fort in order to rule the area and check further British influence . The improvements , including the formidable defensive wall , were completed in 1847 . The Walled City was captured by rebels during the Taiping Rebellion in 1854 before being retaken a few weeks later . The present Walled City 's " Dapeng Association House " forms the remnants of what was previously Lai Enjue 's garrison .
The Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory of 1898 handed additional parts of Hong Kong ( the New Territories ) to Britain for 99 years , but excluded the Walled City , which at the time had a population of roughly 700 . China was allowed to continue to keep officials there as long as they did not interfere with the defence of British Hong Kong . The following year , the Governor , Sir Henry Blake , suspected that the Viceroy of Canton was using troops to aid resistance to the new arrangements . On 16 May 1899 , British forces attacked the Walled City , only to find the Viceroy 's soldiers gone , leaving behind only the mandarin and 150 residents .
Though the British claimed ownership of the Walled City , they did little with it over the following few decades . The Protestant church established an old people 's home in the yamen , as well as a school and almshouse in other former offices . Aside from such institutions , however , the Walled City became a mere curiosity for British colonials and tourists to visit . In 1933 , the Hong Kong authorities announced plans to demolish most of the decaying Walled City 's buildings , compensating the 436 squatters that lived there with new homes . By 1940 only the yamen , the school , and one house remained . During its World War II occupation of Hong Kong , Japan demolished the City 's wall and used the stone to expand the nearby Kai Tak Airport .
= = = Urban settlement = = =
After Japan 's surrender , China announced its intent to reclaim its rights to the Walled City . Refugees poured in to take advantage of Chinese protection , and 2 @,@ 000 squatters occupied the Walled City by 1947 . After a failed attempt to drive them out in 1948 , the British adopted a ' hands @-@ off ' policy in most matters concerning the Walled City .
In January 1950 , a fire broke out that destroyed over 2 @,@ 500 huts , home to nearly 3 @,@ 500 families and 17 @,@ 000 total people . The disaster highlighted the need for proper fire prevention in the largely wooden @-@ built squatter areas , complicated by the lack of political ties with the colonial and Chinese governments . The ruins gave new arrivals to the Walled City the opportunity to build anew , causing speculation that the fire may have been intentionally set .
With no government enforcement from the Chinese or the British aside from a few raids by the Hong Kong Police , the Walled City became a haven for crime and drugs . It was only during a 1959 trial for a murder that occurred within the Walled City that the Hong Kong government was ruled to have jurisdiction there . By this time , however , the Walled City was virtually ruled by the organised crime syndicates known as Triads .
Beginning in the 1950s , Triad groups such as the 14K and Sun Yee On gained a stranglehold on the Walled City 's countless brothels , gambling parlors , and opium dens . The Walled City had become such a haven for criminals that police would venture into it only in large groups . It was not until 1973 – 74 , when a series of more than 3 @,@ 500 police raids resulted in over 2 @,@ 500 arrests and over 1 @,@ 800 kilograms ( 4 @,@ 000 lb ) of seized drugs , that the Triads ' power began to wane . With public support , particularly from younger residents , the continued raids gradually eroded drug use and violent crime . In 1983 , the police commander of Kowloon City District declared the Walled City 's crime rate to be under control .
The City also underwent massive construction during the 1960s , with developers building new modular structures above older ones . The city became extremely dense , with over 30 @,@ 000 people in 300 buildings occupying little more than 7 acres ( 2 @.@ 8 ha ) . As a result , the city reached its maximum size by the late 1970s and early 1980s ; a height restriction of 13 to 14 storeys had been imposed on the city due to the flight path of planes heading towards Kai Tak Airport . Eight municipal pipes provided water to the entire structure ( although more could have come from wells ) . A few of the streets were illuminated by fluorescent lights , as sunlight rarely reached the lower levels due to the outstanding disregard to air rights within the city . Although the rampant crime of earlier decades diminished in later years , the Walled City was still known for its high number of unlicensed doctors and dentists , who could operate there without threat of prosecution .
Although the Walled City was for many years a hotbed of criminal activity , most residents were not involved in any crime and lived peacefully within its walls . Numerous small factories and businesses thrived inside the Walled City , and some residents formed groups to organise and improve daily life there . An attempt by the government in 1963 to demolish some shacks in a corner of the City gave rise to an " antidemolition committee " that served as the basis for a Kaifong association . Charities , religious societies , and other welfare groups were gradually introduced to the City . While medical clinics and schools went unregulated , the Hong Kong government did provide some services , such as water supply and mail delivery .
= = = Eviction and demolition = = =
Over time , both the British and the Chinese governments found the City to be increasingly intolerable , despite a reduction in the reported crime rate . The quality of life in the City — sanitary conditions in particular — remained far behind the rest of Hong Kong . The Sino @-@ British Joint Declaration in 1984 laid the groundwork for the City 's demolition . The mutual decision by the two governments to tear down the Walled City was announced on 14 January 1987 . On 10 March 1987 , following the announcement that the Walled City would be converted to a park , the Secretary for District Administration formally requested the Urban Council agree to take over the site following demolition . Owing to the presence of numerous other green spaces in the area the Urban Services Department doubted the need for " yet another park " from a planning and operations point of view , but the council agreed nonetheless to accept the government 's proposal on the condition that the government bear the cost of park construction .
The government distributed some HK $ 2 @.@ 7 billion ( US $ 350 million ) in compensation to the estimated 33 @,@ 000 residents and businesses in a plan devised by a special committee of the Hong Kong Housing Authority . Some residents were not satisfied with the compensation , and were forcibly evicted between November 1991 and July 1992 . After four months of planning , demolition of the Walled City began on 23 March 1993 and concluded in April 1994 . Construction work on Kowloon Walled City Park started the following month .
= = Current status as park = =
The area where the Walled City once stood is now Kowloon Walled City Park , adjacent to Carpenter Road Park . The 31 @,@ 000 m2 ( 330 @,@ 000 sq ft ) park was completed in August 1995 and handed over to the Urban Council . It was opened officially by Governor Chris Patten a few months later on 22 December . Construction of the park cost a total of HK $ 76 million .
The park 's design is modelled on Jiangnan gardens of the early Qing Dynasty . It is divided into eight landscape features , with the fully restored yamen as its centrepiece . The park 's paths and pavilions are named after streets and buildings in the Walled City . Artefacts from the Walled City , such as five inscribed stones and three old wells , are also on display in the park . The park was designed by the Architectural Services Department , who won a " prestigious award " from the Central Society of Horticulture of Germany for the redevelopment .
Components of the park include :
The Eight Floral Walks , each named after a different plant or flower
The Chess Garden , featuring four 3 @-@ by @-@ 5 @-@ metre ( 9 @.@ 8 by 16 @.@ 4 ft ) Chinese chessboards
The Garden of Chinese zodiac , containing stone statues of the 12 Chinese zodiac animals
The Garden of Four Seasons ( named Guangyin Square after the small open area in the Walled City ) , a 300 m2 ( 3 @,@ 200 sq ft ) garden with plants that symbolise the four seasons
The Six Arts Terrace , a 600 m2 ( 6 @,@ 500 sq ft ) wedding area containing a garden and the Bamboo Pavilion
The Kuixing Pavilion , including a moon gate framed by two stone tablets and the towering Guibi Rock , which represents Hong Kong 's return to China
The Mountain View Pavilion , a two @-@ storey structure resembling a docked boat that provides a good view of the entire park
The Lung Tsun , Yuk Tong , and Lung Nam Pavilions
The yamen and the remains of the South Gate ( see below ) .
= = = Declared monuments = = =
The Antiquities and Monuments Office conducted archaeological examinations as the Walled City was being demolished , and several cultural remains were discovered . Among them were the Walled City 's yamen and remnants of its South Gate , which were officially designated declared monuments of Hong Kong on 4 October 1996 .
The South Gate had originally served as the Walled City 's main entrance . Along with its foundation , other remains included two stone plaques inscribed with " South Gate " and " Kowloon Walled City " from the South Gate and a flagstone path that had led up to it . The foundations of the City 's wall and East Gate were also discovered . The Hong Kong government preserved the South Gate remnants next to a square in front of the yamen .
The yamen building is made up of three halls . Originally the middle hall served the Assistant Magistrate of Kowloon 's administrative office , and the rear block was his residence . After the government officials left the area in 1899 , it was used for several other purposes , including an old people 's home , a refuge for widows and orphans , a school , and a clinic . It was restored in 1996 and is now found near the centre of the park . It contains a photo gallery of the Walled City , and two cannon dating back to 1802 sit at the sides of its entrance .
= = Layout and architecture = =
The Walled City was located in what became known as the Kowloon City area of Kowloon . In spite of its transformation from a fort into an urban enclave , the Walled City retained the same basic layout . The original fort was built on a slope and consisted of a 2 @.@ 6 @-@ hectare ( 0 @.@ 010 sq mi ) plot measuring about 210 by 120 metres ( 690 by 390 ft ) . The stone wall surrounding it had four entrances and measured 4 metres ( 13 ft ) tall and 4 @.@ 6 metres ( 15 ft ) thick before it was dismantled in 1943 .
Construction surged dramatically during the 1960s and 1970s , until the formerly low @-@ rise City consisted almost entirely of buildings with 10 storeys or more ( with the notable exception of the yamen in its centre ) . However , due to the Kai Tak Airport 's position 0 @.@ 8 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 50 mi ) south of the City , buildings did not exceed 14 storeys . The two @-@ storey Sai Tau Tsuen settlement bordered the Walled City to the south and west until it was cleared in 1985 and replaced with Carpenter Road Park .
The City 's dozens of alleyways were often only 1 – 2 m ( 3 @.@ 3 – 6 @.@ 6 ft ) wide , and had poor lighting and drainage . An informal network of staircases and passageways also formed on upper levels , which was so extensive that one could travel north to south through the entire City without ever touching solid ground . Construction in the City went unregulated , and most of the roughly 350 buildings were built with poor foundations and few or no utilities . Because apartments were so small — a typical unit was 23 m2 ( 250 sq ft ) — space was maximised with wider upper floors , caged balconies , and rooftop additions . Roofs in the City were full of television antennae , clothes lines , water tanks , and rubbish , and could be crossed using a series of ladders .
= = Population = =
Kowloon Walled City 's early population fluctuated between zero and a few hundred , and began growing steadily shortly after World War II . However , there is no accurate population information available for much of the Walled City 's later existence . Official census numbers estimated the Walled City 's population at 10 @,@ 004 in 1971 and 14 @,@ 617 in 1981 , but these figures were commonly considered to be much too low . Informal estimates , on the other hand , often mistakenly included the neighbouring squatter village of Sai Tau Tsuen . Population figures of about 50
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trench warfare , barbed wire and machine guns rendered traditional cavalry almost obsolete . Following the war , the armies of the world powers initiated a process of mechanization in earnest , and most cavalry regiments were either converted to mechanized units or disbanded . Historian G.J. Meyer writes that " the Great War brought the end of cavalry " . From the Middle Ages into the 20th century , cavalry had dominated battlefields , but from as early as the American Civil War , their value in war was declining as artillery became more powerful , reducing the effectiveness of shock charges . The Western Front in World War I showed that cavalry was almost useless against modern weaponry , and it also reinforced that they were difficult to transport and supply . British cavalry officers , far more than their continental European counterparts , persisted in using and maintaining cavalry , believing that mounted troops would be useful for exploiting infantry breakthroughs , and under the right circumstances would be able to face machine guns . Neither of these beliefs proved correct .
= = = British Empire = = =
= = = = United Kingdom = = = =
Britain had increased its cavalry reserves after seeing the cavalry feats of mounted Boers during the Second Boer War ( 1899 – 1902 ) . Horse @-@ mounted units were used from the earliest days of World War I : on August 22 , 1914 , the first British shot of the war in France was fired by a cavalryman , Edward Thomas of the 4th Royal Irish Dragoon Guards , near Casteau , during a patrol in the buildup to the Battle of Mons . Within 19 days of Britain beginning mobilization for war , on August 24 , 1914 , the 9th Lancers , a cavalry regiment led by David Campbell , engaged German troops with a squadron of 4th Dragoon Guards against German infantry and guns . Campbell obeyed his orders to charge , although he believed the more prudent course of action would have been to fight dismounted . The charge resulted in a British loss of 250 men and 300 horses . On September 7 , Campbell 's troops charged again , this time towards the German 1st Guard Dragoons , another lancer cavalry regiment . In the same year , the British Household Cavalry completed their penultimate operation on horseback — the Allied retreat from Mons . Upon reaching the Aisne River and encountering the trench system , cavalry was found to be ineffective . Although cavalry divisions were still being formed in Britain , cavalry troops quickly became accustomed to fighting dismounted . Britain continued to use cavalry throughout the war , and in 1917 , the Household Cavalry conducted its last mounted charge during a diversionary attack on the Hindenburg Line at Arras . On the orders of Field Marshal Douglas Haig , the Life Guards and the Blues , accompanied by the men of the 10th Hussars , charged into heavy machine gun fire and barbed wire , and were slaughtered by the German defenders ; the Hussars lost two @-@ thirds of their number in the charge . The last British fatality from enemy action before the armistice went into effect was a cavalryman , George Edwin Ellison , from C Troop 5th Royal Irish Lancers . Ellison was shot by a sniper as the regiment moved into Mons on November 11 , 1918 .
Despite their lackluster record in Europe , horses proved indispensable to the British war effort in Palestine , particularly under Field Marshal Edmund Allenby , for whom cavalry made up a large percentage of his forces . Most of his mounted troops were not British regular cavalry , but the Desert Mounted Corps , consisting of a combination of Australian , New Zealand , Indian units and English Yeomanry regiments from the Territorial Force , largely equipped as mounted infantry rather than cavalry . By mid @-@ 1918 , Turkish intelligence estimated that Allenby commanded around 11 @,@ 000 cavalry . Allenby 's forces crushed the Turkish armies in a running series of battles that included the extensive use of cavalry by both sides . Some cavalry tacticians view this action as a vindication of cavalry 's usefulness , but others point out that the Turks were outnumbered two to one by late 1918 , and were not first @-@ class troops . Horses were also ridden by the British officers of the Egyptian Camel Transport Corps in Egypt and the Levant during the Sinai and Palestine Campaigns .
= = = = India = = = =
Indian cavalry participated in actions on both the Western and Palestinian fronts throughout the war . Members of the 1st and 2nd Indian Cavalry Divisions were active on the Western Front , including in the German retreat to the Hindenburg Line and at the Battle of Cambrai . A charge by the 5th ( Mhow ) Cavalry Brigade of the 1st Division ended successfully at the Battle of Cambrai despite being against a position fortified by barbed wire and machine guns . This successful ending was an unusual occurrence during the war . Several Indian cavalry divisions joined Allenby 's troops in the spring of 1918 after being transferred from the Western Front .
= = = = Canada = = = =
When the war began , Lord Strathcona 's Horse , a Canadian cavalry regiment , was mobilized and sent to England for training . The regiment served as infantry in French trenches during 1915 , and were not returned to their mounted status until February 16 , 1916 . In the defense of the Somme front in March 1917 , mounted troops saw action , and Lieutenant Frederick Harvey was awarded the Victoria Cross for his actions . Canadian cavalry generally had the same difficulties as other nations in breaking trench warfare deadlocks and were of little use on the front lines . However , in the spring of 1918 , Canadian cavalry was essential in halting the last major German offensive of the war . On March 30 , 1918 , Canadian cavalry charged German positions in the Battle of Moreuil Wood , defeating a superior German force supported by machine gun fire . The charge was made by Lord Strathcona 's Horse , led by Gordon Flowerdew , later posthumously awarded the Victoria Cross for his actions during the charge . Although the German forces surrendered , three @-@ quarters of the 100 cavalry participating in the attack were killed or wounded in the attack against 300 German soldiers .
= = = = Australia and New Zealand = = = =
The Australian and New Zealand Mounted Division ( known as the Anzac Mounted Division ) was formed in Egypt in 1916 , after the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps ( ANZAC ) was disbanded . Comprising four brigades , the 1st , 2nd and 3rd Australian Light Horse and the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade . All had fought at Gallipoli dismounted . In August the division 's dynamic capabilities were effectively combined with the static 52nd ( Lowland ) Infantry Division at the Battle of Romani , where they repelled an attempted Ottoman attack on the Suez Canal . This victory stopped the advance of Kress von Kressenstein 's Expeditionary Force ( 3rd Infantry Division and Pasha I formation ) towards the Suez Canal and forced his withdrawal under pressure . An Ottoman garrison at Magdhaba was defeated in December 1916 by the division with the Imperial Camel Corps Brigade attached and the other major Ottoman fortification at Rafah was captured in January 1917 . They participated mounted in the First Battle of Gaza in March , and the Third Battle of Gaza ( including the Battle of Beersheba ) in October 1917 . They attacked dismounted in the Second Battle of Gaza in April 1917 . In 1918 , the Anzac and Australian Mounted Divisions , along with the Yeomanry Mounted Division in the Desert Mounted Corps , conducted two attacks across the Jordan River to Amman in March , then moved on to Es Salt in April . The Australian Mounted Division were armed with swords mid year , and as part of the Battle of Megiddo captured Amman ( capturing 10 @,@ 300 prisoners ) , Nazareth , Jenin and Samakh in nine days . After the Armistice they participated in the reoccupation of Gallipoli in December .
The Anzac and Australian Mounted Divisions carried rifles , bayonets and machine guns , generally using horses as swift transport and dismounting to fight . Troops of four men were organised , so that three were fighting while the fourth held the horses . Sometimes they fought as mounted troops : at the Battle of Beersheba during the Sinai and Palestine Campaign in 1917 , the Australian Mounted Division 's 4th Light Horse Brigade made what is sometimes called " the last successful cavalry charge in history " , when two regiments successfully overran Turkish trenches . They formed up over a wide area , to avoid offering a target for enemy artillery , and galloped 3 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) into machine gun fire , equipped only with rifles and bayonets . Some of the front ranks fell , but most of the brigade broke through , their horses jumping the trenches into the enemy camp . Some soldiers dismounted to fight in the trenches , while others raced on to Beersheba , to capture the town and its vital water supplies . The charge was " instrumental in securing Allenby 's victory [ in Palestine ] " .
The Australians primarily rode Waler horses . The English cavalry officer , Lieutenant Colonel RMP Preston DSO , summed up the animals ' performance in his book , The Desert Mounted Corps :
... ( November 16th , 1917 ) The operations had now continued for 17 days practically without cessation , and a rest was absolutely necessary especially for the horses . Cavalry Division had covered nearly 170 miles ... and their horses had been watered on an average of once in every 36 hours ... The heat , too , had been intense and the short rations , 9 1 ⁄ 2 lb of grain per day without bulk food , had weakened them greatly . Indeed , the hardship endured by some horses was almost incredible . One of the batteries of the Australian Mounted Division had only been able to water its horses three times in the last nine days — the actual intervals being 68 , 72 and 76 hours respectively . Yet this battery on its arrival had lost only eight horses from exhaustion , not counting those killed in action or evacuated wounded ... The majority of horses in the Corps were Walers and there is no doubt that these hardy Australian horses make the finest cavalry mounts in the world ...
= = = Continental Europe = = =
Before the war began , many continental European armies still considered the cavalry to hold a vital place in their order of battle . France and Russia expanded their mounted military units before 1914 . Of the Central Powers , Germany added thirteen regiments of mounted riflemen , Austria – Hungary expanded their forces , and the Bulgarian army also readied the cavalry in their army . When the Germans invaded in August 1914 , the Belgians had one division of cavalry .
French cavalry had similar problems with horses on the Western Front as the British , although the treatment of their horses created additional difficulties . Opinion generally was that the French were poor horsemen : " The French cavalryman of 1914 sat on his horse beautifully , but was no horsemaster . It did not occur to him to get off his horse 's back whenever he could , so there were thousands of animals with sore backs ... " . One French general , Jean @-@ François Sordet , was accused of not letting horses have access to water in hot weather . By late August 1914 , a sixth of the horses in the French cavalry were unusable . The French continued to eschew mounted warfare when in a June 1918 charge by French lancers the horses were left behind and the men charged on foot .
Russia possessed thirty @-@ six cavalry divisions when it entered the war in 1914 , and the Russian government claimed that its horsemen would thrust deep into the heart of Germany . Although Russian mounted troops entered Germany , they were soon met by German forces . In the August 1914 Battle of Tannenberg , troops led by German Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg and Lieutenant @-@ General Erich Ludendorff surrounded the Russian Second Army and destroyed the mounted force of Don Cossacks that served as the special guard of Russian General Alexander Samsonov . Other Russian cavalry units successfully harassed retreating Austro @-@ Hungarian troops in September 1914 , with the running battle eventually resulting in the loss of 40 @,@ 000 of the 50 @,@ 000 men in the Austro @-@ Hungarian XIV Tyrolean Corps , which included the 6th Mounted Rifle Regiment . Transporting cavalry created a hardship for the already strained Russian infrastructure , as the great distances they needed to be moved meant that they had to be transported by train . Approximately the same number of trains ( about 40 ) were required to transport a cavalry division of 4 @,@ 000 as to transport an infantry division of 16 @,@ 000 .
The cavalries of the Central Powers , Germany and Austria – Hungary , faced the same problems with transport and the failure of tactics as the Russians . Germany initially made extensive use of cavalry , including a lance @-@ against @-@ lance battle with the British in late 1914 , and an engagement between the British 1st Cavalry Brigade and the German 4th Cavalry Division in the lead @-@ up to the First Battle of the Marne in September 1914 . That battle ended " decidedly to the disadvantages of the German cavalry " , partially due to the use of artillery by the accompanying British L Battery of horse artillery . The Germans stopped using cavalry on the Western Front not long after the beginning of the war , in response to the Allied Forces ' changing battle tactics , including more advanced weaponry . They continued to use cavalry to some extent on the Eastern Front , including probes into Russian territory in early 1915 . The Austrians were forced to stop using cavalry because of large @-@ scale equipment failures ; Austrian military saddles were so poorly designed as to rub the skin off the back of any horse not already hardened to the equipment from parade ground practice ; only a few weeks into the war half of all Austrian cavalry mounts were disabled , and the rest nearly so .
= = = Ottoman Empire = = =
In 1914 , the Ottoman Turks began the war with one cavalry regiment in the Turkish army corps and four reserve regiments ( originally formed in 1912 ) under the control of the Turkish Third Army . These reserve regiments were composed of Kurds , rural Turks and a few Armenians . The performance of the reserve divisions was poor , and in March 1915 the forces that survived were turned into two divisions totalling only two thousand men and seventy officers . Later that month , the best regiments were consolidated into one division and the rest disbanded . Nonetheless , cavalry was used by Ottoman forces throughout 1915 in engagements with the Russians , and one cavalry unit even exchanged small arms fire with a submarine crew in the Dardanelles in early 1915 . Turkish cavalry was used in engagements with the British , including the Third Battle of Gaza in late 1917 . In this battle , both sides used cavalry forces as strategic parts of their armies . Cavalry continued to be involved in engagements well into 1918 , including in conflicts near the Jordan River in April and May that year , which the Ottomans called the First and Second Battles of Jordan , part of the lead @-@ up to the Battle of Megiddo . By September 1918 , regular army cavalry forces were stationed throughout the Turkish front , and the only remaining operationally ready reserve forces in the Ottoman military were two cavalry divisions , one formed after the initial problems in 1915 .
= = = United States = = =
By 1916 , the United States Cavalry consisted of 15 @,@ 424 members organized into 15 regiments , including headquarters , supply , machine @-@ gun and rifle troops . Just before formally joining the war effort , the US had gained significant experience in 1916 and 1917 during the Pancho Villa Expedition in Mexico , which helped to prepare the US Cavalry for entry into World War I. In May 1917 , a month after the US declaration of war , the National Defense Act went into effect , creating the 18th through the 25th US Cavalry regiments , and later that month , twenty more cavalry regiments were created . However , British experiences during the first years of the war showed that trench warfare and weapons that included machine guns and artillery made cavalry warfare impractical . Thus , on October 1 , eight of the new cavalry regiments were converted to field artillery regiments by order of Congress , and by August 1918 , twenty National Army horse units were converted to thirty @-@ nine trench mortar and artillery batteries . Some horse units of the 2nd , 3rd , 6th and 15th Cavalry regiments accompanied the US forces in Europe . The soldiers worked mainly as grooms and farriers , attending to remounts for the artillery , medical corps and transport services . It was not until late August 1918 that US cavalry entered combat . A provisional squadron of 418 officers and enlisted men , representing the 2nd Cavalry Regiment , and mounted on convalescent horses , was created to serve as scouts and couriers during the St. Mihiel Offensive . On September 11 , 1918 , these troops rode at night through no man 's land and penetrated five miles behind German lines . Once there , the cavalry was routed and had to return to Allied territory . Despite serving through the Meuse @-@ Argonne Offensive , by mid @-@ October the squadron was removed from the front with only 150 of its men remaining .
= = Logistical support = =
Horses were used extensively for military trains . They were used to pull ambulances , carry supplies and ordnance . At the beginning of the war , the German army depended upon horses to pull its field kitchens , as well as the ammunition wagons for artillery brigades . The Royal Corps of Signals used horses to pull cable wagons , and the promptness of messengers and dispatch riders depended on their mounts . Horses often drew artillery and steady animals were crucial to artillery effectiveness . The deep mud common in some parts of the front , caused by damaged drainage systems flooding nearby areas , made horses and mules vital , as they were the only means of getting supplies to the front and guns moved from place to place . After the April 1917 Battle of Vimy Ridge , one Canadian soldier recalled , " the horses were up to their bellies in mud . We 'd put them on a picket line between the wagon wheels at night and they 'd be sunk in over their fetlocks the next day . We had to shoot quite a number . "
Thousands of horses were employed to pull field guns ; six to twelve horses were required to pull each gun . During the Battle of Cambrai , horses were used to recover guns captured by the British from no man 's land . In one instance , two teams of sixteen horses each had their hooves , tack and pulling chains wrapped to reduce noise . The teams and their handlers then successfully pulled out two guns and returned them to British lines , the horses jumping a trench in the process and waiting out an artillery barrage by German troops on the road they needed to take .
Dummy horses were sometimes used to deceive the enemy into misreading the location of troops . They were effectively used by Allenby during his campaigns in the east , especially late in the war . Evidence exists that the Germans used horses in their experimentations with chemical and biological warfare . German agents in the US are suspected of infecting cattle and horses bound for France with glanders , a disease which can fatally spread to humans ; similar tactics were used by the Germans against the Russians , causing breakdowns in their ability to move artillery on the Eastern Front .
The value of horses was known to all . In 1917 at the Battle of Passchendaele , men at the front understood that " at this stage to lose a horse was worse than losing a man because after all , men were replaceable while horses weren 't . " For Britain , horses were considered so valuable that if a soldier 's horse was killed or died he was required to cut off a hoof and bring it back to his commanding officer to prove that the two had not simply become separated .
= = Procurement = =
= = = Allied forces = = =
To meet its need for horses , Britain imported them from Australia , Canada , the USA , and Argentina , and requisitioned them from British civilians . Lord Kitchener ordered that no horses under 15 hands ( 60 inches , 152 cm ) should be confiscated , at the request of many British children , who were concerned for the welfare of their ponies . The British Army Remount Service , in an effort to improve the supply of horses for potential military use , provided the services of high quality stallions to British farmers for breeding their broodmares . The already rare Cleveland Bay was almost wiped out by the war ; smaller members of the breed were used to carry British troopers , while larger horses were used to pull artillery . New Zealand found that horses over 15 @.@ 2 hands ( 62 inches , 157 cm ) fared worse than those under that height . Well @-@ built Thoroughbreds of 15 hands and under worked well , as did compact horses of other breeds that stood 14 @.@ 2 to 14 @.@ 3 hands ( 58 to 59 inches , 147 to 150 cm ) . Larger crossbred horses were acceptable for regular work with plentiful rations , but proved less able to withstand short rations and long journeys . Riflemen with tall horses suffered more from fatigue , due to the number of times they were required to mount and dismount the animals . Animals used for draught work , including pulling artillery , were also found to be more efficient when they were of medium size with good endurance than when they were tall , heavy and long @-@ legged .
The continued resupply of horses was a major issue of the war . One estimate puts the number of horses that served in World War I at around six million , with a large percentage of them dying due to war @-@ related causes . In 1914 , the year the war began , the British Army owned only about 25 @,@ 000 horses . This shortfall required the US to help with remount efforts , even before it had formally entered the war . Between 1914 and 1918 , the US sent almost one million horses overseas , and another 182 @,@ 000 were taken overseas with American troops . This deployment seriously depleted the country 's equine population . Only 200 returned to the US , and 60 @,@ 000 were killed outright . By the middle of 1917 , Britain had procured 591 @,@ 000 horses and 213 @,@ 000 mules , as well as almost 60 @,@ 000 camels and oxen . Britain 's Remount Department spent £ 67 @.@ 5 million on purchasing , training and delivering horses and mules to the front . The British Remount Department became a major multinational business and a leading player in the international horse trade , through supplying horses to not only the British Army but also to Canada , Belgium , Australia , New Zealand , Portugal , and even a few to the US . Shipping horses between the US and Europe was both costly and dangerous ; American Expeditionary Force officials calculated that almost seven times as much room was needed per ton for animals than for average wartime cargo , and over 6 @,@ 500 horses and mules were drowned or killed by shell fire on Allied ships attacked by the Germans . In turn , New Zealand lost around 3 percent of the nearly 10 @,@ 000 horses shipped to the front during the war .
Due to the high casualty rates , even the well @-@ supplied American army was facing a deficit of horses by the final year of the war . After the American First Army , led by General John J. Pershing , pushed the Germans out of the Argonne Forest in late 1918 , they were faced with a shortage of around 100 @,@ 000 horses , effectively immobilizing the artillery . When Pershing asked Ferdinand Foch , Marshal of France , for 25 @,@ 000 horses , he was refused . It was impossible to obtain more from the US , as shipping space was limited , and Pershing 's senior supply officer stated that " the animal situation will soon become desperate . " The Americans , however , fought on with what they had until the end of the war , unable to obtain sufficient supplies of new animals .
= = = Central Powers = = =
Before World War I , Germany had increased its reserves of horses through state @-@ sponsored stud farms ( German : Remonteamt ) and annuities paid to individual horse breeders . These breeding programs were designed specifically to provide high @-@ quality horses and mules for the German military . These efforts , and the horse @-@ intensive nature of warfare in the early 20th century , caused Germany to increase the ratio of horses to men in the army , from one to four in 1870 to one to three in 1914 . The breeding programs allowed the Germans to provide all of their own horses at the beginning of the war . Horses were considered army reservists ; owners had to register them regularly , and the army kept detailed records on the locations of all horses . In the first weeks of the war , the German army mobilized 715 @,@ 000 horses and the Austrians 600 @,@ 000 . Overall , the ratio of horses to men in Central Powers nations was estimated at one to three .
The only way Germany could acquire large numbers of horses after the war began was by conquest . More than 375 @,@ 000 horses were taken from German @-@ occupied French territory for use by the German military . Captured Ukrainian territory provided another 140 @,@ 000 . The Ardennes was used to pull artillery for the French and Belgian armies . Their calm , tolerant disposition , combined with their active and flexible nature , made them an ideal artillery horse . The breed was considered so useful and valuable that when the Germans established the Commission for the Purchase of Horses in October 1914 to capture Belgian horses , the Ardennes was one of two breeds specified as important , the other being the Brabant . The Germans were not able to capture the horses belonging to the Belgian royal family , as they were successfully evacuated , although they captured enough horses to disrupt Belgian agriculture and breeding programs . Horses used for the transport of goods were also taken , resulting in a fuel crisis in Belgium the next winter as there were no horses to pull coal wagons . The Germans sold some of their captured horses at auction . Prevented by the Allies from importing remounts , the Germans ultimately ran out of horses , making it difficult for them to move supplies and artillery , a factor contributing to their defeat .
= = Casualties and upkeep = =
Battle losses of horses were approximately 25 percent of all war @-@ related equine deaths between 1914 and 1916 . Disease and exhaustion accounted for the remainder and the Germans specifically targeted horses with gunfire . The highest death rates were in East Africa , where in 1916 alone deaths of the original mounts and remounts accounted for 290 % of the initial stock numbers , mainly due to infection from the tsetse fly . On average , Britain lost about 15 percent ( of the initial military stock ) of its animals each year of the war ( killed , missing , died or abandoned ) , with losses at 17 percent in the French theatre . This compared to 80 percent in the Crimean War , 120 percent in the Boer War and 10 percent in peacetime . During some periods of the war , 1 @,@ 000 horses per day were arriving in Europe as remounts for British troops , to replace horses lost . Some horses , having collapsed from exhaustion , drowned in ankle @-@ deep mud , too tired to lift their heads high enough to breathe . Equine casualties were especially high during battles of attrition , such as the 1916 Battle of Verdun between French and German forces . In one day in March , 7 @,@ 000 horses were killed by long @-@ range shelling on both sides , including 97 killed by a single shot from a French naval gun . By 1917 , Britain had over a million horses and mules in service , but harsh conditions , especially during winter , resulted in heavy losses , particularly amongst the Clydesdale horses , the main breed used to haul the guns . Over the course of the war , Britain lost over 484 @,@ 000 horses , one horse for every two men . A small number of these , 210 , were killed by poison gas .
Feeding horses was a major issue , and horse fodder was the single largest commodity shipped to the front by some countries , including Britain . Horses ate around ten times as much food by weight as a human , and hay and oats further burdened already overloaded transport services . In 1917 , Allied operations were threatened when horse feed rations were reduced after German submarine activity restricted supplies of oats from North America , combined with poor Italian harvests . The British rationed hay and oats , although their horses were still issued more than those from France or Italy . The Germans faced an even worse fodder crisis , as they had underestimated the amount of food they needed to import and stockpile before the beginning of the war . Sawdust was mixed with food during times of shortage to ease animals ' sense of hunger , and many animals died of starvation . Some feed was taken from captured territories on the Eastern Front , and more from the British during the advances of the 1918 spring offensive .
Animals bolstered morale at the front , due to the soldiers ' affection for them . Some recruitment posters from World War I showcased the partnership between horse and man in attempts to gain more recruits . Despite the boost in morale , horses could also be a health hazard for the soldiers , mainly because of the difficulty of maintaining high levels of hygiene around horses , which was especially noted in camps in Egypt . Horse manure was commonplace in the battle and staging areas on several fronts , creating breeding grounds for disease @-@ carrying insects . Manure was supposed to be buried , but fast @-@ moving battle conditions often made this impossible . Sanitation officers were responsible for the burial of horse carcasses , among other duties .
Many horses died as a result of the conditions at the front — of exhaustion , drowning , becoming mired in mud and falling in shell holes . Other horses were captured after their riders were killed . Horses also endured poor feeding and care , poison gas attacks that injured their respiratory systems and skin , and skin conditions such as mange . When gas warfare began in 1915 , nose plugs were improvised for the horses to allow them to breathe during attacks . Later , several types of gas masks were developed by both the Central and Allied nations , although horses often confused them with feedbags and destroyed them . Soldiers found that better @-@ bred horses were more likely to suffer from shell shock and act up when exposed to the sights and sounds of war than less @-@ well @-@ bred animals , who often learned to lie down and take cover at the sound of artillery fire . Veterinary hospitals were established to assist horses in recovering from shell shock and battle wounds , but thousands of equine corpses still lined the roads of the Western Front . In one year , 120 @,@ 000 horses were treated for wounds or disease by British veterinary hospitals alone . Ambulances and field veterinary hospitals were required to care for the horses , and horse trailers were first developed for use on the Western Front as equine ambulances . Disease was also a major issue for horses at the front , with equine influenza , ringworm , sand colic , sores from fly bites , and anthrax among the illnesses that affected them . British Army Army Veterinary Corps hospitals treated 725 @,@ 216 horses over the course of the war , successfully healing 529 @,@ 064 . Horses were moved from the front to veterinary hospitals by several methods of transportation , including on foot , by rail and by barge . During the last months of the war , barges were considered ideal transportation for horses suffering wounds from shells and bombs .
When the war ended , many horses were killed due to age or illness , while younger ones were sold to slaughterhouses or to locals , often upsetting the soldiers who had to give up their beloved mounts . There were 13 @,@ 000 Australian horses remaining at the end of World War I , but due to quarantine restrictions , they could not be shipped back to Australia . Two thousand were designated to be killed , and the remaining 11 @,@ 000 were sold , most going to India as remounts for the British Army . Of the 136 @,@ 000 horses shipped from Australia to fighting fronts in the war , only one , Sandy , was returned to Australia . New Zealand horses were also left behind ; those not required by the British or Egyptian armies were shot to prevent maltreatment by other purchasers . The horses left behind did not always have good lives – the Brooke Trust was established in 1930 when a young British woman arrived in Cairo , only to find hundreds of previously Allied @-@ owned horses living in poor conditions , having been sold to Egyptians after the cessation of the war . In 1934 , the Old War Horse Memorial Hospital was opened by the trust , and is estimated to have helped over 5 @,@ 000 horses that had served in World War I ; as of 2011 , the hospital continues to serve equines in the Cairo area .
= = Legacy = =
The horse is the animal most associated with the war , and memorials have been erected to its service , including that at St. Jude on the Hill , Hampstead , which bears the inscription " Most obediently and often most painfully they died – faithful unto death . " The Animals in War Memorial in London commemorates animals , including horses , that served with the British and their allies in all wars . The inscription reads : " Animals In War . This monument is dedicated to all the animals that served and died alongside British and allied forces in wars and campaigns throughout time . They had no choice . " In Minneapolis , a monument by Lake of the Isles is dedicated to the horses of the Minnesota 151st Field Artillery killed in battle during World War I.
The men of the Australian Light Horse Brigade and New Zealand Mounted Rifles who died between 1916 and 1918 in Egypt , Palestine and Syria are commemorated by the Desert Mounted Corps Memorial , or Light Horse Memorial , on ANZAC Parade , in Canberra , Australia . The original version of this monument was in Port Said in Egypt , and was mostly destroyed during the 1956 Suez War . A piece from the original memorial , a shattered horse 's head , was brought back to Australia and used as part of a new statue in the A is for Animals exhibition honoring animals who have served with the Australian military . The exhibition also contains the preserved head of Sandy , the only horse to return to Australia after the war .
War artist Alfred Munnings was sent to France in early 1918 as an official war artist with the Canadian Cavalry Brigade . The Canadian Forestry Corps invited Munnings to tour their work camps in France after seeing some of his work at the headquarters of General Simms , the Canadian representative . He produced drawings , watercolors , and paintings of their work , including Draft Horses , Lumber Mill in the Forest of Dreux in 1918 . Forty @-@ five of his paintings were displayed at the Canadian War Records Exhibition at the Royal Academy , many of which featured horses in war . Numerous other artists created works that featured the horses of World War I , including Umberto Boccioni with Charge of the Lancers and Terence Cuneo with his celebrated postwar painting of the saving of the guns at Le Cateau during the Retreat from Mons . During World War I , artist Fortunino Matania created the iconic image Goodbye Old Man that would be used by both British and American organizations to raise awareness of the suffering of animals affected by war . The painting was accompanied by a poem , The Soldiers Kiss , that also emphasized the plight of the horse in war .
Writing poetry was a means of passing the time for soldiers of many nations , and the horses of World War I figured prominently in several poems . In 1982 , Michael Morpurgo wrote the novel War Horse , about a cavalry horse in the war . The book was later adapted into a successful play of the same name , and also into a screenplay , with the movie , released on December 25 , 2011 in the United States . In January 2010 , the History Channel aired a documentary entitled The Real War Horse , depicting the horses of World War I.
= Angels Cry ( song ) =
" Angels Cry " is a song by American singer and songwriter Mariah Carey from her twelfth studio album , Memoirs of an Imperfect Angel ( 2009 ) . It was written and produced by Carey , Tricky Stewart and James " Big Jim " Wright , with additional songwriting from Crystal Johnson . On the album 's track listing , " Angels Cry " is preceded by a one @-@ minute , four second prelude called " Angel ( The Prelude ) " , which consists of Carey performing purely in her whistle register . The prelude then leads into " Angels Cry " , a song about trying to fix a broken relationship because true love only happens once . Carey released " Angels Cry " as a remix single featuring Ne @-@ Yo in January 2010 for a proposed Memoirs of an Imperfect Angel remix album called Angels Advocate , which was ultimately shelved .
= = Overview = =
" Angels Cry " was written and produced by Mariah Carey , Tricky Stewart and James " Big Jim " Wright , with additional songwriting from Crystal Johnson , for Carey 's twelfth studio album Memoirs of an Imperfect Angel ( 2009 ) . The song was recorded by Brian Garten and Brian " B @-@ Luv " Thomas at The Boom Boom Room in Burbank and Honeywest Studios in New York City , and they were assisted in the process by Luis Navarro . It was mixed by Phil Tan at Soapbox Studios in Atlanta . Additional engineering was carried out by Carlos Oyanedel and Damien Lewis . The keys and Hammond B3 were performed by Stewart and Wright . Carey uses her higher vocal register to perform over an instrumental of a piano and finger snapping . " Angels Cry " is preceded by a one @-@ minute , four second prelude called " Angel ( The Prelude ) " . The prelude was written and produced by Carey , Stewart and Wright . Oyanedel , Lewis and Tan carried out the additional engineering and mixing as with " Angels Cry " , however Garten and Thomas recorded the prelude at the Studio at the Palms in Las Vegas in addition to Honeywest Studios . The prelude consists of Carey performing only whistle notes .
Lyrically , " Angels Cry " is about maintaining hope that a fading relationship can be salvaged because true love only happens once . Carey sings " I ’ m willing to live and die for our love / Baby we can get back that shine . " However , the lyrics " Super natural love conquers all " could also be interpreted as feeling God 's love . Adam Holz of Plugged In thought that the lyrics were " depressing , " while Lauren Murphy of Entertainment IE felt that the lyrics " When you and I say goodbye , I felt the angels cry " were too sentimental . Although Ann Powers of Los Angeles Times thought that the song had a " sad " tone , she praised its production . Bill Lamb of About.com placed " Angels Cry " in his list of the album 's best tracks . Michael Cragg of musicOMH was critical of the song , writing that it is a " limp ballad " which he thought was trying too hard at recreating some of Carey 's previous material , and concluded by writing that it " ultimately ends up making you want to hear the original version more than anything " . A reviewer for DJ Booth commented that the song sounded as thought it could have been released in 1994 .
= = Remix single featuring Ne @-@ Yo = =
= = = Background and release = = =
Carey revealed that she intended to re @-@ release Memoirs of an Imperfect Angel as a remix album in early 2010 , titled Angels Advocate , consisting of remixes of the standard songs with new featured artists , including Mary J. Blige , Snoop Dogg , Trey Songz , R. Kelly , T @-@ Pain , Gucci Mane and OJ da Juiceman . " Angels Cry " and " Up Out My Face " from Memoirs of an Imperfect Angel were released as remix singles with Ne @-@ Yo featuring on the former and Nicki Minaj on the latter . The remix version of " Angels Cry " featuring Ne @-@ Yo was released to rhythmic contemporary and urban contemporary radio in the United States on January 26 , 2010 . It was made available for digital download on February 23 , 2010 , in Canada and the United States . A release date of February 23 , 2010 , for the album was slated , and then pushed back to March 9 . It was then further pushed back to March 30 . However , it was confirmed in March 2010 that production of Angels Advocate had halted and the project was shelved indefinitely . Island Def Jam stated that the singer was instead working on a new project and " new surprises " . Metro revealed that Carey was possibly recording a Christmas album .
= = = Composition and reception = = =
Musically , the remix does not greatly differ from that of the original apart from a new second verse by Ne @-@ Yo . Digital Spy 's Robert Copsey praised the track . He wrote that it was one of the standouts on Memoirs of an Imperfect Angel and that " it 's about as close to ' classic ' Mariah as ' new ' Mariah gets " . He complimented Carey 's " classy " and " effortless " vocals , and added that Ne @-@ Yo gave the track an emotional " extra dimension " . Copsey likened the song to one of Carey 's previous singles , " We Belong Together " ( 2005 ) : " It 's a bit of a ' We Belong Together ' retread , but it 's a thoroughly pleasant ' We Belong Together ' retread " . Leonie Cooper of The Guardian gave a mixed review of the remix . Although she did not express her dislike for the track , she felt that it was too similar to Carey previous material , writing that it is middle @-@ of @-@ the road " inoffensive semi @-@ soul fodder we 've had to come to expect from her . " Cooper was , however , critical of the decision to include Ne @-@ Yo and that his addition makes the song even more bland . Robbie Daw of Idolator also felt that the track was a " typically Mariah @-@ esque ballad " .
= = = Chart performance = = =
In the United States , the remix peaked at number twenty @-@ six on the Adult Contemporary chart , becoming her twenty @-@ eighth career entry and Ne @-@ Yo 's first . It is the second song from Memoirs of an Imperfect Angel to enter the chart following Carey 's single release cover of " I Want to Know What Love Is " which peaked at number ten ; it is also the first time Carey had charted two songs on the Adult Contemporary chart from the same album since her sixth studio Butterfly , where its title track and " My All " peaked at numbers eleven and eighteen in 1997 / 98 . The remix also peaked at number ninety on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart . Elsewhere , the track peaked at number eighty @-@ nine in Japan and number ninety on the UK Singles Chart , but reached number twenty @-@ eight on the UK R & B Chart . It did however achieve some success in South Korea , peaking at number four on the international Digital Singles chart .
= = = Music video = = =
The accompanying music video for the remix of " Angels Cry " was directed by Carey 's husband , Nick Cannon . In December 2009 , Cannon spoke of the video 's concept , saying " This video is going to be simplistically genius ! No bells and whistles , just documenting history and brilliance . Two of the worlds greatest song writers in the studio crafting a masterpiece . I hope the world is ready to hear ' Angels Cry ' " . It premiered simultaneously with the video for " Up Out My Face " with Minaj on Vevo on January 28 , 2010 . The video shows Carey and Ne @-@ Yo collaborating on the song together in a recording studio .
The video starts with Carey walking in the rain to meet Ne @-@ Yo who is waiting for her in the studio . Clips of Carey singing in desperation in the rain are intercut with footage of her recording her vocals in the recording booth . For his scenes , Ne @-@ Yo sings as he stands next to as well as plays the piano as Carey reminisces by herself , while other scenes show him in the booth with Carey as they sing their parts together . At the video 's climax , both singers are belt the final note in the booth , which is followed by them walking out of the studio where it has stopped raining and the sun is shining . Robbie Daw wrote that the video gave him " chills " . He also commented on the use of product placement of Carey 's perfume M and her own brand of champagne . Melinda Newman of HitFix thought that the video appeared to have a bigger production budget than that of the video for " Up Out My Face " with Minaj , but noted that it was still " low @-@ key " for a Carey video . Newman further commented that while the singer appears to be wearing albeit little make @-@ up , she looked more natural and " beautiful " than ever . Leonie Cooper thought that the video made the " bland " song more appealing : " the video , with a moist Mariah mithering in the rain , preposterous sequinned gold boots , a puppy in the studio , and shameless pimping of her latest perfume , kind of makes up for it . "
= = = Charts = = =
= = = Release history = = =
= 1995 Giro d 'Italia =
The 1995 Giro d 'Italia was a Grand Tour cycling stage race that took place in May and June 1995 . It was the 78th edition of the event . The Giro began on 13 May with a stage that began in Perugia and ended Terni . The race came to a close on 4 June with a stage that ended in the Italian city of Milan . The race was won by the Swiss Tony Rominger of the Mapei – GB – Latexco team . Second and third were the Russian rider Evgeni Berzin and Latvian rider Piotr Ugrumov .
Mario Cipollini was the event 's first leg in a bunch sprint , allowing him to be the first rider to don the race leader 's maglia rosa ( English : pink jersey ) . The following stage was an individual time trial that was won by Rominger , who also gained enough time on Cipollini to take the race lead . Rominger built upon his lead by winning the remaining two time trial stages , along with the hilly stage 4 , and retained the lead for the duration of the race . By winning the Giro he became the third Swiss rider to win the event .
In addition to the general classification , Tony Rominger also won the points and intergiro classifications . Brescialat rider Mariano Piccoli won the mountains classification . Gewiss – Ballan finished as the winners of the team classification . The team points classification , a system in which the teams ' riders are awarded points for placing within the top twenty in each stage and the points are then totaled for each team , was also won by Gewiss @-@ Ballan .
= = Teams = =
A total of 22 teams were invited to participate in the 1995 Giro d 'Italia . Each team sent a squad of nine riders , so the Giro began with a peloton of 198 cyclists . Out of the 198 riders that started this edition of the Giro d 'Italia , a total of 122 riders made it to the finish in Milan .
The teams entering the race were :
= = Pre @-@ race favorites = =
The starting peloton included Evgeni Berzin , the 1994 winner . Berzin 's team , Gewiss – Ballan , also brought Latvian Piotr Ugrumov , a two @-@ time Grand Tour runner @-@ up . The two riders had developed a mutual distaste for each other . El País writers Paolo Viberti and Carlos Arribas believed that Swiss rider Tony Rominger and Latvian Piotr Ugrumov were the favorites to win the race , while Adrian Huber of Avui named Rominger as the sole favorite . Author Bill McGann believed that Rominger and Berzin were in great form coming into the race . Rominger entered the event after having recently won the Tour de Romandie . Aside from Rominger and Berzin , El Punt 's Luis Simon named 1988 winner Andrew Hampsten , Russian Pavel Tonkov , and Claudio Chiappucci amongst several other riders that could challenge for the overall title .
Italian Marco Pantani was seen by some to be a contender for to win the race . However , Pantani crashed during a training ride on 1 May and did not recover in time to participate . Two @-@ time winner Miguel Indurain chose not to enter the race in favor of preparing for the Tour de France .
= = Route and stages = =
The route for the 1995 Giro d 'Italia was unveiled by race director Carmine Castellano on 12 November 1994 in Milan . It contained three time trial events , all of which were individual . There were thirteen stages containing high mountains , of which five had summit finishes : stage 8 , to Massiccio del Sirino ; stage 11 , to Il Ciocco ; stage 14 , to Schnals ; stage 15 , to Lenzerheide ; and stage 20 , to Gressoney @-@ Saint @-@ Jean . The organizers chose to include one rest day . When compared to the previous year 's race , the race was 6 km ( 4 mi ) longer , contained one more rest day , and the same amount of stages . The nineteenth stage was regarded as the queen stage as it featured the climbs of the Col Agnel , Col d 'Izoard , and Colle di Sampeyre .
The race route began in Perugia and traveled throughout the southern half of Italy for the first ten stages . After the stage 10 individual time trial , the riders were transferred to Tuscany by airplane , where the race remained in the northern half of the country and proceeded to cross into the higher and tougher mountains . There were a total of three stages that started outside Italy . Stage 15 ended in the Swiss city Lenzerheide and served as the start for the race 's sixteenth stage . The mountainous twentieth stage began in the French city of Briançon .
The nineteenth stage was originally planned to stretch from Mondovì to Briançon over 202 km ( 126 mi ) . The stage finish was moved to part way up the ascent of the Col Agnel , due to avalanches . The stage finished in Pontechianale where the day 's intermediate sprint had been planned after 129 @.@ 9 km ( 81 mi ) of racing . The avalanche trapped several fans that had gotten their earlier , along with their cars . Ten spectators were injured and two were taken to the hospital .
Chiappucci believed that the descents of the mountains included in the race were very difficult . An El País writer found the route to be more mountainous than in years past . In addition , the writer mentioned that the increase in mountains within the route coupled with the reduced amount of time trial kilometers , including the lack of a prologue , favored Marco Pantani . Three @-@ time winner Gino Bartali believed that the route for the Giro was harder than the same year 's Tour de France course .
= = Race overview = =
Mario Cipollini won the race 's opening stage by several bike lengths to don the race 's first maglia rosa ( English : pink jersey ) . Cipollini lost the lead to Tony Rominger following the stage 2 individual time trial that was contested in rainy conditions . Rominger was able to gain almost a minute on each of the main general classification contenders including Piotr Ugrumov and Evgeni Berzin . The third stage was Cipollini 's second stage victory as he won the bunch sprint . The fourth stage was contested on a set circuit that was covered four times . The day 's breakaway managed to get a maximum of 14 ' 25 " before gradually being pulled in . Claudio Chiappucci attacked on the final lap but was pulled back in by the chasing peloton . Ugrumov , Berzin , and Berzin 's teammate Vladislav Bobrik then attacked and managed to form a gap . Rominger chased after and caught the riders , then passed them and went on to win the stage .
The event 's fifth leg saw a breakaway succeed ; the group began with five riders and was reduced to three riders – Erik Breukink , Filippo Casagrande , and Rolf Sørensen – before the finish . Casagrande won the three @-@ man sprint to the line to take the day . The sixth stage resulted in a field sprint that was won by Nicola Minali . The seventh stage featured an undulating stage profile , with a slight uphill finish . On the race 's final incline , Rominger attacked but his move was marked by several general classification contenders . Maurizio Fondriest managed to edge out Rominger in a dash for the line which saw him gain four seconds on Rominger due to time bonuses . The eighth stage featured the first summit finish of the race , to Massiccio del Sirino . The day 's breakaway was established early on in the day and managed to reach the final climb before the pursuing peloton . Stage winner Laudelino Cubino attacked with eight kilometers to go and rode solo until the finish ; the time he gained during the stage allowed him to move into third overall .
The ninth day of racing resulted in a bunch sprint that was won by Sørensen . The next stage of the race was a forty @-@ two kilometer individual time trial . Race leader Rominger won the leg by one minute and twenty @-@ four seconds and increased his overall lead to three minutes over Casagrande , who was in second place overall . Enrico Zaina and Nelson Rodríguez Serna were the first two riders to reach the stage 's final climb of Il Cioccio and the two stayed out in front until the finish which saw Zaina win the race to the line . With four kilometers left in the stage , Ugrumov and Berzin attempted to crack Rominger by attacking him repeatedly . After several attacks where the riders moves were marked , the riders agreed to ride to the finish together . The twelfth stage of the race saw the peloton arrive at the finish together ready for a bunch sprint . Cipollini originally won the stage but was relegated to last place on the stage after having been found to have leaned on Mario Manzoni during the dash to the line . Ján Svorada , who had come in second , was then made the stage winner .
The thirteenth stage saw the race begin to enter the smaller mountains within the Dolomites . The day 's breakaway formed on the climb of San Valentino . As the riders approached the finish , Pascal Richard edged Oliverio Rincón for the stage victory . The following stage featured a summit finish to Val Senales after a twenty kilometer climb . With eight kilometers to go , Berzin , Rominger , Ugrumov , and Rincón were in the leading group together . Rincón attacked and was allowed to ride solo to victory . Ugrumov attacked shortly after and Rominger was only able to follow initially ; however , Berzin was able to merge back with the two riders and the trio then rode to the finish together . Casagrande lost a large amount of time during the stage . Mariano Piccoli won the fifteenth leg after being a part of the day 's breakaway that managed to survive until the finish . On the descent of the second to last climb , Berzin attacked in an attempt to join the breakaway . Berzin was caught before the start of the stage 's final mountain pass . Ugrumov and Berzin repeatedly attacked Rominger on the final climb , but Rominger was able to neutralize each attack .
The sixteenth leg was a downhill stage from the Swiss Alps . A breakaway did form but was caught before the run into the finish as the peloton prepared for a sprint finish . The stage was initially won by Giovanni Lombardi , but he was deemed by race judges to have had an irregular sprint and the victory was awarded to the second placed rider Giuseppe Citterio . The next day consisted of a climbing time trial to Selvino . Rominger extended his advantage over all his competitors by winning the stage by a margin of one minute and thirty @-@ nine seconds over Berzin . The eighteenth stage was plagued by rainy conditions throughout the undulating course . The day 's breakaway consisted of sixteen riders , which Tony Rominger 's Mapei team chose not to chase down . Denis Zanette and Giuseppe Guerini formed an attack group from the breakaway and rode into the finish where Zanette managed to edge out Guerini for the win . The main contenders did not have any time gaps during the stage , leaving the general classification unchanged .
The nineteenth leg saw a breakaway of nine riders form off the front of the peloton . While racing , the finish line of the stage was moved to Pontechinale , a location that was part way up the climb of the Col Agnel because several avalanches occurred near the summit and prevented the riders from passing . Richard was the first rider to reach the new finish line and thus won his second stage . Serguei Outschakov won the following stage after being a part of the day 's breakaway that dwindled as the stage wore on ; he out @-@ raced the only other remaining member Richard to win the stage . Behind , Urgrumov attacked and was only marked by both Berzin and Rincon , while Rominger trailed behind . Berzin and Ugrumov refused to work with one another and did not extend their advantage over Rominger . Rominger wound up losing minimal time . The race 's penultimate stage was marred by rain . On the second ascension of the Cuvignone , Berzin attacked and was able to distance himself ; however , he gave up the attack near the summit . He attacked again on the race 's final climb of Salita di Montegrino Valtravaglia . Berzin rode solo to win the stage and managed to gain twenty @-@ five seconds on Ugrumov and Rominger . The final leg of the race was decided through a bunch sprint that was won by Giovanni Lombardi . Rominger became the third Swiss rider to win the Giro .
Three riders achieved multiple stage victories : Cipollini ( stages 1 and 3 ) , Rominger ( stages 2 , 4 , 10 , and 17 ) , and Richard ( stages 13 and 19 ) . Stage wins were achieved by eleven of the twenty @-@ one competing squads , eight of which won multiple stages . Mapei @-@ GB @-@ Latexco had four stage wins through Rominger . MG Maglificio @-@ Technogym won a total of three stage wins with Richard and Rolf Sörensen ( stage 9 ) . Six teams won two stages . These were Mercatone Uno @-@ Saeco ( through Cipollini ) , Lampre @-@ Panaria ( Fondriest on stage 7 and Svoar on stage 12 ) , Brescialat ( Casagrande on stage 5 and Piccoli on stage 15 ) , Aki @-@ Gipiemme ( Citterio on stage 16 and Zanette on stage 18 ) , Gewiss @-@ Ballan ( Minali on stage 6 and Berzin on stage 21 ) , and Polti @-@ Granarolo @-@ Santini ( Outschakov on stage 20 and Lombardi on stage 22 ) . Kelme @-@ Sureña , Carrera Jeans @-@ Tassoni , and ONCE each won a single stage at the Giro , through Cubino ( stage 8 ) , Zaina ( stage 11 ) , and Rincón ( stage 14 ) , respectively .
= = Classification leadership = =
Four different jerseys were worn during the 1995 Giro d 'Italia . The leader of the general classification – calculated by adding the stage finish times of each rider , and allowing time bonuses for the first three finishers on mass @-@ start stages – wore a pink jersey . This classification is the most important of the race , and its winner is considered as the winner of the Giro .
For the points classification , which awarded a purple ( or cyclamen ) jersey to its leader , cyclists were given points for finishing a stage in the top 15 ; additional points could also be won in intermediate sprints . The green jersey was awarded to the mountains classification leader . In this ranking , points were won by reaching the summit of a climb ahead of other cyclists . Each climb was ranked as either first , second or third category , with more points available for higher category climbs . The Cima Coppi , the race 's highest point of elevation , awarded more points than the other first category climbs . The Cima Coppi for this Giro was the Col Agnel , but it was not climbed due to avalanches that prevented the riders from being able to pass on the roads . The intergiro classification was marked by a blue jersey . The calculation for the intergiro is similar to that of the general classification , in each stage there is a midway point that the riders pass through a point and where their time is stopped . As the race goes on , their times compiled and the person with the lowest time is the leader of the intergiro classification and wears the blue jersey .
Although no jersey was awarded , there was also a classification for the teams , in which the stage finish times of the best three cyclists per team were added ; the leading team was the one with the lowest total time . There was another team classification that awarded points to each team based off their riding 's finishing position in every stage . The team with the highest total of points was the leader of the classification .
The rows in the following table correspond to the jerseys awarded after that stage was run .
= = Final standings = =
= = = General classification = = =
= = = Team points classification = = =
= James Strang =
James Jesse Strang ( March 21 , 1813 – July 9 , 1856 ) was an American religious leader , politician and self @-@ proclaimed monarch . In 1844 he founded the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints ( Strangite ) , a faction of the Latter Day Saint movement that he claimed to be the sole legitimate continuation of the Church of Christ founded by Joseph Smith fourteen years before . A major contender for leadership of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints during the 1844 succession crisis , Strang vied with Brigham Young and Sidney Rigdon for control of the organization in Nauvoo , Illinois before his rejection there subsequently led him to start his own sect . While serving as Prophet , Seer and Revelator of his church , Strang reigned for six years as the crowned " king " of an ecclesiastical monarchy that he established on Beaver Island in the US state of Michigan . Building an organization that eventually rivaled Young 's in Utah , Strang gained nearly 12 @,@ 000 adherents prior to his murder in 1856 , which brought down his kingdom and all but extinguished his sect .
In contrast to Joseph Smith , who used the eminently republican title of " President of the Church , " Strang taught that the chief prophetic office embodied an overtly royal attribute , by which its occupant was to be not only the spiritual leader of his people , but their temporal king as well . He offered a sophisticated set of teachings that differed in many significant aspects from any other version of Mormonism , including that preached by Smith . To bolster his claims , Strang published translations of two purportedly long @-@ lost works : the Voree Record , deciphered from three metal plates reportedly unearthed in response to a vision ; and the Book of the Law of the Lord , supposedly transcribed from the Plates of Laban mentioned in the Book of Mormon . These are accepted as scripture by his followers , but not by any other Latter Day Saint church . Although his long @-@ term doctrinal influence on the Latter Day Saint movement was minimal , several early members of Strang 's organization helped to establish the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints , which became ( and remains ) the second @-@ largest Mormon sect . While most of Strang 's followers eventually disavowed him , a small but devout remnant continues to carry on his teachings and organization today .
In addition to his ecclesiastical calling , Strang served one full term and part of a second as a member of the Michigan House of Representatives , and assisted in the organization of Manitou County . He was also at various times an attorney , educator , temperance lecturer , newspaper editor , Baptist minister , correspondent for the New York Tribune , and amateur scientist . His survey of Beaver Island 's natural history was published by the Smithsonian Institution , remaining the definitive work on that subject for nearly a century , while his career in the Michigan legislature was praised even by his enemies . However , his polygamous lifestyle and sometimes abrasive personality made him many enemies inside his church and out of it , contributing to his ultimate demise .
While Strang 's organization is formally known as the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints , the term " Strangite " is usually added to the title to avoid confusing them with other Latter Day Saint bodies carrying this or similar names . This follows a typical nineteenth @-@ century usage where followers of Brigham Young were sometimes referred to as " Brighamites , " while those of Sidney Rigdon were called " Rigdonites , " followers of Joseph Smith III were called " Josephites " , and disciples of Strang became " Strangites " .
= = Childhood , education and conversion to Mormonism = =
James Jesse Strang was born March 21 , 1813 , in Scipio , Cayuga County , New York . He was the second of three children , and his parents had a good reputation in their community . James ' mother was very tender with him as a consequence of delicate health , yet she required him to render an account of all his actions and words while absent from her . In a brief autobiography he wrote in 1855 , Strang reported that he had attended grade school until age twelve , but that " the terms were usually short , the teachers inexperienced and ill qualified to teach , and my health such as to preclude attentive study or steady attendance . " He estimated that his time in a classroom during those years totaled six months .
But none of this meant that Strang was illiterate or simple . Although his teachers " not unfrequently turned me off with little or no attention , as though I was too stupid to learn and too dull to feel neglect , " Strang recalled that he spent " long weary days ... upon the floor , thinking , thinking , thinking ... my mind wandered over fields that old men shrink from , seeking rest and finding none till darkness gathered thick around and I burst into tears . " He studied works by Thomas Paine and the Comte de Volney , whose book Les Ruines exerted a significant influence on the future prophet .
As a youth , Strang kept a rather profound personal diary , written partly in a secret code that was not deciphered until over one hundred years after it was authored ( by Strang 's own grandson Mark Strang , a banker in Long Beach , California ) . This journal contains Strang 's musings on a variety of topics , including his desire to " rival Caesar or Napoleon " and his regret that by age nineteen , he had not yet become a general or member of the state legislature , which he saw as being essential by that point in his life to his quest for fame . However , Strang 's diary equally reveals a heartfelt desire to be of service to his fellow man , together with agonized frustration at not knowing how he might do so as a penniless , unknown youth from upstate New York .
At age twelve , Strang was baptized a Baptist . He did not wish to follow his father 's calling as a farmer , so he took up the study of law . Strang was admitted to the bar in New York at age 23 and later at other places where he resided . He became county Postmaster and edited a local newspaper , the Randolph Herald . Later , in the midst of his myriad duties on Beaver Island , he would find time to found and publish the Daily Northern Islander , the first newspaper in northern Michigan .
Strang , who once described himself as a " cool philosopher " and a freethinker , became a Baptist minister but left in February 1844 to join the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints . He quickly found favor with Joseph Smith , though they had known each other only a short time , and was baptized personally by him on February 25 , 1844 . On March 3 of that year he was ordained an Elder by Joseph 's brother Hyrum and sent forthwith at Smith 's request to Wisconsin , to establish a Mormon stake at Voree . Shortly after Strang 's departure , Joseph Smith was murdered by an anti @-@ Mormon mob in Carthage , Illinois .
= = Succession claim and notable early allies = =
Following Smith 's demise , several men claimed the right to lead the Latter Day Saints . The most significant of these were Brigham Young , president of Smith 's Twelve Apostles ; Sidney Rigdon , the sole surviving member of Smith 's First Presidency ; and James Strang . A power struggle ensued , and Young eventually led the bulk of Smith 's followers to Utah while Rigdon led a smaller group to Pennsylvania . As a newcomer to the faith Strang did not possess the name recognition enjoyed by his rivals , so his prospects of assuming Smith 's prophetic mantle appeared shaky at first . But this did not dissuade him . Though the Quorum of Twelve quickly published a notice in the Times and Seasons of Strang 's excommunication , Strang insisted that he had never received a legitimate trial . He equally asserted that the Twelve had no right to sit in judgment on him , as he was the lawful President of the church .
To bolster his claim Strang produced a " Letter of Appointment " allegedly from Smith , carrying a Nauvoo postmark and dated June 18 , 1844 , just nine days before Smith 's murder . He furthermore testified that an angel ordained him as Joseph Smith 's successor at the time Smith died . Smith and Strang were some 225 miles ( 362 km ) apart at the time , and Strang offered witnesses to affirm that he had made his announcement before news of Smith 's demise was publicly available . Strang 's letter is held today by Yale University . Although the postmark is legitimate , some modern analysts have asserted that Joseph Smith 's signature on the third page is a forgery . One former Strangite claimed that Strang 's law partner conspired with Strang to fabricate his Letter of Appointment and the Voree Plates , though no proof of this was ever produced .
Strang 's letter convinced several eminent Mormons of his claims , including Book of Mormon witnesses John and David Whitmer , Martin Harris and Hiram Page . In addition Apostles John E. Page , William E. M 'Lellin , and William Smith , together with Nauvoo Stake President William Marks , and Bishop George Miller , accepted Strang at first . A newspaper affiliated with Strang , the Voree Herald , claimed that Joseph Smith 's mother , Lucy Mack Smith , and three of his sisters accepted Strang 's claims , although this is disputed . The newspaper alleges that Lucy Smith wrote to one Reuben Hedlock : " I am satisfied that Joseph appointed J.J. Strang . It is verily so . " According to Joseph Smith 's brother William , all of his family ( except for Hyrum and Samuel Smith 's widows ) , initially endorsed Strang .
Also championing Strang was John C. Bennett , a physician and libertine who had enjoyed a less than stellar career as Joseph Smith 's Assistant President and mayor of Nauvoo . Invited by Strang to join him in Voree , Bennett was instrumental in establishing a so @-@ called " Halcyon Order of the Illuminati " there , with Strang as its " Imperial Primate . " Eventually Bennett 's profligate ways caught up with him , as in Nauvoo , and Strang expelled him in 1847 . His " order " fell by the wayside and has no role in Strangism today , though it did lead to conflict between Strang and some of his associates .
= = From monogamist to polygamist = =
About 12 @,@ 000 Latter Day Saints ultimately accepted Strang 's claims . However , not all of these followed him to Beaver Island in Lake Michigan , where church headquarters was moved in 1848 . Most of his initial adherents , including all of those listed above ( with the exception of George Miller , who remained loyal to Strang until death ) , would leave Strang 's church before his demise . John E. Page departed in July 1849 , accusing Strang of dictatorial tendencies and concurring with Bennett 's furtive " Illuminati " order . Martin Harris had broken with Strang by January 1847 , after a failed mission to England . Hiram Page and the Whitmers also left around this time .
Many defections , however , were due to Strang 's seemingly abrupt " about @-@ face " on the turbulent subject of polygamy . Vehemently opposed to the practice at first , Strang reversed course in 1849 to become one of its strongest advocates , marrying five wives ( including his original spouse , Mary ) and fathering fourteen children . Since many of his early disciples viewed him as a monogamous counterweight to Brigham Young 's polygamous version of Mormonism , Strang 's decision to embrace plural marriage proved costly to him and his organization . Strang defended his new tenet by claiming that , far from enslaving or demeaning women , polygamy would liberate and " elevate " them by allowing them to choose the best possible mate based upon any factors deemed important to them — even if that mate were already married to someone else . Rather than being forced to wed " corrupt and degraded sires " due to the scarcity of more suitable men , a woman could marry the man she saw as the most compatible to herself , the best candidate to father her children and give her the finest possible life , no matter how many other wives he might have .
Strang 's first wife was Mary Perce , whom he married on November 20 , 1836 , when she was eighteen and he was twenty @-@ three . They were separated in May 1851 , though they remained legally married until Strang 's death . His second wife , married on July 13 , 1849 , was nineteen @-@ year @-@ old Elvira Eliza Field ( who disguised herself at first as " Charlie J. Douglas , " Strang 's purported nephew , before revealing her true identity in 1850 ) . Strang 's third wife was thirty @-@ one @-@ year @-@ old Betsy McNutt , whom he married on January 19 , 1852 ; his fourth was nineteen @-@ year @-@ old Sarah Adelia Wright , married on July 15 , 1855 . Ironically , decades after Strang 's death , Sarah would divorce her second husband , one Dr. Wing , due to his interest in polygamy . Strang 's last wife was eighteen @-@ year @-@ old Phoebe Wright , cousin to Sarah , whom he wed on October 27 , 1855 , less than one year before his murder .
Sarah Wright described Strang as " a very mild @-@ spoken , kind man to his family , although his word was law . " She wrote that while each wife had her own bedroom , they shared meals and devotional time together with Strang and that life in their household was " as pleasant as possible . " On the other hand , Strang and Phoebe Wright 's daughter , Eugenia , wrote in 1936 that after only eight months of marriage , her mother had " begun to feel dissatisfied with polygamy , though she loved him [ Strang ] devotedly all her life . "
= = Theological contributions = =
= = = Publications = = =
Like Joseph Smith , James Strang reported numerous visions , unearthed and translated allegedly ancient metal plates using what he said was the Biblical Urim and Thummim , and claimed to have restored long @-@ lost spiritual knowledge to humankind . Like Smith , he presented witnesses to authenticate the records he claimed to have received . Unlike Smith , however , Strang offered his plates to the public for examination . The non @-@ Mormon Christopher Sholes — inventor of the typewriter and editor of a local newspaper — perused Strang 's " Voree Plates " , a minuscule brass chronicle Strang said he had been led to by a vision in 1845 . Sholes offered no opinion on Strang 's find , but described the would @-@ be prophet as " honest and earnest " and opined that his followers ranked " among the most honest and intelligent men in the neighborhood . " Strang published his translation of these plates as the " Voree Record , " purporting to be the last testament of one " Rajah Manchou of Vorito , " who had lived in the area centuries earlier and wished to leave a brief statement for posterity . While many scoffed , Strangites assert that two modern scholars have affirmed that the text on the plates appears to represent a genuine , albeit unknown , language . This assertion has not been verified by independent sources , however . The Voree Plates disappeared around 1900 , and their current whereabouts are unknown .
Strang also claimed to have translated the " Plates of Laban " described in the Book of Mormon . This translation was published in 1851 as the Book of the Law of the Lord , said to be the original Law given to Moses and mentioned in II Chronicles 34 : 14 – 15 . Greatly expanded and republished in 1856 , this book served as the constitution for Strang 's spiritual kingdom on Beaver Island , and is still accepted as scripture by Strangites . One distinctive feature ( besides its overtly monarchial tone ) is its restoration of a " missing " commandment to the Decalogue : " Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself . " Strang insisted that versions of the Decalogue found in Bibles used by other churches — including other Latter Day Saint churches — contain only nine commandments , not ten .
Strang received several other revelations , which while never formally added to his church 's Doctrine and Covenants , are nevertheless accepted as scripture by his followers . These concerned , among other things , Baptism for the Dead , the building of a temple in Voree , the standing of Sidney Rigdon , and an invitation for Joseph Smith III , eldest son of Joseph Smith , to take a position as Counselor in Strang 's First Presidency . " Young Joseph " never accepted this calling and refused to have anything to do with Strang 's organization . Strang also authored The Diamond , an attack on the claims of Sidney Rigdon and Brigham Young , and The Prophetic Controversy , ostensibly for Mrs. Martha Coray , co @-@ author with Lucy Mack Smith of The History of Joseph Smith by His Mother . Coray , a partisan of Brigham Young 's , had challenged " the vain usurper " to provide convincing evidence of his claims , and Strang attempted to oblige in this open letter addressed to her . Coray 's reaction to Strang 's missive has not been preserved .
= = = Distinctive dogmas = = =
Some of Strang 's teachings differed substantially from those of other Latter Day Saint leaders , including Joseph Smith . For instance , Strang rejected the traditional Christian doctrines of the Trinity and the Virgin Birth of Jesus Christ , together with the Mormon doctrine of " plurality of gods . " A monotheist , he insisted that there was but one eternal God of all the universe , the Father , and that " progression to godhood " ( a doctrine allegedly taught by Joseph Smith toward the end of his life ) was impossible . God had always been God , said Strang , and He was but one Person and not three , as in the traditional Christian Trinity . Jesus Christ was presented as the natural @-@ born son of Mary and Joseph , who was chosen from before all time to be the Savior of mankind but who had to be born as an ordinary mortal of two human parents ( rather than being the offspring of the Father or the Holy Spirit ) to fulfill his Messianic role . Strang claimed that the earthly Christ was in essence " adopted " as God 's son at birth , and fully revealed as such during the Transfiguration . After proving himself to God by living a perfectly sinless life , he was enabled to provide an acceptable sacrifice for the sins of men , prior to his resurrection and ascension .
Furthermore , Strang denied that God could do all things , and insisted that some things were as impossible for Him as for us . Thus , he saw no essential conflict between science and religion , and while he never openly championed evolution , he did state that God was limited in His power by the matter He was working with and by the eons of time required to " organize " and shape it . Strang spoke glowingly of a future generation who would " make religion a science , " to be " studied by as exact rules as mathematicks . " " The mouth of the Seer will be opened , " he prophesied , " and the whole earth enlightened . "
Musing at length on the nature of sin and evil , Strang wrote that of all things that God could give to man , He could never give him experience . Thus , if " free agency " were to be real , said Strang , humanity must be given the opportunity to fail and to learn from its own mistakes . The ultimate goal for each human being was to willingly conform oneself to the " revealed character " of God in every respect , preferring good to evil not out of a fear of punishment or any desire for reward , but rather solely " on account of the innate loveliness of undefiled goodness ; of pure unalloyed holiness . "
= = = Practices = = =
Strang believed strongly in the seventh @-@ day Sabbath , and enjoined it in lieu of Sunday ; the Strangite church continues this tradition . He advocated baptism for the dead , and practiced it to a limited extent in Voree and on Beaver Island . He also introduced animal sacrifice – not for sin , but as a part of Strangite celebration rituals . Animal sacrifices and baptisms for the dead are not currently practiced by the Strangite organization , though belief in each is still required . Strang attempted to construct a temple in Voree , but was prevented from completing it due to the poverty and lack of cooperation of his followers . No " endowment " rituals comparable to those in the Utah LDS and Cutlerite churches appear to have existed among his followers . Eternal marriage formed a part of Strang 's teaching , though he did not require it to be performed in a temple ( as in the LDS church ) . Thus , such marriages are still contracted in Strang 's church in the absence of any Strangite temple or " endowment " ceremony . Alcohol , tobacco , coffee and tea were prohibited , as in many Latter Day Saint denominations . Polygamy is no longer practiced by Strang 's followers , though belief in its correctness is still affirmed .
Strang allowed women to hold the Priesthood offices of Priest and Teacher , unique among all Latter Day Saint factions during his lifetime . He welcomed African Americans into his church , and ordained at least two to the eldership . Strang also mandated conservation of land and resources , requiring the building of parks and retention of large forests in his kingdom . He wrote an eloquent refutation of the " Solomon Spalding theory " of the Book of Mormon 's authorship , and defended the ministry and teachings of Joseph Smith – as he understood them .
= = Coronation and troubled reign on Beaver Island = =
Strang claimed that he was to occupy the office of king described in the Book of the Law of the Lord . He insisted that this authority was incumbent upon all holders of the prophetic office from the beginning of time , and his followers believe that Smith himself was crowned secretly as " king " of the Kingdom of God before his murder . Strang was accordingly crowned in 1850 by his counselor and Prime Minister , an actor named George J. Adams . About 300 people witnessed his coronation , for which he wore a bright red flannel robe topped by a white collar with black speckles . His tin crown was described in one account as " a shiny metal ring with a cluster of glass stars in the front . " Strang also sported a breastplate and carried a wooden scepter . He " reigned " for six years , and the date of his coronation , July 8 , is still mandated as one of the two most important dates in the Strangite church year ( the other being April 6 , the anniversary of the founding of Joseph Smith 's church ) .
Strang never claimed to be the king of Beaver Island itself , nor of any other geographical entity . Rather , he claimed to be king over his church , which he saw as the true " Kingdom of God " prophesied in Scripture and destined to spread over all the earth . Nor did Strang ever say that his " kingdom " supplanted United States sovereignty over Beaver Island . However , since his sect was the main religious body on the isle , claiming the allegiance of most of its inhabitants , Strang often asserted authority even over non @-@ Strangites on Beaver — which ultimately caused him and his followers a great deal of grief . Furthermore , he and many of his disciples were accused of forcibly appropriating property and revenue on the island , which made him few friends among the non @-@ Mormon " gentiles . "
On the other hand , Strang and his people lived in apprehension of what their non @-@ member neighbors might do next . Some Strangites were beaten up while going to the post office to collect their mail , and some of their homes were robbed and even seized by " gentiles " while Strangite men were away . On July 4 , 1850 , a drunken mob of fishermen vowed to kill the " Mormons " or drive them out , only to be awed into submission when Strang fired a cannon ( which he had secretly acquired ) at them . Competition for business and jobs added to tensions on the island , as did the increasing Strangite monopoly on local government , made sure after Beaver and adjacent islands were attached first to Emmet County in 1853 , then later organized into their own insular county of Manitou in 1855 .
As a result of his coronation , together with lurid tales spread by George Adams ( who had been excommunicated by Strang a few months after the ceremony ) , Strang was accused of treason , counterfeiting , trespass on government land , and theft , among other crimes . He was brought to trial in Detroit , Michigan , after President Millard Fillmore ordered US District Attorney George Bates to investigate the rumors about Strang and his colony . Strang 's successful trial defense brought him considerable favorable press , which he leveraged to run for , and win , a seat in the Michigan state legislature as a Democrat in 1853 . Facing a determined effort to deny him this seat due to the hostility of his enemies , he was permitted to address the legislature in his defense , after which the Michigan House of Representatives voted twice ( first unanimously , then a second time by a 49 – 11 margin ) to allow " King Strang " to join them .
In the 1853 legislative session , Strang introduced ten bills , five of which passed . The Detroit Advertiser , on February 10 , 1853 , wrote of Strang : " Mr. Strang ’ s course as a member of the present Legislature , has disarmed much of the prejudices which have previously surrounded him . Whatever may be said or thought of the peculiar sect of which he is the local head , I take pleasure in stating that throughout this session he has conducted himself with the degree of decorum and propriety which have been equaled by his industry , sagacity , good temper , apparent regard for the true interests of the people , and the obligations of his official oath . " He was reelected in 1855 , and did much to organize the upper portion of Michigan 's lower peninsula into counties and townships . Strang ardently fought the illegal practice of trading liquor to local Native American tribes . This made him many enemies among those non @-@ Strangite residents of Beaver and nearby Mackinac Island who profited mightily from this illicit trade .
= = Assassination = =
James Strang made foes among his own people , too . One of these , Thomas Bedford , had been flogged for adultery on Strang 's orders , and felt considerable resentment toward the " king . " Another , Dr. H.D. McCulloch , had been excommunicated for drunkenness and other alleged misdeeds , after previously enjoying Strang 's favor and several high offices in local government . These conspired against Strang with Alexander Wentworth and Dr. J. Atkyn , who had allegedly endeavored ( unsuccessfully ) to blackmail the Strangites into paying his numerous bad debts . A decree that female Strangites must wear " bloomers " only added fuel to the fire . Pistols were procured , and the four conspirators began several days of target practice while finalizing the details of their murderous plan .
Although Strang apparently knew that Bedford and the others were gunning for him , he seems not to have taken them very seriously . " We laugh with bitter scorn at all these threats , " he wrote in the Northern Islander , just days before his murder . Strang 's refusal to employ a bodyguard or to carry a firearm or other weapon made him an easy target .
On Monday , June 16 , 1856 , Strang was waylaid around 7 : 00 PM on the dock at the harbor of St. James , chief city of Beaver Island , by Wentworth and Bedford , who shot him in the back . All of this was carried out in full view of several officers and men of the USS Michigan , a US Naval vessel docked in the harbor . Not one person on board the ship made any effort to warn or to aid the intended victim .
Strang was hit three times : one bullet grazed his head , another lodged in his cheek and a third in his spine , paralyzing him from the waist down . One of the assassins then savagely pistol @-@ whipped the fallen prophet before running aboard the nearby vessel with his companion , where both claimed sanctuary . Some accused Captain McBlair of the Michigan of complicity in , or at least foreknowledge of , the assassination plot , though no hard evidence of this was ever forthcoming . The so @-@ called " King of Beaver Island " was taken to Voree , where he lived for three weeks , dying on July 9 , 1856 at the age of 43 . After refusing to deliver Bedford and Wentworth to the local sheriff , McBlair transported them to Mackinac Island , where they were given a mock trial , fined $ 1 @.@ 25 , released , and then feted by the locals . None of the plotters was ever punished for his crimes .
= = Death of a kingdom = =
While Strang lingered on his deathbed in Voree , his Michigan enemies determined to extinguish his Beaver Island kingdom . On July 5 , 1856 , on what Michigan historian Byron M. Cutcheon later called " the most disgraceful day in Michigan history , " a drunken mob of " gentiles " from Mackinac and elsewhere descended upon the island and forcibly evicted every Strangite from it . Strang 's subjects on the island — numbering approximately 2 @,@ 600 persons — were herded onto hastily commandeered steamers , most after being robbed of their money and other personal possessions , and unceremoniously dumped onto docks along the shores of Lake Michigan . A few moved back to Voree , while the rest scattered across the country .
Strang refused to appoint a successor , telling his apostles to take care of their families as best they could , and await divine instruction . While his supporters endeavored to keep his church alive , Strang 's unique dogma requiring his successor to be ordained by angels handicapped his church in its search for a new prophet . Lorenzo Dow Hickey , the last of Strang 's apostles , emerged as an ad @-@ hoc leader until his death in 1897 , followed by Wingfield W. Watson , a High Priest in Strang 's organization ( until he died in 1922 ) . Neither of these men ever claimed Strang 's office or authority , however . Left without a prophet to guide them , most of Strang 's members ( including all of his wives ) departed his church in the years after his murder . Most later joined the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints , which was established in 1860 . A few , however , continue to carry on Strang 's mission as best they can , while awaiting a new successor to their fallen founder .
Strang 's disciples today are divided into two main factions ; one is led by a Presiding High Priest , who does not claim to have the authority or priesthood office possessed by Joseph Smith or James Strang . The other claims that the first faction is in error , and that by incorporating in 1961 , it lost its identity as a faithful continuation of Strang 's organization . This second group claims that it is the sole true remnant of James Strang 's church . Missionary work is no longer emphasized among the Strangites ( unlike the LDS and many other Latter Day Saint sects ) , as they tend to believe that after three murdered prophets ( Joseph Smith , Hyrum Smith and James Strang ) God closed His dispensation to the " gentiles " of the West . Consequently , Strang 's church has continued to dwindle until the present day . Current membership figures vary between 50 and 300 persons , depending upon the source consulted .
While proving a key player in the 1844 succession struggle , Strang 's long @-@ term influence on the Latter Day Saint movement was minimal . His doctrinal innovations had little impact outside of his church , and he was largely ignored until recent historians began to reexamine his life and career . Even the county ( Manitou ) he had fought to establish was abolished by the Michigan legislature in 1895 , removing the last tangible remnant of Strang 's temporal empire . For all his efforts , Strang 's most vital ( albeit unintended ) contribution to the Latter Day Saint religion turned out to be providing some of the impetus behind creation of the Reorganized Church , which became a major rival to the Utah @-@ based LDS Church and other Latter Day Saint groups — including his own .
= Scott Stevens =
Ronald Scott Stevens ( born April 1 , 1964 ) is a retired professional ice hockey defenceman , and current assistant coach of the Minnesota Wild . Stevens played 22 seasons in the National Hockey League ( NHL ) for the Washington Capitals , St. Louis Blues , and the New Jersey Devils . Although offensively capable , Stevens was largely known for his defensive play and his heavy body checking on opponents .
Stevens started his career with the Capitals , where he helped the team make the playoffs for the first time . After spending a season with the Blues , he was acquired by the Devils through arbitration . Personifying the team 's defence @-@ first mentality , he captained the Devils to four Stanley Cup Finals appearances in nine years , winning three of them . In 2000 , he won the Conn Smythe Trophy as the most valuable player of the Stanley Cup playoffs . Despite his team success with the Devils , he never won the Norris Trophy as the league 's best defenceman . His career came to an end after a slapshot hit his head and caused post @-@ concussion syndrome . He was later inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 2007 , his first year of eligibility . Stevens retired with the most games played by an NHL defenceman ( 1635 games ) , later to be passed by Chris Chelios . Stevens was also the youngest player in league history to reach 1 @,@ 500 games played , playing in his 1,500th game at age 37 years , 346 days . He did not have a negative plus / minus in any of his 22 NHL seasons , and had the most penalty minutes of any player enshrined in the Hall of Fame until Chris Chelios was inducted in 2013 .
= = Early life = =
Stevens was born in Kitchener to Larry and Mary Stevens , the middle child of three brothers . Larry owned a paper products company , and was also a semi @-@ professional Canadian football player . All three Stevens brothers played hockey as children ; older brother Geoff would later go on to be a scout for the New Jersey Devils , while Mike , the youngest , enjoyed a brief NHL career with several teams . Growing up near Toronto , he was a fan of the Maple Leafs , and idolized Leafs defenceman Börje Salming . Stevens attended Eastwood Collegiate Institute , where he played middle linebacker . One of his teammates was Markus Koch , who would go on to win a Super Bowl with the Washington Redskins . Hockey was Stevens ' true passion , however . He and his brothers often played hockey in the house , ruining the furniture repeatedly . He eventually earned a spot on the Kitchener Junior B team , and passed on the opportunity to tour Czechoslovakia with the Kitchener midget team in order to play there . His play impressed scouts , and he was taken ninth overall by his hometown Kitchener Rangers in the 1981 Ontario Hockey League draft .
The 1981 – 82 Kitchener Rangers were a team that featured several future NHL players . The defensive corps included Dave Shaw and Al MacInnis , Wendell Young was the team 's starting goaltender , and the top scoring line on the team was Jeff Larmer , Brian Bellows , and Grant Martin . Stevens and Shaw were an integral part of the Rangers ' defence , playing in every game of the season en route to the team 's Memorial Cup victory . In addition , both played in the OHL All @-@ Star Game . Rangers coach Joe Crozier commented on him , saying " He 's come a long way this year ... He 's strong , tough , handles the puck well and has tremendous hockey sense . " Stevens led all rookie defencemen in scoring , and he was named the second best defensive defenceman and second best body @-@ checker in a poll of OHL coaches .
= = Washington Capitals = =
Stevens was taken fifth overall in the 1982 NHL Entry Draft by the Washington Capitals . Due to injuries to other players during training camp , Stevens made the team at 18 years old , and never played a game in the minor leagues . He made an immediate impact , scoring on his first shot in his first NHL game . He scored 25 points in his debut season , and made the All @-@ Rookie Team . In addition , he led all rookie defencemen in penalty minutes . He finished third in the voting for the Calder Memorial Trophy , which is awarded to the league 's Rookie of the Year . He was also named the Capitals ' Rookie of the Year . Stevens ' debut with the Capitals coincided with the team 's first playoff appearance , although they were eliminated in the first round by the New York Islanders .
The following year , he would nearly double his point total from the previous year , finishing with 13 goals and 32 assists for 45 points . Only teammate Larry Murphy had more points among defencemen . His 201 penalty minutes would lead the team ; he would ultimately lead the Capitals in the category five times during his tenure with the team , and eventually set the team record for most career penalty minutes by a defenceman . However , Stevens ' personal success did not translate to the Capitals , who were eliminated in the second round of the playoffs by the Islanders . During this period , Stevens learned from veterans Rod Langway and defensive linemate Brian Engblom on the finer points of playing defence . Head coach Bryan Murray also helped calm the fiery young Stevens , who would learn to fight less and play harder . Stevens spoke fondly of his time with the Capitals years later , saying :
We had a great bunch of guys and we worked hard . We were great defensively . We might have been at times a little challenged scoring and we might have been a bit challenged in the goal at times ... But there are no regrets .
The 1984 – 85 season would be a breakout year for Stevens . He set a team record for defencemen by scoring 16 power play goals , and tied a team record for goals by a defenceman with 21 . His performance was good enough to land him a spot in the All @-@ Star Game . Stevens would lead all Capitals defencemen in scoring for the first time , finishing the year with 21 goals and 44 assists , and earned the team 's Fan Favorite Award . His offensive abilities and size made Murray consider moving him to winger . The Capitals finished second in the Patrick Division , but were out of the playoffs early again , this time courtesy of the Islanders . Before the next season , the Capitals acquired Dwight Schofield in the waiver draft . Schofield was known for his abilities as an enforcer , and his goal was to keep other teams ' hitters away from Stevens and Langway , who were deemed too valuable to lose to penalties . The plan worked , as Stevens finished with 165 penalty minutes , the lowest in his career to that point . He added 15 goals and 38 assists that season as well . The Capitals continued their playoff woes , however ; after defeating the Islanders in the first round , they lost to the New York Rangers in the division finals .
The 1986 – 87 season saw Stevens return to his old ways , as he spent a career @-@ high 283 minutes in the penalty box . The total set a Capitals record ( since broken ) for penalty minutes in a season . Despite missing three games with a broken right index finger , an injury he suffered against the Islanders , Stevens would finish the year third on the team in scoring with 61 points ; his 51 assists were also good enough for second on the Capitals . The Caps were once again eliminated by the Islanders in the first round of the playoffs .
During the 1987 – 88 season , Stevens set Capitals records for most assists and most points by a defenceman in a game , with five assists against the Los Angeles Kings on December 6 , 1987 . Later that season , he would score at least one assist in eight consecutive games , setting another team record for defencemen . He finished the year second on the team in scoring with 12 goals and 60 assists for 72 points , tops among all Capitals blueliners . He ended up finishing second behind Boston Bruins defenceman Ray Bourque in the voting for the Norris Trophy . In addition , he was named as a NHL First Team All @-@ Star . Stevens would suffer a shoulder injury in the first round of the playoffs against the Flyers , a series the Capitals would win . He returned in time for the Capitals ' divisional finals against his future team , the New Jersey Devils . Despite tying a team record by posting four assists in Game 6 of the series , the Capitals fell four games to three .
The Capitals won the Patrick Division in the 1988 – 89 season , and Stevens ' 68 points ( including a team @-@ leading 61 assists ) led Caps defencemen . He had 225 penalty minutes ; this was the last time Stevens would have over 200 minutes in his career . He was named to his second All @-@ Star game , and added an assist as the Wales Conference lost to the Campbell Conference 9 @-@ 5 . The Caps could not translate their regular season success into the playoffs , however , as they lost in the first round to the Flyers . The 1989 – 90 season saw mixed success for Stevens . Personally he struggled , as he was beset with injuries , including a broken foot that caused him to miss nearly two months . In addition , he was suspended for three games for gouging Chicago Blackhawks player Dave Manson in the eye during a fight . Stevens said he never hit Manson 's eye , but that the eye hit Stevens ' helmet during the fight . Missing a third of the season led to Stevens ' lowest point total since his rookie year ; he finished with just 11 goals and 29 assists for 40 points , although it was still second among Capitals defencemen . Despite his lowered stats , the Capitals made their furthest inroads in the playoffs ever . After defeating the Devils in the first round and the Rangers in the second round , the Capitals were in the conference finals for the first time in team history . Unfortunately , they were swept by the Bruins .
Over eight seasons with the Capitals , Stevens finished with 98 goals and 429 points in 601 games . He also set team records ( all since broken ) for penalty minutes ( 1 @,@ 630 ) , games played by a defenceman ( 601 ) , points by a defenceman ( 429 ) , goals by a defenceman ( 98 ) , assists by a defenceman ( 331 ) , playoff games played ( 67 ) , playoff points ( 53 ) , playoff assists ( 44 ) and playoff goals by a defenceman ( 9 ) .
= = St. Louis Blues = =
After eight seasons in Washington , Stevens felt it was time to move on . The St. Louis Blues courted him and offered a four @-@ year deal worth $ 5 @.@ 145 million . Since he was a restricted free agent , Washington had the option to match the offer sheet ; they declined , however , and received two first round picks plus $ 100 @,@ 000 in cash , turning into five first @-@ round picks if the Capitals did not have a top @-@ 7 draft pick in the 1991 or 1992 entry drafts , as compensation ( two of these picks would become Sergei Gonchar and Brendan Witt ) .
Stevens ' signing had far @-@ reaching ramifications on player contracts in the NHL . At the time , the deal made him the highest @-@ paid defenceman in the league . In addition , the deal included a $ 1 @.@ 4 million signing bonus . Several defencemen considered superior players to Stevens , including Ray Bourque and Chris Chelios , were earning less money , and Capitals defenceman Kevin Hatcher held out until he received a contract similar to that of Stevens . General managers worried that these players would begin demanding bigger contracts . The players did end up asking for more money , and this escalation was one of the factors in the 1994 – 95 NHL lockout several seasons later .
After his arrival in St. Louis , Stevens was named captain of the Blues . He scored 5 goals and added 44 assists for 49 points , good enough for fifth on a team led by Brett Hull and Adam Oates . He made the Campbell Conference All @-@ Star Team as well . The Blues were eliminated in the second round of the playoffs by the Minnesota North Stars .
= = New Jersey Devils = =
Stevens ' time with the Blues would only last one season . In the offseason following the 1990 – 91 NHL season , the Blues signed Brendan Shanahan from the New Jersey Devils , who , like Stevens the year before , was a restricted free agent , entitling the Devils to compensation . As the Blues still owed first round picks to the Capitals ( now five instead of two , as the 1991 pick given up ended up being the 21st pick ) , other compensation had to be negotiated , and the Blues and Devils could not agree on what the compensation was ; the Blues offered goalie Curtis Joseph , forward Rod Brind 'Amour , and two draft picks , but the Devils only wanted Stevens . The case went to arbitration , and arbitrator Edward Houston awarded Stevens to the Devils as compensation on September 4 , 1991 .
= = = 1991 – 1995 = = =
Initially , Stevens refused to report to the Devils for training camp , and would not report until September 26 , 1991 , 22 days after the arbitration ruling . The Devils were already worried after captain Kirk Muller walked out of camp . Stevens and his wife had made plans to settle in St. Louis , and he wanted to end his career with the Blues . In addition , he was concerned about the apparent lack of unity in the organization , citing Muller 's walkout as proof . Several Devils players were upset over the feeling that Stevens was being forced upon the team ; some players , including Ken Daneyko , wanted more money , while other players wanted general manager Lou Lamoriello to trade Stevens . He would eventually report to the Devils three weeks later .
Stevens finished his first season in New Jersey fifth on the team in scoring , first among defencemen and good enough for a spot on the Second All @-@ Star Team . He earned a spot on the All @-@ Star roster for the second consecutive season , and would miss only one All @-@ Star game for the remainder of his career as a Devil . The Devils would be taken out of the playoffs by their rival , the Rangers , in seven games . In the offseason , Stevens replaced Bruce Driver as team captain , a title he held until his retirement .
Although he would miss part of the following season with a concussion , his 12 goals and 45 assists still led all Devils defencemen in scoring , The Devils were eliminated in the first round of the playoffs again , losing to the Pittsburgh Penguins in five games . Stevens stepped up his offensive game in 1993 – 94 . He posted 18 goals and 60 assists , good enough for the team lead and a career high in points . He won the NHL Plus @-@ Minus Award , finishing with a + 53 ; only Vladimir Konstantinov has led the league with a higher plus / minus rating since Stevens ' win . The Devils made it all the way to the Conference Finals against the Rangers , where they fell in double overtime of Game 7 . Stevens finished as a runner @-@ up to Ray Bourque for the Norris Trophy ; the four @-@ vote difference was the closest in Norris Trophy voting history .
After the 1993 – 94 season , Stevens was a potential free agent . Officials from the St. Louis Blues discussed a return to the team with him , and persuaded him to sign an offer sheet worth $ 17 million over four years on July 4 , 1994 . Five days later , the Devils matched the offer , and thus Stevens remained in New Jersey . However , the Devils later found out that Stevens had heard from St. Louis management before the free agency period began , which was illegal under NHL policy . After a five @-@ year investigation , the league fined the Blues $ 1 @.@ 5 million USD , and awarded the Devils two St. Louis first @-@ round draft picks . Devils general manager Lou Lamoriello felt the punishment was not enough ; he wanted five first @-@ round draft picks plus damages . Despite the investigation , there was no evidence that Stevens was aware of any wrongdoing .
After the 1994 – 95 season was delayed due to an owners ' lockout , the Devils were off to a slow start , winning only 9 of their first 24 games . Despite the reduced schedule , Stevens managed two goals and 20 assists , once again leading defencemen in scoring . The Devils finished fifth in the conference , and advanced to the Stanley Cup Finals , where they swept the heavily favored Detroit Red Wings to win the franchise 's first championship . Stevens ' reputation as a hard hitter was reinforced in Game 2 , where he leveled Vyacheslav Kozlov with a body check that temporarily knocked him out of the game . It was later determined that Kozlov suffered a concussion . Stevens then turned to Wings forward and former Washington teammate Dino Ciccarelli , who was upset about the check , and said " You 're next ! "
= = = 1996 – 1999 = = =
The Devils expected to defend their Stanley Cup title the following season . However , they became the first team in 26 years to miss the playoffs following a championship . Stevens voiced the team 's disappointment , saying " After winning the Cup , you expect to definitely be in the playoffs the next year ... Maybe it was just a wakeup call to get back on track . "
Stevens started the 1996 – 97 season with a one game suspension due to a high @-@ sticking penalty against Igor Larionov , which drew blood . The team , however , returned to a solid style of play , and finished the season atop the Atlantic Division , though they would be eliminated in the playoffs once again by the Hudson River rival New York Rangers . Stevens finished second on the team among defencemen in scoring behind Scott Niedermayer .
Stevens ' leadership continued into the next season . He signed a contract extension with the Devils , stating at the time that he wanted to finish his career with the team . Stevens was especially important to the Devils ' defensive corps , as longtime Devil Ken Daneyko was undergoing rehabilitation for alcoholism . However , he suffered a hip pointer injury against the Tampa Bay Lightning , and missed several games . Stevens once again had a good defensive season , although his lack of scoring kept him out of consideration for the Norris Trophy . The Devils finished as the top seed in the Eastern Conference , but were eliminated in the first round by the Ottawa Senators .
The Devils made several changes prior to the 1998 – 99 season , including the hiring of Robbie Ftorek as coach to replace Jacques Lemaire . The team continued its focus on defence , as the solid corps of Stevens , Daneyko , and Niedermayer finished with plus @-@ minuses of + 29 , + 27 , and + 26 , respectively . Unfortunately , the team was once again eliminated in the first round of the playoffs , this time by the Pittsburgh Penguins .
= = = 2000 – 2004 = = =
The 1999 – 2000 Devils focused more on offense , which was reinforced by their 251 goals scored , good enough for second in the league . With four players scoring over 50 points , including rookie Scott Gomez 's team leading 51 assists , Stevens ' 29 points were only good enough for tenth on the team , and third among defencemen behind Niedermayer and Brian Rafalski . Stevens also set an NHL record , becoming the first player to play in 600 games with two teams . After finishing the season in fourth place in the conference , the Devils swept the Florida Panthers and defeated the Toronto Maple Leafs in six games .
The Devils then met their bitter rivals , the Philadelphia Flyers , in the Eastern Conference Finals . After getting behind in the series three games to one , the Devils managed to win games five and six , setting the stage for game seven in Philadelphia . During the first period , Flyers star centre Eric Lindros was skating alone through the neutral zone with his head down . Stevens leveled him with a shoulder that appeared to hit his chin , forcing Lindros out of the game with a concussion . It was only Lindros ' second game since returning from a concussion suffered in March against the Boston Bruins . Stevens had previously taken Flyers centre Daymond Langkow out with a concussion after game 2 .
The Devils completed the comeback against the Flyers with a 2 – 1 victory and faced off against the defending Stanley Cup champion Dallas Stars in the Stanley Cup Finals . Stevens and Rafalski were tasked with the responsibility of shutting down Dallas ' scoring line of Mike Modano , Brett Hull , and Joe Nieuwendyk . Stevens scored the game @-@ winner in the first game of the series , en route to a Devils 7 @-@ 3 victory ; the goal was his third of the playoffs . The Devils went on to win the Finals in six games , after Game Five went to three overtimes and Game Six was decided in double overtime . Stevens earned an assist on Jason Arnott 's Cup @-@ winning goal , and won the Conn Smythe Trophy for his leadership role on the team .
During the 2000 – 01 NHL season , led by Patrik Eliáš ' franchise @-@ record of 96 points , and Alexander Mogilny 's team @-@ leading 43 goals , the team finished first in the conference . After defeating Carolina , Toronto , and Pittsburgh in the playoffs , the Devils once again made the Finals , this time against the Colorado Avalanche . Despite being up three games to two , however , the Devils could not finish off the Avalanche , and lost the series in seven games . Stevens finished third in the voting for the Norris Trophy .
The next season , Stevens finished with his lowest scoring total in his career , though he did become the youngest player ever to play in 1 @,@ 500 games . The Devils , however , fell in the first round of the playoffs to the Hurricanes , who went on to lose to Detroit in the Stanley Cup finals .
Stevens and the Devils once again had success in 2002 – 03 , finishing first in the division . In addition , he was named as captain of the Eastern Conference All @-@ Star team for the first time , and finished the season with the fewest penalty minutes over a full season in his career . The Devils played well in the playoffs , knocking off Boston , Tampa Bay , and Ottawa to face the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim in the Finals . Stevens and the Devils had a minor scare in Game 3 of the semifinals against Tampa Bay when a slapshot from Pavel Kubina hit the side of his head and forced him to leave the game . Although there was uncertainty whether he would return for Game 4 , Stevens in fact returned , and did not miss a game throughout the remainder of the playoffs . In Game 2 of the Finals , he set the record for most playoff games by a defenceman , breaking the record by his former coach , Larry Robinson . Stevens added to his list of playoff hits when he knocked down Ducks forward Paul Kariya in Game Six . However , Kariya came back shortly thereafter and led the Ducks to a victory , forcing a seventh game . The Devils kept the Ducks scoreless in Game Seven , 3 @-@ 0 , to win their third Stanley Cup in nine years . Stevens ' appearance in Game Seven tied Patrick Roy 's record for appearances in Game Sevens , with 13 . Despite the play of Stevens , Martin Brodeur , Jamie Langenbrunner , and Jeff Friesen , the Conn Smythe Trophy went to Ducks goaltender Jean @-@ Sébastien Giguère . Some speculated that there were too many worthy Devils candidates for the trophy , resulting in a split vote among sportswriters .
The 2003 – 04 NHL season would be the last for Stevens . Before ending the season , he surpassed former teammate Larry Murphy as the NHL 's all @-@ time leader in games played by a defenceman , when he appeared in his 1,616th game in November . He missed several games in January with the flu , and while he was out , he was diagnosed with post @-@ concussion syndrome ( which would eventually coerce him into retirement ) . Despite missing the second half of the season , he was still voted in as a starter for the Eastern Conference All @-@ Star team . Scott Niedermayer filled in as captain in Stevens ' absence , but the loss of Stevens , as well as Daneyko , who had retired before the season , was too much of a loss for the Devils ' defence , and they fell to the Flyers in the first round of the playoffs . In the offseason , Stevens recovered and continued to work out , and expected to return to the Devils for the 2004 – 05 NHL season . However , the lockout canceled the entire season , and Stevens retired on September 6 , 2005 , after 1635 NHL games , fourth at the time ( and now seventh ) all @-@ time in games played , the leader in games played by a defenceman ( since passed by Chris Chelios ) , and 14th all @-@ time in career penalty minutes .
= = = 2012 – 2015 = = =
On July 17 , 2012 , the Devils announced Stevens would return to the team as an assistant coach . After two seasons of failing to make the playoffs , Stevens stepped down as assistant coach in September 2014 . His role as the assistant coach for defenseman was filled by another former Devil , Tommy Albelin . However , only three months later Stevens returned to the Devils along with former assistant coach Adam Oates , relieving Peter DeBoer of his coaching duties . In a unique move , both Stevens and Oates were named as co @-@ head coaches with Stevens focusing on defenseman and Oates on forwards .
= = Minnesota Wild = =
On June 7 , 2016 , the Minnesota Wild hired Stevens as an assistant to head coach Bruce Boudreau .
= = International play = =
In addition to his NHL career , Stevens represented Canada in several international ice hockey competitions . He attended summer camp with Team Canada prior to the 1983 World Junior Championships , but because of his commitment to the Capitals , he was unable to join the team . His first experience with the senior team was at the 1983 World Ice Hockey Championships , where he won a bronze medal . The following year he made the Canadian team for the 1984 Canada Cup , but he did not play . During the 1985 World Ice Hockey Championships , he scored a goal and added two assists as Canada finished with a silver medal . He played only two games during the 1987 tournament ; Canada finished in fourth place . Two years later he scored two goals as Canada once again won the silver medal . During the tournament , he suffered a serious cut when Borje Salming 's skate sliced his face ; he would receive 88 stitches for the wound . He finally won international gold with Canada during the 1991 Canada Cup . Five years later , he played in the 1996 World Cup of Hockey , the successor to the Canada Cup . Finishing with two assists , Stevens won the silver medal ; Canada finished in second place after giving up four goals in the final four minutes of the championship game against the American team .
National Hockey League players were first allowed to participate in the Olympic ice hockey tournament at the 1998 games . Stevens was selected to join Team Canada , but finished without a point for the only time in his international career . Canada would finish fourth after losing their semi @-@ final match @-@ up against the Czech Republic in a shootout . Stevens would be part of Canada 's orientation camp for the 2002 Games , but he would not make the final roster .
= = Legacy = =
Stevens left a lasting legacy on the NHL . Stevens was the longest reigning captain in Devils history . Later on in his career , he mentored the younger Devils defencemen like Colin White and Brian Rafalski , who was Stevens ' defensive linemate . Longtime teammate Scott Niedermayer said Stevens was " not the most vocal guy around " , but he would talk to players when it was necessary . Stevens was honored by the Devils by becoming the first player in team history to have his number retired by the team ; his # 4 was raised to the rafters on February 3 , 2006 . Additionally , the Kitchener Rangers have retired # 3 for Stevens .
Stevens was also remembered as a hard hitter , often leveling players who crossed an open part of the ice with their heads down . Among the victims of Stevens ' body checks were Slava Kozlov , Eric Lindros , Paul Kariya , Shane Willis and Ron Francis , the last of whom was inducted with Stevens into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 2007 . Some players have accused Stevens of playing cheap . After his check on Willis , Carolina Hurricanes goaltender Arturs Irbe said Stevens was " trying to kill [ Willis ] or put him out of the playoffs . " Stevens responded :
On the other hand , Kozlov did not blame Stevens for his hit , and said he was a clean player . Despite his penchant for hits , Stevens finished his career with only four elbowing penalties in the regular season . He was often credited with changing the momentum of a game not with a goal , but with a hard check , earning him the nickname " Captain Crunch " . He was named the fifth most fearsome player in NHL history by the Sporting News in 2001 and was voted the toughest player in the NHL by the voters . NHL defencemen Dion Phaneuf and Francois Beauchemin are often compared to Stevens , and Phaneuf says he has idolized Stevens ' style of play .
= = Personal life = =
Stevens met his wife Donna while he was playing junior hockey with Kitchener . The couple have three children ; Kaitlin , Ryan and Kara . He is a fan of the outdoors , and spent his summers away from hockey at Lake Catchacoma . He also enjoys duck hunting in his spare time , and is a fan of the Three Stooges . After the September 11 , 2001 attacks , he started a program called Scott 's Kids for the families of the victims . Stevens resides in the town of Far Hills , New Jersey .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
= = = International play = = =
= = = All @-@ Star Games = = =
= = Awards = =
= 2013 Alabama Crimson Tide football team =
The 2013 Alabama Crimson Tide football team ( variously " Alabama " , " UA " , " Bama " or " The Tide " ) represented the University of Alabama in the 2013 NCAA Division I FBS football season . It was the Crimson Tide 's 119th overall season , 80th as a member of the Southeastern Conference ( SEC ) and its 22nd within the SEC Western Division . The team was led by head coach Nick Saban , in his seventh year , and played its home games at Bryant – Denny Stadium in Tuscaloosa , Alabama . They finished the season with a record of eleven wins and two losses ( 11 – 2 overall , 7 – 1 in the SEC ) and with a loss in the 2014 Sugar Bowl to Oklahoma .
After they captured the 2012 national championship , the Crimson Tide signed a highly rated recruiting class in February 2013 and completed spring practice the following April . With thirteen returning starters from the previous season , Alabama entered the 2013 season as the two @-@ time defending national champions , ranked as the number one team in the nation and as a favorite to win the Western Division , the SEC and national championships . The Crimson Tide opened the season with eleven consecutive victories that included one over Virginia Tech at a neutral site , against Texas A & M in a game that saw many team records broken and an emotional victory over Louisiana State University ( LSU ) at Bryant – Denny Stadium . In their twelfth game , Alabama was upset by Auburn . The loss , in a game since dubbed " Kick Bama Kick , " kept the Crimson Tide out of the SEC Championship Game . Although they did not qualify to play for their third consecutive national championship with a final BCS ranking of third , Alabama did accept an invitation to play in the Sugar Bowl . Against Oklahoma , the Crimson Tide lost 45 – 31 .
At the conclusion of the season , Alabama 's defense was nationally ranked near the top in total defense , scoring defense , rushing defense and ranked passing defense . Offensively , the Alabama offense ranked 17th in scoring offense , 24th in rushing offense , 33rd in total offense and 49th in passing offense . Additionally , several players were recognized for their individual accomplishments on the field . C. J. Mosley won the Butkus Award as the top collegiate linebacker ; AJ McCarron won both the Maxwell Award as the overall player of the year and the Johnny Unitas Golden Arm Award as the top senior quarterback . Also , four players were named to various All @-@ America Teams with C. J. Mosley being a unanimous selection and Ha Ha Clinton @-@ Dix and Cyrus Kouandjio being consensus selections .
= = Before the season = =
= = = Previous season = = =
In 2012 , Alabama came into the season ranked No. 2 in both preseason polls . After their week one victory over Michigan , the Crimson Tide moved into the No. 1 spot in both polls , and then proceeded to win their next eight games that included a victory at LSU . However the next week , Alabama was upset by Johnny Manziel and the Texas A & M Aggies and dropped to the No. 4 position . Alabama bounced back and won its remaining games to clinch the SEC Western Division and secured a spot in the 2012 SEC Championship Game against Georgia . The Crimson Tide then defeated the Bulldogs and captured the SEC Championship . The next day , Alabama finished No. 2 in the final BCS rankings and would play Notre Dame in the 2013 BCS National Championship Game . In the game , Alabama defeated the Fighting Irish 42 – 14 and captured their 15th national championship and made Nick Saban the only coach in college football to win four BCS Championships .
= = = February player arrests = = =
In February 2013 Tuscaloosa Police arrested four football players from the 2012 season : Brent Calloway , Tyler Hayes , D. J. Pettway and Eddie Williams . Williams was involved in four separate incidents on February 10 and 11 . On February 10 he had a dispute with a gas station clerk about paying for gas and said he had to get something in the trunk of his car . The clerk called the police , the police arrested Williams with carrying a pistol without a license , but Williams was released later that day on a $ 500 bond . Later that night around 12 : 30 a.m. , Williams attacked an Alabama student with Hayes and Pettway and they stole the student 's backpack . In a separate incident almost an hour later , Williams attacked another student while Hayes and Pettway waited in a car . Later Williams used one of the students ' credit cards . Calloway was also arrested after he used a victim 's student debit card with knowledge it was stolen . Following the arrests , Alabama suspended all four from the football team . Alabama also prohibited Hayes , Pettway and Williams from entering campus . On February 27 , Alabama dismissed all four players from the university after completing a judicial review .
= = = Spring practice = = =
Alabama started spring practice on March 16 and concluded 15 practices later on April 20 with the annual A @-@ Day game . In the annual A @-@ Day game at the conclusion of spring practice , the White team composed of offensive starters defeated the Crimson team of defensive starters 17 – 14 . The White team opened on offense and scored a touchdown on their first possession on a 40 @-@ yard AJ McCarron pass to Kenny Bell . After Nick Perry intercepted a Blake Sims pass on the first Crimson possession , the White team extended their lead to 10 – 0 on a 29 @-@ yard Adam Griffith field goal . Both offenses then struggled for the remainder of the first half with turnovers for the Crimson team coming on a second Perry interception of a Sims pass , an Alec Morris fumble recovered by Dillon Lee , and on a Cooper Bateman pass intercepted by Landon Collins . The White team had turnovers on a Kenny Bell fumble recovered by C. J. Mosley and on the last play of the first half when a McCarron pass was intercepted by Vinnie Sunseri and returned 86 @-@ yards for a touchdown that made the halftime score 10 – 7 .
The offensive struggles continued into the second half with neither team scoring any points in the third quarter . In the fourth , the Crimson team took a 14 – 10 lead after Ha 'Sean Clinton @-@ Dix recovered a Brian Vogler fumble and returned it 55 @-@ yards for a touchdown . The White team responded on their next possession with a seven @-@ yard T. J. Yeldon touchdown run for a 17 – 14 victory . For his performance , Ryan Kelly earned the Dwight Stephenson Lineman of the A @-@ Day Game Award . On offense , Yeldon earned the Dixie Howell Memorial Most Valuable Player of the A @-@ Day Game Award for his 129 all @-@ purpose yards on the day that included 69 rushing and 60 receiving , and game @-@ winning touchdown run .
= = = Fall camp = = =
By August , Alabama had a combined 31 players on 14 different preseason award watch lists . These players included C. J. Mosley , Ha 'Sean Clinton @-@ Dix and Deion Belue for the Chuck Bednarik Award ; Amari Cooper and Kevin Norwood for the Fred Biletnikoff Award ; Adrian Hubbard and Mosley for the Butkus Award ; Cooper , AJ McCarron , Mosley and T. J. Yeldon for the Walter Camp Award ; Hubbard , Mosley , Cyrus Kouandjio and Anthony Steen for the Lombardi Award ; Christion Jones for the Paul Hornung Award ; Brian Vogler for the John Mackey Award ; Cooper , McCarron , Mosley and Yeldon for the Maxwell Award ; Belue , Clinton @-@ Dix , Hubbard and Mosley for the Bronko Nagurski Trophy ; McCarron for the Davey O 'Brien Award ; Kouandjio and Steen for the Outland Trophy ; Ryan Kelly for the Rimington Trophy ; Clinton @-@ Dix for the Jim Thorpe Award ; and Yeldon for the Doak Walker Award .
= = Personnel = =
= = = Coaching staff = = =
Alabama head coach Nick Saban completed his seventh year as the Crimson Tide 's head coach for the 2013 season . During his previous six years with Alabama , he led the Crimson Tide to an overall record of 63 wins and 13 losses ( 63 – 13 ) and the 2009 , 2011 and 2012 national championships . On January 9 , 2013 , former Colorado defensive coordinator Greg Brown was hired as the successor for Jeremy Pruitt as secondary coach . On February 18 , former Florida International head coach Mario Cristobal was hired as Jeff Stoutland 's replacement for offensive line coach . On February 21 , former Florida State tight ends coach and recruiting coordinator Billy Napier was hired as Mike Groh 's replacement as wide receivers coach .
= = = Returning starters = = =
Alabama had six returning players on offense and seven on defense that started games in 2012 . Another notable player that returned for 2013 , but did not start in 2012 , was running back T. J. Yeldon , who appeared in all 14 Alabama games in 2012 as the backup for Eddie Lacy . Additionally , four first @-@ year players in 2012 made the SEC Coaches ' All @-@ Freshman Team : Amari Cooper , Ryan Kelly , D. J. Pettway and Yeldon .
= = = Depth chart = = =
Due to varying circumstances throughout the season , several players were rotated in and out of starting positions throughout Alabama 's depth chart . Below is a listing of at what times during the season players were substituted as starter or saw increased playing time . On the offensive side of the ball , freshman Grant Hill split time with starter Austin Shepherd at right tackle against Kentucky . Kellen Williams was listed on the depth chart as a backup at left tackle and guard ; however , coach Saban mentioned Williams as being the sixth starter who can fill in at all the offensive line positions . After the Ole Miss , Williams was listed as the back @-@ up center to Chad Lindsay after an injury to starter Ryan Kelly .
On the defensive side of the ball , reserve Nick Perry sustained a shoulder injury in practice prior to the Colorado State game that ended his season . On October 2 , Nick Saban announced the indefinite suspension of Ha Ha Clinton @-@ Dix , and indicated Landon Collins and Geno Smith would play more in Clinton @-@ Dix 's absence . Clinton @-@ Dix 's eligibility was reinstated by the NCAA on October 18 after he served a two @-@ game suspension for receiving an improper benefit .
The depth chart listed below shows starters and backups as announced in August 2013 .
= = = 2013 recruiting class = = =
Prior to National Signing Day on February 6 , 2013 , nine players enrolled for the spring semester in order to participate in spring practice ( six former high school seniors on scholarship , one former junior college player on scholarship , one walk @-@ on from professional baseball and one walk @-@ on from high school ) . The early enrollments from high school included quarterbacks Cooper Bateman and Parker McLeod , wide receiver Raheem Falkins , running back Derrick Henry , offensive lineman Brandon Hill and tight end O. J. Howard . Lineman Brandon Hill spent a post @-@ graduate high school year at Hargrave Military Academy , and does not have the option to take a redshirt year , but still has four years of playing eligibility . Offensive tackle Leon Brown enrolled at Alabama after he transferred from junior college and will be eligible to play in the 2013 season and for a maximum of two seasons . Four of the eight players who were early enrollees in 2012 saw playing time last season : Amari Cooper , Dillon Lee , T. J. Yeldon and Deion Blue .
Henry and Howard entered school as two of the top 100 recruits in the country . Henry was the No. 1 ranked " athlete " according to 247Sports Composite Rankings based on his potential to make an immediate impact at either running back or outside linebacker , but he has commented that he plans to compete at running back . Henry broke the national high school record for career yards , and in his 2012 high school season he averaged 328 yards per game .
In addition to those scholarship recruits that signed early , former professional baseball player Jai Miller and high school quarterback Luke Del Rio enrolled in order compete for roster spots as invited walk @-@ ons . Miller is a 28 @-@ year @-@ old who out of high school signed to play baseball and football at Stanford , but ended up playing professional baseball out of high school after being drafted by the Florida Marlins in 2003 . Based on the terms of his original contract , the Marlins will pay for Miller 's tuition at Alabama .
On National Signing Day , Alabama signed 18 additional players out of high school that completed the 2013 recruiting class . The class was highlighted by fourteen players from the " ESPN 150 " : No. 9 Derrick Henry ; No. 16 Reuben Foster ; No. 25 Robert Foster ; No. 26 Dee Liner ; No. 28 Jonathan Allen ; No. 32 Alvin Kamara ; No. 36 Tim Williams ; No. 44 Cooper Bateman ; No. 45 O. J. Howard ; No. 63 Tyren Jones ; No. 81 Altee Tenpenny ; No
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. 84 Maurice Smith ; No. 86 Grant Hill and No. 105 A 'Shawn Robinson . Alabama signed the No. 1 recruiting class according to Rivals.com and the No. 3 recruiting class according to Scout.com.
= = Schedule = =
The 2013 schedule was officially released on October 18 , 2012 . The 2013 schedule was developed as a " bridge " schedule for only the 2013 season as a permanent system was developed by the conference in spring 2013 . Alabama faced all six Western Division opponents : Arkansas , Auburn , LSU , Mississippi State , Ole Miss , and Texas A & M. They also faced two Eastern Division opponents : official SEC rival Tennessee and Kentucky . Alabama was not scheduled to play SEC opponents Georgia , Missouri , South Carolina , Florida or Vanderbilt . They also played four non @-@ conference games : Virginia Tech of the Atlantic Coast Conference , Colorado State of the Mountain West Conference , Georgia State of the Sun Belt Conference and Chattanooga of the Southern Conference . The Crimson Tide had two bye weeks : their first was before they faced Texas A & M , and their second before they faced LSU . On December 9 , Alabama was selected as an at @-@ large BCS selection to compete in the Sugar Bowl against Oklahoma of the Big 12 Conference .
Sources :
= = Game notes = =
= = = Virginia Tech = = =
On July 7 , 2011 , officials from both Alabama and Virginia Tech announced the Crimson Tide and the Hokies would meet to open the 2013 season in the Chick @-@ fil @-@ A Kickoff Game at Atlanta . In the game the offense struggled , but Christion Jones became the first Alabama player to score two non @-@ offensive touchdowns in a single game and led the Crimson Tide to a 35 – 10 victory at the Georgia Dome . After the Hokies were held to a three @-@ and @-@ out , Christion Jones gave Alabama a 7 – 0 lead with his first touchdown on a 72 @-@ yard punt return . The teams then traded a series of punts before T. J. Yeldon extended the Alabama lead to 14 – 0 with his two @-@ yard touchdown run that capped a 49 @-@ yard drive .
Virginia Tech responded on the possession that ensued with their only touchdown of the game on a 77 @-@ yard Trey Edmunds touchdown run that cut the lead to 14 – 7 . Early in the second quarter , Vinnie Sunseri intercepted a Logan Thomas pass and returned it 38 @-@ yards for a touchdown and a 21 – 7 lead . The teams then again traded punts before Kyle Fuller intercepted an AJ McCarron pass that set up an eventual 29 @-@ yard Cody Journell field goal . On the kickoff that ensued , Jones scored his second non @-@ offensive touchdown of the game on a 94 @-@ yard return that made the halftime score 28 – 10 .
Neither team scored again until late in third quarter when McCarron Connected with Jones on a 38 @-@ yard touchdown pass that made the final score 35 – 10 . For his three touchdown and 256 all @-@ purpose yardage performance , Jones was recognized as the Walter Camp National Player of the Week . The victory improved Alabama 's all @-@ time record against the Hokies to 12 – 1 .
= = = Texas A & M = = =
In the first conference game of the 2013 season , Alabama defeated the Texas A & M Aggies at College Station , 49 – 42 . Texas A & M opened the game with a pair of touchdowns on their first two offensive possessions and took a 14 – 0 lead . After they received the opening kickoff , the Aggies scored on their first possession when Johnny Manziel threw a one @-@ yard touchdown pass to Cameron Clear and on their second possession on a one @-@ yard Ben Malena touchdown run . Alabama responded with their first of five consecutive touchdowns on their next possession and cut the A & M lead to 14 – 7 when AJ McCarron threw a 22 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Kevin Norwood .
After the Crimson Tide defense held the Aggies to a punt , McCarron threw his second touchdown pass of the afternoon on the drive that ensued early in the second quarter on a 44 @-@ yard flea flicker pass to DeAndrew White that tied the game 14 – 14 . On the next drive , Cyrus Jones intercepted a Manziel pass in the end zone for a touchback and an Alabama possession . McCarron then threw his third touchdown pass on the game from 51 yards to Kenny Bell and gave the Crimson Tide their first lead of the game , 21 – 14 . Alabama then closed the first half with an 11 @-@ play , 93 @-@ yard drive capped with a four @-@ yard T. J. Yeldon touchdown run for a 28 – 14 halftime lead .
After the A & M defense forced a punt on the opening possession of the third quarter , Vinnie Sunseri intercepted the first Manziel pass of the second half and returned it 73 yards for a touchdown and extended the Alabama lead to 35 – 14 . The Aggies responded on the drive that followed with a 14 @-@ yard Manziel touchdown pass to Malcome Kennedy which was followed with a three @-@ yard Kenyan Drake touchdown run that made the score 42 – 21 in favor of the Crimson Tide at the end of the third quarter . In the fourth , the Aggies scored first on a 12 @-@ yard Kennedy touchdown reception , and Alabama looked like they were about to respond with a touchdown as well , but Yeldon fumbled at the two @-@ yard line that was recovered by A & M. Three plays later , Manziel threw a 95 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Mike Evans that cut the Crimson Tide lead to 42 – 35 . Alabama rebounded on their next drive that was capped with a five @-@ yard McCarron touchdown pass to Jalston Fowler that extended their lead to 49 – 35 . A four @-@ yard touchdown pass from Manziel to Kennedy in the last 0 : 20 made the final score 49 – 42 . Alabama recovered the ensuing onside kick to seal the win .
The 628 yards of total offense by A & M were the most ever surrendered by an Alabama defense in the history of the program . For his career @-@ high 334 yards on 20 of 29 passing and four touchdowns , McCarron was recognized as the SEC Offensive Player of the Week . The victory improved Alabama 's all @-@ time record against the Aggies to 4 – 2 .
= = = Colorado State = = =
On December 13 , 2012 , officials from both Alabama and Colorado State announced the Crimson Tide and the Rams would meet each other for the first time in the third game of the 2013 season . Although Alabama was a 40 @-@ point favorite as they entered the game , the Rams played the Crimson Tide close through the fourth quarter when a pair of late touchdowns gave Alabama a 31 – 6 victory . After both teams traded punts on their opening pair of possessions , Alabama took a 7 – 0 lead on a three @-@ yard Kenyan Drake touchdown run .
Drake was able to score the first touchdown as he was the starting running back in the game due to T. J. Yeldon being suspended for the first quarter by Nick Saban for his unsportsmanlike conduct penalty against A & M the week before . They extended their lead to 14 – 0 early in the second quarter when Drake blocked a Rams punt that was returned 15 @-@ yards by Dillon Lee for a touchdown , and then to 17 – 0 at halftime when Cade Foster connected on a 46 @-@ yard field goal late in the quarter .
After Bernard Blake intercepted an AJ McCarron pass on Alabama 's first possession of the second half , Jared Roberts kicked a 45 @-@ yard field goal on the drive that ensured that made the score 17 – 3 . Roberts then scored the Rams ' only other points on their next possession with his 31 @-@ yard field goal . Early in the fourth quarter , Trey DePriest both forced and recovered a Garrett Grayson fumble . On the next play , Alabama scored on a 30 @-@ yard McCarron touchdown pass to DeAndrew White for a 24 – 6 lead . The Crimson Tide then made the final score 31 – 6 with a 15 @-@ yard Blake Sims touchdown pass to Chris Black . In the game , the Rams were led by former Crimson Tide offensive coordinator Jim McElwain and received $ 1 @.@ 5 million to play the game at Bryant – Denny Stadium .
= = = Ole Miss = = =
In their first home conference game of the 2013 season , Alabama shutout the Ole Miss Rebels 25 – 0 at Tuscaloosa . After the Crimson Tide defense forced a punt on the Rebels ' first possession , AJ McCarron led the Alabama offense on an 11 play , 61 @-@ yard drive that ended with a 3 – 0 lead after a 28 @-@ yard Cade Foster field goal . Each team played strong defense for the remainder of the quarter with an Eddie Jackson interception of a Laquon Treadwell sideline pass for Alabama being the major play . Alabama then extended their lead in the second quarter to 9 – 0 at halftime after Foster connected on field goals of 53 and 42 @-@ yards .
On the second play of the third quarter , Alabama scored their first touchdown of the game . It came on a 68 @-@ yard T. J. Yeldon run and gave the Crimson Tide a 16 – 0 lead . Each team again traded punts before the Alabama defense stopped an Ole Miss scoring opportunity on a fourth @-@ and @-@ two play from their own seven @-@ yard line that kept the score 16 – 0 . In the fourth , Cody Mandell had a punt downed at the Rebels ' one @-@ yard line and on the next play , C. J. Mosley sacked Ole Miss quarterback Bo Wallace for a safety and an 18 – 0 lead . On the next offensive play for Alabama after they received the safety kick , Kenyan Drake scored on a 50 @-@ yard touchdown run that made the final score 25 – 0 . The shutout was the first for the Rebels since their loss against Arkansas in 1998 . The victory improved Alabama 's all @-@ time record against the Rebels to 47 – 9 – 2 ( 51 – 8 – 2 without NCAA vacations and forfeits ) .
= = = Georgia State = = =
In their fifth game of the 2013 season and their second home game , Alabama defeated the Georgia State Panthers 45 – 3 . AJ McCarron led a 71 @-@ yard drive capped off with an eight @-@ yard touchdown pass to Christion Jones for a 7 – 0 lead . On their first possession , Georgia State gained one first down but was quickly driven back by Alabama 's defense who forced a punt . Alabama 's next drive saw it lean more on the running game , and T. J. Yeldon scored on a four @-@ yard touchdown run for a 14 – 0 Crimson Tide lead . On the kickoff that ensued , Dee Hart forced a fumble that Crimson Tide linebacker Dillon Lee recovered and returned to the Panthers ' 10 @-@ yard line . On the next play , McCarron completed a touchdown pass to DeAndrew White that increased Alabama 's lead to 21 – 0 .
The Crimson Tide scored on its next two possessions as well , and McCarron completed touchdown passes to running backs Kenyan Drake and Jalston Fowler . With the lead at 35 – 0 late in the second quarter , Alabama played its reserves for much of the remainder of the game . After the Crimson Tide defense forced another punt from the Panthers , McCarron was replaced by backup quarterback Blake Sims . On his first possession at the helm of Alabama 's offense , Sims led the team to the Georgia State one @-@ yard line , but a pair of false starts forced Alabama to settle for a field goal that increased the lead to 38 – 0 at halftime .
Georgia State opened the second half with a drive to the Alabama 36 @-@ yard line to set up a school record 53 @-@ yard field goal by Wil Lutz . Alabama responded with a 68 @-@ yard march that ended in a touchdown pass from Blake Sims to Chris Black for a 45 – 3 lead . With the score at 45 – 3 , neither team scored again . After a Panthers punt , Alabama 's next drive ended with Crimson Tide backup kicker Adam Griffith missing a 30 @-@ yard field goal . Before his exit late in the second quarter , McCarron set the Alabama record for passing accuracy at 93 @.@ 75 % , going 15 – 16 and surpassed the previous record of 84 @.@ 2 % held by Ken Stabler . With the win , Alabama improved its all @-@ time record against Georgia State to 2 – 0 .
= = = Kentucky = = =
For the first time since 2009 , Alabama played Kentucky at Lexington , and in the game Alabama defeated the Wildcats 48 – 7 . Although the Crimson Tide defense opened the game strong and forced Kentucky to punt after they held the Wildcats to a series of three @-@ and @-@ outs on their initial possessions , the Alabama offense did not see the same on @-@ field success . After they were held to a punt on their first possession , fumbles by Kenyan Drake and T. J. Yeldon on the next two Crimson Tide possessions inside the Wildcats ' 15 @-@ yard line kept the game scoreless .
After a scoreless first quarter , Alabama took a 3 – 0 lead early in the second quarter on a 25 @-@ yard Cade Foster field goal . On their next possession , the Crimson Tide scored their first touchdown on a two @-@ play drive that saw a 42 @-@ yard Kevin Norwood reception and a one @-@ yard Drake touchdown run for a 10 – 0 lead . Alabama then extended their lead to 24 – 0 at halftime after touchdown runs of 24 @-@ yards from Yeldon and one @-@ yard from Drake on their final two possessions of the half .
On their first possession of the second half , the Crimson Tide extended their lead further to 31 – 0 after Yeldon scored on a three @-@ yard run that capped a drive that featured a 34 @-@ yard Yeldon run and 42 @-@ yard Amari Cooper reception . On the Kentucky possession that ensued , the Wildcats scored their only points of the game on a 30 @-@ yard Maxwell Smith touchdown pass to Javess Blue that made the score 31 – 7 . The touchdown was the first allowed by the Alabama defense since the Texas A & M game and ended a 14 @-@ quarter touchdown @-@ free streak for the Crimson Tide . A 20 @-@ yard Foster field goal then made the score 34 – 7 as they entered the fourth quarter .
In the fourth , the Crimson Tide scored touchdowns on both of their offensive possessions and made the final score 48 – 7 . The first came on a 20 @-@ yard AJ McCarron pass to Kevin Norwood and the second on a seven @-@ yard Altee Tenpenny run . Offensively , McCarron threw for 359 yards and Drake and Yeldon ran for 106 yards and 124 respectively . This marked the first time in team history that Alabama had a 300 @-@ yard passer and two 100 @-@ yard runners in a single game . For his performance , right guard Anthony Steen was recognized as SEC Offensive Linemen of the Week . The victory improved Alabama 's all @-@ time record against the Wildcats to 36 – 2 – 1 .
= = = Arkansas = = =
In what was the first Bret Bielema coached team to play against the Crimson Tide , Alabama shut out the Arkansas Razorbacks 52 – 0 at Bryant – Denny Stadium . Alabama took a 7 – 0 lead on their first possession with a four @-@ yard AJ McCarron touchdown pass to Jalston Fowler and extended it to 14 – 0 on their second with a one @-@ yard Kenyan Drake touchdown run . Later in the first , HaHa Clinton @-@ Dix intercepted a Brandon Allen pass in what was his return to the team after he served a two @-@ game suspension for a violation of NCAA rules .
After the Crimson Tide defense forced a punt on the first Razorback possession of the second quarter , Drake extended the Alabama lead to 21 – 0 with his 46 @-@ yard touchdown run . Arkansas responded on their next possession with their longest drive of the game . However , they were unable to score any points as Deion Belue blocked a 41 @-@ yard Zach Hocker field goal that preserved the shutout . On the next possession , Alabama closed the first half with a 30 @-@ yard McCarron touchdown pass to Amari Cooper that made the halftime score 28 – 0 .
On the opening kickoff of the second half , Derrick Henry forced a Keon Hatcher fumble that was recovered by Eddie Jackson for the Crimson Tide . Three plays later , Alabama led 35 – 0 after McCarron threw a 17 @-@ yard touchdown pass to O. J. Howard . On their next offensive drive , T. J. Yeldon scored on a 24 @-@ yard touchdown run that extended the Crimson Tide lead to 42 – 0 . The Alabama defense then had their second Allen interception of the evening on the Razorbacks possession that ensued with Cyrus Jones ' play at the 47 @-@ yard line . With the offensive reserves in the game , Blake Sims led the team to a 45 – 0 lead after Cade Foster connected on a 48 @-@ yard field goal . Henry then made the final score 52 – 0 in the final minute of play with his 80 @-@ yard touchdown run . The victory improved Alabama 's all @-@ time record against the Razorbacks 14 – 8 ( 17 – 7 without NCAA vacations and forfeits ) .
= = = Tennessee = = =
In their annual rivalry game , Alabama defeated the Tennessee Volunteers 45 – 10 at Tuscaloosa . The Crimson Tide took a 21 – 0 lead after they scored touchdowns on all three of their first quarter possessions . The first came on a 54 @-@ yard AJ McCarron pass to Amari Cooper , the second on a one @-@ yard T. J. Yeldon run and the third on a 22 @-@ yard McCarron pass to Kevin Norwood . After Alabama extended their lead to 28 – 0 early in the second quarter on Yeldon 's second one @-@ yard run of the game , the defense made their first turnover when Deion Belue intercepted a Justin Worley pass .
However , the Crimson Tide were unable to capitalize on the drive that ensued after Kenyan Drake fumbled the ball at the goal line and was recovered by the Vols ' Cameron Sutton . Looking to score before halftime , Tennessee drove from their one @-@ yard line to the Alabama 24 before Worley threw his second interception of the game . This time Landon Collins made the play at the 11 @-@ yard line and returned it 89 @-@ yards for a touchdown and a 35 – 0 halftime lead . Tennessee opened the second half with their first points on a 37 @-@ yard Michael Palardy field goal that made the score 35 – 3 . The Crimson Tide responded later in the third with Yeldon 's third one @-@ yard touchdown run of the game and extended their lead to 42 – 3 .
In the fourth , the Vols scored their only touchdown on a three @-@ yard Rajion Neal run and Adam Griffith then kicked his first field goal for the Crimson Tide and made the final score 45 – 10 . For his six tackle performance and long interception return , Collins was recognized as the SEC Defensive Player of the Week . The victory improved Alabama 's all @-@ time record against the Volunteers to 50 – 38 – 7 ( 51 – 37 – 8 without NCAA vacations and forfeits ) .
= = = LSU = = =
In their annual rivalry game , Alabama defeated the LSU Tigers at Tuscaloosa 38 – 17 . After LSU forced an Alabama punt on their first possession , they proceeded to drive 79 @-@ yards to the Crimson Tide three @-@ yard line . On the next play , Tana Patrick forced a J. C. Copeland fumble at the one @-@ yard line that prevented a Tigers ' score . The ball was recovered by Landon Collins and gave the Crimson Tide possession at their 10 @-@ yard line . After the LSU defense forced a second punt , their offense had their second turnover of the game when a Zach Mettenberger fumble was recovered by Trey DePriest at the Tigers ' 27 @-@ yard line . Four plays later , Alabama took a 3 – 0 lead on a 41 @-@ yard Cade Foster field goal .
On their next possession , LSU responded with their first touchdown and a 7 – 3 lead on a three @-@ yard Jeremy Hill run early in the second quarter . Alabama then retook a 10 – 7 lead on the next possession when O. J. Howard took a short slant pass from AJ McCarron 52 @-@ yards for a touchdown . After the Crimson Tide defense forced a punt , their offense extended their lead to 17 – 7 on a nine @-@ yard McCarron pass to Kevin Norwood . LSU then made the halftime score 17 – 14 after Mettenberger threw a six @-@ yard touchdown pass to Travin Dural .
After the Tigers ' tied the game 17 – 17 on a 41 @-@ yard Colby Delahoussaye field goal to open the second half , the Crimson Tide went on their first of three consecutive touchdown drives . Their first touchdown came on a four @-@ yard T. J. Yeldon run that capped a 14 play , 79 @-@ yard drive that included a successful fake punt . On their next possession , Yeldon scored on a one @-@ yard touchdown run that extended Alabama 's lead to 31 – 17 . Odell Beckham , Jr. then returned the kickoff that ensued 82 @-@ yards to the Crimson Tide 18 @-@ yard line . However , the offense was unable to capitalize on the good field position as the Alabama defense forced a turnover on downs . The Crimson Tide then drove 78 yards in eight plays , capping the drive with a three @-@ yard McCarron touchdown pass to Jalston Fowler that made the score 38 – 17 . The Alabama defense then closed the game with three consecutive sacks of Mettenberger , winning 38 – 17 . For his 12 tackle performance , C. J. Mosley was recognized as both the SEC Defensive Player of the Week and as the Lott IMPACT National Player of the Week . The victory improved Alabama 's all @-@ time record against the Tigers to 48 – 25 – 5 .
= = = Mississippi State = = =
In their annual rivalry game , Alabama defeated the Mississippi State Bulldogs 20 – 7 at Starkville despite having four turnovers . Alabama won the coin toss and elected to receive the ball to start the game . They then scored on a 33 @-@ yard Cade Foster field goal for an early 3 – 0 lead . Both teams then traded punts for their next six combined possessions before the Bulldogs missed a 23 @-@ yard field goal midway through the second quarter . On the Alabama drive that ensued , the Crimson Tide had their first of four turnovers on a Taveze Calhoun interception of an AJ McCarron pass . Alabama rebounded on their next possession with an 18 @-@ yard touchdown pass from McCarron to Brian Vogler that made the halftime score 10 – 0 .
After the Crimson Tide defense forced a State punt to open the third quarter , Kendrick Market forced a T. J. Yeldon fumble that was recovered by Beniquez Brown at the State 49 @-@ yard line . The Bulldogs scored on their drive that ensued after Charles Siddoway recovered a Tyler Russell fumble in the endzone that made the score 10 – 7 . Alabama responded on their next possession with an 11 @-@ yard McCarron touchdown pass to Kevin Norwood that extended their lead to 17 – 7 . After the State possession that followed , HaHa Clinton @-@ Dix intercepted a Tyler Russell pass . Foster then made the score 20 – 7 with his 35 @-@ yard field goal early in the fourth quarter . The Crimson Tide then had a difficult time closing the game as turnovers on consecutive possessions on a McCarron interception and a Kenyan Drake fumble . The victory improved Alabama 's all @-@ time record against the Bulldogs to 76 – 18 – 3 ( 78 – 17 – 3 without NCAA vacations and forfeits ) .
= = = Chattanooga = = =
In the final non @-@ conference game the 2013 season , Alabama shutout the Chattanooga Mocs of the Southern Conference 49 – 0 on senior day at Bryant – Denny Stadium . After the Alabama defense forced a Mocs three @-@ and @-@ out on the first possession of the game , Christion Jones fumbled the punt that ensued with Sema 'je Kendall for Chattanooga making the recovery at the Alabama 34 @-@ yard line . The Alabama defense once again held strong and Trey DePriest ended the possession with his interception at the 17 @-@ yard line on fourth down . The Crimson Tide offense then took the ball 83 @-@ yards on its first possession with Kenyan Drake making the score 7 – 0 on his 13 @-@ yard touchdown run .
Derrick Henry scored Alabama 's next touchdown early in the second quarter on a five @-@ yard run that extended their lead to 14 – 0 . On the next Chattanooga possession , Alabama again forced a punt , but this time Jones returned it 75 @-@ yards for a touchdown and a 21 – 0 lead . The Mocs responded with their best drive of the game ; however , A 'Shawn Robinson blocked a 48 @-@ yard Nick Pollard field goal attempt that kept Chattanooga scoreless . The Crimson Tide then closed the half with a 28 @-@ yard AJ McCarron touchdown pass to Kevin Norwood that made the halftime score 28 – 0 .
Alabama continued their scoring into the third quarter with touchdowns on their first two possessions of the half . The first came on a 38 @-@ yard McCarron pass to Amari Cooper on a drive that also saw McCarron complete a pass to his brother Corey McCarron . The second came on a 31 @-@ yard Chris Black run that made the score 42 – 0 . With the Crimson Tide significantly up , mostly back @-@ up players completed the fourth quarter . After a long drive stalled at the Mocs ' 23 @-@ yard line , Eddie Jackson returned a C. J. Board fumble caused by Jonathan Allen to the Chattanooga six @-@ yard line . On the next play , Dee Hart made the final score 49 – 0 with his six @-@ yard touchdown run . The victory improved Alabama 's all @-@ time record against the Mocs to 12 – 0 .
= = = Auburn = = =
In the final regular season game the 2013 season , Alabama lost 34 – 28 to the Auburn Tigers after Chris Davis returned a missed Adam Griffith field goal 109 @-@ yards for the game @-@ winning score with no time left on the clock in a game since dubbed " Kick Bama Kick " . Going into the game , Alabama had been ranked atop the polls all season , while Auburn was fourth in all major polls , making this the highest combined ranking ever in the Iron Bowl . With the victory , Auburn won the SEC West division title and prevented Alabama from potentially playing for their third consecutive national championship .
After Alabama failed to score on the first drive when Cade Foster missed a 44 @-@ yard field goal attempt , Auburn took a 7 – 0 lead on their second offensive possession on a 45 @-@ yard Nick Marshall touchdown run . The Crimson Tide responded early in the second and tied the game 7 – 7 on a three @-@ yard AJ McCarron touchdown pass to Jalston Fowler . Alabama 's Landon Collins both forced and recovered a Tre Mason fumble on the Tigers ' possession that ensued . Four plays later Alabama took a 14 – 7 lead on a 20 @-@ yard McCarron pass to Kevin Norwood . The Crimson Tide then went ahead 21 – 7 on a one @-@ yard T. J. Yeldon touchdown run , but Auburn responded with a late Mason touchdown run that made the halftime score 21 – 14 .
The Tigers tied the score 21 – 21 on their first possession of the third quarter when Marshall threw a 13 @-@ yard touchdown pass to C. J. Uzomah . Early in the fourth Foster missed a 33 @-@ yard field goal attempt , but on their next possession McCarron connected with Amari Cooper for a 99 @-@ yard touchdown reception and a 28 – 21 lead . Late in the game , Ryan Smith blocked a 44 @-@ yard Foster field goal attempt , and on the Auburn possession that ensued Marshall threw a 39 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Sammie Coates that tied the game 28 – 28 .
With seven seconds left in regulation and the score tied at 28 , Yeldon made a long run as time expired . The play was reviewed from the replay booth , and one second was put back on the clock after the referees determined Yeldon had stepped out of bounds just before time expired . Alabama then opted to attempt a game @-@ winning 57 @-@ yard field goal , but chose freshman kicker Adam Griffith over Foster due to Foster 's woes that day . Alabama failed its fourth field goal of the day with Griffith 's attempt falling short , but Auburn 's Chris Davis fielded it nine yards deep in his own end zone , and with no Crimson Tide skill players in his path ( the field goal unit was made up almost entirely of offensive linemen ) , sprinted for a 109 @-@ yard touchdown return and a 34 – 28 Auburn win . The loss brought Alabama 's all @-@ time record against the Tigers to 42 – 35 – 1 .
= = = Oklahoma = = =
On December 9 , Alabama was selected as an at @-@ large BCS participant to play in the Sugar Bowl against Oklahoma . Against the Sooners , the Crimson Tide were upset 45 – 31 against an upstart Oklahoma squad . Alabama opened the game with a four play , 75 @-@ yard touchdown drive that saw AJ McCarron complete a 53 @-@ yard pass to Amari Cooper and T. J. Yeldon score on a one @-@ yard run for a 7 – 0 lead . On the first Oklahoma possession of the game , Landon Collins intercepted a Trevor Knight pass that halted the Sooners ' drive . However , on the Alabama play that ensued , McCarron threw an interception to Gabe Lynn , and Oklahoma responded on their next play with a 45 @-@ yard Knight pass to Lacoltan Bester that tied the game 7 – 7 . Alabama retook a 10 – 7 lead on a 27 @-@ yard Cade Foster field goal , but the Sooners again responded and took a 14 – 10 lead at the end of the first quarter when Knight threw an eight @-@ yard touchdown pass to Jalen Saunders .
Early in the second quarter , McCarron threw a 67 @-@ yard touchdown pass to DeAndrew White for a 17 – 14 lead . However , this would be the last time the Crimson Tide led in the game as a pair of turnovers by the Crimson Tide later in the quarter directly resulted in a pair of Oklahoma touchdowns . After the Sooners tied the game with a 47 @-@ yard Michael Hunnicutt field goal , Geneo Grissom recovered a Yeldon fumble at their eight @-@ yard line and returned it to the 34 . Seven plays later Knight threw a 43 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Saunders for a 24 – 17 Oklahoma lead . On the next offensive series , McCarron threw his second interception of the game to Zack Sanchez who returned it to the Alabama 13 @-@ yard line . On the next play , Sterling Shepard extended the Sooners ' lead to 31 – 17 with his 13 @-@ yard touchdown run . The Crimson Tide was able to get into field goal range late , but Foster missed an attempt from 32 @-@ yards as time expired for the first half .
After the teams traded punts to open the second half , Derrick Henry made the score 31 – 24 with his 43 @-@ yard touchdown run for the only points scored in the third quarter . Oklahoma next scored on their opening possession of the fourth quarter on a nine @-@ yard Knight touchdown pass to Shepard that capped an eight @-@ play drive . Later in the quarter , Henry scored his second long touchdown of the game for Alabama on a 61 — yard reception from McCarron that cut the Oklahoma lead to 38 – 31 . However , the Sooners closed the game with a long drive that ran down the clock and in the final minute , an Eric Striker sack of McCarron caused a fumble that Grissom recovered and returned eight @-@ yards for a touchdown and made the final score 45 – 31 . The loss brought Alabama 's all @-@ time record against the Sooners 1 – 3 – 1 .
= = Rankings = =
As they entered the 2013 season , the Crimson Tide were ranked No. 1 in both the AP and Coaches ' Preseason Polls . As they were still undefeated at the time of the initial Bowl Championship Series ( BCS ) standings , the Crimson Tide were ranked first by the BCS on October 21 . Alabama remained in the No. 1 position through their final regular season game against Auburn . After their 34 – 28 loss against the Tigers , Alabama dropped to No. 4 in all of the standings . The Crimson Tide closed the regular season in the No. 3 position in all of the standings and failed to qualify for their third consecutive BCS National Championship Game . In the final poll of the season , Alabama dropped into the No. 7 position in the AP and No. 8 position in the Coaches ' Polls after their loss against Oklahoma in the Sugar Bowl .
= = After the season = =
= = = Final statistics = = =
After their loss to Oklahoma in the Sugar Bowl , Alabama 's final team statistics were released . Nationally , Cody Mandell led the nation with an average of 42 @.@ 43 net yards per punt . On the defensive side of the ball , of the 124 FBS teams , the Crimson Tide was ranked near the top of all major defensive categories both nationally and in conference . They ranked fourth nationally and first in conference scoring defense ( 13 @.@ 9 points per game ) , fifth nationally and first in conference in total defense ( 286 @.@ 50 yards per game ) , seventh nationally and first in conference in rushing defense ( 106 @.@ 2 yards per game ) and eleventh nationally and second in conference in passing defense ( 180 @.@ 3 yards per game ) . Individually , C. J. Mosley led the team with 108 total tackles , 61 of which were assisted , and 47 solo tackles . Mosley also led the team with 8 tackles for loss . A 'Shawn Robinson led the team with 5 @.@ 5 quarterback sacks . Ha Ha Clinton @-@ Dix , Landon Collins , Cyrus Jones and Vinnie Sunseri tied for the team lead in interception with each having made two .
On offense , of the 124 FBS teams , Alabama ranked 17th nationally and fourth in conference in scoring offense ( 38 @.@ 2 points per game ) , 24th nationally and fourth in conference in rushing offense ( 205 @.@ 6 yards per game ) , 33rd nationally and sixth in conference in total offense ( 454 @.@ 1 yards per game ) and 49th nationally and seventh in conference in passing offense ( 248 @.@ 5 yards per game ) . AJ McCarron led the team in passing offense and completed 226 of 336 passes for 3 @,@ 063 passing yards and 28 touchdowns . Amari Cooper led the team with 45 receptions for 736 yards and Kevin Norwood led the team with seven touchdown receptions . T. J. Yeldon led the team with 207 rushing attempts for 1 @,@ 279 yards and 14 touchdown runs . Kenyan Drake was second on the team with 92 rushing attempts for 694 yards and 8 touchdown runs .
= = = Awards = = =
After the SEC Championship Game , multiple Alabama players were recognized for their on @-@ field performances with a variety of awards and recognitions . At the team awards banquet on December 8 , AJ McCarron C. J. Mosley and Kevin Norwood were each named the permanent captains of the 2013 squad . At that time Mosley was also named the 2013 most valuable player with Mosley and HaHa Clinton @-@ Dix named defensive players of the year and AJ McCarron and T. J. Yeldon named offensive players of the year .
= = = = Conference = = = =
The SEC recognized several players for their individual performances with various awards . On December 11 , C. J. Mosley was named SEC co @-@ Defensive Player of the year with Michael Sam of Missouri , and Christion Jones was named SEC Special Teams Player of the Year . On December 9 , Cyrus Kouandjio , Cody Mandell , Mosley and Anthony Steen were named to the AP All @-@ SEC First Team . HaHa Clinton @-@ Dix , Landon Collins , Christion Jones , Trey DePriest and T. J. Yeldon were named to the AP All @-@ SEC Second Team ; Brandon Ivory , AJ McCarron and Vinnie Sunseri were named to the AP All @-@ SEC Honorable Mention Team . Clinton @-@ Dix , Jones , Kouandjio , Mosley and Yeldon were named to the Coaches ' All @-@ SEC First Team . Mandell , McCarron , Steen and Ed Stinson were named to the Coaches ' All @-@ SEC Second Team . A 'Shawn Robinson was named to the SEC All @-@ Freshman Team .
= = = = National = = = =
After the season , a number of Alabama players both won and were named as national award winners and finalists . Finalists for major awards from the Crimson Tide included : C. J. Mosley for the Bronko Nagurski Trophy , Chuck Bednarik Award and the Lombardi Award and AJ McCarron for the Davey O 'Brien Award . Mosley won the Butkus Award as the top collegiate linebacker and McCarron won both the Maxwell Award as the overall player of the year and the Johnny Unitas Golden Arm Award as the top senior quarterback . McCarron also finished second behind Jameis Winston in voting for the Heisman Trophy .
For their individual performances during the regular season , several players were named to various national All @-@ American Teams . Cyrus Kouandjio , AJ McCarron and C. J. Mosley were named to the Walter Camp All @-@ America First Team ( WC ) . HaHa Clinton @-@ Dix and Mosley were named to the Sporting News ( TSN ) All @-@ America Team . Kouandjio and Mosley were named to the Associated Press All @-@ American First Team ; Clinton @-@ Dix and McCarron were named to the Associated Press All @-@ American Second Team . Clinton @-@ Dix , Kouandjio and Mosley were named to the Football Writers Association of America ( FWAA ) All @-@ America Team .
The NCAA recognizes five All @-@ America lists in the determination of both consensus and unanimous All @-@ America selections : the AP , AFCA , the FWAA , TSN and the WC . In order for an honoree to earn a consensus selection , he must be selected as first team in three of the five lists recognized by the NCAA , and unanimous selections must be selected as first team in all five lists . As such , for the 2013 season Mosley was a unanimous selection and Clinton @-@ Dix and Kouandjio were consensus selections .
= = = = All @-@ star games = = = =
Several Alabama players were selected by postseason all @-@ star games . Kenny Bell and John Fulton were selected to play in the College All @-@ Star Bowl . Cody Mandell , C. J. Mosley , Kevin Norwood and Ed Stinson all accepted invitations to play in the Senior Bowl . Adrian Hubbard was also invited to compete in the game as fourth @-@ year junior and became only the third non @-@ senior to participate in the Senior Bowl . Invitations were also extended to Deion Belue and AJ McCarron to participate in the game . Alabama did not have players participate in the East – West Shrine Game or the NFLPA Collegiate Bowl .
= = = Coaching changes = = =
In the weeks that followed the conclusion of the season , several changes were made to the Alabama coaching staff . On January 9 offensive coordinator Doug Nussmeier was officially hired in the same capacity at Michigan as the replacement for Al Borges . On January 10 , former Oakland Raiders , Tennessee and USC head coach Lane Kiffin was hired as the replacement for Nussmeier as both offensive coordinator and quarterbacks coach . On January 11 , it was announced defensive line coach Chris Rumph had resigned and took the same position on the Texas staff . On January 13 USC defensive line coach Bo Davis was hired as Rumph 's replacement . Davis previously coached defensive line at Alabama from 2007 to 2010 and had also served under Saban at LSU and with the Miami Dolphins . On February 12 , Greg Brown resigned to become the safeties coach at Louisville . Two days later , Kevin Steele was promoted from Alabama 's director of player personnel to inside linebackers coach . Steele previously served as a defensive assistant for Saban at Alabama in 2007 and 2008 .
= = = NFL Draft = = =
Of all the draft @-@ eligible juniors , Ha Ha Clinton @-@ Dix , Adrian Hubbard , Cyrus Kouandjio , Jeoffrey Pagan and Vinnie Sunseri declared their eligibility for the 2014 NFL Draft . At the time of their announcement , Clinton @-@ Dix and Kouandjio were projected to be first @-@ round picks and both Hubbard and Pagan were projected to be no lower than third @-@ round picks . With their departures it marked the first time during the Saban era that more than three juniors declared early for the NFL Draft . In February 2014 , twelve Alabama players , seven seniors and five juniors , were invited to the NFL Scouting Combine . The invited players were offensive linemen Cyrus Kouandjio and Anthony Steen , safeties Ha Ha Clinton @-@ Dix and Vinnie Sunseri , linebackers Adrian Hubbard and C. J. Mosley , defensive ends Jeoffrey Pagan and Ed Stinson , quarterback AJ McCarron , wide receiver Kevin Norwood , cornerback Deion Belue and punter Cody Mandell .
In the first round , two Crimson Tide players were selected : Mosley ( 17th Baltimore Ravens ) and Clinton @-@ Dix ( 21st Green Bay Packers ) . Kouandjio was selected in the second round ( 44th Buffalo Bills ) ; Norwood ( 123rd Seattle Seahawks ) was selected in the fourth round ; Stinson ( 160th Arizona Cardinals ) , McCarron ( 164th Cincinnati Bengals ) and Sunseri ( 167th New Orleans Saints ) were selected in the fifth round ; and Pagan ( 177th Houston Texans ) was selected in the sixth round . In the days after the draft , several players from the 2013 squad that were not drafted signed as undrafted free agents . These players included Hubbard ( Green Bay Packers ) , Steen ( Arizona Cardinals ) , Mandell ( Dallas Cowboys ) , John Fulton ( Philadelphia Eagles ) , Tana Patrick ( Chicago Bears ) and Belue ( Miami Dolphins ) .
= Pennsylvania Route 112 =
Pennsylvania Route 112 was a 4 @.@ 75 @-@ mile ( 7 @.@ 64 km ) long state highway located in Delaware and Chester counties in Pennsylvania . Running along current day Cheyney Road , PA 112 began at an intersection with U.S. Route 1 in Markham , headed northward , and terminated at an intersection with Pennsylvania Route 926 in the community of Tanguy .
PA 112 was assigned in the commonwealth 's numbering of state highways in 1928 . The route remained intact for thirteen years , when , in 1941 , the highway was extended southward to U.S. Route 322 south of Markham . The route remained for another five years , when the route was removed from the state highway system completely . The road south of Creek Road in Chester County is still state @-@ maintained as SR 4015 .
= = Route description = =
Pennsylvania Route 112 began at an intersection with U.S. Route 322 ( now an intersection with Concord Road ) in the community of Markham . The route progressed northward as Cheyney Road , intersecting with several local roads before passing the Newlin Grist Mill Park near the intersection with U.S. Route 1 ( the Baltimore Pike ) . After that intersection , PA 112 turned to the northeast , passing through Markham before leaving the community .
PA 112 went through the community of Thornton , intersecting with Glen Mills Road . At an intersection with Thornton Road , the route crossed into Chester County , but left quickly for Delaware County again . North of the community of Cheyney , Route 112 crossed the county line , passing the Cheyney University of Pennsylvania before the terminus at an intersection with Pennsylvania Route 926 in the Chester County community of Tanguy .
= = History = =
Route 112 was first assigned in the 1928 state numbering of state highways in Pennsylvania . The route , when originally assigned , did start in Markham , but at an intersection with U.S. Route 1 . The route 's northern terminus remained the same in the route 's entire lifetime . In 1941 , the southern terminus was adjusted from the intersection with U.S. Route 1 ( the Baltimore Pike ) to an intersection with U.S. Route 322 near Markham . Although they made the adjustment , PA 112 ended up becoming one of the many routes decommissioned in 1946 , when the commonwealth of Pennsylvania removed several hundred miles from their system . The designation has not been re @-@ used since the 1946 removal .
= = Major intersections = =
= Roger Crozier =
Roger Allan Crozier ( March 16 , 1942 – January 11 , 1996 ) was a Canadian professional hockey goaltender who played fourteen seasons in the National Hockey League ( NHL ) for the Detroit Red Wings , Buffalo Sabres and Washington Capitals . During his career , Crozier was named to the NHL First All @-@ Star Team once , was a Calder Memorial Trophy winner , and was the first player to win the Conn Smythe Trophy while playing for the losing team in the Stanley Cup Finals . Also , Crozier is the last goaltender in the NHL to start all of his team 's games during the regular season , doing so in 1964 – 65 .
From his junior days with the St. Catharines Teepees of the Junior Ontario Hockey Association until his death , Crozier had recurring pancreatitis that plagued his health . Despite his health issues , Crozier helped his junior team win the Memorial Cup in 1959 – 60 , played in over 500 NHL regular season games and participated in two Stanley Cup Finals ( 1965 – 66 and in 1974 – 75 ) . His health problems eventually led to his retirement in 1976 – 77 and he joined the Capitals ' front office shortly after . Crozier left the Capitals organization in 1983 to work for MBNA bank . In 2000 , MBNA unveiled a new trophy called the Roger Crozier Saving Grace Award which was awarded annually to the goaltender who records the best save percentage during the regular season in the NHL . The trophy was awarded from 1999 – 2000 to 2006 – 07 . The Buffalo Sports Hall of Fame posthumously inducted Crozier in 2009 .
= = Background = =
Crozier was born and raised in the town of Bracebridge , Ontario . His mother was Mildred " Austin " Crozier and his father was Lloyd Crozier . He was one of 14 children . At the age of six , Crozier first started playing the position of goaltender , a position that he would grow to " like " . Identified as a " special goaltending talent " by his town 's senior hockey team , the Bracebridge Bears , he was recruited to be their starting goaltender at the age of 14 . In 1958 – 59 , Crozier helped the Bears become District Champions in the Intermediate C playoffs .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Early career = = =
Crozier spent his junior career with the St. Catharines Teepees of the Junior Ontario Hockey Association ( OHA @-@ Jr . ) from 1959 to 1962 . At the time , the Teepees were owned by the Chicago Black Hawks thanks to the National Hockey League ( NHL ) sponsorship system . The sponsorship system gave the Black Hawks the rights to all of the Teepees ' players . In 1959 – 60 , Crozier helped his team win the Memorial Cup . During his tenure with the Teepees , Crozier developed his first ulcer , a problem that would constantly plague him for the rest of his career .
During the 1960 – 61 season , Crozier spent the majority of his time in the OHA @-@ Jr . Due to his small frame and size , Crozier was not a favourite with either scouts or critics . Despite this , the Buffalo Bisons of the American Hockey League ( AHL ) recruited Crozier to fill in for their injured starting goaltender , Denis DeJordy that same season . Appearing in three games , Crozier recorded two wins and a 2 @.@ 31 goals against average ( GAA ) . Crozier returned as the starting goaltender for the Teepees for the 1961 – 62 season . He also had short stints with the Sault Ste . Marie Thunderbirds of the Eastern Professional Hockey League ( EPHL ) , and the Bisons .
While playing in the minors , Crozier adopted the butterfly style of goaltending , which he would later use during his NHL career . This technique was popularized by Glenn Hall and was improved upon by Crozier . Initially , his minor league coaches tried to convince him to abandon this style , thinking that it would never succeed in the NHL . Crozier also added an element of acrobacy in his game .
= = = Detroit Red Wings ( 1963 – 70 ) = = =
The Black Hawks traded Crozier to the Detroit Red Wings in 1963 . The young goaltender , turned full @-@ time professional , spent the season in the minors with the St. Louis Braves in the EPHL and the Buffalo Bisons in the AHL . The majority of his time though was spent in St. Louis as he played 70 games for them . In 1963 – 64 , he played 44 games with the Pittsburgh Hornets , Detroit 's AHL affiliate . At the end of the season , Crozier earned numerous accolades , which included the Hap Holmes Memorial Award ( fewest goals against ) , the Dudley " Red " Garrett Memorial Award ( top rookie ) and a spot on the league 's Second All @-@ Star Team . Crozier also made his NHL debut that same season . The Red Wings starting goaltender , Terry Sawchuk , was injured and Crozier was called up as a temporary replacement . Although Crozier played in only 15 games , he impressed management enough that they decided he was going to be their next starting goaltender . This led to Sawchuk being left unprotected by the Red Wings during the intraleague waiver draft in the off @-@ season , and he was subsequently picked up by the Toronto Maple Leafs . This made Crozier the Red Wings ' starting goaltender at the age of 22 .
During his rookie season , Crozier started all of his team 's games , the last goalie to do so in the NHL . He also led the league in both wins and shutouts with 40 and 6 respectively . His 2 @.@ 42 GAA was the second lowest in the league . At the end of the season , Crozier was awarded the Calder Memorial Trophy as the NHL 's top rookie and he was also named to the NHL First All @-@ Star Team . During his sophomore season , Crozier missed the team 's first couple of games due to pancreatitis . He would return and play the team 's remaining 64 games , posting 27 wins and leading the league with seven shutouts . The Red Wings were also able to clinch a spot in the playoffs . Benefiting from Crozier 's strong play in the playoffs , the Red Wings advanced to the Stanley Cup Finals . After eliminating the Black Hawks in the semi @-@ finals , the Red Wings squared off against the Montreal Canadiens in the 1966 Stanley Cup Finals . The Red Wings won the first two games , but the Canadiens came back and won the next two . During the game four loss , Crozier suffered a leg injury . Although Crozier returned for game five , the injury limited his mobility . In the end , the Canadiens won the Stanley Cup in game six . Even though the Red Wings lost the Stanley Cup , Crozier was awarded the Conn Smythe Trophy , which is awarded to the most valuable player in the playoffs . He became the first goaltender to win the award and also the first player to win it in a losing effort .
Due to pancreatitis , Crozier played only 58 out of 70 games for the Red Wings in 1966 – 67 . His numbers were down as he won only 22 games and recorded a 3 @.@ 35 GAA . The Red Wings missed the playoffs . After another bout of pancreatitis at the beginning of the 1967 – 68 season , Crozier announced his retirement due to stress and depression . His announcement was short @-@ lived as after six weeks , he returned to hockey . Before re @-@ joining the Red Wings , Crozier played five games with the Fort Worth Wings of the Central Professional Hockey League ( CPHL ) as conditioning . Crozier spent two more seasons on a mediocre Red Wings team before being traded to the newly formed Buffalo Sabres in 1970 .
= = = Buffalo Sabres ( 1970 – 77 ) & Washington Capitals ( 1977 ) = = =
In the 1970 NHL Expansion Draft , Sabres General Manager Punch Imlach drafted Tom Webster from the Boston Bruins and promptly dealt him to the Red Wings for Crozier . Crozier started the Sabres ' first NHL game on October 10 , 1970 against the Pittsburgh Penguins . He stopped 35 of 36 shots to earn the franchise 's first victory , 2 – 1 . On December 6 , 1970 , Crozier earned the franchise 's first shutout in a 1 – 0 win over the Minnesota North Stars . By late December however , Crozier was deeply exhausted and the majority of the Sabres ' goaltending duties were transferred to goalies Joe Daley and Dave Dryden . Crozier finished the season with a 9 – 20 – 7 record ( win @-@ loss @-@ tie ) and a 3 @.@ 68 GAA . The Sabres also missed the playoffs , finishing fifth in the East Division . Adding to Crozier 's continuing health problems , his gallbladder was removed during the off @-@ season .
The 1971 – 72 season was even worse for the Sabres as they finished with the least wins in the league with 16 . Crozier posted a 13 – 34 – 14 record and a 3 @.@ 51 GAA . He faced 2 @,@ 190 shots during the season . This remains as the franchise record for most shots faced by a goalie in a single season . The Sabres improved the next season and they were able to make the playoffs for the first time in franchise history . Playing 49 games , Crozier had his first winning record with the Sabres and he posted a much improved 2 @.@ 76 GAA . In the first round , the Sabres were matched up against the Canadiens . Crozier played four games and won two , but his team was ultimately dispatched in six games .
Facing continuing problems with pancreatitis and the new additions of ulcers and gallbladder problems , Crozier saw his playing time greatly reduced . In 1974 – 75 , Crozier posted 17 wins and two losses , helping the Sabres rank first in the Adams Division . During the playoffs , Crozier played five games including two in the Stanley Cup Finals . After eliminating the Black Hawks and the Canadiens , the Sabres earned a matchup with the Philadelphia Flyers in the Stanley Cup Finals . Game three of the Finals in Buffalo was known as the " Fog Game " . A heat wave in May hit the arena and with no air conditioning inside , the temperature increased . Fog started to develop and soon visibility decreased . Gerry Desjardins was the starting goaltender but after allowing three goals in the first period , he was replaced by Crozier . Crozier allowed one goal during the rest of the game , helping his team win 5 – 4 in overtime . The series went to a game six with the Sabres trailing the series 3 – 2 . Crozier was selected to start and he denied the Flyers of any scoring after two periods . The third period saw the Flyers score the only goals of the game . For the second time , Crozier was denied a Stanley Cup championship .
In 1975 – 76 , Crozier participated in only 11 games due to his persisting ailments , leaving the starting job to Gerry Desjardins . Due to his continuous illness , the Sabres traded him to the Washington Capitals in exchange for cash on March 3 , 1977 . He played only three games with the Capitals before retiring after 14 seasons in the NHL .
= = Post @-@ career = =
After retiring , Crozier served in the Capitals ' front office . He eventually became interim general manager during the 1981 – 82 season after Max McNab was relieved of his duties . Crozier was also the head coach of the Capitals for one game during the season . Under his watch , the Capitals picked future hall @-@ of @-@ famer defenceman Scott Stevens during the 1982 NHL Entry Draft . Crozier left the Capitals organization in 1983 , and moved to Wilmington , Delaware , to work at MBNA Bank . Working through the ranks , he rose to the level of executive vice president and facilities manager of Worldwide Facilities and Construction .
Roger Crozier died after a battle with cancer on January 11 , 1996 , at the age of 53 . He was survived by his wife Janice , and his two daughters , Katie and Brooke . In 2000 , the NHL unveiled the Roger Crozier Saving Grace Award , which was given annually to the goaltender who posted the best save percentage in each season from 1999 – 2000 to 2006 – 07 . The award was co @-@ sponsored by Crozier 's last employer , MBNA . In 2009 , he was posthumously inducted into the Buffalo Sports Hall of Fame .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season = = =
= = = Playoffs = = =
= = Awards = =
= Arroyo Seco Parkway =
The Arroyo Seco Parkway , formerly known as the Pasadena Freeway , is the first freeway in the Western United States . It connects Los Angeles with Pasadena alongside the Arroyo Seco seasonal river . It is notable not only for being the first , mostly opened in 1940 , but for representing the transitional phase between early parkways and modern freeways . It conformed to modern standards when it was built , but is now regarded as a narrow , outdated roadway . A 1953 extension brought the south end to the Four Level Interchange in downtown Los Angeles and a connection with the rest of the freeway system .
The road remains largely as it was on opening day , though the plants in its median have given way to a steel guard rail , and most recently to concrete barriers , and it now carries the designation State Route 110 , not historic U.S. Route 66 . Between 1954 and 2010 , it was officially designated the Pasadena Freeway . In 2010 , as part of plans to revitalize its scenic value and improve safety , the California Department of Transportation ( Caltrans ) restored the original name to the roadway . All the bridges built during parkway construction remain , as do four older bridges that crossed the Arroyo Seco before the 1930s . The Arroyo Seco Parkway is designated a State Scenic Highway , National Civil Engineering Landmark , and National Scenic Byway . It was listed in the National Register of Historic Places in 2011 .
= = Route description = =
The six @-@ lane Arroyo Seco Parkway ( part of State Route 110 ) begins at the Four Level Interchange , a symmetrical stack interchange on the north side of downtown Los Angeles that connects the Pasadena ( SR 110 north ) , Harbor ( SR 110 south ) , Hollywood ( US 101 north ) , and Santa Ana ( US 101 south ) Freeways . The first interchange is with the north end of Figueroa Street at Alpine Street , and the freeway then meets the north end of Hill Street at a complicated junction that provides access to Dodger Stadium . Beyond Hill Street , SR 110 temporarily widens to four northbound and five southbound lanes as it enters the hilly Elysian Park , where the northbound lanes pass through the four Figueroa Street Tunnels and the higher southbound lanes pass through a cut and over low areas on bridges . One interchange , with Solano Avenue and Amador Street , is located between the first and second tunnels . Just beyond the last tunnel is a northbound left exit and corresponding southbound right entrance for Riverside Drive and the northbound Golden State Freeway ( I @-@ 5 ) . Immediately after those ramps , the Arroyo Seco Parkway crosses a pair of three @-@ lane bridges over the Los Angeles River just northwest of its confluence with the Arroyo Seco , one rail line on each bank , and Avenue 19 and San Fernando Road on the north bank . A single onramp from San Fernando Road joins SR 110 northbound as it passes under I @-@ 5 , and a northbound left exit and southbound right entrance connect to the north segment of Figueroa Street . Here the original 1940 freeway , mostly built along the west bank of the Arroyo Seco , begins as the southbound lanes curve from their 1943 alignment over the Los Angeles River into the original alignment next to the northbound lanes .
As the original freeway begins , it passes under an extension to the 1925 Avenue 26 Bridge , one of four bridges over the Arroyo Seco that predate the parkway 's construction . A southbound exit and northbound entrance at Avenue 26 complement the Figueroa Street ramps , and similar ramps connect Pasadena to both directions of I @-@ 5 . SR 110 continues northeast alongside the Arroyo Seco , passing under the Gold Line light rail and Pasadena Avenue before junctioning Avenue 43 at the first of many folded diamond interchanges that feature extremely tight ( right @-@ in / right @-@ out ) curves on the exit and entrance ramps . The next interchange , at Avenue 52 , is a normal diamond interchange , and soon after is Via Marisol , where the northbound side has standard diamond ramps , but on the southbound side Avenue 57 acts as a folded diamond connection . The 1926 Avenue 60 Bridge is the second original bridge , and is another folded diamond , with southbound traffic using Shults Street to connect . The 1895 Santa Fe Arroyo Seco Railroad Bridge ( now Gold Line ) lies just beyond , and after that is a half diamond interchange at Marmion Way / Avenue 64 with access towards Los Angeles only . After the freeway passes under the 1912 York Boulevard Bridge , the pre @-@ parkway bridge , southbound connections between the freeway and cross street can be made via Salonica Street . As the Arroyo Seco curves north to pass west of downtown Pasadena , the Arroyo Seco Parkway instead curves east , crossing the stream into South Pasadena . A single northbound offramp on the Los Angeles side of the bridge curves left under the bridge to Bridewell Street , the parkway 's west @-@ side frontage road .
As they enter South Pasadena , northbound motorists can see a " City of South Pasadena " sign constructed , in the late 1930s , of stones from the creek bed embedded in a hillside . This final segment of the Arroyo Seco Parkway heads east in a cut alongside Grevelia Street , with a full diamond at Orange Grove Avenue and a half diamond at Fair Oaks Avenue . In between those two streets it crosses under the Gold Line for the third and final time . Beyond Fair Oaks Avenue , SR 110 curves north around the east side of Raymond Hill and enters Pasadena , where the final ramp , a southbound exit , connects to State Street for access to Fair Oaks Avenue . The freeway , and state maintenance , ends at the intersection with Glenarm Street , but the six- and four @-@ lane Arroyo Parkway , now maintained by the city of Pasadena , continues north as a surface road to Colorado Boulevard ( historic U.S. Route 66 ) and beyond to Holly Street near the Memorial Park Gold Line station .
= = History = =
= = = Planning = = =
The Arroyo Seco ( Spanish : " dry gulch , or streambed " ) is an intermittent stream that carries rainfall from the San Gabriel Mountains southerly through western Pasadena into the Los Angeles River near downtown Los Angeles . During the dry season , it served as a faster wagon connection between the two cities than the all @-@ weather road on the present Huntington Drive .
The first known survey for a permanent roadway through the Arroyo was made by T.D. Allen of Pasadena in 1895 , and in 1897 two more proposals were made , one for a scenic parkway and the other for a commuter cycleway . The latter was partially constructed and opened by Horace Dobbins , who incorporated the California Cycleway Company and bought a six @-@ mile ( 10 km ) right @-@ of @-@ way from downtown Pasadena to Avenue 54 in Highland Park , Los Angeles . Construction began in 1899 , and about 1 1 ⁄ 4 miles ( 2 @.@ 0 km ) of the elevated wooden bikeway were opened on January 1 , 1900 , starting near Pasadena 's Hotel Green and ending near the Raymond Hotel . The majority of its route is now Edmondson Alley ; a toll booth was located near the north end , in the present Central Park . Due to the end of the bicycle craze of the 1890s and the existing Pacific Electric Railway lines connecting Pasadena to Los Angeles , the cycleway did not and was not expected to turn a profit , and never extended beyond the Raymond Hotel into the Arroyo Seco . In the 1900s ( decade ) , the structure was dismantled , and the wood sold for lumber , and the Pasadena Rapid Transit Company , a failed venture headed by Dobbins to construct a streetcar line , acquired the right @-@ of @-@ way .
Due to the rise of the automobile , most subsequent plans for the Arroyo Seco included a roadway , though they differed as to the purpose : some , influenced by the City Beautiful movement , concentrated on the park , while others , particularly those backed by the Automobile Club of Southern California ( ACSC ) , had as their primary purpose a fast road connecting the two cities . The first plan that left the Arroyo Seco in South Pasadena to better serve downtown Pasadena was drawn up by Pasadena City Engineer Harvey W. Hincks in 1916 and supported by the Pasadena Chamber of Commerce and ACSC . Frederick Law Olmsted , Jr. and Harland Bartholomew 's 1924 Major Street Traffic Plan for Los Angeles , while concentrating on traffic relief , and noting that the Arroyo Seco Parkway would be a major highway , suggested that it be built as a parkway , giving motorists " a great deal of incidental recreation and pleasure " . By the mid @-@ 1930s , plans for a primarily recreational parkway had been overshadowed by the need to carry large numbers of commuters .
Debates continued on the exact location of the parkway , in particular whether it would bypass downtown Pasadena . In the late 1920s , Los Angeles acquired properties between San Fernando Road and Pasadena Avenue , and City Engineer Lloyd Aldrich began grading between Avenues 60 and 66 in the early 1930s . By June 1932 , residents of Highland Park and Garvanza , who had paid special assessments to finance improvement of the park , became suspicious of what appeared to be a road , then graded along the Arroyo Seco 's west side between Via Marisol ( then Hermon Avenue ) and Princess Drive . Merchants on North Figueroa Street ( then Pasadena Avenue ) also objected , due to the loss of business they would suffer from a bypass . Work stopped while the interested parties could work out the details , although , in late 1932 and early 1933 , Aldrich was authorized to grade a cheaper route along the east side between Avenue 35 and Hermon Avenue . To the north , Pasadena and South Pasadena endorsed in 1934 what was essentially Hincks 's 1916 plan , but lacked the money to build it . A bill was introduced in 1935 to add the route to the state highway system , and after some debate a new Route 205 was created as a swap for the Palmdale @-@ Wrightwood Route 186 , as the legislature had just greatly expanded the system in 1933 , and the California Highway Commission opposed a further increase .
= = = Construction = = =
To connect the proposed parkway with downtown Los Angeles , that city improved and extended North Figueroa Street as a four @-@ lane road to the Los Angeles River , allowing drivers to bypass the congested North Broadway Bridge on the existing but underutilized Riverside Drive Bridge . A large part of the project lay within Elysian Park , and four Art Deco tunnels were built through the hills . The first three , between Solano Avenue and the river , opened in late 1931 , and the fourth opened in mid @-@ 1936 , completing the extension of Figueroa Street to Riverside Drive . As with the contemporary Ramona Boulevard east from downtown , grade separations were mostly built only where terrain dictated . For Figueroa Street , this meant that all crossings except College Street ( built several years after the extension was completed ) , where a hill was cut through , were at grade . The Figueroa Street Viaduct , connecting the Riverside Drive intersection with North Figueroa Street ( then Dayton Avenue ) across the Los Angeles River , opened in mid @-@ 1937 . Closer to downtown , an interchange was built at Temple Street in 1939 .
Although many South Pasadena residents opposed the division of the city that the parkway would bring , the city 's voters elected supporters in the 1936 elections . The state , which had the power to put the road where it wished even had South Pasadena continued to oppose it , approved the route on April 4 , 1936 . The route used the Arroyo Seco 's west bank to near Hough Street , where it crossed to the east and cut through South Pasadena to the south end of Broadway ( now Arroyo Parkway ) in Pasadena . Another project , the Arroyo Seco Flood Control Channel , was built by the Works Progress Administration before and during construction of the parkway to avoid damages from future floods . A number of state engineers toured East Coast roads in early 1938 , including Chicago 's Lake Shore Drive , full and modified cloverleaf interchanges in Massachusetts and New Jersey , and Robert Moses 's parkway system in New York City . The parkway was the first road built in California under a 1939 freeway law that allowed access to be completely limited to a number of specified points . Although , in some areas , it was possible to use a standard diamond interchange , other locations required folded diamonds , or , as the engineers called them , " compressed cloverleafs " , where local streets often took the place of dedicated ramps , ending at the parkway with a sharp right turn required to enter or exit . The highway was designed with two 11 – 12 foot ( 3 @.@ 4 @-@ 3 @.@ 7 m ) lanes and one ten @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) shoulder in each direction , with the wider inside ( passing ) lanes paved in black asphalt concrete and the outside lanes paved in gray Portland cement concrete . The differently @-@ colored lanes would encourage drivers to stay in their lanes . ( By mid @-@ 1939 , the state had decided to replace the shoulders with additional travel lanes for increased capacity ; except on a short piece in South Pasadena , these were also paved with Portland cement . So that disabled vehicles could be safely removed from the roadway , about 50 " safety bays " were constructed in 1949 and 1950 . ) The engineers used a design speed of 45 miles per hour ( 72 kilometres per hour ) , superelevating curves where necessary to accomplish this . ( The road is now posted at 55 mph ( 89 km / h ) . ) Despite the freeway design , many parkway characteristics were incorporated , such as plantings of mostly native flora alongside the road .
Prior to parkway construction , nine roads and two rail lines crossed the Arroyo Seco and its valley on bridges , and a number of new bridges were built as part of the project . Only four of the existing bridges were kept , albeit with some changes : the 1925 Avenue 26 Bridge , the 1926 Avenue 60 Bridge , the 1895 Santa Fe Arroyo Seco Railroad Bridge ( now part of the Gold Line ) near Avenue 64 , and the 1912 York Boulevard Bridge . The Avenue 43 Bridge would have been kept had the Los Angeles Flood of 1938 not destroyed it . At Cypress Avenue , abutments and a foundation were built for a roadway , but were not used until the 1960s , when a pedestrian bridge was built as part of the Golden State Freeway ( I @-@ 5 ) interchange project . In South Pasadena , seven streets and the Union Pacific and Santa Fe railroad lines on a double track combined bridge were carried over the parkway to keep the communities on each side connected .
Construction on the Arroyo Seco Parkway , designed under the leadership of District Chief Engineer Spencer V. Cortelyou and Design Engineer A. D. Griffin , began with a groundbreaking ceremony in South Pasadena on March 22 , 1938 and generally progressed from Pasadena southwest . The first contract , stretching less than a mile ( 1 @.@ 5 km ) from Glenarm Street in Pasadena around Raymond Hill to Fair Oaks Avenue in South Pasadena , and including no bridges , was opened to traffic on December 10 , 1938 . A 3 @.@ 7 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 0 km ) section opened on July 20 , 1940 , connecting Orange Grove Avenue in South Pasadena with Avenue 40 in Los Angeles . The remainder in Los Angeles , from Avenue 40 southwest to the Figueroa Street Viaduct at Avenue 22 , was opened on December 30 , 1940 , in time for the Tournament of Roses Parade and Rose Bowl on New Year 's Day . However , the highway through South Pasadena was not completed until January 30 , 1941 , and landscaping work continued through September . The final cost of $ 5 @.@ 75 million , under $ 1 million per mile , was extremely low for a freeway project because the terrain was favorable for grade separations .
The state began upgrading the four @-@ lane North Figueroa Street extension ( then part of Route 165 ) in October 1940 as a " Southerly Extension " of the parkway , even before the parkway was complete . The at @-@ grade intersection with Riverside Drive was already a point of congestion , and the six lanes of parkway narrowing into four lanes of surface street would cause much greater problems . The two @-@ way Figueroa Street Tunnels and Viaduct were repurposed for four lanes of northbound traffic , and a higher southbound roadway was built to the west . From the split with Hill Street south to near the existing College Street overpass , the four @-@ lane surface road became a six @-@ lane freeway . The extension was designed almost entirely on freeway , rather than parkway , principles , as it had to be built quickly to handle existing traffic . The new road split from the old at the Figueroa Street interchange , just south of Avenue 26 , and crossed the Los Angeles River and the northbound access to Riverside Drive on a new three @-@ lane bridge . Through Elysian Park , a five @-@ lane open cut was excavated west of the existing northbound tunnel lanes , saving about $ 1 million . The extension , still feeding into surface streets just south of College Street , was opened to traffic on December 30 , 1943 , again allowing its use for the New Year 's Day festivities .
While the Arroyo Seco Parkway was being built and extended , the region 's freeway system was taking shape . The short city @-@ built Cahuenga Pass Freeway opened on June 15 , 1940 , over a month before the second piece of the Arroyo Seco Parkway was complete . In the next two decades , the Harbor , Hollywood ( Cahuenga Pass ) , Long Beach ( Los Angeles River ) , San Bernardino ( Ramona ) , and Santa Ana Freeways were partially or fully completed to their eponymous destinations , and others were under construction . The centerpiece of the system was the Four Level Interchange just north of downtown Los Angeles , the first stack interchange in the world . Although it was completed in 1949 , the structure was not fully used until September 22 , 1953 , when the short extension of the Arroyo Seco Parkway to the interchange opened . Though the common name used by the public had become " Arroyo Seco Freeway " over the years , it was officially a " Parkway " until November 16 , 1954 , when the California Highway Commission changed its name to the Pasadena Freeway .
Beginning in June 2010 , the state began modifying interchange signs to remove the Pasadena Freeway name and reinstate the Arroyo Seco Parkway name . Signs that indicate route 110 as a " freeway " are being modified to " parkway " or its " Pkwy " abbreviation .
= = = Post @-@ construction = = =
Despite a quadrupling of traffic volumes , the original roadway north of the Los Angeles River largely remains as it was when it opened in 1940 . Trucks and buses were banned in 1943 , though the bus restriction has since been dropped ; this has kept the freeway in good condition and relatively safe , despite its outdated design . This design , state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art when built , includes tight " right @-@ in / right @-@ out " access with a recommended exit speed of 5 miles per hour ( 8 @.@ 0 km / h ) and stop signs on the entrance ramps ; there are no acceleration or deceleration lanes . While the curves are banked for higher speeds , they were designed at half the modern standard . Except for the Golden State Freeway ( I @-@ 5 ) interchange near the river , completed in 1962 , the few structural changes to the freeway north of the river include the closure of the original southbound exit to Fair Oaks Avenue after its location on a curve proved dangerous and the replacement of shrubs in the 4 @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) median with a steel guard rail . Los Angeles paid for reconstruction of the interchange at Hill Street , south of Elysian Park , in the early 1960s to serve the new Dodger Stadium .
When the Arroyo Seco Parkway opened , it was the first freeway in the Western United States . It became a new alignment of U.S. Route 66 , and the old routing via Figueroa Street and Colorado Boulevard became U.S. Route 66 Alternate . The southern extension over the Los Angeles River to downtown Los Angeles also carried State Route 11 ( which remained on the old route when US 66 was moved ) and U.S. Routes 6 and 99 ( which followed Avenue 26 and San Fernando Road to the northwest ) . The 1964 renumbering saw US 66 truncated to Pasadena , and SR 11 was moved from Figueroa Street ( which became SR 159 ) to the Pasadena Freeway . Finally , the number was changed to SR 110 in 1981 , when SR 11 between San Pedro and the Santa Monica Freeway ( I @-@ 10 ) became I @-@ 110 .
The Arroyo Seco Parkway remains the most direct route between downtown Los Angeles and Pasadena despite its flaws ; the only reasonable freeway alternate ( which trucks must use ) is the Glendale Freeway ( SR 2 ) to the west , which is itself not easily reached by trucks from downtown Los Angeles . The Gold Line light rail , opened in 2003 over the former Santa Fe Railway line , provides an alternate mode for commuters . The state legislature designated the original section , north of the Figueroa Street Viaduct , as a " California Historic Parkway " ( part of the State Scenic Highway System reserved for freeways built before 1945 ) in 1993 ; the only other highway so designated is the Cabrillo Freeway ( SR 163 ) in San Diego . The American Society of Civil Engineers named it a National Civil Engineering Landmark in 1999 , and it became a National Scenic Byway in 2002 and was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2011 . Occidental College hosted the " ArroyoFest Freeway Walk and Bike Ride " on Sunday , June 15 , 2003 , closing the freeway to motor vehicles to " highlight several ongoing or proposed projects within the Arroyo that can improve the quality of life for everyone in the area " .
= = Exit list = =
Except where prefixed with a letter , postmiles were measured on the road as it was in 1964 , based on the alignment that existed at the time , and do not necessarily reflect current mileage . R reflects a realignment in the route since then , M indicates a second realignment , L refers an overlap due to a correction or change , and T indicates postmiles classified as temporary ( for a full list of prefixes , see the list of postmile definitions ) . Segments that remain unconstructed or have been relinquished to local control may be omitted . The entire route is in Los Angeles County .
= French battleship Jean Bart ( 1911 ) =
Jean Bart was the second ship of the Courbet @-@ class battleships , the first dreadnoughts built for the French Navy . She was completed before World War I as part of the 1910 naval building programme . She spent the war in the Mediterranean and helped to sink the Austro @-@ Hungarian protected cruiser Zenta on 16 August 1914 . She spent most of the rest of 1914 providing gunfire support for the Montenegrin Army until she was torpedoed by the submarine U @-@ 12 on 21 December . Even with three compartments flooded , she was able to steam to Malta on her own for repairs that required three and a half months . Upon her return she spent the remainder of the war participating in the Otranto Barrage , in the Adriatic .
After the end of World War I she and her sister ship France were sent to the Black Sea to support Allied troops in the Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War . Jean Bart 's crew mutinied out of sympathy for the Bolsheviks , but the mutiny was put down and she returned to the Mediterranean in 1920 . She was partially modernized twice during the 1920s , but was deemed in too poor condition to be refitted again in the 1930s . Therefore , she was renamed Océan , disarmed and hulked in 1936 and became a harbour training ship in Toulon . The Germans captured her intact when they occupied Toulon in 1942 and used her for testing large shaped charge warheads . She was sunk by Allied bombing in 1944 , but was raised and scrapped in 1945 .
= = Description = =
Jean Bart was 166 metres ( 544 ft 7 in ) long overall . She had a beam of 27 metres ( 88 ft 7 in ) and at full load a draft of 9 @.@ 04 metres ( 29 ft 8 in ) at the bow . She displaced 23 @,@ 475 tonnes ( 23 @,@ 100 long tons ) at standard load and 25 @,@ 579 tonnes ( 25 @,@ 180 long tons ) at full load . She proved to be rather wet in service as she was bow @-@ heavy because of her superimposed turrets forward .
Jean Bart had four propellers powered by four Parsons direct @-@ drive steam turbines , rated at 28 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 20 @,@ 880 kW ) ; twenty @-@ four Belleville water @-@ tube boilers provided steam for her turbines . These boilers were coal @-@ burning with auxiliary oil sprayers . She had a designed speed of 21 knots ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) . She carried up to 2 @,@ 700 long tons ( 2 @,@ 700 t ) of coal and 906 long tons ( 921 t ) of oil and could steam for 4 @,@ 200 nautical miles ( 7 @,@ 800 km ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
Jean Bart 's main armament consisted of twelve 305 @-@ millimetre ( 12 in ) Mle 1910 45 @-@ calibre guns mounted in six twin gun turrets , with two turrets superimposed fore and aft , and one on each flank of the ship . For anti @-@ torpedo boat defence she carried twenty @-@ two 138 @-@ millimetre ( 5 @.@ 4 in ) Mle 1910 guns , which were mounted in casemates . Four 47 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) Modèle 1902 Hotchkiss guns were fitted , two on each beam . She was also armed with four 450 @-@ millimetre ( 18 in ) submerged Modèle 1909 torpedo tubes with twelve torpedoes .
Jean Bart 's waterline armoured belt extended well below the waterline as the French were concerned about protection from underwater hits . Her main armour was also thinner than that of her British or German counterparts , but covered more area . It was 270 millimetres ( 10 @.@ 6 in ) thick between the fore and aft turrets and tapered to 180 mm ( 7 @.@ 1 in ) towards the bow and stern . It extended 2 @.@ 4 metres ( 7 ft 10 in ) below the normal waterline . Above the main belt was another belt , 180 mm thick , that covered the sides , and the secondary armament , up to the forecastle deck , 4 @.@ 5 metres ( 14 ft 9 in ) deep , between the fore and aft turrets . The conning tower had armour 300 mm ( 11 @.@ 8 in ) thick . The main gun turrets had 290 millimetres ( 11 @.@ 4 in ) of armour on their faces , 250 millimetres ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) on their sides and roofs 100 millimetres ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick . Their barbettes had 280 millimetres ( 11 @.@ 0 in ) of armour . There was no anti @-@ torpedo bulkhead although there was a longitudinal bulkhead abreast the machinery spaces that was used either as a coal bunker or left as a void .
= = Career = =
Jean Bart was built by the Arsenal de Brest at Brest . Her keel was laid down on 15 October 1910 and was launched on 22 September 1911 . She was completed on 19 November 1913 and finished her trials before World War I began the following year . Jean Bart escorted France , which was carrying the President of the French Republic , Raymond Poincaré , on a state visit to Saint Petersburg , Russia in July 1914 . They were returning from Russia when World War I began , but made it to France without encountering German ships .
Shortly after the start of the war , the commander of the Allied naval forces in the Mediterranean decided to sweep the Adriatic , to surprise the Austrian vessels enforcing a blockade of Montenegro . The Anglo @-@ French force , which included Jean Bart , succeeded in cutting off and sinking the Austro @-@ Hungarian protected cruiser Zenta in an engagement off Antivari on 16 August 1914 , although her accompanying destroyer managed to escape . Jean Bart spent most of the rest of 1914 providing gunfire support for the Montenegrin Army until she was torpedoed by the submarine U @-@ 12 off Sazan Island on 21 December . The one torpedo struck her in the wine store just before the forward magazine . She was able to steam to Malta on her own for repairs that required three and a half months , but this attack forced the battleships to fall back to either Malta or Bizerte . After the French occupied the neutral Greek island of Corfu in 1916 the ships moved forward to Corfu and Argostoli , but their activities were very limited as many of their crews were used to man anti @-@ submarine ships . In 1918 , she served off Greece . Before the end of the war she was fitted with seven 75 @-@ millimetre ( 3 in ) Mle 1897 anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) guns in single mounts . These guns were adaptations of the famous French Mle 97 75 mm field gun .
In April 1919 , while Jean Bart was helping to defend Sevastopol from the advancing Bolsheviks , her crew mutinied , along with that of the France , but the mutiny collapsed when Vice @-@ Admiral Jean @-@ Françoise @-@ Charles Amet agreed to meet the mutineers ' main demand to take the ships home . Three crewmen were sentenced to prison terms upon her return , although the sentences were commuted in 1922 as part of a bargain between Prime Minister Raymond Poincaré and the parties of the Left . The ship returned to Toulon in 1920 and received the first of her two refits between 12 October 1923 and 29 January 1925 . This included replacing one set of boilers with oil @-@ fired boilers , trunking together her two forward funnels , increasing the maximum elevation of the main armament from 12 ° to 23 ° , removal of her bow armour to make her more seaworthy , the installation of a fire @-@ control director , with a 4 @.@ 57 metres ( 15 @.@ 0 ft ) rangefinder , atop the new tripod foremast , and the replacement of her Mle 1897 AA guns with four Mle 1918 guns and 24 8 @-@ millimetre ( 0 @.@ 31 in ) machine guns .
Jean Bart was refitted again between 7 August 1929 and 29 September 1931 . This was much more extensive than her earlier refit as another set of boilers was converted to oil @-@ firing , her direct @-@ drive cruising turbines were replaced by geared turbines and her fire @-@ control systems were comprehensively upgraded . A large cruiser @-@ type fire @-@ control director was added atop the foremast with a 4 @.@ 57 @-@ m coincidence rangefinder and a 3 @-@ metre ( 9 ft 10 in ) stereo rangefinder . The rangefinder above the conning tower was replaced by a duplex unit carrying two 4 @.@ 57 @-@ m rangefinders and another 4 @.@ 57 @-@ m rangefinder was added in an armoured hood next to the main mast . Two directors for the secondary guns were added on the navigation bridge , each with a 2 @-@ metre ( 6 ft 7 in ) coincidence rangefinder . A 8 @.@ 2 metres ( 26 ft 11 in ) rangefinder was added to the roof of ' B ' turret , the second one from the bow . Her Mle 1897 AA guns were exchanged for Mle 1918 guns and they were provided with three 1 @.@ 5 @-@ metre ( 4 ft 11 in ) rangefinders , one on top of the duplex unit on the conning tower , one on ' B ' turret and one in the aft superstructure . Her condition was poor enough that she was not thought to be worth the expense of a third refit like those her sisters were given . She was hulked , disarmed and became a harbour training ship in 1936 . She was renamed Océan that year to free her name for use by the new Richelieu @-@ class battleship Jean Bart then being constructed .
The new Océan was captured intact by the Germans on 27 November 1942 , the day the French Fleet was scuttled . The Germans used her for experiments with very large shaped charge warheads as delivered by the Mistel composite aircraft . She was sunk by Allied aircraft in 1944 and later raised for scrapping beginning on 14 December 1945 .
= Time Crash =
" Time Crash " is a mini @-@ episode of the British science fiction television series Doctor Who . It was broadcast on 16 November 2007 , as part of the BBC One telethon for the children 's charity Children in Need . Written by Steven Moffat , it starred David Tennant and Peter Davison as the Doctor .
The episode , set during the last scene of the previous episode " Last of the Time Lords " , depicts a humorous encounter between the Doctor 's fifth and tenth incarnations , played by Davison and Tennant respectively . " Time Crash " was praised by critics who reviewed the episode , and was a ratings success ; it was the most @-@ viewed show of the night , and briefly the most @-@ viewed episode of Doctor Who since 2005 , with 11 million viewers .
= = Plot = =
The episode takes place within the final scene of " Last of the Time Lords " . After the Tenth Doctor ( David Tennant ) parts ways with Martha ( Freema Agyeman ) , he tries taking off , only for the TARDIS to spin wildly and sound an alarm . Checking out the systems , the Doctor passes his fifth incarnation ( Peter Davison ) doing the same thing . The Tenth Doctor recognises his past self and is overjoyed to see him , gently poking fun of his particular eccentricities , such as the stick of celery on his lapel and the unneeded glasses he sometimes wears . The Fifth Doctor is annoyed , believing his counterpart to be a fan who has broken into the TARDIS .
The Fifth Doctor discovers that two TARDISes have merged , a paradox that will cause a massive black hole . The Tenth Doctor counters it with a supernova , a solution he remembers seeing himself perform in this same incident ( a predestination paradox ) ; the Fifth Doctor realises that the Tenth really is his future self . The Tenth reminisces as the Fifth begins to fade into a separate timeline :
" You know , I loved being you . Back when I first started , at the very beginning , I was always trying to be old and grumpy and important — like you do , when you 're young . And then I was you . And it was all dashing about and playing cricket and my voice going all squeaky when I shouted . I still do that , the voice thing , I got that from you . Oh , and the trainers . And ... " [ putting his glasses on ] " snap ! ' Cos you know what , Doctor ? You were my Doctor . "
The two Doctors say goodbye : " To days to come , " says the Fifth , raising his hat . " All my love to long ago , " replies the Tenth with a bow . As the time streams split , the Fifth Doctor calls out , warning the Tenth to put his shields up . But it is too late ; the Titanic collides with the TARDIS , leading the narrative into " Voyage of the Damned " .
= = = Continuity = = =
The Fifth Doctor mentions " that LINDA lot " , a reference to the Doctor 's fan club from " Love & Monsters " . Both Doctors describe the paradox as " wibbly @-@ wobbly , timey @-@ wimey , " which is the way the Tenth Doctor describes time to Sally Sparrow in " Blink " . The Tenth Doctor , asking when the Fifth Doctor originates , refers to companions Nyssa and Tegan , adversaries Cybermen and the Mara , and " Time Lords in funny hats . " The Fifth inquires about the Master , wondering if he still has " that rubbish beard " ( which his prior incarnations sported ) . The Tenth replies that he actually got married .
= = Production = =
The episode was first conceived by executive producers Julie Gardner and Russell T Davies , who decided to air an interstitial scene for Children in Need 2007 . Gardner asked Steven Moffat to write the special , with the stipulations the scene could be shot in one day and one set , and require no CGI effects . Peter Davison was approached to reprise his role as the Fifth Doctor in July 2007 , and accepted the role to impress his children . The episode was officially announced by the BBC on 21 October .
Moffat 's script started by repeating Martha 's departure . The script indicated that " this time , we stay with the Doctor . As before ... the Doctor takes a moment , then slam the controls , " and described the Fifth Doctor as having a " frock coat , cricket jersey , and a stick of celery on his lapel " . Moffat included several references to Fifth Doctor stories in his script : the Tenth Doctor commented about the Fifth Doctor 's attire and his disuse of the sonic screwdriver , saying : " Ooh , I 'm the Doctor , I can save the universe with a kettle and a piece of string and ooh , look at me , I 'm wearing a vegetable . " A line about the effects of the paradox the TARDIS collision had caused gave an explanation of why the Fifth Doctor looked far older than normal , thus getting around the fact that Peter Davison had left the role over twenty years before . And near the end of the episode , he refers to Tegan Jovanka , Nyssa , the Cybermen stories Earthshock and The Five Doctors , the Mara serials Kinda and Snakedance , the Time Lords ' " funny hats " from Arc of Infinity , and the various Ainley Master stories during Davison 's tenure .
" Time Crash " was filmed at Upper Boat Studios in Upper Boat , Cardiff , as part of the fourth recording block of the fourth series ( which included " Partners in Crime " ) on 7 October 2007 . Graeme Harper , director of Davison 's final serial The Caves of Androzani , directed the episode . To replicate the Fifth Doctor 's attire , the production team borrowed items from the Doctor Who exhibition in Blackpool and knitted a new cricket jumper to reflect the style worn from Castrovalva to Warriors of the Deep . The accompanying Doctor Who Confidential episode reveals that the trousers Davison wore in " Time Crash " were the same pair that Colin Baker wore in his early scenes in The Twin Dilemma .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
Previous Doctor Who charity specials transmitted over the years include Dimensions in Time , Doctor Who and the Curse of Fatal Death and the untitled 2005 special . The anniversary special The Five Doctors was broadcast on Children in Need night for its United Kingdom premier broadcast .
The Children in Need telethon was the most @-@ watched television programme of the night , with a final rating of 9 @.@ 6 million viewers , and figures peaked between 8 : 15pm and 8 : 30pm , when " Time Crash " was aired , with a total of 11 @.@ 0 million viewers . The episode was therefore the most @-@ viewed since the show 's revival in 2005 , surpassing the revival 's premiere , " Rose " , which achieved a rating of 10 @.@ 8 million viewers . Donations also peaked during the episode 's airing . When the episode was replayed four hours later , it garnered an audience of 2 @.@ 5 million viewers . This rating was later beaten by " Voyage of the Damned " , which received 13 @.@ 3 million viewers .
The episode was positively reviewed by critics . Martin Conaghan of TV Squad expressed the belief that the episode was " the highlight of the evening " . He mainly complimented Moffat for his writing ; he said that Moffat " has a knack for clever paradox @-@ style stories , and managed to capture a fantastic little snippet of emotion , harking back to the early days of Doctor Who , " specifically praising the farewell scene . Dek Hogan of Digital Spy mirrored Conaghan 's beliefs ; he called Moffat 's script " witty " and hoped that Davison would return to film a full @-@ length episode .
= Charles I of England =
Charles I ( 19 November 1600 – 30 January 1649 ) was monarch of the three kingdoms of England , Scotland , and Ireland from 27 March 1625 until his execution in 1649 .
Charles was the second son of King James VI of Scotland , but after his father inherited the English throne in 1603 , he moved to England , where he spent much of the rest of his life . He became heir apparent to the English , Irish and Scottish thrones on the death of his elder brother , Henry Frederick , Prince of Wales , in 1612 . An unsuccessful and unpopular attempt to marry him to the Spanish Habsburg princess Maria Anna culminated in an eight @-@ month visit to Spain in 1623 that demonstrated the futility of the marriage negotiations . Two years later , he married the Bourbon princess Henrietta Maria of France instead .
After his succession , Charles quarrelled with the Parliament of England , which sought to curb his royal prerogative . Charles believed in the divine right of kings and thought he could govern according to his own conscience . Many of his subjects opposed his policies , in particular the levying of taxes without parliamentary consent , and perceived his actions as those of a tyrannical absolute monarch . His religious policies , coupled with his marriage to a Roman Catholic , generated the antipathy and mistrust of reformed groups such as the Puritans and Calvinists , who thought his views too Catholic . He supported high church ecclesiastics , such as Richard Montagu and William Laud , and failed to aid Protestant forces successfully during the Thirty Years ' War . His attempts to force the Church of Scotland to adopt high Anglican practices led to the Bishops ' Wars , strengthened the position of the English and Scottish parliaments and helped precipitate his own downfall .
From 1642 , Charles fought the armies of the English and Scottish parliaments in the English Civil War . After his defeat in 1645 , he surrendered to a Scottish force that eventually handed him over to the English Parliament . Charles refused to accept his captors ' demands for a constitutional monarchy , and temporarily escaped captivity in November 1647 . Re @-@ imprisoned on the Isle of Wight , Charles forged an alliance with Scotland , but by the end of 1648 Oliver Cromwell 's New Model Army had consolidated its control over England . Charles was tried , convicted , and executed for high treason in January 1649 . The monarchy was abolished and a republic called the Commonwealth of England was declared . The monarchy was restored to Charles 's son , Charles II , in 1660 .
= = Early life = =
The second son of King James VI of Scotland and Anne of Denmark , Charles was born in Dunfermline Palace , Fife , on 19 November 1600 . At a Protestant ceremony in the Chapel Royal at Holyrood Palace in Edinburgh on 23 December 1600 , he was baptised by David Lindsay , Bishop of Ross , and created Duke of Albany , the traditional title of the second son of the King of Scotland , with the subsidiary titles of Marquess of Ormond , Earl of Ross and Lord Ardmannoch .
James VI was the first cousin twice removed of Queen Elizabeth I of England , and when she died childless in March 1603 , he became King of England as James I. Charles was a weak and sickly infant , and while his parents and older siblings left for England in April and early June that year , due to his fragile health , he remained in Scotland with his father 's friend Lord Fyvie , appointed as his guardian .
By 1604 , when Charles was three and a half , he was able to walk the length of the great hall at Dunfermline Palace without assistance , and it was decided that he was strong enough to make the journey to England to be reunited with his family . In mid @-@ July 1604 , Charles left Dunfermline for England where he was to spend most of the rest of his life . In England , Charles was placed under the charge of Elizabeth , Lady Carey , the wife of courtier Sir Robert Carey , who put him in boots made of Spanish leather and brass to help strengthen his weak ankles . His speech development was also slow , and he retained a stammer , or hesitant speech , for the rest of his life .
In January 1605 , Charles was created Duke of York , as is customary in the case of the English sovereign 's second son , and made a Knight of the Bath . Thomas Murray , a Presbyterian Scot , was appointed as a tutor . Charles learnt the usual subjects of classics , languages , mathematics and religion . In 1611 , he was made a Knight of the Garter .
Eventually , Charles apparently conquered his physical infirmity , which might have been caused by rickets . He became an adept horseman and marksman , and took up fencing . Even so , his public profile remained low in contrast to that of his physically stronger and taller elder brother , Henry Frederick , Prince of Wales , whom Charles adored and attempted to emulate . However , in early November 1612 , Henry died at the age of 18 of what is suspected to have been typhoid ( or possibly porphyria ) . Charles , who turned 12 two weeks later , became heir apparent . As the eldest surviving son of the sovereign , Charles automatically gained several titles ( including Duke of Cornwall and Duke of Rothesay ) . Four years later , in November 1616 , he was created Prince of Wales and Earl of Chester .
= = Heir apparent = =
In 1613 , his sister Elizabeth married Frederick V , Elector Palatine , and moved to Heidelberg . In 1617 , the Habsburg Archduke Ferdinand of Austria , a Catholic , was elected king of Bohemia . The following year , the Bohemians rebelled , defenestrating the Catholic governors . In August 1619 , the Bohemian diet chose as their monarch Frederick V , who was leader of the Protestant Union , while Ferdinand was elected Holy Roman Emperor in the imperial election . Frederick 's acceptance of the Bohemian crown in defiance of the emperor marked the beginning of the turmoil that would develop into the Thirty Years ' War . The conflict , originally confined to Bohemia , spiralled into a wider European war , which the English Parliament and public quickly grew to see as a polarised continental struggle between Catholics and Protestants . In 1620 , Charles 's brother @-@ in @-@ law , Frederick V , was defeated at the Battle of White Mountain near Prague and his hereditary lands in the Electoral Palatinate were invaded by a Habsburg force from the Spanish Netherlands . James , however , had been seeking marriage between the new Prince of Wales and Ferdinand 's niece , Habsburg princess Maria Anna of Spain , and began to see the Spanish match as a possible diplomatic means of achieving peace in Europe .
Unfortunately for James , negotiation with Spain proved generally unpopular , both with the public and with James 's court . The English Parliament was actively hostile towards Spain and Catholicism , and
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thus , when called by James in 1621 , the members hoped for an enforcement of recusancy laws , a naval campaign against Spain , and a Protestant marriage for the Prince of Wales . James 's Lord Chancellor , Francis Bacon , was impeached before the House of Lords for corruption . The impeachment was the first since 1459 without the king 's official sanction in the form of a bill of attainder . The incident set an important precedent as the process of impeachment would later be used against Charles and his supporters : the Duke of Buckingham , Archbishop Laud , and the Earl of Strafford . James insisted that the House of Commons be concerned exclusively with domestic affairs , while the members protested that they had the privilege of free speech within the Commons ' walls , demanding war with Spain and a Protestant Princess of Wales . Charles , like his father , considered the discussion of his marriage in the Commons impertinent and an infringement of his father 's royal prerogative . In January 1622 , James dissolved Parliament , angry at what he perceived as the members ' impudence and intransigence .
Charles and the Duke of Buckingham , James 's favourite and a man who had great influence over the prince , travelled incognito to Spain in February 1623 to try to reach agreement on the long @-@ pending Spanish match . In the end , however , the trip was an embarrassing failure . The Infanta thought Charles was little more than an infidel , and the Spanish at first demanded that he convert to Roman Catholicism as a condition of the match . The Spanish insisted on toleration of Catholics in England and the repeal of the penal laws , which Charles knew would never be agreed by Parliament , and that the Infanta remain in Spain for a year after any wedding to ensure that England complied with all the terms of the treaty . A personal quarrel erupted between Buckingham and the Count of Olivares , the Spanish chief minister , and so Charles conducted the ultimately futile negotiations personally . When Charles returned to London in October , without a bride and to a rapturous and relieved public welcome , he and Buckingham pushed a reluctant King James to declare war on Spain .
With the encouragement of his Protestant advisers , James summoned the English Parliament in 1624 so that he could request subsidies for a war . Charles and Buckingham supported the impeachment of the Lord Treasurer , Lionel Cranfield , 1st Earl of Middlesex , who opposed war on grounds of cost and who quickly fell in much the same manner as Bacon had . James told Buckingham he was a fool , and presciently warned his son that he would live to regret the revival of impeachment as a parliamentary tool . An under @-@ funded makeshift army under Ernst von Mansfeld set off to recover the Palatinate , but it was so poorly provisioned that it never advanced beyond the Dutch coast .
By 1624 , James was growing ill , and as a result was finding it difficult to control Parliament . By the time of his death in March 1625 , Charles and the Duke of Buckingham had already assumed de facto control of the kingdom .
= = Early reign = =
With the failure of the Spanish match , Charles and Buckingham turned their attention to France . On 1 May 1625 Charles was married by proxy to the fifteen @-@ year @-@ old French princess Henrietta Maria in front of the doors of the Notre Dame de Paris . Charles had seen Henrietta Maria in Paris while en route to Spain . The couple married in person on 13 June 1625 in Canterbury . Charles delayed the opening of his first Parliament until after the second ceremony , to forestall any opposition . Many members of the Commons were opposed to the king 's marriage to a Roman Catholic , fearing that Charles would lift restrictions on Catholic recusants and undermine the official establishment of the reformed Church of England . Although he told Parliament that he would not relax religious restrictions , he promised to do exactly that in a secret marriage treaty with Louis XIII of France . Moreover , the treaty placed under French command an English naval force that would be used to suppress the Protestant Huguenots at La Rochelle . Charles was crowned on 2 February 1626 at Westminster Abbey , but without his wife at his side because she refused to participate in a Protestant religious ceremony .
Distrust of Charles 's religious policies increased with his support of a controversial anti @-@ Calvinist ecclesiastic , Richard Montagu , who was in disrepute among the Puritans . In his pamphlet A New Gag for an Old Goose ( 1624 ) , a reply to the Catholic pamphlet A New Gag for the New Gospel , Montagu argued against Calvinist predestination , the doctrine that salvation and damnation were preordained by God . Anti @-@ Calvinists – known as Arminians – believed that human beings could influence their own fate through the exercise of free will . Arminian divines had been one of the few sources of support for Charles 's proposed Spanish marriage . With the support of King James , Montagu produced another pamphlet , entitled Appello Caesarem , in 1625 shortly after the old king 's death and Charles 's accession . To protect Montagu from the stricture of Puritan members of Parliament , Charles made the cleric one of his royal chaplains , increasing many Puritans ' suspicions that Charles favoured Arminianism as a clandestine attempt to aid the resurgence of Catholicism .
Rather than direct involvement in the European land war , the English Parliament preferred a relatively inexpensive naval attack on Spanish colonies in the New World , hoping for the capture of the Spanish treasure fleets . Parliament voted to grant a subsidy of £ 140 @,@ 000 , which was an insufficient sum for Charles 's war plans . Moreover , the House of Commons limited its authorisation for royal collection of tonnage and poundage ( two varieties of customs duties ) to a period of one year , although previous sovereigns since Henry VI of England had been granted the right for life . In this manner , Parliament could delay approval of the rates until after a full @-@ scale review of customs revenue . The bill made no progress in the House of Lords past its first reading . Although no Parliamentary Act for the levy of tonnage and poundage was obtained , Charles continued to collect the duties .
A poorly conceived and executed naval expedition against Spain under the leadership of Buckingham went badly , and the House of Commons began proceedings for the impeachment of the duke . In May 1626 , Charles nominated Buckingham as Chancellor of Cambridge University in a show of support , and had two members who had spoken against Buckingham – Dudley Digges and Sir John Eliot – arrested at the door of the House . The Commons was outraged by the imprisonment of two of their members , and after about a week in custody , both were released . On 12 June 1626 , the Commons launched a direct protestation attacking Buckingham , stating , " We protest before your Majesty and the whole world that until this great person be removed from intermeddling with the great affairs of state , we are out of hope of any good success ; and do fear that any money we shall or can give will , through his misemployment , be turned rather to the hurt and prejudice of this your kingdom than otherwise , as by lamentable experience we have found those large supplies formerly and lately given . " Despite Parliament 's protests , however , Charles refused to dismiss his friend , dismissing Parliament instead .
Meanwhile , domestic quarrels between Charles and Henrietta Maria were souring the early years of their marriage . Disputes over her jointure , appointments to her household , and the practice of her religion culminated in the king expelling the vast majority of her French attendants in August 1626 . Despite Charles 's agreement to provide the French with English ships as a condition of marrying Henrietta Maria , in 1627 he launched an attack on the French coast to defend the Huguenots at La Rochelle . The action , led by Buckingham , was ultimately unsuccessful . Buckingham 's failure to protect the Huguenots – and his retreat from Saint @-@ Martin @-@ de @-@ Ré – spurred Louis XIII 's siege of La Rochelle and furthered the English Parliament 's and people 's detestation of the duke .
Charles provoked further unrest by trying to raise money for the war through a " forced loan " : a tax levied without parliamentary consent . In November 1627 , the test case in the King 's Bench , the " Five Knights ' Case " , found that the king had a prerogative right to imprison without trial those who refused to pay the forced loan . Summoned again in March 1628 , on 26 May Parliament adopted a Petition of Right , calling upon the king to acknowledge that he could not levy taxes without Parliament 's consent , not impose martial law on civilians , not imprison them without due process , and not quarter troops in their homes . Charles assented to the petition on 7 June , but by the end of the month he had prorogued Parliament and re @-@ asserted his right to collect customs duties without authorisation from Parliament .
On 23 August 1628 , Buckingham was assassinated . Charles was deeply distressed . According to Edward Hyde , 1st Earl of Clarendon , he " threw himself upon his bed , lamenting with much passion and with abundance of tears " . He remained grieving in his room for two days . In contrast , the public rejoiced at Buckingham 's death , which accentuated the gulf between the court and the nation , and between the Crown and the Commons . Although the death of Buckingham effectively ended the war with Spain and eliminated his leadership as an issue , it did not end the conflicts between Charles and Parliament . It did , however , coincide with an improvement in Charles 's relationship with his wife , and by November 1628 their old quarrels were at an end . Perhaps Charles 's emotional ties were transferred from Buckingham to Henrietta Maria . She became pregnant for the first time , and the bond between them grew ever stronger . Together , they embodied an image of virtue and family life , and their court became a model of formality and morality .
= = Personal rule = =
= = = Parliament prorogued = = =
In January 1629 , Charles opened the second session of the English Parliament , which had been prorogued in June 1628 , with a moderate speech on the tonnage and poundage issue . Members of the House of Commons began to voice opposition to Charles 's policies in light of the case of John Rolle , a Member of Parliament whose goods had been confiscated for failing to pay tonnage and poundage . Many MPs viewed the imposition of the tax as a breach of the Petition of Right . When Charles ordered a parliamentary adjournment on 2 March , members held the Speaker , Sir John Finch , down in his chair so that the ending of the session could be delayed long enough for resolutions against Catholicism , Arminianism and tonnage and poundage to be read out and acclaimed by the chamber . The provocation was too much for Charles , who dissolved Parliament and had nine parliamentary leaders , including Sir John Eliot , imprisoned over the matter , thereby turning the men into martyrs , and giving popular cause to their protest .
Shortly after the prorogation , without the means in the foreseeable future to raise funds from Parliament for a European war , or the influence of Buckingham , Charles made peace with France and Spain . The following eleven years , during which Charles ruled England without a Parliament , are referred to as the personal rule or the " eleven years ' tyranny " . Ruling without Parliament was not exceptional , and was supported by precedent . Only Parliament , however , could legally raise taxes , and without it Charles 's capacity to acquire funds for his treasury was limited to his customary rights and prerogatives .
= = = Finances = = =
A large fiscal deficit had arisen in the reigns of Elizabeth I and James I. Notwithstanding Buckingham 's short lived campaigns against both Spain and France , there was little financial capacity for Charles to wage wars overseas . Throughout his reign Charles was obliged to rely primarily on volunteer forces for defence and on diplomatic efforts to support his sister , Elizabeth , and his foreign policy objective for the restoration of the Palatinate . England was still the least taxed country in Europe , with no official excise and no regular direct taxation . To raise revenue without reconvening Parliament , Charles resurrected an all @-@ but @-@ forgotten law called the " Distraint of Knighthood " , in abeyance for over a century , which required any man who earned £ 40 or more from land each year to present himself at the king 's coronation to be knighted . Relying on this old statute , Charles fined individuals who had failed to attend his coronation in 1626 .
The chief tax imposed by Charles was a feudal levy known as ship money , which proved even more unpopular , and lucrative , than poundage and tonnage before it . Previously , collection of ship money had been authorised only during wars , and only on coastal regions . Charles , however , argued that there was no legal bar to collecting the tax for defence during peacetime and throughout the whole of the kingdom . Ship money , paid directly to the Treasury of the Navy , provided between £ 150 @,@ 000 to £ 200 @,@ 000 annually between 1634 and 1638 , after which yields declined . Opposition to ship money steadily grew , but the 12 common law judges of England declared that the tax was within the king 's prerogative , though some of them had reservations . The prosecution of John Hampden for non @-@ payment in 1637 – 38 provided a platform for popular protest , and the judges only found against Hampden by the narrow margin of 7 – 5 .
The king also derived money through the granting of monopolies , despite a statute forbidding such action , which , though inefficient , raised an estimated £ 100 @,@ 000 a year in the late 1630s . One such monopoly was for soap , referred to as popish soap . Charles also raised funds from the Scottish nobility , at the price of considerable acrimony , by the Act of Revocation ( 1625 ) , whereby all gifts of royal or church land made to the nobility since 1540 were revoked , with continued ownership being subject to an annual rent . In addition , the boundaries of the royal forests in England were restored to their ancient limits as part of a scheme to maximise income by exploiting the land and fining land users within the reasserted boundaries for encroachment . The focus of the programme was disafforestation and sale of forest lands for conversion to pasture and arable farming , or in the case of the Forest of Dean , development for the iron industry . Disafforestation frequently caused riots and disturbances including those known as the Western Rising .
The practice of granting extensive monopolies agitated the public , who were forced to pay higher prices by the monopoly holders . Against the background of this unrest , Charles faced bankruptcy in the summer of 1640 as parliament continued to refuse new taxes . The City of London , preoccupied with its own grievances further refused to make any loans to the king , and likewise he was unable to subscribe any foreign loans . In this extremity , Charles seized the money held in trust at the mint of the Exchequer in the tower of London . The royal mint held a monopoly on the exchange of foreign coin and from this the mint operated as a bank containing much capital of the merchants and goldsmiths of the city . In July , Charles seized all £ 130 @,@ 000 of this money , and in August he followed it up by seizing all the stocks of pepper held by the East India Company , and selling it at distress prices .
= = Religious conflicts = =
Throughout Charles 's reign , the issue of how far the English Reformation should progress was constantly brought to the forefront of political debate . Arminian theology emphasised clerical authority and the individual 's ability to reject or accept salvation , and was consequently viewed as heretical and a potential vehicle for the reintroduction of Roman Catholicism by its Calvinist opponents . Charles 's sympathy to the teachings of Arminianism , and specifically his wish to move the Church of England away from Calvinism in a more traditional and sacramental direction , were perceived by Puritans as irreligious tendencies . In addition , Charles 's Protestant subjects followed news of the European war closely and grew increasingly dismayed by Charles 's diplomacy with Spain and his failure to support the Protestant cause abroad effectively .
In 1633 , Charles appointed William Laud as Archbishop of Canterbury . Together , they began a series of anti @-@ Calvinist reforms that attempted to ensure religious uniformity by restricting non @-@ conformist preachers , insisting that the liturgy be celebrated as prescribed in the Book of Common Prayer , organising the internal architecture of English churches so as to emphasise the sacrament of the altar , and re @-@ issuing King James 's Declaration of Sports , which permitted secular activities on the sabbath . The Feoffees for Impropriations , an organisation that bought benefices and advowsons so that Puritans could be appointed to them , was dissolved . To prosecute those who opposed his reforms , Laud used the two most powerful courts in the land , the Court of High Commission and the Court of Star Chamber . The courts became feared for their censorship of opposing religious views , and became unpopular among the propertied classes for inflicting degrading punishments on gentlemen . For example , in 1637 William Prynne , Henry Burton and John Bastwick were pilloried , whipped and mutilated by cropping and imprisoned indefinitely for publishing anti @-@ episcopal pamphlets .
When Charles attempted to impose his religious policies in Scotland he faced numerous difficulties . Although born in Scotland , Charles had become estranged from his northern kingdom ; his first visit since early childhood was for his Scottish coronation in 1633 . To the dismay of the Scots , who had removed many traditional rituals from their liturgical practice , Charles insisted that the coronation be conducted in the Anglican rite . In 1637 , the king ordered the use of a new prayer book in Scotland that was almost identical to the English Book of Common Prayer , without consulting either the Scottish Parliament or the Kirk . Although written , under Charles 's direction , by Scottish bishops , many Scots resisted it , seeing the new prayer book as a vehicle for introducing Anglicanism to Scotland . On 23 July , riots erupted in Edinburgh upon the first Sunday of the prayer book 's usage , and unrest spread throughout the Kirk . The public began to mobilise around a reaffirmation of the National Covenant , whose signatories pledged to uphold the reformed religion of Scotland and reject any innovations that were not authorised by Kirk and Parliament . When the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland met in November 1638 , it condemned the new prayer book , abolished episcopal church government by bishops , and adopted Presbyterian government by elders and deacons .
= = = Bishops ' Wars = = =
Charles perceived the unrest in Scotland as a rebellion against his authority , precipitating the First Bishops ' War in 1639 . Charles did not seek subsidies from the English Parliament to wage war , but instead raised an army without parliamentary aid and marched to Berwick @-@ upon @-@ Tweed , on the border of Scotland . Charles 's army did not engage the Covenanters as the king feared the defeat of his forces , whom he believed to be significantly outnumbered by the Scots . In the Treaty of Berwick , Charles regained custody of his Scottish fortresses and secured the dissolution of the Covenanters ' interim government , albeit at the decisive concession that both the Scottish Parliament and General Assembly of the Scottish Church were called .
Charles 's military failure in the First Bishops ' War caused a financial and diplomatic crisis for Charles that deepened when his efforts to raise finance from Spain , while simultaneously continuing his support for his Palatine relatives , led to the public humiliation of the Battle of the Downs , where the Dutch destroyed a Spanish bullion fleet off the coast of Kent in sight of the impotent English navy .
Charles continued peace negotiations with the Scots in a bid to gain time before launching a new military campaign . Because of his financial weakness , he was forced to call Parliament into session in an attempt to raise funds for such a venture . Both English and Irish parliaments were summoned in the early months of 1640 . In March 1640 , the Irish Parliament duly voted in a subsidy of £ 180 @,@ 000 with the promise to raise an army 9 @,@ 000 strong by the end of May . In the English general election in March , however , court candidates fared badly , and Charles 's dealings with the English Parliament in April quickly reached stalemate . The earls of Northumberland and Strafford attempted to broker a compromise whereby the king would agree to forfeit ship money in exchange for £ 650 @,@ 000 ( although the cost of the coming war was estimated at around £ 1 million ) . Nevertheless , this alone was insufficient to produce consensus in the Commons . The Parliamentarians ' calls for further reforms were ignored by Charles , who still retained the support of the House of Lords . Despite the protests of Northumberland , the Short Parliament ( as it came to be known ) was dissolved in May 1640 , less than a month after it assembled .
By this stage Strafford , Lord Deputy of Ireland since 1632 , had emerged as Charles 's right @-@ hand man and together with Laud , pursued a policy of " Thorough " that aimed to make central royal authority more efficient and effective at the expense of local or anti @-@ government interests . Although originally a critic of the king , Strafford defected to royal service in 1628 ( due in part to Buckingham 's persuasion ) , and had since emerged , alongside Laud , as the most influential of Charles 's ministers .
Bolstered by the failure of the English Short Parliament , the Scottish Parliament declared itself capable of governing without the king 's consent and , in August 1640 , the Covenanter army moved into the English county of Northumberland . Following the illness of the earl of Northumberland , who was the king 's commander @-@ in @-@ chief , Charles and Strafford went north to command the English forces , despite Strafford being ill himself with a combination of gout and dysentery . The Scottish soldiery , many of whom were veterans of the Thirty Years ' War , had far greater morale and training compared to their English counterparts , and met virtually no resistance until reaching Newcastle upon Tyne where , at the Battle of Newburn , they defeated the English forces and occupied the city , as well as the neighbouring county of Durham .
As demands for a parliament grew , Charles took the unusual step of summoning a great council of peers . By the time it met , on 24 September at York , Charles had resolved to follow the almost universal advice to call a parliament . After informing the peers that a parliament would convene in November , he asked them to consider how he could acquire funds to maintain his army against the Scots in the meantime . They recommended making peace . A cessation of arms , although not a final settlement , was negotiated in the humiliating Treaty of Ripon , signed in October 1640 . The treaty stated that the Scots would continue to occupy Northumberland and Durham and be paid £ 850 per day until peace was restored and the English Parliament recalled , which would be required to raise sufficient funds to pay the Scottish forces . Consequently , Charles summoned what later became known as the Long Parliament . Once again , Charles 's supporters fared badly at the polls . Of the 493 members of the Commons returned in November , over 350 were opposed to the king .
= = Long Parliament = =
= = = Tensions escalate = = =
The Long Parliament proved just as difficult for Charles as had the Short Parliament . It assembled on 3 November 1640 and quickly began proceedings to impeach the king 's leading counsellors of high treason . Strafford was taken into custody on 10 November ; Laud was impeached on 18 December ; Lord Keeper Finch was impeached the following day , and he consequently fled to the Hague with Charles 's permission on 21 December . To prevent the king from dissolving it at will , Parliament passed the Triennial Act , which required Parliament to be summoned at least once every three years , and permitted the Lord Keeper of the Great Seal and 12 peers to summon Parliament if the king failed to do so . The Act was coupled with a subsidy bill , and so to secure the latter , Charles grudgingly granted royal assent in February 1641 .
Strafford had become the principal target of the Parliamentarians , particularly John Pym , and he went on trial for high treason on 22 March 1641 . However , the key allegation by Sir Henry Vane that Strafford had threatened to use the Irish army to subdue England was not corroborated and on 10 April Pym 's case collapsed . Pym and his allies immediately launched a bill of attainder , which simply declared Strafford guilty and pronounced the sentence of death .
Charles assured Strafford that " upon the word of a king you shall not suffer in life , honour or fortune " , and the attainder could not succeed if Charles withheld assent . Furthermore , many members and most peers were opposed to the attainder , not wishing , in the words of one , to " commit murder with the sword of justice " . However , increased tensions and an attempted coup by royalist army officers in support of Strafford and in which Charles was involved began to sway the issue . The Commons passed the bill on 20 April by a large margin ( 204 in favour , 59 opposed , and 230 abstained ) , and the Lords acquiesced ( by 26 votes to 19 , with 79 absent ) in May . Charles , fearing for the safety of his family in the face of unrest , assented reluctantly on 9 May after consulting his judges and bishops . Strafford was beheaded three days later .
On 3 May , Parliament 's Protestation had attacked the " wicked counsels " of Charles 's " arbitrary and tyrannical government " ; while those who signed the petition undertook to defend the king 's " person , honour and estate " , they also swore to preserve " the true reformed religion " , parliament , and the " rights and liberties of the subjects " . Within a week , Charles had assented to an unprecedented Act , which forbade the dissolution of the English Parliament without Parliament 's consent . In the following months , ship money , fines in distraint of knighthood and excise without parliamentary consent were declared unlawful , and the Courts of Star Chamber and High Commission were abolished . All remaining forms of taxation were legalised and regulated by the Tonnage and Poundage Act . The House of Commons also launched bills attacking bishops and episcopacy , but these failed in the Lords .
Charles had made important concessions in England , and temporarily improved his position in Scotland by securing the favour of the Scots on a visit from August to November 1641 during which he conceded to the official establishment of Presbyterianism . However , following an attempted royalist coup in Scotland , known as " The Incident " , Charles 's credibility was significantly undermined .
= = = Irish rebellion = = =
In Ireland , the population was split into three main socio @-@ political groups : the Gaelic Irish , who were Catholic ; the Old English , who were descended from medieval Normans and were also predominantly Catholic ; and the New English , who were Protestant settlers from England and Scotland aligned with the English Parliament and the Covenanters . Strafford 's administration had improved the Irish economy and boosted tax revenue , but had done so by heavy @-@ handedly imposing order . He had trained up a large Catholic army in support of the king and had weakened the authority of the Irish Parliament , while continuing to confiscate land from Catholics for Protestant settlement at the same time as promoting a Laudian Anglicanism that was anathema to Presbyterians . As a result , all three groups had become disaffected . Strafford 's impeachment provided a new departure for Irish politics whereby all sides joined together to present evidence against him . In a similar manner to the English Parliament , the Old English members of the Irish Parliament argued that while opposed to Strafford they remained loyal to Charles . They argued that the king had been led astray by malign counsellors , and that , moreover , a viceroy such as Strafford could emerge as a despotic figure instead of ensuring that the king was directly involved in governance . Strafford 's fall from power weakened Charles 's influence in Ireland . The dissolution of the Irish army was unsuccessfully demanded three times by the English Commons during Strafford 's imprisonment , until Charles was eventually forced through lack of money to disband the army at the end of Strafford 's trial . Disputes concerning the transfer of land ownership from native Catholic to settler Protestant , particularly in relation to the plantation of Ulster , coupled with resentment at moves to ensure the Irish Parliament was subordinate to the Parliament of England , sowed the seeds of rebellion . When armed conflict arose between the Gaelic Irish and New English , in late October 1641 , the Old English sided with the Gaelic Irish while simultaneously professing their loyalty to the king .
In November 1641 , the House of Commons passed the Grand Remonstrance , a long list of grievances against actions by Charles 's ministers committed since the beginning of his reign ( that were asserted to be part of a grand Catholic conspiracy of which the king was an unwitting member ) , but it was in many ways a step too far by Pym and passed by only 11 votes – 159 to 148 . Furthermore , the Remonstrance had very little support in the House of Lords , which the Remonstrance attacked . The tension was heightened by news of the Irish rebellion , coupled with inaccurate rumours of Charles 's complicity . Throughout November , a series of alarmist pamphlets published stories of atrocities in Ireland , which included massacres of New English settlers by the native Irish who could not be controlled by the Old English lords . Rumours of " papist " conspiracies in England circulated the kingdom , and English anti @-@ Catholic opinion was strengthened , damaging Charles 's reputation and authority .
The English Parliament distrusted Charles 's motivations when he called for funds to put down the Irish rebellion ; many members of the Commons suspected that forces raised by Charles might later be used against Parliament itself . Pym 's Militia Bill was intended to wrest control of the army from the king , but it did not have the support of the Lords , let alone Charles . Instead , the Commons passed the bill as an ordinance , which they claimed did not require royal assent . The Militia Ordinance appears to have prompted more members of the Lords to support the king . In an attempt to strengthen his position , Charles generated great antipathy in London , which was already fast falling into anarchy , when he placed the Tower of London under the command of Colonel Thomas Lunsford , an infamous , albeit efficient , career officer . When rumours reached Charles that Parliament intended to impeach his wife for supposedly conspiring with the Irish rebels , the king decided to take drastic action .
= = = Five members = = =
Charles suspected , probably correctly , that some members of the English Parliament had colluded with the invading Scots . On 3 January , Charles directed Parliament to give up five members of the Commons – Pym , John Hampden , Denzil Holles , William Strode and Sir Arthur Haselrig – and one peer – Lord Mandeville – on the grounds of high treason . When Parliament refused , it was possibly Henrietta Maria who persuaded Charles to arrest the five members by force , which Charles intended to carry out personally . However , news of the warrant reached Parliament ahead of him , and the wanted men slipped away by boat shortly before Charles entered the House of Commons with an armed guard on 4 January 1642 . Having displaced the Speaker , William Lenthall , from his chair , the king asked him where the MPs had fled . Lenthall , on his knees , famously replied , " May it please your Majesty , I have neither eyes to see nor tongue to speak in this place but as the House is pleased to direct me , whose servant I am here . " Charles abjectly declared " all my birds have flown " , and was forced to retire , empty @-@ handed .
The botched arrest attempt was politically disastrous for Charles . No English sovereign had ever entered the House of Commons , and his unprecedented invasion of the chamber to arrest its members was considered a grave breach of parliamentary privilege . In one stroke Charles destroyed his supporters ' efforts to portray him as a defence against innovation and disorder .
Parliament quickly seized London , and Charles fled the capital for Hampton Court Palace on 10 January 1642 , moving two days later to Windsor Castle . After sending his wife and eldest daughter to safety abroad in February , he travelled northwards , hoping to seize the military arsenal at Hull . To his dismay , he was rebuffed by the town 's Parliamentary governor , Sir John Hotham , who refused him entry in April , and Charles was forced to withdraw .
= = English Civil War = =
In mid @-@ 1642 , both sides began to arm . Charles raised an army using the medieval method of commission of array , and Parliament called for volunteers for its militia . Following futile negotiations , Charles raised the royal standard in Nottingham on 22 August 1642 . At the start of the First English Civil War , Charles 's forces controlled roughly the Midlands , Wales , the West Country and northern England . He set up his court at Oxford . Parliament controlled London , the south @-@ east and East Anglia , as well as the English navy .
After a few skirmishes , the opposing forces met in earnest at Edgehill , on 23 October 1642 . Charles 's nephew Prince Rupert of the Rhine disagreed with the battle strategy of the royalist commander Lord Lindsey , and Charles sided with Rupert . Lindsey resigned , leaving Charles to assume overall command assisted by Lord Forth . Rupert 's cavalry successfully charged through the parliamentary ranks , but instead of swiftly returning to the field , rode off to plunder the parliamentary baggage train . Lindsey , acting as a colonel , was wounded and bled to death without medical attention . The battle ended inconclusively as the daylight faded .
In his own words , the experience of battle had left Charles " exceedingly and deeply grieved " . He regrouped at Oxford , turning down Rupert 's suggestion of an immediate attack on London . After a week , he set out for the capital on 3 November , capturing Brentford on the way while simultaneously continuing to negotiate with civic and parliamentary delegations . At Turnham Green on the outskirts of London , the royalist army met resistance from the city militia , and faced with a numerically superior force , Charles ordered a retreat . He over @-@ wintered in Oxford , strengthening the city 's defences and preparing for the next season 's campaign . Peace talks between the two sides collapsed in April .
The war continued indecisively over the next couple of years , and Henrietta Maria returned to Britain for 17 months from February 1643 . After Rupert captured Bristol in July 1643 , Charles visited the port city and lay siege to Gloucester , further up the river Severn . His plan to undermine the city walls failed due to heavy rain , and on the approach of a parliamentary relief force , Charles lifted the siege and withdrew to Sudeley Castle . The parliamentary army turned back towards London , and Charles set off in pursuit . The two armies met at Newbury , Berkshire , on 20 September . Just as at Edgehill , the battle stalemated at nightfall , and the armies disengaged . In January 1644 , Charles summoned a Parliament at Oxford , which was attended by about 40 peers and 118 members of the Commons ; all told , the Oxford Parliament , which sat until March 1645 , was supported by the majority of peers and about a third of the Commons . Charles became disillusioned by the assembly 's ineffectiveness , calling it a " mongrel " in private letters to his wife .
In 1644 , Charles remained in the southern half of England while Rupert rode north to relieve Newark and York , which were under threat from parliamentary and Scottish Covenanter armies . Charles was victorious at the battle of Cropredy Bridge in late June , but the royalists in the north were defeated at the battle of Marston Moor just a few days later . The king continued his campaign in the south , encircling and disarming the parliamentary army of the Earl of Essex . Returning northwards to his base at Oxford , he fought at Newbury for a second time before the winter closed in ; the battle ended indecisively . Attempts to negotiate a settlement over the winter , while both sides re @-@ armed and re @-@ organised , were again unsuccessful .
At the battle of Naseby on 14 June 1645 , Rupert 's horsemen again mounted a successful charge , against the flank of Parliament 's New Model Army , but Charles 's troops elsewhere on the field were pushed back by the opposing forces . Charles , attempting to rally his men , rode forward but as he did so , Lord Carnwath seized his bridle and pulled him back , fearing for the king 's safety . Carnwath 's action was misinterpreted by the royalist soldiers as a signal to move back , leading to a collapse of their position . The military balance tipped decisively in favour of Parliament . There followed a series of defeats for the royalists , and then the Siege of Oxford , from which Charles escaped ( disguised as a servant ) in April 1646 . He put himself into the hands of the Scottish Presbyterian army besieging Newark , and was taken northwards to Newcastle upon Tyne . After nine months of negotiations , the Scots finally arrived at an agreement with the English Parliament : in exchange for £ 100 @,@ 000 , and the promise of more money in the future , the Scots withdrew from Newcastle and delivered Charles to the parliamentary commissioners in January 1647 .
= = = Captivity = = =
Parliament held Charles under house arrest at Holdenby House in Northamptonshire until Cornet George Joyce took him by threat of force from Holdenby on 3 June in the name of the New Model Army . By this time , mutual suspicion had developed between Parliament , which favoured army disbandment and Presbyterianism , and the New Model Army , which was primarily officered by Independent non @-@ conformists who sought a greater political role . Charles was eager to exploit the widening divisions , and apparently viewed Joyce 's actions as an opportunity rather than a threat . He was taken first to Newmarket , at his own suggestion , and then transferred to Oatlands and subsequently Hampton Court , while more ultimately fruitless negotiations took place . By November , he determined that it would be in his best interests to escape – perhaps to France , Southern England or to Berwick @-@ upon @-@ Tweed , near the Scottish border . He fled Hampton Court on 11 November , and from the shores of Southampton Water made contact with Colonel Robert Hammond , Parliamentary Governor of the Isle of Wight , whom he apparently believed to be sympathetic . Hammond , however , confined Charles in Carisbrooke Castle and informed Parliament that Charles was in his custody .
From Carisbrooke , Charles continued to try to bargain with the various parties . In direct contrast to his previous conflict with the Scottish Kirk , on 26 December 1647 he signed a secret treaty with the Scots . Under the agreement , called the " Engagement " , the Scots undertook to invade England on Charles 's behalf and restore him to the throne on condition that Presbyterianism be established in England for three years .
The royalists rose in May 1648 , igniting the Second Civil War , and as agreed with Charles , the Scots invaded England . Uprisings in Kent , Essex , and Cumberland , and a rebellion in South Wales , were put down by the New Model Army , and with the defeat of the Scots at the Battle of Preston in August 1648 , the royalists lost any chance of winning the war .
Charles 's only recourse was to return to negotiations , which were held at Newport on the Isle of Wight . On 5 December 1648 , Parliament voted by 129 to 83 to continue negotiating with the king , but Oliver Cromwell and the army opposed any further talks with someone they viewed as a bloody tyrant and were already taking action to consolidate their power . Hammond was replaced as Governor of the Isle of Wight on 27 November , and placed in the custody of the army the following day . In Pride 's Purge on 6 and 7 December , the members of Parliament out of sympathy with the military were arrested or excluded by Colonel Thomas Pride , while others stayed away voluntarily . The remaining members formed the Rump Parliament . It was effectively a military coup .
= = Trial = =
Charles was moved to Hurst Castle at the end of 1648 , and thereafter to Windsor Castle . In January 1649 , the Rump House of Commons indicted him on a charge of treason , which was rejected by the House of Lords . The idea of trying a king was a novel one . The Chief Justices of the three common law courts of England – Henry Rolle , Oliver St John and John Wilde – all opposed the indictment as unlawful . The Rump Commons declared itself capable of legislating alone , passed a bill creating a separate court for Charles 's trial , and declared the bill an act without the need for royal assent . The High Court of Justice established by the Act consisted of 135 commissioners , but many either refused to serve or chose to stay away . Only 68 ( all firm Parliamentarians ) attended Charles 's trial on charges of high treason and " other high crimes " that began on 20 January 1649 in Westminster Hall . John Bradshaw acted as President of the Court , and the prosecution was led by the Solicitor General , John Cook .
Charles was accused of treason against England by using his power to pursue his personal interest rather than the good of the country . The charge stated that he , " for accomplishment of such his designs , and for the protecting of himself and his adherents in his and their wicked practices , to the same ends hath traitorously and maliciously levied war against the present Parliament , and the people therein represented " , and that the " wicked designs , wars , and evil practices of him , the said Charles Stuart , have been , and are carried on for the advancement and upholding of a personal interest of will , power , and pretended prerogative to himself and his family , against the public interest , common right , liberty , justice , and peace of the people of this nation . " Reflecting the modern concept of command responsibility , the indictment held him " guilty of all the treasons , murders , rapines , burnings , spoils , desolations , damages and mischiefs to this nation , acted and committed in the said wars , or occasioned thereby . " An estimated 300 @,@ 000 people , or 6 % of the population , died during the war .
Over the first three days of the trial , whenever Charles was asked to plead , he refused , stating his objection with the words : " I would know by what power I am called hither , by what lawful authority ... ? " He claimed that no court had jurisdiction over a monarch , that his own authority to rule had been given to him by God and by the traditional laws of England , and that the power wielded by those trying him was only that of force of arms . Charles insisted that the trial was illegal , explaining that ,
no earthly power can justly call me ( who am your King ) in question as a delinquent ... this day 's proceeding cannot be warranted by God 's laws ; for , on the contrary , the authority of obedience unto Kings is clearly warranted , and strictly commanded in both the Old and New Testament ... for the law of this land , I am no less confident , that no learned lawyer will affirm that an impeachment can lie against the King , they all going in his name : and one of their maxims is , that the King can do no wrong ... the higher House is totally excluded ; and for the House of Commons , it is too well known that the major part of them are detained or deterred from sitting ... the arms I took up were only to defend the fundamental laws of this kingdom against those who have supposed my power hath totally changed the ancient government .
The court , by contrast , challenged the doctrine of sovereign immunity , and proposed that " the King of England was not a person , but an office whose every occupant was entrusted with a limited power to govern ' by and according to the laws of the land and not otherwise ' . "
At the end of the third day , Charles was removed from the court , which then heard over 30 witnesses against the king in his absence over the next two days , and on 26 January condemned him to death . The following day , the king was brought before a public session of the commission , declared guilty and sentenced . Fifty @-@ nine of the commissioners signed Charles 's death warrant .
= = Execution = =
Charles 's beheading was scheduled for Tuesday , 30 January 1649 . Two of his children remained in England under the control of the Parliamentarians : Elizabeth and Henry . They were permitted to visit him on 29 January , and he bade them a tearful farewell . The following morning , he called for two shirts to prevent the cold weather causing any noticeable shivers that the crowd could have mistaken for fear : " the season is so sharp as probably may make me shake , which some observers may imagine proceeds from fear . I would have no such imputation . "
He walked under guard from St James 's Palace , where he had been confined , to the Palace of Whitehall , where an execution scaffold was erected in front of the Banqueting House . Charles was separated from spectators by large ranks of soldiers , and his last speech reached only those with him on the scaffold . He blamed his fate on his failure to prevent the execution of his loyal servant Strafford : " An unjust sentence that I suffered to take effect , is punished now by an unjust sentence on me . " He declared that he had desired the liberty and freedom of the people as much as any , " but I must tell you that their liberty and freedom consists in having government ... It is not their having a share in the government ; that is nothing appertaining unto them . A subject and a sovereign are clean different things . " He continued , " I shall go from a corruptible to an incorruptible Crown , where no disturbance can be . "
At about 2 : 00 p.m. , Charles put his head on the block after saying a prayer and signalled the executioner when he was ready by stretching out his hands ; he was then beheaded with one clean stroke . According to observer Philip Henry , a moan " as I never heard before and desire I may never hear again " rose from the assembled crowd , some of whom then dipped their handkerchiefs in the king 's blood as a memento .
The executioner was masked and disguised , and there is debate over his identity . The commissioners approached Richard Brandon , the common hangman of London , but he refused , at least at first , despite being offered £ 200 . It is possible he relented and undertook the commission after being threatened with death , but there are others who have been named as potential candidates , including George Joyce , William Hulet and Hugh Peters . The clean strike , confirmed by an examination of the king 's body at Windsor in 1813 , suggests that the execution was carried out by an experienced headsman .
It was common practice for the severed head of a traitor to be held up and exhibited to the crowd with the words " Behold the head of a traitor ! " Although Charles 's head was exhibited , the words were not used , possibly because the executioner did not want his voice recognised . On the day after the execution , the king 's head was sewn back onto his body , which was then embalmed and placed in a lead coffin .
The commission refused to allow Charles 's burial at Westminster Abbey , so his body was conveyed to Windsor on the night of 7 February . He was buried in private in the Henry VIII vault alongside the coffins of Henry VIII and Henry 's third wife , Jane Seymour , in St George 's Chapel , Windsor Castle , on 9 February 1649 . The king 's son , Charles II , later planned for an elaborate royal mausoleum to be erected in Hyde Park , London , but it was never built .
= = Legacy = =
Ten days after Charles 's execution , on the day of his interment , a memoir purporting to be written by the king appeared for sale . This book , the Eikon Basilike ( Greek : the " Royal Portrait " ) , contained an apologia for royal policies , and it proved an effective piece of royalist propaganda . John Milton wrote a Parliamentary rejoinder , the Eikonoklastes ( " The Iconoclast " ) , but the response made little headway against the pathos of the royalist book . Anglicans and royalists fashioned an image of martyrdom , and the Church of England canonised him as a saint , in the Convocations of Canterbury and York of 1660 . High Anglicans commemorated his martyrdom on the anniversary of his death and churches , such as those at Falmouth and Tunbridge Wells , were founded in his honour .
Partly inspired by his visit to the Spanish court in 1623 , Charles became a passionate and knowledgeable art collector , amassing one of the finest art collections ever assembled . His intimate courtiers including the Duke of Buckingham and the Earl of Arundel shared his interest and have been dubbed the Whitehall group . In Spain , he sat for a sketch by Velázquez , and acquired works by Titian and Correggio , among others . In England , his commissions included the ceiling of the Banqueting House , Whitehall , by Rubens and paintings by other artists from the Low Countries such as van Honthorst , Mytens , and van Dyck . In 1627 and 1628 , he purchased the entire collection of the Duke of Mantua , which included work by Titian , Correggio , Raphael , Caravaggio , del Sarto and Mantegna . Charles 's collection grew further to encompass Bernini , Bruegel , da Vinci , Holbein , Hollar , Tintoretto and Veronese , and self @-@ portraits by both Dürer and Rembrandt . By Charles 's death , there were an estimated 1760 paintings , most of which were sold and dispersed by Parliament .
With the monarchy overthrown , England became a republic or " Commonwealth " . The House of Lords was abolished by the Rump Commons , and executive power was assumed by a Council of State . All significant military opposition in Britain and Ireland was extinguished by the forces of Oliver Cromwell in the Third English Civil War and the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland . Cromwell forcibly disbanded the Rump Parliament in 1653 , thereby establishing The Protectorate with himself as Lord Protector . Upon his death in 1658 , he was briefly succeeded by his ineffective son , Richard . Parliament was reinstated , and the monarchy was restored to Charles I 's eldest son , Charles II , in 1660 .
= = = Assessments = = =
In the words of John Philipps Kenyon , " Charles Stuart is a man of contradictions and controversy " . Revered by high Tories who considered him a saintly martyr , he was condemned by Whig historians , such as Samuel Rawson Gardiner , who thought him duplicitous and delusional . In recent decades , most historians have criticised him , the main exception being Kevin Sharpe who offered a more sympathetic view of Charles that has not been widely adopted . While Sharpe argued that the king was a dynamic man of conscience , Professor Barry Coward thought Charles " was the most incompetent monarch of England since Henry VI " , a view shared by Ronald Hutton , who called him " the worst king we have had since the Middle Ages " .
Archbishop William Laud , who was beheaded by Parliament during the war , described Charles as " A mild and gracious prince who knew not how to be , or how to be made , great . " Charles was more sober and refined than his father , but he was intransigent and deliberately pursued unpopular policies that ultimately brought ruin on himself . Both Charles and James were advocates of the divine right of kings , but while James 's ambitions concerning absolute prerogative were tempered by compromise and consensus with his subjects , Charles believed that he had no need to compromise or even to explain his actions . He thought that he was answerable only to God . " Princes are not bound to give account of their actions , " he wrote , " but to God alone " .
= = Titles , styles , honours and arms = =
= = = Titles and styles = = =
23 December 1600 – 27 March 1625 : Duke of Albany , Marquess of Ormonde , Earl of Ross and Lord Ardmannoch
6 January 1605 – 27 March 1625 : Duke of York
6 November 1612 – 27 March 1625 : Duke of Cornwall and Rothesay
4 November 1616 – 27 March 1625 : Prince of Wales and Earl of Chester
27 March 1625 – 30 January 1649 : His Majesty The King
The official style of Charles I as king was " Charles , by the Grace of God , King of England , Scotland , France and Ireland , Defender of the Faith , etc . " The style " of France " was only nominal , and was used by every English monarch from Edward III to George III , regardless of the amount of French territory actually controlled . The authors of his death warrant referred to him as " Charles Stuart , King of England " .
= = = Honours = = =
KB : Knight of the Bath , 6 January 1605 – 27 March 1625
KG : Knight of the Garter , 24 April 1611 – 27 March 1625
= = = Arms = = =
As Duke of York , Charles bore the royal arms of the kingdom differenced by a label Argent of three points , each bearing three torteaux Gules . The Prince of Wales bore the royal arms differenced by a plain label Argent of three points . As king , Charles bore the royal arms undifferenced : Quarterly , I and IV Grandquarterly , Azure three fleurs @-@ de @-@ lis Or ( for France ) and Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or ( for England ) ; II Or a lion rampant within a tressure flory @-@ counter @-@ flory Gules ( for Scotland ) ; III Azure a harp Or stringed Argent ( for Ireland ) . In Scotland , the Scottish arms were placed in the first and fourth quarters with the English and French arms in the second quarter .
= = Issue = =
Charles had nine children , two of whom eventually succeeded as king , and two of whom died at or shortly after birth .
= = Ancestry = =
= Skagen Painters =
The Skagen Painters ( Danish : Skagensmalerne ) were a group of Scandinavian artists who gathered in the village of Skagen , the northernmost part of Denmark , from the late 1870s until the turn of the century . Skagen was a summer destination whose scenery and quality of light attracted northern artists to paint en plein air , emulating the French Impressionists — though members of the Skagen colony were also influenced by Realist movements such as the Barbizon school . They broke away from the rather rigid traditions of the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts and the Royal Swedish Academy of Arts , espousing the latest trends that they had learned in Paris . Among the group were Anna and Michael Ancher , Peder Severin Krøyer , Karl Madsen , Laurits Tuxen , Marie Krøyer , Carl Locher , Viggo Johansen and Thorvald Niss from Denmark , Oscar Björck and Johan Krouthén from Sweden , and Christian Krohg and Eilif Peterssen from Norway . The group gathered together regularly at the Brøndums Inn .
Skagen , in the very north of Jutland , was the largest fishing community in Denmark , with more than half of its population so engaged . Among the locals , fishermen were by far the most common subject for the Skagen painters . Skagen 's long beaches were exploited in the group 's landscapes ; P.S. Krøyer , one of the best @-@ known of the Skagen painters , was inspired by the light of the evening " Blue Hour " , which made the water and sky seem to optically merge . This is captured in one of his most famous paintings , Summer Evening at Skagen Beach – The Artist and his Wife ( 1899 ) . Although the painters had their own individual styles without any requirement to adhere to a common approach or manifest , one of their common interests was to paint scenes of their own social gatherings , playing cards , celebrating or simply eating together .
Michael Ancher drew attention to the attractions of the area when his Will He Round the Point ? ( 1885 ) was purchased by King Christian IX . He married Anna Brøndum , the only member of the group from Skagen , who became a pioneering female artist at a time when women were not permitted to study at Denmark 's Royal Academy . Today the Skagens Museum , founded in the dining room at Brøndum 's Hotel in October 1908 , hosts many of their works of art , some 1 @,@ 800 pieces in total . Many of the paintings have been digitized under the Google Art Project and are accessible online . Related exhibitions continue to be held ; in 2008 , the Arken Museum of Modern Art in Copenhagen presented " The Skagen Painters — In a New Light " , and in 2013 , the National Museum of Women in the Arts in Washington , D.C. presented " A World Apart : Anna Ancher and the Skagen Art Colony " .
= = History = =
The first notable artist to paint in Skagen was Martinus Rørbye ( 1803 – 1848 ) , one of the central figures of the Golden Age of Danish Painting . His first visit was in 1833 but he returned towards the end of his life in 1847 and 1848 . He is remembered in particular for his Men of Skagen on a Summer Evening in Fair Weather painted in 1848 . Another marine painter , Vilhelm Melbye ( 1824 – 1882 ) , visited Skagen in 1848 , painting his View over Skagen . According to Karl Madsen , the painter Peter Raadsig ( 1806 – 1882 ) also visited the town on several occasions between 1862 and 1870 , painting the dunes and the fishermen . Christian Blache ( 1838 – 1920 ) , another marine painter , first visited Skagen in 1869 when he painted his Grey Lighthouse . It was as a result of his influence that the poet and dramatist Holger Drachmann first visited the town in 1871 .
In the 1860s and 1870s , despite evolving trends in Europe , especially in Paris , embracing Realism and Impressionism , the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts and the Royal Swedish Academy of Arts refused to change their approach , insisting their students should continue to paint in the preferred styles of Historicism and Neoclassicism . Among those who were increasingly frustrated by this approach were Michael Ancher , Karl Madsen and Viggo Johansen who in the early 1870s were studying at the Royal Danish Academy in Copenhagen . Madsen , who had already visited Skagen in 1871 while staying with his uncle in nearby Frederikshavn , invited Ancher to join him there in 1874 , to paint the local fishermen . He became a friend of the Brøndum family who had a shop with a bar which was soon extended to become Brøndums Gastgiveri , a guest house . He was invited to their 15 @-@ year @-@ old daughter Anna 's confirmation and showed an immediate interest in her . The following year , he returned to Skagen with both Madsen and Viggo Johansen who had been strongly influenced by French Impressionism . In particular , Johansen began to paint open @-@ air scenes combining Impressionism with Realism .
In 1876 and especially in 1877 , several other artists spent the summer in Skagen , using the Brøndums ' house for accommodation and their frequent gatherings . Michael Ancher made Skagen his new home . He became engaged to Anna Brøndum in 1878 and married her in 1880 . Their home then became a focal point for the artists , especially after King Christian IX bought Ancher 's painting Will He Round the Point ? . Anna Ancher first took a serious interest in painting after the artists began to stay in her family 's inn , leaving their paintings to dry in their rooms when they left for the day . She studied them carefully and in 1875 attended Vilhelm Kyhn 's art school in Copenhagen . She was later influenced by Christian Krohg who taught her the art of painting people in their everyday lives and making full use of colour . Krohg first came to Skagen in the summer of 1878 , encouraged by Georg Brandes whom he had met in Berlin . He brought many of the latest international art trends with him , influencing the other members of the group . His encounters with the local population also exerted a strong influence on his own work .
In 1882 , the Anchers travelled abroad . While they were in Vienna , they met P.S. Krøyer who informed them he would also be going to Skagen that year , despite the fact that Ancher was apparently not too keen to have him there . Krøyer , who had enjoyed close contacts with several Impressionist artists in Paris , immediately became the central member and unofficial leader of the artists ' colony . In 1883 , he created the " Evening Academy " where the artists gathered to paint and discuss each other 's work , often enjoying champagne . In 1884 , the German painter Fritz Stoltenberg took photographs of the artists celebrating in the Anchers ' garden , just after the couple had moved into their new home . One of these photos in particular inspired Krøyer to paint Hip , Hip , Hurrah ! , which took him four years to complete .
In 1890 , the railway 's arrival in Skagen not only led to the expansion of the village but also brought in considerable numbers of tourists . It was largely responsible for breaking up the regular summer meetings of the artists as they could no longer find suitable accommodation or venues for their meetings . However , some of them purchased homes in Skagen : P.S. Krøyer in 1894 , Laurits Tuxen in 1901 and Holger Drachmann in 1903 .
Anna and Michael Ancher , Krøyer and Tuxen continued to paint in Skagen until well into the 20th century and were occasionally joined by their earlier friends . Two core members of the group , Drachmann and Krøyer , died in 1908 and 1909 , bringing the traditional gatherings of the group to an end . There were nevertheless other painters , sometimes referred to as the younger group of Skagen painters , who continued to visit the area . They included Jørgen Aabye , Tupsy and Gad Frederik Clement , Ella Heide , Ludvig Karsten , Frederik Lange and Johannes Wilhjelm , some of whom settled in the area until the 1930s or even later . Skagens Museum has a number of their works in its collection . Another notable artist who visited Skagen from 1906 was J.F. Willumsen who painted Children Bathing on Skagen Beach in 1909 .
= = Family relationships = =
The Skagen painters quickly began to form a close @-@ knit community as relationships grew between the artists and the young women from the area . In 1880 , Michael Ancher married Anna Brøndum from the guest house , Viggo Johansen married Martha Møller , Anna 's cousin , and Karl Madsen married Helene Christensen , a schoolteacher . The house the Anchers moved into in 1884 became a focus for the artists ' colony , especially as the couple lived there all the year round . When their daughter Helga ( the little girl in Hip , Hip , Hurrah ! ) died in 1964 , she left the house to a foundation which soon turned it into a museum . The Johansens acquired a large family between 1881 and 1886 : Ellen Henriette ( daughter of Henriette , Martha 's sister , who died during childbirth ) , Lars , Fritz , Gerda and Bodil . They can be seen dancing around the Christmas tree in Johansen 's painting Merry Christmas .
Another key figure in Skagen , P.S. Krøyer , married Marie Triepcke after falling in love with her in Paris in 1888 . The daughter of a prosperous German loomery engineer , she was said to be the most beautiful woman in Copenhagen . However , as the years went by , Krøyer 's health began to deteriorate and Marie was increasingly unhappy with their marriage . The marriage finally ended in a divorce in 1905 when Marie became pregnant after an affair with the composer Hugo Alfvén whom she then married . Krøyer died in Skagen four years later , apparently as a result of mental illness .
In 1901 , after the death of his first wife Ursule , Laurits Tuxen married Frederikke Treschow , a Norwegian , and shortly afterwards purchased Madam Bendsen 's house in Skagen where first Viggo and Martha Johansen and later Marie and P.S. Krøyer had stayed in the 1880s . He converted it into a stately summer residence . Michael Ancher and Laurits Tuxen died in 1927 , Anna Ancher and Viggo Johansen in 1935 .
= = Members of the group = =
The principal Danish painters included Karl Madsen , Laurits Tuxen , Marie Krøyer , Carl Locher , Viggo Johansen , Thorvald Niss , and most notably , Anna and Michael Ancher and Peder Severin Krøyer . There were also painters from the rest of Scandinavia including Oscar Björck and Johan Krouthén from Sweden and Christian Krohg and Eilif Peterssen from Norway . The gatherings in Skagen were not restricted to painters . The Danish writers Georg Brandes , Holger Drachmann and Henrik Pontoppidan and the Swedish composer Hugo Alfvén were also members of the group .
A number of other artists also joined the Skagen Painters for shorter periods . From Denmark they included Vilhelm Kyhn , Einar Hein and Frederik Lange , from Norway Frits Thaulow , Charles Lundh and Wilhelm Peters , from Sweden Wilhelm von Gegerfelt and Anna Palm de Rosa , from Germany Fritz Stoltenberg and Julius Runge , and from England Adrian Stokes and his Austrian @-@ born wife , Marianne Stokes . The Danish composer Carl Nielsen and his wife Anne Marie , a sculptor , also spent summers in Skagen and eventually bought a summerhouse there .
= = = Anna Ancher = = =
The only member of the group born in Skagen , Anna Ancher ( 1859 – 1935 ) , was the daughter of Erik Brøndum , the owner of the grocery shop and guest house which later became Brøndums Hotel . Inspired by the artists who stayed there , she received her first lessons from Karl Madsen , Viggo Johansen and Michael Ancher . From 1875 , she spent several winters in Copenhagen at Vilhelm Kyhn 's school for women painters . As a result of her portraits of family and friends as well as her skills as a colourist , she is considered to be one of Denmark 's finest artists although her talents were not fully appreciated until after her death . Her works depict scenes from the home , children and women and religious life in Skagen . She now stands out as a pioneer at a time when women were not expected to become artists and were not admitted to the Royal Danish Academy . Unlike her husband , she adopted a style of Realism , inspired above all by Christian Krohg . Commenting on her Blind Woman ( 1882 ) in which the face is illuminated in an otherwise dark portrait , Madsen pointed out that she was the first Danish artist to depict a sunbeam . Her most cherished works include Girl in the Kitchen ( 1886 ) , Sunlight in the Blue Room ( 1891 ) and A Mission Meeting ( 1903 ) .
= = = Michael Ancher = = =
Michael Ancher ( 1849 – 1927 ) , originally from the island of Bornholm , was invited to Skagen in 1874 by his friend Karl Madsen with whom he was studying at the Academy . In 1880 , he married Anna Brøndum and settled in Skagen . He achieved his artistic breakthrough in 1879 with the painting Will he Round the Point ? which was bought by Christian IX . Several other works by Ancher depict Skagen 's heroic fishermen and their dramatic experiences at sea , combining Realism and with classical composition . Key works include The Lifeboat is Carried Through The Dunes ( 1883 ) , The Crew Are Saved ( 1894 ) and The Drowned Man ( 1896 ) . He also painted portraits and landscapes , especially of Skagen 's Østerby district . Many of his paintings can be seen in Skagens Museum . Michael Ancher has become one of Denmark 's most cherished painters .
= = = P.S. Krøyer = = =
Born in Stavanger , Norway , but brought up in Copenhagen , Peder Severin Krøyer ( 1851 – 1909 ) came to Skagen in 1882 and returned almost every summer , finally settling there after marrying Marie Triepcke in 1889 . He had already gained a reputation for his paintings of the fishermen in Hornbæk on the north coast of Zealand and had been influenced by the Impressionist movement in his travels to France . In Skagen , he became one of the central and most enthusiastic members of the group of painters , creating masterpieces emphasizing the special effects of the local light in his beach scenes while painting several memorable works recording the lively gatherings of the artists . Key works include Summer Evening on Skagen 's Southern Beach ( 1893 ) , In the Grocer 's Store When There is No Fishing ( 1892 ) , and Midsummer Eve Bonfire on Skagen Beach ( 1906 ) which shows many members of the community including Krøyer 's daughter Vibeke , mayor Otto Schwartz and his wife Alba Schwartz , Michael Ancher , Degn Brøndum , Anna Ancher , Holger Drachmann and his third wife Soffi , Hugo Alfvén and Marie Krøyer .
= = = Viggo Johansen = = =
Viggo Johansen ( 1851 – 1935 ) , who had studied at the Royal Academy with Michael Ancher ( also without graduating ) , first went to Skagen in 1875 . An active member of the group , he married Anna Ancher 's cousin Martha Møller in 1880 . From 1885 , he exhibited in Paris where he was inspired by Claude Monet . His paintings took on lighter tones as he had noted the absence of black in the works of the French artists and considered his own earlier works too dark by comparison . Monet 's use of colour is reflected in his painting Christian Bindslev is ill ( 1890 ) . The work displays stronger contrasts than his earlier paintings , depicting the red @-@ bearded Christian looking out towards the light at the foot of his bed where the flaming gold and white sunlight streams down onto the little blue cupboard on the wall . Among the works he painted in Skagen are Kitchen Interior ( 1884 ) which depicts his wife Martha arranging flowers , and the much brighter Dividing the Catch ( 1885 ) showing four fishermen who have pulled their boat up onto the beach while one of their wives hopes there will be something for the evening meal . After falling out with P.S. Krøyer in 1891 , Johansen 's relationship with the Anchers was strained and he and his family did not visit Skagen for several years but finally returned in 1903 . In 1906 , he became a professor at the Royal Academy where he was director from 1911 to 1914 .
= = = Carl Locher = = =
Somewhat forgotten today , Carl Locher ( 1851 – 1915 ) was one of the earlier visitors to Skagen . Holgen Drachmann , who had taught him before he attended the Royal Academy , persuaded him to go there in 1872 . Especially interested in marine painting , Locher adopted a realist impressionistic approach , influenced by the time he spent with Léon Bonnat in Paris during the 1870s . A stickler for perfection , especially in his drawings , his works cover the transition from sailing ships to steamships and from the original Skagen to the evolving tourist destination . His paintings include Fishing Cutters in the Moonlit Night , 1888 , The Lightship at Skagen Reef ( 1892 ) and above all The Mail Coach ( c . 1890 ) which depicts the horse @-@ drawn carriage which until the railway reached Skagen in 1890 was the way travellers arrived there from Frederikshavn . In 1910 , Locher built a house overlooking the beach at Skagen Østerby where he painted until he died of heart trouble in 1913 .
= = = Laurits Tuxen = = =
Born and raised in Copenhagen , Laurits Tuxen ( 1853 – 1927 ) studied at the Royal Danish Academy together with P.S. Krøyer where he was considered to be one of the best painters . In 1875 , he began to study in Paris in Léon Bonnat 's studio with whom he also worked in subsequent years . His Suzanna i Badet ( 1878 ) , first painted in Paris , was warmly received in the Copenhagen spring exhibition in 1879 . He first visited Skagen in 1870 but after a few more visits in the 1870s , did not return until 1901 . After his first wife died of tuberculosis , he married the Norwegian Frederikke Treschow and bought a house in Skagen . There he painted a number of pictures depicting family and friends as well as landscapes . Among the works from Skagen are The North Sea in Stormy Weather ( 1909 ) , the powerful The Drowned Boy is Brought Ashore ( 1913 ) inspired by paintings of drownings he saw in France and Pouring the Morning Coffee ( 1906 ) depicting Tuxen 's wife Frederikke and his daughters Yvonne and Nina in their Skagen home , Villa Dagminne . Through his use of colour , brushstrokes and backlighting through the window flowers , the artist creates a homely atmosphere . Tuxen 's most famous paintings are however his portraits of European royal personalities , including Christian IX of Denmark , Queen Victoria and Czar Nicholas II .
= = = Christian Krohg = = =
The Norwegian Christian Krohg ( 1852 – 1925 ) first visited Skagen with Frits Thaulow in 1879 . One of the most important figures in Norwegian art , he first studied law but his interest in art was triggered by his friendship with fellow student Eilif Peterssen . He attended J.F. Eckersberg 's painting school in Christiania ( now Oslo ) before moving to Karlsruhe and Berlin where he studied under Karl Gussow , specializing in figure painting in the new idiom of Realism . In Berlin , he also developed a friendship with Georg Brandes . In 1879 he returned to Christiania before travelling to Skagen where he achieved his artistic breakthrough , attracted by the simple lives of the local fishermen . Depicting a fisherman at sea , his Babord litt ( 1879 ) is considered to be one of his early masterpieces . His association with Ancher , Krøyer and the other members of the colony had a marked effect on his style as can be seen in the works he painted on returning to Norway . He went to Paris in 1881 – 82 , where was influenced by Édouard Manet and the Impressionist movement . His experience of French art can be seen in several of his later Skagen paintings , including Tired ( 1885 ) and Braiding Her Hair ( 1888 ) in which the mother and child unusually have their backs facing the observer . His lighter palette with bold brushstrokes and contrasting tones of blue , red and green give the painting a deeper texture .
= = = Marie Krøyer = = =
Marie Krøyer née Triepcke ( 1867 – 1940 ) came from a well @-@ to @-@ do German family living in Copenhagen . From an early age she aspired to become an artist and after training privately she went to Paris to continue her studies . It was there , in early 1889 , that she met Krøyer who immediately fell madly in love with her . Although he was 16 years her senior , the couple married that summer . In 1891 , they settled in Skagen , giving Krøyer ample opportunity to paint portraits of Marie , both indoors and especially on the beach . The summers Krøyer spent together with his wife in the 1890s were clearly a source of inspiration for him , especially as Marie had a strong sense of beauty herself , often quoting Keats ' " Beauty is truth , truth beauty " . As a result of the periods of mental illness Krøyer experienced from 1900 , the marriage fell apart . In 1912 , she married Hugo Alfvén who had also been taken by her beauty . It is believed Marie was reluctant to paint after meeting Krøyer whom she looked up to as a far more competent artist . A few of her works have nevertheless survived , including Interior with Girl Sewing .
= = Styles of painting = =
Encouraged by the Modern Breakthrough movement led by Georg Brandes , the early painters were attracted by Skagen 's village community , its seascapes and culture , all far removed from the effects of industrialization on city life . They all recognized the special light they encountered in Skagen , a combination of its location in the far north of Denmark and , by some accounts , the effects of sand in the air . Their painting styles evolved from the formal Neoclassical approach of the Royal Academy in Copenhagen to embrace the evolving European trends in Realism and Impressionism , including the plein air approach adopted by the Barbizon School . The artists were especially attracted by the opportunities for painting en plein air , focusing on the activities of the local fishermen and their modest cottages . In the absence of any rules within the colony , the painters freely developed their individual styles . Nevertheless , one of the interests they shared was to paint scenes of their own social gatherings , whether playing cards , celebrating or simply eating together .
By adopting the plein @-@ air approach , the painters were able to create their works in the open , immediately capturing the special effects of light and colour on their subjects . Fishermen were considered an especially interesting group in view of their dangerous work and their heroic behaviour . Lars Kruse , depicted by Michael Ancher , was famous for his success in rescuing a number of sailors who would otherwise have drowned . P.S. Krøyer 's works were less dramatic , depicting fishermen pulling their nets in after a day at sea . While some of the paintings portrayed authentic occurrences , the artists often paid the fishermen to act as models , supplementing their modest incomes . Krøyer 's works also included scenes of walks on the beach , romantic evenings in the moonlight and portraits of his wife Marie . As time went by , Krøyer increasingly painted " moods " , works which depicted the special atmosphere of the " Blue Hour " which developed in the evening as the sky merged with the sea . In addition to his landscapes and family portraits , Laurits Tuxen is remembered for painting the flowers in his garden . Anna Ancher 's paintings , on the other hand , focused on interiors of the home , including women and children , in a more abstract style .
= = Skagens Museum = =
Skagens Museum was founded in the dining room at Brøndums Hotel in October 1908 . Victor Christian Klæbel , the local pharmacist , Degn Brøndum , proprietor of Brøndums Hotel and Anna Ancher 's brother , and Michael Ancher , Krøyer and Tuxen were elected to form the first board of governors . After P.S. Krøyer 's death in 1909 , his house in Skagen Plantation was used as a museum . In 1919 , Degn Brøndum donated the old hotel 's garden to Skagens Museum as a site for a new building . Work started in 1926 and was completed in September 1928 when the new museum was officially opened .
In 1982 , the exhibition rooms were extended with an annex designed by the Royal Surveyor , architect Jacob Blegvad , who also planned the later extension to the museum inaugurated in 1989 . In 1997 , the museum administration moved into the Technical School . Today Skagens Museum has more than 1 @,@ 800 works of art . Many of the museum 's paintings have been digitized under the Google Art Project and are accessible online .
= = Films = =
The Skagen artists were the subject of the 1987 film Hip Hip Hurra ! by the Swedish director Kjell Grede , inspired by Krøyer 's famous painting .
In 2012 , the film The Passion of Marie , directed by Bille August , covered Marie 's increasingly difficult relationship with her husband P.S. Krøyer . The film is based on the book Balladen om Marie by Anastassia Arnold .
= = Exhibitions = =
There have been a number of exhibitions of the Skagen Painters in recent years . In 2008 , the Arken Museum of Modern Art in Copenhagen presented " The Skagen Painters — In a New Light " , contrasting the paintings depicting the artists with those of the fishermen . In 2011 , the Hirschsprung Museum in Copenhagen succeeded in arranging the largest exhibition of Krøyer 's work titled : " Krøyer — i internationalt lys " ( Krøyer — in international light ) , with works from museums and private collections in France , Germany , the United States and Scandinavia . The National Museum of Women in the Arts in Washington , D.C. presented " A World Apart : Anna Ancher and the Skagen Art Colony " in 2013 . It was the largest exhibition of Anna Ancher 's paintings ever held in the United States . In 2014 , Skagens Museum , which frequently presents new aspects of the work of the Skagen Painters , concentrated its efforts on " Laurits Tuxen — colour , countryside and crown " , presenting many works held in private collections illustrating the artist 's involvement in establishing Kunstnernes Studieskole ( The Artists ' School of Study ) in Copenhagen as well as his work as a court painter .
A major exhibition of paintings by the Skagen Painters titled Michael Ancher – P.S. Krøyer : Venner og Rivaler ( Friends and Rivals ) is to be held at Arken , Copenhagen from 27 September 2014 to 12 April 2015 .
= = Gallery of paintings = =
The gallery presents a selection of paintings by the Skagen artists , roughly in chronological order .
= Betelgeuse =
Betelgeuse , also known by its Bayer designation Alpha Orionis ( shortened to α Orionis or α Ori ) , is the ninth @-@ brightest star in the night sky and second @-@ brightest in the constellation of Orion . Distinctly reddish , it is a semiregular variable star whose apparent magnitude varies between 0 @.@ 0 and 1 @.@ 3 , the widest range of any first @-@ magnitude star . Betelgeuse is one of three stars that make up the Winter Triangle , and it marks the center of the Winter Hexagon . The star 's name is derived from the Arabic إبط الجوزاء Ibt al @-@ Jauzā ' or يد الجوزاء Yad al @-@ Jauzā ' , meaning " the hand of Orion " .
The star is classified as a red supergiant of spectral type M1 @-@ 2 and is one of the largest and most luminous observable stars . If Betelgeuse were at the center of the Solar System , its surface would extend past the asteroid belt , possibly to the orbit of Jupiter and beyond , wholly engulfing Mercury , Venus , Earth and Mars . Estimates of its mass are poorly constrained , but range from 5 to 30 times that of the Sun . Its distance from Earth was estimated in 2008 at 640 light @-@ years , yielding a mean absolute magnitude of about − 6 . Less than 10 million years old , Betelgeuse has evolved rapidly because of its high mass . Having been ejected from its birthplace in the Orion OB1 Association — which includes the stars in Orion 's Belt — this crimson runaway has been observed moving through the interstellar medium at a supersonic speed of 30 km / s , creating a bow shock over 4 light @-@ years wide . Currently in a late stage of stellar evolution , the supergiant is expected to proceed through its life cycle before exploding as a type II supernova within the next million years . An observation by the Herschel Space Observatory in January 2013 revealed that the star 's winds are crashing against the surrounding interstellar medium .
In 1920 , Betelgeuse became the second star ( after the Sun ) to have the angular size of its photosphere measured . Since then , researchers have used telescopes with different technical parameters to measure the stellar giant , often with conflicting results . Studies since 1990 have produced an angular diameter ( apparent size ) ranging from 0 @.@ 043 to 0 @.@ 056 arcseconds , an incongruity largely caused by the star 's tendency to periodically change shape . Due to limb darkening , variability , and angular diameters that vary with wavelength , many of the star 's properties are not yet known with any certainty . Adding to these challenges , the surface of Betelgeuse is obscured by a complex , asymmetric envelope roughly 250 times the size of the star , caused by colossal mass loss .
= = Observational history = =
Betelgeuse and its red coloration have been noted since antiquity ; the classical astronomer Ptolemy described its color as ὑπόκιρρος ( hypókirrhos ) , a term that was later described by a translator of Ulugh Beg 's Zij @-@ i Sultani as rubedo , Latin for " ruddiness " . In the nineteenth century , before modern systems of stellar classification , Angelo Secchi included Betelgeuse as one of the prototypes for his Class III ( orange to red ) stars . By contrast , three centuries before Ptolemy , Chinese astronomers observed Betelgeuse as having a yellow coloration , suggesting that the star may have spent time as a yellow supergiant around the beginning of the common era , a possibility given current research into the complex circumstellar environment of these stars .
= = = Nascent discoveries = = =
The variation in Betelgeuse 's brightness was first described in 1836 by Sir John Herschel , when he published his observations in Outlines of Astronomy . From 1836 to 1840 , he noticed significant changes in magnitude when Betelgeuse outshone Rigel in October 1837 and again in November 1839 . A 10 @-@ year quiescent period followed ; then in 1849 , Herschel noted another short cycle of variability , which peaked in 1852 . Later observers recorded unusually high maxima with an interval of years , but only small variations from 1957 to 1967 . The records of the American Association of Variable Star Observers ( AAVSO ) show a maximum brightness of 0 @.@ 2 in 1933 and 1942 , and a minimum of 1 @.@ 2 , observed in 1927 and 1941 . This variability in brightness may explain why Johann Bayer , with the publication of his Uranometria in 1603 , designated the star alpha as it may have rivaled the usually brighter Rigel ( beta ) . From Arctic latitudes , Betelgeuse 's red colour and higher location in the sky than Rigel meant the Inuit regarded it as brighter , and one local name was Ulluriajjuaq " large star " .
In 1920 , Albert Michelson and Francis Pease mounted a 6 @-@ meter interferometer on the front of the 2 @.@ 5 @-@ meter telescope at Mount Wilson Observatory . Helped by John Anderson , the trio measured the angular diameter of Betelgeuse at 0 @.@ 047 " , a figure which resulted in a diameter of 3 @.@ 84 × 108 km ( 2 @.@ 58 AU ) based on the parallax value of 0 @.@ 018 " . However , limb darkening and measurement errors resulted in uncertainty about the accuracy of these measurements .
The 1950s and 1960s saw two developments that would impact stellar convection theory in red supergiants : the Stratoscope projects and the 1958 publication of Structure and Evolution of the Stars , principally the work of Martin Schwarzschild and his colleague at Princeton University , Richard Härm . This book disseminated ideas on how to apply computer technologies to create stellar models , while the Stratoscope projects , by taking balloon @-@ borne telescopes above the Earth 's turbulence , produced some of the finest images of solar granules and sunspots ever seen , thus confirming the existence of convection in the solar atmosphere .
= = = Imaging breakthroughs = = =
Astronomers in the 1970s saw some major advances in astronomical imaging technology beginning with Antoine Labeyrie 's invention of speckle interferometry , a process that significantly reduced the blurring effect caused by astronomical seeing . It increased the optical resolution of ground @-@ based telescopes , allowing for more precise measurements of Betelgeuse 's photosphere . With improvements in infrared telescopy atop Mount Wilson , Mount Locke and Mauna Kea in Hawaii , astrophysicists began peering into the complex circumstellar shells surrounding the supergiant , causing them to suspect the presence of huge gas bubbles resulting from convection . But it was not until the late 1980s and early 1990s , when Betelgeuse became a regular target for aperture masking interferometry , that breakthroughs occurred in visible @-@ light and infrared imaging . Pioneered by John E. Baldwin and colleagues of the Cavendish Astrophysics Group , the new technique employed a small mask with several holes in the telescope pupil plane , converting the aperture into an ad @-@ hoc interferometric array . The technique contributed some of the most accurate measurements of Betelgeuse while revealing bright spots on the star 's photosphere . These were the first optical and infrared images of a stellar disk other than the Sun , taken first from ground @-@ based interferometers and later from higher @-@ resolution observations of the COAST telescope . The " bright patches " or " hotspots " observed with these instruments appeared to corroborate a theory put forth by Schwarzschild decades earlier of massive convection cells dominating the stellar surface .
In 1995 , the Hubble Space Telescope 's Faint Object Camera captured an ultraviolet image with a resolution superior to that obtained by ground @-@ based interferometers — the first conventional @-@ telescope image ( or " direct @-@ image " in NASA terminology ) of the disk of another star . Because ultraviolet light is absorbed by the Earth 's atmosphere , observations at these wavelengths are best performed by space telescopes . Like earlier pictures , this image contained a bright patch indicating a region in the southwestern quadrant 2000 K hotter than the stellar surface . Subsequent ultraviolet spectra taken with the Goddard High Resolution Spectrograph suggested that the hot spot was one of Betelgeuse 's poles of rotation . This would give the rotational axis an inclination of about 20 ° to the direction of Earth , and a position angle from celestial North of about 55 ° .
= = = Recent studies = = =
In a study published in December 2000 , the star 's diameter was measured with the Infrared Spatial Interferometer ( ISI ) at mid @-@ infrared wavelengths producing a limb @-@ darkened estimate of 55 @.@ 2 ± 0 @.@ 5 milliarcseconds ( mas ) — a figure entirely consistent with Michelson 's findings eighty years earlier . At the time of its publication , the estimated parallax from the Hipparcos mission was 7 @.@ 63 ± 1 @.@ 64 mas , yielding an estimated radius for Betelgeuse of 3 @.@ 6 AU . However , numerous interferometric studies in the near @-@ infrared made at the Paranal Observatory in Chile argue for much tighter diameters . On 9 June 2009 , Nobel Laureate Charles Townes announced that the star had shrunk by 15 % since 1993 at an increasing rate without a significant diminution in magnitude . Subsequent observations suggest that the apparent contraction may be due to shell activity in the star 's extended atmosphere .
In addition to the discussion of the star 's diameter , questions have arisen about the complex dynamics of Betelgeuse 's extended atmosphere . The mass that makes up galaxies is recycled as stars are formed and destroyed , and red supergiants are major contributors , yet the mechanics of stellar mass loss remain a mystery . With advances in interferometric methodologies , astronomers may be close to resolving this conundrum . In July 2009 , images released by the European Southern Observatory , taken by the ground @-@ based Very Large Telescope Interferometer ( VLTI ) , showed a vast plume of gas being ejected from the star into the surrounding atmosphere with distances approximating 30 AU . This mass ejection was equal to the distance between the Sun and Neptune and is one of multiple events occurring in Betelgeuse 's surrounding atmosphere . Astronomers have identified at least six shells surrounding Betelgeuse . Solving the mystery of mass loss in the late stages of a star 's evolution may reveal those factors that precipitate the explosive deaths of these stellar giants .
= = Visibility = =
In the night sky , Betelgeuse is easy to spot with the naked eye owing to its distinctive orange @-@ red color . In the Northern Hemisphere , beginning in January of each year , it can be seen rising in the east just after sunset . By mid @-@ September to mid @-@ March ( best in mid @-@ December ) , it is visible to virtually every inhabited region of the globe , except for a few research stations in Antarctica at latitudes south of 82 ° . In May ( moderate northern latitudes ) or June ( southern latitudes ) , the red supergiant can be seen briefly on the western horizon after sunset , reappearing again a few months later on the eastern horizon before sunrise . In the intermediate period ( June – July ) it is invisible to the naked eye ( visible only with a telescope in daylight ) , unless around midday ( when the Sun is below horizon ) on Antarctic regions between 70 ° and 80 ° south latitude .
The mean apparent magnitude of Betelgeuse is 0 @.@ 50 , making it on average the eighth brightest star in the celestial sphere excluding the Sun . Because Betelgeuse is a variable star whose brightness ranges between 0 @.@ 0 and 1 @.@ 3 , there are periods when it will surpass Procyon to become the seventh brightest star . Occasionally it can even outshine Rigel and become the sixth brightest star . At its faintest , Betelgeuse will fall behind Deneb and Mimosa as 20th brightest star .
Betelgeuse has a color index ( B – V ) of 1 @.@ 85 — a figure which points to its advanced " redness " . The photosphere has an extended atmosphere , which displays strong lines of emission rather than absorption , a phenomenon that occurs when a star is surrounded by a thick gaseous envelope . This extended gaseous atmosphere has been observed moving away from and towards Betelgeuse , depending on radial velocity fluctuations in the photosphere . Betelgeuse is the brightest near @-@ infrared source in the sky with a J band magnitude of − 2 @.@ 99 . As a result , only about 13 % of the star 's radiant energy is emitted in the form of visible light . If human eyes were sensitive to radiation at all wavelengths , Betelgeuse would appear as the brightest star in the sky .
= = = Parallax = = =
Since the first successful parallax measurement by Friedrich Bessel in 1838 , astronomers have been puzzled by Betelgeuse 's apparent distance . Knowledge of the star 's distance improves the accuracy of other stellar parameters , such as luminosity that , when combined with an angular diameter , can be used to calculate the physical radius and effective temperature ; luminosity and isotopic abundances can also be used to estimate the stellar age and mass . In 1920 , when the first interferometric studies were performed on the star 's diameter , the assumed parallax was 0 @.@ 0180 arcseconds . This equated to a distance of 56 parsecs ( pc ) or roughly 180 light @-@ years ( ly ) , producing not only an inaccurate radius for the star but every other stellar characteristic . Since then , there has been ongoing work to measure the distance of Betelgeuse , with proposed distances as high as 400 pc or about 1300 ly .
Before the publication of the Hipparcos Catalogue ( 1997 ) , there were two conflicting parallax measurements for Betelgeuse . The first was the Yale University Observatory ( 1991 ) with a published parallax of π
= 9 @.@ 8 ± 4 @.@ 7 mas , yielding a distance of roughly 102 pc or 330 ly . The second was the Hipparcos Input Catalogue ( 1993 ) with a trigonometric parallax of π =
5 ± 4 mas , a distance of 200 pc or 650 ly — almost twice the Yale estimate . Given this uncertainty , researchers were adopting a wide range of distance estimates , leading to significant variances in the calculation of the star 's attributes .
The results from the Hipparcos mission were released in 1997 . The measured parallax of Betelgeuse was π
= 7 @.@ 63 ± 1 @.@ 64 mas , which equated to a distance of 131 pc or roughly 430 ly , and had a smaller reported error than previous measurements . However , later evaluation of the Hipparcos parallax measurements for variable stars like Betelgeuse found that the uncertainty of these measurements had been underestimated . In 2007 , Floor van Leeuwen improved upon the Hipparcos parallax , producing a new figure of π =
6 @.@ 55 ± 0 @.@ 83 , hence a much tighter error factor yielding a distance of roughly 152 ± 20 pc or 520 ± 73 ly .
In 2008 , Graham Harper and colleagues , using the Very Large Array ( VLA ) , produced a radio solution of π = 5 @.@ 07 ± 1 @.@ 10 mas , equalling a distance of 197 ± 45 pc or 643 ± 146 ly . As Harper points out : " The revised Hipparcos parallax leads to a larger distance ( 152 ± 20 pc ) than the original ; however , the astrometric solution still requires a significant cosmic noise of 2 @.@ 4 mas . Given these results it is clear that the Hipparcos data still contain systematic errors of unknown origin . " Although the radio data also have systematic errors , the Harper solution combines the datasets in the hope of mitigating such errors . The European Space Agency 's current Gaia mission may not improve over the measurements of Betelgeuse by the earlier Hipparcos mission because it is brighter than the approximately V = 6 saturation limit of the mission 's instruments .
= = = Variability = = =
Betelgeuse is classified as a semiregular variable star of subgroup SRc ; these are pulsating red supergiants with low @-@ amplitude variations and periods of stable brightness . Different hypotheses have been put forward to explain Betelgeuse 's pulsations and their rhythm — which result in an absolute magnitude oscillation from − 5 @.@ 27 and − 6 @.@ 27 . Established theories of stellar structure suggest that the outer layers of this supergiant gradually expand and contract , causing the surface area ( photosphere ) to alternately increase and decrease , and the temperature to rise and fall — thereby eliciting the measured cadence in the star 's brightness between its dimmest magnitude of 1 @.@ 2 , seen as early as 1927 , and its brightest of 0 @.@ 2 , seen in 1933 and 1942 . A red supergiant like Betelgeuse will pulsate this way because its stellar atmosphere is unstable . As the star contracts , it absorbs more and more of the energy that passes through it , causing the atmosphere to heat up and expand . Conversely , as the star expands , its atmosphere becomes less dense , allowing the energy to escape and the atmosphere to cool , thus initiating a new contraction phase . Calculating the star 's pulsations and modeling its periodicity have been difficult , as it appears there are several cycles interlaced . As discussed in papers by Stebbins and Sanford in the 1930s , there are short @-@ term variations of around 150 to 300 days that modulate a regular cyclic variation with a period of roughly 5 @.@ 7 years .
The supergiant consistently displays irregular photometric , polarimetric and spectroscopic variations , phenomena pointing to complex activity on the star 's surface and its extended atmosphere . Martin Schwarzschild in 1975 attributed these brightness fluctuations to the changing granulation pattern formed by a few giant convection cells covering the surface of these stars . For the Sun , these convection cells , known as solar granules , represent the foremost mode of heat transfer — hence those convective elements dominate the brightness variations in the solar photosphere . The typical diameter for a solar granule is about 2000 km ( a surface area roughly the size of India ) , with an average depth of 700 km . With a surface of roughly 6 trillion km2 , there are about 2 million such granules on the Sun 's photosphere , and this large number produces a relatively constant flux . By contrast , Schwarzschild argues that stars like Betelgeuse may only have a dozen granules with diameters of 180 million kilometers or more dominating the surface of the star with depths of about 60 million kilometers , which , due to the low temperatures and extremely low density found in red supergiant envelopes , result in convective inefficiency . Consequently , if only a third of these convective cells are visible at any one time , the variations in their observable light emission may result in the recorded irregular brightness variations of the overall light from the star .
The hypothesis that gigantic convection cells dominate the surface of red giants and supergiants remains accepted by the astronomical community . When the Hubble Space Telescope captured its first direct image of Betelgeuse in 1995 revealing a mysterious hot spot , astronomers attributed it to convection . Two years later , astronomers observed intricate asymmetries in the brightness distribution of the star , revealing at least three bright spots , the magnitude of which was " consistent with convective surface hotspots . " In 2000 , another team of astronomers , led by Alex Lobel of the Harvard – Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics , noted that Betelgeuse exhibits raging storms of hot and cold gas in its turbulent atmosphere . The team surmised that large areas of the star 's photosphere bulge out in different directions at times , ejecting long plumes of warm gas into the cold dust envelope . Another explanation is the occurrence of shock waves caused by warm gas traversing cooler regions of the star . Observing the atmosphere of Betelgeuse over a period of five years between 1998 and 2003 with the Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph aboard Hubble , the team likened the rise and fall of convection cells in the chromosphere to the blobs in a lava lamp .
= = = Diameter = = =
On 13 December 1920 , Betelgeuse became the first star outside the Solar System to have the angular size of its photosphere measured . Although interferometry was still in its infancy , the experiment proved a success . The researchers , using a uniform disk model , determined that Betelgeuse had a diameter of 0 @.@ 047 arcseconds , although the stellar disk was likely 17 % larger due to the limb darkening , resulting in an estimate for its angular diameter of about 0 @.@ 055 " . Since then , other studies have produced angular diameters that range from 0 @.@ 042 to 0 @.@ 069 arcseconds . Combining these data with historical distance estimates of 180 to 815 ly yields a projected radius of the stellar disk of anywhere from 1 @.@ 2 to 8 @.@ 9 AU . Using the Solar System for comparison , the orbit of Mars is about 1 @.@ 5 AU , Ceres in the asteroid belt 2 @.@ 7 AU , Jupiter 5 @.@ 5 AU — so , assuming Betelgeuse occupying the place of the Sun , its photosphere might extend beyond the Jovian orbit , not quite reaching Saturn at 9 @.@ 5 AU .
The precise diameter has been hard to define for several reasons :
Betelgeuse is a pulsating star , so its diameter changes with time ;
The star has no definable " edge " as limb darkening causes the optical emissions to vary in color and decrease the farther one extends out from the center ;
Betelgeuse is surrounded by a circumstellar envelope composed of matter ejected from the star — matter which absorbs and emits light — making it difficult to define the photosphere of the star ;
Measurements can be taken at varying wavelengths within the electromagnetic spectrum and the difference in reported diameters can be as much as 30 – 35 % , yet comparing one finding with another is difficult as the star 's apparent size differs depending on the wavelength used . Studies have shown that the measured angular diameter is considerably larger at ultraviolet wavelengths , decreases through the visible to a minimum in the near @-@ infrared , and increase again in the mid @-@ infrared spectrum ;
Atmospheric twinkling limits the resolution obtainable from ground @-@ based telescopes since turbulence degrades angular resolution .
To overcome these challenges , researchers have employed various solutions . Astronomical interferometry , first conceived by Hippolyte Fizeau in 1868 , was the seminal concept that has enabled major improvements in modern telescopy and led to the creation of the Michelson interferometer in the 1880s , and the first successful measurement of Betelgeuse . Just as human depth perception increases when two eyes instead of one perceive an object , Fizeau proposed the observation of stars through two apertures instead of one to obtain interferences that would furnish information on the star 's spatial intensity distribution . The science evolved quickly and multiple @-@ aperture interferometers are now used to capture speckled images , which are synthesized using Fourier analysis to produce a portrait of high resolution . It was this methodology that identified the hotspots on Betelgeuse in the 1990s . Other technological breakthroughs include adaptive optics , space observatories like Hipparcos , Hubble and Spitzer , and the Astronomical Multi @-@ BEam Recombiner ( AMBER ) , which combines the beams of three telescopes simultaneously , allowing researchers to achieve milliarcsecond spatial resolution .
Which part of the electromagnetic spectrum — the visible , near @-@ infrared ( NIR ) or mid @-@ infrared ( MIR ) — produces the most accurate angular measurement is still debated . In 1996 , Manfred Bester , working with the ISI in the mid @-@ infrared , led a team at the Space Sciences Laboratory ( SSL ) at U.C. Berkeley to produce a solution , showing Betelgeuse with a uniform disk of 56 @.@ 6 ± 1 @.@ 0 mas . In 2000 , the SSL team produced another measure of 54 @.@ 7 ± 0 @.@ 3 mas , ignoring any possible contribution from hotspots , which are less noticeable in the mid @-@ infrared . Also included was a theoretical allowance for limb darkening , yielding a diameter of 55 @.@ 2 ± 0 @.@ 5 mas . The Bester estimate equates to a radius of roughly 5 @.@ 6 AU or 1200 R ☉ , assuming the 2008 Harper distance of 197 @.@ 0 ± 45 pc , a figure roughly the size of the Jovian orbit of 5 @.@ 5 AU , published in 2009 in Astronomy Magazine and a year later in NASA 's Astronomy Picture of the Day .
A team of astronomers working in the near @-@ infrared and led by Guy Perrin of the Observatoire de Paris produced a 2004 document arguing that the more accurate photospheric measurement was 43 @.@ 33 ± 0 @.@ 04 mas . The study also put forth an explanation as to why varying wavelengths from the visible to mid @-@ infrared produce different diameters : the star is seen through a thick , warm extended atmosphere . At short wavelengths ( the visible spectrum ) the atmosphere scatters light , thus slightly increasing the star 's diameter . At near @-@ infrared wavelengths ( K and L bands ) , the scattering is negligible , so the classical photosphere can be directly seen ; in the mid @-@ infrared the scattering increases once more causing the thermal emission of the warm atmosphere to increase the apparent diameter .
Studies with the IOTA and VLTI published in 2009 brought strong support to Perrin 's analysis and yielded diameters ranging from 42 @.@ 57 to 44 @.@ 28 mas with comparatively insignificant margins of error . In 2011 , Keiichi Ohnaka and colleagues from the Max Planck Institute for Radio Astronomy produced a third estimate in the near @-@ infrared corroborating Perrin 's numbers , this time showing a limb @-@ darkened disk diameter of 42 @.@ 49 ± 0 @.@ 06 mas . Consequently , if one combines the smaller Hipparcos distance from van Leeuwen of 152 ± 20 pc with Perrin 's angular measurement of 43 @.@ 33 mas , a near @-@ infrared photospheric estimate would equate to about 3 @.@ 4 AU or 730 R ☉ . A 2014 paper derives an angular diameter of 42 @.@ 28 mas ( equivalent to a 41 @.@ 01 mas uniform disc ) using H and K band observations made with the VLTI AMBER instrument .
Central to this discussion is another paper published in 2009 by the Berkeley team , led by Charles Townes , reporting that the radius of Betelgeuse had shrunk from 1993 to 2009 by 15 % , with the 2008 angular measurement equal to 47 @.@ 0 mas , not too far from Perrin 's estimate . Unlike most earlier papers , this study encompassed a 15 @-@ year period at one specific wavelength . Earlier studies have typically lasted one to two years by comparison and have explored multiple wavelengths , often yielding vastly different results . The diminution in Betelgeuse 's apparent size equates to a range of values between 56 @.@ 0 ± 0 @.@ 1 mas seen in 1993 to 47 @.@ 0 ± 0 @.@ 1 mas seen in 2008 — a contraction of almost 0 @.@ 9 AU in 15 years . What is not fully known is whether this observation is evidence of a rhythmic expansion and contraction of the star 's photosphere as astronomers have theorized , and if so , what the periodic cycle might be , although Townes suggested that if a cycle does exist , it is probably a few decades long . Other possible explanations are photospheric protrusions due to convection or a star that is not spherical but asymmetric causing the appearance of expansion and contraction as the star rotates on its axis .
The debate about differences between measurements in the mid @-@ infrared , which suggest a possible expansion and contraction of the star , and the near @-@ infrared , which advocates a relatively constant photospheric diameter , remains to be resolved . In a paper published in 2012 , the Berkeley team reported that their measurements were " dominated by the behavior of cool , optically thick material above the stellar photosphere , " indicating that the apparent expansion and contraction may be due to activity in the star 's outer shells and not the photosphere itself . This conclusion , if further corroborated , would suggest an average angular diameter for Betelgeuse closer to Perrin 's estimate at 43 @.@ 33 arcseconds , hence a stellar radius of about 3 @.@ 4 AU ( 730 R ☉ ) assuming the shorter Hipparcos distance of 498 ± 73 ly in lieu of Harper 's estimate at 643 ± 146 ly . The Gaia spacecraft may clarify assumptions presently used in calculating the size of Betelgeuse 's stellar disk .
Once considered as having the largest angular diameter of any star in the sky after the Sun , Betelgeuse lost that distinction in 1997 when a group of astronomers measured R Doradus with a diameter of 57 @.@ 0 ± 0 @.@ 5 mas . Betelgeuse is now considered to be in third place , although R Doradus , being much closer to Earth at about 200 ly , has a diameter roughly one @-@ third that of Betelgeuse .
= = Properties = =
Betelgeuse is a very large , luminous and cool star classified as a red supergiant of M1 @-@ 2 Ia @-@ ab class . The letter " M " in this designation means that it is a red star belonging to the M spectral class and therefore has a relatively low photospheric temperature ; the " Ia @-@ ab " suffix luminosity class indicates that it is an intermediate luminous supergiant , with properties partway between a normal supergiant and a luminous supergiant . Uncertainties regarding the star 's surface temperature , angular diameter and distance make it difficult to achieve a precise measurement of Betelgeuse 's luminosity . Research from 2012 gives Betelgeuse an average luminosity of 120000 ± 30000 L ☉ , assuming a median temperature of 3300 K and a radius of 1200 R ☉ . However , because most of the star 's radiation is in the near infrared , the human eye cannot perceive the star 's intrinsic brightness .
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Since 1943 , the spectrum of Betelgeuse has served as one of the stable anchor points by which other stars are classified .
The mass of Betelgeuse has never been measured because it has no known companion . A mass estimate is only possible using theoretical modeling , a situation which has produced mass estimates ranging from 5 to 30 M ☉ in the 2000s . Smith and colleagues calculated that Betelgeuse began its life as a star of 15 to 20 M ⊙ , based on a luminosity of 90000 – 150000 L ☉ . A novel method of determining the supergiant 's mass was proposed in 2011 by Hilding Neilson and colleagues , arguing for a current stellar mass of 11 @.@ 6 M ⊙ with an upper limit of 16 @.@ 6 and lower of 7 @.@ 7 M ⊙ , based on observations of the star 's intensity profile from narrow H @-@ band interferometry and using a photospheric measurement of roughly 4 @.@ 3 AU or 955 R ⊙ .
Due to its variability and the presence of hotspots , the photospheric temperature of Betelgeuse is uncertain . Studies since 2001 report temperatures ranging from 3140 to 3 @,@ 641 K with a median of about 3300 K. The star is also a slow rotator and the most recent velocity recorded was 5 km / s . Depending on its photospheric radius , it could take the star from 25 to 32 years to turn on its axis — much slower than Antares , which has a rotational velocity of 20 km / s .
In 2002 , astronomers using computer simulations speculated that Betelgeuse might exhibit magnetic activity in its extended atmosphere , a factor where even moderately strong fields could have a meaningful influence over the star 's dust , wind and mass @-@ loss properties . A series of spectropolarimetric observations obtained in 2010 with the Bernard Lyot Telescope at Pic du Midi Observatory revealed the presence of a weak magnetic field at the surface of Betelgeuse , suggesting that the giant convective motions of supergiant stars are able to trigger the onset of a small @-@ scale dynamo effect .
= = = Motion = = =
The kinematics of Betelgeuse are complex . The age of Class M supergiants with an initial mass of 20 <formula> is roughly 10 million years . Given its motion , a corresponding projection back in time would take Betelgeuse around 290 parsecs farther from the galactic plane — an implausible location , as there is no star formation region there . Moreover , Betelgeuse 's projected pathway does not appear to intersect with the 25 Ori subassociation or the far younger Orion Nebula Cluster ( ONC , also known as Ori OB1d ) , particularly since Very Long Baseline Array astrometry yields a distance to the ONC between 389 and 414 parsecs . Consequently , it is likely that Betelgeuse has not always had its current motion through space and has changed course at one time or another , possibly the result of a nearby stellar explosion .
The most likely star @-@ formation scenario for Betelgeuse is that it is a runaway star from the Orion OB1 Association . Originally a member of a high @-@ mass multiple system within Ori OB1a , Betelgeuse was probably formed about 10 – 12 million years ago from molecular clouds observed in Orion , but has evolved rapidly due to its high mass .
Like many young stars in Orion whose mass is greater than 10 <formula> , Betelgeuse will use its fuel quickly and not live long . On the Hertzsprung @-@ Russell diagram , Betelgeuse has moved off the main sequence and has swelled and cooled to become a red supergiant . Although young , Betelgeuse has probably exhausted the hydrogen in its core — unlike its OB cousins born about the same time — causing it to contract under the force of gravity into a hotter and denser state . As a result , it has begun to fuse helium into carbon and oxygen producing enough radiation to unfurl its outer envelopes of hydrogen and helium . Its mass and luminosity are such that the star will eventually fuse higher elements through neon , magnesium , sodium , and silicon all the way to iron , at which point it will probably collapse and explode as a type II supernova .
= = = Density = = =
As an early M @-@ type supergiant , Betelgeuse is one of the largest , most luminous and yet one of the most ethereal stars known . A radius of 5 @.@ 5 AU is roughly 1180 times the radius of the Sun — able to contain over 2 quadrillion Earths ( 2 @.@ 15 × 1015 ) or more than 1 @.@ 6 billion ( 1 @.@ 65 × 109 ) Suns . That is the equivalent of Betelgeuse being a football stadium like Wembley Stadium in London with the Earth a tiny pearl , 1 millimeter in diameter , orbiting a Sun the size of a mango . Moreover , observations from 2009 of Betelgeuse exhibiting a 15 % contraction in angular diameter would equate to a shortening of the star 's radius from about 5 @.@ 5 to 4 @.@ 6 AU , assuming that the photosphere is a perfect sphere . A reduction of this magnitude would correspond to a diminution in photospheric volume of about 41 % .
Not only is the photosphere enormous , but the star is surrounded by a complex circumstellar environment where light could take over three years to escape . In the outer reaches of the photosphere the density is extremely low , yet the total mass of the star is believed to be no more than 20 M ☉ . Consequently , the average density is less than twelve parts per billion ( 1 @.@ 119 × 10 − 8 ) that of the Sun . Such star matter is so tenuous that Betelgeuse has often been called a " red @-@ hot vacuum " .
= = = Circumstellar dynamics = = =
In the late phase of stellar evolution , massive stars like Betelgeuse exhibit high rates of mass loss , possibly as much as 1 M ☉ every 10000 years , resulting in a complex circumstellar environment that is constantly in flux . In a 2009 paper , stellar mass loss was cited as the " key to understanding the evolution of the universe from the earliest cosmological times to the current epoch , and of planet formation and the formation of life itself " . However , the physical mechanism is not well understood . When Schwarzschild first proposed his theory of huge convection cells , he argued it was the likely cause of mass loss in evolved supergiants like Betelgeuse . Recent work has corroborated this hypothesis , yet there are still uncertainties about the structure of their convection , the mechanism of their mass loss , the way dust forms in their extended atmosphere , and the conditions which precipitate their dramatic finale as a type II supernova . In 2001 , Graham Harper estimated a stellar wind at 0 @.@ 03 M ☉ every 10000 years , but research since 2009 has provided evidence of episodic mass loss making any total figure for Betelgeuse uncertain . Current observations suggest that a star like Betelgeuse may spend a portion of its lifetime as a red supergiant , but then cross back across the H @-@ R diagram , pass once again through a brief yellow supergiant phase and then explode as a blue supergiant or Wolf @-@ Rayet star .
As a result of work done by Pierre Kervella and his team at the Paris observatory , astronomers may be close to solving this mystery . They noticed a large plume of gas extending outward at least six times the stellar radius indicating that Betelgeuse is not shedding matter evenly in all directions . The plume 's presence implies that the spherical symmetry of the star 's photosphere , often observed in the infrared , is not preserved in its close environment . Asymmetries on the stellar disk had been reported at different wavelengths . However , due to the refined capabilities of the NACO adaptive optics on the VLT , these asymmetries have come into focus . The two mechanisms that could cause such asymmetrical mass loss , Kervella noted , were large @-@ scale convection cells or polar mass loss , possibly due to rotation . Probing deeper with ESO 's AMBER , Keiichi Ohnaka and colleagues observed that the gas in the supergiant 's extended atmosphere is vigorously moving up and down , creating bubbles as large as the supergiant itself , leading his team to conclude that such stellar upheaval is behind the massive plume ejection observed by Kervella .
= = = = Asymmetric shells = = = =
In addition to the photosphere , six other components of Betelgeuse 's atmosphere have now been identified . They are a molecular environment otherwise known as the MOLsphere , a gaseous envelope , a chromosphere , a dust environment and two outer shells ( S1 and S2 ) composed of carbon monoxide ( CO ) . Some of these elements are known to be asymmetric while others overlap .
At about 0 @.@ 45 stellar radii ( ~ 2 – 3 AU ) above the photosphere there may lie a molecular layer known as the MOLsphere or molecular environment . Studies show it to be composed of water vapor and carbon monoxide with an effective temperature of about 1500 ± 500 K. Water vapor had been originally detected in the supergiant 's spectrum in the 1960s with the two Stratoscope projects but had been ignored for decades . The MOLsphere may also contain SiO and Al2O3 — molecules which could explain the formation of dust particles .
Extending for several radii ( ~ 10 – 40 AU ) about the photosphere exists another cooler region known as an asymmetric gaseous envelope . It is enriched in oxygen and especially in nitrogen relative to carbon . These composition anomalies are likely caused by contamination by CNO @-@ processed material from the inside of Betelgeuse .
Radio @-@ telescope images taken in 1998 confirm that Betelgeuse has a highly complex atmosphere , with a temperature of 3450 ± 850 K , similar to that recorded on the star 's surface but much lower than surrounding gas in the same region . The VLA images also show this lower @-@ temperature gas progressively cool as it extends outward . Although unexpected , it turns out to be the most abundant constituent of Betelgeuse 's atmosphere . " This alters our basic understanding of red @-@ supergiant star atmospheres " , explained Jeremy Lim , the team 's leader . " Instead of the star 's atmosphere expanding uniformly due to gas heated to high temperatures near its surface , it now appears that several giant convection cells propel gas from the star 's surface into its atmosphere . " This is the same region in which Kervella 's 2009 finding of a bright plume , possibly containing carbon and nitrogen and extending at least six photospheric radii in the southwest direction of the star , is believed to exist .
The chromosphere was directly imaged by the Faint Object Camera on board the Hubble Space Telescope in ultraviolet wavelengths . The images also revealed a bright area in the southwest quadrant of the disk . The average radius of the chromosphere in 1996 was about 2 @.@ 2 times the optical disk ( ~ 10 AU ) and was reported to have a temperature no higher than 5500 K. However , in 2004 observations with the STIS , Hubble 's high @-@ precision spectrometer , pointed to the existence of warm chromospheric plasma at least one arcsecond away from the star . At a distance of 197 pc , the size of the chromosphere could be up to 200 AU . The observations have conclusively demonstrated that the warm chromospheric plasma spatially overlaps and coexists with cool gas in Betelgeuse 's gaseous envelope as well as with the dust in its circumstellar dust shells ( see below ) .
The first attestation of a dust shell surrounding Betelgeuse was put forth by Sutton and colleagues , who noted in 1977 that dust shells around mature stars often emit large amounts of radiation in excess of the photospheric contribution . Using heterodyne interferometry , they concluded that the red supergiant emits most of its excess beyond 12 stellar radii or roughly the distance of the Kuiper belt at 50 to 60 AU , depending on the assumed stellar radius . Since then , there have been studies done of this dust envelope at varying wavelengths yielding decidedly different results . Studies from the 1990s have estimated the inner radius of the dust shell anywhere from 0 @.@ 5 to 1 @.@ 0 arcseconds , or 100 to 200 AU . These studies point out that the dust environment surrounding Betelgeuse is not static . In 1994 , Danchi et al. reported that Betelgeuse undergoes sporadic dust production involving decades of activity followed by inactivity . In 1997 , a group of astronomers led by Chris Skinner noticed significant changes in the dust shell 's morphology in one year , suggesting that the shell is asymmetrically illuminated by a stellar radiation field strongly affected by the existence of photospheric hotspots . The 1984 report of a giant asymmetric dust shell 1 pc ( 206265 AU ) from the star has not been corroborated by recent studies , although another report published the same year said that three dust shells were found extending four light @-@ years from one side of the decaying star , suggesting that Betelgeuse sheds its outer layers as it journeys .
Although the exact size of the two outer CO shells remains elusive , preliminary estimates suggest that one shell extends from about 1 @.@ 5 to 4 @.@ 0 arcseconds and the other expands as far as 7 @.@ 0 arcseconds . Assuming the Jovian orbit of 5 @.@ 5 AU as the star radius , the inner shell would extend roughly 50 to 150 stellar radii ( ~ 300 to 800 AU ) with the outer one as far as 250 stellar radii ( ~ 1400 AU ) . The Sun 's heliopause is estimated at about 100 AU , so the size of this outer shell would be almost fourteen times the size of the Solar System .
= = = = Supersonic bow shock = = = =
Betelgeuse is travelling supersonically through the interstellar medium at a speed of 30 km per second ( i.e. ~ 6 @.@ 3 AU per year ) creating a bow shock . The shock is not created by the star , but its powerful stellar wind as it ejects vast amounts of gas into the interstellar medium at a rate of 17 km / s , heating up the material surrounding the star thereby making it visible in infrared light . Because Betelgeuse is so bright , it was only in 1997 that the bow shock was first imaged . The cometary structure is estimated to be at least 1 parsec wide , assuming a distance of 643 light @-@ years .
3D hydrodynamic simulations of the bow shock made in 2012 indicate that it is very young — less than 30000 years old — suggesting two possibilities : one , that Betelgeuse moved into a region of the interstellar medium with different properties recently or two , that Betelgeuse has undergone a significant transformation as its stellar wind has changed . In their 2012 paper , Mohamed et al. propose that this phenomenon was caused by Betelgeuse transitioning from a blue supergiant ( BSG ) to a red supergiant ( RSG ) . In the late evolutionary stage of a star like Betelgeuse , evidence suggests that stars " may undergo rapid transitions from red to blue and vice versa on the Hertzsprung @-@ Russell diagram , with accompanying rapid changes to their stellar winds and bow shocks . " Moreover , if future research bears out this hypothesis , Betelgeuse may prove to have traveled close to 200000 AU as a red supergiant scattering as much as 3 <formula> along its trajectory .
= = = Approaching supernova = = =
The fate of Betelgeuse depends on its initial mass — a critical factor which is not well understood . Since most investigators posit a mass greater than 10 M ☉ , the most likely scenario is that the supergiant will continue to burn and fuse elements until its core collapses , at which point Betelgeuse will explode as a supernova , leaving behind a neutron star remnant about 20 km in diameter . As of 2014 , theoretical calculations for a non @-@ rotating star suggest Betelgeuse has developed a 3 – 4 M ☉ carbon @-@ oxygen core which is being enlarged by deposition of fusion products from the surrounding helium shell at about a fifth of the star 's radius . It will explode as a type II supernova within 100000 years after going through carbon , neon , oxygen , and silicon burning in the core . The remnant would be a neutron star around 1 @.@ 5 M ☉ . The estimated age for the red supergiant is between 8 and 8 @.@ 5 million years and its initial mass was 20 + 5
− 3 M ☉ . The exact mass , rotation rate , and mass loss are critical to Betelgeuse 's fate ; stellar evolution models show that initially rotating stars more massive than about 18 M ☉ do not explode as supernovae while they are red supergiants . Instead they lose all their outer hydrogen to become yellow hypergiants , luminous blue variables , or even Wolf @-@ Rayet stars before producing a type II @-@ L , IIb or Ib / c supernova .
Betelgeuse is already old for its size class and is expected to explode relatively soon compared to its age . Solving the riddle of mass @-@ loss will be the key to knowing when a supernova may occur , an event expected in the next million years . Supporting this hypothesis are unusual features that have been observed in the interstellar medium of the Orion Molecular Cloud Complex , which suggest that there have been multiple supernovae in the recent past . Betelgeuse 's suspected birthplace in the Orion OB1 Association is the probable location for such supernovae . Since the oldest subgroup in the association has an approximate age of 12 million years , the more massive stars likely had sufficient time to reach the end of their lifespan and explode already . Also , because runaway stars are believed to be caused by supernovae , there is strong evidence that OB stars μ Columbae , AE Aurigae and 53 Arietis all originated from such explosions in Ori OB1 2 @.@ 2 , 2 @.@ 7 and 4 @.@ 9 million years ago .
J. Craig Wheeler of the University of Texas at Austin predicts Betelgeuse 's demise will emit 1046 joules of neutrinos , which will pass through the star 's hydrogen envelope in around an hour , then travel at near light speed to reach the Solar System six centuries later — providing the first evidence of the cataclysm . The supernova could brighten over a two @-@ week period to an apparent magnitude of − 12 , outshining the Moon in the night sky and becoming easily visible in broad daylight . It would remain at that intensity for two to three months before rapidly dimming . Since its rotational axis is not pointed toward the Earth , Betelgeuse 's supernova is unlikely to send a gamma ray burst in the direction of Earth large enough to damage ecosystems . The flash of ultraviolet radiation from the explosion will likely be weaker than the ultraviolet output of the Sun . The year following the explosion , radioactive decay of cobalt to iron will dominate emission from the supernova remnant , and the resulting gamma rays will be blocked by the expanding envelope of hydrogen . If the neutron star remnant becomes a pulsar , it could produce gamma rays for thousands of years .
Due to misunderstandings caused by the 2009 publication of the star 's 15 % contraction , Betelgeuse has frequently been the subject of scare stories and rumors suggesting that it will explode within a year , leading to exaggerated claims about the consequences of such an event . The timing and prevalence of these rumors have been linked to broader misconceptions of astronomy , particularly to doomsday predictions relating to the Mayan calendar . In their 2012 study , physicists at the Space Sciences Laboratory point out that the apparent contraction in the star 's diameter may be due to the complex dynamics in the star 's surrounding nebula and not the star itself , reconfirming that until we better understand the nature of mass loss , predicting the timing of a supernova will remain a challenge . The latest studies project a supernova in 100000 years .
= = Star system = =
In 1985 , Margarita Karovska , in conjunction with other astrophysicists at the Harvard – Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics , announced the discovery of two close companions orbiting Betelgeuse . Analysis of polarization data from 1968 through 1983 indicated a close companion with a periodic orbit of about 2 @.@ 1 years . Using speckle interferometry , the team concluded that the closer of the two companions was located at 0 @.@ 06 ″ ± 0 @.@ 01 ″ ( ~ 9 AU ) from the main star with a position angle ( PA ) of 273 degrees , an orbit that would potentially place it within the star 's chromosphere . The more distant companion was estimated at 0 @.@ 51 ″ ± 0 @.@ 01 ″ ( ~ 77 AU ) with a PA of 278 degrees .
In the years that followed no confirmation of Karovska 's discovery was published . In 1992 , a team of collaborators from the Cavendish Astrophysics Group questioned the finding . They published a paper noting that the brightness features on the surface of Betelgeuse appear to be " too bright to be associated with a passage of the suggested companions in front of the red giant . " They also noticed that these features were fainter at 710 nanometers compared to 700 by a factor of 1 @.@ 8 , indicating that such features would have to reside within the molecular atmosphere of the star . Despite this , that same year Karovska published a new paper reconfirming her team 's exegesis , but also noting that there was a meaningful correlation between the calculated position angles of the orbiting companion and the reported asymmetries , suggesting a possible connection between the two . Since then , researchers have turned their attention to analyzing the intricate dynamics of the star 's extended atmosphere and little else has been published on the possibility of orbiting companions , although as Xavier Haubois and his team reiterate in 2009 , the possibility of a close companion contributing to the overall flux has never been fully ruled out . Dommanget 's double star catalog ( CCDM ) lists at least four adjacent stars , all within three arcminutes of this stellar giant , yet aside from apparent magnitudes and position angles , little else is known .
= = Ethnological attributes = =
= = = Spelling and pronunciation = = =
Betelgeuse has been known as Betelgeux , and in German Beteigeuze ( according to Bode ) . Betelgeux and Betelgeuze were used until the early 20th century , when the spelling Betelgeuse became universal . There is no consensus for the correct pronunciation of the name , and pronunciations for the star are as varied as its spellings :
/ ˈbɛtəldʒuːz / – Oxford English Dictionary and Royal Astronomical Society of Canada
/ ˈbiːtəldʒuːz / or / ˈbiːtəldʒɜːrz / – Oxford English Dictionary
/ ˈbiːtəldʒuːs / – ( Canadian Oxford Dictionary , Webster 's Collegiate Dictionary )
/ ˈbɛtəldʒəz / – ( The Friendly Stars )
= = = Etymology = = =
Betelgeuse is often mistranslated as " armpit of the central one " . In his 1899 work Star @-@ Names and Their Meanings , American amateur naturalist Richard Hinckley Allen stated the derivation was from the ابط الجوزاء Ibṭ al @-@ Jauzah , which he claimed degenerated into a number of forms including Bed Elgueze , Beit Algueze , Bet El @-@ gueze , Beteigeuze and more , to the forms Betelgeuse , Betelguese , Betelgueze and Betelgeux . The star was named Beldengeuze in the Alfonsine Tables , and Italian Jesuit priest and astronomer Giovanni Battista Riccioli had called it Bectelgeuze or Bedalgeuze . Paul Kunitzsch , Professor of Arabic Studies at the University of Munich , refuted Allen 's derivation and instead proposed that the full name is a corruption of the Arabic يد الجوزاء Yad al @-@ Jauzā ' meaning " the Hand of al @-@ Jauzā ' " , i.e. , Orion . European mistransliteration into medieval Latin led to the first character y ( ﻴ , with two dots underneath ) being misread as a b ( ﺒ , with only one dot underneath ) . During the Renaissance , the star 's name was written as بيت الجوزاء Bait al @-@ Jauzā ' ( " house of Orion " ) or بط الجوزاء Baţ al @-@ Jauzā ' , incorrectly thought to mean " armpit of Orion " ( a true translation of " armpit " would be ابط , transliterated as Ibţ ) . This led to the modern rendering as Betelgeuse . Other writers have since accepted Kunitzsch 's explanation .
The last part of the name , " -elgeuse " , comes from the Arabic الجوزاء al @-@ Jauzā ' , a historical Arabic name of the constellation Orion , a feminine name in old Arabian legend , and of uncertain meaning . Because جوز j @-@ w @-@ z , the root of jauzā ' , means " middle " , al @-@ Jauzā ' roughly means " the Central One " . Later , al @-@ Jauzā ' was also designated as the scientific Arabic name for Orion and for Gemini . The modern Arabic name for Orion is الجبار al @-@ Jabbār ( " the Giant " ) , although the use of الجوزاء al @-@ Jauzā ' in the name of the star has continued . The 17th @-@ century English translator Edmund Chilmead gave it the name Ied Algeuze ( " Orion 's Hand " ) , from Christmannus . Other Arabic names recorded include Al Yad al Yamnā ( " the Right Hand " ) , Al Dhira ( " the Arm " ) , and Al Mankib ( " the Shoulder " ) , all appended to " of the giant " , as منكب الجوزاء Mankib al Jauzā ' .
= = = Other names = = =
Other names for Betelgeuse included the Persian Bašn " the Arm " , and Coptic Klaria " an Armlet " . Bahu was its Sanskrit name , as part of a Hindu understanding of the constellation as a running antelope or stag . In traditional Chinese astronomy , Betelgeuse was known as 参宿四 ( Shēnxiùsì , the Fourth Star of the constellation of Three Stars ) as the Chinese constellation 参宿 originally referred to the three stars in the girdle of Orion . This constellation was ultimately expanded to ten stars , but the earlier name stuck . In Japan , the Taira or Heike clan adopted Betelgeuse and its red color as its symbol , calling the star Heike @-@ boshi , ( 平家星 ) , while the Minamoto or Genji clan had chosen Rigel and its white color . The two powerful families fought a legendary war in Japanese history , the stars seen as facing each other off and only kept apart by the Belt .
In Tahitian lore , Betelgeuse was one of the pillars propping up the sky , known as Anâ @-@ varu , the pillar to sit by . It was also called Ta 'urua @-@ nui @-@ o @-@ Mere " Great festivity in parental yearnings " . A Hawaiian term for it was Kaulua @-@ koko " brilliant red star " . The Lacandon people of Central America knew it as chäk tulix " red butterfly " .
= = = Mythology = = =
With the history of astronomy intimately associated with mythology and astrology before the scientific revolution , the red star , like the planet Mars that derives its name from a Roman war god , has been closely associated with the martial archetype of conquest for millennia , and by extension , the motif of death and rebirth . Other cultures have produced different myths . Stephen R. Wilk has proposed the constellation of Orion could have represented the Greek mythological figure Pelops , who had an artificial shoulder of ivory made for him , with Betelgeuse as the shoulder , its color reminiscent of the reddish yellow sheen of ivory .
In the Americas , Betelgeuse signifies a severed limb of a man @-@ figure ( Orion ) — the Taulipang of Brazil know the constellation as Zililkawai , a hero whose leg was cut off by his wife , with the variable light from Betelgeuse linked to the severing of the limb . Similarly , the Lakota people of North America see it as a chief whose arm has been severed . The Wardaman people of northern Australia knew the star as Ya @-@ jungin " Owl Eyes Flicking " , its variable light signifying its intermittent watching of ceremonies led by the Red Kangaroo Leader Rigel . In South African mythology , Betelgeuse was perceived as a lion casting a predatory gaze toward the three zebras represented by Orion 's Belt .
A Sanskrit name for Betelgeuse was ãrdrã " the moist one " , eponymous of the Ardra lunar mansion in Hindu astrology . The Rigvedic God of storms Rudra presided over the star ; this association was linked by 19th @-@ century star enthusiast Richard Hinckley Allen to Orion 's stormy nature . The constellations in Macedonian folklore represented agricultural items and animals , reflecting their village way of life . To them , Betelgeuse was Orach " the ploughman " , alongside the rest of Orion which depicted a plough with oxen . The rising of Betelgeuse at around 3 am in late summer and autumn signified the time for village men to go to the fields and plough . To the Inuit , the appearance of Betelgeuse and Bellatrix high in the southern sky after sunset marked the beginning of spring and lengthening days in late February and early March . The two stars were known as Akuttujuuk " those ( two ) placed far apart " , referring to the distance between them , mainly to people from North Baffin Island and Melville Peninsula .
The opposed locations of Orion and Scorpius , with their corresponding bright variable red stars Betelgeuse and Antares , were noted by ancient cultures around the world . The setting of Orion and rising of Scorpius signify the death of Orion by the scorpion . In China they signify brothers and rivals Shen and Shang . The Batak of Sumatra marked their New Year with the first new moon after the sinking of Orion 's Belt below the horizon , at which point Betelgeuse remained " like the tail of a rooster " . The positions of Betelgeuse and Antares at opposite ends of the celestial sky were considered significant and their constellations were seen as a pair of scorpions . Scorpion days marked as nights that both constellations could be seen .
= = = In popular culture = = =
The star 's unusual name inspired the title of the 1988 film Beetlejuice , and script writer Michael McDowell was impressed by how many people made the connection . He added that they had received a suggestion the sequel be named Sanduleak @-@ 69 202 after the former star of SN 1987A . In August Derleth 's short story " The Dweller in the Darkness " set in H. P. Lovecraft 's Cthulhu Mythos , Betelgeuse is the home of the " benign " Elder Gods . The identity of the red star Borgil mentioned in Lord of the Rings was much debated ; Aldebaran , Betelgeuse and the planet Mars were touted as candidates . Professor Kristine Larsen has concluded the evidence points to it being Aldebaran as it precedes Menelvagor ( Orion ) . Astronomy writer Robert Burnham , Jr. proposed the term padparadaschah which denotes a rare orange sapphire in India , for the star . In the popular science fiction series The Hitchhiker 's Guide to the Galaxy by Douglas Adams , Ford Prefect was from " a small planet somewhere in the vicinity of Betelgeuse . " In the poetic work Betelguese , a Trip Through Hell by Jean Louis De Esque , hell is on Betelgeuse because De Esque believed that it was " a celestial pariah , an outcast , the largest of all known comets or outlawed suns in the universe . "
Two American navy ships were named after the star , both of them World War II vessels , the USS Betelgeuse ( AKA @-@ 11 ) launched in 1939 and USS Betelgeuse ( AK @-@ 260 ) launched in 1944 . In 1979 , a French supertanker named Betelgeuse was moored off Whiddy Island discharging oil when it exploded , killing 50 people in one of the worst disasters in Ireland 's history .
The Dave Matthews Band song " Black and Blue Bird " references the star .
= HMS Amazon ( 1799 ) =
HMS Amazon was a frigate of the Royal Navy . She served during the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars under several notable naval commanders and played a key role in the Battle of Copenhagen under Captain Edward Riou , when Riou commanded the frigate squadron during the attack . After Riou was killed during the battle , command briefly devolved to First @-@ Lieutenant John Quilliam . Quilliam made a significant impression on Rear @-@ Admiral Horatio Nelson who appointed him to serve on the flagship HMS Victory , and Amazon passed to William Parker , who continued the association with Nelson with service in the Mediterranean and participation in the chase to the West Indies during the Trafalgar Campaign . She went on to join Sir John Borlase Warren ’ s squadron in the Atlantic and took part in the defeat of Charles @-@ Alexandre Léon Durand Linois 's forces at the Action of 13 March 1806 . During the battle , she hunted down and captured the 40 @-@ gun frigate Belle Poule .
Amazon continued in service for several more years , being active in combating raiders and privateers , before being withdrawn from active service in late 1811 . She was retained in ordinary until several years after the end of the Napoleonic Wars , when she was broken up .
= = Construction and commissioning = =
One of two ships built to a design by Sir William Rule , Amazon was ordered from Woolwich Dockyard on 27 April 1796 and laid down there that month . She was launched on 18 May 1799 and quickly put into service , having cost £ 33 @,@ 972 to build , including fitting her out . She was commissioned in May 1799 under her first commander , Captain Edward Riou .
= = British waters and the Baltic = =
Riou and the Amazon served initially in the English Channel , capturing the French privateer Bougainville on 14 February 1800 . She was out of Saint Malo , mounted eighteen 6 @-@ pounder guns , and had a crew of 82 men under the command of Pierre Dupont . The next day , she collided with Amazon and eventually sank , with the loss of one man drowned .
Amazon sailed from Portsmouth for Jamaica with Severn and Scorpion on 26 April 1800 as escorts for a large convoy . Amazon would only accompany the convoy to " a certain latitude . "
Riou and Amazon were then assigned to Sir Hyde Parker 's expedition to the Baltic in 1801 , to compel the Danes to abandon the League of Armed Neutrality .
Riou worked closely with Parker 's second @-@ in @-@ command , Rear @-@ Admiral Horatio Nelson , and Captain Thomas Foley in the lead @-@ up to the Battle of Copenhagen , and Nelson duly appointed Riou commander of the frigates and smaller vessels , instructing Rious to deploy his ships in support of the main fleet . As the battle began , several of Nelson 's ships of the line ran aground on shoals in the harbour , forcing the improvisation of a new plan of attack . As Nelson 's ships engaged their Danish counterparts , Riou took his frigates in to harass the Trekroner Fort and blockships . Although the frigates were heavily outmatched and dangerously exposed , they maintained the engagement for several hours . The ships suffered heavy casualties , and a splinter hit Riou on the head .
At 1 @.@ 15 pm , Parker was waiting outside the harbour with the reserve and raised a signal ordering Nelson to withdraw . Nelson acknowledged the signal but ignored it , while Nelson 's second in command , Rear @-@ Admiral Thomas Graves , repeated the signal but too did not obey it . Riou now found himself in a difficult position . Too junior an officer to risk disobeying a direct order , he remained in action for a further half an hour before reluctantly giving the order for his small squadron to withdraw .
Withdrawing forced his ships to turn their sterns to the Danish guns , thereby exposing their most vulnerable area . When HMS Alcmene and then HMS Blanche withdrew , this reduced the thick cloud of gunsmoke that was helping to obscure the British ships and left Amazon exposed to the full force of the Danish guns . Lieutenant @-@ Colonel William Stuart , commanding the soldiers of the 48th Regiment , recorded that Riou was killed :
[ He ] was sitting on a gun , was encouraging his men , and had been wounded in the head by a splinter . He had expressed himself grieved at being thus obliged to retreat , and nobly observed , ' What will Nelson think of us ? ' His clerk was killed by his side ; and by another shot , several marines , while hauling on the main @-@ brace , shared the same fate . Riou then exclaimed , ' Come , then , my boys , let us all die together ! ' The words were scarcely uttered , when the fatal shot severed him in two .
Command of Amazon devolved to her first lieutenant , John Quilliam , who completed the withdrawal . Nelson went aboard the badly damaged Amazon after the battle and asked Quilliam how he was doing . Quilliam replied ' Middlin ' , a response that apparently amused Nelson and may have contributed to Nelson 's subsequent appointment of Quilliam as first lieutenant aboard HMS Victory .
= = Parker and Nelson = =
= = = Mediterranean = = =
Command of the Amazon then passed to Captain Samuel Sutton , who was succeeded the following year by Captain William Parker . Under Parker , Amazon captured the 16 @-@ gun privateer Felix on 26 July 1803 , and survived a brush with a French fleet off Cape Capet on 2 May 1804 . Amazon was one of the ships to take part in the Trafalgar Campaign the following year , serving with Nelson in the Mediterranean . On one occasion in December 1804 Nelson ordered Parker to bring a consignment of live bullocks to supply the fleet off Toulon . The Amazon was a notably smart ship , and had just been repainted , so presumably the instruction to convert his ship into a floating farmyard was not received with much enthusiasm . Parker duly returned with a shipment , prompting Nelson to enquire with gentle humour ' Well , Parker , of course you would not dirty the Amazon for much for anything ; have you brought a dozen and a half , or a dozen ? ' Parker had in fact brought sixty bullocks and thirty sheep , prompting Nelson to promise a reward for his good service .
Parker and the Amazon remained with Nelson after the division of the Mediterranean commands left the Spanish coasts under the supervision of Sir John Orde . Nelson suspected that Orde was intercepting his despatches and commandeering Nelson 's frigates to use himself . Nelson therefore ordered Parker not to stop for any of Orde 's ships if this was possible . Parker attempted this but was intercepted by HMS Eurydice . He was however able to convince the Eurydice 's commander , William Hoste , to turn a blind eye and having delivered his despatches to Lisbon , acted on Nelson 's hint that he was not expected back until February by carrying out a cruise that netted him several prizes worth a total of £ 20 @,@ 000 . Orde complained about the ' poaching ' taking place on his station , but the prize money went to Parker and Nelson .
= = = West Indies and Atlantic = = =
Amazon went on to join Nelson in the chase to the West Indies and back during the Trafalgar Campaign . During the voyage across the Atlantic , Nelson wanted to pass on specific instructions to his captains about how he wished to engage the French , but did not want to lose time by ordering his ships to heave to . Instead he gave the plans to Parker , who was described by Pulteney Malcolm as the ' best frigate captain in the service ' , and Parker sped along the line in Amazon , delivering the instructions so efficiently that the fleet lost ' hardly a yard of ground ' . Once more in European waters after the fleet 's return , Amazon captured the Spanish privateer Principe de la Paz off Ushant on 17 September 1805 . Principe was armed with twenty @-@ four 9 @-@ pounder guns and four swivels . Her crew of 160 men , under the command of Captain François Beck , were principally French . She had been out five weeks and had captured the packet Prince of Wales from Lisbon , and the letter of marque Lady Nelson , which had been sailing from Virginia to Glasgow . Part of Lady Nelson 's crew was aboard Principe , as was a considerable amount of specie .
Amazon was back in the Atlantic in 1806 , this time as part of Sir John Borlase Warren ’ s pursuit of Jean @-@ Baptiste Philibert Willaumez . When Warren 's fleet unexpectedly encountered a separate French fleet under Charles @-@ Alexandre Léon Durand Linois , Amazon became involved in the resulting Action of 13 March 1806 . During the battle she hunted down and captured the 40 @-@ gun frigate Belle Poule in a running engagement . The Amazon lost four killed and five wounded during the engagement , while the Belle Poule lost six killed and 24 wounded . Amazon captured the 14 @-@ gun privateer Général Pérignon on 21 January 1810 , and Captain John Joyce succeeded Parker as captain in May . Joyce captured the 14 @-@ gun privateer Cupidon on 23 March 1811 .
= = Fate = =
In December 1811 Amazon was laid up at Plymouth . She paid off the following year and saw out the remainder of the Napoleonic Wars in Ordinary . HMS Amazon was finally broken up at Plymouth in May 1817 .
= True at First Light =
True at First Light is a book by American novelist Ernest Hemingway about his 1953 – 54 East African safari with his fourth wife Mary , released posthumously in his centennial year in 1999 . The book received mostly negative or lukewarm reviews from the popular press and sparked a literary controversy regarding how , and whether , an author 's work should be reworked and published after his death . Unlike critics in the popular press , Hemingway scholars generally consider True at First Light to be complex and a worthy addition to his canon of later fiction .
In a two @-@ day period in January 1954 , Hemingway and Mary were in two plane crashes in the African bush . He was reported dead by the international press , arriving in Entebbe to face questions from reporters . The severity of his injuries was not completely known until he returned to Europe months later . Hemingway spent much of the next two years in Havana , recuperating and writing the manuscript of what he called ' the Africa book ' , which remained unfinished at the time of his suicide in July , 1961 . In the 1970s , Mary donated it along with his other manuscripts to the John F. Kennedy Library . The manuscript was released to Hemingway 's son Patrick in the mid @-@ 1990s . Patrick edited the work to half its original length to strengthen the underlying storyline and emphasize the fictional aspects . The result is a blend of memoir and fiction .
In the book , Hemingway explores conflict within a marriage , the conflict between the European and native cultures in Africa , and the fear a writer feels when his work becomes impossible . The book includes descriptions of his earlier friendships with other writers and digressive ruminations on the nature of writing .
= = Background = =
Hemingway went on safari to Africa in 1933 with his second wife Pauline and always intended to return . That visit inspired Hemingway 's " Snows of Kilimanjaro " published in The Green Hills of Africa , well @-@ known parts of the Hemingway canon . Two decades later in 1953 , having finished writing The Old Man and the Sea , he planned a trip to Africa to visit his son Patrick who lived in Tanganyika . When Look magazine offered to send him to Africa , paying $ 15 @,@ 000 for expenses , $ 10 @,@ 000 for rights to a 3500 word piece about the trip , and Earl Theisen as official photographer to go with him , he quickly accepted . Hemingway and Mary left Cuba in June , traveling first to Europe to make arrangements and leaving from Venice to Tanganyika a few months later . They arrived in August , and Hemingway was thrilled to be deputized as an honorary ranger , writing in a letter , " due to emergency ( Mau Mau rebellion ) been acting game ranger " . Philip Percival , Hemingway 's safari guide in 1933 , joined the couple for the four @-@ month expedition ; they traveled from the banks of the Salengai , where Earl Theisen photographed Hemingway with a herd of elephants , to the Kimana Swamp , the Rift Valley and then on to visit Patrick in central Tanganyika . After visiting Patrick at his farm , they settled for two months on the north slopes of Mt . Kilimanjaro . During this period Percival left their camp to return to his farm , leaving Hemingway as game warden with local scouts reporting to him . Hemingway was proud to be a game warden and believed a book would come of the experience .
On January 21 Hemingway chartered a sightseeing flight of the Congo Basin as a late Christmas present to Mary ; two days later , on their way to photograph Murchison Falls from the air , the plane hit an abandoned utility pole and crashed , with the passengers sustaining minor injuries . That night they camped in the bush waiting for a response to their distress call . The crash site was seen by a passing airliner that reported no survivors , and the news of Hemingway 's death was telegraphed around the world . The next day they were found and picked up by a bush pilot , but his de Havilland caught fire during take @-@ off , crashed and exploded , which left Hemingway with a concussion , scalp wound , double @-@ vision , intermittent hearing in his left ear , a crushed vertebra , ruptured liver , spleen and kidney , and burns . The explosion burned their passports , " thirty rolls of exposed film , three pairs of Ernest 's bifocals , all of their money , and their $ 15 @,@ 000 letter of credit . " The group traveled to Entebbe by road , where journalists from around the world had gathered to report his death . On January 26 Hemingway briefed and joked with the reporters , and spent the next few weeks in Nairobi recuperating and reading his obituaries . During his recuperation Hemingway immediately prepared the piece for Look . The magazine paid him an additional $ 20 @,@ 000 for an exclusive about the plane crashes . Biographer Michael Reynolds writes that the piece , " ran for twenty magazine pages spread out over two issues " , with the first issue bearing a publication date of 26 January .
In spite of his injuries , Hemingway joined Patrick and his wife on a planned fishing trip in February , but he was irascible and difficult to get along with . When a bushfire broke out , Hemingway fell into the fire while helping extinguish the flames , burning himself on his legs , front torso , lips , left hand and right forearm . Months later in Venice , Hemingway was diagnosed with two cracked discs , a kidney and liver rupture , a dislocated shoulder and a broken skull .
As soon as Hemingway returned to Finca Vigía in Cuba , he began work on a book about the safari , wanting to write while it was still vivid in his memory . He quickly wrote 10 @,@ 000 words , despite his pain ( eventually the manuscript grew to about 800 pages ) . In September 1954 , Hemingway wrote in a letter , " At present I work at about 1 / 2 the capacity I should but everything is better all the time . " However , three months later in late December he wrote in a letter : " This has been sort of a rough year .... We call this ' black @-@ ass ' and one should never have it . But I get tired of pain sometimes , even if that is an ignoble feeling . "
Almost a year later in October 1955 , he declared : " Am passed 650 pages in the book . Am trying to write now like a good sorcer 's ( sic ) apprentice ... always start to write as an apprentice . By the end of the book you are a master but if you commence as master in writing anyway , you end as a bloody bore . " Two months later , Hemingway was bedridden with kidney disease . By January 1956 , he acknowledged , in a letter written on the second anniversary of the accidents , he was having trouble remembering the trip . In 1956 , Hemingway agreed to work on the filming of The Old Man and the Sea and abandoned work on the Africa book . He wrote to his editor , " I found it impossible to resume writing on the Africa book . " Hemingway put the manuscript in a safe @-@ deposit box in Havana , although after the 1959 Cuban revolution he feared the manuscript lost .
= = Synopsis = =
The book is set in mid @-@ 20th century Kenya Colony during the Mau @-@ Mau rebellion . In his introduction to True at First Light , Patrick Hemingway describes the Kikuyu and Kamba tribes at the time of the Mau @-@ Mau rebellion . He explains that if the Kamba had joined the rebellion , Ernest and Mary Hemingway " would have then stood a good chance of being hacked to death in their beds as they slept by the very servants they so trusted and thought they understood . " The book takes place in December while the narrator , Ernest , and his wife , Mary , are in a safari camp in the Kenyan highlands on the flank of Mt . Kilimanjaro , where they find themselves temporarily at risk when a group of Mau @-@ Mau rebels escape from jail .
The blend of travel memoir and fiction opens with the white hunter Philip Percival leaving the safari group to visit his farm , handing control of the camp to Ernest , who is worried about being attacked and robbed , because there are guns , alcohol , and food in the camp . Deputized as an assistant game warden , he makes daily rounds in the game reserve , and maintains communication with the local tribes . He is accompanied by two African game scouts , Chungo and Arap Meina and , for a period , the district game warden G.C ( Gin Crazed ) . Other camp members include Keiti , who runs the camp , the safari cook , Mbebia , and two stewards , Nguili and Msembi .
For six months Mary has been tracking a large black @-@ maned lion , determined to finish the hunt by Christmas . In subsequent chapters , Ernest worries that Mary is unable to kill the lion for various reasons : she is too short to see the prey in the tall grass ; she misses her shots with other game ; and he thinks she is too soft @-@ hearted to kill the animal . During this period , Ernest becomes entranced with Debba , a woman from a local village , whom the others jokingly refer to as his second wife . From her and the villagers he wants to learn tribal practices and customs .
When Mary 's lion is finally killed at the book 's halfway mark , the local shamba ( village ) gathers for a ngoma ( dance ) . Because she has dysentery , Mary leaves for Nairobi to see a doctor ; while she is gone Ernest kills a leopard , after which the men have a protracted ngoma . When Mary returns from Nairobi , she asks Ernest for an airborne sightseeing tour of the Congo Basin as a Christmas present .
Ernest describes his close relationships with the local men ; indulges in memories of previous relationships with writers such as George Orwell , and D.H. Lawrence ; and satirizes the role of organized religion . Subjects as diverse as the smell of the pine woods in Michigan , the nature of Parisian cafés , and the quality of Simenon 's writing are treated with stream of consciousness digressions .
The back of the book includes a section titled " Cast of Characters " , a Swahili glossary , and the editor 's acknowledgments .
= = Publication history = =
The ownership of Hemingway 's manuscripts is complicated . Two books have been published from the African book manuscript : True at First Light , edited by Patrick Hemingway , and Under Kilimanjaro , edited by scholars Robert Lewis and Robert Fleming . In 1965 Mary Hemingway established the Hemingway Foundation , and in the 1970s she donated her husband 's papers to the John F. Kennedy Library . A group of Hemingway scholars met in 1980 to assess the donated papers when they formed the Hemingway Society , " committed to supporting and fostering Hemingway scholarship " . After Mary Hemingway 's 1986 death , Hemingway 's sons John and Patrick asked the Hemingway Society to take on the duties of the Hemingway Foundation ; in 1997 the Hemingway Estate and the Hemingway Society / Foundation agreed to a two @-@ part publishing plan for the African book . An abridged trade publication of True at First Light was to be published in 1999 , to be edited by Patrick Hemingway ; the Hemingway Foundation would then oversee the reworking of the entire text , to be published as Under Kilimanjaro . Of Under Kilimanjaro , the editors claim " this book deserves as complete and faithful a publication as possible without editorial distortion , speculation , or textually unsupported attempts at improvement " .
In the early 1970s , portions of the manuscript had been serialized in Sports Illustrated and anthologized . Mary Hemingway approved the segments published by Sports Illustrated : segments described by Patrick Hemingway as a " straight account of a shooting safari " . In a 1999 talk presented at the annual Oak Park Hemingway Society dinner , Patrick Hemingway admitted ownership of Ernest Hemingway 's manuscripts had " a rather tortuous history " . Access to the Africa manuscript — and to other Hemingway material — required a lawsuit and an eventual agreement with the Hemingway Society .
Scribner 's requested a book of fewer than 100 @,@ 000 words . Patrick Hemingway worked for two years with the 200 @,@ 000 @-@ word manuscript — initially converting to an electronic format , and then editing out superfluous material . He strengthened the storyline , and eliminated long descriptive passages with disparaging remarks about family members and living persons . He explains the manuscript was a draft lacking " ordinary housekeeping chores " such as character names . The cuts made , he said , maintained the integrity of the story and " the reader is not deprived of the essential quality of the book " .
True at First Light was published on July 7 , 1999 with a print run of 200 @,@ 000 . For the publicity campaign , Patrick Hemingway appeared on the Today Show on the day of publication . The book became the main selection for the Book of the Month Club ( BOMC ) , was serialized in the New Yorker , and rights were sold for translations to Danish , French , German , Icelandic , Italian , Norwegian , Polish , Spanish , and Swedish . A sound recording was released in 2007 .
= = Genre = =
In The New York Times James Woods described True at First Light as a travel journal that became a " fanciful memoir " and then a novel of sorts . Patrick Hemingway believed adamantly the manuscript was more than a journal . He emphasized the storyline because , as he explains , " the essential quality of the book is an action with a love interest " . He tightened the hunting scenes , and to honor his father 's statement to the reader that " where I go , you go " he emphasized the mid @-@ 20th century Africa scenes and " the real relation between people ... on that continent " . Although he fictionalized the storyline , Patrick Hemingway said of the characters , " I knew every single one ... very well indeed " . Hemingway scholar Robert Fleming ( who reworked the manuscript as Under Kilimanjaro ) considers Patrick Hemingway 's editing essentially to be correct because he believes the work shows evidence of an author unable to " turn off the mechanism that produces fiction " . The marital conflict is where Fleming believes the book took " a metafictional turn " . The published book is marketed as fiction .
Fleming considers True at First Light similar to Hemingway 's Green Hills of Africa and A Moveable Feast — a book that presents a primary topic as a backdrop interspersed with internal dialogue . Unlike the other two books , True at First Light is without a preface " indicating the intentions of the author or dictating how he intended to have the book read " . Fleming thinks Hemingway regarded Green Hills of Africa as experimental and A Moveable Feast as fiction . Rose Marie Burwell , author of Hemingway : The Postwar Years and the Posthumous Novels , believes Hemingway enjoyed writing the " strange combination of memoir and fiction " . She thinks in the fictional aspects of True at First Light he is free to imagine a second wife and to jettison his Protestant background .
= = Themes = =
Hemingway is " most definitely on vacation " in True at First Light writes Fleming ; and Burwell sees an author who is willingly and happily enjoying a vacation , behaving childishly , blissfully unaware of the effect his behavior has on the members of camp . The impression is of a man seeking to delve into cultural conflicts in Africa , which takes a fictional turn in the Debba storyline . Mary is characterized as a nag whereas the character of the writer is presented as " placid , mature , and loving " , immersing himself in native culture .
Burwell and Fleming says the book 's subtext is about aging , as symbolized by the writer 's attraction to the younger fertile woman , and Hemingway used fertility imagery to symbolize " the aging writer 's anxiety about his ability to write " . The images of the old elephant symbolize the aging and unproductive writer , and Burwell approves Patrick Hemingway 's decision to retain those pieces of the manuscript . Hemingway scholar Hilary Justice writes the work shows an emphasis on " the writer not writing " , which for Hemingway would have been a fate worse than aging . Thus , she says , True at First Light invokes a paradox with " an aging writer for whom writing is becoming increasingly difficult in the moment of writing about the not @-@ writing author " . Writing , for Hemingway , had always been difficult . He revised his work endlessly and stuck to the practice of writing " one true sentence " and stopping each writing session when he still had more to write . Tom Jenks , editor of an earlier posthumously published book The Garden of Eden , says Hemingway shows the worst of his writing in True at First Light : presenting himself as a " self @-@ pitying , self @-@ indulgent , self @-@ aggrandizing " persona in a book that is no more than a mass of fragmentary material . Jenks thinks Hemingway is simply aimlessly writing and the plot lacks the tension notable in his earliest works such as The Sun Also Rises . However , he thinks Hemingway had good material to work with and some skeletal thematic structures show promise .
True at First Light shows the nature of mid @-@ 20th century conflict in Africa . Colonialism and imperialism pressured African tribes and wildlife . Hemingway shows an awareness of the political future and turmoil in Africa according to Patrick Heminway who , although he lived in Tanzania ( formerly Tanganyika ) for decades , was surprised at the degree of perception apparent in his father 's mid @-@ century writing about Africa . Hemingway scholar Anders Hallengren notes the thematic similarities in Hemingway 's posthumous fiction , particularly in the final books . The genesis of True at First Light was an African insurrection , also symbolically depicted in The Garden of Eden : " The conviction and purposefulness of the Maji @-@ Maji in The Garden of Eden , corresponds to the Kenyan Mau @-@ Mau context of the novel True at First Light " . Writing for The Hemingway Review , Robert Gadjusek says the clash of cultures is " massively active " in the book with Hemingway exploring tribal practices ; Christianity and Islam are juxtaposed against native religions ; and the Mary / Debba triangle is symbolic of the white " Memsahib and the native girl " .
Similar to his first African book , Green Hills of Africa , Hemingway embeds in True at First Light digressions and ruminations about the nature of writing , with particular attention to James Joyce and D.H. Lawrence . Patrick Hemingway explains his father was interested in D.H. Lawrence 's belief that each region of the world " should have its own religion " — apparent when the male character invents his own religion . Mary 's intent to decorate a tree for Christmas mystified the native camp members , and Hemingway seemed to realize that Africa was a place without an influential and established religion — a place where religion could be redefined .
= = Reception = =
Although it was listed on The New York Times Best Seller list , the book received poor reviews from the popular press , although better reviews from Hemingway scholars . In a pre @-@ publication review for The New York Times , Ralph Blumenthal said that True at First Light was not as good as Hemingway 's earlier autobiographical fiction , and he questioned whether Hemingway would have wanted his " reputation and last printed words entrusted solely to any editor , even a son " . Blumenthal wondered about the autobiographical aspects of the work : the relationship between Hemingway and Debba ; the background of the Look magazine photoshoot ; the safari itself ; and the subsequent plane accidents . In the 1999 The New York Times review , James Wood claimed Hemingway knew True at First Light was not a novel though the editors billed it as one . He believes Hemingway 's later work became a parody of the earlier work . True at First Light represents the worst of Hemingway 's work according to a review in The Guardian .
Christopher Ondaatje writes in The Independent that the existence of a Hemingway industry tends to overshadow his posthumous work . He considers Hemingway 's African stories to be among his best although the posthumous work about Africa has been disregarded or overlooked . In her piece for Nation , Brenda Wineapple describes the book as " poignant but not particularly good " . However , she points out that it " reminds us of Hemingway 's writing at its most touching , acute and beautiful best " . The review in Publishers Weekly is much the same saying the " old Hemingway magic flashes sporadically , like lightning , but not often enough " .
Hemingway scholars think the work is more complicated and important than a cursory read suggests . With the publication of True at First Light critics saw a more humane and empathetic Hemingway , and began to shift their emphasis away from the image of the " white man with a gun . " Robert Fleming considers True at First Light to be part of the Hemingway canon declaring , " This is a more complicated book than it appears to be , and Hemingway deserves far more credit for it than the reviewers of the popular press have given it . Serious critics dealing with the late works would be advised not to ignore it " . Gadjusek praises the prose style , which he says is a new direction in Hemingway 's writing ; he also believes , despite the editing , the book is cohesive and whole with well @-@ ordered themes . Burwell considers the edits to the manuscript generally well @-@ done , though she laments losses that she thinks contribute to some of the subtexts in the book . Biographer Kenneth Lynn criticized Hemingway 's sons for editing the manuscript but of Hemingway he says the " memoirist is being totally , indeed helplessly honest , " and Gray concedes the publication of the book " underscores Hemingway 's courage as a writer " . Despite what he considers poor workmanship in the book , Wood considers Hemingway even at his worst a compelling writer and he says the literary estate should be left alone to save the literary influence .
= = Publication controversy = =
Many reviewers and writers were critical of the manner in which Patrick Hemingway edited the work . Paul Gray titled his review of the book " Where 's Papa ? " , answering with the opening sentence , " He 's hard to find in his fifth posthumous work " , pointing directly to Patrick Hemingway 's editing of the manuscript . Lynn thinks Hemingway would have been " outraged by his sons ' refusal to honor his judgment that the manuscript was unworthy of publication " and was outraged that " Patrick Hemingway declares that his two brothers , Jack and Gregory , share his belief that ' this job was worth doing ' " . Burwell also wonders whether Hemingway wanted the Africa book published , pointing to his statement , " I think maybe it would be better to wait until I 'm dead to publish it " , although she concedes that works by Chaucer , Shakespeare , and Kafka were unfinished and published posthumously . During the final two decades of his life , Hemingway had published two novels but since his death , works continue to be published . Writing in The New Yorker in 1998 , Joan Didion was extremely critical of the Hemingway family and estate for commercializing and profiting from his reputation and writing rather than protecting his legacy . " The publication of unfinished work is a denial of the idea that the role of the writer in his or her work is to make it " , she wrote , adding that True at First Light should not have been " molded " and published .
True at First Light was published in Hemingway 's centennial year , to a marketing campaign that attracted criticism . Hemingway 's sons licensed the family name and released that year items such as Thomasville furniture with labels showing the Hemingway lifestyle — " the Pamplona Sofa and the Kilimanjaro Bed " — and the Hemingway Ltd. brand , which Lynn describes as " tastefully chosen fishing rods , safari clothes , and ( surely the ultimate triumph of greed over taste ) shotguns " .
= I Am the Walrus ( American Dad ! ) =
" I Am the Walrus " is the thirteenth episode of the seventh season of American Dad ! , first airing on Fox in the United States on March 27 , 2011 . It mainly centers around Stan and his son Steve , who are both competing for the dominant role of the house . Steve is the first person to finish his meal , much to Stan 's dismay . Stan becomes intimidated by his son , and he is afraid that his stance as the alpha male of the household will be dethroned . Meanwhile , Hayley and Jeff are suffering marital relationship problems , so they seek marriage counseling .
" I Am the Walrus " was directed by Tim Parsons , with Jennifer Graves serving as co @-@ director for the episode , and was written by Keith Heisler . It featured guest appearances from Jeff Fischer , as well as several recurring actors and actresses for the series . Most critics gave the episode positive reviews , with much of the praise stemming from the main storyline , and it was viewed by over 4 @.@ 9 million viewers , acquiring a 3 @.@ 0 rating in the 18 @-@ 49 demographic upon its initial airing , according to the Nielsen ratings .
= = Plot = =
The Smith family have dinner together , and Stan talks about the events that occurred on a documentary on animals that aired earlier . Shortly after the conversation , Steve is the first person to finish his meal , much to Stan 's surprise . Stan later becomes insecure about the incident , and he is afraid that his stance as the alpha male of the household will be dethroned . The next morning , when Steve is watching a movie on television , Stan abruptly pushes him off the couch and claims it as his " territory " by peeing all over it . Steve becomes furious , and he tells Francine about the situation in the kitchen . Francine tells him that Stan is intimidated by him , and that he feels that he will be dethroned of his dominance by him . Puzzled , Steve talks to Stan about the issue and openly challenges him of his position as the dominant person in the household . Though Steve manages to outdo him in everything , Stan is inspired by a walrus documentary to do the one thing his son can not do : have sex . Turning to Roger for help , Steve is suggested to go to a party to get laid . Informed by Klaus of this , Stan rushes to the party to stop his son . However , upon arriving there , Stan learns that Steve 's various attempts to have sex with a girl failed miserably as the boy is having a mental breakdown . Roger explains now there 's no threat to Steve challenging Stan , and no threat of Steve 's future son ( whom shall never be born ) challenging him . Stan later apologizes to him , and admits to having failed to raise him to be a man .
In concurrence with the chain of events , after continuously getting into arguments , Jeff and Hayley decide to take marriage counseling . They arrive at a class dedicated to pottery where the session is intended to start at , learning the counselor to be Principal Lewis . Hayley opts out of the session , but Jeff insists that she stay with the plan . The couple later arrive at Principal Lewis ' home , which is a pigsty , where he tells him that their first goal to accomplish is to clean his house . Confused , Hayley and Jeff refuse to do it , forcing Lewis to hold them at gunpoint to do the laborious tasks . Jeff later pulls out drugs that have the ability to paralyze , and Principal Lewis takes them and Hayley and Jeff steal his rare Mickey Mouse watch and escape . He returns to get the watch back and tells he has fixed Hayley and Jeff 's relationship . After he gets his watch back , he takes more of the " Stephen Hawking pills " and is later used by Stan to teach Steve how to shave and Roger drags him away for unknown ( but quite possibly sexual ) reasons .
= = Production = =
" I Am the Walrus " was directed by series regular Tim Parsons , in his second episode of the season . This would be the first episode that Parsons would direct since the season six episode " 100 A.D. " . Jennifer Graves served as the co @-@ director for the episode . It was written by series regular Keith Heisler . This would be the second time Heisler has written an episode for the season , having also written season six episode " 100 A.D. " . Seth MacFarlane , the creator and executive producer of American Dad ! , as well as its sister shows Family Guy and The Cleveland Show , served as the executive producer for the episode , along with series veterans Mike Barker , Rick Wiener , Matt Weitzman , Eli Dolleman , and Kenny Schwartz . Diana Retchey was the animation producer for the episode , in her tenth episode of the season . Amanda Bell served as the production manager , and this episode would be Bell 's tenth episode of the season where she served as the production manager .
Several recurring voice actors were featured in this episode . Curtis Armstrong , Daisuke Suzuki and Eddie Kaye Thomas guest starred as Steve 's friends in the episode , while Kevin Michael Richardson would return to play his part as Principal Lewis . Jeff Fischer would return to resume his role as Hayley 's husband . Armstrong , Suzuki , Thomas , and Richardson all previously reprised their roles in the season six episode " You Debt Your Life " , while Fischer previously reprised his role in the season six episode " For Whom the Sleigh Bell Tolls " .
= = Cultural references = =
The episode makes several references to pop culture referencing films , music and media . When Roger takes on a persona to help Steve lose his virginity Steve exclaims his excitement to finally being able to use his dance moves . Afterwards the scene cuts to Toshi , Berry , Steve , Snot and Roger taking turns humping an ottoman in a nod to a video , that went viral in 2009 , in which five teenagers danced similarly . The song " Pony " by Ginuwine plays during this sequence . Steve and Roger get distracted from the problem with Stan with watching Airplane ! after they quote the classic " Don 't call me Shirley " scene . They even watch Airplane II : The Sequel , which Steve says is better than the first film , but actual reception was generally negative . The title of the episode is a reference to The Beatles ' song of the same name . The sequence where Steve picks up a line of comic books and repeatedly says " Ooh ! " , is a call back to the Family Guy episodes " Peter 's Got Woods " and " Back to the Woods " , in which James Woods eats a trail of candy and says " Ooh , a piece of candy ! " repeatedly .
= = Reception = =
" I Am the Walrus " was first broadcast on March 27 , 2011 as part of the animation television night on Fox . The episode ended the line @-@ up , the first time an American Dad ! episode ended the animation television night on Fox since the season @-@ six episode " For Whom the Sleigh Bell Tolls " . It was the first new episode of American Dad ! shortly following a month @-@ long hiatus . It was preceded by The Simpsons , Bob 's Burgers , and a rerun of its sister show Family Guy . Its other relative show , The Cleveland Show , was notably absent , as it did not air on that date . It was viewed by 4 @.@ 9 million viewers upon its original airing , despite airing simultaneously with Celebrity Apprentice on NBC , Undercover Boss on CBS , and a rerun of Desperate Housewives on ABC . The total viewership of the episode was slightly higher than Bob 's Burgers , but significantly lower than Family Guy and The Simpsons . It achieved a 3 @.@ 0 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic group , according to the Nielsen ratings , the third highest rating in the line @-@ up . The episode 's total viewership and ratings were significantly up from the previous episode , " You Debt Your Life " , which was viewed by 4 @.@ 25 million viewers upon its initial airing , and garnered a 2 @.@ 0 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic . The episode 's ratings and total viewership were also the highest since the season six episode " For Whom the Sleigh Bell Tolls " , which was viewed by 6 @.@ 26 million viewers and acquired a 3 @.@ 1 rating in the 18 @-@ 49 demographic .
" I Am the Walrus " was met with mostly positive reviews from critics . Rowan Kaiser of The A.V. Club gave the episode a positive review . In his review for the episode , he opined : " The episode itself didn 't disappoint either , as [ ... ] this was a quality half @-@ hour of jokes . Kaiser praised the argument between Stan and Steve , calling it a " superb sequence " . Concluding his review , Kaiser went on to write , " Despite all the absurdity , the episode even manages to successfully come around to an emotional resolution when Stan , realizing that Steve is an utter failure at attempted mating , resolves to see Steve as a son instead of potential masculine competition . Then [ ... ] there 's a rape joke . But , it being American Dad , it 's actually a surprisingly funny rape joke . " He went on to give the episode an " A- " , scoring higher than The Simpsons episode " Love Is a Many Strangled Thing " , but scoring lower than Bob 's Burgers episode " Spaghetti Western and Meatballs " . Jason Hughes of TV Squad also reacted positively , writing , " It was good to have American Dad back in the lineup . Roger was in fine form , and I can at least appreciate that they 're trying to figure out how to make Hayley and Jeff work in the family dynamic . They never quite got there with Hayley alone , so maybe things will work better this way . " However , he was more critical on the sub @-@ plot . In his review for the episode , Hughes opined : " The B @-@ story left me wanting . The writers are still trying to figure out the new dynamic of having Hayley married and Jeff living in the house with the Smiths . The whole thing has been barely addressed , and this week we got a fairly weak exploration of them having fairly standard marital problems . "
= SMS Vineta ( 1897 ) =
SMS Vineta was a protected cruiser of the Victoria Louise class , built for the German Imperial Navy ( Kaiserliche Marine ) in the 1890s . Vineta was laid down at the AG Vulcan shipyard in 1895 , launched in April 1897 , and commissioned into the Navy in July 1898 . The ship , named for the semi @-@ legendary medieval town of Vineta , was armed with a battery of two 21 cm guns and eight 15 cm guns and had a top speed of 19 knots ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) .
Vineta served abroad in the American Station for the first several years of her career . While on station in the Americas , she participated in the Venezuela Crisis of 1902 – 1903 and bombarded several Venezuelan fortresses . She returned to Germany in 1905 and was used as a torpedo training ship in 1908 . She was modernized in 1909 – 1911 , after which she was used as a school ship for naval cadets . In November 1912 , she participated in an international naval protest of the First Balkan War . At the outbreak of World War I , Vineta was mobilized into the 5th Scouting Group , but served in front @-@ line duty only briefly . She was used as a barracks ship after 1915 , and ultimately sold for scrapping in 1920 .
= = Design = =
Vineta was ordered under the contract name " M " and was laid down at the Imperial Dockyard in Danzig in 1896 . She was launched on 9 December 1897 , after which fitting @-@ out work commenced . She was commissioned into the German navy on 13 September 1899 . The ship was 110 @.@ 60 meters ( 362 ft 10 in ) long overall and had a beam of 17 @.@ 40 m ( 57 ft 1 in ) and a draft of 6 @.@ 58 m ( 21 ft 7 in ) forward . She displaced 6 @,@ 491 t ( 6 @,@ 388 long tons ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of three vertical 4 @-@ cylinder triple expansion engines powered by twelve coal @-@ fired Belleville boilers . Her engines provided a top speed of 19 knots ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) and a range of approximately 3 @,@ 412 nautical miles ( 6 @,@ 319 km ; 3 @,@ 926 mi ) at 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . She had a crew of 31 officers and 446 enlisted men .
The ship was armed with two 21 cm SK L / 40 guns in single turrets , one forward and one aft . The guns were supplied with 58 rounds of ammunition each . They had a range of 16 @,@ 300 m ( 53 @,@ 500 ft ) . Vineta also carried eight 15 cm SK L / 40 guns . Four were mounted in turrets amidships and the other four were placed in casemates . These guns had a range of 13 @,@ 700 m ( 44 @,@ 900 ft ) . She also carried ten 8 @.@ 8 cm SK L / 35 guns . The gun armament was rounded out by machine guns . She was also equipped with three 45 cm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes with eight torpedoes , two launchers were mounted on the broadside and the third was in the bow , all below the waterline .
= = Service history = =
Following her commissioning in 1899 , Vineta was sent overseas . Her commander was Kapitän zur See ( Captain at Sea ) Da Fonseca @-@ Wollheim . The ship was assigned to the American Station , along with the small cruiser Geier and the gunboat Luchs . In May 1900 , Vineta inspected Margarita Island for its potential as a naval base , but the Germans determined the port was insufficient for their purposes . In late 1901 , Vineta and the small cruiser Falke were sent to Venezuela in a show of force to compel the Venezuelan government to make reparations for grievances related to internal conflicts in the 1890s . Starting in December 1902 , Vineta participated in the German naval contingent in the Venezuela Crisis of 1902 – 1903 . A British merchant ship had been boarded and its crew arrested by Venezuelan forces on 13 December ; in response , British forces bombarded the forts at Puerto Cabello , and enlisted Vineta in the attack . Vineta was tasked with shelling the fortresses Libertador and Vigia . In January 1903 , the gunboat Panther attacked Fort San Carlos in Maracaibo , but was repulsed . Vineta therefore was sent to silence the guns on 21 January . During the bombardment of the fort , Vineta set it afire and destroyed the fortress
In 1903 , one of Vineta 's 15 cm ammunition magazines exploded , but did not cause major damage to the ship . The accident had significant long @-@ term consequences , however , as it exposed the volatility of German propellant charges . The Germans therefore reworked the composition of the propellant , which was in service by 1914 . This new , more stable propellant saved several German battlecruisers from destruction when their magazines were penetrated by British shells during World War I. In January 1904 , the ship visited New Orleans with the rest of the American Squadron , which at that time included Falke , Panther , and Gazelle . Vineta was detached from the American Squadron and returned to Germany in 1905 . She was used as a torpedo training ship starting in 1908 . In 1909 , she went to dry dock at the Imperial Dockyard in Danzig for a refit , during which she was re @-@ boilered . Vineta originally had three stacks , and during the modernization they were trunked into two funnels . The refit was finished by 1911 , at which point Vineta became a cadet training ship .
The ship cruised in the western Mediterranean in the autumn of 1912 , along with her sister Hertha . The old cruiser Geier was also in the region . As the Bulgarian army was poised to march on Constantinople during the First Balkan War , the Great Powers deployed a naval force to ensure the safety of foreign nationals in the Ottoman Empire . Vineta and the battlecruiser Goeben were sent to Constantinople as part of this force . The international fleet sent ashore a force of around 3 @,@ 000 officers and men . The force was withdrawn to Crete after a ceasefire seemed imminent , but by February fighting again broke out , and the island was seized by Greece . On 23 January 1914 , Vineta was in Haiti , when Michel Oreste abdicated from the presidency . He sought refuge aboard the ship , which landed marines along with the American cruiser USS Montana in Port @-@ au @-@ Prince to prevent rioting in the capital .
Vineta had a short career during World War I. At the outbreak of hostilities , she was briefly mobilized into the 5th Scouting Group , which was tasked with training cadets in the Baltic Sea . By the end of 1914 , however , the ships were again removed from service . She was then put into service as a coastal defense ship . After 1915 , she was withdrawn from front @-@ line duty again and employed as a barracks ship at the Imperial Dockyard in Kiel . She was stricken from the naval register on 6 December 1919 and sold to ship @-@ breakers in Harburg . She was scrapped the following year .
= What 's My Name ? ( Rihanna song ) =
" What 's My Name ? " is a song recorded by Barbadian recording artist Rihanna , for her fifth studio album Loud ( 2010 ) . Featuring guest vocals from Canadian rapper Drake , the song was released as the second single from Loud on October 29 , 2010 through Def Jam Recordings . The electro @-@ R & B song was produced by the Norwegian production duo StarGate , and was written by the duo along with Ester Dean , Traci Hale , and Drake . Lyrically , it incorporates themes of sexual intercourse and romance .
Music critics gave the song positive reviews , citing it some of Rihanna 's best vocal work to date ; there was a praise regarding its romantic nature , as well as its sexual tones . " What 's My Name ? " was a commercial success and topped the US Billboard Hot 100 chart , giving Rihanna her sixth number @-@ one single in 2010 , as well as her eighth overall on the chart . The song also topped the charts in Hungary and the United Kingdom and reached the top five in Canada , Ireland , New Zealand , Norway and Slovakia . The song received a nomination at the 54th Grammy Awards for Best Rap / Sung Collaboration .
An accompanying music video , directed by Philip Andelman , portrays a romantic encounter between Rihanna and Drake in a grocery store along with romantic scenes between the pair and Rihanna walking through Manhattan 's Lower East Side . " What 's My Name ? " was promoted with live performances , including Saturday Night Live in America and the series seven finale of The X Factor in the United Kingdom .
= = Development and release = =
In November 2009 , in an interview with MTV News , Canadian rapper Drake praised Rihanna 's then @-@ upcoming fourth studio album , Rated R ( 2009 ) . During the same interview , he revealed that they have collaborated on a track that didn 't make the final cut on the album , " the record we have is great . It 's a special record , so for it not to make it , I know something had to click . It 's all good . I think the project 's gonna be great no matter what . " Talking for the same publication , Tor Erik Hermansen of Norwegian production duo StarGate recalled that during an event Rihanna met with Drake backstage and asked him to record a verse on her song , " She 's calling me up saying , ' Where are the files ? ' That 's one thing you don 't hear often from artists on her level . " " What 's My Name ? " was written by Mikkel S. Eriksen , Hermansen , Ester Dean , Traci Hale and Drake , while the production was done by StarGate . In an interview for HitQuarters , Hale explained that she got into the project that 's to a phone call she received from Dean . She also elaborated that her work on the song was mostly lyrical , while Dean and StarGate did most of the music . When asked what 's the inspiration behind the song she stated , " Oh love , love , love ! And it ’ s sexy – it started as a real sexy track and then you put something sexy over it . "
The collaboration was originally planned to be a remix of the song , while the solo version would have been included on Rihanna 's fifth studio album Loud . However , in the end it made the final cut on the album . Regarding Drake 's inclusion on the song , Rihanna told MTV News , " Drake is the hottest rapper out right now and we 've always been trying to work together . " According to her , when he heard the song he liked it and wrote his verse after three days . Rihanna has further described the song as very youthful , playful and very melodic track ; according to her that 's why Drake was the perfect choice to be on it , " cause he 's a young rapper who has incredible melodies " . " What 's My Name ? " was released as the second single from Loud ; it was sent to contemporary hit and rhythmic radio in the United States on October 26 , 2010 . The single was made available for digital download on November 12 via the iTunes Store . A CD single featuring the song and a remix of it was released on January 21 , 2011 in Germany .
= = Production = =
" What 's My Name ? " was recorded at the Roc the Mic Studios in New York City and at the Westlake Recording Studios in Los Angeles by Eriksen and Miles Walker . Rihanna 's vocals were recorded by Kuk Harrell , Josh Gudwin and Marcos Tovar and Harrell also produced them . Bobby Campbell served as the vocal assistant . Drake 's vocals were recorded by Noah " 40 " Shebib at The Hit Factory Studios in Miami . The recording of his vocals was assisted by Noel Cadastre and Brandon Joner . Its mixing was done by Phil Tan at Ninja Beat Club in Atlanta while Damien Lewis provided an additional and assistant engineering . All the instruments were provided by Eriksen and Hermansen while Dean sang the background vocals .
In May 2011 , in The Mix Review , an analyzing commercial productions , Mike Senior of Sound on Sound revisited the original mixing of the song . According to him , before he started the mix , Senior played the song a couple of times before releasing what thing about it " bugged " him . Working it out , he noted that the harmony of the mix is undermined by the kick drum . " What 's My Name ? " contains basic harmonies that are a bar of F # minor , a bar of A major and two bars of D @-@ major . Senior stated that on the other side however , there 's a very little in the arrangement that could be seen like a traditional melodic bass @-@ line . As the result of that , the " 808 @-@ style " kick @-@ drum 's pronounce pitched components with a power of 37 Hz and 74 Hz fill that help void with a ' D ' note . According to Senior , " the problem is that this only really supports the D ‑ major chord , destabilizing the home chord of F # minor ( by implying that it 's actually part of a D ‑ major 7th chord ) and clashing nastily with the A ‑ major . " He further stated that although might not be as apparent on small speakers , it still represents " weakness " for him . The section of the song at 3 : 12 has four bars without the kick @-@ drum and four without it .
= = Composition = =
" What 's My Name ? " is a mid @-@ tempo electro @-@ R & B song , produced by Norwegian producers , StarGate , who return Rihanna to the " Island @-@ pop " of her early career with a backing track consisting of " heavy reggae " and ska beats with synthesised organs . Bill Lamb from About.com noted that before Rihanna 's vocals start , there is an internal buildup of " dreamy drum machine rhythms " . Overall he described the backing track as " simple " and " atmospheric " . The song was written by Mikkel S. Eriksen , Tor Erik Hermansen , Ester Dean , Traci Hale and Drake and incorporates themes of " sex and romance " . Jocelyn Vena from MTV described the vocal delivery and lyrical content of the song as " sassy " . Lamb as said that " lyrically , [ What 's My Name ? ] amounts to romantic , sexual sweet nothings " . Rihanna called the collaboration " young and playful " , something which Stacy Anderson from Spin and Nick Levine of Digital Spy both picked up , when commenting on the sexual innuendos in the lyrics . In particular , Anderson and Levine noted an arithmetic @-@ based joke during Drake 's guest vocal , where he says " The square root of 69 is 8 something , right / ' Cuz I been trying to work it out " . Megan Vick from Billboard noted that " Rihanna 's lush vocal turn denotes a startling leap in maturity from previous singles " .
= = Critical reception = =
" What 's My Name ? " received positive reviews for its romantic tone and sentiments . Thomas Conner from the Chicago Sun @-@ Times neither praised nor criticized the song , but instead focused on the steamy nature of the composition . " [ Rihanna ] and panting duet partner Drake steam the recording studio windows as he raps a helpless play @-@ by @-@ play " . Bill Lamb from About.com gave the song a positive review , saying that " There it is , the chorus opens the track with " Oh na na ... what 's my name ? " and the hook is firmly implanted . It 's not long before Drake 's added on rap kicks in with clever , sexy and romantic rhyming . Then the dreamy drum machine rhythms and Rihanna 's vocals kick in again . This is a hit ... " What 's My Name ? " is a good addition to that romantic evening playlist . " Jocelyn Vena from MTV praised the " song 's chorus " and " Drake 's verse " . Molly Lambert of Pitchfork Media praised Rihanna 's performance saying that " On ' What 's My Name ' , Rihanna doesn 't have to tell us how desirable she is – it is a given . There is never any doubt in her delivery that Rihanna really might as well be the only girl in the world " .
Nick Levine from Digital Spy said " ' What 's My Name ? ' is essentially the long , luxuriant lovemaking session to ' Rude Boy 's hard 'n'fast rut ... it manages to stay classy even when Drake makes a dodgy joke about the ' square root of 69 ' and Rihanna delivers a not @-@ so @-@ coy reference to oral sex . " Megan Vick from Billboard said " As much as ' What 's My Name ' is a joint effort , Rihanna owns the song by delivering a more polished version of her pop persona . " According to Jon Dolan from Rolling Stone with the release of " What 's My Name
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never ceased worshipping pagan gods . Both his son 's Greater Legend and the nearly contemporaneous Thietmar of Merseburg described Géza as a cruel monarch , suggesting that he was a despot who mercilessly consolidated his authority over the rebellious Hungarian lords .
Hungarian chronicles agree that Stephen 's mother was Sarolt , daughter of Gyula , a Hungarian chieftain with jurisdiction either in Transylvania or in the wider region of the confluence of the rivers Tisza and Maros . Many historians — including Pál Engel and Gyula Kristó — propose that her father was identical with " Gylas " , who had been baptized in Constantinople around 952 and " remained faithful to Christianity " , according to Byzantine chronicler John Skylitzes . However , this identification is not unanimously accepted ; historian György Györffy states that it was not Sarolt 's father , but his younger brother , who was baptized in the Byzantine capital . In contrast with all Hungarian sources , the Polish @-@ Hungarian Chronicle and later Polish sources state that Stephen 's mother was Adelhaid , an otherwise unknown sister of Duke Mieszko I of Poland , but the reliability of this report is not accepted by modern historians .
Stephen was born as Vajk , a name derived from the Turkic word baj , meaning " hero " , " master " , " prince " or " rich " . Stephen 's Greater Legend narrates that he was baptized by the saintly Bishop Adalbert of Prague , who stayed in Géza 's court several times between 983 and 994 . However , Saint Adalbert 's nearly contemporaneous Legend , written by Bruno of Querfurt , does not mention this event . Accordingly , the date of Stephen 's baptism is unknown : Györffy argues that he was baptized soon after birth , while Kristó proposes that he only received baptism just before his father 's death in 997 .
Stephen 's official hagiography , written by Bishop Hartvic and sanctioned by Pope Innocent III , narrates that he " was fully instructed in the knowledge of the grammatical art " in his childhood . This implies that he studied Latin , though some scepticism is warranted as few kings of this era were able to write . His two other late 11th @-@ century hagiographies do not mention any grammatical studies , stating only that he " was brought up by receiving an education appropriate for a little prince " . Kristó says that the latter remark only refers to Stephen 's physical training , including his participation in hunts and military actions . According to the Illuminated Chronicle , one of his tutors was a Count Deodatus from Italy , who later founded a monastery in Tata .
According to Stephen 's legends , Grand Prince Géza convoked an assembly of the Hungarian chieftains and warriors when Stephen " ascended to the first stage of adolescence " , at the age of 14 or 15 . Géza nominated Stephen as his successor and all those present took an oath of loyalty to the young prince . Györffy also writes , without identifying his source , that Géza appointed his son to rule the " Nyitra ducate " around that time . Slovak historians , including Ján Steinhübel and Ján Lukačka , accept Györffy 's view and propose that Stephen administered Nyitra ( now Nitra , Slovakia ) from around 995 .
Géza arranged Stephen 's marriage , to Gisela , daughter of Henry the Wrangler , Duke of Bavaria , in or after 995 . This marriage established the first family link between a Hungarian ruler and a Western European ruling house , as Gisela was closely related to the Ottonian dynasty of Holy Roman Emperors . According to popular tradition preserved in the Scheyern Abbey in Bavaria , the ceremony took place at the Scheyern castle and was celebrated by Saint Adalbert . Gisela was accompanied to her new home by Bavarian knights , many of whom received land grants from her husband and settled in Hungary , helping to strengthen Stephen 's military position . Györffy writes that Stephen and his wife " presumably " settled in Nyitra after their marriage .
= = Reign ( 997 – 1038 ) = =
= = = Grand Prince ( 997 – 1000 ) = = =
Grand Prince Géza died in 997 . Stephen convoked an assembly at Esztergom where his supporters declared him grand prince . Initially , he only controlled the northwestern regions of the Carpathian Basin ; the rest of the territory was still dominated by tribal chieftains . Stephen 's ascension to the throne was in line with the principle of primogeniture , which prescribed that a father was succeeded by his son . On the other hand , it contradicted the traditional idea of seniority , according to which Géza should have been succeeded by the most senior member of the Árpád dynasty , which was Koppány at that time . Koppány , who held the title Duke of Somogy , had for many years administered the regions of Transdanubia south of Lake Balaton .
Koppány proposed to Géza 's widow , Sarolt , in accordance with the pagan custom of levirate marriage . He also announced his claim to the throne . Although it is not impossible that Koppány had already been baptized , in 972 , most of his supporters were pagans , opponents of the Christianity represented by Stephen and his predominantly German retinue . A charter of 1002 for the Pannonhalma Archabbey writes of a war between " the Germans and the Hungarians " when referring to the armed conflicts between Stephen and Koppány . Even so , Györffy says that Oszlar ( " Alan " ) , Besenyő ( " Pecheneg " ) , Kér and other place names , referring to ethnic groups or Hungarian tribes in Transdanubia around the supposed borders of Koppány 's duchy , suggest that significant auxiliary units and groups of Hungarian warriors — who had been settled there by Grand Prince Géza — fought in Stephen 's army .
Kristó states that the entire conflict between Stephen and Koppány was only a feud between two members of the Árpád dynasty , with no effect on other Hungarian tribal leaders . Koppány and his troops invaded the northern regions of Transdanubia , took many of Stephen 's forts and plundered his lands . Stephen , who according to the Illuminated Chronicle " was for the first time girded with his sword " , placed the brothers Hont and Pázmány at the head of his own guard and nominated Vecelin to lead the royal army . The latter was a German knight who had come to Hungary in the reign of Géza . Hont and Pázmány were , according to Simon of Kéza 's Gesta Hunnorum et Hungarorum and the Illuminated Chronicle , " knights of Swabian origin " who settled in Hungary either under Géza or in the first years of Stephen 's reign . On the other hand , Lukačka and other Slovak historians say that Hont and Pázmány were " Slovak " noblemen who had joined Stephen during his rule in Nyitra .
Koppány was besieging Veszprém when he was informed of the arrival of Stephen 's army . In the ensuing battle , Stephen won a decisive victory over his enemies . Koppány was killed on the battlefield . His body was quartered and its parts were displayed at the gates of the forts of Esztergom , Győr , Gyulafehérvár ( Alba Iulia , Romania ) and Veszprém in order to threaten all of those who were conspiring against the young monarch .
Stephen occupied Koppány 's duchy and granted large estates to his own partisans . He also prescribed that Koppány 's former subjects were to pay tithes to the Pannonhalma Archabbey , according to the deed of the foundation of this monastery which has been preserved in a manuscript containing interpolations . The same document declares that " there were no other bishoprics and monasteries in Hungary " at that time . On the other hand , the nearly contemporary Bishop Thietmar of Merseburg stated that Stephen " established bishoprics in his kingdom " before being crowned king . If the latter report is valid , the dioceses of Veszprém and Győr are the most probable candidates , according to historian Gábor Thoroczkay .
= = = Coronation ( 1000 – 1001 ) = = =
By ordering the display of one part of Koppány 's quartered corpse in Gyulafehérvár , the seat of his maternal uncle , Gyula the Younger , Stephen asserted his claim to reign all lands dominated by Hungarian lords . He also decided to strengthen his international status by adopting the title of king . However , the exact circumstances of his coronation and its political consequences are subject to scholarly debate .
Thietmar of Merseburg writes that Stephen received the crown " with the favour and urging " of Emperor Otto III ( r . 996 – 1002 ) , implying that Stephen accepted the Emperor 's suzerainty before his coronation . On the other hand , all of Stephen 's legends emphasize that he received his crown from Pope Sylvester II ( r . 999 – 1003 ) . Kristó and other historians point out that Pope Sylvester and Emperor Otto were close allies , which implies that both reports are valid : Stephen " received the crown and consecration " from the Pope , but not without the Emperor 's consent . Around 75 years after the coronation , Pope Gregory VII ( r . 1075 – 1085 ) , who claimed suzerainty over Hungary , declared that Stephen had " offered and devotedly surrendered " Hungary " to Saint Peter " ( that is to the Holy See ) . In a contrasting report , Stephen 's Greater Legend states that the King offered Hungary to the Virgin Mary . Modern historians — including Pál Engel , and Miklós Molnár — write that Stephen always asserted his sovereignty and never accepted papal or imperial suzerainty . For instance , none of his charters were dated according to the years of the reign of the contemporary emperors , which would have been the case if he had been their vassal . Furthermore , Stephen declared in the preamble to his First Book of Laws that he governed his realm " by the will of God " .
The exact date of Stephen 's coronation is unknown . According to later Hungarian tradition , he was crowned on the first day of the second millennium , which may refer either to 25 December 1000 or to 1 January 1001 . Details of Stephen 's coronation preserved in his Greater Legend suggest that the ceremony , which took place in Esztergom or Székesfehérvár followed the rite of the coronation of the German kings . Accordingly , Stephen was anointed with consecrated oil during the ceremony . Stephen 's portrait , preserved on his royal cloak from 1031 , shows that his crown , like the Holy Roman Emperor 's diadem , was a hoop crown decorated with gemstones .
Besides his crown , Stephen regarded a spear with a flag as an important symbol of his sovereignty . For instance , his first coins bear the inscription LANCEA REGIS ( " the king 's spear " ) and depict an arm holding a spear with flag . According to the contemporaneous Adémar de Chabannes , a spear had been given to Stephen 's father by Emperor Otto III as a token of Géza 's right to " enjoy the most freedom in the possession of his country " . Stephen is styled in various ways — Ungarorum rex ( " king of the Hungarians " ) , Pannoniorum rex ( " king of the Pannonians " ) or Hungarie rex ( " king of Hungary " ) — in his charters .
= = = Consolidation ( 1001 – c . 1009 ) = = =
Although Stephen 's power did not rely on his coronation , the ceremony granted him the internationally accepted legitimacy of a Christian monarch who ruled his realm " by the Grace of God " . All his legends testify that he established an archbishopric with its see in Esztergom shortly after his coronation . This act ensured that the Church in Hungary became independent of the prelates of the Holy Roman Empire . The earliest reference to an archbishop of Esztergom , named Domokos , has been preserved in the deed of foundation of the Pannonhalma Archabbey from 1002 . According to historian Gábor Thoroczkay , Stephen also established the Diocese of Kalocsa in 1001 . Stephen invited foreign priests to Hungary to evangelize his kingdom . Associates of the late Adalbert of Prague , including Radla and Astrik , arrived in Hungary in the first years of his reign . The presence of an unnamed " Archbishop of the Hungarians " at the synod of 1007 of Frankfurt and the consecration of an altar in Bamberg in 1012 by Archbishop Astrik show that Stephen 's prelates maintained a good relationship with the clergy of the Holy Roman Empire .
The transformation of Hungary into a Christian state was one of Stephen 's principal concerns throughout his reign . Although the Hungarians ' conversion had already begun in his father 's reign , it was only Stephen who systematically forced his subjects to give up their pagan rituals . His legislative activity was closely connected with Christianity . For example , his First Book of Laws from the first years of his reign includes several provisions prescribing the observance of feast days and the confession before death . His other laws protected property rights and the interests of widows and orphans , or regulated the status of serfs .
If someone has such a hardened heart — God forbid it to any Christian — that he does not want to confess his faults according to the counsel of a priest , he shall lie without any divine service and alms like an infidel . If his relatives and neighbors fail to summon the priest , and therefore he should die unconfessed , prayers and alms should be offered , but his relatives shall wash away their negligence by fasting in accordance with the judgement of the priests . Those who die a sudden death shall be buried with all ecclesiastical honor ; for divine judgment is hidden from us and unknown .
Many Hungarian lords refused to accept Stephen 's suzerainty even after his coronation . The new King first turned against his own uncle , Gyula the Younger , whose realm " was most wide and rich " , according to the Illuminated Chronicle . Stephen invaded Transylvania and seized Gyula and his family around 1002 or in 1003 . The contemporary Annals of Hildesheim adds that Stephen converted his uncle 's " country to the Christian faith by force " after its conquest . Accordingly , historians date the establishment of the Diocese of Transylvania to this period . If the identification , proposed by Kristó , Györffy and other Hungarian historians , of Gyula with one Prokui — who was Stephen 's uncle according to Thietmar of Merseburg — is valid , Gyula later escaped from captivity and fled to Boleslav the Brave , Duke of Poland ( r . 992 – 1025 ) .
[ Duke Boleslav the Brave 's ] territory included a certain burg , located near the border with the Hungarians . Its guardian was lord Prokui , an uncle of the Hungarian king . Both in the past and more recently , Prokui had been driven from his lands by the king and his wife had been taken captive . When he was unable to free her , his nephew arranged for her unconditional release , even though he was Prokui 's enemy . I have never heard of anyone who showed such restraint towards a defeated foe . Because of this , God repeatedly granted him victory , not only in the burg mentioned above , but in others as well .
About a hundred years later , the chronicler Gallus Anonymus also made mention of armed conflicts between Stephen and Boleslav , stating that the latter " defeated the Hungarians in battle and made himself master of all their lands as far as the Danube " . Györffy says that the chronicler 's report refers to the occupation of the valley of the river Morava — a tributary of the Danube — by the Poles in the 1010s . On the other hand , the Polish @-@ Hungarian Chronicle states that the Polish duke occupied large territories north of the Danube and east of the Morava as far as Esztergom in the early 11th century . According to Steinhübel , the latter source proves that a significant part of the lands that now form Slovakia were under Polish rule between 1002 and 1030 . In contrast with the Slovak historian , Györffy writes that this late chronicle " in which one absurdity follows another " contradicts all facts known from 11th @-@ century sources .
The Illuminated Chronicle narrates that Stephen " led his army against Kean , Duke of the Bulgarians and Slavs whose lands are by their natural position most strongly fortified " following the occupation of Gyula 's country . According to a number of historians , including Zoltán Lenkey and Gábor Thoroczkay , Kean was the head of a small state located in the southern parts of Transylvania and Stephen occupied his country around 1003 . Other historians , including Györffy , say that the chronicle 's report preserved the memory of Stephen 's campaign against Bulgaria in the late 1010s .
Likewise , the identification of the " Black Hungarians " — who were mentioned by Bruno of Querfurt and Adémar de Chabannes among the opponents of Stephen 's proselytizing policy — is uncertain . Györffy locates their lands to the east of the river Tisza ; while Thoroczkay says they live in the southern parts of Transdanubia . Bruno of Querfurt 's report of the Black Hungarians ' conversion by force suggests that Stephen conquered their lands at the latest in 1009 when " the first mission of Saint Peter " — a papal legate , Cardinal Azo — arrived in Hungary . The latter attended the meeting in Győr where the royal charter determining the borders of the newly established Bishopric of Pécs was issued on August 23 , 1009 .
The Diocese of Eger was also set up around 1009 . According to Thoroczkay , " it is very probable " that the bishopric 's establishment was connected with the conversion of the Kabars — an ethnic group of Khazar origin — and their chieftain . The head of the Kabars — who was either Samuel Aba or his father — married Stephen 's unnamed younger sister on this occasion . The Aba clan was the most powerful among the native families who joined Stephen and supported him in his efforts to establish a Christian monarchy . The reports by Anonymus , Simon of Kéza and other Hungarian chroniclers of the Bár @-@ Kalán , Csák and other 13th @-@ century noble families descending from Hungarian chieftains suggest that other native families were also involved in the process .
Stephen set up a territory @-@ based administrative system , establishing counties . Each county , headed by a royal official known as a count or ispán , was an administrative unit organized around a royal fortress . Most fortresses were earthworks in this period , but the castles at Esztergom , Székesfehérvár and Veszprém were built of stone . Forts serving as county seats also became the nuclei of Church organization . The settlements developing around them , where markets were held on each Sunday , were important local economic centers .
= = = Wars with Poland and Bulgaria ( c . 1009 – 1018 ) = = =
Stephen 's brother @-@ in @-@ law , Henry II , became King of Germany in 1002 and Holy Roman Emperor in 1013 . Their friendly relationship ensured that the western borders of Hungary experienced a period of peace in the first decades of the 11th century . Even when Henry II 's discontented brother , Bruno , sought refuge in Hungary in 1004 , Stephen preserved the peace with Germany and negotiated a settlement between his two brothers @-@ in @-@ law . Around 1009 , he gave his younger sister in marriage to Otto Orseolo , Doge of Venice ( r . 1008 – 1026 ) , a close ally of the Byzantine Emperor , Basil II ( r . 976 – 1025 ) , which suggests that Hungary 's relationship with the Byzantine Empire was also peaceful . On the other hand , the alliance between Hungary and the Holy Roman Empire brought her into a war with Poland lasting from around 1014 until 1018 . The Poles occupied the Hungarian posts along the river Morava . Györffy and Kristó write that a Pecheneg incursion into Transylvania , the memory of which has been preserved in Stephen 's legends , also took place in this period , because the Pechenegs were close allies of the Polish duke 's brother @-@ in @-@ law , Grand Prince Sviatopolk I of Kiev ( r . 1015 – 1019 ) .
Poland and the Holy Roman Empire concluded the Peace of Bautzen in January 1018 . Later in the same year , 500 Hungarian horsemen accompanied Boleslav of Poland to Kiev , suggesting that Hungary had been included in the peace treaty . The historian Ferenc Makk says that the Peace of Bautzen obliged Boleslav to hand over all the territories he had occupied in the Morava valley to Stephen . According to Leodvin , the first known Bishop of Bihar ( r. c . 1050 – c . 1060 ) , Stephen allied with the Byzantines and led a military expedition to assist them against " barbarians " in the Balkan Peninsula . The Byzantine and Hungarian troops jointly took " Cesaries " which Györffy identifies as the present @-@ day town of Ohrid . Leodvin 's report suggests that Stephen joined the Byzantines in the war ending with their conquest of Bulgaria in 1018 . However , the exact date of his expedition is uncertain . Györffy argues that it was only in the last year of the war that Stephen led his troops against the Bulgarians .
= = = Domestic policies ( 1018 – 1024 ) = = =
Bishop Leodvin wrote that Stephen collected relics of a number of saints in " Cesaries " during his campaign in the Balkans , including Saint George and Saint Nicholas of Myra . He donated them to his new triple @-@ naved basilica dedicated to the Holy Virgin in Székesfehérvár , where he also set up a cathedral chapter and his new capital . His decision was influenced by the opening , in 1018 or 1019 , of a new pilgrimage route that bypassed his old capital , Esztergom . The new route connected Western Europe and the Holy Land through Hungary . Stephen often met the pilgrims , contributing to the spread of his fame throughout Europe . Abbot Odilo of Cluny , for example , wrote in a letter to Stephen that " those who have returned from the shrine of our Lord " testify to the king 's passion " towards the honour of our divine religion " . Stephen also established four hostels for pilgrims in Constantinople , Jerusalem , Ravenna and Rome .
[ Almost ] all those from Italy and Gaul who wished to go to the Sepulchre of the Lord at Jerusalem abandoned the usual route , which was by sea , making their way through the country of King Stephen . He made the road safe for everyone , welcomed as brothers all he saw and gave them enormous gifts . This action led many people , nobles and commoners , to go to Jerusalem .
In addition to pilgrims , merchants often used the safe route across Hungary when travelling between Constantinople and Western Europe . Stephen 's legends refer to 60 wealthy Pechenegs who travelled to Hungary , but were attacked by Hungarian border guards . The king sentenced his soldiers to death in order to demonstrate his determination to preserve internal peace . Regular minting of coinage began in Hungary in the 1020s . Stephen 's silver dinars bearing the inscriptions STEPHANUS REX ( " King Stephen " ) and REGIA CIVITAS ( " royal city " ) were popular in contemporary Europe , as demonstrated by counterfeited copies unearthed in Sweden .
Stephen convinced some pilgrims and merchants to settle in Hungary . Gerard , a Benedictine monk who arrived in Hungary from the Republic of Venice between 1020 and 1026 , initially planned to continue his journey to the Holy Land , but decided to stay in the country after his meeting with the king . Stephen also established a number of Benedictine monasteries — including the abbeys at Pécsvárad , Zalavár and Bakonybél — in this period .
The Long Life of Saint Gerard mentions Stephen 's conflict with Ajtony , a chieftain in the region of the river Maros . Many historians date their clash to the end of the 1020s , although Györffy and other scholars put it at least a decade earlier . The conflict arose when Ajtony , who " had taken his power from the Greeks " , according to Saint Gerard 's legend , levied tax on the salt transported to Stephen on the river . The king sent a large army led by Csanád against Ajtony , who was killed in battle . His lands were transformed into a Hungarian county and the king set up a new bishopric at Csanád ( Cenad , Romania ) , Ajtony 's former capital , which was renamed after the commander of the royal army . According to the Annales Posonienses , the Venetian Gerard was consecrated as the first bishop of the new diocese in 1030 .
= = = Conflicts with the Holy Roman Empire ( 1024 – 1031 ) = = =
Stephen 's brother @-@ in @-@ law , Emperor Henry , died on 13 July 1024 . He was succeeded by a distant relative , Conrad II ( r . 1024 – 1039 ) , who adopted an offensive foreign policy . Conrad II expelled Doge Otto Orseolo — the husband of Stephen 's sister — from Venice in 1026 . He also persuaded the Bavarians to proclaim his own son , Henry , as their duke in 1027 , although Stephen 's son , Emeric had a strong claim to the Duchy of Bavaria through his mother . Emperor Conrad planned a marriage alliance with the Byzantine Empire and dispatched one of his advisors , Bishop Werner of Strasbourg , to Constantinople . In the autumn of 1027 , the bishop seemingly travelled as a pilgrim , but Stephen , who had been informed of his actual purpose , refused to let him enter into his country . Conrad II 's biographer Wipo of Burgundy narrated that the Bavarians incited skirmishes along the common borders of Hungary and the Holy Roman Empire in 1029 , causing a rapid deterioration in relations between the two countries .
Emperor Conrad personally led his armies to Hungary in June 1030 and plundered the lands west of the River Rába . However , according to the Annals of Niederalteich , the emperor , suffering from consequences of the scorched earth tactics used by the Hungarian army , returned to Germany " without an army and without achieving anything , because the army was threatened by starvation and was captured by the Hungarians at Vienna " . Peace was restored after Conrad had ceded the lands between the rivers Lajta and Fischa to Hungary in the summer of 1031 .
At this same time , dissensions arose between the Pannonian nation and the Bavarians , through the fault of the Bavarians . And , as a result , King [ Stephen ] of Hungary made many incursions and raids in the realm of the Norici ( that is , of the Bavarians ) . Disturbed on this account Emperor Conrad came upon the Hungarians with a great army . But King [ Stephen ] , whose forces were entirely insufficient to meet the Emperor , relied solely on the guardianship of the Lord , which he sought with prayers and fasts proclaimed through his whole realm . Since the Emperor was not able to enter a kingdom so fortified with rivers and forests , he returned , after he had sufficiently avenged his injury with lootings and burnings on the borders of the kingdom ; and it was his wish at a more opportune time to complete the things he had begun . His son , King Henry , however , still a young boy entrusted to the care of Eigilbert , bishop of Freising , received a legation of King [ Stephen ] which asked for peace ; and solely with the counsel of the princes of the realm , and without his father 's knowledge , he granted the favor of reconciliation .
= = = Last years ( 1031 – 1038 ) = = =
Stephen 's biographer , Hartvic , narrates that the King , whose children died one by one in infancy , " restrained the grief over their death by the solace on account of the love of his surviving son " , Emeric . However , Emeric was wounded in a hunting accident and died in 1031 . After the death of his son , the elderly King could never " fully regain his former health " , according to the Illuminated Chronicle . Kristó writes that the picture , which has been preserved in Stephen 's legends , of the king keeping the vigils and washing the feet of paupers , is connected with Stephen 's last years , following the death of his son .
Emeric 's death jeopardized his father 's achievements in establishing a Christian state , because Stephen 's cousin , Vazul — who had the strongest claim to succeed him — was suspected of an inclination towards paganism . According to the Annals of Altaich Stephen disregarded his cousin 's claim and nominated his sister 's son , the Venetian Peter Orseolo , as his heir . The same source adds that Vazul was captured and blinded , and his three sons , Levente , Andrew and Béla , were expelled from Hungary . Stephen 's legends refer to an unsuccessful attempt upon the elderly king 's life by members of his court . According to Kristó , the legends refer to a plot in which Vazul participated and his mutilation was a punishment for this act . That Vazul 's ears were filled with molten lead was only recorded in later sources , including the Illuminated Chronicle .
In the view of some historians , provisions in Stephen 's Second Book of Laws on the " conspiracy against the king and the kingdom " imply that the book was promulgated after Vazul 's unsuccessful plot against Stephen . However , this view has not been universally accepted . Györffy states that the law book was issued , not after 1031 , but around 1009 . Likewise , the authenticity of the decree on tithes is debated : according to Györffy , it was issued during Stephen 's reign , but Berend , Laszlovszky and Szakács argue that it " might be a later addition " .
Stephen died on 15 August 1038 . He was buried in the basilica of Székesfehérvár . His reign was followed by a long period of civil wars , pagan uprisings and foreign invasions . The instability ended in 1077 when Ladislaus , a grandson of Vazul , ascended the throne .
= = Family = =
Stephen married Gisela , a daughter of Duke Henry the Wrangler of Bavaria , who was a nephew of Otto I , Holy Roman Emperor . Gisela 's mother was Gisela of Burgundy , a member of the Welf dynasty . Born around 985 , Gisela was younger than her husband , whom she survived . She left Hungary in 1045 and died as Abbess of the Niedernburg Abbey in Passau in Bavaria around 1060 .
Although the Illuminated Chronicle states that Stephen " begot many sons " , only two of them , Otto and Emeric , are known by name . Otto , who was named after Otto III , seems to have been born before 1002 . He died as a child .
Emeric , who received the name of his maternal uncle , Emperor Henry II , was born around 1007 . His Legend from the early 12th century describes him as a saintly prince who preserved his chastity even during his marriage . According to Györffy , Emeric 's wife was a kinswoman of the Byzantine Emperor Basil II . His premature death led to the series of conflicts leading to Vazul 's blinding and civil wars .
Be obedient to me , my son . You are a child , descendant of rich parents , living among soft pillows , who has been caressed and brought up in all kinds of comforts ; you have had a part neither in the troubles of the campaigns nor in the various attacks of the pagans in which almost my whole life has been worn away .
The following family tree presents Stephen 's ancestors and his relatives who are mentioned in the article .
* A Khazar , Pecheneg or Volga Bulgarian lady . * * Györffy writes that she may have been a member of the Bulgarian Cometopuli dynasty . * * * Samuel Aba might have been the son of Stephen 's sister instead of her husband .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Founder of Hungary = = =
Stephen has always been considered one of the most important statesmen in the history of Hungary . His main achievement was the establishment of a Christian state that ensured that the Hungarians survived in the Carpathian Basin , in contrast to the Huns , Avars and other peoples who had previously controlled the same territory . As Bryan Cartledge emphasizes , Stephen also gave his kingdom " forty years of relative peace and sound but unspectacular rule " .
His successors , including those descended from Vazul , were eager to emphasize their devotion to Stephen 's achievements . Although Vazul 's son , Andrew I of Hungary , secured the throne due to a pagan uprising , he prohibited pagan rites and declared that his subjects should " live in all things according to the law which King St. Stephen had taught them " , according to the 14th @-@ century Illuminated Chronicle . In medieval Hungary , communities that claimed a privileged status or attempted to preserve their own " liberties " often declared that the origin of their special status was to be attributed to King Saint Stephen . An example is a 1347 letter from the people of Táp telling the king about their grievances against the Pannonhalma Archabbey and stating that the taxes levied upon them by the abbot contradicted " the liberty granted to them in the time of King Saint Stephen " .
= = = Holy King = = =
Stephen 's cult emerged after the long period of anarchy characterizing the rule of his immediate successors . However , there is no evidence that Stephen became an object of veneration before his canonization . For instance , the first member of the royal family to be named after him , Stephen II , was born in the early 12th century .
Stephen 's canonization was initiated by Vazul 's grandson , King Ladislaus I of Hungary , who had consolidated his authority by capturing and imprisoning his cousin , Solomon . According to Bishop Hartvic , the canonization was " decreed by apostolic letter , by order of the Roman see " , suggesting that the ceremony was permitted by Pope Gregory VII . The ceremony started at Stephen 's tomb , where on 15 August 1083 masses of believers began three days of fasting and praying . Legend tells that Stephen 's coffin could not be opened until King Ladislaus held Solomon in captivity at Visegrád . The opening of Stephen 's tomb was followed by the occurrence of healing miracles , according to Stephen 's legends . Historian Kristó attributes the healings either to mass psychosis or deception . Stephen 's legends also say that his " balsam @-@ scented " remains were elevated from the coffin , which was filled with " rose @-@ colored water " , on 20 August . On the same day , Stephen 's son , Emeric , and the bishop of Csanád , Gerard , were also canonized .
Having completed the office of Vespers the third day , everyone expected the favors of divine mercy through the merit of the blessed man ; suddenly with Christ visiting his masses , the signs of miracles poured forth from heaven throughout the whole of the holy house . Their multitude , which that night were too many to count , brings to mind the answer from the Gospel which the Savior of the world confided to John , who asked through messengers whether he was the one who was to come : the blind see , the lame walk , the deaf hear , the lepers are cleansed , the crippled are set straight , the paralyzed are cured ...
Stephen 's first legend , the so @-@ called Greater Legend , was written between 1077 and 1083 . It provided an idealized portrait of the king , one who dedicated himself and his kingdom to the Virgin Mary . However , Stephen 's Lesser Legend — composed around 1100 , under King Coloman — emphasized Stephen 's severity . A third legend , also composed during King Coloman 's reign by Bishop Hartvic , was based on the two existing legends . Sanctioned in 1201 by Pope Innocent III , Hartvic 's work served as Stephen 's official legend . Gábor Klaniczay wrote that Stephen 's legends " opened a new chapter in the legends of holy rulers as a genre " , suggesting that a monarch can achieve sainthood through actively using his royal powers . Stephen was the first triumphant miles Christi ( " Christ 's soldier " ) among the canonized monarchs . He was also a " confessor king " , one who had not suffered martyrdom , whose cult was sanctioned , in contrast with earlier holy monarchs .
Stephen 's cult spread beyond the borders of Hungary . Initially , he was primarily venerated in Scheyern and Bamberg , in Bavaria , but his relics were also taken to Aachen , Cologne , Montecassino and Namur . Upon the liberation of Buda from the Ottoman Turks , Pope Innocent XI expanded King Saint Stephen 's cult to the entire Roman Catholic Church in 1686 , and declared 2 September his feast day . As the feast of Saint Joachim was moved , in 1969 , from 16 August , the day immediately following the day of Stephen 's death , Stephen 's feast was moved to that date . Stephen is venerated as the patron saint of Hungary , and regarded as the protector of kings , masons , stonecutters , stonemasons and bricklayers , and also of children suffering from severe illnesses . His canonization was recognized by Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew I of Constantinople in 2000 . In the calendar of the Hungarian Catholic Church , Stephen 's feast is observed on 20 August , the day on which his relics were translated . In addition , a separate feast day ( 30 May ) is dedicated to his " Holy Dexter " .
= = = Holy Dexter = = =
Stephen 's intact dexter , or right hand ( Hungarian : Szent Jobb ) , became the subject of a cult . A cleric named Mercurius stole it , but it was discovered on 30 May 1184 in Bihar County . The theft of sacred relics , or furta sacra , had by that time become a popular topic of saints ' biographies . Bishop Hartvic described the discovery of Stephen 's right hand in accordance with this tradition , referring to adventures and visions . An abbey erected in Bihar County ( now Sâniob , Romania ) was named after and dedicated to the veneration of the Holy Dexter .
Why is it , brothers , that his other limbs having become disjointed and , his flesh having been reduced to dust , wholly separated , only the right hand , its skin and sinews adhering to the bones , preserved the beauty of wholeness ? I surmise that the inscrutability of divine judgement sought to proclaim by the extraordinary nature of this fact nothing less than that the work of love and alms surpasses the measure of all other virtues . ... The right hand of the blessed man was deservedly exempt from putrefaction , because always reflourishing from the flower of kindness it was never empty from giving gifts to nourish the poor .
The Holy Dexter was kept for centuries in the Szentjobb Abbey , except during the Mongol invasion of 1241 and 1242 , when it was transferred to Ragusa ( now Dubrovnik , Croatia ) . The relic was then taken to Székesfehérvár around 1420 . Following the Ottoman occupation of the central territories of the Kingdom of Hungary in the mid @-@ 16th century , it was guarded in many places , including Bosnia , Ragusa and Vienna . It was returned to Hungary in 1771 , when Queen Maria Theresa donated it to the cloister of the Sisters of Loreto in Buda . It was kept in Buda Castle 's St. Sigismund Chapel between around 1900 and 1944 , in a cave near Salzburg in 1944 and 1945 , and again by the Sisters of Loreto in Buda , between 1945 and 1950 . Finally , since 1950 , the Holy Dexter has been in St. Stephen 's Basilica in Budapest . An annual procession celebrating the relic was instituted in 1938 , and continued until 1950 , when the procession was forbidden by the Communist government . It was resumed in 1988 .
= = = Admonitions = = =
According to Stephen 's Greater Legend , the king " himself compiled a book for his son on moral education " . This work , now known as Admonitions or De institutione morum , was preserved in manuscripts written in the Late Middle Ages . Although scholars debate whether it can actually be attributed to the king or a cleric , most of them agree that it was composed in the first decades of the 11th century .
The Admonitions argues that kingship is inseparably connected with the Catholic faith . Its author emphasized that a monarch is required to make donations to the Church and regularly consult his prelates , but is entitled to punish clergymen who do wrong . One of its basic ideas was that a sovereign has to cooperate with the " pillars of his rule " , meaning the prelates , aristocrats , ispáns and warriors .
My dearest son , if you desire to honor the royal crown , I advise , I counsel , I urge you above all things to maintain the Catholic and Apostolic faith with such diligence and care that you may be an example for all those placed under you by God , and that all the clergy may rightly call you a man of true Christian profession . Failing to do this , you may be sure that you will not be called a Christian or a son of the Church . Indeed , in the royal palace , after the faith itself , the Church holds second place , first constituted and spread through the whole world by His members , the apostles and holy fathers , And though she always produced fresh offspring , nevertheless in certain places she is regarded as ancient . However , dearest son , even now in our kingdom the Church is proclaimed as young and newly planted ; and for that reason she needs more prudent and trustworthy guardians lest a benefit which the divine mercy bestowed on us undeservedly should be destroyed and annihilated through your idleness , indolence or neglect .
= = = In arts = = =
King St Stephen has been a popular theme in Hungarian poetry since the end of the 13th century . The earliest poems were religious hymns which portrayed the holy king as the apostle of the Hungarians . Secular poetry , especially poems written for his feast day , followed a similar pattern , emphasizing Stephen 's role as the first king of Hungary . Poets described Stephen as the symbol of national identity and independence and of the ability of the Hungarian nation to survive historical cataclysms during the Communist regime between 1949 and 1989 .
A popular hymn , still sung in the churches , was first recorded in the late 18th century . It hails King St. Stephen as " radiant star of Hungarians " . Ludwig van Beethoven composed his King Stephen Overture for the inauguration of the Hungarian theatre in Pest in 1812 . According to musician James M. Keller , " [ t ] he descending unisons that open the King Stephen Overture would seem to prefigure the opening of the Ninth Symphony ; ... [ a ] nd then a later theme , introduced by flutes and clarinets , seems almost to be a variation ... of the famous Ode " To Joy " melody of the Ninth Symphony 's finale " . Hungarian composer Ferenc Erkel named his last complete opera from 1885 , István király ( " King Stephen " ) , after him . In 1938 , Zoltán Kodály wrote a choral piece titled Ének Szent István Királyhoz ( " Hymn to King Stephen " ) . In 1983 , Levente Szörényi and János Bródy composed a rock opera — István , a király ( " Stephen , the King " ) — about the early years of his reign . Seventeen years later , in 2000 , Szörényi composed a sequel called Veled , Uram ! ( " You , Sir " ) .
= M @-@ 17 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 17 is a 6 @.@ 390 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 10 @.@ 284 km ) state trunkline highway in the U.S. state of Michigan , connecting the cities of Ypsilanti and Ann Arbor in Washtenaw County . It was once part of a highway that spanned the southern Lower Peninsula of Michigan before the creation of the U.S. Highway System in 1926 . The designation once extended into downtown Detroit , but the eastern terminus was progressively scaled back in the late 1960s to the current location in Ypsilanti . The changes made to the highways in Washtenaw County spawned Business M @-@ 17 ( Bus . M @-@ 17 ) , a business loop for 11 years between 1945 and 1956 .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 17 begins at exit 37 along US Highway 23 ( US 23 ) on the Ann Arbor – Pittsfield Township border . West of this cloverleaf interchange , Washtenaw Avenue is Business Loop Interstate 94 ( BL I @-@ 94 ) and Business US 23 ( Bus . US 23 ) . M @-@ 17 follows Washtenaw Avenue east of this interchange through Pittsfield Township and Ypsilanti Township . The street is five lanes wide through an urban area between Ann Arbor and Ypsilanti running east @-@ southeasterly . Although there are many residential areas near M @-@ 17 , particularly to the south , the road itself is dominated by commercial development , including numerous restaurants . M @-@ 17 crosses into the city of Ypsilanti at Hewitt Road . This intersection provides access north to Rynearson Stadium , home field for the Eastern Michigan University ( EMU ) Eagles football team .
Continuing east @-@ southeasterly along Washtenaw Avenue , M @-@ 17 meets the southeast corner of the EMU campus at Oakwood Avenue . The highway follows the southern edge of campus to Cross Street , where the highway splits to follow a one @-@ way pairing of streets . Eastbound M @-@ 17 continues along Washtenaw Avenue while westbound traffic follows Cross Street . Eastbound traffic turns southward at Hamilton Street for two blocks before turning east along Michigan Avenue , meeting westbound Bus . US 12 . The two highway designations merge , running concurrently through downtown Ypsilanti . The section of Michigan Avenue between Hamilton and Huron streets is actually a wrong @-@ way concurrency because although it is a two @-@ way boulevard , the eastbound direction is M @-@ 17 and the westbound direction is Bus . US 12 . Both directions of traffic for both highways rejoin at Huron Street , as the westbound M @-@ 17 traffic uses Huron Street north to Cross Street and westbound Bus . US 12 turns south along Huron Street . Northeast of the Huron Street intersection is Riverside Park . Michigan Avenue forms the extreme southern park boundary just before it crosses the Huron River . At Ecorse Road , M @-@ 17 turns south in Ypsilanti Township through a residential area , separating from Bus . US 12 . Ecorse Road turns east four blocks north of I @-@ 94 / US 12 and runs parallel to the freeway . Past Harris Road , US 12 turns northeasterly on a separate expressway . Where it meets Ecorse Road , US 12 follows Ecorse Road , replacing M @-@ 17 . This junction marks the eastern terminus of M @-@ 17 west of Willow Run Airport .
Like other state highways in Michigan , M @-@ 17 is maintained by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) . As a part of these maintenance duties , the department tracks the traffic levels along its roadways using a metric called annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) . This is a statistical calculation of the average daily number of vehicles on a segment of roadway . In 2009 , MDOT 's surveys found that the highest AADT along the trunkline was 26 @,@ 141 vehicles daily on the westernmost section near the US 23 interchange while the lowest counts were along the north – south section of Ecorse Road at 8 @,@ 926 vehicles . The section of M @-@ 17 from US 23 to the western junctions with Bus . US 12 has been listed on the National Highway System , a network of roadways important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
M @-@ 17 is an original state trunkline dating back to the 1919 signing of the system . On July 1 , 1919 , the highway started at M @-@ 11 in Berrien County in the southwestern Lower Peninsula and ran east to Detroit . The debut of the U.S. Highway System replaced most of M @-@ 17 with two different highways . From Watervliet to Ann Arbor , US 12 replaced M @-@ 17 ; east of Ypsilanti to Detroit , US 112 replaced M @-@ 17 . The M @-@ 17 designation also replaced M @-@ 23 on Ecorse Road between Ypsilanti and Lincoln Park and then ran concurrently with US 25 into Detroit . The Ann Arbor segment was rerouted along Boulevard Drive ( now Stadium Boulevard ) between US 12 and US 23 .
A realignment in 1937 – 38 moved the M @-@ 17 designation in Allen Park . Changes made moved the highway to turn east on Southfield Road to US 25 and follow US 25 back to the former routing into Detroit . Another larger change came before 1945 with the completion of the Willow Run Expressway . M @-@ 17 was rerouted west of the Wayne – Washtenaw county line along the expressway that replaced Ecorse Road . M @-@ 17 was joined by Bypass US 112 ( BYP US 112 ) along the Willow Run Expressway to a southern freeway bypass of Ypsilanti . M @-@ 17 continued past the end of BYP US 112 at US 112 / Michigan Avenue along a two @-@ lane highway to US 23 . It then followed US 23 back to Washtenaw Avenue in Pittsfield Township to rejoin the original alignment of M @-@ 17 west to Ann Arbor . The former M @-@ 17 through downtown Ypsilanti was redesignated Business M @-@ 17 ( Bus . M @-@ 17 ) .
The Michigan State Highway Department ( MSHD ) completed the freeway bypass of the Ann Arbor – Ypsilanti in 1956 , then moved the M @-@ 17 designation back to Washtenaw Avenue , Michigan Avenue and Ecorse Road , removing Bus . M @-@ 17 in the process . US 12 and US 112 replaced the BYP US 112 designation on the freeway . The former US 112 designation through downtown Ypsilanti was converted to a BUS US 112 designation , including sections concurrent with M @-@ 17 . Another change was made to the Ann @-@ Arbor section of the highway as it was truncated to end at US 23 . The 1962 completion of the US 23 freeway through the Ann Arbor area by MSHD moved the western terminus of M @-@ 17 west to meet the new freeway at the current terminus . The eastern terminus was progressively scaled back starting in 1968 . The US 25 concurrency was removed and the terminus was moved to M @-@ 39 / Southfield Road in Allen Park . A second truncation scaled the terminus back to US 12 , the current eastern endpoint .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway is in Washtenaw County .
= = Business loop = =
Business M @-@ 17 ( Bus . M @-@ 17 ) was a business route designation used along a section of highway from 1945 until 1956 . It was routed along Washtenaw and Michigan avenues and Ecorse Road in the Ypsilanti area . At the time of its commissioning , M @-@ 17 was moved to a freeway bypass of downtown Ypsilanti . It was later decommissioned in 1956 when the freeway bypass was completed west around the south side of Ann Arbor . M @-@ 17 was moved back to its original routing through downtown Ypsilanti , supplanting Bus . M @-@ 17 when US 12 / US 112 supplanted M @-@ 17 on the freeway .
= Dan Dworsky =
Daniel Leonard Dworsky ( born October 4 , 1927 ) is an American architect . He is a longstanding member of the American Institute of Architects College of Fellows . Among other works , Dworsky designed Crisler Arena , the basketball arena at the University of Michigan named for Dworsky 's former football coach , Fritz Crisler . Other professional highlights include designing Drake Stadium at UCLA , the Federal Reserve Bank in Los Angeles , California and the Block M seating arrangement at Michigan Stadium . He is also known for a controversy with Frank Gehry over the Walt Disney Concert Hall .
Previously , Dworsky was an American football linebacker , fullback and center who played professional football for the Los Angeles Dons of the All @-@ America Football Conference in 1949 , and college football for the Michigan Wolverines from 1945 to 1948 . He was an All @-@ American on Michigan 's undefeated national championship teams in 1947 and 1948 .
= = College football at the University of Michigan = =
Born in Minneapolis , Minnesota in 1927 , Dworsky lived in the Twin Cities and Sioux Falls , South Dakota before attending the University of Michigan . Dworsky was a four @-@ year starter for Fritz Crisler ’ s Michigan Wolverines football teams from 1945 to 1948 . He played linebacker , fullback , and center for the Michigan Wolverines and was a key player on the undefeated 1947 and 1948 Michigan football teams that won consecutive national championships . The 1947 team , anchored by Len Ford , Alvin Wistert , Dworsky and Rick Kempthorn , has been described as the best team in the history of Michigan football . Dworsky won a total of six varsity letters at Michigan , four in football and two in wrestling where he competed in the heavyweight division . Dworsky is among the famous Jews in football , and has been extensively profiled in encyclopedic Jewish publications . Dworsky married the former Sylvia Ann Taylor on August 10 , 1957 . The couple has three children : Douglas , Laurie and Nancy . They reside in Los Angeles , California .
= = = 1947 season = = =
The 1947 Michigan Wolverines football team went 10 @-@ 0 and outscored their opponents 394 to 53 . Dworsky led a defensive unit that gave up an average of 5 @.@ 3 points per game and shut out Michigan State ( 55 – 0 ) , Pitt ( 60 – 0 ) , Indiana ( 35 – 0 ) , Ohio State ( 21 – 0 ) , and USC ( 49 – 0 ) . He also played fullback and center for the 1947 team and was named a third team All @-@ American by the American Football Coaches Association .
In a 1988 interview with the Los Angeles Times , Dworsky described the 1947 team ’ s defensive scheme as follows : " We were an intelligent team and we had some complex defenses , the nature of which you see today . I called the defensive signals and we would shift people , looping , or stunting . "
After going undefeated and winning the Big Ten championship , Michigan was invited to Pasadena to face the USC Trojans in the 1948 Rose Bowl — the Wolverines ' first bowl game since 1901 . Just before Christmas , the team boarded a train in Ann Abor for a three @-@ day trip across the country . With little to do on the train , Alvin Wistert recalled that Dworsky entertained the team with music . " Dan Dworsky was a piano player . We 'd gather around and sing . There was a piano in the last car . "
After the long trip , the Wolverines beat the Trojans 49 – 0 . Dworsky recalled that the coaching staff did an excellent job of scouting the Trojans . " When we went to the Rose Bowl , we had USC down pat . We knew their system as well as they did . " The Trojans gained only 91 yards rushing and 42 yards passing , moving past midfield only twice . Dworsky played center during the Rose Bowl , blocking USC ’ s All @-@ American tackle ( and future Los Angeles city councilman ) , John Ferraro .
In Dworsky 's collegiate days , the final national rankings were determined before the bowl games . At the end of the regular season in 1947 , Michigan was ranked No. 2 behind Notre Dame , but after defeating USC 49 – 0 in the Rose Bowl , the Associated Press held a special poll , and Michigan replaced Notre Dame as the national champion by a vote of 226 to 119 . Dworsky later noted , " Notre Dame still claims that national championship and so do we . "
= = = 1948 season = = =
The 1948 Michigan Wolverines football team went 9 – 0 and outscored their opponents 252 to 44 . The defensive unit led by Dworsky held its opponents to just 4 @.@ 9 points per game , including shutouts against Oregon ( 14 – 0 ) , Purdue ( 40 – 0 ) , Northwestern ( 28 – 0 ) , Navy ( 35 – 0 ) , and Indiana ( 54 – 0 ) . The 1948 Wolverines finished the season ranked No. 1 by the AP , but Big Ten Conference rules prohibited a team from playing in the Rose Bowl two years in a row . Dworsky did , however , play in the 1948 Blue @-@ Gray All Star game .
= = = Relationship with Fritz Crisler = = =
Dworsky was a four @-@ year starter under Michigan ’ s legendary coach , Fritz Crisler . Dworsky later said that Crisler ’ s " real genius " was in blending all the elements . The 1947 championship team included several older veteran players who had returned from military service . Dworsky recalled : " About half of us were 18 @-@ year old kids , and half were veterans . We had guys who were serious guys and guys who were excitable . Fritz struck a balance , so we never had to be pushed , but we never lost our focus either . "
Dworsky recalled : " Crisler was not only an intellectual in strategy , but also in the way he ran practices . . . . He ran practices rigidly and we called him ' The Lord . ' He would allow it to rain , or not . He was a Douglas MacArthur @-@ type figure , handsome and rigid . . . . I sculpted him and gave him the bust in 1971 . " Dworsky also kept another bust of Crisler in his office .
= = Professional football with the Los Angeles Dons = =
In 1949 , Dworsky was the first round draft pick of the Los Angeles Dons of the All @-@ America Football Conference . The Dons were the first professional football team in Los Angeles . Dworsky played eleven games with the Dons in 1949 , his only season in professional football . Dworsky played linebacker and blocking back for the Dons and had one interception and one kick return for 14 yards . The AAFC disbanded after the 1949 season , and Dworsky turned down an offer from the Pittsburgh Steelers to return to the University of Michigan where he graduated in 1950 with a degree in architecture . Dworsky later noted : " It was a toss @-@ up whether I would become a pro football player or an architect . Being a linebacker is good conditioning for a young designer . You learn to block the bull coming at you from all sides . "
= = Career as an architect = =
= = = Overview of Dworsky 's practice = = =
After receiving his degree in architecture in 1950 , Dworsky moved to Los Angeles and served as an apprentice in the early 1950s with prominent local early modernists William Pereira , Raphael Soriano , and Charles Luckman . In 1953 , Dworsky began his own architecture firm in Los Angeles , known as Dworsky Associates . The firm grew into one of the most prominent architectural firms in California , creating major public buildings in California . Dworsky Associates won the 1984 Firm of the Year Award from the California Council of the American Institute of Architects . In September 2000 , Dworsky Associates merged with CannonDesign and ceased to operate as an independent firm .
= = = Architectural style = = =
Dworsky belongs to the generation of post @-@ World War II modernists which took its cues from the 1920s German Bauhaus and the French @-@ Swiss master Le Corbusier . In 1988 , Dworsky noted : " I am most intrigued by the essential mystery of architecture . For me , built space will always be a kind of theater , a stage on which life is played , and played out . That ’ s why I keep on being an architect . Asked what inspires his architecture , Dworsky said he draws from the " solid , resolved concepts " of modern designers such as Le Corbusier and Marcel Bruer , while being encouraged on occasion to experiment by such " new wave " designers as Frank Gehry and Eric Owen Moss .
= = = Crisler Arena and the Block " M " = = =
Dworsky ’ s first major commission was to design a basketball arena for his alma mater , the University of Michigan . The members of the 1947 Michigan Wolverines football team had reunions with Fritz Crisler every five years in Ann Arbor , and it was at one of those reunions that Crisler ( by then the school 's athletic director ) gave Dworsky one of his big breaks , asking him to design the arena . Built in 1967 , the arena was named Crisler Arena , as a tribute to the coach . Dworsky ’ s design of the arena was well received and was said to demonstrate " his ability to combine majesty of scale with human accessibility . " The roof of Crisler Arena is made of two plates , each weighing approximately 160 tons . The bridge @-@ like construction allows them to expand or contract given the change of seasons or the weight of the snow . Crisler Arena remains the home of Michigan ’ s basketball team and houses memorabilia and trophies from all Wolverine varsity athletic teams .
In 1965 , the wooden benches at Michigan Stadium were replaced with blue fiberglass benches . Dworsky designed a yellow “ Block M ” for the stands on the eastern side of the stadium , just above the tunnel .
= = = Drake Stadium at UCLA = = =
After his work on Crisler Arena , Dworsky was commissioned by UCLA to design a track and field stadium on the university ’ s central campus . Dworsky designed the stadium , known as Drake Stadium . Since its inaugural meet on February 22 , 1969 , the stadium has been the site of numerous championship meets , including the National AAU track & field championships in 1976 , 1977 , and 1978 . It is also used each year for special campus events , such as the annual UCLA Commencement Exercises in June .
= = = Major works = = =
The major works credited to Dworsky and his firm include the following :
The Jerry Lewis Neuromuscular Research Center at UCLA ( 1979 ) .
The Tom Bradley International Terminal at Los Angeles International Airport ( 1984 ) .
A 35 acres ( 0 @.@ 055 sq mi ; 0 @.@ 142 km2 ) planned community complex for the California School for the Blind in Fremont , California . The design won a merit award from the California AIA .
The Theater Arts Building at California State University Dominguez Hills . Dworsky cited the theater as one of his favorite projects . Photograph of Building
The Angelus Plaza residential complex in the Bunker Hill area of downtown Los Angeles ( 1982 ) Photograph of Building
The Ventura County Jail .
The Los Angeles Branch of the Federal Reserve Bank located at Grand Avenue and Olympic Boulevard in downtown Los Angeles ( 1987 ) . Dworsky Associates won several awards for its design of the 304 @,@ 000 square feet ( 28 @,@ 200 m2 ) , $ 50 million building . Photograph of Building
The Northrop Electronics Division Headquarters in Hawthorne , California . Dworsky Associates received a Gold Nugget Grand Award for Best Commercial Office Building and top honors in the Crescent Architecture Awards competition for the design .
The Kilroy Airport Center in Long Beach , California , a complex of office buildings fronting the 405 Freeway with direct runway access to the Long Beach Airport for private aircraft ( 1987 ) . Photograph of Building
The Westwood Terrace building on Sepulveda Boulevard in West Los Angeles , California occupied by New World Entertainment.Photograph of Building
The 20 @-@ story City Tower in Orange , California near the intersection of the Garden Grove ( 22 ) and Santa Ana ( 5 ) freeways in Orange County . Photograph of Building
The Home Savings building on Ventura Boulevard in Sherman Oaks , California .
The Metropolitan , a 14 @-@ story upscale rental complex in downtown Los Angeles ’ South Park area .
The Van Nuys Municipal Court building in Van Nuys , California . Dworsky Associates received the Kaufman & Broad Award for Outstanding New Public or Civic Project for the design .
The Federal Office Building in Long Beach , California . Dworsky Associates was awarded a 1992 Design Award from the General Services Administration for its design of the federal building .
The renovation of the Carnation Building at 5055 Wilshire Boulevard in Hollywood . The renovated building was occupied by The Hollywood Reporter , Billboard , and other entertainment industry companies .
The Beverly Hills Main Post Office in Beverly Hills , California . Dworsky Associates received a Beautification Award from the Los Angeles Business Council for the design .
The San Joaquin County Jail in French Camp , California . Shortly after the prison opened , six prisoners escaped after cutting through a one @-@ inch bar in the dayroom with a hacksaw . The prison break led to finger @-@ pointing among the construction firm , the architect , and the prison guards over who was responsible for the lapse in security .
The UC Riverside Alumni and Visitors Center ( 1996 ) . Photographs
The Thousand Oaks Civic Arts Plaza , a project on which Dworsky Associates teamed with New Mexico architect Antoine Predock . The New Mexico chapter of the AIA gave Predock and Dworsky Associates an award in 1996 for their work on the Civic Arts Plaza .
The Calexico Port of Entry building in Calexico , California . The innovative design won the highest award from the California AIA , and it won a Presidential Design Award from President Bill Clinton . Photos and Drawings of Award Winning Calexico Port of Entry
Beckman Hall at Chapman University in Orange , California ( 1999 ) . Photograph of Building
The Lloyd D. George Federal Courthouse in Las Vegas , Nevada ( 2000 ) . Photographs of Courthouse
The Hollywood @-@ Highland station on the Metro Red Line ( LACMTA ) in the heart of Hollywood . Photograph of Station
= = = Awards and honors = = =
Dworsky has received numerous national , regional and community awards for design excellence , including the following :
Dworsky ’ s numerous award @-@ winning projects in his first 14 years of practice led to his election to the American Institute of Architects College of Fellows at the early age of 41 .
Gold Medal Award from the Los Angeles Chapter of the American Institute of Architects
Lifetime Achievement Award for Distinguished Service from the American Institute of Architects , California Council , awarded in 2004 . In granting the award , the Council noted that Dworsky had " made a major , positive impact on California architecture " and his " strong , simple sculpted work has provided a compelling statement for California architecture the past half century . "
He was voted one of the twelve most distinguished architects in Los Angeles .
Dworsky Associates won the 1984 Firm of the Year Award from the American Institute of Architects , California Council , for “ excellence in design of distinguished architecture ” and reaching for a livelier style beyond the boundaries of conventional modernism . ”
He was honored by the Southern California Institute of Architecture in May 1986 for his professional accomplishments and his efforts on behalf of the school ’ s scholarship program .
Dworsky was awarded a $ 3 @.@ 5 million grant by the California Board of Corrections in 1982 to study the idea of the modular jail .
Dworsky served on the Architectural Evaluation Board for the County of Los Angeles .
Dworsky also served on the board of directors and the “ directors circle ” of the Southern California Institute of Architecture .
= = = Walt Disney Concert Hall controversy = = =
In February 1989 , the Walt Disney Concert Hall Committee selected Dworsky as executive architect to work with designated architect Frank Gehry in designing the future home of the Los Angeles Philharmonic . Dworsky was selected to translate Gehry 's conceptual designs into working drawings that would meet building code specifications . By 1994 , the cost of the project had skyrocketed to $ 160 million ( it eventually reached $ 274 million ) , and controversy halted the project . By 1996 , a major donor was sought to complete the project by 2001 ( four years behind schedule ) . Gehry and his design came under fire , and some considered him a spoiled , impractical artist .
Gehry publicly blamed Dworsky : “ The executive architect was incapable of doing drawings that had this complexity . We helped select that firm . I went to Daniel , supposedly a friend , and I said , ' This is going to fail and we now have the capability to do it , so let us ghost @-@ write it . ' ” Dworsky refused . Gehry was also quoted in the Los Angeles Times as saying : “ We had the wrong executive architect doing the drawings . I helped pick him , I ’ m partly responsible . It brought us to a stop . ” Gehry told Los Angeles magazine in 1996 that he “ no longer speaks to his former friend ( Dworsky ) . ” Gehry continued his public attacks on Dworsky : “ He ( Dworsky ) made a lot of money . He begged me for the job . I ’ d like to shoot him . ”
Dworsky was eventually told to stop working on the drawings before he completed them , but he defended himself against Gehry ’ s criticism . “ Knowledgeable people were supportive of us . They were saying it ’ s a very complex and unusual design , and they can understand the difficulties in trying to achieve this within a limited budget and a limited schedule . It was unfortunate that Frank came out with his criticism , but he was the center of the storm , having designed the building , and he was just trying to lessen the blame on himself . ”
Dworsky also told the Los Angeles Times : “ This is a one @-@ of @-@ a @-@ kind building . You just don ’ t simply open up the plans and understand them quickly . ” Dworsky 's allies refer to Gehry 's work as " confusing " . Disney Hall official Frederick M. Nicholas also defended Dworsky ’ s work against Gehry ’ s attacks , denying that there were any problems with the Dworsky drawings not attributable to fast @-@ tracking . Nicholas said : " They were not ' bad ' drawings . It was a question of the subs not understanding them . "
= Proxima Centauri =
Proxima Centauri ( from Latin , meaning " nearest [ star ] of Centaurus " ) is a red dwarf , a small low @-@ mass star , about 4 @.@ 25 light @-@ years from the Sun , inside the G @-@ cloud , in the constellation of Centaurus . It was discovered in 1915 by the Scottish astronomer Robert Innes , the Director of the Union Observatory in South Africa , and is the nearest known star to the Sun , although it is too faint to be seen with the naked eye , with an apparent magnitude of 11 @.@ 05 . Its distance to the second- and third @-@ nearest stars , which form the bright binary Alpha Centauri , is 0 @.@ 237 ± 0 @.@ 011 ly ( 15 @,@ 000 ± 700 AU ) . Proxima Centauri is very likely part of a triple star system with Alpha Centauri A and B , but its orbital period may be greater than 500 @,@ 000 years .
Because of Proxima Centauri 's proximity to Earth , its angular diameter can be measured directly . It is about one @-@ seventh the diameter of that of the Sun . It has a mass about an eighth of the Sun 's mass ( M ☉ ) , and its average density is about 40 times that of the Sun . Although it has a very low average luminosity , Proxima is a flare star that undergoes random dramatic increases in brightness because of magnetic activity . The star 's magnetic field is created by convection throughout the stellar body , and the resulting flare activity generates a total X @-@ ray emission similar to that produced by the Sun . The mixing of the fuel at Proxima Centauri 's core through convection and its relatively low energy @-@ production rate mean that it will be a main @-@ sequence star for another four trillion years , or nearly 300 times the current age of the universe .
Searches for companions orbiting Proxima Centauri have been unsuccessful , ruling out the presence of brown dwarfs and supermassive planets . Precision radial velocity surveys have also ruled out the presence of super @-@ Earths within the star 's habitable zone . The detection of smaller objects will require the use of new instruments , such as the James Webb Space Telescope , which is scheduled for deployment in 2018 . Because Proxima Centauri is a red dwarf and a flare star , whether a planet orbiting it could support life is disputed . Nevertheless , because of the star 's proximity to Earth , it has been proposed as a destination for interstellar travel .
= = Observation = =
In 1915 , the Scottish astronomer Robert Innes , Director of the Union Observatory in Johannesburg , South Africa , discovered a star that had the same proper motion as Alpha Centauri . He suggested that it be named Proxima Centauri ( actually Proxima Centaurus ) . In 1917 , at the Royal Observatory at the Cape of Good Hope , the Dutch astronomer Joan Voûte measured the star 's trigonometric parallax at 0 @.@ 755 ± 0 @.@ 028 ″ and determined that Proxima Centauri was approximately the same distance from the Sun as Alpha Centauri . It was also found to be the lowest @-@ luminosity star known at the time . An equally accurate parallax determination of Proxima Centauri was made by American astronomer Harold L. Alden in 1928 , who confirmed Innes 's view that it is closer , with a parallax of 0 @.@ 783 ± 0 @.@ 005 ″ .
In 1951 , American astronomer Harlow Shapley announced that Proxima Centauri is a flare star . Examination of past photographic records showed that the star displayed a measurable increase in magnitude on about 8 % of the images , making it the most active flare star then known . The proximity of the star allows for detailed observation of its flare activity . In 1980 , the Einstein Observatory produced a detailed X @-@ ray energy curve of a stellar flare on Proxima Centauri . Further observations of flare activity were made with the EXOSAT and ROSAT satellites , and the X @-@ ray emissions of smaller , solar @-@ like flares were observed by the Japanese ASCA satellite in 1995 . Proxima Centauri has since been the subject of study by most X @-@ ray observatories , including XMM @-@ Newton and Chandra .
Because of Proxima Centauri 's southern declination , it can only be viewed south of latitude 27 ° N. Red dwarfs such as Proxima Centauri are far too faint to be seen with the naked eye . Even from Alpha Centauri A or B , Proxima would only be seen as a fifth magnitude star . It has an apparent visual magnitude of 11 , so a telescope with an aperture of at least 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) is needed to observe it , even under ideal viewing conditions — under clear , dark skies with Proxima Centauri well above the horizon .
= = Characteristics = =
Proxima Centauri is a red dwarf , because it belongs to the main sequence on the Hertzsprung – Russell diagram and is of spectral class M6 . M6 means that it falls in the low @-@ mass end of M @-@ type stars . Its absolute visual magnitude , or its visual magnitude as viewed from a distance of 10 parsecs , is 15 @.@ 5 . Its total luminosity over all wavelengths is 0 @.@ 17 % that of the Sun , although when observed in the wavelengths of visible light the eye is most sensitive to , it is only 0 @.@ 0056 % as luminous as the Sun . More than 85 % of its radiated power is at infrared wavelengths .
In 2002 , optical interferometry with the Very Large Telescope ( VLTI ) found that the angular diameter of Proxima Centauri was 1 @.@ 02 ± 0 @.@ 08 milliarcsec . Because its distance is known , the actual diameter of Proxima Centauri can be calculated to be about 1 / 7 that of the Sun , or 1 @.@ 5 times that of Jupiter . The star 's estimated mass is 12 @.@ 3 % M ☉ , or 129 Jupiter masses ( MJ ) . The mean density of a main @-@ sequence star increases with decreasing mass , and Proxima Centauri is no exception : it has a mean density of 56 @.@ 8 × 103 kg / m3 ( 56 @.@ 8 g / cm3 ) , compared with the Sun 's mean density of 1 @.@ 411 × 103 kg / m3 ( 1 @.@ 411 g / cm3 ) .
Because of its low mass , the interior of the star is completely convective , causing energy to be transferred to the exterior by the physical movement of plasma rather than through radiative processes . This convection means that the helium ash left over from the thermonuclear fusion of hydrogen does not accumulate at the core , but is instead circulated throughout the star . Unlike the Sun , which will only burn through about 10 % of its total hydrogen supply before leaving the main sequence , Proxima Centauri will consume nearly all of its fuel before the fusion of hydrogen comes to an end .
Convection is associated with the generation and persistence of a magnetic field . The magnetic energy from this field is released at the surface through stellar flares that briefly increase the overall luminosity of the star . These flares can grow as large as the star and reach temperatures measured as high as 27 million K — hot enough to radiate X @-@ rays . Indeed , Proxima Centauri 's quiescent X @-@ ray luminosity , approximately ( 4 – 16 ) × 1026 erg / s ( ( 4 – 16 ) × 1019 W ) , is roughly equal to that of the much larger Sun . The peak X @-@ ray luminosity of the largest flares can reach 1028 erg / s ( 1021 W. )
Proxima Centauri 's chromosphere is active , and its spectrum displays a strong emission line of singly ionized magnesium at a wavelength of 280 nm . About 88 % of the surface of Proxima Centauri may be active , a percentage that is much higher than that of the Sun even at the peak of the solar cycle . Even during quiescent periods with few or no flares , this activity increases the corona temperature of Proxima Centauri to 3 @.@ 5 million K , compared to the 2 million K of the Sun 's corona . However , Proxima Centauri 's overall activity level is considered low compared to other red dwarfs , which is consistent with the star 's estimated age of 4 @.@ 85 × 109 years , since the activity level of a red dwarf is expected to steadily wane over billions of years as its stellar rotation rate decreases . The activity level also appears to vary with a period of roughly 442 days , which is shorter than the solar cycle of 11 years .
Proxima Centauri has a relatively weak stellar wind , no more than 20 % of mass loss rate of the solar wind . Because the star is much smaller than the Sun , however , the mass loss per unit surface area from Proxima Centauri may be eight times that from the solar surface .
A red dwarf with the mass of Proxima Centauri will remain on the main sequence for about four trillion years . As the proportion of helium increases because of hydrogen fusion , the star will become smaller and hotter , gradually transforming from red to blue . Near the end of this period it will become significantly more luminous , reaching 2 @.@ 5 % of the Sun 's luminosity ( L ☉ ) and warming up any orbiting bodies for a period of several billion years . When the hydrogen fuel is exhausted , Proxima Centauri will then evolve into a white dwarf ( without passing through the red giant phase ) and steadily lose any remaining heat energy .
= = = Distance and motion = = =
Based on the parallax of 768 @.@ 7 ± 0 @.@ 3 milliarcseconds , measured using the Hipparcos astrometry satellite , and more precisely with the Fine Guidance Sensors on the Hubble Space Telescope , Proxima Centauri is about 4 @.@ 24 light @-@ years ( ly ) from the Sun . A more recent and even more accurate parallax value from RECONS astrometry is 0 @.@ 76813 " , giving a distance of 4 @.@ 25 ly , or 270 @,@ 000 times more distant than Earth is from the Sun . From Earth 's vantage point , Proxima is separated from Alpha Centauri by 2 @.@ 18 degrees , or four times the angular diameter of the full Moon . Proxima also has a relatively large proper motion — moving 3 @.@ 85 arcseconds per year across the sky . It has a radial velocity toward the Sun of 22 @.@ 4 km / s .
Among the known stars , Proxima Centauri has been the closest star to the Sun for about 32 @,@ 000 years and will be so for about another 25 @,@ 000 years , after which the closest star to the Sun will be Alpha Centauri . In 2001 , J. García @-@ Sánchez et al. predicted that Proxima will make its closest approach to the Sun , coming within 3 @.@ 11 ly , in approximately 26 @,@ 700 years . A 2010 study by V. V. Bobylev predicted a closest approach distance of 2 @.@ 90 ly in about 27 @,@ 400 years , followed by a 2014 study by C. A. L. Bailer @-@ Jones predicting a perihelion approach of 3 @.@ 07 ly in roughly 26 @,@ 710 years . Proxima Centauri is orbiting through the Milky Way at a distance from the Galactic Center that varies from 8 @.@ 3 to 9 @.@ 5 kpc , with an orbital eccentricity of 0 @.@ 07 .
Ever since the discovery of Proxima it has been suspected to be a true companion of the Alpha Centauri binary star system . At a distance to Alpha Centauri of just 0 @.@ 21 ly ( 15 @,@ 000 ± 700 AU ) , Proxima Centauri may be in orbit around Alpha Centauri , with an orbital period of the order of 500 @,@ 000 years or more . For this reason , Proxima is sometimes referred to as Alpha Centauri C. Modern estimates , taking into account the small separation between and relative velocity of the stars , suggest that the chance of the observed alignment being a coincidence is roughly one in a million . Data from the Hipparcos satellite , combined with ground @-@ based observations , is consistent with the hypothesis that the three stars are truly a bound system . If so , Proxima would currently be near apastron , the farthest point in its orbit from the Alpha Centauri system . Such a triple system can form naturally through a low @-@ mass star being dynamically captured by a more massive binary of 1 @.@ 5 – 2 M ☉ within their embedded star cluster before the cluster disperses . More accurate measurement of the radial velocity is needed to confirm this hypothesis .
If Proxima was bound to the Alpha Centauri system during its formation , the stars would be likely to share the
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same elemental composition . The gravitational influence of Proxima may also have stirred up the Alpha Centauri protoplanetary disks . This would have increased the delivery of volatiles such as water to the dry inner regions . Any terrestrial planets in the system may have been enriched by this material .
Six single stars , two binary star systems , and a triple star share a common motion through space with Proxima Centauri and the Alpha Centauri system . The space velocities of these stars are all within 10 km / s of Alpha Centauri 's peculiar motion . Thus , they may form a moving group of stars , which would indicate a common point of origin , such as in a star cluster . If it is determined that Proxima Centauri is not gravitationally bound to Alpha Centauri , then such a moving group would help explain their relatively close proximity .
Though Proxima Centauri is the nearest bona fide star , it is still possible that one or more as @-@ yet undetected sub @-@ stellar brown dwarfs may lie closer .
= = = Possible companions = = =
If a massive planet is orbiting Proxima Centauri , it would cause some displacement of Proxima Centauri over the course of the planet 's orbit . If the orbital plane of the planet is not perpendicular to the line of sight from Earth , then this displacement would cause periodic changes in the radial velocity of Proxima Centauri . The fact that multiple measurements of the star 's radial velocity have detected no such shifts has lowered the maximum mass that a detectable companion to Proxima Centauri could possess . The activity level of the star adds noise to the radial velocity measurements , limiting future prospects for detection of a companion using this method .
In 1998 , an examination of Proxima Centauri using the Faint Object Spectrograph on board the Hubble Space Telescope appeared to show evidence of a companion orbiting at a distance of about 0 @.@ 5 AU . However , a subsequent search using the Wide Field Planetary Camera 2 failed to locate any companions . Astrometric measurements at the Cerro Tololo Inter @-@ American Observatory appear to rule out a Jovian companion with an orbital period of 2 − 12 years .
Proxima Centauri , along with Alpha Centauri A and B , was among the " Tier 1 " target stars for NASA 's now @-@ canceled Space Interferometry Mission ( SIM ) , which would theoretically have been able to detect planets as small as three Earth masses ( M ⊕ ) within two AU of a " Tier 1 " target star .
= = = Habitable zone = = =
The TV documentary Alien Worlds hypothesized that a life @-@ sustaining planet could exist in orbit around Proxima Centauri or other red dwarfs . Such a planet would lie within the habitable zone of Proxima Centauri , about 0 @.@ 023 – 0 @.@ 054 AU from the star , and would have an orbital period of 3 @.@ 6 – 14 days . A planet orbiting within this zone will experience tidal locking to the star , so that Proxima Centauri moves little in the planet 's sky , and most of the surface experiences either day or night perpetually . However , the presence of an atmosphere could serve to redistribute the energy from the star @-@ lit side to the far side of the planet .
Proxima Centauri 's flare outbursts could erode the atmosphere of any planet in its habitable zone , but the documentary 's scientists thought that this obstacle could be overcome ( see continued theories ) . Gibor Basri of the University of California , Berkeley , even mentioned that " no one [ has ] found any showstoppers to habitability . " For example , one concern was that the torrents of charged particles from the star 's flares could strip the atmosphere off any nearby planet . However , if the planet had a strong magnetic field , the field would deflect the particles from the atmosphere ; even the slow rotation of a tidally locked dwarf planet that spins once for every time it orbits its star would be enough to generate a magnetic field , as long as part of the planet 's interior remained molten .
Other scientists , especially proponents of the Rare Earth hypothesis , disagree that red dwarfs can sustain life . Any exoplanet in this star 's habitable zone would likely be tidally @-@ locked resulting in a relatively weak planetary magnetic moment , leading to strong atmospheric erosion by coronal mass ejections from Proxima Centauri .
= = Interstellar travel = =
Proxima Centauri has been suggested as a possible first destination for interstellar travel . Proxima currently moves toward Earth at a rate of 22 @.@ 4 km / s . Ηowever , after 26 @,@ 700 years , when it will come as close as 3 @.@ 11 light @-@ years , it will begin to move farther away . If non @-@ nuclear propulsion were used , a flight of a spacecraft to a planet orbiting Proxima Centauri would probably require thousands of years . For example , Voyager 1 , which is now travelling 17 @.@ 043 km / s ( 38 @,@ 120 mph ) relative to the Sun , would reach Proxima in 73 @,@ 775 years , were the spacecraft traveling in the direction of that star . A slow @-@ moving probe would have only several tens of thousands of years to catch Proxima Centauri near its closest approach , and could end up watching it recede into the distance . Nuclear pulse propulsion might enable such interstellar travel with a trip timescale of a century , beginning within the next century , inspiring several studies such as Project Orion , Project Daedalus , and Project Longshot .
From Proxima Centauri , the Sun would appear as a bright 0 @.@ 4 @-@ magnitude star in the constellation Cassiopeia .
= = = Explanatory notes = = =
= Chipotle Mexican Grill =
Chipotle Mexican Grill , Inc . ( / tʃᵻˈpoʊtleɪ / ) is an American chain of fast food restaurants in the United States , United Kingdom , Canada , Germany , and France , specializing in tacos and burritos . Its name derives from chipotle , the Nahuatl name for a smoked and dried jalapeño chili pepper .
The company has released a mission statement called Food with Integrity , which highlights its efforts in using naturally @-@ grown ingredients , and serves more naturally raised meat than any other restaurant chain . Chipotle is one of the first chains of fast casual dining establishments .
Founded by Steve Ells in July 1993 , Chipotle had 16 restaurants ( all in Colorado ) when McDonald 's Corporation became a major investor in 1998 . By the time McDonald 's fully divested itself from Chipotle in 2006 , the chain had grown to over 500 locations .
With more than 2 @,@ 000 locations , Chipotle had a net income of US $ 475 @.@ 6 million and a staff of more than 45 @,@ 000 employees in 2015 .
= = History = =
Founder Steve Ells attended the Culinary Institute of America in Hyde Park , New York . Afterward , he became a line cook for Jeremiah Tower at Stars in San Francisco . There , Ells observed the popularity of the taquerías and San Francisco burritos in the Mission District . In 1993 , Ells took what he learned in San Francisco and opened the first Chipotle Mexican Grill in Denver , Colorado in a former Dolly Madison Ice Cream store at 1644 East Evans Avenue , near the University of Denver campus , using an $ 85 @,@ 000 loan from his father . Ells and his father calculated that the store would need to sell 107 burritos per day to be profitable . After one month , the original restaurant was selling over 1 @,@ 000 burritos a day . The second store opened in 1995 using Chipotle 's cash flow , and the third was opened using an SBA loan . To fund more growth , Ells ' father invested $ 1 @.@ 5 million . Afterwards , Ells created a board of directors and business plan , raising an additional $ 1 @.@ 8 million for the company . Ells had originally planned to use funds from the first Chipotle to open a fine @-@ dining restaurant , but instead focused on Chipotle Mexican Grill when the restaurants saw success .
In 1998 , the first restaurant outside of Colorado opened in Kansas City , Missouri . The company opened its first location in Minnesota by opening near the campus of the University of Minnesota in Minneapolis in March 1999 .
In 1998 , McDonald 's made an initial minority investment in the company . By 2001 , the company had grown to be Chipotle 's largest investor . The investment from McDonald 's allowed the firm to quickly expand , from 16 restaurants in 1998 to over 500 by 2005 . On January 26 , 2006 , Chipotle made its initial public offering ( IPO ) after increasing the share price twice due to high pre @-@ IPO demand . In its first day as a public company , the stock rose exactly 100 % , resulting in the best U.S.-based IPO in six years , and the second @-@ best IPO for a restaurant after Boston Market . The money from the offering was then used to fund new store growth .
In October 2006 , McDonald 's fully divested from Chipotle . This was part of a larger initiative for McDonald 's to divest all of its non @-@ core business restaurants — Chipotle , Donatos Pizza , and Boston Market — so that it could focus on the main McDonald 's chain . McDonald 's invested approximately $ 360 million into Chipotle , and took out $ 1 @.@ 5 billion . McDonald 's had attempted to get Chipotle to add drive @-@ through windows and a breakfast menu , which Ells resisted . The company currently trades on the New York Stock Exchange under the ticker symbol CMG .
Competitors in the fast @-@ casual Mexican market include Qdoba Mexican Grill , Moe 's Southwest Grill , Rubio 's Coastal Grill , Pancheros Mexican Grill , Freebirds World Burrito , and Baja Fresh . In a list of fastest @-@ growing restaurant chains in 2009 , Chipotle was ranked eighth , based on increases in U.S. sales over the past year , and in 2010 Chipotle was ranked third . Consumer Reports ranked Chipotle as the best Mexican fast @-@ food chain in 2011 . The company serves approximately 750 @,@ 000 customers per day .
In December 2010 , Chipotle hired chef Nate Appleman to develop new cuisine . Appleman has won Rising Star Chef from the James Beard Foundation , was named " Best New Chef " by Food & Wine magazine , and competed on The Next Iron Chef .
In 2010 , U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement ( ICE ) audited Chipotle 's Minneapolis restaurants , and found that some employees had been hired using fraudulent documents . In December , Chipotle fired 450 employees from its Minneapolis restaurants as a result of the audit , resulting in protests by local groups . In February 2011 , ICE expanded the audit to include 60 restaurants in Virginia and Washington , D.C. which resulted in 40 workers being fired . In April 2011 , the criminal division of the Attorney General 's office in Washington , D.C. , joined the case , and ICE agents began interviewing employees at 20 to 25 restaurants in other locations , such as Los Angeles and Atlanta . In response to the government investigations , Chipotle hired former director of ICE Julie Myers Wood and high @-@ profile attorneys Robert Luskin and Gregory B. Craig . In addition , a Mexican citizen is suing Chipotle for " mental anguish and suffering " , claiming racial and national discrimination because a Minnesota restaurant allegedly refused to acknowledge his Mexican passport as a valid identification for an alcohol purchase .
In 2011 , Steve Ells was a judge for the TV show America 's Next Great Restaurant and investor of ANGR Holdings , the company that will be running the winning concept 's restaurants . Chipotle has agreed to purchase Ells ' investment in ANGR at his cost , provide support for ANGR operations , and invest a total of $ 2 @.@ 3 million in cash contributions .
On December 18 , 2013 , the company revealed that it had opened its first fast @-@ food pizza chain in Denver back in May 2013 . According to Associated Press , Chipotle partnered with a local full @-@ service restaurant called Pizzeria Locale to create a fast @-@ food version of the eatery , keeping its name . The company plans to open at least two more pizzerias in the Denver area .
In April 2014 , Chipotle announced an increase in menu prices for the first time in nearly three years , due to increasing costs for steak , avocados , and cheese . The price increase was expected to be rolled out from the end of second quarter of 2014 through the end of the third quarter . In late 2015 , Chipotle expanded its mobile strategy through delivery partnerships with tech startups like Tapingo , a delivery service that targets college campuses .
= = = International expansion = = =
According to an article in The Motley Fool , Chipotle had 17 locations outside of the United States by October 2014 with the majority in Canada and the UK and was in the process of opening more locations .
In August 2008 , Chipotle opened its first location outside of the United States in Toronto . The second location in Toronto and Canada was not opened until 2010 . The first Canadian location outside of Toronto area was open in Vancouver in December 2012 . Except for the single location in Vancouver , all Canadian locations were within the Toronto area at the end of 2014 .
Chipotle has expanded to Europe , with the first European restaurant opened in May 2010 in London . A second location open in London in September 2011 . The following year , three addition location were quickly opened in the London area . After this growth spurt , the rate of further expansion in London slowed greatly with the sixth location appearing in 2013 and the seventh in June 2015 . Although Chipotle blames the slow growth in the United Kingdom on the British unfamiliarity with Mexican foods , several locally owned burrito chains had opened locations across the United Kingdom during the same interval .
A location first opened in Paris in France in May 2012 and Frankfurt in Germany in August 2013 .
Expansion in France was much slower than that in the United Kingdom or Canada , with a second location in Paris opening in 2013 and a third location in 2014 . At 7 @,@ 000 square feet , the restaurant at La Défense is , as of 2015 , the largest Chipotle location in the world , while a typical Chipotle restaurant is usually between 2 @,@ 200 and 2 @,@ 500 square feet . A fourth Parisian location was opened in Levallois @-@ Perret in 2015 .
By May 2016 , there were 25 locations outside of the United States with 9 locations in Toronto , 1 location in Vancouver , 6 locations in London , 3 in Paris , and 1 in Frankfurt . The rate of overseas expansion was slower than expected . Many of the press reviewers thought that the food was overpriced for their area .
= = = Operation and distribution = = =
All of Chipotle 's restaurants are company @-@ owned , rather than franchised . As of December 2012 , 1430 restaurants have since opened throughout the United States and Canada , with locations in 43 states , Ontario , British Columbia , and the District of Columbia . Founder Steve Ells serves as chairman and co @-@ chief executive officer , and has a 1 @.@ 25 % stake in the company .
= = = ShopHouse Southeast Asian Kitchen = = =
In September 2011 , Chipotle opened an Asian fast @-@ casual concept restaurant named ShopHouse Southeast Asian Kitchen in Washington , D.C. The company has said the new restaurant " would follow the Chipotle service format and its focus on ' food with integrity ' in ingredients . " Chipotle 's plan was to start with only one store , and see how the restaurant works out before expanding the concept . ShopHouse Southeast Asian Kitchen features " cuisine inspired by Thai , Malaysian and Vietnamese cuisines " served in bowls or initially as bánh mì sandwiches . The sandwiches were quickly dropped a few months later after receiving mostly negative reviews on the quality of bread that was being used and ShopHouse 's inability to find a dependable supplier of decent bread .
In 2014 , The Motley Fool noted that Chipotle was expanding the ShopHouse concept rather slowly when compared with the expansion of Noodles & Company during the same time period . A writer for MarketWatch commented in 2015 that some of the procedures that Chipotle had developed for providing affordable quality burritos quickly " may not work with other cuisines " . As of 2015 , there have been , on average , three new ShopHouses opened each year , while 150 new Chipotles were opened annually during the same time period , or nearly three opens per week .
As of April 2015 , there are four ShopHouse locations in D.C. , three in the D.C. suburbs of Maryland , and three in Los Angeles County , California .
The ShopHouse concept was primarily developed by Chipotle 's director of concept development Tim Wildin , who was born in Bangkok and spent all of his childhood summers there . Wildin had been working in the marketing department at Chipotle and realized that if he could follow Chipotle ’ s business model and combine it with his knowledge of traditional Southeast Asian cuisine , he could bring the taste of his homeland to the American masses . Culinary manager Nate Appleman was responsible for developing some recipes and the procedures to produce the final product . Wildin was responsible with the look of the facilities , the locations of the restaurants , and marketing .
= = Corporate management = =
Chipotle ’ s team includes a residing corporate office of managers and its board of directors . Members of both teams are appointed to serve on committees : audit , compensation , and nominating and corporate governance . The top management team consists of the co @-@ Chief Executive Officers , the Chief Financial Officer , the Chief Development Officer , and the Chief Marketing Officer . Seven individuals currently sit on the board of directors : Steve Ells , Montgomery Moran , Patrick Flynn , Albert Baldocchi , Neil Flanzraich , Darlene Friedman , and John Charlesworth .
= = = Salaries = = =
The labor @-@ market research firm Glassdoor reported that Steve Ells earned $ 29 million in 2014 , versus a median of $ 19 @,@ 000 for Chipotle 's workers , making the CEO @-@ to @-@ worker pay ratio 1522 : 1 .
= = = Field team = = =
The field team are the employees who work closely with but not directly within specific restaurants . The field support system includes apprentice team leaders ( step up from restaurateurs ) , team leaders or area managers , team directors and regional directors ( not atypical for them to oversee more than fifty locations ) . Because Chipotle does not franchise , all restaurants are corporately owned . Thus , whenever Chipotle is in the process of launching a new location , the field team hires a new general manager and trains them at a current location so that they will be ready for the new location when it opens for business . The corporate office takes care of finding and funding new locations as well .
= = Menu = =
Chipotle 's menu consists of four items : burritos , bowls , tacos , and salads . The price of each item is based on the choice of chicken , pork carnitas ( available only in some locations ) , barbacoa , steak , tofu @-@ based " sofritas " , or vegetarian ( with guacamole , which would be at an extra charge otherwise ) . Additional optional toppings are offered free of charge , including : rice , beans , four types of salsa , sour cream , cheese , and lettuce . When asked in 2007 about expanding the menu , Steve Ells said , " [ I ] t 's important to keep the menu focused , because if you just do a few things , you can ensure that you do them better than anybody else . " Chipotle also offers a children 's menu . Most restaurants sell beer and margaritas in addition to soft drinks and fruit drinks .
The majority of food is prepared in each restaurant . Some exceptions are the beans and carnitas , which are prepared at a central kitchen in Chicago , Illinois . None of the restaurants have freezers , microwave ovens , or can openers .
The chain experimented with breakfast foods at two airports in the Washington ( D.C. ) metropolitan area but decided against expanding the menu in that direction . Starting in 2009 , selected restaurants had offer a pozole soup , which has since been discontinued .
In June 2015 , Chipotle began test marketing a pork and chicken chorizo @-@ type sausage as a new protein option at selected locations in the Kansas City area . Some food writers have expressed their health related concerns over the protein 's relatively high sodium content since a 4 @-@ ounce serving contains 293 calories and 803 milligrams of sodium while the American Heart Association ’ s recommended daily amount is less than 1 @,@ 500 milligrams of sodium . In contrast , the protein options with next highest sodium contents are Barbacoa with 530 milligrams and sofritas with 555 milligrams . An earlier version on the Mexican sausage was tested in Denver and New York City in 2011 , but that test was terminated when that version of the sausage was perceived as looking too greasy .
Chipotle accepts fax orders , and in 2005 the company added the ability to order online from their website . For both online and fax orders , customers proceed to the front of the line to pay for pre @-@ ordered food . In 2009 , Chipotle released an app for the iPhone that allows users to find nearby Chipotle locations , place an order , and prepay with a credit card . In 2013 , Chipotle released an Android app that allows users to locate nearby Chipotle locations , place an order , prepay with a credit or gift card , and access favorites and recent orders .
= = = Nutrition = = =
In 2003 , a Center for Science in the Public Interest report stated that Chipotle 's burritos contain over 1 @,@ 000 calories , which is nearly equivalent to two meals ' worth of food . MSNBC Health.com placed the burritos on their list of the " 20 Worst Foods in America " because of their high caloric content and high sodium . When a burrito with carnitas , rice , vegetables , cheese , guacamole , and salsa was compared with a typical Big Mac , the burrito had more fat , cholesterol , carbohydrates , and sodium than the Big Mac , but it also had more protein and fiber . The restaurant has also received praise – Health.com included the restaurant in its list of the " Healthiest Fast Food Restaurants " .
Chipotle 's vegetarian options include rice , black beans , fajita vegetables ( onions and bell peppers ) , salsa , guacamole and cheese . All items other than the meats , cheese , sour cream , and honey vinaigrette dressing are vegan . As of late 2013 , Chipotle developed a new cooking strategy for the pinto beans , eliminating the bacon and making them vegetarian and vegan @-@ friendly . The cheese is processed with vegetable @-@ based rennet in order to be suitable for vegetarians . In April 2010 , Chipotle began testing a vegan " Garden Blend " option , which is a plant @-@ based meat alternative marinated in chipotle adobo , at six locations in the U.S. The flour tortillas used for the burritos and soft tacos are the only items that contain gluten .
= = = Food sourcing = = =
In 1999 , while looking for ways to improve the taste of the carnitas , Steve Ells was prompted by an article written by Edward Behr to visit Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations ( CAFOs ) . Ells found the CAFOs " horrific " , and began sourcing from open @-@ range pork suppliers . This caused an increase in both the price and the sales of the carnitas burritos .
In 2001 , Chipotle released a mission statement called Food With Integrity , which highlighted Chipotle 's efforts to increase their use of naturally raised meat , organic produce , and dairy without added hormones . Chipotle only uses the leg and thigh meat from its chickens ; the breast meat is sold to Panera Bread .
Founder Steve Ells has testified before the United States Congress in support of the Preservation of Antibiotics for Medical Treatment Act , which aims to reduce the amount of antibiotics given to farm animals .
Since 2006 , the Coalition of Immokalee Workers ( CIW ) , a Floridian farmworker organization , has protested Chipotle ’ s refusal to sign a Fair Food agreement , which would commit the restaurant chain to pay a penny @-@ per @-@ pound premium on its Florida tomatoes to boost tomato harvesters ’ wages , and to only buy Florida tomatoes from growers who comply with the Fair Food Code of Conduct . In 2009 , the creators of the documentary film Food , Inc . ( along with 31 other leaders in the sustainable food movement ) signed an open letter of support for the CIW ’ s campaign , stating that , “ If Chipotle is sincere in its wishes to reform its supply chain , the time has come to work with the Coalition of Immokalee Workers as a true partner in the protection of farmworkers rights . ” In September 2009 , Chipotle announced that it would sidestep partnership with the CIW and instead work directly with East Coast Growers and Packers to increase wages for its tomato pickers . CEO Steve Ells has framed the dispute as a fundamental issue of control , stating that , “ the CIW wants us to sign a contract that would let them control Chipotle 's decisions regarding food in the future . " In October 2012 , Chipotle Mexican Grill signed an agreement with the CIW and became the 11th company to join the organization 's Fair Food Program .
In January 2015 , Chipotle pulled carnitas from its menu in a third of its restaurants ; company officials cited animal welfare problems at one of the suppliers , found during a regular audit , as the reason . Subsequently , a false rumor spread online claiming it was done to appease Muslims who consider pork to be unclean , leading to some protests on social media . The company still uses antibiotic @-@ free and hormone @-@ free steak in its restaurants , despite being briefly forced to " serve beef that is not naturally raised " during the summer of 2013 , posting an in @-@ store notice each time that occurred . Roberto Ferdman of The Washington Post opined that Chipotle 's stated mission to sell " food with integrity " may be " untenable " if meat producers continue to breach Chipotle 's ethical standards .
Also in 2015 , Chipotle stopped using genetically modified corn and soy beans in their foods , claiming to be the first nationwide restaurant to cook completely GMO free . This was done in response to increasing consumer demand for GMO free products .
= = Food safety = =
Since 2008 , a former Kansas State University food safety professor has accused Chipotle of confusing the public by using such terms as " naturally raised meats " , " organic ingredients " , and " locally sourced " and trying to equate those terms with food safety . In rebuttal , a Chipotle spokesperson told The Daily Beast that " all of our practices have always been very much within industry norms . It 's important to note that restaurant practices are regulated by health codes , and restaurants are routinely inspected by health officials . Everything we have done in our supply chain and in our restaurants has been within industry norms . " Yet , FiveThirtyEight pointed out that the 2015 norovirus outbreak appears to be unusual and others are criticizing their food sourcing or handling practices . MarketWatch wrote that the result of all of these outbreaks will be to force Chipotle to obtain their produce from larger corporate farms that can afford the more extensive microbial food @-@ safety testing programs and to process vegetables at centralized locations instead of at the individual stores , both of which are industry @-@ standard practices that the company had previously criticized . The New York Times implied that the company 's insistence on maintaining its long standing rhetoric about " food integrity " seemed to be quite opposite with the realities of recent current events and made it appear that the management was just ignoring their current problems . It also has been pointed out that Chipotle 's current record @-@ keeping system is actually hindering the health authorities ' investigation in locating the sources of the various infections .
A writer for the magazine Popular Science pointed out that Chipotle had publicly acknowledged that they " may be at a higher risk for food @-@ borne illness outbreaks than some competitors due to our use of fresh produce and meats rather than frozen , and our reliance on employees cooking with traditional methods rather than automation . " Henry I. Miller , a medical researcher and columnist and the founding director of the FDA 's Office of Biotechnology , asked : " One wonders whether Chipotle ’ s " traditional methods " include employees ' neglecting to wash their hands before preparing food , which is how norovirus is usually spread . And the fresh versus frozen dichotomy is nothing more than a snow @-@ job . Freezing E. coli @-@ contaminated food does not kill the pathogens ; it preserves them . " Describing food poisoning outbreaks as " something of a Chipotle trademark ; the recent ones are the fourth and fifth this year [ 2015 ] , one of which was not disclosed to the public " , Miller notes that " a particularly worrisome aspect of the company 's serial deficiencies is that there have been at least three unrelated pathogens in the outbreaks – Salmonella and E. coli bacteria and norovirus . In other words , there has been more than a single glitch ; suppliers and employees have found a variety of ways to contaminate what Chipotle cavalierly sells ( at premium prices ) to its customers . "
A writer for the North Carolina newspaper The News & Observer called Chipotle 's " food with integrity " a " lucrative farce " and a " marketing ploy " by pointing out that organic food is " often grown with manure ( an ' all @-@ natural ' fertilizer ) , which can certainly increase the risks of accidentally spreading fecal bacteria like E. coli . "
In December 2015 , Seattle health officials closed a Seattle @-@ area Chipotle for a day after it had repeatedly had small numbers of violations during recent consecutive inspections that previously would not have generated a closure order . On December 10 , 2015 , CEO Steve Ells released a press statement apologizing for 2015 outbreaks and promised changes to minimize the risks of future outbreaks .
On February 8 , 2016 , Chipotle closed all of its eateries nationwide for a few hours during the morning for an all @-@ staff meeting on food safety .
= = = March 2008 hepatitis outbreak = = =
In March and April 2008 , the Community Epidemiology Branch of the San Diego County Health and Human Services Agency traced a hepatitis A outbreak in San Diego County to a single Chipotle restaurant located in La Mesa , California in which over 20 customers , but no employees , had tested positive for the virus .
= = = April 2008 norovirus outbreak = = =
In 2008 , Chipotle was implicated in a norovirus outbreak in Kent , Ohio , where over 400 people became ill after eating at a Chipotle restaurant . Officials at the Ohio Department of Health said that the outbreak was caused by Norovirus Genotype G2 . Many of the victims were students at Kent State University and some of reported victims were secondary victims who contracted the virus from being in close contact with the persons who had gotten ill at Chipotle . The initial source of the outbreak was never found .
= = = February 2009 Campylobacter jejuni outbreak = = =
In 2009 , an investigation by the Minnesota Department of Health traced an outbreak of campylobacteriosis to a Chipotle Mexican Grill in Apple Valley , Minnesota . The investigation found that chicken was sometimes served undercooked by the restaurant and determined that lettuce which had been cross @-@ contaminated with raw or undercooked chicken was the vector for the outbreak .
= = = July 2015 E. coli outbreak = = =
In early November 2015 , The Oregonian reported that there was a little @-@ known E. coli outbreak that had occurred earlier in July in which five persons were infected with the O157 : H7 strain of E. coli . The outbreak was traced to a single Chipotle location in Seattle and that the incident was not publicized at that time . Seattle public health officials defended their actions at that time by saying that the outbreak was over by the time they made an association with Chipotle . Health officials were unable to trace the source of the July outbreak and said that the cause of the July outbreak is unrelated to the October / November outbreak .
= = = August 2015 norovirus outbreak = = =
Another norovirus outbreak was confirmed to have occurred in August 2015 at a Simi Valley , California location in which 80 customers and 18 employees reported becoming ill . Ventura County health inspectors found various health violations during two inspections following the outbreak report . Despite those violations , the county health officials did not close the restaurant and allowed it to continue to operate . In a January 2016 article , the New York Times reported that the number of victims involved in the Simi Valley norovirus outbreak was actually 207 , twice the number that was reported earlier .
In an unusual move , the U.S. Attorney 's Office for the Central District of California in conjunction with the Food and Drug Administration has gotten a federal grand jury to issue a subpoena in January 2016 as part of a criminal investigation seeking documents and information from Chipotle concerning the Simi Valley norovirus outbreak . As of January 2016 , it is too early to tell which organization is the actual target of the investigation . In most cases involving norovirus outbreaks that involved a single location , state and / or local authorities are the usual jurisdiction responsible in the investigation and prosecution of those type of cases . However , Ventura County officials had been criticized for their handling of parts of their investigation , and for allowing the restaurant to continue to operate after finding health violations during consecutive inspections .
Less than two weeks later , a federal class action lawsuit was filed in the U.S. District Court for the Central District of California claiming that Chipotle knowingly allowed an ill kitchen manager to work for two days before sending that person home and had actively deep @-@ cleaned the restaurant to remove all traces of contamination prior to notifying the Ventura County Environmental Health Division of the existing of the outbreak and thus hinder their investigation . The lawsuit also claimed that the number of known victims is much higher , 234 , and estimates that the number of meals that the infected employee may have come in contact with could be as high 3000 .
= = = August 2015 Salmonella outbreak = = =
At almost the same time as the Simi Valley norovirus outbreak , Minnesota health officials confirmed a Salmonella outbreak that affected 17 Minneapolis @-@ area Chipotle restaurants in mid @-@ August 2015 . The source of the outbreak was traced back to contaminated tomatoes that were grown in Mexico . The Minnesota Department of Health reported that samples from 45 victims were tested and found that their illness was caused by the Salmonella Newport bacterium as determined by DNA profiling . Later , the state officials reported that the total of persons who became infected was increased to 64 and the number Chipotle locations in which they had acquired the bacterium was increased to 22 , all located within the state of Minnesota .
= = = October 2015 E. coli outbreak = = =
In October 2015 , at least 22 persons were reported to have gotten sick after eating at several different Chipotle locations in the states of Washington and Oregon . At that time , an epidemiologist for the Washington Health Department said the culprit appeared to be a Shiga toxin @-@ producing Escherichia coli bacterium , but they were still waiting the outcome of several laboratory tests before they can give a definitive result . As a precaution , Chipotle had closed 43 stores in Washington and Oregon pending the results and recommendations of the involved health authorities . On November 5 , the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention ( CDC ) had reported that the number of persons reported ill had risen to 40 known cases and that the bacteria samples taken from 7 infected persons in Washington and 3 persons in Oregon states were confirmed to be infected by the same strain of E. coli , the Shiga toxin @-@ producing STEC O26 strain , as determined by DNA profiling . At least 12 persons required hospitalization , but no fatalities . As of November , 2015 , Health authorities were still trying to trace the exact source of the bacterial contamination , but suspected fresh produce .
On November 12 , the CDC increased the number of known cases to 50 , the number of persons requiring hospitalization to 14 , and the number of DNA fingerprint confirmations to 33 . Through a match via Pulsenet , the DNA fingerprint also matched a recent case in Minnesota , but the ill person did not eat at Chipotle . The source of the bacteria infection still had not yet been determined at the time of the report released by the CDC and the CDC is trying to use the more definitive , but more time consuming whole genome sequencing procedure to see if they are able to determine the relationships between all of the STEC O26 cases . In the meantime , Chipotle reopened the closed restaurants on November 11 after disposing all of the food within the closed facilities and deep cleaning those facilities .
On November 20 , the CDC reported that the number of STEC O26 cases , as determined by DNA fingerprinting , had increased to 45 with 16 persons requiring hospitalization and the total number states being affected had increased to six . Besides Oregon and Washington , new cases were reported in the states of Minnesota , California , New York , and Ohio . 43 out of 45 of the affected individuals had reported that they had eaten at a Chipotle in the week before they had become sick .
On December 4 , the CDC reported that the number of STEC O26 cases , as determined by DNA fingerprinting , had increased to 52 with 20 persons requiring hospitalization and the total number states being affected had increased to nine . New cases were reported in the states of California ( 1 ) , Illinois ( 1 ) , Maryland ( 1 ) , Ohio ( 2 ) , Pennsylvania ( 1 ) , and Washington ( 1 ) .
The price of shares for Chipotle stock dropped a further 12 % immediately after the CDC had issued their update on November 20 . Share prices had been dropping since the initial announcement of the E. coli outbreak in late October with investors unsure if the drop in share prices just a temporary aberration and that Chipotle management is handling the incident as well as they could . Chipotle has since hired a consultant to improve their food safety program and have their program reviewed by both the CDC and FDA .
On February 1 , 2016 , the CDC official closed their investigations on the larger E. coli that started in Pacific Northwest in October 2015 and also the smaller outbreak that started in Kansas and Oklahoma in November since no new cases were reported since December 1 . In their final report , the CDC stated that 55 persons in 11 states were infected with the same strain of STEC O26 during the major outbreak with 21 of those persons requiring hospitalization . The five persons infected in the later outbreak were made ill by a generically different strain of STEC O26 . The CDC also reported that federal and local health and food safety authorities were unable to detect traces of the microorganisms in any of the food samples taken from the suspected restaurants or from their supply chain . The CDC , FDA , and the USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service were unable to determine a point source that was in common in the meals that were consumed by all the victims since some of the restaurants were located far apart and had obtained some of their ingredients from different suppliers while other consumers of the suspected suppliers were not affected .
= = = November 2015 E. coli cases = = =
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention reported on December 21 that five more people became ill after eating at two Chipotle restaurants located in Kansas and Oklahoma in late November . Preliminary DNA fingerprinting results appear to indicated that the newer cases were caused by a different strain of Shiga toxin @-@ producing E. coli O26 . Scientists are waiting the results of the more definitive whole genome sequencing analyses to determine if the organisms responsible for this outbreak are genetically related to the E. coli that are responsible for causing the outbreak that had started in Oregon and Washington in late October and thus an extension of that outbreak . The agency has not yet determined which food is responsible for the outbreak . The Food and Drug Administration reported that they are trying to determine how the bacteria in these cases , along with the earlier Oregon , Washington , and other multi @-@ state cases , might have been propagated through the food supply chain .
= = = December 2015 norovirus outbreak = = =
In December 2015 , eighty students at Boston College were sickened after eating at a single Chipotle restaurant . Affected students had been tested for both E. coli and norovirus in order to determine the cause of the illnesses . Although it would take as long as two days before the results of more definitive tests became known , public health investigators reported that preliminary tests pointed to the presence of norovirus . The health inspectors for the City of Boston had since closed this particular location on December 7 for a number of health violations that included maintaining meats at a too low of a temperature on the serving line and for allowing a sick employee to work at the time of the inspection .
On December 10 , officials from the Boston Public Health Commission reported that tests had identified a single strain of norovirus that is responsible for this particular outbreak . Boston Globe reported on December 10 that 141 persons were reported to have gotten ill and that some of the newer victims had not visited Chipotle before contracting the virus and most likely became infected by being in close proximity to someone who had gotten ill at Chipotle , such as a roommate or dorm @-@ mate . Boston authorities traced the caused of the outbreak to a sick employee who was allowed to work on the day of the outbreak . Chipotle has since fired the employee and also the manager who knowingly allowed the ill worker to complete his shift instead of following health codes .
= = Advertising and publicity = =
In the past , Chipotle mainly relied on billboards , radio ads , and word of mouth to advertise . In 2012 , Chipotle aired its first nationally televised commercial during the 54th Annual Grammy Awards ceremony . In 2010 , the company initiated an ad campaign that mocks advice given to Chipotle by advertising agencies . Chipotle has run many promotions giving out free food to potential customers , especially when opening a new store . Stores also give out free burritos on certain holidays ; for instance , on Halloween , some locations have had promotions in which free burritos are given to people who come dressed as a burrito . Chipotle gave away free burritos to reporters during the 1997 trial of Timothy McVeigh , which took place in Chipotle 's hometown of Denver . In addition , stores offered free burritos to those displaced by Hurricane Katrina . Chipotle received attention when Ozzy Osbourne 's reality show The Osbournes featured the company 's burritos heavily . Chipotle was also mentioned throughout the " Dead Celebrities " episode of the television series South Park . For Halloween 2010 , Chipotle announced that customers dressed as a processed food product would receive a burrito for $ 2 . The event was part of a $ 1 million fundraiser for Jamie Oliver 's Food Revolution called " Boorito 2010 : The Horrors of Processed Food . " For " Boorito 2011 " , customers dressed in costumes " inspired by family farms " will receive a menu item for $ 2 , with proceeds from the promotion going to The Chipotle Cultivate Foundation and Farm Aid . The promotion is aimed to increase awareness of family farms . Also in support of family farms , Chipotle released music videos of Karen O of the Yeah Yeah Yeahs and Willie Nelson . On September 12 , 2013 , Chipotle released an animated short called The Scarecrow , with a companion mobile video game ; both feature a narrative heavily critical of industrial farming , but little in the way of direct marketing for the chain . The short features a cover of " Pure Imagination " from Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory , sung by Fiona Apple . It was named one of the worst advertisements of 2013 by The Wall Street Journal .
In 2011 , Chipotle created the " Farm Team " , which is a rewards program available only by invitation from restaurant managers . The Farm Team members have access to a special Chipotle website , where members can earn rewards , i.e. free food and T @-@ shirts . The site offers members to , " learn where Chipotle ’ s food comes from , take quizzes and polls , play games and watch videos about the company " . In April 2014 , the Farm Team program was shut down .
Founder Steve Ells was a judge for the NBC reality television series America 's Next Great Restaurant ; Chipotle offered a buy @-@ one @-@ get @-@ one @-@ free deal in conjunction with the show . The show featured an episode where contestants worked in a Chipotle restaurant for a day .
Chipotle sponsors Team Garmin @-@ Barracuda ( formerly Team Garmin @-@ Chipotle , Team Garmin @-@ Slipstream , Team Garmin @-@ Transitions and Team Garmin @-@ Cervélo ) of the International Cycling Union , and is an official team partner of the Boston Celtics , and the Boston Bruins . In June 2009 , Chipotle sponsored free screenings of Food , Inc . , a film that criticizes the corporate food industry . Founder Steve Ells stated that he hoped the film would make customers appreciate Chipotle 's Food With Integrity policy . From May until September 2009 , Chipotle ran a contest on mychipotle.com , a microsite which had a competition for the best user @-@ created audio and video presentations about different combinations of ingredients . In July 2010 , Chipotle began a campaign to support healthier lunch alternatives for students , in which money will be donated to The Lunch Box program based on how many spam E @-@ mails consumers forward to a company E @-@ mail address . For Chipotle 's 18 year anniversary , the company began wrapping its burritos in gold foil as part of a larger promotion to draw attention to its Food With Integrity mantra . Also as part of the gold foil campaign , Chipotle is offering prizes for customer @-@ created pictures of items wrapped in gold foil . Chipotle hired comedian Amy Sedaris to create a comedic how @-@ to video on wrapping with gold foil , and spread the video using Twitter . In March 2013 , Chipotle pulled its sponsorship of a Boy Scouts of America event , citing that organization 's ban on LGBT members .
On February 17 , 2014 , Chipotle released the first webisode of a four @-@ part series titled Farmed and Dangerous on Hulu . The comedy is a satire of " Big Ag " and " Big Food " practices , featuring the fictional megacorporation Animoil feeding cows petropellets , which are made directly from petroleum , instead of corn and soybeans , which rely on ammonium nitrate fertilizers produced through the Haber – Bosch process , using natural gas as a source of energy .
In 2014 , Chipotle debuted their " Cultivate : Food , Ideas & Music Festival " in several cities across the nation . 2015 festivals were held in Phoenix , Kansas City , and Minneapolis . Cultivate headlines of @-@ the @-@ moment bands and draws huge crowds to the free festival . In between band performances , attendees can enjoy food , drinks , activities , free samples from partners ( such as Ben & Jerry 's ) , and informational and interactive programs displaying Chipotle 's responsible farming methods .
Also in 2014 , Chipotle introduced the " Cultivating Thought Author Series , " in which notable contemporary writers and other personalities are invited to produce short pieces of work , designed to be read in two minutes , to be printed on Chipotle packaging , such as to @-@ go bags and cups . The program was suggested and is curated by Jonathan Safran Foer . Foer has contributed work to the program ; other participating writers include Amy Tan , Paulo Coelho , Aziz Ansari , Walter Isaacson , Jeffrey Eugenides , Augusten Burroughs , Neil Gaiman , Julia Alvarez , Carlos Ruiz Zafón , and Barbara Kingsolver . Former participants include Toni Morrison , Malcolm Gladwell , Sarah Silverman , Michael Lewis , Bill Hader , Judd Apatow , George Saunders , Steven Pinker , and Sheri Fink .
On December 16 , 2015 , Chipotle ran full page ads in both The Boston Globe and Boston Herald apologizing for the recent norovirus outbreak linked to Chipotle 's Cleveland Circle location . The ad , containing a letter by Chipotle founder and co @-@ CEO Steve Ells , affirmed the company 's commitment to food safety .
On March 14 , 2016 , a National Labor Relations Board ( NLRB ) administrative law judge concluded that Chipotle ’ s social media policy , and more specifically its application towards an employee who posted tweets regarding wages and working conditions , violated the National Labor Relations Act ( NLRA ) . A former Chipotle employee in Havertown , Pennsylvania , wrote a series of tweets from his personal account about hourly workers being required to work on snow days . Chipotle instructed the employee to delete the tweets . The NLRB judge determined that Chipotle ’ s request to delete the tweets , violated the NLRA , even though the employee was not disciplined as a result of his tweets .
= = Architecture = =
Architecturally , all Chipotle restaurants are built using most of the same materials ( plywood , corrugated metal , stainless steel , exposed ductwork ) , although each store is unique . The interiors have been described as having an " industrial , sheet metal look " . Chipotle has built restaurants using white ceramic tile instead of stainless steel . It costs the company approximately $ 850 @,@ 000 to open a new restaurant . When the first Chipotle opened , Steve Ells asked his friend , sculptor Bruce Gueswel , to design the chairs and a styled Mayan king whose face was loosely based on that of civil rights leader Martin Luther King , Jr . , a personal inspiration of Gueswel , for the restaurant . Both items were made from wood and metal . Gueswel has continued to design and build the art and chairs for all subsequent Chipotle restaurants .
Most Chipotle locations display a photograph of the original restaurant , which is near the University of Denver campus on Evans Avenue . Instead of a photograph of itself , the original location has a photograph of the Dolly Madison Ice Cream that previously occupied the location . In 2010 , Chipotle began opening " A Model " restaurants , which are smaller concept locations , citing the lower costs of development and occupancy . Chipotle uses environmentally friendly packaging , with bowls made from recycled newsprint , unbleached tray liners , and napkins and cups made from postconsumer waste .
Chipotle 's architectural design team incorporates the principles of sustainable architecture in their projects . The " green " restaurant in Gurnee , Illinois features an on @-@ site six kilowatt wind turbine , which generates about 10 % of the restaurant 's electrical needs . The Gurnee restaurant has received Platinum level LEED certification from U.S. Green Building Council . A restaurant in Tulsa , Oklahoma , uses recycled drywall , low @-@ VOC paint , and energy @-@ efficient appliances . A Chipotle restaurant in Austin , Texas was the first to receive a four @-@ star rating from the city 's Green Building Program . Additionally , Chipotle has made arrangements to add solar panels to 75 of its restaurants . Chipotle has contracted to clean its stores in New York City and Long Island , with " plant @-@ based , environmentally preferable cleaning supplies and technologies . " The cleansers are readily biodegradable and non @-@ toxic to humans or aquatic life .
Chipotle was the defendant in a lawsuit for failure to comply with the Americans with Disabilities Act ( ADA ) . Maurizio Antoninetti , a customer who used a wheelchair , claimed he was denied the " Chipotle Experience " , because he was unable to see the food preparation . The case against the company was upheld in the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit , and the Supreme Court of the United States declined to hear Chipotle 's appeal , leaving the Ninth Circuit 's ruling intact . Chipotle has " an official disability policy of bringing ingredients to the tables of diners with disabilities and doing tableside preparation . " Chipotle is retrofitting restaurants affected by the ruling , replacing the walls in front of the food preparation area with lower ones or transparent panels . They are incorporating the new design elements into new restaurants . The case was one of over twenty ADA @-@ related lawsuits filed by Antoninetti , who died in 2011 .
= Red Lips =
" Red Lips " is a song recorded by American recording artist Sky Ferreira for her second extended play ( EP ) Ghost ( 2012 ) . It was released on July 17 , 2012 by Capitol Records . The song was written and produced by Greg Kurstin , with additional songwriting provided by Shirley Manson . " Red Lips " is a pop rock song that describes the emotional deterioration of an individual that Ferreira disliked . It differs from the previous electropop styles displayed in her earlier works ; this was deliberately done to prevent Ferreira from being branded in a similar fashion as recording artist Britney Spears , which she felt that Capitol Records had intended to do .
Despite Ghost itself garnering mixed reviews , " Red Lips " received generally favorable reviews from music critics , who complimented its overall production . However , the track failed to impact any national record charts . An accompanying music video for " Red Lips " was directed by Terry Richardson , and was premiered through Richardson 's YouTube channel on June 12 , 2012 . Critics directed their commentaries towards Ferreira 's increasingly risqué public persona , shifting from the more innocent image with which she launched her career .
= = Background and composition = =
With her debut studio album having been frequently delayed throughout the early 2010s , Ferreira released her second extended play Ghost on October 2 , 2012 while simultaneously continuing production of her full @-@ length record . " Red Lips " appears as the fourth of five songs on the track listing ; a preview of the song was first released through YouTube earlier that February . " Red Lips " was later heard on the television series Gossip Girl , during the episode " Save the Last Chance " from its sixth and final season on November 26 .
" Red Lips " was written and produced by Greg Kurstin , with additional songwriting provided by Shirley Manson . Ferreira first collaborated with Kurstin on her demo track " Femme Fatale " , and first came into contact with Manson through her Myspace profile which she had been uploading her music on . They were concerned that her record label intended to brand her like recording artist Britney Spears ; these conversations prompted Manson to offer Ferreira the track " Red Lips " . She made lyrical adjustments to remove slang commonly used in British English , including the term " taking a piss " , to better suit the American Ferreira . The track incorporates pop rock musical styles , becoming a departure from the electropop elements explored in her earlier tracks ; it additionally incorporates elements of grunge music , which was popularized in the 1990s . " Red Lips " also includes prominent guitar instrumentation , which Michael Cragg from The Guardian felt signaled a musical transition for Ferreira ; he further compared the song to the works of the band Yeah Yeah Yeahs . Bradley Stern from MuuMuse noted that the blending of " intimidating stabs of guitars and a wicked drum pulse " showcased " the acidic side of Sky ’ s attitude " .
Ferreira stated that the lyrics for " Red Lips " were intended as a narrative of the emotional breakdown of " a very specific person or a type [ that ] always made me feel uncomfortable " . In October 2012 , DJ Com Truise released a synthpop remix of " Red Lips " , which a writer for Fact felt complimented the songs on his debut studio album Galactic Melt ( 2011 ) . The DSL Remix of the original track is included in the soundtrack album of the feature film Vampire Academy : Blood Sisters ( 2014 ) .
= = Critical reception = =
" Red Lips " received generally favorable reviews from music critics , who complimented its overall production . Writing for Consequence of Sound , Tony Hardy offered a favorable review and appreciated the grunge music elements seen throughout the track , despite opining that its parent extended play Ghost ( 2012 ) lacked a creative focus . Michael Cragg from The Guardian recognized the track as a " welcome return for Sky Ferreira " , and compared it to the works of the band Garbage , which songwriter Shirley Manson is a member of . Bradley Stern from MuuMuse shared a similar sentiment , elaborating that the track " plays like the unofficial sequel " to " Cherry Lips " by the band . Jon Caramanica from The New York Times drew comparisons to the tracks " Owner of a Lonely Heart " by Yes and " In Bloom " by Nirvana . Writing for Pitchfork Media , Katherine St. Asaph appreciated that Ferreira " fares better and sounds far more comfortable " on tracks including " Red Lips " , which she felt that Ferreira " [ sells ] with a distant , almost tossed @-@ off vocal . " However , in a more mixed review , a writer for Tiny Mix Tapes was disappointed that Ferreira came across as an " imitation " of Avril Lavigne and Fefe Dobson on the track .
= = Music video = =
An accompanying music video for " Red Lips " was directed by Terry Richardson . She went into its filming open @-@ minded in regards to its concept , and ultimately agreed with the creative direction that Richardson proposed . The final product was premiered through Richardson 's YouTube channel on June 12 , 2012 ; it later appeared on Ferreira 's Vevo channel on July 13 . The clip sees Ferreira , dressed in underwear , applying lipstick on her entire face , and is interspersed with footage of its co @-@ star , the spider " Toby the Tarantula " , crawling across her body . She stated that her wardrobe was intended to complement the simplistic nature of the music video , rather than an attempt to create sex appeal .
Critics directed their commentaries of the music video towards Ferreira 's increasingly risqué public persona , shifting from the more innocent image with which she launched her career . A writer from MuuMuse provided a favorable review , comparing it to the visuals for " Criminal " by Fiona Apple and summarizing that " Sky Ferreira is cooler than anything you and I could ever be . " Becky Bain from Idolator stated that the appearance of Toby the Tarantula was " somehow nowhere near as disconcerting as the image of Sky , looking washed out with platinum hair against a white background , crazily painting her face with a tube of red lipstick . " Michael Cragg of The Guardian felt that Ferreira 's friendship with the controversial Richardson showcased a " shift away from the pop princess she felt she was being moulded into " , and commented that the spider was " not for the faint @-@ hearted " .
= = Track listing = =
= = Release history = =
= John Lester =
John Ashby Lester ( August 1 , 1871 – September 3 , 1969 ) was an American cricketer , active in the late 19th and early 20th centuries . Lester was one of the Philadelphian cricketers who played from the end of the 19th century until the outbreak of World War I. His obituary in Wisden Cricketers ' Almanack , described him as " one of the great figures in American cricket . " During his career , he played in 53 matches for the Philadelphians , 47 of which are considered first class . From 1897 until his retirement in 1908 , Lester led the batting averages in Philadelphia and captained all the international home matches .
= = Early life and career = =
Lester was born in Penrith , Cumberland , England in 1871 . He began playing cricket at a very young age . He was playing a game in Yorkshire in 1892 when he met Dr. Isaac Sharpless . Sharpless was the president of Haverford College , and invited him to the United States to attend the school . In his early days as a student in Cumberland 's Ackworth School , he had been described as a " very indifferent batsman " . It was only after entering Haverford that he developed his batting style . As a student at Haverford , Lester excelled as an athlete and a scholar and played football , track , tennis , and soccer . During his freshman year , he averaged 100 @.@ 5 runs per innings . Lester also won the Cope Bat every year during his time at Haverford . In his final season with the school in 1896 , he scored 1 @,@ 185 total runs and took 40 wickets for averages of 79 and 23 @.@ 2 , respectively . He also captained Haverford on their first overseas tour , scoring 105 against the MCC on his first appearance at Lord 's . On this tour , he created a great impression with an average of over 84 and prepared himself for the Philadelphian 's tour of England the following year .
= = = Tour of England in 1897 = = =
The tour undertaken by the Philadelphian cricketers was very ambitious . Though the results might have been less satisfactory than hoped for by its promoters , the tour was arranged mainly for educational purposes and few of those on the American side expected to win many matches . Previous tours had tended to involve amateur English sides as opponents , with a low level of competition . In 1897 a schedule was prepared including all of the top county cricket teams , the Oxford and Cambridge University teams , the Marylebone Cricket Club , and two other sides , though only a few of the counties thought it worthwhile to put their best elevens onto the field . Starting on June 7 at Oxford , the tour lasted for two months and ended in late July at The Oval . While it initially aroused some curiosity , many English fans lost interest until John Lester and the Philadelphians met the full Sussex team at Brighton on June 17 . Behind a dominant bowling performance by Bart King , Lester helped to seal the victory with his batting . In the first innings , Lester and King were partners in a fourth @-@ wicket stand of 107 , with Lester top @-@ scoring with 92 . He continued in the second innings with 34 not out .
Despite the excitement surrounding Lester 's and King 's performances , the Americans did not fare well overall . Fifteen matches were played , but only two were won , while the team lost nine and earned a draw in four . The other win came against Warwickshire . During this match at Edgbaston , Lester scored 35 runs in the first innings and 67 in the second . Lester was the best batsmen on the Philadelphian side ; beginning with 72 not out in his first match , he kept up his form all through the tour , scoring 891 runs for an average 37 @.@ 12 . Several counties offered him contracts to play in England .
= = = Tours of England in 1903 and 1908 = = =
John Lester was chosen to captain the Philadelphians in 1903 and 1908 on their tours to England . Against Leicestershire in August 1903 , Lester made his highest score in first @-@ class cricket . In the first innings , he made 126 not out , and this was followed by a respectable 64 in the second innings . His batting on this tour so impressed the critics that he was called the " one batsman ( among the Philadelphians ) who may almost ( be ) described as great " and that he " would soon be one of the greatest men of his day " In his last first @-@ class match on the 1908 tour , Lester posted a score of 34 in the first innings , but was dismissed LBW for nought in the second innings . He did manage to take 4 wickets in the Philadelphians ' loss to Kent .
= = Legacy and later life = =
John Lester helped to lift Philadelphia cricket to the highest levels of international play with his leadership and understanding of the sport . He is one of the few American cricketers noted in Cricket Scores and Biographies , which said that he was " a watchful batsman who could hit well and had plenty of strokes and strong defence . " In 1951 he authored A Century of Philadelphia Cricket , which was a definitive history of the game in the area . Lester was also integral in the foundation of the C.C. Morris Cricket Library when he proposed that cricket , " with a history and literature second to none should be given a permanent home in the United States . " In 1969 he made his final public appearance at a cricket function when the library was opened at Haverford . Lester received his PhD in education from Harvard University in 1902 and for many years was head of the English department at the Hill School Pottstown , Pennsylvania and served as a university professor . He died in 1969 and as a lasting memorial , the pavilion at Cope Field is named in his honor .
= = Teams = =
= = = International = = =
United States of America
= = = USA first @-@ class = = =
Philadelphia
= = = Philadelphia club = = =
Merion
= = Publications = =
Essays of Yesterday and Today . New York : Harcourt , Brace and Company , 1943 .
A Century of Philadelphia Cricket . Philadelphia : University of Pennsylvania Press , 1951 .
= Elizabeth F. Ellet =
Elizabeth Fries Lummis Ellet ( October 18 , 1818 – June 3 , 1877 ) was an American writer , historian and poet . She was the first writer to record the lives of women who contributed to the American Revolutionary War .
Born Elizabeth Fries Lummis , in New York , she published her first book , Poems , Translated and Original , in 1835 . She married the chemist William Henry Ellet and the couple moved to South Carolina . She had published several books and contributed to multiple journals . In 1845 she moved back to New York and took her place in the literary scene there . She was involved with a public scandal involving Edgar Allan Poe and Frances Sargent Osgood and , later , another involving Rufus Wilmot Griswold . Ellet 's most important work , The Women of the American Revolution , was published in 1845 . The three volume book profiled the lives of patriotic women in the early history of the United States . She continued writing until her death in 1877 .
= = Early life = =
Elizabeth Fries Lummis was born in Sodus Point , New York , on October 18 , 1818 . Her mother was Sarah Maxwell ( 1780 – 1849 ) the daughter of American Revolutionary War captain John Maxwell . During the Revolution , John Maxwell was lieutenant of the first company raised in Sussex County , New Jersey , he was promoted to captain , and attached to the Second Regiment Hunterdon County Militia . He was also a captain in Colonel Spencer 's regiment of the Continental Army , from February 7 , 1777 , to April 11 , 1778 . He later joined the army of General George Washington as captain of a company of 100 volunteers known as Maxwell 's Company .
Her father was William Nixon Lummis ( 1775 – 1833 ) , a prominent doctor who studied medicine in Philadelphia under the famous physician Dr. Benjamin Rush . In the early part of 1800 , Dr. Lummis left Philadelphia and purchased the Pulteney estate in Sodus Point , Wayne County , New York . Elizabeth Lummis attended Aurora Female Seminary in Aurora , New York , where she studied , among other subjects , French , German , and Italian . Her first published work , at age 16 , was a translation of Silvio Pellico 's Euphemio of Messina .
= = Career = =
In 1835 , Elizabeth Lummis published her first book , entitled Poems , Translated and Original , which included her tragedy , Teresa Contarini , based on the history of Venice , that was successfully performed in New York and other cities . Around this time she married William Henry Ellet ( 1806 – 1859 ) , a chemist from New York City . He graduated from Columbia College in New York and earned a gold medal for a dissertation on the compounds of cyanogen . The couple moved to Columbia , South Carolina , when he was made professor of chemistry , mineralogy and geology at South Carolina College in 1836 . He also discovered a new and inexpensive method of preparing guncotton , for which the state of South Carolina presented him a service of silver plate .
During this time Ellet published several books . In 1839 she wrote The Characters of Schiller , a critical essay on the writer Friedrich Schiller including her translation of many of his poems . She wrote Scenes in the Life of Joanna of Sicily , a history of the life styles of female nobility , and Rambles about the Country , a lively description of the scenery she had observed in her travels through the United States , in 1840 . She continued writing poems , translations and essays on European literature which she contributed to the American Monthly , the North American Review , the Southern Literary Messenger , the Southern Quarterly Review , and other periodicals . Ellet wrote abundantly in a wide variety of genres .
In 1845 , Ellet left her husband in the south , moving back to New York City where she resumed her place as a member of literary society along with such writers as Margaret Fuller , Anne Lynch Botta , Edgar Allan Poe , Rufus Wilmot Griswold , Anna Cora Mowatt and Frances Sargent Osgood .
= = = Scandal = = =
During this time Ellet was a participant in a notorious scandal involving Edgar Allan Poe and Frances Sargent Osgood , both of whom were married to others . Accounts of the particulars of the scandal and the sequence of events differ . At the time Poe was at the height of his fame , thanks to his work " The Raven " . A number of women in literary society sent him letters , including Ellet and Osgood . Some of the letters sent may have been flirtatious or amorous ones . Ellet also spent time with Poe discussing literary matters . It is possible that Ellet felt herself in competition with Osgood for Poe 's affections . During this time Poe had written several poems to and about Osgood , including " A Valentine " .
On one visit to Poe 's home in January 1846 , Ellet allegedly observed letters from Osgood , shown to her by Poe 's wife Virginia , and subsequently advised Osgood to ask for their return , implying to Osgood that they were an indiscretion . On behalf of Osgood , Margaret Fuller and Anne Lynch Botta asked Poe to return the letters . Poe , angered by their interference , suggested that Ellet had better " look after her own letters " . One such letter , written in German , asked Poe to " call for it at her residence this evening " , a phrase presumably meant to be seductive , though Poe either ignored it or did not understand its meaning . He then gathered up these letters from Ellet and left them at her house . Despite her letters having been returned , Ellet asked her brother " to demand of me the letters " . Her brother , Colonel William Lummis , did not believe that Poe had already returned them and threatened to kill him . In order to defend himself , Poe requested a pistol from Thomas Dunn English , who did not believe that Ellet ever sent Poe any letters .
Osgood 's husband , Samuel Stillman Osgood , threatened to sue Ellet unless she formally apologized . She retracted her statements in a letter to Osgood saying , " The letter shown me by Mrs Poe must have been a forgery created by Poe himself " . She put all the blame on Poe , suggesting the incident was because Poe was " intemperate and subject to acts of lunacy . " The rumor that Poe was insane was spread by Ellet and by other enemies of Poe and eventually reported in newspapers . After Osgood reunited with her husband , the scandal died down . Poe 's sick wife Virginia , however , was deeply affected by the scandal . She had been receiving anonymous letters , possibly from Ellet , which reported her husband 's alleged indiscretions as early as July 1845 . On her deathbed Virginia claimed " Mrs. E. had been her murderer . " As Poe described years later , " I scorned Mrs. E simply because she revolted me , and to this day she has never ceased her anonymous persecutions . " It is believed that Poe wrote the short story " Hop @-@ Frog " as a literary revenge on Ellet and others .
= = = The Women of the American Revolution = = =
Around 1846 , Ellet began a major project in historical writing : to profile the life stories of women who sacrificed for , and were committed to , the American Revolution . She did this by searching out unpublished letters and diaries , and by interviewing descendants of Revolutionary era and frontier women , becoming the first historian of the Revolution to carry out such an effort . She noted the " abundance of materials for the [ masculine ] history of action " and attempted to add balance by telling the feminine side , referring to the founding " mothers " as giving " nurture in the domestic sanctuary of that love of civil liberty which afterwards kindled into a flame and shed light on the world " .
She found so much information about female patriots that the first edition of The Women of the American Revolution ( 1848 ) had to be published in two volumes . These volumes were well received and a third volume of additional material was published in 1850 . Later historians consider these volumes represent her most important work . Ellet also authored Domestic History of the American Revolution summarizing the same material in narrative form , and also published in 1850 .
Ellet told the stories of women from every colony and from all ranks of society , with the exception of African Americans whose role she chose to ignore . Some of the women she wrote about , such as Martha Washington , Abigail Adams , Mercy Otis Warren and Ann Eliza Bleecker , among others , were famous in their own right . She also wrote of the women who were more obscure but equally valuable : the wives of heroes who , in the face of British encroachment , bravely raised children and defended their homes . She wrote , " It is almost impossible now to appreciate the vast influence of woman 's patriotism upon the destinies of the infant republic . "
Anthologist and critic Rufus Wilmot Griswold had aided Ellet in the production of the book and granted her access to the records of the New @-@ York Historical Society , of which he was a member . She did not acknowledge his assistance , angering the vindictive Griswold . In a review Griswold said , " with the assistance of a few gentlemen more familiar than herself with our public and domestic experience , she has made a valuable and interesting work . "
= = = Further work = = =
Now an established and respected author , Ellet went on to write Family Pictures from the Bible in 1849 . In 1850 , she wrote Evenings at Woodlawn , a collection of German legends and traditions and Domestic History of the American Revolution , possibly the only history of the American Revolution told from the perspective of both men and women . From 1851 to 1857 she wrote Watching Spirits , Pioneer Women of the West , Novelettes of the Musicians and Summer Rambles in the West . This book was inspired by a boating trip along the Minnesota River in 1852 . The local town , Eden Prairie , Minnesota , got its name from Ellet and has dedicated a nature trail in her honor .
In 1857 , Ellet published a 600 @-@ page encyclopedia of American home economics entitled The Practical Housekeeper . The guide , which seemed to target middle to upper class readers , was organized into three parts : cooking , housekeeping and pharmaceutical concerns . Its contents included thousands of recipes and advice with references to philosophers , scientists , and ancient civilizations . There were also five hundred wood @-@ engraved illustrations . She wrote in the preface " No complete system of Domestic Economy , within the limits of a convenient manual , has been published in this country . "
Later works included Women Artists in All Ages and Countries ( 1859 ) , the first book of its kind to represent a history of women artists . She wroteThe Queens of American Society ( 1867 ) , and Court Circles of the Republic ( 1869 ) , a look at the social life of eighteen presidents from George Washington to Ulysses S. Grant .
= = Later years = =
In 1850 , Ellet and her husband relocated to New York , where he spent his final years as a chemical consultant for the Manhattan Gas Company .
Ellet became involved with the divorce case between Rufus Griswold and his second wife , Charlotte Myers , in 1852 . Ellet and Ann S. Stephens wrote to Myers telling her not to allow the divorce , as well as to Harriet McCrillis , who intended to marry Griswold after the divorce , to end her relationship with him . After it was granted , Ellet and Stephens continued writing to Myers and persuaded her to repeal the divorce on September 23 , 1853 . On February 24 , 1856 , the appeal went to court , with Ellet and Stephens providing lengthy testimony against Griswold 's character . Neither Griswold nor Myers attended and the appeal was dismissed . When Griswold died in 1857 , Sarah Anna Lewis , a friend and writer , suggested that Ellet had worsened Griswold 's illness and that she " goaded Griswold to his death " .
In 1857 Ellet replaced Ann Stephens as literary editor of the New York Evening Express . Ellet 's husband died two years later in 1859 . She continued to write , and although they had no children , she promoted charities for impoverished women and children by speaking in public to raise funds . An Episcopalian most of her life , she converted to Catholicism in her later years . She died of Bright 's disease in New York City on June 3 , 1877 , and was buried beside her husband at Green @-@ Wood Cemetery in Brooklyn .
= = Legacy = =
Ellet was the first historian to write about the relationship of women to the American Revolution . She felt that women shaped history by their influence , which was done through " sentiment " and " feeling " . This was so hard to define that she stated " History can do it no Justice " . Her book The Women of the American Revolution is still studied .
= = List of works = =
List of works taken from MSU Historic American project .
Euphemio of Messina ( 1834 ) a translation
Poems , Translated and Original including the play Teresa Conarini ( 1835 )
The Characters of Schiller ( 1839 )
Joanna of Sicily ( 1840 )
Rambles about the Country ( 1840 )
The Women of the American Revolution ( 1848 – 50 ) ( 3 volumes )
Evenings at Woodlawn ( 1849 )
Family Pictures from the Bible ( 1849 )
Domestic History of the American Revolution ( 1850 )
Watching Spirits ( 1851 )
Nouvelettes of the Musicians ( 1851 )
Pioneer Women of the West ( 1852 )
Summer Rambles in the West ( 1853 ) ,
The Practical Housekeeper ( 1857 )
Women Artists in All Ages and Countries ( 1859 )
The Queens of American Society ( 1867 )
Court Circles of the Republic ( 1869 )
= Language =
Language is the ability to acquire and use complex systems of communication , particularly the human ability to do so , and a language is any specific example of such a system . The scientific study of language is called linguistics .
Questions concerning the philosophy of language , such as whether words can represent experience , have been debated since Gorgias and Plato in Ancient Greece . Thinkers such as Rousseau have argued that language originated from emotions while others like Kant have held that it originated from rational and logical thought . 20th @-@ century philosophers such as Wittgenstein argued that philosophy is really the study of language . Major figures in linguistics include Ferdinand de Saussure and Noam Chomsky .
Estimates of the number of languages in the world vary between 5 @,@ 000 and 7 @,@ 000 . However , any precise estimate depends on a partly arbitrary distinction between languages and dialects . Natural languages are spoken or signed , but any language can be encoded into secondary media using auditory , visual , or tactile stimuli – for example , in whistling , signed , or braille . This is because human language is modality @-@ independent . Depending on philosophical perspectives regarding the definition of language and meaning , when used as a general concept , " language " may refer to the cognitive ability to learn and use systems of complex communication , or to describe the set of rules that makes up these systems , or the set of utterances that can be produced from those rules . All languages rely on the process of semiosis to relate signs to particular meanings . Oral and sign languages contain a phonological system that governs how symbols are used to form sequences known as words or morphemes , and a syntactic system that governs how words and morphemes are combined to form phrases and utterances .
Human language has the properties of productivity , recursivity , and displacement , and relies entirely on social convention and learning . Its complex structure affords a much wider range of expressions than any known system of animal communication . Language is thought to have originated when early hominins started gradually changing their primate communication systems , acquiring the ability to form a theory of other minds and a shared intentionality . This development is sometimes thought to have coincided with an increase in brain volume , and many linguists see the structures of language as having evolved to serve specific communicative and social functions . Language is processed in many different locations in the human brain , but especially in Broca 's and Wernicke 's areas . Humans acquire language through social interaction in early childhood , and children generally speak fluently when they are approximately three years old . The use of language is deeply entrenched in human culture . Therefore , in addition to its strictly communicative uses , language also has many social and cultural uses , such as signifying group identity , social stratification , as well as social grooming and entertainment .
Languages evolve and diversify over time , and the history of their evolution can be reconstructed by comparing modern languages to determine which traits their ancestral languages must have had in order for the later developmental stages to occur . A group of languages that descend from a common ancestor is known as a language family . The Indo @-@ European family is the most widely spoken and includes languages such as English , Russian , and Hindi ; the Sino @-@ Tibetan family , which includes Mandarin and the other Chinese languages , and Tibetan ; the Afro @-@ Asiatic family , which includes Arabic , Somali , and Hebrew ; the Bantu languages , which include Swahili , and Zulu , and hundreds of other languages spoken throughout Africa ; and the Malayo @-@ Polynesian languages , which include Indonesian , Malay , Tagalog , and hundreds of other languages spoken throughout the Pacific . The languages of the Dravidian family that are spoken mostly in Southern India include Tamil and Telugu . Academic consensus holds that between 50 % and 90 % of languages spoken at the beginning of the 21st century will probably have become extinct by the year 2100 .
= = Definitions = =
The English word language derives ultimately from Proto @-@ Indo @-@ European * dn ̥ ǵʰwéh ₂ s " tongue , speech , language " through Latin lingua , " language ; tongue " , and Old French language . The word is sometimes used to refer to codes , ciphers , and other kinds of artificially constructed communication systems such as formally defined computer languages used for computer programming . Unlike conventional human languages , a formal language in this sense is a system of signs for encoding and decoding information . This article specifically concerns the properties of natural human language as it is studied in the discipline of linguistics .
As an object of linguistic study , " language " has two primary meanings : an abstract concept , and a specific linguistic system , e.g. " French " . The Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure , who defined the modern discipline of linguistics , first explicitly formulated the distinction using the French word langage for language as a concept , langue as a specific instance of a language system , and parole for the concrete usage of speech in a particular language .
When speaking of language as a general concept , definitions can be used which stress different aspects of the phenomenon . These definitions also entail different approaches and understandings of language , and they inform different and often incompatible schools of linguistic theory . Debates about the nature and origin of language go back to the ancient world . Greek philosophers such as Gorgias and Plato debated the relation between words , concepts and reality . Gorgias argued that language could represent neither the objective experience nor human experience , and that communication and truth were therefore impossible . Plato maintained that communication is possible because language represents ideas and concepts that exist independently of , and prior to , language .
During the Enlightenment and its debates about human origins , it became fashionable to speculate about the origin of language . Thinkers such as Rousseau and Herder argued that language had originated in the instinctive expression of emotions , and that it was originally closer to music and poetry than to the logical expression of rational thought . Rationalist philosophers such as Kant and Descartes held the opposite view . Around the turn of the 20th century , thinkers began to wonder about the role of language in shaping our experiences of the world – asking whether language simply reflects the objective structure of the world , or whether it creates concepts that it in turn imposes on our experience of the objective world . This led to the question of whether philosophical problems are really firstly linguistic problems . The resurgence of the view that language plays a significant role in the creation and circulation of concepts , and that the study of philosophy is essentially the study of language , is associated with what has been called the linguistic turn and philosophers such as Wittgenstein in 20th @-@ century philosophy . These debates about language in relation to meaning and reference , cognition and consciousness remain active today .
= = = Mental faculty , organ or instinct = = =
One definition sees language primarily as the mental faculty that allows humans to undertake linguistic behaviour : to learn languages and to produce and understand utterances . This definition stresses the universality of language to all humans , and it emphasizes the biological basis for the human capacity for language as a unique development of the human brain . Proponents of the view that the drive to language acquisition is innate in humans argue that this is supported by the fact that all cognitively normal children raised in an environment where language is accessible will acquire language without formal instruction . Languages may even develop spontaneously in environments where people live or grow up together without a common language ; for example , creole languages and spontaneously developed sign languages such as Nicaraguan Sign Language . This view , which can be traced back to the philosophers Kant and Descartes , understands language to be largely innate , for example , in Chomsky 's theory of Universal Grammar , or American philosopher Jerry Fodor 's extreme innatist theory . These kinds of definitions are often applied in studies of language within a cognitive science framework and in neurolinguistics .
= = = Formal symbolic system = = =
Another definition sees language as a formal system of signs governed by grammatical rules of combination to communicate meaning . This definition stresses that human languages can be described as closed structural systems consisting of rules that relate particular signs to particular meanings . This structuralist view of language was first introduced by Ferdinand de Saussure , and his structuralism remains foundational for many approaches to language .
Some proponents of Saussure 's view of language have advocated a formal approach which studies language structure by identifying its basic elements and then by presenting a formal account of the rules according to which the elements combine in order to form words and sentences . The main proponent of such a theory is Noam Chomsky , the originator of the generative theory of grammar , who has defined language as the construction of sentences that can be generated using transformational grammars . Chomsky considers these rules to be an innate feature of the human mind and to constitute the rudiments of what language is . By way of contrast , such transformational grammars are also commonly used to provide formal definitions of language are commonly used in formal logic , in formal theories of grammar , and in applied computational linguistics . In the philosophy of language , the view of linguistic meaning as residing in the logical relations between propositions and reality was developed by philosophers such as Alfred Tarski , Bertrand Russell , and other formal logicians .
= = = Tool for communication = = =
Yet another definition sees language as a system of communication that enables humans to exchange verbal or symbolic utterances . This definition stresses the social functions of language and the fact that humans use it to express themselves and to manipulate objects in their environment . Functional theories of grammar explain grammatical structures by their communicative functions , and understand the grammatical structures of language to be the result of an adaptive process by which grammar was " tailored " to serve the communicative needs of its users .
This view of language is associated with the study of language in pragmatic , cognitive , and interactive frameworks , as well as in sociolinguistics and linguistic anthropology . Functionalist theories tend to study grammar as dynamic phenomena , as structures that are always in the process of changing as they are employed by their speakers . This view places importance on the study of linguistic typology , or the classification of languages according to structural features , as it can be shown that processes of grammaticalization tend to follow trajectories that are partly dependent on typology . In the philosophy of language , the view of pragmatics as being central to language and meaning is often associated with Wittgenstein 's later works and with ordinary language philosophers such as J. L. Austin , Paul Grice , John Searle , and W. O. Quine .
= = = Unique status of human language = = =
Human language is unique in comparison to other forms of communication , such as those used by non @-@ human animals . Communication systems used by other animals such as bees or apes are closed systems that consist of a finite , usually very limited , number of possible ideas that can be expressed .
In contrast , human language is open @-@ ended and productive , meaning that it allows humans to produce a vast range of utterances from a finite set of elements , and to create new words and sentences . This is possible because human language is based on a dual code , in which a finite number of elements which are meaningless in themselves ( e.g. sounds , letters or gestures ) can be combined to form an almost infinite number of larger units of meaning ( words and sentences ) . Furthermore , the symbols and grammatical rules of any particular language are largely arbitrary , so that the system can only be acquired through social interaction . The known systems of communication used by animals , on the other hand , can only express a finite number of utterances that are mostly genetically determined .
Several species of animals have proved to be able to acquire forms of communication through social learning : for instance a bonobo named Kanzi learned to express itself using a set of symbolic lexigrams . Similarly , many species of birds and whales learn their songs by imitating other members of their species . However , while some animals may acquire large numbers of words and symbols , none have been able to learn as many different signs as are generally known by an average 4 year old human , nor have any acquired anything resembling the complex grammar of human language .
Human languages also differ from animal communication systems in that they employ grammatical and semantic categories , such as noun and verb , present and past , which may be used to express exceedingly complex meanings . Human language is also unique in having the property of recursivity : for example , a noun phrase can contain another noun phrase ( as in " [ [ the chimpanzee ] ' s lips ] " ) or a clause can contain another clause ( as in " [ I see [ the dog is running ] ] " ) . Human language is also the only known natural communication system whose adaptability may be referred to as modality independent . This means that it can be used not only for communication through one channel or medium , but through several . For example , spoken language uses the auditive modality , whereas sign languages and writing use the visual modality , and braille writing uses the tactile modality .
Human language is also unique in being able to refer to abstract concepts and to imagined or hypothetical events as well as events that took place in the past or may happen in the future . This ability to refer to events that are not at the same time or place as the speech event is called displacement , and while some animal communication systems can use displacement ( such as the communication of bees that can communicate the location of sources of nectar that are out of sight ) , the degree to which it is used in human language is also considered unique .
= = Origin = =
Theories about the origin of language differ in regard to their basic assumptions about what language is . Some theories are based on the idea that language is so complex that one cannot imagine it simply appearing from nothing in its final form , but that it must have evolved from earlier pre @-@ linguistic systems among our pre @-@ human ancestors . These theories can be called continuity @-@ based theories . The opposite viewpoint is that language is such a unique human trait that it cannot be compared to anything found among non @-@ humans and that it must therefore have appeared suddenly in the transition from pre @-@ hominids to early man . These theories can be defined as discontinuity @-@ based . Similarly , theories based on Chomsky 's generative view of language see language mostly as an innate faculty that is largely genetically encoded , whereas functionalist theories see it as a system that is largely cultural , learned through social interaction .
The only prominent proponent of a discontinuity @-@ based theory of human language origins is linguist and philosopher Noam Chomsky . Chomsky proposes that " some random mutation took place , maybe after some strange cosmic ray shower , and it reorganized the brain , implanting a language organ in an otherwise primate brain . " Though cautioning against taking this story too literally , Chomsky insists that " it may be closer to reality than many other fairy tales that are told about evolutionary processes , including language . "
Continuity @-@ based theories are held by a majority of scholars , but they vary in how they envision this development . Those who see language as being mostly innate , for example psychologist Steven Pinker , hold the precedents to be animal cognition , whereas those who see language as a socially learned tool of communication , such as psychologist Michael Tomasello , see it as having developed from animal communication in primates : either gestural or vocal communication to assist in cooperation . Other continuity @-@ based models see language as having developed from music , a view already espoused by Rousseau , Herder , Humboldt , and Charles Darwin . A prominent proponent of this view is archaeologist Steven Mithen . Stephen Anderson states that the age of spoken languages is estimated at 60 @,@ 000 to 100 @,@ 000 years and that :
Researchers on the evolutionary origin of language generally find it plausible to suggest that language was invented only once , and that all modern spoken
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and upon the firing volley from the town 's ordnance and musketeers , the besieging army signalled a second attempt to storm the town . The town came under barrage from the enemy batteries , and scaling ladders were brought against the earthen fortifications . Once again the attack was repelled by the town 's defenders , and a parley request from Maurice in the immediate aftermath was turned down for fear of treachery .
The town was further reinforced with 300 sailors the next day , before another attack on the town was launched on 29 May . A few ships had been sent as a decoy to split the Royalist forces , but only succeeded in sending a small detachment of cavalry and foot away , though they quickly returned when it was clear that the ships were not going to land . Around midday , the batteries began to heavily bombard the town , followed by a ground attack which managed to breach the fortifications . After eight hours of fighting , the Parliamentarians rebuffed the attack . Fourteen more ships arrived two days later , bringing further provisions and ammunition , and news that a relieving force would be sent to aid the town . By this stage , Maurice realised that he was unlikely to be able to capture the town , and so was determined to destroy it instead ; fires were set on 1 June and then no attacks other than light bombardments were made until 11 June , when heavier , red @-@ hot shot was fired to try and set more fires in the town .
Despite orders to lay siege to the King 's headquarters at Oxford , Robert Devereux , 3rd Earl of Essex opted to attempt to reclaim the south @-@ west for the Parliamentarians , first retaking Weymouth , and then marching towards Lyme Regis . Hearing of the fall of Weymouth , and the impending arrival of the Earl of Essex 's relieving army , Maurice abandoned his siege during the night of 14 June . The 17th @-@ century historian Edward Hyde suggested that Maurice had suffered " some loss of reputation , for having lain so long with such a strength before so vile and untenable a place , without reducing it . "
= = Aftermath = =
Maurice retreated to Exeter , while the Earl of Essex continued down into Devon and Cornwall , after sending Blake to capture Taunton . Essex 's campaign failed , suffering a total defeat at the Battle of Lostwithiel in early September 1644 . His remaining forces retreated back to Dorset , leaving only Plymouth , Lyme Regis and Taunton under Parliamentarian control in the south @-@ west . The Earl of Warwick sent a letter to Parliament , detailing the hardships endured by the town during the siege , and requesting " some speedy course will be taken for their relief " . Parliament voted to grant the town £ 1 @,@ 000 a year and that unconditional compensation should be paid to residents who had suffered losses in the siege . Lyme maintained a garrison through the war , finally disbanding in July 1647 .
= Ottoman cruiser Peyk @-@ i Şevket =
Peyk @-@ i Şevket was a torpedo cruiser of the Ottoman Navy , built in Germany in 1906 – 07 , the lead ship of her class , which included one other vessel . She was built by the Germaniawerft shipyard in Germany in 1906 – 07 , and was delivered to the Ottoman Navy in November 1907 . The ship 's primary armament consisted of three 450 mm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes and a pair of 105 mm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) guns , and she was capable of a top speed of 21 knots ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) . A major reconstruction in the late 1930s revised her armament and rebuilt her bow and superstructure .
The ship was interned at British @-@ controlled Suez at the start of the Italo @-@ Turkish War of 1911 – 12 , and as a result she saw no action during the conflict . During the First Balkan War in 1913 , she bombarded Bulgarian troops threatening the Ottoman capital at Constantinople . Peyk @-@ i Şevket was torpedoed by the British submarine HMS E11 in August 1915 during the Dardanelles Campaign of World War I. Repairs lasted until 1917 , and in the final year of the war she served in the Black Sea , escorting troop ships to the Caucasus . Renamed Peyk in 1923 , the ship continued in service with the Turkish Navy following the collapse of the Ottoman Empire until 1944 , when she was decommissioned . She was broken up for scrap in 1953 – 54 .
= = Design = =
Peyk @-@ i Şevket , classified as a torpedo cruiser by the Ottoman Navy , was also sometimes referred to as a torpedo gunboat . She was 80 m ( 260 ft ) long , with a beam of 8 @.@ 4 m ( 28 ft ) and a draft of 2 @.@ 5 m ( 8 ft 2 in ) . She displaced 775 t ( 763 long tons ; 854 short tons ) while on sea trials . The ship was powered by a pair of vertical triple @-@ expansion engines each driving a screw propeller . The engines were rated at 5 @,@ 100 indicated horsepower ( 3 @,@ 800 kW ) for a top speed of 21 knots ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) ; Peyk @-@ i Şevket had a cruising radius of 3 @,@ 240 nautical miles ( 6 @,@ 000 km ; 3 @,@ 730 mi ) . Her crew numbered 105 officers and enlisted men .
Peyk @-@ i Şevket 's primary offensive armament was her three 450 mm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes . One was mounted in the bow , above water , and the other two were in deck @-@ mounted swivel launchers amidships . She was armed with a pair of 105 mm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) guns that were placed in shielded single mounts on the forecastle and quarterdeck . She also carried six 57 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) guns , four of which were mounted in sponsons , and a pair of 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) guns . She had no armor protection .
= = Service history = =
Peyk @-@ i Şevket was ordered on 18 January 1903 and laid down down in February 1906 at the Germaniawerft shipyard in Kiel , Germany . She was launched on 15 November of that year , and completed in 1907 . After completing sea trials , she was transferred to the Ottoman Navy , arriving in Constantinople on 13 November , where she was formally commissioned into the Ottoman fleet . Rauf Orbay took command of the ship in 1908 , and held the position until 1911 . In 1909 , she and her sister participated in the first fleet maneuver conducted by the Ottoman Navy in twenty years . At the outbreak of the Italo @-@ Turkish War in September 1911 , Peyk @-@ i Şevket was in the Red Sea ; on 2 October , she encountered the Italian torpedo cruiser Aretusa and the gunboat Volturno off Al Hudaydah . The two Italian vessels forced Peyk @-@ i Şevket to flee into the port , bombarded the dock facilities , and then withdrew . Peyk @-@ i Şevket was later interned for the duration of the war in British @-@ controlled Suez . In March 1913 during the First Balkan War , the ship was sent to the Black Sea to support the Çatalca garrison , which was under renewed attacks by the Bulgarian army during the Second Battle of Çatalca . After heavy bombardment from the Ottoman fleet , including Peyk @-@ i Şevket , the Bulgarians were forced to retreat on 30 March .
On 3 August 1914 , Peyk @-@ i Şevket steamed to Constantinople , where she was scheduled to begin a lengthy overhaul . But due to the growing tensions in the region due to the outbreak of World War I in Europe , the ship was only painted and loaded with ammunition , fuel , and stores . On 20 November , Peyk @-@ i Şevket and the battlecruiser Yavuz Sultan Selim , formerly the German Goeben , for a patrol off the Bosporus . In December , the ship joined Yavuz Sultan Selim , the ex @-@ German light cruiser Midilli , and her sister Berk @-@ i Satvet to escort a convoy of four troop transports to Rize . On 22 June 1915 , Peyk @-@ i Şevket was nearly torpedoed by the British submarine HMS E12 in the Sea of Marmara while she was transporting ammunition to the Ottoman garrison at Çanakkale . Two months later , HMS E11 successfully torpedoed the ship on 6 August , causing serious damage .
The ship returned to service by 1917 , and as of July 1918 , the ship was back in service , being used as an escort for troopships between Constantinople and the Caucasus . She was decommissioned in the final weeks of the war , on 30 October 1918 , and laid up in Constantinople . On 30 November , the Ottoman Empire signed the Armistice of Mudros with the Entente powers , which concluded the conflict .
The ship was renamed Peyk in 1923 following the end of the Turkish War of Independence , which saw the Republic of Turkey replace the old Ottoman Empire . At the time , the ship was one of a handful of major warships still in active service , after more than a decade of near continuous war for the Turkish fleet . From 1925 to 1927 , she was modernized at the Gölcük Naval Shipyard and was recommissioned in 1927 . She was rebuilt in 1936 – 38 and incorporated substantial improvements . Her stem was replaced and her superstructure was rebuilt . The old gun armament was replaced with a pair of 88 mm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) 45 @-@ caliber guns and four 37 mm 40 @-@ caliber guns . The ship continued in service until 1944 , when she was stricken from the naval register . The ship was laid up in Izmit and broken up between 1953 and 1954 at the Gölcük shipyard .
= Virgin Atlantic Little Red =
Virgin Atlantic Little Red ( also referred to as Virgin Little Red and Little Red ) was a British airline subsidiary owned by Virgin Atlantic . It was created in 2012 as a way to provide competition for aviation giant British Airways ( BA ) on UK domestic mainland flights to Aberdeen , Edinburgh and Manchester from London Heathrow Airport .
During its operation , the airline operated four Airbus A320s wet leased from Irish airline Aer Lingus and served a network of four domestic destinations . The airline ceased operations in 2015 following low passenger numbers .
= = History = =
In 2012 , British Airways took over British Midland International ( BMI ) which gave them a monopoly on UK mainland flights from Heathrow . In order for the deal to be completed , the European Union Competition Commissioner decreed that BA would have to give up 14 of BMI 's landing slots at Heathrow to comply with EU competition regulations . 12 of these slots were set aside for domestic usage , which were bought by Virgin Atlantic after they outbid Aer Lingus for the required British domestic operating licence . Virgin announced that they would set up Virgin Atlantic Little Red as a subsidiary to use these slots to cover domestic UK mainland routes as Aer Lingus already provided competition for BA on flights to Northern Ireland from Heathrow . Little Red was later revealed to be operated on a wet @-@ lease by Aer Lingus whereby the planes would be operated by Aer Lingus but would bear Virgin Atlantic livery . The pilots would be employed by Aer Lingus , with cabin crew supplied by McGinley Aviation . The cabin crew would wear Virgin Little Red uniforms and had training from Virgin , despite the fact that airline had not previously operated narrow @-@ body aircraft .
Virgin announced that initially the airline would operate four daily flights between London Heathrow Airport and Manchester Airport , six daily flights between Heathrow and Edinburgh Airport , and three daily flights between Heathrow and Aberdeen Airport . The airline brand made its first flight on 31 March 2013 , flying from Manchester to Heathrow .
The new service was launched in 2013 with owner Sir Richard Branson stating his intent to compete with BA with " Virgin 's rock and roll spirit " and to allow Virgin Atlantic 's long haul passengers to connect to the rest of the UK using Virgin . In its first six months of operation , Little Red transported 250 @,@ 000 passengers . Despite Branson 's aim and a rise in passenger numbers during the first few months of Little Red 's existence , the majority of Little Red 's passengers were eventually using it for domestic flights only which led to flights often departing with only a third of seats sold . The Civil Aviation Authority published figures that revealed that Little Red had the worst load figures of any airline in aviation at the time with 37 @.@ 6 % of passenger seats occupied . International Airlines Group CEO , Willie Walsh had criticised Little Red calling it a " mistake " and stated " You cannot make money flying aircraft that are less than half full . "
= = Closure = =
Virgin had claimed that they were prepared to take losses on Little Red , estimated to be up to £ 3 million a week , in order to wait for an expansion in brand awareness . Virgin then stated that losses on Little Red would be covered by Virgin Atlantic 's transatlantic routes . Despite this , as a result of the low passenger numbers in October 2014 , it was announced that Little Red would cease to operate from September 2015 . This was attributed to BA 's dominance of the UK domestic market and Heathrow 's restrictions of the usage of the small number of slots available . The slot limitation issue had been mentioned at Little Red 's foundation in that the slots to Scottish airports could only be used to fly to Edinburgh and Aberdeen . It was also claimed in the media that passengers preferred to use low @-@ cost carriers such as EasyJet to fly to and from other London airports aside of Heathrow for domestic travel owing to pricing .
Little Red 's flights to Manchester ended in March 2015 with the final flights to Edinburgh and Aberdeen departing on 26 September 2015 . The planes were returned for Aer Lingus ' sole use in the Republic of Ireland following the final passenger fights of Little Red . After the closure of Little Red , all but three of the Heathrow slots were returned to BA and adsorbed back into their operation , thus granting them a monopoly on UK mainland domestic flights at Heathrow for the first time since British Midland Airways ( as BMI were named at the time ) moved into Heathrow in 1982 . However this was dependent on another airline not being willing to take the place of Little Red in running domestic flights from Heathrow . Virgin leased out the three slots it retained .
= = Fleet = =
During its operation , Virgin Atlantic Little Red 's fleet consisted of four Airbus A320s wet leased from Aer Lingus under a three @-@ year contract . The aircraft had 29 rows of seating with a 3 – 3 configuration , for a total of 174 seats . The fleet was painted with Virgin Atlantic livery with future plans to eventually repaint them with Little Red livery . However , due to the closure of operations , this rebrand of the planes never occurred and they retained their original livery .
There was consideration that Aer Lingus would take over the Little Red routes under their own brand with the Little Red fleet repainted . However they declined to do this stating that they wanted more flexibility with the returned aircraft to support their current fleet and operation .
= = Destinations = =
During its operation , Virgin Atlantic Little Red operated to four destinations in the United Kingdom .
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= Creid =
Creid ( Irish pronunciation : [ kɾʲɛdʲ ] , meaning " Believe " ) is the arranged soundtrack to Square 's role @-@ playing video game Xenogears . It was written by the game 's composer Yasunori Mitsuda and performed by a musical ensemble dubbed Millennial Fair . It was released on April 22 , 1998 in Japan by DigiCube , and re @-@ released by Square Enix on June 29 , 2005 . Comprising ten tracks arranged from the Xenogears Original Soundtrack , the album is mostly done in Irish or Celtic music style , with minor influences of Japanese rock according to Mitsuda . Artists from Japan and Ireland were recruited for the project . Four of the five vocal tracks on the album were written by Junko Kudo and sung by Tetsuko Honma , while the title track " Creid " was written by Mitsuda and performed by Eimear Quinn .
The album was well received by critics , who praised both the originality of the concept as well as the execution and track selection . The work on the album inspired Mitsuda to bring Tomohiko Kira , the albums 's guitarist , back to have him perform in Chrono Cross ; this would eventually result in the latter game 's ending song " Radical Dreamers ~ Jewel which Cannot be Stolen ~ " .
= = Creation = =
Xenogears was Yasunori Mitsuda 's first major solo work , as his previous soundtracks were collaborations with other composers with the exception of the score to Radical Dreamers : Nusumenai Hōseki , which never saw an album release . According to Mitsuda , the music of Xenogears belongs to the traditional music genre . Though he first described it as stemming from " a world of [ his ] own imagining " rather than any specific country , he has also claimed a strong Irish or Celtic music influence . His musical approach for the original soundtrack was to insert Celtic influences into " easy @-@ to @-@ listen @-@ to " pop tracks rather than making either " dense " Celtic music or simple background music . For Creid , he expanded on this theme to create an album of arranged Xenogears music with a more prominent Celtic style . The album contains a mixture of vocal and instrumental tracks , and combines Japanese and Celtic music together in its pieces . The album 's title refers to two ideas , with one being " a message to those who feel they have lost sight of their ambitions for the flood of information this era surrounds us with " and the other an affirmation to himself that Mitsuda had " rediscovered [ his ] own path " . Mitsuda felt that with this album , he had " discovered the precise mode of musical expression [ he ] was seeking within " himself and " given form to the belief within [ his ] heart " .
In addition to Japanese musicians , several Irish artists contributed to Creid , including uilleann piper Davy Spillane — formerly of Moving Hearts and Riverdance — and Máire Breatnach , who had previously played fiddle on another Square album , Final Fantasy IV Celtic Moon . Mitsuda also asked guitarist Tomohiko Kira and singer Yoko Ueno to appear to the album after an acquaintance introduced him to them . Hidenobu " KALTA " Ootsuki worked on the album as an arranger and felt his work was made easier by his familiarity with Mitsuda 's music — Creid was his second arrangement project with Mitsuda , after Chrono Trigger Arranged Version : The Brink of Time , which he had worked on three years before . According to Ootsuki , Mitsuda and he were complementary in style , which resulted in an album leaving a lot of space and freedom for the listeners ' imagination . He felt that , since Chrono Trigger , Mitsuda 's musical style had changed to use less " strong " notes and include more sophistication ; upon hearing the Xenogears tracks he " literally " " couldn 't wait " to arrange them . Mitsuda has described their collaborative style as that he would first create the " basic backbone " of the song and form the idea of how he wanted the song " to turn out " , then take the result to Ootsuki for them to arrange together . The end result would then be changed in the process of recording , as " what sounds good on a synth module doesn 't always sound good on live instruments " , and occasionally the recording artists would " ad @-@ lib " parts that would make it into the final product . Mitsuda generally also chose the specific percussion instruments to be used while recording , rather than beforehand ; he feels that " as long as the final product turns out to be like what I want it to be , the process doesn 't really matter too much " . As working with the other artists gave him a sense of celebration , Mitsuda named the " imaginary band " of performers Millennial Fair and credited them as such in the album .
Creid was released by DigiCube on April 22 , 1998 and re @-@ released by Square Enix on June 29 , 2005 . The release date was only seven weeks after that of the original soundtrack album and ten after the publication of the game itself . Its ten tracks cover a duration of 49 : 01 . " Stars of Tears " and " Small Two of Pieces ~ Screeching Shards ~ " from the original soundtrack appear on the album as " Two Wings " and " Möbius " , respectively , while the other eight tracks keep the same titles . " Stars of Tears " , although included on the original album , did not appear in the game , as the scene it was to be played in , an opening cutscene to the game , was eliminated during development . The album features five vocal tracks and five instrumental tracks . Creid was the last album that Mitsuda worked on as an employee of Square ; three months after its release , in July 1998 , he resigned to work as a freelance artist and formed Procyon Studio to produce his work , though he continued to do work for Square such as the soundtrack to Chrono Cross the following year .
The main lyricist , Junko Kudo , wrote the lyrics to four of the five vocal tracks and had no previous experience with video game @-@ related projects ; she was surprised by the length of the game 's script when she asked to look at it . She had never met Mitsuda before she was asked to write the lyrics . Mitsuda first heard her work in a song by Mimori Yusa on Yusa 's 1988 album Hitomi Suishō , and describes himself as being very moved by the lyrics and becaomming a big fan of Kudo 's work . Although Mitsuda has said that he is generally not confident in his personal skills at writing lyrics , he wrote those of the title track , which were then translated from Japanese to Gaelic for the recording . Celtic singer Joanne Hogg of the band Iona , who was the singer from the original soundtrack , did not reprise her role in Creid . Instead , Tetsuko Honma sang the four tracks written by Kudo , while Eimear Quinn sang " Creid " .
= = Reception and legacy = =
Creid was well received by reviewers such as Patrick Gann of RPGFan , who claimed that every track on the album was " amazing " and held the work to be Yasunori Mitsuda 's best . He especially applauded the " diverse multitude of instruments " and the fiddle playing of Máire Breatnach . Critics from Square Enix Music Online were also approving of the album , citing the album 's " real emotion " and " extremely enchanting themes " , with one reviewer naming it " one of the best arranged albums ever " . Another reviewer felt that , though it was in his opinion one of Mitsuda 's best works , some of the vocal performances such as " Two Wings " and " Spring Lullaby " held the album back .
RPGamer praised the album for its uniqueness and for " break [ ing ] away from the traditional ' arranged versions ' of RPG soundtracks " . They termed the songs " beautiful and moving " and especially praised the vocals as being an excellent mix of Japanese and Celtic influences . Elliot Guisinger of the site , however , in his review of the album cited the vocals as a weaker spot in what he called " the blueprint after which all future arrange albums should be modeled " . Calling the album " a dream come true " , he noted his disappointment that singer Joanne Hogg did not return from the original soundtrack . Eric Bowling of Soundtrack Central was also enthusiastic about the album , calling it " a turning point in arranged soundtracks " and " simply beyond words to describe " . He noted " Lahan " as symbolizing the album as a whole , calling it a " coming together " of " diverse instruments and people " to create an energetic work of art .
Impressed with Tomohiko Kira 's guitar playing , Mitsuda laid out plans after Creid to have him perform in Chrono Cross , resulting in the latter game 's ending song " Radical Dreamers ~ Jewel which Cannot be Stolen ~ " . During their stay in Ireland , Mitsuda and the Creid album coordinator attended a live set of the folk band Lúnasa in a pub . As Mitsuda liked the concert , the coordinator encouraged the Irish band to do a Japanese live tour . No other Xenogears album has been produced by Square Enix after Creid , but an officially licensed tribute album titled Xenogears Light : An Arranged Album was published in limited quantities by the fan group OneUp Studios in 2005 . The album features 20 tracks arranged from the Xenogears score and performed with acoustic instruments , such as piano , flute , guitar , and violin . An unofficial album of remixes titled Humans + Gears was produced as a digital album by OverClocked Remix on October 19 , 2009 consisting of 33 tracks on two " discs " . While Creid is the only album released by the ensemble dubbed " Millennial Fair " , Mitsuda said in 2002 that he would like to try bringing back the formation , in some way , for another project . In February 2011 , Square Enix released Myth : The Xenogears Orchestral Album , a second arranged album of music from the game , in an orchestral style .
= = Track listing = =
All music composed by Yasunori Mitsuda .
= = Personnel = =
All information is taken from the soundtrack 's liner notes .
Yasunori Mitsuda – composer , producer , arranger , keyboards , programming
Millennial Fair
Tetsuko " Techie " Honma – vocal on " Two Wings " , " Stairs of Light " , " Spring Lullaby " , and " Möbius "
Eimear Quinn – vocal on " Creid "
Yoko Ueno – chorus
Kimiko Komatsu – chorus
Hitoshi Watanabe – bass
HATA ( Hiroshi Hata ) – electric guitar , acoustic guitar , electric sitar
Tomohiko Kira – bouzouki , electric guitar
Davy Spillane – uilleann pipes , low whistle
Laurie Kaszas – tin whistle
Kinya Sogawa – shakuhachi , shinobue
Haruo Kondo – bag pipes
Maria Kalaniemi – accordion
Anne @-@ Marie O 'Farrell – Celtic harp
Laoise Kelly – Celtic harp
Máire Breatnach – fiddle
Tamao Fujii – percussion
KALTA ( Hidenobu Ootsuki ) – co @-@ arranger , drums , programming
= Hallingskeid Station =
Hallingskeid Station ( Norwegian : Hallingskeid stasjon ) is a train station on the Bergensbanen line in the municipality of Ulvik in Hordaland county , Norway . Located at an elevation of 1 @,@ 110 meters ( 3 @,@ 640 ft ) above mean sea level , the station is situated inside a snow tunnel . It opened along with the central section of the line on 10 June 1908 and remained as a staffed station until 1982 . It is located on the Hardangervidda plateau in an area without population or road access . The station therefore serves trekkers and mountaineers . Only some of the Norwegian State Railways ( NSB ) trains stop at the station .
The original station building was designed by Paul Due , who used the same architectural plan for four other mountain stations on the line . The snow tunnel has caught fire five times . The fires in 1948 , 1953 and 2008 only caused minor damage to the tunnel itself . The 1960 fire burned @-@ down the tunnel , the station building and most of the station area . The last fire , in 2011 , had a Class 73 train caught in the tunnel ; both it and the tunnel were damaged beyond repair .
= = History = =
The station was opened on 10 June 1908 , along with the rest of the central portion of the Bergen Line . The station building was of the Mountain Station Variant 1 type , designed by Paul Due . This made it identical to Mjølfjell Station , and with only slight variations to Haugastøl Station , Finse Station and Myrdal Station . During construction , NSB built several buildings for their staff . Two of the houses and an assembly building have been preserved . They were built in 1900 and represent an example of buildings from the construction time . One is partially built in stone , partially in wood , while the other two are entirely in wood . All are now used as cabins . The sick ward for the navvys was bought by Kari Maristuen in 1909 converted to a hotel , named Fjellstova .
Because of the harsh winter conditions , the station area was gradually built with snow tunnels to keep the snow off the tracks . This included the platforms and most of the passing loop at the station . In 1914 – 15 , the station serviced 398 passengers , and in 1919 – 20 , it serviced 684 passengers , both times making it the least used station on the line . In 1948 , the western part of the snow tunnel caught fire , and although it spread to the station building , it was quickly put out by the staff . In 1953 , there was again a fire in the tunnel .
= = = 1960 fire = = =
In 1960 , there was a major fire which burned down most of the station area . On 22 October , two boys were playing with matches and had lit some wood shavings in the tunnel , about 100 meters ( 330 ft ) from the station building . The tunnel quickly caught on fire , which spread towards the other buildings . The fire was discovered by Station Master Mons Almenningen , who immediately notified Bergen Station , Myrdal Station , and Finse Station . The morning expresses in both directions were en route to Hallingskeid , with the east @-@ bound train about half an hour away . It was forced to turn around at Myrdal , and the passengers were bused from Voss Station across the mountain . A train with a fire engine containing 20 @,@ 000 litres ( 4 @,@ 400 imp gal ; 5 @,@ 300 US gal ) of water was sent from Myrdal and a fire engine was dispatched from Finse , but the fire spread quickly and within an hour the station building , the guard house and 500 meters ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) of tunnel had burnt down . The incident occurred around noon . By 12 : 30 the next day , when the morning express passed the station , 500 meters ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) of track had been replaced . Work had been done by 100 men in two shifts around the clock . Four families with a total of fourteen people lost their houses in the fire . The fire caused the hotel to burn down , and it was never rebuilt . A new station building opened in 1970 was built on the same foundation as the old .
The section past the station took electric traction into use on 7 December 1964 . The station received automatic train control from 23 September 1982 , and starting on 1 October 1982 , the station became unmanned . On 2 October 2008 , there was a fire in a 100 @-@ meter ( 330 ft ) long snow tunnel 2 kilometers ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) west of Hallingskeid . Traffic was stopped and a combination of a fire train and helicopter put out the fire . However , the track and overhead lines past the station were destroyed . The line re @-@ opened on 4 October .
= = = 2011 fire = = =
A fire started in the snow tunnel at Hallingskeid on 16 June 2011 . It was caused by sparks from welding , which had been completed at 07 : 45 . A freight train passed through the station at 09 : 16 and the welders left the station at 09 : 30 . The passenger trains which caught on fire , pass through the station at 10 : 06 . As the station is unmanned , there was no prior warning of the fire until the driver saw it from the cab just as the train entered the tunnel . At nearly the same instance , he reached the point of the line were the fire had caused the power to cut . He immediately applied the emergency brake , which allowed the train to stop 5 to 10 meters ( 16 to 33 ft ) from the fire . Because the train had no power , it was not possible to reverse out . The 257 passengers were then immediately evacuated , which took 15 to 20 minutes , and included two people in a wheelchair . Passengers were told to not bring any possessions with them , and many passengers lost valuables , such as laptop computers . All personnel acted according to regulations and no @-@ one was injured in the accident . According to the motorman , had he not lost the power , he would have continued through the tunnel , as the fire was just beginning .
The Norwegian Civil Defence , who did the main bulk of the rescue work , stated that they had been planning on an exercise which would have been identical to the accident , with a train stuck in exactly the same tunnel while it was on fire . The rescue work was difficult , as there is no road connection to the area and all materials have to be transported to the area by air . In addition , the mobile telephone and radio network was out . Representatives stated that it would have been easier if they could have used the GSM @-@ R network operated by the railway , which was functioning . The train , which consisted of a twin Class 73 electric multiple unit , burnt up and was destroyed in the fire . These cost NOK 100 million each . The fire forced the temporary closure of the Bergen Line , which was reopened in the evening on 23 June . The cost of the accident was NOK 250 million , of which most was for the unit which was written off .
According to the Accident Investigation Board Norway , the rescue work was hampered by , among other things : lack of fire crew at Voss to drive the fire engine , a defective helicopter bucket , and a three @-@ hour delay from the fire to a rail carriage with water was sent from Ål . Also , the fire carriage from Voss arrived six hours after the accident was reported . Concerns were raised regarding the fire hazards of wooden snow tunnels , and the National Rail Administration admitted that they should be made of a more fire @-@ proof material , such as concrete or steel . Following the accident , the National Rail Administration decided that all welding would have to be monitored for several hours after completion of the work .
= = Facilities and service = =
The station is located 322 @.@ 80 kilometers ( 200 @.@ 58 mi ) from Oslo and at 1 @,@ 110 @.@ 1 meters ( 3 @,@ 642 ft ) above mean sea level . The station is not staffed and serves no local population . The area around the station has no road access , and the station serves only for trekking in the Hardangervidda plateau . There is a self @-@ serve cabin run by the Norwegian Trekking Association nearby . The station building itself is owned by Rom Eiendom , a subsidiary of the Norwegian State Railways . The station has a waiting room and washrooms . Up to three daily services in each direction of the Oslo – Bergen service , operated by the state railways , call at Hallingskeid , with up to two bypassing the station each day .
= Mom and Dad =
Mom and Dad ( known as The Family Story in the United Kingdom ) is a feature @-@ length 1945 film directed by William Beaudine , and largely produced by the exploitation film maker and presenter Kroger Babb . Mom and Dad is considered the most successful film within its genre of " sex hygiene " films . Although it faced numerous legal challenges and was condemned by the National Legion of Decency , it went on to become one of the highest @-@ grossing films of the 1940s .
The film is regarded as an exploitation film as it was repackaged controversial content designed to establish an educational value that might circumvent U.S. censorship laws . Babb 's marketing of his film incorporated old @-@ style medicine show techniques , and used unique promotions to build an audience . These formed a template for his later works , which were imitated by his contemporary filmmakers . In 2005 , the film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being " culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant " .
= = Plot = =
Mom and Dad tells the story of Joan Blake ( June Carlson ) , a young girl who falls for the pilot Jack Griffin ( Bob Lowell ) . After being sweet talked by Griffin , she has sex with him . The girl requests " hygiene books " from her mother Sarah Blake ( Lois Austin ) ; however , the mother refuses because the girl is not yet married . The girl later learns from her father Dan Blake ( George Eldredge ) that the pilot has died in a crash . She tears up a letter she had been writing to him , and lowers her head as the film fades into intermission .
The film resumes at the point when the girl discovers that her clothes no longer fit , sending her into a state of despair . She takes advice from her teacher , Carl Blackburn ( Hardie Albright ) , who had previously been fired for teaching sex education . Blackburn blames her mother for the problem , and accuses her of " neglect [ ing ] the sacred duty of telling their children the real truth . " Only then is the girl able to confront her mother .
The film then presents reels and charts that include graphic images of the female anatomy and footage of live births - one natural and one Caesarian . In some screenings , a second film was shown along with Mom and Dad , and contained images portraying syphilis and venereal disease . Mom and Dad is believed to have had a number of endings , although most typically concluded with the birth of the girl 's child , sometimes stillborn and other times put up for adoption .
= = Cast = =
Hardie Albright – Carl Blackburn , the teacher .
Lois Austin – Sarah Blake , the mother .
George Eldredge – Dan Blake , the father .
June Carlson – Joan Blake , the teen @-@ age girl .
Jimmy Clark – Joan 's brother .
Bob Lowell – Jack Griffin , the pilot .
Jane Isbell – Mary Lou , Joan 's friend .
Jimmy Zaner – Allen Curtis , Joan 's hometown boyfriend .
Robert Filmer – Superintendent McMann .
Willa Pearl Curtis – Junella , the Blake family 's African @-@ American maid .
Virginia Van – Virginia , Dave 's girlfriend .
Forrest Taylor – Dr. Ashley , the obstetrician .
Jack Roper – The coach .
The official credits also acknowledge The Four Liphams as well as the California State Champion dancers of the jitterbug .
= = Production = =
Despite the commercially successful run of Babb 's debut film , Dust to Dust — a reworked version of the 1938 film Child Bride — his production company Cox and Underwood disbanded , forcing him to form his own unit , Hygienic Productions . Having attended a meeting in Burkburnett , Texas , that discussed the alleged impregnations of young women by G.I.s from nearby Sheppard Air Force Base , Babb was inspired to shoot a film based on the subject . His future wife Mildred Horn drafted a screenplay which later evolved into Mom and Dad . Babb located 20 investors willing to fund the movie , and hired William Beaudine as director .
Production of the film cost Babb and his investors a total of $ 63 @,@ 000 . The movie was shot in five separate studios over six days in 1944 , and was spread across various Monogram Pictures lots ; co @-@ producer J. S. Jossey was a Monogram stockholder . On January 3 , 1945 , Mom and Dad premiered at the Warner Bros. theatre in Oklahoma City , Oklahoma .
The plot is padded with a large amount of filler . Films of this type were usually produced quickly and at minimal cost , and while filler was sometimes used to increase the production value , the usual motivation was to extend its running time to qualify for feature length status . Eric Schaefer notes that the " primary purpose " of the plot of Mom and Dad was to " serve as the vehicle onto which the spectacle of the clinical reels can be grafted " , such as the live birth scene . The marketing materials suggest the latter reason also , and many posters for the film promised that " You [ will ] actually SEE the birth of a baby ! " The dialogue is carefully worded , and uses period euphemisms rather than explicit terms that may have been controversial at the time . In particular , at no time does the film specifically mention sexual intercourse or pregnancy .
= = Marketing and presentation = =
In a Washington Post article covering Babb 's career , the film critic Kenneth Turan wrote that Mom and Dad did not " flourish because of its birth footage or because of its puerile plot , which Babb himself disparages . . . [ its ] success flowed , rather , from Babb 's extraordinary promotional abilities . " The film was exhibited across the United States , and over 300 prints were produced . In the weeks preceding the screening , local presenters sought to attract the attention of the town 's inhabitants by distributing letters to local newspapers and church leaflets protesting against the film 's moral basis . This strategy often utilized fabricated letters supposedly written by the mayor of a nearby city , who wished to register concern about local young women in his area who had seen the film and were awakened enough to discuss problems similar to ones of their own .
The campaigns were usually orchestrated by employees of either Hygienic or Hallmark Productions , and they nominally based their campaign from information provided by a standard and detailed pressbook containing cast and crew information , as well as other promotional and marketing materials . Babb 's marketing strategy centered on overwhelming small towns with advertisements and letters , in an attempt to create a controversial atmosphere . In keeping with his motto of " You gotta tell ' em to sell ' em , " the film became so ubiquitous that Time wrote that its presentation " left only the livestock unaware of the chance to learn the facts of life . "
The local pitch included a variety of limited screenings , including adults @-@ only showings , viewings segregated by gender , and a live lecture by the " Fearless Hygiene Commentator Elliot Forbes " which was often placed during the intermission . At any one time , a number of " Elliot Forbes " es would give simultaneous talks in a number of locations showing the film . In some predominantly African @-@ American areas , Olympic gold medalist Jesse Owens was hired to make appearances instead of an actor playing Forbes . The " Elliot Forbes " actors were usually people local to the production company , sometimes out @-@ of @-@ work performers . Along with " Forbes " , presentations were often held with " nurses " in attendance , ostensibly in the event that someone fainted due to the content of the film ; such " nurses " were often hired locally .
Modern Film Distributors later distributed the film , and sold over forty @-@ five thousand copies of the books Man and Boy and Woman and Girl following Forbes 's lecture . The text was written by Babb 's wife , and was filled with both biological and sexual education materials relevant to the film 's subject matter ; generating extra profit items for their distributors . The sales of these books netted an estimated $ 31 @,@ 000 for the distribution company , while Babb estimated the total sales for all distributions at 40 million copies .
Babb insisted that the program be followed closely ; a contractual agreement with theaters required that each presentation follow a similar approach . Because the Forbes lecture formed part of the viewing , extra newsreels or short films were not permitted , although previews were allowed . A contractual agreement disallowed matinée pricing , set specific times for the segregated viewings , and prohibited the screening of the film on Sundays .
= = Reception = =
Mom and Dad is the third highest grossing film of the 1940s in dollar value , and returned close to $ 63 for each dollar invested by its backers . The Los Angeles Times estimates that the film grossed between $ 40 million and $ 100 million , and it has been cited as the most successful sex hygiene film ever released . It remains the most profitable pre @-@ 1960 exploitation film ; ranking among the top ten grossing films of both the 1940s and 1950s , even when scaled against those year 's mainstream releases .
The film was at the center of many high profile lawsuits and condemnations . The exploitation genre was pitched against numerous challenges during the 1940s and 1950s , and fought many local censorship battles , and fought bitterly against the motion picture censorship system . It has been claimed that nearly 428 lawsuits were laid against both Babb and Mom and Dad during the film 's run . Babb often used the supposed educational value of his films as an offer of defense , and recommended such tactic to theater owners in his pressbooks . One successful challenge was in New York City , where Mom and Dad remained censored until 1956 , when the Appellate Division of the New York State Supreme Court overturned the ruling of the censorship board , deciding that human birth did not qualify as " indecent " .
According to Modern Film Distributors , as of the end of 1956 , the film has been dubbed into a dozen languages and attended by an estimated worldwide attendance figure of over 175 million people , at over 650 @,@ 000 performances . Card Mondor purchased the rights to exhibit the film in New Zealand and Australia during the mid @-@ 1960s , almost twenty years after the film 's debut . In the late 1970s , a story on Babb by the Press @-@ Enterprise estimated that the film had been dubbed into 18 languages .
The film 's success spawned a number of imitators , who sought to saturate the market with genre imitations . In particular , Street Corner recycled Babb 's plot , substituting a concerned physician for a concerned teacher . In 1948 , Universal produced a similar film , The Story of Bob and Sally , but was unable to screen it due to the production code , and eventually sold the rights . The volume of imitations led to the formation of Modern Film Distributors , a group of exploitation filmmakers , in an effort to minimize booking conflicts .
In 1969 , the film was submitted to the Motion Picture Association of America for a film rating , in order to allow the film be shown in traditional movie theaters ; it received an R rating . The film was such a success that it is still shown decades later around the world . In 2005 , a version was added to the National Film Registry .
= The Call of the Simpsons =
" The Call of the Simpsons " is the seventh episode of The Simpsons ' first season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on February 18 , 1990 . It was written by John Swartzwelder and directed by Wesley Archer . Albert Brooks made his first guest appearance on The Simpsons in this episode as the voice of Cowboy Bob .
In this episode , Homer decides to purchase an RV and the Simpsons set off for a vacation in the wilderness . After accidentally driving it off the edge of a cliff , the family find themselves trapped in the woods . As Homer and Bart try to find a way back to civilization , Homer gets himself covered in mud and is mistaken for Bigfoot by a naturalist . The news about the encounter spreads quickly and Bigfoot hunters converge on the woods to capture Homer . Meanwhile , Maggie finds herself separated from the family and raised by bears .
= = Plot = =
Homer , envious of Ned Flanders 's new motor home , goes to Bob 's RV Round @-@ up to buy one of his own , but because of his poor credit rating , he is only qualified for a smaller dilapidated one , much to his family 's disgust . Thrilled with the new RV , Homer takes his family on an excursion . Driving on remote back roads and ignoring Marge 's suggestion to turn back on the main road , the Simpsons find themselves teetering over a precipice . The family escapes the RV before it plummets over the cliff , leaving themselves stranded in the wilderness .
Homer and Bart set out for help , unaware that Maggie is tagging along , while Marge and Lisa stay behind . Separated from Homer and Bart , Maggie is soon adopted by a family of bears . Meanwhile , Homer and Bart plummet into a raging river where they lose their clothes , but hide their nakedness with leaves and mud . Marge and Lisa make themselves comfortable by a campfire , while the boys freeze in the wilderness . The next day , Homer tries to steal honey from a beehive , only to be attacked by the bees , but evades them by jumping into a mud pit . A nature photographer takes a picture of Homer covered in mud , mistaking him for Bigfoot , and soon the forest is inundated with Bigfoot enthusiasts and reward seekers .
Marge , having been rescued along with Lisa by park rangers , identifies the monster in question as her husband and causing quite a controversy . Cold , hungry , and exhausted , Homer and Bart stumble upon the cave housing Maggie and the bears . Homer is soon captured and taken to a lab for testing . The authorities allow Homer to return home after scientists agree that he is " either a below @-@ average human being or a brilliant beast . " While watching the news coverage of the whole debacle , Homer worries about the insults he 'll receive from his co @-@ workers , until Marge consoles him , calling him " my brilliant beast . "
= = Production = =
The episode was written by John Swartzwelder and directed by Wesley Archer . A plot twist that involved Homer being carried away to an eagle nest and being raised as a baby eagle was suggested for this episode by executive producer James L. Brooks , but they ended up going with Maggie being raised by bears instead . The sequence with Marge and Lisa by the bonfire was originally longer and included a conversation between the two about boys , but it was cut from the episode . In the original script , Homer and Bart were not talking in the scene where they concealed their private parts with mud and moss , but Sam Simon thought it would be " too funny to leave as a stage direction " and they added dialogue to the scene .
Albert Brooks guest starred in the episode as the voice of Cowboy Bob . He was not sure if he wanted to be identified with a cartoon show or not at the time , like many of the other early guest stars on The Simpsons , and was therefore credited as A. Brooks in the ending credits . This episode was a satire of the Bigfoot specials that had aired on the Fox network at the time when this episode was written . A lot of resources were spent on the backgrounds in the episode , trying to make them look realistic with many observational details such as trees , rocks , fences and the way the cars were positioned . Burger King figurines were made out of the camping designs of the Simpsons family in this episode .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast on February 18 , 1990 , " The Call of the Simpsons " finished third place in the ratings for that day , with a Nielsen rating of 14 @.@ 6 and a 22 percent audience share . The episode was nominated for an Emmy Award in 1990 in the category " Outstanding Sound Mixing for a Comedy Series or a Special " . IGN.com named Albert Brooks ' guest performance in this episode , along with his four other appearances on The Simpsons , the best guest appearance in the show 's history .
" The Call of the Simpsons " received mixed reviews from critics . Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , the authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , both criticized and praised the episode saying : " This episode is a bit less than the sum of its parts . The early stuff at the RV Round @-@ Up is much better than the main camping story , although there 's some nice Marge @-@ Lisa bonding , and who could resist Maggie and the bears ? " In a DVD review of the first season , David B. Grelck gave the episode a rating of 1 @.@ 5 / 5 , adding " the surrealism of Homer as bigfoot is a major misstep . This type of gag would be very different today , if done at all . " Jon Bonné at MSNBC called the episode " a perfect example of the first season ’ s bizarre and fruitful balance between edgy humor and softly @-@ drawn neuroses " and stated that " it was this combination that made Groening ’ s shorts for the Ullman show so compelling , and ultimately what made it possible for The Simpsons to break the molds of network television . " Colin Jacobson at DVD Movie Guide said in a review that " while [ the episode ] doesn ’ t offer the continuous highs of the best Simpsons , it ’ s a generally solid show " and added that " the episode uses a wackier tone than usual for this era , but it works , and the program is consistently fun " .
= Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2 =
Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2 is a 2011 British @-@ American fantasy film directed by David Yates and distributed by Warner Bros. Pictures . It is the second of two cinematic parts based on the novel Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows by J. K. Rowling . The film , which is the eighth and final instalment in the Harry Potter film series , was written by Steve Kloves and produced by David Heyman , David Barron , and Rowling . It is the sequel to Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 1 . The story continues to follow Harry Potter 's quest to find and destroy Lord Voldemort 's Horcruxes in order to stop him once and for all .
The film stars Daniel Radcliffe as Harry Potter , alongside Rupert Grint and Emma Watson as Harry 's best friends , Ron Weasley and Hermione Granger . Principal photography began on 19 February 2009 , and was completed on 12 June 2010 , with reshoots taking place in December 2010 , more than ten years after filming started on the first instalment of the series . Part 2 was released in 2D , 3 @-@ D and IMAX cinemas worldwide from 13 – 15 July 2011 , and is the only Harry Potter film to be released in 3 @-@ D.
The film became a financial success and was one of the best @-@ reviewed films of 2011 . The film received praised for its visual effects , cinematography , Alexandre Desplat 's musical score , the action sequences , David Yates ' direction , and the performances , especially Alan Rickman . At the box office , Part 2 claimed the worldwide opening weekend record , earning $ 483 @.@ 2 million , as well as setting opening day and opening weekend records in various countries . As of 2016 , the film is the eighth highest grossing film of all time . It became the highest @-@ grossing film of 2011 , the highest grossing film in the Harry Potter series , and the ninth film to gross over $ 1 billion .
The Blu @-@ ray and DVD sets were released on 11 November 2011 in the United States and on 2 December 2011 in the United Kingdom . The film was also released in the Harry Potter : Complete 8 @-@ Film Collection box set on DVD and Blu @-@ ray , which included all eight films and new special features . Part 1 and Part 2 were released as a combo pack on DVD and Blu @-@ ray on 11 November 2011 in Canada .
The film won several awards and was nominated for many more , including three nominations at the Academy Awards for Best Art Direction , Best Visual Effects , and Best Makeup and Hairstyling .
= = Plot = =
Lord Voldemort retrieves the Elder Wand from Albus Dumbledore 's grave . After burying Dobby , Harry Potter asks the goblin Griphook to help him , Ron , and Hermione break into Bellatrix Lestrange 's vault at Gringotts bank , suspecting a Horcrux may be there . Griphook agrees , in exchange for the Sword of Gryffindor . Wandmaker Ollivander tells Harry that two wands taken from Malfoy Manor belonged to Bellatrix and to Draco Malfoy , but Malfoy 's has changed its allegiance to Harry .
In Bellatrix 's vault , Harry discovers the Horcrux is Helga Hufflepuff 's cup . He retrieves it , but Griphook snatches the sword and abandons the trio , leaving them cornered by security . The three release the dragon guardian and flee on its back . Harry sees a vision of Voldemort killing goblins , including Griphook , and learns Voldemort is aware of the theft . Harry also realises there is a Horcrux at Hogwarts somehow connected to Rowena Ravenclaw . The trio apparate into Hogsmeade , where Aberforth Dumbledore reluctantly instructs the portrait of his deceased younger sister , Ariana , to fetch Neville Longbottom , who leads the trio through a secret passageway into Hogwarts .
Severus Snape hears of Harry 's return and warns staff and students of punishment for aiding Harry . Harry confronts Snape , who flees after Minerva McGonagall challenges him to a duel . McGonagall gathers the Hogwarts community for battle . At Luna Lovegood 's insistence , Harry speaks to Helena Ravenclaw 's ghost , who reveals that Voldemort performed " dark magic " on her mother 's diadem , which is in the Room of Requirement . In the Chamber of Secrets , Ron and Hermione destroy the Horcrux cup with a Basilisk fang . In the Room of Requirement , Draco , Blaise Zabini and Gregory Goyle attack Harry after he finds the diadem , but Ron and Hermione intervene . Goyle casts a Fiendfyre curse and , unable to control it , is swallowed up by the flames while Harry and his friends save Malfoy and Zabini . Harry stabs the diadem with the Basilisk fang and Ron kicks it into the Room of Requirement , where it is destroyed . As Voldemort 's army attacks , Harry , seeing into Voldemort 's mind , realises that Voldemort 's snake Nagini is the final Horcrux . After entering the boathouse , the trio witness Voldemort incorrectly telling Snape that the Elder Wand cannot serve Voldemort until Snape dies since he killed its last owner ( Dumbledore ) ; he then orders Nagini to kill Snape , which Nagini does . Before dying , Snape tells Harry to take his memories to the Pensieve . In the chaos at Hogwarts , Fred , Lupin , and Tonks have been killed .
Harry learns from Snape 's memories that Snape loved Harry 's late mother , Lily , but despised his father , James , who had bullied him . Following her death , Snape worked secretly with Dumbledore to protect Harry from Voldemort because of his love for Lily . Harry also learns Dumbledore 's death at Snape 's hands was planned between them , and that the Patronus doe he saw in the woods that led him to the sword had been conjured by Snape . Harry discovers that he himself became a Horcrux when Voldemort originally failed to kill him and that Harry must die to destroy the piece of Voldemort 's soul within him . Harry then surrenders himself to Voldemort in the Forbidden Forest . Voldemort casts the Killing Curse upon Harry , who finds himself in limbo , where Dumbledore 's spirit meets him and explains that the part of Voldemort within Harry was killed by Voldemort 's own curse . Harry then returns to his body , determined to defeat Voldemort once and for all .
Voldemort announces Harry 's apparent death to everyone at Hogwarts and demands they all surrender . As Neville gives a defiant response and draws the Sword of Gryffindor from the Sorting Hat , Harry reveals he is still alive . While Harry confronts Voldemort in a duel throughout the castle , Neville decapitates Nagini , leaving Voldemort mortal , and Molly Weasley kills Bellatrix in the Great Hall . Harry and Voldemort 's fight ends with Voldemort 's own Killing Curse rebounding and obliterating him . After the battle , Harry explains to Ron and Hermione that the Elder Wand had recognised him as its true master because he had disarmed Draco , who earlier had disarmed its previous owner , Dumbledore , but instead of claiming the Elder Wand , Harry breaks and discards it .
Nineteen years later , Harry , Ginny , Hermione , and Ron proudly watch their own children leave for Hogwarts at King 's Cross station .
= = Cast = =
Daniel Radcliffe as Harry Potter
Rupert Grint as Ron Weasley , one of Harry 's best friends .
Emma Watson as Hermione Granger , one of Harry 's best friends .
Helena Bonham Carter as Bellatrix Lestrange , a Death Eater and Sirius Black 's cousin and murderer .
Robbie Coltrane as Rubeus Hagrid , Harry 's half @-@ giant friend and a former staff at Hogwarts .
Warwick Davis as Filius Flitwick , the Charms master and Head of the Ravenclaw house at Hogwarts ; and Griphook , a goblin and former employee at Gringotts Bank .
Tom Felton as Draco Malfoy , a Death Eater and son of Lucius and Narcissa Malfoy ( Helen McCrory ) .
Ralph Fiennes as Lord Voldemort , a twisted , evil , power @-@ hungry powerful wizard , and the founder and supreme leader of the Death Eaters .
Michael Gambon as Albus Dumbledore , the late headmaster of Hogwarts
John Hurt as Mr. Ollivander , a wandmaker abducted by the Death Eaters .
Jason Isaacs as Lucius Malfoy , Draco Malfoy 's father and a disgraced Death Eater .
Kelly Macdonald as Helena Ravenclaw , the ghost of Ravenclaw at Hogwarts .
Gary Oldman as Sirius Black , Harry 's late godfather .
Alan Rickman as Severus Snape , former Potions and Defence Against the Dark Arts teacher and the new headmaster of Hogwarts .
Maggie Smith as Minerva McGonagall , the Transfiguration teacher and the Head of the Gryffindor house at Hogwarts .
David Thewlis as Remus Lupin , a member of the Order of the Phoenix and a former Defence Against the Dark Arts teacher at Hogwarts .
Julie Walters as Molly Weasley , the Weasley matriarch
= = = Casting = = =
The roles of several minor characters were recast or replaced for this film . For example , Ciarán Hinds assumed the role of Aberforth Dumbledore , Albus Dumbledore 's brother and bartender of the Hog 's Head inn .
In the book , a significant number of characters who have not appeared since some of the earlier novels , reappear to defend Hogwarts in the large , final battle . Director David Yates said , " I want to get them all back " , referring to his desire to bring back as many actors who have appeared in the franchise as possible for the climactic battle sequence in the film . Sean Biggerstaff , Jim Broadbent , Gemma Jones , Miriam Margoyles , and Emma Thompson reprise their roles from earlier films briefly during the battle scene . For the final scene in the film which is set nineteen years after the film 's main story , the actors playing the main characters were made to look older through the use of makeup and special effects not once but twice ; the second being after the characters ' aged photos leaked onto the internet .
= = Production = =
Part 2 was filmed back @-@ to @-@ back with Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 1 from 19 February 2009 to 12 June 2010 , with reshoots for the epilogue scene taking place at Leavesden Film Studios on 21 December 2010 . Director David Yates , who shot the film with director of photography Eduardo Serra , described Part 2 as " operatic , colourful and fantasy @-@ oriented " , a " big opera with huge battles . "
The idea of splitting the final book into two films came from " creative imperative " and it was suggested by the executive producer Lionel Wigram . David Heyman , initially , responded negatively , but Wigram asked , “ No , David . How are we going to do it ? ” . After re @-@ reading the book and discussing it with Steve Kloves , he agreed with the division .
= = = Sets = = =
In an interview with Architectural Digest , production designer Stuart Craig remarked on creating sets for Part 2 . Of the Gringotts Wizarding Bank , he said , " our banking hall , like any other , is made of marble and big marble columns . And it has great strength . The fact that the goblins are the bankers and tellers at the counter helps that feeling of grandeur and solidity and the big proportions . That was part of the fun of the set : we exaggerated the size of it , we exaggerated the weight of it , and we even exaggerated the shine of the marble . " About the multiplication of treasure in one of the bank 's vaults , he noted , " We made literally thousands of pieces for it and vacuum metallised them to be shiny gold and silver . John Richardson , the special effects supervisor , made a floor that was capable of rising on different levels , so there was kind of a physical swelling of the treasure on it . "
Craig spoke about the Battle of Hogwarts to Art Insights Magazine , saying that " the great challenge is the destruction of Hogwarts . The sun rising behind the smoke ... the massive remains of destroyed walls , the entrance hall , the entrance of the Great Hall , part of the roof of the Great Hall completely gone , so yeah . A big challenge there and an enjoyable one really – maybe it helped me and the guys in the art department sort of prepare for the end ... we demolished it before we had to strike it completely . " When asked about the King 's Cross scene near the end of the film , Craig said , " We experimented a lot , quite honestly . I mean it was quite a protracted process really but we did experiment the sense of it being very burnt out very very kind of white – so we experimented with underlit floors , we experimented with different kind of white covering everything : white paint , white fabric , and the cameraman was involved in how much to expose it , and a series of camera tests were done , so we got there but with a great deal of preparation and research . "
= = = Visual effects = = =
Visual Effects Supervisor Tim Burke said that " It was such a major job to stage the Battle of Hogwarts , and we had to do it in different stages of production . We had shots with complex linking camera moves from wide overviews , to flying into windows and interior spaces . So , we took the plunge at the end of 2008 , and started rebuilding the school digitally with Double Negative . " He went on to say that " It 's taken two years – getting renders out , texturing every facet of the building , constructing interiors to see through windows , building a destruction version of the school . We can design shots with the knowledge that we have this brilliant digital miniature that we can do anything with . With a practical Hogwarts , we would have shot it last summer and been so tied down . Instead , as David Yates finds the flow and structure , we are able to handle new concepts and ideas . "
On the quality of 3 @-@ D in film , Burke told Los Angeles Times , " I think it 's good , actually . I think people are going to be really pleased . I know everyone 's a little nervous and sceptical of 3 @-@ D these days , but the work has been done very , very well . We 've done over 200 shots in 3 @-@ D and in the visual effects as well , because so much of it is CG , so the results are very , very good . I think everyone 's going to be really impressed with it , actually . " Producer David Heyman spoke to SFX magazine about the 3 @-@ D conversion , saying that " The way David Yates is approaching 3 @-@ D is he 's trying to approach it from a character and story point of view . Trying to use the sense of isolation , of separation that sometimes 3 @-@ D gives you , to heighten that at appropriate moments . So we 're approaching it in a storytelling way . "
In 2012 , the visual effects in the film were nominated for an Oscar . The film also won the BAFTA Award for Best Special Visual Effects at the 65th BAFTA Awards in 2012 .
= = = Music = = =
It was confirmed that Part 1 composer , Alexandre Desplat , was set to return for Part 2 . In an interview with Film Music Magazine , Desplat stated that scoring Part 2 is " a great challenge " and that he has " a lot of expectations to fulfill and a great deal of work " ahead of him . In a separate interview , Desplat also made note that John Williams ' themes will be present in the film " much more than in part one . " The soundtrack for the film was nominated for Best Score Soundtrack for Visual Media at the 54th Annual Grammy Awards .
= = Distribution = =
= = = Marketing = = =
In March 2011 , the first preview for Deathly Hallows – Part 2 was released revealing new footage and new interviews from the starring cast . The first United States poster was released on 28 March 2011 , with the caption " It All Ends 7 @.@ 15 " ( referring to its international release date ) . On 27 April 2011 the first theatrical trailer for Part 2 was released . The trailer revealed a range of new and old footage . The IMAX trailer for the film was released with IMAX screenings of Pirates of the Caribbean : On Stranger Tides on 20 May 2011 . During the MTV Movie Awards on 5 June 2011 , Emma Watson presented a sneak peek of the film .
= = = Theatrical release = = =
On 2 April 2011 , a test screening of the film was held in Chicago , with director David Yates , producers David Heyman and David Barron and editor Mark Day in attendance . The film had its world premiere on 7 July 2011 ( 2011 @-@ 07 @-@ 07 ) in Trafalgar Square in London . The United States premiere was held in New York City at Lincoln Center on 11 July 2011 ( 2011 @-@ 07 @-@ 11 ) . Although filmed in 2 @-@ D , the film was converted into 3 @-@ D in post @-@ production and was released in both RealD 3D and IMAX 3D .
The film was originally scheduled to open in Indonesia on 13 July 2011 . The Indonesian government levied a new value added tax on royalties from foreign films in February 2011 , causing three film studios , including Warner Brothers , to halt the importation of their films , including Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2 into the country . The film was not released to cinemas in the Kingdom of Jordan due to recently enforced taxes on films . It had not been premiered in the Kingdom as of 13 August 2011 .
On 10 June , one month before the film 's release , tickets went on sale . On 16 June 2011 , Part 2 received a 12A certificate from the British Board of Film Classification , who note that the film " contains moderate threat , injury detail and language " , becoming the only Harry Potter film to receive a warning for " injury detail " . At midnight 15 July , Part 2 screened in 3 @,@ 800 cinemas . In the United States , it played in 4 @,@ 375 cinemas , 3 @,@ 100 3D cinemas and 274 IMAX cinemas , the widest release for an IMAX , 3D and a Harry Potter film .
= = = Home media = = =
Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2 was released on 11 November 2011 in the United States in four formats : a one @-@ disc standard DVD , a two @-@ disc standard DVD special edition , a one @-@ disc standard Blu @-@ ray , and three @-@ Disc Blu @-@ ray 2D Combo Pack ( Blu @-@ ray + DVD + Digital Copy ) . In the United Kingdom and Ireland , the film was released on 2 December 2011 in three formats : a two @-@ disc standard DVD , a three @-@ disc Blu @-@ ray 2D Combo Pack ( Blu @-@ ray + DVD + Digital Copy ) , and a four @-@ disc Blu @-@ ray 3D Combo Pack ( Blu @-@ ray 3D + Blu @-@ ray 2D + DVD + Digital Copy ) . The film set the record for fastest @-@ selling pre @-@ order DVD and Blu @-@ ray on Amazon.com , just two days into the pre @-@ order period .
Deathly Hallows – Part 2 sold 2 @.@ 71 million Blu @-@ ray units ( $ 60 @.@ 75 million ) in three days ( Friday to Sunday ) . It also sold 2 @.@ 83 million DVD units ( $ 42 @.@ 22 million ) during its debut . By 18 July 2012 it had sold 4 @.@ 71 million Blu @-@ ray units ( $ 99 @.@ 33 million ) and 6 @.@ 47 million DVD units ( $ 88 @.@ 96 million ) .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2 grossed $ 381 @,@ 011 @,@ 219 in the United States and Canada , along with $ 960 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 in other markets , for a worldwide total of $ 1 @,@ 341 @,@ 511 @,@ 219 . In worldwide earnings , it is currently the eighth highest @-@ grossing film , the highest @-@ grossing 2011 film , the highest @-@ grossing film in the Harry Potter franchise and the highest @-@ grossing children 's book adaptation . Part 2 set a worldwide opening @-@ weekend record with $ 483 @.@ 2 million . It set a worldwide IMAX opening @-@ weekend record with $ 23 @.@ 2 million . In worldwide earnings , it is the fastest film to reach $ 400 million ( 5 days ) , $ 500 million ( 6 days ) , $ 600 million ( 8 days ) , $ 700 million ( 10 days ) , $ 800 million ( 12 days ) , $ 900 million ( 15 days ) , and $ 1 billion ( 19 days , tied with Avatar and Marvel 's The Avengers ) . On 31 July 2011 ( its 19th day of release ) , it became the ninth film in cinematic history and the second in 2011 to surpass the $ 1 @-@ billion mark .
= = = = United States and Canada = = = =
In North America , it is the twenty @-@ fifth highest @-@ grossing film , the highest grossing 2011 film , the highest @-@ grossing Harry Potter film , the highest @-@ grossing children 's book adaptation , the highest @-@ grossing fantasy / live action film and the eleventh highest @-@ grossing 3 @-@ D film . Box Office Mojo estimates that the film sold more than 40 million tickets . It set new records in advance ticket sales with $ 32 million , in its midnight opening with $ 43 @.@ 5 million and in its IMAX midnight opening with $ 2 million . It grossed $ 91 @.@ 1 million on its opening Friday , setting a Friday @-@ gross record as well as single- and opening @-@ day records . It also set an opening @-@ weekend record with $ 169 @.@ 2 million , an IMAX opening @-@ weekend record of $ 15 @.@ 2 million and opening @-@ weekend record for a 3 @-@ D film . Although 3 @-@ D enhanced the film 's earning potential , only 43 % of the opening gross came from 3 @-@ D venues . This means only $ 72 @.@ 8 million of the opening @-@ weekend grosses originated from 3 @-@ D showings , the second @-@ largest number at the time .
It also scored the largest 3 @-@ day and 4 @-@ day gross , the sixth highest @-@ grossing opening week ( Friday to Thursday ) with $ 226 @.@ 2 million , and even the seventh @-@ largest 7 @-@ day gross . It fell precipitously by 84 % on its second Friday and by 72 % during its second weekend overall , grossing $ 47 @.@ 4 million , which is the largest second @-@ weekend drop for any film that opened to more than $ 90 million . Still , it managed to become the fastest @-@ grossing film in the franchise and also achieved the second @-@ largest ten @-@ day gross ever at the time ( now eighth ) . In its third weekend , the movie surpassed Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone to become the highest @-@ grossing film of the franchise in North America .
= = = = Other markets = = = =
Outside North America , Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2 is the third highest @-@ grossing film , the highest @-@ grossing 2011 film , the highest @-@ grossing Warner Bros. film and the highest @-@ grossing Harry Potter film . On its opening day , Deathly Hallows – Part 2 grossed $ 43 @.@ 6 million from 26 countries , placing it 86 % ahead of Deathly Hallows – Part 1 and 49 % higher than Half @-@ Blood Prince . From Wednesday until Sunday , on its 5 @-@ day opening weekend , it set an opening @-@ weekend record outside North America by earning $ 314 million . The average 3D share of Deathly Hallows – Part 2 was 60 % , which was lower than the 3D share for Transformers : Dark of the Moon ( 70 % ) and On Stranger Tides ( 66 % ) . On its second weekend , it held to the top spot , but fell precipitously by 62 % to $ 120 @.@ 2 million despite minor competition . This amount is about the same as what On Stranger Tides made from its second weekend ( $ 124 @.@ 3 million ) . Deathly Hallows – Part 2 was in first place at the box office outside North America for four consecutive weekends .
In the United Kingdom , Ireland and Malta it brought in a record $ 14 @.@ 8 million on its first day . On its opening weekend it earned £ 23 @,@ 753 @,@ 171 in the United Kingdom , marking the second largest opening weekend in 2011 . Its performance did not surpass that of Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban in 2004 , which eared £ 23 @,@ 882 @,@ 688 on its opening weekend . In United States dollars , its opening weekend was an all @-@ time record $ 38 @.@ 3 million , ahead of Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix ( $ 33 @.@ 5 million ) . The film also achieved the largest single @-@ day gross on its first Saturday and the largest opening week with $ 57 @.@ 6 million . The film made a total of £ 73 @.@ 1 million ( $ 117 @.@ 2 million ) at the United Kingdom box office , marking the fifth highest @-@ grossing film . It also is the highest @-@ grossing film of 2011 and highest @-@ grossing Harry Potter film .
Deathly Hallows – Part 2 also set opening @-@ day records in Mexico ( $ 6 @.@ 1 million ) , Australia ( $ 7 @.@ 5 million ) , France and the Maghreb region ( $ 7 @.@ 1 million ) , Italy ( $ 4 @.@ 6 million ) , Sweden ( $ 2 @.@ 1 million ) , Norway ( $ 1 @.@ 8 million ) , Denmark ( $ 1 @.@ 6 million ) , the Netherlands ( $ 1 @.@ 7 million ) , Belgium ( $ 1 @.@ 4 million ) , the Czech Republic ( $ 2 @.@ 0 million ) , Argentina ( $ 961 @,@ 000 ) , Finland ( $ 749 @,@ 000 ) and Hong Kong ( $ 808 @,@ 000 ) . It also established new Harry Potter opening @-@ day records in Japan ( $ 5 @.@ 7 million ) , Brazil ( $ 4 @.@ 4 million ) , Russia and the CIS ( $ 4 @.@ 2 million ) , Spain ( $ 3 @.@ 3 million ) and Poland ( $ 1 @.@ 25 million ) .
Deathly Hallows – Part 2 set opening weekend records in India with ₹ 15 Crores ( $ 3 @.@ 41 million ) , Australia with $ 19 @.@ 6 million , New Zealand with $ 2 @.@ 46 million , Brazil with $ 11 @.@ million , Scandinavia with $ 18 @.@ 5 million , Mexico with $ 15 @.@ 9 million and many other Latin American and European countries .
= = = Critical response = = =
Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes surveyed 308 reviews and concluded 96 % of them were positive with an average score of 8 @.@ 3 / 10 . The site describes the film as " Thrilling , powerfully acted , and visually dazzling , Deathly Hallows Part II brings the Harry Potter franchise to a satisfying – and suitably magical – conclusion . " On Metacritic , which assigns a normalised rating out of 100 based on individual reviews , the film achieved an average of 87 based on 41 reviews , signifying " universal acclaim " . The film received a score of 93 from professional critics at the Broadcast Film Critics Association ; it is the organisation 's highest @-@ rated Harry Potter film . Audiences surveyed by Cinemascore gave the film A grade on average .
Philip Womack in The Daily Telegraph commented , " This is monumental cinema , awash with gorgeous tones , and carrying an ultimate message that will resonate with every viewer , young or old : there is darkness in all of us , but we can overcome it . " He further expressed that David Yates " transmutes [ the book ] into a genuinely terrifying spectacle . " Another review was released on the same day from Evening Standard , who rated the film 4 out of 5 and stated " Millions of children , parents , and those who should know better won 't need reminding what a Horcrux is – and director David Yates does not let them down . In fact , in some ways , he helps make up for the shortcomings of the final book . " The Daily Express remarked that the film showcases " a terrifying showdown that easily equals Lord of the Rings or Star Wars in terms of a dramatic and memorable battle between good and evil . "
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times gave the film 3 1 ⁄ 2 out of 4 stars and said , " The finale conjures up enough awe and solemnity to serve as an appropriate finale and a dramatic contrast to the lighthearted ( relative ) innocence of Harry Potter and the Sorcerer 's Stone all those magical years ago . " Mark Kermode from the BBC said that the film is a " pretty solid and ambitious adaptation of a very complex book " , but he criticised the post @-@ converted 3D . Christy Lemire of the Associated Press gave the film 3 1 ⁄ 2 out of 4 stars and said " While Deathly Hallows : Part 2 offers long @-@ promised answers , it also dares to pose some eternal questions , and it 'll stay with you after the final chapter has closed . " Richard Roeper , also from the Chicago Sun @-@ Times , gave the film an A + rating and said that " this is a masterful and worthy final chapter in one of the best franchises ever put to film . "
In one of the few negative reviews , Brian Gibson of Vue Weekly described the film as " deadly dull " and a " visual overstatement " . Other reviews criticised the decision to split the novel into two cinematic parts , with Ben Mortimer of The Daily Telegraph writing " Deathly Hallows – Part 2 isn 't a film . It 's HALF a film ... it 's going to feel somewhat emotionless . " Other critics wrote of the film 's runtime ; Alonso Duralde from The Wrap said , " If there 's one substantial flaw to the film , it 's that this cavalcade of people and places and objects can barely fit in the 130 @-@ minute running time . " Rebecca Gillie from The Oxford Student gave the film 2 out of 5 stars and wrote , " at the end of [ the film ] there is nothing that stays with you once you 've left the cinema . "
= = = Accolades = = =
The film garnered a number of accolades and nominations . Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2 was nominated for Best Art Direction , Best Makeup , and Best Visual Effects at the 84th Academy Awards . At the 65th BAFTA awards , the film won the Best Visual Effects award , and was nominated in the Best Sound , Best Production Design and Best Make @-@ up and Hair categories .
The film was nominated for Best Score Soundtrack for Visual Media at the 54th Annual Grammy Awards in 2012 . It won a Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Stunt Ensemble in a Motion Picture . The film scored 10 nominations at the annual Saturn Awards , Winning for Best Fantasy Film . In the 2011 Scream Awards , the film received a total of 14 nominations , and won in the Best Scream @-@ Play , Best Fantasy Actor ( Daniel Radcliffe ) , Best Villain ( Ralph Fiennes ) , Best F / X , and Holy Sh * t scene of the Year categories .
= = Franchise expansion / spin @-@ offs = =
A new trilogy set before the series is currently in development with the first film , Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them , being released November 18 , 2016 . J.K. Rowling , creator / author of the Harry Potter book series , will be closely involved with the new trilogy ; and was the screenwriter for the first film .
= 1969 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 1969 Atlantic hurricane season was the busiest Atlantic hurricane season since 1933 . The hurricane season officially began on June 1 , and lasted until November 30 . The season had the highest number of systems reach hurricane status – twelve – in a single season , until that record was surpassed in 2005 . Activity began with a series of five tropical depressions , the first of which developed on May 29 . The third system in that series , Tropical Depression Seven , caused extensive flooding in Cuba and Jamaica in early June . The final in the series formed on July 25 , the same day that Tropical Storm Anna developed . Neither the former nor latter caused significant impact on land . Later in the season , Tropical Depression Twenty @-@ Nine caused severe local flooding in the Florida Panhandle and southwestern Georgia in September . Hurricane Blanche was a small and short @-@ lived tropical cyclone in mid @-@ August that resulted in minimal effects .
The most significant storm of the season was Hurricane Camille , which peaked as a Category 5 hurricane on August 17 and devastated the Gulf Coast of the United States upon striking Mississippi the next day . Strong winds and storm surge heights especially impacted Mississippi and Louisiana . Later in its duration , the storm caused severe flooding Virginia and West Virginia . Camille alone was responsible for 259 deaths and $ 1 @.@ 4 billion . All damage figures are in 1969 USD , unless otherwise noted . It was the costliest United States hurricane at the time , until Hurricane Agnes in 1972 . In early September , Hurricane Francelia caused deadly floods in Central America , with 271 people killed in Central America . Hurricane Inga had the third longest duration of an Atlantic tropical cyclone . The last storm , Hurricane Martha , was the only known tropical cyclone to make landfall in Panama . Martha caused minor flooding in the former and Costa Rica . Overall , the systems of the season collectively caused 535 deaths and over $ 1 @.@ 49 billion in losses .
= = Season summary = =
The 1969 Atlantic hurricane season officially began on June 1 . Of the twenty @-@ four tropical cyclones that developed in the North Atlantic Ocean in 1969 , eighteen of them intensified into tropical storms ; this was above the 1950 – 2000 average of 9 @.@ 6 named storms . In terms of tropical storms , it was the busiest season since 1933 . Twelve of the eighteen named storms reached hurricane status , a record that stood until there were fifteen named storms in 2005 . Five of the hurricanes deepened into major hurricanes , which are Category 3 or higher on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . Between 1950 and 2000 , there was an average of 2 @.@ 3 major hurricanes per season . Throughout the season , the U.S. Weather Bureau issued more advisories than in any previous season . Additionally , reconnaissance aircraft were utilized for more flight hours than in any year in the Atlantic basin until that point . The season officially ended on November 30 .
Hurricane Camille made landfall in Mississippi on August 18 as a Category 5 hurricane , becoming one of only three tropical cyclones to strike the United States as a Category 5 , other than the Labor Day hurricane in 1935 and Hurricane Andrew in 1992 . Project Stormfury had some of its most successful seeding experiments on Hurricane Debbie , which declined in wind speed by 31 % on the first day and by 18 % of the following day . With a duration of almost 25 days from September 20 to October 15 , Hurricane Inga is the third longest @-@ lasting tropical cyclone in the Atlantic , behind only the San Ciriaco hurricane of 1899 and Hurricane Ginger in 1971 . On November 24 , Hurricane Martha became the first tropical cyclone on record to strike Panama .
The season was above average despite an El Niño , which typically suppresses tropical cyclogenesis in the Atlantic Ocean while increasing activity in the eastern Pacific Ocean . The Atlantic upper tropospheric shear line , a semi @-@ permanent feature that extended southeastward into the Caribbean Sea , which enhances outflow from disturbances , remained persistent throughout the season . However , the opposite periphery of the shear line inhibits the divergent outflow of a disturbance . This may have increased the number of tropical cyclones developing , while causing other storms to remain weak or dissipating over the deep tropics . Additionally , an abnormally strong mid @-@ tropospheric ridge replaced the further south than normal westerlies that deterred tropical cyclone formation in 1968 . Five hurricanes and two tropical storms made landfall , causing 535 deaths and $ 1 @.@ 49 billion in damage ; Tropical Depression Twenty @-@ Nine also resulted in damage .
Tropical cyclogenesis began early , with two tropical depressions forming on May 29 . Neither intensified into a named storm . In June , two additional tropical depressions developed , both of which failed to reach tropical storm intensity . Activity briefly went dormant between June 15 and July 25 , when the next depression originated . That same day , the season 's first named storm , Anna , developed over the eastern Atlantic . There were five tropical cyclones that formed in the month of August – Blanche , Camille , Debbie , Eve , and Francelia . Camille was the most intense tropical cyclone of the season , peaking as a Category 5 hurricane with maximum sustained winds of 175 mph ( 280 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 900 mbar ( 27 inHg ) .
September was the most active month of the season , with six tropical cyclones , five of which intensified into a tropical storm – Gerda , Holly , Inga , and an unnamed hurricane . Of the five named storms that originated in October , three intensified into hurricanes , including Kara , Laurie , and an unnamed storm . This was well above the currently used 1981 – 2010 average of two tropical storms in one hurricane in the month of October . Although an unnamed hurricane existed into November , Martha was the only tropical cyclone to originate in that month . Martha , the last storm of the season , dissipated over Panama on November 25 .
The season 's activity was reflected with an accumulated cyclone energy ( ACE ) rating of 166 . ACE is , broadly speaking , a measure of the power of the hurricane multiplied by the length of time it existed , so storms that last a long time , as well as particularly strong hurricanes , have high ACEs . It is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 39 mph ( 63 km / h ) , which is tropical storm strength .
= = Storms = =
= = = Tropical Depression Seven = = =
Tropical Depression Seven developed near the Yucatan Peninsula on June 7 . It moved north , reaching western Cuba by the following day . As the depression moved towards Florida , small @-@ craft warnings were issued for the southern coast . The depression made landfall in Florida on June 9 and dissipated shortly thereafter . As a result of 2 to 3 in ( 51 to 76 mm ) rain in Cuba , Radio Havana warned of a flash flood and later reported that three rivers were overflowing in Camagüey . Flooding also forced 1 @,@ 801 people from their homes . Sustained winds of 15 to 25 mph ( 24 to 40 km / h ) and gusts up to 40 mph ( 64 km / h ) were observed on the island . Impact from the depression in Florida is unknown .
Damage was catastrophic in Jamaica with landslides , flooding , broken communication lines , cancellation of its railway service and evacuation of hundreds of people from their homes . The Jamaica Railway Corporation 's trains were disrupted by landslides blocking the tracks from Spanish Town to Port Antonio and floodwaters inundating a bridge in Gregory Park . A train bound for Kingston was disrupted by the flooded bridge , as was a diesel tram , isolating both trains at Richmond . Furthermore , the former train did not reach its destination due to landslides . The Jamaica Telephone Company reported troubles due to waterlogged telephone lines . Schools and colleges in Kingston suspended classes and motorists in the area had difficulty traveling due to flooded roads . Correspondents from The G
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of the creek in Jordan Township , Lycoming County . The Chemung Formation has an outcropping on the creek near Moreland . This outcropping is 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) high and gray in color . It consists of shale and sandstone . Red shale is also found on the creek . In general , rock formations consisting of sandstone and shale are found along much of the creek , while rock formations of limestone occur close to its mouth .
The Tombs Run and Muncy Creek Anticline runs parallel to the creek through northern Penn Township , Lycoming County and also enters Sullivan County near the creek . The creek also has a cliff known as Picture Rock on it . An area of boulders on the creek forms a Class 2 rapid . There is a levee on Muncy Creek in Hughesville .
The soils in the valley of Muncy Creek are deep but relatively poor . However , farming was done in the valley in the late 1800s and still is as of the late 1900s . The valley has forested hills on either side . The Morris @-@ Oquaga @-@ Wellsboro soil series is found along the creek in Sullivan County .
The channel of Muncy Creek is sinuous with high streambanks and the creek has cobble and gravel bars . There are a few strainers on the creek .
= = Watershed = =
The watershed of Muncy Creek has an area of 216 square miles ( 560 km2 ) . The area of the watershed upstream of Hugesville comprises approximately half of the total watershed . The are area of the creek 's watershed upstream of Sonestown is 25 @.@ 8 square miles ( 67 km2 ) . The watershed of the creek occupies parts of Lycoming County , Sullivan County , Columbia County , and Montour County .
There are a number of lakes in the watershed of Muncy Creek . The largest is Eagles Mere Lake , which has an area of 116 @.@ 2 acres ( 47 @.@ 0 ha ) . Hunters Lake has an area of 90 @.@ 2 acres ( 36 @.@ 5 ha ) and Highland Lake has an area of 10 acres ( 4 @.@ 0 ha ) . Additionally , Beaver Lake ( which has an area of 6 acres ( 2 @.@ 4 ha ) ) is located in the watershed of the tributary Little Muncy creek .
Communities in the watershed of Muncy Creek include Hugesville , Picture Rocks , Lairdsville , and Sonestown . Smaller communities in the creek 's watershed include Muncy Valley , Eagles Mere , and Nordmont .
In the late 1800s , the only road in Davidson Township , Sullivan County besides the Susquehanna and Tioga Turnpike passed near Muncy Creek and the settlements along it . The valley of Muncy Creek is largely undeveloped , largely lacking even summer camps .
= = History = =
Muncy Creek was entered into the Geographic Names Information System on March 1 , 1990 . Its identifier in the Geographic Names Information System is 1202628 . The creek has also been known as Muncey Creek .
Muncy Creek was known to the Native Americans as Occohpocheny . Historically , Native Americans painted on Picture Rock , a cliff on the creek . Additionally , six Native American lance heads made of stone were found near the creek by Joseph Fahrenbach in the autumn of 1872 .
Muncy Creek was settled in 1783 by John Beeber . In 1797 , the Willow Grove Mill was built on Muncy Creek in 1797 by Isaac Walton and by the late 1800s , there was a sawmill on the creek in Shrewsbury Township , Lycoming County . A woolen mill was also built on the creek in Wolf Township , Lycoming County in 1842 . An aqueduct carrying the West Branch Canal once crossed Muncy Creek .
Historically , railroads ran parallel to Muncy Creek 26 miles ( 42 km ) upstream from its mouth , as far as the community of Nordmont . There were also numerous railroad stations on the creek upstream of the community of Picture Rocks The Reading Railroad also had a bridge over the creek in the past . The creek experienced severe flooding in 1889 .
In the early 1900s , many of the sewers in the community of Eagles Mere discharged into tributaries of Muncy Creek , such as Outlet Run . Sewage was also discharged into Muncy Creek in Hugesville . Additionally , in the early 1900s , the waters of Muncy Creek were contaminated with tannery waste products from Muncy Valley and also chemicals . For this reason , the creek was only used for power during this time . Additionally , a methyl alcohol plant , the Nordmont Chemical Works , discharged chemicals into the creek at Nordstown . Other major industries in the watershed in the early part of the 1900s included clay mines and furniture factories .
= = Biology = =
From its headwaters to a point 26 @.@ 4 miles ( 42 @.@ 5 km ) upstream of its mouth , the drainage basin of Muncy Creek is designated as Exceptional Value and a Migratory Fishery . From this point downstream to the US Route 220 bridge at Muncy Valley , the creek 's main stem is designated as a Coldwater Fishery and a Migratory Fishery . From this point downstream to its mouth , the main stem is designated as a Trout Stocked Fishery and a Migratory Fishery . Wild trout naturally reproduce in the creek from Trout Run downstream to its mouth .
A total of 92 percent of assessed streams in the watershed of Muncy Creek are inhabited by trout . Of the inhabited streams , 82 percent are inhabited only by brook trout , nine percent are inhabited by only brown trout , and nine percent are inhabited by both brook trout and brown trout . A number of tributaries of the creek are designated as high @-@ quality coldwater fisheries . These include Lick Run , Roaring Run , Rock Run , and Spring Run in Lycoming County and Big Run , Trout Run , and a number of others in Sullivan County .
There are some forested areas in the floodplains of Muncy Creek in the United States Geological Survey quadrangle of Hughesville . The Natural Areas Inventory of Lycoming County recommended retaining the natural vegetation in this area to improve water quality .
= = Recreation = =
It is possible to canoe on Muncy Creek during snowmelts or shortly after heaver rainstorms . Although the creek is used for canoeing by locals , it is less popular for this use than the nearby Loyalsock Creek . Edward Gertler considers the creek to be especially good for novice canoers . He describes Muncy Creek as a " pleasing but generally mediocre mountain stream " in his book Keystone Canoeing . However , it is only possible to canoe on the creek downstream of the plateau of North Mountain . A total of 24 @.@ 3 miles ( 39 @.@ 1 km ) of the creek is canoeable . The difficulty rating of Muncy Creek for canoeing ranges from 1 + to 2 .
There is a boat ramp belonging to the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission in the lower reaches of Muncy Creek . It can also serve as a take @-@ out for canoers on the creek .
= St Lawrence 's Church , Mereworth =
St. Lawrence 's Church is an Anglican parish church at Mereworth , Kent , United Kingdom . It is in the deanery of West Malling , the Diocese of Rochester and Province of Canterbury . The church was built in the mid @-@ 1740s by John Fane , the 7th Earl of Westmorland following his removal of the village 's 12th century place of worship to allow for the enlargement of Mereworth Castle .
The Palladian @-@ style stone structure has been described as " the outstanding 18th @-@ century church in the county , in scale , ambition and architectural interest " . The architect is unknown , but prominent Palladian @-@ era figures such as Henry Flitcroft , James Gibbs and Roger Morris have been suggested .
Many internal fixtures survive from the medieval church , including heraldic stained glass and a series of high @-@ quality brass and stone memorials . Alterations were made several times in the 19th and 20th centuries , including repairs to wartime bomb damage , and restoration work undertaken in 2009 . The church has been awarded Grade I listed status in view of its architectural and historical importance .
= = History = =
= = = Medieval church = = =
There was already a church dedicated to St. Lawrence in Mereworth during the reign of Henry II ( 1154 – 89 ) , when its advowson belonged to Roger de Mereworth . The original church was said to have been built by the de Clares and was appropriated by the Knights Hospitallers on its foundation . During the reign of Henry II , there was a dispute between de Mereworth and Leeds Priory concerning the patronage of the church . Gilbert , Bishop of Rochester was asked to adjudicate on the dispute . He found in favour of de Mereworth , but the parson of the church was to pay the sum of 40s per annum to the priory as a perpetual benefice . Shortly after the settlement of the dispute the church was granted to Tonbridge Priory , in whose possession it remained until the priory was dissolved in 1525 . The church then passed into the possession of Cardinal Wolsey , but was amongst the properties forfeited to the Crown in 1529 .
The advowson was then granted to Sir George Nevill , passing on his death to his son Henry Nevill and on Henry 's death to his daughter Mary , thus coming into the possession of her husband Thomas Fane . In 1589 , Leeds Priory abandoned their right to the benefice granted by Gilbert of Rochester . In 1634 , the church possessed lands amounting to some 352 acres ( 142 ha ) in Mereworth .
In the 1720s Mereworth Castle was rebuilt as Palladian villa to a design by Colen Campbell and in the 1740s two flanking pavilions and a stable block were added , necessitating the removal of the church ; in 1744 John Fane , the 7th Earl of Westmorland , obtained a faculty for the demolition of the " ancient and most inconvenient " church .
= = = Present church = = =
Fane built the new church on a site in the centre of the village , ⅝ mile ( 1 km ) northwest of its predecessor . Construction began in 1744 and was completed two years later , with consecration by Joseph Wilcocks , the Bishop of Rochester , on 26 August 1746 . Coffins and memorials from the old church were moved to the new building . John Grinsted , the son of John and Mary Grinsted was the first person to be baptised in the church on 23 September 1746 . There had been no burials or marriages in the village in 1745 due to the lack of a church .
In 1752 , Horace Walpole visited the church . He said that it seemed designed for Cheapside and that the spire was so tall that the poor church curtsied beneath it . Thomas Benge Burr in his History of Tunbridge Wells ( 1766 ) said that the church " will bear , and indeed richly deserves , the attentive inspection of the curious traveller " .
In 1770 , the church was " repaired and beautified " , possibly by Nicholas Revett , who went on to design Mereworth Rectory in 1780 . In 1798 , the advowson of the church was in the ownership of Francis , Lord de Despencer . The annual income of the church was then valued at £ 14 2s 6d .
The spire was rebuilt in 1870 , and in 1875 a new round @-@ arched window was cut into the east wall of the church . It is flanked on either side by blind windows . The bells were repaired in 1885 and a clock was installed in the base of the lantern at the top of the tower in 1894 , in memory of Eliot Stapleton , rector of Mereworth from 1874 – 92 . A plan by the architect George Crickmay , dated 1896 , to extend the church eastwards by building an apse of the same proportions as the west portico was not carried out .
Major repairs were carried out to the spire in 1946 – 47 under the supervision of architect Kenneth Dalgleish , following damage sustained during the Second World War . In 1957 , the bells were again repaired . On 25 August 1959 , the church was added to the register of listed buildings . It is Grade I listed . The clock was repaired in 1972 in memory of George Prentice , rector of Mereworth from 1966 – 70 . A new fibreglass clock face was fitted at this time and the winding mechanism converted to electric power . In 2005 , an inspection revealed that the church needed major repairs . English Heritage made a grant that covered 95 % of the £ 500 @,@ 000 cost of restoration . The work was carried out under the supervision of architects Thomas Ford & Partners , and won the 2009 Georgian Group award for best restoration of a Georgian church .
The church is still actively used as a place of worship - you can find details on the church website .
= = Description = =
St. Lawrence 's is a Palladian @-@ style building by an unknown architect . Colen Campbell worked in a similar style , although he died in 1722 , so the design may have been executed by one of his followers . The second @-@ generation Palladian architect Henry Flitcroft has been suggested ; by 1746 he was the master carpenter at three London palaces , and his St Giles in the Fields at Holborn was London 's first Palladian @-@ style church . James Gibbs has also been suggested , as the spire of St Lawrence 's is similar to that of St Martin @-@ in @-@ the @-@ Fields in the City of Westminster , London . Sir Howard Colvin tentatively attributes the church to Roger Morris .
= = = Exterior = = =
The church is of blocks of Kentish ragstone with dressed ashlar Wealden sandstone used for the porch columns , quoins and tower . The sandstone has galletted joints . It has a simple rectangular form in the 18th @-@ century " temple church " style . St Paul 's , Covent Garden in London , an early Palladian church by Inigo Jones , was the model for the design , which was then " purified by neo @-@ Palladian theory " . The roof is covered in slate and has prominent eaves and pedimented ends .
Rising above the roof at the west end of the church is a tall tower topped with a steeple flanked by decorative urns . The stone structure , with its square base supporting octagonal upper stages with columned sides and a balustrade , is so similar to the steeple at St Giles in the Fields that the Buildings of England series says that it was " copied almost directly " from that church . Projecting from the west end below the pedimented end of the roof is a semicircular open porch with Tuscan columns topped by a cornice . Its design is based on that of the Baroque church of St. Paul 's , Deptford ; St Mary le Strand in central London has also been cited as a model . The tower has a peal of six bells , cast in 1746 by Joseph Eayre of St. Neots , Huntingdonshire . They are in the Key of G.
= = = Interior = = =
The interior is in a Neoclassical style . Entrance to the church is through a porch at the west end , which leads into a circular chamber in the base of the tower . Rooms to the sides of this vestibule house monuments from the original church . On the north side is the Yotes Court Chapel , where the brass of William Shosmyth and his wife Julian can be found . Shosmyth was the warden of the religious guild of the Worshipful Company of Skinners in 1461 , and the brass has the earliest known representation of the Skinners ' coat of arms . As of 2011 , this chapel serves as a vestry . On the south side is the Despencer or Lady Chapel . It contains the brasses to Sir John de Mereworth and Thomas Nevill , and monuments to either Edward Neville , 3rd Baron Bergavenny or his son George Nevill , 4th Baron Bergavenny . Another memorial contains the heart of George Nevill , 5th Baron Bergavenny . The tomb of Sir Thomas Fane and his wife Mary . Their sons Francis and George are depicted kneeling at the base of the tomb .
Beyond the vestibule is a wide aisled nave , seven bays long , its barrel @-@ vaulted ceiling painted with trompe @-@ l 'œil coffering ( " not very convincingly " according to the Buildings of England guide ) , a chancel and a side chapel . The nave and aisles are separated by painted marble @-@ effect stone Doric columns , which were originally partly panelled , They support a horizontal entablature rather than the more usual arches . The strict geometry of the interior – each bay of the aisles is a square , and the nave is three times wider than each aisle – gives it an " austere Neoclassical appearance " not normally associated with the Georgian era in which it was built .
At the east end is a grandiose lunette or " Diocletian window " , in imitation of the type used at Roman baths , filling the space left clear by the arch of the barrel vault . Below this is the round @-@ headed window added in 1875 .
Fixtures include a marble font which is contemporary with the church . There is much stained glass : the oldest , in the form of heraldic emblems in cartouches , dates from 1562 and is visible in the Diocletian window in the east wall and in another window on the southwest side . The east window was erected in memory of Sir Frank Stapleton , rector of Mereworth 1832 – 74 . Other similar glass dates from the 17th and 18th centuries . Another , depicting the Raising of Lazarus , was designed by Frederic Shields for the Heaton , Butler and Bayne firm in 1889 .
The organ is by Gray and Davison . It was installed in 1882 by Lord Falmouth at a cost of £ 200 . In 1892 , the rector , E H Stapleton extended the range of the organ in memory of his wife .
The crypt contains several Fane coffins .
= = Memorials , brasses and notable burials = =
Memorials
Sir Thomas Fane , High Sheriff of Kent in 1572 . This " grandiose standing monument " dates from 1639 and depicts Fane and his wife ( d 1626 ) reclining above their kneeling sons . It is supported on a prominent entablature carried on Corinthian columns .
James Master ( d 1689 ) . His memorial is a cartouche of marble .
Brasses
Sir John de Mereworth , High Sheriff of Kent in 1340 and joint High Sheriff of Kent in 1341 , who fought at the Siege of Calais in 1346 . The " fine brass " , 33 inches ( 84 cm ) long , shows de Mereworth as a knight and closely resembles brasses of a similar era at St Mary Magdalene 's Church in Cobham , Kent .
William Shosmyth ( d 1479 ) . Warden of the religious guild of the Worshipful Company of Skinners in 1461 . His brass is 18 inches ( 46 cm ) long .
Burials
Evelyn Boscawen , 6th Viscount Falmouth .
George Byng , 7th Viscount Torrington , courtier .
John Fane , 7th Earl of Westmorland , builder of the church .
Mary Fane , Countess of Westmorland , wife of John Fane .
William Hutcheon Hall , Royal Navy admiral .
Charles Davis Lucas , first person to win the Victoria Cross .
Thomas Nevill ( c1480 – 1542 ) , Speaker of the House of Commons 1514 – 15 . He is commemorated inside by a monument decorated with quatrefoil emblems and angels and surmounted by a " poor brass " 18 inches ( 46 cm ) long .
Francesco Sleter ( d 1775 ) , Italian artist . He also has a wall @-@ mounted memorial on the south side of the church .
Sir Robert Southwell , Master of the Rolls 1541 – 50 .
The crypt contains several Fane coffins .
= = The church today = =
The parish covers Mereworth village , the surrounding rural area and part of the village of Kings Hill . Administratively , it is part of a joint benefice with St. Dunstan 's Church at neighbouring West Peckham .
As a Grade I listed building , the church is considered by English Heritage to be of " exceptional interest " and greater than national importance . As of February 2001 , it was one of 38 Grade I listed buildings , and 1 @,@ 291 listed buildings of all grades , in the district of Tonbridge and Malling – the local government district in which Mereworth is situated .
The church is still in active use as a place of worship each Sunday and the church website gives full details of times of services .
= Smalleye hammerhead =
The smalleye hammerhead or golden hammerhead ( Sphyrna tudes ) , is a small species of hammerhead shark , belonging to the family Sphyrnidae . This species is common in the shallow coastal waters of the western Atlantic Ocean , from Venezuela to Uruguay . It favors muddy habitats with poor visibility , reflected by its relatively small eyes . Adult males and juveniles are schooling and generally found apart from the solitary adult females . Typically reaching 1 @.@ 2 – 1 @.@ 3 m ( 3 @.@ 9 – 4 @.@ 3 ft ) in length , this shark has a unique , bright golden color on its head , sides , and fins , which was only scientifically documented in the 1980s . As in all hammerheads , its head is flattened and laterally expanded into a hammer @-@ shaped structure called the " cephalofoil " , which in this species is wide and long with an arched front margin bearing central and lateral indentations .
The yellow @-@ orange pigments of the smalleye hammerhead seem to have been acquired from the penaeid shrimp Xiphopenaeus kroyeri , the main food of juvenile sharks , and from sea catfish and their eggs , the main food of adults . The golden color may serve to conceal it from predators such as larger sharks . This species is viviparous , with the developing embryos sustained by a placental connection formed from the depleted yolk sac . Females bear litters of 5 – 19 pups every year following a gestation period of 10 months . Reproductive seasonality , litter size , and size at maturity vary between geographical regions . Because of its abundance , the smalleye hammerhead is an economically important bycatch of artisanal gillnet fisheries throughout its range and is utilized as food . In recent years , overfishing has caused marked declines in its numbers off Trinidad , northern Brazil , and probably elsewhere . Coupled with its low reproductive rate , this has led the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) to list it under Vulnerable .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
Despite being one of the most easily recognizable sharks , the smalleye hammerhead has had a long history of taxonomic confusion that still remains to be fully resolved . Its scientific name originated in 1822 , with French zoologist Achille Valenciennes ' description of Zygaena tudes in the scientific journal Memoires du Museum National d 'Histoire Naturelle ; the specific epithet tudes is Latin for " hammer " . Valenciennes made reference to three specimens : one from Nice in France , one from Cayenne in French Guyana , and one from the Coromandel Coast of India . However , for over two centuries taxonomists believed Valenciennes ' account matched the great hammerhead , which thus became known as Zygaena ( later Sphyrna ) tudes . The smalleye hammerhead was known by a different name , Sphyrna bigelowi , coined by Stewart Springer in a 1944 issue of Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences .
In 1950 , Enrico Tortonese examined the Nice and Cayenne specimens of S. tudes ( the Coromandel specimen having been lost in the interim ) and concluded that they were not great hammerheads but rather the same species as S. bigelowi . Carter Gilbert concurred in his 1967 revision of the hammerhead sharks , noting that while the lost Coromandel specimen was probably a great hammerhead , none of the existing material belonged to that species . Thus , Sphyrna tudes became the accepted name for the smalleye hammerhead , taking precedence over S. bigelowi because it was published earlier , and the great hammerhead received the next available name Sphyrna mokarran . Gilbert designated the Nice specimen as the lectotype that would define S. tudes , having priority over the Cayenne specimen ( the paralectotype ) . This was meant to stabilize the name but had the opposite effect .
In 1981 , Jean Cadenat and Jacques Blache revisited the type specimens of S. tudes and found that the lectotype from Nice is likely not a smalleye hammerhead but rather a fetal whitefin hammerhead ( S. couardi , likely a synonym of the scalloped hammerhead , S. lewini ) . This would also explain the anomalous locality of the Nice specimen , as the smalleye hammerhead is not otherwise known outside of the Americas . By the rules of binomial nomenclature , Sphyra tudes should then become the valid name for the whitefin hammerhead , taking precedence over S. couardi , and the smalleye hammerhead would revert to being Sphyrna bigelowi . Taxonomists though have been reluctant to change the names again , preferring to keep the smalleye hammerhead as S. tudes . For this solution to have official status would require a decision by the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature ( ICZN ) , to reject the Nice specimen as the lectotype and designate the Cayenne specimen in its place . The relevant petition to the ICZN has not yet been put forth .
Until the first detailed study of the smalleye hammerhead was carried out in 1985 – 86 by José Castro of Clemson University for the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations ( FAO ) , its distinctive golden coloration was unknown to science . The color fades after death and the pigments leech into the preservative , resulting in the " yellowish cast " of museum specimens being regarded as an artifact of preservation . The names " yellow hammerhead " or " golden hammerhead " are used by fishermen in Trinidad for this shark , and the latter was promoted for wider usage by Castro . Another common name for this species is the curry shark . Phylogenetic analyses based on nuclear and mitochondrial DNA have found that the hammerheads with the smallest cephalofoils are the most derived members of their lineage . The closest relative of the smalleye hammerhead appears to be the scoophead ( S. media ) , and the two of them in turn form a clade with the sister species pair of the scalloped bonnethead ( S. corona ) and the bonnethead ( S. tiburo ) .
= = Description = =
One of the smaller members of its family , the smalleye hammerhead can reach a length of 1 @.@ 5 m ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) , though 1 @.@ 2 – 1 @.@ 3 m ( 3 @.@ 9 – 4 @.@ 3 ft ) is more typical , and a weight of 9 kg ( 20 lb ) . The body is streamlined and fairly slender . The mallet @-@ shaped cephalofoil is wide and long , with a span measuring 28 – 32 % of the body length ; the leading margin forms a broad arch with indentations in the middle and on either side . The cephalofoil of newborns are longer , more arched , and less indented in front than those of adults . The eyes , placed at the ends of the cephalofoil , are proportionately smaller than in other hammerheads and equipped with nictitating membranes ( protective third eyelids ) . The nostrils are positioned just inside of the eyes , each with a well @-@ developed groove running towards the center of the cephalofoil . The mouth is strongly curved , containing on either side 15 – 16 upper tooth rows and 15 – 17 lower tooth rows . The teeth have single narrow cusps with smooth or weakly serrated edges , that are angled in the upper jaw and upright in the lower jaw .
The first dorsal fin is tall and slightly falcate ( sickle @-@ shaped ) , originating behind the pectoral fin bases ; its free rear tip lies over the origin of the pelvic fins . The second dorsal fin is smaller than the first but still rather large , with a concave trailing margin . The pelvic fins have nearly straight trailing margins . The anal fin is taller and longer than the second dorsal fin . The caudal fin has a well @-@ developed lower lobe and a notch near the tip of the upper lobe . The dermal denticles are oval with five horizontal ridges leading to marginal teeth . The most distinctive trait of this species is its coloration : the back and dorsal fins are gray to yellowish gray , and the cephalofoil margins , flanks , underside , pectoral fins , pelvic fins , and anal fin are bright yellow to orange with a metallic or iridescent sheen . Newborn sharks are gray above , darkening on the first dorsal fin and upper caudal fin lobe , and whitish below . They gain a bright yellow cast on their undersides by a length of 45 cm ( 18 in ) , which turns to orange by a length of 50 cm ( 20 in ) . The golden color is brightest in sharks 55 – 70 cm ( 22 – 28 in ) long , and tends to fade with the onset of sexual maturity .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The smalleye hammerhead is found along the eastern coast of South America from Uruguay to Venezuela , though it seldom occurs further west than the Orinoco Delta southeast of Trinidad . There are unconfirmed reports of this species from off Panama , Mexico , and western Florida ; records from other parts of the world are most likely erroneous , resulting from its tangled taxonomic history . It is among the most abundant sharks within its range . This species inhabits inshore murky waters 5 – 40 m ( 16 – 131 ft ) deep , over muddy bottoms . There is segregation by sex and age : newborns and juveniles under 40 cm ( 16 in ) long are found in the shallowest waters , moving deeper after a few months of life . Adult females are mostly found at depths of 9 – 18 m ( 30 – 59 ft ) , while larger juveniles and adult males are mostly found at depths of 27 – 36 m ( 89 – 118 ft ) . This species is tolerant of brackish water and can be found over a salinity range of 20 – 34 ppt .
= = Biology and ecology = =
Four other species of hammerhead sharks overlap in range with the smalleye hammerhead : the small @-@ sized scoophead and bonnethead , and the large @-@ sized scalloped hammerhead and great hammerhead . There is little competition between these species because of their differing habitat and dietary preferences . The smalleye hammerhead is the dominant hammerhead in shallow muddy areas , where high turbidity limits the utility of vision ( hence its smaller eyes ) . Adult males and juveniles of both sexes form schools of uniform body size ; these schools do not appear to relate to reproduction or migration . Adult females are apparently solitary .
Young smalleye hammerheads under 67 cm ( 26 in ) long feed predominantly on penaeid shrimp , mostly Xiphopenaeus kroyeri . Larger sharks feed mainly on bony fishes , especially ariid sea catfish and their eggs . The shrimp and the surface mucus layer and eggs of the catfish contain carotenoid pigments that appear to be the source of the sharks ' golden color ; it is uncertain whether the pigments in the catfish also ultimately come from the shrimp . Another shark species in the region , the yellow smooth @-@ hound ( Mustelus higmani ) , also feeds on shrimp and has a yellowish color , albeit not nearly as bright . This species has also been known to consume swimming crabs , squid , grunts , and newborn scalloped hammerheads . The smalleye hammerhead may fall prey to larger sharks such as the bull shark ( Carcharhinus leucas ) , while smaller individuals may also be taken by bony fishes . Its coloration may provide camouflage . A known parasite of this species is the hexabothriid monogenean Erpocotyle schmitti ; it may also serve as a host to common copepod ectoparasites such as Echthrogaleus coleoptratus , Pandarus satyrus and P. cranchii .
Like all hammerhead sharks , the smalleye hammerhead is viviparous : when the developing embryos exhaust their supply of yolk , the depleted yolk sac develops into a placental connection through which the mother delivers nourishment . Mature females have a single functional ovary and two functional uteruses . Ovulation occurs at the same time as gestation , allowing females to bear young every year . The details of the smalleye hammerhead 's life history vary across its range . Off Trinidad , reproduction occurs on a well @-@ defined annual cycle with mating in August and September , and birthing in late May and June of the following year . The females carry between 5 and 12 pups for 10 months , and make use of food @-@ rich , shallow coastal bays as nursery areas . The newborns measure around 30 cm ( 0 @.@ 98 ft ) long , and males and females attain sexual maturity at 80 cm ( 31 in ) and 98 cm ( 39 in ) long respectively . By contrast , smalleye hammerheads off the northern Brazilian state of Maranhão are substantially larger , with males maturing at over 92 cm ( 36 in ) long and females at over 101 cm ( 40 in ) long . As the litter size increases with female size , Maranhão sharks have been recorded carrying up to 19 pups . The seasonality of breeding also differs , with pregnant females found from June to October and January to April , and males in apparent reproductive condition from May to November and in March .
= = Human interactions = =
Timid and harmless to humans , the smalleye hammerhead is caught incidentally by inshore artisanal multi @-@ species fisheries throughout its range , and marketed as food . It is the most or second @-@ most important shark caught by such fisheries off Trinidad , Guyana , and Brazil . Because of its head shape , individuals of all ages are readily caught in gillnets ; small numbers are also caught on line gear and in bottom trawls . The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has assessed this species as Vulnerable , as it is subjected to intense fishing pressure and its low reproductive rate renders it susceptible to population depletion . Anecdotal evidence suggests that smalleye hammerhead catches have declined significantly off Trinidad and northern Brazil , which are likely indicative of population trends in the rest of its range . It is not the target of any conservation or management schemes .
= Visions of Johanna =
" Visions of Johanna " is a song written and performed by Bob Dylan on his 1966 album Blonde on Blonde . Dylan first recorded the song in New York City in November 1965 , under the working title of " Freeze Out " , but was dissatisfied with the results . When the Blonde on Blonde recording sessions moved to Nashville in February 1966 , Dylan attempted the composition again with different musicians , and decided to release this performance . All the alternate versions of the song have been officially released , but some only on a limited edition collectors set : many of them are November 1965 or later 1966 studio outtakes , and two others live performances from his 1966 world tour .
Several critics have acclaimed " Visions of Johanna " as one of Dylan 's highest achievements in writing , praising the allusiveness and subtlety of the language . Rolling Stone included " Visions of Johanna " on their list of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time . In 1999 , Sir Andrew Motion , poet laureate of the UK , listed it as his candidate for the greatest song lyric ever written . Numerous artists have recorded cover versions of the song , including the Grateful Dead , Marianne Faithfull and Robyn Hitchcock .
= = Recording = =
Clinton Heylin places the writing of " Visions of Johanna " in the fall of 1965 , when Dylan was living in the Chelsea Hotel with his pregnant wife Sara . Heylin notes that " in this déclassé hotel … the heat pipes still cough " , referring to a line from the song . Greil Marcus reports that when the song was first released , " the story was that the song had been written during the great east coast blackout of November 9 , 1965 . "
Dylan first recorded this song , backed by The Hawks , in the CBS New York recording studio , on November 30 , 1965 , announcing his new composition with the words : " This is called ' Freeze Out ' . " Andy Gill notes that this working title captures the " air of nocturnal suspension in which the verse tableaux are sketched ... full of whispering and muttering . " According to Marcus , Dylan introduced the song in live performances in 1966 with the words , " Seems like a freeze @-@ out . "
Some of the New York recordings were uptempo and contain in the fifth verse the additional line " He examines the nightingale 's code " . Historian Sean Wilentz , for his book Dylan In America , listened closely to full studio tapes of the Blonde on Blonde sessions , and describes how Dylan guided the New York backing musicians through fourteen takes , trying to explain how he wanted " Visions of Johanna " played . At one point , Dylan says : " It 's not hard rock , The only thing in it that 's hard is Robbie . " Analyzing the evolution of the song in the New York recording session , Wilentz writes that Dylan " quiets things down , inching closer to what will eventually appear on Blonde on Blonde — and it is still not right . " Several complete takes of the song were recorded on November 30 , including one with an uptempo rock beat , containing harpsichord accompaniment , and another with a march @-@ like tempo , which was released on The Bootleg Series Vol . 7 : No Direction Home : The Soundtrack in 2005 .
" Visions of Johanna " fell into place when Dylan was persuaded by his producer , Bob Johnston , to move the recording sessions to Nashville , Tennessee . During his first day in the CBS Nashville studio , on February 14 , 1966 , the Blonde on Blonde version of the song was recorded . In an interview with Andy Gill , Al Kooper has said that he and guitarist Robbie Robertson became sensitive to the nuances of Dylan 's vocal . Kooper added that " it 's very important what Joe South 's bass is doing in that " ; Kooper described it as " this throbbing ... rhythmically amazing bass part " . Other backing musicians were Charlie McCoy , guitar , Wayne Moss , guitar , and Kenneth Buttrey on drums .
The " Visions of Johanna " recording sessions were released in their entirety on the 18 @-@ disc Collector 's Edition of The Bootleg Series Vol . 12 : The Cutting Edge 1965 – 1966 on November 6 , 2015 , with highlights from the November 30 , 1965 outtakes appearing on the 6 @-@ disc and 2 @-@ disc versions of that album .
= = Live performances and recordings = =
Dylan first performed " Visions of Johanna " in public on December 4 , 1965 , at the Berkeley Community Theatre . Present at this concert was Joan Baez , who believed the lyrics referred to her . She said , " He 'd just written ' Visions of Johanna ' , which sounded very suspicious to me ... he 'd never performed it before and Neuwirth told him I was there that night and he performed it . " Heylin suggests that if Dylan performed it for anyone that night it was Allen Ginsberg , who was also present . Heylin argues Dylan considered Ginsberg to be an important influence on his songwriting at this juncture , and was keen to showcase the song for the Beat poet .
Two live versions of the song recorded during Dylan 's 1966 tour of England have been released . His performance of the song at London 's Royal Albert Hall on May 26 , 1966 appeared on Biograph , released in 1985 . Asked by Cameron Crowe , for the liner notes for Biograph , how he could remember the words of such a complex song in live performance , Dylan responded , " I could remember a song without writing it down because it was so visual . " A performance of the song recorded at the Manchester Free Trade Hall on May 17 , 1966 was released on The Bootleg Series Vol . 4 : Bob Dylan Live 1966 in 1998 .
= = Interpretation = =
Noting how popular " Visions of Johanna " remains among " hardcore Dylanophiles " , Andy Gill suggests it is the enigmatic quality of the song that is responsible for its popularity — " forever teetering on the brink of lucidity , yet remaining impervious to strict decipherment " . Gill writes the song begins by contrasting two lovers , the carnal Louise , and " the more spiritual but unattainable " Johanna . Ultimately , for Gill , the song seeks to convey how the artist is compelled to keep striving to pursue some elusive vision of perfection .
Clinton Heylin has described what he construes as the strange circumstances surrounding the song . Written around the time of Dylan 's marriage to Sara Lownds , Heylin describes it as " one of the oddest songs ever written by a man who has just tied the knot and is enjoying a brief honeymoon in the city " . Noting that the song is an elegy for a past lover , Heylin speculates that " it is awfully tempting to see Johanna as his muse " who , in the song , is " not here " . For Heylin , the triumph of the song lies in " the way Dylan manages to write about the most inchoate feelings in such a vivid , immediate way " .
Dylan critic Michael Gray also praises the subtlety of the song . Gray acknowledges that it is difficult to say what this song is " about " , since it is at once indefinable and precise . For Gray , its principal achievement lies in the way it confuses categories , using language to be simultaneously serious and flippant , delicate and coarse , and mixing up " abstract neo @-@ philosophy and figurative phraseology " .
Robert Shelton called " Visions of Johanna " one of Dylan 's major works . He writes that Dylan 's technique of throwing out " skittering images " evokes " a mind floating downstream " ; these " non @-@ sequential visions " are the record of a fractured consciousness . Shelton argues that the song explores a hopeless quest to reach an ideal , the visions of Johanna , and yet without this quest life becomes meaningless . He suggests that the same paradox is explored by Keats in his " Ode on a Grecian Urn " .
Mike Marqusee situates the song in New York City , " a flickering , electric , ghostly , cityscape " . Dylan describes himself stranded in a fog of detachment which provides a haven , and at the same time is pained by a piercing clarity : an unmediated response that is " too concise and too clear " . For Marqusee , Dylan describes his predicament , suspended between freedom and slavery , yet hungry for an authentic experience . Johanna and Louise are objects of desire and yearning . " It is their elusiveness and unreality that 's the point . "
Guitarist and critic Bill Janovitz also emphasizes the urban , unreal quality of " Visions of Johanna " , calling it a " sprawling epic " . " The journey takes Dylan through lofts , the D train , a museum , empty lots , and through snippets of overheard conversation , as well as a discussion with some ' little boy lost ' , who ' takes himself so seriously ' , and who is ' so useless and all / muttering small talk at the wall ' . " For Janovitz , this could " possibly be a swipe at a critic " .
Literary critic Christopher Ricks , in his study of Dylan 's work , pinpoints the emotional effect of these same lines :
He ’ s sure got a lotta gall to be so useless and all
Muttering small talk at the wall while I ’ m in the hall
Ricks writes that the phrase " and all " turns a mood of helplessness into a sense of " aggression and baffled anger " .
Trying to unravel the mystery of the song , Greil Marcus writes that the song is concerned with internal questions , rather than external ones : " Line by line , ' Blowin ' in the Wind ' is pious , or falsely innocent — isn 't it obvious that whoever wrote " Yes , ' n ' how many seas must a white dove sail / Before she sleeps in the sand ? " already knows the answer , assuming he , or anyone , can actually bring themselves to care about such a precious question ? But ' Visions of Johanna ' is asking different sorts of questions . Such as : Where are you ? Who are you ? What are you doing here ? " Evoking the drugged , urban milieu of the song , Marcus writes of " People wandering from one corner of a loft to another , doped , drunk , half @-@ awake , fast asleep , no point to the next breath , let alone the next step . " For Marcus , " ' Visions of Johanna ' makes a narrative solely out of atmosphere . "
= = Legacy = =
The song has been described by several critics as a masterpiece . In 2004 , Rolling Stone magazine placed the song at No. 404 on their list of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time , commenting that Dylan " never sounded lonelier than in this seven @-@ minute ballad , cut in a single take on Valentine 's Day 1966 . " ( When Rolling Stone updated their list in 2010 , the song dropped to No. 413 . ) In 1999 , Britain 's Poet Laureate , Andrew Motion , chose it as his candidate for the best song lyric ever written . Motion praised " the concentration and surprise " of Dylan 's lyrics , and said that , although he distanced himself from some of the singer 's views about women , the " rasp of his anger " was a part of his greatness . Commenting on the song in a 1985 interview , Dylan said , " I still sing that song every once in a while . It still stands up now as it did then , maybe even more in some kind of weird way . "
= = Cover versions = =
The Grateful Dead played " Visions of Johanna " in concert a number of times between 1986 and 1995 , and both they and Jerry Garcia solo each released a live version on record . There is also a 16 @-@ minute studio version of the song on Jerry Garcia 's All Good Things Redux , a bonus CD provided with the All Good Things box set of Garcia 's studio recordings .
Other artists who have covered the song include Marianne Faithfull , Robyn Hitchcock , Lee Ranaldo , Chris Smither , former Flamin ' Groovies guitarist Chris Wilson , Julie Felix , and Maggie Holland . The jazz trio Jewels and Binoculars , who named themselves after a phrase from " Visions of Johanna " , recorded an instrumental treatment of the song on their album The Music of Bob Dylan . Foreign language versions of the song include a recording by Jan Erik Vold , Kåre Virud and Telemark Blueslag in Norwegian , Gerard Quintana 's and Jordi Batiste 's version in Catalan , Steffen Brandt 's in Danish , and Ernst Jansz 's in Dutch .
= Caligula =
Caligula ( / kəˈlɪɡjələ / ) was the popular nickname of Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus Germanicus ( 31 August AD 12 – 24 January AD 41 ) , Roman emperor ( AD 37 – 41 ) . Born Gaius Julius Caesar Germanicus ( not to be confused with Julius Caesar ) , Caligula was a member of the house of rulers conventionally known as the Julio @-@ Claudian dynasty . Caligula 's biological father was Germanicus , and he was the nephew and adopted son of Emperor Tiberius . The young Gaius earned the nickname " Caligula " ( meaning " little soldier 's boot " , the diminutive form of caliga , hob @-@ nailed military boot ) from his father 's soldiers while accompanying him during his campaigns in Germania .
When Germanicus died at Antioch in AD 19 , his wife Agrippina the Elder returned with her six children to Rome , where she became entangled in a bitter feud with Tiberius . The conflict eventually led to the destruction of her family , with Caligula as the sole male survivor . Untouched by the deadly intrigues , Caligula accepted the invitation to join the Emperor in AD 31 on the island of Capri , where Tiberius had withdrawn five years earlier . With the death of Tiberius in AD 37 , Caligula succeeded his grand uncle and adoptive grandfather as emperor .
There are few surviving sources about the reign of Emperor Caligula , although he is described as a noble and moderate ruler during the first six months of his reign . After this , the sources focus upon his cruelty , sadism , extravagance , and sexual perversity , presenting him as an insane tyrant . While the reliability of these sources is questionable , it is known that during his brief reign , Caligula worked to increase the unconstrained personal power of the emperor , as opposed to countervailing powers within the principate . He directed much of his attention to ambitious construction projects and luxurious dwellings for himself , and initiated the construction of two aqueducts in Rome : the Aqua Claudia and the Anio Novus . During his reign , the empire annexed the Kingdom of Mauretania as a province .
In early AD 41 , Caligula was assassinated as a result of a conspiracy by officers of the Praetorian Guard , senators , and courtiers . The conspirators ' attempt to use the opportunity to restore the Roman Republic was thwarted : on the day of the assassination of Caligula , the Praetorian Guard declared Caligula 's uncle , Claudius , the next Roman emperor .
= = Early life = =
= = = Family = = =
See Julio @-@ Claudian family tree .
Gaius Julius Caesar ( named in honor of his famous relative ) was born in Antium ( modern Anzio and Nettuno ) on 31 August 12 AD , the third of six surviving children born to Germanicus and his second cousin Agrippina the Elder . Gaius had two older brothers , Nero and Drusus , as well as three younger sisters , Agrippina the Younger , Julia Drusilla and Julia Livilla . He was also a nephew of Claudius , Germanicus ' younger brother and future emperor .
Agrippina the Elder was the daughter of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa and Julia the Elder . She was a granddaughter of Augustus and Scribonia on her mother 's side . Through Agrippina , Augustus was the maternal great @-@ grandfather of Gaius .
= = = Youth and early career = = =
As a boy of just two or three , Gaius accompanied his father , Germanicus , on campaigns in the north of Germania . The soldiers were amused that Gaius was dressed in a miniature soldier 's outfit , including boots and armour . He was soon given his nickname Caligula , meaning " little ( soldier 's ) boot " in Latin , after the small boots he wore . Gaius , though , reportedly grew to dislike this nickname .
Suetonius claims that Germanicus was poisoned in Syria by an agent of Tiberius , who viewed Germanicus as a political rival .
After the death of his father , Caligula lived with his mother until her relations with Tiberius deteriorated . Tiberius would not allow Agrippina to remarry for fear her husband would be a rival . Agrippina and Caligula 's brother , Nero , were banished in 29 AD on charges of treason .
The adolescent Caligula was then sent to live with his great @-@ grandmother ( and Tiberius 's mother ) Livia . After her death , he was sent to live with his grandmother Antonia . In 30 AD , his brother , Drusus Caesar , was imprisoned on charges of treason and his brother Nero died in exile from either starvation or suicide . Suetonius writes that after the banishment of his mother and brothers , Caligula and his sisters were nothing more than prisoners of Tiberius under the close watch of soldiers .
In 31 AD , Caligula was remanded to the personal care of Tiberius on Capri , where he lived for six years . To the surprise of many , Caligula was spared by Tiberius . According to historians , Caligula was an excellent natural actor and , recognizing danger , hid all his resentment towards Tiberius . An observer said of Caligula , " Never was there a better servant or a worse master ! "
Caligula claimed to have planned to kill Tiberius with a dagger in order to avenge his mother and brother : however , having brought the weapon into Tiberius 's bedroom he did not kill the Emperor but instead threw the dagger down on the floor . Supposedly Tiberius knew of this but never dared to do anything about it . Suetonius claims that Caligula was already cruel and vicious : he writes that , when Tiberius brought Caligula to Capri , his purpose was to allow Caligula to live in order that he " ... prove the ruin of himself and of all men , and that he was rearing a viper for the Roman people and a Phaethon for the world . "
In 33 AD , Tiberius gave Caligula an honorary quaestorship , a position he held until his rise to emperor . Meanwhile , both Caligula 's mother and his brother Drusus died in prison . Caligula was briefly married to Junia Claudilla , in 33 , though she died in childbirth the following year . Caligula spent time befriending the Praetorian prefect , Naevius Sutorius Macro , an important ally . Macro spoke well of Caligula to Tiberius , attempting to quell any ill will or suspicion the Emperor felt towards Caligula .
In 35 AD , Caligula was named joint heir to Tiberius 's estate along with Tiberius Gemellus .
= = Emperor = =
= = = Early reign = = =
When Tiberius died on 16 March 37 AD , his estate and the titles of the principate were left to Caligula and Tiberius 's own grandson , Gemellus , who were to serve as joint heirs . Although Tiberius was 78 and on his death bed , some ancient historians still conjecture that he was murdered . Tacitus writes that the Praetorian Prefect , Macro , smothered Tiberius with a pillow to hasten Caligula 's accession , much to the joy of the Roman people , while Suetonius writes that Caligula may have carried out the killing , though this is not recorded by any other ancient historian . Seneca the elder and Philo , who both wrote during Tiberius 's reign , as well as Josephus record Tiberius as dying a natural death . Backed by Macro , Caligula had Tiberius 's will nullified with regards to Gemellus on grounds of insanity , but otherwise carried out Tiberius 's wishes .
Caligula accepted the powers of the principate as conferred by the senate and entered Rome on 28 March amid a crowd that hailed him as " our baby " and " our star " , among other nicknames . Caligula is described as the first emperor who was admired by everyone in " all the world , from the rising to the setting sun . " Caligula was loved by many for being the beloved son of the popular Germanicus , and because he was not Tiberius . Suetonius said that over 160 @,@ 000 animals were sacrificed during three months of public rejoicing to usher in the new reign . Philo describes the first seven months of Caligula 's reign as completely blissful .
Caligula 's first acts were said to be generous in spirit , though many were political in nature . To gain support , he granted bonuses to the military , including the Praetorian Guard , city troops and the army outside Italy . He destroyed Tiberius 's treason papers , declared that treason trials were a thing of the past , and recalled those who had been sent into exile . He helped those who had been harmed by the imperial tax system , banished certain sexual deviants , and put on lavish spectacles for the public , including gladiatorial games . Caligula collected and brought back the bones of his mother and of his brothers and deposited their remains in the tomb of Augustus .
In October 37 AD , Caligula fell seriously ill , or perhaps was poisoned . He soon recovered from his illness , but many believed that the illness turned the young emperor toward the diabolical : he started to kill off or exile those who were close to him or whom he saw as a serious threat . Perhaps his illness reminded him of his mortality and of the desire of others to advance into his place . He had his cousin and adopted son Tiberius Gemellus executed – an act that outraged Caligula 's and Gemellus 's mutual grandmother Antonia Minor . She is said to have committed suicide , although Suetonius hints that Caligula actually poisoned her . He had his father @-@ in @-@ law Marcus Junius Silanus and his brother @-@ in @-@ law Marcus Lepidus executed as well . His uncle Claudius was spared only because Caligula preferred to keep him as a laughing stock . His favorite sister Julia Drusilla died in 38 AD of a fever : his other two sisters , Livilla and Agrippina the Younger , were exiled . He hated being the grandson of Agrippa and slandered Augustus by repeating a falsehood that his mother was actually conceived as the result of an incestuous relationship between Augustus and his daughter Julia the Elder .
= = = Public reform = = =
In AD 38 , Caligula focused his attention on political and public reform . He published the accounts of public funds , which had not been made public during the reign of Tiberius . He aided those who lost property in fires , abolished certain taxes , and gave out prizes to the public at gymnastic events . He allowed new members into the equestrian and senatorial orders .
Perhaps most significantly , he restored the practice of democratic elections . Cassius Dio said that this act " though delighting the rabble , grieved the sensible , who stopped to reflect , that if the offices should fall once more into the hands of the many ... many disasters would result " .
During the same year , though , Caligula was criticized for executing people without full trials and for forcing his supporter Macro to commit suicide .
= = = Financial crisis and famine = = =
According to Cassius Dio , a financial crisis emerged in AD 39 . Suetonius places the beginning of this crisis in 38 . Caligula 's political payments for support , generosity and extravagance had exhausted the state 's treasury . Ancient historians state that Caligula began falsely accusing , fining and even killing individuals for the purpose of seizing their estates .
Historians describe a number of Caligula 's other desperate measures . In order to gain funds , Caligula asked the public to lend the state money . He levied taxes on lawsuits , weddings and prostitution . Caligula began auctioning the lives of the gladiators at shows . Wills that left items to Tiberius were reinterpreted to leave the items instead to Caligula . Centurions who had acquired property by plunder were forced to turn over spoils to the state .
The current and past highway commissioners were accused of incompetence and embezzlement and forced to repay money . According to Suetonius , in the first year of Caligula 's reign he squandered 2 @.@ 7 billion sesterces that Tiberius had amassed . His nephew Nero Caesar both envied and admired the fact that Gaius had run through the vast wealth Tiberius had left him in so short a time .
A brief famine of unknown extent occurred , perhaps caused by this financial crisis , but Suetonius claims it resulted from Caligula 's seizure of public carriages ; according to Seneca , grain imports were disturbed because Caligula repurposed grain boats for a pontoon bridge .
= = = Construction = = =
Despite financial difficulties , Caligula embarked on a number of construction projects during his reign . Some were for the public good , though others were for himself .
Josephus describes Caligula 's improvements to the harbours at Rhegium and Sicily , allowing increased grain imports from Egypt , as his greatest contributions . These improvements may have been in response to the famine .
Caligula completed the temple of Augustus and the theatre of Pompey and began an amphitheatre beside the Saepta . He expanded the imperial palace . He began the aqueducts Aqua Claudia and Anio Novus , which Pliny the Elder considered engineering marvels . He built a large racetrack known as the circus of Gaius and Nero and had an Egyptian obelisk ( now known as the " Vatican Obelisk " ) transported by sea and erected in the middle of Rome .
At Syracuse , he repaired the city walls and the temples of the gods . He had new roads built and pushed to keep roads in good condition . He had planned to rebuild the palace of Polycrates at Samos , to finish the temple of Didymaean Apollo at Ephesus and to found a city high up in the Alps . He planned to dig a canal through the Isthmus of Corinth in Greece and sent a chief centurion to survey the work .
In 39 , Caligula performed a spectacular stunt by ordering a temporary floating bridge to be built using ships as pontoons , stretching for over two miles from the resort of Baiae to the neighboring port of Puteoli . It was said that the bridge was to rival that of the Persian king , Xerxes , crossing of the Hellespont . Caligula , who could not swim , then proceeded to ride his favorite horse , Incitatus , across , wearing the breastplate of Alexander the Great . This act was in defiance of a prediction by Tiberius 's soothsayer Thrasyllus of Mendes that Caligula had " no more chance of becoming emperor than of riding a horse across the Bay of Baiae " .
Caligula had two large ships constructed for himself , which were recovered from the bottom of Lake Nemi during the dictatorship of Benito Mussolini . The ships were among the largest vessels in the ancient world . The smaller ship was designed as a temple dedicated to Diana . The larger ship was essentially an elaborate floating palace with marble floors and plumbing . Thirteen years after being raised , the ships were burned during an attack in the Second World War , and almost nothing remains of their hulls , though many archeological treasures remain intact in the museum at Lake Nemi and in the Museo Nazionale Romano ( Palazzo Massimo ) at Rome .
= = = Feud with the senate = = =
In AD 39 , relations between Caligula and the Roman Senate deteriorated . The subject of their disagreement is unknown . A number of factors , though , aggravated this feud . The Senate had become accustomed to ruling without an emperor between the departure of Tiberius for Capri in AD 26 and Caligula 's accession . Additionally , Tiberius 's treason trials had eliminated a number of pro @-@ Julian senators such as Asinius Gallus .
Caligula reviewed Tiberius 's records of treason trials and decided , based on their actions during these trials , that numerous senators were not trustworthy . He ordered a new set of investigations and trials . He replaced the consul and had several senators put to death . Suetonius reports that other senators were degraded by being forced to wait on him and run beside his chariot .
Soon after his break with the Senate , Caligula faced a number of additional conspiracies against him . A conspiracy involving his brother @-@ in @-@ law was foiled in late 39 . Soon afterwards , the Governor of Germany , Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus Gaetulicus , was executed for connections to a conspiracy .
= = = Western expansion = = =
In AD 40 , Caligula expanded the Roman Empire into Mauretania and made a significant attempt at expanding into Britannia – even challenging Neptune in his campaign . The conquest of Britannia was fully realized by his successors .
= = = = Mauretania = = = =
Mauretania was a client kingdom of Rome ruled by Ptolemy of Mauretania . Caligula invited Ptolemy to Rome and then suddenly had him executed . Mauretania was annexed by Caligula and subsequently divided into two provinces , Mauretania Tingitana and Mauretania Caesariensis , separated by the river Malua . Pliny claims that division was the work of Caligula , but Dio states that in 42 AD an uprising took place , which was subdued by Gaius Suetonius Paulinus and Gnaeus Hosidius Geta , and the division only took place after this . This confusion might mean that Caligula decided to divide the province , but the division was postponed because of the rebellion . The first known equestrian governor of the two provinces was Marcus Fadius Celer Flavianus , in office in 44 AD .
Details on the Mauretanian events of 39 – 44 are unclear . Cassius Dio wrote an entire chapter on the annexation of Mauretania by Caligula , but it is now lost . Caligula 's move seemingly had a strictly personal political motive – fear and jealousy of his cousin Ptolemy – and thus the expansion may not have been prompted by pressing military or economic needs . However , the rebellion of Tacfarinas had shown how exposed Africa Proconsularis was to its west and how the Mauretanian client kings were unable to provide protection to the province , and it is thus possible that Caligula 's expansion was a prudent response to potential future threats .
= = = = Britannia = = = =
There seems to have been a northern campaign to Britannia that was aborted . This campaign is derided by ancient historians with accounts of Gauls dressed up as Germanic tribesmen at his triumph and Roman troops ordered to collect seashells as " spoils of the sea " . The few primary sources disagree on what precisely occurred . Modern historians have put forward numerous theories in an attempt to explain these actions . This trip to the English Channel could have merely been a training and scouting mission . The mission may have been to accept the surrender of the British chieftain Adminius . " Seashells " , or conchae in Latin , may be a metaphor for something else such as female genitalia ( perhaps the troops visited brothels ) or boats ( perhaps they captured several small British boats ) .
= = = Claims of divinity = = =
When several client kings came to Rome to pay their respects to him and argued about their nobility of descent , he allegedly cried out the Homeric line : " Let there be one lord , one king . " In AD 40 , Caligula began implementing very controversial policies that introduced religion into his political role . Caligula began appearing in public dressed as various gods and demigods such as Hercules , Mercury , Venus and Apollo . Reportedly , he began referring to himself as a god when meeting with politicians and he was referred to as " Jupiter " on occasion in public documents .
A sacred precinct was set apart for his worship at Miletus in the province of Asia and two temples were erected for worship of him in Rome . The Temple of Castor and Pollux on the forum was linked directly to the imperial residence on the Palatine and dedicated to Caligula . He would appear here on occasion and present himself as a god to the public . Caligula had the heads removed from various statues of gods and replaced with his own in some temples . It is said that he wished to be worshipped as " Neos Helios , " the " New Sun . " Indeed , he was represented as a sun god on Egyptian coins .
Caligula 's religious policy was a departure from that of his predecessors . According to Cassius Dio , living emperors could be worshipped as divine in the east and dead emperors could be worshipped as divine in Rome . Augustus had the public worship his spirit on occasion , but Dio describes this as an extreme act that emperors generally shied away from . Caligula took things a step further and had those in Rome , including senators , worship him as a tangible , living god .
= = = Eastern policy = = =
Caligula needed to quell several riots and conspiracies in the eastern territories during his reign . Aiding him in his actions was his good friend , Herod Agrippa , who became governor of the territories of Batanaea and Trachonitis after Caligula became emperor in AD 37 .
The cause of tensions in the east was complicated , involving the spread of Greek culture , Roman Law and the rights of Jews in the empire .
Caligula did not trust the prefect of Egypt , Aulus Avilius Flaccus . Flaccus had been loyal to Tiberius , had conspired against Caligula 's mother and had connections with Egyptian separatists . In AD 38 , Caligula sent Agrippa to Alexandria unannounced to check on Flaccus . According to Philo , the visit was met with jeers from the Greek population who saw Agrippa as the king of the Jews . Flaccus tried to placate both the Greek population and Caligula by having statues of the emperor placed in Jewish synagogues . As a result , riots broke out in the city . Caligula responded by removing Flaccus from his position and executing him .
In AD 39 , Agrippa accused Herod Antipas , the tetrarch of Galilee and Perea , of planning a rebellion against Roman rule with the help of Parthia . Herod Antipas confessed and Caligula exiled him . Agrippa was rewarded with his territories .
Riots again erupted in Alexandria in AD 40 between Jews and Greeks . Jews were accused of not honoring the emperor . Disputes occurred in the city of Jamnia . Jews were angered by the erection of a clay altar and destroyed it . In response , Caligula ordered the erection of a statue of himself in the Jewish Temple of Jerusalem , a demand in conflict with Jewish monotheism . In this context , Philo wrote that Caligula " regarded the Jews with most especial suspicion , as if they were the only persons who cherished wishes opposed to his " .
The Governor of Syria , Publius Petronius , fearing civil war if the order were carried out , delayed implementing it for nearly a year . Agrippa finally convinced Caligula to reverse the order .
= = = Scandals = = =
Philo of Alexandria and Seneca the Younger describe Caligula as an insane emperor who was self @-@ absorbed , angry , killed on a whim , and indulged in too much spending and sex . He is accused of sleeping with other men 's wives and bragging about it , killing for mere amusement , deliberately wasting money on his bridge , causing starvation , and wanting a statue of himself erected in the Temple of Jerusalem for his worship . Once , at some games at which he was presiding , he ordered his guards to throw an entire section of the crowd into the arena during intermission to be eaten by animals because there were no criminals to be prosecuted and he was bored .
While repeating the earlier stories , the later sources of Suetonius and Cassius Dio provide additional tales of insanity . They accuse Caligula of incest with his sisters , Agrippina the Younger , Drusilla , and Livilla , and say he prostituted them to other men . They state he sent troops on illogical military exercises , turned the palace into a brothel , and , most famously , planned or promised to make his horse , Incitatus , a consul , and actually appointed him a priest .
The validity of these accounts is debatable . In Roman political culture , insanity and sexual perversity were often presented hand @-@ in @-@ hand with poor government .
= = = Assassination and aftermath = = =
Caligula 's actions as emperor were described as being especially harsh to the senate , to the nobility and to the equestrian order . According to Josephus , these actions led to several failed conspiracies against Caligula . Eventually , officers within the Praetorian Guard led by Cassius Chaerea succeeded in murdering the emperor . The plot is described as having been planned by three men , but many in the senate , army and equestrian order were said to have been informed of it and involved in it .
The situation had escalated when , in 40 AD , Caligula announced to the senate that he planned to leave Rome permanently and to move to Alexandria in Egypt , where he hoped to be worshiped as a living god . The prospect of Rome losing its emperor and thus its political power was the final straw for many . Such a move would have left both the senate and the Praetorian Guard powerless to stop Caligula 's repression and debauchery . With this in mind Chaerea convinced his fellow conspirators to put their plot into action quickly .
According to Josephus , Chaerea had political motivations for the assassination . Suetonius sees the motive in Caligula calling Chaerea derogatory names . Caligula considered Chaerea effeminate because of a weak voice and for not being firm with tax collection . Caligula would mock Chaerea with names like " Priapus " and " Venus " .
On 22 January 41 ( Suetonius gives the date as 24 January ) , Cassius Chaerea and other guardsmen accosted Caligula as he addressed an acting troupe of young men during a series of games and dramatics held for the Divine Augustus . Details recorded on the events vary somewhat from source to source , but they agree that Chaerea stabbed Caligula first , followed by a number of conspirators . Suetonius records that Caligula 's death resembled that of Julius Caesar . He states that both the elder Gaius Julius Caesar ( Julius Caesar ) and the younger Gaius Julius Caesar ( Caligula ) were stabbed 30 times by conspirators led by a man named Cassius ( Cassius Longinus and Cassius Chaerea ) . By the time Caligula 's loyal Germanic guard responded , the Emperor was already dead . The Germanic guard , stricken with grief and rage , responded with a rampaging attack on the assassins , conspirators , innocent senators and bystanders alike .
The cryptoporticus ( underground corridor ) beneath the imperial palaces on the Palatine Hill where this event took place was discovered by archaeologists in 2008 .
The senate attempted to use Caligula 's death as an opportunity to restore the republic . Chaerea tried to persuade the military to support the senate . The military , though , remained loyal to the idea of imperial monarchy . The grieving Roman people assembled and demanded that Caligula 's murderers be brought to justice . Uncomfortable with lingering imperial support , the assassins sought out and stabbed Caligula 's wife , Caesonia , and killed their young daughter , Julia Drusilla , by smashing her head against a wall . They were unable to reach Caligula 's uncle , Claudius ; after a soldier , Gratus , found Claudius hiding behind a palace curtain he was spirited out of the city by a sympathetic faction of the Praetorian Guard to the nearby Praetorian camp .
Claudius became emperor after procuring the support of the Praetorian Guard . He ordered the execution of Chaerea and of any other known conspirators involved in the death of Caligula . According to Suetonius , Caligula 's body was placed under turf until it was burned and entombed by his sisters . He was buried within the Mausoleum of Augustus ; in 410 , during the Sack of Rome ashes in the tomb were scattered .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Historiography = = =
The history of Caligula 's reign is extremely problematic as only two sources contemporary with Caligula have survived — the works of Philo and Seneca . Philo 's works , On the Embassy to Gaius and Flaccus , give some details on Caligula 's early reign , but mostly focus on events surrounding the Jewish population in Judea and Egypt with whom he sympathizes . Seneca 's various works give mostly scattered anecdotes on Caligula 's personality . Seneca was almost put to death by Caligula in AD 39 likely due to his associations with conspirators .
At one time , there were detailed contemporaneous histories on Caligula , but they are now lost . Additionally , the historians who wrote them are described as biased , either overly critical or praising of Caligula . Nonetheless , these lost primary sources , along with the works of Seneca and Philo , were the basis of surviving secondary and tertiary histories on Caligula written by the next generations of historians . A few of the contemporaneous historians are known by name . Fabius Rusticus and Cluvius Rufus both wrote condemning histories on Caligula that are now lost . Fabius Rusticus was a friend of Seneca who was known for historical embellishment and misrepresentation . Cluvius Rufus was a senator involved in the assassination of Caligula .
Caligula 's sister , Agrippina the Younger , wrote an autobiography that certainly included a detailed explanation of Caligula 's reign , but it too is lost . Agrippina was banished by Caligula for her connection to Marcus Lepidus , who conspired against Caligula . The inheritance of Nero , Agrippina 's son and the future emperor , was seized by Caligula . Gaetulicus , a poet , produced a number of flattering writings about Caligula , but they too are lost .
The bulk of what is known of Caligula comes from Suetonius and Cassius Dio . Suetonius wrote his history on Caligula 80 years after his death , while Cassius Dio wrote his history over 180 years after Caligula 's death . Cassius Dio 's work is invaluable because it alone gives a loose chronology of Caligula 's reign .
A handful of other sources add a limited perspective on Caligula . Josephus gives a detailed description of Caligula 's assassination . Tacitus provides some information on Caligula 's life under Tiberius . In a now lost portion of his Annals , Tacitus gave a detailed history of Caligula . Pliny the Elder 's Natural History has a few brief references to Caligula .
There are few surviving sources on Caligula and no surviving source paints Caligula in a favorable light . The paucity of sources has resulted in significant gaps in modern knowledge of the reign of Caligula . Little is written on the first two years of Caligula 's reign . Additionally , there are only limited details on later significant events , such as the annexation of Mauretania , Caligula 's military actions in Britannia , and his feud with the Roman Senate .
= = = Health = = =
All surviving sources , except Pliny the Elder , characterize Caligula as insane . However , it is not known whether they are speaking figuratively or literally . Additionally , given Caligula 's unpopularity among the surviving sources , it is difficult to separate fact from fiction . Recent sources are divided in attempting to ascribe a medical reason for his behavior , citing as possibilities encephalitis , epilepsy or meningitis . The question of whether or not Caligula was insane ( especially after his illness early in his reign ) remains unanswered .
Philo of Alexandria , Josephus and Seneca state that Caligula was insane , but describe this madness as a personality trait that came through experience . Seneca states that Caligula became arrogant , angry and insulting once becoming emperor and uses his personality flaws as examples his readers can learn from . According to Josephus , power made Caligula incredibly conceited and led him to think he was a god . Philo of Alexandria reports that Caligula became ruthless after nearly dying of an illness in the eighth month of his reign in AD 37 . Juvenal reports he was given a magic potion that drove him insane .
Suetonius said that Caligula suffered from " falling sickness " , or epilepsy , when he was young . Modern historians have theorized that Caligula lived with a daily fear of seizures . Despite swimming being a part of imperial education , Caligula could not swim . Epileptics are discouraged from swimming in open waters because unexpected fits in such difficult rescue circumstances can be fatal . Additionally , Caligula reportedly talked to the full moon . Epilepsy was long associated with the moon .
Some modern historians think that Caligula suffered from hyperthyroidism . This diagnosis is mainly attributed to Caligula 's irritability and his " stare " as described by Pliny the Elder .
= = = Possible rediscovery of burial site = = =
On 17 January 2011 , police in Nemi , Italy , announced that they believed they had discovered the site of Caligula 's burial , after arresting a thief caught smuggling a statue which they believed to be of the emperor . The claim has been met with scepticism by Cambridge historian Mary Beard .
= = Ancestry = =
= = Gallery = =
= = In popular culture = =
= = = In film = = =
Welsh actor Emlyn Williams was cast as Caligula in the never @-@ completed 1937 film I , Claudius .
American actor Jay Robinson famously portrayed a sinister and scene @-@ stealing Caligula in two epic films of the 1950s , The Robe ( 1953 ) and its sequel Demetrius and the Gladiators ( 1954 ) .
A feature @-@ length historical film Caligula was completed in 1979 , in which Malcolm McDowell played the lead role . The film alienated audiences with explicit sex and violence . Although reviews were overwhelmingly negative ( though McDowell 's performance as the title character was praised ) , the film is considered to be a cult classic .
David Brandon portrayed Caligula in the 1982 Italian exploitation film Emperor Caligula , the Untold Story which was directed by Joe D 'Amato .
Courtney Love appeared as Caligula in a fake trailer for Gore Vidal 's Caligula , ostensibly a remake of the 1979 film , but actually a parodic short film by conceptual artist Francesco Vezzoli .
Szabolcs Hajdu portrayed Caligula in the 1996 film Caligula .
= = = In literature and theatre = = =
Caligula , by French author Albert Camus , is a play in which Caligula returns after deserting the palace for three days and three nights following the death of his beloved sister , Drusilla . The young emperor then uses his unfettered power to " bring the impossible into the realm of the likely " .
In the 1934 novel I , Claudius by English writer Robert Graves , Caligula is presented as being a murderous sociopath from his childhood , who became clinically insane early in his reign . At the age of only seven , he drove his father Germanicus to despair and death by secretly terrorising him . Graves 's Caligula commits incest with all three of his sisters and is implied to have murdered Drusilla .
In the BBC series based on Graves ' novel ( where the role is played by John Hurt ) , Caligula , although unhinged since early childhood , becomes dangerously psychotic after an apparent epileptic seizure and awakens believing that he has metamorphosed into the god Zeus . He kills Drusilla while trying to reenact the birth of Athena by cutting his child from her womb .
In 1941 , Edgar Rice Burroughs wrote I Am a Barbarian . The story is pitched as a free translation of the memoirs of Britannicus ( a fictional character created by Burroughs ) who was the slave of Caligula from early childhood till Caligula 's death .
The character Ellsworth Toohey in Ayn Rand 's 1943 novel The Fountainhead references Caligula in his climactic speech to Peter Keating stating , " Remember the Roman Emperor who said he wished humanity had a single neck so he could cut it ? People have laughed at him for centuries . But we 'll have the last laugh . We 've accomplished what he couldn 't accomplish . We 've taught men to unite . This makes one neck ready for one leash . "
The play The Reckoning of Kit and Little Boots , by Nat Cassidy , examines the lives of the Elizabethan playwright Christopher Marlowe and Caligula , with the fictional conceit that Marlowe was working on a play about Caligula around the time of his own murder . It emphasizes the similarities between the two characters — both stabbed to death at 29 , both in part as a result of their controversial religious perspectives . The play focuses on Caligula 's love for his sister Drusilla and his deep @-@ rooted loathing for Tiberius . It received its world premiere in New York City in June 2008 .
Eugene O 'Neill 's play Lazarus Laughed features the young Caligula as one of its pinnacle characters , where he is portrayed as a psychopath who believes he will only be happy once Tiberius is dead and he is the Caesar .
= = = In music = = =
Canadian death metal band Ex Deo released an album called Caligula , styled as Caligvla . The band 's video , " I Caligula " , features Caligula and other members of his court that were important in his rule .
The Dickies ' 1989 album Second Coming includes the song " Caligula , " which relates his origins and reign of terror .
= = = In television = = =
Caligula has been portrayed in a number of television series :
Ralph Bates in the 1968 ITV television series The Caesars ;
John Hurt in the 1976 BBC television series I , Claudius ;
John McEnery in the 1985 miniseries A.D. ;
Tony Hawks in the Red Dwarf episode " Meltdown " ( 1991 ) ;
Alexis Arquette in season six of Xena : Warrior Princess ( 2001 ) ;
Simon Farnaby and Jalaal Hartley in " Horrible Histories " ;
John Simm in the 2004 miniseries Imperium Nerone .
Simon Gower in the 2015 miniseries A.D. The Bible Continues
= High Line ( New York City ) =
The High Line ( also known as the High Line Park ) is a 1 @.@ 45 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 2 @.@ 33 km ) New York City linear park built in Manhattan on an elevated section of a disused New York Central Railroad spur called the West Side Line . Inspired by the 3 @-@ mile ( 4 @.@ 8 @-@ kilometer ) Promenade plantée ( tree @-@ lined walkway ) , a similar project in Paris completed in 1993 , the High Line has been redesigned and planted as an aerial greenway and rails @-@ to @-@ trails park .
The High Line Park is built on the disused southern portion of the West Side Line running to the Lower West Side of Manhattan . It runs from Gansevoort Street – three blocks below 14th Street – in the Meatpacking District , through Chelsea , to the northern edge of the West Side Yard on 34th Street near the Javits Convention Center . An unopened spur extends above 30th Street to Tenth Avenue . Formerly , the West Side Line went as far south as a railroad terminal to Spring Street just north of Canal Street , however most of the lower section was demolished in 1960 , with another small portion of the lower section being demolished in 1991 .
Repurposing of the railway into an urban park began construction in 2006 , with the first phase opening in 2009 , and the second phase opening in 2011 . The third and final phase officially opened to the public on September 21 , 2014 . A short stub above Tenth Avenue and 30th Street is still closed as of September 2014 , but will open by 2017 , once the Hudson Yards Redevelopment Project is completed . The project has spurred real estate development in the neighborhoods that lie along the line . As of September 2014 , the park gets nearly 5 million visitors annually .
= = Description = =
The park extends from Gansevoort Street to 34th Street . At 30th Street , the elevated tracks turn west around the Hudson Yards Redevelopment Project to the Jacob K. Javits Convention Center on 34th Street , though the northern section is expected to be integrated within the Hudson Yards development and the Hudson Park and Boulevard . When the Hudson Yards Redevelopment Project 's Western Rail Yard is finished in 2018 , it will be elevated above the High Line Park , so an exit along the viaduct will be located over the West Side Yard , exiting out to the Western Rail Yard of Hudson Yards . The 34th Street entrance is at grade level , with wheelchair access .
The park is open daily from 7 a.m. to 7 p.m. in the winter , 10 p.m. in the spring and fall , and 11 p.m. in the summer , except for the Interim Walkway west of 11th Avenue , which is open until dusk . It can be reached through eleven entrances , five of which are accessible to people with disabilities . The wheelchair @-@ accessible entrances , each with stairs and an elevator , are at Gansevoort , 14th , 16th , 23rd , and 30th Streets . Additional staircase @-@ only entrances are located at 18th , 20th , 26th , and 28th Streets , and 11th Avenue . Street level access is available at 34th Street via an " Interim Walkway " between 30th Street / 11th Avenue and 34th Street .
= = = Route = = =
At the Gansevoort Street end , which runs north @-@ south , the stub end over Gansevoort Street is named the Tiffany and Co . Foundation Overlook , dedicated in July 2012 ; the foundation was a major backer of the park . Then , it passes under The Standard hotel , and through a passage at 14th Street . At 14th Street , the High Line is split into two sides of different elevations ; the Diller @-@ Von Furstenberg Water Feature , opened in 2010 , is featured on the lower side , and a sundeck on the upper side .
Then , the High Line passes under the Chelsea Market , a food hall , at 15th Street . A spur connecting the viaduct to the National Biscuit Company building splits off at 16th Street ; this spur is closed to the public . The Tenth Avenue Square , an amphitheater located on the viaduct , is at 17th Street , where the High Line crosses over Tenth Avenue from southeast to northwest . At 23rd Street , there is the 23rd Street Lawn , a lawn where visitors can rest . Then , between 25th and 26th Streets , a ramp takes visitors above the viaduct , with a scenic overlook facing east at 26th Street . The Philip Falcone and Lisa Maria Falcone flyover , as it is called , is named after two major donors to the park ; this ramp was based on plans for a Phase 1 flyover that was never built .
The park then curves west to Phase 3 and merges into the Tenth Avenue Spur , the latter of which stretches over 30th Street to Tenth Avenue and will open in 2017 . On Phase 3 , there is another ramp taking visitors above the viaduct at 11th Avenue , as well as a play area consisting of rail ties and modified , silicone @-@ covered beams and stanchions coming out of the structure called the " Pershing Beams " , a gathering space with multiple benches , and a set of three trackways where one could walk between the railway tracks . There are also seesaw @-@ like benches , as well as benches that , much like a xylophone , contain parts that make sounds when tapped . An " interim walkway " between 11th Avenue and 30th Street and 34th Street divides the viaduct into two sides – a gravel walkway and an un @-@ renovated section still with rail tracks ; this walkway is open only temporarily , and will close for renovation once the Tenth Avenue spur is completed . The High Line turns north to a point just east of Twelfth Avenue . At 34th Street , it curves east , and the park ends at a wheelchair ramp midway between 12th and 11th Avenues .
= = = Attractions = = =
The park 's attractions include naturalized plantings that are inspired by the landscape that grew on the disused tracks , and views of the city and the Hudson River . The trail is made of pebble @-@ dash concrete walkways that swells and constricts , swings from side to side , and divides into concrete tines that meld the hardscape with the planting embedded in railroad gravel mulch . Stretches of track and ties recall the High Line 's former use . Portions of track are adaptively re @-@ used for rolling lounges positioned for river views . Most of the planting , which includes 210 species , is of rugged meadow plants , including clump @-@ forming grasses , liatris , and coneflowers , with scattered stands of sumac and smokebush , but not limited to American natives . At the Gansevoort Street end , a grove of mixed species of birch already provides some dappled shade by late afternoon . Ipê timber for the built @-@ in benches has come from a managed forest certified by the Forest Stewardship Council , to ensure sustainable use and the conservation of biological diversity , water resources , and fragile ecosystems .
The High Line Park also has cultural attractions . As part of a long @-@ term plan for the park to host temporary installations and performances of various kinds . Creative Time , Friends of the High Line , and the New York City Department of Parks and Recreation commissioned The River That Flows Both Ways by Spencer Finch as the inaugural art installation . The work is integrated into the window bays of the former Nabisco Factory loading dock , as a series of 700 purple and grey colored glass panes . Each color is exactly calibrated to match the center pixel of 700 digital pictures , one taken every minute , of the Hudson River , therefore presenting an extended portrait of the river that gives the work its name . Creative Time worked with the artist to realize the site @-@ specific concept that emerged when he saw the rusted , disused mullions of the old factory , which metal and glass specialists Jaroff Design helped to prepare and reinstall .
The summer of 2010 featured a sound installation by Stephen Vitiello , composed from bells heard through New York . Lauren Ross , formerly director of the alternative art space White Columns , served as the first curator for the High Line Park . During the construction of the second phase between 20th and 30th Streets , several artworks were installed including , Sarah Sze 's " Still Life with Landscape ( Model for a Habitat ) " a sculpture made of steel and wood , located on the line near 20th and 21st Streets ; this structure was built as a house for fauna such as birds and butterflies . Kim Beck 's " Space Available " was installed on the roofs of three buildings visible from the southern end . Three 20 @-@ by @-@ 12 @-@ foot ( 6 @.@ 1 by 3 @.@ 7 m ) sculptures looked like the armature of empty billboards , constructed like theater backdrops , so they look three @-@ dimensional from a distance . Also installed during the second phase of construction was Julianne Swartz 's " Digital Empathy " , a work that utilizes audio messages at restrooms , elevators , and water fountains .
= = History = =
= = = Rail line = = =
In 1847 , the City of New York authorized street @-@ level railroad tracks down Manhattan 's West Side to ship freight . For safety , the railroads hired men called the " West Side Cowboys " to ride horses and wave flags in front of the trains . However , so many accidents occurred between freight trains and other traffic that Tenth Avenue became known as " Death Avenue " .
After years of public debate about the hazard , in 1929 the city , the state of New York , and the New York Central Railroad agreed on the West Side Improvement Project , a large project conceived by Robert Moses that also included the construction of the West Side Elevated Highway . The 13 @-@ mile ( 21 km ) project eliminated 105 street @-@ level railroad crossings and added 32 acres ( 13 ha ) to Riverside Park . It cost more than US $ 150 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 ( about US $ 2 @,@ 067 @,@ 151 @,@ 000 today ) .
The High Line viaduct , then a portion of the New York Connecting Railroad 's West Side Line , opened to trains in 1934 . It originally ran from 34th Street to St. John 's Park Terminal at Spring Street , and was designed to go through the center of blocks rather than over the avenue . It connected directly to factories and warehouses , allowing trains to load and unload their cargo inside buildings . Milk , meat , produce , and raw and manufactured goods could be transported and unloaded without disturbing traffic on the streets . This also reduced the load for the Bell Laboratories Building ( which has housed the Westbeth Artists Community since 1970 ) , as well as for the former Nabisco plant in the Chelsea Market building , which were served from protected sidings within the structures .
The train also passed underneath the Western Electric complex at Washington Street . This section still exists as of May 18 , 2008 , and is not connected with the rest of the developed park .
The growth of interstate trucking in the 1950s led to a drop in rail traffic throughout the nation . By 1960 , the southernmost section of the line was demolished due to low use . This section started at Gansevoort Street and ran down Washington Street as far as Spring Street just north of Canal Street , representing almost half of the line . The last train on the remaining part of the line was operated by Conrail in 1980 .
In the mid @-@ 1980s , a group of property owners with land under the line lobbied for the demolition of the entire structure . Peter Obletz , a Chelsea resident , activist , and railroad enthusiast , challenged the demolition efforts in court and tried to re @-@ establish rail service on the line . However , during the late 1980s , the north end of the High Line was disconnected from the rest of the national railroad system because it was expected that the High Line would be demolished . Due to the construction of the Empire Connection to Penn Station , which opened in spring 1991 , new tracks were routed to the new Empire Connection tunnel built underground to Penn Station . A small section of the High Line in the West Village , from Bank to Gansevoort Streets , was taken apart in 1991 , despite objections by people who wanted to keep the High Line .
In the 1990s , as the line lay unused and in disrepair ( despite the fact that the riveted @-@ steel elevated structure was structurally sound ) it became known to a few urban explorers and local residents for the tough , drought @-@ tolerant wild grasses , shrubs , and rugged trees such as sumac that had sprung up in the gravel along the abandoned railway . It was slated for demolition under the administration of then @-@ mayor Rudy Giuliani .
= = = Repurposing = = =
In 1999 , the nonprofit organization Friends of the High Line was formed by Joshua David and Robert Hammond , residents of the neighborhood that the line ran through . They advocated for the line 's preservation and reuse as public open space , so that it would become an elevated park or greenway , similar to the Promenade Plantée in Paris . CSX Transportation , which owned the High Line , had given photographer Joel Sternfeld permission to photograph the line for a year . These photographs of the natural beauty of the meadow @-@ like wildscape of the railway , discussed in an episode of the documentary series Great Museums , were used at public meetings whenever the subject of saving the High Line was discussed . Fashion designer Diane von Fürstenberg , who had moved her New York City headquarters to the Meatpacking District in 1997 , organized fund @-@ raising events for the campaign in her studio , along with her husband , Barry Diller . Broadened community support of public redevelopment of the High Line for pedestrian use grew , and in 2004 , the New York City government committed $ 50 million to establish the proposed park . New York Mayor Michael Bloomberg and City Council Speakers Gifford Miller and Christine C. Quinn were important supporters . In total , funders of the High Line Park raised more than $ 150 million ( equivalent to $ 165 @,@ 449 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) .
On June 13 , 2005 , the U.S. Federal Surface Transportation Board issued a certificate of interim trail use , allowing the city to remove most of the line from the national railway system . On April 10 , 2006 , Mayor Bloomberg presided over a ceremony that marked the beginning of construction . The park was designed by the James Corner 's New York @-@ based landscape architecture firm Field Operations and architects Diller Scofidio + Renfro , with garden design from Piet Oudolf of the Netherlands , lighting design from L 'Observatoire International , and engineering design by Buro Happold . The New York City Department of City Planning director and Chair of the City Planning Commission Amanda Burden actively contributed to the success of project development .
Major backers included Philip Falcone , Diane von Fürstenberg , Barry Diller , and von Fürstenberg 's children , Alexander von Fürstenberg and Tatiana von Fürstenberg . Hotel developer Andre Balazs , owner of the Chateau Marmont in Los Angeles , built the 337 @-@ room Standard Hotel , straddling the High Line at West 13th Street .
The southernmost section , from Gansevoort Street to 20th Street , opened as a city park on June 8 , 2009 . This southern section includes five stairways and elevators at 14th Street and 16th Street . Around the same time , construction for the second section began .
On June 7 , 2011 , a ribbon was cut to open the second section from 20th Street to 30th Street , with Mayor Michael Bloomberg , New York City Council Speaker Christine Quinn , Manhattan Borough President Scott Stringer , and Congressman Jerrold Nadler in attendance .
In 2011 , CSX Transportation , the then @-@ owner of the northernmost section , from 30th to 34th Streets , agreed in principle to donate the section to the city , while the Related Companies , which owns the development rights to the West Side Rail Yards , agreed not to tear down the spur that crosses 10th Avenue . Construction on the final section was started in September 2012 .
On September 20 , 2014 , a ribbon @-@ cutting ceremony for the High Line was held , followed by the opening of the third section of the High Line Park on September 21 , and a procession down the High Line . The third phase , costing US $ 76 million , is divided into two parts . The first part , costing US $ 75 million , which opened on September 21 , is from the end of the existing Phase 2 of the High Line to the line 's terminus at 34th Street west of 11th Avenue . The second part , the spur , was going to contain such amenities as a bowl @-@ shaped theater but has changed and will provide more room to install ambitious artworks curated by the public art program . The Spur will also provide much @-@ needed storage space for park operations , maintenance , and horticulture , as well as additional public restrooms . It will also be integrated with 10 Hudson Yards , which has already been built over the High Line Spur as of December 2013 ; the spur will not open until sometime in 2017 .
= = = Impact = = =
The recycling of the railway into an urban park has brought on the revitalization of Chelsea , which had been " gritty " and in generally poor condition in the late twentieth century . It has also spurred real estate development in the neighborhoods that lie along the line . Mayor Bloomberg noted that the High Line project has helped usher in something of a renaissance in the neighborhood : by 2009 , more than 30 projects were planned or under construction nearby . Residents who have bought apartments next to the High Line Park have adapted to its presence in varying ways , but most responses are positive ; some , however , claim that the park became a " tourist @-@ clogged catwalk " since it opened . The real estate boom has not been victimless , however , many well @-@ established businesses in west Chelsea have closed due to loss of neighborhood customer base or rent increases .
Crime has been very low in the park . Shortly after the second section opened in 2011 , The New York Times reported that there have been no reports of major crimes such as assaults or robberies since its first phase opened two years prior . Parks Enforcement Patrols have written summonses for various infractions of park rules , such as walking dogs or riding bicycles on the walkway , but at a rate lower than in Central Park . Park advocates attributed that to the high visibility of the High Line from the surrounding buildings , a feature of traditional urbanism espoused by author Jane Jacobs nearly fifty years earlier . According to Joshua David , a co @-@ founder of Friends of the High Line , " Empty parks are dangerous ... Busy parks are much less so . You 're virtually never alone on the High Line . "
A New Yorker columnist , in a review of the Highliner restaurant ( which took over the space of the classic Empire Diner ) , complained that " the new Chelsea that is emerging on weekends as visitors flood the elevated park ... [ as ] touristy , overpriced , and shiny . "
The success of the High Line in New York City has encouraged the leaders of other cities , such as Mayor Rahm Emanuel of Chicago , who see it as " a symbol and catalyst " for gentrifying neighborhoods . Several cities also have plans to renovate some railroad infrastructure into park land , including Philadelphia and St. Louis . In Chicago , where the Bloomingdale Trail , a 2 @.@ 7 @-@ mile ( 4 @.@ 3 km ) long linear park on former railroad infrastructure , will run through several neighborhoods . One estimate is that it costs substantially less to redevelop an abandoned urban rail line into a linear park than to demolish it . James Corner , one of the Bloomingdale Trail 's designers , said , " The High Line is not easily replicable in other cities , " observing that building a " cool park " requires a " framework " of neighborhoods around it in order to succeed . In Queens , the Queensway , a proposed aerial rail trail , is being considered for reactivation along the right @-@ of @-@ way of the former LIRR Rockaway Beach Branch . Other cities around the world are planning elevated rails @-@ to @-@ trails parks . One writer called this the " High Line effect " .
Due to the popularity of the High Line , there have been several proposals for museums along its path . The Dia Art Foundation considered , but rejected , a proposal to build a museum at the Gansevoort Street terminus . On that site , the Whitney Museum has built a new home for its collection of American art . The building was designed by Renzo Piano and opened on May 1 , 2015 .
= = In popular culture = =
The High Line has been depicted in numerous media works , before and after its redevelopment . The 1979 film Manhattan included a shot of the High Line , as director and star Woody Allen speaks the first line : " Chapter One . He adored New York City . " Director Zbigniew Rybczyński shot the video for Art Of Noise 's recording Close ( to the Edit ) on the High Line in 1984 .
In 2001 , two years after the formation of the nonprofit Friends of the High Line , photographer Joel Sternfeld documented the dilapidated conditions and the natural flora of the line in his book Walking the High Line . The book also contained essays by writer Adam Gopnik and historian John R. Stilgoe . Sternfeld 's work was regularly discussed and exhibited during the 2000s as the rehabilitation project moved forward . In a similar vein , Alan Weisman 's 2007 book The World Without Us discussed the High Line as an example of the reappearance of the wild in an abandoned area . That same year chase scenes from the zombie apocalypse film I Am Legend were filmed there and in the Meatpacking District . The 2009 hip @-@ hop song " The High Line " by Kinetics & One Love is a pro @-@ green song that uses the High Line , before its conversion into a park , as an example of nature 's reclamation of man @-@ made structures .
With the opening of the High Line Park , many films and television shows have set sequences there . In 2011 , the television series Louie used the High Line as a setting for one of the title character 's dates . Other works to set scenes on the High Line since it opened include the HBO series Girls , the Simpsons episode " Moonshine River " , and the film What Maisie Knew .
= = Gallery = =
The High Line
= Star of Bethlehem =
The Star of Bethlehem , also called the Christmas Star , revealed the birth of Jesus to the Biblical Magi , and later led them to Bethlehem , according to Christian tradition . The star appears only in the nativity story of the Gospel of Matthew , where astrologers from the east are inspired by the star to travel to Jerusalem . There they meet King Herod of Judea , and ask where the king of the Jews had been born . Herod , following a verse from the Book of Micah interpreted as a prophecy , directs them to Bethlehem , to the south of Jerusalem . The star leads them to Jesus ' home in the town , where they worship him and give him gifts . The wise men are then given a divine warning not to return to Herod so they return home by a different route .
Many Christians see the star as a miraculous sign to mark the birth of the Christ ( or Messiah ) . Some theologians claimed that the star fulfilled a prophecy , known as the Star Prophecy . Astronomers have made several attempts to link the star to unusual astronomical events , such as a conjunction of Jupiter and Venus , a comet or a supernova .
Many modern scholars do not consider the story to be describing a historical event but a pious fiction created by the author of the Gospel of Matthew .
The subject is a favorite at planetarium shows during the Christmas season , although the Biblical account describes Jesus with a broader Greek word , which can mean either " infant " or " child " ( paidon ) , rather than the more specific word for infant ( brephos ) , possibly implying that some time has passed since the birth . The visit is traditionally celebrated on Epiphany ( January 6 ) in Western Christianity .
= = Matthew 's narrative = =
In the Gospel of Matthew account , the Magi ( often translated as " wise men " , but more accurately astrologers or astronomers ) arrive at the court of Herod in Jerusalem and tell the king of a star which signifies the birth of the King of the Jews :
Now after Jesus was born in Bethlehem of Judea in the days of Herod the king , behold , wise men from the East came to Jerusalem , saying , Where is He who has been born King of the Jews ? For we have seen His star in the East [ or at its rising ] and have come to worship Him . When Herod the king heard this , he was troubled , and all Jerusalem with him . And when he had gathered all the chief priests and scribes of the people together , he inquired of them where the Christ was to be born .
Herod is " troubled " , not because of the appearance of the star , but because the Magi have told him that a " king of the Jews " had been born , which he understands to refer to the Messiah , a leader of the Jewish people whose coming was believed to be foretold in scripture . So he asks his advisors where the Messiah would be born . They answer Bethlehem , birthplace of King David , and quote the prophet Micah . The king passes this information along to the Magi .
Then Herod , when he had secretly called the wise men , determined from them what time the star appeared . And he sent them to Bethlehem and said , Go and search carefully for the young Child , and when you have found Him , bring back word to me , that I may come and worship Him also . When they heard the king , they departed ; and behold , the star which they had seen in the East went before them , till it came and stood over where the young Child was . When they saw the star , they rejoiced with exceedingly great joy . And when they had come into the house , they saw the young Child with Mary His mother , and fell down and worshiped Him . And when they had opened their treasures , they presented gifts to Him : gold , frankincense , and myrrh .
Matthew 's account suggests that the Magi knew from the star that the " king of the Jews " had been born even before they arrived in Jerusalem . They present Jesus with gifts of gold , frankincense , and myrrh , and as verse 11 describes , they find the mother and child not in a manger but in a house . In a dream , they are warned not to return to Jerusalem , so they leave for their own country by another route . When Herod realizes he has been tricked , he orders the execution of all male children in Bethlehem " two years old and younger , " based on the age the child could be in regard to the information the magi had given him concerning the time the star first appeared . Joseph , warned in a dream , takes his family to Egypt for their safety . The Gospel links the escape to a verse from scripture , which it interprets as a prophecy : " Out of Egypt I called my son . " This was a reference to the departure of the Hebrews from Egypt under Moses , so the quote suggests that Matthew saw the life of Jesus as recapitulating the story of the Jewish people , with Judea representing Egypt and Herod standing in for pharaoh . After Herod dies , Joseph and his family return from Egypt , and settle in Nazareth in Galilee . This is also said to be a fulfillment of a prophecy ( " He will be called a Nazorean , " ( NRSV ) for which no scriptural reference is known . The word " Nazareth " is related to the word " netzer " which means " sprout " , and which some Bible commentators think refers to Isaiah 11 : 1 , " And there shall come forth a shoot out of the stock of Jesse , and a branch out of his roots shall bear fruit . " ( ESV ) .
= = Explanations = =
= = = Pious fiction = = =
Many scholars who see the Gospel Nativity stories as later apologetic accounts created to establish the Messianic status of Jesus , regard the Star of Bethlehem as a pious fiction . Aspects of Matthew 's account which have raised questions of the historical event include : Matthew is the only one of the four gospels which mentions either the Star of Bethlehem or the Magi . In Mark 6 : 1 @-@ 4 , the author of the Gospel of Mark , considered by modern text scholars to be the oldest of the Gospels , does not appear to be aware of the Bethlehem nativity story . A character in the Gospel of John states that Jesus is from Galilee , and not Bethlehem . The Gospels often described Jesus as " of Nazareth , " but never as " of Bethlehem " . Scholars suggest that Jesus was born in Nazareth and that the Bethlehem nativity narratives reflect a desire by the Gospel writers to present his birth as the fulfillment of prophecy . The Matthew account conflicts with that given in the Gospel of Luke , in which the family of Jesus already live in Nazareth , travel to Bethlehem for the census , and return home almost immediately .
Matthew 's description of the miracles and portents attending the birth of Jesus can be compared to stories concerning the birth of Augustus ( 63 BC ) . Linking a birth to the first appearance of a star was consistent with a popular belief that each person 's life was linked to a particular star . Magi and astronomical events were linked in the public mind by the visit to Rome of a delegation of magi at the time of a spectacular appearance of Halley 's Comet in AD 66 , about the time the Gospel of Matthew was being composed . This delegation was led by King Tiridates of Armenia , who came seeking confirmation of his title from Emperor Nero . Ancient historian Dio Cassius wrote that , " The King did not return by the route he had followed in coming , " a line echoed in Matthew 's account .
= = = Fulfillment of prophecy = = =
The ancients believed that astronomical phenomena were connected to terrestrial events . Miracles were routinely associated with the birth of important people , including the Hebrew patriarchs , as well as Greek and Roman heroes .
The Star of Bethlehem is traditionally linked to the Star Prophecy in the Book of Numbers :
Although clearly intended to refer to a time that was long past , since the kingdom of Moab had long ceased to exist by the time the Gospels were being written , this passage had become widely seen as a reference to the coming of a Messiah . It was , for example , cited by Josephus , who believed it referred to Emperor Vespasian . Origen , one of the most influential early Christian theologians , connected this prophecy with the Star of Bethlehem :
If , then , at the commencement of new dynasties , or on the occasion of other important events , there arises a comet so called , or any similar celestial body , why should it be matter of wonder that at the birth of Him who was to introduce a new doctrine to the human race , and to make known His teaching not only to Jews , but also to Greeks , and to many of the barbarous nations besides , a star should have arisen ? Now I would say , that with respect to comets there is no prophecy in circulation to the effect that such and such a comet was to arise in connection with a particular kingdom or a particular time ; but with respect to the appearance of a star at the birth of Jesus there is a prophecy of Balaam recorded by Moses to this effect : There shall arise a star out of Jacob , and a man shall rise up out of Israel .
Origen suggested that the Magi may have decided to travel to Jerusalem when they " conjectured that the man whose appearance had been foretold along with that of the star , had actually come into the world " .
The Magi are sometimes called " kings " because of the belief that they fulfill prophecies in Isaiah and Psalms concerning a journey to Jerusalem by gentile kings . Isaiah mentions gifts of gold and incense . In the Septuagint , the Greek translation of the Old Testament probably used by Matthew , these gifts are given as gold and frankincense , similar to Matthew 's " gold , frankincense , and myrrh . " The gift of myrrh symbolizes mortality , according to Origen .
While Origen argued for a naturalistic explanation , John Chrysostom viewed the star as purely miraculous : " How then , tell me , did the star point out a spot so confined , just the space of a manger and shed , unless it left that height and came down , and stood over the very head of the young child ? And at this the evangelist was hinting when he said , " Lo , the star went before them , till it came and stood over where the young Child was . "
= = = Astronomical object = = =
Although magi ( Greek μαγοι ) is usually translated as " wise men , " in this context it probably means " astronomer " or " astrologer " . The involvement of astrologers in the story of the birth of Jesus was problematic for the early Church , because they condemned astrology as demonic ; a widely cited explanation was that of Tertullian , who suggested that astrology was allowed ' only until the time of the Gospel ' .
= = = = Planetary conjunction = = = =
In 1614 , German astronomer Johannes Kepler determined that a series of three conjunctions of the planets Jupiter and Saturn occurred in the year 7 BC . He argued ( incorrectly ) that a planetary conjunction could create a nova , which he linked to the Star of Bethlehem . Modern calculations show that there was a gap of nearly a degree ( approximately twice a diameter of the moon ) between the planets , so these conjunctions were not visually impressive . An ancient almanac has been found in Babylon which covers the events of this period , but does not indicate that the conjunctions were of any special interest . In the 20th century , Prof. Karlis Kaufmanis , an astronomer , argued that this was an astronomical event where Jupiter and Saturn were in a triple conjunction in the constellation Pisces . Archaeologist and Assyriologist Simo Parpola has also suggested this explanation .
In 3 – 2 BC , there was a series of seven conjunctions , including three between Jupiter and Regulus and a strikingly close conjunction between Jupiter and Venus near Regulus on June 17 , 2 BC . " The fusion of two planets would have been a rare and awe @-@ inspiring event " , according to Roger Sinnott . Another Venus – Jupiter conjunction occurred earlier in August , 3 BC . These events however occurred after the generally accepted date of 4 BC for the death of Herod . Since the conjunction would have been seen in the west at sunset it could not have led the magi south from Jerusalem to Bethlehem .
= = = = Comet = = = =
Other writers suggest that the star was a comet . Halley 's Comet was visible in 12 BC and another object , possibly a comet or nova , was seen by Chinese and Korean stargazers in about 5 BC . This object was observed for over seventy days with no movement recorded . Ancient writers described comets as " hanging over " specific cities , just as the Star of Bethlehem was said to have " stood over " the " place " where Jesus was ( the town of Bethlehem ) . However , this is generally thought unlikely as in ancient times comets were generally seen as bad omens . The comet explanation has been recently promoted by Colin Nicholl . His theory involves a hypothetical comet which could have appeared in 6 BC .
= = = = Supernova = = = =
A recent ( 2005 ) hypothesis is that the star of Bethlehem was a supernova or hypernova occurring in the nearby Andromeda Galaxy . Although it is difficult to detect a supernova remnant in another galaxy , or obtain an accurate date of when it occurred , supernovae remnants have been detected in Andromeda .
= = = = Heliacal rising = = = =
The Magi told Herod that they saw the star " in the East , " or according to some translations , " at its rising " , which may imply the routine appearance of a constellation , or an asterism . One theory interprets the phrase in Matthew 2 : 2 , " in the east , " as an astrological term concerning a " heliacal rising . " This translation was proposed by Edersheim and Heinrich Voigt , among others . The view was rejected by the philologist Franz Boll ( 1867 – 1924 ) . Two modern translators of ancient astrological texts insist that the text does not use the technical terms for either a heliacal or an acronycal rising of a star . However , one concedes that Matthew may have used layman 's terms for a rising .
= = = = Double occultation = = = =
Astronomer Michael R. Molnar argues that the " star in the east " refers to an astronomical event with astrological significance in the context of ancient Greek astrology . He suggests a link between the Star of Bethlehem and a double occultation of Jupiter by the moon on March 20 and April 17 of 6 BC in Aries , particularly the second occultation on April 17 . Occultations of planets by the moon are quite common , but Firmicus Maternus , an astrologer to Roman Emperor Constantine , wrote that an occultation of Jupiter in Aries was a sign of the birth of a divine king . He argues that Aries rather than Pisces was the zodiac symbol for Judea , a fact that would affect previous interpretations of astrological material . Molnar ’ s theory was debated by scientists , theologians , and historians during a colloquium on the Star of Bethlehem at the Netherlands ’ University of Groningen in October 2014 . Harvard astronomer Owen Gingerich supports Molnar ’ s explanation but noted technical questions . " The gospel story is one in which King Herod was taken by surprise , " said Gingerich . " So it wasn ’ t that there was suddenly a brilliant new star sitting there that anybody could have seen [ but ] something more subtle . " Astronomer David A. Weintraub says , " If Matthew ’ s wise men actually undertook a journey to search for a newborn king , the bright star didn ’ t guide them ; it only told them when to set out . "
The events were quite close to the sun and would not have been visible to the naked eye .
= = = = Jupiter ’ s annual cycle = = = =
Another theory connects the star to a series of unique , but generally unspectacular celestial events involving the planet Jupiter . Babylonian astronomers sometimes referred to the planet as MUL.BABBAR , meaning the " white star . " The celestial events , which were centered on the planet 's annual cycle , could have been symbolically associated with Judaism and
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expedition 's departure until 23 August ; the ships reached Suva , Fiji on 26 August , and arrived off Apia early in the morning of 30 August . The city surrendered without a fight , freeing Australia and Melbourne to depart at noon on 31 August to meet the Australian force bound for Rabaul .
The Australian invasion force had mustered off the Louisiade Archipelago by 9 September ; the assembled ships included Australia , the cruisers Sydney , and Encounter , the destroyers Parramatta , Warrego , and Yarra , the submarines AE1 and AE2 , the auxiliary cruiser HMAS Berrima , the storeship SS Aorangi , three colliers and an oiler . The force sailed north , and at 06 : 00 on 11 September , Australia deployed two picket boats to secure Karavia Bay for the expeditionary force 's transports and supply ships . Later that day , Australia captured the German steamer Sumatra off Cape Tawui . After this , the battlecruiser stood off , in case she was required to shell one of the two wireless stations the occupation force was attempting to capture . The German colony was captured , and on 15 September , Australia departed for Sydney .
= = = = Pursuit of von Spee = = = =
The presence of Australia around the former German colonies , combined with the likelihood of Japan declaring war on Germany , prompted von Spee to withdraw his ships from the region . On 13 August , the East Asia Squadron — with the exception of SMS Emden , which was sent to prey on British shipping in the Indian Ocean — had begun to move eastwards . After appearing off Samoa on 14 September , then attacking Tahiti eight days later , von Spee led his force to South America , and from there planned to sail for the Atlantic . Patey was ordered on 17 September to head back north with Australia and Sydney to protect the Australian expeditionary force . On 1 October , Australia , Sydney , Montcalm , and Encounter headed north from Rabaul to find the German ships , but turned around to return at midnight , after receiving an Admiralty message about the Tahiti attack . Although Patey suspected that the Germans were heading for South America and wanted to follow with Australia , the Admiralty was unsure that the intelligence was accurate , and tasked the battlecruiser with patrolling around Fiji in case they returned . Australia reached Suva on 12 October , and spent the next four weeks patrolling the waters around Fiji , Samoa , and New Caledonia : despite Patey 's desires to range out further , Admiralty orders kept him chained to Suva until early November .
As Patey predicted , von Spee had continued east , and it was not until his force inflicted the first defeat on the Royal Navy in 100 years at the Battle of Coronel that Australia was allowed to pursue . Departing on 8 November , the battlecruiser replenished coal from a pre @-@ positioned collier on 14 November , and reached Chamela Bay ( near Manzanillo , Mexico ) 12 days later . Patey was made commander of a multinational squadron tasked with preventing the German squadron from sailing north to Canadian waters , or following them if they attempted to enter the Atlantic via the Panama Canal or around Cape Horn . Patey 's ships included Australia , the British light cruiser HMS Newcastle and the Japanese cruisers Izumo , Asama , and the ex @-@ Russian battleship Hizen . The ships made for the Galapagos Islands , which were searched from 4 to 6 December . After finding no trace of von Spee 's force , the Admiralty ordered Patey to investigate the South American coast from Perlas Island down to the Gulf of Guayaquil . The German squadron had sailed for the Atlantic via Cape Horn , and was defeated by a British fleet after attempting to raid the Falkland Islands on 8 December . Patey 's squadron learned of this 10 December , while off the Gulf of Panama ; Australia 's personnel were disappointed that they did not have the chance to take on Scharnhorst and Gneisenau . Nevertheless , the battlecruiser 's presence in the Pacific during 1914 had provided an important counter to the German armoured cruisers , and enabled the RAN to participate in the Admiralty 's global strategy . Moreover , it is unlikely that the attack on Rabaul would have gone ahead had Australia not been available to protect the landing force .
= = = = North Sea operations = = = =
As the threat of a German naval attack had been removed by the destruction of the East Asia Squadron , Australia was free for deployment elsewhere . Initially , the battlecruiser was to serve as flagship of the West Indies Squadron , with the task of pursuing and destroying any German vessels that evaded North Sea blockades . Australia was ordered to sail to Jamaica via the Panama Canal , but as it was closed to heavy shipping , she was forced to sail down the coast of South America and pass through the Strait of Magellan during 31 December 1914 and 1 January 1915 — Australia is the only ship of the RAN to cross from the Pacific to the Atlantic by sailing under South America . During the crossing , one of the warship 's propellers was damaged , and she had to limp to the Falkland Islands at half speed . Temporary repairs were made , and Australia departed on 5 January . A vessel well clear of the usual shipping routes was spotted on the afternoon of the next day , and the battlecruiser attempted to pursue , but was hampered by the damaged propeller . Unable to close the gap before sunset , a warning shot was fired from ' A ' turret , which caused the ship — the former German passenger liner , now naval auxiliary Eleonora Woermann — to stop and be captured . As Australia could not spare enough personnel to secure and operate the merchant ship , and Eleonora Woermann was too slow to keep pace with the battlecruiser , the German crew were taken aboard and the ship was sunk .
Following the Battle of Dogger Bank , the Admiralty saw the need for dedicated battlecruiser squadrons in British waters , and earmarked Australia to lead one of them . On 11 January , while en route to Jamaica , Australia was diverted to Gibraltar . Reaching there on 20 January , the battlecruiser was ordered to proceed to Plymouth , where she arrived on 28 January and paid off for a short refit . The docking was completed on 12 February , and Australia reached Rosyth on 17 February after sailing through a gale . She was made flagship of the 2nd Battlecruiser Squadron ( 2nd BCS ) of the Battlecruiser Fleet , part of the British Grand Fleet , on 22 February . Vice Admiral Patey was appointed to command this squadron . In early March , to avoid a conflict of seniority between Patey and the leader of the Battlecruiser Fleet , Vice Admiral David Beatty , Patey was reassigned to the West Indies , and Rear Admiral William Pakenham raised his flag aboard Australia . British and Allied ships deployed to the North Sea were tasked with protecting the British Isles from German naval attack , and keeping the German High Seas Fleet penned in European waters through a distant blockade while trying to lure them into a decisive battle . During her time with the 2nd BCS , Australia 's operations primarily consisted of training exercises ( either in isolation or with other ships ) , patrols of the North Sea area in response to actual or perceived German movements , and some escort work . These duties were so monotonous , one sailor was driven insane .
Australia joined the Grand Fleet in a sortie on 29 March , in response to intelligence that the German fleet was leaving port as the precursor to a major operation . By the next night , the German ships had withdrawn , and Australia returned to Rosyth . On 11 April , the British fleet was again deployed on the intelligence that a German force was planning an operation . The Germans intended to lay mines at the Swarte Bank , but after a scouting Zeppelin located a British light cruiser squadron , they began to prepare for what they thought was a British attack . Heavy fog and the need to refuel caused Australia and the British vessels to return to port on 17 August , and although they were redeployed that night , they were unable to stop two German light cruisers from laying the minefield . From 26 to 28 January 1916 , the 2nd BCS was positioned off the Skagerrak while the 1st Light Cruiser Squadron swept the strait in an unsuccessful search of a possible minelayer .
On the morning of 21 April , Australia and her sister ships sailed again for the Skagerrak , this time to support efforts to disrupt the transport of Swedish ore to Germany . The planned destroyer sweep of the Kattegat was cancelled when word came that the High Seas Fleet was mobilising for an operation of their own ( later learned to be timed to coincide with the Irish Easter Rising ) , and the British ships were ordered to a rendezvous point in the middle of the North Sea , while the rest of the Grand Fleet made for the south @-@ eastern end of the Long Forties . On the afternoon of 22 April , the Battlecruiser Fleet was patrolling to the north @-@ west of Horn Reefs when heavy fog came down . The ships were zigzagging to avoid submarine attack , which , combined with the weather conditions , caused Australia to collide with sister ship HMS New Zealand twice in three minutes . Procedural errors were found to be the cause of the collisions , which saw Australia ( the more heavily damaged of the two ships ) docked for six weeks of repairs between April and June 1916 . Initial inspections of the damage were made in a floating dock on the River Tyne , but the nature of the damage required a diversion to Devonport , Devon for the actual repair work . The repairs were completed more quickly than expected , and Australia rejoined the 2nd BCS Squadron at Rosyth on 9 June , having missed the Battle of Jutland .
On the evening of 18 August , the Grand Fleet put to sea in response to a message deciphered by Room 40 , which indicated that the High Seas Fleet , minus II Squadron , would be leaving harbour that night . The German objective was to bombard Sunderland on 19 August , with extensive reconnaissance provided by airships and submarines . The Grand Fleet sailed with 29 dreadnought battleships and 6 battlecruisers . Throughout the next day , Jellicoe and Scheer received conflicting intelligence , with the result that having reached its rendezvous in the North Sea , the Grand Fleet steered north in the erroneous belief that it had entered a minefield before turning south again . Scheer steered south @-@ eastward to pursue a lone British battle squadron sighted by an airship , which was in fact the Harwich Force under Commodore Tyrwhitt . Having realised their mistake , the Germans changed course for home . The only contact came in the evening when Tyrwhitt sighted the High Seas Fleet but was unable to achieve an advantageous attack position before dark , and broke off . Both the British and German fleets returned home , with two British cruisers sunk by submarines and a German dreadnought battleship damaged by a torpedo .
The year 1917 saw a continuation of the battlecruiser 's routine of exercises and patrols into the North Sea , with few incidents . During this year Australia 's activities were limited to training voyages between Rosyth and Scapa Flow and occasional patrols to the north @-@ east of Britain in search of German raiders . In May , while preparing the warship for action stations , a 12 @-@ inch shell became jammed in the shell hoist when its fuze became hooked onto a projection . After the magazines were evacuated , Lieutenant @-@ Commander F. C. Darley climbed down the hoist and successfully removed the fuze . On 26 June , King George V visited the ship . On 12 December , Australia was involved in a second collision , this time with the battlecruiser HMS Repulse . Following this accident , she underwent three weeks of repairs from December 1917 until January 1918 . During the repair period , Australia became the first RAN ship to launch an aircraft , when a Sopwith Pup took off from her quarterdeck on 18 December . On 30 December , Australia shelled a suspected submarine contact , the only time during her deployment with the 2nd BCS that she fired on the enemy .
In February 1918 , the call went out for volunteers to participate in a special mission to close the port of Zeebrugge using blockships . Although many aboard Australia volunteered their services in an attempt to escape the drudgery of North Sea patrols , only 11 personnel — 10 sailors and an engineering lieutenant — were selected for the raid , which occurred on 23 April . The lieutenant was posted to the engine room of the requisitioned ferry HMS Iris II , and was awarded the Distinguished Service Medal ( DSM ) for his efforts . The other Australians were assigned to the boiler rooms of the blockship Thetis , or as part of a storming party along the mole . All ten sailors survived — Australia was the only ship to have no casualties from the raid — and three were awarded the DSM , while another three were mentioned in dispatches . One of the sailors was listed in the ballot to receive a Victoria Cross , but he did not receive the award .
During 1918 , Australia and the Grand Fleet 's other capital ships on occasion escorted convoys travelling between Britain and Norway . The 2nd BCS spent the period from 8 to 21 February covering these convoys in company with battleships and destroyers , and put to sea on 6 March in company with the 1st Battlecruiser Squadron to support minelayers . From 8 March on , the battlecruiser tested the capabilities of aircraft launched from platforms mounted over ' P ' and ' Q ' turrets . Australia , along with the rest of the Grand Fleet , sortied on the afternoon of 23 March 1918 after radio transmissions had revealed that the High Seas Fleet was at sea after a failed attempt to intercept the regular British convoy to Norway . However , the Germans were too far ahead of the British and escaped without firing a shot . The 2nd BCS sailed again on 25 April to support minelayers , then cover one of the Scandinavian convoys the next day . Following the successful launch of a fully laden Sopwith 1 ½ Strutter scout plane on 14 May , Australia started carrying two aircraft — a Strutter for reconnaissance , and a Sopwith Camel fighter — and operated them until the end of the war . The 2nd BCS again supported minelayers in the North Sea between 25 – 26 June and 29 – 30 July . During September and October , Australia and the 2nd BCS supervised and protected minelaying operations north of Orkney .
= = = = War 's end = = = =
When the armistice with Germany was signed on 11 November 1918 to end World War I , one of the conditions was that the German High Seas Fleet was to be interred at Scapa Flow . The German fleet crossed the North Sea , and on 21 November , the British Grand Fleet sailed out to meet it ; Australia led the port division of the fleet . Australia then escorted the battlecruiser SMS Hindenburg to Scapa Flow , and was assigned as the German vessel 's guardship . Australia subsequently formed part of the force which guarded the High Seas Fleet during late 1918 and early 1919 , and spent much of her time either at anchor at Scapa Flow , or conducting patrols in the North Sea . This monotonous duty contributed to low morale among some sections of the ship 's crew .
After being formally farewelled by the Prince of Wales and First Sea Lord Rosslyn Wemyss on 22 April 1919 , Australia departed from Portsmouth for home the next day . She sailed in company with HMAS Brisbane for the first part of the voyage , but the light cruiser later had to detach to tow the submarine J5 . Australia arrived in Fremantle on 28 May 1919 , the first time the ship had seen home waters in four and a half years . Despite returning home , the battlecruiser remained under Admiralty control until 1 August 1919 .
Australia was not awarded any official battle honours , although personnel aboard the battlecruiser and her successor claimed the operations in the Pacific , the North Sea patrol duties , and the battlecruiser 's presence at the surrender of the German High Seas Fleet as unofficial honours . Following a reorganisation of RAN battle honours in 2010 , the honours " Rabaul 1914 " and " North Sea 1915 – 18 " were retroactively awarded on 1 March 2010 .
= = = Mutiny = = =
Australia 's ship 's company had consistently suffered from low morale since the battlecruiser entered service , and the proportion of Australia 's sailors who were placed on disciplinary charges during World War I was among the highest in the RAN . Many of the Australian sailors were chafing under the severity of naval discipline and what they saw as excessive punishment for minor breaches ; one example was of a sailor who was charged with desertion , imprisoned for three months , and lost all pay for staying out too late on Armistice Day . Factors which contributed to low morale and poor discipline included frustration at not participating in the Battle of Jutland , high rates of illness , limited opportunities for leave , delays or complete lack of deferred pay , and poor @-@ quality food . The continuation of strict wartime routines and discipline after the armistice frustrated the ship 's crew . There was also the perception that Australia 's British personnel were being promoted faster than their Australian counterparts and were dominating leadership positions . The battlecruiser 's arrival in Fremantle on 28 May was met with extensive hospitality , which was reciprocated where possible by the sailors with invitations and tours of their vessel . There were opportunities for shore leave , but these were limited as Australia was only in port for three days , and had to sail early on 1 June for Melbourne .
Representatives of the ship 's company approached Captain Claude Cumberlege to ask for a one @-@ day delay on departure ; this would allow the sailors to have a full weekend of leave , give Perth @-@ born personnel the chance to visit their families , and give personnel another chance to invite people aboard . Cumberlege replied that as Australia had a tight schedule of " welcome home " port visits , such delays could not even be considered . The next morning , at around 10 : 30 , between 80 and 100 sailors gathered in front of ' P ' turret , some in working uniform , others who had just returned from shore leave still in libertyman rig . Cumberlege sent the executive officer to find out why the men had assembled , and on learning that they were repeating the previous day 's request for a delay in departure , went down to address them . In a strict , legalistic tone , he informed the sailors that delaying Australia 's departure was impossible , and ordered them to disperse . The group obeyed this order , although some were vocal in their displeasure . Shortly after , Australia was ready to depart , but when the order to release the mooring lines and get underway was given , Cumberlege was informed that the stokers had abandoned the boiler rooms . After the assembly on deck , some sailors had masked themselves with black handkerchiefs , and encouraged or intimidated the stokers on duty into leaving their posts , leaving the navy 's flagship stranded at the buoy , in full view of dignitaries and crowds lining the nearby wharf . The senior non @-@ commissioned officers , along with sailors drafted from other departments , were sent to the boiler room to get Australia moving , and departure from Fremantle was only delayed by an hour .
Australian naval historians David Stevens and Tom Frame disagree on what happens next . Stevens states that Cumberledge assembled the ship 's company in the early afternoon , read the Articles of War , lectured them on the seriousness of refusing duty , then ordered the stokers to go to their stations , which they did meekly . Frame claims that the stokers returned to duty freely once the battlecruiser was underway , before Cumberledge cleared lower deck and spoke to the sailors . After addressing the sailors , Cumberledge gathered the ship 's senior officers for an inquiry . Five men , including the Victoria Cross nominee from the Zeebrugge raid , were charged with inciting a mutiny and arrested pending a court @-@ martial , which was held aboard HMAS Encounter on 20 June , after Australia arrived in Sydney . The ruling was that the five men had " joined a mutiny , not accompanied by violence " , and they were sentenced to imprisonment in Goulburn Gaol : two for a year , one for eighteen months , and two for two years with hard labour . A number of other sailors were charged with participating in a mutiny , but again , Stevens and Frame disagree on details : the former claims 7 men were successfully charged , while the latter says 32 sailors were subsequently acquitted of mutiny , but then successfully charged with refusing duty . Both authors agree that these men were tried by the captain while Australia was still at sea , and punished with 90 days each in cells .
Following the court @-@ martial of the five ringleaders , there was debate among the public , in the media , and within government over the sentences ; while most agreed that a mutiny had occurred , there were differences in opinion on the leniency or severity of the punishments imposed . Public sympathy was with the sailors , and several politicians pressured the government and the Admiralty to pardon the men . The Admiralty thought the sentences were fair , but on 10 September announced that they would be halved on consideration of the sailors ' youth . Despite this , controversy continued until 21 November : after the Australian government appealed directly to the Admiralty , it was agreed that the sailors would be released on 20 December . However , the government had angered the Naval Board in appealing to the Admiralty without consulting the Board first . The First Naval Member , Rear Admiral Percy Grant and Commander of the Fleet , Commodore John Dumaresq , submitted their resignations in protest , as they felt the show of clemency would lead to a breakdown in discipline , and that if the government continued to communicate with the Admiralty without consulting the Board , it would undermine the Board 's authority . The two officers were later convinced to withdraw their resignations after receiving assurances that Board would be consulted before all future government communications to Britain regarding the RAN , and that notices would be posted in all ships explaining that the sentences were correct , but the onset of peace had led to clemency in this particular case .
= = = Post @-@ war = = =
In May 1920 , Australia participated in celebrations and naval activities associated with the visit of the Prince of Wales . From July to November 1920 , an Avro 504 floatplane of the Australian Air Corps was embarked aboard Australia as part of a series of trials intended to cumulate in the creation of a naval aviation branch . The aircraft was stored on the quarterdeck next to ' Q ' turret , and was deployed and recovered by derrick . Inter @-@ service rivalry and the ship 's reduction to non @-@ seagoing status in September prevented further operations .
Following the demise of German naval power in the Pacific the fleet unit concept was no longer seen as being relevant , and Australia did not have a clear role . As a result , post @-@ war budget cuts prompted the RAN to take the battlecruiser out of active service , as the large share of resources and manpower consumed by Australia could be better used elsewhere in the RAN . In August 1920 the battlecruiser was rated by the Naval Board as 11th out of the RAN 's 12 priorities . Accordingly , the ship 's company was reduced later that year and she was assigned to Flinders Naval Depot as a gunnery and torpedo training ship . In the event of a major conflict , Australia was to serve in a role akin to coastal artillery . She was not considered to have been placed in reserve at this time , however , as it was not possible for the RAN to provide a trained complement at short notice .
= = Decommissioning and fate = =
Australia returned to Sydney in November 1921 , and was paid off into reserve in December . By this time battlecruisers built before the Battle of Jutland were considered obsolete , and there is no record of the Admiralty suggesting that Australia purchase a replacement . Moreover , it is unlikely that the Australian Government would have agreed to such a suggestion given the prevailing political and financial conditions . As the Admiralty had decided to phase out 12 @-@ inch guns and had stopped the manufacture of shells for these weapons shortly after the war , it would have been necessary to replace Australia 's main armament once the Navy 's stock of shells reached their expiry date given that it was not possible to produce replacement shells in Australia . This was also not financially feasible for the government , particularly given the RAN 's lack of interest in retaining the ship .
The 1922 Washington Naval Treaty was a mutual naval arms limitation and disarmament treaty between the five major naval powers of the time : the United Kingdom , the United States of America , Japan , Italy , and France . One of the main aspects of the treaty was the limitation on the number and size of capital ships each nation possessed ; as the RAN was counted as part of the Royal Navy for the purposes of the treaty , Australia was one of the battlecruisers nominated for disposal to meet the British limit . The battlecruiser had to be made unusable for warlike activities within six months of the treaty 's ratification , then disposed of by scuttling , as Australia did not have the facilities to break her up for scrap , and the British share of target ships was taken up by Royal Navy vessels . This was the only time the Australian military has been affected by a disarmament treaty until the 1997 Ottawa Treaty banning the use of anti @-@ personnel mines .
Some equipment had been removed when Australia was decommissioned for use in other ships , but after the November 1923 decision by the Cabinet confirming the scuttling , RAN personnel and private contractors began to remove piping and other small fittings . Between November 1923 and January 1924 , £ 68 @,@ 000 of equipment was reclaimed ; over half was donated to tertiary education centres ( some of which was still in use in the 1970s ) , while the rest was either marked for use in future warships , or sold as souvenirs . Some consideration was given to reusing Australia 's 12 @-@ inch guns in coastal fortifications , but this did not occur as ammunition for these weapons was no longer being manufactured by the British , and the cost of building suitable structures was excessive . It was instead decided to sink the gun turrets and spare barrels with the rest of the ship . There was also a proposal to remove Australia 's conning tower and install it on the Sydney Harbour foreshore ; although this did not go ahead , the idea was later used when the foremast of HMAS Sydney was erected as a monument at Bradleys Head . The ship 's outer port propeller is on display at the Australian War Memorial , while other artefacts are in the collections of the War Memorial , the Australian National Maritime Museum , and the Royal Australian Navy Heritage Centre .
The scuttling was originally scheduled for Anzac Day ( 25 April ) 1924 , but was brought forward to 12 April , so the visiting British Special Service Squadron could participate . On the day of the sinking , Australia was towed out to a point 25 nautical miles ( 46 km ; 29 mi ) north east of Sydney Heads . Under the terms of the Washington Treaty , the battlecruiser needed to be sunk in water that was deep enough to make it infeasible to refloat her at a future date . The former flagship was escorted by the Australian warships Melbourne , Brisbane , Adelaide , Anzac , and Stalwart , the ships of the Special Service Squadron , and several civilian ferries carrying passengers . Many personnel volunteered to be part of the scuttling party , but only those who had served aboard her were selected . At 14 : 30 , the scuttling party set the charges , opened all seacocks , and cleared the ship . Explosive charges blew a hole in the hull a few minutes later , but it took 20 minutes for the intake of water to bring holes cut in the battlecruiser 's upper flanks to the waterline . The angle of list increased significantly , causing the three spare 12 @-@ inch barrels lashed to the deck to break free and roll overboard , before Australia inverted completely and began to sink stern @-@ first . Australia submerged completely at 14 : 51 ; a Royal Australian Air Force aircraft dropped a wreath where the warship had sunk , while Brisbane fired a rolling 21 @-@ gun salute . The wreck was gazetted as being at 33 ° 53 ′ 25 ″ S 151 ° 46 ′ 5 ″ E , 270 metres ( 890 ft ) below . However , there were discrepancies with other sources , and the exact location of Australia was unknown .
There are two schools of thought surrounding the decision to scuttle the battlecruiser . The first is that sinking Australia was a major blow to the nation 's ability to defend herself . Following the battlecruiser 's scuttling , the most powerful warships in the RAN were four old light cruisers . The battlecruiser had served as a deterrent to German naval action against Australia during the war , and with growing tensions between Japan and the United States of America , that deterrence may have been required if the nations became openly hostile towards each other or towards Australia . The opposing argument is that , while an emotive and symbolic loss , the ship was obsolete , and would have been a drain on resources . Operating and maintaining the warship was beyond the capabilities of the RAN 's post @-@ war budgets , necessitating the ship 's reduction in status in 1920 and assignment to reserve in 1921 . Ammunition and replacement barrels for the main guns were no longer manufactured . To remain effective , Australia required major modernisation ( including new propulsion machinery , increased armour and armament , and new fire control systems ) at a cost equivalent to a new County @-@ class cruiser .
In 1990 , a large , unknown shipwreck was encountered by the Fugro Seafloor Surveys vessel MV Moana Wave 1 while surveying the path of the Pacific Rim West Submarine Telecommunications Cable . One of the survey ship 's crew theorised that the wreck , located at 33 ° 51 ′ 54 @.@ 21 ″ S 151 ° 44 ′ 25 @.@ 11 ″ E in 390 metres ( 1 @,@ 280 ft ) of water , was Australia , but Fugro kept the information to themselves until 2002 , when the company 's Australian branch mentioned the discovery during a conference . This piqued the interest of a member of the New South Wales Heritage Office , who requested copies of the company 's data . The size and location of the ship pointed towards it being Australia , but the depth meant verification through inspection could only be achieved with a remote operated vehicle ( ROV ) . The RAN was approached in 2007 for assistance , but although they supported the project , the RAN did not have the equipment to assist . In March 2007 , the United States Navy loaned the deep @-@ sea ROV CURV @-@ 21 to the Australian Government , to locate and recover a Black Hawk helicopter which crashed during the Australian response to the 2006 Fijian coup d 'état . While en route back to Australia , the ROV , carried aboard Defence Maritime Services vessel Seahorse Standard , was directed to Fugro 's coordinates at the request of the NSW Heritage Office to verify and inspect the wreck . Video footage captured by the ROV allowed the NSW Heritage Office to confirm that the wreck was Australia by matching features like the superstructure and masts to historical photographs . Although initially sinking stern @-@ first , the battlecruiser levelled out as she sank , with the aft mast the first to strike the bottom . After hitting the seabed , Australia slid about 400 metres ( 1 @,@ 300 ft ) to her final resting place . The wreck site is protected under the federal Historic Shipwrecks Act 1976 .
= 55 Cancri e =
55 Cancri e ( abbreviated 55 Cnc e ) , also named Janssen , is an exoplanet closely orbiting its Sun @-@ like host star 55 Cancri A. The mass of the exoplanet is about 8 @.@ 63 Earth masses and its diameter is about twice that of the Earth , thus classifying it as the first super @-@ Earth discovered around a main sequence star , predating Gliese 876 d by a year . It takes fewer than 18 hours to complete an orbit and is the innermost known planet in its planetary system . 55 Cancri e was discovered on 30 August 2004 . However , until the 2010 observations and recalculations , this planet had been thought to take about 2 @.@ 8 days to orbit the star . In October 2012 , it was announced that 55 Cancri e could be a carbon planet .
In July 2014 the International Astronomical Union launched a process for giving proper names to certain exoplanets and their host stars . The process involved public nomination and voting for the new names . In December 2015 , the IAU announced the winning name was Janssen for this planet . The winning name was submitted by the Royal Netherlands Association for Meteorology and Astronomy of the Netherlands . It honors the spectacle maker and telescope pioneer Zacharias Janssen .
In February 2016 , it was announced that NASA 's Hubble Space Telescope had detected hydrogen and helium ( and suggestions of hydrogen cyanide ) , but no water vapor , in the atmosphere of 55 Cancri e , the first time the atmosphere of a super @-@ earth exoplanet was analyzed successfully .
= = Discovery = =
Like the majority of extrasolar planets found prior to the Kepler mission , 55 Cancri e was discovered by detecting variations in its star 's radial velocity . This was achieved by making sensitive measurements of the Doppler shift of the spectrum of 55 Cancri A. At the time of its discovery , three other planets were known orbiting the star . After accounting for these planets , a signal at around 2 @.@ 8 days remained , which could be explained by a planet of at least 14 @.@ 2 Earth masses in a very close orbit . The same measurements were used to confirm the existence of the uncertain planet 55 Cancri c .
55 Cancri e was one of the first extrasolar planets with a mass comparable to that of Neptune to be discovered . It was announced at the same time as another " hot Neptune " orbiting the red dwarf star Gliese 436 named Gliese 436 b .
= = = Planet challenged = = =
In 2005 the existence of planet e was questioned by Jack Wisdom in a reanalysis of the data : according to him , instead of the 2 @.@ 8 @-@ day planet there is a planet with a mass similar to that of Neptune in a 261 @-@ day orbit around 55 Cancri A. In 2007 , Debra Fischer and colleagues at San Francisco State University published a new analysis indicating that both planets existed ; the planet in the 260 @-@ day orbit was accordingly designated 55 Cancri f .
= = = Transit = = =
The planet 's transit of its primary was announced on 27 April 2011 , based on two weeks of nearly continuous photometric monitoring with the MOST space telescope . The transits occur with the period ( 0 @.@ 74 days ) and phase that had been predicted by Dawson & Fabrycky . This is one of the few planetary transits to be confirmed around a well @-@ known star , and allowed investigations into the planet 's composition .
= = Orbit and mass = =
The radial velocity method used to detect 55 Cancri e obtains the minimum mass of 7 @.@ 8 times that of Earth , or 48 % of the mass of Neptune . The transit shows that its inclination is about 83 @.@ 4 ± 1 @.@ 7 , so the real mass is close to the minimum . 55 Cancri e is also coplanar with b .
= = Characteristics = =
55 Cancri e receives more radiation than Gliese 436 b . The side of the planet facing its star has temperatures more than 2 @,@ 000 kelvin ( approximately 1 @,@ 700 degrees Celsius or 3 @,@ 100 Fahrenheit ) , hot enough to melt metal .
It was initially unknown whether 55 Cancri e was a small gas giant like Neptune or a large rocky terrestrial planet . In 2011 , a transit of the planet was confirmed , allowing scientists to calculate its density . At first it was suspected to be a water planet . As initial observations showed no hydrogen in its Lyman @-@ alpha signature during transit , Ehrenreich speculated that its volatile materials might be carbon dioxide instead of water or hydrogen .
An alternative possibility is that 55 Cancri e is a solid planet made of carbon @-@ rich material rather than the oxygen @-@ rich material that makes up the terrestrial planets in our solar system . In this case , roughly a third of the planet 's mass would be carbon , much of which may be in the form of diamond as a result of the temperatures and pressures in the planet 's interior . Further observations are necessary to confirm the nature of the planet .
In February 2016 , it was announced that NASA 's Hubble Space Telescope had detected hydrogen and helium ( and suggestions of hydrogen cyanide ) , but no water vapor , in the atmosphere of 55 Cancri e , the first time the atmosphere of a super @-@ earth exoplanet was analyzed successfully .
= = = Volcanism = = =
Large surface temperature variations on 55 Cancri e have been attributed to possible volcanic activity releasing large clouds of dust which blanket the planet and block thermal emissions .
= Boletus curtisii =
Boletus curtisii is a species of fungus in the Boletaceae family . It produces small- to medium @-@ sized fruit bodies ( mushrooms ) with a convex cap up to 9 @.@ 5 cm ( 3 @.@ 7 in ) wide atop a slender stem that can reach a length of 12 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) . In young specimens , the cap and stem are bright golden yellow , although the color dulls to brownish when old . Both the stem and cap are slimy or sticky when young . On the underside of the cap are small circular to angular pores . The mushroom is edible , but not appealing . It is found in eastern and southern North America , where it grows in a mycorrhizal association with hardwood and conifer trees . Once classified as a species of Pulveroboletus , the yellow color of B. curtisii is a result of pigments chemically distinct from those responsible for the yellow coloring of Pulveroboletus .
= = Taxonomy = =
The species was first described scientifically by English mycologist Miles Joseph Berkeley in 1853 . The specific epithet curtisii honors Moses Ashley Curtis , who collected the type material from South Carolina .
American mycologist William Murrill called it Ceriomyces curtisii in 1909 , but Ceriomyces ( as defined by Murrill in 1909 ) has since been subsumed into Boletus . In his 1947 monograph on boletes of Florida , Rolf Singer transferred the species to the genus Pulveroboletus , and made it the type of his newly described section Cartilaginei , which featured species with a glutinous or sticky stem , and a leather @-@ colored to brownish hymenophore . Species in Pulveroboletus are characterized by the presence of pigments based on the chemical structure of pulvinic acid , a yellow @-@ orange compound found in some species of Boletales . The pigments responsible for the color of B. curtisii are , however , entirely different from the pulvinic acid compounds found in Pulveroboletus species , which invalidates the chemotaxonomical rational for generic placement in Pulveroboletus . Otto Kuntze once placed the species in Suillus , but it lacks the partial veil and glandular dots associated with that genus . William Chambers Coker and Alma Beers considered Charles Horton Peck 's Boletus inflexus ( described from New York in 1895 ) as well as Henry Curtis Beardslee 's 1915 B. carolinensis to be the same species as B. curtisii . Coker and Beer 's suggested synonymy , however , is not recognized by the taxonomical authorities MycoBank or Index Fungorum .
Wally Snell once considered Boletus carolinensis to be the sames species as B. curtisii . He claimed that the former species was then considered distinct from the latter by virtue of an even , instead of reticulate ( netlike ) stem , although they were otherwise quite similar in appearance and spore size and shape . Snell explained that although neither the English nor the Latin text of Berkeley 's original description mentioned a reticulated stem , a later ( 1872 ) description by Berkeley characterized the stem as reticulato . Snell thought that this might have been an error in transcription , or an error in the species account , as herbarium specimens that he had examined lacked this feature . He changed his mind a couple of years later , when he found a small amount of reticulation in material collected by Peck .
= = Description = =
The cap is 3 – 9 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 – 3 @.@ 7 in ) wide , and initially obtuse to convex in shape before becoming broadly convex to nearly flat when mature . The cap margin has a narrow band of sterile tissue that in young fruit bodies is curved inwards . The cap surface is somewhat sticky when fresh , smooth , and bright yellow to orange @-@ yellow , sometimes with brownish tints or whitish areas in age . The whitish flesh does not change color when exposed to air , and has no distinctive odor or taste . On the underside of the cap , the pore surface is initially whitish to buff or pale yellow , but becomes duller and darker at maturity , often depressed near the stem in age . Unlike some other boletes , B. curtisii does not turn blue when bruised or injured . The pores are circular to angular , and there are 2 – 3 per mm ; the tubes are 6 – 12 mm deep . Young fruit bodies usually have droplets of golden yellow liquid on the pore surface ( sometimes abundantly so ) , although this is rarely observed in older specimens .
The stem is 6 – 12 cm ( 2 @.@ 4 – 4 @.@ 7 in ) long , 0 @.@ 6 – 1 @.@ 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 2 – 0 @.@ 5 in ) thick , and roughly equal in width throughout . Its surface is sticky and glutinous when fresh , somewhat scurfy near the apex ( covered with loose scales ) but smooth below . It is pale yellow to yellow down to the base , which is sheathed with a cottony white mycelium . The stem can be either solid or hollow . The mushroom lacks a partial veil and a ring . The spore print is olive @-@ brown . The mushroom is edible , but not appealing .
Spores are 9 @.@ 5 – 17 by 4 – 6 μm , ellipsoid to somewhat ventricose ( inflated on one side ) , smooth , and yellowish . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are four @-@ spored , measuring 25 – 32 by 6 – 10 @.@ 8 μm . The cystidia lining the inside of the tubes are shaped like setae ( i.e. , thick walled and thorn @-@ like ) and have dimensions of 43 – 86 by 6 @.@ 5 – 11 μm . All hyphae lack clamp connections .
= = = Similar species = = =
Retiboletus retipes is somewhat similar in appearance , but is distinguished by a more orange to orange @-@ yellow color , a lack of sliminess , and a distinctly reticulated stalk .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
The fruit bodies of B. curtisii grow singly , scattered , or in small groups on the ground in coniferous or mixed woods , often with pines . Fruit bodies generally appear from August to November . The geographical distribution of the fungus is limited to eastern and southern North America . In the United States , it occurs from New England south to Florida , and west to Texas . The species was newly reported from Mexico in 2001 .
= = Pigments = =
The fruit bodies of Boletus curtisii contain a unique series of derivatives of the molecule canthin @-@ 6 @-@ one . Before this discovery , canthin @-@ 6 @-@ one alkaloids were only known from higher plants . Among the canthin @-@ 6 @-@ one derivatives are the pigments that give the mushroom its bright yellow color , including two optically active sulfoxides named curtisin and 9 @-@ deoxycurtisin . Spraying a fruit body with methanol causes the pigments to dissolve and makes the color wash away — a phenomenon unknown in other bolete mushrooms . Additionally , spraying fruit bodies with acetone results in a green @-@ yellow fluorescence visible in daylight .
= The New Cup =
" The New Cup " is the second episode of the second season of the HBO comedy series Flight of the Conchords , and the series ' fourteenth episode overall . This episode first aired in the United States on January 25 , 2009 . The episode was directed by James Bobin and written by Duncan Sarkies . In this episode , Bret and Jemaine 's fortunes unravel after Bret buys a new teacup . With emergency band funds unavailable , Jemaine takes desperate measures in hopes of supplementing their income .
" The New Cup " received largely positive reviews from critics , with many noting that both the episode 's plot and songs were particularly strong . According to Nielsen Media Research , on its initial broadcast , " The New Cup " was watched by over 500 @,@ 000 people . Two songs from the episode , " Sugalumps " and " You Don 't Have to be a Prostitute " , received positive critical acclaim and were later included on the band 's second album I Told You I Was Freaky .
= = Plot = =
Bret buys a new cup for $ 2 @.@ 79 so that he and Jemaine no longer have to share one cup . A month later , they find out that their check for the phone bill bounced because their account was short $ 2 @.@ 79 . The phone company charges them a $ 30 overdraft fee , causing the cheque for their gas bill to bounce , and both services are scheduled to be cut off . Immediately after finding this out , their power goes off . Bret ends up selling his guitar to pay the bills , and he performs on stage with Jemaine while playing air guitar and making guitar sounds . Murray writes up his negative opinion of the show in the New Zealand consulate newsletter , giving them " two stars out of 100 " . When Bret asks Murray for some of the emergency band fund , Murray tells him that he invested the money with a Nigerian man named Nigel Seladu who contacted him over the internet . Nigel promised Murray his money back with " a thousand percent interest " and " a share of his family fortunes " . Jemaine and Bret are certain that this is merely a scam .
Later on , Bret and Jemaine are confronted by Mel . When she learns they 're having money troubles , she offers to pay them for a massage . Both Bret and Jemaine awkwardly try to give her a minimal contact massage while her husband , Doug , is nearby watching . Jemaine later suggests to Bret that they become male prostitutes , similar to the film Pretty Woman . They then launch into a parody of " My Humps " by The Black Eyed Peas called " Sugalumps " . Trying their idea out , Jemaine approaches women on the street and asks them if they want to pay money to have sex with Bret , who is standing across the street . They then switch roles , but are unable to drum up any business . At night , their apartment is still without power and Jemaine ends up selling his bass guitar . This results in them playing a gig with both members on air guitar performing " Robots " .
Jemaine , meanwhile , calls up an old girlfriend and leaves a message on her answering machine asking her if she wants to pay him for the sex they previously had during their relationship . He later ends up meeting his landlord , Eugene , who found his posting for a male prostitute service on the apartment 's bulletin board . Eugene advises him to go to a fancy hotel and try his luck . At a band meeting , Murray introduces Nigel Seladu , whose investment offer has turned out to be legitimate and not a scam , and results in Murray earning more than enough money for the Conchords to pay their bills and buy back their guitars . Jemaine is noticeably absent and Bret tells Murray that he is out trying to prostitute himself . Both Murray and Nigel tell Bret to go and stop him . On his way , Bret sings a song called " You Don 't Have to be A Prostitute " , similar to The Police 's " Roxanne " .
He finds Jemaine in a hotel room about to have sex with a " pretty woman " . He starts telling Jemaine that he doesn 't need to do this any more but is interrupted by a knock on the door . Bret explains that he called the police to come and save Jemaine . When they enter , they ask Jemaine and Bret if they are prostitutes , to which Jemaine replies " Yes " and Bret replies " No , no . I 'm just the guy that wears the big condom " . They are both put in jail . Murray comes to bail them out , telling them that he had to spend all of their newly acquired investment return on bail . In the closing scene , a desk @-@ fan knocks over the new cup , causing it to smash on the floor .
= = Production = =
" The New Cup " was written by writer Duncan Sarkies , his second writing credit for the series after season one 's " New Fans . " The episode was directed by series co @-@ creator James Bobin . The episode makes several noticeable references to the film Midnight Cowboy . In the scene wherein Jemaine and Bret ask women if they want to pay money to have sex with them , Bret quotes Enrico " Ratso " Rizzo 's ( Dustin Hoffman ) line " I 'm walking here , I 'm walking . " Earlier in the episode , Jemaine suggested that Bret should wear a cowboy hat to be more attractive to women . In the video for " You Don 't Have to be A Prostitute " , Jemaine wears a leather cowboy waistcoat and cowboy shows , and wears a cowboy hat during the credits .
Further cultural references are made throughout the episode . During the band meeting scene , Murray asks the duo if they can think of " any successful musicians with no instruments ? " Bret and Jemaine name off The Mormon Tabernacle Choir , Boyz II Men , Bobby McFerrin , and Luciano Pavarotti before Murray tells them that " there are none . " Near the end of the episode , Murray tells Bret and Jemain about a Nigerian man who is seeking money via email . This is a play on the actual Advance @-@ fee fraud that swept the internet in the latter part of the 20th century .
= = = Songs = = =
The first song featured in the episode is " Sugalumps . " This song is a parody of The Black Eyed Peas ' hit " My Humps " which The Yale Herald wrote was based around the premise that " balls are significantly more hilarious than boobs " . In addition , the song was later described as a " New Zealanders version of " Kelis 's " Milkshake . " Bret briefly appears as The Prince of Parties , a reference to a song from the season one episode " New Fans . " Dave sings his portion of the rap in a style very similar to the opening theme of the TV series The Fresh Prince of Bel @-@ Air . The second song featured in the episode is " You Don 't Have to Be a Prostitute . " In an A.V. Club interview , Jemaine explained that the song was inspired by The Police 's hit single " Roxanne " . However , the duo wished to make a " judgmental " version that " makes a lot of assumptions about the profession . Singing a song about prostitution , like ' I 'll stop you from being a prostitute with this song ' " .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" The New Cup " debuted on HBO on January 25 , 2009 . The episode received over 500 @,@ 000 viewers . This made the episode the third highest rated premium cable episode on Sunday , coming in after an episode of United States of Tara and ranking before an episode of The L Word .
Critical reception to the episode was largely positive . The A.V. Club reviewer Genevieve Koski awarded the episode an A- rating and , while noting that the episode was a " rehash " of the season one episode " Bret Gives Up the Dream , wrote , " after getting off to a somewhat shaky start with last week ’ s season premiere , Flight Of The Conchords seems to be settling back into its groove this week , with a couple of memorable songs to match a memorable plot . " IGN reviewer Matt Fowler gave it an 8 @.@ 4 out of 10 rating and noted that Flight of the Conchords is at its best when " the antics remain tightly between [ Bret and Jemaine ] , and this episode sticks with that , " noting that the episode " winds up being rather great . " Noted television critic Alan Sepinwall wrote , " Taken on its own , though , this [ episode ] was perfection , as both comedy and as musical . " Furthermore , he called the episode " magnificently constructed " .
Many reviews complimented the episode 's songs . Huffington Post reviewer Mike Moody noted that both the dry humor in the episode and its songs were humorous , writing , " I usually find myself heading to the kitchen when the songs come on -- but I usually glance back at the TV to see if Jemaine is making a funny face – and I rush back to the couch once the last note drops . But I can 't wait to download tonight 's Police @-@ inspired [ ' You Don 't Have to be a Prostitute ' ] jam . " The Guardian named " Sugalumps " one of the top five best season two Flight of the Conchords songs .
= Ken Anderson ( wrestler ) =
Kenneth " Ken " Anderson ( born March 6 , 1976 ) is an American professional wrestler and actor . He is best known for his time under the ring names Mr. Kennedy and occasionally Ken Kennedy during his time with World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) between 2005 and 2009 , and in Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) , where he performed under the ring name Mr. Anderson from 2010 to 2016 , and he has become a two @-@ time TNA World Heavyweight Champion in addition to being a member of Immortal and the former vice @-@ president of Aces & Eights .
Before working for WWE , Anderson wrestled for numerous promotions , winning various singles and tag team championships . Upon signing with WWE , Anderson was assigned to the company 's developmental territory Ohio Valley Wrestling ( OVW ) in Louisville , Kentucky in 2005 .
After signing with WWE , Anderson made his debut on the SmackDown ! roster in August 2005 . In September 2006 , he captured his first and only title with the company , the United States Championship , and would hold on to it for a month . The following year at WrestleMania 23 , Anderson won the annual Money in the Bank ladder match , a contract , which guarantees a match for one of WWE 's then three world level championships . He was released from his WWE contract on May 29 , 2009 . He returned to the independent circuit before signing a contract with TNA in 2010 , which he was fired from TNA in 2016 and would return to the independent circuit for a second time .
= = Early life = =
Anderson , the son of James Alan Holmes and Sheryl Anderson , has one sister , Jennifer Holmes . His father died on April 13 , 2006 from cancer .
Anderson graduated from Washington High School in Two Rivers , Wisconsin . During his time there , Anderson excelled at swimming and track & field . He also announced school basketball games and did a radio assignment in his Mass Media class . When doing this , a friend suggested to Anderson to repeat the surnames to make it funnier . That element was eventually used again in his wrestling character when encouraged by Paul Heyman .
Before starting a wrestling career , Anderson worked as a security officer at Point Beach Nuclear Power Plant and as a personal trainer . He also served in the United States Army .
= = Professional wrestling career = =
= = = Early career = = =
After training under All @-@ Star Championship Wrestling alumni Eric Hammers and Mike " Mercury " Krause , Anderson was invited to perform on a trial basis on the World Wrestling Federation / Entertainment 's secondary television programs , Jakked , Velocity , and Sunday Night Heat , as a jobber several times from 2001 to 2004 . In 2003 , Anderson , alongside CM Punk , also appeared in a segment that aired on WWE 's SmackDown ! program shortly after WrestleMania XIX , as a fan attempting to waylay WWE Champion Brock Lesnar .
Anderson also made some appearances on NWA Total Nonstop Action 's secondary television program , Xplosion . The owner of the Total Nonstop Action promotion , Jeff Jarrett , approached him for a contract , but communications broke down . Anderson competed in the 2002 and 2003 Ted Petty Invitational tournaments ( the first one then known as the Sweet Science Sixteen tournament ) but did not advance past the first round in either of them . After he had wrestled for over six years , World Wrestling Entertainment signed Anderson to a developmental contract in February 2005 .
= = = World Wrestling Entertainment = = =
= = = = Ohio Valley Wrestling ( 2005 ) = = = =
Upon signing with WWE in February 2005 , Anderson was sent to the Ohio Valley Wrestling ( OVW ) developmental territory , where he would remain for 6 months . When he arrived , Jim Cornette was in charge of the organization and , according to Anderson , didn 't see potential in his abilities and declined to feature him as more than an occasional bit @-@ player on OVW 's programming . When Cornette departed , his replacement , Paul Heyman , showed immediate interest in Anderson , comparing his qualities to The Rock and Steve Austin . Five weeks later , Anderson was called up to WWE 's main roster to work on Velocity , and he credits Heyman with helping him develop the character he would achieve success with . Before his first SmackDown ! match , a victory over Funaki , he showed himself to be a cocky and arrogant wrestler with not only his mannerisms by taking a microphone and performing his own ring announcement . He referred to himself as " Mr. Anderson " for this match . A few weeks later , to avoid comparisons with the more famous Anderson family ( as well as former Cincinnati Bengals quarterback Ken Anderson ) , he changed his name to " Ken Kennedy " , or " Mr. Kennedy " . This idea was initially suggested by Paul Heyman and was chosen as his name because it is the middle name of WWE Chairman Vince McMahon .
= = = = United States Champion ( 2005 – 2007 ) = = = =
Kennedy defeated Funaki once again in his SmackDown ! debut on August 25 , 2005 . Kennedy also created an ongoing mini @-@ feud with SmackDown ! ring announcer Tony Chimel , based on Kennedy believing that Chimel 's announcing was not done well enough or with sufficient respect , and therefore performing his own introductions or forcing Chimel to introduce him again . Kennedy 's self @-@ ring introductions before the match became one of his trademarks . While working on both Velocity and SmackDown ! , he was also still working in OVW . Kennedy made his pay @-@ per @-@ view debut at SmackDown ! ' s No Mercy , defeating Hardcore Holly and injuring Holly 's ribs during the match .
On the November 11 episode of SmackDown ! , Kennedy faced Eddie Guerrero to compete for a spot on SmackDown ! ' s Survivor Series team . He lost the match when Guerrero tossed him a steel chair and played possum , a move which Guerrero had made famous . The groggy referee turned around and saw Guerrero on the ground with Kennedy holding the chair , and consequently disqualified Kennedy , awarding the place on Team SmackDown ! to Guerrero . This was Kennedy 's first loss . In retaliation , Kennedy struck Guerrero over the head with the chair after the match . This was Guerrero 's final televised match , as he died on November 13 in his hotel room in Minneapolis , Minnesota . In interviews about the incident , Kennedy has stated that he considers this an " unfortunate honor " .
In December 2005 , Kennedy participated in WWE 's overseas tour . On the second day in Italy , Kennedy suffered a serious latissimus dorsi tear . Even after surgery in December , Kennedy was still forced out of the ring for nearly six months while he rehabilitated the legitimate injury . He continued to make appearances on SmackDown ! and Velocity throughout January and February and even made an appearance on the January 11 episode of WWE Byte This ! with Todd Grisham to maintain visibility .
At the OVW tapings on May 10 , Kennedy returned to in @-@ ring action facing the Heavyweight Champion , CM Punk , in a title match that Kennedy was unable to win . Kennedy made his return to SmackDown ! on the June 9 episode with a victory over Scotty 2 Hotty after using the Kenton Bomb . On the July 14 episode of SmackDown ! , Matt Hardy used a roll @-@ up to defeat Kennedy , ending Kennedy 's streak of never being defeated by pin or submission . On the July 21 episode of SmackDown ! , Batista put out an open challenge to find an opponent for The Great American Bash , as his original opponent , Mark Henry , had been injured . Kennedy accepted the challenge and won the match by disqualification , however , he suffered a severe injury during the match after being thrown headfirst into the steel steps , resulting in an exposed cranium laceration which required twenty stitches to close . He then entered into a short feud with Batista , defeating him by countout in their second match , but losing via pinfall in the third . Kennedy helped The McMahons ( Vince and Shane ) in their feud with D @-@ Generation X ( DX ) , appearing at both SummerSlam and the August 28 episode of Raw to attack DX .
On the September 1 episode of SmackDown ! , Kennedy defeated Finlay and Bobby Lashley in a Triple Threat match to win the WWE United States Championship , his first and only Championship reign in WWE . On the September 8 episode of SmackDown ! , Kennedy announced that he wanted to move over to Raw , as SmackDown ! did not interest him anymore because he had already defeated every top performer on the roster . This led to SmackDown ! General Manager Theodore Long making a match between Kennedy and The Undertaker , who Kennedy had never faced , to be held at No Mercy . Kennedy won the match by disqualification . On the October 13 episode of SmackDown ! , Kennedy , now with a win over The Undertaker , again stated his desire to move to the Raw brand . However , Long put him against an opponent who he had never faced — this time Chris Benoit — with Kennedy 's title on the line . Long said that , if Kennedy were to defeat Benoit , he would be given his release and be allowed to go to Raw . Ultimately , Kennedy lost the match and the United States Championship to Benoit after submitting to the Crippler Crossface following a distraction by The Undertaker , which also marked Kennedy 's first loss via submission .
In November 2006 , Kennedy joined forces with Montel Vontavious Porter ( MVP ) in matches against The Brothers of Destruction ( Undertaker and Kane ) in various combinations . On a November episode of SmackDown ! , Kennedy and MVP lost to the Brothers of Destruction three times . After first getting counted out , Theodore Long restarted the match with no countouts . When they disqualified themselves following a low blow by Kennedy , Long restarted the match again with no countouts and no disqualifications . Kennedy and MVP continued to feud with the brothers , with MVP feuding with Kane while Kennedy challenged the Undertaker to a match at Survivor Series , which was later announced as a First Blood match . Kennedy won the match after MVP turned on him and aimed for his head with a steel chair , but missed and hit the Undertaker instead , leaving him bleeding . After the match , the Undertaker attacked Kennedy , forcing him to bleed . At Armageddon , Kennedy and the Undertaker met in a final match ; they were scheduled in a Last Ride match . In the match , the Undertaker defeated Kennedy .
After a brief hiatus , Kennedy returned to SmackDown ! on January 5 and defeated Chris Benoit in a " Beat the Clock " match , with the overall prize being a shot at Batista 's World Heavyweight Championship at the Royal Rumble . After he prevented The Undertaker from beating his time , Kennedy 's time of 5 : 07 ended up being the fastest . At the Royal Rumble , he lost the match , as well as a subsequent rematch . From there , Kennedy began a short feud with ECW World Champion Bobby Lashley , leading to a match at No Way Out for the title which Kennedy won by disqualification . Kennedy challenged Lashley unsuccessfully on ECW and SmackDown ! as well .
= = = = Mr. Money in the Bank ( 2007 – 2008 ) = = = =
Kennedy earned a spot in the 2007 Money in the Bank ladder match by defeating Sabu in an Extreme Rules match in a February episode of ECW on Sci Fi . At WrestleMania 23 , Kennedy won the Money in the Bank ladder match , giving him the right to challenge any World Champion in WWE at any date up until WrestleMania XXIV . Kennedy announced on the April 30 episode of Raw that he would be cashing in his Money in the Bank championship opportunity at WrestleMania 24 . On the May 7 episode of Raw , Kennedy , however , lost his Money in the Bank opportunity to Edge , losing mere moments after a blow to the head from a monitor before the match began . Because of the injury Kennedy sustained during his match with Edge , it was revealed that his right triceps muscle tore off the bone and he would be out for a minimum of five to seven months . The injury , however , was not as serious , as the triceps tendon did not tear off the bone but was , in fact , a massive hematoma .
On the June 11 episode of Raw , Kennedy was drafted from SmackDown ! to Raw as part of the WWE Draft . On the August 20 episode of Raw , Carlito hosted the interview segment Carlito 's Cabana . During the segment Carlito challenged his special guest , Umaga for his Intercontinental Championship at SummerSlam , and Kennedy also demanded a shot at the title . Raw General Manager William Regal , scheduled a match between Kennedy and Carlito , in which the winner would receive an opportunity to face off against Umaga at SummerSlam . After the match ended in a draw , Regal booked a Triple Threat match at SummerSlam between the three men for the Intercontinental Championship ; at the event , Umaga retained the title . On the September 10 episode of Raw , Mr. McMahon revealed that Kennedy had , in storyline , been suspended for " impersonating a McMahon " . This angle was written because Kennedy being named one of the eleven superstars implicated in a steroid scandal and therefore suspended for thirty days in accordance with WWE 's Wellness Policy .
After his suspension , Kennedy returned to television on the October 1 episode of Raw , facing John Cena in the main event . At No Mercy in October , Kennedy took part of a six @-@ man tag team match alongside then World Tag Team Champions Lance Cade and Trevor Murdoch defeating then @-@ Intercontinental Champion Jeff Hardy and Paul London and Brian Kendrick . For several weeks , Kennedy began a feud with Jeff Hardy , which consisted of the two facing off in a singles match and numerous tag team matches , most of which Hardy won . At Cyber Sunday , Kennedy and Hardy were two of the eligible wrestlers that could earn a WWE Championship match for that evening , pending the fan 's votes . Neither man won the opportunity , as Shawn Michaels won the vote and earned a shot at the title . Although neither won the title shot , Kennedy defeated Hardy in a scheduled match made by William Regal .
Kennedy next entered a feud with Shawn Michaels on the night after Survivor Series . Kennedy claimed that it was time for Michaels to move on and let the younger , talented superstars climb the ladder to success . At Armageddon , Michaels defeated Kennedy after he was able to hit Kennedy with Sweet Chin Music . On the December 31 episode of Raw , Kennedy and Michaels had a rematch where Kennedy pinned Michaels following his new finishing move , the Mic Check . In subsequent rematches , the two traded wins over each other . At the Royal Rumble , Kennedy eliminated Michaels from the Royal Rumble match , ending the rivalry between the two .
After several months of minor feuds and short storylines , Kennedy was not seen for weeks after WrestleMania XXIV , because he was filming a role for the new film Behind Enemy Lines : Colombia . Kennedy returned to Raw on April 28 , as he confronted and brawled with General Manager and newly crowned King of the Ring William Regal , turning into a face character in the process . On the May 18 episode of Raw , Kennedy defeated Regal in a " Loser Gets Fired match " , thereby opening up the General Manager spot on the Raw brand .
= = = = Brand switches and departure ( 2008 – 2009 ) = = = =
During the sixth annual WWE Draft on June 23 , 2008 on Raw , Kennedy was drafted from Raw back to the SmackDown brand . On August 4 , he dislocated his shoulder in a match against Shelton Benjamin at a house show , sidelining him from active competition . Kennedy made his return to WWE television , in a non @-@ wrestling capacity , on the November 24 episode of Raw , while promoting his film Behind Enemy Lines : Colombia , and also made an appearance on SmackDown on the November 28 episode .
On April 15 , 2009 , Mr. Kennedy returned to the Raw brand as Raw 's first pick of the 2009 Supplemental Draft . On May 7 , Kennedy returned to in @-@ ring action at Florida Championship Wrestling , WWE 's developmental territory , to gain match fitness before returning to Raw . On the May 11 , 2009 episode of Raw , WWE aired a video package to promote Kennedy 's return . He made his official Raw return on May 25 , competing in a 10 @-@ man tag team match , which his team won .
Kennedy was released from his WWE contract on May 29 , 2009 , just four days after his return . In a March 2010 interview with wrestlezone.com , Ken Anderson explained his release with fellow wrestler Randy Orton complaining to WWE management that Anderson was reckless in the ring , citing a botched backdrop that caused Orton to land on his head and neck instead of on his back . Orton argued that this could potentially end his career . According to Anderson , Randy Orton also persuaded his friend and fellow wrestler John Cena to complain to Vince McMahon about Anderson 's in ring performance , which prompted McMahon to release Kennedy from his contract .
= = = Independent circuit ( 2009 – 2010 ) = = =
In an interview with Pro Wrestling Report on 540 ESPN Radio in Milwaukee , Anderson expressed an interest in joining TNA . Anderson appeared at World Wrestling Council 's 2009 Anniversary , where he wrestled , and lost to , former WWE affiliate Eddie Fatu . On Friday October 2 , he won the NWE Heavyweight Championship in the Nu @-@ Wrestling Evolution promotion , when he defeated Chuck Palumbo and Tiny Iron in Malta . On November 1 , 2009 , Anderson defeated Darkko to become the CRW Heavyweight Champion , before the title was vacated . He then competed at the Hulkamania : Let The Battle Begin tour of Australia , again working with Fatu in what would be Fatu 's final matches before his unexpected death on December 4 , 2009 . Anderson wrestled against Armando Estrada in his retirement match at Great Lakes Championship Wrestling 's Blizzard Brawl 5 .
= = = Total Nonstop Action Wrestling = = =
= = = = Feud with Kurt Angle ( 2010 – 2011 ) = = = =
In January 2010 , Anderson signed a one @-@ year deal with Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) . He would make his debut to the company at the Genesis pay @-@ per @-@ view on January 17 , 2010 , working under the ring name Mr. Anderson . As a mystery opponent , he wrestled Abyss , whom he pinned after using brass knuckles , establishing himself as a heel in the process . Anderson made his Impact ! debut on January 21 , 2010 . He would deliver a promo explaining why he came to TNA and disparaging Abyss before he was attacked by Abyss .
At Against All Odds , Anderson defeated Kurt Angle and Abyss to advance to the finals of the 8 Card Stud Tournament , where he lost to D 'Angelo Dinero . On the following edition of Impact ! , Angle , whom Anderson had defeated by using his dog tags against him , promised to make him suffer for disrespecting U.S. soldiers , which led to Anderson coming out and laying him out by hitting him with a mic , effectively starting a feud between the two . At Destination X , Angle defeated Anderson by submission in a rematch . Anderson and Angle were booked in a rubber match inside a steel cage at Lockdown . On the April 5 edition of Impact ! , Anderson defeated Angle in a ladder match to win possession of the key to the cage door . At Lockdown , Angle defeated Anderson in a steel cage match . At Sacrifice , Anderson was defeated by Jeff Hardy . After the match , Anderson offered to shake Hardy 's hand , but the offer was declined . On the following edition of Impact ! , Anderson helped Hardy defeat Sting in the main event of the show . After the match , both Anderson and Hardy were attacked by Sting . This would turn Anderson face as a result of this .
At Slammiversary VIII , Anderson and Hardy , the team now known as the Enigmatic Assholes , defeated Beer Money , Inc . ( Robert Roode and James Storm ) in a tag team match . At Victory Road , Anderson and Hardy attempted to win the TNA World Heavyweight Championship from Rob Van Dam in a four @-@ way match , also involving Abyss , but were unsuccessful . On the following edition of Impact ! , Anderson saved former rival D 'Angelo Dinero from Matt Morgan . On the July 22 edition of Impact ! , Anderson defeated Morgan , but was after the match assaulted and bloodied by him . On the August 19 edition of Impact ! , the TNA World Heavyweight Championship was vacated and Anderson was entered into an eight @-@ man tournament for the title , defeating Jay Lethal in his first round match . At the semifinals at No Surrender , Anderson defeated D 'Angelo Dinero to advance to the finals at Bound for Glory . On September 21 , TNA President Dixie Carter announced that Anderson had signed a new long term contract with the company .
= = = = TNA World Heavyweight Champion and Immortal ( 2011 – 2012 ) = = = =
At Bound for Glory , Anderson failed in his attempt to win the TNA World Heavyweight Championship when Jeff Hardy , with Hulk Hogan , and Eric Bischoff 's assistance , pinned him in a three @-@ way match ( which also included Kurt Angle ) to win the title , ending his partnership with Hardy in the process . On the October 21 edition of Impact ! , Anderson was given an opportunity to earn a shot at Hardy and the TNA World Heavyweight Championship at Turning Point ; all he had to do was survive an Ultimate X match with Fortune member Kazarian . Kazarian managed to win the match , following interference from his stable mates , but Anderson persevered and thus earned himself a World Heavyweight title shot against Hardy , who attacked him after the match . However , during the attack , Anderson suffered a legitimate concussion , which would sideline him for a few weeks and prevented him from taking part in the title match .
The vacant spot in the title match ended up going to Matt Morgan , who turned face during Anderson 's time away from TNA , standing up for him against Hardy 's , Hogan 's , and Bischoff 's group Immortal as an advocate for the effects of concussions . Anderson returned on the December 2 edition of Impact ! , chasing Hardy and Fortune out of the ring , before being announced as the special guest referee for the World Heavyweight title match between Hardy and Morgan at Final Resolution . Anderson was bloodied and taken out of the match by Eric Bischoff , who managed to help Hardy retain the title , after a three count made by a replacement referee . On January 9 , 2011 , at Genesis , Anderson defeated Matt Morgan in a number one contender 's match . Immediately afterwards , Eric Bischoff came out , and announced that Anderson would get his title match against Jeff Hardy straight away . After interference from Morgan , Mick Foley , Matt Hardy , Rob Van Dam , and Bischoff , Anderson defeated Hardy to win the TNA World Heavyweight Championship for the first time . On the February 3 edition of Impact ! , Anderson defeated Hardy in a rematch for the title , after Fortune turned on Immortal as they were interfering in the match . On February 13 at Against All Odds , Anderson lost the TNA World Heavyweight Championship back to Hardy in a ladder match . On the February 24 edition of Impact ! , Anderson defeated Kurt Angle and Rob Van Dam in a three – way match to earn a rematch for the World Heavyweight Championship . Anderson was looking to get his title match on the following edition of Impact ! , but it was instead given to the returning Sting , who defeated Hardy to become the new TNA World Heavyweight Champion . On the March 10 edition of Impact ! , Anderson attacked Sting backstage , after claiming that he had been screwed out of his title match . In the main event of the evening , Anderson teamed with rival Jeff Hardy in a tag team match against Rob Van Dam and Sting . During the match , Anderson took on more of a role as a tweener by turning on Hardy , before being pinned by Van Dam , following an attack from Sting . On March 13 at Victory Road , Anderson wrestled Rob Van Dam to a double countout in another number one contender 's match . On the April 7 edition of Impact ! , Anderson feigned joining Immortal , before turning on them and announcing his intention of going after Hulk Hogan next . On April 17 at Lockdown , Anderson failed in his attempt to regain the TNA World Heavyweight Championship from Sting in a three – way steel cage match , which also included Rob Van Dam . On the May 12 edition of Impact ! , Anderson defeated 24 other men in a battle royal to earn a shot at the TNA World Heavyweight Championship at Slammiversary IX . In the weeks leading to Slammiversary , Anderson tried to get under Sting 's skin by dressing up like he did in the early ' 90 's during his " surfer " gimmick , attacking Disco Inferno during his own " Scorpion Sitdown " interview segment , and wrestling Eric Young , who was dressed as The Great Muta .
On June 12 at Slammiversary IX , Anderson defeated Sting after interference from Eric Bischoff , a low blow , and a Mic Check to win the TNA World Heavyweight Championship for the second time , turning heel in the process once again . On June 18 , Anderson represented TNA at Mexican promotion Asistencia Asesoría y Administración 's ( AAA ) Triplemanía XIX pay @-@ per @-@ view , where he and Abyss unsuccessfully challenged Extreme Tiger and Jack Evans for the AAA World Tag Team Championship in a steel cage match . At the tapings of the July 7 edition of Impact Wrestling , Immortal forced Anderson to choose whether he was with them or against them . In the main event of the evening , Anderson turned on Kurt Angle and joined Immortal . On July 11 at the tapings of the July 14 edition of Impact Wrestling , Anderson lost the TNA World Heavyweight Championship back to Sting . On the July 28 edition of Impact Wrestling , Anderson faced Kurt Angle in a steel cage match , but was defeated following a distraction from fellow Immortal member Bully Ray . The tension between the two stablemates eventually led to a match on August 7 at Hardcore Justice , where Ray defeated Anderson with a low blow . On the following edition of Impact Wrestling , the rest of Immortal turned on Anderson and kicked him out of the group . Anderson returned on the August 25 edition of Impact Wrestling , attacking his former stablemates . On the September 8 edition of Impact Wrestling , Anderson challenged Kurt Angle for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship , but the match ended in a disqualification following interference from Immortal . On September 11 at No Surrender , Anderson again failed to capture the title in a three @-@ way match , which also included Sting . Anderson and Bully Ray settled their grudge on October 16 at Bound for Glory , where Anderson won a Falls Count Anywhere match . On November 13 at Turning Point , Anderson and Abyss defeated Ray and Scott Steiner in a tag team match , ending his year long storyline with Immortal .
= = = = Aces & Eights ( 2012 – 2013 ) = = = =
After a four @-@ month absence , Anderson returned to TNA on the March 8 , 2012 , episode of Impact Wrestling , aligning himself with A.J. Styles in his feud with Christopher Daniels and Kazarian . The following week , Anderson defeated Daniels in his return match . On March 18 at Victory Road , Anderson and Styles defeated Daniels and Kazarian in a tag team match . The rivalry continued on April 15 at Lockdown , where the two duos were on opposing teams in the annual Lethal Lockdown match . Anderson 's and Styles ' team , led by Garett Bischoff , ended up defeating Daniels ' and Kazarian 's team , led by Eric Bischoff . On the following episode of Impact Wrestling , Anderson and Jeff Hardy were defeated by Rob Van Dam in a three @-@ way number one contender 's match for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship . During the first " Open Fight Night " the following week , Anderson teamed up with Hardy to unsuccessfully challenge Magnus and Samoa Joe for the TNA World Tag Team Championship . On May 13 at Sacrifice , Anderson defeated Hardy in a singles match . On the following episode of Impact Wrestling , Hardy defeated Anderson in a rematch . On June 10 at Slammiversary , Anderson defeated Hardy and Rob Van Dam in a three @-@ way match to become the number one contender to the TNA World Heavyweight Championship . On the following episode of Impact Wrestling , Anderson unsuccessfully challenged Bobby Roode for the TNA World Heavyweight Championship . As a result , he was entered into the 2012 Bound for Glory Series to try to earn another shot at the title . Anderson 's participation in the tournament ended on the August 23 episode of Impact Wrestling . Despite a win over Bully Ray , he finished outside a spot in the semifinals of the tournament . On the September 27 episode of Impact Wrestling , Anderson received a shot at the vacant TNA Television Championship , but was defeated by Samoa Joe after being choked out with the Coquina Clutch .
After not being seen for several weeks , Anderson returned to Impact Wrestling on December 27 , where he was offered a position in the villainous Aces & Eights stable . The following week , Anderson accepted Aces & Eights offer , turning heel again in the process . On the January 10 episode of Impact Wrestling , Anderson explained his joining by noting how nobody helped him when he was attacked by the Aces & Eights back in October . Anderson wrestled his return match on three days later at Genesis , defeating Samoa Joe after interference from Aces & Eights member Mike Knox . On March 10 at Lockdown , Aces & Eights , consisting of Anderson , Devon , DOC , Garett Bischoff , and Mike Knox were defeated by Team TNA , consisting of Eric Young , James Storm , Magnus , Samoa Joe , and Sting in a Lethal Lockdown match . On June 2 at Slammiversary XI , Anderson , Garett Bischoff , and Wes Brisco were defeated by Jeff Hardy , Magnus , and Samoa Joe in a six @-@ man tag team match . On the following episode of Impact Wrestling , Anderson began campaigning to be the new Vice President of the Aces & Eights . The following week , Anderson defeated his fellow Aces & Eights stablemates in a battle royal to qualify for the 2013 Bound for Glory Series . Anderson went on to defeat Joseph Park in his first BFG series match via pinfall on the June 20 episode of Impact Wrestling , to earn seven points in the tournament . On the July 11 episode of Impact Wrestling , Anderson was voted over DOC by his fellow Aces & Eights members to become the Vice President of the stable .
In August , tension began to be teased between Anderson and Aces & Eights President Bully Ray , with Anderson disagreeing with Ray 's decisions . Anderson 's participation in the Bound for Glory series ended on the September 5 episode of Impact Wrestling , when he was eliminated from a twenty @-@ point battle royal by Samoa Joe . Later that night , Anderson turned face after he cost Bully Ray his no disqualification match with Sting , attacked him afterwards , and announced himself as his World Heavyweight Championship opponent at No Surrender . The following week , Anderson unsuccessfully challenged Ray for the World Heavyweight Championship in a Last Man Standing match . Afterwards , as Anderson was being stretchered away , Ray attacked him and piledrived him onto the stage . He was removed from TNA to negotiate a new contract , though , on September 23 , 2013 , his profile was removed . On the October 24th edition of Impact Wrestling , Anderson returned and saved A.J. Styles from an attack from Bully Ray . On the November 7 edition of Impact , Anderson was attacked by Aces and Eights after being led to believe the group had disbanded . On the November 14 Impact tapings , Anderson received a match against Bully for the Impact Wrestling : Turning Point episode with the stipution that if Ray loses , the Aces are gone , but if Anderson loses , he must leave . At Turning Point on November 21 , Anderson successfully defeated Bully Ray after an overshot with a hammer from Brooke , thus forcing Aces and Eights to disband .
= = = = Final feuds and departure ( 2014 – 2016 ) = = = =
On February 20 , 2014 , Anderson and Christy Hemme were attacked backstage by Samuel Shaw during an interview , starting a feud . On February 27 Impact Wrestling , Shaw would confront Hemme in an attempt to explain himself . After failing and being interrupted by Anderson , Shaw would solidify himself as a heel after using Hemme as a shield to fend off Mr. Anderson who was attempting to exact revenge for the previous week . Shaw would use his kata gatame finishing move to choke out Anderson . On the March 6th edition of Impact Wrestling , Samuel Shaw faced off against Eric Young with Anderson replacing Hemme as the ring announcer for the match . Anderson 's presence at ringside ultimately cost Shaw the match as he would be disqualified due to Anderson 's distraction . After the match , Shaw would choke out Anderson like last week then claim he was " going to claim what was rightfully his , " heading for the backstage area where Hemme had been watching via a ring monitor . At Lockdown on March 9 , Shaw defeated Anderson after escaping the cage following the use of Christy Hemme as a distraction by pulling Hemme through the camera cut @-@ out of the steel cage , Anderson successfully rescued Hemme but was caught in Shaw 's kata gatame . The previously unconscious referee only saw Samuel Shaw escape the cage thus declaring him the winner . Shaw lost a rematch against Anderson on the following Impact Wrestling , bringing a mannequin dressed as Christy Hemme to the ring . On April 3 episode of Impact Wrestling , Shaw defeated Anderson in a Straitjacket match after rendering him unconscious following two kata gatame attempts . On TNA Sacrifice , Anderson defeated Shaw in a Committed match , whereby he put Shaw into a van heading for a psychiatric facility for intervention .
On May 1 , 2014 , Anderson attacked James Storm after Storm lost to Willow . On May 22 , Anderson challenged Storm to a drinking contest , then went on to attack him outside the bar . On June 5 episode of Impact , Anderson impersonated Storm , with Storm 's retro entrance music , then attacked Storm after he refused to grant him a match . After Anderson lost the brawl , the match was set at Slammiversary . Following Slammiversary , Anderson formed a tag team with Gunner but tensions already rose between them because of Gunner 's relationship to Samuel Shaw , whom Gunner had been helping through psychiatric counselling . Anderson and Gunner would continue to team together with Shaw at their side who would try to help them in their matches but Anderson refused because of his lack of trust . On the August 14th edition of Impact , Anderson and Shaw finally came to punches during a match between Anderson and Gunner . On September 17 , 2014 , Mr. Anderson came to the aid of fellow former Army Sergeant and amputee wrestler Chris Melendez on his debut from a post @-@ match attack by Kenny King . On November 20 , 2014 tapings , Mr. Anderson came to the aid Chris Melendez again from a post @-@ match attack , this time by MVP .
Anderson returned to TNA on the February 20 episode of Impact Wrestling , confronting Ethan Carter III and Tyrus for what they were doing to Rockstar Spud and Mandrews , then attacking Tyrus and giving Tyrus a haircut . Several months after this , he started a feud against Bram . During October and November ( taped in July ) , Anderson participated in the TNA World Title Series for the vacant TNA World Heavyweight Championship . However , When he ended fourth of his block by failing to defeat against Ethan Carter III , Bobby Lashley and Austin Aries. he failed to advance into the finals of the tournament .
At an Insane Championship Wrestling show in March , Anderson revealed that he was no longer under contract with TNA during an in @-@ ring promo . It was later reported that Anderson was fired from TNA for failing an on @-@ the @-@ spot drug test at a recent Impact Wrestling taping .
= = Other media = =
Anderson appeared in a feature film Fighting The Still Life , directed by Matt Burns , who wrestled under the name Sick Nick Mondo . In late March 2008 , Anderson began shooting a role for an action film in Puerto Rico . The film , titled Behind Enemy Lines : Colombia , was released direct @-@ to @-@ DVD / Blu @-@ ray Disc on January 6 , 2009 to the sequel of the original 2001 film , Behind Enemy Lines . Anderson booked the role through WWE .
On July 24 , 2007 , Anderson appeared on Tom Green Live ! in character . He also appeared on Slime Across the UK & Ireland in character on August 15 . During the week of November 5 , he appeared as Mr. Kennedy on five episodes of Family Feud with several other WWE superstars .
Anderson , along with Mickie James and Josh Mathews , represented WWE at the 2008 Republican National Convention in an effort to persuade fans to register to vote in the 2008 US Presidential election .
During the Pittsburgh Penguins ' 2009 Stanley Cup championship run , when National Hockey League winger Tyler Kennedy scored a goal , the Mellon Arena public address team would announce his family name twice , and the local crowd would chant it in a way reminiscent of Anderson 's wrestling persona .
After his departure from WWE , Anderson created a video blog on YouTube about his life during his 90 @-@ day " No Compete " clause .
In November 2010 , Anderson was again a contestant on Family Feud , this time as Mr. Anderson , teaming with Jay Lethal , Matt Morgan , Mick Foley and Rob Van Dam against Angelina Love , Christy Hemme , Lacey Von Erich , Tara and Velvet Sky .
= = = Filmography = = =
Behind Enemy Lines : Colombia ( 2009 ) – as Master Chief Petty Officer Carter Holt
Dogs Lie ( 2011 ) – as Yuri
= = Personal life = =
On August 18 , 2007 , Anderson gave an interview in which he admitted to using steroids when he was performing on the independent wrestling scene , stating that he had quit using them in November 2005 to comply with WWE 's Talent Wellness Program , implying that his job in the promotion was worth more than extra muscle mass . Twelve days later , on August 30 , his statements were shown to be incorrect when he , along with nine other WWE wrestlers , were named in a Sports Illustrated article as having received performance @-@ enhancing drugs in direct non @-@ compliance with the WWE Talent Wellness Program . Anderson received anastrozole , somatropin , and testosterone between October 2006 and February 2007 . He later claimed that the steroids were for a legitimate medical reason , saying that they were from when he tore his latissimus dorsi muscle in 2005 . .
Anderson was previously in a relationship with fellow professional wrestler Jessica Kresa . He married girlfriend Shawn Trebnick on January 9 , 2008 . They have a son named Pearce and a daughter named Prescott , twins born on January 13 , 2014 .
Anderson has a red and black tattoo on his upper back , which took nearly eight hours to complete . He also has a clown tattoo on his biceps , which he got at age 19 because he was voted " class clown " in high school , but says it did not turn out the way he wanted it to and that he plans to get it replaced with another clown that more closely matches what he originally requested .
= = In wrestling = =
Finishing moves
Green Bay Plunge / Lambeau Leap ( Diving rolling fireman 's carry slam ) – 2005 – 2008 , 2014 – present
Kenton Bomb ( WWE / Independent circuit ) Senton bomb ( TNA ) – 2006 – 2007 , 2010 – present
Mic Check ( Leg hook Reverse STO ) – 2007 – present
Signature moves
Arm trap swinging neckbreaker
Facewash
Feint roundhouse kick transitioned into an enzuigiri
Knee lift
Rolling fireman 's carry slam
Turnbuckle powerbomb
Nicknames
" Kamikaze "
" The Head Asshole in Charge "
" Mr. Money in the Bank "
Entrance themes
" Pour Some Sugar on Me " by Def Leppard ( Independent circuit )
" Turn Up the Trouble " by Ted Nigro and Jim Johnston ( WWE ; September 1 , 2005 – February 25 , 2008 )
" Turn Up the Trouble " ( Remix ) by Airbourne ( WWE ; March 3 , 2008 – May 25 , 2009 )
" Feedback " by Dale Oliver ( TNA ; January 10 , 2010 – January 3 , 2013 , September 12 , 2013 – January 6 , 2016 )
" Immortals " by Dale Oliver ( TNA ; July 7 , 2011 – July 28 , 2011 ; used as a member of Immortal )
" Deadman 's Hand " ( Instrumental ) by Dale Oliver ( TNA ; January 3 , 2013 – September 12 , 2013 ; used as a member of Aces & Eights )
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
All @-@ Star Championship Wrestling
ACW Heavyweight Championship ( 3 times )
ACW Tag Team Championship ( 3 times ) – with Mike Mercury ( 1 ) , Eric Hammers ( 1 ) , and Adrian Serrano ( 1 )
ACW Television Championship ( 1 time )
ACW Hall of Fame ( Class of 2009 )
Great Lakes Championship Wrestling
GLCW Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
Mid American Wrestling
MAW Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
NWA Midwest
NWA Midwest Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
Nu @-@ Wrestling Evolution / New Wrestling Entertainment
NWE World Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
PWI ranked him # 7 of the top 500 singles wrestlers of the year in the PWI 500 in 2011
Pro Wrestling Pride
PWP Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
Total Nonstop Action Wrestling
TNA World Heavyweight Championship ( 2 times )
Ultimate Pro Championship Wrestling
UPCW Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Big Daddy Loker
World Wrestling Entertainment
WWE United States Championship ( 1 time )
Money in the Bank ( 2007 )
Wrestling Observer Newsletter
Best Gimmick ( 2005 )
Worst Gimmick ( 2013 ) Aces & Eights
Xtreme Intense Championship Wrestling
XICW Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Joey Padgett
= = = Luchas de Apuestas record = = =
= Fantastic Adventures =
Fantastic Adventures was an American pulp fantasy and science fiction magazine , published from 1939 to 1953 by Ziff @-@ Davis . It was initially edited by Ray Palmer , who was also the editor of Amazing Stories , Ziff @-@ Davis 's other science fiction title . The first nine issues were in bedsheet format , but in June 1940 it switched to a standard pulp size . It was almost cancelled at the end of 1940 , but the October 1940 issue had unexpectedly good sales , helped by a strong cover by J. Allen St. John for Robert Moore Williams ' Jongor of Lost Land . By May 1941 the magazine was on a regular monthly schedule . Historians of science fiction consider that Palmer was unable to maintain a consistently high standard of fiction , but Fantastic Adventures soon developed a reputation for light @-@ hearted and whimsical stories . Much of the material was written by a small group of writers under both their own names and house names . The cover art , like those of many other pulps of the era , focused on beautiful women in melodramatic action scenes . One regular cover artist was H.W. McCauley , whose glamorous " MacGirl " covers were popular with the readers , though the emphasis on depictions of attractive and often partly clothed women did draw some objections from readers .
In 1949 Palmer left Ziff @-@ Davis and was replaced by Howard Browne , who was knowledgeable and enthusiastic about fantasy fiction . Browne briefly managed to improve the quality of the fiction in Fantastic Adventures , and the period around 1951 has been described as the magazine 's heyday . Browne lost interest when his plan to take Amazing Stories upmarket collapsed , however , and the magazine fell back into predictability . In 1952 , Ziff @-@ Davis launched another fantasy magazine , titled Fantastic , in a digest format ; it was successful , and within a few months the decision was taken to end Fantastic Adventures in favor of Fantastic . The March 1953 issue of Fantastic Adventures was the last .
= = Publication history = =
Although science fiction ( sf ) had been published before the 1920s , it did not begin to coalesce into a separately marketed genre until the appearance in 1926 of Amazing Stories , a pulp magazine published by Hugo Gernsback . By the end of the 1930s the field was undergoing its first boom . Gernsback lost control of Amazing Stories in 1929 ; it was sold to Teck Publications , and then in 1938 it was acquired by Ziff @-@ Davis . The following year Ziff @-@ Davis launched Fantastic Adventures as a companion to Amazing ; the first issue was dated May 1939 , and the editor of Amazing , Ray Palmer , took on responsibility for the new magazine as well .
Fantastic Adventures was initially published in bedsheet format , the same size as the early sf magazines such as Amazing , perhaps in order to attract fans who were nostalgic for the larger format . It started as a bimonthly , but in January 1940 began a monthly schedule . Sales were weaker than for Amazing , however , and with the June issue the schedule reverted to bimonthly again . The size was also reduced to a standard pulp format , since that was cheaper to produce . Sales did not improve , and Ziff @-@ Davis planned to make the October issue the last one . That issue carried Robert Moore Williams ' Jongor of Lost Land , and had an attractive cover by J. Allen St. John ; the combination proved to be so popular that October sales were twice the August figures . This convinced Ziff @-@ Davis that the magazine was viable , and it was restarted in January 1941 — as a bimonthly at first , but switching to monthly again in May of that year .
Howard Browne took over as editor of both Amazing Stories and Fantastic Adventures in 1950 . Browne preferred fantasy to science fiction , and enjoyed editing Fantastic Adventures , but when his plans for taking Amazing upmarket were derailed by the Korean War , he lost interest in both magazines for a while . He let William Hamling take responsibility for both titles , and the quality declined . At the end of 1950 Ziff @-@ Davis moved its offices from Chicago to New York ; Browne relocated to New York , but Hamling decided to stay in Chicago , so Browne became more involved once again , and sf historians such as Brian Stableford and Mike Ashley consider the result to have been a definite improvement in quality . Browne 's interest in fantasy led him to start a new digest @-@ sized magazine Fantastic in the summer of 1952 ; it was an immediate success , and led Ziff @-@ Davis to convert Amazing Stories to digest format as well . The move away from the pulp format to digests was well under way in the early 1950s , and with Fantastic 's success there was little reason to keep Fantastic Adventures going . It was merged with Fantastic ; the last issue was dated March 1953 , and the May – June issue of Fantastic added a mention of Fantastic Adventures to the masthead , though this disappeared with the following issue .
= = Contents and reception = =
= = = Palmer = = =
Palmer 's goal for Fantastic Adventures was to create a magazine which published fantasy fiction but was the literary equal of the quality magazines — the " slicks " , such as The Saturday Evening Post . Although mixing science fiction with fantasy was not popular with sf fans of the era , Palmer consciously promoted the magazine as containing the best of both worlds : the slogan on the cover read " The Best in Science Fiction " , but Palmer also wrote blurbs in Amazing Stories for Fantastic Adventures in which he extolled the value to a reader of getting both genres in a single magazine . Fantastic Adventures ' competition included Unknown , which had been launched just a couple of months earlier , in March 1939 , and Weird Tales , which was first published in 1923 ; but instead of attempting to emulate either one , Fantastic Adventures focused on adventure stories in the style of Edgar Rice Burroughs . Palmer probably acquired some fantasy @-@ oriented material that had been submitted to Amazing Stories , which gave him an immediate stream of submissions to work with . However , according to Ashley the first issue was quite weak : the cover story was " The Invisible Robinhood " by Eando Binder , and other contributors included Harl Vincent , Ross Rocklynne and A. Hyatt Verrill . Features included a quiz , an author profile , and a comic strip , titled " Ray Holmes , Scientific Detective " ; the reader was supposed to solve the mystery based on the clues given in the strip . It was a failure and disappeared after the first issue . The back cover , " The Man from Mars " , by Frank R. Paul , was more successful , and illustrated back covers became a regular feature of the magazine .
The next issue contained " The Scientists ' Revolt " , by Edgar Rice Burroughs , a name guaranteed to help sales . Ashley comments that the story was unimpressive ; it had been written as a palace intrigue set in contemporary Europe , but Burroughs had been unable to find a buyer . Palmer eventually acquired it , and rewrote it , setting it in the future . Despite the weakness of the lead story , the second issue was a marked improvement over the first , with well @-@ received stories by Nelson S. Bond and John Russell Fearn ( as " Thornton Ayre " ) . Burroughs returned to Fantastic Adventures in 1941 , with a series of novelettes in his Carson of Venus series ; there were four in all between March 1941 and March 1942 , each with cover art by J. Allen St. John , and the result was a significant boost to Fantastic Adventures ' circulation .
A majority of the stories in Fantastic Adventures came from a small group of writers who often wrote under house names . The main members of the group were William P. McGivern , David Wright O 'Brien , Don Wilcox , Chester S. Geier , Rog Phillips , Leroy Yerxa , Robert Moore Williams , Robert Bloch and Berkeley Livingston . Most of this material was of little lasting value , in Ashley 's opinion , but Palmer was often able to get good stories from outside this group : August Derleth sold several stories to Palmer , for example . Ray Bradbury also sold a story to Fantastic Adventures — " Tomorrow and Tomorrow " , which appeared in 1947 , was his only appearance in the magazine , but Ashley regards it as " among the best stories [ Fantastic Adventures ] published in the 1940s " . An early contributor was Nelson S. Bond , whose story " The Judging of the Priestess " appeared in the April 1940 issue . This was the second in a highly regarded series of three stories about a priestess in the future , after civilization has collapsed ; the first and third in the series appeared in Amazing Stories and Astounding Stories respectively . Bond also wrote a humorous short story called " The Amazing Invention of Wilberforce Weems " , which appeared in the September 1939 issue and described the consequences of a potion that allowed the instant absorption of knowledge from any book . Palmer encouraged his stable of writers to follow up with more whimsical ideas , and the resulting offbeat stories gave Fantastic Adventures a reputation for light @-@ hearted and entertaining fantasy . These stories often had absurd names ; early examples include " The Quandary of Quantus Quaggle " , " Sidney , the Screwloose Robot " ( both by McGivern ) , and " The Weird Doom of Floyd Scrilch " , by Robert Bloch — one of his series of stories about Lefty Feep , almost all of which appeared in Fantastic Adventures between 1942 and 1945 . Robert Moore Williams contributed two sequels to his successful Jongor of Lost Land : The Return of Jongor appeared in 1944 , and Jongor Fights Back in 1951 .
Palmer enjoyed hoaxes , such as printing a photograph of a writer when in fact the name in question was a pseudonym . In the February 1944 issue of Fantastic Adventures he printed a letter in which the writer claimed to be a time @-@ traveling scientist born in 1970 , whose time machine was inspired by a story in the magazine . Palmer pretended to take it seriously , and printed an appeal to readers to find the scientist . Palmer 's most successful hoax was the " Shaver Mystery " , a series of stories in which the author , Richard Shaver , explained all the wrecks and accidents on Earth as the result of interference by ancient machinery hidden underground . The series was enormously popular ; all the Shaver Mystery stories were published in Fantastic Adventures ' companion magazine , Amazing Stories ( which led Ashley to describe Fantastic Adventures as a " haven " from the Shaver stories ) but Shaver did also publish some competent fantasies in Fantastic Adventures . The increased circulation enabled both Amazing and Fantastic Adventures to return to monthly publication in the late 1940s .
= = = Browne = = =
When Browne took over at the start of 1950 , William Hamling was doing most of the editorial work . Browne did not fully take control of the magazine until the end of the year , when Hamling and Palmer both left Ziff @-@ Davis ; the quality of the fiction promptly improved at that point , and the first year or two of Browne 's tenure are regarded as the high point of Fantastic Adventures ' run . Theodore Sturgeon 's novel The Dreaming Jewels appeared in February 1950 , and Lester del Rey , William Tenn and Walter M. Miller all published notable material . In April 1950 , Mack Reynolds ' first story , " Isolationist " , appeared in Fantastic Adventures . Reynolds became more strongly associated with Astounding Science Fiction than with the Ziff @-@ Davis magazines , but some of the radical political themes of his later work are evident in " Isolationist " . The story describes helpful alien visitors abandoning Earth to atomic war because of the hostility of the first Earthman they encounter . John Jakes also debuted in Fantastic Adventures that year , with " The Dreaming Trees " , in November 1950 .
Overall the quality was low , but according to sf historian Brian Stableford , " sf writers given carte blanche to write pure fantasy for [ Fantastic Adventures ] did often produce readable fiction with a distinctive whimsical and ironic flavour " . Critic John Clute 's assessment was that it was inconsistent , " but there were some terrific tales in it . Not enough , but some . " Notable stories from the post @-@ war era include Theodore Sturgeon 's " Largo " and Raymond F. Jones ' " The Children 's Room " . The artwork was generally of higher quality than the stories ; Ashley describes Fantastic Adventures as " one of the best @-@ illustrated magazines around " . Regular artists included Virgil Finlay , Henry Sharp , Rod Ruth , and Malcolm Smith . In Palmer 's words , " It has been our experience that covers sell magazines — simply because they attract attention . " For the first year the cover art , while dramatic , was more likely to show an action scene with a male hero than a damsel in distress , but in August 1940 H.W. McCauley 's cover showed a glamorous woman in a sparkling dress . Similar covers followed with increasing frequency , with readers and editors giving the various heroines the name of " MacGirl " . Science fiction historian Paul Carter , commenting on the change from action scenes to alluring women on the covers , suggests that " surely the war had something to do with this " . Science fiction art often included spaceships as phallic symbols ; author and critic Brian Aldiss remarked on a Fantastic Adventures cover , from March 1949 , that included a submarine as a phallic symbol instead . Readers ' letters often objected to the attractive women and the implied sexual content , but the stories themselves were quite tame .
= = Bibliographic details = =
The editorial succession at Fantastic Adventures is usually given as follows :
Ray Palmer : May 1939 – December 1949
Howard Browne : January 1950 – April 1953
However , the editorial responsibility did not always reside with the named editor on the masthead . The editor @-@ in @-@ chief was senior to the managing editor , but at some points in the magazine 's history it was the managing editor who was primarily responsible for the magazine . The following table shows who held which title , at which point :
Fantastic Adventures was initially bedsheet @-@ sized and had a page count of 96 , which increased to 144 when the publication was reduced to pulp @-@ size in June 1940 . It was initially priced at 20 cents . With the April 1942 issue the price increased to 25 cents , where it remained for the rest of the magazine 's run , and the page count went up again to 240 . From June 1943 to July 1945 there were 208 pages , and the count dropped to 176 with the October 1945 issue ; then to 160 in July 1948 , and only two issues later , in September 1948 , the page count went down to 156 . It dropped again to 144 with the June 1949 issue , but rose to 160 from September 1949 to August 1950 . The September 1950 issue had 148 pages , and all the remaining issues had 130 pages .
The magazine began as a bimonthly , but switched to a monthly schedule in January 1940 , though this only lasted six issues . June 1940 was followed by August and October 1940 and January and March 1941 . The May 1941 issue inaugurated another monthly period that lasted until August 1943 , when the schedule switched back to bimonthly until the June 1944 issue . Fantastic then went on a quarterly schedule , beginning with the October 1944 issue ; in October 1945 it became bimonthly again , though there was a gap between February and May 1946 . From September 1947 to the end of the run the magazine was monthly . The volume numeration was regular , with a new volume starting at the beginning of each calendar year ; the result was a variable number of issues in each volume , from a low of four in 1944 to a full 12 when the magazine was monthly , as it was for the last few years of its life . The last issue was volume 15 number 3 .
There were two British reprint editions . The first consisted of two numbered and undated issues , which appeared in May and June 1947 from Ziff @-@ Davis in London . This was pulp @-@ sized and 32 pages long ; it contained stories from the wartime U.S. edition . The second series was published by Thorpe & Porter , in Leicester , and consisted of 24 undated issues , all but the first two of which were numbered . These began at 160 pages , and decreased , first to 128 and then to 96 pages . They were released between June 1950 and February 1954 , and were abridged versions of U.S. editions dated from March 1950 to January 1953 , as follows :
The contents were initially identical to the U.S. editions , but starting with issue # 13 at least one story was dropped .
Starting in 1941 , unsold issues of Fantastic Adventures were rebound , three together , with a new cover , titled Fantastic Adventures Quarterly . There were eight of these quarterly issues between Winter 1941 and Fall 1943 ; they were priced at 25 cents and given a volume numbering from volume 1 number 1 to volume 2 number 4 . Another similar series was started in Summer 1948 , for 50 cents ; there were eleven of these , running from volume 6 number 1 to volume 9 number 1 , finishing with the Spring 1951 issue and omitting Spring 1949 .
In 1965 , Sol Cohen acquired both Amazing Stories and Fantastic from Ziff @-@ Davis , along with reprint rights to all the stories that had appeared in the Ziff @-@ Davis science fiction magazines , including Fantastic Adventures . Cohen published multiple reprint titles , and frequently reprinted stories from Fantastic Adventures . In particular , the following issues took their contents mostly or completely from Fantastic Adventures :
Fantastic Adventures Yearbook . One issue in the summer of 1970 , no number , dated only with the year . Reprinted six stories from Fantastic Adventures that had originally appeared between 1949 and 1952 .
Thrilling Science Fiction . Issues 16 and 20 ( Summer 1970 and Summer 1971 ) .
Science Fiction Adventures . January 1974 issue .
Science Fantasy . All four issues , from 1970 to 1971 .
The Strangest Stories Every Told . One issue , Summer 1970 .
Weird Mystery . There were four issues of this magazine between Fall 1970 and Summer 1971 ; the contents were drawn largely from Fantastic Adventures .
= Political history of medieval Karnataka =
The political history of medieval Karnataka spans the 4th to the 16th centuries , when the empires that evolved in the Karnataka region of India made a lasting impact on the subcontinent . Before this , alien empires held sway over the region , and the nucleus of power was outside modern Karnataka . The medieval era can be broadly divided into several periods : The earliest native kingdoms and imperialism ; the successful domination of the Gangetic plains in northern India and rivalry with the empires of Tamilakam over the Vengi region ; and the domination of the southern Deccan and consolidation against Muslim invasion . The origins of the rise of the Karnataka region as an independent power date back to the fourth @-@ century birth of the Kadamba Dynasty of Banavasi , the earliest of the native rulers to conduct administration in the native language of Kannada in addition to the official Sanskrit . This is the historical starting point in studying the development of the region as an enduring geopolitical entity and of Kannada as an important regional language .
In the southern regions of Karnataka , the Western Gangas of Talakad were contemporaries of the Kadambas . The Kadambas and Gangas were followed by the imperial dynasties of the Badami Chalukya Empire , the Rashtrakuta Empire , the Western Chalukya Empire , the Hoysala Empire and the Vijayanagara Empire , all patronising the ancient Indic religions while showing tolerance to the new cultures arriving from the west of the subcontinent . The Muslim invasion of the Deccan resulted in the breaking away of the feudatory Sultanates in the 14th century . The rule of the Bahamani Sultanate of Bidar and the Bijapur Sultanate from the northern Deccan region caused a mingling of the ancient Hindu traditions with the nascent Islamic culture in the region . The hereditary ruling families and clans ably served the large empires and upheld the local culture and traditions . The fall of the Vijayanagara Empire in 1565 brought about a slow disintegration of Kannada @-@ speaking regions into minor kingdoms that struggled to maintain autonomy in an age dominated by foreigners until unification and independence in 1947 .
= = Kadambas and Gangas = =
Prior to and during the early centuries of the first millennium , large areas of the Karnataka region was ruled by such imperial powers as the Mauryas of Maghada and later the Satavahanas , empires whose centres of power were in the Gangetic plains and Central India respectively . With the weakening of the Satavahanas , the Pallavas of Kanchi took control for a brief duration . In the 4th century , the rise to power of the Kadamba Dynasty of Banavasi identified the Karnataka region as an independent political entity and Kannada as an administrative language from the middle of the 5th century . The Kadambas were natives of the Talagunda region ( in modern Shivamogga district ) as proven by inscriptions . Mayurasharma , a Brahmin native of Talagunda who was humiliated by a Pallava guard , rose in rage against the Pallava control of the Banavasi region and declared his independence in 345 . After many wars , the Pallava king had to accept the sovereignty of the Kadambas and Mayurasharma , the founding king , crowned himself at Banavasi ( in the present day Uttara Kannada district ) .
The fact that the Kadambas cultivated marital ties with the imperial Vakatakas and Gupta dynasties attests to their power . Kakusthavarma , the most powerful ruler of the dynasty whom inscriptions describe as " ornament of the Kadamba family " and " Sun among the kings of wide spread flame " , gave one daughter in marriage to Vakataka Narendrasena and another to Skandagupta , grandson of Chandragupta II of the Gupta dynasty . Historians trace their rise to political power through the examination of the contemporaneous Sanskrit writing , Aichitya Vichara Charcha by Kshemendra , which quotes portions of a writing Kunthalesvara Dautya by the famous poet Kalidasa . Here Kalidasa describes his visit to the Kadamba kingdom as an ambassador where he was not offered a seat in the court of the Kadamba king and had to sit on the ground . Historians view this act as one of assertion by the Kadambas who considered themselves equal to the imperial Gupta dynasty .
Family feuds and conflicts ended the Kadamba rule in the middle of the 6th century when the last Kadamba ruler Krishna Varma II was subdued by Pulakeshin I of the Chalukya feudatory , ending their sovereign rule . The Kadambas would continue to rule parts of Karnataka and Goa for many centuries to come but never again as an independent kingdom . Some historians view the Kadambas as the originators of the Karnataka architectural tradition although there were elements in common with the structures built by the contemporaneous Pallavas of Kanchi . The oldest surviving Kadamba structure is one dating to the late 5th century in Halsi in modern Belgaum district . The most prominent feature of their architectural style , one that remained popular centuries later and was used by the Hoysalas and the Vijayanagar kings , is the Kadamba Shikara ( Kadamba tower ) with a Kalasa ( pot ) on top .
The Western Ganga Dynasty , contemporaries of the Kadambas , came to power from Kolar but in the late 4th century - early 5th century moved their capital to Talakad in modern Mysore district . They ruled the region historically known as Gangavadi comprising most of the modern southern districts of Karnataka . Acting as a buffer state between the Kannada kingdoms of Karnataka region and the Tamil kingdoms of Tamilakam , the Western Ganga architectural innovations show mixed influences . Their sovereign rule ended around the same time as the Kadambas when they came under the Badami Chalukya control . The Western Gangas continued to rule as a feudatory till the beginning of the eleventh century when they were defeated by the Cholas of Tanjavur . Important figures among the Gangas were King Durvinita and Shivamara II , admired as able warriors and scholars , and minister Chavundaraya who was a builder , a warrior and a writer in Kannada and Sanskrit . The most important architectural contributions of these Gangas are the monuments and basadis of Shravanabelagola , the monolith of Gomateshwara termed as the mightiest achievement in the field of sculpture in ancient Karnataka and the Panchakuta basadi ( five towers ) at Kambadahalli . Their free standing pillars ( called Mahasthambhas and Brahmasthambhas ) and Hero stones ( virgal ) with sculptural detail are also considered a unique contribution .
= = Badami Chalukyas = =
The Chalukya dynasty , natives of the Aihole and Badami region in Karnataka , were at first a feudatory of the Kadambas . They encouraged the use of Kannada in addition to the Sanskrit language in their administration . In the middle of the 6th century the Chalukyas came into their own when Pulakeshin I made the hill fortress in Badami his center of power . During the rule of Pulakeshin II a south Indian empire sent expeditions to the north past the Tapti River and Narmada River for the first time and successfully defied Harshavardhana , the King of Northern India ( Uttarapatheswara ) . The Aihole inscription of Pulakeshin II , written in classical Sanskrit language and old Kannada script dated 634 , proclaims his victories against the Kingdoms of Kadambas , Western Gangas , Alupas of South Canara , Mauryas of Puri , Kingdom of Kosala , Malwa , Lata and Gurjaras of southern Rajasthan . The inscription describes how King Harsha of Kannauj lost his Harsha ( joyful disposition ) on seeing a large number of his war elephants die in battle against Pulakeshin II .
These victories earned him the title Dakshinapatha Prithviswamy ( lord of the south ) . Pulakeshin II continued his conquests in the east where he conquered all kingdoms in his way and reached the Bay of Bengal in present @-@ day Orissa . A Chalukya viceroyalty was set up in Gujarat and Vengi ( coastal Andhra ) and princes from the Badami family were dispatched to rule them . Having subdued the Pallavas of Kanchipuram , he accepted tributes from the Pandyas of Madurai , Chola dynasty and Cheras of the Kerala region . Pulakeshin II thus became the master of India , south of the Narmada River . Pulakeshin II is widely regarded as one of the great kings in Indian history . Hiuen @-@ Tsiang , a Chinese traveller visited the court of Pulakeshin II at this time and Persian emperor Khosrau II exchanged ambassadors . However , the continuous wars with Pallavas took a turn for the worse in 642 when the Pallava king Narasimhavarman I avenged his father 's defeat , conquered and plundered the capital of Pulakeshin II who may have died in battle . A century later , Chalukya Vikramaditya II marched victoriously into Kanchipuram , the Pallava capital and occupied it on three occasions , the third time under the leadership of his son and crown prince Kirtivarman II . He thus avenged the earlier humiliation of the Chalukyas by the Pallavas and engraved a Kannada inscription on the victory pillar at the Kailasanatha Temple . He later overran the other traditional kingdoms of Tamil country , the Pandyas , Cholas and Keralas in addition to subduing a Kalabhra ruler .
The Kappe Arabhatta record from this period ( 700 ) in tripadi ( three line ) metre is considered the earliest available record in Kannada poetics . The most enduring legacy of the Chalukya dynasty is the architecture and art that they left behind . More than one hundred and fifty monuments attributed to them , built between 450 and 700 , have survived in the Malaprabha basin in Karnataka . The constructions are centred in a relatively small area within the Chalukyan heartland . The structural temples at Pattadakal , a UNESCO World Heritage Site , the cave temples of Badami , the temples at Mahakuta and early experiments in temple building at Aihole are their most celebrated monuments . Two of the famous paintings at Ajanta cave no . 1 , " The Temptation of the Buddha " and " The Persian Embassy " are also credited to them . Further , they influenced the architecture in far off places like Gujarat and Vengi as evidenced in the Nava Brahma temples at Alampur .
= = Rashtrakutas = =
In the middle of the 8th century the Chalukya rule was ended by their feudatory , the Rashtrakuta family rulers of Berar ( in present @-@ day Amravati district of Maharashtra ) . Sensing an opportunity during a weak period in the Chalukya rule , Dantidurga trounced the great Chalukyan " Karnatabala " ( power of Karnata ) . Having overthrown the Chalukyas , the Rashtrakutas made Manyakheta their capital ( modern Malkhed in Gulbarga district ) . Although the origins of the early Rashtrakuta ruling families in central India and the Deccan in the 6th and 7th centuries is controversial , during the eighth through the tenth centuries they emphasised the importance of the Kannada language in conjunction with Sanskrit in their administration . Rashtrakuta inscriptions are in Kannada and Sanskrit only . They encouraged literature in both languages and thus literature flowered under their rule .
The Rashtrakutas quickly became the most powerful Deccan empire , making their initial successful forays into the doab region of Ganges River and Jamuna River during the rule of Dhruva Dharavarsha . The rule of his son Govinda III signaled a new era with Rashtrakuta victories against the Pala Dynasty of Bengal and Gurjara Pratihara of north western India resulting in the capture of Kannauj . The Rashtrakutas held Kannauj intermittently during a period of a tripartite struggle for the resources of the rich Gangetic plains . Because of Govinda III 's victories , historians have compared him to Alexander the Great and Pandava Arjuna of the Hindu epic Mahabharata . The Sanjan inscription states the horses of Govinda III drank the icy water of the Himalayan stream and his war elephants tasted the sacred waters of the Ganges River . Amoghavarsha I , eulogised by contemporary Arab traveller Sulaiman as one among the four great emperors of the world , succeeded Govinda III to the throne and ruled during an important cultural period that produced landmark writings in Kannada and Sanskrit . The benevolent development of Jain religion was a hallmark of his rule . Because of his religious temperament , his interest in the arts and literature and his peace @-@ loving nature , he has been compared to emperor Ashoka . The rule of Indra III in the tenth century enhanced the Rashtrakuta position as an imperial power as they conquered and held Kannauj again . Krishna III followed Indra III to the throne in 939 . A patron of Kannada literature and a powerful warrior , his reign marked the submission of the Paramara of Ujjain in the north and Cholas in the south .
An Arabic writing Silsilatuttavarikh ( 851 ) called the Rashtrakutas one among the four principle empires of the world . Kitab @-@ ul @-@ Masalik @-@ ul @-@ Mumalik ( 912 ) called them the " greatest kings of India " and there were many other contemporaneous books written in their praise . The Rashtrakuta empire at its peak spread from Cape Comorin in the south to Kannauj in the north and from Banaras in the east to Broach ( Bharuch ) in the west . While the Rashtrakutas built many fine monuments in the Deccan , the most extensive and sumptuous of their work is the monolithic Kailasanatha temple at Ellora , the temple being a splendid achievement . In Karnataka their most famous temples are the Kashivishvanatha temple and the Jain Narayana temple at Pattadakal . All of the monuments are designated UNESCO World Heritage Sites .
= = Western Chalukyas = =
In the late 10th century , the Western Chalukyas , also known as the Kalyani Chalukyas or ' Later ' Chalukyas rose to power by overthrowing the Rashtrakutas under whom they had been serving as feudatories . Manyakheta was their capital early on before they moved it to Kalyani ( modern Basavakalyan ) . Whether the kings of this empire belonged to the same family line as their namesakes , the Badami Chalukyas is still debated . Whatever the Western Chalukya origins , Kannada remained their language of administration and the Kannada and Sanskrit literature of their time was prolific . Tailapa II , a feudatory ruler from Tardavadi ( modern Bijapur district ) , re @-@ established the Chalukya rule by defeating the Rashtrakutas during the reign of Karka II . He timed his rebellion to coincide with the confusion caused by the invading Paramara of Central India to the Rashtrakutas capital in 973 . This era produced prolonged warfare with the Chola dynasty of Tamilakam for control of the resources of the Godavari River @-@ Krishna River doab region in Vengi . Someshvara I , a brave Chalukyan king , successfully curtailed the growth of the Chola Empire to the south of the Tungabhadra River region despite suffering some defeats while maintaining control over his feudatories in the Konkan , Gujarat , Malwa and Kalinga regions . For approximately 100 years , beginning in the early 11th century , the Cholas occupied large areas of South Karnataka region ( Gangavadi ) .
In 1076 , the ascent of the most famous king of this Chalukya family , Vikramaditya VI , changed the balance of power in favour of the Chalukyas . His fifty @-@ year reign was an important period in Karnataka 's history and is referred to as the " Chalukya Vikrama era " . His victories over the Cholas in the late 11th and early 12th centuries put an end to the Chola influence in the Vengi region permanently . Some of the well @-@ known contemporaneous feudatory families of the Deccan under Chalukya control were the Hoysalas , the Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri , the Kakatiya dynasty and the Southern Kalachuri . At their peak , the Western Chalukyas ruled a vast empire stretching from the Narmada River in the north to the Kaveri River in the south . Vikramaditya VI is considered one of the most influential kings of Indian history . Important architectural works were created by these Chalukyas , especially in the Tungabhadra river valley , that served as a conceptual link between the building idioms of the early Badami Chalukyas and the later Hoysalas . With the weakening of the Chalukyas in the decades following the death of Vikramaditya VI in 1126 , the feudatories of the Chalukyas gained their independence .
The Kalachuris of Karnataka , whose ancestors were immigrants into the southern deccan from central India , had ruled as a feudatory from Mangalavada ( modern Mangalavedhe in Maharashtra ) . Bijjala II , the most powerful ruler of this dynasty , was a commander ( mahamandaleswar ) during the reign of Chalukya Vikramaditya VI . Seizing an opportune moment in the waning power of the Chalukyas , Bijjala II declared independence in 1157 and annexed their capital Kalyani . His rule was cut short by his assassination in 1167 and the ensuing civil war caused by his sons fighting over the throne ended the dynasty as the last Chalukya scion regained control of Kalyani . This victory however , was short @-@ lived as the Chalukyas were eventually driven out by the Seuna Yadavas .
= = Hoysalas = =
The Hoysalas had become a powerful force even during their rule from Belur in the 11th century as a feudatory of the Chalukyas ( in the south Karnataka region ) . In the early 12th century they successfully fought the Cholas in the south , convincingly defeating them in the battle of Talakad and moved their capital to nearby Halebidu . Historians refer to the founders of the dynasty as natives of Malnad Karnataka , based on the numerous inscriptions calling them Maleparolganda or " Lord of the Male ( hills ) chiefs " ( Malepas ) . With the waning of the Western Chalukya power , the Hoysalas declared their independence in the late twelfth century .
During this period of Hoysala control , distinctive Kannada literary metres such as Ragale ( blank verse ) , Sangatya ( meant to be sung to the accompaniment of a musical instrument ) , Shatpadi ( seven line ) etc. became widely accepted . The Hoysalas expanded the Vesara architecture stemming from the Chalukyas , culminating in the Hoysala architectural articulation and style as exemplified in the construction of the Chennakesava Temple at Belur and the Hoysaleswara temple at Halebidu . Both these temples were built in commemoration of the victories of the Hoysala Vishnuvardhana against the Cholas in 1116 . Veera Ballala II , the most effective of the Hoysala rulers , defeated the aggressive Pandya when they invaded the Chola kingdom and assumed the titles " Establisher of the Chola Kingdom " ( Cholarajyapratishtacharya ) , " Emperor of the south " ( Dakshina Chakravarthi ) and " Hoysala emperor " ( Hoysala Chakravarthi ) . The Hoysalas extended their foothold in areas known today as Tamil Nadu around 1225 , making the city of Kannanur Kuppam near Srirangam a provincial capital . This gave them control over South Indian politics that began a period of Hoysala hegemony in the southern Deccan .
In the early 13th century , with the Hoysala power remaining unchallenged , the first of the Muslim incursions into South India began . After over two decades of waging war against a foreign power , the Hoysala ruler at the time , Veera Ballala III , died in the battle of Madurai in 1343 . This resulted in the merger of the sovereign territories of the Hoysala empire with the areas administered by Harihara I , founder of the Vijayanagara Empire , located in the Tungabhadra region in present @-@ day Karnataka . The new kingdom thrived for another two centuries with Vijayanagara as its capital .
= = Vijayanagara Empire = =
The Vijayanagara Empire quickly rose to imperial status as early as the late 14th century . During the reign of Bukka Raya I , the island of Lanka paid tributes and ambassadors were exchanged with the Ming Dynasty of China . The empire 's most famous rulers were Deva Raya II and the Tuluva king Krishnadevaraya . Deva Raya II ( known as Gajabetekara or hunter of elephants ) ascended the throne in 1424 and was the most effective of the Sangama dynasty rulers . He quelled rebelling feudal lords , the Zamorin of Calicut and the Quilon in the south , and invaded the island of Lanka while becoming overlord of the kings of Burma at Pegu and Tanasserim . After a brief decline , the empire reached its peak in the early 16th century during the rule of Krishnadevaraya when the Vijayanagara armies were consistently victorious . The empire annexed areas formerly under the Sultanates in the northern Deccan and the territories in the eastern Deccan , including Kalinga , while simultaneously maintaining control over all its subordinates in the south .
Many important monuments at Hampi were either completed or commissioned during the reign of Krishnadevaraya . The enduring legacy of this empire is the vast open @-@ air theatre of monuments at the regal capital , Vijayanagara , which is now a UNESCO World Heritage site . Vijayanagara architecture is a vibrant blend of the preceding Chalukya , Hoysala , Pandya and Chola styles . Literature in Telugu , Kannada , Tamil and Sanskrit languages found royal patronage . Telugu attained its height in popularity and reached its peak under Krishnadevaraya . The Kannada Haridasa movement contributed greatly to Carnatic music and fostered a strong Hindu sentiment across South India . With the defeat of the Vijayanagara Empire in the Battle of Talikota in 1565 by the Deccan sultanates , the Karnataka
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region and South India in general became fragmented and subsumed under the rule of various former feudatories of the empire . A diminished Vijayanagara Empire moved its capital to Penukonda in modern Andhra Pradesh and later to Chandragiri and Vellore before disintegrating . In the south and coastal Karnataka region , the Kingdom of Mysore and the Keladi Nayaka of Shimoga held sway while the northern regions were under the control of the Bijapur Sultanate . The Nayaka kingdom lasted into the 18th century before merging with the Kingdom of Mysore which remained a princely state until Indian independence in 1947 , though they came under the British Raj ( rule ) in 1799 following the defeat and death of the last independent Mysore king , Tipu Sultan .
= = Bahmani Sultanate = =
The Bahmani Sultanate , a contemporary of the Vijayanagara Empire , was founded in 1347 by Alla @-@ ud @-@ din @-@ Hasan , a breakaway commander of the armies of the northern invaders led by Mohammed @-@ bin @-@ Tughlaq . The capital was Gulbarga but was later moved further north to Bidar in 1430 . The first of the Muslim invasions of the Deccan came in the early decades of the 14th century . At its peak , the Bahamani kingdom extended from the Krishna River in the south to Penganga River in the north , thus covering the regions of northern parts of modern Karnataka , parts of Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh . The most famous of the Bahamani Kings was Firuz Shah ( also known as Taj Ud Din Firuz ) , who ruled from 1397 to 1422 . Militarily , the rule of Firuz Shah had uneven success against the Vijayanagara kings while he was more convincingly successful against the Kherla rulers of Madhya Pradesh and the Vema Reddies of Rajamundry , areas that he annexed in 1417 . His last encounter with the Vijayanagara armies in 1417 was disastrous and led to his defeat , ill health and ultimate death in 1422 .
Contemporary writers such as Tabataba , in his writings have heaped praise on Firuz Shah . Tabataba wrote of the king as , " [ a ] n impetuous , mighty monarch who patronised learned men , Sheiks and hermits " , while Shirazi described him as " a just , pious and generous king and one without equal " . He has earned the honorific Sultan @-@ i @-@ ghazian for his bravery , tolerant nature and patronage of the fine arts . In the opinion of one historian , Firuz Shah was one of the most notable Sultans to rule in India . Another well @-@ known figure from this kingdom was Kwaja Mahamud Gavan , the prime minister , who served under several kings and regents . He rose above the kings and princess of the dynasty by virtue of his ministerial , administrative , martial , literary and philanthropic abilities . A Persian by descent and a visitor to Bidar in 1445 , he impressed the ruling Sultan Alla @-@ ud @-@ din II and was chosen to become a minister in his court . As a commander he was able to extend the kingdom from Hubli in the south to Goa in the west and Kondavidu and Rajamahendri in the east . He soon rose to the position of prime minister ( Vakil @-@ Us @-@ Sultanat ) .
The Bahamanis introduced the large @-@ scale use of paper in administration and began the Indo @-@ Sarasenic architectural style , designed and constructed by Persian architects and artisans , ( also known as Deccani architecture ) with its local influences in Karnataka . The Sultanate monuments of Bidar and Gulbarga are testimony to their interest in architecture . The Bande Nawaz tombs and a Jama Masjid in Gulbarga which exhibits a Spanish influence are well known . In Bidar , their buildings have Persian , Turkish , Arabic and Roman influences ( the Solah Khamba mosque being an example ) . Rangin Mahal , Gangan Mahal , Tarkash Mahal , Chini Mahal , Nagina Mahal and the Taqk Mahal are some of the palaces built by them that have retained their beauty . The Ahmad Shah Wali tombs are noted for their decor , and the school of learning ( madrasa ) built by Gavan in Bidar ( 1472 ) , with its lecture halls , library , mosque and residential houses are also famous . In the later part of the 15th century , with a growing rift between the local Deccani Muslims and the Pardeshi Muslims ( foreign ) who occupied influential positions in the kingdom , the execution of Gavan under dubious circumstances in 1481 , and constant wars with the Vijayanagara kings weakened the Bahamani Kingdom eventually bringing about its end in 1527 .
= = Bijapur Sultanate = =
The Bijapur Sultanate ( or Adilshahi Kingdom ) emerged towards the end of the 15th century with the weakening of the Bahmani Sultanate . The main sources of information about this kingdom comes from contemporaneous inscriptions and writings in Persian and Kannada , travelogues of European visitors to the Deccan and inscriptions of neighbouring kingdoms . In 1489 , Yusuf Adilkhan , a Turkic general in the Bahmani army , broke away to found the kingdom from modern Bijapur . Throughout his rule , the Sultanate was at war with the Vijayanagara Empire over the strategic Raichur doab , with the Portuguese over Goa , with the Barid Shahis of Bidar and later with the erstwhile feudatories of the Vijayanagara Empire who had gained independence after 1565 . The Italian writer Varathema wrote about the founder Adilkhan and Bijapur , " A powerful and prosperous king " , " the city was encircled by many fortifications and contained beautiful and majestic buildings " .
Inter @-@ Sultanate marriages normalised relations and Ali I ( 1557 – 1580 ) joined a confederacy of Sultanates who eventually inflicted a crushing defeat on the Vijayanagara Empire in 1565 . The most notable ruler of the dynasty was Ibrahim II ( 1580 – 1626 ) who ascended the throne as a nine @-@ year @-@ old with Chandbibi , the king 's aunt acting as the regent . Later when Ibrahim II was defeated by the first of the Moghul incursions into the Deccan , he gave his daughter in marriage to Daniyal , a son of Emperor Akbar , but managed to collect tributes from the former feudatories of the Vijayanagara Empire . According to a historian , the rule of Ibrahim II was the high point of the Bijapur Sultanate . A tolerant king inclined to the fine arts , the earliest book on music in Urdu language called Kitab @-@ e @-@ Nauras is ascribed to him . The opening song in the book is an invocation of the Hindu Goddess Saraswati . During the rule of his son Muhammad , Shahji Bhosle from Ahmadnagar joined the Bijapur army and along with commander Ranadullah Khan conducted many successful campaigns in the southern Deccan collecting tribute from local rulers there . The final end of the diminished Vijayanagara Empire ruling from Vellore came during these campaigns .
However , the rise of Maratha Shivaji and constant invasions by the Mughals from the north took its toll on the kingdom , eventually bringing it to an end in the later part of the 17th century . The contributions of the Bijapur Sultanate in the Indo @-@ Saracenic idiom to the architectural landscape of Karnataka is noteworthy . Their most famous monuments are the mausoleums called Ibrahim Rauza and the Gol Gumbaz apart from many other palaces and mosques . The elegance , finish and beauty of Mehtar Mahal is claimed by a historian to be equal to anything in Cairo . Their Kali Masjid at Lakshmeshwar is a synthesis of Hindu and Muslim styles . The Ibrahim Rauza built by Ibrahim II is a combination of a mausoleum and a mosque and is called the " Taj Mahal of the Deccan " . The Gol Gumbaz built by Muhammad is the largest dome in India and the second largest pre @-@ modern dome in the world after the Byzantine Hagia Sophia with an impressive " whispering gallery " . Some historians consider this one of the architectural marvels of the world . Persian language was given state patronage while the use of the local languages , Kannada and Marathi was popularised in local affairs .
= = Modern era = =
The fall of the Vijayanagara Empire in 1565 at the Battle of Talikota started a slow disintegration of the Kannada speaking region into many short @-@ lived palegar chiefdoms , and the better known Kingdom of Mysore and the kingdom of Keladi Nayakas , which were to later become important centres of Kannada literary production . These kingdoms and the Nayakas ( " chiefs " ) of Tamil country continued to owe nominal support to a diminished Vijayanagara Empire ruling from Penukonda ( 1570 ) and later from Chandragiri ( 1586 ) in modern Andhra Pradesh , followed by a brief period of independence . By the mid @-@ 17th century , large areas in north Karnataka came under the control of the Bijapur Sultanate who waged several wars in a bid to establish a hegemony over the southern Deccan . The defeat of the Bijapur Sultanate at the hands of the Mughals in late 17th century added a new dimension to the prevailing confusion . The constant wars of the local kingdoms with the two new rivals , the Mughals and the Marathas , and among themselves , caused further instability in the region . Major areas of Karnataka came under the rule of the Mughals and the Marathas . Under Hyder Ali and his son Tipu Sultan , the Mysore Kingdom reached its zenith of power but had to face the growing English might who by now had a firm foothold in the subcontinent . After the death of Tipu Sultan in 1799 in the fourth Anglo @-@ Mysore war , the Mysore Kingdom came under the British umbrella . More than a century later , with the dawn of India as an independent nation in 1947 , the unification of Kannada speaking regions as modern Karnataka state brought four centuries of political uncertainty ( and centuries of foreign rule ) to an end .
= = Timeline = =
= New York State Route 179 =
New York State Route 179 ( NY 179 ) is a short 4 @.@ 40 @-@ mile ( 7 @.@ 08 km ) long state highway located south of Buffalo in Erie County , New York , in the United States . It is a four @-@ lane divided road ( albeit with traffic lights ) for most of its length . It is known as Mile Strip Road . A small section between U.S. Route 62 ( US 62 ) and NY 5 in Blasdell , however , is a limited @-@ access highway known as the Mile Strip Expressway . It connects to two major expressways , the New York State Thruway ( Interstate 90 or I @-@ 90 ) and the Southern Expressway ( US 219 ) , by way of interchanges . It serves as a connector road between them and three other major routes , NY 5 , US 62 , and US 20 . Thus it is very busy not only at rush hours , but also after Buffalo Bills ' home football games due to its proximity to Ralph Wilson Stadium .
The Mile Strip Expressway was first constructed in the 1960s from NY 5 in Hamburg to US 62 in Blasdell . By 1968 , it received its NY 179 designation . This was extended to the Thruway in the next decade and by 2001 , was extended to its current eastern terminus at US 20 in Orchard Park . Although never constructed as such , the Mile Strip was intended to be a portion of the Belt Expressway , an outer loop for the city of Buffalo .
= = Route description = =
NY 179 begins at an interchange with NY 5 ( Lake Shore Road ) near the shores Lake Erie in Woodlawn Beach State Park . NY 179 proceeds eastward through the town of Hamburg as the Mile Strip Expressway , running north as a four @-@ lane boulevard north of a stamping plant , operated by the Ford Motor Company . Just after the stamping plant , NY 179 enters its first interchange , Mile Strip Road , which connects to NY 179 east via a jughandle . Crossing into the town of Blasdell , the expressway crosses over three separate railroad grades consecutively before crossing into downtown Blasdell . In Blasdell , another railroad crosses the freeway after an interchange with Jeffrey Boulevard . A short distance later , NY 179 intersects with US 62 ( South Park Avenue ) , where the expressway ends and NY 179 becomes the four @-@ lane arterial boulevard known as Mile Strip Road .
After re @-@ crossing into Hamburg , NY 179 continues eastward as Mile Strip Road , entering a large interchange with the New York State Thruway ( I @-@ 90 exit 56 ) , which connects via trumpet interchange . After bending northeast , the route crosses over the Thruway , becoming a two @-@ lane commercial street , passing north and south of several strip malls until an intersection with County Route 204 ( CR 204 ; McKinley Parkway ) . After CR 204 , NY 179 passes north of McKinley Mall , proceeding eastward as a four @-@ lane divided boulevard past several residences before bending northeast , intersecting with CR 4 ( Abbott Road ) in the town of Orchard Park .
After CR 4 , NY 179 proceeds east through Orchard Park as a two @-@ lane boulevard , intersecting the northern terminus of CR 461 ( California Road ) . After crossing under another railroad , NY 179 returns to four @-@ lanes , passing south of several strip malls in Orchard Park . The route soon becomes a divided highway , entering a cloverleaf interchange with US 219 ( the Southern Expressway ) . After the interchange , NY 179 parallels as a four @-@ lane boulevard between several strip malls , soon intersecting with US 20 ( Southwestern Boulevard ) , where NY 179 terminates . CR 460 continues eastward along Mile Strip Road to NY 187 .
= = History = =
The Mile Strip Expressway , a 1 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) highway extending from NY 5 to US 62 , was constructed in the mid @-@ 1960s and designated as NY 179 by 1968 . A short continuation of the expressway east of US 62 providing direct access to New York State Thruway exit 56 was opened to traffic as an extension of NY 179 at some point in the late 1970s or early 1980s . The junction between the expressway and Mile Strip Road was initially a four @-@ way intersection , with Mile Strip Road passing east – west through the intersection and NY 179 entering from the south to connect to Thruway exit 56 to the north .
The entirety of Mile Strip Road east of US 62 was initially maintained by Erie County as CR 460 . By 2001 , the junction between NY 179 , Mile Strip Road , and the Thruway was reconfigured into its current design and NY 179 was extended east to its current terminus at US 20 . CR 460 was then truncated to US 20 on its western end , transferring maintenance of Mile Strip Road from the Thruway to US 20 to the New York State Department of Transportation .
The Mile Strip Expressway was to be part of the Belt Expressway , an outer loop connecting Buffalo and Niagara Falls . This plan was ultimately cancelled . The only two portions of the loop that were constructed are the LaSalle Expressway east of Niagara Falls and the mile @-@ long Mile Strip Expressway .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Erie County .
= Benjamin Church House ( Bristol , Rhode Island ) =
Benjamin Church House ( also known as Benjamin Church Home for the Aged ) is a Colonial Revival house at 1014 Hope Street in Bristol , Rhode Island , U.S.A. It opened in 1909 as the " Benjamin Church Home for Aged Men " as stipulated by Benjamin Church 's will . Beginning in 1934 , during the Great Depression , it admitted women . The house was closed in 1968 and became a National Register of Historic Places listing in 1971 . The non @-@ profit Benjamin Church Senior Center was incorporated in June 1972 and opened on September 1 , 1972 . It continues to operate as a senior center .
= = Benjamin Church = =
Benjamin Church was born on February 20 , 1842 , to Elizabeth Luther and Samuel Church , a wealthy grain and flour merchant . Benjamin was raised with his 12 siblings on Mount Hope Farm and the old family farm on Poppasquash . His two brothers built houses in the Poppasquash Farms Historic District . In 1900 , Benjamin Church drafted a will to provide for the construction of a home for elderly men . It opened in 1909 as the " Benjamin Church Home for Aged Men " .
= = Design = =
The Benjamin Church House is a two story clapboarded Colonial Revival topped with a hipped roof that has four pedimented dormers . Constructed between 1908 and 1909 from designs by Clarke , Howe & Homer , architects , the building cost $ 21 @,@ 000 . The front of the house faces west towards Hope Street and is 18 by 30 feet ( 5 @.@ 5 by 9 @.@ 1 m ) and has an ell on the rear side that measures 18 by 24 feet ( 5 @.@ 5 by 7 @.@ 3 m ) . The front facade has a symmetrical five bay facade with the main entrance in the center , the door has sidelights and a semi @-@ elliptical fanlight . The front windows are typical 20th @-@ century windows with six @-@ over @-@ one sash and have splayed wooden lintels and those on the first floor have raised center keystones . Projecting out from the hipped roof are two dormers with shingled sides . The front facade has a one @-@ story porch that runs the length of the face with a half @-@ hipped roof . The porch is supported by six Doric columns that frame the bays and has a wooden frieze with a triglyph above each column . The porch has a simple wooden rail that runs the length of the porch and down the front and side steps , the newel posts are capped by small wooden urns . The corners of the main part of the house have wooden quoins . In the southeast corner of the building is an internal porch covered by a quarter @-@ hipped roof . The rear roof is are two pedimented dormers , one on each side of the ell 's roof and the third chimney which rises through the roof of the main building . The house has a stone foundation , which extends to a full story due the sloping land and has a doorway in the rear . The porch is supported by brick piers .
The interior of the house is designed around a central hall with a narrow stairway with turned balusters and newel that goes to the third floor . On both sides of the hall are two large front reception rooms , each 14 by 19 feet ( 4 @.@ 3 by 5 @.@ 8 m ) and having 9 feet ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) tall ceilings . The rear of the south front room is the former dining room that is connected by a pantry to the kitchen in the ell . Two small rooms are located beyond the northern reception room . The second floor maintains the central hall and extends into the ell , but is bisected by a lateral hallway . Each " quadrant " housed two rooms for the residents with additional rooms in the ell and the third floor has four additional bedrooms with the dormer windows . The third floor of the ell was used as attic storage space . At the time of nomination to the National Register of Historic Places , the alterations that had been made to the house were described as " minor and inconspicuous , consisting mainly of alterations to windows and dormers to provide egress to necessary fire @-@ escapes . " The porch is believed to be a part of the original design , but it was noted that if it was a later addition it would likely have been done before 1920 . In 1969 , the clapboarded outbuilding to the southeast was torn down to construct newer housing for the elderly .
= = Service = =
The Benjamin Church House was ready to open on March 15 , 1909 and served as elderly housing for only aged men . In 1934 , during the Great Depression , the board of trustees decided to admit women to the house . Samuel P. Colt would bequeath $ 25 @,@ 000 to the home upon his death in 1921 . The house was closed from 1968 until 1973 and vandalized during the period , but was also submitted and approved to the National Register of Historic Places . Sometime in 1972 , the National Park Service approved a grant of $ 5 @,@ 000 to refurbish the house . In June 1972 , " [ t ] he Benjamin Church Senior Center was incorporated as a non @-@ profit organization that was housed in [ t ] he Benjamin Church Home " and opened for occupancy on September 1 , 1972 . According to the Benjamin Church Senior Center , the house is used as a senior center and is run by volunteers and board members .
= = Importance = =
The Benjamin Church House is historically significant as a " very pure example " of the Colonial Revival style by noted local architects Clarke , Howe & Homer . The house also serves as an important asset to the Bristol environment as an elderly home , noted during its vacancy at the time of its nomination . The nomination states " [ i ] t is because of the environmental and architectural importance of this house and its significance in the greater context of the Bristol @-@ Warren historic districts that it is thought to be worthy of National Register status and protection . " It was added to the National Register of Historic Places on September 22 , 1971 .
= Alan Shepard =
Rear Admiral Alan Bartlett " Al " Shepard Jr . ( November 18 , 1923 – July 21 , 1998 ) was an American naval officer and aviator , test pilot , one of the original NASA Mercury Seven astronauts , and businessman , who in May 1961 made the first manned Mercury flight . Shepard 's craft entered space , but did not to achieve orbit . He became the second person , and the first American , to travel into space , and the first person to manually control the orientation of his spacecraft .
Ten years later , at age 47 and the oldest astronaut in the program , Shepard commanded the Apollo 14 mission ( 1971 ) , piloting the lander Antares to the most accurate landing of the Apollo missions . He became the fifth and oldest person to walk on the Moon , and the only one of the Mercury Seven to do so . During the mission , he hit two golf balls on the lunar surface .
These were his only two space flights , as his flight status was interrupted for five years during the Mercury and Gemini programs by Ménière 's disease , an inner @-@ ear disease that was surgically corrected before his Moon flight . Shepard served as Chief of the Astronaut Office from November 1963 to July 1969 ( the approximate period of his grounding ) , and from June 1971 to August 1 , 1974 ( from his last flight to his retirement ) . He was promoted to rear admiral on August 25 , 1971 , the first astronaut to reach that rank . He retired from the United States Navy and NASA in 1974 .
= = Early life and education = =
Alan Bartlett Shepard Jr. was born on November 18 , 1923 , in Derry , New Hampshire , the oldest of two children of Alan B. Shepard Sr. and Pauline Renza Shepard ( née Emerson ) . He was one of many famous descendants of Mayflower passenger Richard Warren . Alan B. Shepard Sr. , known as Bart , worked in the Derry National Bank , owned by Shepard 's grandfather . He joined the National Guard in 1915 and served in France with the American Expeditionary Force during World War I. He remained in the National Guard between the wars , and was recalled to active duty during World War II , rising to the rank of lieutenant colonel . Shepard had a younger sister , Pauline , who was known as Polly .
Shepard initially attended Adams School . He skipped the sixth grade , proceeding to middle school at Oak Street School in Derry , where he skipped the eighth grade as well . He completed years 9 to 12 at the Pinkerton Academy , a private school in Derry that his father had attended . He was fascinated by flight , and created a model airplane club at the Academy , and his Christmas present in 1938 was a flight in a Douglas DC @-@ 3 . The following year he began cycling out to Manchester Airport , where he would do odd jobs in exchange for the occasional ride in an airplane or informal flying lesson .
With World War II approaching , Shepard 's father wanted him to join the Army , but Shepard chose the Navy instead . In 1940 , he easily passed the entrance exam to the United States Naval Academy at Anapolis , but at sixteen was too young to enter that year . Instead , the Navy sent him to the Admiral Farragut Academy , a prep school for the Naval Academy , from which he graduated with the class of 1941 . Tests administered at Farragut indicated an IQ of 145 .
At Annapolis , Shepard enjoyed aquatic sports . He was a keen and competitive sailor , winning a number of races , including a regatta held by the Annapolis Yacht Club . He learned to sail all the different types of boats the Academy owned , up to and including the USS Freedom , a 90 @-@ foot ( 27 m ) schooner . He also participated in swimming , and row with the eight . During his Christmas break in 1942 , he went to Principia College to be with his sister , who was unable to go home due to wartime travel restrictions . There he met Louise Brewer , whose parents were pensioners on the du Pont family estate , and , like Renza Shepard , were devout Christian Scientists . Due to the war , the usual four @-@ year course at Annapolis was cut short by a year , and he graduated and was commissioned as an Ensign on June 6 , 1944 , ranked 463rd in his class of 915 . The following month he became secretly engaged to Louise Brewer .
= = Navy service = =
After a month of classroom instruction in aviation , Shepard was posted to a destroyer , USS Cogswell , it being the US Navy 's policy that aviation candidates should first have some service at sea . At the time it was deployed on active service in the Pacific Ocean . Shepard joined it when it returned to the naval base at Ulithi on 30 October . After just two days at sea Cogswell helped rescue 172 sailors from the cruiser USS Reno , which had been torpedoed by a Japanese submarine , then escorted the crippled ship back to Ulithi . The ship was buffeted by Typhoon Cobra in December 1944 , a storm in which three other destroyers went down , and battled kamikazes in the invasion of Lingayen Gulf in January 1945 .
Cogswell returned to the United States for an overhaul in February 1945 , and Shepard was given three weeks ' leave . He and Louise decided to marry before he had to return . They were married on March 3 , 1945 , in St. Stephen 's Lutheran Church in Wilmington , Delaware . His father , Bart , served as his best man . They had only a brief time together before Shepard rejoined Cogswell at the Long Beach Navy Yard on April 5 , 1945 . After the war , they had two children , both daughters : Laura , born in 1947 , and Julie , born in 1951 . Following the death of Louise 's sister in 1956 , they raised her niece , Judith , whom they renamed Alice to avoid confusion with Julie , as their own , although they never adopted her . They eventually had six grandchildren .
On Shepard 's second cruise with Cogswell he was appointed a gunnery officer , responsible for the 20 mm and 40 mm antiaircraft guns on the ship 's bow . They engaged kamikazes in the Battle of Okinawa , where the ship served in the dangerous role of a radar picket . The job of the radar pickets was to warn the fleet of incoming kamikazes ; but because they were often the first ships sighted by incoming Japanese aircraft , they were also the most likely ships to be attacked . Cogswell performed this duty from 27 May 1945 until 26 June , when it rejoined Task Force 38 . The ship also participated in the Allied naval bombardments of Japan , and was present in Tokyo Bay for the Surrender of Japan in September 1945 . Shepard returned to the United States later that month .
In November 1945 , Shepard arrived at Naval Air Station Corpus Christi in Texas , where he commenced basic flight training on January 7 , 1946 . He was an average student , and for a time faced being " bilged " ( dropped ) from flight training and reassigned to the surface navy . To make up for this he took private lessons at a local civilian flying school — something the Navy frowned on — earning a civil pilot 's license . His flying skills gradually improved , and by early 1947 his instructors rated him above average . He was sent to Naval Air Station Pensacola in Florida for advanced training . His final test was six perfect landings on the carrier USS Saipan . The following day he received his Naval Aviator wings , which his proud father pinned on his chest .
Shepard was assigned to Fighter Squadron 42 ( VF @-@ 42 ) , flying the F4U Corsair . The squadron was nominally based on the aircraft carrier USS Franklin D. Roosevelt , but it was being overhauled at the time Shepard arrived , and in the meantime the squadron was based at Naval Air Station Norfolk in Virginia . He departed on his first cruise , of the Caribbean , with it in 1948 . Most of the aviators were , like Shepard , on their first assignment . Those that were not were given the opportunity to qualify for night landings on a carrier , a dangerous maneuver , especially in a Corsair , which had to bank sharply on approach . Shepard managed to persuade his squadron commander to allow him to qualify as well . After briefly returning to Norfolk , the carrier set out on a nine @-@ month tour of the Mediterranean Sea . He earned a reputation for carousing and chasing women . He also instituted a ritual of , whenever he could , calling Louise at 17 : 00 ( her time ) .
Normally sea duty alternated with periods of duty ashore . In 1950 , Shepard was selected to attend the United States Naval Test Pilot School at Naval Air Station Patuxent River in Maryland . After graduation , he participated in flight test work , which included high @-@ altitude tests to obtain data on light at different altitudes and on a variety of air masses over the American continent ; test and development experiments of the Navy 's in @-@ flight refueling system ; carrier suitability trials of the F2H Banshee ; and Navy trials of the first angled carrier deck . He narrowly avoided being court @-@ martialed by the station commander , Rear Admiral Alfred M. Pride after looping the Chesapeake Bay Bridge and making low passes over the beach at Ocean City , Maryland , and the base ; but Shepard 's superiors , John Hyland and Robert M. Elder , interceded on his behalf .
Fighter Squadron 193 ( VF @-@ 193 ) , based at Naval Air Station Moffett Field , California , was a night fighter unit flying F2H Banshee jets . The squadron was part of James D. " Jig Dog " Ramage 's Air Group 19 . Naval aviators with experience in jet aircraft were still relatively rare , and Ramage specifically requested Shepard 's assignment on the advice of Elder , who commanded VF @-@ 193 's sister squadron , VF @-@ 191 . Ramage made Shepard his own wingman , a decision that would save his life in 1954 , when Ramage 's oxygen system failed , and Shepard talked him through a landing . As operations officer of this squadron , Shepard 's most important job was imparting his knowledge of flying jets to his fellow aviators to keep them alive . He made two tours to the western Pacific on board the aircraft carrier USS Oriskany . It set out a combat tour off Korea in 1953 , during the Korean War , but the Korean Armistice Agreement ended the fighting in July 1953 , and Shepard did not see combat .
Shepard returned to Patuxent for a second tour of duty and engaged in flight testing the F3H Demon , F8U Crusader , F4D Skyray and F11F Tiger . At one point he was forced to bail out of a Vought F7U Cutlass . In 1957 , he was project test pilot on the F5D Skylancer . Shepard did not like the plane , and his unfavorable report killed the project . His last five months at Patuxent were spent as an instructor in the Test Pilot School . He then attended the Naval War College at Newport , Rhode Island , and , upon graduating in 1957 , was assigned to the staff of the Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , Atlantic Fleet , as Aircraft Readiness Officer . By this time he had logged more than 3 @,@ 600 hours of flying time , including 1 @,@ 700 hours in jets .
= = NASA career = =
= = = Mercury Seven = = =
In 1959 , the newly formed National Aeronautics and Space Administration ( NASA ) received permission from President Dwight D. Eisenhower to recruit its first astronauts from the ranks of military test pilots . The service records of 508 graduates of test pilot schools were obtained from the Department of Defense . From these , 110 were found that matched the minimum standards . These included being less than 40 years old , with a bachelor 's degree or equivalent , and no taller than 5 feet 11 inches ( 1 @.@ 80 m ) . While there was flexibility with some requirements , the height requirement was firm , owing to the size of the Project Mercury spacecraft . The 110 were then split into three groups , with the most promising candidates in the first group .
The first group of 35 , which included Shepard , assembled at the Pentagon on February 2 , 1959 . The Navy and Marine Corps officers were welcomed by the Chief of Naval Operations , Admiral Arleigh Burke , while the United States Air Force officers were addressed by the Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force , General Thomas D. White . Both pledged their support to the Space Program , and promised that the careers of volunteers would not be adversely affected . NASA officials then briefed them on Project Mercury . They conceded that it would be a hazardous undertaking , but emphasised that it was of great national importance . That evening , Shepard discussed the day 's events with fellow naval aviators Jim Lovell , Pete Conrad and Wally Schirra . All were concerned about their careers , but decided to volunteer .
The briefing process was repeated with a second group of 34 candidates a week later . Of the 69 , six were found to be over the height limit , 15 were eliminated for other reasons , and 16 declined . This left NASA with 32 candidates . Since this was more than expected , it was decided not only to not bother with the remaining candidates , but to select six astronauts instead of the twelve originally planned . Then came a grueling series of physical and psychological tests at the Lovelace Clinic and the Wright Aerospace Medical Laboratory . Only one candidate , Lovell , was eliminated on medical grounds at this stage , and the diagnosis was later found to be in error .
Shepard was informed of his selection on April 1 , 1959 . Two days later he headed up to Boston with Louise for the wedding of his cousin Alice , and was able to break the news to his parents and sister . The identities of the seven were made public at a press conference at Dolley Madison House in Washington , DC , on April 9 , 1959 : Scott Carpenter , Gordon Cooper , John Glenn , Gus Grissom , Wally Schirra , Alan Shepard , and Deke Slayton . The enormity of the challenge ahead of them was made clear a few weeks later , on the night of May 18 , 1959 , when the seven astronauts gathered at Cape Canaveral to watch their first rocket launch , of an SM @-@ 65D Atlas similar to the one that was to carry them into orbit . A few minutes after lift off , it spectacularly exploded , lighting up the night sky . The astronauts were stunned . Shepard turned to Glenn and said : " Well , I 'm glad they got that out of the way . "
= = = Freedom 7 = = =
Faced with intense competition from the other astronauts , particularly John Glenn , Shepard quit smoking , and adopted Glenn 's habit of taking a morning jog , although he did not go so far as to give up the cocktails or the philandering . On January 19 , 1961 , Robert R. Gilruth , the director of NASA 's Space Task Group , informed the seven astronauts that Shepard had been chosen for the first American manned mission into space . Shepard later recalled Louise 's response when he told her that she had her arms around the man who would be the first man in space : " Who let a Russian in here ? " During training he flew 120 simulated flights . Although his flight was originally scheduled for April 26 , 1960 , delays by unplanned preparatory work meant that this was postponed several times , initially to December 5 , 1960 , then mid @-@ January 1961 , March 6 , 1961 , April 25 , 1961 , May 2 , 1961 , and finally to May 5 , 1961 . On April 12 , 1961 , Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin had become the first person in space , and the first to orbit the Earth . When reporters rang Shorty Powers for a comment at 4am , he memorably replied : " We 're all asleep down here " .
On May 5 , 1961 , Shepard piloted the Mercury @-@ Redstone 3 mission and became the second person , and the first American , to travel into space . He named his spacecraft , Mercury Spacecraft 7 , Freedom 7 . It was launched by a Redstone rocket , and unlike Gagarin 's 108 @-@ minute orbital flight in a Vostok spacecraft three times the size of a Mercury capsule , Shepard stayed on a ballistic trajectory for a 15 @-@ minute sub @-@ orbital flight , which carried him to an altitude of 116 statute miles ( 187 km ) and to a splashdown point 302 statute miles ( 486 km ) down the Atlantic Missile Range . Shortly before the launch , Shepard said to himself : " Don 't mess up , Shepard ... " Unlike Gagarin , whose flight was strictly automatic , Shepard had some control of Freedom 7 , spacecraft attitude in particular . Shepard 's launch was seen live on television by millions . According to Gene Kranz in his book Failure Is Not an Option , " When reporters asked Shepard what he thought about as he sat atop the Redstone rocket , waiting for liftoff , he had replied , ' The fact that every part of this ship was built by the lowest bidder.'
After a dramatic Atlantic Ocean recovery , Commander Shepard observed , " ... didn 't really feel the flight was a success until the recovery had been successfully completed . It 's not the fall that hurts ; it 's the sudden stop . " Splashdown occurred with an impact comparable to landing a jet aircraft on an aircraft carrier . A recovery helicopter arrived after a few minutes , and the capsule was lifted partly out of the water to allow Shepard to leave by the main hatch . He squeezed out of the door and into a sling hoist , and was pulled into the helicopter , which flew both the astronaut and spacecraft to the aircraft carrier USS Lake Champlain . The whole recovery process took just eleven minutes . Shepard was celebrated as a national hero , honored with ticker @-@ tape parades in Washington , New York and Los Angeles , and received the NASA Distinguished Service Medal from President John F. Kennedy . He was also awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross .
Shepard served as capsule communicator ( CAPCOM ) for Glenn 's Mercury @-@ Atlas 6 orbital flight , which he had also been considered for , and Carpenter 's Mercury @-@ Atlas 7 . He was the backup pilot for Cooper for the Mercury @-@ Atlas 9 mission , nearly replacing Cooper after Cooper flew low over the NASA administration building at Cape Canaveral in an F @-@ 106 . In the final stages of Project Mercury , Shepard was scheduled to pilot the Mercury @-@ Atlas 10 ( MA @-@ 10 ) , which was planned as a three @-@ day mission . He named Mercury Spacecraft 15B Freedom 7 II in honor of his first spacecraft , but on June 12 , 1963 , NASA Administrator James E. Webb announced that Mercury had accomplished all its goals , and no more missions would be flown . Shepard went as far as making a personal appeal to President Kennedy , but to no avail .
= = = Project Gemini : Chief astronaut = = =
After the Mercury @-@ Atlas 10 mission was cancelled , Shepard was designated as the Command Pilot of the first manned Project Gemini mission , with Thomas P. Stafford chosen as his Pilot . In late 1963 , Shepard began to experience episodes of extreme dizziness and nausea , accompanied by a loud , clanging noise in the left ear . He tried to keep it secret , fearing that he would lose his flight status , but was aware that if an episode occurred in the air or in space it could be fatal . Following an episode during a lecture in Houston , where he had recently moved from Virginia Beach , Virginia , Shepard was forced to confess his ailment to Slayton , who was now Director Flight Operations , and seek help from NASA 's doctors .
The doctors diagnosed Ménière 's disease , a condition in which fluid pressure builds up in the inner ear . This syndrome causes the semicircular canals and motion detectors to become extremely sensitive , resulting in disorientation , dizziness , and nausea . There was no known cure , but in about 20 percent of cases the condition went away by itself . They prescribed diuretics in an attempt to drain the fluid from the ear . They also diagnosed glaucoma . An X @-@ ray found a lump on his thyroid , and on January 17 , 1964 , surgeons at Hermann Hospital removed 20 percent of it . The condition caused Shepard to be removed from flight status . Grissom and John Young flew Gemini 3 instead .
Shepard was designated Chief of the Astronaut Office , with responsibility for monitoring the coordination , scheduling , and control of all activities involving NASA astronauts . This included monitoring the development and implementation of effective training programs to assure the flight readiness of personnel for crew assignments on manned space flights ; furnishing pilot evaluations applicable to the design , construction , and operations of spacecraft systems and related equipment ; and providing qualitative scientific and engineering observations to facilitate overall mission planning , formulation of feasible operational procedures , and selection and conduct of specific experiments for each flight . He spent much of his time investing in banks and real estate .
During this period , his secretary had several head shot photographs taken of Shepard , posed with various expressions on his face . She would post these on the door to his private office , with a sign which said " Mood of the Day . " Visitors could then look at the photo to decide whether it was a good time to talk to him .
= = = Apollo program = = =
In 1968 , Stafford stopped by Shepard 's office and told him that an otologist in Los Angeles had developed a cure for Ménière 's disease . Shepard flew to Los Angeles , where he met with Dr. William F. House . House proposed to cut through Shepard 's mastoid bone and make a tiny hole in the saccule . A small tube was inserted through which excess fluid would drain from the endolymphatic sac . The surgery was conducted in early 1969 at St. Vincent 's Hospital in Los Angeles , where Shepard checked in under the pseudonym of Victor Poulos .
The surgery was successful , and Shepard was restored to full flight status on May 7 , 1969 . Shepard and Slayton put Shepard down to command the next available moon mission , which was Apollo 13 in 1970 . Under normal circumstances , this assignment would have gone to Cooper , as the backup commander of Apollo 10 . Cooper was swept aside . Shepard asked for Jim McDivitt as his Lunar Module Pilot . A rookie , Stuart Roosa , was designated the Command Module Pilot . McDivitt baulked at the prospect , arguing that Shepard did not have sufficient Apollo training to command a moon mission . A rookie , Edgar Mitchell was designated the Lunar Module Pilot instead . When Slayton submitted the proposed crew assignments to NASA headquarters , George Mueller turned it down . So Slayton asked Jim Lovell , who had been the backup commander for Apollo 11 , and was slated to command Apollo 14 , if his crew would be willing to fly Apollo 13 instead . He agreed to do so , and Shepard 's inexperienced crew was assigned to Apollo 14 instead . Neither Cooper nor McDivitt ever flew in space again .
Shepard made his second space flight as Commander of Apollo 14 from January 31 to February 9 , 1971 , America 's third successful lunar landing mission . Shepard piloted the Lunar Module Antares to the most accurate landing of the entire Apollo program . He became the fifth and , at 47 , the oldest man to walk on the moon . This was the first mission to successfully broadcast color television pictures from the surface of the Moon , using a vidicon @-@ tube camera . ( The color camera on Apollo 12 provided a few brief moments of color telecasting before it was inadvertently pointed at the Sun , ending its usefulness . ) While on the Moon , Shepard used a Wilson six @-@ iron head attached to a lunar sample scoop handle to drive golf balls . Despite thick gloves and a stiff spacesuit , which forced him to swing the club with one hand , Shepard struck two golf balls ; driving the second , as he jokingly put it , " miles and miles and miles " .
For this mission Shepard was awarded the NASA Distinguished Service Medal and the Navy Distinguished Service Medal . His citation read :
The President of the United States of America takes pleasure in presenting the Navy Distinguished Service Medal to Captain Alan Bartlett Shepard , Jr . ( NSN : 0 @-@ 389998 ) , United States Navy , for exceptionally meritorious and distinguished service in a position of great responsibility to the Government of the United States , as Spacecraft Commander for the Apollo 14 flight to the Fra @-@ Mauro area of the moon during the period 31 January 1971 to 9 February 1971 . Responsible for the on @-@ board control of the spacecraft command module Kittyhawk and the lunar module Antares in the gathering of scientific data involving complex and difficult instrumentation positing and sample gathering , including a hazardous two @-@ mile traverse of the lunar surface , Captain Shepard , by his brilliant performance , contributed essentially to the success of this vital scientific moon mission . As a result of his skillful leadership , professional competence and dedication , the Apollo 14 mission , with its numerous tasks and vital scientific experiments , was accomplished in an outstanding manner , enabling scientists to determine more precisely the moon 's original formation and further forecast man 's proper role in the exploration of his Universe . By his courageous and determined devotion to duty , Captain Shepard rendered valuable and distinguished service and contributed greatly to the success of the United States Space Program , thereby upholding the highest traditions of the United States Naval Service .
Following Apollo 14 , Shepard returned to his position as Chief of the Astronaut Office in June 1971 . He was appointed by President Richard Nixon in July 1971 as a delegate to the 26th United Nations General Assembly , serving from September to December 1971 . He was promoted to Rear Admiral by Nixon on August 26 , 1971 , the first astronaut to reach this rank , although McDivitt had previously been promoted to brigadier general in the Air Force . He retired from both NASA and the Navy on July 31 , 1974 .
= = Later years = =
After Shepard left NASA , he served on the boards of many corporations . He also served as president of his umbrella company for several business enterprises , Seven Fourteen Enterprises , Inc . ( named for his two flights , Freedom 7 and Apollo 14 ) . He was a member of many organizations . He was a fellow of the American Astronautical Society and the Society of Experimental Test Pilots ; member of the Rotary , the Kiwanis , the Mayflower Society , the Order of the Cincinnati , and the American Fighter Aces ; honorary member , Board of Directors for the Houston School for Deaf Children , Director , National Space Institute , and Director , Los Angeles Ear Research Institute .
In 1984 , he and the other surviving Mercury astronauts , along with Betty Grissom , the widow of astronaut Gus Grissom , founded the Mercury Seven Foundation to raise money for scholarships for science and engineering students in college . In 1995 , the organization was renamed the Astronaut Scholarship Foundation . Shepard was elected president and chairman of the foundation , posts he held until October 1997 , when he turned over both positions to former astronaut Jim Lovell .
In 1994 , he published a book with two journalists , Jay Barbree and Howard Benedict , called Moon Shot : The Inside Story of America 's Race to the Moon . Fellow Mercury astronaut Deke Slayton is also named as an author . The book generated some controversy for use of a staged photo purportedly showing Shepard hitting a golf ball on the Moon . The book was also turned into a TV miniseries in 1994 .
Shepard was diagnosed with leukemia in 1996 , and died from it in Pebble Beach , California , on July 21 , 1998 , He was the second astronaut who had walked on the Moon to die , Jim Irwin being the first in 1991 . His widow Louise resolved to cremate his remains and scatter the ashes , but she died from a heart attack five weeks later on August 25 , 1998 , at 17 : 00 , the time at which Shepard had always called her . They had been married for 53 years . The family decided to cremate them both , and their ashes scattered together by a Navy helicopter over Stillwater Cove , in front of their Pebble Beach home .
= = Awards and honors = =
Shepard was awarded the Congressional Space Medal of Honor by President Jimmy Carter on October 1 , 1978 . He also received the Golden Plate Award for Science and Exploration in 1981 ; the Langley Gold Medal ( highest award of the Smithsonian Institution for Aeronautics and Astronautics ) on May 5 , 1964 ; the John J. Montgomery Award in 1963 ; the Lambert trophy ; the SETP Iven C. Kincheloe Award ; the Cabot Award ; the Collier Trophy ; and the City of New York Gold Medal for 1971 . He was awarded an Honorary Master of Arts degree from Dartmouth College in 1962 , an Honorary D.Sc. from Miami University in 1971 , and an Honorary Doctorate of Humanities from Franklin Pierce College in 1972 . Shepard was inducted into the National Aviation Hall of Fame in 1977 , the International Space Hall of Fame in 1981 , and the U.S. Astronaut Hall of Fame on May 11 , 1990 .
Many things are named in his honor . The Navy named a supply ship , USNS Alan Shepard ( T @-@ AKE @-@ 3 ) for him in 2006 . The McAuliffe @-@ Shepard Discovery Center in Concord , New Hampshire is named after Shepard and Christa McAuliffe . Interstate 93 in New Hampshire , from the Massachusetts is designated the Alan B. Shepard Highway. and in Hampton , Virginia , a road is named Commander Shepard Boulevard in his honor . His hometown of Derry has the nickname Space Town in honor of his career as an astronaut . Following an act of Congress , the post office in Derry is designated the Alan B. Shepard , Jr . Post Office Building . Alan Shepard Park in Cocoa Beach , Florida , a beach @-@ side park south of Cape Canaveral , is named in his honor . The City of Virginia Beach renamed its convention center , with its integral geodesic dome , the Alan B. Shepard Convention Center . The building was later renamed the Alan B. Shepard Civic Center , and was razed in 1994 . At the time of the Freedom 7 launch , Shepard lived in Virginia Beach .
Shepard 's high school alma mater in Derry , Pinkerton Academy , has a building named after him , and the school team name is called the Astros after his career as an astronaut . Alan B. Shepard High School , in Palos Heights , Illinois , which opened in 1976 , was named in his honor . Framed newspapers throughout the school depict various accomplishments and milestones in Shepard 's life . Additionally , an autographed plaque commemorates the dedication of the building . The school newspaper is named Freedom 7 and the yearbook is entitled Odyssey .
In a 2010 Space Foundation survey , Shepard was ranked as the ninth most popular space hero ( tied with astronauts Buzz Aldrin and Gus Grissom ) . In 2011 , NASA honored Shepard with an Ambassador of Exploration Award , consisting of a Moon rock encased in Lucite , for his contributions to the U.S. space program . His family members accepted the award on his behalf during a ceremony on April 28 at the U.S. Naval Academy Museum in Annapolis , Maryland , where it is on permanent display . On May 4 , 2011 , the U.S. Postal Service issued a first @-@ class stamp in Shepard 's honor , the first U.S. stamp to depict a specific astronaut . The first day of issue ceremony was held at NASA 's Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex .
Each year , the Space Foundation , in partnership with the Astronauts Memorial Foundation and NASA , present the Alan Shepard Technology in Education Award for outstanding contributions by K – 12 educators or district @-@ level administrators to educational technology . The award recognizes excellence in the development and application of technology in the classroom or to the professional development of teachers . The recipient demonstrates exemplary use of technology either to foster lifelong learners or to make the learning process easier .
= = In media = =
1965 – The character of Alan Tracy in the Thunderbirds was named after him .
1983 film The Right Stuff – played by Scott Glenn .
1998 HBO miniseries From the Earth to the Moon – played by Ted Levine
2001 opening montage , Star Trek : Enterprise
2002 film Race to Space , played by Mark Moses
2005 BBC TV series Space Race – played by Todd Boyce
2007 - 2012 BioWare Video Game Series Mass Effect - main protagonist Commander Shepard is named after him .
2015 ABC TV series The Astronaut Wives Club – played by Desmond Harrington .
= = Physical description = =
Weight : 170 pounds ( 77 kg )
Height : 5 feet 11 inches ( 180 cm )
Hair : Brown
Eyes : Blue
= Schwingt freudig euch empor , BWV 36 =
Schwingt freudig euch empor ( Soar joyfully upwards ) , BWV 36 , is a church cantata by Johann Sebastian Bach . He composed it in Leipzig in 1731 for the first Sunday in Advent , drawing on material from previous congratulatory cantatas , beginning with Schwingt freudig euch empor , BWV 36c ( 1725 ) . The Gospel for the Sunday was the Entry into Jerusalem , thus the mood of the secular work matched " the people 's jubilant shouts of Hosanna " . In a unique structure in Bach 's cantatas , he interpolated four movements derived from the former works with four stanzas from two important hymns for Advent , to add liturgical focus , three from Luther 's " Nun komm , der Heiden Heiland " and one from Nicolai 's " Wie schön leuchtet der Morgenstern " . He first performed the cantata in its final form of two parts , eight movements , on 2 December 1731 .
= = History and words = =
Bach composed the cantata in 1731 in Leipzig , for the first Sunday of Advent , the beginning of the Lutheran church year . In Leipzig this was the only Sunday in Advent when a cantata was performed , whereas tempus clausum ( quiet time ) was observed on the other three Sundays . The prescribed readings for the Sunday were from the Epistle to the Romans , " night is advanced , day will come " ( Romans 13 : 11 – 14 ) , and from the Gospel of Matthew , the Entry into Jerusalem ( Matthew 21 : 1 – 9 ) .
Bach based parts of the music on a homage cantata of the same name , Schwingt freudig euch empor , BWV 36c , which he had composed for the birthday of a Leipzig University teacher and first performed in spring 1725 . The text was probably written by Picander , who modified it to a congratulatory cantata for Countess Charlotte Friederike Wilhelmine of Anhalt @-@ Köthen , Steigt freudig in die Luft , BWV 36a , first performed on 30 November 1726 . Another version was a congratulatory cantata for a member of the Rivinius family from Leipzig , Die Freude reget sich , BWV 36b , probably in 1735 .
Bach transformed the secular music to a cantata for the first Sunday in Advent , first by combining four movements and simply adding a chorale , the final stanza of " Wie schön leuchtet der Morgenstern " . The librettist of this adaptation , who stayed close to the secular cantata without reference to the readings , is unknown . Klaus Hofmann notes that the jubilant opening matches the Gospel of the entry into Jerusalem " with the people 's jubilant shouts of Hosanna " . The date of the adaptation is not certain , because the version is extant only in a copy by Bach 's student Christoph Nichelmann .
Finally in 1731 , Bach reworked the cantata considerably and wrote a new score . He interpolated the arias not with recitatives , but with three stanzas from Luther 's hymn for Advent , " Nun komm , der Heiden Heiland " . This main hymn for the first Sunday in Advent had already opened his cantata for the same occasion in 1714 , Nun komm , der Heiden Heiland , BWV 61 , and he had used it as the base for his chorale cantata Nun komm , der Heiden Heiland , BWV 62 , in 1724 . The hymn stanzas " serve to anchor the cantata to some extent in the Advent story , and to give it liturgical purpose and a clear focus " . John Eliot Gardiner terms it " structurally unusual " . Bach divided the cantata in two parts to be performed before and after the sermon , closing part I with a stanza from Nicolai 's hymn . For context , he replaced stanza 7 , which had closed the whole cantata , by stanza 6 , and closed part II by the final stanza of Luther 's hymn .
Bach first performed the cantata on 2 December 1731 , one week after Wachet auf , ruft uns die Stimme , BWV 140 .
= = Scoring and structure = =
The cantata is scored for four soloists — soprano , alto , tenor and bass — a four @-@ part choir , two oboes d 'amore , two violins , viola and basso continuo . It is structured in two parts of four movements each . Its interpolation of chorus and arias with chorales is unique in Bach 's cantatas .
Part I
Chorus : Schwingt freudig euch empor
Choral ( soprano , alto ) : Nun komm , der Heiden Heiland
Aria ( tenor ) : Die Liebe zieht mit sanften Schritten
Chorale : Zwingt die Saiten in Cythara
Part II
Aria ( bass ) : Willkommen , werter Schatz !
Chorale ( tenor ) : Der du bist dem Vater gleich
Aria ( soprano ) : Auch mit gedämpften , schwachen Stimmen
Chorale : Lob sei Gott dem Vater ton
= = Music = =
The cantata is unique in Bach 's church cantatas in its structure of arias combined with chorale instead of recitatives . Performed one week after Wachet auf , ruft uns die Stimme , BWV 140 , it shows Bach 's emphasis on the chorale even beyond his second cycle of chorale cantatas , begun in 1724 .
The opening chorus is opened by a ritornello , dominated by two contrasting motifs : the strings play a short rising figure in triplets , the oboes d 'amore play an expansive melody . As in the secular model , the movement is in two similar parts , each consisting of two contrasting sections , " Schwingt freudig euch empor zu den erhabnen Sternen " ( Soar joyfully upwards to the exalted stars ) and " Doch haltet ein ! " ( Yet stop ! ) . The bass voice , the lowest register , enters first , followed by the tenors , altos , and sopranos . This ascending sequence also reflects the text : " soaring aloft " , literally " swinging upward " .
Gardiner , who conducted the three cantatas for the first Sunday in Advent during the Bach Cantata Pilgrimage with the Monteverdi Choir in 2000 , described the movement as a " spiritual madrigal – capricious , light @-@ textured and deeply satisfying once all its virtuosic technical demands have been met : those tricky runs , divisions and chromatic intervals in all voices , and the chains of triplet figuration in the unison oboes d 'amore and first violins " . He compares the figures on " haltet ein ! " ( stop ) in the middle section to " Wohin ? " ( where ) in the aria " Eilt , eilt " in Bach 's St John Passion .
All three settings of the stanzas from Luther 's chorale are different , beginning with a duet for soprano and alto for the first stanza . The voices are doubled by the oboes d 'amore and render the text in sections of different length , with sixteen measures for the final " Gott solch Geburt ihm bestellt " ( that God had ordained such a birth for Him ) . Alfred Dürr notes the expressiveness of the music , especially in leaps of sixths on the urgent request " nun komm " ( now come ) , syncopated rhythm on " des sich wundert alle Welt " ( over whom the whole world marvels ) , and daring chromatic on the final line . The tenor aria reflects " Die Liebe zieht mit sanften Schritten " ( Love approaches with gentle steps ) with oboe d 'amore as obbligato instrument , " the traditional musical symbol of love " , alluding to the concept of Jesus as the bride @-@ groom and the Soul as the bride , which is also the base for Nicolai 's hymn that closes part I in a " rousing four @-@ part harmonisation " .
The bass aria beginning part II , " Willkommen , werter Schatz ! " ( Welcome , worthy treasure ! ) shows " echoes of the first movement " and avoids a regular da capo structure . The bass voice is the vox Christi , addressing the bride . The welcoming gesture from the secular cantata seems appropriate for the expressed sentiment . The next hymn stanza , " Der du bist dem Vater gleich " ( You who are like the Father ) , the sixth stanza from Luther 's hymn " dealing with the sins of the flesh and Christ 's mission to redeem humankind " , is marked " molt ' allegro " . The tenor sings the chorale melody unadorned as a cantus firmus , but the oboes d 'amore play with " the urgent surging of semi @-@ quaver activity " . Dürr sees the expression of " Kampf und Sieg des Gottessohnes " ( fight and victory of the Son of God ) over " das krank Fleisch " ( weak / sick flesh ) of man . Gardiner compares it to a trio sonata movement . He terms the last aria " a berceuse of pure enchantment " and compares it to the " echo aria " from part IV of Bach 's Christmas Oratorio . The text " Auch mit gedämpften , schwachen Stimmen " ( Also with muted , weak voices ) is illustrated by a muted ( con sordino ) solo violin . The closing choral , the final stanza of Luther 's hymn , " Lob sei Gott dem Vater ton " ( Praise be to God , the Father ) is a four @-@ part setting .
= = Selected recordings = =
A list of recordings is provided by Aryeh Oron on the Bach @-@ Cantatas website . The type of choir and orchestra is roughly shown as a large group by red background , and as an ensemble with period instruments in historically informed performance or a choir of one voice per part ( OVPP ) by green background .
= Hi @-@ 5 ( Australian band ) =
Hi @-@ 5 are an Australian children 's musical group formed in 1998 , which is associated with the children 's television series of the same name . As of May 2016 , the members are Dayen Zheng , Mary Lascaris , Tanika Anderson , Lachie Dearing and Chris White . The group is aimed at preschoolers , composed of five performers who entertain and educate children through music , movement and play . Hi @-@ 5 was created by Helena Harris and Posie Graeme @-@ Evans , initially a television series for the Nine Network , which premiered in 1999 . The cast of the show became a recognised musical group for children .
The original members were Kellie Crawford , Kathleen de Leon Jones , Nathan Foley , Tim Harding and Charli Robinson . Four of their albums reached the top 10 on the ARIA Albums Chart , It 's a Party ( No. 4 , July 2000 ) , Boom Boom Beat ( No. 3 , August 2001 ) , It 's a Hi @-@ 5 Christmas ( No. 4 , December 2001 ) and Hi @-@ 5 Hits ( No. 10 , July 2003 ) . This line @-@ up had been completely phased out by the end of 2008 , following de Leon Jones , who left on maternity leave in 2006 . The membership has since changed several times . The brand has produced numerous television series , music albums , worldwide tours and merchandise . The appeal of the group overseas has led to international versions . The television series features puppet characters Chatterbox and Jup Jup , who are popular associates of the group and are included in the live stage shows .
Hi @-@ 5 were one of Australia 's highest paid entertainment entities , placing in the Business Review Weekly 's annual list several times , earning an estimated A $ 18million in 2009 . The members of Hi @-@ 5 are employees of the brand and do not hold equity . Their albums have been certified by ARIA as double platinum ( It 's a Party ) , platinum ( Jump and Jive with Hi @-@ 5 , Boom Boom Beat , It 's a Hi @-@ 5 Christmas ) and gold ( Celebrate ) . By 2004 the original group line @-@ up had received five consecutive Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) Music Awards in the same category , Best Children 's Album , a then @-@ record . By that time they had also received three Logie Television Awards for Most Outstanding Children 's Program . Foley stated that Hi @-@ 5 set a benchmark for a new style of non @-@ traditional children 's entertainment . Hi @-@ 5 broke into the South East Asian market after the brand was sold by the Nine Network in 2012 .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
Hi @-@ 5 were formed in 1998 in Sydney , Australia as a children 's musical group . Television producer Helena Harris , who worked on Bananas in Pyjamas , co @-@ created Hi @-@ 5 as a concept for a new television show . She and co @-@ producer Posie Graeme @-@ Evans ( The Miraculous Mellops , Mirror , Mirror ) developed the series as a contemporary form of preschool entertainment , incorporating educational trends with an appeal for all ages . Hi @-@ 5 includes music and movement to capture the attention of children . Featuring five young performers , the cast are intended to act as older siblings of viewers , rather than adults teaching children . The name of the group was derived from the high five gesture .
Harris stated that her inspiration for Hi @-@ 5 came partly from living in England , where she realised that children are the same around the world , and decided the show would appeal universally , with accessible themes such as family and animals . The show is kept contemporary so that these themes relate to the current world of children , with the producers keeping in touch with the audience . Another inspiration for Harris was watching pop group , the Spice Girls , whom she believed were dancing moves of a standard which preschoolers could replicate . The creators saw the need for " life @-@ affirming " television for rapidly maturing preschoolers , and found that most children learned from shows which incorporated movement and song .
After auditions for the group ( narrowing down " about 300 " people to only five ) , the television pilot for Hi @-@ 5 was produced in mid 1998 , with the original cast consisting of Kellie Crawford ( née Hoggart ) , Kathleen de Leon Jones , Nathan Foley , Tim Harding and Charli Robinson , who were aged between 18 and 24 at the time of filming . After being commission and filmed , the series first aired in April 1999 . The corresponding debut album , Jump and Jive with Hi @-@ 5 , was released in September by Sony Music and reached No. 33 on the ARIA Albums Chart . The group toured around Sydney in their first year .
Harris stated that the energy of the group was fast paced and that physical interaction was encouraged . This replicates the style and energy of a music video , which children seem to enjoy . The educational theories of the group were disguised with music and entertainment , and that multiple layers catering for a wide range of ages in the audience , while being primarily aimed at those aged 2 – 8 . She explained that Hi @-@ 5 was primarily a television series , but the music itself had the ability to stand alone . Harris expected that the series would initially become formatted into international versions , however the original cast was so strong that the Australian series was sold overseas instead .
= = = Early success = = =
Hi @-@ 5 had initial success within their first year , winning the 2000 Logie Award for Most Outstanding Children 's Program , and ARIA Award for Best Children 's Album for Jump and Jive with Hi @-@ 5 . Hi @-@ 5 continued to film one television series and record one music album each year . Throughout the early years , the album releases received album accreditations ; Celebrate was certified as gold , while Jump and Jive with Hi @-@ 5 , Boom Boom Beat and It 's a Hi @-@ 5 Christmas went platinum , and It 's a Party received double platinum status . Four of their albums reached the top 10 on the ARIA Albums Chart , It 's a Party ( No. 4 , July 2000 ) , Boom Boom Beat ( No. 3 , August 2001 ) , It 's a Hi @-@ 5 Christmas ( No. 4 , December 2001 ) and Hi @-@ 5 Hits ( No. 10 , July 2003 ) . Hi @-@ 5 also toured nationally every year , with sell @-@ out national tours of their early stage shows , in venues such as the Sydney Opera House . Hi @-@ 5 won the 2002 Helpmann Award for " Best Children 's Stage Show " for their production Hi @-@ 5 Alive . In 2001 and occasions earlier , the cast stated that they never expected Hi @-@ 5 to become such a huge success . Robinson explained it wasn 't until they went on tour that they realised . Crawford described the group as " a pop group for kids " .
In 2002 , it was revealed that Crawford and Foley were in a personal relationship . The couple were engaged in 2005 , however called off the wedding plans in late 2006 .
Hi @-@ 5 had a successful premiere in the UK in early 2003 , which led the group to tour in 2004 with the award winning Hi @-@ 5 Alive show , later returning in 2005 and 2006 . New Zealand and Singapore were also frequent touring destinations . In 2005 , Hi @-@ 5 performed in arena venues around Australia , in order to " maximise the crowds " . By the end of the 2005 , Hi @-@ 5 had performed to a total audience of over one and a half million people around the world .
Group members expressed just how demanding their role in the group had been , describing the job as " hard work " and " a tough gig " , with touring for nine months of every year and filming the television series for most of the remainder , creating little time in their lives for anything else . Members also saw importance of being " career driven " and in portraying a positive image of themselves to the public in their personal lives , being " always on " . However , the cast insisted that the stressful work was well worth it to see a smile on a child 's face , and described the bond between the members as " like family " . In 2005 Harding stated the lifestyle was " quite hard in the beginning . " In October 2015 Robinson stated she had tried to leave the group " after eight years " but was convinced by producers to stay . She expressed that the following years she spent with the group were her favourite , and that she was proud of her decision to continue .
= = = Replacement of original members = = =
The original Hi @-@ 5 cast were together for eight series . In early 2006 , de Leon Jones announced she was pregnant , and would take maternity leave from April onwards . Sun Park was introduced as her temporary replacement , while de Leon Jones had her first child in July . Park was part of the television series filming in 2006 , and also toured with the group across Australia and New Zealand over 2006 and 2007 . In July 2006 de Leon Jones stated that she was intent on returning to Hi @-@ 5 . However , in July 2007 , de Leon Jones made the decision to permanently leave the group to focus on being a mother . Park took her place as a permanent member with the group . Harris stated that by 2007 , " Hi @-@ 5 [ was ] still evolving and maintaining its relevance and freshness " .
Harding was involved in a serious motorcycle accident in June 2007 , which left him unable to keep up with the high energy of Hi @-@ 5 . Just a few days prior to this , Stevie Nicholson was hired as an understudy , and put straight into work as a temporary replacement for Harding . The group begun rehearsals for the Hi @-@ 5 Circus Stageshow tour in August , the first time the group would take on such a physically demanding show , with the theme of circus incorporating tricks such as trapeze , tightrope walking and gymnastics . Nicholson debuted on tour with the Circus in August . Harding announced his permanent departure in November after recovering from injuries . Of his time with the group , Harding said , " I 've had an incredible journey with Hi @-@ 5 , one I will always cherish " . Nicholson took his place as a permanent member . Harris stated " it 's like [ he ] was born to this job . "
In February 2008 , Robinson ( by then Delaney ) announced that she would be leaving the group . Robinson revealed she wanted to prove herself as an actress for an adult audience , stating , " I kind of need to de @-@ Hi @-@ 5 myself ... I have been this character for the past ten years . " She was proud of her " ten truly wonderful years " , and would help find a replacement member . After leaving she went on to find success presenting in the Australian media industry . In April , Casey Burgess was announced as Robinson 's replacement , and began touring with the group " .
The Hi @-@ 5 brand was purchased by the Nine Network , along with production company Southern Star , in March 2008 . The change of production company saw Harris and Graeme @-@ Evans end their involvement with the group , which was placed under the direction of Martin Hersov and Cathy Payne , also Nine and Southern Star executives .
It was announced in October that Crawford would be leaving the group at the end of the year to explore other options . On her ten years with the group , she said , " I would 've always taken this opportunity if I was given it again . It 's taken me all over the world " . A month later , last remaining original member Foley also announced his departure . He expressed interest in focusing on his adult music career . He stated , " I 'll always love Hi @-@ 5 and I 'm very proud to be one of the original cast members , but after 10 years in the group its time for me to move on and explore other opportunities " .
In December News.com.au 's Confidential reporter alleged that Hi @-@ 5 's production company had asked Crawford and Foley to leave , and that the company were " opting to recruit younger , cheaper performers . " The pair remained silent in response to these reports . Later in December , Park also announced she would be leaving the group , expressing she expected to only be a temporary replacement . Park denied the industry rumours , saying that there had been no pressure for any of them to resign . The departing members finished the Australian Playtime tour together and had their final performance at Carols by Candlelight on Christmas Eve in Melbourne . Of the large cast change , in later years Burgess revealed it had been a difficult transition . " We didn 't know what was coming up for a moment there , " she said , " It was just [ Nicholson ] and I going , ' OK , what 's happening now ? ' "
= = = Second generation = = =
After auditions for three new members in late 2008 , the new cast began work in January 2009 . Lauren Brant , Fely Irvine and Tim Maddren were announced to be joining Nicholson and Burgess , forming the line @-@ up known as the " new generation " . Burgess said , " It 's a new generation for a new generation . To be honest , it doesn 't really matter who 's up there in pigtails singing and dancing , kids just love Hi @-@ 5 . " Hi @-@ 5 toured Australia in early 2010 , establishing a connection with more regional locations throughout the country . The group also celebrated the 500th episode of the television series in 2010 , and in 2011 recognised the group 's rich musical history by reintroducing classic songs to a new generation of fans .
Irvine 's final performance as part of Hi @-@ 5 was at Carols by Candlelight on Christmas Eve 2011 . She stated , " My time with Hi @-@ 5 has been a magical chapter of my life " , while a network representative said she was leaving to explore " other career options " . Her replacement Dayen Zheng joined the group in January 2012 . Maddren described Zheng as having a great energy and being a " perfect fit " .
In June 2012 the Nine Network announced that the Hi @-@ 5 brand has been sold in its entirety to Asian equity group , Asiasons , following Nine 's ongoing financial difficulties . The Malaysian @-@ based company ’ s managing director Datuk Jared Lim revealed that they planned to expand the brand throughout South East Asia , but expressed that Hi @-@ 5 's presence in Australia would remain intact . The Hi @-@ 5 Holiday stage show was brought to Singapore , Malaysia and the Philippines , with the brand focusing on reestablishing an Asian touring presence .
On Christmas Eve 2012 , Burgess and Maddren announced that they would be leaving the group . Maddren had secured a new job with the Australian version of The Addams Family musical , and stated that he felt it was time to fulfil other dreams of his , and to allow another person to fulfil their dream in Hi @-@ 5 . Burgess had decided to explore other options and expand her solo music career . She stated , " It has been an amazing five years and I am so thankful to all of [ the fans ] for being amazing supporters " . Carols by Candlelight was one of the pair 's final performances , followed by rescheduled shows in the Philippines in January 2013 .
= = = Third generation = = =
New members Mary Lascaris and Ainsley Melham were announced in January 2013 , joining Nicholson , Brant and Zheng . The auditions held in late 2012 were filmed and turned into a documentary style cinematic release , Some Kind of Wonderful , which premiered exclusively through Hoyts Cinemas in Australia from March . This line @-@ up were branded as a " new generation " of the group by press . Of the film , Nicholson said , " I 'm proud of how diligent we were about finding wholesome new talent , people with a great energy and who are genuinely lovely people . " The television series was revamped as Hi @-@ 5 House , and filmed in Singapore , premiering on pay @-@ TV channel Nick Jr. in Australia in November 2013 .
Brant 's final performances were in July 2014 for the Australian House Hits tour , in which the cast wore costumes she designed under her new fashion label , Loliboli . Brant stated she had " the most amazing journey " . She was replaced by Tanika Anderson , who had already worked with the group as an understudy and puppeteer from October 2013 , describing the role as her " dream job " . Anderson featured in the second series of Hi @-@ 5 House , which aired in 2014 and celebrated fifteen years of Hi @-@ 5 on Australian television . The House Hits tour was taken internationally throughout 2014 and early 2015 , with an increase in touring locations . The group premiered in the Middle East with a Dubai tour , and returned to Bangkok for the first time in ten years . A sold out run in the Philippines saw the group return for an encore season in 2015 .
By 2015 , Hi @-@ 5 's ongoing success led to the group being described as an " institution " . The cast have noted that some of their current audience now included parents who watched Hi @-@ 5 as children , and also stated that the group members themselves grew up with the original Hi @-@ 5 . In 2015 former member Robinson , then radio presenter , described the extended Hi @-@ 5 cast as " alumni " which she enjoyed being a part of , using her job to stay in contact with the current cast . She described it as " always being part of the same Hi @-@ 5 family " . The Hi @-@ 5 House television series won an Asian Television Award for Best Preschool Program in 2015 , and premiered worldwide on online television streaming service Netflix on 25 March 2016 .
In August 2015 Nicholson announced he would depart at the end of the year , to further his performing career and authoring a series of children 's books , Superdudes . Of his time , he stated , " it has been an absolute whirlwind journey " , and expressed that he had learned more from children than he had been able to teach . Nicholson had his final performance with the group on the House of Dreams farewell tour in December . The tour received positive reviews , described as a " children 's masterpiece in entertainment – slick , funny , and amazingly well @-@ choreographed and performed " . New member Lachie Dearing was introduced in January 2016 with the Songfest tour throughout regional New South Wales .
Melham was cast in an Australian musical production of Xanadu in January 2016 , and announced he would be leaving Hi @-@ 5 , after already performing his final shows with the group on the Songfest tour . He stated that he felt it was time to transition back into his theatre roots after " an incredible experience " with Hi @-@ 5 . Melham was replaced by Gabe Brown , who was introduced on tour in February . Brown was replaced by Chris White in May , who served as an acting member for the group 's international tours . Hi @-@ 5 are set to return to New Zealand in October for the first time since 2008 , performing the House Hits show .
= = Musical style = =
Hi @-@ 5 has a distinguishable pop music sound , being described as " a pop group for kids " by Crawford in 2001 and Foley in 2004 . Chris Harriott is the primary composer of the group 's music , having written thousands of Hi @-@ 5 songs ( including feature songs of the week and shorter songlets ) thus creating a sense of musical consistency for the group . Graeme @-@ Evans and Harriott had worked together when he scored the theme for the teen drama series , Mirror , Mirror ( 1995 ) . He had previously worked with Harris as a composer on Bananas in Pyjamas ; and had individually worked in Australian theatre . He was originally approached by the creators with the task of writing top ten songs for an age range of 2 – 6 . Harriott , a father himself , has been described as " in tune " with the children of today and praised by Harris as " prolific " in his writing . She cited his music as one of the reasons for Hi @-@ 5 's success , writing music which was " easy to dance to and easy to sing along to " . Harris also stated that of the group , the music itself has the ability to stand alone , describing them as " a part of Australia 's music history . " Harriott has worked with a group of regular lyricists , including Chris Phillips , Leone Carey and Lisa Hoppe , who contributed to successful material .
Foley has praised the group 's musical style on several occasions . He described the concept as innovative , as the music " is not nursery rhyme , it actually has a top 40 essence to it but the lyrics are for kids . " He suggested this musical appeal for all ages as a reason for the group having a large teenage and adult fanbase . He cited the Wiggles as an influence of Hi @-@ 5 , however he said that the respective groups have different " styles of music " . Hi @-@ 5 has been successful internationally . Foley explained how kids are universal and " love to hear music " , suggesting that the music is part of how international audiences connect to the group . Robinson stated the cast were encouraged to write their own music for the group , which all of the original members did , and by 2015 said she still receives occasional royalty cheques for her work . Original member of the Wiggles , and classical musician , Phillip Wilcher declared that Hi @-@ 5 " successfully explore the essential components that come together to make music " ; he detailed how the educational appeal " seems to happen gently and [ the group ] seem so at one with their audience of young folk ... They also seem to know the subtle difference between childlike and childish " .
= = Educational theory = =
Hi @-@ 5 , and the related series , were designed by educational experts to appeal to contemporary , " media @-@ literate " children by relating to their world . With the group being described as " for the kids of today " , Hi @-@ 5 has been seen to evolve with the times , updating music and designing new looks and costumes to stay " abreast of the times " . One of the unique features of Hi @-@ 5 is that the cast are presented as older siblings to the children , educating the audience in a fun and entertaining way , through " play based learning " , rather than appearing as adults who are teaching them . The educational aspects of the group 's content are disguised with music and entertainment , with the multiple layers of the show catering to a wide range of ages in the audience , while being primarily aimed at those aged 2 – 8 . Harris stated the group was careful about body @-@ image issues , also believing Hi @-@ 5 helped to influence fashion in young people , and acknowledging it is acceptable to " enjoy the fact there are differences between boys and girls and men and women " .
The television series was created by Helena Harris and Posie Graeme @-@ Evans , who based it around an underlying educational structure , primarily based on Howard Gardner 's Theory of multiple intelligences . It is recognised that each child learns in a different way , and each cast member targets a different aspect of learning . Harris observed that most children had a favourite cast member , believing that they generally " respond more favourably to the presenter who models the learning style they prefer " Harris stated that children " enjoy interacting with the presenters " . According to the group ’ s website , Hi @-@ 5 also uses Piaget 's theory of cognitive development , providing a learning experience that promotes individual growth . Lascaris stated , " Hi @-@ 5 teaches every child the crucial fundamentals of child development in a big , colourful , fun way . "
Music and movement play a large part integrating the elements of Hi @-@ 5 together , with music reinforcing the central ideas which the group presents , while also being entertaining . Harris intended for the themes promoted to be accessible so that the group would appeal universally , as she believed children were essentially the same around the world . Physical interaction is encouraged , and heavily featured to make the show relatively fast paced , originally to replicate the energy of contemporary music videos . Dancing is featured , with a focus on movements that increase the integration between the left and right sides of the brain .
The live Hi @-@ 5 stage shows are designed to be presented as stage spectaculars , as the audiences of children attending the shows are usually experiencing their first theatre event . The group encourage participation with several interactive elements throughout the shows , acknowledging " the louder [ the children ] are , the better " . The children " genuinely engage " with these interactive elements , and even in countries in which English is not the main spoken language , the children will still enjoy themselves . However , the shows for these audiences are adapted to include " more songs , comedy and physical activity " . Executive director Julie Greene stated the television show is designed to be a joined experience that parents should be able to enjoy along with their children , with the stage shows made to appeal to a whole family audience . Nicholson described the experience of a parent being able to dance with their child at a concert as " special " .
= = Brand and finances = =
The Hi @-@ 5 brand was originally owned by its creators , Harris , and Graeme @-@ Evans , under their joint privately owned production company Kids Like Us . Unlike peer entertainers the Wiggles , the cast of Hi @-@ 5 did not hold equity , but were rather employees of the brand . Because of this , the original cast in early years stated that they had financial difficulties , even though the Hi @-@ 5 brand was earning millions . Crawford stated , " the money system has to go a long way around before it gets to us . " In March 2008 , the Nine Network , along with production company Southern Star , purchased the Hi @-@ 5 brand . The brand became officially known as Hi @-@ 5 Operations Pty Ltd , and was placed under the direction of Martin Hersov and Cathy Payne , also Nine and Southern Star executives . Harris and Graeme @-@ Evans ended their involvement with the company along with the sale .
The brand dropped from a net worth of A $ 18million in 2009 to A $ 9.7million in 2010 . In June 2012 it was announced that the Nine Network , after their financial difficulties , had sold the Hi @-@ 5 brand to Asian equity group , Asiasons . The Malaysian @-@ based company ’ s managing director Datuk Jared Lim revealed that they planned to expand the brand throughout South East Asia , but expressed that Hi @-@ 5 's presence in Australia would remain intact . Former series producer Julie Greene took on the role as executive creative director and Lim became the brand 's chairman , taking up a personal involvement with the group . The Hi @-@ 5 brand was consolidated under new platform Tremendous Entertainment Group ( TEG ) in 2014 , following Asiasons privatising and rebranding as Tremendous Asia Partners ( TAP ) .
= = = Philanthropy = = =
The Hi @-@ 5 members took their passion for creating change and ensuring happiness for children worldwide beyond the stage and screen , by joining World Vision Australia as ambassadors in 2009 . The group began their work in the Philippines while on a promotional tour . The group have since gone on volunteer trips to Cambodia in 2012 , and Myanmar in 2015 . The group also became representatives of the Starlight Children 's Foundation in 2009 . Hi @-@ 5 had previously held a history with Starlight , and described it as " a privilege to support a great cause " . Their work includes regular hospital visits and attending and performing at fundraising events . The group has since maintained their relationship with both organisations , still active ambassadors in 2015 .
= = = International versions = = =
The international appeal of Hi @-@ 5 has led to successful local versions , with all of the groups touring and producing local versions of the television series . In 2002 , an American version of Hi @-@ 5 was created , with the group touring the US and Canada until their final performance in 2007 . A UK group was similarly introduced in 2008 , touring the UK and Ireland over 2009 and 2010 before disbanding . After Hi @-@ 5 's sale in 2012 , there was a return to international versions of the group . In 2014 , a Latin American group was created , being a non @-@ English speaking version . Hi @-@ 5 also experienced success in the Philippines , leading to a local group being introduced in 2015 .
= = Reception = =
Hi @-@ 5 have enjoyed success throughout its history with international tours , charting music albums and awards . The television series currently airs in over 83 countries , and has consistently been the highest rating program on Disney Junior Asia since 2012 . Hi @-@ 5 has a large teenage and adult following , with the pop appeal of the music being one of the reasons leading to a group of dedicated older fans . " . The group became known as one of Australia 's highest paid entertainment entities , listed in the Business Review Weekly 's annual list several times , earning an estimated A $ 18million in 2009 . The group 's performance was described by Sally Murphy of Aussiereviews.com as " bright , full of music and catchy tunes , " with the original line @-@ up praised by the website 's Magdalena Ball for their " consistent camaraderie , [ and ] varied and well coordinated talent as singers , performers , and dancers . " Ball credited their appeal to the members being positive role models . In 2013 , Child Magazine 's Brooke Tasovac commended " the energy and enthusiasm of new and old cast members " , adding that " they all seem to genuinely love what they do " . In 2014 , Jo Abi of blog Mamamia praised the group 's diversity .
By the end of the 2005 , Hi @-@ 5 had performed to a total audience of over one and a half million people around the world . In 2005 , Hi @-@ 5 performed in arena venues around Australia , in order to " maximise the crowds " . Foley and Robinson stated they " never expected " the group to experience so much success . The group won five ADVIA ( Australian DVD and Video Industry Association Awards ) for their releases and consistently received album accreditations from ARIA . Celebrate was accredited as gold , while Jump and Jive with Hi @-@ 5 , Boom Boom Beat and It 's a Hi @-@ 5 Christmas went platinum , and It 's a Party received double platinum status . Four of the original line @-@ up 's albums reached the top 10 on the ARIA Albums Chart , It 's a Party ( No. 4 , July 2000 ) , Boom Boom Beat ( No. 3 , August 2001 ) , It 's a Hi @-@ 5 Christmas ( No. 4 , December 2001 ) and Hi @-@ 5 Hits ( No. 10 , July 2003 ) .
Hi @-@ 5 finds success as a leading children 's theatre entity . The stage show Hi @-@ 5 Alive won a Helpmann award for Best Presentation for Children 2002 . A successful sold out tour of the House Hits show in the Philippines in 2014 led to the group returning for an encore run of the tour in 2015 . The House of Dreams stage show in 2015 received praise from The Daily Telegraph , described as a " children 's masterpiece in entertainment – slick , funny , and amazingly well @-@ choreographed and performed ” .
In her blog for The Daily Telegraph in 2011 , Sarrah Le Marquand criticised Brant 's performance , claiming " for all her sweet enthusiasm , Brant cannot sing a note " . She suggested the line @-@ up at the time were " melodically challenged " .
= = Members = =
Timeline
= = Discography = =
= = = Studio albums = = =
Hi @-@ 5
Hi @-@ 5 House
= = = Compilation albums = = =
= = = Singles = = =
= = Tours = =
The band tours annually with stage shows based on the television series . The shows are concert style and feature songs and segments , usually strung together with a narrative . Puppet characters Chatterbox and Jup Jup feature also . Hi @-@ 5 have visited several countries in which they are popular , including Australia , New Zealand , Singapore , United Kingdom , United Arab Emirates , Hong Kong , Vietnam , Malaysia , Indonesia and Philippines .
= = = Carols by Candlelight = = =
From 2000 to 2012 , Hi @-@ 5 performed annually at Vision Australia 's Carols by Candlelight in Melbourne , which would be broadcast live by the Nine Network on Christmas Eve . The group would perform a short selection of Christmas songs to entertain the younger viewers of the event , and were joined by Santa Claus , played for many years by Terry Gill , and Humphrey B. Bear . An extended show of a similar nature is available on the It 's a Hi @-@ 5 Christmas video release . Several cast members noted the shows as a highlight and over the years it became common for the performance to be the final concert of departing members . 2013 was the first year Hi @-@ 5 were not invited to perform at the Carols , and since then , the group have performed annual Christmas concerts at local Sydney events .
= = Awards and nominations = =
= = = ARIA Awards = = =
The Australian Record Industry Association ( ARIA ) Music Awards are the annual series of awards nights which celebrate the music industry of Australia and have been presented since 1987 . In 2004 Hi @-@ 5 made history , establishing a record for most consecutive awards in the same category , after winning their fifth ARIA for Hi @-@ 5 Holiday .
= = = Logie Awards = = =
The TV Week Logie Awards are the annual Australian television industry awards . Hi @-@ 5 won a total of three Logie Awards , two for Most Outstanding Children 's Program , and one for Most Outstanding Children 's Preschool Program ( a rare category ) .
= = = Others = = =
= Richie Farmer =
Richard Dwight " Richie " Farmer ( born August 25 , 1969 ) is an American former collegiate basketball player and Republican Party politician from the U.S. state of Kentucky . He served as the Kentucky Agriculture Commissioner from 2004 to 2012 and was the running mate of David L. Williams in the 2011 gubernatorial election . After leaving office , Farmer was investigated for violating state campaign finance laws and misappropriating state resources and was sentenced to 27 months in federal prison along with a concurrent 12 months in state prison .
A point guard , Farmer led Clay County High School to the 1987 Kentucky High School Athletic Association ( KHSAA ) State Basketball Championship and , in 1988 , was named Kentucky Mr. Basketball and Kentucky Associated Press Male High School Athlete of the Year after setting a championship game record with 51 points in a losing effort . Although he was popular state @-@ wide and publicly stated his desire to play collegiate basketball for the Kentucky Wildcats , Coach Eddie Sutton was reluctant to offer Farmer a scholarship . After Farmer announced that he would visit other colleges and issued a deadline past which he would no longer consider Kentucky without a scholarship offer , Sutton relented and Farmer joined the University of Kentucky .
Kentucky struggled during Farmer 's freshman year , finishing with a 13 – 19 record , and by mid @-@ season , fans were accusing Sutton of unfairly favoring his son , Sean , over Farmer at the point guard position . Sutton resigned in the offseason due to a pay @-@ for @-@ play scandal for which the NCAA banned Kentucky from postseason play for two years . Sutton 's replacement , Rick Pitino , instituted a rigorous conditioning program and fast @-@ paced style of play that improved Farmer 's performance . After spending his junior season as a backup to Sean Woods , Farmer transitioned to shooting guard and became a starter in the middle of his senior year . Again eligible for postseason competition , the Wildcats won the Southeastern Conference tournament and reached the Regional Finals of the 1992 NCAA Tournament , losing in overtime on a last @-@ second shot by Duke 's Christian Laettner in a game regarded by many as the greatest college basketball game ever played . The team 's seniors – Farmer , Woods , John Pelphrey , and Deron Feldhaus – were dubbed " The Unforgettables " , and their jerseys were hung from the rafters of Rupp Arena following the 1991 – 92 season .
Farmer parlayed his status as a basketball icon into two terms as Kentucky Agriculture Commissioner from 2004 to 2012 , winning both elections by large margins . In 2011 , Kentucky Senate President David L. Williams tapped Farmer – considered a rising star in the state Republican Party – as his running mate in the gubernatorial election . They were defeated by Democratic Governor Steve Beshear and his running mate Jerry Abramson . During the campaign , media reports alleged that Farmer had misused state funds and property as agriculture commissioner and Farmer 's successor collaborated with the state auditor to investigate the allegations . As a result , the Executive Branch Ethics Commission charged Farmer with 42 ethics violations – the most against an individual in state history . Attorney General Jack Conway also charged Farmer with violating state campaign finance laws , and a federal grand jury followed with five indictments for abuses of power . Farmer initially contested the charges , but later agreed to a plea bargain . On January 14 , 2014 , Farmer was sentenced to 27 months in federal prison and ordered to pay $ 120 @,@ 500 in restitution and $ 65 @,@ 000 in fines . He served almost 20 months in a satellite camp of the United States Penitentiary , Hazelton near Bruceton Mills , West Virginia , before transitioning to a halfway house in Lexington , Kentucky , on December 18 , 2015 . He was released from the halfway house on January 21 , 2016 and is currently residing in Clay County .
= = Early life = =
Richard Dwight ( " Richie " ) Farmer , Jr. was born on August 25 , 1969 , in Corbin , Kentucky , but grew up in the eastern Kentucky town of Manchester . He was the second of three children born to Richard and Virginia Farmer . Because of his physical maturity – he reportedly began shaving at age 12 and had begun wearing his trademark mustache by his junior year in high school – Farmer was frequently questioned about his age . The 5 ft 11 in ( 1 @.@ 80 m ) left @-@ hander 's vertical leap measured 40 inches ( 100 cm ) in high school . He credited his father , a transportation manager at a local coal mine and a standout point guard at Clay County High School in 1963 , with developing his basketball acumen .
As an eighth grader , Farmer played basketball for his grade school basketball team , as well as the freshman , junior varsity , and varsity teams at Clay County High School . He played sparingly during the varsity team 's regular season but received 68 seconds of playing time – scoring 2 points – during the Tigers ' victory over Owensboro High School in the 1984 Kentucky High School Athletic Association ( KHSAA ) State Basketball Championship . He also played football on a team that won the county championship that year . He eventually stopped playing football , but continued to play baseball – as a pitcher and first baseman – in addition to basketball until his senior year of high school .
= = High school basketball = =
= = = Freshman and sophomore = = =
As a freshman , Farmer led his team in scoring during the regular season , averaging 16 @.@ 4 points per game from the shooting guard position . He also led the Tigers in scoring in each of their three games en route to the 13th Region Kentucky High School Athletic Association basketball championship . In the opening round of the 1985 KHSAA state tournament , Farmer scored 14 points on 6 of 16 shooting in a win over Boone County High School . Then , in back @-@ to @-@ back victories against Metcalfe County High School and Doss High School , he led his team with 21 and 20 points , respectively , to help Clay County reach the tournament finals . Farmer scored 10 points in Clay County 's 65 – 64 loss to Hopkinsville High School in the championship game . He was the tournament 's second @-@ highest scorer with 69 points , one behind Hopkinsville 's Lamont Ware , and finished second in the voting for the tournament 's Most Valuable Player , which went to Hopkinsville 's Wendell Quarles . Only Apollo High School 's Rex Chapman received more votes for the all @-@ tournament team .
Clay County ranked only behind Owensboro and Scott County High School in the Lexington Herald @-@ Leader 's 1985 – 86 preseason coaches poll . During Clay County 's 22 – 6 regular season , Farmer , who moved to the point guard position , averaged 18 @.@ 6 points , 10 assists , and 8 rebounds per game . The Tigers won the 13th District Title , setting up a matchup with Pulaski County High School in the first round of the KSHAA state tournament . Farmer had scored 30 points in Clay County 's regular season matchup with Pulaski County , but his team lost by one point in overtime . In the tournament rematch , Pulaski County held Farmer to 20 points and won 83 – 78 ; Coach Dave Fraley credited a defense centered on stopping Farmer for his team 's victory .
= = = Junior = = =
In the Lexington Herald @-@ Leader 's 1986 – 87 preseason coaches ' poll , Clay County was ranked 14th in the state , and Farmer was named one of the state 's best 25 players . Farmer led his team in scoring at 23 @.@ 9 points per game , and Clay County finished the regular season with a record of 28 – 2 and again won the 13th Region tournament . Farmer scored 19 points and grabbed 5 rebounds in his team 's 90 – 80 victory over Highlands High School in the KHSAA state tournament 's opening round , but his performance was overshadowed by teammate Russell Chadwell 's 43 points . In the quarterfinals , Farmer led the Tigers with 19 points , defeating LaRue County High School 62 – 56 in front of 24 @,@ 041 spectators at Lexington 's Rupp Arena , a record crowd for a high school basketball game . In the first half of Clay County 's semifinal matchup with Madison Central High School , Farmer scored 18 and his younger brother , Russ , added 12 to account for 30 of their team 's 39 first @-@ half points . The Tigers ' 17 @-@ point halftime lead grew to as many as 25 in the second half , and the elder Farmer again led his team with 24 total points in Clay County 's 78 – 58 victory .
The win over Madison Central set up a title game between Clay County and Louisville 's Ballard High School . Clay County had only one starter taller than 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) , while Ballard started four players taller than 6 ft 3 in ( 1 @.@ 91 m ) , including star shooting guard Allan Houston . The game featured 24 ties and 15 lead changes ; neither team led by more than four points during regulation . Farmer scored Clay County 's last 9 points in regulation , including consecutive go @-@ ahead baskets at 3 : 19 , 2 : 46 , and 0 : 30 . Ballard 's Leonard Taylor scored on a put @-@ back basket at the buzzer to tie the score at 65 and force overtime . Clay County never trailed in the overtime , and Farmer 's 15 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) jump shot with 1 : 44 left put the Tigers in the lead for good . The 76 – 73 win was Clay County 's first @-@ ever KHSAA state championship . Farmer played all 35 minutes of the game and led all scorers with 27 points to go with 6 rebounds and 4 assists . He was named to the all @-@ tournament team , selected the tournament 's Most Valuable Player , and given the Ted Sanford Award for citizenship , basketball ability , academic achievement , and sportsmanship . He was also the only underclassman named to the Lexington Herald @-@ Leader 's 1987 All @-@ State First Team .
In the summer following his junior year , Farmer was named to the Kentucky Junior All @-@ Star Team , which played exhibition games throughout Europe , including stops in Iceland , the Netherlands , and West Germany . After the European trip , he helped lead Clay County to a 15 – 0 record in Amateur Athletic Union play . It was the first AAU season which recognized the three @-@ point field goal , and Farmer made 53 of his 73 three @-@ point attempts . In July 1987 , the Kentucky Junior All @-@ Stars finished second to a team from South Carolina in the Kentucky Prep All @-@ Star Festival at Memorial Coliseum in Lexington ; Farmer sat out the championship game with a hand injury he suffered in the previous game .
= = = Senior = = =
Clay County was ranked as the top team in the state in the 1987 – 88 preseason coaches ' poll , and Farmer was
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Farmer and three aides at the Southern Association of State Departments of Agriculture 's 2010 annual meeting in St. Croix at a cost of $ 10 @,@ 000 . Another involved the approval of merit raises for eleven agriculture department employees in 2010 when workers in all other state government agencies received no cost of living salary increases and were required to take six unpaid furlough days . A department spokesman said the employees had taken on responsibilities for multiple jobs left unfilled by attrition . " The thought process was that this was more cost @-@ effective than hiring new people , " the spokesman said . Every constitutional officer in the state also donated a day 's salary to the state treasury or to a charity on each of the mandatory furlough days , but Farmer refused , saying he opposed the entire concept of furlough days for government workers . After significant public criticism , Farmer apologized and decided to donate six days ' worth of his salary to charity .
Farmer was also criticized for his management of the agriculture department 's vehicle fleet . Late in his first term , Farmer had removed the vehicles used by the Agriculture Department from the state fleet , opting to have department officials manage them separately . In 2010 , the Bluegrass Institute for Public Policy Solutions , a free market think tank , criticized the department 's management of the vehicles under its control , citing the frequency with which the department 's vehicles were being replaced . The Lexington Herald @-@ Leader noted in 2010 that the department 's fleet had grown from 178 to 206 vehicles since 2007 while the state 's fleet had shrunk by 5 % , and that all but three of the department 's vehicles were fewer than four years old . A department spokesman defended the moves , citing decreased maintenance costs and higher resale values of vehicles being replaced . The Lexington Herald @-@ Leader noted that such incidents could undermine Williams and Farmer 's traditional Republican message of the need for less government spending .
Farmer 's wife Rebecca filed for divorce on April 5 , 2011 , claiming in court documents that she had no access to the family 's finances except the salary she earned as a teacher 's aide . On April 12 , Farmer petitioned the court to dismiss his wife 's divorce petition , contesting the idea that their marriage was irretrievably broken . The divorce proceedings were put on hold by mutual consent on May 26 , 2011 , but in a July 12 hearing , Farmer 's wife asked that the judge schedule a trial date ; the judge ordered mediation within 30 days instead . The mediation failed , and a trial date was set for November 22 , shortly after the gubernatorial election . A second round of mediation shortly before the scheduled hearing resulted in a settlement between the parties ; terms of the settlement were kept private .
In the Republican gubernatorial primary , the Williams @-@ Farmer ticket defeated businessman Phil Moffett and former Jefferson County Judge / Executive Bobbie Holsclaw . Williams and Farmer had led in opinion polling throughout the entire campaign , and neither opposing slate was able to raise enough money to engage in statewide television advertising ; despite this , Williams and Farmer received only 68 @,@ 502 votes , 48 @.@ 2 % of those cast . Holsclaw won the voting in her home county of Jefferson , which contains the city of Louisville and is the state 's most populous . Moffett , a Tea Party favorite , carried the second most populous county , Fayette ( which contains Lexington ) , as well as heavily @-@ populated Daviess , McCracken , and Warren counties , and several counties in Northern and Central Kentucky .
Questions about Farmer 's use of taxpayer funds continued to dog him throughout the general election campaign . Democrats demanded that Farmer reimburse the state for hotel expenses charged to the state while Farmer was conducting outreach activities at the KHSAA state basketball tournament and the Kentucky State Fair , both located fewer than 60 miles ( 97 km ) from his home . In May , the office of Democratic State Auditor Crit Luallen notified the Internal Revenue Service that Farmer had failed to report personal use of his state vehicle as income . A spokesman for Farmer 's office said that the personal mileage had been tracked , but a department employee had failed to forward it to the state Personnel Cabinet for reporting ; he added that Farmer would file amended tax documents and have deductions taken from his wages to settle the tax liability . The state Democratic Party filed an ethics complaint against Farmer in September based on an anonymous email sent to the Personnel Cabinet claiming that , after work hours , Farmer directed an agriculture department employee to purchase a small refrigerator with state funds and deliver it to Farmer 's house . A department spokesman said Farmer spent a substantial amount of time working from a home office in 2010 due to a back injury and that the refrigerator had been moved to department offices in 2011 .
Beshear and Abramson easily defeated Farmer and Williams , carrying 90 of Kentucky 's 120 counties . Days later , the Lexington Herald @-@ Leader reported that Farmer had placed his girlfriend in a non @-@ merit agriculture department job on October 31 , 2011 . Williams confirmed that the woman was Farmer 's girlfriend , but denied knowledge that she had been put on the state payroll . Farmer defended the hiring , saying his girlfriend was qualified for the job , which involved administrative and clerical tasks , and that his legal team had assured him that he had followed all appropriate hiring regulations . Farmer 's successor , Republican James Comer , fired Farmer 's girlfriend a day after being sworn into office .
= = Post @-@ political life = =
= = = Investigations = = =
Five days after Farmer left office , Comer announced that he had requested a full audit of the department by newly elected Democratic State Auditor Adam Edelen . Among the items Comer asked Edelen to investigate were 171 items of missing agriculture department property valued at about $ 334 @,@ 000 and another 103 items worth about $ 146 @,@ 000 that were supposed to be returned to the state as surplus but could not be accounted for . A week later , Farmer returned some of the missing items .
Comer and Edelen released the report on their joint probe on April 30 , 2012 . It detailed a " toxic culture of entitlement " in the agriculture department under Farmer , charging that he had required state employees to conduct personal errands while on the clock , failed to report gifts in excess of $ 200 as required by state ethics laws , and signed timesheets authorizing payment to friends in the department – including his girlfriend – who had performed very little if any work . Edelen confirmed that his investigation indicated that laws had been broken , and the report was turned over to the state attorney general for investigation . Minutes after the report was released , Farmer 's lawyer made a public statement in which he opined , " I don 't see anything in this audit report that any law @-@ enforcement agency is going to be excited about . " He conceded that Farmer had declined to be interviewed during the investigation but felt it was unfair that Farmer was not given a chance to review or comment on the final report prior to its release .
A week after the audit results were released , Kentucky 's Executive Branch Ethics Commission reported that Farmer was the only constitutional officer who had failed to file a required disclosure of his 2011 finances by the required April 16 deadline . Farmer 's attorney said the omission was " simply a matter of oversight on Richie 's part given with [ sic ] what all has been going on . " Days later , First National Bank of Manchester filed a foreclosure suit against Farmer , alleging that no payments had been made on his $ 300 @,@ 000 home mortgage since January 2012 . Under terms of his pending divorce , Farmer was solely responsible for the mortgage on the house . The divorce was finalized in July , and on September 24 , 2012 , the house was sold at auction after Farmer was not successful in selling it himself . Earlier that week , a judge denied Farmer 's request to reduce his child support payments , which were based on his salary as agriculture commissioner . Farmer , who had not been employed since leaving office in January 2012 , told the court that the investigation into his tenure as agriculture commissioner had made it difficult to find employment . The judge found that Farmer was " voluntarily underemployed " , although he suspended the child support payments for the months of September and October 2012 in light of Farmer 's recovery from an August 30 hip replacement surgery . On November 9 , 2012 , the Lexington Herald @-@ Leader reported that Farmer had found employment at a car dealership in Manchester .
= = = Charges filed = = =
On March 18 , 2013 , the Kentucky Executive Branch Ethics Commission charged Farmer with 42 state ethics violations , the most ever registered against a single individual ; the previous high was 16 . Most of the charges against him stemmed from the previous year 's auditor 's report , but previously unreported charges included conspiring with his sister Rhonda , who was also charged , to falsify records submitted to Rhonda 's employer , the Registry of Election Finance . Farmer 's girlfriend was also charged for falsifying timesheets . These charges were followed by five indictments by a federal grand jury on April 19 , 2013 , alleging four counts of converting state funds and property to personal use and one count of soliciting a bribe in exchange for a state grant . U.S. Attorney Kerry B. Harvey said a federal investigation revealed that Farmer had created jobs in the department for his friends and girlfriend , who conducted personal errands for Farmer – including " building a basketball court for Farmer , placing flooring in Farmer 's attic and organizing Farmer 's personal effects " – while on the clock . He also said that Farmer had kept some of the gifts ordered in conjunction with the 2008 Southern Association of State Departments of Agriculture conference for his own use and allowed his family to stay in hotel rooms reserved for agriculture department employees at the Kentucky State Fair . The indictment did not specify what bribe was sought in exchange for a grant to conduct an all @-@ terrain vehicle safety class , but the charges from the state Ethics Commission mentioned that Farmer had received three all @-@ terrain vehicles in exchange for awarding unspecified state grants . A Lexington Herald @-@ Leader report noted that the indictment only included events from 2008 forward because the statute of limitations had expired for any actions prior to 2008 .
Farmer pled not guilty to all five federal charges on April 25 , 2013 . He was released on his own recognizance , and his trial date was set for July 2 . U.S. Magistrate Robert Wier denied Farmer 's request to leave the country in May to celebrate his girlfriend 's 40th birthday in Cancún , Mexico . Wier also ordered the recently unemployed Farmer to seek employment , surrender his passport , and remain within the state until the trial . In response to Farmer 's lawyer 's request to delay the trial until February 2014 – a request the prosecution called " excessive " – Judge Gregory Van Tatenhove rescheduled the trial for October 22 .
= = = Plea bargain and sentencing = = =
On September 5 , 2013 , Farmer 's attorney filed a motion to allow Farmer to change his plea to guilty and announced that Farmer had reached a plea bargain to settle all federal and state charges against him . Farmer would have faced maximum penalties of $ 250 @,@ 000 and 10 years in prison for each federal charge against him . Instead , in exchange for his guilty plea , prosecutors agreed to pursue a sentence of 21 to 27 months in federal prison and $ 120 @,@ 500 in restitution of the $ 450 @,@ 000 Farmer was accused of misappropriating . Additionally , Farmer pleaded guilty to one state charge of violating campaign finance laws in exchange for a sentence of no more than one year , served concurrently with his federal sentence . Finally , Farmer acknowledged to the Executive Branch Ethics Commission 35 of the 42 violations he had been charged with , resulting in $ 65 @,@ 000 in fines , the most ever levied by the commission . Farmer 's attorney indicated that U.S. Attorney Kerry Harvey and Kentucky Attorney General Jack Conway had been pursuing additional indictments against Farmer when the plea bargain was reached . Although still restricted from leaving the state , Farmer was allowed to remain free pending sentencing .
Van Tatenhove sentenced Farmer to 27 months in federal prison on January 14 , 2014 . He recommended that the sentence be served at the Federal Correctional Institution in Manchester , Farmer 's hometown , but the Federal Bureau of Prisons opted to assign him to the United States Penitentiary , Hazelton near Bruceton Mills , West Virginia . The Lexington Herald @-@ Leader noted that Farmer 's inmate number , 16226 @-@ 032 , was reminiscent of his college jersey number , 32 .
Originally scheduled to report to prison on March 18 , Farmer was granted a one @-@ week delay by Van Tatenhove to watch his son , Trey , play for Clay County High School in the KHSAA basketball tournament . Clay County lost that game to Covington Catholic High School 80 @-@ 78 in the first round of the tournament . Covington Catholic went on to win the KHSAA State Championship . Van Tatenhove insisted that he granted the delay in deference to the Farmer family , not as a special favor for Farmer himself . On March 25 , 2014 , Farmer reported to the satellite camp of the Hazelton prison to begin serving his sentence . He was imprisoned for almost 20 months , transitioned to a halfway house in Lexington on December 18 , 2015 , and was released on January 21 , 2016 .
In May 2016 , Farmer filed for Chapter 7 bankruptcy . His petition stated that he was unemployed and owed $ 385 @,@ 745 in debts – including $ 120 @,@ 000 in restitution to the state and $ 15 @,@ 000 in child support that are ineligible for bankruptcy forgiveness – against $ 24 @,@ 259 in assets . He was reportedly renting a home in Clay County from his parents and driving a car they owned .
= Lesser kudu =
The lesser kudu ( Tragelaphus imberbis ) is a forest antelope found in East Africa . It is placed in the genus Tragelaphus and family Bovidae . It was first described by the English zoologist Edward Blyth in 1869 . The head @-@ and @-@ body length is typically 110 – 140 cm ( 43 – 55 in ) . Males reach about 95 – 105 cm ( 37 – 41 in ) at the shoulder , while females reach 90 – 100 cm ( 35 – 39 in ) . Males typically weigh 92 – 108 kg ( 203 – 238 lb ) and females 56 – 70 kg ( 123 – 154 lb ) . The females and juveniles have a reddish @-@ brown coat , while the males become yellowish grey or darker after the age of two years . Horns are present only on males . The spiral horns are 50 – 70 cm ( 20 – 28 in ) long , and have two to two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half twists .
A pure browser , the lesser kudu feeds on foliage from bushes and trees , shoots , twigs , and herbs . Despite seasonal and local variations , foliage from trees and shrubs constitute 60 – 80 % of the diet throughout the year . The lesser kudu is mainly active at night and during the dawn , and seeks shelter in dense thickets just after the sunrise . The lesser kudu exhibits no territorial behaviour , and fights are rare . While females are gregarious , adult males prefer being solitary . No fixed breeding season is seen ; births may occur at any time of the year . The lesser kudu inhabits dry , flat , and heavily forested regions .
The lesser kudu is native to Ethiopia , Kenya , Somalia , South Sudan , Tanzania , and Uganda , but it is extinct in Djibouti . The total population of the lesser kudu has been estimated to be nearly 118 @,@ 000 , with a decreasing trend in populations . One @-@ third of the populations survive in protected areas . Presently , the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) rates the lesser kudu as " Near Threatened " .
= = Taxonomy and genetics = =
The scientific name of the lesser kudu is Tragelaphus imberbis . The animal is classified under the genus Tragelaphus in family Bovidae . It was first described by the English zoologist Edward Blyth in 1869 . The generic name , Tragelaphus , derives from Greek word tragos , meaning a male goat , and elaphos , which means a deer , while the specific name imberbis comes from the Latin term meaning unbearded , referring to this kudu 's lack of mane . The vernacular name kudu ( or koodoo ) could have originated either from the Afrikaans koedoe or the Khoikhoi kudu . The term " lesser " denotes the smaller size of this antelope as compared to the greater kudu .
In 1912 , the genus Ammelaphus was established for just the lesser kudu by American zoologist Edmund Heller , the type species being A. strepsiceros . However , today the lesser kudu is placed in Tragelaphus instead of Ammelaphus .
In 2005 , Sandi Willows @-@ Munro ( of the University of KwaZulu @-@ Natal ) and colleagues carried out a mitochondrial analysis of the nine Tragelaphus species. mtDNA and nDNA data were compared . The results showed that the tribe Tragelaphini is monophyletic with the lesser kudu basal in the phylogeny , followed by the nyala ( T. angasii ) . On the basis of mitochondrial data , studies have estimated that the lesser kudu separated from its sister clade around 13 @.@ 7 million years ago . On the other hand , the nuclear data shows that lesser kudu and nyala form a clade , and collectively separated from the sister clade 13 @.@ 8 million years ago .
The lesser kudu has 38 diploid chromosomes . However , unlike others in the subfamily Tragelaphinae , the X chromosome and Y chromosome are compound and each is fused with one of two identical autosomes .
= = Physical description = =
The lesser kudu is a spiral @-@ horned antelope . The head @-@ and @-@ body length is typically between 110 and 140 cm ( 43 and 55 in ) . Males reach about 95 – 105 cm ( 37 – 41 in ) at the shoulder , while females reach 90 – 100 cm ( 35 – 39 in ) . Males typically weigh 92 – 108 kg ( 203 – 238 lb ) and females 56 – 70 kg ( 123 – 154 lb ) . The bushy tail is 25 – 40 cm ( 9 @.@ 8 – 15 @.@ 7 in ) long , white underneath and with a black tip at the end .
Distinct signs of sexual dimorphism are seen in the antelope . The male is considerably larger than the female . The females , as well as juveniles , have a rufous coat , whereas the males become yellowish grey or darker after the age of two years . The male has a prominent black crest of hair on the neck , but this feature is not well @-@ developed in the female . One long white stripe runs along the back , with 11 – 14 white stripes branching towards the sides . The chest has a central black stripe , and there is no throat beard . A black stripe runs from each eye to the nose and a white one from each eye to the centre of the dark face . A chevron is present between the eyes . The area around the lips is white , the throat has white patches , and two white spots appear on each side of the lower jaw . The underparts are completely white , while the slender legs are tawny and have black and white patches . The lesser kudu is characterised by large , rounded ears . Its tracks are similar to the greater kudu 's . Females have four teats . The average lifespan is 10 years in the wild , and 15 years in captivity .
Horns are present only on males . The spiral horns are 50 – 70 cm ( 20 – 28 in ) long , and have two to two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half twists . The base circumference is 156 – 171 cm ( 61 – 67 in ) . The slender horns are dark brown and tipped with white . Male young begin developing horns after six to eight months , which reach full length after three years .
= = Ecology and behaviour = =
The lesser kudu is mainly active at night and during the dawn , and seeks shelter in dense thickets just after the sunrise . It can camouflage so well in such dense vegetation that only its ears and tail can indicate its presence . The midday is spent in rest and rumination in shaded areas . The animal spends about 35 % of daytime foraging , 36 % standing and lying , and 29 % in roaming . As the thinnest tragelaphine , the lesser kudu can move through dense vegetation with ease . The lesser kudu is a shy and wary animal . When alarmed , the animal will stand motionless , confirming any danger . If it senses any approaching predator , it will give out a short sharp bark , similar to the bushbuck 's . The lesser kudu would then make multiple leaps of up to 2 m ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) height with an upraised tail . If captured by the predator , the victim gives a loud bleat .
The lesser kudu is gregarious in nature . No distinct leader or any hierarchy is noted in the social structure ; with no territorial behavior , fights are uncommon . While fighting , the lesser kudus interlock horns and try pushing one another . Mutual grooming is hardly observed . Unlike most tragelaphines , females can be closely associated for several years . One to three females , along with their offspring , may form a group . Juvenile males leave their mothers when aged a year @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half , and may form pairs . However , at the age of four to five years , males prefer a solitary lifestyle and avoiding one another , though four or five bulls may share the same home range . Lesser kudu do not usually associate with other animals , except when they feed in the same area .
= = = Diet = = =
A pure browser , the lesser kudu feeds on foliage from bushes and trees , shoots , twigs and herbs . It also eats flowers and fruits if available , and takes small proportions of grasses , usually in the wet season . Despite seasonal and local variations , foliage from trees and shrubs constitutes 60 @-@ 80 % of the diet throughout the year . Foliage from creepers and vines ( such as Thunbergia guerkeana and some species of Cucurbitaceae and Convulvulaceae ) forms 15 @-@ 25 % of the diet in the wet season . Fruits are consumed mainly in the dry season . Olfactory searching , much in the same posture as grazing , is used to find fallen fruits ( such as Melia volkensii and Acacia tortilis ) , while small fruits ( such as Commiphora species ) are directly plucked from trees . The size and structure of its stomach also suggests its primary dependence on browse .
The lesser kudu browses primarily at dusk or at dawn , and is associated with the gerenuk and the impala . The lesser kudu and the gerenuk might compete for evergreen species in the dry season . However , unlike the gerenuk , the lesser kudu rarely prefers Acacia species and does not stand on its hindlegs while feeding . The lesser kudu does not have a great requirement for water , and can browse in arid environments . It eats succulent plants , such as the wild sisal , Sansevieria , and Euphorbia species in the dry season , and drinks water when sources are available .
= = = Reproduction = = =
Both the males and females become sexually mature by the time they are a year @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half old . However , males actually mate after the age of four to five years . Males and females are most reproductive till the age of 14 and 14 – 18 years , respectively , with the maximum age of successful lactation in females being 13 – 14 years . With no fixed breeding season ; births may occur at any time of the year . A study at Dvůr Králové Zoo ( Czech Republic ) showed that 55 % of the births occurred between September and December . A rutting male tests the urine of any female he encounters , to which the female responds by urinating . Having located a female in estrus , the male follows her closely , trying to rub his cheek on her rump , head , neck , and chest . He performs gasping movements with his lips . Finally , the male mounts the female , resting his head and neck on her back , in a similar way as other tragelaphines .
The gestational period is of seven to eight months , after which a single calf is born . A female about to give birth isolates herself from her group , and remains alone for some days afterward . The newborn calf weighs 4 – 7 @.@ 5 kg ( 8 @.@ 8 – 16 @.@ 5 lb ) . Around 50 % of the calves die within the first six months of birth , and only 25 % can survive after three years . In a study at Basle Zoo ( Switzerland ) , where 43 % of the offspring from captive breeding died before reaching the age of six months , the major causes of high juvenile mortality were found to be the spread of white muscle disease and deficiency of vitamin E and selenium in diets . The herd size , sex , interbreeding , and season did not play any role in juvenile mortality . The mother hides her calf while she goes out to feed , and returns mainly in the evening to suckle her young . She checks the calf 's identity by sniffing its rump or neck . In the first month , suckling may occur for eight minutes . The mother and calf communicate with low bleats . She licks her offspring , particularly in the perineal region , and may consume its excreta .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
The lesser kudu inhabits dry , flat , and heavily forested regions . It is closely associated with Acacia and Commiphora thornbush in semiarid areas of northeastern Africa . The animal avoids open areas and long grass , preferring shaded areas with short grasses , instead . Found in woodlands and hilly areas , as well , the lesser kudu is generally found at altitudes below 1 @,@ 200 m ( 3 @,@ 900 ft ) ; though they have been recorded at heights about 1 @,@ 740 m ( 5 @,@ 710 ft ) near Mount Kilimanjaro . While individual home ranges of these animals are 0 @.@ 4 – 6 @.@ 7 km2 ( 4 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 – 72 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 sq ft ) in size , those of males have an average size of 2 @.@ 2 km2 ( 24 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 sq ft ) and those of females 1 @.@ 8 km2 ( 19 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 sq ft ) .
The lesser kudu is native to Ethiopia , Kenya , Somalia , South Sudan , Tanzania , and Uganda , but it is extinct in Djibouti . Largely confined to the Horn of Africa today , the species historically ranged from Awash ( Ethiopia ) southward through southern and eastern Ethiopia , and most parts of Somalia ( except the north and the northeast ) and Kenya ( except the southwest ) . It also occurred in southeastern Sudan and northeastern and eastern parts of Uganda and Tanzania . The only evidence for its existence in the Arabian peninsula is a single set of horns obtained in 1967 from an individual shot in South Yemen and another in Saudi Arabia .
= = Threats and conservation = =
The lesser kudu 's shyness and its ability to camouflage itself in dense cover has protected it from the risks of poaching . For instance , the lesser kudu is widespread in the Ogaden region , which is rich in dense bush , despite reckless hunting by local people . However , rinderpest outbreaks , to which the lesser kudu is highly susceptible , have resulted in a steep decline of 60 % in the animal 's population in Tsavo National Park in Kenya . Overgrazing , human settlement , and loss of habitat are some other threats to the survival of the lesser kudu .
The total population of the lesser kudu has been estimated to be nearly 118 @,@ 000 , with a decreasing trend in populations . The rate of decline has increased to 20 % over two decades . Presently , the IUCN rates the lesser kudu as " Near Threatened " . Around a third of the population of the lesser kudu occurs in protected areas such as Awash , Omo and Mago National Parks ( Ethiopia ) ; Lag Badana National Park ( Somalia ) ; Tsavo National Park ( Kenya ) ; Ruaha National Park and game reserves ( Tanzania ) , though it occurs in larger numbers outside these areas . Population density rarely exceeds 1 / km2 . , and is generally much lower .
= Development of Deus Ex =
An approximately 20 @-@ person team at Ion Storm developed Deus Ex , a cyberpunk @-@ themed action @-@ role playing video game , over the course of 34 months , culminating in a June 2000 release . Team director and producer Warren Spector began to plan the game in 1993 after releasing Ultima Underworld II with Origin Systems and attempted the game both there and at Looking Glass Technologies before going into production with Ion Storm . Official preproduction began around August 1997 , lasted for six months , and was followed by 28 months of production . Spector saw their work as expanding on the precedent set by Origin , Looking Glass , and Valve Corporation .
In preproduction , six people from Looking Glass 's Austin studios focused on the setting ahead of the game mechanics , and chose a story centred around prominent conspiracy theories as an expression of the " millennial madness " in The X @-@ Files and Men in Black . Spector felt that the development process 's highlights were the " high @-@ level vision " and length of preproduction , flexibility within the project , testable " proto @-@ missions " , and Unreal Engine license . Their pitfalls included the team structure , unrealistic goals , underestimating risks with artificial intelligence , their handling of proto @-@ missions , and weakened morale from Daikatana 's bad press . The game was published by Eidos Interactive and released on June 23 , 2000 for Windows 95 and later versions , whereupon it earned over 30 " best of " awards in 2001 .
= = Preproduction = =
After Warren Spector released Ultima Underworld II with Origin Systems in January 1993 , he began to plan Troubleshooter , the game that would become Deus Ex . Noting his wife 's fascination with The X @-@ Files , he connected the " real world , millennial weirdness , [ and ] conspiracy stuff " topics on his mind and decided to make a game about it that would appeal to a wider audience . In his 1994 proposal , he described the concept as " Underworld @-@ style first @-@ person action " in a real world setting with " big @-@ budget , nonstop action " starring an ex @-@ cop " security specialist " . He described the project as " high " risk for its " technological unknowns " as " probably the toughest project on his wish list " . It failed to get to production . He later left Origin for Looking Glass Technologies , but kept the idea in mind . He continued to change his character and game system plans , though the game he then called Junction Point did not reach production at Looking Glass . Spector wrote that the timing was not yet ripe because the business teams were not interested , the technology was not yet feasible , he did not have an interested team or the resources to make one , and that publishers did not want a " first @-@ person , cross @-@ genre game " . Spector , himself , was also tired of unrealistic fantasy and alien settings . When John Romero of Ion Storm approached Spector to offer him a chance to make his " dream game " without any restrictions , Spector was immediately on board .
Preproduction began around August 1997 and lasted about six months . The six @-@ person team came from Looking Glass 's Austin studios . Spector , the team 's director and producer , saw their work as improving upon the foundation provided by Origin , Looking Glass , and Valve Corporation by doing what those companies did not . The game 's working title was Shooter : Majestic Revelations , with a scheduled release of Christmas 1998 . The working title was meant to be ironic because they did not want the game to be solely a first @-@ person shooter . They worked on the setting ahead of the game mechanics , and decided on a conspiracy @-@ style story that referenced existing conspiracy theories such as Area 51 , CIA drug trafficking , the John F. Kennedy assassination , the Majestic 12 , and a Masonic underground bunker beneath Denver International Airport . Spector said their research helped them understand how conspiracy theorists think . They also used this time to work out the backstory for constancy . The team designed over 200 characters without associated in @-@ game roles , which was both helpful when designing missions and unhelpful as they attempted to reduce their scope . In the third quarter of 1997 , Spector wrote a " manifesto " on his ideal game and the " rules of role @-@ playing " that was later published in the February 1999 Game Developer magazine . His principles included " problems , not puzzles " , " no forced failure " , " players do ; NPCs watch " , and " areas with multiple entrance and exit points " . Reflecting , Spector felt that Deus Ex accomplished the intent of his manifesto .
The Shooter design document set the player as an augmented agent working against an elite cabal in the " dangerous and chaotic " 2050s . Its subtitle was " roleplaying in a world of secrets , lies , and conspiracies " . It was written to be similar in concept to Half @-@ Life , Fallout , Thief : The Dark Project , and GoldenEye 007 , and to mix elements of the films Colossus : The Forbin Project , The Manchurian Candidate , and Robocop in a world inspired by The X @-@ Files and Men in Black — examples of " the millennial madness that 's gripping the world ... and a general fascination with conspiracy theories and the desire to play with high @-@ tech espionage toys " .
The preproduction team also tweaked the game systems . They chose a skill system that used nanotechnology augmentation , unique to the player character , as " special powers " instead of " die @-@ rolls " or skills that required granular management . They also built a conversation structure based on console role @-@ playing game setups , and drafted the augmentation upgrade , inventory , and skill screens . They also designed an in @-@ game text editor for taking notes , and " reward systems " for skill points , reduced weapon and tool cooldowns , and augmentation upgrades . Preproduction had generated 300 pages of documentation by March 1998 . The document grew to 500 pages with " radically different " content by their April 1999 Alpha 1 deadline . Of Spector 's original design document , the marketing section was the only part left unedited .
= = Production = =
In early 1998 , after six months of preproduction , the Deus Ex project grew to a 20 @-@ person team and entered a 28 @-@ month production phase . Spector hired new staff in their Austin studio and was also assigned a Dallas @-@ based art team . The development team consisted of three programmers , six designers , seven artists , a writer , an associate producer , a tech , plus two writers and four testers as contractors . Chris Norden was the lead programmer and assistant director , Harvey Smith the lead designer , Jay Lee the lead artist , Sheldon Pacotti the lead writer , and Spector producer and director .
The team had many disagreements , and Spector 's original staff setup crumbled . When two experienced designers vied for the lead designer position , Spector chose both and made two design teams . He initially thought their competition would be easily managed and fruitful , but neither team felt second to the other and Spector had to merge the teams and choose a single designer . He felt that the matrix management structure under which the Dallas art team worked for the project but were not the project 's staff hurt the game 's progress . Some of the artists were not interested in Deus Ex , and Spector wrote that " the art department drifted a bit " . He said that the matrix management structure created tension and problems , and was generally against the idea due to how it worked at his previous studios Origin and Looking Glass . Though his stance won out and the project received dedicated artists , Spector lamented that the game could have been improved for not having matrix management in the first place . He wrote that he learned about the importance of team member personal investment in the game , the preemptive benefits of addressing personnel concerns as they arise , and the usefulness of a chain of command even when consensus works .
Spector described the team as interested in multiple genres of gaming , consisting of both maximalists who wanted to " do everything " and minimalists who wanted to do few things well . Close friends who understood the team 's intents were invited to test the game and give feedback . The wide range of input led to debates in the office and changes in the game . In his postmortem , Spector concluded that the team was " unrealistic , blinded by promises of complete creative freedom " and by " assurances " of budget , marketing , and no time restraints , which he called " seductive traps " . By mid @-@ 1998 , the game 's title had become Deus Ex , from the Latin literary device deus ex machina ( " god from the machine " ) whereby an impossible plot is resolved by an unpredictable intervention . Spector acknowledged its grammatical faults as a title and added that he liked it because of the in @-@ game struggle for power , the reference to the medium 's own plot difficulties , the reference to the game inside a computer machine , and the " self @-@ referential " acceptance of trying one 's best to resolve affairs . The game was published by Eidos Interactive and released on June 23 , 2000 for Windows 95 and later versions . They also planned third @-@ party ports for Mac OS 9 and Linux .
Spector felt that the development process 's highlights were the " high @-@ level vision " and length of preproduction , flexibility within the project , testable " proto @-@ missions " , and Unreal Engine license . Their pitfalls included the team structure , unrealistic goals , underestimating risks with artificial intelligence , their handling of proto @-@ missions , and weakened morale from bad press . He referred to that period of Ion Storm as " Sturm und Drang " with its degree of hype and as a target of vitriol following Daikatana 's " suck it down " trash talk marketing and what Spector saw as negative press in 1998 and 1999 . He said that his Austin team had " frequent " slumps in morale from taking the company 's coverage personally and seeing their private emails posted online . Spector wrote that " too many talented people " interested in Deus Ex did not join because they refused to work at Ion Storm . He added that the company 's notoriety did contribute to their press coverage from major outlets , more so than during his time at Origin or Looking Glass . Eventually , the Deus Ex Austin team developed a " ' we 'll show them ' mentality " to distinguish their work and reputation from the Dallas @-@ based Daikatana and Anachronox Ion Storm releases , which Spector considered toxic .
= = = World and character design = = =
The original 1997 design document for the game privileges character development over all other parts , including experimental sequences and technology demos . They wanted players to consider " who they wanted to be " in the game , and for that to be connected to how they behaved in the game . In this way , the game world was " deeply simulated " : real and common sense enough to be believed that the player may think about solving the game problems in creative and emergent ways without seeing distinct puzzles . The developers also wanted " choice " with " consequence " — what Spector called the team 's " two most frequently uttered words " . Their simulation was not able to maintain that level of openness , and the team had to force " skill " , " action " , and " character interaction " paths through the levels . Spector compared this technique to the practices of Ultima 's developers , though he felt his team did it " more consciously and ... effectively " . Spector later credited Konami 's 1995 role @-@ playing video game Suikoden as an inspiration , stating that the limited choices in Suikoden inspired him to expand on the idea with more meaningful choices in Deux Ex .
The game changed greatly over the course of production , but parts that remained consistent include the augmented counterterrorist protagonist JC Denton . The anti @-@ terrorism organization UNATCO was originally TLC , the Terrorist Limitation Coalition . Ally Tracer Tong was more of a " mercenary " than a " kindly anarchist " , while enemies like UNATCO 's Joseph Manderley went from " ruthless bastard " to " stuffy bureaucrat " and Majestic 12 's Bob Page and assassin Anna Navarre played more of a background role . Many of the original character ideas were reshaped to fit the final game design . The Majestic 12 organization originally intended to initiate a Mexican invasion of Texas and then suffocate the presidential cabinet by killing their oxygen supply . When this failed , their artificial intelligence kills the organization and retreats to outer space with nuclear weapons . Some of the plot and characters were brought to the final version , except that Majestic 12 is clandestine and focused on controlling the Internet . Though Spector originally pictured the game as akin to The X @-@ Files , lead writer Sheldon Pacotti felt it ended up more like James Bond . Spector himself called the game " James Bond meets The X @-@ Files " . He wrote that the team overextended itself by planning such elaborate scenes , especially parts such as a replica of downtown Austin , Area 51 reconstructed from satellite data , a sunken post @-@ earthquake Los Angeles , a raid to free thousands of prisoners of war from a Federal Emergency Management Agency @-@ controlled United Nations concentration camp , and over 25 missions throughout Siberia , western Europe , and the United States .
Designer Harvey Smith suggested a streamlined plot that removed the Mexican invasion to make development easier and the narrative more personal . While finished assets were repurposed , entire parts of the game were abandoned , including Texas and the Denver airport . Environments such as a flooded city became a Majestic 12 research site and the endgame Helios space station became Area 51 . He also made the call to remove a playable mid @-@ game White House level due to its complexity and production needs in other areas . Pete Davison of USgamer referred to the White House and presidential bunker as " the truly deleted scenes of Deus Ex 's lost levels " . Spector referred to his " dream " level — the White House — as their " toughest map challenge " . The team has speculated that the assets may exist on a " DVDs in someone 's attic " , though Pacotti , Smith , Spector , and the final release have no trace of them . Pacotti felt that the experience of rescuing Paul was worth cutting the White House from the game .
Testing revealed that their idea of a role @-@ playing game based in the real world was more interesting in theory than actuality . They chose two real @-@ world inspirations for levels : " highly interconnected , multi @-@ level " spaces and places one cannot normally visit ( such as the White House ) . In practice , they felt that some functions of the real world , such as hotels and office buildings , were not compelling in a game , and that " reality " always lost when up against " fun " . Their recreations of notable locations and items such as the Statue of Liberty and payphones were questioned when they did not emulate the actual site or function . Internally , the team began to doubt their investment in a non @-@ player character @-@ driven game as sufficiently interesting . Spector was swayed by this widespread sentiment to have " monsters and bad guys " , and the team increased the prominence of several robots and added genetically @-@ altered animals that still fit the story .
= = = Design = = =
The game was designed to be " genre @-@ busting " — partly simulation , role @-@ playing game , first @-@ person shooter , and adventure . Spector intended for Deus Ex to be an " immersive simulation " similar to Ultima Underworld by removing reminders of the game world such as interface or backstory . He described the game 's role @-@ playing elements as the player @-@ character becomes a " unique alter ego " built from the ramifications of their unique gameplay decisions . Similar to a first @-@ person shooter , the game uses a first @-@ person perspective and includes shooting , but there are other non @-@ violent gameplay options . Like an adventure game , Deux Ex is primarily based on a linear narrative story and item collection , though its puzzles are open @-@ ended with many possible solutions and consequences . Ion Storm felt the game was about player expression rather than the appearance of the developers ' ingenuity , and wanted to treat the player as a " collaborator " that they could empower to make choices and deal with consequences .
Once implemented , the team 's game systems did not work as intended . They built prototypes of the systems and some missions towards the beginning of development , which uncovered some of their blind spots . For example , their early implementation of the conversation system and user interface afforded them enough time to revise by the final release . They also found the augmentations and skills to not be as interesting in implementation as they seemed in the design document . Developers from other companies , such as Doug Church , Rob Fermier , Marc LeBlanc , and Gabe Newell , identified these deficiencies in game " tension " when they played the prototype . This led to a substantial revision of the augmentations and skills ; Smith designed an augmentation per @-@ use " energy cost " that led to energy refill rewards and more tactical play .
Their milestones served as wake @-@ up calls for the game 's direction . A May 1998 " proto @-@ mission " milestone was to have a basic but functional demo of the crucial game systems and two maps ( the White House and Hong Kong ) ready . The team worked on the riskiest parts of the game first such that the core game would be functioning , albeit not polished . The demo revealed that the size of their maps caused speed problems and would have to be divided into smaller maps . It also was one of the first signs that maps needed to be cut . The team forgot to prototype the non @-@ player character artificial intelligence in this demo . A year later , in May 1999 , they reached a milestone for finished game systems and the first two missions completed . While the player could start the game and character , use augmentations , acquire inventory , complete objectives , and save the game , their poor quality and comments from Newell led Spector to nickname milestone the " Wow , these missions suck " milestone . They felt that their first demos showed their potential , but they were not nearly close to reaching it . This milestone also helped them estimate the work required for missions and the portions that worked best , which led to a trim of their 500 @-@ page design manual to the best 270 pages . Spector recalled Smith 's mantra here : " less is more " .
Smith had " an intimacy " with the level design tools such that he could sense when the design met the game 's technical restrictions , like the maximum possible size or number of characters for a room . He suggested the narrower skill tree with palpable effects , such as exchanging skills about weapon damage for more accessible weapons . The team adopted the cuts , having been encouraged by the recent milestone . Spector has said that had they waited for the beta to have made the same reductions ( as per common practice ) , " it would have been a disaster . " Spector 's post @-@ proto @-@ mission strategy was to bring the rest of the missions to proto @-@ mission functionality rather than perfecting the two existing proto @-@ missions . He felt that this would be a more efficient use of staff time , even if it meant that the final product would be more " bare @-@ bones " than brilliant . Almost all of their game systems besides the inventory and conversation schemes were rethought up through the end of the project .
They also made choices about the minutiae of game mechanics . The team chose to pause the action while the player was viewing interfaces as to keep the strategy tactical , and to make the affinity of strangers and purpose of items " instantly recognizable " . Spector said that the issue of naming the player @-@ character almost incited a " holy war " , though they compromised and let the player choose in exchange for a common " code name and backstory " . They also saved the cinematic cutscene work for last so as not to repeat work as things changed during development .
Spector wrote that the team did not figure out how to handle NPC AI until late in development . This led to wasted time as the team discarded their early AI . They were also building atop their game engine 's shooter @-@ based AI instead of building a customized version anew to handle the spectrum of convincing emotions they wanted from their characters . As a result , NPC behavior was variable until the very end of development . Spector felt that their " sin " was their inconsistent display of a trustable " human AI " .
= = = Technology = = =
The game was developed on systems including dual @-@ processor Pentium Pro 200s and Athlon 800s with eight and nine @-@ gigabyte hard drives , some using SCSI . The team used " more than 100 video cards " throughout development . Deus Ex was built using Visual Studio , Lightwave , and Lotus Notes . The team also built a custom dialogue editor , ConEdit . They used UnrealEd atop the Unreal game engine for map design , which Spector wrote was " superior to anything else available " . Their trust in UnrealScript led them to code " special cases " for their immediate mission needs instead of more generalized multi @-@ case code . Even as team members expressed concern , the team only addressed this later in the project . To Spector , this was a lesson to always prefer " general solutions " over " special casing " , such that the tool set works predictably .
They waited to license a game engine until after preproduction , expecting the benefits of licensing to be more time for the content and gameplay . They chose the Unreal engine as it did 80 % of what they needed from an engine and was more economical than building from scratch . Their small programming team allowed for a larger design group . The programmers also found the engine accommodating , though it took about nine months to acclimate to the software . Spector estimated that six to nine months of playing with the engine were necessary to learn how to use it properly , and even still , their ideas did not always implement as planned . Spector thought it would have been much harder to have written the interfaces , skill systems , and conversations on their own . Despite the savings , the time Spector thought they would save not writing an engine was lost learning the engine , though they did have more time to work on content creation and gameplay systems . Spector also felt that they would have understood the code better had they built it themselves , instead of " treating the engine as a black box " and coding conservatively . He acknowledged that this precipitated into the Direct3D issues in their final release , which slipped through their quality assurance testing . Spector also noted that the artificial intelligence , pathfinding , and sound propagation were designed for shooters and should have been rewritten from scratch instead of relying on the engine . He thought the licensed engine worked well enough that he expected to use the same for the game 's sequel and Thief 3 . He added that developers should not attempt to force their technology to perform in ways it was not intended , and should find a balance between perfection and pragmatism .
= = Post @-@ release = =
Though their quality assurance did not see major Direct3D issues , players noted " dramatic slowdowns " immediately following launch , and the team did not understand the " black box " of the Unreal engine well enough to make it do exactly what they needed . Spector characterized Deus Ex reviews into two categories based on how they begin with either how " Warren Spector makes games all by himself " or that " Deus Ex couldn 't possibly have been made by Ion Storm " . He has said that the game won over 30 " best of " awards in 2001 , and concluded that their final game was not perfect , but that they were much closer for having tried to " do things right or not at all " .
= Bowman v. Monsanto Co . =
Bowman v. Monsanto Co . , 569 U.S. _ _ _ ( 2013 ) was a United States Supreme Court patent decision in which the Court unanimously affirmed the decision of the Federal Circuit that the patent exhaustion doctrine does not permit a farmer to plant and grow saved , patented seeds without the patent owner 's permission . The case arose after Vernon Hugh Bowman , an Indiana farmer , bought transgenic soybean seeds from a local grain elevator for his second crop of the season . Monsanto originally sold the soybeans to farmers under a limited use license that prohibited the farmer @-@ buyer from using the seeds for more than a single season or from saving any seed produced from the crop for replanting . The farmers sold their soybean crops ( also seeds ) to the local grain elevator , from which Bowman then bought them . After Bowman replanted seeds for his second harvest , Monsanto filed a lawsuit claiming that he infringed on their patents by replanting soybeans without a license . In response , Bowman argued that Monsanto 's claims were barred under the doctrine of patent exhaustion , because all future generations of soybeans were embodied in the first generation that was originally sold .
In a unanimous opinion written by Justice Elena Kagan , the Supreme Court ruled that Bowman 's conduct infringed upon Monsanto 's patent rights and that the doctrine of patent exhaustion does not permit a farmer to reproduce patented seeds through planting and harvesting without the patent holder 's permission . The Court held that , when a farmer plants a harvested and saved seed , thereby growing another soybean crop , that action constitutes an unauthorized " making " of the patented product .
The case garnered attention in part due to its potential impact on policy about genetically modified crops and self @-@ replicating technologies , and due to the involvement of Justice Clarence Thomas , who previously served as a lawyer for Monsanto . Commentators noted , however , that the Court 's ruling was narrow in scope , and did not set a broad legal precedent with respect to the applicability of the doctrine of patent exhaustion to self @-@ replicating technologies .
= = Background = =
= = = Factual setting = = =
Monsanto developed patents for genetically modified soybeans that were resistant to glyphosate @-@ based herbicides . When farmers sprayed the modified soybeans with the glyphosate herbicide Roundup , the modified soybeans would survive while competing plants ( weeds ) would be killed . Monsanto sold these soybeans under a limited @-@ use license that prohibited the farmer @-@ buyer from using the seeds for more than a single season or from saving any seed produced from the crop for replanting .
In 1999 , Indiana farmer Vernon Hugh Bowman bought soybean seeds from a local grain elevator for his second crop of the season . He then saved seeds from his second crop to replant additional crops in later years . Bowman purchased these soybean seeds from the same elevator where he and neighbors sold their soybean crops , many of which were transgenic , and the elevator sold soybeans as commodities , not as seeds for planting . He tested the new seeds , and found that as he had expected , some were transgenic and thus were resistant to glyphosate . He replanted seeds from the original second harvest in subsequent years for his second seasonal planting , supplementing them with more soybeans he bought at the elevator . He informed Monsanto of his activities .
Monsanto stated that he was infringing its patents because the soybeans he bought from the elevator were products that he purchased for use as seeds without a license from Monsanto ; Bowman stated that he had not infringed due to patent exhaustion on the first sale of seed to whatever farmers had produced the crops that he bought from the elevator , on the grounds that for seed , all future generations are embodied in the first generation that was originally sold . Bowman had previously purchased and planted Monsanto seeds under a license agreement promising not to save seeds from the resulting crop , but that agreement was not relevant to his purchase of soybean seed from the grain elevator nor to the litigation . In 2007 , Monsanto sued Bowman for patent infringement in the United States District Court for the Southern District of Indiana .
= = = Lower court rulings = = =
After filing suit , Monsanto moved for summary judgment . In response , Bowman argued that if Monsanto was allowed to continue its license past exhaustion , it would be able to dominate the market . Although the district court found Bowman 's arguments compelling , it found that it was bound by previous appellate court decisions in Monsanto Co. v. Scruggs and Monsanto Co. v. McFarling to control , and in 2009 , the district court ruled in favor of Monsanto . The court held that since the original farmers could not use the later generation seeds without a license , they could not make an unrestricted sale and therefore the patent rights were not exhausted . The court entered judgment for Monsanto in the amount of $ 84 @,@ 456 @.@ 30 and enjoined Bowman from making , using , selling or offering to sell any of the seeds from Monsanto 's patent .
Bowman then appealed the decision to the United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit . Bowman argued that the Monsanto license agreement allowed the sale of second @-@ generation soybeans to both grain elevators and subsequent buyers and that this caused the patent rights to be exhausted per the United States Supreme Court 's ruling in Quanta Computer , Inc. v. LG Electronics , Inc . Monsanto argued that the license agreement specifically prohibited the use of second @-@ generation seeds for planting . The Federal Circuit upheld the lower court 's decision in favor of Monsanto .
= = = Petition to the Supreme Court = = =
Bowman sought review in the United States Supreme Court . Bowman argued that the Federal Circuit 's decision conflicted with existing Supreme Court precedent on patent exhaustion . Bowman said that United States v. Univis Lens Co. showed that patent exhaustion applied even when the patent holder created post @-@ sale restrictions . He claimed that the Federal Circuit had created a judicial exception to patent exhaustion for Monsanto , allowing it to dominate the soybean seed market . Finally , Bowman argued that he was not " making " infringing new seeds merely by planting and reaping crops .
Monsanto argued that the Federal Circuit 's decision was correct because Bowman had created a new product that infringed on their patent . They further argued that this was not an appropriate case to hear , as the decision was not decided on patent exhaustion via a conditional sale . The Supreme Court requested the United States to brief the Court , and the Solicitor General filed a brief generally in support of the Monsanto position . The United States asked the Court to deny certiorari . The Supreme Court granted certiorari on October 5 , 2012 .
= = Supreme Court = =
= = = Arguments = = =
Bowman was represented by Mark P. Walters of Frommer , Lawrence , & Haug , LLP . Walters argued that the authorized sale of the seeds extinguished the patent , and that Bowman merely used seeds legitimately purchased from the silo . He claimed that the Federal Circuit had created an exception to the exhaustion doctrine , and that this decision was properly for Congress to decide . Seth P. Waxman , a former Solicitor General , represented Monsanto and argued that the second @-@ generation seeds were not subject to exhaustion because they had not existed until Bowman created them and had not been sold at the time of infringement . He noted that even when exhaustion applied , it did not allow one to create new copies of the patented product , which the second @-@ generation seeds were .
A number of Amici Curiae also filed briefs on behalf of the parties . For example , the American Intellectual Property Law Association , arguing on behalf of Monsanto , wrote that " [ e ] xhaustion of the right to control propagation of patented seed would disrupt the balance created by Congress between the Patent Act and the Plant Variety Protection Act . " The American Seed Trade Association , also arguing on behalf of Monsanto , wrote that " [ p ] atented seed technology benefits farmers , consumers and the environment " . The National Farmers Union , arguing on behalf of Bowman , wrote that " [ a ] patent exhaustion exception for self @-@ replicating technologies is inconsistent with this Court ’ s precedent and the competition policies reflected in the first @-@ sale doctrine " , and the Center for Food Safety wrote that " [ f ] arming is not genetic engineering " .
= = = Commentary prior to the Supreme Court 's ruling = = =
In the months leading up to the decision , commentators weighed in on several issues relating to the case . Because Justice Clarence Thomas had served as a lawyer for the Monsanto Company 34 years earlier , some critics questioned whether he would remain impartial . Other commentators noted that the case raised the " important question " of whether the exhaustion doctrine should include an exception for self @-@ replicating technologies , which may one day include self @-@ replicating robots . In SCOTUSblog , Ronald Mann wrote the case 's " practical ramifications are substantial " , and that the case was " one of the highest @-@ stakes cases of the Term " . However , Mann also predicted that " it seems most unlikely the Court will rule against Monsanto " , and in his coverage of the case 's oral arguments , he observed that " none of the Justices expressed any sympathy for [ Bowman ’ s ] position " .
= = = Opinion of the Court = = =
On May 13 , 2013 , Justice Elena Kagan delivered the Court 's unanimous opinion , which affirmed the judgment of the Federal Circuit . Justice Kagan stated that while an authorized sale of a patented item terminates all patent rights to that item , that exhaustion does not permit a farmer to reproduce patented seeds through planting and harvesting without the patent holder 's permission . Justice Kagan stated that when a farmer plants a harvested and saved seed , thereby growing a further soybean crop , that action constitutes an unauthorized " making " of the patented product , in violation of section 271 ( a ) of the patent code . Justice Kagan concluded that Bowman could resell the patented seeds he obtained from the elevator , or use them as feed , but that he could not produce additional seeds ( that is , crops ) .
= = Commentary and analysis = =
After the Court published its decision , analysts offered a range of opinions about the impact of the Court 's ruling . An academic co @-@ author of an amicus brief on behalf of Bowman filed by the American Antitrust Institute expressed relief that the loss was on a narrow basis rather than providing a broad affirmation of the lack of patent exhaustion for self @-@ replicating technologies . Kevin Rodkey argued that an analysis under Quanta Computer leads to the conclusion that patent rights covering self @-@ replicating seeds are exhausted on the first authorized sale , including subsequent generations , and that seed companies can only exclude subsequent replantings with carefully written license restrictions . Ronald Mann writing in SCOTUSblog noted : " The tenor of the Court came through most clearly when the Court ridiculed what it called Bowman ’ s ' blame @-@ the @-@ bean defense ' – the argument that Bowman did not make new seeds , because it was the seeds themselves that replicated . "
Another academic , Richard H. Stern , did not take issue with the Court 's refusal to shelter Bowman 's conduct under the exhaustion doctrine , but criticized the Court 's classification of the act of planting seeds and growing crops from them as an act of " making " a new patented article . Rochelle C. Dreyfus is also reported to have criticized the decision , noting that Bowman was attempting to obtain the benefit of the genetic modifications , while others , such as organic growers , fear being sued for inadvertent cross @-@ contamination . Additionally , the Harvard Law Review wrote that " [ t ] he Court reached the correct outcome but via the wrong route " because its ruling " obfuscates the role of the licensing agreement " and because the " exhaustion doctrine is ill suited to address the challenges posed by self @-@ replicating technologies " .
Other commentators suggested the case will have broad @-@ ranging impacts for other self @-@ replicating technologies . Tabetha Marie Peavey suggested that the Court " appeared to be alert to the consequences of its ruling , not just for the value of Monsanto ’ s soybean patents , but also for technologies like cell lines , software , and vaccines " . Likewise , Christopher M. Holman wrote that the case " should be viewed as a bellwether for an oncoming wave of controversy around the patenting of self @-@ replicating technologies that will challenge the ability of the patent system to respond effectively " . William J. Simmons also wrote that " more cases like this will probably be appealed to [ the Supreme Court ] as these technologies become more prevalent in society " .
= = Subsequent developments = =
In a similar case , Organic Seed Growers & Trade Ass 'n v. Monsanto Co . , a coalition of farmers filed suit to challenge twenty @-@ three of Monsanto 's patents for glyphosate @-@ resistant crops . The plaintiffs argued that if their crops became " contaminated by transgenic seed , which may very well be inevitable given the proliferation of transgenic seed today , they could quite perversely also be accused of patent infringement " . The plaintiffs sued to declare Monsanto 's patents invalid and asked Monsanto to " expressly waive any claim for patent infringement [ Monsanto ] may ever have " against the farmers and to " memorialize that waiver by providing a written covenant not to sue " . However , the case was dismissed for lack of a controversy . The suit did not demonstrate instances of current harm or future risk . Monsanto also gave assurances that it did not plan to sue in cases of inadvertent infringement when a grower was not also using glyphosate on their crop . Monsanto 's patent for the soybeans at issue in this case expired in 2014 , prior to which Monsanto announced that it will no longer enforce the licenses associated with the soybeans .
= How Will I Know =
" How Will I Know " is a song recorded by American recording artist Whitney Houston for her debut album , titled Whitney Houston , which was released in February 1985 . It was released by Arista Records in November that year , as the album 's third single . Composed by George Merrill and Shannon Rubicam , the song was originally intended for Janet Jackson , but she passed on it . Houston then recorded the song with altered lyrics and production from Narada Michael Walden . The lyrics speak about the protagonist trying to discern if a boy she likes will ever like her back .
" How Will I Know " received mainly positive reviews . The song became Houston 's second number one single on the United States Billboard Hot 100 . It spent two weeks atop the chart and also became Houston 's first chart topper on the Canadian RPM Singles Chart . Success was worldwide : it reached the top 10 in Sweden , Ireland , Norway , and the United Kingdom , and the top 20 in the Netherlands , New Zealand , and Switzerland .
The song 's music video features scenes of Houston dancing in a setting of video screens and colored partitions . The music video gave Houston exposure to the teens and MTV . It also received nominations at the 1986 MTV Video Music Awards in the categories of Best Female Video and Best New Artist in a Video , winning the former category . The song was performed on many of her tours including Greatest Love Tour ( 1986 ) and her Nothing but Love World Tour ( 2009 – 10 ) . " How Will I Know " is also featured as a remix on Houston 's compilation album , Whitney : The Greatest Hits ( 2000 ) , whereas the original version is featured on The Ultimate Collection ( 2007 ) and I Will Always Love You : The Best of Whitney Houston ( 2012 ; remastered ) .
= = Background and recording = =
Originally , songwriters George Merrill and Shannon Rubicam had written the song 's demo for Janet Jackson , employed by A & M Records executive , John McClain . However , after hearing the song , Jackson 's management passed on the song , feeling it was too weak in comparison to her other material . In an interview with Fred Bronson , Merrill expressed his feelings after learning of Jackson 's decision . " We were pretty upset because we thought it was perfect for her at the time . We had written it with her completely in mind . " During this period , Brenda Andrews , at Almo @-@ Irving Music , Merrill and Rubicam 's publisher , played the song for Gerry Griffith , the director for R & B music at A & M and Arista Records . Griffith , who was compiling material for Houston 's debut at the time , felt the song perfectly matched her sound . He soon contacted Andrews and the song 's two writers and implored that they should relinquish the song to him for Houston 's debut album . Griffith described his discovery of the song , and what he and Clive Davis thought of it :
" We had a lot of R & B @-@ based tunes , we had a few ballads , but we didn 't have a pop crossover song . So when I heard ' How Will I Know , ' I said this is absolutely perfect . I played it for Clive [ and ] he fell in love with it . I wasn 't very familiar with her family background , I didn 't realize that even at that time there was a pretty big industry buzz about her future . "
After getting permission to use the song from Merrill , Griffith quickly turned to Narada Michael Walden , who was producing Aretha Franklin 's " I Knew You Were Waiting ( For Me ) " , for her album Who 's Zoomin ' Who ? , at the time . After getting in touch with Walden , Griffith frantically implored him to produce the song , describing how important the song would be for Houston 's future album . After hearing the song 's demo , Walden agreed to fly down to San Rafael , California to arrange it . He was not much impressed with the demo and requested permission to change some of the song 's lyrics and chord progression . Flustered by his request , Merrill and Rubicam denied him the right to their song . After a lot of back @-@ and @-@ forth with Griffith , they compromised and allowed Walden to de @-@ construct the song and change the key and tempo . After completing the song , Houston came into the studio to record her vocals . Originally , Cissy Houston , the singer 's mother , was intended to perform the song 's background vocals . Houston had wanted to introduce her mother 's vocals on the track , insisting on their inclusion . However , after hearing the finished result , Davis felt Houston 's voice itself fit the song 's arrangement , and implored her to sing the backup section on her own . While reluctant at first , Houston agreed and re @-@ recorded the background vocals to the praise of both Griffith and Davis . Griffith explained :
" I asked Whitney to sing the background session . She was reluctant because she wanted to enjoy hearing her mother sing . I said , ' No , get out there and sing , ' so she did . The background sounded incredible ... Clive Davis heard the mix and immediately gave it a 10 , which is outrageous for him , because he doesn 't like anything ! "
The tenor saxophone is played by Premik Russell Tubbs .
= = Composition = =
" How Will I Know " is composed in an " 80 's dance beat . " Rolling Stone described the song as a " perky synth @-@ funk " . According to Kyle Anderson of MTV , the song found Houston hitting an " incredible groove . " It is written in the key of G flat major . The beat is set the time signature of common time and moves at a fast tempo of 120 beats per minute . The song also has the sequence of G ♭ -B ♭ m7 @-@ G ♭ / C ♭ -D ♭ -E ♭ m @-@ D ♭ as its chord progression . Houston 's vocals in the song span from the note of E ♭ 4 to the high note of G ♯ 5 . Lyrically , the song speaks about the protagonist trying to discern if a boy she likes will ever like her back . She is also hesitant , because her friends tell her " love can be deceiving " , and she is shy that she cannot phone him . Later , she feels that it might be a dream , but realizes that " there 's no mistaking " , and what she feels is really love .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
The song mainly garnered positive reviews from critics , with some noting it as a standout on the album . Don Shewey of Rolling Stone commented " Although it 's awfully reminiscent of the Pointer Sisters ' ' He 's So Shy ' , ' How Will I Know ' is still irresistibly danceable . " Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic wrote " ... what really impresses some 20 @-@ plus years on are the lighter tracks , particularly the breakthrough single ' How Will I Know ' . " While listing Houston 's top five songs of the 1980s , Steve Peake of About.com gave the song a positive review , writing , " Houston 's boppy , peppy numbers tend to suffer from a particularly dated sound compared to her ballads , but this song still works remarkably well because of its lush melody throughout the verse , bridge and chorus . " " [ t ] his track helps Houston prove that she knows how to interpret , with great skill , tunes that display solid craftsmanship , " he added . While reviewing the Deluxe Anniversary Edition of the album , Mikael Wood of Entertainment Weekly commented on the A capella version of the song noting , " a cappella mix of ' How Will I Know ' [ that ] displays the singer 's precision long before the advent of Auto @-@ Tune . " While reviewing The Ultimate Collection , Nick Levine of Digital Spy added , " Houston 's floor @-@ fillers have aged a little more gracefully , although their clunky , thudding drum sounds are as unmistakably eighties as Joan Collins ' Dynasty wardrobe . " The song was voted number twelve in VH1 's List of Greatest Songs of the 1980s .
= = = Chart performance = = =
" How Will I Know " was released by Arista Records in November 1985 as the third single from Houston 's self @-@ titled debut . It debuted at number 60 on the US Billboard Hot 100 , on the December 7 , 1985 issue . Nine weeks later , it peaked at number one on the issue dated February 15 , 1986 , becoming Houston 's second number one single in the US . It displaced Dionne Warwick 's " That 's What Friends Are For " , and was displaced by " Kyrie " by Mr. Mister . It stayed on the peak for two weeks . The song also debuted on the Billboard Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop songs at number 60 and later peaked at number one , a peak it maintained for one week . On the issue dated January 25 , 1986 , " How Will I Know " entered the Hot Dance Club Play charts at number 30 and later peaked at number three on the February 22 , 1986 issue . It also peaked at number one on the Adult Contemporary charts . Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) certified the single Gold on December 6 , 1995 , for shipments of 500 @,@ 000 copies or more . It ranked number six on the Billboard Year @-@ End charts . In Canada , the song debuted at number 80 on the RPM Singles chart on the issue dated December 14 , 1985 . It later peaked at number one on the week dated March 1 , 1986 , becoming Houston 's first number one single in Canada . It was later certified Gold by Canadian Recording Industry Association on May 1 , 1986 , for shipments of 200 @,@ 000 copies or more .
The song performed well in other countries . In United Kingdom , the song debuted at number 36 , on the week dated January 25 , 1986 , and later peaked at a position of number five . It was also certified Silver by British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) . According to MTV UK and Ireland , the single has sold about 280 @,@ 000 copies in the United Kingdom . In New Zealand , the song debuted at number 35 on the Singles chart and later peaked at number 19 . In Austria , the song reached a peak position of number 28 , while reaching a peak of number 12 in the Netherlands . The song also reached number two in Norway and Sweden , while charting at number 11 in Switzerland . According to Allmusic , " How Will I Know " has sold about 1 @.@ 5 million copies worldwide .
In Australia , " How Will I Know " was released as the first single from the album , in mid 1985 . It spent a solitary week in the Kent Music Report top 100 chart at number 97 in July 1985 , before re @-@ entering the chart in February 1986 , eventually peaking at number two .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " How Will I Know " , directed by Brian Grant , was filmed prior to the release of the single and album . Unlike her previous music videos , Houston was given the opportunity to move beyond the staged performance settings to demonstrate elementary dance moves . The video is set against a strikingly designed , vividly colored setting of video screens and partitions . Houston 's hair is dyed a honey color , and is held up by a dazzling colored bow . She is also seen accented by a tight , sleeveless gray dress made of metal mesh , reaching almost to her knees , accessorized with matching arm @-@ bracelets . Houston is also seen interacting with animated dancers , in black outfits and wearing French @-@ style makeup . The video also has a scene of splattering of paint and it 's dripping down the screen . Houston 's label @-@ mate and family friend , Aretha Franklin , also makes a cameo on the music video . In 2011 , Kyle Anderson of MTV wrote that the video was " eye @-@ opening to watch her cut loose in a fun environment , " since her previous songs were ballads .
The music video received heavy rotation in music channels like MTV and gave Houston exposure to a wider audience , something which at one time , African @-@ Americans had found difficult to achieve . Also , the video was nominated for two awards at the 1986 MTV Video Music Awards , in the categories of Best New Artist in a Video and Best Female Video , winning the latter .
= = Live performances = =
Houston performed the song throughout the entire run of her Greatest Love Tour ( 1986 ) , Moment of Truth World Tour ( 1987 – 1988 ) , Feels So Right Japan Tour ( 1990 ) , I 'm Your Baby Tonight World Tour ( 1991 ) , The Bodyguard World Tour ( 1993 – 1994 ) , and My Love Is Your Love World Tour ( 1999 ) . She also recently performed the song on her Nothing but Love World Tour ( 2009 – 2010 ) . Apart from the concert tour performances , Houston has performed the song on various other occasions like the Third MTV Video Music Awards ( 1986 ) , where she sang " How Will I Know " and " Greatest Love of All " , Thirteenth Annual American Music Awards ( 1986 ) , and 1987 BRIT Awards . The latter performance is included in the 2014 CD / DVD release , Whitney Houston Live : Her Greatest Performances . On May 15 , 1987 , during her European promotion for then @-@ new album , Whitney , Houston sang the song at the Montreux Golden Rose Rock Festival : IM & MC Gala with two other 1986 released songs , " I Wanna Dance with Somebody ( Who Loves Me ) " and " Where Do Broken Hearts Go . " She appeared on The Mike Douglas Show , taped in Philadelphia , and performed " How Will I Know " . On her Moment of Truth World Tour , she participated in the Nelson Mandela 70th Birthday Tribute Concert and performed the song with other seven songs . She also performed the song on " Welcome Home Heroes " , a concert dedicated to the US troops , their families , and military and government dignitaries in honor of those returning from the Gulf War , which aired on HBO on March 31 , 1991 . The concert was taped and later released as a VHS on May 14 , 1991 . She also performed the song on The Concert for a New South Africa , three concerts to honor President Nelson Mandela , in 1994 . Houston later performed the song on the closing ceremonies of the 1994 World Cup along with five of her other songs . In 2000 , she performed the song on Arista 's 25th Anniversary , along with " I Wanna Dance With Somebody ( Who Loves Me ) " .
= = Cover versions = =
The song has been covered by various other artists . Hit the Lights covered the song for the extended iTunes release of their 2008 album , Skip School Start Fights . New Zealand Idol contestant Camillia Temple , covered the song for the " top three " night of the show 's first season . Apart from the covers , the first stanza of the song was sampled in LMC vs. U2 's dance song , " Take Me to the Clouds Above " . The song was covered by Amber Riley , Naya Rivera , Chris Colfer , and Lea Michele on Glee for their tribute episode to Houston in the third season . The song was also covered by British singer Sam Smith put during an appearance on Sirius XM on June 21 , 2014 . His version was later included on the Drowning Shadow 's edition of In the Lonely Hour . The British musical comedy film Walking on Sunshine covered the song . Titled as " The One " , the Dutch DJ @-@ duo W & W released a progressive @-@ house @-@ version of this track in 2015 .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
= = Charts and certifications = =
= Yarborough v. Alvarado =
Yarborough v. Alvarado , 541 U.S. 652 ( 2004 ) , is a United States Supreme Court case in which the Court declined to overturn a state court 's conclusion that a minor was not in custody for Miranda purposes during his police interview . Michael Alvarado helped his friend Paul Soto steal a truck in Santa Fe Springs , California . The truck owner was killed by Soto during the robbery and Alvarado was convicted of second @-@ degree murder for his role in the crime . The evidence for Alvarado 's conviction was primarily based on statements given by Alvarado during a two @-@ hour police interrogation that occurred when Alvarado 's parents brought him to the police station . Alvarado was 17 years old and was not read his Miranda rights before questioning . During Alvarado 's murder trial in a state court , motions to suppress the statements given by Alvarado were denied on the ground that Alvarado was not in police custody at the time of the interrogation and thus did not have to be read his Miranda rights . Alvarado appealed his conviction , claiming that the determination that he was not in custody was incorrect because the courts did not take his age into account .
In a split decision , the Supreme Court declined to overturn the state court 's conclusion about custody because it was not objectively incorrect . The Court noted that there was no precedent that required the use of age in determining whether someone is in police custody ( this would change in 2011 with J.D.B. v. North Carolina , which held that age is relevant to determining if someone is in custody ) . The case has been cited in subsequent Supreme Court decisions as precedent for providing state courts with latitude in making decisions about general or broad rules .
= = Background = =
= = = Crime and investigation = = =
The respondent Michael Alvarado agreed to help his friend Paul Soto steal a truck in the parking lot of a shopping mall in Santa Fe Springs , California . Soto pulled out a gun and approached the driver of the truck , demanding the keys , while Alvarado hid by the driver 's side door . The driver refused and was shot and killed by Soto . Afterwords , Alvarado helped hide the gun . Los Angeles County Sheriff 's detective Cheryl Comstock led the investigation of the crime . During the investigation Comstock contacted Alvarado 's parents , saying that she wished to speak with Alvarado . Alvarado 's parents brought him to the police station to be interviewed . Comstock brought Alvarado into an interview room and questioned him for two hours . Alvarado 's parents asked to be present during the interview but were not allowed in by police . Alvarado admitted during questions that he had helped his friend try to steal the truck and that he had helped hide the gun .
Before custodial interrogations , police are required to give suspects a Miranda warning that informs suspects of their legal rights during interrogation . However , Alvarado was not given a Miranda warning at any time during questioning . This would form part of the basis for Alvarado 's legal defense .
= = = Trial and conviction = = =
The State of California charged Alvarado and his friend with first @-@ degree murder and attempted robbery . Alvarado attempted to suppress his statements given during the Comstock interview on the basis that he was not read his Miranda rights . The trial court denied the motion on the basis that Alvarado was not in police custody at the time he gave his statement . Alvarado was subsequently convicted , primarily based on statements Alvarado made during his police interrogation . Alvarado 's conviction was reduced by the trial judge to second @-@ degree murder for his comparatively minor role in the offense . The California Courts of Appeal affirmed the conviction and agreed that Alvarado was not in custody . The Supreme Court of California declined discretionary review .
Much of Alvarado 's trial focused on whether Alvarado was in custody or not during his police interview . According to Thompson v. Keohane , to determine whether someone is in custody the courts apply a reasonable person test : whether a reasonable person would have felt free to leave or not .
= = = Petition for habeas corpus = = =
After his conviction , Alvarado filed for a writ of habeas corpus claiming that the custody analysis was incorrect because the court had not considered Alvarado 's age in its reasonable person test . Under the Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act of 1996 ( AEDPA ) , a federal court can grant habeas corpus to a person held due to a state court judgment if the state court judgement " resulted in a decision that was contrary to , or involved an unreasonable application of , clearly established Federal law , as determined by the Supreme Court of the United States " . Alvarado 's habeas corpus petition thus depended on demonstrating that the state court 's custody determination was more than debatable , but objectively incorrect .
The United States District Court for the Central District of California agreed that the state court rulings were correct , however the Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit reversed . The Court of Appeals held that the state court made a mistake in not accounting for Alvarado 's
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1923 .
= = = National fame = = =
In the 1920s , Sargent became one of the best @-@ known English conductors . For the British National Opera Company , he conducted The Mastersingers on tour in 1925 , and for the D 'Oyly Carte Opera Company , he conducted London seasons at the Prince 's Theatre in 1926 and the newly rebuilt Savoy Theatre in 1929 – 30 . He was criticised in The Times 's review of 20 September 1926 for adding " gags " to the Gilbert and Sullivan scores , although the writer praised the crispness of the ensemble , the " musicalness " of the performance and the beauty of the overture . Rupert D 'Oyly Carte wrote to the paper stating that , in fact , Sargent had worked from Arthur Sullivan 's manuscript scores and had merely brought out the " details of the orchestration " exactly as Sullivan had written them . Some of the principal cast members and the stage director , J. M. Gordon , objected to Sargent 's fast tempi , at least at first . The D 'Oyly Carte seasons brought Sargent 's name to a wider public with an early BBC radio relay of The Mikado in 1926 heard by up to eight million people . The Evening Standard noted that this was " probably the largest audience that has ever heard anything at one time in the history of the world . "
In 1927 , Sergei Diaghilev engaged Sargent to conduct for the Ballets Russes , sharing the conducting duties with Igor Stravinsky and Sir Thomas Beecham . Sargent also conducted for the final Ballets Russes season in 1928 . In 1928 he became conductor of the Royal Choral Society , and he retained this post for four decades until his death . The society was famous in the 1920s and 1930s for staged performances of Samuel Coleridge @-@ Taylor 's Hiawatha at the Royal Albert Hall , a work with which Sargent 's name soon became synonymous .
Elizabeth Courtauld , wife of the industrialist and art collector Samuel Courtauld , promoted a popular series of subscription concerts beginning in 1929 and on Schnabel 's advice engaged Sargent as chief conductor , with guest conductors as eminent as Bruno Walter , Otto Klemperer and Stravinsky . The Courtauld @-@ Sargent concerts , as they became known , were aimed at people who had not previously attended concerts . They attracted large audiences bringing Sargent 's name before another section of the public . In addition to the core repertory , Sargent introduced new works by Bliss , Honegger , Kodály , Martinů , Prokofiev , Szymanowski and Walton , among others . At first , the plan was to engage the London Symphony Orchestra for these concerts , but the orchestra , a self @-@ governing co @-@ operative , refused to replace key players whom Sargent considered sub @-@ standard . As a result , in conjunction with Beecham , Sargent set about establishing a new orchestra , the London Philharmonic .
In these years Sargent tackled a wide repertoire , recording much of it , but he was particularly noted for performances of choral pieces . He promoted British music , as he would throughout his career , conducting Handel 's Messiah performed with large choruses and orchestras ; and the premières of At the Boar 's Head ( 1925 ) by Holst ; Hugh the Drover ( 1924 ) and Sir John in Love ( 1929 ) by Vaughan Williams ; and Walton 's cantata Belshazzar 's Feast ( at the Leeds Triennial Festival of 1931 ) . To popularise classical music , Sargent conducted many concerts for young people including the Robert Mayer Concerts for Children from 1924 to 1939 .
= = = Difficult years and war years = = =
In October 1932 , Sargent suffered a near @-@ fatal attack of tuberculosis . For almost two years he was unable to work , and it was only later in the 1930s that he returned to the concert scene . In 1936 , he conducted his first opera at Covent Garden , Gustave Charpentier 's Louise . He did not conduct opera there again until 1954 , with Walton 's Troilus and Cressida , although he did conduct the incidental music for a dramatisation of The Pilgrim 's Progress given at the Royal Opera House in 1948 .
As an orchestra conductor , Sargent had already been known as a hard taskmaster . According to The Independent , he brought professionalism to orchestras by shaking them free of dead wood , clearing out talented dilettantes and pushing the survivors to perform at their best through relentless rehearsal . After giving a Daily Telegraph interview in 1936 in which he said that an orchestral musician did not deserve a " job for life " and should " give of his lifeblood with every bar he plays , " Sargent lost much favour with musicians . They were particularly annoyed because of their support of him during his long illness , and thereafter he faced frequent hostility from British orchestras .
Being popular in Australia with players as well as the public , Sargent made three lengthy tours of Australia and New Zealand in 1936 . He was on the point of accepting a permanent appointment with the Australian Broadcasting Corporation when , at the outbreak of the Second World War , he felt it his duty to return to his country , resisting strong pressure from the Australian media for him to stay . During the war , Sargent directed the Hallé Orchestra in Manchester ( 1939 – 42 ) and the Liverpool Philharmonic ( 1942 – 48 ) and became a popular BBC Home Service radio broadcaster . He helped boost public morale during the war by extensive concert tours around the country conducting for nominal fees . On one famous occasion , an air raid interrupted a performance of Beethoven 's Symphony No. 7 . Sargent stopped the orchestra , calmed the audience by saying they were safer inside the hall than fleeing outside , and resumed conducting . He later said that no orchestra had ever played so well and that no audience in his experience had ever listened so intently . In May 1941 Sargent conducted the last performance held in the Queen 's Hall . Following an afternoon performance of Elgar 's The Dream of Gerontius , the hall was destroyed during a night @-@ time incendiary raid .
In 1945 Arturo Toscanini invited Sargent to conduct the NBC Symphony Orchestra . In four concerts Sargent chose to present all English music , with the exception of Sibelius 's Symphony No. 1 and Dvořák 's Symphony No. 7 . Two concertos , Walton 's Viola Concerto with William Primrose , and Elgar 's Violin Concerto with Yehudi Menuhin , were programmed as part of these concerts . Menuhin judged Sargent 's conducting of the latter " the next best to Elgar in this work . "
= = = The Proms and later years = = =
Sargent was knighted for his services to music in 1947 and performed in numerous English @-@ speaking countries during the post @-@ war years . He continued to promote British composers , conducting the premieres of Walton 's opera , Troilus and Cressida ( 1954 ) , and Vaughan Williams 's Symphony No. 9 ( 1958 ) .
Sargent was chief conductor of the Proms from 1948 until his death in 1967 and of the BBC Symphony Orchestra from 1950 to 1957 , succeeding Sir Adrian Boult . One author has written that " Sargent sometimes ruffled the orchestra in a way that Boult had never done . Indeed there were many people inside the BBC who profoundly regretted Boult 's departure . " The same author contended that Sargent was the target of criticism from the BBC 's own Music Department for " not devoting enough time to the orchestra . " Norman Lebrecht goes so far as to say that Sargent " almost wrecked " the BBC orchestra .
Although the orchestra players bridled at some of Sargent 's initiatives , there was also praise for his work with the orchestra . His biographer Reid contended , " Sargent 's liveliness and drive soon gave BBC playing a gloss and briskness which had not been conspicuous before . " Another biographer , Aldous , wrote , " Everywhere Sargent and the orchestra performed there were ovations , laurel wreaths and terrific reviews . " The orchestra 's reputation both in Britain and internationally grew during Sargent 's tenure . The conductor had " great moments of triumph ... both at festivals overseas and during the Proms . " In the 1950s and 1960s he made many recordings with the BBC Symphony , as well as other ensembles , as described below . In this period , also , he conducted the concerts that opened the Royal Festival Hall in 1951 and returned to the D 'Oyly Carte Opera Company for the summer 1951 Festival of Britain season at the Savoy Theatre and the winter 1961 – 62 and 1963 – 64 seasons at the Savoy . In August 1956 the BBC announced that he would be replaced as Chief Conductor of the BBC orchestra by Rudolf Schwarz . Sargent was given the title of " Chief Guest Conductor " and he remained Conductor @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Proms .
As chief conductor of the Proms , Sargent gained his widest fame , making the " Last Night " into a high @-@ ratings broadcast celebration aimed at ordinary audiences , a popular , theatrical flag @-@ waving extravaganza presided over by himself . He was noted for his witty addresses in which he good @-@ naturedly chided the noisy promenaders . In his programmes for these concerts he often conducted choral music and music by British composers , but his range was broad : the BBC 's official history of the Proms lists selected programmes from this period showing Sargent conducting works by Bach , Sibelius , Dvořák , Berlioz , Rachmaninoff , Rimsky @-@ Korsakov , Richard Strauss and Kodály in three successive programmes . During his chief conductorship , prestigious foreign conductors and orchestras began to perform regularly at the Proms . In his first season in charge , Sargent and two assistant conductors conducted all the concerts among them ; by 1966 there were Sargent and 25 other conductors . Those making their Prom debuts in the Sargent years included Carlo Maria Giulini , Georg Solti , Leopold Stokowski , Rudolf Kempe , Pierre Boulez and Bernard Haitink .
Sargent made two tours of South America . In 1950 he conducted in Buenos Aires , Montevideo , Rio de Janeiro and Santiago . His programmes included Vaughan Williams 's London and 6th Symphonies ; Haydn 's Symphony No. 88 , Beethoven 's Symphony No. 8 , Mozart 's Jupiter symphony , Schubert 's 5th , Brahms 's 2nd and 4th , Sibelius 's 5th , Elgar 's Serenade for Strings , Britten 's The Young Person 's Guide to the Orchestra , Strauss 's Till Eulenspiegel 's Merry Pranks , Walton 's Viola Concerto and Dvořák 's Cello Concerto with Pierre Fournier . In 1952 Sargent conducted in all the above @-@ mentioned cities and also in Lima . Half his repertory on that tour consisted of British music and included Delius , Vaughan Williams , Britten , Walton and Handel .
When the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra was in danger of extinction after Beecham 's death in 1961 , Sargent played a major part in saving it , doing much to win back the good opinion of orchestral players that he had lost because of his 1936 interview . In the 1960s , Sargent toured Russia , the United States , Canada , Turkey , Israel , India , the Far East and Australia . By the mid @-@ 1960s his health began to deteriorate .
Sargent underwent surgery in July 1967 for pancreatic cancer but made a valedictory appearance at the end of the last night of the Proms in September that year , handing over the baton to his successor , Colin Davis . He died two weeks later , at the age of 72 . He was buried in Stamford cemetery alongside members of his family .
= = = Musical reputation and repertoire = = =
Toscanini , Beecham and many others regarded Sargent as the finest choral conductor in the world . Even orchestral musicians gave him credit : the principal violist of the BBC Symphony Orchestra wrote of him , " He is able to instil into the singers a life and efficiency they never dreamed of . You have only to see the eyes of a choral society screwing into him like hundreds of gimlets to understand what he means to them . " However , another of Sargent 's colleagues , Sir Adrian Boult , said of him , " [ H ] e was a great all @-@ rounder but never developed his potentialities , which were enormous , simply because he didn 't think hard enough about music – he never troubled to improve on a successful interpretation . He was too interested in other things , and not single @-@ minded enough about music . "
Although orchestral players resented Sargent for much of his career after the 1936 interview , instrumental soloists generally liked working with him . The cellist Pierre Fournier called him a " guardian angel " and compared him favourably with George Szell and Herbert von Karajan . Artur Schnabel , Jascha Heifetz and Yehudi Menuhin thought similarly highly of him . Cyril Smith wrote in his autobiography , " ... he seems to sense what the pianist wants of the music even before he begins to play it .... He has an incredible speed of mind , and it has always been a great joy , as well as a rare professional experience , to work with him . " For this reason , among others , Sargent was continually in demand as a conductor for concertos .
The Times obituary said Sargent " was of all British conductors in his day the most widely esteemed by the lay public ... a fluent , attractive pianist , a brilliant score @-@ reader , a skilful and effective arranger and orchestrator ... as a conductor his stick technique was regarded by many as the most accomplished and reliable in the world .... [ H ] is taste ... was moulded by the Victorian cathedral tradition into which he was born . " It commented that , in his later years , his interpretations of the standard classical and romantic repertoire were " prepared ... down to the last detail " but sometimes " unexuberant " , though his performances of " the music composed within his lifetime ... remained lucid and continually compelling . " The flute player Gerald Jackson wrote , " I feel that [ Walton ] conducts his own music as well as anyone else , with the possible exception of Sargent , who of course introduced and always makes a big thing of Belshazzar 's Feast . "
The composers whose works Sargent regularly conducted included , from the eighteenth century , Bach , Handel , Gluck , Mozart and Haydn ; and from the nineteenth century , Beethoven , Berlioz , Schubert , Schumann , Mendelssohn , Brahms , Wagner , Tchaikovsky , Smetana , Sullivan and Dvořák . From the twentieth century , British composers in his repertoire included Bliss , Britten , Delius , Elgar ( a favourite , especially Elgar 's choral works The Dream of Gerontius , The Apostles and The Kingdom and symphonies ) , Holst , Tippett , Vaughan Williams and Walton . With the exception of Alban Berg 's Violin Concerto , Sargent avoided the works of the Second Viennese School but programmed works by Bartók , Dohnányi , Hindemith , Honegger , Kodály , Martinů , Poulenc , Prokofiev , Rachmaninoff , Shostakovich , Sibelius , Strauss , Stravinsky and Szymanowski .
= = Personal life , reputation and legacy = =
= = = Private life = = =
In 1923 , Sargent married Eileen Laura Harding Horne , daughter of Frederic Horne of Drinkstone , Suffolk . Sargent 's biographers differ on her background . Aldous states that she was a maid in domestic service , whereas Reid notes that she was a keen rider , with many friends in hunting circles , and that her uncle ( who officiated at her wedding to Sargent ) was rector of Drinkwater , Suffolk . According to Aldous , it was believed locally that Sargent had to marry Horne , having made her pregnant . By 1926 , the couple had two children , a daughter Pamela who died of polio in 1944 , and a son Peter . Sargent was much affected by his daughter 's death , and his recording of Elgar 's The Dream of Gerontius in 1945 was an expression of his grief .
Sargent 's marriage was unhappy and ended in divorce in 1946 . Before , during and after his marriage , Sargent was a continual womaniser , a fact that he did not deny . His liaisons with powerful women began early , in Stamford , when he was still conducting the Gilbert and Sullivan shows attended by the London gentry who came to join the Melton Mowbray hunt . Among his affairs were long @-@ standing ones with Diana Bowes @-@ Lyon , Princess Marina and Edwina Mountbatten . More casual encounters are typified by the young woman who said , " Promise me that whatever happens I shan 't have to go home alone in a taxi with Malcolm Sargent . "
Away from music , Sargent was elected a member of The Literary Society , a dining club founded in 1807 by William Wordsworth and others . He was also a member of the Beefsteak Club , for which his proposer was Sir Edward Elgar , the Garrick , and the long @-@ established and aristocratic White 's and Pratt 's clubs . His public service appointments included the joint presidency of the London Union of Youth Clubs , and the presidency of the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals .
Sargent 's moral character attracted comment throughout his life . Early on , he developed a taste for luxury : Adrian Boult commented on his travelling to college by taxi , but Sargent rejoined , " All the more room for you , Adrian , on the bus . " Despite Sargent 's vanities and rivalries , he had many friends . Sir Thomas Armstrong in a 1994 broadcast interview stressed that Sargent " had many good generous virtues ; he was kind to many people , and I loved him .... " Nevertheless , even friends such as Sir Rupert Hart @-@ Davis , Secretary of the Literary Society , considered him a " bounder " , and the composer @-@ suffragette Dame Ethel Smyth called him a " cad " . Yet despite his philandering and ambition , Sargent was a deeply religious man all his life and was comforted on his deathbed by visits from the Anglican Archbishop of York , Donald Coggan and the Roman Catholic Archbishop of Westminster , Cardinal Heenan . He also received calls from Queen Elizabeth and Prince Charles , and had a reconciliation with his son , Peter , from whom he had been estranged for a year .
= = = " Flash Harry " = = =
A number of purported explanations have been advanced for Sargent 's nickname , " Flash Harry " . Reid opines that it " was first in circulation among orchestral players before the war and that they used it in no spirit of adulation . " It may have arisen from his impeccable and stylish appearance – he always wore a red or white carnation in his buttonhole ( the carnation is now the symbol of the school named for him ) . This was perhaps reinforced by his brisk tempi early in his career , and by a story about his racing from one recording session to another . Another explanation , that he was named after cartoonist Ronald Searle 's St Trinian 's character " Flash Harry " , is certainly wrong : Sargent 's nickname was current long before the first appearance of the St Trinian 's character in 1954 . Sargent 's devoted fans , the Promenaders , used the nickname in an approving sense , and shortened it to " Flash " , though Sargent was not especially keen on the sobriquet , even thus modified .
Beecham and Sargent were allies from the early days of the London Philharmonic to Beecham 's final months when they were planning joint concerts . They even happened to share the same birthday . When Sargent was incapacitated by tuberculosis in 1933 , Beecham conducted a performance of Messiah at the Albert Hall to raise money to support his younger colleague . Sargent loved Beecham 's company , and took in good part his quips , such as his reference to the rising conductor Herbert von Karajan , as " a kind of musical Malcolm Sargent " and , on learning that Sargent 's car was caught in rifle fire in Palestine , " I had no idea the Arabs were so musical . " Beecham declared that Sargent " is the greatest choirmaster we have ever produced ... he makes the buggers sing like blazes . " And on another occasion he said that Sargent was " the most expert of all our conductors – myself excepted of course . "
= = = Honours and memorials = = =
In addition to his own doctorate from Durham , Sargent was awarded honorary degrees by the Universities of Oxford and Liverpool and by the Royal Academy of Music , the Royal College of Organists , the Royal College of Music and the Swedish Academy of Music . He was awarded the highest honour of the Royal Philharmonic Society , its Gold Medal , in 1959 . Foreign honours included the Order of the Star of the North ( Sweden ) , 1956 ; the Order of the White Rose ( Finland ) , 1965 ; and Chevalier of France 's Légion d 'honneur , 1967 .
After his death Sargent was commemorated in a variety of ways . His memorial service in Westminster Abbey in October 1967 was attended by 3 @,@ 000 people including the royalty of three countries , official representatives from France , South Africa , and Malaysia , and notables as diverse as Princess Marina of Kent ; Bridget D 'Oyly Carte ; Pierre Boulez ; Larry Adler ; Elgar 's daughter ; Beecham 's widow ; Douglas Fairbanks Junior ; Léon Goossens ; the Master of the Queen 's Music ; the Secretary of London Zoo ; and representatives of the London orchestras and of the Promenaders . Colin Davis and the BBC Chorus and Symphony Orchestra performed the music .
Since 1968 , the year after Sargent 's death , the Proms have begun on a Friday evening rather than as previously a Saturday , and in memory of Sargent 's choral work , a large @-@ scale choral piece is customarily given . Beyond the world of music , a school and a charity were named after him : the Malcolm Sargent Primary School in Stamford and the Malcolm Sargent Cancer Fund for Children . Merging with another charity ( Cancer and Leukaemia in Childhood ) in 2005 , it is now known as CLIC Sargent and is the UK 's leading children 's cancer charity . In 1980 the Royal Mail put the image of Sargent on its 15p postage stamp in a series portraying British conductors , the other three featuring Wood , Beecham and Barbirolli . At Albert Hall Mansions , next to the Albert Hall , where Sargent lived , there is a blue plaque placed in his memory .
= = Recordings = =
Sargent 's own composition , Impression on a Windy Day , has been recorded for CD by the Royal Ballet Sinfonia conducted by Gavin Sutherland on the ASV label . Sargent 's first recordings as a conductor , made for HMV in 1923 using the acoustic process , were of excerpts from Vaughan Williams 's opera Hugh the Drover . In the early days of electrical recording , he took part in a pioneering live recording of extracts of Mendelssohn 's Elijah at the Albert Hall with the Royal Choral Society .
Subsequently in the recording studio , Sargent was most in demand to record English music , choral works and concertos . He recorded prolifically and worked with many orchestras , but made the most recordings ( several dozen major pieces ) with the BBC Symphony Orchestra ( BBC ) , the London Symphony Orchestra ( LSO ) , the New Symphony Orchestra of London , the Philharmonia Orchestra and the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra ( RPO ) .
= = = English music = = =
Sargent conducted Gilbert and Sullivan recordings in four different decades . His early recordings with the D 'Oyly Carte Opera Company for HMV included The Yeomen of the Guard ( 1928 ) , The Pirates of Penzance ( 1929 ) , Iolanthe ( 1930 ) , H.M.S. Pinafore ( 1930 ) , Patience ( 1930 ) , Yeomen ( excerpts 1931 ) , Pirates ( excerpts 1931 ) , The Gondoliers ( excerpts 1931 ) , Ruddigore ( 1932 ) and Princess Ida ( 1932 ) . More than 30 years later , for Decca , he recorded Yeomen ( 1964 ) and Princess Ida ( 1965 ) with the D 'Oyly Carte company . In addition , between 1957 and 1963 , Sargent recorded nine of the Gilbert and Sullivan operas for EMI , with the Glyndebourne Festival Chorus and soloists from the world of oratorio and grand opera . These were Trial by Jury , Pinafore , Pirates , Patience , Iolanthe , The Mikado , Ruddigore , Yeomen and The Gondoliers . According to the Gilbert and Sullivan scholar Marc Shepherd , " The [ Glyndebourne ] recordings ' musical excellence is undisputed , but many listeners object to Sargent 's lugubrious tempi and the singers ' lack of feeling for the G & S idiom . " Sargent used an orchestra of thirty @-@ seven players at the Savoy Theatre ( the same number as Sullivan ) , but sometimes added a few more when recording .
During the Second World War , Sargent and the Liverpool Philharmonic accompanied Albert Sammons , the dedicatee , in his 1944 recording of the Delius Violin Concerto . Later , in 1965 , with Jacqueline du Pré , in her début recording , Sargent recorded Delius 's Cello Concerto , coupled with the Songs of Farewell ( 1965 ) . At the end of the war , Sargent turned to recording Elgar . A recording regularly chosen over all others in comparative surveys is the first of Sargent 's two versions of Elgar 's The Dream of Gerontius with Heddle Nash as tenor and the familiar Sargent pairing of the Huddersfield Choral Society and the Liverpool Philharmonic Orchestra , recorded in 1945 . Sargent was also the conductor for Heifetz 's 1949 recording of Elgar 's Violin Concerto and Paul Tortelier 's first recording of the Cello Concerto in 1954 . He also recorded Elgar 's Wand of Youth Suite No. 2 , with the BBC ; the Pomp and Circumstance Marches 1 and 4 with the LSO ; and the Enigma Variations with the Philharmonia . Sargent made two recordings of Holst 's The Planets : a monaural version with the LSO for Decca ( 1950 ) and a stereo version with the BBC for EMI ( 1960 ) . He also recorded shorter Holst pieces : the Perfect Fool ballet music and the Beni Mora suite .
In 1958 Sargent recorded Walton 's Belshazzar 's Feast , one of his specialities , which was reissued on CD in 1990 and again in 2004 . Sargent recorded Walton 's Façade Suites in 1961 . With the LSO , Sargent recorded Walton 's Orb and Sceptre March . He also made a stereo recording of Walton 's First Symphony in the presence of the composer , but Walton privately preferred André Previn 's recording , issued in January 1967 , the same month as Sargent 's . Of Vaughan Williams 's shorter pieces , Sargent recorded , with the BBC in 1960 , the Fantasia on a Theme by Thomas Tallis ( which he also recorded with the Philharmonia ) , and with the LSO , Serenade to Music ( 1957 ; choral version ) and Toward the Unknown Region . He also recorded Vaughan Williams 's overture The Wasps with the LSO .
Although the heyday of live performances of Sargent 's Coleridge @-@ Taylor signature piece at the Albert Hall was by then long gone , Sargent , the Royal Choral Society and the Philharmonia made a stereo recording in 1962 of Hiawatha 's Wedding Feast , which has been reissued on CD . In 1963 , Sargent recorded Gay 's The Beggar 's Opera , one of his few operas on record other than Gilbert and Sullivan . This was also reissued on CD .
= = = Other choral recordings = = =
In addition to those choral pieces mentioned above , Sargent recorded Handel 's Messiah four times , in 1946 , 1954 1959 and 1964 . Though the advent of " authentic " period performance at first relegated Sargent 's large scale and rescored versions to the shelf , they have been reissued and are now attracting favourable critical comment as being of historical interest in their own right . Sargent also conducted the Royal Liverpool Philharmonic and the Huddersfield Choral Society in recordings of Handel 's Israel in Egypt and Mendelssohn 's Elijah in 1947 , both of which have been reissued on CD .
= = = Concertos = = =
Sargent was continually in demand as a conductor for concertos . In addition to the concertos noted above , other composers whose concertos he conducted on record , with soloists noted , include : Bach ( Heifetz @-@ Friedman , NSO ) , Bartók ( Rostal , LSO ) , Beethoven ( Oistrakh , Knushevitzky , Oborin , Philharmonia ) , Bliss ( Trevor Barnard , Philharmonia ) , Bruch ( Heifetz , LSO and NSO ) , Cimarosa ( Léon Goossens | Goossens , Royal Liverpool Philharmonic ) , Dvořák ( Tortelier ) , Mendelssohn ( Gioconda de Vito , LSO ) , Mozart ( Heifetz , LSO ) , Rachmaninoff ( Lympany , RPO ) , Rawsthorne ( Curzon ; Matthews , LSO ) , Rubbra ( Matthews , LSO ) , Schumann ( Pierre Fournier ) , Tchaikovsky ( Ricci , NSO ) and Vieuxtemps ( Heifetz , NSO ) . Other soloists included Mstislav Rostropovich and Cyril Smith .
= = = Other recordings = = =
Neville Cardus said of Sargent 's Beethoven , " I have heard performances which critics would have raved about had some conductor from Russia been responsible for them conducting them half as well and truthfully . " Sargent recorded Beethoven 's Fourth and Fifth Symphonies for Decca with Sidney Beer 's National Symphony Orchestra . His 1940s accompaniments for Artur Schnabel in the piano concertos have been admired . A 1961 stereo recording of the Eroica Symphony has been reissued on CD . Sargent was an enthusiastic champion of Sibelius 's music , even recording it with the Vienna Philharmonic when it was not part of their repertory . Their recordings of Finlandia , En saga , The Swan of Tuonela and the Karelia Suite were issued in 1963 and reissued on CD in 1993 . Sargent and the BBC recorded the first , second and fifth Symphonies in 1956 and 1958 respectively , reissued on CD in 1989 , as well as Pohjola 's Daughter in 1959 . He also recorded the Valse triste with the RLPO .
Sargent recorded a wide variety of other European composers , including Bach 's Sinfonia from the Easter Oratorio , with Goossens and the RLPO ; Chopin 's Les Sylphides ballet suite ( LPO ) ; Grieg 's Lyric Suite ( National Symphony Orchestra ) ; Haydn 's Symphony No. 98 ( LSO ) ; Rachmaninoff 's Paganini Rhapsody ( Cyril Smith , RLPO ) among others ; and Wagner 's " Prelude " from Das Rheingold and " Ride of the Valkyries " from Die Walküre . He also recorded Smetana 's complete Má vlast cycle with the RPO in 1964 . With the Royal Opera Orchestra he recorded , among other pieces , Gioachino Rossini 's ballets William Tell and La Boutique Fantasque , Prokofiev 's Sinfonia Concertante , and Schubert 's Unfinished Symphony , Rosamunde and Overture Zauberharfe .
With the LSO , he recorded Modest Mussorgsky 's Pictures at an Exhibition and Night on Bald Mountain , Prokofiev 's Symphony No. 5 and Lieutenant Kijé Suite , and Shostakovich 's Symphony No. 9 . With the Philharmonia , he recorded , among other things , Rachmaninoff 's Rhapsody on a Theme of Paganini , Tchaikovsky 's Variations on a Rococo Theme and Theme and Variations from Suite No. 3 , and Dvořák 's Symphonic Variations . With the BBC , he also recorded Rachmaninoff 's Symphony No. 3 , Handel 's Water Music , which he also recorded with the RPO , Tchaikovsky 's Symphony No. 5 , Mendelssohn 's A Midsummer Night 's Dream incidental music , Humperdinck 's overture to Hänsel und Gretel , and one of Britten 's best known works , The Young Person 's Guide to the Orchestra ( 1946 , RLPO ; 1958 , BBC ) . Sargent narrated and conducted the accompanying Instruments of the Orchestra , an educational film produced by the British government . He also conducted Britten 's Simple Symphony with the RPO .
= Hurricane Raymond ( 1989 ) =
Hurricane Raymond was the strongest tropical cyclone of the 1989 Pacific hurricane season , peaking as a strong Category 4 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . Forming out of a tropical wave on September 25 , the tropical depression slowly tracked northwest before becoming nearly stationary the next day . Shortly after , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Raymond and took a general westward track . Gradually intensifying , Raymond attained hurricane @-@ status on September 28 and attained its peak intensity on October 31 , with winds of 145 mph ( 233 km / h ) and a barometric pressure of 935 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 61 inHg ) . Steady weakening then took place and by October 3 , Raymond turned northeast towards land . The storm continued to weaken as it accelerated and eventually made landfall on the Baja California Peninsula as a tropical storm late on October 4 and a second landfall in Sonora , Mexico . Shortly after , Raymond weakened to a depression as it tracked inland . The remnants of the system persisted until October 7 when it dissipated over the Central United States .
Due to the rapid motion of the storm , little impact was felt in Mexico . Moderate rain fell in association with Raymond , peaking at 4 @.@ 72 in ( 120 mm ) in Nogales . There , flooding destroyed a bridge and nearby store , leaving $ 250 @,@ 000 in damage . The remnants of Raymond produced more significant damage in the United States . Tucson , Arizona recorded 4 @.@ 5 in ( 110 mm ) of rain from the storm , resulting in flash flooding that reached a depth of 2 ft ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) in some places . In nearby Willcox , flood waters inundated roughly 75 % of the city . High winds from the storm also resulted in one fatality after a mobile home was destroyed . In all , damage throughout Arizona amounted to $ 1 @.@ 5 million .
= = Meteorological history = =
Hurricane Raymond originated out of a tropical wave that also spawned Hurricane Hugo in early @-@ September . With little convective development , the wave tracked westward across the Atlantic Ocean , entering the Caribbean Sea several days later . By September 22 , shower and thunderstorm activity increased as it crossed Central America and entered the eastern Pacific basin . By September 24 , the wave had become sufficiently organized for the Dvorak Technique to be implemented on the system . The National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) estimated that the wave spawned Tropical Depression Twenty One @-@ E about 200 miles ( 320 km ) south of Acapulco , Mexico . Operationally , the NHC did not begin issuing advisories on the depression until September 26 ; at that time , the system 's outflow developed and the depression was nearly stationary as a mid @-@ level low over Mexico moved south . Shortly after , the depression was upgraded to a tropical storm and given the name Raymond by the NHC .
Raymond maintained a small area of deep convection around the center of circulation ; however , outflow gradually became restricted due to the upper @-@ level trough over Mexico . Southerly wind shear around the storm began to increase late on September 27 in response to a cutoff low developing over southern Texas and northern Mexico ; this led to a decrease in shower and thunderstorm activity with the system , preventing intensification . By this time , the storm had resumed a general westward track . The following day , the storm intensified into a hurricane , the ninth and final of the season , after an eye developed . Throughout September 29 , the eye became more defined on satellite imagery , indicating intensification . Later that day , Raymond strengthened into a Category 4 hurricane . Early on October 1 , Raymond reached its peak intensity with winds of 145 mph ( 233 km / h ) and a barometric pressure of 935 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 61 inHg ) . Shortly after , the eye increased in size but became less symmetrical , indicating that the storm was beginning to weaken .
By October 2 , convection surrounding the eye warmed and Raymond was downgraded to a Category 3 hurricane as it began to slow in a weak steering environment . Early the next day , the now Category 2 hurricane turned northeast and quickly accelerated in response to an approaching long @-@ wave trough . Later on October 3 , the cyclone further weakened to a Category 1 storm as an eye was no longer present in the circulation . Increasing wind shear and decreasing water temperatures sped up the rate of weakening as Raymond approached the Baja California Peninsula . Around 2300 UTC on October 4 , the center of the storm made landfall in the municipality of Ensenada in Mexican state of Baja California with winds of 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) . After briefly crossing the Gulf of California , the storm made its second and final landfall in the state of Sonora with winds of 40 mph ( 64 km / h ) . Shortly after moving inland , Raymond weakened to a tropical depression and quickly transitioned into an extratropical cyclone over Arizona in the Southwest United States . The upper @-@ level remnants of the hurricane persisted until October 7 over the Midwest region .
= = Preparations and impact = =
= = = Mexico = = =
Around 0300 UTC on October 4 , the Government of Mexico issued a tropical storm warning for areas between Punta Abreojos and San Carlos on the Pacific coast of Baja California and for areas between Santa Rosalía to Loreto on the Gulf coast of the Peninsula . Roughly twelve hours later , the warning was superseded by another tropical storm warning . The new warning was issued for areas between Punta Abreojos and El Rosario on the Pacific coast and for areas between Santa Rosalia and Punta Final on the Gulf coast . In mainland Mexico , a tropical storm watch was issued for coastal areas of Sonora between Cabo Lobos and Puerto Penasco . By 1830 UTC , all of the watches and warnings were revised ; on the Pacific coast of Baja California , the warning was in effect for areas between Punta Abreojos and San Juanico ; on the Gulf coast , the warning was in effect for areas between Santa Rosalia and Punta Conception ; the watch for coastal areas of Sonora was upgraded to a tropical storm warning for areas between Guaymas and Cabo Lobos . Following Raymond 's landfall in mainland Mexico , all warnings were discontinued by 1200 UTC on October 5 .
Since Raymond had significantly weakened prior to its first landfall , only minor impacts were recorded in Mexico . The fast forward speed of the storm limited the amount of rain in the Baja California Peninsula , with only a small area receiving more than 3 in ( 76 mm ) . The highest rainfall was recorded in Nogales at 4 @.@ 72 in ( 120 mm ) . In the city , the swollen Santa Cruz River destroyed a heavily traveled bridge , known as the Calle Obregon , and a store which was situated on the banks of the river . Mexican officials estimated damages in Nogales at $ 250 @,@ 000 .
= = = United States = = =
The day prior to Raymond 's impacts in the United States , weather forecasts in Arizona indicated that heavy rainfall associated with the remnants of the storm were likely to trigger flash flooding and landslides , with rainfall rates reaching 0 @.@ 5 in / h ( 12 @.@ 5 mm / h ) . Flash flood watches were issued for parts of southern Arizona as well as mountainous and northern parts of New Mexico between October 5 and 6 . Rainfall in excess of 3 in ( 76 mm ) fell in parts of southern Arizona ; with the highest in the state recorded near Tucson at 4 @.@ 5 in ( 110 mm ) . Several locations recorded wind gusts up to 35 mph ( 56 km / h ) ; however , mountaintops possibly received winds in excess of 40 mph ( 64 km / h ) . The highest total in the United States was recorded in Independence , Kansas at 3 @.@ 91 in ( 99 mm ) .
Fifteen streets in the city of Tucson were closed as floodwaters reached 2 ft ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) in the worst hit areas . The Tucson Electric Power Company reported that parts of the city were without power for eight hours on October 5 due to the storm . The hardest hit area was Willcox ; roughly 75 % of the city was under 2 ft ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) of floodwaters . Runoff , mixed with sewage , contaminated a wastewater @-@ treatment plant ; cleanup took several days before the plant was operational . Several businesses were flooded , with the Wilcox Auction Barn and the Wapco Apple Packing Plant both containing about 1 ft ( 0 @.@ 30 m ) of water . The Sulphur Springs Valley Electric Company shut off power to flooded areas as a safety precaution . In Fort Huachuca , power lines were downed , leading to early dismissal of army classes . One person was killed in relation to Raymond after being trapped in a mobile home which was destroyed by high winds . Flash flooding triggered by Raymond caused an estimated $ 1 @.@ 5 million in damage throughout Arizona .
= Daylight saving time =
Daylight saving time ( DST ) or summer time is the practice of advancing clocks during summer months by one hour so that evening daylight lasts an hour longer , while sacrificing normal sunrise times . Typically , regions with summer time adjust clocks forward one hour close to the start of spring and adjust them backward in the autumn to standard time . People use the terms " spring forward " and " fall back " when referring to this .
New Zealander George Hudson proposed the idea of daylight saving in 1895 . The German Empire and Austria @-@ Hungary organized the first nationwide implementation , starting on April 30 , 1916 . Many countries have used it at various times since then , particularly since the energy crisis of the 1970s .
The practice has both advocates and critics . Putting clocks forward benefits retailing , sports , and other activities that exploit sunlight after working hours , but can cause problems for outdoor entertainment and other activities tied to sunlight , such as farming . Though some early proponents of DST aimed to reduce evening use of incandescent lighting — once a primary use of electricity — today 's heating and cooling usage patterns differ greatly , and research about how DST affects energy use is limited or contradictory .
DST clock shifts sometimes complicate timekeeping , and can disrupt travel , billing , record keeping , medical devices , heavy equipment , and sleep patterns . Computer software often adjusts clocks automatically , but policy changes by various jurisdictions of DST dates and timings may be confusing .
= = Rationale = =
Industrialized societies generally follow a clock @-@ based schedule for daily activities that do not change throughout the course of the year . The time of day that individuals begin and end work or school , and the coordination of mass transit , for example , usually remain constant year @-@ round . In contrast , an agrarian society 's daily routines for work and personal conduct are more likely governed by the length of daylight hours and by solar time , which change seasonally because of the Earth 's axial tilt . North and south of the tropics daylight lasts longer in summer and shorter in winter , the effect becoming greater as one moves away from the tropics .
By synchronously resetting all clocks in a region to one hour ahead of standard time ( one hour " fast " ) , individuals who follow such a year @-@ round schedule will wake an hour earlier than they would have otherwise ; they will begin and complete daily work routines an hour earlier , and they will have available to them an extra hour of daylight after their workday activities . However , they will have one less hour of daylight at the start of each day , making the policy less practical during winter .
While the times of sunrise and sunset change at roughly equal rates as the seasons change , proponents of Daylight Saving Time argue that most people prefer a greater increase in daylight hours after the typical " nine to five " workday . Supporters have also argued that DST decreases energy consumption by reducing the need for lighting and heating , but the actual effect on overall energy use is heavily disputed .
The manipulation of time at higher latitudes ( for example Iceland , Nunavut or Alaska ) has little impact on daily life , because the length of day and night changes more extremely throughout the seasons ( in comparison to other latitudes ) , and thus sunrise and sunset times are significantly out of phase with standard working hours regardless of manipulations of the clock . DST is also of little use for locations near the equator , because these regions see only a small variation in daylight in the course of the year . The effect also varies according to how far east or west the location is within its time zone , with locations further east inside the time zone benefiting more from DST than locations further west in the same time zone .
= = History = =
Although they did not fix their schedules to the clock in the modern sense , ancient civilizations adjusted daily schedules to the sun more flexibly than DST does , often dividing daylight into twelve hours regardless of daytime , so that each daylight hour was longer during summer . For example , Roman water clocks had different scales for different months of the year : at Rome 's latitude the third hour from sunrise , hora tertia , started by modern standards at 09 : 02 solar time and lasted 44 minutes at the winter solstice , but at the summer solstice it started at 06 : 58 and lasted 75 minutes ( see also : Roman timekeeping ) . After ancient times , equal @-@ length civil hours eventually supplanted unequal , so civil time no longer varies by season . Unequal hours are still used in a few traditional settings , such as some monasteries of Mount Athos and all Jewish ceremonies .
During his time as an American envoy to France , Benjamin Franklin , publisher of the old English proverb , " Early to bed , and early to rise , makes a man healthy , wealthy and wise " , anonymously published a letter suggesting that Parisians economize on candles by rising earlier to use morning sunlight . This 1784 satire proposed taxing window shutters , rationing candles , and waking the public by ringing church bells and firing cannons at sunrise . Despite common misconception , Franklin did not actually propose DST ; 18th @-@ century Europe did not even keep precise schedules . However , this soon changed as rail transport and communication networks came to require a standardization of time unknown in Franklin 's day .
Modern DST was first proposed by the New Zealand entomologist George Hudson , whose shift work job gave him leisure time to collect insects , and led him to value after @-@ hours daylight . In 1895 he presented a paper to the Wellington Philosophical Society proposing a two @-@ hour daylight @-@ saving shift , and after considerable interest was expressed in Christchurch , he followed up in an 1898 paper . Many publications credit DST 's proposal to the prominent English builder and outdoorsman William Willett , who independently conceived DST in 1905 during a pre @-@ breakfast ride , when he observed with dismay how many Londoners slept through a large part of a summer 's day . An avid golfer , he also disliked cutting short his round at dusk . His solution was to advance the clock during the summer months , a proposal he published two years later . The proposal was taken up by the Liberal Member of Parliament ( MP ) Robert Pearce , who introduced the first Daylight Saving Bill to the House of Commons on February 12 , 1908 . A select committee was set up to examine the issue , but Pearce 's bill did not become law , and several other bills failed in the following years . Willett lobbied for the proposal in the UK until his death in 1915 .
William Sword Frost , mayor of Orillia , Ontario , introduced daylight saving time in the municipality during his tenure from 1911 to 1912 .
Starting on April 30 , 1916 , the German Empire and its World War I ally Austria @-@ Hungary were the first to use DST ( German : Sommerzeit ) as a way to conserve coal during wartime . Britain , most of its allies , and many European neutrals soon followed suit . Russia and a few other countries waited until the next year and the United States adopted it in 1918 .
Broadly speaking , Daylight Saving Time was abandoned in the years after the war ( with some notable exceptions including Canada , the UK , France , and Ireland ) . However , it was brought back for periods of time in many different places during the following decades , and commonly during World War II . It became widely adopted , particularly in North America and Europe , starting in the 1970s as a result of the 1970s energy crisis .
Since then , the world has seen many enactments , adjustments , and repeals . For specific details , an overview is available at daylight saving time by country .
= = Procedure = =
In the case of the United States where a one @-@ hour shift occurs at 02 : 00 local time , in spring the clock jumps forward from the last moment of 01 : 59 standard time to 03 : 00 DST and that day has 23 hours , whereas in autumn the clock jumps backward from the last moment of 01 : 59 DST to 01 : 00 standard time , repeating that hour , and that day has 25 hours . A digital display of local time does not read 02 : 00 exactly at the shift to summer time , but instead jumps from 01 : 59 : 59 @.@ 9 forward to 03 : 00 : 00 @.@ 0 .
Clock shifts are usually scheduled near a weekend midnight to lessen disruption to weekday schedules . A one @-@ hour shift is customary . Twenty @-@ minute and two @-@ hour shifts have been used in the past .
Coordination strategies differ when adjacent time zones shift clocks . The European Union shifts all at once , at 01 : 00 UTC or 02 : 00 CET or 03 : 00 EET ; for example , Eastern European Time is always one hour ahead of Central European Time . Most of North America shifts at 02 : 00 local time , so its zones do not shift at the same time ; for example , Mountain Time is temporarily ( for one hour ) zero hours ahead of Pacific Time , instead of one hour ahead , in the autumn and two hours , instead of one , ahead of Pacific Time in the spring . In the past , Australian districts went even further and did not always agree on start and end dates ; for example , in 2008 most DST @-@ observing areas shifted clocks forward on October 5 but Western Australia shifted on October 26 . In some cases only part of a country shifts ; for example , in the US , Hawaii and most of Arizona do not observe DST .
Start and end dates vary with location and year . Since 1996 , European Summer Time has been observed from the last Sunday in March to the last Sunday in October ; previously the rules were not uniform across the European Union . Starting in 2007 , most of the United States and Canada observe DST from the second Sunday in March to the first Sunday in November , almost two @-@ thirds of the year . The 2007 US change was part of the Energy Policy Act of 2005 ; previously , from 1987 through 2006 , the start and end dates were the first Sunday in April and the last Sunday in October , and Congress retains the right to go back to the previous dates now that an energy @-@ consumption study has been done . Proponents for permanently retaining November as the month for ending DST point to Halloween as a reason to delay the change — to provide extra daylight on October 31 .
Beginning and ending dates are roughly the reverse in the southern hemisphere . For example , mainland Chile observed DST from the second Saturday in October to the second Saturday in March , with transitions at 24 : 00 local time . The time difference between the United Kingdom and mainland Chile could therefore be five hours during the Northern summer , three hours during the Southern summer and four hours a few weeks per year because of mismatch of changing dates .
DST is generally not observed near the equator , where sunrise times do not vary enough to justify it . Some countries observe it only in some regions ; for example , southern Brazil observes it while equatorial Brazil does not . Only a minority of the world 's population uses DST because Asia and Africa generally do not observe it .
= = Politics = =
Daylight saving has caused controversy since it began . Winston Churchill argued that it enlarges " the opportunities for the pursuit of health and happiness among the millions of people who live in this country " and pundits have dubbed it " Daylight Slaving Time " . Historically , retailing , sports , and tourism interests have favored daylight saving , while agricultural and evening entertainment interests have opposed it , and its initial adoption had been prompted by energy crisis and war .
The fate of Willett 's 1907 proposal illustrates several political issues involved . The proposal attracted many supporters , including Arthur Balfour , Churchill , David Lloyd George , Ramsay MacDonald , Edward VII ( who used half @-@ hour DST at Sandringham or " Sandringham time " ) , the managing director of Harrods , and the manager of the National Bank . However , the opposition was stronger : it included Prime Minister H. H. Asquith , Christie ( the Astronomer Royal ) , George Darwin , Napier Shaw ( director of the Meteorological Office ) , many agricultural organizations , and theatre owners . After many hearings the proposal was narrowly defeated in a Parliament committee vote in 1909 . Willett 's allies introduced similar bills every year from 1911 through 1914 , to no avail . The US was even more skeptical : Andrew Peters introduced a DST bill to the United States House of Representatives in May 1909 , but it soon died in committee .
After Germany led the way with starting DST ( German : Sommerzeit ) during World War I on April 30 , 1916 together with its allies to alleviate hardships from wartime coal shortages and air raid blackouts , the political equation changed in other countries ; the United Kingdom used DST first on May 21 , 1916 . US retailing and manufacturing interests led by Pittsburgh industrialist Robert Garland soon began lobbying for DST , but were opposed by railroads . The US 's 1917 entry to the war overcame objections , and DST was established in 1918 .
The war 's end swung the pendulum back . Farmers continued to dislike DST , and many countries repealed it after the war . Britain was an exception : it retained DST nationwide but over the years adjusted transition dates for several reasons , including special rules during the 1920s and 1930s to avoid clock shifts on Easter mornings . The US was more typical : Congress repealed DST after 1919 . President Woodrow Wilson , like Willett an avid golfer , vetoed the repeal twice but his second veto was overridden . Only a few US cities retained DST locally thereafter , including New York so that its financial exchanges could maintain an hour of arbitrage trading with London , and Chicago and Cleveland to keep pace with New York . Wilson 's successor Warren G. Harding opposed DST as a " deception " . Reasoning that people should instead get up and go to work earlier in the summer , he ordered District of Columbia federal employees to start work at 08 : 00 rather than 09 : 00 during summer 1922 . Some businesses followed suit though many others did not ; the experiment was not repeated .
Since Germany 's adoption in 1916 , the world has seen many enactments , adjustments , and repeals of DST , with similar politics involved .
The history of time in the United States includes DST during both world wars , but no standardization of peacetime DST until 1966 . In May 1965 , for two weeks , St. Paul , Minnesota and Minneapolis , Minnesota were on different times , when the capital city decided to join most of the nation by starting Daylight Saving Time while Minneapolis opted to follow the later date set by state law . In the mid @-@ 1980s , Clorox ( parent of Kingsford Charcoal ) and 7 @-@ Eleven provided the primary funding for the Daylight Saving Time Coalition behind the 1987 extension to US DST , and both Idaho senators voted for it based on the premise that during DST fast @-@ food restaurants sell more French fries , which are made from Idaho potatoes .
In 1992 , after a three @-@ year trial of daylight saving in Queensland , Australia , a referendum on daylight saving was held and defeated with a 54 @.@ 5 % ' no ' vote – with regional and rural areas strongly opposed , while those in the metropolitan south @-@ east were in favor . In 2005 , the Sporting Goods Manufacturers Association and the National Association of Convenience Stores successfully lobbied for the 2007 extension to US DST . In December 2008 , the Daylight Saving for South East Queensland ( DS4SEQ ) political party was officially registered in Queensland , advocating the implementation of a dual @-@ time zone arrangement for Daylight Saving in South East Queensland while the rest of the state maintains standard time . DS4SEQ contested the March 2009 Queensland State election with 32 candidates and received one percent of the statewide primary vote , equating to around 2 @.@ 5 % across the 32 electorates contested . After a three @-@ year trial , more than 55 % of Western Australians voted against DST in 2009 , with rural areas strongly opposed . On April 14 , 2010 , after being approached by the DS4SEQ political party , Queensland Independent member Peter Wellington , introduced the Daylight Saving for South East Queensland Referendum Bill 2010 into Queensland Parliament , calling for a referendum at the next State election on the introduction of daylight saving into South East Queensland under a dual @-@ time zone arrangement . The Bill was defeated in Queensland Parliament on June 15 , 2011 .
In the UK the Royal Society for the Prevention of Accidents supports a proposal to observe SDST 's additional hour year @-@ round , but is opposed in some industries , such as postal workers and farmers , and particularly by those living in the northern regions of the UK .
In some Muslim countries DST is temporarily abandoned during Ramadan ( the month when no food should be eaten between sunrise and sunset ) , since the DST would delay the evening dinner . Ramadan took place in July and August in 2012 . This concerns at least Morocco and Palestine , although Iran keeps DST during Ramadan . Most Muslim countries do not use DST , partially for this reason .
The 2011 declaration by Russia that it would not turn its clocks back and stay in DST all year long was subsequently followed by a similar declaration from Belarus . Russia 's plan generated widespread complaints due to the dark of wintertime morning , and thus was abandoned in 2014 . The country changed its clocks to Standard Time on October 26 , 2014 and intends to stay there permanently .
= = Dispute over benefits and drawbacks = =
Proponents of DST generally argue that it saves energy , promotes outdoor leisure activity in the evening ( in summer ) , and is therefore good for physical and psychological health , reduces traffic accidents , reduces crime , or is good for business . Groups that tend to support DST are urban workers , retail businesses , outdoor sports enthusiasts and businesses , tourism operators , and others who benefit from increased light during the evening in summer .
Opponents argue that actual energy savings are inconclusive , that DST increases health risks such as heart attack , that DST can disrupt morning activities , and that the act of changing clocks twice a year is economically and socially disruptive and cancels out any benefit . Farmers have tended to oppose DST .
Common agreement about the day 's layout or schedule confers so many advantages that a standard DST schedule has generally been chosen over ad hoc efforts to get up earlier . The advantages of coordination are so great that many people ignore whether DST is in effect by altering their nominal work schedules to coordinate with television broadcasts or daylight . DST is commonly not observed during most of winter , because its mornings are darker ; workers may have no sunlit leisure time , and children may need to leave for school in the dark . Since DST is applied to many varying communities , its effects may be very different depending on their culture , light levels , geography , and climate ; that is why it is hard to make generalized conclusions about the absolute effects of the practice . Some areas may adopt DST simply as a matter of coordination with others rather than for any direct benefits .
= = = Energy use = = =
DST 's potential to save energy comes primarily from its effects on residential lighting , which consumes about 3 @.@ 5 % of electricity in the United States and Canada . Delaying the nominal time of sunset and sunrise reduces the use of artificial light in the evening and increases it in the morning . As Franklin 's 1784 satire pointed out , lighting costs are reduced if the evening reduction outweighs the morning increase , as in high @-@ latitude summer when most people wake up well after sunrise . An early goal of DST was to reduce evening usage of incandescent lighting , once a primary use of electricity . Although energy conservation remains an important goal , energy usage patterns have greatly changed since then , and recent research is limited and reports contradictory results . Electricity use is greatly affected by geography , climate , and economics , making it hard to generalize from single studies .
The United States Department of Transportation ( DOT ) concluded in 1975 that DST might reduce the country 's electricity usage by 1 % during March and April , but the National Bureau of Standards ( NBS ) reviewed the DOT study in 1976 and found no significant savings .
In 2000 when parts of Australia began DST in late winter , overall electricity consumption did not decrease , but the morning peak load and prices increased .
In Western Australia during summer 2006 – 2007 , DST increased electricity consumption during hotter days and decreased it during cooler days , with consumption rising 0 @.@ 6 % overall .
Although a 2007 study estimated that introducing DST to Japan would reduce household lighting energy consumption , a 2007 simulation estimated that DST would increase overall energy use in Osaka residences by 0 @.@ 13 % , with a 0 @.@ 02 % decrease due to less lighting more than outweighed by a 0 @.@ 15 % increase due to extra cooling ; neither study examined non @-@ residential energy use . This is probably because DST 's effect on lighting energy use is mainly noticeable in residences .
A 2007 study found that the earlier start to DST that year had little or no effect on electricity consumption in California .
A 2007 study estimated that winter daylight saving would prevent a 2 % increase in average daily electricity consumption in Great Britain . This paper was revised in October 2009 .
A 2008 study examined billing data in Indiana before and after it adopted DST in 2006 , and concluded that DST increased overall residential electricity consumption by 1 % to 4 % , due mostly to extra afternoon cooling and extra morning heating ; the main increases came in the fall . A study estimated the overall annual cost of DST to Indiana households $ 9 million , with an additional $ 1 @.@ 7 – 5 @.@ 5 million for social costs due to increased pollution .
The United States Department of Energy ( DOE ) concluded in a 2008 report that the 2007 United States extension of DST saved 0 @.@ 5 % of electricity usage during the extended period . This report analyzed only the extension , not the full eight months of DST , and did not examine the use of heating fuels .
Several studies have suggested that DST increases motor fuel consumption . The 2008 DOE report found no significant increase in motor gasoline consumption due to the 2007 United States extension of DST .
= = = Economic effects = = =
Retailers , sporting goods makers , and other businesses benefit from extra afternoon sunlight , as it induces customers to shop and to participate in outdoor afternoon sports . In 1984 , Fortune magazine estimated that a seven @-@ week extension of DST would yield an additional $ 30 million for 7 @-@ Eleven stores , and the National Golf Foundation estimated the extension would increase golf industry revenues $ 200 million to $ 300 million . A 1999 study estimated that DST increases the revenue of the European Union 's leisure sector by about 3 % .
Conversely , DST can adversely affect farmers , parents of young children , and others whose hours are set by the sun and they have traditionally opposed the practice , although some farmers are neutral . One reason why farmers oppose DST is that grain is best harvested after dew evaporates , so when field hands arrive and leave earlier in summer their labor is less valuable . Dairy farmers are another group who complain of the change . Their cows are sensitive to the timing of milking , so delivering milk earlier disrupts their systems . Today some farmers ' groups are in favor of DST .
DST also hurts prime @-@ time television broadcast ratings , drive @-@ ins and other theaters .
Changing clocks and DST rules has a direct economic cost , entailing extra work to support remote meetings , computer applications and the like . For example , a 2007 North American rule change cost an estimated $ 500 million to $ 1 billion , and Utah State University economist William F. Shughart II has estimated the lost opportunity cost at around $ 1 @.@ 7 billion USD . Although it has been argued that clock shifts correlate with decreased economic efficiency , and that in 2000 the daylight @-@ saving effect implied an estimated one @-@ day loss of $ 31 billion on US stock exchanges , the estimated numbers depend on the methodology . The results have been disputed , and the original authors have refuted the points raised by disputers .
= = = Public safety = = =
In 1975 the US DOT conservatively identified a 0 @.@ 7 % reduction in traffic fatalities during DST , and estimated the real reduction at 1 @.@ 5 % to 2 % , but the 1976 NBS review of the DOT study found no differences in traffic fatalities . In 1995 the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety estimated a reduction of 1 @.@ 2 % , including a 5 % reduction in crashes fatal to pedestrians . Others have found similar reductions . Single / Double Summer Time ( SDST ) , a variant where clocks are one hour ahead of the sun in winter and two in summer , has been projected to reduce traffic fatalities by 3 % to 4 % in the UK , compared to ordinary DST . However , accidents do increase by as much as 11 % during the two weeks that follow the end of British Summer Time . It is not clear whether sleep disruption contributes to fatal accidents immediately after the spring clock shifts . A correlation between clock shifts and traffic accidents has been observed in North America and the UK but not in Finland or Sweden . If this effect exists , it is far smaller than the overall reduction in traffic fatalities . A 2009 US study found that on Mondays after the switch to DST , workers sleep an average of 40 minutes less , and are injured at work more often and more severely .
In the 1970s the US Law Enforcement Assistance Administration ( LEAA ) found a reduction of 10 % to 13 % in Washington , D.C. ' s violent crime rate during DST . However , the LEAA did not filter out other factors , and it examined only two cities and found crime reductions only in one and only in some crime categories ; the DOT decided it was " impossible to conclude with any confidence that comparable benefits would be found nationwide " . Outdoor lighting has a marginal and sometimes even contradictory influence on crime and fear of crime .
In several countries , fire safety officials encourage citizens to use the two annual clock shifts as reminders to replace batteries in smoke and carbon monoxide detectors , particularly in autumn , just before the heating and candle season causes an increase in home fires . Similar twice @-@ yearly tasks include reviewing and practicing fire escape and family disaster plans , inspecting vehicle lights , checking storage areas for hazardous materials , reprogramming thermostats , and seasonal vaccinations . Locations without DST can instead use the first days of spring and autumn as reminders .
= = = Health = = =
DST has mixed effects on health . In societies with fixed work schedules it provides more afternoon sunlight for outdoor exercise . It alters sunlight exposure ; whether this is beneficial depends on one 's location and daily schedule , as sunlight triggers vitamin D synthesis in the skin , but overexposure can lead to skin cancer . DST may help in depression by causing individuals to rise earlier , but some argue the reverse . The Retinitis Pigmentosa Foundation Fighting Blindness , chaired by blind sports magnate Gordon Gund , successfully lobbied in 1985 and 2005 for US DST extensions .
Clock shifts were found to increase the risk of heart attack by 10 percent , and to disrupt sleep and reduce its efficiency . Effects on seasonal adaptation of the circadian rhythm can be severe and last for weeks . A 2008 study found that although male suicide rates rise in the weeks after the spring transition , the relationship weakened greatly after adjusting for season . A 2008 Swedish study found that heart attacks were significantly more common the first three weekdays after the spring transition , and significantly less common the first weekday after the autumn transition . The government of Kazakhstan cited health complications due to clock shifts as a reason for abolishing DST in 2005 . In March 2011 , Dmitri Medvedev , president of Russia , claimed that " stress of changing clocks " was the motivation for Russia to stay in DST all year long . Officials at the time talked about an annual increase in suicides .
An unexpected adverse effect of daylight saving time may lie in the fact that an extra part of morning rush hour traffic occurs before dawn and traffic emissions then cause higher air pollution than during daylight hours .
= = = Complexity = = =
DST 's clock shifts have the obvious disadvantage of complexity . People must remember to change their clocks ; this can be time @-@ consuming , particularly for mechanical clocks that cannot be moved backward safely . People who work across time zone boundaries need to keep track of multiple DST rules , as not all locations observe DST or observe it the same way . The length of the calendar day becomes variable ; it is no longer always 24 hours . Disruption to meetings , travel , broadcasts , billing systems , and records management is common , and can be expensive . During an autumn transition from 02 : 00 to 01 : 00 , a clock reads times from 01 : 00 : 00 through 01 : 59 : 59 twice , possibly leading to confusion .
Damage to a German steel facility occurred during a DST transition in 1993 , when a computer timing system linked to a radio time synchronization signal allowed molten steel to cool for one hour less than the required duration , resulting in spattering of molten steel when it was poured . Medical devices may generate adverse events that could harm patients , without being obvious to clinicians responsible for care . These problems are compounded when the DST rules themselves change ; software developers must test and perhaps modify many programs , and users must install updates and restart applications . Consumers must update devices such as programmable thermostats with the correct DST rules , or manually adjust the devices ' clocks . A common strategy to resolve these problems in computer systems is to express time using the Coordinated Universal Time ( UTC ) rather than the local time zone . For example , Unix @-@ based computer systems use the UTC @-@ based Unix time internally .
Some clock @-@ shift problems could be avoided by adjusting clocks continuously or at least more gradually — for example , Willett at first suggested weekly 20 @-@ minute transitions — but this would add complexity and has never been implemented .
DST inherits and can magnify the disadvantages of standard time . For example , when reading a sundial , one must compensate for it along with time zone and natural discrepancies . Also , sun @-@ exposure guidelines such as avoiding the sun within two hours of noon become less accurate when DST is in effect .
= = Terminology = =
As explained by Richard Meade in the English Journal of the ( American ) National Council of Teachers of English , the form daylight savings time ( with an " s " ) was already in 1978 much more common than the older form daylight saving time in American English ( " the change has been virtually accomplished " ) . Nevertheless , even dictionaries such as Merriam @-@ Webster 's , American Heritage , and Oxford , which describe actual usage instead of prescribing outdated usage ( and therefore also list the newer form ) , still list the older form first . This is because the older form is still very common in print and preferred by many editors . ( " Although daylight saving time is considered correct , daylight savings time ( with an " s " ) is commonly used . " ) The first two words are sometimes hyphenated ( daylight @-@ saving [ s ] time ) . Merriam @-@ Webster 's also lists the forms daylight saving ( without " time " ) , daylight savings ( without " time " ) , and daylight time .
In Britain , Willett 's 1907 proposal used the term daylight saving , but by 1911 the term summer time replaced daylight saving time in draft legislation . Continental Europe uses similar phrases , such as Sommerzeit in Germany , zomertijd in Dutch @-@ speaking regions , kesäaika in Finland , horario de verano or hora de verano in Spain and heure d 'été in France , whereas in Italy the term is ora legale , that is , legal time ( legally enforced time ) as opposed to " ora solare " , solar time , in winter .
The name of local time typically changes when DST is observed . American English replaces standard with daylight : for example , Pacific Standard Time ( PST ) becomes Pacific Daylight Time ( PDT ) . In the United Kingdom , the standard term for UK time when advanced by one hour is British Summer Time ( BST ) , and British English typically inserts summer into other time zone names , e.g. Central European Time ( CET ) becomes Central European Summer Time ( CEST ) .
The North American mnemonic " spring forward , fall back " ( also " spring ahead ... " , " spring up ... " , and " ... fall behind " ) helps people remember which direction to shift clocks .
= = Computing = =
Changes to DST rules cause problems in existing computer installations . For example , the 2007 change to DST rules in North America required that many computer systems be upgraded , with the greatest impact on e @-@ mail and calendar programs . The upgrades required a significant effort by corporate information technologists .
Some applications standardize on UTC to avoid problems with clock shifts and time zone differences . Likewise , most modern operating systems internally handle and store all times as UTC and only convert to local time for display .
However , even if UTC is used internally , the systems still require information on time zones to correctly calculate local time where it is needed . Many systems in use today base their date / time calculations from data derived from the IANA time zone database also known as zoneinfo .
= = = IANA time zone database = = =
The IANA time zone database maps a name to the named location 's historical and predicted clock shifts . This database is used by many computer software systems , including most Unix @-@ like operating systems , Java , and the Oracle RDBMS ; HP 's " tztab " database is similar but incompatible . When temporal authorities change DST rules , zoneinfo updates are installed as part of ordinary system maintenance . In Unix @-@ like systems the TZ environment variable specifies the location name , as in TZ = ' : America / New _ York ' . In many of those systems there is also a system @-@ wide setting that is applied if the TZ environment variable is not set : this setting is controlled by the contents of the / etc / localtime file , which is usually a symbolic link or hard link to one of the zoneinfo files . Internal time is stored in timezone @-@ independent epoch time ; the TZ is used by each of potentially many simultaneous users and processes to independently localize time display .
Older or stripped @-@ down systems may support only the TZ values required by POSIX , which specify at most one start and end rule explicitly in the value . For example , TZ = ' EST5EDT , M3.2.0 / 02 : 00 , M11.1.0 / 02 : 00 ' specifies time for the eastern United States starting in 2007 . Such a TZ value must be changed whenever DST rules change , and the new value applies to all years , mishandling some older timestamps .
= = = Microsoft Windows = = =
As with zoneinfo , a user of Microsoft Windows configures DST by specifying the name of a location , and the operating system then consults a table of rule sets that must be updated when DST rules change . Procedures for specifying the name and updating the table vary with release . Updates are not issued for older versions of Microsoft Windows . Windows Vista supports at most two start and end rules per time zone setting . In a Canadian location observing DST , a single Vista setting supports both 1987 – 2006 and post @-@ 2006 time stamps , but mishandles some older time stamps . Older Microsoft Windows systems usually store only a single start and end rule for each zone , so that the same Canadian setting reliably supports only post @-@ 2006 time stamps .
These limitations have caused problems . For example , before 2005 , DST in Israel varied each year and was skipped some years . Windows 95 used rules correct for 1995 only , causing problems in later years . In Windows 98 , Microsoft marked Israel as not having DST , forcing Israeli users to shift their computer clocks manually twice a year . The 2005 Israeli Daylight Saving Law established predictable rules using the Jewish calendar but Windows zone files could not represent the rules ' dates in a year @-@ independent way . Partial workarounds , which mishandled older time stamps , included manually switching zone files every year and a Microsoft tool that switches zones automatically . In 2013 , Israel standardized its daylight saving time according to the Gregorian calendar .
Microsoft Windows keeps the system real @-@ time clock in local time . This causes several problems , including compatibility when multi booting with operating systems that set the clock to UTC , and double @-@ adjusting the clock when multi booting different Windows versions , such as with a rescue boot disk . This approach is a problem even in Windows @-@ only systems : there is no support for per @-@ user timezone settings , only a single system @-@ wide setting . In 2008 Microsoft hinted that future versions of Windows will partially support a Windows registry entry RealTimeIsUniversal that had been introduced many years earlier , when Windows NT supported RISC machines with UTC clocks , but had not been maintained . Since then at least two fixes related to this feature have been published by Microsoft .
The NTFS file system used by recent versions of Windows stores the file with a UTC time stamp , but displays it corrected to local — or seasonal — time . However , the FAT filesystem commonly used on removable devices stores only the local time . Consequently , when a file is copied from the hard disk onto separate media , its time will be set to the current local time . If the time adjustment is changed , the timestamps of the original file and the copy will be different . The same effect can be observed when compressing and uncompressing files with some file archivers . It is the NTFS file that changes seen time . This effect should be kept in mind when trying to determine if a file is a duplicate of another , although there are other methods of comparing files for equality ( such as using a checksum algorithm ) .
= = Permanent daylight saving time = =
A move to " permanent daylight saving time " ( staying on summer hours all year with no time shifts ) is sometimes advocated , and has in fact been implemented in some jurisdictions such as Argentina , Chile , Iceland , Singapore , Uzbekistan and Belarus . Advocates cite the same advantages as normal DST without the problems associated with the twice yearly time shifts . However , many remain unconvinced of the benefits , citing the same problems and the relatively late sunrises , particularly in winter , that year @-@ round DST entails . Russia switched to permanent DST from 2011 to 2014 , but the move proved unpopular because of the late sunrises in winter , so the country switched permanently back to " standard " or " winter " time in 2014 .
Xinjiang , China ; Argentina ; Chile ; Iceland ; Russia and other areas skew time zones westward , in effect observing DST year @-@ round without complications from clock shifts . For example , Saskatoon , Saskatchewan , is at 106 ° 39 ′ W longitude , slightly west of center of the idealized Mountain Time Zone ( 105 ° W ) , but the time in Saskatchewan is Central Standard Time ( 90 ° W ) year @-@ round , so Saskatoon is always about 67 minutes ahead of mean solar time , thus effectively observing daylight saving time year @-@ round . Conversely , northeast India and a few other areas skew time zones eastward , in effect observing negative DST . The United Kingdom and Ireland experimented with year @-@ round DST from 1968 to 1971 but abandoned it because of its unpopularity , particularly in northern regions .
Western France , Spain , and other areas skew time zones and shift clocks , in effect observing DST in winter with an extra hour in summer . Nome , Alaska , is at 165 ° 24 ′ W longitude , which is just west of center of the idealized Samoa Time Zone ( 165 ° W ) , but Nome observes Alaska Time ( 135 ° W ) with DST , so it is slightly more than two hours ahead of the sun in winter and three in summer . Double daylight saving time has been used on occasion ; for example , it was used in some European countries during and shortly after World War II when it was referred to as " Double Summer Time " . See British Double Summer Time and Central European Midsummer Time for details .
= = By country and region = =
Daylight saving time by country
Africa
Asia
Brazil
Europe
North and South America
Oceania
United States
= Jennifer Connelly =
Jennifer Lynn Connelly ( born December 12 , 1970 ) is an American film actress who began her career as a child model . She appeared in magazine , newspaper and television advertising , before she made her debut role in the 1984 crime film Once Upon a Time in America . Connelly continued modeling and acting , starring in films such as the 1986 film Labyrinth and the 1991 films Career Opportunities and The Rocketeer . She gained critical acclaim for her work in the 1998 science fiction film Dark City and for her portrayal of Marion Silver in the 2000 drama Requiem for a Dream .
In 2002 , Connelly won an Academy Award , a Golden Globe Award and a BAFTA Award for her supporting role as Alicia Nash in Ron Howard 's 2001 biopic A Beautiful Mind . Her later credits include the 2003 Marvel superhero film Hulk where she played Bruce Banner 's true love Betty Ross , the 2005 horror film Dark Water , the 2006 drama Blood Diamond , the 2008 science fiction remake The Day the Earth Stood Still , the 2009 romantic comedy He 's Just Not That into You and the 2009 biographical drama Creation . She re @-@ teamed with her Requiem for a Dream director Darren Aronofsky and A Beautiful Mind co @-@ star Russell Crowe for the 2014 biblical epic Noah .
Connelly was named Amnesty International Ambassador for Human Rights Education in 2005 . She has been the face of Balenciaga fashion advertisements , as well as for Revlon cosmetics . In 2012 , she was named the first global face of the Shiseido Company . Magazines including Time , Vanity Fair and Esquire , as well as the Los Angeles Times newspaper have included her on their lists of the world 's most beautiful women .
= = Early life = =
Connelly was born in Cairo , New York , in the Catskill Mountains . She is the daughter of Ilene , an antiques dealer , and Gerard Karl Connelly ( 1941 – 2008 ) , a clothing manufacturer . Her father was Roman Catholic of Irish and Norwegian descent . Her mother was Jewish and was educated at a yeshiva ; Ilene 's family had emigrated from Poland and Russia . Connelly was raised primarily in Brooklyn Heights , near the Brooklyn Bridge , where she attended Saint Ann 's , a private school specializing in the Arts . Her father suffered from asthma , so the family moved to Woodstock , New York , in 1976 to escape the city smog . Four years later , the family returned to Brooklyn Heights , and Connelly returned to Saint Ann 's .
= = Career = =
= = = Child modeling and early film appearances = = =
When Connelly was 10 years old , an advertising executive friend of her father suggested she audition as a model . Her parents sent a picture of her to the Ford Modeling Agency , which shortly after added her to its roster . Connelly began modeling for print advertisements before moving on to television commercials . In an interview with The Guardian , she revealed that , after having done some modeling , she had no aspirations to become an actor . She appeared on the cover of several issues of Seventeen in 1986 and 1988 . In December 1986 , she recorded two pop songs for the Japanese market : " Monologue of Love " and " Message of Love " . Connelly sang in phonetic Japanese as she did not speak the language .
Her mother started taking her to acting auditions . At once , Connelly was selected for a supporting role as the aspiring dancer and actress Deborah Gelly in Sergio Leone 's 1984 gangster epic Once Upon a Time in America . The role required performing a ballet routine . During the audition , Connelly , who had no ballet training , tried to imitate a ballerina . Her performance , and the similarity of her nose to Elizabeth McGovern 's , who played the character as an adult , convinced the director to cast her . Connelly described the movie as " an incredibly idyllic introduction to movie @-@ making " . While Once Upon a Time in America was being filmed , Connelly made her first television appearance , in the episode " Stranger in Town " of the British series Tales of the Unexpected .
Her first leading role was in Italian giallo @-@ director Dario Argento 's 1985 film Phenomena , as a girl who uses her psychic powers to communicate with insects , in order to pursue the serial killer of students of the Swiss school where she has just enrolled . She next had the lead in the coming @-@ of @-@ age movie Seven Minutes in Heaven , released the same year .
Of her early career , she said , " Before I knew it , [ acting ] became what I did . It was a very peculiar way to grow up , combined with my personality . " She described feeling like " a kind of walking puppet " through her adolescence , without having time alone to deal with the attention her career was generating .
= = = 1980s – 1990s = = =
Connelly gained public recognition with Jim Henson 's 1986 film Labyrinth with David Bowie , in which she played Sarah , a teenager on a quest to rescue her brother Toby from the world of goblins . Although a disappointment at the box office , the film later became a cult classic . The New York Times , while noting the importance of her part , panned her portrayal : " Jennifer Connelly as Sarah is unfortunately disappointing . ... She looks right , but she lacks conviction and seems to be reading rehearsed lines that are recited without belief in her goal or real need to accomplish it . " Two years later , she starred as a ballet student in the Italian film Étoile , and portrayed college student Gabby in Michael Hoffman 's Some Girls .
Balancing work and school , she studied English for two years at Yale University in 1988 and 1989 , before transferring to Stanford University in 1990 to study drama . There , she trained with Roy London , Howard Fine and Harold Guskin . Encouraged by her parents to continue with her film career , Connelly left college and returned to the movie industry the same year .
In 1990 , Dennis Hopper directed The Hot Spot , in which Connelly played Gloria Harper , a woman being blackmailed . The film was a box office failure but Connelly was praised . Stephen Schaefer wrote for USA Today , " Anyone looking for proof that little girls do grow up fast in the movies should take a gander at curvaceous Jennifer Connelly [ ... ] in The Hot Spot . Not yet 20 , Connelly has neatly managed the transition from child actress to ingenue " . During an interview with Shaeffer , Connelly commented on her first nude scene : " The nudity was hard for me and something I thought about ... but it 's not in a sleazy context " . The same year , director Garry Marshall considered her for the role of Vivian Ward in Pretty Woman , but ultimately felt that she was too young for the part .
Connelly 's next film was the 1991 romantic comedy Career Opportunities , starring alongside Frank Whaley . People magazine criticized the film for exploiting Connelly 's body . The marketing included a life @-@ size cardboard cutout showing Whaley watching Connelly ride a mechanical horse , with the caption " He 's about to have the ride of his life " . In an interview with Rolling Stone , Connelly said that a Yale professor brought it to her attention and " ... that wasn 't something I felt all that comfortable about " .
The big @-@ budget Disney film The Rocketeer ( 1991 ) followed later that year , but failed to ignite her career . She played Jenny Blake , the aspiring actress girlfriend of stunt pilot Cliff , " the Rocketeer " . New York characterized the movie as " pallid " . The review said of her performance , " Connelly is properly cast ; she has the moist , full @-@ to @-@ the @-@ cheek bones sensuality of the Hollywood starlets of that period , but she 's a little straight " . She appeared alongside Jason Priestley in the Roy Orbison music video for " I Drove All Night " the following year .
Connelly next appeared in Of Love and Shadows , a 1994 Argentine @-@ American drama film written and directed by Betty Kaplan starring Antonio Banderas . In 1995 , director John Singleton cast Connelly as a lesbian college student in Higher Learning . She next appeared in the 1996 independent film Far Harbor as Elie , a prominent person in a Hollywood studio who writes a screenplay based on her traumas .
It was followed that year by the neo @-@ noir crime thriller Mulholland Falls , which featured the murder of Allison Pond ( Connelly ) , mistress of General Timms ( John Malkovich ) , and the investigation by a group of detectives led by Maxwell Hoover ( Nick Nolte ) . New York magazine wrote about a clip that reveals the link between Timms and Pond : " This footage is actually dirty . That is , it makes us feel like voyeurs when looking at it , but it 's so juicily erotic that we can hardly look away " . About nudity in the movie , Connelly said : " It kind of shocked everyone who knows me that I wound up doing this movie , because I had always been so careful about nudity , it was very much a part of this character and I couldn 't be coy or guarded or self @-@ conscious--otherwise it wouldn 't work . It was sort of a challenge I wanted to take on , I guess " .
She began to appear in small @-@ budget films which did well with critics , such as 1997 's drama Inventing the Abbotts , set in the late 1950s , in which she played the part of Eleanor , one of three daughters of the town millionaire , Lloyd Abbott . About her performance , director Ron Howard said , " She not only was beautiful and seductive but gave some difficult psychological moments in the film a lot of depth and complexity . She had an extraordinary combination of talent and beauty , and I guess I stored that information in the back of my brain " .
Her next appearance was in the critically acclaimed 1998 science fiction film Dark City , where she played alongside Rufus Sewell , William Hurt , Ian Richardson and Kiefer Sutherland . Connelly portrayed femme fatale Emma , a torch singer whose husband , John Murdoch ( Rufus Sewell ) , suffers from amnesia . As Murdoch is regaining his memories , Emma is kidnapped by Mr. Hand ( Richard O 'Brien ) and The Strangers , who alter her memories and assign her a new identity . Author Sean McMullen wrote , " Jennifer Connelly is visually splendid as the 1940s femme fatale ( Emma ) . "
The animated drawing of Aladdin was modelled after Tom Cruise and Jasmine was based on Connelly .
= = = Early 2000s = = =
In 2001 , Ed Harris directed Connelly in the biopic Pollock in which she played Ruth Kligman , Jackson Pollock 's mistress . In 2000 she appeared in what critics considered her breakthrough film , Requiem for a Dream , directed by Darren Aronofsky and based on the novel of the same name by Hubert Selby , Jr . Connelly played Marion Silver , the girlfriend of Harry , played by Jared Leto ; the movie also starred Marlon Wayans and Ellen Burstyn . Her character is a middle @-@ class girl from Manhattan Beach who pursues the dream of establishing a dress shop . She becomes addicted to heroin and descends into a life of prostitution . Connelly prepared for the role by renting an apartment in the building where the character lived . During her time in the apartment , Connelly isolated herself , painted , listened to music that she considered that her character would , designed clothes , and used the time to reflect about addictions and their origin . Connelly also talked to addicts and attended Narcotics Anonymous meetings with a friend who was in recovery . Critics acclaimed the individual performances for the actors ' emotional courage in portraying physical and mental degradation . Connelly said she became interested in the script for its depiction of the addictions and their effects on the lives and affections of the characters and their relatives .
The critic Elvis Mitchell wrote in The New York Times ,
" Ms. Connelly , too , whittled herself down to a new weight class , and it 's her performance that gives the movie weight , since her fall is the most precipitous . By the end , when she curls into a happy fetal ball with a furtive smile on her face , she has come to love her debasement .... Her dank realization is more disturbing than anything in the novel , and Ms. Connelly has never before done anything to prepare us for how good she is here . "
During 2000 , she appeared as Catherine Miller in the FOX drama series The $ treet , about a brokerage house in New York .
Also in 2000 , she appeared in Waking the Dead , a film based on the 1986 novel of the same name , playing Sarah Williams , an activist killed by a car bomb in Minneapolis while she was driving Chilean refugees ( Strangely , Sarah Williams was also the name of Connelly 's character in Labyrinth ) . Initially , director Keith Gordon was reluctant to cast Connelly in this role as he did not consider her a serious actress . Her agent Risa Shapiro persuaded him to watch Connelly 's performance in Far Harbor . Gordon later said : " There was a subtlety and depth even to her gaze that captured more of the relationship than I ever could have hoped for . " About her role , Connelly said , " Waking the Dead was the first film I worked on where whatever I did felt like my own thing . I was really trying to make something of the part and threw myself into it , so that meant a lot to me " . The New York Times described her performance , " As Sarah , Ms. Connelly captures a burning ethereality and willfulness that are very much of the period . And she and Mr. Crudup connect powerfully in love scenes that convey the fierce tenderness of a relationship whose passion carries a tinge of religious fervor . "
The script of Ron Howard 's 2001 film A Beautiful Mind , loosely based on Sylvia Nasar 's 1998 biography of the mathematician John Nash , sparked her interest in the project . Connelly was invited to an audition after her agent Risa Shapiro sent the producers a tape with a clip of the yet unreleased Requiem for a Dream . She was cast by the film 's producer , Brian Grazer , as Alicia Nash , the caring and enduring wife of the brilliant , schizophrenic mathematician , played by Russell Crowe . Howard and the producers eventually chose them after being particularly impressed by their screen chemistry . The film was a critical and commercial success , grossing more than US $ 313 million worldwide . Connelly had the chance to meet the real Alicia Nash before starting shooting and learned more about her life . For her portrayal , Connelly earned a Golden Globe , an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress , and a BAFTA for Best Actress in a Supporting Role . Time magazine critic Richard Schickel called her performance " luminous " and the actress intelligent and passionate . Roger Ebert wrote , " ... Jennifer Connelly is luminous as Alicia . Although the showier performance belongs to Crowe , it is Connelly 's complex work , depicting a woman torn by love for and fear of the same man , that elevates the film to a higher level " .
Connelly said afterward , " [ A Beautiful Mind ] is the film I 'm really proud of and really love . " A.O. Scott of The New York Times said , " There is , for one thing , Ms. Connelly , keen and spirited in the underwritten role of a woman who starts out as a math groupie and soon finds herself the helpmeet of a disturbed , difficult man . "
In relation to previous roles , Connelly said :
" There was a period where I felt like I wasn 't quite being considered for the projects that I wanted to work on because maybe people were thinking . ' I 'm not going to cast the girl who was in that movie for this adult project . ' I 've felt for a long time that this is what I want to do so I 'm happy at this point to just take my time and work on projects that I feel really strongly about and the rest of the time just live my life . "
Connelly said that she became interested in Ang Lee 's Hulk ( 2003 ) because of his philosophical perspective on the Marvel Comics superhero . She played Betty Ross , a scientist and the former girlfriend of the main character , Bruce Banner . The film was a moderate success .
It was followed the same year by House of Sand and Fog , a drama based on the novel by Andre Dubus III . She portrayed Kathy Nicolo , an abandoned wife whose inherited house is sold at auction to the Iranian emigre and former colonel Massoud Amir Behrani ( Ben Kingsley ) . After reading the script , Connelly said : " ( the story is ) moving and beautifully written . I liked the fact that there is no good guy and bad guy . I found it really compelling that both sides do things that are morally questionable , because life is often like that . " Producer Michael London said about Connelly 's portrayal : " I think she understood Kathy and knew in her bones that she could take this character and give her the kind of dimension that she had . I don 't think there is another actress who could have played Kathy with such power and grace . " The film received worldwide critical acclaim , with a BBC reporter commenting , " [ Connelly ] convinces totally as a selfish , desperate and lonely woman who confesses to her brother , ' I just feel lost ' " .
= = = 2005 – present = = =
After a two @-@ year absence from the film scene , Connelly returned in the 2005 horror / psychological thriller Dark Water , which was based on a 2002 Japanese film of the same name . She played Dahlia , a frightened young woman traumatized by her past , who moves with her daughter to an apartment in New York City where paranormal happenings take place . In his review , critic Roger Ebert wrote , " I cared about the Jennifer Connelly character ; she is not a horror heroine but an actress playing a mother faced with horror . There is a difference , and because of that difference , Dark Water works " .
She played Kathy Adamson in an adaptation of the novel Little Children alongside Kate Winslet , a movie which focuses on the relationship between Sarah Pierce ( played by Winslet ) and Brad Adamson ( Patrick Wilson ) . Connelly co @-@ starred in Blood Diamond opposite Leonardo DiCaprio where she portrayed journalist Maddy Bowen , who is working on exposing the real story behind blood diamonds . New York praised her performance : " Connelly is such a smart , sane , unhistrionic actress that she almost disguises the fact that her character is a wheeze . " Both Little Children and Blood Diamond were nominated for multiple Academy Awards .
Her next appearance was as Grace in the drama Reservation Road with Joaquin Phoenix and Mark Ruffalo , a film released in 2007 . After her son dies in a hit @-@ and @-@ run , Grace gradually tries to overcome her grief , while her husband Ethan ( Joaquin Phoenix ) becomes obsessed with discovering who killed him . By her own account , the character she played in the movie proved tougher than any of her previous roles . USA Today 's Susan Wloszczyna commented , " The strong performances of Jennifer Connelly and Mark Ruffalo ... raise the film above overheated melodrama " .
Parisian fashion house Balenciaga and Revlon cosmetics signed Connelly as the face of their 2008 campaigns . Connelly portrayed astrobiologist Helen Benson alongside Keanu Reeves in the 2008 remake of the 1951 science fiction film The Day The Earth Stood Still . Unlike the original movie , in which Benson was a secretary and her relationship with Klaatu was the focus , the remake featured Benson in a troubled relationship with her stepson , portrayed by Jaden Smith . This was followed by a role in the 2009 romantic comedy He 's Just Not That Into You , which also featured Jennifer Aniston and Ginnifer Goodwin . The film was based on the self @-@ help book of the same name . Variety praised her portrayal : " Despite its layer of darkness Connelly gives a really rich performance as a woman whose principles back her into a corner " .
In 2009 , she appeared in the costume drama biopic Creation , in which she played Emma Darwin , wife of Charles Darwin , opposite her real @-@ life husband Paul Bettany . Set during the writing of On the Origin of Species , the movie depicts Darwin 's struggle with the subject of the book as well as with his wife , who opposed his theories , and their mourning for their daughter Annie . The San Francisco Chronicle wrote , " Darwin 's wife , a religious woman who disapproved of her husband 's theories , is played by Jennifer Connelly , Bettany 's real @-@ life wife , in the kind of casting that doesn 't always work , but it does here . We believe in the Darwins ' history together , their familiarity and affection . Connelly 's English accent is also as good as Renée Zellweger 's and Gwyneth Paltrow 's . She doesn 't get just the sounds right , but also the music and the attitude " . She then voiced the character named " 7 " , an adventurous warrior in the animated film 9 .
Dustin Lance Black 's Virginia premiered on September 15 , 2010 , at the Toronto International Film Festival . Two years later , it was announced that the movie would receive a limited theatrical release in May 2012 . Connelly portrayed the title role of Virginia , a mentally unstable woman who has a 20 @-@ year affair with the local sheriff , whose daughter then starts a relationship with Virginia 's son . Connelly prepared for the role by watching documentaries on schizophrenia . She also spent time at the New York State Psychiatric Institute and the New York University 's Cancer Center to understand the afflections and obstacles of her character . While she was preparing for the role , director Dustin Lance Black requested Connelly 's advice to design the set of Virginia 's house , as well as the selection of the apparel to create the character 's style .
She described the film as a " very different " and " very personal " independent film . According to Cinema Blend , " Virginia is propped up by a strong central performance , with Connelly doing some of her best work in years " .
In 2011 , Connelly starred in Ron Howard 's comedy The Dilemma with Vince Vaughn . Although the Austin Chronicle 's review noted , " Vaughn nails it , and his nicely nuanced everyguy performance is aided by the always @-@ excellent Connelly , " the movie opened to generally negative reviews . Variety remarked , " Connelly , though a shade looser and more spontaneous than usual , seems stuck at an emotional remove from the action " . Her next project , George Ratliff 's Salvation Boulevard , premiered during the 2011 Sundance Film Festival . In the film Connelly played Gwen , the wife of Carl Vanderveer ( Greg Kinnear ) ; the couple are members of the Church of the Third Millennium , led by pastor Dan ( Pierce Brosnan ) . During the same year , Connelly recorded an audiobook version of Paul Bowles ' The Sheltering Sky , which integrates the A @-@ List Collection of Audible.com , released in March 2012 .
Her next project , starred alongside Greg Kinnear was the family drama Stuck in Love , the directorial debut of Josh Boone . Connelly played the ex @-@ wife of Kinnear 's character , with whom he is obsessed . The film was premiered during the 2012 Toronto International Film Festival .
In February 2012 , Connelly was announced as the first global brand ambassador for Shiseido , having previously worked with the company in the 1980s in a series of advertisements for the Japanese market . On August 2013 , it was announced that Connelly was cast by her husband , Paul Bettany , for his directorial debut Shelter . Connelly had a role in the 2014 film adaptation of the 1983 Mark Helprin novel , Winter 's Tale , the directorial debut of Akiva Goldsman , alongside Colin Farrell and William Hurt ; As well as starring in the English @-@ speaking directorial debut of Claudia Llosa Cry / Fly .
Working again in collaboration with A Beautiful Mind co @-@ star Russell Crowe , she portrayed Naameh in Darren Aronofsky 's 2014 biblical epic Noah . The film opened to favorable reviews . The Washington Post declared Connelly and Crowe 's performances " impressively grounded , powerful " ; The Denver Post felt that Connelly portrayed the role with " fine intelligence " . Variety deemed her appearance " solid but underused " , while Detroit News stated " Connelly has too little to do , but when she lets go , she hits hard . " Indiewire wrote that Connelly conveyed the role with a " steady hand " , while St. Paul Pioneer Press defined her interpretation as " compelling " .
= = Personal life = =
While filming The Rocketeer , she began a romance with co @-@ star Billy Campbell . They were involved for five years before they broke up in 1996 . Her first son was born in 1997 , with photographer David Dugan .
On January 1 , 2003 , in a private family ceremony in Scotland she married actor Paul Bettany whom she had met while working on A Beautiful Mind . The couple 's first child , was born the same year . She gave birth to her third child on May 2011 , in New York City .
On November 14 , 2005 , Connelly was named Amnesty International Ambassador for Human Rights Education . She appeared in an advertisement highlighting the global need for clean water , and sought donations for African , Indian , and Central American drilling projects for the non @-@ profit organization Charity : Water . On May 2 , 2009 , she participated in Revlon 's annual 5k Run / Walk for Women . In May 2012 , Connelly was named ambassador for Save the Children fund , to advocate for children 's rights in the United States and worldwide .
Publications such as Vanity Fair , Esquire , and the Los Angeles Times have ranked her among the most beautiful women in the world .
= = Filmography = =
= 1918 flu pandemic =
The 1918 flu pandemic ( January 1918 – December 1920 ) was an unusually deadly influenza pandemic , the first of the two pandemics involving H1N1 influenza virus . It infected 500 million people across the world , including remote Pacific islands and the Arctic , and resulted in the deaths of 50 to 100 million ( three to five percent of the world 's population ) , making it one of the deadliest natural disasters in human history .
Disease had already greatly limited life expectancy in the early twentieth century . A considerable spike occurred at the time of the pandemic , specifically the year 1918 . Life expectancy dropped by about 12 years .
Most influenza outbreaks disproportionately kill juvenile , elderly , or already weakened patients ; in contrast , the 1918 pandemic predominantly killed previously healthy young adults . Modern research , using virus taken from the bodies of frozen victims , has concluded that the virus kills through a cytokine storm ( overreaction of the body 's immune system ) . The strong immune reactions of young adults ravaged the body , whereas the weaker immune systems of children and middle @-@ aged adults resulted in fewer deaths among those groups .
Historical and epidemiological data are inadequate to identify the pandemic 's geographic origin . It was implicated in the outbreak of encephalitis lethargica in the 1920s .
To maintain morale , wartime censors minimized early reports of illness and mortality in Germany , Britain , France , and the United States ; but papers were free to report the epidemic 's effects in neutral Spain ( such as the grave illness of King Alfonso XIII ) , creating a false impression of Spain as especially hard hit — thus the pandemic 's nickname Spanish flu . In Spain , a different nickname was adopted , the Naples Soldier ( Soldado de Nápoles ) , which came from a musical operetta ( zarzuela ) titled La canción del olvido ( The Song of Forgetting ) , which premiered in Madrid during the first epidemic wave . Federico Romero , one of the librettists , quipped that the play 's most popular musical number , Naples Soldier , was as catchy as the flu .
= = History = =
= = = Hypotheses about source = = =
Investigative work by a British team led by virologist John Oxford of St Bartholomew 's Hospital and the Royal London Hospital identified a major troop staging and hospital camp in Étaples , France , as almost certainly being the center of the 1918 flu pandemic . A significant precursor virus , harbored in birds , mutated to pigs that were kept near the front .
Earlier hypotheses of the epidemic 's origin have varied . Some hypothesized the flu originated in East Asia . Dr. C. Hannoun , leading expert of the 1918 flu for the Institut Pasteur , asserted the former virus was likely to have come from China , mutating in the United States near Boston and spreading to Brest , France , Europe 's battlefields , Europe , and the world using Allied soldiers and sailors as main spreaders . He considered several other hypotheses of origin , such as Spain , Kansas , and Brest , as being possible , but not likely . Historian Alfred W. Crosby speculated the flu originated in Kansas . Popular writer John Barry echoed Crosby in describing Haskell County , Kansas , as the likely point of origin .
Political scientist Andrew Price @-@ Smith published data from the Austrian archives suggesting the influenza had earlier origins , beginning in Austria in the spring of 1917 .
Historian Mark Humphries of Canada 's Memorial University of Newfoundland states that newly unearthed records confirm that one of the side stories of the war , the mobilization of 96 @,@ 000 Chinese laborers to work behind the British and French lines on World War I 's western front , may have been the source of the pandemic . In the new report , Humphries finds archival evidence that a respiratory illness that struck northern China in November 1917 was identified a year later by Chinese health officials as identical to the Spanish flu .
A scientific investigation published in 2016 found no evidence that the 1918 virus was imported to Europe from Chinese and Southeast Asian soldiers and workers . In fact , there is evidence that the virus had been circulating in the European armies for months and potentially years before the 1918 pandemic .
= = = Spread = = =
When an infected person sneezes or coughs more than half a million virus particles can be spread to those close by . The close quarters and massive troop movements of World War I hastened the pandemic and probably both increased transmission and augmented mutation ; the war may also have increased the lethality of the virus . Some speculate the soldiers ' immune systems were weakened by malnourishment , as well as the stresses of combat and chemical attacks , increasing their susceptibility .
A large factor in the worldwide occurrence of this flu was increased travel . Modern transportation systems made it easier for soldiers , sailors , and civilian travelers to spread the disease .
In the United States , the disease was first observed in Haskell County , Kansas , in January 1918 , prompting local doctor Loring Miner to warn the U.S. Public Health Service 's academic journal . On 4 March 1918 , company cook Albert Gitchell reported sick at Fort Riley , Kansas . By noon on 11 March 1918 , over 100 soldiers were in the hospital . Within days , 522 men at the camp had reported sick . By 11 March 1918 the virus had reached Queens , New York . Failure to take preventative measures in March / April was later criticised .
In August 1918 , a more virulent strain appeared simultaneously in Brest , France ; in Freetown , Sierra Leone ; and in the U.S. in Boston , Massachusetts . The Allies of World War I came to call it the Spanish flu , primarily because the pandemic received greater press attention after it moved from France to Spain in November 1918 . Spain was not involved in the war and had not imposed wartime censorship .
= = Mortality = =
= = = Around the globe = = =
The global mortality rate from the 1918 / 1919 pandemic is not known , but an estimated 10 % to 20 % of those who were infected died . With about a third of the world population infected , this case @-@ fatality ratio means 3 % to 6 % of the entire global population died . Influenza may have killed as many as 25 million people in its first 25 weeks . Older estimates say it killed 40 – 50 million people , while current estimates say 50 @-@ 100 million people worldwide were killed .
This pandemic has been described as " the greatest medical holocaust in history " and may have killed more people than the Black Death . It is said that this flu killed more people in 24 weeks than AIDS has killed in 24 years , more in a year than the Black Death killed in a century .
The disease killed in every corner of the globe . As many as 17 million died in India , about 5 % of the population . The death toll in India 's British @-@ ruled districts alone was 13 @.@ 88 million .
In Japan , of the 23 million people who were affected , 390 @,@ 000 died . In the Dutch East Indies ( now Indonesia ) , 1 @.@ 5 million were assumed to have died among 30 million inhabitants . In Tahiti 13 % of the population died during only a month . Similarly , in Samoa 22 % of the population of 38 @,@ 000 died within two months .
In the U.S. about 28 % of the population suffered , and 500 @,@ 000 to 675 @,@ 000 died . Native American tribes were particularly hard hit . In the Four Corners area alone , 3 @,@ 293 deaths were registered among Native Americans . Entire village communities perished in Alaska . In Canada 50 @,@ 000 died . In Brazil 300 @,@ 000 died , including president Rodrigues Alves . In Britain , as many as 250 @,@ 000 died ; in France , more than 400 @,@ 000 . In West Africa an influenza epidemic killed at least 100 @,@ 000 people in Ghana . Tafari Makonnen ( the future Haile Selassie , Emperor of Ethiopia ) was one of the first Ethiopians who contracted influenza but survived , although many of his family 's subjects did not ; estimates for the fatalities in the capital city , Addis Ababa , range from 5 @,@ 000 to 10 @,@ 000 , or higher . In British Somaliland one official estimated that 7 % of the native population died .
This huge death toll was caused by an extremely high infection rate of up to 50 % and the extreme severity of the symptoms , suspected to be caused by cytokine storms . Symptoms in 1918 were so unusual that initially influenza was misdiagnosed as dengue , cholera , or typhoid . One observer wrote , " One of the most striking of the complications was hemorrhage from mucous membranes , especially from the nose , stomach , and intestine . Bleeding from the ears and petechial hemorrhages in the skin also occurred " . The majority of deaths were from bacterial pneumonia , a secondary infection caused by influenza , but the virus also killed people directly , by causing massive hemorrhages and edema in the lung .
The unusually severe disease killed up to 20 % of those infected , as opposed to the usual flu epidemic mortality rate of 0 @.@ 1 % .
= = = Patterns of fatality = = =
An unusual feature of this pandemic was that it mostly killed young adults . In 1918 – 1919 , 99 % of pandemic influenza deaths in the US occurred in people under 65 , and nearly half in young adults 20 to 40 years old . In 1920 the mortality rate among people under 65 had decreased six @-@ fold to half the mortality rate of people over 65 , but still 92 % of deaths occurred in people under 65 . This is noteworthy , since influenza is normally most deadly to weak individuals , such as infants ( under age two ) , the very old ( over age 70 ) , and the immunocompromised . In 1918 , older adults may have had partial protection caused by exposure to the 1889 – 1890 flu pandemic , known as the Russian flu . According to historian John M. Barry , the most vulnerable of all – " those most likely , of the most likely " , to die – were pregnant women . He reported that in thirteen studies of hospitalized women in the pandemic , the death rate ranged from 23 % to 71 % . Of the pregnant women who survived childbirth , over one @-@ quarter ( 26 % ) lost the child .
Another oddity was that the outbreak was widespread in the summer and autumn ( in the Northern Hemisphere ) ; influenza is usually worse in winter .
Modern analysis has shown the virus to be particularly deadly because it triggers a cytokine storm , which ravages the stronger immune system of young adults .
In fast @-@ progressing cases , mortality was primarily from pneumonia , by virus @-@ induced pulmonary consolidation . Slower @-@ progressing cases featured secondary bacterial pneumonias , and there may have been neural involvement that led to mental disorders in some cases . Some deaths resulted from malnourishment .
A study conducted by He et al. used a mechanistic modelling approach to study the three waves of the 1918 influenza pandemic . They tried to study the factors that underlie variability in temporal patterns , and the patterns of mortality and morbidity . Their analysis suggests that temporal variations in transmission rate provide the best explanation and the variation in transmission required to generate these three waves is within biologically plausible values .
Another study by He et al. used a simple epidemic model , to incorporate three factors including : school opening and closing , temperature changes over the course of the outbreak , and human behavioral changes in response to the outbreak to infer the cause of the three waves of the 1918 influenza pandemic . Their modelling results showed that all three factors are important but human behavioral responses showed the largest effects .
= = = Deadly second wave = = =
The second wave of the 1918 pandemic was much deadlier than the first . The first wave had resembled typical flu epidemics ; those most at risk were the sick and elderly , while younger , healthier people recovered easily . But in August , when the second wave began in France , Sierra Leone and the United States , the virus had mutated to a much deadlier form .
This increased severity has been attributed to the circumstances of the First World War . In civilian life , natural selection favours a mild strain . Those who get very ill stay home , and those mildly ill continue with their lives , preferentially spreading the mild strain . In the trenches , natural selection was reversed . Soldiers with a mild strain stayed where they were , while the severely ill were sent on crowded trains to crowded field hospitals , spreading the deadlier virus . The second wave began and the flu quickly spread around the world again . Consequently , during modern pandemics health officials pay attention when the virus reaches places with social upheaval ( looking for deadlier strains of the virus ) .
The fact that most of those who recovered from first @-@ wave infections were now immune showed that it must have been the same strain of flu . This was most dramatically illustrated in Copenhagen , which escaped with a combined mortality rate of just 0 @.@ 29 % ( 0 @.@ 02 % in the first wave and 0 @.@ 27 % in the second wave ) because of exposure to the less @-@ lethal first wave . On the rest of the population it was far more deadly now ; the most vulnerable people were those like the soldiers in the trenches – young previously healthy adults .
= = = Devastated communities = = =
Even in areas where mortality was low , so many were incapacitated that much of everyday life was hampered . Some communities closed all stores or required customers to leave orders outside . There were reports that the health @-@ care workers could not tend the sick nor the gravediggers bury the dead because they too were ill . Mass graves were dug by steam shovel and bodies buried without coffins in many places .
Several Pacific island territories were particularly hard @-@ hit . The pandemic reached them from New Zealand , which was too slow to implement measures to prevent ships carrying the flu from leaving its ports . From New Zealand , the flu reached Tonga ( killing 8 % of the population ) , Nauru ( 16 % ) and Fiji ( 5 % , 9 @,@ 000 people ) .
Worst affected was German Samoa , today the independent state of Samoa , which had been occupied by New Zealand in 1914 . A crippling 90 % of the population was infected ; 30 % of adult men , 22 % of adult women and 10 % of children died . By contrast , the flu was kept away from American Samoa when Governor John Martin Poyer imposed a blockade . In New Zealand itself , 8 @,@ 573 deaths were attributed to the 1918 pandemic influenza , resulting in a total population fatality rate of 0 @.@ 74 % .
= = = Less @-@ affected areas = = =
In Japan , 257 @,@ 363 deaths were attributed to influenza by July 1919 , giving an estimated 0 @.@ 425 % mortality rate , much lower than nearly all other Asian countries for which data are available . The Japanese government severely restricted maritime travel to and from the home islands when the pandemic struck .
In the Pacific , American Samoa and the French colony of New Caledonia also succeeded in preventing even a single death from influenza through effective quarantines . In Australia , nearly 12 @,@ 000 perished .
By the end of the pandemic , only one major region on Earth had not reported an outbreak : the isolated island of Marajó , in Brazil 's Amazon River Delta .
= = = Aspirin poisoning = = =
In a 2009 paper published in the journal Clinical Infectious Diseases , Karen
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Starko proposed that aspirin poisoning had contributed substantially to the fatalities . She based this on the reported symptoms in those dying from the flu , as reported in the post mortem reports still available , and also the timing of the big " death spike " in October 1918 which happened right after the Surgeon General of the United States Army , and the Journal of the American Medical Association both recommended very large doses of 8 @.@ 0 @-@ 31 @.@ 2 g of aspirin per day . Starko also suggests that the wave of aspirin poisonings was due to a " perfect storm " of events : Bayer 's patent on aspirin expired , so that many companies rushed in to make a profit and greatly increased the supply ; this coincided with the flu pandemic ; and the symptoms of aspirin poisoning were not known at the time .
As an explanation for the universally high mortality rate , this hypothesis was questioned in a letter to the journal published in April 2010 by Andrew Noymer and Daisy Carreon of the University of California , Irvine , and Niall Johnson of the Australian Commission on Safety and Quality in Health Care . They questioned this universal applicability given the high mortality rate in countries such as India , where there was little or no access to aspirin at the time . They concluded that " the salicylate [ aspirin ] poisoning hypothesis [ was ] difficult to sustain as the primary explanation for the unusual virulence of the 1918 – 1919 influenza pandemic " .
But they overlooked that inexpensive aspirin had become available in India and other places after October 1918 , when the Bayer patent expired . In responding , Starko pointed to anecdotal evidence of aspirin over @-@ prescription in India and argued that even if aspirin over @-@ prescription had not contributed to the high Indian mortality rate , it could still have been a major factor for other high rates in areas where other exacerbating factors present in India played less of a role .
= = = End of the pandemic = = =
After the lethal second wave struck in late 1918 , new cases dropped abruptly – almost to nothing after the peak in the second wave . In Philadelphia , for example , 4 @,@ 597 people died in the week ending 16 October , but by 11 November , influenza had almost disappeared from the city . One explanation for the rapid decline of the lethality of the disease is that doctors simply got better at preventing and treating the pneumonia that developed after the victims had contracted the virus , although John Barry stated in his book that researchers have found no evidence to support this .
Another theory holds that the 1918 virus mutated extremely rapidly to a less lethal strain . This is a common occurrence with influenza viruses : there is a tendency for pathogenic viruses to become less lethal with time , as the hosts of more dangerous strains tend to die out .
= = Legacy = =
Academic Andrew Price @-@ Smith has made the argument that the virus helped tip the balance of power in the later days of the war towards the Allied cause . He provides data that the viral waves hit the Central Powers before they hit the Allied powers , and that both morbidity and mortality in Germany and Austria were considerably higher than in Britain and France .
In the United States , Britain and other countries , despite the relatively high morbidity and mortality rates that resulted from the epidemic in 1918 – 1919 , the Spanish flu began to fade from public awareness over the decades until the arrival of news about bird flu and other pandemics in the 1990s and 2000s . This has led some historians to label the Spanish flu a " forgotten pandemic " .
Various theories of why the Spanish flu was " forgotten " include the rapid pace of the pandemic , which killed most of its victims in the United States , for example , within a period of less than nine months , resulting in limited media coverage . The general population was familiar with patterns of pandemic disease in the late 19th and early 20th centuries : typhoid , yellow fever , diphtheria , and cholera all occurred near the same time . These outbreaks probably lessened the significance of the influenza pandemic for the public . In some areas , the flu was not reported on , the only mention being that of advertisements for medicines claiming to cure it .
In addition , the outbreak coincided with the deaths and media focus on the First World War . Another explanation involves the age group affected by the disease . The majority of fatalities , from both the war and the epidemic , were among young adults . The deaths caused by the flu may have been overlooked due to the large numbers of deaths of young men in the war or as a result of injuries . When people read the obituaries , they saw the war or postwar deaths and the deaths from the influenza side by side . Particularly in Europe , where the war 's toll was extremely high , the flu may not have had a great , separate , psychological impact , or may have seemed a mere extension of the war 's tragedies .
The duration of the pandemic and the war could have also played a role . The disease would usually only affect a certain area for a month before leaving , while the war , which most had initially expected to end quickly , had lasted for four years by the time the pandemic struck . This left little time for the disease to have a significant impact on the economy .
One final issue that the 1918 Spanish flu outbreak had on the world was the effects on the global economy . Many businesses in the entertainment and service industries suffered losses in revenue , but the health care industry reported profit gains .
Historian Nancy Bristow has argued that the pandemic , when combined with the increasing number of women attending college , contributed to the success of women in the field of nursing . This was due in part to the failure of medical doctors , who were predominantly men , to contain and prevent the illness . Nursing staff , who were predominantly women , felt more inclined to celebrate the success of their patient care and less inclined to identify the spread of the disease with their own work .
In Spain , sources from the period explicitly linked the Spanish flu to the cultural figure of Don Juan . The nickname for the flu , the " Naples Soldier , " was adopted from Federico Romero and Guillermo Fernández Shaw 's operetta , The Song of Forgetting ( La canción del olvido ) , the protagonist of which is a stock Don Juan type . Davis has argued the Spanish flu @-@ Don Juan connection served a cognitive function , allowing Spaniards to make sense of their epidemic experience by interpreting it through a familiar template — the Don Juan story .
= = Spanish flu research = =
The origin of the Spanish flu pandemic , and the relationship between the near @-@ simultaneous outbreaks in humans and swine , have been controversial . One hypothesis is that the virus strain originated at Fort Riley , Kansas , in viruses in poultry and swine which the fort bred for food ; the soldiers were then sent from Fort Riley around the world , where they spread the disease . Similarities between a reconstruction of the virus and avian viruses , combined with the human pandemic preceding the first reports of influenza in swine , led researchers to conclude the influenza virus jumped directly from birds to humans , and swine caught the disease from humans .
Others have disagreed , and more recent research has suggested the strain may have originated in a nonhuman , mammalian species . An estimated date for its appearance in mammalian hosts has been put at the period 1882 – 1913 . This ancestor virus diverged about 1913 – 1915 into two clades ( or biological groups ) , which gave rise to the classical swine and human H1N1 influenza lineages . The last common ancestor of human strains dates to between February 1917 and April 1918 . Because pigs are more readily infected with avian influenza viruses than are humans , they were suggested as the original recipients of the virus , passing the virus to humans sometime between 1913 and 1918 .
An effort to recreate the 1918 flu strain ( a subtype of avian strain H1N1 ) was a collaboration among the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology , Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory and Mount Sinai School of Medicine in New York City . The effort resulted in the announcement ( on 5 October 2005 ) that the group had successfully determined the virus 's genetic sequence , using historic tissue samples recovered by pathologist Johan Hultin from a female flu victim buried in the Alaskan permafrost and samples preserved from American soldiers .
On 18 January 2007 , Kobasa & et al . ( 2007 ) reported that monkeys ( Macaca fascicularis ) infected with the recreated strain exhibited classic symptoms of the 1918 pandemic , and died from a cytokine storm — an overreaction of the immune system . This may explain why the 1918 flu had its surprising effect on younger , healthier people , as a person with a stronger immune system would potentially have a stronger overreaction .
On 16 September 2008 , the body of British politician and diplomat Sir Mark Sykes was exhumed to study the RNA of the flu virus in efforts to understand the genetic structure of modern H5N1 bird flu . Sykes had been buried in 1919 in a lead coffin which scientists hoped to have helped preserve the virus . However , the coffin was found to be split because of the weight of soil over it , and the cadaver was badly decomposed . Nonetheless , samples of lung and brain tissue were taken through the split , with the coffin remaining in situ in the grave during this process .
In December 2008 , research by Yoshihiro Kawaoka of the University of Wisconsin linked the presence of three specific genes ( termed PA , PB1 , and PB2 ) and a nucleoprotein derived from 1918 flu samples to the ability of the flu virus to invade the lungs and cause pneumonia . The combination triggered similar symptoms in animal testing .
In June 2010 , a team at the Mount Sinai School of Medicine reported the 2009 flu pandemic vaccine provided some cross @-@ protection against the 1918 flu pandemic strain .
One of the few things known for certain about the influenza in 1918 and for some years after was that it was , out of the laboratory , exclusively a disease of human beings .
In 2013 , AIR 's Research and Modeling Group " characterizes the historic 1918 pandemic and estimates the effects of a similar pandemic occurring today using the AIR Pandemic Flu Model " . In the model , " a modern day " Spanish flu " event would result in additional life insurance losses of between USD 15 @.@ 3 – 27 @.@ 8 billion in the United States alone " with 188 @,@ 000 – 337 @,@ 000 deaths in the United States .
= = In popular culture = =
The 2011 film Contagion and the 2013 film World War Z make reference to the pandemic .
The television show Resurrection uses the pandemic , in the episode " Afflictions " that aired on November 2 , 2014 , as the explanation for why many of the Returned were getting sick and disappearing .
In season four of British drama Upstairs , Downstairs , Hazel Bellamy dies of Spanish flu in 1918 , after her husband James Bellamy survives injuries in the " Great War " ( World War I ) . Her funeral takes place on 11 November , the day the war ends .
In season two of British drama Downton Abbey , Lavinia Swire dies of the Spanish flu in April 1919 , after her fiancé Matthew Crawley recovers from injuries and temporary paralysis from the Great War .
Twentieth @-@ century fiction includes at least three novels with the flu pandemic as a major theme : Katherine Anne Porter 's Pale Horse , Pale Rider , Thomas Mullen 's The Last Town on Earth , and Thomas Wolfe 's Look Homeward , Angel .
In the play 1918 by Horton Foote , the presence and threat of the flu ( and the tragedy it ultimately causes ) is a major element of the plot . The 1979 play was made into a film ( 1918 flu pandemic at the Internet Movie Database ) , released in 1985 , which was subsequently edited for broadcast by PBS as the last part of the miniseries " The Story of A Marriage " .
= = Gallery = =
= The Pale Emperor =
The Pale Emperor is the ninth studio album by American rock band Marilyn Manson . It was released on January 15 , 2015 through Marilyn Manson 's Hell , etc. label , and was distributed in the US by Loma Vista Recordings , Canada by Dine Alone Records , Japan by Victor Entertainment and internationally by Cooking Vinyl . The album was released in standard and deluxe editions on CD and 2 × LP vinyl , as well as a box set . The standard version of the album contains ten tracks , while the deluxe edition includes three acoustic versions as bonus tracks .
Produced by Manson and newcomer Tyler Bates , who met through their mutual involvement in the TV series Californication , The Pale Emperor eschews the band 's usual industrial rock genre in favor of a more sparse , blues rock @-@ influenced sound . The album also features drummer Gil Sharone , formerly of The Dillinger Escape Plan , and is the first release since his return in 2008 to not feature writing and performance contributions from bassist Twiggy . The album is dedicated to Manson 's mother , who died during production after an eight @-@ year battle with Alzheimer 's disease and dementia .
The album was released to generally positive reviews from contemporary music critics , with several writers referring to it as his best album in over a decade , and was ranked by several publications as one of the best albums of 2015 . The album was also a commercial success , debuting at number eight on the Billboard 200 with the band 's highest opening week sales since Eat Me , Drink Me ( 2007 ) . It also topped the national albums chart in Switzerland , as well as Billboard 's Top Hard Rock Albums chart . It went on to peak within the top ten in fifteen other countries .
It spawned three official singles , " Third Day of a Seven Day Binge " , " Cupid Carries a Gun " and " Deep Six " , with the latter going on to become the band 's highest @-@ peaking single on Billboard 's Mainstream Rock Chart ; " The Mephistopheles of Los Angeles " and " The Devil Beneath My Feet " have been released as promotional singles . The album is being supported by The Hell Not Hallelujah Tour , which was interspersed by two co @-@ headlining tours , The End Times with The Smashing Pumpkins , and a summer 2016 co @-@ headlining tour with Slipknot .
= = Background and recording = =
In April 2013 , it was announced that Manson was to feature in an episode of the sixth season of TV series Californication , while the following month he also confirmed that production had started on the band 's ninth studio album . At Californication 's wrap party , Manson met the series ' score composer , Tyler Bates , and the two discussed a potential collaboration . They held their first writing session in a small rehearsal space , accompanied by former Slayer drummer Dave Lombardo . This session ultimately proved unsuccessful , with the pair failing to write any substantial material . Bates later suggested that they hold further writing sessions at his home studio , which resulted in them composing " Birds of Hell Awaiting " in " one spontaneous exchange " .
This was quickly followed by " Third Day of a Seven Day Binge " , with Manson saying that the recording of the album " just became a rhythm . This was something I was excited to do . " This is in stark contrast to the recording of previous albums The High End of Low ( 2009 ) and Born Villain ( 2012 ) , where he was frequently " dragged into the studio at 3am " to record vocals . He later credited this enthusiasm to the collaborative process between him and Bates , saying that he realized after the first performance of " Birds of Hell Awaiting " that " [ I ] just sang it . I didn 't even know where the music was going to go and I just went with it and it was very organic . And then it opened up a whole different part of my mind . "
Bates called the recording process " seamless " , attributing this to an unconventional studio environment . Manson , who would be isolated in a vocal booth with no more than three people in the control room at any one time , was free to improvise or develop lyrics and vocal melodies at a high speed . Bates explained that , through his use of Pro Tools , he was able to " manipulate the music in a way that would allow [ Manson ] to just keep working on it without causing [ a delay ] . If he had an idea , he could just throw it down without there being a lot to explain . " The majority of the album was recorded over a three @-@ month period . The band 's manager , Tony Ciulla , only became aware that Manson had been recording new material when he was invited to Bates ' home recording studio , where he was played final cuts of nine of the album 's ten tracks for the first time , with " Cupid Carries a Gun " being the final track recorded for The Pale Emperor . Further overdubbing took place over the following six months , in between Manson 's acting commitments on Sons of Anarchy and Bates scoring the 2014 television series Salem .
Gil Sharone , of The Dillinger Escape Plan and Stolen Babies , performed live drums on the album . Sharone was first contacted by Bates about the project three days before he was due to begin a tour with Stolen Babies . Expanding over the album 's embryonic drum programming , he developed and recorded his drum work over a three @-@ day period at Igloo Studios in Burbank , California . On February 1 , Sons of Anarchy creator Kurt Sutter confirmed Manson 's acting involvement in the show . Sutter went on to say that he had written a song with Shooter Jennings , which was to appear in the final season of the show and feature vocals from Manson . He also suggested that Jennings was involved in the recording of The Pale Emperor , although Jennings ' work does not appear on the album . On June 25 , bassist Fred Sablan confirmed that he had left the band on good terms . Long @-@ time band member Twiggy did not take part in the writing and recording process , as he was busy recording his own material . Manson 's Sons of Anarchy co @-@ star Walton Goggins , Jr. appears as a preacher on album track " Slave Only Dreams to Be King " , where he recites two verses from James Allen 's early twentieth @-@ century essay As a Man Thinketh .
During The Pale Emperor sessions , Manson and Bates recorded a cover of David Bowie 's " Moonage Daydream " for inclusion on the Guardians of the Galaxy OST , a soundtrack which Bates scored . This recording was not utilized in the soundtrack as , according to Manson , Hollywood Records " didn 't want it . " The original album version by Bowie was used instead . On September 3 , Manson confirmed that the new album is " prepared for landing " , indicating that production had been completed . The Pale Emperor is dedicated to Manson 's late mother , Barbara Warner , who died on May 13 , 2014 after an eight @-@ year battle with Alzheimer 's disease and dementia .
= = Composition and style = =
In a January 2014 interview with Kerrang ! magazine , Manson described the sound of the new album as being " very cinematic " , saying that the " redneck in me comes out in my voice " due to the album 's inclusion of " old blues " influences , while still retaining the " harder elements " of previous work . In a later interview with The Fader , Manson stated that he no longer " dresses [ his ] feelings in characters and extended metaphors " , saying that he instead " lets melody lead " the album . He elaborated that he is " a man of few words on the record . What I hadn 't ever found , till now , is the blues . The blues changed the way that I sang [ on the album ] . And the music has a melody and a language in and of itself " , while lead editor Naomi Zeichner went on to compare the album to the work of Interpol and " the retro biker bar rock that soundtracks Sons of Anarchy " .
The Pale Emperor is a departure from the band 's usual style , leaning away from the industrial , electronic , and heavy metal @-@ influenced production that appeared on much of the band 's previous work , towards a sparser blues rock , alternative country and hard rock @-@ influenced sound , with Manson citing the music of Muddy Waters , The Rolling Stones , and The Doors as inspiration . Steven Hyden of Grantland expanded on several parallels between The Pale Emperor and the Doors ' 1971 album L.A. Woman , noting how the album " echoes how [ the Doors ] reformulated its juju in the latter part of its career " , likening both Manson and Jim Morrison to " rambling barstool vamp [ s ] that career darkly between camp and druggy majesty " . He went on to compare Manson 's vocals on " Warship My Wreck " to Morrison 's " debauched howls " , and said that Morrison 's " self @-@ destructive self @-@ aggrandizement " can be found in tracks such as " The Mephistopheles of Los Angeles " and " Third Day of a Seven Day Binge " .
The album 's title is inspired by Constantius I – also known as " Constantius the Pale " – who was the first Roman emperor to deny the existence of a God . Manson has said that the meaning of the album 's title can have several interpretations : " complexion or Goth music or ' beyond the pale ' or [ ... ] everything pales in comparison to it " . Lyrically , the album deals with subjects ranging from mortality , war , violence , slavery and religion , as well as containing references to Greek mythology and German folklore , specifically the story of Faust and Mephistopheles . " The Mephistopheles of Los Angeles " was the original title track and , according to Manson , " the album 's heart " . The album makes use of an extended metaphor , in which Manson compares his own career to the life of Faust , explaining to The Philadelphia Inquirer that he " sold [ his ] soul to become a rock star , and [ The Pale Emperor is ] payment in full – with interest , considering the last few bills I didn 't pay , " explaining that he considered The High End of Low and Born Villain to " lack focus " . He elaborated to Classic Rock Magazine :
The lyrics for several tracks are intentionally sparse , with Manson explaining that he " [ left ] holes in these stories so [ the album could ] become your story . It becomes more cinematic . For example in the film Rosemary 's Baby , you don 't see the baby but in your mind you do " . The lyrics were all derived from a single notebook , with Manson admitting that the lyrical content of previous work was " often too scattered " , as they were composed of material taken from " about 20 " different notebooks . Vocally , Manson sings in a different key than on any of his previous releases . Manson has claimed that his voice can emit five different tones simultaneously , which mixing engineer Robert Carranza discovered can form a pentagram when imported in to a phrasal analyzer . Bates has said that the vocals on the album are " stripped down " , saying that he considered the vocals on previous records to be " overproduced at times " .
= = Release and artwork = =
The Pale Emperor was announced for release on the band 's official website on November 9 , 2014 . It was released in various formats worldwide from January 15 , 2015 , including standard and deluxe edition CDs ; a heavyweight 180 @-@ gram 2 × LP vinyl album , available in black , white and a limited edition grey marble @-@ effect , the latter of which was exclusive to Hot Topic ; and as a digital download , including " full @-@ bandwidth 24 @-@ bit " AIFF and WAV format files , which were made available on Qobuz . The vinyl discs were manufactured at Record Technology , Inc. in Camarillo , California using the pressing plant 's HQ @-@ 180 ™ system . A digital download of the album was packaged with all LP editions . The standard version of the album contains ten tracks , while the deluxe edition adds three acoustic versions as bonus tracks . Editions of the album sold at Walmart stores in North America feature a heavily censored version of " The Devil Beneath My Feet " , and all US versions of the album were manufactured using black polycarbonate discs . The discs were sourced by Brian Schuman of Concord Music directly from the same plant where Sony manufactured their first PlayStation discs , and are identical to the kind used by the company in the early 90s . A heat @-@ sensitive thermal texture was also added to the CD , appearing black when first opened but revealing a white pattern when exposed to the heat from a CD player .
The album was also released as a limited edition " Definitive Box " set , which was sold exclusively at Manson 's webstore . Designed by Manson with Willo Perron and Hassan Rahim , the set included the deluxe CD and white vinyl editions of the album , as well as several exclusive items including : a grey cloth @-@ bound individually numbered collectors box , five lithographs designed by artist Nicholas Cope , a fold @-@ out 24 " poster , album sleeves printed on full @-@ color UV @-@ coated stock and a Pale Emperor T @-@ shirt . A special edition containing a bonus DVD of music videos was released exclusively in Japan on July 29 .
= = Promotion and singles = =
The album was first previewed almost nine months before it 's official release , when " Cupid Carries a Gun " appeared as the opening theme to the television series Salem from April 27 , 2014 onwards . Following this , a large portion of album track " Killing Strangers " was featured in the Keanu Reeves film John Wick , which was released in cinemas on October 24 . On October 26 , " Third Day of a Seven Day Binge " was premiered on BBC Radio 1 's Rock Show by Daniel P. Carter . Immediately after the broadcast , the song was released for free download on the band 's official website , and was later released as a one @-@ track single via music download services on November 10 . The band performed several new songs live for the first time in October and early November , when they played a handful of concerts around southern California . On Halloween night , the band was joined on stage by Johnny Depp and Ninja from Die Antwoord for a performance of " The Beautiful People " at the Roxy Theatre . On December 5 , Manson settled a fifteen @-@ year rift with The Smashing Pumpkins frontman Billy Corgan , by performing " Third Day of a Seven Day Binge " and " Ava Adore " with the band at the Camden Palace Theatre in London .
" Deep Six " was released as the album 's official lead single on December 16 . A music video for the song , directed by Bart Hess , was released on to YouTube three days later . The song debuted at number thirty @-@ three on Billboard 's Mainstream Rock Chart on the issue dated December 23 , 2014 , as the " greatest gainer " that week , before eventually rising to number eight on the chart dated March 14 , 2015 , becoming the band 's highest peaking single ever on the chart . In response to the album leaking online , it was released on streaming site Genius eight days ahead of its official release in the US , while " Cupid Carries a Gun " was released as a digital single on January 7 , 2015 . The band began their Hell Not Hallelujah Tour on January 21 , 2015 , and were also confirmed to perform at several music festivals throughout the year , including dates at Soundwave Festival in Australia , Rock am Ring and Rock im Park in Germany , the Download Festival in the UK and Hellfest in France .
Manson and his father , Hugh Warner , appeared together in the February issue of Paper magazine . Taken by photographer Terry Richardson , the shoot featured the pair wearing identical make @-@ up and contained an explicit image in which Hugh Warner can be seen fondling his own genitalia . On April 12 , Tyler Bates announced that he had amicably retired from the band 's touring line @-@ up , stating that he helped put the band together with the intention that it could function without him when " pre @-@ existing commitments in the film and television industry would be too demanding to handle responsibly from the road " . Rhythm guitarist Paul Wiley replaced Bates on lead guitar for the duration of the tour . The band also revealed details of a co @-@ headlining tour of the US with The Smashing Pumpkins . The End Times Tour began in Concord on July 7 and featured the return of original Pumpkins drummer Jimmy Chamberlin .
A music video for " The Mephistopheles of Los Angeles " , directed by Francesco Carrozzini and featuring a cameo from The Wire and Boardwalk Empire actor Michael K. Williams , was released on May 11 on the band 's official YouTube channel . On June 11 , Manson was honored with a Lifetime Achievement Award at the 2015 Kerrang ! Awards . Two days later , Manson was the keynote speaker at the 2015 Cannes Lions International Festival of Creativity . A music video for " Third Day of a Seven Day Binge " was released on July 10 . Manson appeared on a tribute album to Giorgio Moroder curated by Shooter Jennings , contributing vocals to a version of David Bowie 's " Cat People ( Putting Out Fire ) " . Countach ( For Giorgio ) was released on February 26 , 2016 . Manson has also revealed his intentions of collaborating with Korn frontman Jonathan Davis on " Southern @-@ sounding , acoustic " material in the near future , and also stated that there is a " strong possibility of doing something with Billy Corgan , while we 're out on the road together . " In February 2016 , it was announced that the band would embark on a co @-@ headlining tour with Slipknot . The tour will see the two bands performing dates in 34 American cities throughout the summer of 2016 , with support coming from Of Mice & Men .
= = Critical reception = =
The Pale Emperor received generally positive reviews from music critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a weighted mean rating out of 100 to reviews from music critics , the album received an average score of 71 , indicating " generally favorable reviews " , based on 19 publications .
Dean Brown of The Quietus referred to The Pale Emperor as the band 's best album since Holy Wood , saying that by writing " memorable , mature songs full of devilishly addictive hooks without trying to relive the past , [ the album ] breathes new life into Manson 's career . " Similarly , Corey Deiterman of Houston Press wrote that the album " stands as a triumphant return to the songwriting principles that made him famous in the first place " , before summarizing that Manson 's persona has " finally given way to the superior musician that always lived within . " In a review for Yahoo ! Music , Allan Raible was similarly positive , highlighting the album 's focus on songcraft instead of shock value , while Kerrang ! said that Manson " trades shock @-@ tastic thrills for something even darker . " Fred Thomas of AllMusic noted the album 's inclusion of blues influences , and opined that this shift in musical direction has resulted in The Pale Emperor sounding more sinister than any of the band 's previous albums . J.C. Maçek III of PopMatters praised the scope of musical variety found on the album , with particular acclaim given for its incorporation of alternative country elements . Jeff Miers of The Buffalo News praised the album 's lyrical content , saying that Manson sounds " both inspired and disgusted [ throughout ] , which is usually the tightrope he walks when he 's doing his best work . " In another positive review , Mark Orton of Otago Daily Times compared the album to Mechanical Animals , stating that the music has " definitely supplanted the image " , awarding the album four and a half stars out of five . Drowned in Sound critic Dave Hanratty praised the album 's consistency as focused , saying " damned if the devil didn 't bring his best tunes to this dance . " He also praised Bates ' production , awarding the album a score of eight out of ten . Alec Chillingworth of Stereoboard wrote that The Pale Emperor is Manson " climbing back to the creative summit he fell from following Holy Wood . He 's never going to top those early albums , but by expanding his palette and finally getting it right , The Pale Emperor reinstates Marilyn Manson as a relevant musical force and an elder statesman of the industrial scene " , awarding the album four stars out of five .
Louis Pattison , reviewing for NME , stated that " it 's no classic , but perhaps the surprise here is that Manson 's music can work without the shock shtick " . He also wrote that " the biggest surprise on the new album from the ' God Of Fuck ' is that we see more of the real Manson than before . " Dan Bogosian of Consequence of Sound was more mixed in his assessment , stating : " A lack of ' oomph ' prevents the album from landing a gut punch that would cover all of its flaws . Like an aging boxer , Manson lands jabs and the occasional uppercut , but he never topples his opponent . " Similarly , Daniel Sylvester of Exclaim ! complimented the album 's ambitiousness , but said that The Pale Emperor is " lazy when it can get away with it . "
= = = Year @-@ end lists = = =
= = Commercial performance = =
Industry forecasters predicted that The Pale Emperor was on course for a top ten debut on the Billboard 200 , with first week sales of around 42 @,@ 000 units . The album debuted at number eight on the chart with over 51 @,@ 000 copies sold , including 49 @,@ 000 in " pure " album sales , making it the band 's highest opening week figure since Eat Me , Drink Me debuted at the same position with 88 @,@ 000 copies in 2007 . It became the band 's eighth top ten album , and sixth title in a row to reach the region . It also debuted at number six on Billboard 's Top Albums Chart – the current equivalent of the previous sales @-@ based Billboard 200 – as well as number three on Top Rock Albums and number one on the Top Hard Rock Albums charts . On its second week , the album dropped to number twenty @-@ four on the Top Albums Chart , selling an additional 12 @,@ 275 " pure " copies . As of December 2015 , The Pale Emperor has sold more than 136 @,@ 000 " pure " copies in the US . The album also debuted at number four on the Canadian Albums Chart with sales of over 5 @,@ 000 copies on its first week , according to Nielsen SoundScan .
In Eurasia , the album first debuted on the Russian Albums Chart at number ten on the chart dated January 18 , 2015 , based on three days of sale on the Russian iTunes . The album rose to number two the following week , on its first full week of release in the country . The album debuted and peaked at number one on the Swiss Albums Chart , becoming the band 's first since The Golden Age of Grotesque ( 2003 ) to do so . In the United Kingdom , it debuted at number sixteen with sales of 5 @,@ 984 copies , making it the band 's seventh top 20 album . The album peaked at number four on the German Albums Chart , their highest peaking album in the territory since Eat Me , Drink Me . The Pale Emperor became Manson 's fifth top @-@ ten album in France , where it debuted at number five with sales of over 6 @,@ 700 copies , and has gone on to sell over 30 @,@ 000 copies there . In Japan , the album debuted at number twenty @-@ five on the Oricon albums chart with sales of 3 @,@ 610 copies .
The album also debuted at number six on the ARIA Albums Chart as the highest new entry that week , and his highest peaking album in the region since The Golden Age of Grotesque . In New Zealand , the album debuted at number five , making it the band 's highest peaking album in the country since Mechanical Animals peaked at number three in 1998 .
= = Track listing = =
All lyrics written by Marilyn Manson , all music composed by Tyler Bates .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recorded at Abattoir Studios , Studio City , California
Drums recorded by Gustavo Borner at Igloo Studios , Burbank , California
Mixed by Robert Carranza and Wolfgang Matthes at SPPP , Los Angeles , California
Mastering by Brian Lucey at Magic Garden Mastering , Los Angeles , California
Credits adapted from the liner notes of the deluxe edition of The Pale Emperor .
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
= Battle of Pirano =
The Battle of Pirano ( known also as battle of Grado ) on 22 February 1812 was a minor naval action of the Adriatic campaign of the Napoleonic Wars fought between a British and a French ship of the line in the vicinity of the towns of Piran and Grado in Adriatic Sea . The French Rivoli , named for Napoleon 's victory 15 years earlier , had been recently completed at Venice . The French naval authorities intended her to bolster French forces in the Adriatic , following a succession of defeats in the preceding year .
To prevent this ship challenging British dominance in the theatre , the Royal Navy ordered a ship of the line from the Mediterranean fleet to intercept and capture Rivoli on her maiden voyage . Captain John Talbot of HMS Victorious arrived off Venice in mid @-@ February and blockaded the port . When Rivoli attempted to escape under cover of fog , Talbot chased her and forced her to surrender in a five @-@ hour battle , Rivoli losing over half her crew wounded or dead .
= = Background = =
The Treaty of Tilsit in 1807 had resulted in a Russian withdrawal from the Adriatic and the French takeover of the strategic island fortress of Corfu . The Treaty of Schönbrunn with the Austrian Empire in 1809 had further solidified French influence in the area by formalising their control of the Illyrian Provinces on the Eastern shore . To protect these gains , the French and Italian governments had instigated a shipbuilding program in Venice and other Italian ports in an effort to rebuild their Mediterranean fleet and challenge British hegemony . These efforts were hampered by the poverty of the Italian government and the difficulty that the French Navy had in manning and equipping their ships . As a result , the first ship of the line built in the Adriatic under this program was not launched until 1810 and not completed until early 1812 .
By the time this ship , Rivoli , was launched , the Royal Navy had achieved dominance over the French in the Adriatic Sea . Not only had the regional commander Bernard Dubourdieu been killed and his squadron destroyed at the Battle of Lissa in March 1811 , but French efforts to supply their scattered garrisons were proving increasingly risky . This was demonstrated by the destruction of a well @-@ armed convoy from Corfu to Trieste at the Action of 29 November 1811 . Rivoli 's launch was therefore seen by the French Navy as an opportunity to reverse these defeats , as the new ship of the line outgunned the British frigates that operated within the Adriatic and would be able to operate in the Adriatic without the threat of attack by the frigate squadron based on Lissa .
The Royal Navy was aware of the threat that Rivoli posed to their hegemony and were warned in advance by spies in Venice of the progress of the ship ’ s construction . As Rivoli neared completion , HMS Victorious was dispatched from the Mediterranean Fleet to intercept her should she leave port . Victorious was commanded by John Talbot , a successful and popular officer who had distinguished himself with the capture of the French frigate Ville de Milan in 1805 and his service in the Dardanelles Operation of 1807 . Talbot was accompanied by the 18 @-@ gun brig HMS Weazel under Commander John William Andrew .
= = Battle = =
Rivoli departed Venice on 21 February 1812 under the command of Commodore Jean @-@ Baptiste Barré , accompanied by five smaller escort ships , the 16 @-@ gun brigs Mercure and Iéna , the 8 @-@ gun brig Mamelouck and two small gunboats , strung out in an improvised line of battle . Barré hoped to make use of a heavy sea fog that had descended , to break out from Venice and elude pursuit . Victorious had held off from the land during the fog and by the time Talbot was able to observe Venice harbour at 14 : 30 , his opponent had escaped . Searching for Barré , who was sailing to Pula , Talbot spotted one of the French brigs at 15 : 00 and gave chase .
The French head @-@ start had enabled Rivoli to gain a substantial distance on the British ship , and so it was not until 02 : 30 on 22 February that Talbot was able to close with her quarry and its escort . Not wishing to be held up by the escort ships protecting Rivoli , Talbot ordered Weasel ahead to engage them while Victorious fought Barré 's flagship directly . At 04 : 15 , Weasel overhauled the rearmost French brig Mercure and opened fire from close range , Mercure replying in kind . Iéna also engaged Weasel but the greater distance between these ships allowed Commander Andrew to focus his attack on Mercure , which fought hard for twenty minutes before being destroyed in a catastrophic explosion , probably caused by a fire in the magazine . Weasel immediately launched her boats to rescue any survivors , but only three were saved .
Following the explosion aboard Mercure , Iéna and the other French brigs scattered , briefly pursued by Weasel , who chased Iéna and Mamelouck but was unable to bring them to a decisive action . The loss of the French escorts allowed Victorious to close with Rivoli unopposed and at 04 : 30 the two large ships began a close range artillery duel . This combat continued unabated for the next three and a half hours , both ships being severely damaged and suffering heavy casualties . Captain Talbot was struck on the head by a flying splinter and had to quit the deck , temporarily blinded , command passing to Lieutenant Thomas Peake . To assist in subduing Rivoli , Peake recalled Weasel to block the French ship 's attempts to escape , Commander Andrew sailing his ship in front of Rivoli and repeatedly raking her .
= = Surrender and aftermath = =
At 08 : 45 Rivoli , which had been struggling to reach the harbour of Trieste , lost her mizzenmast under fire from both Victorious and Weasel . Nearly at the same moment , two of her 36 @-@ pounder long guns exploded , killing or wounding 60 men , greatly disorganising and demoralising the others , and forcing Barré to transfer gunners from the upper gun deck to man his lower battery . Fifteen minutes later , with his ship unmanageable and battered , Commodore Barré surrendered . Rivoli had suffered over 400 killed and wounded from her crew of over 800 , who had only assembled for the first time a few days before and had never sailed their ship in open water . Losses aboard Victorious were also heavy , with one officer and 25 sailors and marines killed and six officers ( including Captain Talbot ) and 93 men wounded .
French losses on Mercure , although unknown exactly , were severe , only three sailors surviving . Weasel , despite being engaged with three different French ships for a considerable time , had not one man killed or wounded during the entire engagement . Rivoli 's scattered escorts were not pursued , British efforts being directed instead at bringing the shattered Rivoli back to port as a prize . As a result , the remaining French ships were able to make their way to friendly ports unopposed . Rivoli was a new and well @-@ built ship and , following immediate repairs at Port St. George , she and Victorious traveled together to Britain . There they were both repaired , Victorious returning to the fleet under Talbot for service against the United States Navy during the War of 1812 , and Rivoli commissioned as HMS Rivoli for service in home waters .
The crews of Victorious and Weasel were well rewarded with both promotions and prize money , the junior officers either promoted or advanced and Commander Andrew of Weasel made a post captain . Captain Talbot was rewarded at the end of the war , becoming Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath in recognition of his success . Nearly four decades later the battle was among the actions recognised by a clasp attached to the Naval General Service Medal , awarded upon application to all British participants still living in 1847 . This was the last significant ship @-@ to @-@ ship action in the Adriatic , and its conclusion allowed British raiders to strike against coastal convoys and shore facilities unopposed , seizing isolated islands and garrisons with the aid of an increasingly nationalistic Illyrian population .
= H II region =
An H II region is a region of interstellar hydrogen that is ionized . It is typically a large , low @-@ density cloud of partially ionized gas in which star formation has recently taken place . The short @-@ lived blue stars forged in these regions emit copious amounts of ultraviolet light that ionize the surrounding gas . H II regions — sometimes several hundred light @-@ years across — are often associated with giant molecular clouds . The first known H II region was the Orion Nebula , which was examined by telescope in 1610 by Nicolas @-@ Claude Fabri de Peiresc , although its nature was not known .
H II regions are named for the large amount of ionised atomic hydrogen they contain , referred to as H II , pronounced H @-@ two by astronomers ( an H I region being neutral atomic hydrogen , and a molecular cloud being molecular hydrogen , H2 . In discussion with non @-@ astronomers there is sometimes confusion with the identical spoken forms of " HII " and " H2 " ) . Such regions have extremely diverse shapes , because the distribution of the stars and gas inside them is irregular . They often appear clumpy and filamentary , sometimes showing bizarre shapes such as the Horsehead Nebula . H II regions may give birth to thousands of stars over a period of several million years . In the end , supernova explosions and strong stellar winds from the most massive stars in the resulting star cluster will disperse the gases of the H II region , leaving behind a cluster of birthed stars such as the Pleiades .
H II regions can be seen to considerable distances in the universe , and the study of extragalactic H II regions is important in determining the distance and chemical composition of other galaxies . Spiral and irregular galaxies contain many H II regions , while elliptical galaxies are almost devoid of them . In the spiral galaxies , including the Milky Way , H II regions are concentrated in the spiral arms , while in the irregular galaxies they are distributed chaotically . Some galaxies contain huge H II regions , which may contain tens of thousands of stars . Examples include the 30 Doradus region in the Large Magellanic Cloud and NGC 604 in the Triangulum Galaxy .
= = Observations = =
A few of the brightest H II regions are visible to the naked eye . However , none seem to have been noticed before the advent of the telescope in the early 17th century . Even Galileo did not notice the Orion Nebula when he first observed the star cluster within it ( previously cataloged as a single star , θ Orionis , by Johann Bayer ) . The French observer Nicolas @-@ Claude Fabri de Peiresc is credited with the discovery of the Orion Nebula in 1610 . Since that early observation large numbers of H II regions have been discovered in the Milky Way and other galaxies .
William Herschel observed the Orion Nebula in 1774 , and described it later as " an unformed fiery mist , the chaotic material of future suns " . Confirmation of this hypothesis had to wait another hundred years , when William Huggins together with his wife Mary Huggins turned his spectroscope on various nebulae . Some , such as the Andromeda Nebula , had spectra quite similar to those of stars , but turned out to be galaxies consisting of hundreds of millions of individual stars . Others looked very different . Rather than a strong continuum with absorption lines superimposed , the Orion Nebula and other similar objects showed only a small number of emission lines . In planetary nebulae , the brightest of these spectral lines was at a wavelength of 500 @.@ 7 nanometres , which did not correspond with a line of any known chemical element . At first it was hypothesized that the line might be due to an unknown element , which was named Nebulium — a similar idea had led to the discovery of helium through analysis of the Sun 's spectrum in 1868 . However , while helium was isolated on earth soon after its discovery in the spectrum of the sun , Nebulium was not . In the early 20th century , Henry Norris Russell proposed that rather than being a new element , the line at 500 @.@ 7 nm was due to a familiar element in unfamiliar conditions .
Interstellar matter , considered dense in an astronomical context , is at high vacuum by laboratory standards . Physicists showed in the 1920s that in gas at extremely low density , electrons can populate excited metastable energy levels in atoms and ions , which at higher densities are rapidly de @-@ excited by collisions . Electron transitions from these levels in doubly ionized oxygen give rise to the 500 @.@ 7 nm line . These spectral lines , which can only be seen in very low density gases , are called forbidden lines . Spectroscopic observations thus showed that planetary nebulae consisted largely of extremely rarefied ionised oxygen gas ( OIII ) .
In HII regions , however , the dominant spectral line has a wavelength of 656 @.@ 3 nm . This is the well @-@ known H @-@ alpha line emitted by atomic hydrogen . Specifically , a photon of this wavelength is emitted when the electron of a hydrogen atom changes its excitation state from n = 3 to n = 2 . Such state @-@ changes happen very frequently when an electron is captured by an ionised hydrogen atom ( a proton ) , and the electron cascades down from some higher excitation state to n = 1 . Thus , it was concluded that HII regions consist of a mix of electrons and ionised hydrogen that are constantly recombining into hydrogen atoms .
During the 20th century , observations showed that H II regions often contained hot , bright stars . These stars are many times more massive than the Sun , and are the shortest @-@ lived stars , with total lifetimes of only a few million years ( compared to stars like the Sun , which live for several billion years ) . Therefore , it was surmised that H II regions must be regions in which new stars were forming . Over a period of several million years , a cluster of stars will form in an H II region , before radiation pressure from the hot young stars causes the nebula to disperse . The Pleiades are an example of a cluster which has ' boiled away ' the H II region from which it was formed . Only a trace of reflection nebulosity remains .
= = Origin and lifetime = =
The precursor to an H II region is a giant molecular cloud ( GMC ) . A GMC is a cold ( 10 – 20 K ) and dense cloud consisting mostly of molecular hydrogen . GMCs can exist in a stable state for long periods of time , but shock waves due to supernovae , collisions between clouds , and magnetic interactions can trigger its collapse . When this happens , via a process of collapse and fragmentation of the cloud , stars are born ( see stellar evolution for a lengthier description ) .
As stars are born within a GMC , the most massive will reach temperatures hot enough to ionise the surrounding gas . Soon after the formation of an ionising radiation field , energetic photons create an ionisation front , which sweeps through the surrounding gas at supersonic speeds . At greater and greater distances from the ionising star , the ionisation front slows , while the pressure of the newly ionised gas causes the ionised volume to expand . Eventually , the ionisation front slows to subsonic speeds , and is overtaken by the shock front caused by the expansion of the material ejected from the nebula . The H II region has been born .
The lifetime of an H II region is of the order of a few million years . Radiation pressure from the hot young stars will eventually drive most of the gas away . In fact , the whole process tends to be very inefficient , with less than 10 per cent of the gas in the H II region forming into stars before the rest is blown off . Contributing to the loss of gas are the supernova explosions of the most massive stars , which will occur after only 1 – 2 million years .
= = Destruction of stellar nurseries = =
Stars form in clumps of cool molecular gas that hide the nascent stars . It is only when the radiation pressure from a star drives away its ' cocoon ' that it becomes visible . The hot , blue stars that are powerful enough to ionize significant amounts of hydrogen and form H II regions will do this quickly , and light up the region in which they just formed . The dense regions which contain younger or less massive still forming stars and that have not yet blown away the material from which they are forming are often seen in silhouette against the rest of the ionised nebula . These dark patches are known as Bok globules , after astronomer Bart Bok , who proposed in the 1940s that they might be stellar birthplaces , a hypothesis which was shown to be correct in 1990 . The hot , young stars dissipate these globules , as the radiation from the stars powering the H II region drives the material away . In this sense , the stars which generate H II regions act to destroy stellar nurseries . In doing so , however , one last burst of star formation may be triggered , as radiation pressure and mechanical pressure from supernova may act to squeeze globules , thereby enhancing the density within them .
The young stars in H II regions show evidence for containing planetary systems . The Hubble Space Telescope has revealed hundreds of protoplanetary disks ( proplyds ) in the Orion Nebula . At least half the young stars in the Orion Nebula appear to be surrounded by disks of gas and dust , thought to contain many times as much matter as would be needed to create a planetary system like the Solar System .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Physical properties = = =
H II regions vary greatly in their physical properties . They range in size from so @-@ called ultra @-@ compact ( UCHII ) regions perhaps only a light @-@ year or less across , to giant H II regions several hundred light @-@ years across . Their size is also known as the Stromgren radius and essentially depends on the intensity of the source of ionising photons and the density of the region . Their densities range from over a million particles per cm ³ in the ultra @-@ compact H II regions to only a few particles per cm ³ in the largest and most extended regions . This implies total masses between perhaps 100 and 105 solar masses .
There are also " ultra @-@ dense HII " regions ( UDHII ) .
Depending on the size of an H II region there may be several thousand stars within it . This makes H II regions more complicated than planetary nebulae , which have only one central ionising source . Typically H II regions reach temperatures of 10 @,@ 000 K. They are mostly ionised gases with weak magnetic fields with strengths of several nanoteslas . Nevertheless , H II regions are almost always associated with a cold molecular gas , which originated from the same parent GMC . Magnetic fields are produced by these weak moving electric charges in the ionised gas , suggesting that H II regions might contain electric fields .
A number of H II regions also show signs of being permeated by a plasma with temperatures exceeding 10 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 K , sufficiently hot to emit X @-@ rays . X @-@ ray observatories such as Einstein and Chandra have noted diffuse X @-@ ray emissions in a number of star @-@ forming regions , notably the Orion Nebula , Messier 17 , and the Carina Nebula . The hot gas is likely supplied by the strong stellar winds from O @-@ type stars , which may be heated by supersonic shock waves in the winds , through collisions between winds from different stars , or through colliding winds channeled by magnetic fields . This plasma will rapidly expand to fill available cavities in the molecular clouds due to the high speed of sound in the gas at this temperature . It will also leak out through holes in the periphery of the H II region , which appears to be happening in Messier 17 .
Chemically , H II regions consist of about 90 % hydrogen . The strongest hydrogen emission line at 656 @.@ 3 nm gives H II regions their characteristic red colour . Most of the rest of an H II region consists of helium , with trace amounts of heavier elements . Across the galaxy , it is found that the amount of heavy elements in H II regions decreases with increasing distance from the galactic centre . This is because over the lifetime of the galaxy , star formation rates have been greater in the denser central regions , resulting in greater enrichment of those regions of the interstellar medium with the products of nucleosynthesis .
= = = Numbers and distribution = = =
H II regions are found only in spiral galaxies like the Milky Way and irregular galaxies . They are not seen in elliptical galaxies . In irregular galaxies , they may be dispersed throughout the galaxy , but in spirals they are most abundant within the spiral arms . A large spiral galaxy may contain thousands of H II regions .
The reason H II regions rarely appear in elliptical galaxies is that ellipticals are believed to form through galaxy mergers . In galaxy clusters , such mergers are frequent . When galaxies collide , individual stars almost never collide , but the GMCs and H II regions in the colliding galaxies are severely agitated . Under these conditions , enormous bursts of star formation are triggered , so rapid that most of the gas is converted into stars rather than the normal rate of 10 % or less .
Galaxies undergoing such rapid star formation are known as starburst galaxies . The post @-@ merger elliptical galaxy has a very low gas content , and so H II regions can no longer form . Twenty @-@ first century observations have shown that a very small number of H II regions exist outside galaxies altogether . These intergalactic H II regions may be the remnants of tidal disruptions of small galaxies , and in some cases may represent a new generation of stars in a galaxy 's most recently accreted gas .
= = = Morphology = = =
H II regions come in an enormous variety of sizes . They are usually clumpy and inhomogeneous on all scales from the smallest to largest . Each star within an H II region ionises a roughly spherical region — known as a Strömgren sphere — of the surrounding gas , but the combination of ionisation spheres of multiple stars within a H II region and the expansion of the heated nebula into surrounding gases creats sharp density gradients that result in complex shapes . Supernova explosions may also sculpt H II regions . In some cases , the formation of a large star cluster within an H II region results in the region being hollowed out from within . This is the case for NGC 604 , a giant H II region in the Triangulum Galaxy . For a HII region which cannot be resolved , some information on the spatial structure ( the electron density as a function of the distance from the center , and an estimate of the clumpiness ) can be inferred by performing an inverse Laplace transform on the frequency spectrum .
= = Notable H II regions = =
Notable Galactic H II regions include the Orion Nebula , the Eta Carinae Nebula , and the Berkeley 59 / Cepheus OB4 Complex . The Orion Nebula , which lies at a distance of about 500 pc ( 1 @,@ 500 light @-@ years ) , is part of a GMC ( called OMC @-@ 1 ) . If this were visible , it would fill most of the constellation of Orion . The Horsehead Nebula and Barnard 's Loop are two other illuminated parts of this cloud of gas . The Orion Nebula is actually a thin layer of ionised gas on the outer border of the OMC @-@ 1 cloud . The stars in the Trapezium cluster , and especially θ1 Orionis , are responsible for this ionisation .
The Large Magellanic Cloud , a satellite galaxy of the Milky Way at about 50 kpc ( 160 thousand light years ) , contains a giant H II region called the Tarantula Nebula . Measuring at about 200 pc ( 650 light years ) across , this nebula is the most massive and the second @-@ largest H II region in the Local Group . It is much bigger than the Orion Nebula , and is forming thousands of stars , some with masses of over 100 times that of the sun — OB and Wolf @-@ Rayet stars . If the Tarantula Nebula were as close to Earth as the Orion Nebula , it would shine about as brightly as the full moon in the night sky . The supernova SN 1987A occurred in the outskirts of the Tarantula Nebula .
Another giant H II region — NGC 604 is located in M33 spiral galaxy , which is at 817 kpc ( 2 @.@ 66 million light years ) . Measuring at approximately 240 × 250 pc ( 800 × 830 light years ) across , NGC 604 is the second @-@ most @-@ massive H II region in the Local Group after the Tarantula Nebula , although it is slightly larger in size than the latter . It contains around 200 hot OB and Wolf @-@ Rayet stars , which heat the gas inside it to millions of degrees , producing bright X @-@ ray emissions . The total mass of the hot gas in NGC 604 is about 6 @,@ 000 Solar masses .
= = Current issues = =
As with planetary nebulae , estimates of the abundance of elements in H II regions are subject to some uncertainty . There are two different ways of determining the abundance of metals ( metals in this case are elements other than hydrogen and helium ) in nebulae , which rely on different types of spectral lines , and large discrepancies are sometimes seen between the results derived from the two methods . Some astronomers put this down to the presence of small temperature fluctuations within H II regions ; others claim that the discrepancies are too large to be explained by temperature effects , and hypothesise the existence of cold knots containing very little hydrogen to explain the observations .
The full details of massive star formation within H II regions are not yet well known . Two major problems hamper research in this area . First , the distance from Earth to large H II regions is considerable , with the nearest H II ( California Nebula ) region at 300 pc ( 1 @,@ 000 light @-@ years ) ; other H II regions are several times that distance from Earth . Secondly , the formation of these stars is deeply obscured by dust , and visible light observations are impossible . Radio and infrared light can penetrate the dust , but the youngest stars may not emit much light at these wavelengths .
= Slow Down Baby =
" Slow Down Baby " is a song by American recording artist Christina Aguilera from her fifth studio album , Back to Basics ( 2006 ) . It was released as the album 's fourth single on July 28 , 2007 by RCA Records . It was written by Aguilera , Mark Ronson , Kara DioGuardi and Raymond Angry , and produced by Ronson and co @-@ produced by Aguilera . The song is built around samples of " Window Raisin ' Granny " ( 1973 ) by American group Gladys Knight and the Pips and " So Seductive " ( 2005 ) by American rapper Tony Yayo . Due to the inclusion of the samples , the original songs ' writers obtained writing credits .
Musically , " Slow Down Baby " is a pop and R & B song that incorporates elements of funk , hip hop and soul . It features claviola , horn , organ and piano instrumentation . The single was only released in Australia during the Oceanian leg of Aguilera 's Back to Basics Tour ( 2007 ) . " Slow Down Baby " peaked at number 21 on the Australian Singles Chart , although it did not receive any promotion in that country .
= = Background = =
Aguilera 's fifth studio album , Back to Basics , is made up of two discs . Aguilera worked with " more beat @-@ driven " producers on the first disc , such as DJ Premier and Mark Ronson , who included samples in the production . The second disc consists solely of collaborations with producer Linda Perry . Aguilera sent letters to different producers that she hoped could help her with the direction she was taking for the project , encouraging them to experiment , re @-@ invent and create a modern soul feel . She described the first disc as " kind of a throwback with elements of jazz , blues and soul music combined with a modern @-@ day twist , like hard @-@ hitting beats " .
Aguilera and Ronson wrote " Slow Down Baby " alongside Kara DioGuardi and Raymond Angry , and Ronson completed the production with assistance from Aguilera . In an interview for Herald Sun , Ronson elaborated on the collaboration : " I heard [ Aguilera ] was looking for tracks . I was a bit narrow @-@ minded , I assumed nothing I was doing would be something she 'd be into . I sent around some hip hop tracks I had lying about and got a call four days later saying she liked them . " He stated that he had initially imagined offering " Slow Down Baby " to someone like rap duo M.O.P. Ronson provided the beats and played the guitar and bass , while Angry played the claviola , organ and piano . Ronson recorded Aguilera 's vocals at Allido Sound in New York City and additional recording was helmed by Oscar Ramirez at The Record Plant in Los Angeles , California . Dave " Hard Drive " Pensado later completed the mixing process at Larrabee North in North Hollywood .
= = Composition = =
" Slow Down Baby " is an uptempo pop and R & B song that blends modern and " old school " R & B. It has elements of funk , hip hop and soul . Nick Levine of Digital Spy called it " hot 'n'horny retropop " , and JournalNews critic Sonia Murray observed that it " savvily " combines hip hop and early soul . " Slow Down Baby " ' s instrumentation consists of pianos and horns , which recall the 1970s blaxploitation film genre . In the lyrics , Aguilera tells a " lusty " man to leave her alone as she sings , " If you knew anything you 'd realise I 'm wearing a ring " . The song contains two samples , " Window Raisin ' Granny " ( 1973 ) by R & B group Gladys Knight & the Pips — written by William Guest , Merald Knight , Edward Patten and Gladys Knight — and " So Seductive " ( 2005 ) by rapper Tony Yayo — written by Marvin Bernard , Michael Harper and Curtis Jackson . Due to its sampling , the original songs ' writers are credited as songwriters . According to sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Universal Music Publishing Group , " Slow Down Baby " is written in the time signature of common time with a moderate beat rate of 110 beats per minute . The song is written in the key of F ♯ minor and Aguilera 's vocal range spans from the low @-@ note of A3 to the high @-@ note of G5 . According to Spence D. of IGN , " Slow Down Baby " interpolates a " vocal page " from LL Cool J 's " Jingling Baby " ( 1990 ) .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
The Guardian critic Dorian Lyskey was positive regarding " Slow Down Baby " , writing that it " smartly slaps a 50 Cent samplehow funk " . John Murphy of musicOMH named it one of the album 's highlights and deemed it " fresh and funky " . Moreover , Murphy called it " sharp and sassy infectious pop " and used it as an example of Aguilera being " at her best " . Writing for The Boston Globe , Joan Anderman commented that the song 's " tangle of horns and pianos [ are ] pushed to the edge of sonic sense " . Len Righi of The Morning Call wrote that Aguilera " sings with remarkable conviction " throughout the album , but the soul and funk of " Slow Down Baby " put her at " Aretha Franklin 's doorstep " . The Virginian @-@ Pilot writer Malcolm Venable commented that " Slow Down Baby " , alongside " Back in the Day " and " Without You " , displays Aguilera 's " well @-@ shaking " vocals and " tight , seemingly effortless songwriting " .
Jody Rosen of Entertainment Weekly wrote that the song " neatly blends old- and new @-@ school R & B " . Tampa Bay Times critic Sean Daly referred " Slow Down Baby " to as " the very essence of Aguilera " , indicating " old school , new school and big vocal belting " . Spence D. of IGN recommended " Slow Down Baby " for digital download and commended Aguilera 's " throaty insistence " . Scott Mervis of Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette wrote that the song , alongside the album 's first single " Ain 't No Other Man " and " Understand " , " keep [ Aguilera ] on the track of torchy old @-@ school soul that lets her limitless voice run wild and free " . In 2010 , Digital Spy 's critic Nick Levine included " Slow Down Baby " on a list of Aguilera 's ten best songs .
= = = Chart performance = = =
To promote the Oceanian leg of the Back to Basics Tour , " Slow Down Baby " was released as the album 's fourth single on July 28 , 2007 , in Australia . It debuted at number 41 on the ARIA Digital Tracks chart in the issue dated July 23 , 2007 . The song later entered the main singles chart at number 21 in the issue dated August 6 , 2007 . The position became its peak , which made it Aguilera 's first single since " I Turn to You " ( 2000 ) to miss the top ten . The same week , " Slow Down Baby " debuted at number 20 on the physical singles chart , and rose to number 22 on the digital chart . It remained on the main chart for six weeks .
= = Live performances = =
Aguilera first performed the song during a concert held in front of 1 @,@ 500 fans and invited guests in London on July 20 , 2006 . The 40 @-@ minute concert comprised songs from the then @-@ upcoming Back to Basics and other songs , including " Lady Marmalade " ( 2001 ) and " Beautiful " ( 2002 ) . Aguilera ended the show with " Slow Down Baby " , and David Smyth of Evening Standard commented that the song " rounded things up with big horns and bigger beats " . The song was later performed during the worldwide Back to Basics Tour . The performance was preceded by newspapers headlines that flashed across a big screen , such as , " Christina goes from ' dirrty ' to demure " and " Christina cleans up her act " . Aguilera wore black lace thigh @-@ high boots and a white bodysuit . The performance is included on the video release Back to Basics : Live and Down Under ( 2008 ) .
= = Formats and track listing = =
CD single / digital download
" Slow Down Baby " ( album version ) – 3 : 27
" Slow Down Baby " ( instrumental version ) – 3 : 27
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording and samples
Recorded at Allido Sound , New York City and The Record Plant , Los Angeles , California
Contains a sample from " Window Raisin ' Granny " , written by William Guest , M. Knight , Edward Patten and Gladys Knight as performed by Gladys Knight and the Pips
Contains a sample from " So Seductive " , written by Marvin Bernard , Michael Harper and Curtis Jackson as performed by Tony Yayo
Personnel
Credits are adapted from the " Slow Down Baby " liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
= PSR B1937 + 21 =
PSR B1937 + 21 is a pulsar located in the constellation Vulpecula a few degrees in the sky away from the first discovered pulsar , PSR B1919 + 21 . The name PSR B1937 + 21 is derived from the word " pulsar " and the declination and right ascension at which it is located , with the " B " indicating that the coordinates are for the 1950 @.@ 0 epoch . PSR B1937 + 21 was discovered in 1982 by Don Backer , Shri Kulkarni , Carl Heiles , Michael Davis , and Miller Goss . It is the first discovered millisecond pulsar , with a rotational period of 1 @.@ 557708 milliseconds , meaning it completes almost 642 rotations per second . This period was far shorter than astronomers considered pulsars capable of reaching , and led to the suggestion that pulsars can be spun @-@ up by accreting mass from a companion .
The rotation of PSR B1937 + 21 , along with other millisecond pulsars discovered later , are very stable in their rotation . They are capable of keeping time as well as atomic clocks . PSR B1937 + 21 is unusual in that it is one of few pulsars which occasionally emits particularly strong pulses . The flux density of the giant pulses emitted by PSR B1927 + 21 are the brightest radio emission ever observed . These properties of PSR B1937 + 21 , and its unexpected discovery , are credited with helping revitalize research on pulsars .
= = Background = =
The first pulsar was discovered in 1967 by Jocelyn Bell and her PhD supervisor Antony Hewish using the Interplanetary Scintillation Array . Shortly after the discovery of pulsars , Franco Pacini and Thomas Gold independently suggested that pulsars are highly magnetized rotating neutron stars , which form as a result of a supernova at the end of the life stars more massive than about 10 times the mass of the Sun . The radiation emitted by pulsars is caused by interaction of the plasma surrounding the neutron star with its rapidly rotating magnetic field . This interaction leads to emission " in the pattern of a rotating beacon , " as emission escapes along the magnetic poles of the neutron star . The " rotating beacon " property of pulsars arises from the misalignment of their magnetic poles with their rotational poles .
= = Discovery = =
In the late 1970s , the radio source 4C21.53 captured the attention of radio astronomers , " because of its anomalously high level of interplanetary scintillation . " As interplanetary scintillation is associated with compact radio sources , the interplanetary scintillation observations suggested that 4C21.53 might be a supernova remnant , but a pulsar survey carried out at Arecibo Observatory in 1974 by Russell Hulse and Joseph Taylor in the region did not discover a pulsar associated with 4C21.53. With the lack of success in finding a pulsar in the region , other explanations for the scintillation were explored , including suggestion of entirely new classes of objects . After realizing in 1982 that previous searches for a pulsar in the region of 4C21.53 were not sensitive to periods short enough to produce the observed scintillation , Don Backer initiated a search in the area that would be sensitive to a wide range of pulse periods and dispersion measures , including very short periods . The initial search plan was to sample at a rate of 500 Hz , which would have been insufficiently fast to detect a pulsar spinning at 642 Hz . To simplify the search apparatus , Backer 's then student , Shri Kulkarni , sampled as quickly as was possible , and time averaged the signal over a period of 0 @.@ 4 milliseconds , thus effectively sampling at 2500 Hz . As a result , Backer et al. determined in November 1982 that the source was a pulsar rotating every 1 @.@ 558 milliseconds , a rate far beyond anything that astronomers studying pulsars had expected .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Age and spin down rate = = =
When Backer et al. reported their finding in November 1982 , they found that the rotation period of PSR B1937 + 21 was decreasing at a rate of 3 × 10 @-@ 14 seconds per second . Pulsars are expected to slow over time , as the energy that they emit is ultimately drawn from the rotational energy of the pulsar . Using the initially observed values for the period and spin down rate , and assuming a minimum period of 0 @.@ 5 milliseconds for pulsars , the maximum age for PSR B1937 + 21 was found to be about 750 years old . The estimate of the minimum possible period is obtained from the centrifugal break @-@ up limit , which is the rotational period at which the centrifugal force and the self @-@ gravity of the pulsar are equal . The value of the minimum rotational period depends upon the neutron star equation of state , with different models giving values between 0 @.@ 3 and 1 millisecond , which corresponds to a rotation frequency of 1 @-@ 3 kilohertz . There may be mechanisms such as gravitational radiation which keep the pulsar from reaching this absolute limit , but pulsars can spin no faster .
An age of no more than 750 years for the PSR B1937 + 21 was at odds with the observations of the region in other wavelengths . No optical supernova remnant , nor bright x @-@ ray source , had been observed in the vicinity of the PSR B1937 + 21 . If PSR B1937 + 21 was that young , it would not have had time to move far from the site at which it formed . As neutron stars are formed as the result of supernova explosions , evidence of the explosion should be nearby for a young pulsar . If it was that young , it would also be expected to still be hot , in which case the thermal radiation from PSR B1937 + 21 would be observable at x @-@ ray wavelengths . Venkatraman Radhakrishnan and G. Srinivasan used the lack of observed supernova remnant to argue that PSR B1937 + 21 had not formed with such a fast period , but instead had been " spun up " by a companion star which essentially gave the pulsar its angular momentum , a mechanism now generally used to explain millisecond pulsars . They also made a theoretical estimate of the necessary spin down rate to be 1 × 10 @-@ 19 seconds per second . Backer et al. revised their estimate of the upper limit of the spin down rate just a month after the initial discovery , to 1 × 10 @-@ 15 seconds per second , but the currently measured value is more nearly in line with the theoretical estimate , at 1 @.@ 05 × 10 @-@ 19 seconds per second . The age of PSR B1937 + 21 was also later determined to be 2 @.@ 29 × 108 years , a value which is consistent with the observational evidence .
The companion which is supposed to have spun @-@ up PSR B1937 + 21 is no longer present , making it one of few millisecond pulsars which does not have a stellar mass companion . The generally high occurrence of companions to millisecond pulsars is to be expected , considering a companion is necessary to spin @-@ up millisecond pulsars to their short periods . However , millisecond pulsars do not actively accrete matter from a companion , but instead need to have only done this at some time in the past , and thus the lack of companion for PSR B1937 + 21 is not seen as a being in disagreement with the spin @-@ up model . Possible mechanisms for creating isolated millisecond pulsars include evaporation of the donor star or tidal disruption of the system .
= = = Pulses = = =
During one period of rotation for PSR B1937 + 21 , there are two peaks observed , known as the pulse and interpulse . PSR B1937 + 21 is unusual among pulsars in that it occasionally produces pulses far brighter than an average pulse . Until 1995 , the sole other pulsar known to produce giant pulses was the Crab pulsar , and by 2006 , there were 11 pulsars that had been observed to produce giant pulses out of more than 1500 known pulsars . The giant pulses of PSR B1937 + 21 were first observed in 1984 , shortly after its discovery , but difficulty in observing single pulses of PSR B1937 + 21 due to its fast period meant that the pulses were not studied in more depth until a decade after they were first observed . In more recent follow up observations , more giant pulses have been found . These giant pulses have been observed to occur at the trailing edge of both the pulse and interpulse . The duration of these giant pulses is short compared to the period of the pulsar , lasting on the order of 10 nanoseconds . The flux density of observed pulses is somewhat variable , but has been observed to be as high as 6 @.@ 5 × 10 − 22 Wm − 2Hz − 1 ( 6 @.@ 5 × 104 janskys ) . The brightness temperature of a pulse with such high flux density and such low duration exceeds 5 × 1039 Kelvin , making the pulses of PSR B1937 + 21 the brightest radio emission ever observed . PSR B1937 + 21 is intrinsically the most luminous millisecond pulsar . In addition to the radio pulses observed , pulses have been detected at x @-@ ray wavelengths , which show the same pulse and interpulse pattern .
= = Evidence for companions = =
After the discovery of planetary mass companions around PSR B1257 + 12 in 1990 by Aleksander Wolszczan , data for PSR B1937 + 21 and other pulsars were analyzed for the presence of similar companions . By 1994 , an upper limit of about one thousandth of the mass of Earth was determined for any companion of PSR B1937 + 12 within 2 astronomical units . In 1999 , Aleksander Wolszczan reported variations in the times of arrival of pulses from PSR B1937 + 21 , as well as previous analysis by Tokio Fukushima which suggested that these timing variations could be caused by a dwarf planet around the pulsar . The data were consistent with a companion having a mass similar to Ceres and located at 2 @.@ 71 astronomical units from the pulsar , but data over a longer period of time are required in order to verify the proposed companion . More recent observations have not detected any regular periodic signal associated with this companion , but argue that the slight variations in pulse arrival times are consistent with an asteroid belt having a total mass less than 0 @.@ 05 that of the Earth , but acknowledge that the detection of periodicity in pulse timing variations associated with individual asteroids is necessary to confirm the possible asteroid belt .
= = Significance = =
Until the discovery of PSR J1748 @-@ 2446ad in 2006 , which spins 716 times per second , PSR B1937 + 21 was the fastest spinning neutron star known . As of 2010 , PSR B19371 + 21 remains the second fastest spinning pulsar known . In addition to extending the range of periods observed in pulsars by a factor of 20 , it also extended the range of magnetic fields observed by a factor of 100 , with a magnetic field of 4 @.@ 2 × 108 gauss ( 42 kT ) .
As the first discovered millisecond pulsar , PSR B1937 + 21 " sparked a ' theory frenzy ' " by providing a new laboratory in which to study pulsars , neutron stars more generally , and perhaps even some other astrophysical problems such as gravitational waves . For instance , as the density required to spin at such high rates are comparable to nuclear densities , the fastest spinning millisecond pulsars are important in understanding how matter behaves at such densities . The initially high estimate of the spin down rate was also intriguing , as it implied a signal that could be directly detected by gravitational wave detectors , but the actual spin down rate put the expected signal below the sensitivity of current detectors . The currently accepted value spin down rate corresponds to a change in the rotational period of 1 @.@ 5 Hz over the course of one million years . The stability of rotation of PSR B1937 + 21 is of the same order of the stability of the best atomic clocks , and is thus a tool used in establishing ephemeris time .
The discovery of B1937 + 21 launched " extensive pulsar surveys at all major radio observatories " and " happened to revitalize pulsar astronomy at a time when most people thought the field was moribund . "
= Guitar Hero Smash Hits =
Guitar Hero Smash Hits ( titled Guitar Hero Greatest Hits in Europe and Australia ) is a music rhythm game and the fourth expansion game to the Guitar Hero series . The game features 48 songs originally featured in five previous games in the series — Guitar Hero , Guitar Hero II , Guitar Hero Encore : Rocks the 80s , Guitar Hero III : Legends of Rock and Guitar Hero : Aerosmith — redesigning the songs to be based on master recordings and to include support for full band play first introduced to the series in Guitar Hero World Tour . The game was developed by Beenox , published by Activision and distributed by RedOctane for release on the PlayStation 2 , PlayStation 3 , Wii , and Xbox 360 systems and was released around the world in the second half of June 2009 .
The game reuses many elements from previous titles in the series , including Guitar Hero World Tour and Guitar Hero : Metallica . Beenox designed the game around playing the greatest songs of the series at venues located in the greatest places on Earth , and created venues based on various Wonders of the World for the game . While the game 's soundtrack and expansion into a four @-@ player band were well received by reviewers , the game was highly criticized for being a full @-@ cost standalone title instead of being downloadable content for existing games in the series .
= = Gameplay = =
Guitar Hero : Smash Hits plays similar to Guitar Hero World Tour , featuring support for a four @-@ instrument band : lead guitar , bass guitar , drums , and vocal . In addition to using master recordings for each song , the songs have been charted to use gameplay features introduced in World Tour including the open bass strumming & slider sections for intense solos using the touchpad on the guitar bundled with World Tour . Certain songs have been recharted or remixed to be more accessible to the full band ; for example , " I Love Rock N Roll " includes a drum and vocals solo without guitar portions that were omitted in the original Guitar Hero , while the piano introduction in " Killer Queen " is tapped out by the lead guitar player . The game borrows gameplay and graphical elements from Guitar Hero : Metallica , including the " Expert + " difficulty level using two bass drum pedals and the rearrangement of on @-@ screen meters for band mode . Smash Hits includes a Music Studio creation mode and is compatible with the " GHTunes " custom song sharing service present in World Tour and Metallica . Smash Hits also includes all the game modes present in World Tour , including single player and band career modes , and the eight @-@ player " Battle of the Band " mode .
The game presents a story sequence that ties in with the Career mode , as has been present in more recent Guitar Hero games . In Smash Hits , the players are challenged by the " God of Rock " to play at venues at various Wonders of the World in order to charge a power artifact ; it is revealed later that the God of Rock is actually Lou the Devil in disguise seeking the power of the artifact , the real God trapped by Lou . The player 's band is able to discover Lou 's deception and free the God of Rock ; the band then rejects the God of Rock 's offer of ascension to immortality , instead wanting to return to Earth to continue to rock . After completing each venue , the players earn venue @-@ specific clothing to customize their avatars . The career mode follows the same star @-@ tier system used in Metallica , requiring players to earn a fixed number of stars to proceed from one tier to the next . As with Guitar Hero : Metallica , all songs are available to play in Quickplay mode without unlocking them through the career mode .
= = Development = =
Guitar Hero : Smash Hits was one of three new titles for the Guitar Hero series announced in early 2009 . Though the game was initially called Guitar Hero : Greatest Hits , cover art for the game in North America had shown the title had changed to Guitar Hero : Smash Hits . The game was still released as Guitar Hero : Greatest Hits in Europe and Australia .
Paul Gadbois , developer at Beenox Studios , identified that their goal for the game was to focus on the music from the past games in the Guitar Hero series , and that the selection of the soundtrack was one of the core features they focused on first . Songs were selected based on several factors , including songs that were not formerly available to Wii and PlayStation 3 owners , and songs that played well in both single player and band modes . They also thought of playing the " greatest songs " in the " greatest places " , and developed eight new venues based on Wonders of the World , including " Amazon Rain Forest " , " The Polar Ice Caps " and " The Grand Canyon " . The team opted to reuse the original Guitar Hero characters instead of attempting to bring in musical celebrities as was done in Guitar Hero World Tour and Guitar Hero : Metallica , fearing that the star power would have outshone the music selection . Beenox performed all of the major development efforts , including designing the venues , selecting the songs , and creating the note tracks , though Neversoft provided their own development tools and provided Beenox with their own insight from developing the other Guitar Hero games in the series . While the Beenox developers were provided with the note charts from the songs in their original games , they only looked at these after developing new charts for the songs on their own , and modified their new charts to accommodate sections from the originals that made them fun to play in the first place . The game 's full setlist was revealed over the course of April and May 2009 by allowing users to vote on the order of the remastered tracks from the four previous games .
In North America , various retailers provided pre @-@ order incentives for those who reserved Smash Hits . GameStop and EB Games gave away a pair of branded drumsticks with the game . Best Buy provided a discount towards any Guitar Hero World Tour @-@ related product with pre @-@ orders of the game , and provided a limited supply of extra drum bass pedals for the " Expert + " mode with purchase of the game . Game Crazy offered exclusive cheat codes as their incentive .
= = Soundtrack = =
All 48 tracks in the game are master recordings of songs previously featured in the first five published games of the Guitar Hero series : Guitar Hero , Guitar Hero II , Guitar Hero Encore : Rocks the 80s , Guitar Hero III : Legends of Rock , and Guitar Hero : Aerosmith . " Freya " and " Cult of Personality " are
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He makes a distinction , however , between language and music , in that " words are not fused like notes ; rather they are shuffled together , and they become incomprehensible . " However , as Willis has pointed out , there is a pessimism to the preface ; in one of its key passages , it compares poetry to the submerged riches of El Dorado , which can never be recovered .
In 1922 , while preparing Paulicéia Desvairada for publication , Andrade collaborated with Malfatti and Oswald de Andrade in creating a single event that would introduce their work to the wider public : the Semana de Arte Moderna ( Week of Modern Art ) . The Semana included exhibitions of paintings by Malfatti and other artists , readings , and lectures on art , music , and literature . Andrade was the chief organizer and the central figure in the event , which was greeted with skepticism but was well @-@ attended . He gave lectures on both the principles of modernism and his work in Brazilian folk music , and read his " Extremely Interesting Preface . " As the climactic event of the Semana , he read from Paulicéia Desvairada . The poems ' use of free verse and colloquial São Paulo expressions , though related to European modernist poems of the same period , were entirely new to Brazilians . The reading was accompanied by persistent jeers , but Andrade persevered , and later discovered that a large part of the audience found it transformative . It has been cited frequently as the seminal event in modern Brazilian literature .
The Group of Five continued working together in the 1920s , during which their reputations solidified and hostility to their work gradually diminished , but eventually the group split apart ; Andrade and Oswald de Andrade had a serious ( and public ) falling @-@ out in 1929 . New groups were formed out of the splinters of the original , and in the end many different modernist movements could trace their origins to the Week of Modern Art .
= = " The apprentice tourist " = =
Throughout the 1920s Andrade continued traveling in Brazil , studying the culture and folklore of the interior . He began to formulate a sophisticated theory of the social dimensions of folk music , which is at once nationalistic and deeply personal . Andrade 's explicit subject was the relationship between " artistic " music and the music of the street and countryside , including both Afro @-@ Brazilian and Amerindian styles . The work was controversial for its formal discussions of dance music and folk music ; those controversies were compounded by Andrade 's style , which was at once poetic ( Luper calls it " Joycean " ) and polemical .
His travels through Brazil became more than just research trips ; in 1927 , he started writing a travelogue called " The apprentice tourist " for the newspaper O Diario Nacional . The column served as an introduction for cosmopolites to indigenous Brazil . At the same time , it served as an advertisement for Andrade 's own work . A number of Andrade 's photographs were published alongside the column , showing the landscape and people . Occasionally , Andrade himself would appear in them , usually filtered through the landscape , as in the self @-@ portrait @-@ as @-@ shadow on this page . His photographs thus served to further his modernist project and his own work at the same time as their function in recording folklore .
Though Andrade continued taking photographs throughout his career , these images from the 20s comprise the bulk of his notable work , and the 1927 series in particular . He was particularly interested in the capacity of photographs to capture or restate the past , a power he saw as highly personal . In the late 1930s , he wrote :
In many of the images , figures are shadowed , blurred , or otherwise nearly invisible , a form of portraiture that for Andrade became a kind of modernist sublime .
= = Macunaíma = =
At the same time , Andrade was developing an extensive familiarity with the dialects and cultures of large parts of Brazil . He started to apply to prose fiction the speech @-@ patterned technique he had developed in writing the poems of Hallucinated city . He wrote two novels during this period using these techniques : the first , Love , Intransitive Verb , was largely a formal experiment . ; the second , written shortly after and published in 1928 , was Macunaíma , a novel about a man ( " The hero without a character " is the subtitle of the novel ) from an indigenous tribe who comes to São Paulo , learns its languages — both of them , the novel says : Portuguese and Brazilian — and returns . The style of the novel is composite , mixing vivid descriptions of both jungle and city with abrupt turns toward fantasy , the style that would later be called magical realism . Linguistically , too , the novel is composite ; as the rural hero comes into contact with his urban environment , the novel reflects the meeting of languages . Relying heavily on the primitivism that Andrade learned from the European modernists , the novel lingers over possible indigenous cannibalism even as it explores Macunaíma 's immersion in urban life . Critic Kimberle S. López has argued that cannibalism is the novel 's driving thematic force : the eating of cultures by other cultures .
Formally , Macunaíma is an ecstatic blend of dialects and of the urban and rural rhythms that Andrade was collecting in his research . It contains an entirely new style of prose — deeply musical , frankly poetic , and full of gods and almost @-@ gods , yet containing considerable narrative momentum . At the same time , the novel as a whole is pessimistic . It ends with Macunaíma 's willful destruction of his own village ; despite the euphoria of the collision , the meeting of cultures the novel documents is inevitably catastrophic . As Severino João Albuquerque has demonstrated , the novel presents " construction and destruction " as inseparable . It is a novel of both power ( Macunaíma has all kinds of strange powers ) and alienation .
Even as Macunaíma changed the nature of Brazilian literature in an instant — Albuquerque calls it " the cornerstone text of Brazilian Modernism " — the inner conflict in the novel was a strong part of its influence . Modernismo , as Andrade depicted it , was formally tied to the innovations of recent European literature and based on the productive meeting of cultural forces in Brazil 's diverse population ; but it was fiercely nationalistic , based in large part on distinguishing Brazil 's culture from the world and on documenting the damage caused by the lingering effects of colonial rule . At the same time , the complex inner life of its hero suggests themes little explored in earlier Brazilian literature , which critics have taken to refer back to Andrade himself . While Macunaíma is not autobiographical in the strict sense , it clearly reflects and refracts Andrade 's own life . Andrade was a mulatto ; his parents were landowners but were in no sense a part of Brazil 's Portuguese pseudo @-@ aristocracy . Some critics have paralleled Andrade 's race and family background to the interaction between categories of his character Macunaíma . Macunaíma 's body itself is a composite : his skin is darker than that of his fellow tribesmen , and at one point in the novel , he has an adult 's body and a child 's head . He himself is a wanderer , never belonging to any one place .
Other critics have argued for similar analogues between Andrade 's sexuality and Macunaíma 's complex status . Though Andrade was not openly gay , and there is no direct evidence of his sexual practices , many of Andrade 's friends have reported after his death that he was clearly interested in men ( the subject is only reluctantly discussed in Brazil ) . It was over a pseudonymous accusation of effeminacy that Andrade broke with Oswald de Andrade in 1929 . Macunaíma prefers women , but his constant state of belonging and not belonging is associated with sex . The character is sexually precocious , starting his romantic adventures at the age of six , and his particular form of eroticism seems always to lead to destruction of one kind or another .
Inevitably , Macunaíma 's polemicism and sheer strangeness have become less obvious as it has grown ensconced in mainstream Brazilian culture and education . Once regarded by academic critics as an awkwardly constructed work of more historical than literary importance , the novel has come to be recognized as a modernist masterpiece whose difficulties are part of its aesthetic . Andrade is a national cultural icon ; his face has appeared on the Brazilian currency . A film of Macunaíma was made in 1969 , by Brazilian director Joaquim Pedro de Andrade , updating Andrade 's story to the 1960s and shifting it to Rio de Janeiro ; the film was rereleased internationally in 2009 .
= = Late life and musical research = =
Andrade was not directly affected by the Revolution of 1930 , in which Getúlio Vargas seized power and became dictator , but he belonged to the landed class the Revolution was designed to displace , and his employment prospects declined under the Vargas regime . He was able to remain at the Conservatory , where he was now Chair of History of Music and Aesthetics . With this title he became a de facto national authority on the history of music , and his research turned from the personal bent of his 1920s work to textbooks and chronologies . He continued to document rural folk music , and during the 1930s made an enormous collection of recordings of the songs and other forms of music of the interior . The recordings were exhaustive , with a selection based on comprehensiveness rather than an aesthetic judgment , and including context , related folktalkes , and other non @-@ musical sound . Andrade 's techniques were influential in the development of ethnomusicology in Brazil and predate similar work done elsewhere , including the well @-@ known recordings of Alan Lomax . He is credited with coining the word " popularesque , " which he defined as imitations of Brazilian folk music by erudite urban musicians ( " erudite " is generally a deprecation in Andrade 's vocabulary ) . The word continues to have currency in discussion of Brazilian music as both a scholarly and nationalist category .
In 1935 , during an unstable period in Vargas 's government , Andrade and writer and archaeologist Paulo Duarte , who had for many years desired to promote cultural research and activity in the city through a municipal agency , were able to create a unified São Paulo Department of Culture ( Departamento de Cultura e Recreação da Prefeitura Municipal de São Paulo ) . Andrade was named founding director . The Department of Culture had a broad purview , overseeing cultural and demographic research , the construction of parks and playgrounds , and a considerable publishing wing . Andrade approached the position with characteristic ambition , using it to expand his work in folklore and folk music while organizing myriad performances , lectures , and expositions . He moved his collection of recordings to the Department , and expanding and enhancing it became one of the Department 's chief functions , overseen by Andrade 's former student , Oneyda Alvarenga . The collection , called the Discoteca Municipal , was " probably the largest and best @-@ organized in the entire hemisphere . "
At the same time , Andrade was refining his theory of music . He attempted to pull together his research into a general theory . Concerned as always with Modernismo 's need to break from the past , he formulated a distinction between the classical music of 18th- and 19th @-@ century Europe , and what he called the music of the future , which would be based simultaneously on modernist breakdowns of musical form and on an understanding of folk and popular music . The music of the past , he said , was conceived in terms of space : whether counterpoint , with its multiple voices arranged in vertical alignment , or the symphonic forms , in which the dominant voice is typically projected on top of a complex accompaniment . Future music would be arranged in time rather than space : " moment by moment " ( in Luper 's translation ) . This temporal music would be inspired not by " contemplative remembrance " , but by the deep longing or desire expressed by the Portuguese word saudade .
Through his position at the Department of Culture in this period , he was able to assist Dina Lévi @-@ Strauss and her husband , Claude Lévi @-@ Strauss with films they were making based on field research in Mato Grosso and Rondônia .
Andrade 's position at the Department of Culture was abruptly revoked in 1937 , when Vargas returned to power and Duarte was exiled . In 1938 Andrade moved to Rio de Janeiro to take up a post at the Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro . While there he directed the Congresso da Língua Nacional Cantada ( Congress of National Musical Language ) , a major folklore and folk music conference . He returned to São Paulo in 1941 , where he worked on a collected edition of his poetry .
Andrade 's final project was a long poem called " Meditação Sôbre o Tietê . " The work is dense and difficult , and was dismissed by its early critics as " without meaning " , although recent work on it has been more enthusiastic . One critic , David T Haberly , has compared it favorably to William Carlos Williams 's Paterson , a dense but influential unfinished epic using composite construction . Like Paterson , it is a poem about a city ; the " Meditação " is centered on the Tietê River , which flows through São Paulo . The poem is simultaneously a summation of Andrade 's career , commenting on poems written long before , and a love poem addressed to the river and to the city itself . In both cases , the poem hints at a larger context : it compares the river to the Tagus in Lisbon and the Seine in Paris , as if claiming an international position for Andrade as well . At the same time , the poem associates both Andrade 's voice and the river with " banzeiro , " a word from the Afro @-@ Brazilian musical tradition : music that can unite man and river . The poem is the definitive and final statement of Andrade 's ambition and his nationalism .
Andrade died at his home in São Paulo of a heart attack on February 25 , 1945 , at the age of 52 . Because of his tenuous relationship with the Vargas regime , the initial official reaction to his career was muted . However , the publication of his Complete Poems in 1955 ( the year after Vargas 's death ) signalled the start of Andrade 's canonization as one of the cultural heroes of Brazil . On February 15 , 1960 , the municipal library of São Paulo was renamed Biblioteca Mário de Andrade .
= = Partial bibliography = =
= = English translations = =
Fraulein ( Amar , Verbo Intransitivo ) . Trans . Margaret Richardson Hollingsworth . New York : Macaulay , 1933 .
Popular Music and Song in Brazil . 1936 . Trans . Luiz Victor Le Cocq D 'Oliveira . Sponsored by the Ministry of State for Foreign Affairs of Brazil : Division of Intellectual Cooperation . Rio de Janeiro : Imprensa Nacional , 1943 .
Portuguese version published in the second edition ( 1962 ) of Ensaio sobre a Música Brasileira .
Hallucinated City ( Paulicea Desvairada ) . Trans . Jack E. Tomlins . Nashville : Vanderbilt UP , 1968 .
Macunaíma . Trans . E.A. Goodland . New York : Random House , 1984 .
Brazilian Sculpture : An Identity in Profile / Escultura Brasileira : Perfil de uma Identidate . Catalog of exhibition in English and Portuguese . Includes text by Mário de Andrade and others . Ed . Élcior Ferreira de Santana Filho . São Paulo , Brazil : Associação dos Amigos da Pinateca , 1997 .
= Winter Madness =
" Winter Madness " is the eleventh episode of the fourth season of the American television comedy series 30 Rock , and the 69th overall episode of the series . The episode was written by Tom Ceraulo and Vali Chandrasekaran , and directed by Beth McCarthy @-@ Miller . It originally aired on the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) in the United States on January 21 , 2010 . Guest stars in this episode include Ray Bokhour , Cheyenne Jackson , Kevin Meaney , and Julianne Moore .
In the episode , when head writer Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) decides to take the fictitious show The Girlie Show with Tracy Jordan ( TGS ) on the road to cure the staff 's case of the winter madness , the anticipated trip does not exactly go as planned . Her boss , Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) , chooses Boston as the destination and travels with the show in order to visit Nancy Donovan ( Moore ) , and while away from New York , the TGS crew blames Liz for all of their misfortunes . This episode also continued a story arc involving Nancy as a love interest for Jack , which began in the episode " Secret Santa " that aired in December 2009 .
" Winter Madness " received generally mixed reception from television critics . According to the Nielsen Media Research , it was watched by 5 @.@ 585 million households during its original broadcast , and received a 2 @.@ 8 rating / 7 share among viewers in the 18 – 49 demographic .
= = Plot = =
TGS head writer Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) , along with producer Pete Hornberger ( Scott Adsit ) , decides to take the show 's staff to Miami for a week , due to Liz 's hate of the cold weather and the staff 's case of " winter madness " . Her boss , Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) , decides to take them to Boston instead , so he can see Nancy Donovan ( Julianne Moore ) , a woman Jack ponders having a possible romance with . He learns that Nancy 's husband has left her as a way of getting her to ask for a divorce , but Nancy refuses to do so , fearing what others might think . Jack admits his true feelings to Nancy and insists that the two talk . She suggests that they should say four words to each other as a way of putting their relationship on hold ; Jack says to her " I 'll wait . Not forever " , while Nancy tells him " I 'll try . Wicked hard . "
Meanwhile , the TGS staff — Jenna Maroney ( Jane Krakowski ) , Frank Rossitano ( Judah Friedlander ) , James " Toofer " Spurlock ( Keith Powell ) , J. D. Lutz ( John Lutz ) , Sue Laroche @-@ Van der Hout ( Sue Galloway ) , Kenneth Parcell ( Jack McBrayer ) , Cerie Xerox ( Katrina Bowden ) , and Danny Baker ( Cheyenne Jackson ) — vent their anger at Liz ; they complain that Boston is colder than New York , and they do not like sharing an office with the all @-@ male staff of Boston Bruins fans who write for the Bruins Beat . Liz gets a tip from Jack to find a common enemy in the Boston affiliate of NBC . Liz comes up with the name " Dale Snitterman " , and tells the staff that Snitterman is causing all of their problems , not realizing until later that she had seen the name somewhere and did not make it up . At that point , the staff finds Snitterman ( Ray Bokhour ) and harass him .
At the same time , Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) goes on Boston 's Freedom Trail . He accuses the actor playing John Hancock ( Kevin Meaney ) that his character did not actually set all Americans free . When he tells him " Patriots suck ! " , he inadvertently says it near a group of New England Patriots fans . At the end of the episode , Hancock brings in the Crispus Attucks character and tells Tracy he does have black friends . When Hancock says he met Attucks in 1775 , Tracy is able to one up him as he knows that Attucks was killed in the Boston Massacre in 1770 .
= = Production = =
" Winter Madness " was written by script co @-@ coordinator Tom Ceraulo and co @-@ producer Vali Chandrasekaran , and directed by Beth McCarthy @-@ Miller . This episode was Ceraulo 's second writing credit , having co @-@ written season three episode " The Funcooker , and the first written episode by Chandrasekaran . This was McCarthy @-@ Miller 's tenth directed episode . " Winter Madness " originally aired in the United States on January 21 , 2010 , on NBC as the eleventh episode of the show 's fourth season and the 69th overall episode of the series .
In November 2009 , it was announced that actress Julianne Moore would guest star on 30 Rock as a love interest for Jack Donaghy , Alec Baldwin 's character . She made her debut as the character Nancy Donovan in the December 10 , 2009 , episode " Secret Santa " . This episode was Moore 's second appearance on the show . " Winter Madness " was filmed on November 17 , 2009 . Comedian Kevin Meaney guest starred as the actor portraying John Hancock . This was actor Cheyenne Jackson 's fourth appearance as Danny Baker in the series . He made his debut in the November 12 , 2009 , episode " The Problem Solvers " , and would later guest star on the episodes " Secret Santa " , " Black Light Attack ! " , " Floyd " , and " The Moms " . In " Winter Madness " , while venting their anger towards Liz , Danny admits his refusal to hit on Jenna .
= = Cultural references = =
In the beginning of the episode , Liz complains about the cold weather saying that she has been stuck inside her apartment playing online Boggle , a word game designed by using a plastic grid of lettered dice , in which players attempt to find words in sequences of adjacent letters . Later , Jack tells Liz that she is the female version of former Boston Celtics basketball player Kevin McHale . Jack 's Boston office is a duplication of his New York one . When Liz enters , Jack asks her if she can tell which seven items are different , prompting the two to look into the camera and smile and thus breaking the fourth wall , a term used when a character in a television show , film or on stage directly addresses the audience . In one scene , Jack says that many Boston residents have named their daughters " Belichick " , after New England Patriots head coach Bill Belichick .
During one scene of " Winter Madness " , Toofer tells the writing staff that he went to college in Boston , " Well , not in Boston , but nearby " , mocking a common stereotype of Harvard students that they will not mention that they attend the University , for fear of intimidating anyone , but will still strongly hint to it . Later , Jack and Nancy imitate former Boston newscasters Chet Curtis and Natalie Jacobson , who were the most @-@ watched news team in Boston for twenty years . Nancy tells Jack that her husband moved to New Orleans to rebuild houses that were affected by Hurricane Katrina as part of actor Brad Pitt 's Make It Right Foundation , an organization building affordable housing to help those families most in need following the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " Winter Madness " was watched by 5 @.@ 585 million households , according to the Nielsen Media Research . It received a 2 @.@ 8 rating / 7 share among viewers in the 18 – 49 demographic , meaning that 2 @.@ 8 percent of all people in that group , and 7 percent of all people from that group watching television at the time , watched the episode . This was an increase from the previous episode , " Black Light Attack ! " , which was watched by 5 @.@ 014 million American viewers . " Winter Madness " ranked third in the timeslot and was the only episode getting more viewers , going up 22 percent from the previous week 's episode rating .
The episode received generally mixed reviews from television critics . Robert Canning of IGN said the episode was great and gave it an 8 @.@ 8 out 10 rating , saying that he was " impressed " with how the ending handled Jack and Nancy 's " not @-@ quite romance . " Canning enjoyed the " platonic romance " between them saying , " A lesser series could have simply had the pair hook up , break up and move on , but 30 Rock has drawn out the relationship with flirtation , what @-@ ifs and possible future ex @-@ husbands . " Meredith Blake , writing for the Los Angeles Times , found the episode " perfectly " and " well @-@ timed " . Leonard Pierce for The A.V. Club said that the episode started " out wicked strong , with everyone in the cast getting great lines " . In regards to the two plots , Pierce said that the Liz , TGS , and Dale Snitterman story was " stuffed with great comedic moments " , while the Jack and Nancy angle just sat there and flopped " around like a dying fish . " Bob Sassone of AOL 's TV Squad enjoyed the Boston theme in " Winter Madness " ; his only complaint was that the episode had nothing to do with TGS , the fictional show on 30 Rock . " I 'm getting a little tired of that . I want more sketches and NBC network shenanigans . "
Entertainment Weekly ’ s Margaret Lyons reported that " Winter Madness " was " something of a letdown . " She commented that Julianne Moore 's Nancy was not " funny enough " as a " romantic foil for Jack " , and that taking the show to Boston seemed off the mark . Television columnist Alan Sepinwall for The Star @-@ Ledger reported that " Winter Madness " fell into the category of an episode that featured " a lot of funny gags but aren 't wholly satisfying " and added that it " just stopped , rather than building to a real conclusion " . Sean Gandert of Paste rated unfavorably the pairing of Alec Baldwin and Julianne Moore 's characters , citing that they do not have " much rapport , so the scenes with the two of them together are a bit dead , as much as I usually enjoy seeing Julianne Moore in pretty much anything . " Amos Barshad for New York magazine criticized Moore 's Boston accent , citing that it was " atrocious " , while TV Guide Magazine ’ s Bruce Fretts opined that the accent was " wicked bad " . Regarding the episode itself , Fretts said that it was " weak " .
Despite the criticism towards Moore 's Boston accent in the series , executive producer Robert Carlock , who is from Boston , defended Moore . In an interview with New York magazine , Carlock said , " I grew up with people like that . Not everyone talks like that in Boston , but I think she 's enough of an actress to pull it off . " When asked if her accent " sounded realistic " , he noted , " I 'm going to go with that . I know people who sound like that . " In response to the accent , Moore explained " I went to school in Boston and worked with a lot of guys from Dorchester , so that 's where [ the accent ] came from . We made it thick ... for humor 's sake , but then again , not really . There are folks with seriously heavy accents there , and they are proud of it . "
= SMS Arcona =
SMS Arcona was the ninth member of the ten @-@ ship Gazelle class , built by the Imperial German Navy , and named after Cape Arkona on the German island of Rügen . She was built by the AG Weser dockyard in Bremen , laid down in 1901 , launched in April 1902 , and commissioned into the High Seas Fleet in May 1903 . Armed with a main battery of ten 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) guns and two 45 cm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes , Arcona was capable of a top speed of 21 @.@ 5 knots ( 39 @.@ 8 km / h ; 24 @.@ 7 mph ) .
Arcona served in all three German navies in the first half of the 20th century . She served both with the fleet and abroad during her career in the Imperial Navy in the early 1900s . In World War I , she was used as a coastal defense ship and then as a support vessel for the U @-@ boat campaign in the Atlantic . After the war , she served briefly in the Reichsmarine before being withdrawn and used for secondary duties . After the German Navy became the Kriegsmarine in 1935 , it rebuilt Arcona as a floating anti @-@ aircraft battery and used her to defend several German ports during World War II . She was scuttled in the final days of the war , and broken up for scrap in 1948 – 1949 .
= = Construction = =
Arcona was ordered under the contract name " H " and was laid down at the AG Weser shipyard in Bremen in 1901 and launched on 22 April 1902 , after which fitting @-@ out work commenced . She was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet on 12 May 1903 . The ship was 105 meters ( 344 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 12 @.@ 4 m ( 41 ft ) and a draft of 4 @.@ 99 m ( 16 @.@ 4 ft ) forward . She displaced 3 @,@ 180 t ( 3 @,@ 130 long tons ; 3 @,@ 510 short tons ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of two triple @-@ expansion engines manufactured by AG Weser . They were designed to give 8 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 6 @,@ 000 kW ) , for a top speed of 21 @.@ 5 knots ( 39 @.@ 8 km / h ; 24 @.@ 7 mph ) . The engines were powered by eight coal @-@ fired Marine @-@ type water @-@ tube boilers . Arcona carried 700 tonnes ( 690 long tons ) of coal , which gave her a range of 4 @,@ 400 nautical miles ( 8 @,@ 100 km ; 5 @,@ 100 mi ) at 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . She had a crew of 14 officers and 256 enlisted men .
The ship was armed with ten 10 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 40 guns in single mounts . Two were placed side by side forward on the forecastle , six were located amidships , three on either side , and two were placed side by side aft . The guns could engage targets out to 12 @,@ 200 m ( 40 @,@ 000 ft ) . They were supplied with 1 @,@ 500 rounds of ammunition , for 150 shells per gun . She was also equipped with two 45 cm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes with five torpedoes . They were submerged in the hull on the broadside . The ship was protected by an armored deck that was 20 to 25 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 to 0 @.@ 98 in ) thick . The conning tower had 80 mm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) thick sides , and the guns were protected by 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick shields .
= = Service history = =
After her commissioning , Arcona was assigned to the fleet reconnaissance forces . In 1905 , she was assigned to the Cruiser Division , alongside her sister Frauenlob and the cruisers Hamburg and Friedrich Carl . Arcona was assigned to overseas duty in 1907 , which lasted for three years . In 1909 , Arcona cruised the Pacific coast on the United States , including a stop in Honolulu . While there , on 10 December , she assisted the British merchant ship Celtic Chief , which had run aground on a reef outside Honolulu . After the ship had been lightened by removing its cargo , Arcona pulled the merchantman free from the reef .
Arcona returned to Germany in 1910 and resumed service with the fleet . She was modernized in the Imperial Dockyard in Wilhelmshaven in 1911 – 1912 . Two of the ship 's 10 @.@ 5 cm guns were removed , and two 50 cm ( 20 in ) deck @-@ mounted torpedo tubes were installed , along with provisions to carry 200 naval mines . After returning to duty in 1913 , the ship was withdrawn from front @-@ line service for use as a mine warfare test ship . The two guns removed in 1912 were reinstalled in 1914 . After the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , Arcona was employed as a coastal defense vessel . Later in the war , Arcona was transferred to the Ems estuary , where she coordinated radio communications with the U @-@ boats attacking British merchant shipping .
After the end of the war , Germany was charged with sweeping all naval mines in the North Sea by the Treaty of Versailles . Arcona was used as a depot ship for the minesweepers engaged in this duty , from 1919 to 1920 . She was thereafter commissioned into the newly reorganized Reichsmarine in 1921 and served until 1923 , when she was withdrawn from service . She was stricken on 15 January 1930 and used as a barracks ship initially in Wilhelmshaven , after 1936 , in Swinemünde by the newly renamed Kriegsmarine , and in Kiel after 1938 , where she remained until the outbreak of World War II in September 1939 .
In May 1940 , Arcona was converted into a floating anti @-@ aircraft battery in Swinemünde , where she was stationed initially . Her armament now consisted of one 10 @.@ 5 cm SK C / 32 gun , four 10 @.@ 5 cm SK C / 33 guns , two 3 @.@ 7 cm SK C / 30 guns , and four 2 cm guns . She was later moved to Wilhelmshaven , where she was assigned to Naval Anti @-@ Aircraft Group 233 , and she was transferred to Brunsbüttel later in the war . In closing days of the war in Europe , her crew scuttled the ship to prevent her from being captured , on 3 May 1945 . Nevertheless , the Royal Navy took control of the naval installation at Brunsbüttel on 7 May , after the German surrender . Arcona was among the warships that were seized , including four U @-@ boats and the badly damaged destroyer Z31 . Their German crews unloaded ammunition and removed weapons from the ships under British supervision . She was subsequently broken up for scrap in 1948 – 1949 .
= I Miss You ( Beyoncé song ) =
" I Miss You " is a song by American recording artist Beyoncé , taken from her fourth studio album , 4 ( 2011 ) . It was written by Beyoncé , Frank Ocean and Shea Taylor while production was handled by Beyoncé and Taylor . The song 's development was motivated the fact that Beyoncé wanted to focus on songs being classics , songs that would last , and songs that she could sing when she becomes old . A mid @-@ paced R & B ballad , " I Miss You " is influenced by the ballads of the 1980s . Its instrumentation consists essentially of synthesizers and keyboards . " I Miss You " finds Beyoncé , as the protagonist , thinking deeply over her relationship with her love interest from whom she parted ; however , she still pines for him and feels self @-@ conscious for doing so .
" I Miss You " was generally praised by music critics who complimented its very sparse production as well as its aurally remarkable 1980s influence . Some of them also described the song as a " haunting " ballad and called it the highlight of the record . Critics also complimented how Beyoncé 's vocals keep on alternating from desperate and calm throughout the song , and highlighted the vulnerability in her voice . Following the release of 4 in early July 2011 , " I Miss You " charted at number 184 on the UK Singles Chart and at number 34 on the South Korea Gaon International Singles Chart , based on downloads alone . The song was part of Beyoncé 's set list for her 4 Intimate Nights with Beyoncé , held in Roseland Ballroom , New York City in August 2011 .
= = Background and development = =
" I Miss You " was written by Beyoncé , Odd Future collective member Frank Ocean , and Shea Taylor while production was handled by Beyoncé and Taylor themselves . In early March 2011 , Ocean made known that Beyoncé was back in the studio working on her then upcoming fourth studio album , 4 . Ocean posted a snap of Beyoncé in his studio on Twitter , fuelling reports that he had worked with Beyoncé on the new record . As well as posting a picture of Beyoncé recording new material , he also accompanied the image with the comment : " This is the room i am working in this day. not to brag but man , this is surreal. like [ ... ] she is singing my songs . If time were to stop right now , the past couple weeks would be near the top of the highlight reel for my short time on earth [ sic ] . "
In July 2011 , Beyoncé sat for an interview with Gabriel Alvarez of Complex magazine , where she elaborated on how she came to know about Ocean : " Jay [ -Z ] had a CD playing in the car one Sunday when we were driving to Brooklyn . I noticed his tone , his arrangements , and his storytelling . I immediately reached out to him — literally the next morning . I asked him to fly to New York and work on my record . " In this way , Ocean ended up co @-@ writing " I Miss You " . Beginning on June 16 to June 27 , 2011 , the songs from 4 were available to listen to in full each day on Beyoncé 's official website , paired with its accompanying photo spread from the album packaging and an insightful quote . On June 18 , 2011 , " I Miss You " " was the third song to be chosen . The quote found Beyoncé elaborating on what motivated her to record a song like " I Miss You " :
[ 4 ] is definitely an evolution . It is bolder than the music on my previous albums because I ’ m bolder . The more mature I become and the more life experiences I have , the more I have to talk about . I really focused on songs being classics , songs that would last , songs that I could sing when I ’ m 40 and when I ’ m 60 .
= = Composition = =
" I Miss You " is a mid @-@ tempo ballad that draws from the genres of R & B and contains elements of pop music and trip hop . Michael Cragg , writing for both The Guardian and The Observer , noted that it is heavily influenced by the 1980s ballads . This was further noted by Charles Ubaghs of The Quietus and Priya Elan of NME , who commented that " I Miss You " is influenced by the 1980s electro soul and neo soul music styles respectively . A generally low @-@ key song , " I Miss You " is built on a simple puttering metronomic beat , which has been further described as a " minimal , geiger @-@ counter @-@ sounding click @-@ pop [ one ] " . " I Miss You " feels " light and understated " , sparing the musical histrionics of " Dangerously in Love " ( 2003 ) or " If I Were a Boy " ( 2008 ) , according to Andrew Unterberger of PopCrush . The song 's instrumentation consists of " layers of atmospheric keyboards " , ambient synthesizers , and tinny 808 drums The synthesizers expand and contract as they progress through their chords , maintaining an even level of intensity throughout .
As stated by Unterberger , owing to its " same kind of vocal longing , late @-@ night desperation lyrics , and most importantly , thick , moody synth [ esizers ] " , " I Miss You " bears resemblance to a mid @-@ 1980s Foreigner ballad . Additionally , Rich Juzwiak of The Village Voice commented that Martika 's 1991 song " Love ... Thy Will Be Done " is conjured in " I Miss You " . Matthew Horton of BBC felt that " I Miss You " features " the kind of subtle tension " achieved by Alicia Keys ' Try Sleeping with a Broken Heart ( 2010 ) . Jim Farber of Daily News added that " ' I Miss You ' contrasts a soft bed of synth [ esizers ] and heavily echoed drums " in a way similar to Phil Collins ' 1981 song " In the Air Tonight " .
Described by Matthew Horton as a song that " tug [ s ] heartstrings " , " I Miss You " finds Beyoncé , as the female protagonist , ruminating over her relationship with her ex @-@ love interest without firm verdicts ; she is " confused , conflicted , very human " , as stated by the Chicago Sun @-@ Times 's Thomas Conner . Even though they have parted , Beyoncé " still cannot let go and her needs are vexing her " , according to Melinda Newman of HitFix . Also , Matthew Perpetua of Rolling Stone added that the song features Beyoncé " at her most understated " . Throughout the song , her phrasing is " cool , calm and collected " . Ian Walker of AbsolutePunk stated that the lyrics of " I Miss You " are a mixture of " hopeful longing and loneliness . "
Beyoncé begins the first verse of the song in a near @-@ whisper , " I thought that things like this get better with time / But I still need you / Why is that ? " The latter rhetorical question reappears throughout the song . In the chorus lines , she questions herself , " I miss you / But if I got with you , could it feel the same ? " From the second verse and onwards , the song finds Beyoncé " vocalizing an internal battle , alternately desperate and calm " , as stated by Joey Guerra of the Houston Chronicle . She starts to sing in a double voice ; her lower vocal notes are set as the song 's base , while her voice in a heightened key is played over it . In the second verse , she sings , " The words don ’ t ever seem to come out right / But I still mean [ th ] em " , pining for her ex @-@ love interest and feeling self @-@ conscious for doing so , " It hurts my pride to tell you how I feel , but I still need to " before asking again , " Why is that ? " . The bridge features Beyoncé chanting , " No matter who you are / It is so simple / A feeling / But it ’ s everything . "
= = Critical reception = =
" I Miss You " received generally positive reviews . David Amidon of PopMatters who stated that " 1 + 1 provides Beyoncé a song that " can compete with the favorites of this generation ’ s parents " , came to the conclusion that " 1 + 1 " and " I Miss You " are " equally competent , if safer , attempts at the same formula " . He concluded that these songs make it clear that Beyoncé is " head and shoulders above her Clear Channel competition in R & B " . Joanne Dorken of MTV UK who described " I Miss You " as " heartfelt ballad " with her vocals being " on point " , as she delivers the song with " raw emotion " . Ben Cardew of Music Week appreciated " the influence of Frank Ocean " , which according to him , made it feel like " the first track on the album to have a modern feel " . He went on praising the fact that the ballad is constructed from " a stripped down beat and washes of synth , making a very simple track but one that benefits from its simplicity " . Describing " I Miss You " as a " gently pulsing , sci @-@ fi ballad " , Joey Guerra of the Houston Chronicle called the song " one of the most fascinating moments amid a dozen tracks " . Cameron Adams of the Herald Sun wrote that " I Miss You " is a nocturnal and experimental ballad due to its synth washes . Michael Cragg of The Observer called " the minimal ' I Miss You ' the highlight [ of 4 ] " . Brandon Lewis of Blogcritics found " I Miss You " both " haunting and gorgeous , with an ominous vocal and very sparse production " . Showing high favoritism for " I Miss You " , Roberts Randall of Los Angeles Times wrote :
Beyoncé Knowles is not worried chasing fads , though she is well aware of them . Over the years , she has learned how to harness them so effortlessly that they seem like her ideas . Take the standout track on her new album , 4 , ' I Miss You ' , a slow @-@ burn jam of desire co @-@ written by Odd Future @-@ affiliated crooner Frank Ocean . In its beginning moments , the song draws on the sparse wave of recent music by British band The xx by using silence as a weapon , a notion that extends across the 12 @-@ song album .
Adam Markovitz of Entertainment Weekly was also positive , writing that Beyoncé " pants and sweats and grunts ( except , you know , sexy @-@ like ) , her voice climbing ever higher in search of an octave big enough to hold it " . Embling of Tiny Mix Tapes wrote that " [ ... ] " if sung by anyone else , ' I Miss You ' would be a thin wisp of a ballad , but Beyoncé allows her voice to crack at the right moments , moving tenuously , self @-@ consciously through the soft , circular melody . " He concluded that songs like " I Miss You " and " Start Over " would earn deserved spots in " the Beyoncé pantheon " once fans take the time to grow attached to them . Andrew Unterberger of PopCrush praised the way Beyoncé delivers the line " Why is that ? " , writing that it is " a nice little nod to the confusion of heartbreak , and a rare , welcome glimpse of vulnerability for an artist who too often seems to have all of the answers . " Referring to " I Miss You " , Alexis Petridis of The Guardian wrote that " the [ 19 ] 80s influence is not always a bad thing . " He considered the song to be " a woozy update of an old @-@ fashioned slow jam " , further stating that " it is probably pushing it a bit to call it an R & B equivalent of Ariel Pink 's hypnagogic pop , but there 's something enveloping and dream @-@ like about it . " Ian Walker of AbsolutePunk commented that the " [ the ] hollow beat and dismal synthesizers , allow [ ed ] Beyoncé and her morosely beautiful voice center stage . [ ... ] Beyoncé delivers a believable performance effortlessly . " By contrast , Greg Kot of the Chicago Tribune was negative , writing that " [ ' I Miss You ' is ] easily overlooked with its forlorn keyboard and beat @-@ box chintziness . " Similarly , Consequence of Sound writer Chris Coplan felt that the ballad is " too @-@ saccharine @-@ for @-@ its @-@ own @-@ good . " The Guardian 's critics Ben Beaumont Thomas and Rebecca Nicholson ranked " I Miss You " at numbers four and nine respectively on their lists of The 10 Best Tracks of 2011 .
= = Live performances = =
Beyoncé performed " I Miss You " live for first time on August 14 , 2011 during her 4 Intimate Nights with Beyoncé in Roseland Ballroom , New York City . She performed the song in front of 3 @,@ 500 people wearing a gold dress and backed by her all @-@ female band and her backing singers , called the Mamas . During the ITV special A Night With Beyoncé which aired on December 4 in the United Kingdom , Beyoncé performed " I Miss You " to a selected crowd of fans .
In May , 2012 , Beyoncé performed " I Miss You " during her Revel Presents : Beyoncé Live revue in Atlantic City , New Jersey , United States ' entertainment resort , hotel , casino and spa , Revel . An electronic backdrop behind Beyoncé and a male dancer in kinetic , black @-@ and @-@ white stripes accompanied Beyoncé on stage . Dan DeLuca of The Philadelphia Inquirer noted that " the set list tipped too heavily at times toward bombastic balladry like ' I Care ' and ' I Miss You ' " . Jim Farber of Daily News commented that the song was sung with " precision and sweep , she tipped the balance decidedly softer , giving her power grounding " . Tris McCall of New Jersey On @-@ Line wrote , " Even ' I Miss You , ' perhaps the least flashy song in her catalog , felt like a necessary breather , and an occasion for her to break out her conversational lower register . "
= = Cover versions = =
On November 5 , 2011 , Ocean performed " I Miss You " at the House of Blues in New Orleans . Dressed in a black suit with a red @-@ and @-@ white bandana around his head , he sat down at an electric piano to perform it live to end the evening . The crowd also sang along . Alex Rawls of Rolling Stone found his performance to be " warm and soulful " . British indie pop band The xx covered the song on February 14 , 2013 during their concert in Austin , Texas and later posted the cover on their official blog . Their cover of the song was a duet between Romy Madley Croft and Oliver Sim accompanied by spare guitar and bass . Their cover of the song was described as " great " by Jenn Pelly of Pitchfork Media , while Sam Weiss of Complex magazine praised the performance saying that the band made the song sound similar to their own material from the album Coexist ( 2012 ) . Chris Martins of Spin magazine commented that " It 's exactly what you 'd expect to hear , and it 's exactly as beautiful as you 'd hope it would be . "
= = Chart performance = =
Selling 16 @,@ 032 digital downloads , " I Miss You " opened at number 34 on the South Korea Gaon International Singles Chart for the week ending July 2 , 2011 . Following the release of 4 , " I Miss You " also charted at number 184 on the UK Singles Chart on July 9 , 2011 , based on downloads alone .
= Chrono Trigger : Crimson Echoes =
Chrono Trigger : Crimson Echoes is a fangame developed by the international team Kajar Laboratories as a ROM hack of Square 's role @-@ playing video game Chrono Trigger for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System . It was conceived as an unofficial installment in the Chrono series , set between the events of Chrono Trigger and its sequel Chrono Cross .
The game , as a ROM hack , runs on the Chrono Trigger game engine and has gameplay similar to the original . It is based five years after the events of Chrono Trigger and features all the playable characters from the original game , who come together across different time periods to fight an enemy attempting to change the past . The plot includes elements from both official games . Crimson Echoes concludes by setting up several plot points that were used in Chrono Cross .
The project was in development from 2004 – 09 , with 98 % of the game completed . The game reportedly totaled around 35 hours of play time , and had ten alternate endings . A few weeks prior to the expected released date , Square Enix sent the developers a cease @-@ and @-@ desist letter for knowingly violating Square Enix 's intellectual property , which led to the cancellation of the project . This cancellation was widely reported in the gaming press , who were largely sympathetic to the project . Despite its cancellation , versions of the game ranging from an alpha to a release candidate have since been leaked onto the internet and can be played through to the end .
= = Gameplay = =
As Crimson Echoes runs on the Chrono Trigger game engine , the gameplay is similar to that of the original title . Players and enemies may use physical or magical attacks to wound targets during battle , and players may use items to heal or protect themselves . Each character and enemy has a certain number of hit points that are reduced by successful attacks and can be restored through potions and spells . When a playable character loses all hit points , he or she faints . It also uses the Active Time Battle 2 @.@ 0 system from the first game . The game features new maps , graphics and sprites . New minigames were designed to reward players with items and equipment , including a " Coliseum " battle mode based on that of Final Fantasy VII and a casino featuring luck @-@ based games .
= = Characters = =
Crimson Echoes features all the playable characters of the original game , and is set five years after the events of Chrono Trigger . Crono and Marle are junior regents of the Kingdom of Guardia ; Lucca continues her scientific endeavors . The three struggle to ease tensions with Porre , which has modernized its military and seeks to end Guardia 's economic hegemony . Frog lives in 605 A.D. , restored to his human form , though this was not implemented before the cease and desist letter . Magus searches for Schala in the still @-@ frozen 11 @,@ 995 B.C. , and feuds with Dalton , obsessed with finding artifacts from the lost Kingdom of Zeal . Ayla dwells in 64 @,@ 999 @,@ 995 B.C. , and has given birth to her tribe 's successor . Robo assists the Guru of Time Belthasar , who has established a clandestine temporal research facility named Chronopolis in 2305 A.D. Belthasar claims it will be a guardian of time to ensure a threat such as Lavos will never arise . He nonetheless harbors darker wishes to leave a grand legacy in history , and is almost recklessly pragmatic . He fixes the Epoch during the story 's course , which returns as the Neo @-@ Epoch ( akin to its design in Chrono Cross ) .
The main villain of Crimson Echoes is King Zeal , revived by Lavos through the Frozen Flame . Confused and saddened by the loss of his kingdom , he is easily manipulated by Lavos , who uses him to attempt revenge on Crono and his friends . He later learns of his deception , and seeks to dominate Lavos and recreate his kingdom through unmatched temporal power . While under Lavos 's influence , he recruits Dalton and Kasmir to his cause . Kasmir is an illusionist who served under Magus in the Mystic War . King Zeal gives him the Masamune , and he assumes leadership of the Mystics after 600 A.D. Other foes come from the Reptite timeline , an alternate universe temporarily brought into existence by King Zeal 's meddling . They number the Dragon God — a Reptite artificial intelligence created in an alternate timeline — and the Xamoltan time travelers , who were used by King Zeal and survive into the restored human world . The party also visit 1 A.D. , the era of the founding of Guardia . There , they meet Cedric the Executor , the ruthless first King of Guardia , as well as Antaeus , the ancestor of Porre .
= = Plot = =
The game begins as Crono , Marle , and Lucca attend a political meeting between the Kingdom of Guardia and Porre . An assassin attacks ; the party pursues him to the Denadoro Mts . , where Lucca 's prototype Time Egg backfires and sends them to the future . They find Belthasar there , who has established a research facility called Chronopolis . He warns of a new threat to the timeline , and sends the party to the Ocean Palace ruins of 11 @,@ 995 B.C. to investigate . They find Magus , still searching for Schala and feuding with Dalton . They confront a mysterious villain who resurrects Schala and robs the early Masamune , still embedded in the husk of the Mammon Machine . Its theft changes history , causing the Mystics ' war in the Middle Ages to drag on another 50 years , led by the illusionist Kasmir . The party retrieve Frog ( named Glenn in Crimson Echoes ) from 605 A.D. and meet with Belthasar .
He explains the mysterious villain was King Zeal , somehow alive and in possession of the Frozen Flame , a shard of Lavos with incredible powers . Melchior takes up residence in Chronopolis to aid the fight against him . The party goes to 64 @,@ 999 @,@ 995 B.C. to find the Dragon 's Tooth , an enchanted totem that will assist Chronopolis . King Zeal confronts them at the old Lavos impact crater , scattering them through time and unleashing the " Atash Kedah " , a destructive spell that changes history . Marle awakens in 1 A.D. to discover Reptites have survived the long ice age , and war with humanity for control of the planet . Lucca and Robo arrive in 2305 A.D. , awaking in the midst of a futuristic Reptite civilization . They ally with rebellious , sentient robots and venture to Dinopolis , the equivalent of Chronopolis in this timeline . They destroy the Vision Serpent , an artificial intelligence created to administrate the world . Crono , Magus , and Glenn awaken in 1005 A.D. , and assault the earlier Dinopolis , where Reptite time travelers from 2305 A.D. have come to conduct research on the past . The party use the temporal technology in place to return to 64 @,@ 999 @,@ 995 B.C. and stop the Atash Kedah spell , restoring the human timeline .
Marle awakens in 1 A.D. once more , this time witnessing her ancestor , Cedric Guardia , brutally unify the world with the Frozen Flame . A ubiquitous agent from Chronopolis — code @-@ named 12 — brings her back to the future . The party learn that the Reptite time travelers — named Cakulha , Coyopa , and Yaluk — survived the human world 's restoration , and had been manipulated by King Zeal . The party fix the Mystic War by retrieving the Masamune from Kasmir and putting it back in antiquity . In 1005 A.D. , new diplomatic talks are about to begin . Porre instead launches an assault , backed by King Zeal and Dalton , placed in Porre 's high command by the king . King Guardia dies in the attack . The party venture to 11 @,@ 995 B.C. once more with Schala , intent on striking the Frozen Flame in antiquity to lure out King Zeal . This unleashes wild energies , and the party must overcome individual mental assaults by the Flame . King Zeal retreats , and the energies cause Schala to fall into the Darkness Beyond Time , a temporal netherworld . Unsuccessful , the party seek out Gaspar tens of millions of years in the past ( known as the Dreamtime ) , where he 's gone to witness the birth of the planet 's consciousness . King Zeal attacks them there ; Crono falls near the rifts of the forming planet and is partly infused with its natal awareness . The party learn that King Zeal 's ultimate goal is to resurrect the Kingdom of Zeal in 11 @,@ 995 B.C.
The party return to antiquity and defeat Dalton . King Zeal nears the fruition of his plan , but Melchior and Belthasar enter the time period to dissuade him . King Zeal leaves the Sun Stone , the trigger for the revival of Zeal , with a follower and walks to the North Cape . He reveals that Lavos survived defeat in Chrono Trigger and clung to life in the Darkness Beyond Time . He used the Frozen Flame to revive King Zeal , manipulating him to take revenge on the heroes . He is now merging with Schala , as he has done with all the other " Arbiters " who have used the Frozen Flame throughout history . Lavos calls King Zeal , intending to merge with him as well and evolve to become the Dream Devourer ( as seen in Chrono Trigger DS ) . The party convince Zeal 's followers not to activate the Sun Stone , and pursue Zeal to the Darkness Beyond Time . King Zeal confronts them once more , revealing his will is stronger than that of Lavos ; he 'll merge , but become the dominant personality within the Dream Devourer and create a new Zeal using its vast power . The party defeat him and return to Chronopolis . They notice the planet 's Gates are closing again , and depart to their homes , promising to stay in touch . Belthasar meanwhile reveals he has the Frozen Flame , which activates and informs him that Lavos is still alive and will become the Time Devourer , the enemy of Chrono Cross . It challenges Belthasar to a grand game , and he begins drawing up plans for Project Kid . The game closes with King Zeal , shown to be alive and imprisoned by Magus in 11 @,@ 995 B.C. , who forces him to teach advanced temporal magic .
= = Development = =
The Crimson Echoes project was launched by ZeaLitY in 2004 . The development team , dubbed Kajar Laboratories , primarily consisted of members of the Chrono fansite Chrono Compendium . The team was led by a game director , Agent 12 , and two co @-@ directors , ZeaLitY and Chrono ' 99 . To create a story that was compatible with Chrono Trigger and Chrono Cross , the team took full advantage of the Chrono Compendium 's encyclopedia and the fandom 's knowledge and analysis of the series .
The game took the form of a ROM hack of the Super Nintendo Entertainment System version of Chrono Trigger . It was coded using Chrono Trigger ROM editing software , and was meant to be played on a Super Nintendo Entertainment System emulator . The finished game was intended to be released as a patch file in the IPS ( International Patching System ) format , so as to avoid illegal distribution of a full Chrono Trigger ROM .
The project lasted four and a half years , with a planned release date of May 31 , 2009 . However , Square Enix sent ZeaLitY and Agent 12 a cease @-@ and @-@ desist letter on May 8 , 2009 for trademark and copyright infringement , ordering that the team stop development and cancel all ROM hacking activities , including translation and distribution of all their other projects that were in progress or already released . The letter noted that ZeaLitY and Agent 12 risked being sued for " up to $ 150 @,@ 000 per work " in damages . At the time of the cancellation , the game was " around 98 % complete " ; it allegedly featured 23 story chapters adding up to roughly 35 hours of gameplay and ten alternate endings .
= = Internet circulation = =
Shortly after the project received the cease and desist letter , an alpha version of the patch was leaked on the internet . ZeaLitY expressed his disapproval and embarrassment on the Crimson Echoes website , noting that the alpha version was extremely buggy and lacked many of the improvements made in the beta version . In January 2011 , a more complete beta version was leaked which could be played from beginning to end , believed to be the final build of the project prior to cancellation .
= = Reaction = =
Kajar Laboratories complied with the cease @-@ and @-@ desist letter and all traces of Crimson Echoes were removed from the Chrono Compendium . CNET senior associate editor Eric Franklin noted that it was " sad to see four and a half years of work go spinning down the drain , " stating : " I feel for the fans who were anticipating this . " 1UP.com called the project " ambitious , " noting that " This wasn 't just some fly @-@ by @-@ night hack . " Earnest Cavalli , from Wired , stated : " I fully understand Square Enix ’ s desire to protect its properties , but that doesn ’ t make this any less depressing . The game looked quite good ( if obviously derivative ) . " The project 's cancellation was also reported by gaming journalists in the Netherlands , France , and Japan . In February 2010 , GamesRadar included the game in an article about the " 10 fan games that shouldn 't be ceased or desisted " .
Keith Stuart , from The Guardian , pointed out the contrast between Square Enix 's policy and that of companies like Valve , which officially adopted the Half @-@ Life fan mods Counter @-@ Strike and Day of Defeat , and Vivendi Universal Games , which granted a licence to the King 's Quest fan game The Silver Lining . He noted that since Crimson Echoes was a ROM hack , it was in a " trickier area of copy protection law " than those other projects , but felt that its release would have had next to no commercial impact since the game was to be distributed as an IPS patch rather than a ROM image . Finally , he noted that an official port of the fangame to the Nintendo DS or WiiWare would have had more " marketing benefits " for Square Enix .
= Whitefish Bay National Forest Scenic Byway =
The Whitefish Bay National Forest Scenic Byway is a National Forest Scenic Byway that runs along Whitefish Bay in the Hiawatha National Forest in the U.S. state of Michigan . The byway mostly follows Federal Forest Highway 42 ( FFH 42 ) through Chippewa County in the Upper Peninsula . As a forest highway , it is maintained jointly by the Chippewa County Road Commission ( CCRC ) and the U.S. Forest Service ( USFS ) . The route of the byway first existed as an earth road by the 1930s ; it was improved into a gravel road in the 1940s and paved between the 1950s and the 1980s . The byway designation was created in 1989 .
= = Route description = =
The byway starts at an intersection with M @-@ 123 south of Paradise in the Hiawatha National Forest where it runs eastward along Lake Superior Shoreline Road through birch forests . The roadway runs parallel to the North Country Trail , a hiking trail that spans several northern U.S. states ; the trail crosses the road near Naomikong Creek . After about three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) , the road comes to the shores of Tahquamenon Bay , part of the larger Whitefish Bay . The byway follows the shoreline running near sandy beaches at the edge of the forest . Near Naomikong Point , the roadway turns inland for about three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) . Along this section , Lake Superior Shoreline Road , which bears the FFH 3150 designation , ends at the intersection with Lakeshore Road . East of here , the byway transitions from FFH 3150 to follow FFH 42 easterly . FFH 42 runs along the shoreline providing access to two campgrounds at Monocle Lake and Bay View as well as picnic areas . The road also provides access to the Point Iroquois Lighthouse which is open for tours . The lighthouse was built in 1870 and offers visitors a view of the Canadian shore at the top of its spiral staircase . After passing through the Point Iroquois area , FFH 42 turns southward to follow the shore line on Iroquois Road , terminating at the national forest boundary west of Brimley . The FFH 42 number is not signed along the roadway .
= = History = =
The roadway is part of the Forest Highway System that is funded and administered by the USFS and the Federal Highway Administration ; the system was created by the Federal Aid Highway Act of 1921 . An earthen roadway was present through the area by 1936 . In the beginning of 1937 , the easternmost section around Point Iroquois was improved to a gravel road . Two years later , the westernmost section from Naomikong Point to the junction with M @-@ 123 was improved to gravel . The entire road surface was improved to gravel by 1945 . Paving started on the road in the mid @-@ 1950s on the eastern end .
The section through the Naomikong Point area was built starting in 1967 by the Michigan State Highway Department under contract to the USFS . The road , at the time , was intended to be part of a longer scenic highway that would connect a proposed lakeshore road through the Pictured Rocks National Lakeshore with roads running along Whitefish Bay and the St. Marys River south of Sault Ste . Marie . The western end was realigned and paved in the late 1970s , moving the roadway closer to Tahquamenon Bay west of Naomikong Point . The former roadway was removed in the process . The last section was paved in 1987 between the two paved sections at Naomikong and Iroquois points . The National Forest Scenic Byway designation was granted on February 8 , 1989 . The roadway is maintained by the CCRC along with the USFS .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire byway is in Chippewa County .
= Barry John =
Barry John ( born 6 January 1945 ) is a former Welsh rugby union fly @-@ half who played , during the amateur era of the sport , in the 1960s and early 1970s . John began his rugby career as a schoolboy playing for his local team Cefneithin RFC before switching to first @-@ class west Wales team Llanelli RFC in 1964 . It was while at Llanelli that John was first selected for the Wales national team , a shock selection as a replacement for David Watkins to face a touring Australian team .
In 1967 John left Llanelli RFC for Cardiff RFC and here he formed a partnership with Gareth Edwards that became one of the most famous half @-@ back pairings in world rugby . From 1967 , John and Edwards made an inseparable partnership with rugby selectors , being chosen to play together at all levels of the sport , for Cardiff , Wales , the Barbarians and in 1968 for the British Lions tour of South Africa . The 1968 British Lions tour ended prematurely for John when he suffered a broken collarbone in the first Test match against the South African national team .
In 1971 the Wales national team entered what is considered their second ' Golden Age ' , with a team rich in experience and talent . John was part of the team that won the 1971 Five Nations Championship , the first time Wales had achieved a Grand Slam win since 1952 . He then cemented his reputation as one of the sport 's greatest players with his pivotal role in the British Lions winning tour over New Zealand in 1971 . On the 1971 tour , John played in all four Tests , playing some of his finest rugby and finishing as the Lions ' top Test scorer .
John won 25 caps for the Wales national team and five for the British Lions . Possessing excellent balance to his running and along with precision kicking made him one of the great players of the modern era . He retired from rugby at the age of 27 , as Wales highest points scorer , citing the pressure of fame and expectation behind his decision .
= = Rugby career = =
= = = Early career with Llanelli = = =
Barry John was born in Cefneithin , Carmarthenshire in Wales . He was educated at Gwendraeth Grammar School in the Gwendraeth Valley , north of Llanelli . He attended Cefenithin Primary , and there he was fortunate to receive skilled rugby teaching . The headmaster , William John Jones , and teacher Ray Williams , were both former Wales international rugby players . Despite his natural talents , he never played at schoolboy level for Wales , but represented both his school and his local village team , Cefneithin RFC . He once played a game for rival team Pontyberem while still a schoolboy , but John recalls in his autobiography that the local resentment at making such a sporting faux pas ensured he never did so again . While still a teenager attending grammar school , he made his first top @-@ flight rugby appearance for Llanelli , on 4 January 1964 in an encounter with Moseley . Although Llanelli lost the encounter , John scored a try and converted it , and played in four more matches for the Llanelli senior team towards the end of the season . He continued to represent Llanelli while at Trinity College , Carmarthen , and gained a reputation as a kicking fly @-@ half with a penchant for putting over dropped goals . During the 1964 / 65 season , John began to make an impact on the Welsh club scene . His dropped goal against Aberavon on 26 October 1964 , only 17 games in , was his 11th of the season .
John gained more attention the following season . A win over Swansea , where he scored two dropped goals , was described by the Llanelli Star as being down to the " genius of one player , Barry John " . He almost missed the second away encounter of the season with Swansea when he was ' held to ransom ' by his fellow students at Trinity College . He was only released when Llanelli 's club chairman , Elvet Jones , promised to make a donation to the college " Rag " . Llanelli won all four fixtures against Swansea that season , John scoring in all of them . As well as his two dropped goals in the first away fixture , he scored another in the second away game and a try in both the home matches at Stradey Park . In the 1965 / 66 season John was chosen to play in trial matches for the Wales national team . Although he was not picked , he was chosen as reserve to regular fly @-@ half David Watkins .
During the 1966 / 67 season John was again chosen to trial for Wales . One of the trials forced him to miss the second Swansea encounter of the season , played away on 12 November 1966 ; his place in the Llanelli team was given to a youth debutant from the Felinfoel club , Phil Bennett . Bennett became one of the greatest fly @-@ halves produced by Wales , but he was kept from the Wales squad in his early career by the presence of John . In 1966 , John was awarded his first international cap for Wales , taking David Watkins place at fly @-@ half for the match against the touring Australia team . This was seen as a surprise move by the Welsh Rugby Union selectors , as Watkins had recently returned from a British Lions tour where he was team captain . Wales lost to Australia 11 – 4 , the first time the Welsh had been beaten by the ' Wallabies ' , due to poor form in the midfield , with the criticism aimed at John , Gerald Davies and John Dawes . Although experiencing defeat in his first international , John managed to gain revenge over Australia just over a month later when the same team faced Llanelli at Stradey Park . Llanelli beat the Wallabies 11 – 0 after a bruising forward contest . John himself scored a try , and then added to his tally with a dropped goal .
Despite the Wales loss against Australia , the selectors kept faith with John , and he retained his place for the next Wales international . Played away from home , the opener of the 1967 Five Nations Championship against Scotland had him paired at half @-@ back with Cardiff 's Billy Hullin . John played badly while carrying a leg injury , and the very next match he was dropped , replaced by the more experienced Watkins .
= = = Joining Cardiff = = =
In the 1967 / 68 season , John left Llanelli and joined Cardiff , where he formed a partnership with Gareth Edwards . Although John and Edwards later became the scourge of New Zealand , their first international pairing had an inauspicious start . On 11 November 1967 , the pair played their first international together , facing Brian Lochore 's touring New Zealand team . Edwards , like John , had two international games to his name , paired with Watkins in the final two matches of the 1967 Five Nations Championship . John regained his international place after Watkins had switched to professional rugby league just the month before , joining Salford for a club record fee of £ 16 @,@ 000 . Wales had an error @-@ strewn game , in a match played in a cutting , rain @-@ laden wind which turned the pitch into a muddy field . Wales captain Norman Gale won the toss and chose to play the first half into the gale , and finished the half 8 – 0 down . John raised Welsh hopes with an early dropped goal , his first international points , but a panicked blind back pass from Wales ' number 8 , John Jeffery , gifted Bill Davies an easy try . The game ended 13 – 6 to New Zealand , with Edwards looking uncomfortable throughout , and John 's kicking inaccurate , there was little to suggest the pair would become one of the great half @-@ back pairings in rugby history .
Just over a month after playing for Wales against New Zealand , John faced the tourists again , this time as part of an East Wales team , made up of players from Cardiff , London Welsh and Bridgend . The New Zealand ' All Blacks ' were under pressure throughout the match , with John kicking from deep and away from the opposing forwards , allowing his team to make rushes on the ' All Black ' defence . After 22 minutes East Wales took the lead when a missed drop goal attempt from John was collected by Cardiff wing Frank Wilson for a try . A defensive lapse from the East Wales team allowed an equalising try , but with the score at 3 – 3 , East Wales dominated the last ten minutes of the match . With the last kick of the match , John had space for one final dropped goal , but his kick sailed inches outside the post . The New Zealanders were glad to escape with the draw and finished the tour without losing a single match . Three days after turning out for East Wales , John and Edwards were paired to face the same New Zealand team , this time played at Twickenham for invitational touring side the Barbarians . The half time result of 3 – 3 flattered the Barbarians , who were out @-@ played in the forward positions , but the team took the lead early in the second half when a perfect diagonal kick to the corner by John resulted in a try by England 's Bob Lloyd . The Barbarians defended strongly for twenty minutes , but lost to two very late tries .
Both John and Edwards were selected for all four matches of the 1968 Five Nations Championship . The first match , away at Twickenham to England , recorded Wales coming from 11 – 3 down to draw 11 all . Both half @-@ backs were on the score sheet , Edwards with a try , John with one of his trademark dropped goals . After a home win over Scotland , Wales lost to both Ireland and , eventual Championship winners , France . At club level , John finished the season with a total of nine tries and nine dropped goals for Cardiff .
= = = 1968 British Lions , the 1969 Triple Crown and Wales tour = = =
John was selected for the British Lions in their tour of South Africa in 1968 , but played in just four games before an injury forced him to return home . He played in three matches against district teams , Western Province , South Western Districts and Natal , all wins for the tourists . He was then selected for the First Test , played at Johannesburg , against the South Africa national team . John 's first Test for the British Lions lasted for only fifteen minutes , when after running for the line he was tackled by Jan Ellis , and John broke his collarbone on landing on the hard ground .
John played infrequently for Cardiff during the 1968 / 69 season , making just 14 appearances . Despite this he was available for all matches in the 1969 Five Nations Championship , again playing in each match paired with Edwards . The Welsh selectors had dropped five players from the previous Championship , and notable debutants in the team to face Scotland at Murrayfield on 1 February 1969 were J.P.R. Williams and Mervyn Davies . John scored his first international try in the encounter after charging down a kick and dummying his way over . Scotland , who were under enormous pressure from the kick @-@ off , lost 17 – 3 . When Ireland came to the Cardiff Arms Park in March the team was on a seven match unbeaten run , and were looking at taking the Grand Slam after defeating England , France and Scotland . It therefore came as a surprise at the ease with which the Welsh pack dominated . Wales won 24 – 11 , with Dai Morris the stand @-@ out Welsh player , though John also had one of his best matches , keeping pressure on the Irish with long touch kicks and scoring with a dropped goal . Despite out @-@ scoring France in tries scored , the match at Stade Colombes ended in an 8 – 8 draw , preventing a Welsh Grand Slam , though a win in the final match to England would give Wales the Championship . The England decider is best remembered for Maurice Richards ' four tries , but John too was on the scoresheet with a dropped goal and a try of his own . The game finished 30 – 9 to Wales , giving John his first Championship title and made him a Triple Crown winning player , as Wales had beaten all three other Home Nation teams .
Before the end of the season , John took part in his one and only seven @-@ a @-@ side tournament for Cardiff when he participated in the 1969 Snelling Sevens tournament . Cardiff progressed to the final , where they succeeded in beating John 's former club Llanelli . As well as the title , John won the " Bill Everson – Player of the Tournament " award .
With the end of the 1968 / 69 season , the Welsh Rugby Union sent a team to tour New Zealand and Australia . At half @-@ back , Wales sent John , Edwards , Phil Bennett and Ray " Chico " Hopkins , but in all three Tests , two against the New Zealand " All Blacks " and one against Australia , Welsh coach Clive Rowlands kept faith with John and Edwards . The Welsh team were completely overwhelmed by the All Blacks , losing both Tests , 0 – 19 and 12 – 33 . A change of tactics by Rowlands , by switching Gerald Davies to the right wing , gave Wales a victory over Australia , and a six try victory over Fiji ( in which John was replaced by Bennett ) on their return to Britain , helped the team gain a warm reception on their return .
= = = South Africa , the 1970 Championship and the 1971 Grand Slam = = =
On 13 December 1969 , Cardiff played host to the sixth touring South Africa team . The tour is remembered for the anti @-@ apartheid protests that followed the team , and before the match 1 @,@ 500 protesters had marched through the Welsh capital . John was unavailable for the encounter having fractured a rib while playing for the Barbarians against an Oxford University Past and Present eleven days earlier . His place was taken by Beverley Davies and Cardiff lost 17 – 3 . John recovered in time for the South Africa against Wales match on 24 January , and was selected alongside Edwards . The game was played in atrocious muddy conditions , and a last minute try from Edwards snatched a 6 – 6 draw Both John and Edwards had a substandard game that day , but they combined well in the last move of the game to avoid defeat . A week later on 31 January , John and Edwards faced the South Africans again , this time as part of the Barbarians . The South Africans produced their best play of the tour to come from behind to win 21 – 12 .
There was little rest for the two Cardiff half @-@ backs when on 7 February 1970 they were called back into the Wales team for the first match of the 1970 Five Nations Championship , a home encounter at the Cardiff Arms Park against Scotland . Despite Scotland being 9 – 0 ahead at one point , Wales took the initiative and scored four tries without reply , winning 18 – 9 . The England game was John and Edwards ' fifteenth Wales international together , in an away match which recorded the largest haul of tries for the Welsh team in England since 1908 . John scored one of the tries along with a dropped goal . Due to an injury to Edwards , John finished the game alongside " Chico " Hopkins . With only Ireland standing in front of a Welsh Triple Crown win , hopes were high , but Ireland , made John and Edwards look ordinary in a 0 – 14 defeat . John was unavailable for the final game of the tournament to France , his place taken by Phil Bennett . Wales beat France and shared the Championship with the French .
The 1971 Five Nations Championship was a new dawn for Welsh rugby . The new National Stadium was completed , and the team now into their Second Golden era were both experienced and talented . John and Edwards played in all four games , starting with an easy win over England . Wales won 22 – 6 , with John scoring six points from two dropped goals . The second game of the Championship , played against Scotland , was a close encounter , won by Wales 19 – 18 thanks to a late Gerald Davies try converted by John Taylor . Barry John scored eight of Wales ' points , with a try , penalty goal and a conversion ; missing only his trademark drop goal to complete a full house of scores . John surpassed his Scotland tally in the next match , a home game against Ireland , scoring 11 points with a dropped goal , conversion and two penalty goals . Seen as one of Wales ' more accomplished victories , the 23 – 0 win gave the team a Triple Crown title , and set up a Grand Slam encounter with France . Despite the low score , the 9 – 5 win over France at Stade Colombes on 27 March was a match of the highest quality . Edwards and John scored all the points in the encounter , Edwards with a try , John a try and a penalty goal . This was Wales ' first Grand Slam since 1952 and the 1971 squad is seen as the greatest ever to be fielded by Wales .
= = = 1971 British Lions = = =
In 1971 , on their tour of New Zealand , John was again selected for the British Lions . With the painful memories of the woeful 1969 Wales Tour to New Zealand , John was determined to succeed with the Lions . Under the management of Doug Smith and the coaching of Carwyn James ( also from Cefneithin ) , John rose to great individual heights with his match @-@ winning performances . Of the 26 tour matches , he played in 17 , only bettered by captain John Dawes and " Mighty Mouse " prop Ian McLauchlan . By the time of the first Test in Carisbrook , John had faced six teams , including the New South Wales Waratahs and the New Zealand Māori . All six games had been won by the Lions and John had recorded 88 points , including a full house against Waikato . In the First Test John terrorised New Zealand 's fullback Fergie McCormick with ruthless tactical kicking . The All Blacks were shunted all over the field by John , who was well protected by his forwards , something that he was not afforded with Wales in 1969 . The Lions won the Test 9 – 3 , six of the Lions ' points coming from two John penalties ; McCormick never played for the All Blacks again .
Before the second Test John played in two more tour matches ; wins over Southland and New Zealand Universities , in which he scored 32 points . In the game against the Universities John scored one of his most famous tries . John dummied a drop @-@ goal before running through the Universities ' defence , stepping inside the final tackler before touching the ball down under the posts , stunning the home crowd . The second Test , played at Christchurch , finished with the series drawn after New Zealand won 22 – 12 , John scoring half of the Lions points . In between the second and third Tests , John played in three of the four regional matches , scoring 37 points including two tries in the game against Wairarapa .
A win in the third Test was vital to keep the Lions hope of a series win alive . John scored ten points of the 13 – 3 win , the other three coming from Wales ' team @-@ mate Gerald Davies . The final Test ended in a 14 – 14 draw , giving the series to the tourists . John scored eight of the Lions points , having scored in every match , Test and regional , he had played in .
It was on this tour that John received the nickname " The King " from the New Zealand press , though as early as 1965 he remembered being dubbed " King John " by a newspaper sub @-@ editor while still at Llanelli . He scored 30 of the Lions 48 points over the four Tests , scored a record 191 points across the tour ( 6 tries , 31 conversions , 8 dropped goals and 27 penalties ) and cemented his reputation as one of the game 's greatest players .
= = = 1972 Championship and retirement = = =
John 's final season with Wales ended disappointingly as both Scotland and Wales refused to travel to Ireland due to the increased violence in Ulster and the events of Bloody Sunday . Despite this , John had a good Championship , scoring 35 points in the three games against England , Scotland and France . The opener , away to England , was won 12 – 3 , with John scoring two penalty goals and converting a J.P.R. Williams try . This was followed by a win over Scotland , in which John played well , converting three of the five Welsh tries and scoring three penalty goals . John 's final international was at home to France . He successfully converted four penalty goals in a 20 – 6 victory to Wales , and in scoring his final penalty surpassed the Wales international points scoring record of Jack Bancroft set nearly 60 years earlier . The Welsh Rugby Union 's refusal to allow travel to Ireland stole the team 's possibility of a consecutive Grand Slam title .
In 1972 , at the age of only 27 , with 25 Wales caps and five British Lions caps , Barry John retired from the game . John cited the media attention and the unfair expectations of his country as reasons , believing he was " living in a goldfish bowl " . It is part of rugby folklore that the event that convinced him to retire from rugby was when a young girl curtsied to him outside the opening of an extension to a local bank but in Frank Keating 's book The Great Number Tens , John is quoted as saying that it was actually the head cashier who curtsied to him .
His 25 caps for Wales resulted in 90 points scored , 5 tries , 9 conversions , 13 penalties and 8 dropped goals . His British Lions career added a further 30 international points , with a single try , 3 conversions , 5 penalties and 2 dropped goals . For Cardiff he played 5 seasons , playing 93 matches , during which he scored 24 tries and 30 dropped goals . His dropped goal total for Cardiff was the club 's second highest total , drawn with Wilf Wooller but short of Percy Bush 's tally of 35 .
= = = International games = = =
= = Critical reception = =
As the authors of the official history of the Welsh Rugby Union , David Smith and Gareth Williams , wrote of him : " The clue to an understanding of his achieved style lies in what he could make others do to themselves . The kicking , whether spinning trajectories that rolled away or precise chips or scudding grubbers , was a long @-@ range control , but his running , deft , poised , a fragile illusion that one wrong instant could crack , yet rarely did , was the art of the fly @-@ half at its most testing . He was the dragonfly on the anvil of
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